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YALE UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY

THE
ENCYCLOPAEDIA OP
GEOGRAPHY:
COMPRISING A
COMPLETE DESCRIPTION OF THE EARTH,
PHYSICAL, STATISTICAL, CIVIL, AND POLITICAL;
EXHIBITING ITS RELATION TO THE HEAVENLY BODIES,
ITS PHYSICAL STRUCTURE,
THE NATURAL HISTORY OF BACH COUNTRY,
AND THE INDUSTRY, COMMERCE, POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS,
AND CIVIL AND SOCIAL STATE
OP
ALL NATIONS.

BY HUGH MURRAY, F.R.S.E.

ASSISTED IN

ASTRONOMY, &c. BY PROF. V^ALLACE, | BOTANY, &c. BY PROFESSOR HOOKER.
GEOLOGY, &c. BY PROF. JAMESON, I ZOOLOGY, &c. BY Vl^. SWAINSON, ESQ,

ILLUSTRATED BY EIGHTY-TWO MAPS,
AND ABOUT ELEVEN HUNDRED OTHER ENGRAVINGS ON WOOD.
REPRESENTINQ THE MOST REMARKABLE OBJECTS OF NATDKE AND ART
IN EVERY REGION OF THE GLOBE,
TOGETHER WITH A
NEW MAP OF THE UNITED STATES.

REVISED, WITH ADDITIONS,
BY THOMAS G. BRADFORD.

IN THREE VOLUMES.
VOL. I.

PHILADELPHIA:
LEA AND BLANCHARD.
FOR
GEORGE W. GORTON.
1841.

Entered according to the act of Congress in the year eighteen hundred and thirty-six, by
CAEEY, LEA, AND BLANCHARD,
In the clerk's office of the district court for the eastern district of Pennsylvania.

STEREOTYPED BY J. rAGAN....:PHILAI)ELPHIA.

PRINTED IIY C. SITERMAN AND CO.

PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION.

The value and importance of the study of Geography are so obvious, and indeed
so universally aeknowledged, as to require little illustration. Nothing can be more
interesting to man, or more gratify his thirst for knowledge, than a survey of the
earth which he inhabits, peopled as it is by beings of the same nature with himself.
To visit and observe foreign climes and regions is an object of general desire, and
forms one of the most effectual means of enlarging and enUghtening the human
mind. This wish, however, unless in the case of a few individuals, can be gratified
only to a very limited extent, and in none can embrace more than a small portion
of the vast variety of interesting objects which the earth comprises. This necessary
defect of personal observation may, however, be in a great measure supplied, by
collecting the reports and narratives of those intelligent individuals who have
explored and described its various regions, and forming out of these a general
description of the world and its inhabitants.
Works of this class have always possessed a peculiar attraction. Even in ancient
times, when the extent of the known world, and the information with respect to
the inhabitants and productions of its remoter regions, were comparatively limited,
the geographical descriptions of Herodotus, Strabo, Pomponius Mela, and Pliny,
rank among the most valuable productions of the classic ages. But in modern
times, and particularly in the present age. Geography has acquired a much more
prominent place among the departments of human knowledge. The discovery of
America in the fifteenth century awakened a spirit of enterprise, and a desire to
explore unknown regions, that have continued to gain new strength. During the
last half century more especially, the most civihsed nations of Europe have been
contending with each other for the glory of discovery ; and there is now scarcely a
shore however remote, or the interior of a continent however barbarous or ditficult
of access, which has not been surveyed and described. Materials have thus been
provided for a much more complete, interesting, and authentic description of the
earth, than could have been drawn up at any former period.
The extensive discoveries thus recently made have thrown a wonderfiil light on
the structure and productions of the earth, and afforded large contributions to all
the departments of natural history They have also displayed man in every varied
condition, from the highest refinement of civilised society, to the rudest and most
abject condition of savage life. These representations are not only interesting in
themselves, but throw light on the history of past ages. Communities are still
found exactly similar to some of those described in the earliest records of antiquity.
The tent of the Arab sheik differs little from that which Abraham pitched on the
plains of Mamre ; many of the Tartar tribes are a people exactly similar to those
who roamed in early ages over the plains of Scythia ; and the splendid courts of
Babylon and Persepolis have their representatives in the existing world. We may
thus, in fact, trace back man to an earlier and ruder stage than any represented in
the ancient records ; for these convey only faint and fabulous notions of what
mankind had been at a very early period. But the wilds of America, and the
shores of the Pacific, exhibit the state of savage simplicity, which doubtless existed
in Europe before the light of authentic history had begun to dawn. Hence it is
that Geography, in its present extended range, not only shows man as he actually
exists, but delineates, as it were, the progressive history of the species.
Besides the gratification thus afforded to a liberal curiosity, the knowledge of
even the remotest regions has, through recent events, become an object of the
utmost practical importance. In many of these, colonies have been founded,
political relations formed, and a commercial intercourse with them opened, by the
civilised nations of Europe, and particularly by Britain. Regions the most distant
to which a ship can sail form integral portions of her dominion, and have their
ports crowded with her vessels. There are thousands in this country who have a
more intimate connection with Calcutta or Sydney, than with towns in their
immediate vicinity. The manufacturer labours to supply the markets of countries,
the very existence of which, fifty years ago, was unknown; the circumnavigation
of the globe is now an ordinary trading voyage. The knowledge of Geography
has thus become a necessary qualification for the pursuits of commerce and indus
try, and for much of the ordinary and current business of life. A great proportion
of the youth of Britain are trained for employments in countries which lie far
beyond the limits of Europe. 3

IV PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION.
The same causes have, moreover, given to the knowledge of distant countries a
peculiar hold on the domestic and social affections. There are few amongst us
who have not a near relation, perhaps a brother or a child, residing in another
hemisphere. Oceans now separate us from those to whom we are united by the
tenderest ties ; the objects of our affection have their abode on the banks of the
Ganges, or the shores of the Pacific ; and many, whose hearts are knit in the closest
friendship, are divided from each other by half the earth. In this situation, a
description of the place in which our friend or relative dwells, the objects which
meet his eye, the society in which he mingles, must afford peculiar gratification,
and soothe the mind under this painful separation.
Deeply impressed with a sense of the great extent and difficult execution of a
complete geographical work, the Editor, during nearly ten years in which he has
been engaged upon it, has used the utmost exertion to procure from every quarter
information and aid. He has studiously collected the most recent, authentic, and
accurate accounts of the extent, natural features, population, productions, industry,
political constitution, literature, religion, and social state of the various regions of
the globe, with the leading details as to their districts and cities. The sciences
connected with the natural history of the earth have, however, attained to such an
extent and importance, that a thorough knowledge of them can only be possessed
by individuals who have specially devoted themselves to one particular branch.
The Editor, therefore, considered it essential to procure the co-operation of writers
who had risen to acknowledged eminence in the departments of Geology and
Mineralogy, Zoology and Botany. He considered that he had fiiUy succeeded,
when Professor Jameson undertook to deUneate the geological structure of the
globe, and the distribution of minerals over its surface ; Mr. Swainson to explain
the distribution of animals, and the most remarkable of those found in each particu
lar region ; and Dr. Hooker to perform the same task in regard to the vegetable
kingdom. Professor Wallace has illustrated the relations of the earth as a planet,
the trigonometrical surveys, the construction of maps, and other subjects connected
with mathematical science. These tasks have been executed in a manner which,
it is hoped, will fully support the high reputation of then- respective authors. In
preparing the sections relating to commerce, the editor derived much assistance
from Mr. M'CuUoch's Dictionary of Commerce, and he is also indebted to that
gentleman for many valuable communications. Various parts relating to remote
countries have been revised by gentlemen recently returned from them.
The Maps, which are so numerous as to form a complete Atlas, have been
executed fi-om drawings by Hall ; and having been carefiilly revised by the Editor,
they will, it is hoped, be found to be accurate, and to include all the most recent dis
coveries. Notwithstanding the smallness of the scale, they are illustrated by the
letter-press in a manner which enables them to comprise equed information with
others of much larger dimensions.
The other Wood Engravings are mostly original, or have been carefully selected
from the most faithful representations of the objects described ; and they are exe
cuted in the best style by the eminent artists whose names appear on the title-page.
They exhibit the most remarkable plants and animals, the chief cities, public build
ings, natural curiosities, and picturesque scenery, with the characteristic figures
and costumes of the natives, in the countries described. It is not believed that any
work of this kind is similarly embellished, at least to nearly the same extent.
These representations are by no means introduced for the sake of mere ornament ;
they will be found of the greatest utility, conveying an infinitely better i lea of the
objects than could be derived from the most laboured description.
Notwithstanding all these efforts, it is impossible to lay this volume before the
Public without the painful reflection, that, in a subject involving such an infinite
number and variety of details, many of which are often very difficult to procure,
not a few imperfections and even errors must inevitably occur. M. Balbi, whose
exertions to collect the most recent geographical information are well known, and
to whose labours the present volume is much indebted, candidly observes : — " One
of the greatest obstacles to be surmounted in the composition of an elementary
treatise" of Geography is the want of contemporary documents. Geography is
almost necessarily a compound of things which are, with things which have ceased
to be. How can one be informed of all the changes that take place in the course
of a few years, even in the capitals of Europe, still more in tliose of Asia, Africa,
and America'! To compose a Geography which should exhibit a complete picture
of the glolie at a particular ppiiod, it wcnild bo necessary to ha\e authentic docu
ments, all of the same date and that a recent one; which never has been, and
never can be."

ADVERTISEMENT TO THE
AMERICAN EDITION

The object and plan of the Encyclopaedia of Geography have
been very fully set forth in the Preface to the English Edition, and
the names of the editor and his collaborators are sufficient vouch
ers for its value. It is due, however, to the American reader, to
inform him in what respects these volumes differ from the original.
The whole of the English work is here given, with the single ex
ception, that the description of Great Britain, which occupied
more than one-third of the Book devoted to Europe, and con
siderably more than the space given to the whole of America, has
been somewhat abridged ; but, it is believed, without the omission
of any thing of importance. The text has been carefully revised
and corrected throughout, and in most cases more recent statis
tical details have been substituted for those of the original. The
additions to the first volumes are not considerable in amount, but
are generally such as have been required by changes in our know
ledge or in the condition of things. The Book relating to America
has been enlarged as far as the limits of the work would allow,
principally by the addition of local details ; the condition of the
new American states is too unsettled to render it worth while to
fill much space with accounts of their political relations, which
might be entirely changed before these pages met the eye of the
reader. The Chapter which treats of the United States has been
¦written anew, the original being extremely imperfect and incorrect,
as all European treatises on the subject are. — Our growth is so
rapid, the increase of our population, wealth, commerce, manufac
tures, and other industrial resources, so amazing, the creation of
new towns, cities, nay, states, is continually making such a change
1* 5

VI ADVERTISEMENT TO THE AMERICAN EDITION.
in the face of things, public works are conceived, planned, and
executed on so great a scale and with such promptitude, that it is
not at all surprising that a distant writer should be entirely baflBed
in his attempts to describe the country as it is. The Zoological
section has alone been retained, but it has been much enlarged,
chiefly from a later work of Mr. Swainson's ; and some general
remarks upon the shells of the United States have been added.
For the account of the Geology of our country, the reader is
indebted to Prof. Rogers, of the University of Pennsylvania. The
Botanical section has also been prepared by a gentleman of high
reputation in the scientific world. The Editor is painfully sensible
of the imperfection of the other parts of this Chapter, but he trusts
that the difficulties of the subject will obtain for him the indulgence
of the reader.
Philadelphia, October 1st, 1836.

CONTENTS OF VOL. I.

PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION  Hi
PREFACE BY THE AMERICAN EDITOR  V
INTRODUCTION  9
PART I.
HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY.

BOOK I.
ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.
CHAP. I.
Hebrew and P ooenician Geography  Page 10
I. Patriarchal Ages  10
II. Kingdom of Israel  11
III. Commerce of Tyre  11
IV. The World according to the Hebrews  12
1. Tarshish  12
2. Ophir  14
3. The Isles  15
4. Sheba and Dedan  16
5. Countries on the Euphrates  17
6. Gog, Magog, and the North  17
CHAP. II.
Ancient Voyages of Discovery  18
I. Circumnavigation of Africa under Necho  18
11. Voyage of Sataspes  19
III. Voyage of Hanno  19
IV. Voyage of Eudoxus   22
v. Voyage of Pytheas  23
VI, Voyage of Nearchus  24
VIL Periplus of the Erythrean Sea  27
CHAP. HI.
Greek Geography before Alexander  30
I. Geography of Homer  30
II. Poetical Geography  31
III. School of Miletus  32
IV. Geography of Herodotus  33
1. Europe of Herodotus  34
2. Asia of Herodotus  34
3. Africa of Herodotus  36
CHAP. IV.
First Alexandrian School. Eratosthenes and Strabo 37
I. Expedition of Alexander  37
II. Expedition of Seleucus  38
IIL Eratosthenes  38
IV. Hipparchus  39
V. The World accordingto Eratosthenes and Strabo 39
1. Europe  40
2. Asia  43
3. Africa  43
CHAP. V.
Roman Geography  43
L Mela  45
IL Pliny .,  48
III. Itineraries — Peutingerian Table  49
CHAP. VI.
Second Alexandrian School  51
I. Marinus of Tyre  51
n. Ptolemy  52
I, Europe  53
2. Asia  56
3. Africa  59

BOOK II.
GEOGRAPHY OF THE MIDDLE AGES.
CHAP. I.
Arabian Geography  60
I. General System  61
II. Asia  62
IIL Africa  63
CHAP. II.
European Geography during the Dark Ages  63
CHAP. III.
Geographical Knowledge derived from the Crusades. 64
CHAP. IV.
Tartar Geography  65
CHAP. V.
Venetian Geography  67

BOOK III.
MODERN GEOGRAPHY.
CHAP. I.
Discovery of America and the East Indies  69
CHAP. II.
Early System of Modern Geography  70
CHAP. III.
Modern Astronomical Geography  71
CHAP. rv.
Modern Critical Geography  72
CHAP. V.
Modern Descriptive and Statistical Geography  73
CHAP. VL
Modern Geography of Asia  74
CHAP. VIL
Modern Geography of Africa  71
CHAP. VIII.
Modern Geography of America  76
CHAP. IX.
Modem Geography of the Austral Seas and Islands. 77

PART II.
PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY.
BOOK I.
ASTRONOMICAL PRINCIPLES.

CHAP. I.
General View of the Phenomena of the Heavens,
apparent Motions, fixed Stars, Planets, &c  80

CHAP. II.
The Heavens, as seen through the Telescope  i
CHAP. III.
Approximation to the Figure and Magnitude of the
Earth  f

VIU

CONTENTS.

CHAP. IV.
Doctrine of the Sphere  84
CHAP. V.
Rotation of the Sun, Moon, and Planets on their
Axes— their Figure  86
CHAP. VI.
Distances and Magnitude of the Heavenly Bodies. . 87
CHAP. VIL
Rotation of the Earth  89
CHAP. VIII.
Apparent Annual Motion of the Sun. Vicissitude
of Seasons  90
CHAP. IX.
Division and Measure of Time  94
CHAP. X.
Proper Motion of the Moon. Her Phases. Eclipses
of the Sun and Moon  97
CHAP. XL
Motion of the Planets round the Sun  108
CHAP. XII.
Motion of the Earth round the Sun  110
CHAP. XIII.
Orbits of the Planets  113
CHAP. XIV.
Comets  114
CHAP. XV.
Law of Universal Gravitation  116
CHAP. XVI.
Figure and Constitution of the Earth deduced from
the Theory of Gravitation  124

CHAP. XVIL
The Tides  120
CHAP. XVIII.
General View of the Solar System  133
CHAP. XIX.
Figure and Magnitude of the Earth  135
CHAP. XX.
Determination of Latitude and Longitude  147
CHAP. XXL
Representation of the Earth  152

BOOK II.
GEOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES.
CHAP. I.

Meteorology  168
CHAP. II.
Hydrology  186
CHAP. IIL
Geognosy  207

BOOK III.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY UNDER ITS
RELATION TO ORGANISED AND LIVING BEINGS.
CHAP. L
Geography considered in relation to the Distribution
of Plants  236
CHAP. IL
Geography considered in relation to the Distribution
of Man and Animals  254
CHAP. IIL
Geography considered in relation to Man in Society 275

PART III.
GEOGRAPHY CONSIDERED IN RELATION TO THE VARIOUS REGIONS OF THE GLOBE.

BOOK 1— EUROPE.
CHAP. L
Genfral Survey of Europe  289
I. Natural Features  290
ir. Inhabitants  291
IIL Botany  294
IV. Zoology  -.  298
V. Languages  306
CHAP. IL
England  312
I. Geographical Outline  317
IL Natural Geography  319
IIL Historical Geography  341
IV. Political Geography  342
V. Productive Industry  351
VI. Civil and Social State  357
VIL Local Geography  362
1. Southern Counties  364
2. Eastern Counties  368
3. Central Counties  371
4. Northern Counties  383
5. Western Counties  391
6. Wales  396
CHAP. HI.
Scotland  401
I. Geographical Outline  401
IL Natural Geography  402
III. Historical Survey  408
IV. Political Constitution . i^  409
V. Productive Industry  410
VI. Civil and Social State  413
VH. Local Geography  t  415
1. The Lowland Counties  415
2. The Highland Counties  423
3. The Scottish Islands  428
CHAP. IV.
Ireland  432
I. General Outline and Aspect  432
II. Natural Geography  433
III. Historical Geography  440
IV. Political Constitution  441
V. Productive Industry  442
VT. Civil and Social Stato  -14(1
VII. Local Geography  450
CHAP. V.
Denmark  463
L General On t line and Aspect  4t>5
II. Natural Geography  471
IIL Historical Geography  471
TV. Productive Industry  471
V. Political GROgraphy  472
VL Civil and Social Stato  472
VIL Local Geography  .-. . . 473

CHAP. VL
Sweden and Norway  476
I. General Outline and Aspect  476
IL Natural Geography  476
IIL Historical Geography  481
IV. Political Geography  481
V. Productive Industry  482
VL Civil and Social State  484
VIL Local Geography  486
] . Sweden  486
2. Norway  491
3. Lapland  ^3
CHAP. VIL
Holland and Belgium  495
I. General Outline and Aspect  495
IL Natural Geography  498
IIL Historical Geography  498
IV. Political Geography  .T.  502
V. Productive Industry  503
VI. Civil and Social State  505
VIL Local Geography  508
1. Belgium...".  509
2. Holland  511
CHAP. VIIL
Fr ance  518
I. General Outline and Aspect  519
II. Natural Geography  520
IIL Historical Geography  530
IV. Political Geography  532
V. Productive Industrv  5M
VL Civil and Social Stiite  540
VIL Local Geography  543
CHAP. IX.
Spain  553
L General Outline and Aspect  553
IL Natural Geography  559
III. Historical Geography  5qq
IV. Political Geography  570
V. Productive Industrv  571
VL Civil and Social State  573
VIL Local Geography  575
VIIL Republic of Andorra  539
CHAP. X.
PORTUOAL  590
I. Gonoral Outline and Aspect  590
IL Natural Geography  599
HI. Historical Geography  591
IV. Political Geography  591
V. Productive Industry  593
VI. Civil and Social Stale  593
VIL Local Geograpliy  593

ENCYCLOPAEDIA OF GEOGRAPHY.

INTRODUCTION.
Geooraphy consists in the description and delineation of the Earth. It considers that
planet in respect to its form, its connexion with other bodies in the universe, the various
parts into which it is divided, their relations to each other, and the objects with which
each is respectively filled. Geography indeed could not attempt a scientific analysis of
all these objects, without seeking to comprehend within itself a complete circle of science.
It views only their obvious and visible characters, and chiefly those features which are
peculiar to each respective country and region on the face of the globe.
The great importance of this branch of knowledge must be sufficiently obvious. It
embraces a vast variety of those objects which are most interesting in themselves, and
with which it most concerns man to be conversant. It enables the navigator, the merchant,
the military commander, to carry on their respective operations. Geography is moreover
essential to the clear understanding of every branch of the history both of man and nature.
The transactions of bordering states are unintelligible without a knowledge of their rela
tive extent and position, and of the theatre on which the great events of their history are
acted. Every form, both of animal and vegetable nature, is modified in the most striking
manner by the climate or the country in which it is placed. Still more intimate is its re
lation with geology and other sciences, which investigate the materials composing the
substance and crust of the earth. None of these branches of knowledge can be distinctly
understood, or viewed under its proper relation and arrangement, without a previous know
ledge of geography.
This important and extensive subject seems to divide itself naturally into three parts.
The First Part treats of the " History of Geography ;" the origin and progress of the
Science ; and the steps by which man, who seemed fixed by nature in a local and limited
position, has made himself acquainted with the immense circuit of the- globe. This Part
is divided into — I. Ancient Geography ; — II. Geography of the Middle Ages ; — III. Modem
Geography. The Second Part comprises the Principles of the Science. These are — I. Mathemati
cal: those which relate to the fonn of the earth, its movements, its place in the Solar
System, the great circles by which it is divided, the operations by which it is surveyed,
and the modes in which its spherical outline can be represented on the plane surface of a
map. n. Physical : those which treat of the substances which cover the earth's surface,
the elements which compose and surround it ; rock, earth, water, air, as they appear under
the various forms of mountain, plain, river, sea, and present all the changing phenomena
of the atmosphere. HI. Geography may be considered in its relation to other objects and
sciences. 1. To Zoology, or the distribution of animals over the globe. 2. To Botany, or
the diSusion of vegetable productions. 3. To the human race, and the various branches
intn which it has been formed, considered in relation to numbers, wealth, political union,
social, intellectual, and moral condition.
The Third Part considers Geography in detail, as it applies to the various quarters and
countries into which the world is divided, the outline and extent of each, its natural fea
tures, the revolutions through which it has passed, its political constitution, the industry
and wealth, the civil and social condition of its inhabitants. The description of each
country will conclude with a local and topographical survey of its districts, cities, and
towns. This Part will divide itself into five general heads : — I. Europe. 11. Asia. HI. Africa.
rv. Australia. V. America.
An Index will be added, v/hich, being extremely copious, and containing references to
all the places mentioned in the work, will answer in a great degree the purposes of a Geo
graphical Gazetteer.
VoT, I B

PART I.
HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY.
The History of Geography may be divided into three books : — ^I. Ancient Geography.
n. Geography of the middle ages. III. Modem Geography.

BOOK I.
ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY.

The Geography of the Ancients may he considered under the heads of, I. Hebrew
and Phoenician Geography ; the principal features of which may be found in the Jewish
Scriptures. II. Greek Geography, in its early state, before the expedition of Alexander.
III. The first Alexandrian school formed by Eratosthenes. IV. The Roman school, formed
chiefly by Mela and Pliny. V. The second Alexandrian school, formed by Ptolemy.

CHAPTER I.
HEBEEV7 AND PHCENICIAM GEOGRAPHY.
The Sacred Records, in addition to their higher claims on the attention of mankind,
possess the important secondary advantage, that they enable us to trace human existence,
and the forms of society, back to a much earlier period than the information derived fi-om
any other source. They were long anterior in this respect to the classic story of Greece
and Rome ; the faintest light even of whose fabulous history cannot be traced back to the
period when Abraham was driving his flocks over the seats of fiiture empire on the Euphrates.
Among Abraham's contemporaries we discern the germ of the great monarchies which
first changed the face of human affairs. Nimrod, the founder of Babylon, almost like an
Iroquois chief, is mainly celebrated for his activity and success in the chase. Modem dis
covery has indeed made us acquainted with tribes existing in a still ruder form ; but there
is no narrative in which we can trace so distinctly the gradual, yet somewhat rapid, transi
tion made in these fitvoured regions, from the hunting and pastoral, to the commercial and
agricultural states of society. Sect. I. — The Patriarchal Ages.
In the early patriarchal records we discover first the rich Mesopotamian plain, not yet
covered with cities and harvests, but .standing as an open common, over which the sons of
Terah drove unmolested their flocks and herds. In these fiivourable circumstances, and
surrounded by simple and rural plenty, the flocfa and the shepherds multiplied in an extra
ordinary manner. The heads of the families became petty princes, and were as such at
once respected and feared. As they went on increasing, the land became "not able to
bear them ;" and the most intimate friends were able to prevent dissension among their
adherents only by an entire though painful separation ; nay, even by striking into routes so
opposite, as to prevent the possibility of a future union. This, however, was rather a
palliation than a cure for the evil ; for, in whatever quarter each directed his course, he
came into contact with other families. The difficulty was still augmented, when all the
more fertile tracts began to be cultivated by a fixed population, subject to regular govern
ment. The first regions which came under these circumstances appear to have been Lower
Egypt and Gerar, on the coast of Philistia, along the Mediterranean. In the latter we find
Isaac attempting to settle and cultivate the ground ; but the king, tliough evidently afiiaid
to offend so potent a tribe, insisted, in a determined though courteous manner, upon their
quitting his territory. The family were tlierefore obliged finally to establish themselves
in the vicinity of Hebron, collecting the somewhat scanty herbage which grew amid the
rugged mountains to the west of the Dead Sea. It was, therefore, an auspicious change
when they were transported into the Land of Goshen, a rich pastoral district of Egypt
The circumstances attending the captivity of Joseph enable us already to observe the
activity of that interior caravan-trade, which afterwards on so great a scale, traversed 10

Book L HEBREW AND PHOENICIAN GEOGRAPHY. 11
Arabia. Two caravans, destined for the supply of Egypt, appear meeting each other in
opposite directions ; and that cruel trade, of which men were the object, is already carried
on in the same remorseless manner, and by the same unjust means, by which it has ever
since been conducted. Sect. II. — The Kingdom of Israel.
The Israelites, after bemg established in Egypt for more than two centuries, were
led back into the promised land, so long the seat of their ancestors. Every thing there,
since the patriarchal age, had assumed quite a different aspect : it presented walled cities,
and high cultivation, accompanied with tiiat gross superstition and dissolute voluptuousness
which are the too common attendemts of early wealth. The guilty inhabitants of Canaan
with their country were delivered into the hands of the Israelites ; and the territory bejng
divided among the ten tribes, gave occasion to a very carefiil topographical survey ; but
nothing yet occurred to attract the views of the nation beyond these limits, or towards the
world in general. StiLl less could this take place during the subsequent period, when they
were forsaken of heaven, and reduced to servitude under the neighbouring nations. It
was under the favoured reign of David that Israel finally triumphed over all her ene
mies. That great prince left to Solomon, either as subject or tributary, a territory extend
ing from the Euphrates to the Mediterranean and the borders of Egypt, forming the most
powerful state then in western Asia. Solomon, by the terror of his father's name, and of
the powerful army transmitted to him, was enabled to preserve the whole of this king
dom, during a long reign, in peacefiil submission. This accomplished prince devoted him
self to the arts of peace, to the extension of commerce, to the culture of science, and to
the improvement and embellishment of his dominions in every direction. By the alliance
with Hiram, he was enabled to accomplish voyages more remote than had, perhaps, been
ever undertaken under any former sovereign. His alliance, and even his society, were
courted by distant princes ; and the observation of the Jews began to extend over a con
siderable portion of the globe.
The separation of the kingdoms after the death of Solomon, was a fatal blow to the
greatness of the house of Israel. Their divided power could no longer maintain numer
ous tributaries in submission, nor was it adequate to distant and extensive enterprises. All
the states beyond the Jordan shook off the yoke ; the attempts to navigate the Red Sea
were abandoned ; and all distant regions in a great measure lost sight of Their view,
however, was enlarged by unexpected and unwelcome events firom another quarter.
The successive invasions of Assyria and Babylon, which terminated in the downfall of
both the kingdoms, forced upon the Israelites a knowledge of the existence of these proud
and powerful empires. At the same time, the colossal grandeur of Egypt, the only power
capable of contending with them, was brought into prominent notice. Ample materials
were thus afforded for those lofty and awful images, those pictures of the shaking of the
world and the downfall of nations, which abound in the writings of the prophets during
the regal times. Another and nearer object attracted wonder, and afforded tJie means of
knowledge respecting regions still more distant. This was Tyre, the earliest seat of
commerce, in whose markets were found collected the tin of Britain, the gold of Afi-ica,
the cotton of India, and, perhaps, the silks of China. This forms so grand a feature, and
the descriptions of it tend so much to illustrate early geography, that it must claim some
separate notice. Sect. HI. — Commerce of Tyre.
Tjrre, which under Solomon was already great and flourishing, continued to increase
till, with the exception of one of its own colonies, it became the most splendid emporium
of the ancient world. It appears, indeed, truly wonderfiil that, at this early period of arts
and history, when Rome yet consisted only of a, few straw-thatched cottages, merchants in
Tyre should vie with the pomp of kings. So magnificent was the scene, that the prophet,
in announcing the divine intention to destroy Tyre, considers it as implying a purpose " to
stain the pride of all glory, and to bring into contempt all the honourable of the earth."
(Isai. xxiii. 9.) Perhaps, however, commerce in its earlier efforts has a particular ten
dency to concentrate itself in one point, where alone it finds protection, information, and
regular channels ; while in the advance of society its streams begin to be more widely
diffused. In the interesting picture of T3rrian commerce drawn by Ezekiel, the foundation of the
intercourse with Damascus and other contiguous districts, is stated to be " the multitude
of the wares of her making ;" that is, it consisted in the exchange of her manufactured
produce for the raw produce of these rich agricultural districts. There is little specifica
tion of the Tyrian manufactures, but the returns were all made in natural products, of the
first quality which the soils of Judea and of Syria afforded ; from Judea, the finest wheat,
honey, oils, and balsam ; from Syria, white wool, and the wine of Helbon. No situation
could be more fortunate than that of Tyre for the formation of a navy, with the magnifi-

12 HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY. Pa.bt I.
cent forests of Lebanon, Senu-, and Bashan, rising immediately behind. The timbers, it
appears, were constructed of fir; the cedar supplied masts; while the oak was usea lor
.,'^ , _ ,  £¦_!  .-li-i  i.i,„„tv,„ „!,;„<¦ ;T,ctr,imPTits of navieation. ine

ucin;iicB wcio ui uio iiiiooi, cypress ..v^u«, »i.™™  — ., ,
adorned even with embroidery, was spread out in sails. Tyre, like Carthage, appears to
have adopted the policy of employing mercenary troops, which she drew even ttoni me
mountainous districts of Persia and the upper Euphrates. The immediate guard ot me
city, however, was intrusted to its neighbours of Aivad and Gammadm, wlio, standing
round the walls in brilliant armour, are said to have "made its beauty perfect.
With regard to the distant commerce of Tyre, the quarters to which it was carried on
must become the subject of some discussion, in the course of which we shall mtroduce the
interesting particulars given by the prophet.
Sect. IV. — The World according to the Hebrews.
No system of Geography can be traced in the sacred writers, who, occupied with higher
objects, do not even allude to any such as existing among the Hebrews. The ideas of that
people with regard to the structure and boundaries of the earth may, however, be inferred
from the genealogical chapters {Gen. x., repeated 1 Chron. i.), which contain, in feet, a
view of the known divisions of fjie earth, agreeing in some striking particulars with the
records of profane history ; also from the accounts of the commerce of Tyre, and from
various detached notices in the historians and prophets.
The Hebrews obviously never attempted to form any scientific theory respecting the
structure of the earth. The natural impression, which represents it as a flat surfece, with
the heaven as a firmament or curtain spread over it, is found universally prevalent. Be
neath was conceived to be a deep pit, the abode of darkness and the slmdow of death. In
one place we find the grand image of the earth being hung upon nothing ; but, elsewhere,
the pillars of the earth are repeatedly mentioned ; and sometimes the pillars of heaven.
In short, it is evident, that every writer caught the idea impressed on his senses and im
agination by the view of these grand objects, without endeavouring to arrange them into
any regular system. Although, however, the Jews never indulged in speculative geogra
phy, yet there are copious examples of minute and careful topography for practical pur
poses. Our object, however, is not to mark the divisions of Judea, but to trace the ideas
of the Jews respecting the extent and boundaries of the known world. We shall at the
same time be able to collect all that is now to be known of the Phoenician Geography ; for
it is evident that Ezekiel visited Tyre, as Herodotus did Babylon, with the eye of an in
telligent observer ; and he would doubtless hold intercourse wiih the best informed men in
that great school Of commerce and navigation. The objects always alluded to, as placed
at the farthest limits of their knowledge, are Tarshish; Ophir; The Isles; ShelMi and
Dedan ; The River ; Gog, Magog, and the north. {Fig. 1.)
Subsect. 1. — Tarshish.
Tarshish is the name which, in the annals of Jewish and Phoenician navigation, occurs
most frequently, and ranks next to Tyre ; yet nothing has been found more difficult than
to fix that name to any precise place. The peculiar difficulty is this ; that there are two
voyages from Tarshish : one up the Mediterranean, bringing iron, silver, lead, and tiri, the
produce of Spain and Britain {Ezek. xxvii. 12.) ; the other up the Red Sea, bringing gold,
ivory, and apes, the produce of tropical Africa (1 Kings, x. 22.). How these two voyages
can be from the same place, appears at first sight to baffle research.
Various places have been suggested, among which I should not think it necessary to
mention Tarsus, in Cilicia, were it not supported by such names as Volney and Malta
Brun. Except the resemblance of name, it has not a single feature which can be recon
ciled to the Tarshish of Scripture. Besides, the name Tarsus is evidently of Greek origin
{See Steph. Byzant. in v. Strabo, 1. 14. Bocharfs Phalcg., and W(tstiin's Xov. Test.
vol. ii. p. 511. and 608.), whereas Tarshish is manifestly of oriental derivation, and is
doubtless of Phoenician origin. Indeed, Malte Brun admits it to be tenable only on the
clumsy and improbable supposition of there being two places of tJio name of Tarshish.
Tartessus or Cadiz is certainly more plausible, and agrees witli the ^[oditerraneon voyage ;
but the distance is too great, and notice miglit liii\-e been expected to be taken of not a
few intermediate objects, particularly of the Straits of Gibraltar. It is altogether foreign
to the voyage by the Red Sea. This last objection appears also to hold agamst Carthage,
which, in every other respect, seems preferable to Toi'tcssus, and of whicJi more will be
said in the sequel.
To solve the problem of tlm two voyages, tlie only attempt, so far as I know, has
been in tlie inrrcnioua hypotliosis of Gossolin : Tarshish, according to him, signifies tlie
great iir open sea, as distinguished evnn from the lar£ri\><t of its incla^ed gulfs. The name
may tJien bo applied cviiially to the Atlantic and the Indian Ocean; and tlie voyage to and

Book L

HEBREW AND PHCENICIAN GEOGRAPHY.

13

Fig. 1.— GEOGRAPHICAL SYSTEM OF THE HEBREWS.
20 30 40 GO
I

from Tarshish may equally be by the Red Sea or the Mediterranean. But though this
hypothesis be supported by the signification of an old Hebrew term, and though it solve
the great problem, I think any one, who attentively traces the various occasions on which
Tarshish is mentioned in Scripture, will be satisfied that it has a sense quite different from
the loose and vague one here ascribed to it. Let us only read the following verse : — " But
Jonah rose up to fiee into Tarshish from the presence of the Lord, and went down to Joppa,
and he found a ship going to Tarshish ; so he paid the fare thereof, and went down into it,
to go with them into Tarshish from the presence of the Lord." Do not these words una
voidably suggest a precise port, to which there was a regular packet, with a fixed rate of
fare 'i — not a mere vague setting out into the wide and open sea. If the following expres
sions can be reconciled to M. Gosselin's hypothesis, it is only by very strained interpreta
tions : — " The kings of Tarshish ; — the merchants of Tarshish ; — pass ye over to Tarshish ; —
Tarshish was thy merchant: — with silver, &c. they traded in the fairs; — silver in plates
is brought from Tarshish, and gold from Ophir ; — the daughter of Tarshish," &c. In the
genealogical chapters, Tarshish is introduced as one of the sons of Javan. But the other
three sons, and every other name mentioned in these chapters, are the fathers of a country
and nation ; and it would be quite singular if Tarshish alone should have had only the sea
for his offspring. What a strange idea to call the sea one of the sons of Javan ! Indeed,
this is so glaringly improbable, that M. Gosselin has recourse to the hypothesis of inter
polation — a supposition very unlikely in regard to books held so sacred, and in respect to
these chapters among a people so fond of genealogy, and altogether a most unsound prin
ciple, as applied to the sacred volume. Finally, 1 think it very evident, from the general
tenour of Hebrew writers, that thej had no distinct notion of the Mediterranean as an
inclosed sea, and of an ocean beyond it. The expression, " the sea," used in that vague
and wide sense, will, I apprehend, be always found to signify the Mediterranean, the Red
Sea being designated by that particular term. Thus, there appears to be no motive for
adopting M. Gosselin's hypothesis, except the want of any other by which the problem of
the two voyages can possibly be solved. But if another can be stated, which shall solve
that problem, and at the same time make Tarshish the very place it might be expected to
be, this great question may, perhaps, be considered as settled in a more satisfactory manner
than heretofore.
That Tarshish must be, fimdamentally, Carthage, cannot, I think, admit of a moment's
doubt. The strongest argument is, that if it be not, then that grand emporium of Medi
terranean trade, the colony of Tyre, the place of all others with which Tyre held always
the closest intercourse, must never have been named by the prophets, who give such copious
. Vol. L 2

14 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Part I.
and detailed accounts of Tyrian commerce. When Ezekiel was enumerating every place,
even the most obscure, with which Tyre held intercourse, can it be supposed that this, the
chief of all others, would have been totally omitted ? But if Tarshish be Carthage, then
that celebrated city holds exactly the prominent place which, according to every circum
stance, it ought to have held in relation to Tyre. This general negative argument does
appear to me quite irresistible. The details are equally conformable. Carthage in her
glory monopolized, almost entirely, the commerce of Spain and Britain. She even took
the most violent measures to prevent any maritime power from penetrating to the west of
Sicily. There appears no trace of the Tyrians ever proceedmg further. They found,
apparently, in Carthage, a complete assortment of the commodities of all the countries to
the weg;, and on the ocean — silver, iron, lead, and tm, which were thus naturally viewed
by the Jews, and perliaps by the Tyrians themselves, as Carthagmian commodities. With
regard to the name, considering that both Tarshish and Carthage are corruptions of the
original Phoenician term, they have that rude resemblance which might be expected. The
connexion is rendered stronger by Carchedon, the Greek name of Carthage, which forms
a sort of middle term between them.
The voyage from Tarshish by the Red Sea, however, which forms the grand difficulty,
remains yet unaccounted for ; and it can only, I think, be solved in the following manner :
I conceive the name of this great African metropolis must have been generally extended
to the whole of the contuient of Africa. All the names of the continents, we may observe,
were originally derived from one of their remarkable and frequented districts. The name
of Asia was extended by the Greeks from a tract of that name immediately opposite to
their shore, including Troas, Ionia, and some other of the more eastern districts of Asia
Minor. With the Romans, Africa derived its name from the very district now in question,
called always Africa Propria, being the finest on that coast, and including Carthage. It
appears, then, quite natural that a place so very prominent, with which Tyre held such
close and constant intercourse, apparently the only place much frequented by her on the
coast of Africa, should be associated in her conception with the whole continent in which
it was situated. On any other supposition, the Jews and Phoenicians must have had no
name for Africa, which is not very probable. It is observable that Tarshish evidently does
not comprehend either Egypt or Upper Ethiopia, which countries, in feet, were never by
the ancients considered as decidedly African', that continent, according to their conception,
having the Nile fbr its eastern boundary. If we admit Tarshish to be Africa, the whole
difficulty respecting the two voyages at once disappears. As the voyage to the northern
coast was by the Mediterranean, so that to the eastern coast was of course by the Red Sea.
It is in favour of this solution that Jerome, in feet, calls the voyage to Tarshish " an Afri
can voyage." The Jews, unacquainted with intermediate countries, had probably a very
inadequate conception of the distance between these coasts ; at all events, they justly con
sidered them as parts of the same vast expanse of contuient.
Subsect. 2. — Ophir.
The name of Ophir, combined, as it always is, with the most precious of metals, and
the most coveted of all commodities, ranks among the distant countries known to the
Jews, almost superior in splendour to Tarshish,. though not equal in greatness and com
mercial importance. The voyages of Solomon to Ophir for gold, form the greatest naval
enterprise in which the kingdom of Judea was ever engaged. Yet this name has been
attended with little less difficulty, and produced scarcely less controversy, than that of
Tarshish. The belief that Ophir was in Arabia has certainly not a little to urge in its fevour. In
the genealogical chapters it is always combined with Sheba, or Sabea, which was undoubt
edly situated at the south-west angle of Arabia. It was from Sheba tliat gold (doubtless,
the gold of Ophir,) was regularly brought to Judea and Pha?nicia. Even Bochart, who
thinks himself obliged to seek in India a more distant Ophir, clumsily compounds the
matter by making another Ophir in Arabia. He is followed by ]\I. Malte Brun. M. Gros-
selin, with his usual zeal to restrict ancient knowledge, insists, that there never was any
Ophir except the Arabian, and places it in the modern interior district of Dofkr. There
appear to me, I confess, vast unprobabilities in this Arabian Ophir. As an interior district,
it must have been nearer, or certainly as near, to Judea as Sheba ; and it appears strange,
that no direct land communication should ever have been opened witli it. Let us consider
the mighty operations of Solomon ; his utmost efforts combined with those of Hiram ; the
materials of shipbuilding conveyed by land over a vast desert; tlie most skilfiil worlonen
transported to Ezion Geber ; a fleet composed of lai'ge vcs.scls, called ships of Tarshish, at
Ia.st formed, and undertaking a scries of voyages, m each of which three years were
employed. What a waste of laliour and expenditure to obtain a commodity xvliich could
have been conveyed across Arabia in two montlis on the backs of camels ! Yet tlie repe
tition of the voyage shows that the ailicle was, in fact, procured on better terms than by
the usual cliannel. In tlie voyage fi-om Ophir, also, we find new articles never mentioned

Book I. HEBREW AND PHCENICIAN GEOGRAPHY. 15
in relation to Sheba or Arabia, but characteristic of equatorial Africa — ivory, apes, and
peacocks. Witli regard to the close combination in which Sheba and Ophir are always
found, it will appear natural enough, when we consider that, unless during the short
expedition of Solomon, Sheba appears to have been the channel by which the gold of
Ophir was transmitted to Judea and Phoenicia. This circumstance might readily lead the
inhabitants of those countries to consider the two as closely connected, though Ophir
might be beyond Sheba, and even be separated from it by seas and territories of consider
able extent.
The hypothesis which places Ophir in India, though supported by great names, appears
quite untenable. The trade of Ophir bears not tlie least resemblance to an Indian trade.
It does not include the fine manufectures and. rich spices which India has always furnished ;
and its staple is gold, which never, at any time, was an article of export from that quarter
of Asia. India has, on the contrary, always demanded a large balance of specie, and has
formed a gulf in which the gold of the west has been absorbed. If we reject India, we
shall not certainly, with some savans, travel as fer as Peru in quest of our object, notwith
standing the slight resemblance of name, and the attempt to eke it out by the expression
" gold of Parvaim," which has some appearance of being synonymous.
The eastern coast of Africa is the quarter to which all the indications appear very clearly
to point. In the voyage to Tarshish by the Red Sea, its name and that of Ophir are al-
,vays combined; nay, the voyage, which in the Book of Kings is called the voyage to
Tarshish, in the Chronicles is called the voyage to Ophir ; so that it is evident the two are
one and the same voyage ; and, if Tarshish was Africa, Ophir must clearly be in Africa.
There is, however, on this coast no abundant supply of gold till we reach as far south as
Sofela ; thus implying an extent of navigation which is certainly somewhat startling. M.
Gosselin particularly urges, that in the time of Alexander there was no longer any know
ledge of eastern Africa ; and that even the Romans never appear to have penetrated beyond
Cape Delgado. On the other hand, it is to be considered that the alliance of Hiram and
Solomon united advantages which never existed again in an equal degree. The wealth,
naval skUl, and ample materials which those great princes could command were scarcely
equalled, even by the Ptolemies. After the death of Solomon, the kingdom, split into two,
and weakened by continued dissention, abandoned entirely these distant commercial enter
prises. A solitary attempt to renew the trade was made by Jehoshaphat, but the vessels
prepared fbr that purpose were wrecked in the very mouth of the port of Ezion Geber ;
after which the undertaking was entirely given up. In the calamities which afterwards
beffel Israel and Judah, and the revolutions which subverted the whole political system of
western Asia, it is not wonderful that every trace of this distant intercourse should have
been obliterated ; and that the successors of Alexander should have had to enter on a new
field of discovery. In support of the supposition of Sofela, there may also be noticed a
certain resemblance of name ; and the duration of the voyage, stated at three years, would
afford very ample time to reach the Zambese, even under all the imperfections of ancient
navigation. Subsect. 3. — TTie Isles.
The Isles, a term which occurs much in Scripture, might be supposed to describe gene
rally those portions of the globe which come under this description ; yet a carefiil compa
rison of the different passages in which the word occurs will probably show, that it is used
in a much more precise and determinate sense, and is applied to a wide and connected
range of territory. The whole of the southern coasts of Europe, consisting either of real
islands or of peninsular tracts, appears by the Jews and Phoenicians to have been viewed
as a long range of islands. Besides, the terms wyctos and insula were, in periods of remote
antiquity, applied loosely to peninsulas as well as .islands proper. Among many examples
which might be adduced, one will suffice — Peloponnesus. The isles, relative to Tyre,
appear to have ranked only second to Tarshish as a source of wealth, and in respect of
close and intimate intercourse. Tyre is called expressly, " a merchant of many isles :"
and the consternation which shook the isles at the sound of her fell ; the dismay of their
kings, who are said to have then cast off their robes, and sat on the ground, — all point out
the extent and importance of this commerce. Tarshish, Elisha, Chittim, and Dodanim
are named in the genealogical chapter as the four who divided among them the isles of
the Gentiles ; but, though Tarshish is so often named in combination with " the isles"
among the most distant marithne territories, there is never any indication as if it were
itself an island. The combination is probably produced by the extensive possessions and
commerce of the Carthaginians in the western islands and coasts of Europe. These, in
cluding the southern point of Italy, were, as already observed, probably considered as insu
lar, and were distinguished by the appellations of the " isles afar off," and " the distant
isles of the sea." The " isle" in particular, which Isaiah mentions in such close connex
ion with Tarshish, and which the merchants of Sidon, "by passing over the sea, had
replenished," can scarcely be any other than Sicily, an i.sl3,nd almost Carthaginian, and

16 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Pabt I.
containing so many -flourishmg cities. With regard to the isles of Elisha, they are evidently
Hellas, the Greek name of Greece. The only distinctive characteristic, indeed, that
of furnishing Tyre with the blue and purple dye, does not recall to us any of the features
under which we have been accustomed to recognize that celebrated region. But Greece
was not yet the seat of arts and arms ; and, had she been so, the Tyrian merchants might
still have viewed her only as she served their purpose. Bochart has collected ample testi
monies to show that the murex, the shell which yielded those celebrated dyes, was found
in peculiar abundance on the coast of Laconia. Chittim appears very evidently Cyprus,
and its early capital of Citirra- The alarm being given thence of the approach of the
king of Babylon, and its being^'ionsidered as the natural place of refiige for the inhabitants
of Tyre, where yet they would not be fiiUy secure, mark a proximity which belongs to no
other island. The name, indeed, is in one instance given to Greece, and in another to
Italy ; but this seems merely to be, that, as the nearest known island, its name is some
times thus vaguely extended to the whole of that territory considered by the Jews as insu
lar. The attempts of Bochart to find the name of Chittim in Italy have been wholly abor
tive ; for we cannot consider as worthy of notice the observation that it and Latium, in the
respective Greek and Latin languages, both signify "to hide." In regard to Dodanim,
convertible into Rodanim(T and 1 being perpetually interchanged and confounded), though
it is mentioned only once, we seem justified in fixing on Rhodes, already flourishing and
commercial, though not yet become the rival of kings. Bochart seems to go much too far,
when he seeks fbr it on the Rhone or the Ebro.
Subsect. 4. — Sheba and Dedan.
Of the internal trade of western Asia during the early ages, the most extensive and
important was that carried on across Arabia. It consisted, not so much in the productions
of the region itself, as in those of India and Africa, which found their way by this channel
to Judea and Phoenicia.
Sheba, among the Arabian states, holds the most prominent place, being undoubtedly
the same with the Sabaea or Arabia Felix of the classic writers. Its imports were the
precious commodities of gold and incense : the latter anciently in most extensive demand
for the purpose of sacrifice. These articles appear to have been brought to Judea, not by
any maritime channel, but in crowded caravans. The " companies of Sheba" are mentioned
even in Job. Isaiah speaks of the " multitude of camels ;" and of " all they from Sheba."
Yet the incense, it is now certain, must have come chiefly from the opposite African coast of
Berbera ; and the gold, we have some reason to think, must have been derived from a stiU
more remote part of that continent.
The commerce of Dedan rivalled that of Sheba, being carried on from the opposite or
eastern coast. The mention of " many isles" in combination with Dedan, seems to fix it
to that point at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, which is, in fact, bordered by numerous
islands. One of these, Ormuz, became afterwards the seat of a kingdom, which, from a
situation and commerce similar to that of Dedan, derived a splendour which made it the
pride of the East. The imports from Dedan — " ivory and precious cloths" — point out the
source of this prosperity. These were the commodities of India, brought to the mouth of
the Persian Gulf, and thence transported across the desert to the western regions. The
caravan trade of Dedan appears to have been most extensive ; insomuch that the prophet, in
denouncing the judgment upon Arabia, mentions the " travelling companies of Dedanim" as
its most conspicuous feature. In the prophets, Edom and Dedan are almost universally named
together, and the same judgments represented as affecting both. Hence they are" usually
considered as parts of the same country, and the ordinary maps include Dedan as a district
of Edom. Even Bochart, whose learning showed him that there must be a more distant
Dedan, adopts the hackneyed scheme of supposing that there were two Dedans. There is
no occasion for so unskilful a theory to explain the intimate connexion between these two
states. When caravans came across Arabia from the Persian Gulf, it was at Edom or Idumea
that they first touched on the civilized world. A depot was thus naturally formed there of
the commodities in which they traded. This traffic raised Idumea and its capital, Petra, to
a high pitch of wealth and importance. So close a connexion necessarily caused Dedan to
be deeply affected by any calamity which desolated Edom, and rendered her no longer the
channel through which this commerce could flow. But these disasters are by no means
represented as touching her so closely or so deeply ; and while Edom is represented as utterly
spoiled, and converted into a waste and reproach, the iniiabitants of Dedan are merely warned
to " turn back and dwell deep ;" (Jer. xlLx. 8.) and the expression, " tliey of Dedan shall fall
by the sword," is more correctly interpreted in the margin, " they shall fall by the sword
unto Dedan." These circumstances appear to mark, along with an intimate connexion, a
complete distance and separation between these two great Arabian states.
Raamah is mentioned among other nations of Arabia, along with Sheba, as producing the
same articles, but as a much less remarkable country. It appears to be the modem Had
ramuth, neither situated so commodiously as Sheba for the African, nor as Dedan for the

Book I. HEBREW AND PHOINICIAN GEOGRAPHY. 17
Indian, trade. Some of the best-watered districts probably of the Nedsjed, appear to have
composed the kingdom of Kedar, enriched by the breeding of numerous sheep and goats,
with which it supplied even Tyre, and rose to such prosperity, as to make it be considered
a mighty catastrophe " when all the glory of Kedar should faU."
Subsect. 6. — Countries on the Euphrates,
The river (for such is the import of the term) presents itself as a grand feature of the
landscape after passing across the wide Syrian desert, towards the eastern extremity of the
known world. This name, in prefbrence even over tlie Nile and the Jordan, was always
applied to the Euphrates, which, holding so immense a course through kingdoms the most
celebrated in history, was considered as one of the grand boundaries of the earth. The great
empires and capitals of Assyria and Babylon gave to it a lustre, which was scarcely divided
by the Tigris, whose name was little known to the Jews before the captivity. Along this
line of territory Ezekiel enumerates a number of cities, Haran, Canneh, Eden, Ashur, &c.,
from which great caravans proceeded to Tyre with cloths and other articles of the most
valuable description. In such early accounts, however, the country from which commodities
last came is seldom distinguished from their original seat. I therefore entirely agree with
Dr. Vincent, that they must have been brought by a long overland voyage across Asia ;
that these chests of rich apparel, so carefully bound with cords, came, probably, by interior
caravans from Hindostan, and, perhaps, already from the frontier of China.
Of the countries beyond the Euphrates, only some broken fragments of knowledge appear
to have reached Judea before the captivity. Elam is particularly noticed ; the residence of
a warlike people, occupying the long mountainous tract east of the Tigi-is. Media and
Persia are also named on a few occasions, hut so as to prove that they were only contem
plated in dim and obscure distance. At a vague and indefinite distance beyond, the ends
of the earth were imagined to exist. The early Greeks and, after them, the Arabians, viewed
the habitable earth as an island, surrounded on every side by water. Ptolemy, on the con
trary, places at every extremity of his map a vague expanse of unknown land. The He
brews combined in some measure these two views of the subject. To the west, the remotest
object for them was the sea, studded with numerous and distant isles ; but to the east, where
land was seen indefinitely extending, they formed the idea of an inland termination, without
being able to attach to it any precise limits. Such a boundary was apparently supposed to
exist in various directions, since " all the ends of the earth" is an expression frequently
occurring. It was to the east, however, that this idea peculiarly attached itself; and " from
the river to the ends of the earth," is the farthest point to which the figurative kingdom
of the Messiah is made to extend.
Subsect. 6. — Gog, Magog, and the North.
The north quarter is the only part of the circuit of the geographical knowledge of the
Jews which remains to be surveyed. It presented features of peculiarly rude and formi
dable aspect. Ezekiel, in anticipating an approaching inroad, draws the most gloomy feature
of the hordes which it poured forth : Gog, with all his bands, coming like a storm or a
cloud to cover the land ; Gomer with all his bands ; the house of Togarmah, from the north
quarter : " a great company and a mighty army," directing their course against those nations
which " were at rest, dwelt safely, and had gotten cattle and goods ;" and with the eager
purpose " to take a prey, to carry away their silver and gold, to take a great spoil." This
picture, these hostile and tumultuous crowds, " all riding upon horses," with their wide-
roaming and predatory habits, has always suggested the idea of Scythian invasion; and
the Arabian geographers have placed the castle of Gog and Magog at the remotest extremity
of Tartary. On looking narrowly into the matter, however, we shall find it difficult to
suppose this inroad to have proceeded from any pal-t of those unbounded plains. The fact
is, we have no occasion to look so far ; for the high table-lands in the interior and north of
Asia Minor, Phrygia, Galatia, Cappadocia, and Paphlagonia, have always presented the
same rude pastoral aspect, and have bred tribes of migratory shepherds and warriors, very
similar to those of Scythia itself These tracts, in fact, continue still to pour forth vast bodies
of irregular cavalry, which form the main strength of the Turkish armies. This view of
the subject appears completely fixed by the account of the commercial intercourse main
tained by these nations with Tyre. The prophet mentions Meshech and Tubal, elsewhere
completely identified with Gog, who is called their " chief prince." There never has been
the least doubt as to the position of these countries in Upper Armenia, and on the southem
border of Caucasus. There the classical writers mention in the Moschi and the Tibareni,
which are, perhaps, the same names. The imports into Tyre are stated to be " vessels of
brass, and persons of men." This somewhat curious combination is, however, altogether
characteristic of the region in question, which was, ui ancient time, highly distinguished
for the copiousness and excellence of its copper and iron, which last is not wholly excluded
by the term used in the original. The skill with which it was worked into steel by the
Chalybes, a people of this region, caused their name to be generally given to this product.
Vol. L 2* C

18 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Part L
Even in the present state of neglect, the neighbourhood of Trebisond supplies with excel
lent copper all the Lesser Asia. The other article, also, is but too descriptive. The
expression, " persons of men," marks the trade in slaves, with which it has always been
the fate of Caucasian countries to supply the East. Horses and mules are reported as
brought by the " house of Togarmah." Horses have always been a boast of Tartary ; and
an alliance has been imagined between this name and that of the Turcomans, who still
fiirnish the finest horses. But there was a race called Trogmi, in the upland tracts of
Paphlagonia, a region celebrated for its horses, and also for its mules, in which last respect
it has a decided advantage over Tartary, to which this last breed is a stranger. Thus we
seem justified in finding Gog, with all his mde and terrible appendages, in the northern
extremity indeed of the civilized and classical world of Asia, but still far distant from those
boundless wastes which composed the ancient Scythia and the modem Tartary.
Javan, which is described as flimishing the same objects of trade with Meshech and
Tubal, but not as having any concern in the desolating invasion of Gog, is, in fact, the
same word with Ion, or Ionia, an extensive appellation, which comprehended all the western
part of the Lesser Asia. The Jews and Phoenicians, overlooking the long range of narrow
straits which separated it from Europe, not yet recognised as a separate continent, appear
to have extended the name to Thrace, and the interior of continental Greece. Alexander
the Great is in one place called king of Javan. That a similar extension was recognised
in the early ages of Greece itself, appears by the celebrated ancient inscription at the
Isthmus of Corinth. " This is Peloponnesus, not Ionia." The Javan slaves were probably
drawn from Thrace, whose barbarous regions amply supplied the ancient markets with this
cruel species of commodity.

CHAPTER n.
ANCIENT VOYAGES OF DISCOVERY.

The early voyages of discovery formed the most important materials for those delineations
of the globe which were made by the geographical schools of Greece and Rome in their
more advanced and perfected state. Before proceeding, therefore, to consider the systems
of these schools, it may be proper to take a survey of the exploratory voyages performed
by ancient navigators. These do not appear very considerable in the eyes of a modem
mariner. There is not one of them, perhaps, which the captain of a tolerably appointed
merchant-vessel would not, in the course of his ordinary business, be ready to imdertake.
But in steering along an unexplored coast, in vessels which could scarcely raik above boats,
without the use of the compass, or any correct means of astronomical observation, even
these limited voyages were fraught with peril and adventure. The Tecord of them is,
however, involved in much mystery and controversy. They were not reported to the world
in those regular narratives with which the modem press teems. The ancient nairatives
are always meagre, and in many cases we have only fragments of hearsay testimony, col
lected by careless or prejudiced writers. A learned investigation, therefore, is usually
necessary, to discover along what coast the navigator sailed, to what point of it he reached,
and sometimes whether he ever sailed along any coast. In several cases the most skilfiil
disputants are still divided on questions, which, sunk in the deep abyss of time, must probably
remain for ever undecided. Faint and dubious, however, as are these records, they will
lead us over some of the most interesting problems of antiquity, and wiR enable us to trace,
in some degree, the infent steps of maritime enterprise.
Sect. I. — Circumnavigation of Africa under Necho.
To perform the circuit of the coast of Africa was the fevourite object of ancient maritime
enterprise, as it continued to be of that of modem times, till tlie era of its final happy
accomplishment. The manner in which its coasts, beyond the Mediterranean and tlie Red
Sea, begin to converge, suggested tlie idea of a peninsula, the circumnavigation of which
might be effected, even by the limited resources of ancient navigation. The wide sphere,
both of knowledge and trade, which such a discovery would open to the enterprising mari
time nations round the Mediterranean, was sufficiently obvious. The first attempt of this
description originated in a quarter which had usually been accustomed to keep aloof from
every species of naval enterprise.
Egypt had long held itelf as a country strictly agricultural ; but Necho, who, next to
Sesostris, raised its military glory to the greatest height, appears, like other conquerors,
to have been animated by an active spirit, which exerted itself in every direction. Not
possessing fit instruments among his own subjects, he engaged some Phoenician navigators
to descend the Red Soa, and endeavour to find tlioir way back to the Mediterranean, by
the Pillars of llerr\iles. The narrative is so very short, that we may easily give it in the
words of Herodotus : " The Phoenicians, sotting sail from tlie Red Sea, made their way into
the southern sea ; when autumn approached, tliey drew tlieir vessels to land, sowed a

Book I. VOYAGES OP SATASPES AND HANNO. 19
crop, and waited till it was grown, when they reaped it, and again put to sea. Having
spent two years in tliis manner, in the third year they reached the Pillars of Hercules,
and returned to Egypt, reportmg what does not find belief with me, but may, perhaps,
with some other person; fbr they said that in passing Afi-ica they had the sun on their
right hand (i. e. the north). In this manner Libya was first known."
The authenticity of this narrative has been in a remarkable degree the object of learned
curiosity, and has produced a mass of controversy, greater, perhaps, than its short and
vague nature is well able to admit. The arguments appear to have been exhausted on
the believing side by Rennell, on the sceptical by Gosselin and Vincent. Formidable as
the achievement was, it does not seem to involve any absolute impossibility, since the
whole voyage might be performed without losing sight of the shore, or launching into the
open sea, through which the ancients had no means of guiding their course; and their
smaller vessels, keeping close to the shore, might even possess some advantage over our
larger ones, obliged to stand out to sea, and encounter the stormy waves of the Atlantic.
Herodotus seems inclined to credit the information, unless, on the ground of one general
statement, which, being the very thing that should have happened, and disbelieved only
through his ignorance, strongly fortifies our inclination to credit the story.
Sect. II. — The Voyage of Sataspes.
The Persian monarchs, after their sway was established over the eastern coasts of the
Mediterranean, found the exploration of Afi-ica in some degree their peculiar province.
This nation, however, laboured under an aversion and dread of the sea, greater, perhaps,
than that of the other orientals. The only effort of theirs on record was one which arose
in a singular and rather casual manner.
Sataspes, a Persian nobleman, having committed a heinous offence, was condemned by
Xerxbs to a cruel death. His- friends, however, persuaded the monarch, that by com
muting this sentence into that of a voyage round Africa, he would uiffict sufferings scarce
ly less severe, and might render a national benefit. They prevailed, and Sataspes, having
procured in Egypt a vessel and crew, passed the Straits of Gibraltar, and bent his course
southwards. He is represented as having beat about for several months, at the end of
which he probably reached the coasts of the Sahara. The view of those frightful and
desolate shores, and of the tempestuoils ocean which dashed against them, might well
intimidate a navigator bred in the luxurious indolence of the Persian court. Sataspes was
struck with a panic, and measured back his course to the straits. Yet, hoping that
time and the degree in which he had accomplished his mission might effece the im
pression, both of former offence and of present failure, he again presented himself before
Xerxes. In giving an account of his voyage, he merely related, that wherever he landed
he had seen little men wearing a Phoenician dress, who immediately fled into the moun
tains ; but his people had done them no injury, beyond carrying off the cattle of which
they stood in need. The failure of the ultimate object of the expedition he imputed to
the occurrence of an insurmountable obstacle, the nature of which has not been satisfac
torily explained. Xerxes, however, accustomed to expect that all nature should be sub
servient to his wOl, would listen to no excuse, and ordered the original sentence to be im
mediately executed. Sect. III. — Voyage of Hanno.
The Carthaginians, as the greatest maritime and commercial people of antiquity, might
have been expected to make earlier and further progress in the discovery of Africa than
any other nation. In general, however, a veil of deep mystery shrouded all the proceed
ings of that powerful and aspiring people. It is even asserted that they considered as ex
clusively theirs the whole Mediterranean west of a line drawn across to Sicily, and that
they captured all the vessels, and put to death the crews, that were found navigating
within these forbidden precincts. The Romans, on the other side, animated by inex
tinguishable enmity, are said to have industriously destroyed all the records of the
literature and history of their fallen rivals. The only fragment that escaped is the
Periplus of Hanno, which, notwithstanding the scepticism of Dodwell, its editor, the
learned world are now generally agreed in considering as ancient and authentic. This
celebrated document is so short, that we may find space here for a complete translation
of it.
" It pleased the Carthaginians that Hanno should sail beyond the Pillars of Hercules,
and should found cities of the Liby-Ph(Enicians. He set sail, therefore, with a fleet of
sixty vessels, each of which was impelled by fifty oars. They carried with them men and
women to the number of thirty thousand, with provisions and supplies of various kinds.
We sailed two days beyond the straits, and founded a city overlooking an ample plain, and
which we called Thymiaterium. Thence we proceeded westward to Soloe, a promontory
of Libya, thickly shaded with trees, where we founded a temple to Neptune ; then turning
eastward for half a day's sail, we came into a lake not far from the sea, overgrown with

20 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Part L
numerous and high reeds, and on whose banks elephants and a number of wild anunals
were feedmg. Having passed this lake m the course of a day's sail, we founded cities on
the sea coast, Caricum-Teichos, Gytte, Acra, Melissa, and Arambys. Then settmg sail,
we made our way to the great river Lixus, which flows from Libya. On its banks the
Lixitffi, a pastoral race, fed their flocks ; with whom we formed ties of friendship, and spent
a short mterval. The country above them was mhabited by inhospitable Ethiopians, filled
with wild beasts, and traversed by very high mountains, whence the Lixus is said to descend ;
and it was added, that these mountains were inhabited by men dwelling m caves, of a
strange appearance, who outran even horses in the chase. Having received interpreters from
the Lixitse, we proceeded along a desert coast till the middle of the second day ; when we
sailed one day to the eastward, and in the recess of a little bay found a small island, five
stadia in cfrcuit. We left inhabitants there, and named it Ceme. This island, on taking an
account of our course, we conjectured to be opposite to Carthage ; for the navigation from
Carthage to the Pillars, and from the Pillars to Ceme, corresponded. Then we came to a
lake through which flows a great river called Chretes. That lake contauied three islands
greater than Ceme ; by these, in the course of a day's navigation, we reached the interior
shore of the lake, where very great mountains impended over it, inhabited by a rough people
dressed in skins of wild beasts, who by throwing stones repelled us, and prevented us from
landing. We then sailed into another river, large and broad, fiiU of crocodiles and river
horses. We then returned to Ceme. From Ceme, renewing our course to the south, we
passed for twelve days along a shore, the whole of which was in the possession of the Ethi
opians, who showed a trembling dread of our aspect, and spoke a language unknown to our
Lixite interpreters. On the last day, we came to high mountains covered with trees, the
wood of which was odoriferous and variously tinted. Passing round these mountains by a
navigation of two days, we came to an immense opening of the sea, bordered by plains in
which we saw fires of different magnitude glittering at intervals from every spot. Having
watered there, we proceeded five days along the shore, till we came to an immense bay,
which the interpreters called the Western Horn. In it was a large island, and in that island
a salt water lake, in which again there was another island. Entering this lake, we saw in
the day nothing but forest ; but in the night there were many fires burning ; and we heard
various sounds of musical instruments, and the cries of numberless human beings. Being
terrified by these objects, and the prophets also exhorting us to quit the island, we made off,
and reached next the fiery region of Thymiamata, whence torrents of flame poured down
into the sea. Here the heat of the earth was such, that the foot could not tread upon it
We therefore took our speedy departure from this place, and after four days' further sail, saw
the earth in the night full of flames. There appeared also in the midst of them one lofty
fire greater than the rest, which seemed to reach to the very stars ; this, when seen by day
light, proved to he a very lofty mountain, called the chariot of the gods. Thence by a navi
gation of three days, having passed these fiery torrents, we came upon another bay, called
the Southem Horn. In its inmost recess was an island similar to that formerly described,
which contained in like manner a lake with another island, inhabited by a rude description
of people. The females were much more numerous than the males, and had rough skins :
our interpreters called them Gorillce. We pursued but could take none of the males ; they
all escaped to the top of precipices, which they mounted with ease, and threw down stones;
we took three of the females, but they made such violent straggles, biting and tearing their
captors, that we killed them, and stripped off the skins, which we carried to Carthage : being
out of provisions, we could go no further."
Such is the entire narrative of this most celebrated of the ancient voyages ; but it would
be impossible to comprise within the some limits even a sketch of the commentaries to which
it has given rise among the learned.
Three leadmg hypotheses have been formed ; one, that of Bougamville, who conceives
Hanno to have reached the Gulf of Benin ; another, of Major Rennell, who carries his
course only to Sherbro Sound, a little beyond Sierra Leone; while M. Gosselin insists
upon terminatmg it about the river of Nun. {Fig. 2.) ^^^len we reflect tliat the first
of these courses is upwards of three tliousand miles, and the last under seven hundred, an
idea may be formed of the extremely vague nature of these data, where all the narries are
changed, and no one point fixed with such certainty tliat the others can rest upon it
Bougainville contends that his assigned limits do not exceed what may reasonably be
supposed to have been passed over by the most skilful navigator of antiquity; in feet,
the period of thirty-eight days is precisely the time employed by the squadron sent in
1641 to found the Portuguese fort of Elmina. All the grand features of man and nature
described by Hanno are to be found in tropical Africa only; Ethiopians or Negroes;
Gorilla^, who are evidently apes or orang-outangs ; rivers so large as to contain 'croco--
diles and hippopotami. The great conflagrations of tlie grass, and the music and dancing
prolonged through the night, are jilienomena which have been observed only in the
negro territories.
Major Reiinell's system retains all the arguments by which tliat of Bougainville is sup

Book 1. VOYAGE OF HANNO.
Fig. 2.— MAP ILLUSTRATING THE VOYAGE OF HANNO.

21

CVeri ^- . Gtf»»i»

ported, at the same time that it avoids the extravagant supposition of ancient vessels hav-
mg made a course of seventy geographical miles in the day. The Gulfs of Bissago and
Sherbro present those numerous islands described by Hanno, and not found on any other
part of the coast ; and even their form seems to correspond to the appellation of Horn,
applied by him to these great gulfs. If, then, Hanno's career reached central Africa, there
can be little doubt that Major Rennell's hypothesis, or something near it, exhibits his real
progress. M. Gosselin restricts the voyage within much narrower limits. It was impossible, he
urges, that the course could be otherwise than slow in a voyage of discovery upon an un
known sea, where the mariner could sail only by daylight, with constant precautions, and
minutely examining every part of the coast. The motions of Hanno were clogged also by
the large and incumbered fieet of which he was the escort. Destitute of the compass, and
without the power of standing out to sea, he could never, it is alleged, have doubled Cape
Bojador, which so long baffled the efforts of the Portuguese. With regard to the features
supposed to be exclusively characteristic of tropical Afi-ica, M. Gosselin conceives that
Morocco, yet in no degree civilized or subdued, but in the full possession of rude native
tribes, would bear a much more similar aspect than now to the interior portions of the con
tinent. The ape tribe and the wild river amphibia might probably fill a region unoccupied
by man, though now, it is supposed, expelled by culture and a more crowded population.
The term Ethiopians has been applied, not to negroes only, but to all nations of a dark
colour. He conceives, therefore, that Hanno's course could never pass much beyond the
frontier of Morocco, and could have reached only a very little further than the estuary of
the river of Nun.
To decide a point on which such learned men so widely disagree, is what we do not
feel very forward to undertake ; and really the difficulties appear very great in any view of
the subjec*. The detail of the positions would, on the whole, lead us to prefer the most

22 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Part I.
limited space. Of these positions the island of Ceme forms the key ; and the identifying of
it with Argum is essential to the support of the two remote hypotheses. But though it is
evident that the whole of the sailing period to Cerne is not given, the tune bemg omitted
during which the five cities were founded, yet the general tenour seems hardly consistent
with so great a way being made along such a difficult and unknown shore. The defect is
in some degree supplied by an ancient nautical guide of some authority, called the Peri
plus of Scylax, in which the sail from the straits to Ceme is given at twelve days, a period
which Major Rennell admits to be wholly insufficient for reaching Argum. Ptolemy, mdeed,
carries Cerne to almost a tropical latitude ; but as he keeps it still north of the Canaries, his
graduation here is manifestly erroneous, and his authority, on the whole, is in favour of re-
tammg Cerne withm the lunits of Morocco. The details of Hanno do not appear to be
always very satisfactory ; but perhaps they might prove more so, did we possess a more
accurate survey of this coast than has yet been taken. On the whole, then, the great ques
tion is, whether M. Gosselin's solutions can account for the aspect of nature and life bemg
60 different from that of- Morocco, and so like that of a negro coast: perhaps here, too, some
light might be obtained from a careful observation of the mder borders of the former empire.
Sect. IV. — Voyages of Eudoxus.
The ambition of performing the circuit of Africa, the grand maritime problem of an
tiquity, was not solely confined to princes and states. Even private adventurers, animated
by the ambition of achieving so great an enterprise, and hoping, perhaps, to combine with
it opportunities of lucrative commerce, are found in the list of the explorers of Africa.
Eudoxus was the most memorable of these adventurers, whose story, however, has come
dovni to us through a very clouded medium. In ancient, still more than in modem times,
there existed men whose habit it was to treat with doubt and derision aU narratives of dis
covery that extended beyond the ordinary limits. At the head of this sceptical band stands
Strabo, one of the greatest geographers whose works survive, and who forms the chief
medium by which these narratives have reached our time ; a most unfortunate circumstance
to the fame of these early discoverers. However, in many instances, nature herself has
stood forth as their vindicator ; and our more extended knowledge has enabled us to detect
the feUacy of the arguments by which Strabo has endeavoured to refute them. This is not
particularly the case with regard to Eudoxus ; hut really, in Strabo's notices respecting the
adventurous life of the bold navigator, we cannot see any thing which tends to controvert
the general belief of antiquity, that he had made repeated and spirited attempts to explore
the unknown coasts of the African continent.
According to the narratives of Strabo, Eudoxus was a native of Cyzicus, sent on a mission
to Alexandria, then the great seat of maritime enterprise and geographical knowledge.
His ardent mind was strongly imbued with the spirit which reigned there ; and he offered
himself to Ptolemy Evergetes, the reigning king, as a zealous instrument to be employed in
any expedition having these objects in view. There was, at first, some talk of ascending
the Nile, and endeavouring to reach its unknown sources ; but their views received a new
direction from the arrival of a person who was, or professed to be, a native of India,
escaped alone from the wreck of his vessel near the foot of the Arabian Gulf. Ptolemy im
mediately fitted out a naval armament, with which Eudoxus proceeded on this destination.
He appears to have made a prosperous voyage, and to have returned with a cargo of aroma-
tics and precious stones, which last had either been washed down by the rivers, or dug out in
a concrete state. It is scarcely probable, however, that Eudoxus ever reached the real shores
of India, or went beyond the southem shore of Arabia, and, at ftrthest, the Persian Gulf
Of this wealth, Evergetes appears to have plundered him ; which Strabo insinuates was in
resentment of some dishonest conduct on his own part. We cannot, in tliese days, attempt
to judge between the two parties. However, Evergetes dying, his widow Cleopatra took
Eudoxus again into favour, and sent him on a fi-esh voyage. He was now driven by unfe-
vourable winds to the coast of Ethiopia, where he was well received by tlie inhabitants, and
carried on some advantageous trade. His return to Alexandria was again imtbrtunate.
Cleopatra was dead ; and her son, who succeeded, treated him as ill as Evergetes had done.
Eudoxus brought with hun, however, one trophy fi-om the extremity of his voyage — the
prow of a vessel, said to have come from the westward as a portion of a ^\Teck, and on
which was sculptured the figure of a horse. This prow being exhibited by Eudoxus on tie
harbour, some mariners from Cadiz declared it to be tlie very form peculiar to a species of
large vessel which went from that port for purposes partly of trade, and partly of fishing,
to the coast of Mauritania. Eudoxus listened with enthusiastic credulity, and determined
now to renounce the dccoitflil patronage of courts, and to fit out a new expedition from the
commercial city of Cadiz. Ho proceeded thithor by way of MassOia and other maritime
stations, where ho loudly proclaimed his hopos, and invited all who wore animated with any
spirit of enterprise to accompany liim. He accordingly succeeded in equipping an expedition
on a considerable, and even magnificent scale, flo liad one ship and two large boats, on
board of which he carried, not only goods and provisions, but artisans, medical men, and even

Book I. VOYAGE OF PYTHEAS. 23
players on musical instruments. A crew so gay, and filled, probably, with extravagant hopes,
were ill fitted to encounter the hardships of Afi-ican discovery. They took fright at the
swell of the open sea, through which Eudoxus was anxious to conduct them, and insisted,
according to tlie usual timid system, on being brought near to the shore. This led to the
disaster which Eudoxus had foreseen : the ships were stranded, and the cargo with difficulty
saved. The most valuable articles were then put on board one vessel of a lighter construc
tion, and he prosecuted the voyage till he came to a race of people who appeared to hun to
speak the same language with those whom he had met on the opposite shore of the conti-
njnt. Conceiving himself to have thus ascertained the object of his voyage, he returned,
and endeavoured to procure the barbaric aid of Bocchus, king of Mauritania ; but, suspecting
that monarch of a treacherous design against him, he again betook himself to Spain. Here
he succeeded in equipping a fresh expedition, consisting of one large vessel fitted for the
open sea, and another of smaller dimensions for exploring the coast. Here, unfortunately,
the narrative breaks off, referring to the Spaniards and Gaditanians, as likely to know more ;
but as nothing more is stated on any authority, we fear that this last expedition must have
had an unfortunate issue. Such is the narrative given by Strabo, upon information which
seems to have been originally obtained from Eudoxus himself; and we see nothing in it un
worthy of belief, or which might not very well be accomplished by a man of bold and enthu
siastic character, possessed of science and talent, and devoted with such ardent zeal to the
cause of discovery. Eudoxus cannot be made responsible for the fables which antiquity has
put into his mouth. He is represented by some as having actually made the circuit of Africa ;
by others as having come to one nation that was dumb, and another whose mouth was entirely
closed, and which received food through an orifice in the nose. But none of these febles
are found in the report of Eudoxus himself, as coming through the medium of Strabo his
enemy. Sect. V. — Voyage of Pytheas.
The voyage of Pytheas, the Massilian navigator, is of peculiar interest, as it is the only
one described in any detail, having Europe, and particularly the British Isles, for its object.
It comes to us, however, still more deeply tinged by the same dim and discoloured medium
through which that of Eudoxus has passed. It is known almost solely by the hostile quo
tations of the sceptical Strabo, adduced for the purpose of proving Pytheas to be " a liar
of the first magnitude." Yet, the nature of the grounds on which this conclusion is made
to rest, is such as to place in the clearest light Strabo's own ignorance, and the superior
information of Pytheas. This last will become more conspicuous, if we suppose, as seems
probable, that the errors of the geographer were transmitted to him from Massilia itself; in
which case, Pytheas being found possessed of knowledge of which his countrymen were
destitute, there appears no mode in which he could have obtained it, except the actual per
formance of the voyages.
The following are statements on which Strabo rests his refutation of Pytheas. That navi
gator stated, that the Calbium Promontorium, the extremity of Bretagne, pointed to the
west, while Strabo affirms it to be perfectly notorious that its direction was to the north.
This last strange idea was connected with what we shall find to be the general error of this
school, which allowed to France a southern coast only, and not a western one. Again,
Pytheas represented Britain as having one of its sides much longer than five hundred miles,
whereas, his adversary maintains this to be the dimensions of its longest side, which, accord
ing to him, is that opposite to and seen from the shores of Gaul. Finally, Pytheas asserts
that his Ultima TAuZe was farther north than Ireland; whereas, all well-informed persons,
knowing Ireland to be four hundred miles north from Britain, and scarcely habitable on ac
count of the cold, considered it as forming on that side the extreme boundary of the in
habited earth. Thus far it is necessary only to name the charges against Pytheas, to make
him shine conspicuous above his enemies.
There are other statements, it must be confessed, which appear at first sight a little ¦start
ling. Pytheas describes the longest side of Britain not only as more than five hundred miles
in length, but as exceeding two thousand. It is to be observed, however, that while Strabo
described Britain as a triangle, having its longest side opposite to Gaul, Pytheas conceived
it to have only two sides, one of which, consequently, reached from the Land's End, or the
Lizard Point, to the extremity of Scotland. If we consider this vast extent of coast, with
so many winding shores and deep bays, all the sinuosities of which an ancient navigator was
oblige^ to follow, the estunate will appear not very extravagant. Agaui Pytheas described
the coast of Kent as several days' sail from that of Gaul. But the term by which Strabo
designates Gaul, is KkWmj; (Celtica) ; and it appears from Caesar, that Celtica formed only
one of the three parts into which Gaul was divided, and was bounded on the east by the
Seine. Pytheas probably used the term in this restricted and more proper sense ; when the
distance assigned became strictly correct. He moreover described the coast of Spain as
inhabited by Gallic nations ; it would even seem, that he considered the Calbium Promon
torium as Spanish. Here he was clearly in the wrong ; but the error will probably be

24 mSTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Past L
found to have rested not in his observations and facts, but in mixuig them with an errone
ous theory prevalent at Massilia, according to which, France had not a western coast, nor
one facing the Atlantic ; such a coast belonged to Spam only. Under this impression,
Pytheas, so long as he sailed along the western coast of Gaul, and till he came to that
opposite to Britain, would naturally imagine that he was sailing along the coast of Spain.
Strabo at last traces Pytheas to Thule, and " her utmost isles," when he does, certamly,
present a narrative assuming somewhat of a fabulous aspect. The most daring navigator,
as he approached the dreary boundaries of earth and ocean, and saw only the high billows
of the North Sea dashing against a rocky and misty shore, might become liable to some
sinister impressions. Pytheas, it seems, said, that beyond Thule there commenced what
was neither earth, sea, nor air, but a confiised blending of all the three, similar to the sub
stance called pulmo marinus (a species of medusa common on our shores). He added, that
this substance was the basis of the universe, and that m it, air, earth, and sky hung as it
were suspended. If we place ourselves in the situation of Pytheas, seeing before him the
northern sea, overhung by thick and gloomy mists, shrouded in twilight, and darkened by
tempest, we may suppose him very easily persuaded, that what he beheld was a confused
blending of all the elements, not very dissimilar even to that thick viscid animal substance
to which it was compared. Nor can we feel much wonder, if, after this long and difficult
navigation through so many perils, he should lend somewhat of a ready ear to a report
which represented him to have reached that ferthest boundary of nature, beyond which it
was no longer possible for mortal sail to penetrate. Another report of Pytheas was, that
at Thule the phenomenon took place which belongs only to the polar circle, — a summer of
one long day, and a winter of one long night. Antiquity is somewhat fiill of rumours of
this phenomenon, which science had pointed out as likely to take place at a certain latitude ;
and there was a general disposition in those who had made any progress northwards to an
ticipate the term. Considering the loose way in which rumour then spread, it may easily
be supposed, that the partisans of this idea might support it by an exaggerated representa
tion of the real statements of Pytheas. One of these (Geminius) merely reports him as
saying that the nights appeared to him to last only for two or three hours, a statement
which at midsummer would be quite correct. Indeed, we have been assured by persons
who have resided in the Shetland islands, that at that season there was scarcely any sen
sible term of darkness. A foreigner, then, visiting the islands, might very readily imagine
he had arrived at that point on the globe where the summer was one uninterrupted day.
The theories, which would make Thule any other place than Shetland, seem not to
require much discussion, though there are not wanting learned partisans in favour of each.
Iceland would imply too great an extent of open sea for an ancient navigator ; and the
period of five days' sail from the continent would be very inadequate. Some Scandinavian
writers have claimed Thule as belonging to their own region ; Rudbeck for Sweden ; Saxo
Grammaticus, and Schoenning for the Norwegian Tellemach; Malte Brun for Jutland.
These theories seem sufficiently refiited by the single consideration, that Pytheas invariably
considered Thule as British, and expressly calls it the " farthest of the Britains." But
Jutland or the Baltic he could have only reached by a long navigation along the coasts of
Germany, which could never have been performed without the clear perception of having
left far behind him every thing belonging to Britain.
Sect. VI. — The Voyage of Nearchus.
Alexander the Great was animated beyond, perhaps, any other ancient monarch or sage,
with an ardent zeal for discovery His expedition became almost as much one of explora
tion as of conquest. Its course was in general by land, and through the interior of the
continent ; but his mind was not less deeply fixed upon commerce and maritime discovery.
On reaching, therefore, the banks of the Indus, and being obliged by the mutiny of his
troops to fix there the termination of his career, he was seized with a desire to explore the
lower course of that river, and afterwards the southern coasts of Asia ; a long range com
pletely unknown to the Greeks. The prospects of this voyage, however, were such as to
appal the most enterprising of his naval officers. The perils of tempest and shipwreck on
this wide and unknown ocean, with those of being driven upon a barbarous and desert
coast, appeared almost to preclude the hope of reaching by tliis long circuit tlie destined
station of the army on the banks of the Euphrates. The inferior officers variously excused
themselves from so heavy a task ; and the enterprise appeared ready to fell for lack of instru
ments, when Nearchus, the admiral of the fleet, came forward and proffered his own ser
vices. Alexander unwillingly committed this task to an officer so high m rank, alid his
intimate friend ; but the earnestness of Nearchus, and the backwardness of all the others,
left him at length no alternative.
The voyage down the Indus was brilliant. Alexander conveyed his army in a crowded
fleet of two thousand vessels. The sound of the numberless oars, echoed by tlie surround
ing woods, as tlipy lloated down this majestic stream, excited the admirmg gaze of the
natives. Alexander even accompanied his admiral down the Delta of the Indus, and took

Book I.

VOYAGE OF NEARCHUS.

25

a view of the ocean, after which he returned, to lead his army by a most perilous and diffi
cult route through Gedrosia and Karamania to Babylon.
Nearchus now began his arduous naval route {Fig. 3.), after the usual antique preparation

Fig. a— MAP OF THE VOYAGE OF NEARCHUS.
50 65 £0 65
 ' I ' -

of sacrifices and games. At the mouth of the river appeared a most formidable obstacle , a
rock barring the passage, and against which the waves broke with fiiry. This was sur
mounted by cutting a canal across the softest part of the rock, through which the vessels
were able to pass at full tide. He then passed the sandy island of Krokali (Corachie,)
and Mount Eirus (Cape Monze,) when, being now in the open ocean, a series of gales
began, so heavy and continued, as obliged him to seek the shelter of an excellent harbour
formed by an island called Bibacta. The crews here landed, threw up an entrenchment
to defend themselves against the natives, and remained for twenty-three days, subsisting
chiefly on shell-fish. The wind having abated, they set sail, and came to a coast where
water, of which they appear to have needed almost daily supplies, was only to be got by
going several miles up into the country. They then passed between a range of rocks, so
close to each other, that the oars struck against them on each side. After sailing a con
siderable space, partly in a narrow channel between a wooded island and the shore, they
came to the river Arabius (the modern Pooralee). It gave name, to a numerous people,
inhabiting aU the territory between this river and the Indus. On the other side was the
coast of the Oritse. In proceeding, however, Nearchus met with a dreadful tempest, in
which three of his vessels perished, though the crews were saved by swimming, and he
with difficulty brought his shattered vessels to the coast. Here he found Leonatus, whom
Alexander had detached to open a communication with him, which he obtained only by
very hard fighting. Nearchus here spent some time in refitting his shattered vessels, and
exchanged those of his crew who had proved themselves less efficient, for fresh men out
of the Greek army. Having laid in com for ten days, they sailed with a prosperous wind,
and reached the rapid stream of Tomerus (the modem Wudd). Here the natives, six
hundred strong, were drawn up to oppose their landing; a barbarous race, armed with
lances six cubits long, pointed not with iron, but with wood hardened in the fire. Near
chus caused a band of his light troops to swim on shore, and to make no movement till
they were drawn up in a triple line, then suddenly to raise a general shout, and pour in
clouds of darts and missiles. This sudden attack, their shouts, and the glitter of their
armour, produced instant and total rout on the part of the natives. They are described as
presenting an aspect almost incredibly savage, being covered in a great measure with hair,
and having long nails like the claws of wild beasts. Their dress consisted in the skins of
animals and of large fishes.
The expedition now steering out to sea, and taking a southerly course, observed pheno
mena belonging to the midsummer of the tropic, the novelty of which struck them with
surprise. When the sun was in the meridian no shadow was projected, and when there
came to be a little shadow, it declined to the southward. Stars, which were wont to be seen
high in the heavens, were now little above the horizon. At Bagaziri (Cape Arrubah) they
left the coast of the Oritse, and entered that of the Ichthyophagi, or fish-eaters, a food which
is said to have so remarkably abounded, that even the flesh of the cattle savoured of fish,
from their making it, like sea-birds, their daily food. The people were hospitable, but could
give only fishes and goats. It was not till the Greeks had sailed a considerable distance that
at Bama they found some palms, gardens, and verdure. After passing Cophantte (Guadel,)
Vol. L 3 D

2G ¦ HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. . Part I.
where they obtamed a supply of fine water, and Cyzia (Gwutter) on a desert and rocky
shore, they came to a small town on a hill a little inland (probably Churbar,) where it
appeared probable that a supply of grain might be obtained. To possess himself of this,
Nearchus had recourse to measures that harmonized much more with the character of a buc-
caneermg freebooter, than with that of an officer of the first prnice in the world. The
people met him in the most kindly manner, and presented to him roasted fish and other vic
tuals. Meeting their friendly advances, he expressed a wish to visit their city, and being
cordially admitted, his first step was to take military occupation of it, and command the
natives to lay open to him all their stores of grain. The poor citizens at first flew to arms,
but having no means of effectual resistance, were obliged to yield. It proved, however,
that they had little except dried fish reduced to powder, and Nearchus could get only a very
small stock of grain. In sailing now along an almost desert coast, the stock of provisions
became excessively scanty ; and they obtained only a poor supply by landing and cutting off
the leaves of wild palm-trees. The pressure became so extreme, and was so impatiently
borne by the crews, that Nearchus did not think it safe to land at night, lest they should all
take flight into the interior. In one place he found a paltry village, all the inhabitants of
which fled ; but the Greeks found seven camels, which they killed and eagerly devoured.
The same distress continued to press upon them so long as they sailed along the coast of the
" fish-eaters." Notwithstanding this name, few of them were fishers, or had even boats.
They procured this food by immense nets, sometimes a quarter of a mile long, formed out
of the fibrous bark of the palm tree. These they placed at high tide across the mouth of
little bays, so that when the waters receded, the nets retained all the fish which had been
carried up with the tide. The houses of the rich were built with the bones of whales cast
ashore, those of the poor with the back-bones of smaller fishes. Nearchus descried a number
of whales, whose presence was at first made sensible only by the quantity of water thrown
up into the air, and tossed as in a whirlpool, a spectacle which struck the sailors with terror,
and made the oars drop from their hands. The commander, however, on being informed of
the cause, made his crews raise the loudest possible sound by shouts, trumpets, and dashing
of oars, which at once kept up their own spirits, and was supposed to induce these monsters
of the deep to replunge into their abysses.
The coast of Caramania was next reached by Nearchus, after passing the febulous abode
of ^ Persian Circe, who, according to report, was accustomed to seduce the navigator by
voluptuous pleasures, and then convert him into a fish. Nearchus now found his distresses
nearly at an end, as the soil was tolerably productive in grain and fruits, and there was plenty
of good water. After passing Capes Jask and Bombareelc, they came in view of a huge pro
montory, stretching far into the sea, called Cape Maceta (Mussendoon), and forming the
entrance of the Persian Gulf The great body of the sailors, and even Onesicrotus, an officer
high in command, weary of this long navigation, earnestly proposed to land, and march on foot
to Babylon. Nearchus justly and strongly insisted that this was in no degree to fulfil the
intention of Alexander, whose injunction it was, to survey every coast, every harbour, and
every bay, between India and the Euphrates ; and that besides they incurred great hazard of
being involved in those arid and bummg deserts, ot which Arabia in a great measure con
sists. This wise opinion prevailed, and in ascending the Persia.n Gulf they found, for the
most part, a fertile and beautiful coast. In the delightful country at the mouth of the river
Anamis (the modem Minab) they landed, and began to refresh themselves after so many
hardships. Nay, a party having proceeded to some distance into the interior, met, with tears
of surprise and joy, a man in a Greek dress, and speaking the Greek language. This proved
to be a soldier who had straggled from the army of Alexander, which he reported to be at a
distance of only five days' journey. On receiving this intelligence, Nearchus caused the
ships to be drawn on shore, a rampart to be formed round them, and tlie crews to take rest
and refreshment, while he and Archias set out alone for the camp. On their arrival they
presented an aspect so haggard, pale, and squalid, that the persons they met did not know
them, but on being told their name, hastened to carry the first tidings to Ale,-rander. They
added (a hasty conclusion formed fi'om appearances,) that the fleet and the army had per
ished. Alexander received Nearchus with a kindness mingled with sorrow, and after the
first salutations, began to ask particulars of the catastrophe of his fevourite armament ; but
when Nearchus replied, " O king ! thy ships and men are safe," the conqueror burst uito a
flood of tears, and swore by Jupiter Ammon, that he derived more pleasure from this event
than from the entire conquest of Asia.
The rest of the navigation of Nearchus, when he had with some difficulty regained the fleet,
was easy, care being taken that he should find on the coast every kind of supply. They
passed the barren and desert rock of Organa, afterwards so celebrated under the name of
Ormuz, the large and fertile Oaraota (the modern Kishme). Soon after they quitted the
coast of Caramania and entered that of Persia proper (the modern Fars,) wliich they follow
ed till its termination at the river Arosis (the modem Endian Tab,) which appeared to them
the largest they had seen since they had left tlie Indus. They were now in Susiana, and
soon reached the mouth of the Tigris, where the voyage terminated.

Book I. PERIPLUS OF THE ERYTHREAN SEA. 27
The circumnavigation of Arabia, and the opening of a communication between the Red
Sea and the Persian Gulf, formed to Alexander an object of almost equal ambition. He
accordingly appears to have sent expeditions down both seas, in the hope of accomplishing
this object. Those, however, who went from Persia were never able to double that formidable
promontory (the Mussendoon) which Nearchus had passed at the entrance of the gulf; while
those who went from Egypt, after making a certain progress, were always obliged to return
for want of water. The narrator chose to conclude with inferring, that such an achieve
ment must be beyond human skill or power, otherwise the daring curiosity of Alexander
would certainly have accomplished it. He reinforces this argument by observing, that as
caravans which crossed Arabia were able to travel only during the night and in the day
were unable to bear the intense heat of the sun, it was unreasonable to suppose that a region
stiU ferther to the south should be at all habitable.
Sect. VII. — Periplus of the Erythrean Sea.
The complete establishment of the dominion of Rome produced a long period of compara
tive peace. The encouragement of industry and commerce never formed part of the policy
of that powerful empire ; but the demand for luxuries of every description in its overgrown
capital, where the wealth of the wprld was collected, and to procure which the remotest
extremities of the earth and sea were ransacked, powerfully stimulated mercantile enterprise.
Alexandria continued still the great nautical school, by whose mariners the obstacles which
in the time of Alexander had been deemed insurmountable were completely overcome.
Regular voyages were established across to India, and for a considerable extent along the
eastern coast of Africa. The course of this commercial voyage is related by Arrian, not
the historian of Alexander, but a merchant of Alexandria ; and though not so much a voyage
of discovery as a coasting guide, it is founded, probably, upon personal observation, and will
enable us to complete the survey of the great naval routes of the ancient world.
The voyage down the west coast of the Red Sea began with Berenice, founded by the
Ptolemies, and the site of which, after being long sought for in vain, seems to have been
nearly fixed by Belzoni. The coast on the African side was wild, and occupied only by a
few rude huts of barbarous Nubians. The small port called Ptolemais Theron was the
only place where refreshments could be obtained. At length, the navigator came to Aduli,
a great emporium, whose site Mr. Salt seems to have ascertained in the vicinity of Arkeeko.
Here was a profusion of excellent ivory, collected and sent down from Axum, the metropo
lis, about eight days' journey in the interior. In return for this single staple of Ethiopia
was exchanged that variety of showy colours, suited to a rude taste ; pottery and glass
vessels, the manufecture of Diospolis ; brass for vessels and ornaments, iron for pointing
lances, arms, and cutting instruments. Some flne cloths, and ornaments of gold and silver,
were brought as presents or tribute to the king. Farther down, apparently in the Gulf of
Zeyla, was the kingdom of Zoskales, a prince who is described in glowing terms as adorned
vvith every virtue, and eminently skilled in Grecian literature ; but these seeds of civiliza
tion, if they ever existed, did not ripen in so ungenial a climate. The coast now turns
eastward to the Indian Ocean.
A view of the passage down the opposite or eastern coast of the Red Sea must now be
taken. Navigators do not seem to have ventured across the breadth of that sea from Berenice,
but went by Myos Hormus, along the mouth of the Gulf of Suez, touchmg at Leuke Kome,
the fau: village, which formed the port of the great commercial capital of Petra. The coast
downwards was most unfavourable to navigation, " fiill of danger, without harbours, beset
with rocks, everywhere full of horror ;" and such the whole of the Red Sea is described to
be by modem navigators. If a vessel was driven too near the shore, it was immediately
plundered by the barbarous inhabitants, and all who survived carried into slavery. At length
they came to the Bumt Island, which seems to be Gebel Tor, on the coast of Yemen, where
they found a fine country and 'a friendly people. The emporium of this coast was Moosa,
near the modern Mocha, said to be inhabited by a race skilled in maritime affairs. The
impcirts were of the same description as at Aduli, but of finer quality, incliiding a
considerable quantity of dye-stuffs. The exports were myrrh, gum, alabaster (no mention
yet of coffee). They then proceeded downwards, and passed the straits now called Bab el
Mandel.n^,'^l'®^^°"*®™ ^°^^ °^ Arabia formed the next object of navigation. Ocelis (the modern
Ghella) was a good harbour, though with little trade ; but Arabia Felix, which seems to
have been near the site of Aden, had been a most flourishing port, forming a depot in which
the merchants of Alexandria found all the commodities of India. It had lately, however,
been destroyed by the Romans. In coasting along Arabia, they found Kane (the modern
Macculla) ; the Gulf of Sachalites, m which is found the modern Sahar ; and Syagros, de
scribed as the largest promontory in the world, usually supposed to be Ras el Had,' but
which Vincent appears clearly to fix in the much more westerly position of Cape Fartash
This region is described as yielding a considerable quantity of incense, but as extremely
moist and unhealthy. They now passed Mosca (Morebat), Asichone (Hasec), the islands

28

HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY.

Part I.

of Zenohius (Curia Muria), and came to Ras el Had, where the coast turns northward to
the Persian Gulf The writer observes, and truly, that the entrance of the Gulf is bordered
by very lofty and rugged mountains; he mentions the celebrated pearl fishery on its
western shore, arid Apologos, otherwise called Oboleh, then the emporium of the Euphrates.
He does not dwell, however, on these details, and passes also, with very slight notice, the
southern coast of Persia, which the observations of Nearchus had shown to be destitute of
any materials for commerce.
The coast of India (Jig. 4.) now commences, arid forms the most important era in the
voyage. He reaches the mouth of the
great river Sinthus, by which name he
designates the Indus. It is represented
as entering the sea by seven mouths, only
one of which is navigable, and on which
is situated a place called Emporium Bar-
baricum, subject to the interior metropolis^
of Minnagara, which last is described as a
Scythian city. The idea of Scythia at-
ta,ched to this part of India could only be 22
suggested by the rude pastoral manners
of the people, and, combined with the cir
cumstance of its being included in the
Parthian empire, points out Minnagara as 20
belonging to what is now called the king
dom of Caubul, to which, in fact, the Del
ta of the Indus is still subject. The mer
chants were obliged to go up to Minna- '*
gara, and to negotiate with the prince
himself After passing the Indus, navi
gators found successively the gulfs ofie
Eirin(Cutch) and of Barygaza (Baroach).
The narrator here remarks the dangers
of every kind with which these gulfs are
beset, shallows, concealed rocks, narrow
and difficult entrances, but above all, the
extraordinary occasional violence of the
tide ; in consequence of which, unexpe-,2
rienced navigators often saw their vessels
either sunk or driven on shore. Frequent
ly, when they were sailing in perfectly
smooth water, a sound was heard as of an
advancing army ; smd soon the tide rushed °° '" " " '°
on with such force, that no anchor could secure the vessels. Barygaza was a very great
emporium, at which were found the same commodities as at Emporium Barbaricum, with
much finer cloths, and a quantity of long pepper. Ozene (Ougein) was a great interior
capital, the prince of which it was necessary to propitiate, by sending up handsome presents
of the very best wine, rich unguents, cloth, and beautifiil female slaves.
The region of Dachinabades (the Decan, i. e. the South, for Arrian remarks, Aa^avoj
xaJiimtu, 6 votos itj wiyfav y^aaatj) extended to the south of Barygaza, and is described as
combining " many regions, deserts, huge mountains, wild beasts of every kind, and finally,
many great and populous nations." It had two large interior capitals, Plithana and Tagara ;
the one twenty days' journey south from Barygaza, the other ten days farther. The gran
deur of both has sunk under the changes to which eastem cities are subject ; but the site
of the former seems recognised in Piltanah on the Godavery, that of the latter in Deoghir,
now Dowlatabad, in whose vicinity are the magnificent sculptured temples of Ellora. A
number of ports are now described, which cannot be very precisely determined ; but Kal-
liena, mentioned as the seat, though with some interruptions, of a very great commerce, is
pretty clearly recognised at or near the modern Bombay. Afterwards we may know the
Concan by the mention of pirates. At length the Greeks reached Limyrike, a fine port,
and the seat of a great trade. The three chief emporia were Tyndis (Barcelore), Moosiris
(Mangalore), and Nelkunda (Nelisuram). This last, which has sunk into a place of very
secondary importance, was then the chief southem, as Barygaza was tlie chief northern,
emporium of western India. The larger Greek vessels had even, by availing themselves
of the monsoon, been enabled, with a daring course very foreign to tlie usual habits of
ancient navigation, to steer directly across from tlie mouth of tlie Red Sea to Nelkunda.
The grand staple then, as now, wa.s pepper ; to which were added pearls, and precious
stones of various descriptions, among which were diamonds and hyacinths, cotton cloths,
tortoise-shell, and betel-leaf, from tlie interior. Among the imports, according to the usual

Fig. i. — Periplus — Coast of India.

08 70 72

74

76 1

^^^^ Barbarikfi

G.Eirin^^^^^ i^

' Ozme

Taean

0- =

t Ealliem

\
Tyidia %
Moosinsi -
NdkoDdi
\
Book I.

PERIPLUS OF THE ERYTHREAN SEA.

29

course of Indian trade, stood foremost " much money," a little cloth, and a little wine ; but
a considerable quantity of metals and toys, brass, lead, tin, glass, coral, stibium for painting
the eyes, orpiment, and cinnabar. There is much appearance that Nelkunda was the far
thest point to which the Greek navigators actually penetrated, and that they found there a
supply of the commodities produced in the more eastern regions.
All beyond Nelkunda is feint and tinctured with fable. We recognise, however, Comar
(Cape Comorin), Taprobane (Ceylon), and its great pearl-fishery. The Coromandel coast
is nearly a blank, till we arrive at Masalin, which, with the great abundance of its cotton
cloths, speaks clearly Masulipatan. In proceeding northwards, navigators came to a strange
and barbarous people, with visages sometimes of enormous length, at others resembling
those of horses, and some eating human flesh : an exaggerated picture of the fierce preda
tory races who occupy the mountain and jungle tracts of Orissa. Arrian describes accurately,
however, the direction to the east which the coast of the ocean takes, before it receives the
mighty flood of the Ganges. At its mouth there was then, it seems, a great emporium
bearing the name, which no city now does, of thp river itself The staple was " superla
tively fine cotton cloths, called Gangetic," and which still exist in the superb fabrics of
Dacca and Moorshedabad.
In the regions beyond Ganges the author of the Periplus gropes almost ia total darkness.
Mention is made of an island, the farthest part of the world to the east, and which is richly
stored with the most precious productions of the countries that lie on the shore of the Red
Sea. This cannot seemingly be any other than Sumatra, though erroneously placed near
the Ganges. The only ulterior position is Thinse, a great interior city, situated opposite to
Pontus and the Caspian Sea, and near to where the Palus Moeotis flows into the ocean. This
strange site we shall afterwards find reason to consider as a combination of some actual
rumours with the theory formed by the first Alexandrian school respecting the form and
dimensions of the continent of Asia. There seems some reason, however, to conclude with
Dr. Vincent, that this Thinse, whence caravans came by way of Bactria to Barygaza, must
have obscurely indicated the capital of China. Nor can we be easily persuaded that in
the malabathrum, though most usually applied to betel-leaf, some confused idea of tea is not
involved. Its being so strictly characteristic of China, and being brought by persons of a

Fig. 5. — Periplus — African Coast.

3*

broad forehead, short body, and flat nose,
features decidedly Mongol and Chinese,
seem all in favour of this supposition, and
inconsistent with that which would make
it merely betel-leaf, a product of Indostan ;
though there is doubtless a great and mani
fest confusion between the two substances.
We must now look back to the Straits
I of Bab-el-Mandel, and follow our author
along the African coast. {Fig. 5.) From
those straits vessels proceeded eastward
along the shore opposite to Arabia, the
modern Berbera. Its ports, Avalites, Mo-
syllum, Mundos, Daphnon, and others,
cannot be easily identified on a coast, with
respect to which we have scarcely any
modem data. The imports were nearly
the same as at Adulis ; the exports were
myrrh, frankincense, a species of cinna
mon called casia, some other aromatics,
slaves, and a little ivory. At length they
doubled the promontory of Aromata (Guar-
dafui), when they came to a coast stretch
ing to the southward and facing the Indian
I Ocean. Here was a port, the seat of a
considerable trade, but by no means secure ;
however, when the north wind began to
blow with dangerous violence, the vessels
found shelter in the neighbouring promon
tory and port of Tabai. Proceeding on
wards, they found Opone, Apokapa the
^ less and greater, Nicon, Serapion, seven
successive rivers, with anchorages at the
mouth of each. Soon after, at the distance
of about three hundred stadia from the
continent, there occurred a low wooded is
land, bearmrj the very expanded name of

30 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Part I.
Eitenediom-menouthesias, which other writers wisely contract into Menuthias. It contained
no wild animals, but abounded in fish, particularly tortoises, which the inhabitants were very
diligent in catching. Two days' voyage farther brought them to Rhapta, a promontory and
port, and the seat of a great trade. Beyond this point, the ocean was not yet explored ; but
it turned to the west and south, and was supposed to continue in that direction till it joined
the Atlantic. The exports from this coast were ivory in great abundance, but not equal in
quality to that of Aduli ; tortoise-shell, superior to every other except that of India ; and a
number of valuable slaves, chiefly destuied for the Egyptian market. The territory was
governed by a number of petty kings, all owning the supremacy of Mopharites, who wels
himself tributary to Moosa, by the vessels of which great commercial state the trade of this
coast was almost entirely carried on.
The extent of coast thus described by the author of the Periplus has been the subject of
considerable controversy. Dr. Vincent fixes Rhapta, its farthest point, at Qudoa, th-as
allowing a navigation of upwards of fifteen hundred miles ; while the rigid scepticism of
M. Gosselin, plachig it at Brava near the mouth of the Doara, allows a good deal less than
half that distance. Dr. Vincent here, however, appears to carry the question triumphantly,
by means of his seven mouths of rivers, of which M. Gosselin admits that no trace can be
found within his limits. They are clearly presented by the estuaries of the Quillunanci,
on which are the important harbours of Patte, Melinda, and Mombaza. But we cannot, with
Dr. Vincent, pass by Pemba and Zanzibar, to find in the little island of Monfia the Menu
thias of Arrian. Zanzibar, from its size and its proximity to the coast, appears a feature
which it was impossible to overlook, and its position is in much better bearing with the
seven estuaries previously passed. The next cape must then be Rhapta, and this will be
that opposite to which is situated the small group of the Hinagie Islands. Beyond it for
a considerable distance the coast runs in the direction of south-west, which does not at all
admit the placing Rhapta beyond Quiloa, nor, indeed, on any other part of the coast till
after we pass Mosambiquc.

CHAPTER m.
GEEEK GEOGRAPHY BEFORE ALEXANDER.
Greece is regarded by all civilized nations as their instructress in the sciences, many of
the most brilliant of which she CEUTied to the utmost perfection. In that of geography,
however, little progress was made untO the formation of the Greek kingdom in Egypt
under the Ptolemies. Neither extensive commerce nor distant conquest characterised the
Grecian states, otherwise so illustrious for all the arts of peace and war. It was not till
the conquering career of Alexander, that the survey of the Greeks was extended over the
wide circuit of the ancient world. Engaged before that era in the glorious defensive war
against Persia, and the contests with each other for pre-eminence, they confined their views
very much within the limits of Greece and its neighbouring coasts and islands.
The first traces of Greek geography are found among its poets, whose brilliant fancy has
spread its lustre over all the regions with which Greece ever held intercourse. Homer
took the lead, and his high authority gave to the geography of the Greeks a poetical cast,
which they transmitted to the nations whom they taught, and of which the traces are not
entirely obliterated. Sect. I. — Geography of Homer.
It is in Homer that we find the first trace of the widely-prevalent idea, that the earth is a
flat circle, begirt on every side by the ocean. This was indeed a natural idea in a region so
entirely insular and peninsular, nowhere presenting, like Judea, a vast tract stretching so
far as to give the idea of immeasurable distance. The circular shape was suggested by that
of the visible horizon ; and until science demonstrated the globular form of our planet, the
very natural opinion prevailed that the earth was a flat circle, witli the vault of heaven above,
darkness, and the abode of departed souls beneath.
Homer, like Hesiod and the ancient poets generally, delights in topographical detail, and
scarcely allows a city or natural object to pass witliout applying to it some characteristic
epithet. It was only, however, within a very limited range tliat he could give these distinct
and animated notices. The Greek islands, beautifiil and fertile spots, which seem to have
been the first cradle of Europoan civilization, were the central point from which his know
ledge emanated. He knew well, and had probably visited, on one side Peloponnesus, Attica,
and the regions immediately adjoining ; on the otlier, the western coast of Asia Minor, and
the banks of the beautiful rivers by which jt is watered. Perhaps scarcely any other tract
on the globe presents within the same compass such a variety of grand and beautifiil objects
to rouse the imaginatiou. Beyond this circuit the world of Homer was soon involved in
mystorions obscurity. Some grand and distiuit ft\iturcs, discin-nible tlirough the gloom, were
exaggerated and distorted by ignorance and superstition. Thobes, tlie mighty capital of

Book I. GEOGRAPHY OF HOMER. 31
Egypt, when that kingdom was in its greatest glory, is celebrated for its hundred gates, and
the hosts of warriors which they sent forth to battle. Beyond lay the Ethiopians, deemed
the remotest of men, dwelling on the farthest verge of the earth, and to whose distant
confines Jupiter repah-ed to hold an annual festival. In the western part of the same conti
nent the stupendous ridges of Atlas had excited in Grecian fancy the image of a gigantic
deified being, to whom was intrusted the support of the heavens. Even farther to the west,
the exploits and wanderings of the great Grecian demigod had conveyed a tradition of the
strait leading into the ocean, and of tlie rocks on each side, celebrated under the denomination
of the Pillars of Hercules. On the east, Colchos was distinguished by its early wealth and
commerce ; it was considered a city on the ocean, with which, therefore, the Black Sea
must have been confounded ; and being supposed to contain the palace of the Sun, where
during the night he gave rest to his coursers, and whence in the morning he drove his
chariot to its diurnal career, Colchos must have been regarded by Homer as placed on the
most eastern verge of the earth. On the north, Rhodope, under the name of theRiphsean
Mountains, was considered a chain of indefinite extent, closing in the northern limits of the
world. The poet, however, had heard a vague report of the Scythians, under the description
of a people subsisting on mares' milk. The vessels which conveyed the Grecian army to
Troy were evidently little better than large boats ; and all distant voyages, or those in which
land was lost sight of, were considered as fraught with the extremest peril. A navigation
to Africa or to Sicily took place only through tempest, terminating usually in shipwreck ;
and a return from these shores was esteemed almost miraculous. In regard to Sicily, indeed.
Homer has largely communicated his ideas, having made it the theatre of the woes and
wanderings of the hero of the Odyssey. Making every allowance for poetical license, we see
evident traces of the terrified and excited state of mind in the navigators who returned from
these shores. Monsters of strange form and magnitude, who watched for the destruction of
the mariner, and even fed upon his quivering limbs ; delusive syrens, who lured but to destroy ;
imprisonment under the transformed shape of wild beasts ; these, probably, are only a highly-
coloured repetition of the terrific rumours brought by the few whose bark had been wafted
to those as yet savage coasts. Sect. II. — Poetical Geography.
An ideal and poetical character was communicated to the science of geography itself by
the febles with which Homer thus tinged his narrative. This tendency indeed did not rest
solely upon Homeric influence, but proceeded from certain secret workings of the human
heart. There exist in man ideas and wishes for which, in the sphere of his actual existence,
he can find no corresponding objects ; these he creates for himself in that dim boundary
which separates the known from the unknown world. There involuntarily arises in his
breast a longing after a more exalted state of existence than the world before him presents —
bright scenes, which he seeks but never finds in the circuit of realities. In a newly-discovered
region, however, which possesses any share of beauty, imagination soon heightens the colours
of nature, till they appear to fulfil its fond anticipations. Such were those brilliant spots
celebrated by the poets under the title of the Gardens of the Hesperides — the Fortunate
Islands — the Isles of the Blest — for which, when knowledge had dispelled the first illusion,
and brought them down to the ordinary level, a place was still found in some more distanf
extremity of the globe. Northern Africa, as it stretched westward, was peculiarly adapted,
by its striking and brilliant contrasts, to excite these illusions. The first site of the Hesperian
gardens was at the frontier of Cyrene, where they are described by Scylax as forming a
luxuriant grove, in which the lotus and the palm were mingled with the finest trees of
Europe. Other and more westem sites were successively found, both for them and the
Fortimate Islands, which last were finally fixed, probably on very imperfect observation, at
the Canaries. These islands have not altogether lost lii^ appellation ; and they are painted
by Horace in glowing colours as a refuge still left for mortals from that troubled and imper
fect existence which they experience in every other quarter of the globe. Independent,
however, of this bright and romantic enjoyment, there are other objects of fond desire to the
human heart. In this agitated world it sighs after peace — a scene of profound repose, exempt
from the tumults of passion and the corrosion of care. Such a scene, indeed, would never
fiilfil the hopes thus formed; yet these hopes spring from a natural illusion, to flatter which
Grecian poetry conjured up a febled race, the Hyperboreans, seated in the recesses of the
North, and sheltered by vast mountains from the rage of the elements. They were repre
sented as exempted from all ills, physical and moral, the change of seasons, sickness, and
even from death. The original seat assigned to them was behind the Riphsan Mountains,
which seem to have been originally Rhodope, the northern boundary of the Homeric world.
The Greeks having soon acquired knowledge sufficient to ascertain that no such people was
there to be found, sought them next on the banks of the Danube ; but every thing there was
remote from that tranquil aspect under which the poets had painted the Hyperborean world.
Some traditions carry them westward; but their seat was finally fixed in that northern
extremity of Asiatic Russia which the ancients never explored. They even carried with

82 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Part L
them the Riphaean Mountains, which became thus an ideal chain, delineated in modem maps
as extending along the extreme frontier of Europe. Impressions of gloomy darkness, and
even of the termination of existence, are, in other moods of the human mind, associated with
images of distance and obscurity. These influences gave birth to the Cimmerians, a people
who dwelt in perpetual darkness, and were never illumined by the cheerful rays of the sun.
Their favourite seat was on the straits at the mouth of the peninsula of Taurida, the farthest
point, probably, of which rumoilr had spoken in the poetical ages, and which was called the
Cimmerian Bosphorus. It was probably from similitude of name that they were afterwards
confounded with the people called Cimbri. The learned, however, have found traces of
Cimmerians in the extremities both of the east and the west ; and the idea of the earth as
terminated by a boundary of darkness, being founded on natural impressions, has very gene
rally prevailed. Park mentions it as the reigning belief among the Mandingos at this day ;
and the world, in the system of the Arabian geographers, was enclosed by a sea of darkness.
Other fabulous creations, springing from those of Homer, continued long to hold a place in
geography. The one-eyed Cyclops appears under the name of Arimaspian on the frontier
of India, and in the remotest extremity of Africa. The Pigmies multiplied still more exten
sively ; they had seats on the Strymon, the Hebrus, in India, and the north of Europe.
According to Strabo they were spread over the whole southem border of the earth ; and this
representation even induced Banier to suspect that, on that side, they have been confounded
with the monkeys. Sect. III. — School of Miletus,
The astronomical schools of Miletus and Samos appear, so fer at least as there is any
precise record, to have made the first attempts to form geography into a system, and to apply
to it the lights derived from astronomy. These and other cities of Asia Minor rank high
among the early seats of commerce, and tliey established colonies in various quarters of the
Mediterranean and the Euxine. While they continued independent they were very wealthy
and prosperous," and the sciences were cultivated with ardour and success. To a commercial
people practical mathematics, and especially those branches subservient to geography and
navigation, must have peculiarly recommended themselves. Thales, Anaximander, Anaxi-
menes, and Pythagoras, are celebrated by their countrymen as the inventors of all the pro
cesses by which the phenomena of the globe are calculated. The gnomon or sundial, for
ascertaining the progress of the sun from tropic to tropic, and finally the latitude of particu
lar places, the division of the year into 365 days, and into four seasons, are represented as
having originated in this school. It appears doubtful, however, whether these discoveries
were due to their own exertions or borrowed from the Egyptians and Chaldeans, whose fame,
amid the dim traditions of antiquity, stands pre-eminent for astronomical observation.
The first rude mode of forming a division of the earth was into climates, determined
by the species of animals and plants produced in each. Thus the negro, the rhinoceros, the
elephant, were considered as characteristic of the torrid zone. This very loose method gave
place to another, formed by observing at each place the length of the longest and shortest
days. This could only be done with accuracy by a gnomon or dial, erected on a horizontal
plane, and showing, by the length or shortness of its shadow, the elevation of the sun above
the horizon. There is much reason to think that this simple instrument was employed by
the Egyptians, especially in the operation, which they undoubtedly performed, of adding five
days and a quarter to 360, the number originally supposed to form a complete yeeu-. It has
even been imagined by some, that the pyramids, those enormous structures by which this
people excited the astonishment of the world, were only huge sundials ; and though it might
doubtless be extravagant to conclude this to have been their sole object, yet it really appears
that, being placed in the direct position of the cardinal points, they are perfectly fitted for
being thus employed. But, though it is clear that Thales and his disciples had largely drawn
from these early sources, they probably made considerable additions to the information thence
derived. Two books, one on the tropic, and the other on the equinoxes, are reported to
have been written by Thales himself The degree of knowledge thus attained enabled him
to discover the error of the vulgar in supposing tlie earth to be a plane surfece ; but he could
not reach the precise idea of its globular form. Anaximander viewed it as a cylinder ; some
compared its form to thac of a boat; others to tliat of a lofty mountam. The details of the
Pythagorean cosmography have not reached us ; but the feet that they placed the sun in tlie
centre of the system, with the earth moving round it, indicates at that infent era attainments
which were lost during many ages, and only recovered at a fiir more advanced stage of
modern science.
The map must, as soon as geography was cultivated, have occurred as the best and
most perspicuous form of embodying its results. Anaximandpr is the first who is reported to
have constructed a map of the world, embracing that limited sphere of objects which were
then comprehended under that term. But the most celebrated production of tliis nature was
that employed by Aristagora.s, the prince of Miletus, to induce Cleomenes, the Spartan king
to undertake the conquest of Persia. He entered, it is said, the presence of that monarch.

Book I. GEOGRAPHY OF HERODOTUS. 83
holding in his hand a tablet of brass, on which were inscribed " the whole circuit of the earth,
the sea, and all the rivers." Under this pompous description, however, was probably included
little more than a route from the Ionian sea to Susa, which was specially pointed to as that
by which the Spartan prince might lead his victorious troops to the Persian capital. Even
of this line, respecting which he was so deeply interested, the short detail of Herodotus
shows him to possess by no means complete information. Beyond Cilicia his descriptions are
very indistinct. He has omitted Media altogether, and has given to Armenia quite an undue
extension. The continental Greeks, during the era of their greatest power, did not cultivate
systematic geography, nor indeed any sciences dependent upon mathematical principles,
with much activity ; indeed, they did not even keep them up to the state in which they had
been received from the Ionian cities. One solitary observation of latitude is recorded as
having been made at Athens, by Meton and Eudemon, 432 years A. C. The different states,
in the course of their extensive wars, must have acquired a great portion of that topographi
cal knowledge which is indispensable for military operations. Engrossed by these internal
objects, their attention was little directed to the general system of the world. One individual
alone, by extensive travels and diligent enquiries, procured an ample accession to the science
of history and of historical geography. Sect. IV. — Geography of Herodotus.
The system of geography included in the great historical work of Herodotus is as
complete as could be formed from the materials within his reach. It comprises a general
summary of all that he could learn respecting the human race, and the regions which they
inhabited. His information was obtained not solely or chiefly from books, but mostly by
travelling, the only mode in which at that era geographical knowledge could be effectually
collected. He assures us that he had visited Persia, Assyria, Egypt, Thrace, Scythia, and
all the distant regions which he describes. He viewed them, however, only as tracts of ter
ritory, the abode of men, and did not attempt to combine them into any system of the earth;
nor did he possess, or, at least, apply any of the mathematical or astronomical principles of
the Milesian school. He even derides some of its conclusions ; as that of the earth being
round and encompassed by the ocean. His strange statement, that the sun in India was ver
tical in the morning instead of at midday, is evidently a misunderstood report of what he had
been informed respecting the difference of time in the different parts of the earth's circum
ference. His knowledge, however, such as it is, consisting of plain facts, untinctured with
theory, is both solid and extensive.
The division of the earth into three quarters, or continents, was by this time completely
formed. Sea, or at least water, seems to have been the principle of separation, though not
required to be altogether complete. Setting out from Europe, for the origin of which appel
lation we have nothing but the fable of Europa, the Greeks seem to have named the other
continents from the districts immediately beyond the intervening sea. Homer already men
tions the name of Asia as applied to a large and fine tract on the coast of Ionia. Thence it
spread through the spacious peninsula of which it forms part, and which Europeans con
tinue to call Asia Minor ; but soon passing these limits, it was vaguely extended through the
boundless regions of the East, till it finally embraced entirely the largest of the three conti
nents. On the other side, directly to the south, the Greeks first landed on the coast of Libya ;
and the name of Libya was by them applied to the entire continent. With the Romans, on
the contrary, whose position and political relations attached them entirely to the district
of Africa proper, in which Carthage is situated, the name of Africa soon prevailed over
every other.
These grand divisions of the ancient world were already known to Herodotus ; but he
has astonished European readers in an extraordinary degree by the assertion, that Europe is
longer and of greater extent than Asia and Africa united. The severe judgment of M.
Gosselin pronounces such an assertion, made in the midst of the nations which carried on
the most extensive navigation, to be a proof that they had not formed the least idea of the
distance which their vessels sailed along the Mediterranean. Before pronouncing so severe
a sentence, we must consider attentively what, in the conception of Herodotus, was Europe,
and what was Asia. He mentions two boundaries : one formed by the Black Sea and the
Don, which, though it does not form a very appropriate boundary of a continent, continues
still to prevail, being connected with the Northern Ocean by the mountain chain of the
Urals. But in the other, which is that preferred by Herodotus, the Black Sea is continued
by the Caspian ; the boundary line being carried along the north of that sea, and thence
indefinitely eastward. Taking Europe in this sense, we find it in the west co-extended with
the opposite coast of Africa, which the ancients necessarily considered as marking the length
of that continent, while, in the east, however far Asia might be prolonged, Europe was still
regarded as co-extensive. With regard to the boundaries of Africa, too, there was an
extreme want of precision. Our limit of the Isthmus of Suez is certainly the most accurate •
Vol. I. j;

34 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY, Part I.
but the ancients, who could not readily admit the notion of a continent bounded by any thing
but water, attached themselves more to the Nile, and did not well Imow whether to consider
Egypt as Asiatic or African. SuBSEOT. 1. — The Europe of Herodotus.
Scythia was the extremity of Europe, beyond Greece, with which Herodotus appears
to have been most familiar, and which, m fapt, he Imew better than almost any other ancient
writer. This name, which became ultmiately Asiatic, was restricted by hun to the tracts
that now form the southem provinces of the Russian empire. These regions v/ere then,
and in a great measure still are, possessed by the same description of rude Nomadic and
pastoral people, who have always occupied the central plains of Asia. The attention of the
historian was specially called to them by the rash and daring expedition of Darius into a
region secured by its natural barriers, and the wandering and untamed character of its
people, against every form of regular subjection. Darius, crossing the Hellespont, marched
along the southem shore of the Euxine, reached the banks of the Volga, and after the fruit
less labour of erecting there several fortresses, returned by a more inland route, in which
Major Rennell even supposes him to have passed the site of Little Novogorod. The know
ledge acquired by this expedition, however, did not enable Herodotus to avoid great errors
in the delineation of European Scythia. He imbibed a most exaggerated idea of the dimen
sions of the Palus Moeotis, which he calls the " mother of the Euxine." This appears to
have arisen chiefly from the false orienting of the side which faces Russia, and which is
made to stretch almost due north, instead of west, while the sea itself is represented as
forming the eastem boundary of that great space of four hundred miles square, within which
Herodotus comprises Scythia. The southem boundary was formed by the Euxine, and the
other two by the land, so that he does not connect it in any shape with the Northern
Ocean. The details of this extensive region are given by Herodotus with considerable accu
racy. Of its rivers, after the Danube, which he ranks second to the NUe, he mentions the
Tyres or Dniester, the Hypanis, or Bog (and even describes the close approach of these
rivers to each other in the upper part of their course), the great channel of the Borysthenes,
or Dnieper, and the Tanais or Don. Between the last he mentions several streams, the
Panticapes, Hypacyris, and Gerrhus, which not being recognized by modem geography,
Major Rennell supposes to be creeks or branches of the greater rivers.
Milesian colonies had, by the active enterprise of that commercial people, been
already formed even on these rude shores. One, called the port of the Borysthenes, is
described as the centre of the trade of Scjrthia. On the banks of this great river dwelt a
people, bearing the rare character of the ploughing Scythians, who renouncing the almost
universal habits of their race, raised crops of grain in this fertile district, which still
furnishes to the ports of Taganrog and Odessa those supplies, which render them the
granary of the Mediterranean. The Milesians had also a colony established at the mouth
of the Danube.
The northern interior countries of Europe, which lay beyond the limits of the Scythia
explored by the expedition of Darius, were covered for Herodotus with a veil of dim obscu
rity. On the Scythian frontier, along the heads of the Dniester and Borysthenes, he repre
sents several nations ; the Melanchleni, " men clothed in black ;" the Androphagi, " men
eaters ;" the Neuri, " once a year converted into foxes." These Greek names, and partly
fabulous attributes, show the very imperfect nature of the notices collected on the subject
The regions beyond the Danube are expressly stated to be occupied by nations to him
unknown. Two precious commodities, the amber from the coast of Prussia, and the tin of
the Cassiterides, under which last name a vague idea of the British Islands seems to be
included, communicated the knowledge, that there was a great ocean in the north, but
without the means of ascertaining its extent and limits. On the east, however, as already
observed, he had attached to Europe a vast extent of territory which has been entirely
severed from it in subsequent systems. The expanse of northern and even middle Asia,
which the ancients afterwards called Scythia, and which forms the modem Tartary, inha
bited by races exactly similar to the Scythians already described, appeared to Herodotus
decidedly European. It was bounded by the Phasis, tlie Caspian, the Aral (not distinctly
recognized), and the Jaxartes. The Massagetee, celebrated for their contest with Cyms,
gave name with Herodotus to all the wandering tribes in this eastem part of Europe ; but
they were afterwards merged into the prevailing appellation of Scytliians.
Subsect. 2. Asia of Herodotus.
Asia, according to the conception of it formed by Herodotus, will appear, from what has
been said, to include only a small portion of the vast contuient to which we assign that
name. On the north it had the same seas and rivers just enumerated as the boundaries of
eastern Europe ; to the east it terminated with India ; while even to the south, a large por
tion of the desert tracts of Arabia were not yet believed to exist. When this great historian

Book L ASIA OF HERODOTUS. 35
wrote, all the various kingdoms and petty states, into which, in the infancy of the world,
Asia had been partitioned, were absorbed into one vast empire. The Persians claimed Asia
as their own, and had distributed it into twenty-four satrapies, which have been illustrated
in a very learned maimer by Major Rennell. They included, with the exception of the
northern part, which he considered as European, all of Asia that was known to the Greeks.
In collecting therefore from Major Rennell's investigation the following table of those
satrapies, we exhibit not only the outline of that great empire, but, with the somewhat
dubious exception of a small part of Greece, the whole of the civilized world. The tribute
paid in talents of silver will exhibit their relative wealth and importance.
TABLE OF THE DIVISION OP ASIA INTO SATRAPIES.

Talontfl.

1. Ionia, Magnesia, Caria, .^olia, Lycia, Pamphylia (the west and south coast of Asia Minor) 
2. Mysia, Lydia. &c. (the western interior) 
3. Phrygia, Paplilagonia, Cappadocia, &c. (the north coast and the great interior tahle-land of Asia Minor)
4. Cilicia (including part of Syria, and reacliin^ to the Euphrates) 
5. Phcenicia, Palestine, and Cyprus (which furnished also a third part of the naval force of the empire)
6. Egypt, including Cyrene and Barca (half of the tribute paid in grain) 
9. Babylon and Assyria, including Syria, and famishing also 500 eunuchs 
8. Susiana, or Southern Persia 
10. Media, (Northern Persia) 
11. The Caspians, Piesicse, Pantimathi, and Daritoe (the Caspian provinces of Persia) 
18. The Matieni, Saspires, &c. (Aderbijan and the Armenian provinces) 
13. Armenia 
19. The Mosynceci, Tibareni, Moschi, &;c. (the Western 'Caucasus, Georgia, Mingrelia, as far as Trebi
sond)  , 
14. The Sagartians, Sarameans, &c. (Seistan, Caramania, Lar, and other territories along the Indian
Ocean, and the eastern part of the Persian Gulf) 
16. The Parthians, Choasmians, Sogdians, and Arians (Khorasan, Herat, Candahar) 
7. The Gandarii, the Dadicee, &c. (Margiana, the country on the Murghab, between Khorasan and the
Oius 
12. Bactria (Balk) 
15. The Sac£ and Ca5picffi(Kashgar, Pamer, and other tracts of mountainous country about the head of
the Oxus) 
17. The Paricanii and Ethiopians of Asia (Mekran, including, perhaps, Caubul, and the Delta of the
Indus)  ¦' 
18. India, the largest of all, being 360 talents in gold, which amounts in silver to 

400
SOO 360500 360
14001000 300
450 200
200 400300600 300170360
250
400

Some tracts of this vast empire, not formed into regular satrapies, were privileged to
furnish only presents, or gifts, under an appearance of voluntary homage. Among these
were ranked the Persians proper, inhabiting the modern Fars, who obtained this distinction
as the conquering people by whom the empire was originally founded. The Southern
Arabians, and the Ethiopians above Egypt, derived the same immunity from the difficult
access to those rude regions in which they dwelt. The Southem Arabians are said to have
propitiated the favour of the great king by the present of a thousand talents of incense. The
Colchians, and the occupants of the neighbouring heights of Caucasus, were also numbered
among the " givers of gifts ;" while the inhabitants of the northern parts of that great range,
secure in their mountain fastnesses, are said to have cared very little about the mighty ruler
of Persia.
These delineations of Asia display, upon the whole, a surprising accuracy and extent of
knowledge ; yet several remarkable errors occur with regard to points of which the investi
gation does not appear very difficult. Thus the breadth of Asia Minor was reduced almost
a half; that between Babylon and the capital of Egypt was underrated at least a fourth ;
and the country between the Black Sea and the Caspian was placed in the same meridian
with the Persian Gulf, while it is really fovir degrees to the westward. These errors are
the more remarkable, as the distances, instead of being in excess, according to almost every
other ancient example, fall short of the truth. The early travellers exaggerated every space
over which they actually passed ; but it sometimes happened that two points were ap
proached from different quarters, and then united to each other by a hypothetical line, which,
as men usually undervalue what they know nothing of, was made generally too small. It
would not appear that any regular route had been formed across the high and rugged table
land in the interior of Asia Minor from Cilicia to Trebisond. These two points, being
approached respectively along the southern and northern coasts of the peninsula, might be
supposed nearer to each other than they really were. Egypt was approached through Syria
and Palestine, and Babylon by descending the Euphrates ; but the direct line between them
lying across the Arabian desert, was scarcely known or frequented, and therefore became
an ideal line in the view of Herodotus. The line from Armenia to the Persian Gulf was
of course measured along the Euphrates, the general course of which was south ; and as
the ancients oriented all their lines to a cardinal point, they overlooked the gradual but
constant bend which that river takes to the eastward.
The ideas of Herodotus concerning the extent of Asia, even including all that portion
of it which he assigned to Europe, could not fail to be defective. He knew nothing of
India beyond the Ganges, Thibet, China, Eastern Tartary, or Siberia, more than half the
superficial extent of the continent. Even his notions concerning India were most imper-

36 HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY. Part I.
feet. He describes it as bounded on the east by sand, stretching into an unknown and
measureless desert. From this statement it clearly appears that his India comprehended
merely the westem part watered by the Indus and its five tributaries ; he knew nothing of
its widest and richest regions, the Gangetic provinces, Delhi, Bengal, and the Deccan ;
large portions were also cut off from the southem coasts of Asia, which were supposed to
be washed by an ocean called the Red or Erythrean Sea, without any distinction of the
Persian Gulf, and very little of that which we now call the Red Sea.
Subsect. 3. — Africa of Herodotus.
In his inquiries respecting Africa, Herodotus appears to have been equally diligent as
concerning the other regions of the globe ; but as he never proceeded beyond Egypt, and
as the formidable barriers which nature opposes to him who attempts to penetrate the inte
rior had been very imperfectly overcome, much in what he collected is obscured with mys
tery or perplexed with conjecture.
Egypt is described with great accuracy, and under some features which no longer exist ;
for the Tanitic and Pelusiac branches of the Nile, of which little more than the channels
can now be traced, were then in full flow. It appears, however, that considerable confiision
prevailed respecting the quarter of the world to which Egypt was to be adjudged. As
water formed the basis of the division into continents, the sandy isthmus of Suez, believed
to be broader than it really was, appeared very ill-fitted to form such a limit. The Nile,
therefore, in the opinion of all the Greeks, was the boundary of the continents : all to the
east was Arabia ; all to the west Libya ; but a difficulty here arose in fixing the lot of Egypt
itself The Greeks, it appears, considered nothing as Egypt beyond the Delta ; but this
opinion is ridiculed by Herodotus, who observes, that in that case there must formerly have
been no Egypt at all, since this its lower branch was evidently produced by the gradual
alluvial depositions of the Nile. He contends reasonably, that all the banks of the Nile as
far up as Elephanta, which was inhabited by Egyptians, was clearly Egypt. He accuses
the Greeks of referring the Delta, or their Egypt, neither to Asia nor Libya. If we rightly
understand his own idea, it is that the middle or Sebennytic branch was the proper point
of division between those continents.
In tracing the Nile above Egypt, Herodotus states a line of two months' journey partly
along the banks, partly in boats which were dragged by ropes along the current through
the rocky channel. At the end of this journey they came to Meroe, the capital of Ethiopia
above Egypt, an ancient and celebrated kingdom, whose monuments were viewed with
almost religious veneration, and whose monarchs had repeatedly conquered Egypt and
founded dynasties. Two months' journey farther was the country of the Egyptian exiles,
a numerous body, who, having revolted from Psammeticus, sought the protection of the
king of Ethiopia, and were cantoned by him in this remote district, which may be Sennaar,
or rather, perhaps, the branch of the Bahr-el-Abiad opposite to it ; for Herodotus shows his
Icnowledge of this last stream by observing that it comes from the west.
The long tract of desert to the west of Egypt is also described by Herodotus in some
detail, though apparently only from hearsay. The most conspicuous objects here are the
oases, particularly that which contains the ancient and venerated temple of Jupiter Ammon,
and which has been identified with the modern Siwah. To the west he gives the names
of a succession of wandering and pastoral tribes, such as still roam over these arid and sandy
regions, deriving from the soil only the produce of the date-tree. Many of them stand
charged with morals peculiarly shameless and dissolute, the females indulging openly in
the most irregular conduct, and making even a boast of the number of their paramours.
Probably there may be scandal mixed in these very evU reports of the African ladies. An
exception to this rude pastoral character existed on the coast of Cyrenaica, where the
Greeks established flourishing colonies, which could be approached, however, only by the
dangerous route of the Syrtis or quicksand, proverbial in ancient times as the scene of dis
astrous shipwreck.
The Nasamones, the most westerly as well as the most numerous of tlie wandering
tribes, in general drove their herds along the sea-coast, but in summer repaired to the Oasis
of jEgila (Augila) to collect the dates produced in tliat district. A tribe among this people
were called the Psylli, or devourers of serpents ; and in fact appear to have had a peculiar
power of charming those noxious reptiles with which their deserts abound. Within their
borders, on the side of Cyrene, where verdure first began to adorn tlie waste, Herodotus
has fixed the fabled site of the Hesperian gardens.
The Garamantes, to the south-west of Augila, and the Nasamones, are represented by
our historian as inhabitants of a region infested by Avild beasts, and of a timid character,
flying the view and intercourse of other men, destitute of arms, and unacquainted with war.
These characters do not apply to the people of modern Fezzaii, which, however, is undoubt
edly the tract pointed out. To the north-A\-nst were tlie Gindanes (the modern Gadamis),
among whom the license of public morals had risen to a greater height, than among all the
wandering tribes of Libya. Still proceeding north-west, the traveller came to the lake Tri-

Book I. THE EXPEDITION OF ALEXANDER. 37
tonis, celebrated in ancient fable as the birth-place of Minerva, who, according to one legend,
was sprung from Neptune and the nymph of the lake. This lake forms the westem limit
of the long range of nomadic tribes. Beyond it, Herodotus gives us the Maxyes, who cul
tivated the ground. He had now reached that fine range of territory belonging to Carthage,
stretching along the coast, watered and enriched by streams from the Atlas. It is very
remarkable, however, that he should pass by entirely that mighty and celebrated state,
which was not only the most powerful in Africa, but was also the centre of industry and
commerce with respect to the ancient world. Major Rennell has suspected that this arose
from a national feeling of enmity on account of their alliance with the Persians ; but when
we consider that no such feeling has prevented the fullest account from being given of the
Persians themselves, it Cetn scarcely be supposed that the being merely friends to the Per
sians would exclude so great a people from his notice. It seems really very difficult to
conjecture his motive, unless, according to the suggestion of a learned friend, we suppose that
Herodotus, writing almost entirely to illustrate what was obscure, or communicate know
ledge on points respecting which the world were in ignorance, might think it superfluous to
describe what must have been well Imown to the bulk of his readers, for the same reason
that he has given no regular description of Greece. In reference to the transactions of this
people with other nations, he takes repeated occasion to mention them, so that the omission
could not arise from absolute ignorance.
Atlas and the desert border behind it next engage the attention of our historian ; a tract
reaching as fer as the straits, which he calls the high forehead of Africa. He describes
Atlas as a long and lofty range, whose highest pinnacles are wrapped in perpetual clouds ;
and he ascribes to the natives the origin of the belief adopted by the Greeks, which made
it the pillar of heaven. Even in this extreme boundary of the continent, he mentions some
peculiarities tliat really exist : — the enormous size and formidable character of the serpent
tribe ; oxen with large and crooked horns ; houses of salt which would melt away if a single
shower were to interrupt the continued drought. When he begins, however, to speak of
people with horses' heads, and others without heads at all, it is time to take our leave ;
though some learned writers suppose this to be a mere exaggerated description of some
animals of the desert. We must still follow him, however, to the westem coast beyond the
straits, where the Carthaginians, he was informed, carried on trade with the natives in a
peculiar manner. The parties did not see each other, but after a signal made by smoke, one
laid down his proffer, went away, and left room for the other to do the same ; when the first
came, and either accepted or rejected the bargain, till the terms were adjusted. There
have been reports in various quarters of this mode of traffic, but all, we suspect, exaggerated
representations of the timid manner in which civilized traders make their approaches to
those savage people who possessed any valuable commodities. The product sought upon
this shore was gold : and, as it does not exist in any latitude north of the Senegal, Major
Rennell concludes that the trade of Carthage extended to that distant river. A sceptic
might surmise that the gold was brought across the desert to the coast of Barbary ; yet,
considering the formidable character of this desert, it seems doubtful if at so early a period
a commercial route across it could have been opened.
The interior of Africa could not fail deeply to attract the curiosity of Herodotus. The
part already noticed as described by him forms only a belt along its northern coast, and
includes none of the vast inland tracts. On this subject, however, he has only one tale to
tell. Several Nasamonian youths of distinction, seized with that desire to penetrate the
continent which has prevailed throughout all ages, departed on an expedition to the south
ward. They traversed three successive belts ; first, the cultivated, or at least verdant and
inhabited tract along the sea-shore ; then, another occupied only by wild beasts ; and, lastly,
a region arid and desolate. Here, while plucking fruits, they were surprised by some
men of small stature, who carried them by the way of very great lakes, to a city inhabited
by black inhabitants, and situated on a large river flowing from west to east. This river
Herodotus, naturally enough, judges to be the Nile. Major Rennell conceives it to be pro
bably the river of Tombuctoo, wliich Europeans call the Niger ; but we think, since the
late discoveries, there can scarcely be any hesitation in fixing it as the Yeou, the river
which rolls through Bornou, while the Tchad may be identified with the great lakes
along which the expedition was conducted.

CHAPTER IV.
FIRST ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL.-ERATOSTHENES AND STRABO.
Sect. I. — The Expedition of Alexander.
The geography of the Greeks became little more than a topographical delineation of
military routes, after the intestine wars in which they were involved caused them to lose
iiahx of the more distant regions of the earth. Besides, as they never cultivated mathe-
"VoL. I. 4

38 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Part L
matical science with any care or to any extent, they had not the power of arranging
even these limited materials into a systematic form.
The expedition of Alexander gave a much greater degree of expansion to the human mind.
That monarch transferred the seat of war into the Persian empire, and carried his victorious
arms into the remotest regions of the East. Whatever might be the faults and follies with
which his career was stained, it cannot be denied that an enlightened curiosity animated
all his proceedings. Wherever he went, he was accompanied by skilful surveyors, Diogne-
tus and Bseton, who measured the length and direction of every route over which the
army passed. Alexander himself carefully inspected these itineraries, employed all prac
ticable means for obtaining the best materials, and his letters are even quoted by Pliny as
authorities for many geographical statements. These itineraries are said to have been
afterwards published by Baeton, under the title of " the Marches of Alexander." From the
defective state of the science, however, which that prince could not remedy, all these
materials were necessarily imperfect. 'They could include nothing beyond mechanical
measurement, nor is there any record, throughout this long career, of a single attempt to
fix the position of any spot by celestial observation. Imperfect as they were, however,
these documents did not the less form a completely new era in geographical science. After
the death of Alexander, they passed through the hands of Seleucus into those of Ptolemy
Philadelphus, who spared no efforts to render Alexandria the greatest seat of learning and
science in the ancient world; and among the sciences there cultivated, geography and
astronomy held the most distinguished place.
The progress of Alexander led him at first through Syria, Egypt and Persia, but did not
bring the Greeks to the knowledge of any countries, of whose existence and limits they
were not already fully apprised. But after he began the pursuit of Bessus, who had carried
off Darius into Bactriana, his march became a sort of exploratory route. In his vain pur
suit of the Scythian armies he reached the banks of the Jaxartes, though he did not ftdly
trace the course either of that river or of the Oxus. On his way thence to India, he had
to penetrate the narrow passes overhung by the snowy ramparts of the Hindoo Coosh, and,
with much difficulty and many hardships to his troops, learned to appreciate the magnitude
of that great inland barrier of Asia. In India, Alexander could not penetrate beyond the
region watered by the five rivers. Yet he did not consider it as the boundary of the
earth ; he learned the existence and beauty of the fine regions on the Ganges, whither he
in vain attempted to persuade his fatigued and refractory troops to follow him. He consoled
himself by conveying his army in pomp down the Indus, to view the entrance of that great
stream into the ocean, and with instructions, as we have already seen, to trace the shores
of Asia round the Persian Gulf He himself, upon very bad information, undertook to lead
back his army through Gedrosia and Caramania, the greater part of which he found, as
modem travellers have done, to be a desert of the most dreary and formidable character, in
which his army was with difficulty saved from total destruction.
Sect. H. — Expedition of Seleucus.
Seleucus, on the partition of the empire of Alexander, succeeded to the dominion of
Syria and the East. Neither that prince nor his successors were either learned or patrons of
learning ; but as the owner of extensive dominions, and aiming at farther conquest, he
cherished the natural wish to be acquainted with what he possessed or hoped to obtain. He
employed his admiral, Patrocles, to make a survey of the Caspian Sea, which had not
entered into the line of Alexander's route ; but the information gained by this voyage must,
as we shall see, have been fer from complete. It would also seem as if he had employed the
same admiral in an attempt to circumnavigate Asia ; but the assertion which obtained credit
in that age, that he had sailed round from India to the Caspian, sufficiently attests the failure
of the enterprise. Seleucus, also, finding, probably, tiiat the inroad of Alexander into India
had been of very transient result, undertook a military expedition, the details of which are
little known, and which enabled him to establish no permanent footing in the country ; but
he collected some further materials for the geographer, and the record of his marches appears
to have been of important service to Pliny. He sent also an embassy under Megasthenes
to Palibothra, capital of the great Indian kmgdom situated on tlie Ganges, from which the
ancients derived a more accurate knowledge of these eastern parts of the world than they
had previously possessed. Sect. III. — Eratosthenes.
Eratosthenes at length succeeded in reducing geography to a system under the patronage
of the Ploletnies, which gave him access to all tlie materials collected by Alexander, his
generals, and successors, and to the immense mass of documents assembled in the Alexan
drian library. The astronomical observations made in this school were now sufficient to
prove the globular tbrm of tlic eartli. Eratosthenes, proceeding upon this principle, made it
liis study to adjust to it all the known features of the globe. He did not, however, attend
to the grand original divisions of the equator, tlie pole, or even the tropics. The line which

Book L WORLD ACCORDING TO ERATOSTHENES AND STRABO. 39
fomied the basis of his geography, and generally of that of the Alexandrian school, was a
parallel drawn across the Mediterranean, and thence prolonged through Asia. It was
-formed in a very rough manner, upon no actual observation, and comprising all leading
positions which came nearly though not strictly within its sphere. It was called generally, the
parallel of Rhodes. The most westerly point was the Sacred Cape of Iberia (Cape St. Vin
cent), after which followed the " Strait of the Pillars" (of Hercules). The next point was
the Strait of Sicily, erroneously considered to be under the same meridian with Rome and
Carthage. Then came Rhodes, the centre of the line. Issus, celebrated as the site of the
victory of Alexander, was with little difficulty brought within the limit. Next followed the
somewhat doubtful position of the Caspian gates, and the line was extended along the chain
of Mount Taurus, supposed to divide Asia into two parts, till it terminated at the remote
city of ThinsB, situated on the eastern ocean. This entire length of the habitable world, as
it was called, amounted to about 70,000 stadia, or, according to his estimate, one hundred
degrees, not quite a third of the circuit of the globe.
In determining a meridian to exhibit his breadth of the habitable world, Eratosthenes
laboured under still greater difficulties. On the extreme south was " the limit of the habitable
earth;" for, according to this school, a certain tract around the equator was, from the
excels of heat, unfit for human habitation. The uninhabitable zone was supposed to extend
8,300 stadia, or about twelve degrees to the north of the equator. Under the next parallel
were included the " Isle of the Exiles," in or near Sennaar ; the cinnamon-bearing region,
which appears to be Berbera, and Taproban, or Ceylon. Next comes Meroe, the capital of
Ethiopia, which was supposed, though with great error, to correspond as to latitude with
the southern extremity of India : thence descending the Nile the geographer marks the
celebrated position of Syene, which was concluded to be immediately under the tropic,
since there was a well, in the depth of which at noon-day, at the precise time of the vernal
equinox, the disk of the sun was seen reflected entire. The observation was very nearly
correct. Next came Alexandria, of which, as the centre of all these observations, the
position as to latitude was very closely approximated. Then' followed Rhodes in the centre
of the great parallel already described as exhibiting the length of the habitable globe.
Continuing northward., though not upon the same line, were found the Hellespont, Byzan
tium, the mouth of the Borysthenes, and passing over the vast obscurely-known tracts of
Germany, Gaul, and Britain, the farthest Thule, which, on the report of Pytheas, Eratos
thenes regarded as the extreme northern boundary of the earth. As the same authority
placed Thule under the Arctic circle, or at sixty-six degrees of latitude, the interval be
tween that position and the limit of the habitable earth on the side of the equator amounted
to about fifty-four degrees, or according to his estimate 38,000 stadia, which formed thus
the supposed breadth from north to south of the habitable earth.
Sect. IV. — Hipparchus.
Hipparchus, carrying still farther the system adopted by Eratosthenes, subjected the
whole science of geography to astronomical principles. His labours in numbering the stars,
and arranging them according to their place in the heavens, were such as appeared mar
vellous to the ancients, and are esteemed by Pliny as achievements that would have been
arduous even for a god. In this career, however, he had been preceded by Timocharis and
Aristillus, who, more than a century before, had made some observations which paved the
way. for the present extended discoveries. Hipparchus appears to have first conceived the
idea of transferring the observed latitudes and longitudes of the stars to their correspond
ing places on the earth's surface, thus fixing the latter with a precision which no itinerary
measurements could ever attain. He made a considerable number of observations of lati
tude, in addition to the very few previously existing, and he pointed out the mode in which
the longitudes might be ascertained by observing the eclipses of the sun and moon. It does
not appear to what extent he carried the difficult operations requisite for this investigation ;
but he is said to have calculated the eclipses for six hundred years, including the moments
of their appearance at different places ; a performance which seems to indicate a know
ledge of their astronomical position. Thus Hipparchus distinctly perceived all the prin
ciples upon which an accurate system of geography might be founded, and made some
progress in their application ; but these important principles, like others which were beyond
the comprehension of the age in which they were made, remained for a long time dormant
or misapplied, and were not brought into fiill practical application until a much more
advanced period in the progress of science.
Sect. V. — The world according to Eratosthenes and Strabo.
The application to the different parts of the earth's surface of the principles according
to which the globe was to be delineated, formed a task still more arduous than that of the
first establishment of those principles. The longitudes and latitudes of the ancients are
both erroneous ; more especially the longitudes, to which astronomical observation was
never very extensively apolied ; hence it is not wonderful that the errors should be great ;

40 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. , Part I.
but the regular and rapid manner in which they accumulate appears very surprising.
They begin from the Sacred Cape of Iberia (Cape St. Vincent), which the ancients made
their first meridian, and continue regularly increasing as we proceed eastward. To the
Pillars of Hercules were assigned more than two degrees beyond the tmth ; to Alexandria,
nearly seven ; to Issus, ten ; to the Caspian gates, fourteen ; to Pattalena, or the Delta of
the Indus, twenty-three ; to the mouth of the Ganges, nearly twenty-seven. We have
already had occasion to observe, and the remark is found in the best ancient geographers,
that merchants and travellers of that age gave an exaggerated report of all the distances
over which they passed. The windings of the route, the hardships and obstacles encoun
tered by them, the desire to magnify their own achievements, all concurred in inducing
them to view and present this particular through an amplified medium. All the itineraries
continued along the line upon which Eratosthenes measured his length of the habitable
globe being tlius unduly extended, the degrees calculated out of them were of course
equally in excess ; and this excess became always the greater in proportion to the length
to which the line was protracted beyond its commencement at the Sacred Cape. The lati
tude of the principal places in and round the Mediterranean is in general not far from the
truth, probably because it was determined by such rude observations as were within the
compass of Greek science at that early period.
In tracing the outline of the known world, and especially of the continents, geographers
still proceeded amid obscurity and doubt. This school had laid down the fundamental prin
ciple of a great circumambient ocean, embracing the entire circuit of the three continents.
This idea, inherited from Homer, was doubtless supported by facts to a considerable extent ;
but its application to the wprld in general, and especially to the northern shores of Europe
and Asia, was manifestly hypothetical. Eratosthenes, in comparing the magnitude of his
known world, even under its exaggerated dimensions, with the general circumference of
the earth, became sensible that only a third part of this last was filled up. He indulges in
conjecture as to the contents of this vast unknown region, which, he observes, might either
be supposed to consist of one great ocean, the whole of which he denominates the Atlantic,
or of lands and islands which might be discovered in sailing to the westward. With a
degree of caution, however, not very common in that age, he declines to give any decisive
opinion on this question. — The system of Eratosthenes may now be considered in regard to
Europe, Asia, and Africa. Subsect. 1. — Europe. {Fig. 6.)
The imperfection of ancient geography is often conspicuous with respect to countries
which were very near and familiar. Li regard to the very centre of the Mediterranean,
Eratosthenes committed a capital error. Following the propensity to include all the lead
ing positions under some one line to which they approximate, he placed in the same me
ridian Rome, the Sicilian strait (that of Messina), and Carthage. The mistake with regard
to the first and last of these points did not much exceed a degree ; but the middle point is
nearly four degrees east from Rome, and five from Carthage. Such an error could not fail
to produce others. M. Gosselin shows that it has led to a signal mistake respecting the
position of Sicily, as the geographer, in order to retain its relative position towards Carthage,
necessarily represented its greatest length as from north to south, instead of from east to
west. The promontory of Lilybaeum, facing Carthage, became the southem instead of
the westem extremity of Sicily; while Cape Pachynum, instead of the southem, became
the eastern. Sicily being thus projected so unreasonably towards the south, Carthage also
was made to recede too far in the same direction ; and the coast leading thitlier from the
straits of Gibraltar was supposed to bend to the south instead of the north. The same
erroneous process, placing Sicily too far west, enlarged beyond measure the eastem basin
of the Mediterranean comprehended between it and Asia Minor. This deformity became
still more serious from another application, to Alexandria and Rhodes, of the system of
placing leading points under the same meridian. As tlie former error had made Sicily too
far west, this made Rhodes too far east, and rendered the sea between tiiese islands too
large by at least a half
Strabo, ever alive to the feults of his predecessors, detected the mistake of Eratos
thenes with respect to the relative positions of Rome and Cartilage. He has been far,
however, from rectifying all the wrong positions established by his predecessor. He has

1. GfidCE 11. Roma
2. Calpo 12. Ostia
3. Carthago Nova 13. Cin-nii
4. Narbo 14. Putooli
5. Mnsfiilia J,5. Nonpolis
6. AntipoliF ]fi, PoRiclonia
7. Genua )7. Volia
B. Luna ]8. Liiun
9. Populonium ID. [lippooium
10. Cossa

1 of Europe ace

wording

¦ to EratostheJics,

30. Rhpgium

29. Pola

d Liger

21. Scylacium

30. Epidaurua

e Garumna

22. Thiirii

31. EpidiimnUB
f DuriuB
aij. Tnrentnm
32. Apollonia
g THSU3
n Anas
34. Rrundusium
25. Si pus
Rivfirs
i Boetia
26. Toamini
n A Ibis
j Iborus
h Rhodaniu
^. Anoonu.
«8. Ariminum
b RhcnuB
0 Sequana
I Varus
Fig. 6.

EUROPE ACCORDING TO ERATOSTHENES.

41

M A R F

TLANTICVM

VOL.L

4*

P

42 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Part L
left untouched the false orienting of Sicily, and all the errors dependent upon it. Both he
and Eratosthenes describe Italy as extending from north to south, which, allowing for the
early tendency to orient all lines towards a cardinal point, may be taken as a pretty fair
representation. M. Gosselin has undertaken to show that such a direction would be incon
sistent with the other data given by these geographers, in conformity to which Italy must
stretch from east to west. Considering, however, the unperfect state of geographical deli
neation at that period, it seems going too far to follow each error into all its consequences,
or to suppose that all the views given can be brought into complete harmony.
The outline of the central and northem countries of Europe drawn by these geogra
phers is excessively vague. Strabo indeed makes some approach to accuracy in comparing
the Spanish penuisula to a " hide spread out," or to a parallelogram. Various countries
were by the ancients denominated from a fancied resemblance to some object in nature, nor
are examples wantuig in modem times. But the eastem side of this figure is formed by
the Pyrenees, which are thus made to extend from north to south, to form the westem
boundary of Gaul, and to be parallel to the Rhine. Hence arises the greatest of all these
errors ; for Gaul is allowed to have on the ocean only one coast, which is that looking to
the north, and every where opposite to Britain. Strabo treats with derision the report of
Pytheas, that the Calbium promontorium, the extreme point of Brittany, looked to the west,
and he represents vessels as sailing to Britain as readily from the mouth of the Loire and
Garonne as from that of the Rhine and the Seine. Great as these errors are, we shall easily
trace their origin in considering the sources whence the Greeks derived their information
respecting these extremities of Europe. Whatever may have been the case with regard to
the Carthaginians, it is evident that neither Greeks nor Romans ever navigated its exterior
seas. Pytheas alone performed that daring voyage ; but having no witnesses to bring in
support of his relation, it was denounced as fabulous, in common with others made by early
discoverers. The regular channel of communication was Marseilles. The merchandise of
Britain being brought across the British channel to the mouths of the Rhine and the Seine,
was conveyed up those rivers, and by land carriage to that great emporium of Gaul. Hence
the geography of Gaul and Britain, in that age, was ruled entirely by Massilian ideas.
From the causes stated, the Massilians had no communication with Britain unless by the
northem coast of Gaul, and by routes directed from south to north through that country.
Reasoning only from what they knew, they might soon arrive at the conclusion, that Gaul
had only a northem coast, and might apply to it the whole of the erroneous system now
described. The result of this system was, that the Cassiterides, Islands of Tin, in which
term the Scilly islands were evidently blended with Cornwall, were made to approach to
Spain, and came to be considered as much Spanish as British. So prevalent was this idea,
that even afterwards, when the conquests of Rome had made known the wide separation
between the two countries, the Cassiterides are found in some maps still attached to Spain,
and at a little distance from Cape Ortegal.
Britain, under this system, was represented as a triangle, of which the base, or
longest side, was that along the channel and opposite to Gaul. As the coast, after passing
the two extremities of this line, begins on one side to bend inward towards the Bristol
Channel, and on the other to the Thames, navigators then probably considered it as continu
ing in these directions till it came to a point, far short of its real termination. leme, or
Hibemia, (Ireland) appears in dim obscurity. It is said to be situated four hundred miles
north from the centre of Britain, under a climate so excessively cold that there could not
possibly be any inhabited country nearer to the pole. If the four hundred miles be measured
from the centre of the southern coast, and allowance be made for felse orienting, it will not
be found so very wide of the truth. The rest of the description was probably made out by
confused ideas of Scotland, and particularly the bleak mountainous tracts in the north.
Eratosthenes, indeed, has derived from Pytheas a knowledge of the fer northem limit of
Thule, and of its appendant islands, stretching towards tlie Arctic sea ; but, as the proud
scepticism of Strabo rejected this statement, he was tlirown back upon the more imperfect
information afforded by the merchants of Marseilles.
The eastern shores of northern Europe occasioned still more embarrassment to the
Greeks. They had, in general, the idea of this continent having tlie sea for its boundary ;
but this seems mainly to rest upon the general vague belief of a circumambient ocean, and
an understanding that Germany had on the north a maritime boundary, indicated by the
amber brought from the shores of the Baltic. Here, too, Pytlieas, eitlier by personal
investigation or by carefiil inquiry, had collected some particulars which if Strabo had not
disdained, ho would not have been letl in such total darkness. After proceeding far along
the German coast, that navigator, it is said, came to a great gulf (evidently the Baltic). He
found Basilia, a very large island, the same which Pliny calls Baltia ; being, in feet, the
peninsula of Scandinavia, which, until it was circumnavigated, must have been regarded by
navigators as an island. Then, it is said, he came to the Tanais, which appears, no doubt,
a very startling assertion ; but we must renipmber that, in this school, the circumambient
ocean was supposed to have a coast only a little north of the Euxine and the Caspian, and

Book L ROMAN GEOGRAPHY. 43
to communicate with these seas or gulfs (as they were supposed to he) by narrow straits,
one of which was the Tanais, and the mouth of one of the great Baltic rivers might very
easily be imagined to form the termination of this strait.
Subsect. 2. — Asia. {Fig. 7. page 44.)
The limits assigned to Asia, already too small, were contracted by the geographers of the
Alexandrian school, notwithstanding the additional sources of information which they pos
sessed respecting that continent. This error arose partly from their theory of a surround
ing ocean, and partly from their neglect of the important information obtained by Herodo
tus respecting the countries along the heads of the Euxine and Caspian. The expedition
of Alexander, indeed, and the embassy of Megasthenes, made them acquainted with the
Ganges, rolling eastward through the fine plain of Upper Hindostan. Seeing it pursue
this direction to the utmost limit of the then loiown world, they were led to conclude that
its course continued eastward, and that it fell into the eastern ocean, which formed, on that
side, the boundary of the continent. Connecting this with the Caspian, the only northern
Asiatic sea known to them, they drew a line from one to the other, by which they excluded
nearly two-thirds the extent of Asia ; the Birman empire, China, the greater part of Tar
tary, and the whole of Siberia. On the shore of the eastern ocean was placed Thinse, evi
dently known only by vague rumour, and which they fixed at the extremity of the line
measuring the length of the habitable globe. What may be the import of this mysterious
name, and whether it be the capital of Siam or of China, is a discussion which wOl be bet
ter reserved until we come to the more precise notices of Ptolemy. One other grand
feature was known to this school ; the cape of the Coliaci or Cape Comorin ; but conceiving
the coast of Coromandel to follow the line of the Ganges, and, consequently, to verge to
wards the west, they made it several degrees more easterly than even Thinse.
Asia within and Asia beyond Taurus were made the grand divisions of that continent.
That great moimtain chain arising in Asia Minor was supposed to be prolonged by those
of the Elburz, of Khorasan, and of Hindoo Coosh, which, in fact, there is much reason to
believe, may form a chain nowhere wholly interrupted. Within Taurus were all the fertile,
populous, and splendid kingdoms and countries of Asia ; Syria, Assyria, Babylon, Persia,
Susiana, Ionia, Cilicia ; beyond, were the ruder tracts of Scythia, Bactria, Sogdiana ; and
more westerly, the Caucasian territory, and the part of Asia Minor situated along the shore
of. the Black Sea. Subsect. 3. — Africa.
In regard to Africa, the knowledge of these geographers, though accurate in some re
spects, was extremely limited. They believed its boundary to he the sea ; but this correct
judgment proceeded rather from a casual coincidence with their theory of an encircling
ocean, than from any actual knowledge ; since Strabo rejected even the possibility of cir
cumnavigation. This scepticism was founded upon the hypothesis of an uninhabitable tor
rid zone, which formed an essential part of the reigning system at this period. It is a be
lief manifestly African, founded on the observation of those vast and burning deserts, which
extend indefmitely beyond the narrow inhabited stripe bordering on the Mediterranean.
The Nile, then, being still considered as the eastern boundary, Africa became a sort of
right-angled triangle, of which the two smaller sides were formed by that river and the
Mediterranean, while the hypotenuse, or largest side, was the unexplored shore. It was
upon the Nile that Eratosthenes measured the habitable world of Africa ; yet he does not
trace that river so high as Herodotus, his details reaching only between three and four
hundred miles above Meroe. In these details, however, he is very accurate : on the east
ern side, he represents it as receiving two great rivers, the Astapus and the Astaboras, the
former of which flows from lakes in the south, and, when swelled by the summer rains,
forms almost the main body of the Nile. He describes also the bend which the river makes
in its passage through Nubia. The source, being imagined to exist in regions rendered in
accessible by extreme heat, could not be considesed as within the reach of discovery. The
idea, however, still prevailed, that it came from the west, and Strabo even mentions a re
port, that its source was in the remote region of Mauritania, south of the Atlas. This is
the only statement made by geographers of this school, which can be considered as indi
cating any idea of the existence of the Niger.

CHAPTER V.
ROMAN GEOGRAPHY.

The Roman geographers attained no proficiency in the mathematical branch of the
science. M. Gosselin does not even hesitate to assert, that they remained always strangers
to its very first elements. They made no attempt, therefore, to combine their materials into
one harmonious system, or to fix their positions with that strict accuracy, which astronomi-

44

THE WORLD ACCORDING TO ERATOSTHENES. Fio. 7.

3ooK L ROMAN GEOGRAPHY.-MELA. 45
cal observation alone can reach. Yet no nation employed greater diligence in the opera
tions of practical survey. This was, indeed, absolutely requisite, with a view to that in
cessant warfare m which they were engaged; they could not conquer the world without
previously surveying it. Their geographical researches were, however, held strictly sub
servient to this ambitious design. , ^ ^ ..-,.¦
Itineraries were thus the only fomi in which the results of Roman investigation
were presented. Vegetius mfoVms us that when war was to be carried mto any country,
the first care was to procure a complete set of routes, and place them in the hands of the
general. These itineraries, it is observed, ought, if possible, to contam, not merely the mter-
vals, in paces and Roman miles, between one place and another, but the quality ot the roads,
the surrounding objects, mountains and rivers, delineated with the utmost possible precision.
They were not only to be noted, but painted, that the commanders might not know merely,
but see before their eyes, the route by which they were to proceed. The Romans became
thus the surveyors as well as the conquerors of the worid; and every new war m which
they engaged, every new conquest which theh: arms achieved, produced a fresh accumula
tion of materials for the use of the geographer. Even after a country was subdued, the
necessity of accurate survey did not cease. The empire was long held m a state of mere
military occupation; camps formed at proper distances were connected by those excellent
and durable roads, many of which remaui to this day. An accurate acquamtance with the
position and intervals of these camps, and the nature of the mtervenmg territory, was essen
tial to the maintenance of their dominion over the vast extent of their conquered countries.
No sooner, therefore, had Julius Cesar seated hunself on the undisputed throne of the empire,
than he caused a senatus consultum to be passed for a general measurement of the Roman
world. This task, it is said, was uitmsted to " the most prudent men, adorned with every
endovnnent of philosophy." The east was assigned to Zenodoxus, the west to Theodotus,
and the south to Polycletus. In the course of twenty-five years, as we are mformed by
.Slhicus, the whole was completed. Julius Cesar, however, did not long survive the com
mencement of this great work, which the civil wars probably suspended. It was apparently
resumed and completed under the reign of Augustus and the ministry of his son-m-law
Agrippa, to whom it appears, from Pliny, to have been afterwards ascribed. The exact prin
ciples upon which this grand measurement was conducted have nowhere been stated. The
reform of the calendar, effected by Csesar, seems to pomt out that some elements of astro
nomy existed among those with whom he consulted.
Rome, m the most flourishmg era of its literature, produced two eminent geographers,
Mela and Pliny. Sect. I. — Mela.
The personal history of this eminent geographer is a subject respecting which
scarcely any particulars have transpired. From the allusions, however, in his own writings,
to the conquest of Britain by Claudius as a recent event, made in those flattering terms
which only a contemporary would have employed, it would appear that his work was written
under the reign of that inglorious prince, and is, consequently, anterior to that of Pliny.
Mela, in forming his system, does not appear to have possessed those extensive mea
surements and itineraries, which were probably deposited m the imperial archives. Faith-
fiil, however, to the object of his treatise, " de situ orbis," he discovers very considerable
anxiety to determine the position of the globe, and trace with accuracy its general outlines.
He adopts the general pruiciples of the school of Eratosthenes, incorporating into it the new
features which had been afforded by Roman conquest. He does not appear, however, to
have comprehended then- idea of the globular form of the earth, nor is he very perspicuous
in any thing that he says upon that subject. He begins—" All that, whatever it is, to which
we give the name of the world and heaven, is one thing, and in one circuit embraces itself
and all things ;" vague and pompous expressions, to which no determinate idea can be
attached. We find him, however, adopting in its fiiUest extent the belief of a circumam
bient ocean ; and when he speaks of " the high earth ui this middle part of it," and describes
the sea as going under and washing round it, we are led to believe, that he viewed the earth
as a sort of cone, or as a high mountain raised by its elevation above the abyss of v?aters.
Having made a vague division of the world into east, west, and north, he distributed it into
five zones, two temperate, one torrid, and two frigid. Only the first two were habitable ;

References to the Map of the World according to Eratosthenes.

EUKOPA.

2. Amisus 15. Patala

AFRICA.

10. Berenice

1, Massilia

3. Sinope 16. Palibothra

1. Lixua

11. Syene
12. Meroe

2, Roma

4. EpheauB

2. Carthago

3. AlhensB

5. lasuB Rivers.

3. Ptolemais

.-, 13. Ptolemais

4. Byzantium

6. Thapsacus a Oxus

4. Cyrene

14. Aduli

7. Ninus b Jaxartes

5. Berenice

Rivers.
8. Susa c Phaais
6. Alexandria
Rivers.
a Rhenus
9. Babylon d EuphratOB
7. CanopuB
a NilU3
b BoTyRtbeneB
10. Rhinocolura e Tigris
n. ^lena f Indus
8. PeluBium
b Astapus
c Astaboras.
c Tanaia
9. Areinoe
12. Gerra g Ganges
ASIA.
13. Tirua Insula
1, Dioscurias
14. Aradus Insula
46

HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY.
JiV^-. 8.-SYSTEM OF MELA.

Pabt '

and that on the south was inaccessible to man, on account of the torrid regions intervening.
According to this system, however, there was on that side another earth, inhabited by people,
whom he calls Antichthones, from their opposite position witli respect to that part which we
inhabit. The form and boundaries of the known and habitable earth are thus delineated : —
The Mediterranean, with its branches of the Straits, the Euxine, and the Palus Moeotis ; its
great tributaries, the Nile and the Tanais ; — these combine, in his conception, to form the
grand line by which the universe is divided. The Mediterranean itself separates Europe
from Africa ; and these continents are bounded on the east, the former by the Tanais, the
latter by the Nile ; all beyond or to tlie east of these limits was Asia, {Fig. 8.)
In drawing the outline of Asia, Mela adheres very strictly to his Alexandrian models.
He describes it as bounded by an ocean on every side except the westem, where it confines
with Africa and Europe. It presents, he says, a huge and perpetual front to tlie eastem
ocean, its shores being occupied by the three farthest known nations, the Indians on the
, south, the Seres in the middle, and the Scythians on the north ; but the territory of the
Indians and Scythians is rendered in a great measure uninhabitable by the extremes of heat
and cold. The limited extent of his accurate information, however, is apparent from the
representation he gives of this ocean, as flowing directly nortli fi-om the point of Colis (Cape
Comorin), the Ganges flowing into it, and the Scytliians occupying its shores as fer as " the
Caspian Bay." He even inclines to credit the report of an Indian vessel having been driven
round by stress of weather to the coast of Germany. Thus he g-ave to Asia the same trun
cated form which it had received ft'om the authors whom he followed; but he certainly ren
dered the dimensions of its eastern shore more ample, when he made it to consist, not of India
only, but also of Serica and part of Scythia. With regard to the soutliem shores of Asia,
they were known with sufficient iiccuracy, ever since the expedition of Alexander, and the
voyage of Nearchus. lie calls the Indian ocean tlie Red Sea, and recognises the Red Sea
of modern geogi-aphers only under the name of the Arabian gulf; but this is plainly a mere
nominal difference.

Book L ROMAN GEOGRAPHY.— MELA. 47
Europe, as described by Mela, extends from the Tanais to Cadiz, and, with the exception
of its eastern river-limit, is bounded every where by seas and oceans. Its leading feature
is the Mediterranean, joined to the Euxine and the Palus Moeotis, which are -tonsidered
only as prolongations of that sea ; while the .^Egean, the Ionian, and the Adriatic seas,
form its tliree great gulfs. The western part he divides into the Tuscan and the Libyan
seas. His delineation of the 'exterior coasts marks a great advance of knowledge. He
assigns to Spam a nortliern, and to France a western coast of great extent, and adds that
the Pyrenees, after separating France from Spain, enter the latter country and penetrate to
its extremity, when they face the Atlantic. Here the whole chain of the Cantabrian moun
tains is considered, by no very strained meaning, as Pyrenean. In treating of these outer
shores of Europe, and the " huge and infinite sea" on which they border, Mela relates, with
exaggerating wonder, tlie phenomena, unknown to a Mediterranean people, of the tides,
" that mighty movement by which the sea alternately advances and returns into itself, over
flowing the lands, driving hack mighty rivers, and sweeping away the strongest land
animals." His speculations on the cause are singular ; either the world is a great animal
whose breathings excite in its breast these alternate movements ; or it contains deep caves,
into which the waters are alternately absorbed and ejected. He does, however, mention
the theory which supposes them influenced by the moon, and remarks their correspondence
with the movements of that body. In treating of the Cassiterides, or Islands of Tin, which
include, as already observed, the SciUy Islands and Cornwall, he shows considerable per
plexity, only observing that they are " in Celticis," indicating their close alliance with
France. In regard to Britain itself, however, he confidently undertakes to give the World
better information, in consequence of the victories of " the greatest of princes" over nations
hitherto unsubdued and unknown ; and he certainly makes a great progress beyond the im
perfect notions of Strabo. He describes Britain as presenting two extensive oblique coasts,
one looking towards France, the other towards Germany ; the two forming a great angle
nearly opposite to the mouth of the Rhine. The coasts then began to bend inwards, and
form a triangle varied with numerous points and angles, and somewhat similar in form to
Sicily. The country is described as flat, large, and fruitful, but contrary to what now ob
tains, more favourable to the support of flocks than of men. The natives were uncultivated,
warlike, and ignorant of wealth ; they were accustomed to paint their bodies, and to ride in
chariots. Above Britain was Juvema (Ireland), nearly equal in size, and of an oblong form,
its soil scarcely fit for the production of grain, but its pastures so luxuriant, that if the
cattle were allowed to feed for more than a short period of the day, they died of repletion.
The relative dunensions assigned to Britain and Ireland would seem to show that the former
was known only in its southem part, yet the writer discovers himself not unacquainted with
the Scottish islands. He mentions thirty Orcades, in which number the Shetland Islands
are probably included.
In proceeding to the east and north, Germany is described by Mela as a region of great
extent, intersected by many rivers, and covered in a great measure with woods and marshes.
The inhabitants were tall and remarkable for courage and strength, continually exercised
in war and hard labour, eating raw flesh, and clothed partly in the bark of trees. Passing
the Vistula, we enter into Sarmatia, extending to the Danube, rather a vague limit, but the
term is evidently meant to comprehend the greater part of modern Poland. The people
are some stages in barbarism beyond even the Germans, having no cities or even settled
abodes, and carrying their fierceness to such a pitch, that hunting and bending the how
were considered the best accomplishments of their females, no one of whom, the writer
even asserts, could enter the matrimonial state till she had killed her man. On this shore
he represents the Codanus Sinus, a great bay filled with large and small islands ; nowhere
presenting an expanse resembling a sea, hut dispersed and scattered in narrow channels
like rivers ; a description very applicable to the entance of the Baltic and the Danish
islands. In common with all the ancients, however, Mela appears to have been ignorant of
any thing like a continent on the other side of this great bay.
The outline of Africa, drawn by this geographer, sufficiently shows his limited range of
information. This continent he views as a triangle, the greatest length of which, measured
in his system from the Nile to the Atlantic, is considerably less than the length of Europe.
Of this triangle, the Nile forms the base ; and from thence the southern coast, or that of
the Ethiopic ocean, continually approximates to the northern, till, beyond the Pillars of Her
cules, it tapers almost to a point. The origin and course of the Nile are to Mela a subject
of much speculation. One account, esteemed by him as tolerably credible {aliqua credibile)
identifies it with a great Ethiopian river, called in the language of the natives, Nuchul ;
which, while all other rivers tend towards the ocean, alone flows eastward to the central
region, and no one knows where it terminates ; a striking coincidence with the actual ob
servation of the moderns, respecting that celebrated stream denominated the Niger. Else
where, however, Mela propounds an hypothesis of a much more extraordinary character.
He says, that if there be another earth (on the south of the equator), and Antichthones
opposite to us, " it might not be departing too far from the truth" to suppose that the Nile

48 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Pakt L
arose in that earth, and reached our side of the globe, by a channel beneath the ocean.
Thus it would naturally swell during the summer solstice, which, on the side of the world
from which it came, was the season of winter. Bertius and Vincent, however, have per
haps dealt too hardly with the author, in embodying this wild conception into a map, and
giving it to the world as the system of Mela, who mentions it merely as a conjecture. The
lower part of the course of the Nile he describes with less accuracy than Strabo, the two
channels of the Astapus and Astaboras being made branches of the Nile itself, first separat
ing and then re-uniting. His ignorance respecting even the shores of the Red Sea is
proved by their being filled with poetical wonders ; the pigmies waging their ancient war
with the cranes ; the phoenix, after a life of four hundred years, dying, and reviving from
its ashes. Proceeding to the interior and remoter shores of Ethiopia, he finds always new
wonders, sphynxes, birds with horns, flying horses. He refers to the voyages of Hanno and
of Eudoxus, to whom he ascribes a variety of fables, by which the reputation of that navi
gator has been much and perhaps unjustly tamished ; lastly, he comes to the Fortunate
Islands, of which the soil produces all things spontaneously, and the fountains are possessed
of miraculous virtues. In short, every thing that Mela says of Africa beyond the mere
Mediterranean coast betrays a remarkable ignorance of the mysteries of that continent.
Sect. II. — Pliny.
Pliny, the most learned of the Roman writers, devotes two books of his extensive work
on natural history to a system of geography. He appears to have possessed a greater store
of authentic materials than any former writer. From his intimate connexion with the
imperial family, and with many of the most eminent commanders, all the mOitary measure
ments, as well as the general survey of the Roman empire, were placed at his disposal.
He has introduced, therefore, a multitude of itinerary details, which are generally very
accurate and valuable. But he employs no astronomical elements, and appears to have
taken no pains to construct a regular system. All the general ideas which we can trace in
his delineation appear to be founded on the same basis with those of Mela.
Pliny begins with Europe, which he considers as by far the most beautiful and fruitful of
the three quarters of the globe ; and he applauds the opinion of those who consider it not
merely as a third, but as a half of the whole globe, separated from the other half by the
Tanais and the Mediterranean. This capital error, however, will not appear so surprising,
when we consider that the regions here compared with Europe were Asia terminated by
the Ganges and the Jaxartes, and Africa extending only a few hundred miles inland fi^m
the Mediterranean. Europe had been computed by Agrippa at 3440 miles in length, by
Polybius at only 2440 ; which last dirnension is nearly correct. Pliny discovers a clear
conception of the form of Spain, drawmg the Pyrenees not from south to north, but from
south-east to north-west, and observing that Spain, " where it begins from them, is narrower
than France, and even than itself" The position of Britain m the map of Europe is very
fairly given ; though, to enumerate Spain, with France and Germany, among the countries
to which it is opposite, partakes too much of antiquated theories. He states the belief of
Agrippa that Britain was eight hundred miles in length, and three hundred in breadth ; Ire
land the same in breadth, but shorter by two hundred miles ; which is a tolerable estimate,
the last particular excepted. His disposal of the islands around Britain is not a little con
fused. He mentions the Orkneys, seven jEmodae, and thirty Ebudse, but without showing
any precise idea of how they stand. Not only the Isle of Man, but that of ^^'ight also, is
placed between England and Ireland. He commits also a remarkable error when he men
tions Cassiterim or Cattiterim, where tin is produced, as an island at the distance of six
days' sail from Britain. To the remotest point, Thule, he assigns the attributes of a region
beneath the Arctic circle, having only one day and one night in the year ; and only a day's
sail from the Cronium or Concrete Sea. Here, also, he mentions reports of other islands,
Scandia, Bergos (Bergen), Nerigon, which have intercourse with Thule. These features
evidently belong to the coast of Norway.
In describing the north of Europe, Pliny begins from the nortliern shores of the Euxine,
and Palus Mceotis. The latter receives the Tanais, flowing from the Riphaean Mountains,
and forming the boundary of Europe. Beyond that celebrated and demi-febulous range, he
still finds the Hyperboreans, a people screened from every noxious blast, leading a happy
life exempt from old age, sickness, discord, and grief; till at length, satiated with felicity,
they throw themselves from a rock mto the sea. These febles are, however, qualified witli
the saving clause, " if we are to believe them," which shows that tlie feith of Pliny was
not implicit. The shores of the ocean, he confesses, are " marked by uncertamty." On
the authority, however, of Xenophon Lampsacenus and of Pytheas, he reports Basilia or
Baltia as an island of immense magnitude, three days' journey from tlie Scythian coast
Proceeding westward, he comes to the Cimbric Chersonese, and opposite to it another island,
Scandinavia, of unexplored magnitude, but which was by many described as forming quite
another world. Thus Baltia and Scanduiavia, approached from different points, are con-

Book I. ROMAN GEOGRAPHY.— PEUTINGERIAN TABLE. 49
sidered as two distuict insular teiTitories, the vast extent of which, however, appears to be
better apprehended by Pliny than by any other ancient writer.
Asia, in Pliny, is delineated according to the general ideas of Strabo and Mela. The
Caspian or Hyrcanian Sea is a gulf opening into the northern or Scytliian ocean, which is
in communication with that called Seric or Oriental. Pliny seems to have fuller informa
tion of the grandeur and wealth of India than any of his predecessors. Its inhabitants and
its cities were innumerable, and it was reported on good authority to form a third of the
whole world. It enjoyed gentle breezes, two summers, two harvests, one before, another
after the periodical winds. Blessed with these advantages, this happy people were never
known to emigrate beyond their own territories. He describes the marches of Alexander,
from the measurements of Diognetus and Bston, and where these fail, he continues them
by those of Seleucus, and by the embassy of Megasthenes, as far as the mouth of the
Ganges. These itineraries seem very good. In treating of Taprobane, he observes, that
it had been believed by some to be an opposite continent or earth, but that the inquiries of
Alexander had clearly proved it to be an island. His report, however, that the country of
the Seres was seen from it, implies a most inadequate and erroneous conception of the
eastem coasts of Asia.
The Africa of Pliny does not differ in its general outline from that of Mela. His access,
however, to the archives of the empire, and his acquaintance with some of the Roman
generals, enabled him to give new details as to some of its most interior tracts. The region
of Atlas had been first penetrated in the reign of Claudius, by jEdemon, an adherent of
the extinct family of the Ptolemies, who sought refiige there. Suetonius Paulinus, with
whom Pliny had conversed, found it of immense height, covered with snow even in summer ;
on one side rising from the sands, rough, horrid, and bare ; on the other, covered with thick
groves of unknown species of trees, and sparkling with fountains. An account is given of
a voyage along the western coast, which Polybius had made by order of Scipio. Only the
names of the places and the distances are given. The former coincide in a great measure
with those of Hanno ; and if Polybius was right in this coincidence, his report tends much
to confirm M. Gosselin's view of the limited extent of Hanno's discoveries. In the time of
Vespasian, another expedition, under Cornelius Balbus, penetrated into and conquered Gara-
ma (Germa), and Cydamus (Gladamis). The Romans here beheld with surprise houses built
of salt, and on digging to a small depth, water sprung out of the sand. A number of names
of conquered places are here given, which it is diSicult to recognize ; for it seems too hasty
to identify Boin with Bornou.
A theory of the course of the Niger was formed by Pliny from these materials with con
siderable pains, but very imperfect success. Its source, according to king Juba, existed in
Mauritania, and it is even said to have been found by Suetonius Paulinus after a few days'
march to the south of the Atlas. The Niger springs here from a lake ; but soon, indignant
at flowing through sandy and squalid tracts, it passes under ground for several days, and
emerges into another lake of Mauritania. After a circuit, however, of some extent, it again
disappears, and having pursued a subterranean course of twenty days, re-appears, dividing
Africa from Ethiopia. At last, in its passage through Ethiopia itself, it assumes the charac
ter of the NUe, first in two channels, Astusapes and Astaboras, enclosing the island of
Meroe, and afterwards uniting to form the entire and proper Nile. This wild and absurd
detail evidently includes the course of several rivers belonging to different and widely re
mote regions of Africa. It may even be doubted, if any part belongs to what by modems
has been considered the Niger. It seems very probable, however, that the middle part,
which divides Africa from Ethiopia, has been suggested by the river of Bornou, or the Yeou,
as it has been called by our recent discoverers.
Sect. HI. — Itineraries. — Peutingerian Table.
Of the itineraries composed by the masters of the world, and employed by them as an
instrument in its conquest, some fragments yet remain. The most memorable is that which
bears the name of Antoninus. It has been ascribed by some to Severus, by others to Theo-
dosius, and in feet contains many particulars which could not have been written prior to the
era of the last sovereigns ; but it seems probable that there were successive editions, with
such amendments and alterations as time suggested. It is a mere skeleton road-book, with
nothing but the names of places and their distance from each other. The same may be
said of the Jerusalem Itinerary, exhibiting in great detail the route from Bordeaux to that
holy city.
The Peutingerian Table (the Italian portion of which is exhibited in Fig. 9. p. 50.) is a
more remarkable monument, and may be considered, probably, as a specimen of the " painted
roads" of the ancients. It forms a map of the world, constructed, however, on the most
novel and peculiar principles. Its dimensions being twenty feet in length and one in breadth,
an idea may be formed of the correctness with which the proportion of the different parts is
exhibited. The high road which traversed the Roman empire in the general direction of
east and west is made the first meridian, and to this every other part is subjected The ob-
VoL. L 5 G

50

THE PEUTINGERIAN TABLE.

Pig. 9.

Book I.

SECOND ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL.

51

jects along this line are minutely and faithfully exhibited ; of those lying to the north and
south of it only some general notion can be conveyed; these are all represented, of course,
most enormously extended in length and reduced in breadth.

CHAPTER VI.
SECOND ALEXANDRIAN SCHOOL.

Alexandria by her contributions to geography supplied to a great extent the deficiencies
of the Romans, who, amid the success with which they cultivated history and literature,
never attained to any eminence in this science. That capital, even in its subject state,
retained still the impulse received from the Ptolemies, and continued to be the second in
magnitude, and the foremost in learning, of all in the empire. In the second century there
was established, here and at Tyre, a geographical school, possessing more ample materials
and resources than any that had hitherto existed. To the conquests and itineraries of Alex
ander were now added those of Rome, which, extending in a different direction, embraced
many countries to the north and to the west, Gaul, Britain, Germany, Spain, and Maurita
nia, respecting which the Greeks had possessed only conftised and imperfect notions. Thus
a greater portion of the globe than at any former period was now united under one govern
ment, which, by a stajiding army and a regular system of laws, preserved the whole in peace
and order. The terror of the Roman arms enabled travellers to penetrate with safety even
beyond the limits of the empire. Lastly, the unbounded luxury of the great capitals, and
above all of imperial Rome, enriched with the spoils of tlie globe, fired the enterprise of the
merchant, who found his way into those remotest markets of the eastem world, the rich
conunodities of which had hitherto been either brought by caravans or found at intermediate
stations. These enlarged materials were connected together by a much more accuraA;e and scien
tific arrangement than had been adopted under the school of Eratosthenes. The method
suggested by Hipparchus of subjecting the whole of geography to astronomical principles,
and of fixing the position of every spot upon the globe according to its longitude and lati
tude, was now attempted to be carried into full effect. The attempt, however, was made but
in a very rude manner, and upon a very narrow basis of observation. Not only, therefore,
did it present a very imperfect edition of the new system, but involved errors which caused
it in some respects to retrograde even from the rude state to which it had been brought by
the former school of Alexandria. Sect. I. — Marinus of Tyre.
No Tyrian system of geography has come down to us, notwithstanding the commercial
greatness of its people at an early period. P^om the Hebrew writers we have accounts per
haps of nearly the whole of the distant countries with which the Tyrians held intercourse ;

JR^ferences to the Feutingermn TaMe (page 50).

NORTH PART.
]. Siscta
2. Sardona
3. Aquioco
4. Bngantio
5. Jadera
6. RagadoDO
7. Saliarie
8. CarnuDto
9. Celeia
10. Vindobona
11. Tarsatica
13. EmoQa
13. Poia
14. Siivo
15. Pareotio
16. Fonte-tumaia
17. Aquileia
18. Ovilia
19. Altino
30. Regino
ai.Tridente22. Piacentia
23, Aquae Pomilaoie
24. Plorentia Tusconim
25. Sena Julia
26. Bituriba
27. Verona
28. Mantua
29. Mutina
30, Cosa
31. Adretio
32. Bnnonia
33. Clusio
34. VoIsiniB
.35. Aquas Passaris
36. Ravenna
37. Ariraino
38. Granisca
39. Ocnlum rellia
40. Aquas luari

41. Ancone
42. Castro-novo
43. Aquas Apollinaris
44. Soleto
45. Polentia
46. Reate
47. Castello Firmani
48. Ad Sem. Petrum
49. Roma
50. Hoatie
51. Chartagine
52. Utica Colonia
53. Aqu'iB
54. Ipponte diarito
55. Capsa Colonia
56. Ad Medera
57. Theleote Co).
58. Theneete
59. Sicca-veria
60. Ad Aqueis Ciesaria
Rivers,
a Danubius
b Drinum
c Savum
d Arsia
e Frigido
f Licenna
g Afesia
h Cleusis
i Umatia
j Padua
k Paala
) Aninio
m Tsex
n Umbro
o Pallia
p Armcnita
q Marta
r Tiberia

a Rubicum
t Nelurum
u Matana
V Mieo
w Flosis
xTuma
y Nerninum
z Aoio SOUTH PART.
I. Ad Protorum
2. Servitio
3. Ad Pretorum
4. Mursa Major
5. Indenea
6. Tittoburgo
7. Ragurio
8. Siclis, run.
9. Salona
10. Epetio
11. Inarona
12. Sirmium
13. Narona
14. Tauruno
15. Ad Matriceni
16. Singiduna
17. Epitauro
18. Stanedi
19. Liesun
20. Viminatio
21. Dyrratio
23. Aulona
2:1. Oea Col.
24. Sabrata
25. Regio
26. Caulon
27. liancnium
28. Caatrfi MinervEo
29. Viboria Vuienlia
30. Teniaa

31. Tarento
32. Brindisi
33. Gnatie
34. NeruloB
35. Salerno
36. Nuceria
37. OpIontiB
38. Benevento
39. Venueie
40. Neapoli
41. Capua
42. Curaas
43. Syllaa
44. Aeras
45. Pretonium Laucria-
num
46. Siponto
47. Eaernle
48. Teano Scedicino
49. Sinuesaa
50. Mentumis
51. Fundis
52. Terraeina
53, Ferentinum
54. Febraterie
55. Tstonum
56. Corsinio
57. Marrnbio
58. TreB Tabemas
59. CarBuliB
60. Oatia eterni
61. Pinna
62. Castro nova
63. PreneBte
64. Roma
65. Hdslis
Hfi. Chiirtaftine
67. Maxula
OS. M Afiuas
69. Mitjua ClipeiB

70. Gurra
71 . Ad Horrea
72. LftpteminuB
73. Thiforo Col.
74. Ad Aquas
75. Taparura
76. Tacape
77. Drepanis
78. Lilybeo
79. Aquas Labodes
80. Siracusis
81. Aethija Mons
82. Messana Rivers.
a Danubius
b Drinum
c Savum
A Margum
e Genesis
f Hapsum
e Tanno
h Crater
i Silarum
j Color
K Aveldium
1 AufidenuB
m Larinum
n Clocoris
o Sannum
p Cumara
q Nernum
r Amo
B Tiberie
t Safe
« Vulturnua
V T'limera
w Niranus
X Ausere
y Gerin

52 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Past I.
but if those writers are supposed to have borrowed from them their ideas respecting the
general structure and boundaries of the earth, geography among the early Phcenicians wUl
not appear to have passed its infancy. As Tyre, however, even under the Roman empire,
remained still the seat of an extensive commerce, some of her intelligent citizens availed
themselves of the lights afforded by the learning of Alexandria, and applied them to the
illustration of those subjects on which the greatness and prosperity of their city depended.
If the merchants of Tyre had nothuig left of that proud rule, and those monopolizing profits,
which enabled them to rival the pomp of princes, their commercial relations probably ex
tended over a wider surface of the globe than ever. They seem to have been engaged
in that vast caravan route which was opened from Byzantium across the whole interior
of Asia, conducting the merchants by a journey of ten or eleven months to the Chinese
frontier, whence they brought silk, the staple product of that great country. Collect
ing these enlarged materials, Marinus, a native of Tyre, sought to apply to them the
astronomical principles of Hipparchus, and thus to arrange geography into a new and more
accurate form.
The works of Marinus have perished, and are known to us only by the references and
extracts of Ptolemy ; but these are sufficient to show that his system partook largely of the
imperfection of a first effort. Aware that the degree of longitude diminished as it receded
from the equator, he yet did not attempt to express this difference by representing the meri
dians with curved lines approaching each other, although this had been already shown by
Hipparchus to be the proper course. He made them parallel to each other, not at the equa^
torial distance, but at that which belonged to them at the meridian of Rhodes. Thus in the
part of the globe which came into his immediate observation he avoided any material error ;
but the meridians, adjusted only to this latitude, became too near each other as they were
carried southward, and too distant as they went northward. He fell into a still more per
nicious error in adopting the geodesic measurement of Posidonius, according to which the
circumference of the earth was made to consist of only 180,000 stadia, and consequently the
degree to contain only 500 stadia. This short degree, being calculated out of the exagge
rated ituieraries upon which the maps of those days were constructed, enormously amplified
all the dimensions of the globe. Marinus appears also to have admitted with excessive cre
dulity the extravagant reports of the merchants who had penetrated across the vast moun
tain and desert tracts in the east of Asia. The rugged and difficult character of the region,
the circuitous route which they were frequently obliged to follow, and the obstacles often
encountered fi'om the rude inhabitants, caused this journey to occupy a much longer time
than those performed through districts better known ; and time, as already observed, was the
element ®ut of which the ancients were chiefiy accustomed to calculate space. Ptolemy
also accuses the merchants of vain-glorious propensities, which led them to magnify beyond
truth the extent and vastness of the regions which they traversed. Hence the great line
upon which Marinus measured the length of the habitable globe, instead of one hundred and
twenty-nine degrees given to it in the measurement of Eratosthenes, is swelled out to
two hundred and twenty-five degrees, not much less than two-thirds of the globe ; whereas
the actual length, placing Thinse even at the eastern extremity of China, is not much more
than one third. The exaggeration is enormous chiefly with respect to the country beyond
India, which is made to comprise one hundred degrees. This being probably a new route
opened through the Himaleh, and across the vast deserts of Eastem Tartary, had been
affected by all the sources of amplification in a remarkable degree.
Sect. H. — Ptolemy.
Ptolemy, the last and greatest of the geographers of antiquity, and equally illustrious as
an astronomer, instituted a complete reform of the science, and undertook to purify it from
all the false elements with which it had been alloyed. The prinoiples, in fact, which he
adopted were strictly correct ; for though, as an asti'onomer, his theory of the universe was
substantially false, yet, in admitting the globular form of the earth and the revolution of the
heavenly bodies, he admitted all the elements which were requisite for tlie less lofty sphere
of earthly delineation. He adopted the system of Hipparchus m its utmost extent, subject
ing every spot on the known globe to astronomical data, and constructing his tables, never
according to itinerary distance, but according to tlie supposed latitude and longitude of each
place. He saw and corrected the error of Marinus in making tlie degrees of longitude equal
under every latitude. Thus, though Ptolemy did not actually introduce any new principle
into geography, he was the first who combined together all tlie sound views of his prede
cessors, and foi-med out of them a just and harmonious delineation. Yet he was fiir from
reaching his aim of forming a perfect system. He still retained tlie erroneous measurement
of the degree formed by Posidonius, and of ^^'hioIl Marinus had made so unfortunate a use.
Hence, while he fi-lt the extravagance of the distances assigned by his predecessor, in con
sequence of the adoption of the dogi-oo of 500 stadia, he extricated himself but partially
from the same error. All his longitudes, extended along the length of the known world,
present a similar accumulation of errors, only somewhat dimmished in amount. These

Book I. PTOLEMY— EUROPE. 53
errors, beginning from Cape St. Vincent, constantly increase till, in India, they amount to
upwards of forty degrees. M. Gosselin has even accused him of an error which, as he justly
observes, would mark a strange departure fi-om every principle, and a neglect of what oilght
to be the first care of a geographer. This consists in giving to his degrees of latitude a
diiferent dimension from tliat of the degrees of longitude, and retaining, with regard to the
former, Eratosthenes's standard of 700 stadia. I suspect, however, that M. Gosselin has
been somewhat precipitate in advancing so serious a charge against the first geographer of
antiquity. The ground on which he proceeds seems to be, that while Ptolemy has changed
materially all the longitudes of Eratosthenes, the latitudes along the great line continue
unaltered and generally correct. The real cause of this, however, appears to be, that the
latitudes of Rhodes and several other leading points of this great line were determined by
observations which, though not perfect, at least approached to the truth, while the longitudes
were calculated merely out of the itineraries. This central line, therefore, bisecting the
breadth of the known world, was fixed upon sound data, and the errors could accumulate
only to the north and south of it. In fact, we shall find that they did accumulate as rapidly
as in the longitudes, when the sphere of observation was passed, which was bounded by
Syene on the south, Marseilles and Byzantium on the north. The mouth of the Seine is
placed one degree too far north ; that of the Rhine, nearly two degrees ; that of the Elbe,
more than two degrees ; York is three degrees ; and the ferther accumulation is only pre
vented by that singular conformation which we shall find given by Ptolemy to the northem
part of Britain. To the south, again, Axum is placed three degrees too fer south ; Cape
Aromata (Guardafui), nearly six degrees ; and from that point the errors continually become
greater. Thus it appears, that as soon as Ptolemy quits the sphere of observation, his lati
tudes are calculated exactly as his longitudes, out of itineraries, and exhibit the same accu
mulation of errors.
The manuscripts of Ptolemy are clearly shown by M. Gosselin to have reached us
in a very imperfect state. In collating with care the different editions, that learned writer
has found a greater number of variations than in those of almost any other ancient writer.
These variations were of course very likely to occur in copying cyphers where there was
no connexion of sense to check the copyist. The manuscripts and the maps appear to have
been copied by different hands, holding no communication with each other ; and accordingly
these two parts of the same work do not, in many instances, correspond. Lastly, the work
of Ptolemy appears, for several centuries, to have been carried about as a guide by mariners
and travellers, who, wherever they found any feature which did not agree with their obser
vations, altered the writing or the map accordingly. This process appears in the numerous
variations of the Latin copies with regard to the westem part of the Mediterranean, and of
the Greek with regard to the eastern. The alterations thus made would often, and indeed,
most generally, be improvements ; but the great discrepancies which they introduced into
the different copies, must have greatly bewildered the public.
In delineating the geographical system of Ptolemy, we can only consider the general
outline, which is pretty much the same in all the editions. Ptolemy begins with rejecting
the theory of his predecessors, from Homer to Strabo downwards, who represent the whole
earth as enclosed by a circumambient ocean. Mercantile caravans, especially in the east
of Asia, had now proceeded considerably beyond the line of coast which, according to the
last school, had marked the eastem hounding ocean. They had passed that line without
reaching the distant corresponding one by which the Pacific and Arctic seas were actually
drawn around this vast continent. The eastern Atlantic, and the Northem Oceans were,
therefore, effaced from the delineation of Asia, and an indefinite expanse of terra incognita
(unknown land) was substituted as the boundary of the world. This proceeding must
certainly he considered as more precise and philosopjiical than the gratuitous theoretical
one for which it was substituted. Men, however, seldom know exactly where to stop :
Ptolemy, having once formed the idea of a bounding terra incognita, extended it round
nearly the entire circuit of the known world. All the reports of the circumnavigation of
Africa were rejected ; that continent was represented as stretching indefinitely south, and
it was even carried round to join the east of Asia, and form the Erythrean or Indian sea
into a vast basin. Thus the- whole system and structure of these two continents underwent,
in the hands of Ptolemy, a complete transmutation.
Subsect. 1. Europe. {Fig. 10.)
In regard to all the remoter boundaries of Europe, Ptolemy displays an advancement
in knowledge, truly wonderful, considering the short period which had elapsed since the
days of Strabo. The facts which we have stated under the head of Roman geography
show the vast additional mass of information derived from the conquests of Csesar, and from
the imperial surveys. This having been incorporated into the writings of Mela and Pliny, a
century before the age of Ptolemy, would easily, through these and other channels, reach
his knowledge. It is not surprising that the crude delineation of the exterior coasts of
Europe under the Strabonic system should have been materially amended; that Spain

64

THE WORLD ACCORDING TO PTOLEMY.

Fio. 10.

Book I. PTOLEMY— EUROPE. 55
should have now a southem, and Gaul a western coast ; and that the Bay of Biscay should
appear clearly under the appellations of the Cantabrian Ocean and the Aquitanian Sea. In
regard to Britain, also, or, at least, England, a great reform had been effected. Its coast,
after passing the promontory of Kent, bends inward toward the estuary of the Thames,
called here Idumanus. Still more decided, on the opposite side, is the " Sabrina estuarivm"
(the estuary of the Severn), a very appropriate appellation for the Bristol Channel. The
projection of Wales, and its entire outline, appears then drawn in a very unexceptionable
manner. With regard to Ireland, Ptolemy has not been able wholly to shake off the errone
ous impressions of the first Alexandrian school, according to which that country lay to the
north of Britain. He makes it west, indeed, but at the same time greatly too far north, its
southem coast being on a tine with that of Lancashire, or, at least, with the north-western
point of Wales. The consequence is, that the island of Mona (Man) is placed off the south
eastern point of Ireland, not fer from Wexford. Having pointed out this great error, we
must add, that the whole form and circuit of Ireland is given with a correctness which ap
pears very surprising, when contrasted with so great a mistake as to its relative position.
Ag-ain, the eastem coast of England proceeds correctly till it reaches the vicinity of York,
when an aberration takes place of the most extraordinary nature. The rest of the English
coast, with the whole of that of Scotland, instead of ranging fi:om nortli to south, runs from
west to east. The eastern coast becomes thus the southem, the western becomes the
northem; and the coast of Germany appears opposite and parallel throughout its whole
extent. The most northerly extremity of Britain is thus fixed at a point which Mr. Pinker-
ton supposed to be the Mull of Galloway, but which seems more probably to be some point
near Port Patrick, which might be supposed the most westerly, for the west is here the
north. It is part of this arrangement, that the jEbudae (Hebrides) are placed in the Deuca-
ledonian Ocean, which washes the westem coast of Scotland, made here the northern ; and
the Orkneys are in the same ocean; fbr, instead of following the line of the main land, they
are placed, as, indeed, they ought to be, north, becoming thus at right angles to that line.
To account fbr this strangely distorted form of northem Britain, M. Gosselin has formed
a very ingenious theory. The southem extremity of the island being in lat. 52° N., and
Thule, the remotest extremity, in 63°, Ptolemy could not, within these limits, find space
for that vast expanse of coast, which the itineraries represented to him as belonging to
Britain. To make out this space he had no alternative but to give to the northern part the
form it actually bears in his maps, and under which the latitude is augmented only by the
breadth of Scotland, a much smaller dimension than the length. The question, however, is,
by what circumstance Ptolemy was checked in his latitude of Thule, and why he should
not have driven it out to the north as far as his itineraries seemed to require. We at one
time thought it possible that this grand boundary point might have been fixed by some rude
observation which was not applied to the intermediate points. But it appears very improba
ble, that any expedition which should have made an observation of latitude at Shetland,
should not have done the same in the southem and much more accessible parts of Britain.
I rather incline to adopt the following solution. We have seen, that, in the ideas of the
Roman navigators, Thule was in a great measure separated from Britain, and attached to
the east of Germany, or rather to Scandinavia ; whether its existence was made known to
them by Scandinavian navigators, or whether a part of the coast of Norway was actually
fixed upon by them instead of Shetland for this most northem limit of the earth. This idea,
which attached Thule to Scandinavia, appears to have been combined in Ptolemy's mind
with that of Pytheas, who made it the remotest extremity of Britain. Such a combination
could be accomplished only by stretching Scotland across the German ocean in that strange
direction. The details of Scotland, if we pass over this radical error, are- given in a manner much
more tolerable than could have been expected in a country unsubdued by the Romans, and
with their imperfect navigation. Thule, in Ptolemy, is not a cluster of islands, like those
of Shetland, but one large island, upwards of a hundred miles in length : this cu-cumstance
more and more strengthens the suspicion that Norway, to a considerable extent, entered
into the idea attached to that celebrated name.

EUROPA.

2. Sinope

1. Carthago Nova

3. AmisuB

2. Maesilia

4. lesus

3. Genua

5. Elana

4. Roma

6. Znarara

5. Athenae

7. Musa

6. Byzantium

8. Gerra

9. Teredon

Rivers.

10. Babylon

a Rhenus

11. Ninus

b Chesinua

12. Dioscurias

c Tanais

13. Gagara

dRha

34. Susa

e Borysthenea

15. Persepolis

16. Bactra

ASIA,

17. Pafala

1. Ephesus

18. PaUbothra

References to'Oie Map of the World according to Ptolemy.
19- jjaracura d Polylimetua 5. Cyrene
20. BeBynea e Jaxartes 6. Alexandria
21. Barabm f CEehardea 7. Heroopolis
22. Facola g Bauliaua 8. Syene
23. Sabana h Senna 9. Ptoleraaia
24. Catisara ; Ganges 10. Meroe
25. Thins ] Indus 11. AdulU
26. Aapithra
27. Tomara Taprobana Insula. Rivers
28. Sinda a Ganges n Stachir
2V). Daiona k Damtna
30. Sera LIBYA VEL APKICA. c Nigir
1- Nigira d Gir
RiverB. 2, Gira e Nilua
a Euphrates 3. Carthago f Astapns
bTiigra 4.PhycuB g Astaboras

5tJ HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Paet 1.
Under the heads of great Germany and of Sarmatia, Ptolemy has given all the knowledge
he had acquired of the north and east of Europe, which was not inconsiderable. The line
yf the German coast is very well formed, and the Amasius or Ems, the Visurgis or Weser,
the Albis or Elbe, the Vedra or Oder, and the Visula or Vistula, appear in regular succes
sion, and almost under their modem names. Jutland appears as the Cimbric Chersonese,
and the southern coast of the Baltic is carried on very correctly ; but, in regard to Scandi
navia, he fails entirely. Evidently ignorant that the Baltic is an enclosed gulf, he calls it
" the Sarmatic Ocean," and places in it four islands. Three of these, close to the Cimbric
Chersonese, are clearly recognised in the islands of Denmark ; but the other, of greater
extent, farther to the east and opposite to the mouth of the Vistula, is probably part of Swe
den, and perhaps Gothland. It is clear, that navigators had not'then rounded Jutland, and
passed through the Skagerrack or Cattegat, otherwise they must have noticed these straits,
and the great extent of continent opposite the Cimbric Chersonese. The Aloecian islands,
however, situated off the northem extremity of Jutland, must have been suggested by some
part of the Norwegian coast, as there are no islands in that quarter. The more northem
part of the Norwegian coast was probably, as already observed, identified with Thule.
The coast of Sarmatia is described by Ptolemy on passing the Vistula, and he traces with
accuracy the great bend which it takes northward to the gulf of Riga. Four rivers are
given, which cannot be recognised by their names, but which M. Gosselin conceives to be
the Pregel, the Niemen, the Windau, and the Dwina. Beyond this he places " the end of
the sea of the known land," and immediately commences that boundary of terra incognita
which he carries around the whole of Asia.
In regard to the south of European Russia, Ptolemy recovers much of the knowledge
which had been wholly or partially lost under Strabo. He appears indeed to have gone back
in a great measure to Herodotus, whom he imitates in giving most unreasonable extension
to the Palus Maeotis. There is little room for complaint as to the Tanais, the Borysthenes,
and the other great rivers which fall into the Euxine. In this remote and wild extremity
of Europe, however, he has found a place for certain poetical and historical fictions, which
experience had banished from better known quarters, but which could not find a place here
with any propriety ; — the grove of Diana, the race-course of Achilles, the altars of Csesar
and of Alexander ; neither of whom ever carried their arms into this part of the ancient
Scythia. In tracing the Mediterranean, Ptolemy improves considerably upon the labours of his pre
decessors. SicDy, in particular, is much better constructed, and the straits of Messina are
placed nearly in their true latitude. He still, however, merits deep reproach for the utterly
barbarous form which he has given to Italy, that ruling country, which must of all others
have appeared to him the most interesting, and for which he must have possessed the most
ample materials. Yet Italy, with the exception of a slight bend at its extremity, is oriented
almost entirely east and west, having the Adriatic for its northern, and the Tyrrhenian for
its southern boundary. I cannot find any account of an error so strange, except by supposing
that Ptolemy must have been led into it by one of those itinerary maps which, like the
Peutingerian, made every thing subservient to the direction of the Roman high road, and
drew it in a straight line from one extremity to the other. It is easy to suppose that he
might not comprehend the very odd principle upon which this map was constructed, and
might conceive that being made with regard to Italy, a country so near, and so completely
within reach, it might be implicitly relied on. This suspicion is strengthened when we
find, after passing Dyrrachium, the port of embarkation for Greece, tliis being tlie direction
of the great road of the empire, that the coast of Italy suddenly resumes its just form, and
the peninsula of Campania makes even too abrupt a bend to the south.
Subsect. 2. — Asia.
In regard of Asia also, important discoveries had been made since tlie time of Eratos
thenes. Immense territories, included by tliat geographer within the domain of the
ocean, were known to Ptolemy as occupied by the wandering hordes of Scytliio, or by the
peaceful and industrious nation of the Seres or Chinese. This advantage might be partly
due to the military itineraries, especially that of Trajan in his victorious expedition into
Parthia. The grand source, however, evidently was that bold spirit of commercial enter
prise, to which an impulse was given by the vast consumption of Rome, when the wealth of
the world centred in that miglity and voluptuous capital. The East was tlie region mainly
resorted to for tlie supply of the boundless wants which arose in tliat artificial and luxurious
state of society. The merchants soon learned to trace routes, botli by land and sea, much
longer and more adventurous than had been acliieved by their predecessors at any former
period. Under the narrative entitled "the Periplus of tlie Erythrean Sea," we have followed
tho maritime career by wliich the merchants of Alexandria were led to tlie coast of Mala
bar. Whether, in the time of Ptolomy, tlio Greek navigators had actually proceeded farther,
it may be difficult to siiy with certainty. He has certamly, Iiowever obtained a considera
ble accession of knowledge with regard to this eastem extremity of the known world. He

BookL - PTOLEMY— ASIA. 57
goes far beyond the mouth of the Ganges, at which we have observed the termination of
all precise knowledge in the author of the Periplus. After delineating a coast, with a
succession of ports which it is difficult to identify, he comes to a grand feature, which he
calls " the Golden Chersonese," formed by three great estuaries discharging their waters
into the sea. These phenomena are actually presented by the mouths of the IiTawaddy at
the southern extremity of Pegu. This is followed by an extensive feature, the Magnus
Sinus, or Great Bay, penetrating far inland, and receiving some considerable rivers. The
gulf of Malacca is not nearly so large or so deep as this Magnus Sinus ; but its mouth
being very broad, and its shores very winding, it is not very improbable that, in the eyes of
ancient and unskilful navigators, it might assume this exaggerated form and dimension.
Beyond the Magnus Sinus the coast, in contuiuity with its eastem shore, stretches due
south to the fai-thest known extremity of the world. On this coast the leading features are
ThiuEB, a great interior metropolis, and Cattigara, its sea-port at the mouth of the river Cotiaris.
This coast, it should seem, can only be tliat of Malacca and the Isthmus of Kraw, which
runs exactly in the direction here assigned by Ptolemy. Gosselin identifies Thinse with
Tenasserin ; but there seems more reason for acceding to Dr. Vincent's opinion that it is
Siam. This exposition, which is supported by Vossius, Gosselin, and Vincent, appears to me
undoubtedly preferable to tlie more general one supported by the authority of d'Anville,
which makes the coast of the Sinae extend along the gulf of Siam and the sea of China.
Such a line would involve Ptolemy in the strange and incredible blunder of making a coast
face the east which really feces the west. Sumatra, indeed, is so land-locked that it might
easily enough have been taken for a part of the continent, and have been called the Golden
Chersonese. But it seems inconceivable how the straits of Malacca and of Sunda, so im
portant and so critical to navigators, and by one or the other of which they must have
entered the sea of China, could have been overlooked. On this supposition, indeed, the
coasts are swelled very fer beyond their due dimensions ; but we have often remarked how
enormously this is apt to be the case, in regard to routes, and above all coasts which are
traversed for the first time, and by inexperienced navigators. Ptolemy, as we have seen,
after retrenching the eastern itineraries of Marinus one half, left them still greatly too large ;
and he does not mention any similar retrenchment in regard to the coasts. If, on the other
hand, those of Ptolemy extend to the Chinese sea and to China, then, contrary to every
ancient example, he must have immensely underrated the extent of these imperfectly dis
covered tracts ; an error which would he contrary to all precedent : — this, however, does not
imply that there may not, within this line of positive knowledge, have been a confused
blending of features that lay in reality beyond!
The increased knowledge of Ptolemy respecting the eastern part of the Asiatic continent was
chiefly derived, as we have already remarked, firom the great caravan which proceeded from
Byzantium, having the country of Serica for its ultimate destination. This caravan, having
traversed Asia Minor, crossed the Euphrates at Hierapolis, and journeyed through Media,
by way of Ecbatana (Hamadan), to Hecatompylos (Daumghaun), the capital of Parthia. It
then advanced north to Hyrcania (Horkan or Jorjan), thence south, to take in the fine
province of Aria (Herat). It now again turned north, to include the capital of Margiana
(Meru Rood), thence due east to Bactria (Balk), which then formed, as at present, the main
centre of the commerce of interior Asia. The caravan now quitted the easy and level tract
through which its route had hitherto led, and began to ascend that vast and rugged mountain
world which fills the eastern interior of Asia. After accomplishing the steep ascent of the
Monies Comedorum, which seems to be the chain of the Beloor, it reached a station called
the " Stone Tower," which there is nothing to identify, except that the direction towards it
is north-east, and it may be either Ladauk or Yarcund, the great modem emporium of this
part of the East. From the Stone Tower to the frontier of Serica, Marinus, on the authority
of the merchants, reported a journey of seven months, which Ptolemy considers as monstrous
and incredible, though he admits that the road is exposed to the greatest hardships and diffi
culties. The question, what is the country described by Ptolemy and his contemporaries as
Serica, is the most curious in the ancient geography of Asia. The earliest modern opinion
identified Serica with northern China, while the country of the Sinee composed the southern
part. D'Anville, however, who transported the Sinae into the coast of Cambodia, carried
westward also the Seres into the country of the Igours, or Eygurs, including in their terri
tory only the small projecting portion of the Chinese province of Shensee. Mr. Pinkerton
places it still farther west, in Little Bucharia. M. Gosselin, followed generally by the
present French school, contends that Serinagur, in the north of Hindostan, is the real Sera
metropolis of Ptolemy. I can see no reason for altering the grounds on which I concluded
formerly, and endeavoured to prove, Serica to be simply China. (See Edinburg Phil. Trans.
vol. viii. On the ancient Geography of Central and Eastern Asia.) All the natives of India
whom Ptolemy saw assured him that the Seres lay beyond the Sinae, and China is beyond
Siam. The Sin® (Siam) had to the north Scythia beyond Imaus, which country had Serica
on the east. Serica is described as traversed by two great rivers, flowing eastward, as the
Hoang-h- and Yang-tse-kiang actually do. Serica, according to Ptolemy's graduation, was
Vol. I. Ij

¦^8 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Paht L
fourteen hundred miles from north to south, and eleven hundred from east to west, a very
close approach to the dimensions of modem China. Serica, then, in form, extent, geogra
phical features, and relations to the neighbouring countries, exactly corresponds to the mo
dern China. Not less conformable is the report given of the national character. The Seres
are represented as frugal, quiet, sedate, and tranquil beyond all other nations ; as of all
others the most unwarlike, and the most averse to the use of arms ; as shunning, with the
most studious care, the society and intercourse of strangers, and scarcely ever allowing
them to enter their territory ; as carrying on trade at a fixed frontier station only, and under
'he strictest precautions ; as selling their own commodities without receiving the commo
dities of other nations in return. Silk was the staple of Serica, and it is of China. With
regard to M. Gosselin's Indian theory, it must now, we suppose, be on all hands given up,
since Thibet and Northern India, instead of being connected by the valley of the Ganges,
have been found separated by the unbroken continuity of the loftiest ridge of the Himmaleh,
which can be penetrated only by a few most perilous and tremendous passes.
Respecting Hindostan, and its limitary regions, the details given by Ptolemy include a
great mass of sound information. In some important particulars, indeed, his map is decidedly
superior to those possessed by the moderns, previous to the late important accessions to their
knowledge. He describes the Ganges rising, as it really does, on the southem side of the
Himmaleh, and in the outer limits of Hindostan, while, prior to. the mission sent by Col.
Colebrooke, in 1808, its origin, and a considerable part of its early course, were supposed to
be in Little Thibet. The mission to Caubul first found that all the great westem rivers
emptied themselves by one channel into the Indus, as they had been represented by Ptolemy,
while modern maps had exhibited them entering by two great separate channels. The
same mission discovered two very considerable rivers, westem tributaries of the Indus,
the Kaumeh and the Suaut, of which no trace had yet appeared in modern delineation ;
but, on turning to Ptolemy, we find them accurately traced under the names of the Coe and
the Suaste. Thus we find him delineating with success geographical features in the most
secret recesses of Asia, which remained unknown tiU lately to the best-infiirmed of modem
geographers. The site of Palibothra is one main point in which, after much discussion, geographers
have in vain endeavoured to form an unanimous opinion. It was found by Megasthenes the
proud capital of the Gangetic kingdom, and the greatest city of all India. Yet modern
geographers have not been able to agree within several hundred miles upon this marked
and celebrated position. Arrian states that it is situated at the junction of the Ganges with
the Erranaboas, the third river of India as to magnitude, being surpassed only by the Ganges
and the Indus. This scale of magnitude suggests the Jumna, and at the confluence of the
Jumna with the Ganges actually stands Allahabad, a city of great magnitude and high anti
quity, which is even revered by the Hindoos as the " king of holy cities." Upon this general
idea D'Anville and, after him, Robertson, have considered Allahabad as occupying the site
of Palibothra. On examination, however, this is found in contradiction to the most positive
statements of Pliny and Ptolemy. Pliny, in express words, states Palibothra to he 425 miles
distant from the junction of these two rivers. Ptolemy makes the distance somewhat greater
still. In considering Allahabad, then, as Palibothra, we abandon altogetlier tlie authority of
these two great geographers, a step in which we should be very little justified, either by a
reference to their general character, or by our knowledge of their remarkable accuracy with
regard to the other features of central and northern India. Their account of Palibotlira, too,
is given upon the authority of Greek ambassadors, who actually visited that capital. The
river next in magnitude is the Gogra or Sarayu. But the junction of this river with the
Ganges is not nearly so far fi'om that of the Jumna as the above statements would require.
Besides, Ptolemy actually gives us the Sarabus (Sarayu), with its junction in the due relative
position to that of the Jumna, but Palibothra much ferther down. Major Rennel has made
choice of Patna, and considers the junction of the Soane, at present thirty miles above that
city, as having taken place formerly by a different and nearer channel. This theory stands
on much higher ground than the other ; yet it by no means closely corresponds witli the
ancient data. Pliny mentions both the Sonus and the Erranaboas as quite distinct tributaries
of the Ganges, and he places the city considerably ferther down than Patna is. Ptolemy,
also, in giving the junction of the Soa and the Ganges, places Palibothra more than two
hundred miles below. Major Rennell's theory, then, brings us considerably sliort of the
point at which this gi-eat capital ought to be situated.
Another point which appeared to me to unite the name and position of Palibothra has
hern mentioned {Disrovrrirs in Axia, v. i. p. 491.), and, without being inclined very confi
dently to dogmatize, it still appears to me to combine better the different requisites than
any other yet niimcd. The name of Boglipoor may be considered identical witli Paliboor;
for, in transferring Indian terms into our cliariictcrs, P and B, O and A, are always used
promiscuously; and tlie terminiition iittnrln^d by the Romans is evidently according to their
system of harmonizing foreign sounds with their own. A name is of little consequence
when it is not accompanied with a corresponding position ; but here this appears to coincide

Book L PTOLEMY— AFRICA. 59
nearly, though not indeed quite exactly, with Pliny. He makes Palibothra 430 miles frpni
the junction of the Ganges and Jumna, and 600 from Gange, a capital situated at the mouth
of the former. Boglipoor, however, instead of being only two-fiftlis of the distance- between
these two points, is about exactly midway. The space lower down the river, being less
known, might more readily have been exaggerated, and Gange being on the most easterly
branch of the Ganges, might occupy nearly the position of Islamabad. The place assigned
by Ptolemy is exactly midway, and therefore coincides strictly with the position of Bogli
poor. Near it the Ganges receives the Coosy, or river of Nepaul, certainly not the third
in India as t'> magnitude ; but the ambassadors might not have very precise means of as
certaining the relative dimensions of the Indian rivers. There is, therefore, a great weight
of fevidence, as to name and position, in favour of the theory here proposed. I must confess,
however, that I find no description of any monuments, such as might be expected to mark
the ancient site of so splendid a capital. Indian structures, however, are not usually
composed of materials sufficiently solid to resist the ravages of sixteen centuries. If the
local data could at all have allowed us to fix upon the thrice ancient and holy Benares, its
character would have given it at once a pre-eminence ; but this is impossible. Ra-
jemahl, suggested, is not very distant from Boglipoor ; but besides losing the coin
cidence of name, it agrees less than the other position with the statements both of Ptolemy
and Pliny. Subsect. 3. — Africa.
In the delineation of Afirica, Ptolemy, himself an African, had obvious advantages. Ac
cordingly his delineations of several of the most interior features have, as in the case of
southern India, proved to he more accurate than those given by modern geographers down
to a very recent period. The course of the Nile, up to its highest probable source in the
central range of the mountains of the Moon, has been justified by recent inquiry, in oppo
sition to the Portuguese missionaries, who drew it from the mountains and lakes of Abys
sinia. This original fountain-head has not yet been traced by the daring foot of the modem
traveller ; but the description given to Brown, of its descent from the great mountain chain
south of Darfoor, corresponds very exactly with Ptolemy, making allowance only for his
erroneous g-raduation. With equal fidelity, he delineates the Astaboras, or Atbara, the As
tapus, or river of Abyssinia, successively falling into it from the east. He has, indeed, made
Meroe an island, enclosed by branches of the Nile ; but modern discovery has shown it to
be so very nearly insular, in consequence of the great bend taken to the south, that the
error cannot be considered excessive.
In regard to central Africa, Ptolemy had not equal advantages, on account of the dis
tance, because no track had yet been formed across the vast ocean of desert which inter
vened. It appears to me a matter of some difficulty to ascertain the precise extent of his
knowledge as to this region. M. Gosselin has not hesitated to assert, that he knew nothing
of Africa south of the desert, and that all the features which he has assigned to interior
Libya, and the course of the Niger, belong in fact to Fezzan and that region behind the
Atlas which we call the B'led-el-Jereede, or Land of Dates. This opinion certainly receives
much countenance when we find the Garamantes and the Garamantica vallis placed on the
same line with the Niger, the lake of Nigritia, and the other leading central features. I
still, however, think it probable that Ptolemy might, by way of the Upper Nile, have ob
tained intelligence respecting a portion at least of these vast regions, the approach to which
by way of Dongola and Sennaar was not obstructed by any very insurmountable barriers.
Besides the agreement of several names, as Gana, Tagana, Panagra, the general picture
of this region as one of lakes, rivers, and mountains, agrees much better with the interior
than with the arid tract between Atlas and the desert. My suspicion therefore is, that Ptol
emy, unacquainted with any route across the great desert, was not aware of the wide in
terval between the features to the north and those to the south of it, and linked them to
gether in his description as contiguous and connected. As his knowledge of central Africa
was thus obtained only in a westerly course from the Nile, it was not likely to extend be
yond the eastern part of the vast breadth between the Nile and the ocean. The Mens Man-
drus, his most western feature, with a great river flowing from it into the lake of Nigritia,
may perhaps be recognized in the 'mighty range of the mountains of Mandara and the river
Shary flowing from them into the lake or sea of the Tchad. About this quarter I should
conceive the knowledge which reached Ptolemy by inland channels probably terminated ;
and the Atlantic coast, known to exist by the voyages of Hanno, Scylax, and Polybius, was
united to these objects by a merely hypothetical construction. In regard to the course of
the Niger, it is difficult to say very precisely what were Ptolemy's views, and we only per
ceive that he made it an inland river, neither flowing into the Atlantic, nor by the Nile into
the Mediterranean.
Respecting this gre£*t central region of Africa, however, Ptolemy had obtained some no
tices fi:om which he might have estimated its magnitude. Two Roman expeditions had
been reported to him, one made by Septimius Flaccus firom Garama, and the other by Julius

60 HISTORY OP GEOGRAPHY. Pabt I.
Matemus fi-om the coast of Cyrene. The former m three, and the latter in four months,
had penetrated into the country of the Ethiopians. Ptolemy expresses himself vei-y scepti
cal as to the possible length of this march ; nevertheless he lays down the country of
Agisymba as that farthest region of interior Ethiopia into which these commanders had
penetrated. Agisymba we suspect to be Agadez ; at least as the march comprehends no
rivers or lakes, it cannot well have reached the line of the Niger. Nevertheless Ptolemy
places it considerably to the south of Nigritia ; which is doubtless in favour of the lunited
extent which M. Gosselin allows to his information. But we may observe that, supposing
Ptolemy to have formed, in the manner above supposed, his idea of the plain of the Niger
as little removed to the south of Fezzan, he must, in protracting marches of three or four
months, necessarily have carried the line much farther to the south.
In regard to the westem coasts of Africa, Ptolemy's delineation is not very luminous, but
appears on the whole to favour M. Gosselin's views respecting the extent of Hanno's voy
age and of the knowledge of the ancients. He does indeed present two rivers, the Daradus
and the Stachir, flowing on a line with the plain of Nigritia. But I have no idea that
Ptolemy could have any precise information reacliing across the entire breadth of the con
tinent, and conceive, as already hinted, that the coast and interior were here hypotheticaUy
united. As Ptolemy placed the plain of the Niger much too far north, he might make
these rivers on a line with it, without identifying them with the Senegal and Gambia.
His position of the Fortunate Islands (Canaries) opposite to their moutlM, and south of
Cerne, is not at all in favour of the opinion which carries these last features deep into cen
tral Africa.
On the eastern coast of Africa, Ptolemy adds to the line described by the author of the
Periplus a coast extending from the promontory of Rhaptum to that of Prasum. At this
point the coast, hitherto running south-west, changes to south-east. No details are given
of this coast, which is described as rough and difficult to navigate. We can neither, with
M. Gosselin, limit Prasum to Brava, nor with Vincent carry it so far as Mosambique. There
is no part of the coast to wnich the direction assigned to it belongs, except fi-om Quiloa
to Cape Delgado ; and if Rhaptum be at or near Quiloa, the latter, allowing for some exag
geration of distance on a coast so little known, will be the promontory Prasum. Five de
grees east and three degrees south of this promontory is the island of Menuthias. The
Menouthesias of the Periplus appeared pretty plainly to be one of the smaller islands near
the Afi-ican coast, and probably Zanzibar ; but none of these could be the Menuthias of
Ptolemy, which is manifestly Madagascar.

BOOK II.
GEOGRAPHY OF THE MIDDLE AGES.
Under the "geography of the middle ages" may be comprehended that of the Arabian or
Saracen nations, during the period when science was successfully cultivated among them;
and the geographical ideas prevalent in Europe, during that long darkness which preceded
the revival of learning, and the commencement of maritime discovery.

CHAPTER L
ARABIAN GEOGRAPHY.
The Arabs were for some time tlie most learned of nations. As tlie mantle of science
dropped from the sages of Greece and Rome, it fell upon this wUd and strange race, sprung
from the bosom of bigotry and barbarism. The fanatic hordes, who, under the guidance of
their false prophet, rushed from tlie heart of Arabia, at first owned no law but tlie Koran and
the sword. When they had conquered half the world, however, and founded splendid capi
tals on the banks of the Euphrates and the Guadalquivir, tliere arose a race of humane and
polished princes, who studiously sought to relumine the almost extinguished lamp of science.
Almamoun above all, in the ninth century, may rtuik among tlie most distinguished of its
patrons who have ever filled a throne.
Geography among the Arabian states, appears to have been studied with greater ardour
than at any other place or country, except at Alexandria. It employed the pens of several
of their most eminent writers; Masudi and Ebn Ilaukal in tlie ninth and tenth centuries;
Abulfeda and Edrisi in the twelfth and thirtcentli; to whom may be added the respectable
names of Ibn-al-Vardi, Bakoui, and Scheabeddin. Although none of their works have be
come at all familiar to the European reader, yet learned men have translated portions, which

Book IL

ARABIAN GEOGRAPHY.

61

not only convey a general idea of their system, but have enabled geographers to delineate
some districts of the globe which otherwise would have long remained unlmown.
Sect. I. — General System. Fig. 11.
The mathematical sciences, and above all astronomy, were among the most fevourite pur
suits of the court of Bagdad ; and the ample resources which they afforded were applied
witli considerable care to the improvement of geography. In 833, the caliph Almamoun en
deavoured, by observations of latitude made at Kufa, and at a point in the desert of Pal
myra, to measure the circumference of the globe. In all the countries subject to the Maho-
medan arms, numerous observations are recorded which, though not always rigorously cor
rect, appear at least to have been real, and not merely calculated out of itineraries, like those
of the Alexandrian geographers. The tables of Abulfeda, of Ulug Beg, and of Nazir Ed-
din, edited by Graevius, and republished by Hudson, afford materials that are still useful for
the construction of the maps of interior Asia.
Fig. 11.— MAP OF THE WORLD TAKEN FROM AN ARABIAN MANUSCRIPT OF AL EDRISI, IN THE
BODLEIAN LIBRARY.

1. Mountains of the
Moon and Sources
of the Nile
2. Bcrbara [jdngdom
of Adel)
d. Al-ZunelZanguebar)
4. Sefala (Sofala)
3. Al-Wak Wat
6. Serendeeb (Ceylon)
7. Al-Comor (Mada
gascar)
8. A-Tlnsi
9. Al-Yeman (Arabia
Felix)
10. Tehama
11. Al-Hejaz (Arabia!
Deserta)
12. Al-Shujar (Seger)
13. Al-Imama(Yamama)
14. Al-Habesh (Ethiopia,
Abyssinia)
Vol. I.

Al Nuba (Nubia) 30.
AI Tajdeen 31.
Al-Bejah
Al-Saneed fUpper 32.
Egypt, Said)
Al-ouhat-what (Oa- 33.

is)

Gowas 35.
Kanun Belad Al-lemlum 36.
Belad Mufrada 37.
Belad Nemanch 38.
AI-MuIitauSinhajeh 39.
Curan (Karooan, 40.
Kureue) 41.
NetToiand 42.
AI-Sous Nera 43,
AI-Mughrub AI 44.
Amkoen (Mogreb 45.
the WcBt) 46.

Afreekeea (Africa) 47.
Belad el Gerid (Date 48.
Country) 49.
9eharee,Bereneek(or 50.
Desert of Berenike) 51.
Missur (Ecypt) 52.
Al-Sham (Syria) 53.
. Al-Irak (Persian 54.
empire) 55.
Fars (Persia Proper) 56.
Kirman (Carmania) 57.

AliazehMuehan Al-Hunda (ScJndi)
Al-Hind (India)
Al-Seen (China)
KhorasanAl-BcharuaAzerbijan (iVIedia)
Khuwarizm 6

"Al-Shash Khirkeez
Al-Sefur Al-1'ibut (Tibet)
Al-Nufuz Izz
Kurjeea (Georgia)
Keymak Kulhcea
Izzea Azkush
Turkcsh Iturab Bulghar (Bulgaria)
Al-MutenahYajooj (Gog)
Majooj (Magog)
Asiatic (Russia)
BejeerutAl-Alman

66. Al-Khuzzua Khosre
(Caspian Sea)
67. Turkea (Turkey)
68. Albeian (Albania)
69. Makedunceah (Ma
cedonia)
70. Baltic Sea
71. Jeiiubfta (probably
Sweden)
72. G errn an i a (Germany)
lA. Denmark
74. Afraneeeah (France)
75; Felowiah (^orway)
76. Burtea or Burtenea
(Britain)
77. Corsica, Sardinia.&c.
78. Italy
79. Ashkerineah (part ol
Spain,Q,.ADdaluBia)

62 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Past I.
Many countries, hitherto unknown and barbarous, were explored, and in some degree
civilized, by tho Moslem arms. Those on the Oxus and the Jaxartes, the Asiatic Scythia of
the ancients, and occupied then only by Nomadic hordes, were covered by them with great
and flourishing cities. Among these, Samarcand became afterwards the capital of an empire
that extended over half of Asia. At the opposite extremity, Mauritania, which had been
regarded by the Romans as almost beyond the limits of social existence, became a flourishing
kingdom, and possessed in Fez an emuient school of learning. Even beyond the limits of
the Mahomedan world, missions were sent to explore the remotest limits of the east and
west. One interesting result of these has been communicated in the relation of two Maho
medan travellers, Wahad and Abuzaid, who in the ninth century penetrated into China ; and
gave a description of that country ; which, though only recently known to us by tiie transla
tion of Renaudot, must have been the earliest ever communicated to the nations of the west.
From Lisbon, also, the brothers Almagrurim sailed, endeavouring to anticipate the discoveries
of Columbus, by exploring unknown countries beyond " the sea of darkness." For ten or
eleven days they steered westward ; but seeing a storm approaching, the light feint, and the
sea tempestuous, they dreaded having come to the dark boundaries of the earth. They turned
therefore south, sailed twelve days in that direction, and came to an island, which they called
Ganam, or the island of birds ; but the flesh of these birds was too hitter to be eaten. They
sailed on twelve days farther, and came to another island, the king of which assured them
that their pursuit was vain : that his father heui sent an expedition for the same purpose ; but
that, afl;er a month's sail, the light had wholly failed, and they had been obliged to return. The
adventurers, therefore, made theur way back to the coast of Africa, which they reached in
three days. The bearings stated seem to point out Madeira and the Canaries as the two
islands visited in this expedition.
In regard to the general outline of the earth, the Arabs seem to have closely adhered to
ancient theories. They revived the early impression of an ocean, which, like a zone, encom
passed the whole earth. This, according to a natural feeling, was characterized as the " Sea
of Darkness," an appellation most usually given to the Atlantic ; but the northem sea of
Europe and Asia, inspiring still more mysterious and gloomy ideas, is called the " Sea of
pitchy Darkness." Edrisi has even imagined the land as floating in the sea, and only part
appearing above, like an egg in a basin of water. At the same time he divides it into seven
seas, fancifiilly appropriated to the seven climates into which the earth was divided. Ac
cording to these climates, he describes the earth beginning at the westem and proceeding to
the eastern extremity ; an ill-judged arrangement, which, by a mechanical section, separates
portions of territory the most intimately connected. The knowledge of the Arabs was sub
jected to another and a voluntary limitation. They studiously desisted from aU inquiry
respecting those blinded nations, whose minds had never been illumined by the light of the
Koran. Ibn Haukal even makes it a subject of glory, that he had found nothing worthy of
remark among nations who could not be viewed without horror by men who held any innate
principles of virtue, wisdom, or religion. These views of the subject greatly restricted their
means of knowledge in respect to Europe, and rendered it of little value, unless with regard
to those two continents, which their arms had rendered to a great extent Mahomedan.
Sect. H. — Asia.
The Asia of the Arabs comprised a wider range than had belonged to that continent under
any former system. China is distinctly marked, partly under the appellation of Seen, and
partly under that of Cathay ; the former term appearing to comprehend India beyond the
Ganges. Lamery, productive in camphor, gold, ivory, and dye-woods, appears by these
products to be Sumatra, and mention is even made of Al Djavah. The coimtries on the
Oxus and Jaxartes having become the seat of an extended Moslem empire, of which Samar
cand was the capital, Tartary, both eastern and westem, was, for the first time, delineated
with tolerable accuracy ; many of the leading positions, in tliis hitlierto inaccessible part of
the continent, were even fixed by astronomical observation ; and some positive though feint
and indistinct notice appears to have been received respecting the people situated along the
shores of the Northern Ocean. Unfortunately the main objects of curiosity and inquiry were
Gog and Magog. The authentic application of these names has been observed under the
Hebrew system as belonging to a devastating race from the shores of tlie Euxine and Caspian.
Oriental fancy had transformed them into two enormous giants, who had erected an impreg
nable castle on the borders of Scythia. The efforts made by the court of Bagdad in pursuit
of this chimera were very extraordinary. The first expedition was undertaken with the
hope of finding it somewliere on the shores of the Ciispian ; but as tlieir conquests soon
embraced the wlioln of that region, witliout the slightest trace of this tremendous castle, the
more southern country of Bokhara \vas tlie next object of searcli. 'NMien that also had been
surveyed in vain, the court was involved in much perplexity, and scarcely knew to what
ulterior region their view was to be directed. At lengtli one of tlie caliphs dispatched a
mission, with strict injunctions on no account to return without having discovered the castle
of Gog. The envoys, according to Edrisi's report, proceeded first along the shores of the

Book H. IN EUROPE DURING THE DARK AGES. 63
Caspian, then through a vast extent of desert, probably the country of the Kirghises, when
tliey arrived at a stupendous range of mountains, which must have been the Altai. Here
they did actually find or pretend to find something which they concluded to be the castle of
Gog and Magog. Perhaps they reached some of those ancient monuments whicli have been
found along this range, and gladly embraced this pretext to rid themselves of so troublesome
a commission. The picture they drew of it was certainly very highly coloured, according
to Oriental taste. Tlie walls were of iron cemented with brass, and a gate fifty cubits high
was secured by bolts and bars of enormous magnitude. The minds of the Arabs were thus
set at rest, and in all the future delineations of Asia this mighty CEistle was seen towering at
its ferthest extremity. Sect. HI. — Africa.
In regard to Africa, the wide-extended settlements of the Arabs afforded them new sources
of information. The Mediterranean coast, indeed, as far as Numidia, had been fully explored
by the ancients, and had even formed a more intimate part of their political system than it
has done of that of the moderns. By the Arabs, however, who had established here a suc
cession of kingdoms, it was described in greater detail than ever ; and as the most western
of these kingdoms was the flourishing one of Morocco, this region, comprising the nearly
unknown tracts of ancient Mauritania, formed an almost entirely new acquisition to know
ledge. But their grandest achievement consisted in forming a road across the Great Desert,
and in colonising a considerable part of the central regions of Africa. They here founded a
series of powerful kingdoms : Ghana, the modem Kano ; Tocrur, which we conceive to be
Sackatoo ; Kuku and Kauga, which recent travellers have found in and near the modern
region called Bornou. They described those countries as situated on the Nile of the Ne
groes, which, contrary to ancient opinions, they represented as rising indeed from the same
fountain with the NUe ; but as flowing westward across all Africa, and falling into the
Atlantic ocean or sea of darkness. At its mouth they placed the island of Ulil, whence salt
was conveyed to all the Negro territories, which were entirely destitute of that necessary
of life. This view of the subject, though erroneous, was naturally suggested by the course
of the rivers within the region with which they were alone intimately acquainted ; but we
reserve this discussion for a separate chapter, when we propose to give a succinct view of
the successive theories respecting this great African river. We shall at present only
observe, that, as Tocrur is described to be only eighteen days' journey from the ocean, it is
plain that the knowledge of the Arabs did not extend to Tombuctoo ; tha,t they knew nothing
of the Senegal or Gambia, or the countries upon these rivers ; and that the ocean into which
they represented the Nile of the Negroes as felling was either a hypothetical feature alto
gether, or was at least hypotlietically connected with all that they knew of the eastern tracts
of interior Africa.

CHAPTER n.
EUROPEAN GEOGRAPHY DURING THE DARK AGES.
Even the imperfect knowledge possessed by the ancient geographers became involved in
the general progress of that intellectual darkness, which ensued on the decline of the Roman
empire. Europe, overwhelmed with a deluge of barbarism, no longer cultivated art or
science ; and the rude states into which it was divided had only a vague idea of each other's
situation. The advance of this darkness may be observed in an anonymous work, published
at Ravenna in the eighth century. The writer- presents only confused fragments of the
information contained in Ptolemy and Pliny. The coast of India, indeed, the mercantile
route to which appears to have been kept open, is still delineated with some degree of cor
rectness. But the whole interior of Asia, from China to Bactriana, is included under the
name of " Seric India :" the Caspian re-appears as a gulf of the Northern Ocean ; in short,
all these distant regions are viewed, in the manner natural to ignorance, as a dim and inde
finite expanse, the features of which were all confusedly blended with each other.
The monasteries during the dark ages afforded an asylum for all that remained of ancient
knowledge ; in them the manuscripts of many of the classic writers were still preserved,
though little consulted. The reading aloud of histories, and descriptions of neighbouring,
and even of distant countries, formed a mode of beguiling the tedious hours ; but these being
recorded under the title of " Wonders of the World," and crowded with the most extrava
gant fables, served rather for the amusement of the fire-side, than for any real instruction.
The missions undertaken for the conversion of the northem pagans were the principal
channel by which any geographical knowledge was conveyed. The missionaries did not, at
this time, attempt to pass the limits of Europe ; but directed their efforts towards the con
version of the Slavonic tribes, who occupied Poland, Prussia and Livonia. Other appears
even to have penetrated through the interior of Russia to the White Sea ; he undertook also
an extensive voyage along the coasts of Norway. The Anglo-Saxon Wilfrid, named by the
pope the apostle of the Germans, appears to have been the person who transmitted the most

64 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Part I.
fiill details relative to the Slavonic tribes. St. Otto, bishop of Bamberg, and Anscaire, a
monk of Corbie, penetrated to the kingdoms of Sweden and Denmark : but the details of
their mission have not been preserved. Although, however, the monks thus did something
to illustrate the geography of Europe, there is sufficient evidence that they laboured, in
many instances, under the grossest ignorance ; some of them knew not even the capital of
their own country, or the cities nearest to their own.
The great monarchs made some efforts to rescue the age from this state of profound igno
rance. The two illustrious monarchs, Charlemagne and Alfred, distinguished themselves
by their endeavours to promote geography : the former constmcted a silver table of large
dimensions, on which was delineated the whole world so far as known to him ; unfortunately
the materials were too costly, and the silver world was soon melted down to supply the
necessities of one of its kingdoms. Alfred produced a more valuable monument in a descrip
tion of the north of Europe, from the best materials which could be then collected, and which
fbrms still the best record of the geographical knowledge of that age. Under the direction
of William the Conqueror was drawn up that important document called Doomsday Book, in
which the population, the culture, and the taxes paid by each district, are exhibited in the
greatest detail. A similar survey of Denmark was made in the thirteenth century, by its
sovereign Waldemar II.; and of the Mark of Brandenburg, in the fourteenth century, by the
emperor Charles IV.
The Danes and Norwegians, the Northmen as they were called, while under their mighty
sea-kings they spread desolation over the maritime districts of Europe, necessarily acquired
a very extensive knowledge of its seas and coasts. Such knowledge, though nowhere formed
into any regular system, may be traced in the sagas, or metrical histories in which they
celebrate the gallant exploits of their countrymen. They were, of course, familiar with all
the countries bordering on tho Baltic. They knew by conquest Orkney, Shetland, the He
brides, and the westem coast of Ireland. Their fleets reached even the shores of Italy and
Sicily. Towards the north, they established colonies in Iceland and Greenland. But the
most important discovery of the Northmen was, undoubtedly, America, if their claim to the
merit of that discovery shall be admitted to be made good. In the beginning of the eleventh
century, Thorwald and Leif, two natives of Iceland, having sailed far to the south-west, came
to a country which appeared to them, doubtless by comparison, to be mild and agreeable ;
the natives were of dwarfish stature, and maintained with them sometimes a hostile, but
oftener a friendly intercourse. Finding that the rivers abounded with fish, and that the finest
furs could be procured, they and their countrymen repeated their visits ; and in 1211, Bishop
Eric is said to have repaired thither with the view of converting the natives. The name
given to the region is Vinland, from the vines growing in it ; a feature which certainly
occurs to us as very foreign to this part of the world ; but, in feet, wild vines are found
growing in all the most northerly districts of America. It is highly probable that the conti
nent was not reached by the Icelandic adventurers, and that Yinland was merely a southerly
district of Greenland.

CHAPTER m.
GEOGRAPHICAL KNOWLEDGE DERIVED FROM THE CRUSADES.
The crusades formed a series of events which roused the European mind from its local an^
limited range, and directed its ken into the regions of another continent. The high-WTOught
enthusiasm which impelled Europe to pour itself, as it were, in one mass on the eastem
world, however blind might have been the zeal which inspired it, was, on the whole, highly
beneficial : it drove back the tide of Saracen and Turkish conquest, which might have swal
lowed up the whole West, and involved it in the same gloom of barbarism and superstition
that pervaded the East. Above all, the crusades had a powerful influence in dispelling the
mental darkness in which the western regions were involved, and in preparing that light of
science and intelligence which was so soon to dawn upon them. The attention of Europe
was thus directed to these interesting and memorable regions, known hitherto only by the
meagre report of some occasional pilgrims. Not only tlie Holy Land, witli the kingdoms of
Jerusalem and Edessa, founded by the victorious crusaders, but tlie extensive domains
belonging to the Saracen and Turkish empires, became objects of uiquiry ; search was now
made in the writings of the ancient geographers, and perhaps some lights were derived even
from the Arabian writers. Sanudo compiled a map of tlie world, annexed to Bongar's
" Gesta Dei per Francos," {fg. 12.) in which the ideas formed out of tlie crusading expedi
tions are fully exemplified : Jerusalem is placed in the centre of tlie world, as the point to
which every otlier object is to be referred ; the eartji is made a circle surrounded by tlie
ocoan, the shores of which are represented as evcrywhore nearly equidistant fi-om that ¦
spiritual capital, the silo of which is, indeed, remarkable for its relation to the three conti
nents, Asia, Europo, and Africa. Persia stands in its proper place ; but India, under the
modifications of On^ator and Lessor, is conftiscdly repeated at different points, while the
river Indus is mentioned in tho text as tlie eastern boundary of Asia, To the north, the

Book IL

KNOWLEDGE FROM THE CRUSADES.
Fig. 13.— SANUDO'S MAP OP THE WORLD.

65

Occideos

castle of Gog and Blagog, an Arabian feature, crowns a vast range of mountains, within
which it is said that the Tartars had been imprisoned by Alexander the Great. The Cas
pian appears, with the bordering countries of Georgia, Hjrrcania, and Albania ; but these
features stand nearly at the northem boundary of the habitable earth. Africa has a sea to
the south, stated, however, ,to be inaccessible, on account of the intensity of the heat. The
European countries stand in their due place, not even excepting Russia and Scandinavia ;
though some oversights are observable in the manner in which the two are connected
together.

CHAPTER IV,
TARTAR GEOGRAPHY.

The revolutions of the north of Asia next attracted the eyes of Europeans to the distant
quarters of the world. The roaming tenants of those boundless wilds, known under the
ancient name of Scythia, and the modem one of Tartary, have at various periods conquered
and desolated the civilized world of Asia. The offspring of Tartar chiefs sat for many cen
turies on the thrones of Pekin, of Delhi, of Ispahan, and of Constantinople : but, of the
Tartar rulers, none ever raised so terrible a name, or established so wide an empire, as
Gengis or Zingis ; originally an individual chief of the Monguls, he attained the general sway
over that warlike race, and led them as conquerors from empire to empire. His first and
most signal exploit was the conquest of China ; having thence crossed the whole breadth of
Asia, he died on the shoresof the Caspian. Hissuccessors pressed on westward,overran Russia,
and penetrated through Poland into Hungary and Silesia ; their approach, their rapid move
ments, and the exaggerated reports of their ravages, struck the nations of Europe with inex
pressible terror ; this was greatly heightened by the prevailing ignorance of geography, which
was such that none knew when they might arrive, or where they might be encountered. The
VOL.L 6* I

66

HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY.

Part I.

Danes were thus deterred one season even from gomg to the herring-fishery, on the coast of
Scotland. The Tartars defeated and killed the Duke of Silesia ; but a general muster of
the German chivalry being made to oppose them, they retreated into the interior of Poland,
and even further to the east, leaving only a numerous vanguard ; but it was suspected that
they were only mustermg their strength, again to invade Europe, in more dreadfiil and
destructive array.
Embassy, at this crisis, was deemed the expedient most likely to appease the fury of these
dreaded invaders. According to the ideas of the age, the pope appeared the most respectable
character, in whose name a mission could be undertaken, and monks the most fitting ambas
sadors. The choice was injudicious : these envoys, ignorant of the political relations of
countries, of the usages of society, and the mode of treating with mankind, obtained no
respect in the eyes of the fierce conquerors of Asia. They returned without fulfilling any
object of their mission ; and if Europe was not again exposed to this barbarous inundation, it
owed its safety only to the division of the immense empire of Kaptchak, and the dissensions
among its princes. These ambassadors, however, traversed a large portion of the continent,
before unknown to Europeans. One mission, indeed, under Ascelin, which met the Monguls
on the frontier of Persia, does not communicate any geographical information; but the
joumey of Carpini, and after him of Rubraquis, {fig. 13.) led them through the north of
Fig. 13.— MAP OF THE JOURNEY OF RUBRUQUia
30 40 60 60 70 80 90 100 110
^ ' t 'I 'I 'I ^ _

Russia, along the shores of the Black Sea, and the Caspian, and thence into the very heart
of the immense plains of interior Asia, where they found the great Tartar capital of Kara-
korum, the chief seat of the posterity of Zingis. Here the masters of the world, while
embassies and presents were waiting them from all the courts of southem Asia, were living
in the rudest Scythian fashion, feeding scantily on horse-flesh and mares' imlk, roving about
in tents, destitute of arts, and occupied only with war and plunder. The Tartars, however,
treated with a proud disdain all other nations, over whom they held themselves as commis
sioned by heaven to rule, while they paid the most abject submission to their own Khan, re
vering him as the appointed representative of the deity on earth.
Karakorum was found scarcely entitled to the name of city, being little larger than one
of the suburbs of Paris, and its most sumptuous edifices scarcely suitable to a European
country town. The situation of this capital of so great an empire has been a subject of some
controversy. D'Anville places it at a point to the north of China, near the eastem limit of
the great desert of Shamo or Cobi, while Fischer fixes it on the Orchon, one of the rivers
which unite in forming the Selingha. I have elsewhere endeavoured to show (Discoveries
in Asia, I.) that both these positions must be about a tliousand miles to the eastward of the
real site. It is true that upwards of four months was occupied in passing from the westem
frontier of Russia to this capital ; and the missionaries complain of the grievous rapidity with
which they were conveyed. They estimate the daily rate as equal to tlie distance from Paris
to Orleans, or about seventy miles ; and this time and route would doubtless be sufficient to
carry them to the most eastern extremity of the continent But whenever they give us the
time actually employed in travelling between laiown points, a rate is found which does not
even approach to the above. Two months are spent by Carpini in travelling from the Dnieper
to the Volga, and by Rubruquis from the Danube to the Don, " riding post as the Tartars
do ;" yet neither of these spaces exceeds in direct distance six hundred miles. Then from
the Volga to the Ural, which may be two hundred and fifty miles, we have twelve days ;
while the journey from the Ural to the inland sea of Balkash, or Palcati, occupied above
forty-three days. Thus down to that point it required four months to travel not quite eighteen
hundred miles. From the BaUtash to Kai-akorum, tlie journey was performed in three weeks.

Book H. VENETLVN GEOGRAPHY. 67
Is it possible to suppose that tliey could in that time have travelled fifteen hundred miles, the
space which would be necessary to enable them to reach the Karakorum either of D'Anville
or of Fischer 1 They could not have passed the great table plain of Soongaria, compared by
the Oriental histories to a great sea of verdure, and consequently of all others the best fitted
to form the central encampment of this great pastoral and military empire. All the geo
graphical mdications given by Rubruquis agree with this position ; and disagree wholly with
the other two. He says all tlie rivers observed by him flowed to the westward, which is true
as far as Soongaria, but directly contrary to what takes place in the other positions, both of
which are even placed upon rivers that flow to the eastward. China is said to lie to the
south-east, as it does from Soongaria ; but from the two other positions it would be directly
soutli. The Kirghises are said to lie to the north, and the Baschkirs to the west ; but these,
according to the ordinary site, would have been at a distance quite immense, and could have
had no relations with Karakorum. The hypothesis which places that city in Mongolia is
founded upon the latter having been the original seat of Zingis ; but Rubruquis expressly
states, that this arrangement had now ceased, and that Tartaria was " the chief and royal
city." Such a change was, indeed, almost necessary to an empire which was to embrace at
once the East and the West ; to hold China in one hand, and Russia in the other.

CHAPTER V.
VENETIAN GEOGRAPHY.

The republics of Italy, and above all that of Venice, were the states in which the spirit of
commerce and inquiry, after being long dormant, revived with the most brilliant lustre.
The commerce which they carried on was one which connected them with the most distant
regions : they traded in the jewels, the spices, and the fine cloths of India, a country situated
at a distance really vast, and which then appeared almost immeasurable. It was not by
Venetians, however, or by any Europeans, that the vast intervening space was traversed.
They found the Indian commodities in the ports of the Mediterranean or the Black Sea, to
which they were brought by the Arabs up the Red Sea, or by the interior caravans across
central Asia. It was impossible, however, that they could see these precious and profitable
commodities continuing to enter their ports, without feeling some curiosity as to the splendid
and beautiful regions whence they came ; and, in that age of enterprise, it was likely that
some would be unpolled to brave even the obstacles presented by this vast unknown space,
occupied by people of a hostile and bigoted faith. The Abbe Zurla has collected notices of
a considerable number who, actuated by this spirit of discovery, penetrated to a considerable
depth into the interior of Asia. But the feme of all these is eclipsed by one, whose travels
extended far beyond the rest, and who has always ranked among the greatest of discoverers
of any age.
Marco Polo was a noble Venetian, whose family, like many others of the same rank, was
engaged in extensive commerce. His uncles, Maffeo and Nicolo, had visited Tartary, and
afterwards China, though without leaving any narrative of their observations. The pope,
however, being apprized of their discoveries, sent out an ecclesiastical mission, accompanied
by the young Marco Polo, then only nineteen. They spent twenty-four years in traversing
the most remote regions of Asia. The result of their religious mission is not stated ; but they
retumed laden with precious jewels, with which they dazzled the eyes of their countrymen,
by whom they were not at first recognised. Marco being afterwards made prisoner by the
Genoese, was persuaded to amuse the hours of confinement by dictating a narrative of his
travels, which was read with avidity, and soon translated into all the European languages.
He has suffered like many other eminent travellers, under those injurious suspicions which
arise in the minds of persons unwilling to believe any event or object which goes beyond
the sphere of their ordinary experience. His name even furnished the nickname given to a
personage introduced into the comedies of the Eige, to recite every species of extravagant
fable. But modern information has verified in all its most essential points the narrative of
Marco Polo, leaving only a slight tincture of that credulity which was characteristic of the
age, and is confined to what was told hun by others of countries which he did not himself
visit. He appears to have first proceeded along the northern shore of Asia Minor, then the
seat of a flourishing Turkish dynasty. He passed through Armenia, along the lofty ridges
of Ararat, and descending the Euphrates through Curdistan came to Bagdad, no longer the
capital of the caliphate, but still a flourishing and civilized city under its Tartar conquerors.
He visited the great commercial capital of Ormuz, and thence proceeded eastward through
the southem part of Persia by Kerman and Kubbees, across the great salt desert. At length
he reached Balkh, which, though still a considerable emporium of central Asia, presented
only in its ruined temples and spacious squares the vestiges of its ancient grandeur. Then
passing along the borders of Cashmire and the mountain tract of Balashan (Badakshan), cele
brated for its mines of rubies, he ascended to the elevated plain of Pamere, forming the sum
mit of that cross branch of the Himmaleh called the Beloor. On this, which appeared to him

68

HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY.

Part L

the highest ground in the world, he felt that difficulty in respiration, and in producing com
bustion, which is peculiar to the most elevated mountain sites. He afterwards reached the
large Tartar cities of Yarkund and Cashgar, and entered on that great eastem table-land
which, before and since, has formed the Terra Incognita of Asia. He then entered Northem
China, which he calls Cathay, and visited its capital Cambalu, his description of which strik
ingly coincides with that of the modem Pekin. He afterwards visited Mangi or Southem
China, and found in its capital, Quinsai, a scene eclipsing all that he had beheld either in
Europe or in the East. It is described as a most immense, and, from its splendour and the
beauty of its situation, almost a magic city. In fact Hangtchoofoo, which corresponds with
Quinsai, though it has long ceased to be the capital of China, is stUl a very large city, veiy
charmingly situated. From China, Marco Polo passed through the Indian Archipelago, hear
ing only of Great Java, but visiting Sumatra, which he calls Little Java. He touched at
the coasts both of Malabar and Coromandel, and learned many particulars respecting India
and its people, which have since been confirmed by modem observation. He retumed by
the Red Sea to Europe.
A map of the world on a large scale, {fig. 14.) by Fra Mauro, which is preserved at Venice,
and of which a highly finished copy exists in the British Museum, exhibits a view of the
geographical ideas formed by the Venetians, founded upon the information derived from their
Asiatic travellers, and prior to the discovery of America.
Fig. 14. — Map of the Woeu) bt Fra Mauro.

1. Barora

15. Charazan

2. Dafur

16. Chnraian

W. Fundan

17. Mihcn

A. Marocho

18. Mognan

.'>. Sicno

19. Siachone

6. Mocha

20 Solfoton

7. Thftsi

21. Candar

a TImto

2-2. Thymchain

9. Sollanfur

2.x Babilonia

IC PollifTondi

24. Muflnpotamia

]1. ItJHGnoea

25. Archa Noo

12. Turmilli

26. Tiphilis

13. Doli

27. Armenia

14. Ava

aa spihan

89. Znrdavo

43. Sapolcro Uncam

30. Hero

44. Samargant

31. Duleh

. 45. Nogra

32. Tangui

46. Moscliovia

33. Chnnsay

47. Permia

34. Nunarn

48. Novogrado

35. Quiinzu

49. Riga

36. Cambalu

SO. Praga.

37. Arclianara

38. Silan

Rivera, Lakes, (t-e.

39. Olrar

a Galla

4U. Chalajo

b Xebe

41. SoRenach

c Avaai

43. Sepulture

b Abavi

Q Nilo
f Eufratea
g Tigris
n Inaus
i ManduB
j Ganges
\ Quian
1 Mare Breuoto
m Amu
D Folisanchm
o Mare Biaocho
p Edil
q Tanu
T D&nubio.

Book IIL MODERN GEOGRAPHY. 69
BOOK III.
MODERN GEOGRAPHY.
Geography was now to assume a new aspect, and worlds before unknown were to be com
prehended witliin her domain. Although the Italian states produced, almost exclusively, emi
nent astronomers, skilfiil pilots, and hardy navigators, their attention was nearly engrossed
by land conveyance, and the navigation of the interior seas of Europe : they did not originate,
or even attempt to follow out, any trains of oceanic discovery. The rulers of the exterior
coasts of Europe, and especially of the Iberian peninsula, carried off all the prizes in this
new and brilliant career. Between 1492 and 1498, the American continent, and the passage
to India by the Cape, were discovered by Gama and Columbus : the face of the world was
changed ; and all the daring and enterprising spirits of the age embarked in this career of
discovery, conquest, and commerce.

CHAPTER I.
DISCOVERY OF AMERICA AND THE EAST INDIES.
The progress of discovery over the globe, when the first steps had been taken, was
astonishingly rapid ; no cost, no peril, deterred even private adventurers from equipping
fleets, crossing the oceans, and facing the rage of savage nations in the remotest extremities
of the earth. Columbus had not yet seen the American continent, and the mouth of the
Orinoco, when Cabot, of Venetian descent, but sailing under English auspices, discovered
Newfoundland, and coasted along the present territory of the United States, probably as
fer as Virginia. In the next two or three years, the Cortereals, a daring family of Portu
guese navigators, began the long and vain search of a passage round the north of America :
they sailed along the coast of Labrador, and entered the spacious inlet of Hudson's Bay,
which they seem to have mistaken for the sea between Africa and America ; but two of
them unhappily perished. In 1501, Cabral, destined for India, struck unexpectedly on the
coast of Brazil, which he claimed for .Portugal. Amerigo Vespucci had sailed along a great
part of Terra Firma, and Guiana, and he now made two extensive voyages along the coast
of Brazil ; services which obtained for him the high honour of giving his name to the whole
continent. Grijalva and Ojeda went round a great part of the circuit of the coasts of the
gulf of Mexico. In 1513, Nunez Balboa, crossing the narrow isthmus of Panama, beheld the
boundless expanse of the Pacific Ocean. These discoveries afforded the impulse which
prompted Cortez and Pizarro to engage in their adventurous and sanguinary career ; in which,
with a handful of daring followers, they subverted the extensive and populous empires of
.Mexico and Peru. Expeditions were soon pushed forward on one side to Chili, and on the
other to California, and the regions to the north. Nearly a full view was thus obtained, both
of the great interior breadth of America, and of that amazing range of coast which it pre
sents to the southern ocean.
In the Eastem world, the domain which the papal grant had assigned to Portugal, dis
covery was alike rapid. Twenty years had not elapsed from the landing of Vasco da
Gama, when Albuquerque, Almeida, Castro, Sequeira, Perez, and many others, as navigators
or as conquerors, had explored all the coasts of Hindostan, those of Eastem Africa, of Ara
bia, of Persia ; had penetrated to Malacca and the Spice Islands ; learned the existence of
Siam and Pegu ; and even attempted to enter the ports of China. But the characteristic
jealousy of that power was soon awakened : the Portuguese embassy was not admitted into
the presence of the emperor ; and a mandate was issued, that none of the men with long
beards and large eyes should enter the havens of the celestial empire. After all these dis
coveries, the grand achievement yet remained, of connecting together the ranges of eastern
and westem discovery ; and of layuig open to the wondering eyes of mankind that structure
of the globe, which, though demonstrated by the astronomer, seemed to the generality of
mankind contrary to the testimony of their senses.
Magellan, in 1520, undertook, by circumnavigating the earth, to solve this mighty problem :
he passed through the straits which bear his name, and crossed the entire breadth of the
Pacific. He himself was unhappily killed at the Philippine Islands, but his companions
sailed on, and presented themselves to the astonished eyes of the Portuguese at the Moluc
cas. They arrived in Europe, after a voyage of three years ; and it could no longer be
doubted by the most sceptical that the earth was a spherical body.

70 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Part L
CHAPTER IL
EARLY SYSTEM OF MODERN GEOGRAPHY.
The systematic arrangement of the immense regions thus discovered, their adjustment to
each other, and to the mass of knowledge previously possessed, was a task as yef. beyond the
resources of modern geography. It was to Venice that the results of discovery were still
referred to be arranged and systematised ; but the Venetian geographers, however skilfiil,
laboured under many difficulties. The navigators seldom fiimished them with any celestial
observations, or even accurate surveys ; for which, indeed, science had as yet provided no
suitable instruments : they gave only rude delineations, on which the geographer was obliged
to trace his uncertain way ; most of the countries formerly known were touched at new
points, and recognised under new names ; and the continents, being made to contain both the
old and the new features, were swelled to a preposterous magnitude. The east of Asia
was obliged to contain at once the Serica of Ptolemy, the Mangi and Cathay of Marco Polo,
and the China of the Portuguese, all as separate empires. The relative site of the two
continents of Asia and America, the presentation of the west coast of the one to the east
coast of the other, was of course the problem which they had the fewest means of solving.
In a series of Venetian maps, preserved in the king's library, the two continents are de
scribed throughout their whole extent as either united or separated only by the narrow Strait
of Anian : the former delineation is retained even in a map by Bertelli, dated 1571 ; and m
one by Cimertinus (1566), Cathay is placed upon the Gulf of Mexico. The expedition
of Magellan, it might be supposed, would already have opened their eyes to the extent of that
vast ocean which here intervened : but Magellan scarcely penetrated into the northem
Pacific ; and his ill-understood course was probably supposed to reach direct from Cape
Horn to the Moluccas, which did not interfere with the hypothesis of the two continents
meeting each other in a different latitude. The breadth of America, like all unknown
spaces, was vastly exaggerated in the early maps ; while eastem Asia, by the process above
pointed out, was tripled in all dimensions, and thus made to cover an ample portion of the
Pacific. Sebastian Munster, in 1572, produced a delineation of the world, which is cleared of
some of the grossest mistakes, and which very tolerably delineates the general outline of the
earth. He commits, however, a very discreditable mistake, in taking Ptolemy for his guide
in regard to Scotland, and consequently representing that country as extending from west to
east ; a blunder the more singular, as his forms of Scandinavia and Ireland are liable to little
exception. Singular flights of fancy are found in the works of these early geographers.
Munster undertakes to describe, not only the surface of the earth, hut also its interior : this
is stated to be occupied by hell, a huge cavern two or three thousand German miles in length
and breadth, and " capable of holding many millions of damned souls." Its existence was
proved by the spirits which, in the depth of mineral caverns, as he had been assured by Cor
nelius Agrippa, often killed instantly a great number of men. The inflammatory gases,
which are still frequently producing such disasters, aflbrd certainly no implausible ground
for that strange conclusion.
Ortelius, in the commencement of the sixteenth century, exhibits a remarkable im
provement in geography. In his maps, all the parts of the globe begin to assume their real
form and dunensions ; America and Asia are widely separated, the expanse of the South Sea
interposing between them. The south pole is invested with a Terra Australis Incognita ;
which, as it relates to New Holland, is said to rest on the authority of Marco Polo and Bar-
thema, and in regard to the West, on that of Magellan. Terra del Fiiego is made a por
tion of this Austral contuient: while in lat 41° S., and long. 10° west of Ferro, is Promon
torium Terra Australis. There is a Terra Septentrionalis Incognita, nearly as extensive,
and seeming to include Nova Zembla. Greenland, however, exists distinct from it. In the
interior of Asia, the Caspian, under the appellation of Mer de Bachu, presents the same form
and dimensions as in Ptolemy, and receives all the rivers falling really into the Aral, the
existence of which seems not to be suspected by this geographer.
Mercator advanced considerably farther, particularly by showing tlie imperfections of
Ptolemy, and the injudicious manner in which the delineations given by him had been mixed
with those furnished by modem authority. Mercator retains the Austral continent, includ
ing in it Terra del Fuego. The lakes of Canada appear for the first time in his maps, as a
sea of fresh water, the termination of which is unknown. In Africa, Abyssinia, enormously
amplified, is made the principal and almost sole feature ; it extends southward to the vicinity
of the Cape, comprehending Mosambique, and bordering on Caffraria : tlie NUe rises only
about ton degrees north of the Cape, and consequently traverses all Africa from south to north.
With respect to the extreme northem regions, this very learned man has indulged in some
extraordinary flights of imagination. The ocean resumes, os in Homer, the character of a
river, and is seen rushing by four mouths into tlie Polar Gulf, to be absorbed, it is said, va\h
the bowels of the earth. On one of the river branches are placed pigmies, scarcely four

Book HI. MODERN ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY. 71
feet high ; a notion suggested, perhaps, by the diminutive stature of the Laplanders and Sa-
moyedes : on anotlier is placed a sort of northern paradise, while the Pole itself, a black and
immense rock, towers to a prodigious height.
From the time of Mercator modern geography made rapid and continued progress, till it
attained the state approaching towards perfection, in which it now exists : tliis will appear,
when we consider it as astronomical, critical, or statistical ; and when we view it in its rela
tion to the dtSerent quarters of the glober.

CHAPTER in.
MODERN ASTRONOMICAL GEOGRAPHY

The astronomical geography of the Greeks rested on a basis exceedingly narrow. It was
only at Alexandria, Syene, Rhodes, and a few other leading points, that observations of lati
tude appear to have been made with a tolerable approach to accuracy ; all the others seem to
have been only extended from rude ituieraries. With regard to the longitudes, although the
mode of calculating them by means of eclipses appears to have been understood, only one or
two actual observations of this nature are recorded ; nor does it seem to have exerted any
important influence on geography in general. The Arabs made much greater progress in
this department ; but, through the separation produced by religious antipathy, their works
were scarcely at all known in Europe at the period of the revival of letters. At that time,
the pompous display of latitudes and longitudes made by Ptolemy, venerable aa it had become
from its antiquity, commanded universal assent.
Modern observations have gradually shown the magnitude of Ptolemy's errors. The first
great shock to his authority was given by the latitude of Constantmople, which Amurath HI.
caused to be taken in 1574, when it proved to be two degrees lower than ancient authorities
had assigned : the idea of such a difference, however, was treated with derision by some
European geographers, till it was confirmed, in 1638, by Greaves, who had been sent to the
East by Archbishop Laud. Even then, many, rather than renounce the authority of Ptolemy,
believed that a change had taken place in the position of the earth ; but this notion became
no longer tenable to any extent when Alexandria and other points were found very nearly
to coincide with ancient observation. But the great alarm as to the unsoundness of ancient
graduation was given in 1635, when M. de Peiresc caused an eclipse of the moon to be
observed at Marseilles and at Aleppo ; and the difference of longitude, instead of 45° as it
had been represented, was found to be only about 30° : such an enormous error, in a dimen
sion which ought of all others to have been most exactly ascertained, shook altogether the
blind confidence hitherto reposed in the longitudes of Ptolemy. It was at last perceived,
that an entire reform of his graduations must be effected, before geography could rest on any
secure basis. Numerous observations upon eclipses now began to be made ; but it was then
discovered, that this only known mode of ascertaining the longitude was attended with many
imperfections. In the observation of fifty-six eclipses, collected by Ricciolus, there were
no two, observed in the same two places by the same men, which exhibited the same quantity
of longitude : even the same eclipse gave different results, when observed at its four critical
periods. As it was found impossible to guard against errors amounting even to three or
four degrees, an opinion became prevalent, in the middle of the seventeenth century, that unless
for very great distances, even itinerary measures would give the result with greater accu
racy ; yet Galileo, in 1610, had already pointed out a source of more accurate knowledge :
he had in that year discovered three of the satellites of Jupiter, and in his Nuncius Sidereus,
pointed out the use to which they might be applied. As his hints did not meet with the
attention they merited, he communicated them more fully, in 1631, to Philip II. of Spain ;
but that bigoted prince was unable to estimate their importance. Galileo met with a more
favourable reception from the Dutch, who sent Hortensius and Bleau to Florence, to commu
nicate with him on the subject. They found that great man involved in the storm of
persecution which the ignorant bigotry of the Romish church had raised against him : he
was thrown into prison ; and, after having asked pardon on his knees, for asserting that the
earth moved round the sun, obtained only a mitigation of his confinement. This discovery
was therefore of little use till 1668, when Cassini published his tables of the revolutions and
elipses of these satellites ; and three years afterwards, he and Picard made' joint observations
at Paris, and in the observatories of Tycho Brahe at Copenhagen, by which the longitude
of these two important points, which had been the subject of long controversy, was finally
fixed. The French government now took the most active measures for extending geographical
observation. Two academicians, Picard and De la Hire, were employed to construct a now
map of France upon astronomical principles. In this operation they almost everywhere
reduced the previous dimensions, which had been founded upon itinerary measures, and were
liable to their usual excess : they took off a whole degree from the westem coast between
Britany and Gascony, and half a degree from the coasts of Languedoc and Provence; so that

72 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY Part L
on their return, Louis XIV. facetiously reproached them with having robbed him of a part
of his kingdom. Other academicians were employed to determine the longitude of Goree
on the coast of Africa, and of Guadaloupe and Martmico in the West Indies ; and M. Cha-
zelles was sent up the Levant on a similar mission. Expeditions on a much grander scale
were dispatched, under Maupertuis to the Arctic circle, and Condamine to the equator.
The primary object of these was to determine the figure of the earth by the application of
the pendulum ; but the opportunity was taken of fnaking various observations of longitude
and latitude, in regions which had been formerly delineated only by processes of the most
vague description.
In the operation of determining the position of places on the globe, important improve
ments have been made since the above eras. Although there can be no more accurate mode
of determining the longitude, than by the eclipses of Jupiter's satellites, these are of too
unfrequent occurrence to answer the practical purposes required. Observations of tlie transits
of Mercury and Venus over the sun, of the occultations of the fixed stars, and of what are
called lunar distances ; processes, the nature of which will be fully explained in the foUowing
book, have been employed with success. Nay, to such perfection have chronometers been
brought, that, by showing the difference of time between known and unknown points, they
serve many of the ordinary purposes of navigation. The voyages undertaken by Capt Cook,
under the auspices of George III., afforded the means not only of exploring many islands and
regions of the Pacific and Polar seas, but of throwing much light upon the general stracture
of the earth. The expeditions of Capt. Parry, and the nautical surveys executed under the
direction of the British govemment by Flinders, King, Owen, and other ofiicers, have gone
far to fix the outlines of the great continents. The trigonometrical surveys of France and
England, executed within the last thirty years, have almost completed the deliaeation of
those countries. StUl this branch of geography remains very imperfect

CHAPTER IV.
MODERN CRITICAL GEOGRAPHY.

The application of a sound criticism to geographical materials cannot be discerned in the
rude and infant stages of the science. There is no branch in which the inquirer is so likely
to be misled by false and fabulous rumours. The persons from whom he must draw his
information, — the navigator, the merchant, the traveller, — make observations often only in a
rough and superficial manner, and are swayed in their reports by fancy or vanity. The results
of their own observation, or the authentic relations of well-informed persons, are confounded
with the most vague rumours which float among the vulgar. Hence almost all the early
systems have a portion of truth, mingled with many ideal and fabulous creations. The human
mind unwillingly owns its ignorance even to itself. The geographer was reluctant to stop
short at the point where his authentic information ceased. Having to delineate a kingdom
or a continent, he filled up the really unknown parts from vague rumour, or a fancifiU pro
longation of those that were known. Whatever object had once found a place was copied
mechanically without any inquiry, until modem maps and descriptions became crowded with
objects, for the position of which no reason could be assigned.
Strabo, among the ancient geographers, was alone endowed with a critical spirit : but not
having a sufficiently ample stock of materials, he exercised his judgment with a blind severity,
which appears to have done injustice to several individuals whose exertions in the infant
cause of discovery were highly meritorious. This extreme of scepticism, opposite to that
of credulity, has indeed thrown unjustly into shade the merits of some of the most eminent
discoverers, both ancient and modem. It is only by tlie collation of numerous authorities,
accumulated by time and extended intercourse, that the just medium can be observed, and
an equitable sentence pronounced on the reports of each party.
D'Anville, in the eighteenth century, possessed of ample materials, endued with indefe-
tigable patience and sound judgment, undertook to revise tlie whole system, upon which the
world and its regions had been hitherto delineated. The maps of tlie age were stUl covered
with many obsolete and many fenciful particulars ; and large portions of the world, con
cerning which absolutely nothing was known, were filled with imaginary cities and counfries.
D'AnvUle subjected every geographical feature to the strictest revision, and expunged
without mercy those which rested on no positive and actual authority. The world, under
his hands, assumed a new, and in some respects, a less flattering aspect Maps, which had
before been amply and regularly covered, now exhibited vast and unseemly blanks, which,
amid the boasted learning of lliis age, implied a mortifying confession of ignorance. It was
impossible, however, to deny, that this was the sound system upon which to proceed.
Geography rested at last upon sure bases, and proceeded in a regular course of improvement
Major Rennell, with a skUl and sagacity not inferior to that of D'Anville, arranged and
illustrated the mass of important materials collected respecting India and Africa ; and, though

Book IIL MODERN DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. 73
additional contributions of vast importance have in some degree superseded his actual delinea
tion, his example has introduced a still greater precision into the mode of treating the subject.
The comparison of ancient and modern geography, and the tracing of the infant steps of
early discovery, constitute an interesting field of inquiry, which has been much cultivated
during the present age. Vossius, Bochart, and other learned scholars of the seventeenth cen
tury, had exercised much dUigence in these researches ; hut they were not always guided
by the soundest judgment, nor were they sufficiently acquainted with the objects actually
existing, to be able to recognise them under the early descriptions. Rennell, Vincent, and
Mannert, seemed to have carried this research nearly as far as it can go, though without
being able to dispel that impenetrable darkness in which some questions are stUl involved.
Gosselin has applied to the science an extent of investigation, and a critical acumen, which,
perhaps, none of his predecessors have equalled ; but animated by too Strabonic a spirit, and
seeking to subvert all the bases on which ancient geography had before rested, he has in
many instances rather given lustre to bold and ingenious paradoxes, than made solid addi
tions to the science. CHAPTER V.
MODERN DESCRIPTIVE AND STATISTICAL GEOGRAPHY.
The mere outline of the globe, its continents and countries, the leading features of moun
tains, rivers, and cities, their distance and position with respect to each other, constitute all
that in the very strictest sense can be called geography. But the mind cannot pass these in
review, without feeling its interest excited, in even a superior degree, by other objects, for
which these only serve as the basis. The productions of the earth, whether natural or arti
ficial ; the treasures hid in its bosom ; the animals which roam or are bred on its surface ;
above all, the men by whom each region is peopled, — their manners, laws, industry, com
merce, the revolutions through which they have passed, — these possess the strongest claim
on our attention, and are of an importance superior to that of the mere geometrical outline.
The ancients did not occupy themselves with much more than the simple and fimdamental
bases of the science. The delineation of these formed alone an arduous task, which the
geographer was required to accomplish before he could attend to the accessary and orna
mental parts. Eratosthenes does not appear to have extended his research beyond those
branches which were connected with astronomy. The work of Ptolemy forms a mere naked
tabular list of positions, rarely enlivened by any historical or descriptive notices. Pliny does
not go much farther. Strabo alone has enriched his work with numerous anecdotes and de
scriptions which, though not given on any complete or systematic principle, constitute a
great portion of its value.
Early modern writers confined themselves, like the ancient geographers, to mere outlines.
All the first .treatises were formed on the model of Ptolemy ; D'AnvUle, the head of the
French school, applied himself solely to the boundaries and positions of countries, which he
fixed with a precision before unknown, but without directing much attention to their physical
and social relations.
Statistics, the science, which treats of kingdoms and states in their relations of population,
wealth, productions, commerce, and public force, is, as a separate branch of knowledge, only
of recent origin. From the first it had a natural alliance with geography. Busching may
be considered as the father of statistical geography : his vast research, strict fidelity, and
access to the best sources, enabled him, in his description of Europe, to assemble a mass of
information unequalled by any of his predecessors. He has arranged it, however, nearly in
the same mechanical manner in which they had drawn the mathematical outlines of the
globe. His writings, instead of conveying to the mind striking general views, are loaded
with mmute and burdensome detaUs, which can be useful only as matter of reference, and
would therefore have most properly appeared in the form of a' dictionary. His successors have
been numerous, and their labours are of similar character and value. Brans, with regard to
Africa, and Ebeluig to Asia, continued the series. The great geographical work recently
completed by Hassel, Cannabich, Gaspari, and Gutsmuth, in twenty-five octavo volumes, each
equal to three or four of ordinary size, comprises, probably, the largest mass of statistical
information ever assembled into one work.
The English compUations of Bowen, Guthrie, Salmon, and others of the same school were,
perhaps, the first works which embraced nearly all the objects that can give interest to a
system of geography ; and though indifferently executed, and devoid of any charms of style,
they acquured a very extensive popularity. Mr. Pinkerton has executed a work on the same
plan, in a superior manner, addmg notices of the difi^jrent branches of natural history, and
of the different languages of nations. M. Malte-Brun, by his acquaintance with the eastem
and northern literature of Europe, and by an anunated and interesting style, has produced a
work in some respects superior. M. Balbi has distmguished hunself by the industry with
which he has collected geographical facts.
We shall now take a view of modern discovery in the remoter quarters of the s-lobe
Vol. L 7 K *

74 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Part I.
CHAPTER VI.
MODERN GEOGRAPHY OF ASIA.
Asia was the first continent which attracted the attention of Europeans, and the journeys
of all the early travellers. The enterprise of the Venetians penetrated into some of the
wide and perUous tracts of its interior, which the boldest of more modem travellers have in
vain essayed to reach. Since the passage of the Cape, the career of discovery has been
chiefly maritime. We have seen how rapidly the Portuguese fleets explored all the south
ern coasts and islands. The eastem shores beyond Japan, as they presented nothing tempt
ing to commercial avidity, were left to be examined by expeditions having science and curi
osity for their object This task was effected by Cook, Perouse, Broughton, and Krusenstem.
Jesso, which had figured as a large contuiental tract, stretching between Asia and America,
was reduced by them to its insular form and dimensions, and its separation from Saghalien
established ; the range of the KurUe islands was also traced ; but some questions respecting
this very remote and irregular coast remain yet to be solved. Along its northem boundary,
beset by the almost perpetual ices of the polar sea, the progress of navigation was slow and
laborious. The English and Dutch, the chief maritime states, made extraordinary efforts
and braved fearful disasters, in the hopeless attempt to effect by this route a nearer passage
to India ; but though they penetrated beyond Nova Zembla, they never could pass the fomu-
dahle promontory of Severovostochnoi, the most northem point of the Asiatic continent The
Russians now claimed for themselves the task of advancing farther. They had most rapidly
discovered, and conquered the whole south and centre of Siberia, and reached the eastem
ocean at Ochotzk ; but the frozen bounds of the north for some time defied their investiga
tion. Proceeding in little barks, however, they worked their way from promontory to pro
montory. Behring and Tchirikoff, early in the last century, saUed through the Northem
Pacific, discovered the American coast, and the straits, bearing the name of fiie former, which
divide Asia from America. Deschnew and Shalaurof, by rounding the Asiatic side of this
Cape, and discovering the coast stretching away to the westward, were supposed to have es
tablished the fact of the entire separation of the two continents. There stiU remained a
portion of coast on the side of Asia, which, it was alleged, might hy an immense circuit
have connected the two together ; but the late voyage of Baron Wrangle seems to have re
moved every ground on which such conjecture could rest, and to have established beyond
doubt or dispute, the existence of Asia and America as continents altogether distinct.
Respecting the interior of Asia, the British obtained much additional information from
India, after tiiey became undisputed masters of that region. This information was in many
respects only a revival of ancient knowledge. The mountain boundary of India was traced,
and found to rise to a height before unsuspected. The sources and early courses of the
Ganges and the Indus, were found in quarters quite different from those which modem
geography had long assigned to them. The mountain territories of Cabul and Candahar,
the vast sandy plains of Mekran, were Ulustrated by the missions of Elphinstone and Pottin-
ger ; while Turner and Moorcroft penetrated into the high ulterior table-land of I'hibet
Recent and authentic uiformation has also been furnished by Burnes respecting Bochara and
Samarcand, those celebrated capitals of the early masters of Asia : but there remams stUl a
great central Terra Incognita, respecting which our information rests chiefly upon the desul
tory and somewhat clouded reports of Marco Polo, and the meagre narrative of Goez ; though
some important and more precise information has recently been aflSirded by the researches of
Humboldt and Klaproth. CHAPTER Vn.
MODERN GEOGRAPHY OP AFRICA.
Africa, more than any other quarter of the globe, has defied the research, and humbled the
pride, of modem inquiry. After accurate surveys had been made of the remotest qpeansand
shores, this continent, placed almost in view of Europe, stUl baffled every attempt to pene
trate the mighty secrets which it held in its bosom. This vast and unbroken region enclosed
by huge expanses of desert and occupied by barbarous and predatory tribes, for a long
period proved fatal to every daring mortal who attempted to penetrate into its depths. The
Portuguese, however, at an early period, made very extraordinary exertions, impelled by the
odd chimera of Prester John, a Christian pruice, whom they expected to find in the ulterior.
With this view they explored Abyssmia, of which they vastly exaggerated the dunensions,
making it extend even to the Cape, in the vicinity of which, according to their idea, the
NUe took its origin. In their progress also along the western coast they sent repeated em
bassies into the mterior, to discover, if possible, tlie abode of Prester John ; and though that
fevourite object always eluded their search, they appear to have reached on one occasion as
far as Timbuctoo, and leamed at Benin some particulars respecting the great interior king
dom of Ogane or Ghana.

Book HI. MODERN GEOGRAPHY OF AFRICA. 75
The great interior river called by Ptolemy the Niger, was the object which from the first
excited the chief interest in respect to the African interior. All the early European navi
gators, on coming to the two broad estuaries of the Senegal and Gambia, concluded that one
or both formed the termination of the long course which the Niger had been described as
taking across the entire breadth of Africa. For several centuries the European nations,
intent only on the trade in slaves, merely touched at different points of the coast, to which
those unhappy victims were brought down by large caravans. In the beginning of the
seventeenth century, however, the J^ench and English having respectively settled on the
Senegal and Gambia, were tempted, by the report and view of the gold brought from the
interior, to push up these rivers and endeavour to reach Timbuctoo. They had not ascended
fej, when they became sensible that tlie extraordinary magnitude and distant origin ascribed
to both was altogether chimerical. They were traced so near to their sources as to be
little more than rivulets ; yet still the explorers were fer from Timbuctoo, and from the
great central plain, through which the main course of the Niger was understood to flow.
At the same time, notices were transmitted to the French geographers Delisle and D'AnvUle,
which led them to inffer that thei^e was in that region another and greater river, which
flowed eastward towards the interior, and of which they were unable to learn the termina
tion. Yet this delineation of these great geographers had been in a great measure lost
sight of, even among their own countrymen.
The information obtained by the African Association at first tended to conflrm this impres
sion. The persons who had crossed the Niger at the most eastern part of the central Afri
can plain, described it to Mr. Lucas as flowing westward : but these conflicting statements
were sUenced by the first expedition of Mr. Park, who at Sego beheld it a broad and majes
tic stream, flowing through the plain of Barabarra from west to east and directing its course
into the depths of interior Africa. From that time, the termination of the Niger became
the grand problem which the science and the enterprise of the age were exerted to solve.
A boundless field v/as open to conjecture. By one theory, the Niger was lost in some great
inland seas or lakes of the interior ; by another, it bent to the south and west and reached
the Atlantic either in the Gulf of Benin, or by the estuary of the Congo ; lastly, it rolled to
the eastward, tUl, under the name of the Abiad, or White River, it became the principal
head of the NUe of Egypt. At last* by the persevering exertions of the British govern
ment an expedition fairly succeeded in penetrating into the hitherto unknown interior of
Africa, and in throwing a wonderfiil addition of light upon its structure. This mission, how
ever, broke up the grand question. They discovered, flowing through the great African
plain, not one river in one direction, but several in different directions ; all of which, it
appears, have been considered at different times, and under different circumstances, as the
Niger. These rivers are four : — 1. The Senegal, considered by the Arabians and modern
Europeans as the embouchure by which the Niger entered the ocean. 2. The Joliba, which
ever suice it was visited, and its course ascertained, by Park, has been fixed in the mind of
Europeans as the only Niger ; though probably not known to any of the ancient geographers
who used that term. 3. The Quarrama, or river of Zirmie, first discovered by the late
mission, flowing from east to west, and falling into the Joliba or QuoUa. This is evidently
the Arabian NUe of the negroes, on or near which are situated all their great cities — Ghana,
now known under the name of Cano ; Berissa, under that of Bershee ; Tocrur, as I appre
hend, under that of Sackatoo. 4. The Yeou, flowing eastward into the great lake of Bornou,
and which appears to have been the western Nile of Herodotus, visited by the Nasamonian
adventurers from Tripoli. The mission also ascertained the site of the kingdom of Bornou,
which had been very erroneously placed ; they discovered the fertile kingdom of Loggun,
perhaps the Cauga of Edrisi, and the great mountain region of Mandara, which appears to
be the Mons Mandrus of Ptolemy. The subsequent expedition of Clapperton from the
Gulf of Benin showed the connexion between the Atlantic coast and the Ulterior, and com
pleted the diagonal section made across the greatest breadth of the African continent It
showed also the continuity of large and populous kingdoms extending in this direction :
Eyeo, the Gago of Leo and the early geographers ; Zegzeg, with its large capital Zaria ;
Nyffe, the most industrious of the African states ; Boussa, Koolfu, and other flourishing
cities. The Niger of Park was here seen holding a southerly direction towards the Gulf
of Benin ; but it was reserved for Lander finally to solve the grand problem by tracing the
Niger down to its termination m the Gulf of Benm. This discovery, with that of its numer
ous tributaries, opens to commerce the prospect of being able to penetrate into the most
interior and flnest regions of the African contuient
Among partial but important contributions to the knowledge of Africa, may be mentioned
the observations of Bruce and Salt in Abyssinia; those of Brown in Darfiir; of Waddington
and Caillaud in the upper part of the NUe ; and, lastly, of Lichtensteui, Campbell, and
Burchell, upon the countries which lie in the interior northward from the Cape of Good
Hope. Yet a vast field stUl remains for future discovery. In particular, all the southern
interior, from the equator nearly to the Cape, has scarcely been the subject even of rumour.
The sources of the Nile, after the search of so many ages, are yet unexplored ; as well as

76 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Part L
that wide range of territory which intervenes between it and the series of rivers which we
have just noticed as assumhig the name of Niger. The continuity and structure also of
that vast chain of mountains, which, according to recent travellers, appears to cross Africa
at its greatest breadth, and gives rise to so many mighty streams,have yet by nomeansbeen
completely traced.

CHAPTER Vm.
MODERN GEOGRAPHY OP AMERICA.

The discovery of America, as formerly observed, was made in the first instance with
extraordinary rapidity. The thirst for gold and the spirit of adventure urged nation after
nation to explore its coasts, and penetrate its interior. Within twenty years was fomied
a full and tolerably precise outline of the whole eastem coast, from the mouth of Hudson's
Bay to the Straits of Magellan. The conquest of Cortez, of Pizarro, and of their im
mediate successors, soon conveyed a pretty accurate idea of the westem coast of South
America, of Mexico, and even of the peninsula of California. But the northem regions,
stretching into the ices of the Pole, presented barriers of a formidable description, which
long baffled the utmost efforts of navigators. America on this side resisted for a longer
time the attempts to complete its delineation than any other continent.
To explore the north-western coast seems to have been an undertaking properly belong
ing to Spain, the possessor of all the vast and opulent regions which extend along the
Pacific. Recent notices have shown that they did not neglect that inquiry, for Cortez and
several of the other viceroys sent expeditions along this coast to which they gave the name
of New-Mexico. The Spaniards, however, as usual, shrouded in deep mystery even these
limited discoveries, and were long able to prevent the other nations of Europe from visitmg
this coast, the most remote and inaccessible of any in the circuit of the globe. Europeans,
therefore, were not aware of the vast breadth to which this continent expanded towards the
north. They rather supposed that like South Americei, it narrowed to a point or cape,
upon passing which the navigator would enter upon the expanse of the Pacific, and might
bear down upon Japan, China, and the East Indies. The commercial nations therefore,
made vigorous and almost ceaseless efforts to turn this point, and effect as they imagined, a
nearer and more direct route into the eastem seas.
The English took the lead in this important career. Under the reign of Queen Eliza
beth, Frobisher and Davis made each three successive voyages. One discovered the
entrance into Hudson's Bay, the other found the entrance into the great sea which bears
the name of Baffin's Bay ; but, partly arrested by the well known obstructions to which
these seas are liable, partly diverted by a chimerical search after gold, they could not pene
trate beyond the numerous islands and inlets by which these entrances are beset. Hudson,
in 1610, steered a bolder course, and entered the vast bay, which has received its appeUa-
tion from that great navigator, who there unfortunately terminated his adventurous career.
The treachery of a ferocious and mutinous crew exposed him on these frozen and desolate
shores, where he miserably perished. Sir Thomas Button followed in 1612, and finding
himself in the middle of this capacious basin, imagined himself already in the Pacific, and
stood' full sail to the westward. To his utter dismay he came to the long continuous line
of shore which forms the westem boundary of Hudson's Bay. He expressed his disappoint
ment by giving to the coast the name of " Hope checked." Bylot and Baffin, who foUowed
three years after, were stopped hy the ice at Southampton Island. Baffin, however, made
afterwards a more important voyage, in which he completely rounded the shores of that
great sea which bears his name, and which, appearing to him to be inclosed on all sides by
land, has been denominated Baffin's Bay. The error involved in this appellation deterred
subsequent navigators from any further attempt ; for Baffin, in passing the great opening
of Ijancaster sound, had concluded it to be merely a gulf From that period the Engli^
navigators, though they ceased not to view this object with ardour, hoped to fblfU it only by
the channel of Hudson's Bay. In 1631, tvi'O vessels were sent tliither under Fox and James.
The latter, entangled in some of the southern bays, returned after dreadful suflTerings from
the cold of the winter; but the former, quaintly calling himself North-west Fox, explored a
part of that great opening called Sir Tlionias Roe's Welcome, which appeared now to afford
almost the only hope of a passage ; but he stopped short at a point which he termed " Fox's
ferthest." Under Charles II. a company was formed for the purpose of settlement and
commerce in Hudson's Bay, and engaged to make the most strenuous exertions to discover
n western passage ; but it is believed that tlie only exertions really made by the Company
tended to prevent any such discovery. Middleton, an officer in their service, was sent out
in 1741, sailed up the Welcome, and believed himself to have discovered tliat the head of
that chaiinol was completely closed. Ho was strongly charged with having received a high
bribe from the Hudson's Bay Company to stifle the discovery, and Moor and Smith were
sent out in the following year witli the most sanguine hopes ; but when tliey returned witb

Book HI. THE AUSTRAL SEAS AND ISLANDS. 77
out having effected any thing, the public expectations were greatly abated. It became tho
general impression that America, on this side, formed a mass of unbroken land, and that the
long sought passage had no existence.
New views of the extent and form of the northem extremities of America were opened
by the discoveries of Cook, corroborated by those of some other English navigators in the
Northem Pacific. It appeared that America there stretched away to the north-west, till it
reached a breadth equal to one-fourth part of the circumference of tlie globe. Cook pene
trated, indeed, through the strait which bounds the continent and separates it from Asia ; but
the coast appeared there extending indefinitely north ; and it became a general impression
that America formed a huge unbroken mass of land approaching the Pole, and perhaps
reaching that ultimate point of the globe. This belief received a sudden shock fi-om
Heame's voyage down the Copper Mine River, and his discovery of the sea into which it
fell, in a latitude not higher than that of the north of Hudson's Bay. Soon after. Sir
Alexander Mackenzie traced also to the sea another river twenty degrees farther west.
There was now a strong presumption that a sea bounded the whole of America to the north,
and that there really was such a passage as had been so long sought, and might be found,
were it not too closely barred by ice and tempest. The British administration, animated
with an active and laudable zeal in the cause of discovery, determined that no possible effort
should be omitted by which this important and long agitated question might be brought to a
final decision.
A series of exploratory voyages was now begun. Capt. Ross, in 1818, made the circuit
of Baffin's Bay, and retumed with the belief that no opening existed : Lieut. Parry, second
in command, formed a different judgment and having satisfied the Admiralty as to his
grounds of belief, was sent out with the command of a new expedition. In this memorable
voyage, Capt. Parry penetrated through Lancaster Sound, which he found to widen gradually,
untU it opened into the expanse of the Polar Sea. He did not touch on any part of the
American coast, but found parallel to it a chaui of large islands ; and his progress through
these was arrested, not by land, but by straits and channels encumbered with ice. In con
sideration of these obstacles, his next attempt was made through Hudson's Bay, by the yet
imperfectly explored channel of the Welcome. Struggling through various obstacles, he
reached at length a point considerably beyond that where Middleton had stopped, and
found a strait opening from Hudson's Bay into the Polar Sea. This strait was, however, so
narrow, and so completely blocked with ice, that there appeared no room to hope that it
would ever afford an open passage. Capt Parry was therefore again sent out in his first
direction ; but he made no material addition to his former discoveries. Meantime a land
journey, under Capt Franklin, following in the footsteps of Hearne, reached the sea, and
discovered a considerable extent of the hitherto unknown northern coast of the American
continent A tolerably clear glimpse was thus obtained of its extent and boundaries ; and
the zealous efforts of government were employed to verify the whole by actual survey. A
second expedition under Capt. Franklin extended this survey over three-fourths of this
boundary coast and reached beyond the 149th degree of longitude. Meantime an expedi
tion, under Captain Beechy, sent to meet Captain Franklin from the westward, passed the
Icy Cape of Cook, and arrived at nearly 156° W. longitude ; between which point and
Captain Franklin's farthest limit there intervened only 7°, or 150 miles.
The belief was hence entertained, that the whole coast extended in a line not varying
mucii from the 70th degree of latitude ; but the important expedition which Captain Ross
has just achieved thlrough so many difficulties, proves the existence of a large peninsula,
extending as far north as 74° N. latitude. It remains still probable that a naval passage
may exist farther north, in the line of Captain Parry's first voyage. But the encumbering
ice is so thick, and so wedged into various straits and channels, that probably no vessel will
ever be able even once to work its way through ; and certainly a ship could never set out
with any assurance of thus finding its way from the Atlantic into the Pacific. Britain has,
however, reaped an ample share of glory in contributing so essentially to delineate the
boundaries and dimensions of this great and important continent.

CHAPTER IX.
MODERN GEOGRAPHY OP THE AUSTRAL SEAS AND ISLANDS.
. Moue than half the surface of the globe, including long groups of islands and vast
expanses of ocean, remained unexplored, even after regular naval routes had been formed
round the Cape of Good Hope, and Cape Horn ; yet there soon arose the belief of an Austral
continent as extensive and as abounding in wealth as that which had been discovered by
Columbus. An ideal balance was fancied, which it was supposed must exist between the
lands of the northern and those of the southern hemispheres; and the more disproportionate
the extent of sea which existed in the known parts of the latter, the greater it was sup
posed must be the mass of southern continent which was to establish this ideal, unaginary

78 HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY. Part I. Book UL
balance. In all the early maps, a huge continental mass encircles the Antarctic pole, and
presents to the great ocean a continuous circuit of shore reaching round the globe : the
above analogies were doubtless aided by discoveries made on great insular tracts of the
SoutJi Sea, so partial that they might be mistaken for promontories, or portions of a great
mass of Antarctic land.
The Portuguese, so long the most skUful and intrepid navigators of the ocean, appear to
have been the first who threw any light upon this fifth and most remote portion of the earth •
in less than twenty years after their passage of the Cape they had reached the most extreme
islands of the Oriental Archipelago, including Java and the Moluccas, and appear even to
have observed some parts of the coast of New Guinea. There are no records of their having
proceeded farther ; but maps have been found in the British Museum, and other collections
which exhibit an extensive land to the south of Java, under the title of Java Major, on
which occur a number of names, some of them Portuguese : one of these maps, partly
translated into French, has the " Cdte des Herbages," a name somewhat curiously coincid
ing with Botany Bay. None of these discoveries, however, have been embodied in any
known narration.
The Spaniards also, during their early and adventurous career, made strenuous efforts to
explore the southern seas : MageUan, as already observed, by his first circumnavigation of
the globe, effected a, grand step in geographical discovery. Alvaro Mendana, in 1568
sailed from Luna, and, after crossing the breadth of the Pacific, discovered a group of large
maritime lands, to which, from a chunerical reference to Ophir, he gave the name of
" Islands of Solomon :" they appear to be part of that great group which forms the outer
range of Australasia. Mendana set out on a second voyage, and reached the same quarter,
but, by some fatality, could not again find the islands formerly discovered. Quiros made a
stUl more important expedition ; he passed through the Polynesian group ; and Sagittaria,
one of the islands discovered by him, appears clearly identified with Otaheite ; he ter
minated his voyage, like Mendana, among the exterior islands of Australasia ; and with
him expired the spirit of Spanish enterprise.
The Dutch, when they had expelled the Portuguese from Java and the Spice Islands, and
had established in them the centre of their Indian dominion, were pleiced in such close
proximity with New Holland, that it was scarcely possible for a great maritime nation to
avoid extending their search to that region. Van Diemen, the Dutch govemor of India
about the middle of the seventeenth century, greatly promoted this object and sent successive
vessels to explore the coast of New Holland. Hertog, Carpenter, Nuytz, and Ulaming
made very extensive observations on the northem and westem shores, but found them so
dreary and unpromising, that no settlement of any description was ever attempted. Abel
Tasm^n, however, wont beyond his predecessors ; he reached the southem extremity of this
great mass of land, to whicli he gave the name of Van Diemen, without discovering it to be
an island : he then sailed across, surveyed the westem coast of New Zealand, and retumed
home by the Friendly Islands. This important range of discovery was not followed up ; it
refuted, however, the delineation by which New Holland had been made part of the imagined
Austral continent In the newly arranged charts, that continent still remained, but with
its position shifted ferther to the south, and New Zealand probably contributing to form part
of its fancied outline.
The English nation, by the voyages of several navigators, and particularly of Cook, secured
the glory of fiilly exploring the depths of the great Pacific. The previous voyages of Byron,
Wallis, and Carteret had already made known some of tlie interesting groups of islands
with which its vast surface is studded. Cook fully traced the great chains of the Society
Islands, and of the Friendly Islands ; he discovered and surveyed the eastern coasts of New
Holland and Van Diemen's Land. He settled the form and relations of New Zealand, New
Caledonia, and the other great Australasian lands and islands. This side he passed thrice the
Antarctic circle, and ranging along the yet unvisited borders of the southem pole, solved, by
refuting, the famous modern hypotJiesis of an Austral continent. He navigated also through
the northem Pacific, observed carefiilly the group of tlie Sandwich Islands, and established,
in the manner before pointed out, the relation between tlie continents of Asia and America.
Many eminent navigators, among the Fi-ench, La Perouse, Marchand, D'Entrecasteaux;
among the Russians, Kotzebue and Krusenstem ; among the English, Vancouver and Beechey,
followed ; and, though the grand prizes of discovery had been carried off, found stUl some
gleanings in so vast a field. The circumnavigation of the globe has ended in becommg a
mere trading voyage, which conveys neitlier name nor glory to him by whom it is achieved.
Captain Weddell, however, has lately, in New Soutli Shetland, found a tract of land situated
nearer to the Antarctic polo than any previously supposed to exist
New Ilollnnd, much the most extensive of the lands belonging to the soutliem hemisphere,
and rendered doubly interesting by its recent relations witli Europe, has formed the theatre
of late southern discoveries. Bass, in an open boat found the strait which bears his
name, separating New Holland from Van Diemen's land, and malting the latter a separate
island. i3audin and Flinders, contemporaneously employed by the French and Englisl

Part H. PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. 79
nations, made a continuous survey of the vast circuit of its coasts, which had been before
touched only at partial points. At a later period, Freycinet made some additional observa
tions ; and King found still a great extent of north and north-western coast to survey for the
first tune. More recently, the discovery of Swan River and its shores promises to redeem
the reproach of sterUity which had been attached to the whole western coast of this conti
nent : the interior on the eastern side also, though guarded by steep and lofty barriers, has
been penetrated to a considerable depth, and found to contain extensive plains traversed by
large rivers. StUl the explored tracts form only a small proportion of the vast surface of
this southern continent.

PART II.
PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY.

Among the various branches of human knowledge there is so intimate a connexion, that
no science can be truly said to be independent of all others. Some, indeed, may be regarded
as primary, because, to a certain extent they have had an independent existence, and be
cause other sciences have sprung from them. Such, for example, are arithmetic and
geometry, the prolific parents of all the branches of modern mathematics. Other sciences,
again, are connected by collateral relationship, in respect of their affording mutual aid : and
in this manner all the branches of human knowledge depend one on another, each repaying
the advantages which it has received.
The subject of this treatise. Geography, which in common with other sciences owes its
origin to the wants of man, joined with his inherent desire of knowledge, has arrived at its
present state of improvement by the aid of several sciences, and of a very great number of
the arts which are the fruit of human ingenuity. It is more particularly indebted to the
mathematical sciences, either directly, as furnishing rules and methods by which the mag
nitude of the earth, its figure, and the position of the different parts of its surface, may be
determined ; or indirectly, inasmuch as it has been improved by astronomy, navigation, and
other sciences which owe their perfection to the mathematics. To the arts its obligations
are innumerable : for every step of progress which has been made in the construction and
mauEigement of ships, in the fabrication of mathematical, optical, and nautical instruments,
and in the collateral arts on which these depend, has contributed to the advancement of
geographical knowledge.
The doctrines of geography strongly support and have a close affinity with, those of
astronomy. It is only by the application of this latter science that we have been able to
discover the true figure of the earth, and its magnitude : and some of the most important
divisions of the earth's surface are marked out by astronomical phenomena. On the other
hand, an exact knowledge of the figure and magnitude of the earth is of the highest import
ance in the explication of the more recondite doctrines of astronomy. Hence, whUe the
doctrines of astronomy involve the principles of geography, it holds equally true that the
principles of geography can only be Understood by a due application of some of the more
simple theories of astronomy.
The science of geology has, if possible, a stUl more intimate connexion with the descrip
tion of the earth. WhUe astronomy delineates the form and movements of that planet and
its relation to other bodies in the universe, geology describes the materials which compose
its surface, and the order in which they are arranged, with the composition and phenomena
of the surrounding atmosphere. The various inequalities into which it is formed, the dis-
tuiction of land and sea, with their origin and effects, come all within the sphere of this
important science.
The organized and living beings which cover the surface of our planet form a most in
teresting feature in its deluieation. For the support and nourishment of these, the whole
of its vast structure was originally destined. In taking a survey of this interesting range
of objects, we may begm with plants ; then ascend to anunals ; and, lastly, to man, who
holds the chief rank ia the constitution of this lower world.
Three divisions, comprehending each a separate book, will, on the grounds now stated,
comprehend the Prmciples of Geography : these are— I. Astronomical Principles. U. Geo
logical principles. IE. Geography considered m relation to the organized living and rational
natures which cover the surface of the earth.

80 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part E.
BOOK I.
ASTRONOMICAL PRINCIPLES.

CHAPTER I.
GENERAL VIEW OF THE PHENOMENA OF THE HEAVENS, APPARENT MOTIONS, FIXED
STARS, PLANETS, &c.
The succession of day and night brings under our observation the sun, the moon, and an
innumerable multitude of luminous bodies, which appear like points on the concave surface
of the heaveiis. Of these the sun and the moon are the most remarkable. The sun at all
times presents to us a circular disc : the disc of the moon is also at certain periods circ;Uar,
but she undergoes a succession of changes in the appearances of her luminous part, which
are denominated phases. With regard to the distances of the sun and moon from this earth,
we are certain that they are very remote ; for we observe that their apparent magnitude ia
not sensibly affected by any change in our local position. We may with probahUity suppose
the stars to be bodies of the same nature with the sun and moon, appearing smaUer only
because they are at a greater distance.
The apparent motion of the heavens from east to west about a fixed point in the northem
quarter of the sky, as seen in this country, is a phenomenon quite famUiar to every one. If
w« change our position on the earth by going always south, this fixed point appears to de
scend, and at last it sinks below the horizon : but we now perceive that there is another
fixed point in the southern region of the heavens, exactly opposite to the former, about
which the diurnal motion is also in like manner performed. These two points are the nobth
and SOUTH, or the arctic and antarctic poles of the heavens.
From what we see on the earth's surface, we learn by experience that the real and ap
parent motions of bodies may be very different. An observer in a vessel carried along by
the current of a river, will feel disposed to believe himself at rest ; and then, if he were to
judge from appearances, he would suppose that trees and fixed objects on the hanks were
in motion, because of the apparent change in their relative positions. Hence we may infer,
that we cannot judge immediately respecting the absolute motions of the heavenly bodies
from their apparent motions. It has only been by a series of nice observations, and the appli
cation of the doctrines of mathematics, that the former have with absolute certainty been
deduced from the latter.
The general phenomena of the apparent motions have, however, been discovered by the
ordinary observation of mankind from the remotest ages. To a spectator in any place of
the earth, the whole system of the celestial bodies appears as if placed on the surfece of a
concave sphere, the centre of which is the place where he stands ; and this sphere appeals
to revolve daily on an ideal line which passes through the poles of the heavens, and is called
the axis of the world. Although the supposition that the celestial bodies are all situated in
the surface of a sphere, of which the eye is the centre, be perfectly consistent with the
appearance of the heavens, it is easy to understand that this may be a consequence of their
immense distances. To an observer standing on an extensive plain, objects very remote
around him, though at unequal distances, would appear in the circumference of a circle
having his eye in the centre.
Besides the diurnal motion of the heavenly bodies, which is common to them all, we dis
cover that some of them have peculiar motions by which they change their apparent places
in respect of one another. Thus we see the moon in the course of about a month describe
a circle quite round the heavens from west to east The sun also appears to change his
position daily, and to go round the heavens from west to east in a year. It is in consequence
of this peculiar motion of the sun, that we find different stars at different seasons of the
year set immediately after him, or rise immediately before him ; and that the appearance of
the heavens through the course of the year is continually changing.
From the remotest antiquity .yJve stars had been observed to change their position ; and in
modern times five others have been discovered. These " wandermg stars " have been appro
priately denominated planets ; and, generally speaking, they can be seen at all times, e.wept
when their feeble light is rendered insensible by tlie effiilgence of tlie sun. The planets
have received particular names, and are distinguished by particular characters ; these are
Mercury ?, Venus ?, Mars }, Vesta g, Juno ^, Ceres ?, Pallas V, Jupiter 4, Saturn h,
Uranus i^.
Tliero are other luminous bodies having a proper motion, which are seen for a short time
and afterwards disappear. Their existence, however, is permanent They are distinguished
from the planets by their being visible only for a short period, and also by a train of light
proceeding from them on one side, forming a tail ; these bodies are called comets. Thei'
number is not known, but it appears to be very considerable.

Book I. THE HEAVENS AS SEEN THROUGH THE TELESCOPE. 81
Besides the sun, moon, planets, and comets, there are other luminous bodies visible every
clear night; these retain always the same position in respect of each other, and for this
reason are denominated fixed stars. Their apparent motion about the axis of the celestial
sphere is perfectly uniform, and a complete revolution is performed in about 23 hours 56
minutes. By the permanence of the relative situations of the fixed stars on the concavity of the
celestial sphere, we are enabled to determine the apparent motions of tlie other heavenly
bodies. Of these the motions of the sun and moon are the most conspicuous and simple.
The motions of the planets appear more complicated, and are considerably different from
one another. This dissimilarity might well lead to a conjecture, that the real motions of
the heavenly bodies are very different from the apparent motions, and that these last are
modified by the real motion of the earth. This conjecture we shall afterwards find fully
verified. All the heavenly bodies which this general survey has brought under our notice, with
their motions and mutual relations, form the subject of astronomy, which of all the natural
sciences presents the most extensive series of discoveries. By observing for ages, and deter
mining with exactness, the positions of the sun, moon, and stars ; by tracing and measuring
with precision their various motions ; and by employing all the resources of mathematical
science in investigating the constant laws to which these motions are subject the human
mind has sue ceded in passmg from the first cursory view of the heavens, to that compre
hensive survey by which, in the present state of astronomical science, we contemplate the
past and future states of the system of the universe.

CHAPTER IL
THE HEAVENS AS SEEN THROUGH THE TELESCOPE.
From the aiscovery of the telescope, and its application to the purposes of astronomy, a new
era may be dated in that science. The number of stars visible to the naked eye is about three
thousand, which appear scattered over the concave surface of the heavens. Even in the
clearest night, and in the absence of the moon, seldom more than two thousand are seen at
once. They are not distributed indiscriminately over the heavens, but are disposed in groups,
which from the remotest antiquity have received distinct names, and these have been em
ployed to facUitate the description of the heavens, and the referenfce to any particular star.
The ancients imagined the figures of various personages of their mythology, and of animals,
&c. to be traced on the concave surface : these figures they called constellations, and con
sidered a group of stars to belong to each. To some of the brighter stars, and to those more
remarkable for their position, proper names have been given.
The distinction founded on the different degrees of brightness of the fixed stars, is the
most obvious which occurs to the spectator while his vision is unassisted by the telescope,
and has accordingly been employed for the purpose of classifying them. The stars visible
to the naked eye have been, on this principle, arranged under six magnitudes. The bright
est are reckoned to be of the first magnitude, the next in brightness of the second, and so on
to the sixth magnitude. The arrangement of the stars has been still farther facilitated by
combining the principle of this last-mentioned arrangement with the method of constellations.
In maps of the heavens and on celestial globes the constellations are delineated, and the stars
in each constellation are marked with the letters of the Greek alphabet according to their
degrees of brightness.
The use of the telescope has greatly increased the number of visible stars ; and has at
the same time discovered to us many particulars before unknown respecting those that are
visible to the naked eye. Many of the stars which to unaided vision appear single, are
found, when observed through a telescope of high magnifying powers, to consist of two,
sometimes of three or more stars extremely near to one another. Seven hundred of these
multiple stars were observed by Sir William Herschel, and the number has been increased
by the joint labours of his son and Sir James South, also by the German astronomer Struve.
In some of them the small stars are different in brightness and in the colour of their light.
Thus a Herculis is double ; the larger of the stars is red, the smallei: blue : £ Lyrse is
composed of four stars ; three white, and one red : y Andromedae consists of two stars very
unequal, the largest a reddish white, the smallest a sky-blue inclining to green. Some
single stars evidently differ in their colour : Aldebaran is red, Sirius of a brilliant white.
Nebulae are small luminous spots of a cloudy appearance and irregular shape, seen in
many places of the heavens. The most remarkable appearance of this kind is the Galaxy,
or Milky Way, which encompasses the whole heavens, and is visible to the naked eye.
The Sword of Orion contains a beautiful nebula. Two occur in the head of the Great
Bear, one of an oval shape the other round like a comet without a tail. Viewed through
a telescope of great magnifying power, these luminous spots are resolved into a multitude
of small stars, distinctly separate, but apparently very nsar one another, whose light being
Vol. L L

62 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part H.
blended together produces the luminous appearance. In a portion of the Galaxy, about
fifteen degrees in length, and two in breadth. Dr. Herschel found no fewer than fifty tiiousand
stars large enough to be distinctly counted. The number of nebulee is very considerable.
Herschel discovered two thousand ; before his time only one hundred and three were known.
Continued observation has shown that the fixed stars are not altogether exempt from
change. Several stars mentioned by the ancient astronomers are no longer visible, whUe
some are now seen by the naked eye which are not in the ancient catalogues. Some stars
have suddenly appeared, and after having been seen for a short time have ceased to be visi
ble. In 1572 a new star appeared in Cassiopeia's Chair ; and in 1604 another appeared in
Serpentarius. These stars did not change their places : but having gradually increased hi
brilliancy, until they exceeded Venus or Jupiter in brightness, and were even seen in the
day-time, they diminished in the same gradual manner, and in a few months entirely disap
peared. Some stars are observed to have periodical changes of brightness. Of this descrip-
tion is Algol, orfS Persei: when brightest it is of the second, and when least bright of- the
fourth magnitude. It goes through all its changes of lustre in four days, twenty-one hours.
Other stars like )3 in the Whale, have gradually increased in brilliancy ; or, like 8 in the
Great Bear, have continually diminished in brightness.
The fixed stars, when viewed through the telescope, appear like luminous points on the
concave surface of the heavens ; but the planets are found to exhibit the appearance of discs
of greater or less diameter. Mercury and Venus accompany the sun, appearing at one time
on the east, and at another time on the west of that luminary, and never receding from him
beyond a certain distance. The other planets recede from the sun to all possible angular
distances. Connected with this circumstance is a distinction which it is useful to make of
inferior planets and superior planets ; the former appellation being applied to Mercury and
Venus, and the latter to the remaining planets.
Mercury and Venus, as they oscillate about the sun, exhibit all the phases of the moon.
From having the appearance of a crescent they gradually assume that of the half-moon.
The illuminated part of the disc increasing, they become gibbous, and at last present a com
plete circular disc, like the full moon. From this state of Ulumination they again pass
through the same appearances in an inverted order, untU they disappear altogetiier. Some
times these planets are seen like black spots in the sun ; these appearances are caUed tran
sits of the planets over the sun's disc. They are rare, but when observed, particularly the
transit of Venus, they give the best means of determining the magnitude of the solar system.
In all the phases of Mercury and Venus the convexity of the Uluminated portion of the disc
is turned towards the sun.
The discs of the other planets are always nearly circular. Mars, however, in certain posi
tions with regard to the sun, assumes a gibbous appearance ; but he never becomes comicu-
lar like Venus. He has no satellite. As viewed from the earth, he is known by his red
and fiery appearance. Dr. Herschel observed that the polar regions of Mais, after having
been turned from the sun, appeared brighter than the rest of the planetary disc ; just as if
these regions had in the absence of the sun's heat been covered with snow.
Certain spots appear on the discs of the sun and the four planets Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and
Saturn, when they are viewed through the telescope, and are distinguished from otiier parts
of the discs by the colour or intensity of their light. SimUar spots are seen on the moon
with the naked eye. Jupiter has also his disc marked with several parallel belts or stripes,
which stretch across it They are subject to considerable variation with regard to number,
breadth, and distance from each other. Mercury is too much immersed in the solar rays ;
Vesta, Ceres, Juno, and Pallas, are too small ; and Uranus is too distant to allow pomts of
unequal brUliancy to be observed on their surface. The spots upon the sun are very varia-
able in their number, position, and magnitude. Often they are numerous, and of great extent
Each of them, in general, consists of a dark space, or umbra, surrounded by a penumbra,
or fainter shade, beyond which is a border of light more brilliant than the rest of the sun's
disc. Sometimes, though seldom, the sun has been without spots for several years; this was
the case from 1676 to 1684. The dark nucleus of the spot is seen to form and disappear
amidst the greater brilliancy that surrounds it After the nucleus ceases to be seen, the
umbra continues visible for some time : the place where it at length disappears becomes
like the other parts of the solar surfece, unless it be succeeded, which is sometunes the case,
by a luminous spot. Umbrie of great extent have, with few exceptions, a nucleas in their
centre ; but small umbrte are often seen without it
The solar spots are never stationary, but are seen to move slowly over the sun's disc from
east to west. Their paths across the disc, when accurately traced, are found to be rectili'
neal in the beginning of June, and in the beginning of December ; but in the intermediate
seasons they are found to be elliptic. Between June and December the convexity of the
path is towards the upper part of tlie disc, and between December and June it is towards
the lower part
The planet Jupiter, when viewed through tlie telescope, appears to be attended by four
small stars, ranged nearly in a straight line, which are seen sometimes on the same side,

Book I. FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OP THE EARTH. 83
and at other tunes on opposite sides of the planet. These small stars occEisionally pass
between us and Jupiter, and then they are found to project shadows which are seen to tra
verse his disc. On the other hand, they are often immersed in the shadow of Jupiter, and
exhibit the phenomenon called an eclipse. The planets Saturn and Uranus are also simi
larly attended, the former by seven, and the latter by six, little stars. These accompanying
stars are called satellites, and also secondary planets, in contradistinction to the others,
which are called primary.
Saturn is distinguished from all the other planets, in being surrounded by a circular ring
concentric with itself When first examined by the telescope, this planet was almost
always seen between two small luminous bodies of an irregular form, which seemed to be
attached to it and which, as they suggested the idea of handles, were denominated anses.
Sometimes the anssB disappeared, and then Saturn appeared round like the other planets.
By tracing with care these singular appearances, and combining them with the positions of
Saturn relatively to the sun and the earth, Huygens at last discovered that they are pro
duced by a ring which encompasses the body of the planet, and which is everywhere sepa
rated from it Being seen obliquely, the ring appears of an oval or elliptic form. Before
the time of Herschel the ring of Saturn was supposed to be single ; but this distinguished
astronomer discovered that it is double : so that two rings concentric, and in the same plane.
constitute what was formerly supposed to be a single ring. The ring, which is very thin, is
inclined to the plane of the ecliptic. It revolves from west to east in lO*" 39' 54"- Its
breadth is nearly equal to its distance from Saturn ; that is, about one third of the diameter
of the planet. The interval between the rings is very little ; yet Dr. Herschel saw a star
through it The inner ring is somewhat broader than the outer.

CHAPTER m.
APPROXIMATION TO THE FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH.
The true figure and exact magnitude of the earth are elements of the highest importance
in geography. Their determination, however, has required the aid of astronomy in its most
improved state ; yet it is necessary, to- the explanation of the general doctrines of astronomy,
that we should, in the outset, know nearly its figure and magnitude : we shall afterwards
explain by what means the first conceptions have been corrected, and its true figure and
magnitude found. Having now pointed out, generally, the phenomena of the heavens —
taking into view the more remarkable discoveries made by aid of the telescope — we are next
to consider the causes and mutual dependence of these phenomena. The first step towards
obtaining an explication of the motions of the heavenly bodies, is to form some notion of the
figure and magnitude of the earth which we inhabit and from which all the celestial phe
nomena are observed. To a person placed in an elevated situation in an open country,
where the view is unconfined on all sides, the earth appears an extended plane, with the
concave sphere of the heavens resting upon it, — the horizon being the common boundary.
This appearance is, however, altogether Ulusory.
The earth is a round body, and is isolated in space. This is sufficiently established by
the following facts : —
1. To an observer who travels from north to south the nocturnal heavens appear conti
nually to change their aspect. The stars, indeed, retain the same relative position in
respect of each other, and the points on which the heavens appear to revolve remain
unchanged ; but the angle, which the axis of their motion forms with the horizon, continually
decreases ; so that stars which, at the place from which he set out appeared to reach their
greatest elevation to the south of the point directly over his head, now that he has changed
his position, appear, when highest, on the north of that point. This clearly indicates that
his path on the earth's surface has not been a straight line, but a curve of which the con
vexity is tumed towards the sky.
2. The convexity of the earth is quite apparent to a spectator in a ship receding from tho
shore. At first low objects disappear ; then those more elevated ; and at last the highest
points of the land sink in the horizon, on account of the direct visual ¦ ray being broken by
the interposed curved surface of the ocean. In like manner, when two ships approach each
other, the navigators in each see at first the upper part of the rigging of the other vessel,
the hull being stUl invisible : as the distance becomes less the body of each vessel comes
gradually into view. The reverse happens if the distance between the vessels is increasing.
From these appearances it is evident, that a straight line joining any two points of the
earth's surfaces passes within the body of the eartli.
3. That the horizon of the sea, which, to the eye, terminates its surface, is only an appa
rent limit in reference to the position of the observer, is evident from the fact, that if we
advance towards it we find it recede ; and, at the same time, we still imagine ourselves
placed in the centre of an extended plane, bounded by the line in which the heavens and

84 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. Part IL
eartn appear to meet This is what the navigator uniformly experiences ; while, to an
observer on the shore, his vessel appears to sink below the horizon ; and by contmuing to
sail in the same direction, he will at last arrive at the same port from which he set out, —
having thus circumnavigated the earth. This enterprise has, it is well known, in numerous
instances, been accomplished by navigators, who have left the shores of Europe and retumed
home, some by saUing always towards the west, and others by holding an easterly course.
This great experiment demonstrates that the sea and land have a curved surface which
returns into itself, so that no part of it is touched by the heavens.
There are other phenomena which prove that the earth, if not an exact sphere, is at least
nearly of that figure. The various appearances of the moon, in the course of her revolution
round the earth, show that she is an opaque body, and is visible only by the reflected light
of the sun. The earth being also an opaque body, must project a shadow in a dhection
opposite to the sun. It wUl afterwards be shown that the moon, when flUl, must sometimes
pass through this shadow. In this case, when th« moon begins to penetrate, or is about to
leave, the shadow, the greater part of the disc is still illuminated by the sun ; and it is
found that this luminous part is always of the form of a crescent, having its concave side
bounded by an arch of a circle. The section of the earth's shadow, shown by its projection
on the moon, is, therefore, as to sense, circular, — a proof that the earth is a sphere, or nearly
of a spherical figure ; whence we may conclude that there is a point within the earth which
is its centre.
That the earth is a round body, is thus completely proved by experience and observation;
yet, when this doctrine is presented to the mind for the first time, there is some difficulty
in believing that the earth is balanced, as it were, on its centre, without any visible sup
port ; while all things at rest on its surface require to be supported. We must however,
consider that the bodies which we see fall towards the centre of the earth are mere atoms
in comparison to the earth itself; and that, although their tendency to its centre is another
fact established by experience, yet it does not thence follow that the earth itself should move
towards one point of space rather than towards another. A little reflection will show that
there is no inconsistency in supposing the earth, an immense mass, to be at rest and all
things to be retained on its surface by some force analogous to that by which a piece of iron
is drawn towards a magnet. This is really the fact ; and a consequence of it is, that on
opposite sides of the earth its inhabitants stand in opposite directions, with their feet towards
each other, for which reason they are called Antipodes ; and every country has its own
Antipodes. The knowledge of the true figure and magnitude of the earth is of the greatest importance
in geography, and on this account we shall treat of them in a particular manner. In the
mean time, as a near approximation to the truth, the earth may be considered as diflering
but little from a sphere, 7916 miles in diameter, and consequently nearly 24,870 mUes in
circumference. In geometry, the circumference of every circle is supposed to be divided
into 360 equal parts, called degrees ; and each of these into 60 equal parts, called minutes,
and so on. A degree, therefore, of any circle on the earth's surface, whose centre is the
same with that of the earth, will be rather more than 69 miles ; and a minute of a degree
will be about Ij j mUe.

CHAPTER IV.
DOCTRINE OP THE SPHERE.

The motions of the celestial bodies being in appearance all performed on a sphere, of
which the eye of the spectator is the centre ; with a view to describe the nature of these
motions, it has been found expedient to suppose certain circles to be traced on this sphere,
to which, also, the positions of the heavenly bodies in space are referred.
The distance of the fixed stars is immensely great inrespect of the earth's semi-diameter;
for it is found that when viewed from any two points of the earth's surfece, they have the
very same relative position, and tlie same apparent distances, at a given instant of time.
Hence it follows, that the appearance of the heavens, and the angular distances of the fi.xed
stars, will be, as to sense, the same, whether they be viewed from tlie centre of the earth,
or from a point on its surface. We may, tlierefore, conceive tlie axis of the diumal revo
lution to pass through the centre of tlie eai-tli, which will be also the centre of the celestial
sphere. DEFINITIONS.
A great circle of the sphere is that whoso plane passes through its centre ; and all others
are called small circles.
A circle of tlio celestial sphere, whose plane passes through the earth's centre, and is
perpendicular to tlic axis, is calhvl the Equator. The line in which this plane meets thi,
earth's surfece is called tlic Ecju.vroR of tlic earth, or the Equinoctial.

Book I.

DOCTRINE OF THE SPHERE.

85

To Ulustrate this by a diagram, let c be the centre of the sphere {fig. 15.), which
we suppose to coincide with the centre of the
eartli, and let P c ^ be the axis ; then the cir
cle, whose diameter is E Q, which passes through
c, and is perpendicular to P^, is the Efuator.
"The circles which the stars describe by the
diurnal revolution, are all parallel to the Equa
tor. Such is the circle whose diameter is A B.
A circle, v/hose plane passes through the
poles, is called the Meridian, and the section
of the earth's surface made by this plane is call
ed the Meridian of all the places through which
it passes. Thus PE^Q, is a meridian circle
in the heavens. The number of these circles
is indefinite.By the geometrical properties of a sphere,
the plane of any meridian cuts the planes of
the equator and all circles parallel to it at right
angles.
We know by observation, that any body at rest, and let fall from a point above the earth,
wUl, by its weight or gravity, descend in a straight line. This line is the direction of
gravity : it is also indicated by the direction of a cord to which a plummet is suspended,
and is everywhere perpendicular to tlie surface of water at rest. If, now, a line in the
direction of gravity at any point on the earth's surface be produced indefinitely upward and
downward, this line, called a vertical, will mark, on the celestial sphere, two points called
the Zenith and Nadir. The former is the point in the heavens immediately over head. A
plane conceived to pass through any plane on the earth's surface at right angles to the line
joining its zenith and nadir, wUl, when extended to the heavens, meet the sphere in a circle,
which is the Horizon of that place. A plane that passes through the earth's centre, and is
parallel to the plane just now defined, will meet the sphere in a circle, which is also called
the Horizon, but, to distinguish the one from the 'other, the former is called the Sensible,
and the latter the Rational Horizon. On account, however, of the smallness of the earth's
semidiameter, when compared with the immense distances of the fixed stars, the two horizons
are, as to sense, the same.
The zenith is at Z {fig. 15.), and nadir at N. The circle H O R is the horizon.
If the earth were a perfect sphere, the direction of gravity being everywhere perpendicu
lar to its surface, all bodies would tend towards its centre. But if there be any deviation
from the exact spherical figure, (and this is really the case,) then the direction of gravity
will not hi general, pass through the centre ; though, if the deviation be small, it will nearly
pass through that point
The plane of the horizon of any place touches the earth's surface, and divides the whole
expanse of the heavens into two Hemispheres ; one of which, viz. that above the horizon,
is Visible, and the other Invisible. To an eye placed close to the earth's surface, or to the
surface of the sea, the two hemispheres will appear exactly equal. A spectator, however, on
the top of a mountain, can see more than half of the heavens ; because, if a line drawn from
his eye to touch the earth's surface were carried round, it would generate the surface of a
cone. The portion of the heavens within this cone would be invisible ; but he would see all
the space without the cone, which would manifestly be the larger portion. His apparent hori
zon would still be a circle ; but it would be below the plane passing through his eye perpen
dicular to the vertical. The depression of the horizon of a spectator so situated below this
plane is called the Dip.
Circles whose planes pass through the zenith and nadir of any place are called Vertical
Circles. Such, for example, as the circle Z O N. These, by the properties of a sphere,
are all perpendicular to the horizon. The meridian is, of course, a vertical circle; and
the vertical circle whose plane is perpendicular to the meridian is called the Prime
Vertical. The meridian cuts the horizon in the North and South points, and the prime vertical
cuts it in the East and West. These four are the Cardinal Points. They divide the horizon
into four equal parts.
Let a vertical circle be supposed to pass continually through a star, or any point of the
heavens, the arc of that circle between the star and the horizon is called the Altitude of
the star ; and the arc of the horizon between the vertical circle and the meridian is called its
Azimuth, which may he measured either from the north or south. Thus, iafig. 15., suppose
a star at S, then its altitude is the arc S O, and its azimuth the arc H O.
Vertical circles are called Circles of Azimuth.
The altitude of a star will evidently be greatest when it is on the meridian, and it will
Vol. I. 8

86 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part n.
have equal altitudes when it is at equal distances from the meridian ; that is, when its eastem
and western azimuths are equal.
Suppose a meridian to pass through a star, then the arc intercepted between the star
and the equator is caUed the Declination of the star. Thus P S ^ being a meridian that
passes through the star S, and meets the equator in K, the arc S K is the declination of the
star. If the meridian circle pass through the zenith of any place, the arc intercepted between
the zenith and the equator is called the Latitude of that place. Thus Z being the zenith of
any place, and E K Q, the equator, the latitude of the place is the arc Z E.
Assuming the meridian circle that passes through the zenith of any particular place as the
First Meridian, the arc of the equator intercepted between the first meridian and the meri
dian circle passing through the zenith of any other place, is called the Longitude of that
place. It is usual, in this country, to reckon the longitude of places from the meridian chcle
that passes through the zenith of the Observatory at Greenwich.
Because the arcs Z R, the distance of the zenith from the horizon, and P E, the distance
of the pole from the equator, are each one-fourth of the circumference of a circle or a
quadrant, they are equal, and consequently, leaving out the common arc PZ, the arcs ZE
and P R are equal. Hence it appears that P R, the distance of the pole from the horizon of
any place, called the elevation or altitude of the pole, is equal to the latitude of that place.

CHAPTER V.
ROTATION OP THE SUN, MOON, AND PLANETS ON THEIR AXES. THEIR PIGUEE.
From the phenomena of the spots which, by aid of the telescope, are visible on his disc,
we are led to concluda that the sun revolves from west to east on an axis, in about twenty-
five days and a half Though these spots are subject to many variations, they are suffi
ciently permanent to enable us to discover that they have regular motions across the disc,
exactly the same as must belong to corresponding points on the surfece of the sun, supposing
him actually to have a motion of rotation from west to east on an axis nearly perpendicular
to the plane of the path or orbit, which, in virtue of his apparent motion, he describes
round the heavens in the course of a year. When a spot is first discovered on the eastem
edge of the disc, it appears like a fine line : as it approaches the centre of the disc its
breadth increases ; as it advances towards the westem edge the breadth again diminishes,
until the spot at length entirely disappears. The same spot is sometimes again observed,
after fourteen days, on the east side of the disc; but more frequently the spot is dissolved,
and is no more seen. By careful observation of the time occupied by a spot in crossing
the disc, taking also into account the proper motion of the sun from west to east during
that period, the time of the sun's rotation on his axis is found to be about twenty-five and a
half days.
That the moon, and the planets Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, have each a
motion of rotation from west to east, on an axis inclined to the plane of the sun's orbit is
inferred in lUce manner from the spots that are seen to traverse their discs. The moon pre
sents always nearly the same side to the earth ; and must therefore, revolve on her axis in
the same time in which she is carried round the heavens by her apparent motion, namely, in
27 ¦' 7 ¦" 43 ". Mercury revolves m 24 ' 5 " ; Venus in 23 " 30 "" ; Mars in 24 ' 39 ^ ; Jupitei in
9 '' 56 "" ; Saturn in 10 '' 29 "". In the remaining planets no appearances have been discovejed
which enable us to ascertain whether or not they revolve on axes ; though, from analogy, it
is highly probable that they do.
Witli regard to the figure of the sun and of those planets which are known to revolve on
axes, we may conclude that they are nearly spherical ; because no otlier but a spherical body
can, when revolving on an axis in the manner of the planets (witli the exception of the
moon), present in every position the appearance of a circular disc. The spherical figure of
the moon, and, indeed, of the other planets which exhibit phases, may be inferred from the
fact, that the concavity of the crescent which they from time to tune display is bounded by
an elliptic line. The planet Uranus always presents a disc that is nearly circular, and it has
not been ascertained that he revolves on an axis ; but it is very improbable, when we con
sider how very irregular his motions among the fixed stars appear when seen from the earth,
that he should keep the same side always turned towards us. His apparent motion is some
times direct, that is from west to east, sometimes retrograde, or in tlie contrary direction; so
tliat to present constantly the appearance of a circular disc, tlie planet would require, were
it not spherical, to have motions in opposite directions about the same axis. The same rea
soning will apply to the remaining planets. We may conclude, therefore, that the sun,
moon, and planets, are bodies nearly spherical.

Book I.

DISTANCES, ETC. OF THE HEAVENLY BODIES.

87

CHAPTER VI.
DISTANCES AND MAGNITUDES OF THE HEAVENLY BODIES.
Distances of the fixed stars. Prom whatever point of the earth's surface we observe the
fixed stars, they always appear to preserve the very same relative positions. We may hence
conclude that these bodies are situated at immeasurable distances from the earth ; and that
though to us who inhabit it the dimensions of the earth appear very great they are insensi
ble when compared with these immense distances. The eartli is in reality but as a point in
space. But though the fixed stars are vastly too remote to admit of their distances being
determined, we have reason to believe that they are placed at very different degrees of
remoteness. They shine with very various degrees of brUliancy ; multitudes are not visible
without the aid of the telescope, and it may reasonably be supposed that many more have
not yet been discovered by the most powerful instruments which have been directed to the
heavens. The distances of the fixed stars being unknown, we can only form conjectures from
hypothesis and analogy respecting their tme magnitudes. When viewed through the best
telescopes, they have no apparent diameter, but appear like points in the heavens.
Mode of determining the distance of the siai, moon, and planets. In reference to the
sphere of the fixed stars, then, the earth is to be regarded as a point. To a spectator, at the
sun, moon, and planets, however, it would present a disc subtending an angle of greater or
less magnitude, and, even when smallest, admitting of measurement This angle can be
determined by an observer on the earth's surface ; and as we know the true magnitude of the
earth, it affiirds us the means of estimating the distances of these bodies. Let O o {fig. 16) be
the places of two observers under the same meridian, but very distant from each other. Let P
be a planet in the meridian of these places, and let some fixed star which comes to the meri
dian at the same time with the planet', be seen by the observers at O and o, in the directions
O S, o «. Join O P, 0 P, and produce O P, to meet o s in A. Then, because O S, o s, are
parallel (the distance of the star S being regarded as infinite), the angles O A o, A O S are
equal ; and, because O P o is the exterior angle of the triangle o A P, it is equal to the sum
of the two interior and opposite angles A o P, o A P. Wherefore the angle O P o is equal
to the sum of the angles A o P, P O S ; that is, the angle subtended at the planet by the
chord of the terrestrial arc intercepted between the points of observation, is equal to the sum
of the apparent distances of the planet from the star, provided the planet is seen (as we have
here supposed) on opposite sides of the star by the two observers. If the star is seen on the
same side by both, the angle at the planet will then be equal to the difference of the appa
rent distances.
If the observers are so situated that P O, P o (Jig. 17) are tangents to the circle O E o at the
points O and o, the angle O P o wUl be the angle subtended by the disc of the earth at the planet

But if P O, P 0 are not tangents, draw P O' and P d tangents to the circle O E o, and from
C the centre draw C O', C 6 to the points of contact : draw also the vertical lines C Z and
C Z' through O and o the places of the observers, and produce P O, P o to meet C O', C d
in B and D. Now, for the sun and planets the angle O P o is very small, and even for the
moon it is not very considerable. The distance P C may therefore be regarded, in every
case, as much greater than C O', or C d. Hence the lines C O', C B, C D may without sen
sible error be considered as proportional to the angles C P O', C P B, C P D ; so that we
naveZCPO': ZCPO = CO':CBandZCPO:ZCPo = CO': CD; where
fore ZCPO': ZCPO + ZCPo or ZOPo=CO': CBH-CD But the angles

88 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part U.
at B and D are very nearly right angles, and therefore, to radius C O', we have C B =
Suu C O B = Sin. P O Z; and C D = Sin. C o D = Sin. P o Z' : Hence we obtain
ZCPO':ZOPo = (CO:CB+CD=)Rad.: Sin. P O Z + SUl P o Z': And 2Z
CPO' or ZO'Pd = 2ZOPo X  ^^ 
Sin. P O Z + Sin. P o Z'
_ If the planet be on the same side of the zenith to both observers, then the difference,
instead of the sura of the smes of the zenith distances, must be taken for the denominator.
Expressing the above formula in words, we give the following simple rale : — Divide the arc,
{expressed in parts of the radius,) which measures the observed angle at the planet, by the
sum of the sines of the zenith distances of the planet, if it is between the zeniths of the
two observers ; or by the difference of these sines if the planet is on the same side of the
zenith to both observers ; and twice the result will be the arc, expressed in parts of the
radius, that measures the angle subtended at the planet by the disc of the earth.
Since small angles, that require for their measurement only the use of the micrometer,
can be determined with much more accuracy than large angles requiring the whole telescope
to be moved, it is best to employ, m finding the angle O P o a star which is near the planet;
a small error in taking the zenith distances of the planet will produce no sensible error in
the result.
Another method of determining this angle, is by obsers'ations on the transit of Venus over
the disc of the sun ; a phenomenon in which the planet is seen like a dark spot on the disc;
but the method now explained is sufficient for our present purpose.
The following are the angles subtended by the earth's disc at the sun, moon, and planets,
when the earth is nearest to each :
Seconds. Seconds.
Angle at the Sun = 17 Angle at Uranus = 1
Mercury = 28 Vesta )
Venus =: 62 Juno I _ „
Mars =42 Ceres |~ "
Jupiter = 4 Pallas J
Saturn = 2 Moon =2° 2'
To determine, now, the distance of the sun or moon, or of a planet: — ^In the right angled
triangle P O C we have given the angle P equal to
half the angle subtended by the earth's disc at the
body whose distance is to be found ; also O C the
earth's semi-diameter: therefore *he distance P C
may be determined by the proportion Sin. P : Rad.=
C O : P C. Since the angle P is small, its sme
must be nearly equal to the arc which measures it
Observing therefore that the arc to which the radius
is equal, expressed in seconds, is 206265" we have
Z P (in seconds) : 206265 = C O : P C. Hence
P C = 2 C O X • Whence we derive the following rule : — Divide the constant
number 206265 by the number of seconds in the angle subtended by the earth's disc as seen
from the body whose distance is to be determined ; multiply the result by the diameter of
the earth, and the product is the distance required. In the case of the sun ; assuming the
diameter of the earth as unity, we have the distance equal to  or 12133 diameters of
the earth. In like manner, taking 4", 2", 1" for the angles subtended by the earth's disc at
Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus, the distances of these planets from the earth, when least will
be 51566, 103132, 206265 diameters of the earth respectively. The mean distance of the
moon is about sixty semi-diameters of the earth.
The apparent diameter of any one of the heavenly bodies, is the number of seconds in the
measure of the angle under which its circular disc is seen by a spectator upon the earth.
When measured by a micrometer, tlie apparent diameters of the sun, moon, and planets are
found to be, when greatest as follows :
Seconds. Seconds.
Diameter of the Sun = 1923 Diameter of Jupiter = 46
Mercury = 12 Saturn = 18
Venus = 61 Uranus = 4
Mare = 18 Moon =2020
The four remaining planets, according to tlie most carefiil observations, appear to subtend
only a small part of a second.
Now, for deducing the real diameters from the apparent, we have this rule: — As ike
apparent diameter of the earth, {or the seconds in the angle which its disc subtends,) os

BooB L ROTATION OF THE EARTH. 89
seen from the planet, is to the apparent diameter of the planet as setn from the earth, s«
is the true diameter of the earth to the true diameter of the planet.
Calling the diameter of the earth unity, or 8000 mUes m round numbers, we obtain,
Diameters of

Diameter of the Sun =

the Eanh.
111.454 =

Miles.
882,000 nearly.

Mercury =

0.398 =

3,140 —

Venus =

0.9 =

7,200 —

Mars =

0.517 =

4,100 —

Jupiter =

10.860 =

87,000 —

Saturn =

9.982 =

76,068 —

Uranus =

4.332 =

34,500 —

Moon =

0.273 =

2,160 —

As the sun, moon, and planets are spherical bodies, their magnitudes compared with the
magnitude of the earth, may be found upon the pruiciple that sunilar solids are to one
another as the cubes of their simUar dimensions ; so that as the cube of the diameter of the
earth is to the cube of the diameter of the sun, moon, or a planet, so is the magnitude of
the former to the magnitude of the latter.
Assuming the magnitude of the earth as unity :
The magnitude of the Sun = 1384472.000
Mercury = .063

Venus

:=

.927

Mars

:=

.139

Jupiter

=

1280.900

Saturn

=:

995.000

Uranus

=

80.490

Moon

=

.020

Having now ascertained the distances and magnitudes of the heavenly bodies, we proceed
to inquire whether the diurnal motion which we observe in them be a real or only an ap
parent miotion; and whether the earth is the centre to which the proper motion of any of
them is to be referred.

CHAPTER VII.
ROTATION OP THE EARTH.

The diurnal motion of the heavenly bodies suggests the existence of some cause, under
the influence of which they either perform or appear to perform a revolution from east to
west round the axis of the celestial sphere in the space of a day and a night. Now, there
are two suppositions, on either of which the diumal motion may be explained. We may
suppose the heavens to be carried round the earth, while the latter remains immoveable in
the centre ; or we may suppose the heavens to be at rest, and the earth to revolve on an
axis in an opposite direction ; that is, from west to east. To which of these hypotheses the
preference is due, will be evident if we consider that the heavenly bodies are independent
one of another, and are placed at very different distances from the earth ; that variations in
the apparent diameters of the planets indicate great changes ui their distances, while the
comets traverse the heavens in all directions ; so that it is difficult to conceive that one and
the same cause should impress on all these bodies a common motion of rotation.
Since the earth is a globe of about 8000 miles diameter, it is small when compared with
the immense mass of the sun. Were the centres of the sun and earth brought into coinci
dence, the former body would fill the orbit of the moon and extend as fer agam beyond it
Besides, the sun is distant from us about twelve thousand diameters of the earth ; so that to
revolve round the heavens in the interval of twenty-four hours, he must move at the im
mense velocity of about twenty-five mUlions of miles in an hour. It is therefore more
reasonable to suppose the earth to have a motion of rotation on an axis, than to suppose the
sun, a body so distant and of such immense magnitude, to move with the vast rapidity that
would be requisite to carry hun round the heavens in so short an interval. With regard to
the fixed stars, we may reason in the same manner with stUl greater force : for the velocity
necessary to carry the sun round in twenty-four hours is really insensible when compared
with the rapidity with which the fixed stars must move to accomplish a like revolution. In
order to account for the diumal motion of the heavens on the hypothesis that the earth is
at rest, it must be supposed that the sun, moon, and stars have their velocities so adapted
to their respective distances, that all of them complete their revolutions round the earth
in exactly the same number of seconds. Such an adaptation among innumerable indepen
dent bodies, placed at such a variety of distances, it is impossible to admit.
There are other phenomena of the heavens which serve still farther to confirm the con-
rlusion, that tlie diumal motion of the heavenly bodies is not a real motion. Every difficulty,
Vol. L 8* M

90 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. Part H.
however disappears, if we suppose the earth to have a motion of rotation on an axis from
west to east Carried round with a velocity common to all the objects which surround us
on the earth's surface, we are in a situation similar to that of a spectator placed in a vessel
in motion. ^ At the first careless glance he imagines himself at rest whUe the shore, and
all the objects which he sees, unconnected with the vessel, appear to be in motion. By
reflectmg, however, on the extent of the shore, on the magnitude of the mountains, and
other objects on land, when compared with the vessel from which he observes them, he frees
his mind from this momentary Ulusion, and becomes convinced that the motion of these
objects is only apparent, and that it is produced by the real motion of the vessel. The
multitude of stars scattered over the heavens are, with respect to us, what the shore and
the objects upon it are with regard to the spectator placed in the vessel : and by the same
considerations, by which his first impressions are so corrected that he becomes assured of
the reality of his motion, we are led to the conclusion that the rotation of the earth on an
axis produces the apparent diumal motion of the heavens.
An argument for the rotation of the easth may also be^drawn from analogy. Several of
the planets are known to have a motion on an axis simUar to that which we have supposed
to belong to the earth. Jupiter, for example, which is many times greater than the earth,
revolves on his axis from west to east in less than half a day ; and to an observer on his
surface, the heavens would appear to revolve round that planet in the same manner as we
see them revolve round the earth, but in about half the time. This motion of the heavens
in reference to a spectator on the planet Jupiter would, however, be only apparent; and
hence we may reasonably conclude, that the case is the same in reference to a spectalJor on
the earth.
Lastly, if the earth is actually in motion, there wUl be generated a centrifugal force, or
a tendency to throw off objects from its surface, which must diminish the force of gravity,
particularly at the equator, where the motion is most rapid. Now, by observations made
with the pendulum, this diminution of the force of gravity has been found to exist The
same cause affects also the figure of the earth, which has been found to be flattened some
what at the points of rotation, and elevated at the equatorial regions. The same is observed
to be the figure of Jupiter, — a circumstance which greatly strengthens the argument drawn
from analogy. The evidence which has now been adduced leaves no doubt respecting the
earth's motion of rotation ; and thus we are enabled to ascertain the true place which the
globe that we inhabit holds in the universe.
The pouits in which the axis of rotation meets the surface axe called the poles of the
earth ; and it is evident that the axis, if produced, must pass through the poles of the
heavens. CHAPTER Vin.
APPARENT ANNUAL MOTION OF THE SUN. VICISSITUDE OF SEASONS.
While the sun participates in the diurnal motion of the heavens, he also appears to move
eastward among the fixed stars. This motion it wUl be of importance now to trace out
and to explain the change of seasons to which it gives rise. If we observe each day of the
year the meridian altitude of the sun, and note the time which elapses between his passage
over the meridian and the passage of any particular star, we shall have the apparent motion
of the sun in the direction of the meridian, and of the circles parallel to the equator in
which he appears daUy to be carried by the diumal motion of the heavens. The result of
the composition of these two motions wUl give the true motion for each day. In this manner
it has been found that the sun moves in a path or orbit which cuts the equator in two oppo
site points, and makes with it an angle equal to 23° 28' nearly.
The name of ecliptic is given to the circle which the plane of tliis orbit marks out on ttie
sphere of the heavens. It passes through twelve consteUations, which are called the
twelve SIGNS This has given rise to the division of tlie ecliptic mto twelve equal parts,
called SIGNS, each containing, of course, 30°. The twelve signs are contamed ma zone of
the starry heavens, called the Zodiac. The names of tliese constellations, witli the charac
ters by w'liich they are usually denoted, are as follow :— Aries r, Taums «, Gemmi n. Cancer
25 Leo 0 Virgo W, Libra =^, Scorpio HI, Sagittarius t, Capricornus yj, Aquarms ^, Pisces M-
The vicissitude of seasons arises from the combination of tlie apparent motion of the sun
in the ecliptic with his apparent diurnal motion. When the sun is m either of the pouits
in uliirh the ecliptic intersects the equator, he describes the equator on that day in virtue
of his .linrnal motion; and as by the properties of tlie sphere this circle is divided into two
equal parts by the liorizon, at whatever point of the earth's surfece tlie spectator is situaten,
the day is then e.jual to tlic night over all tlie globe. ,,,,-, t> «.r=
The points of intersection of equator and ecliptic are called the Equinoctial mms.
The first pomt of the sign Aries is supposed to comcide witli the pomt of the vemal equmox,
and from that point the signs of tlie ecliptic are reckoned : the first pomt of tlie sign Imra^

Book I. VICISSITUDE OP SEASONS. 91
wUl therefore coincide with the point of tlie autumnal equinox. As the sun, when he leaves
the point of tlie vernal equinox advances in the ecliptic, liis meridian altitude above our
horizon daUy increases, and a larger portion of the parallel which he daily describes becomes
visible. Hence arises a gradual increase in the lengtli of the day in all countries to the
north of the equator ; until the sun having reached his greatest altitude, the day acquires its
greatest length, and begins to shorten. As the variations of the altitude on each side of the
points at which it is greatest are insensible, the sun, if we attend only to his altitude, appears
stationary, and the day continues, for some time, very nearly of the same length. The point
of the ecliptic at which the maximum takes place is therefore denominated the point of the
Summer Solstice. The sun, having reached this point, now returns towards tlie equator,
which he crosses at the point of the autumnal equinox. His meridian altitude gradually
diminishes untU it reaches the minimum at the point of the Winter Solstice. The day,
which has been gradually shortening from the summer solstice, is then the shortest in the
year, and for some tune does not sensibly lengthen. The sun, however, again gradually
approaches the equator, and reaches it at the vernal equinox.
Such is the constant prt^ess of the sun in the heavens, and such the succession of the
seasons of the year. The Spring is the time comprised between the vernal or spring equinox,
which feUs about the 21st of March, and the summer solstice, which happens about the 21st
of June : the interval between the solstice and the aaitumnal equinox, which falls about the
23d of September is the Summer : the time between the autumnal equinox and the winter
solstice, which occurs about the 22d of December, is the Autumn : and, lastly, the Winter
is the time that elapses between the winter solstice and the spring equinox.
The two circles parallel to the equator, which the sun describes on the longest and
shortest days, are called, one the summer or northern Tropic, and the other the winter or
southern Tropic. They are also respectively denominated the tropic of Cancer and the
tropic of Capricorn, in reference to the points in which they touch the ecliptic.
The presence of the sun above the horizon being the cause of heat, and the; temperature
increasing as the altitude increases, it might be inferred that the temperature should be the
same in summer as in spring, and in winter as in autumn ; because the altitudes of the sun
in these seasons exactly correspond. But it is to be observed that the temperature is not an
instantaneous effect of the sun's presence ; but is the result of the continued action of his
rays. On this account it is not greatest on the day when the altitude is greatest, but some
time between the summer solstice and autumnal equinox. In like maimer, the greatest cold
of winter does not occur on the shortest day, but some time between the winter solstice and
the spring equinox.
With regard both to temperature and the length of the day, great differences arise from
the different elevations of the pole above the horizon, as we proceed from the equator
towards either of the poles. The horizon of an observer at the equator passes through the
poles, and by the geometrical properties of the sphere it divides the equator and all the circles,
parallel to it into two equal parts. It also cuts them at right angles ; and hence the position
of the celestial sphere, in reference to the horizon of an observer at the equator, is called the
Right position of the sphere. In whatever point of the ecliptic the sun is situated, his
diurnal course is therefore at right angles to the horizon, and one half of it is in the visible
hemisphere, and the other half in the invisible ; hence, at the equator, the day is at all
seasons equal to the night.
When the sun is in either of the equinoctial points, he passes through the zenith at
mid-day. When he is in either of the solstitial points his meridian altitude is the least and
is equal to the complement of the inclination of the ecliptic to the equator. In these two
positions of the sun the shadows of objects fall, at mid-day, in opposite directions, — a pheno
menon which at no season occurs in our climate, where the. solar shadows are at mid-day
always directed towards the north : there are, then, properly speaking, two summers and
two winters in the year at the equator. The same thing takes place in all the countries
where the elevation of the pole above the horizon is less than the obliquity of the ecliptic.
In every country beyond this region there is only one summer and one winter in the year,
with the intervening seasons of spring and autumn: the sun is never in the zenith: the
length of the longest day increases, and that of the shortest day diminishes, as we advance
towards either of the poles ; and when we have reached such a position, that the zenith is
distant from the pole by an arc of the meridian equal to the obliquity of the ecliptic, the
sun does not set at the summer solstice, nor rise at the winter solstice.
The polar circles. About each of the poles of the celestial sphere, suppose a circle to be
described distant from it by an arc equal to the obliquity of the ecliptic ; these two circles
are called the Polar Circles. In the region of the earth situated around either of its
poles, at every point whose zenith lines within the polar circle, the time of the sun's presence
above the horizon and of his absence below it, at certain seasons, exceeds twenty-four hours :
it increases as we approach the pole, and may amount to days or even to months. Thus,
when the sun's decimation north, increasing, becomes equal to the distance of the zenith of^
any place m the northern polar region from the north pole of the heavens, he ceases to set

82 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. Part a
at that place, and continues above the horizon untU he has reached the same declination in
returning towards the equator. From that time the sun rises and sets in the course of
twenty-four hours, untU the sun's declination south becomes equal to the distance of the
zenith froni the pole, and then he ceases to rise and continues below the horizon tU' he has
again acquired the same declination in retuming northward.
At the polo, the equator coincides with the horizon, and all the circles parallel to the
equator are also parallel to the horizon. This is called the Parallel position of the sphere.
To an observer, placed at the pole, the heavenly bodies would appear to move round, either
in the horizon or parallel to it Hence the sun is constantly above the horizon when he is
on the same side of the equator with the pole, and constantly below it when on the other
side ; so that at either of the poles of the earth there is only one day and one night in the
year. At any point on the earth's surface, between the equator and either of the poles, the
equator and the circles paraUel to it are oblique to the horizon. This is called the OBuquE
position of the sphere ; and by the geometrical properties of the sphere, the horizon, in this
position, divides all the circles parallel to the equator into two unequal parts ; hence arises
the inequality of the days and nights at all places between the equator and either pole. In
this country, for example, in summer, when the sun is on the north side of the equator, the
larger portion of his diumal course lies in the visible hemisphere, and the less in the mvisible,
so that the day is longer than the night The reverse is the case in the winter when the
sun is on the south side of the equator.
If two places are situated on opposite sides of the equator, the spring and summer of the
one will, it is evident, correspond to the autumn and winter of the other.
With regard to the temperature, it is higher in the equatorial regions than in any other
part of the earth, because there the action of the sun's rays is most direct To every point
of the earth's surface, whose zenith lies between the tropics, the sun is vertical twice in the
year ; so that his rays, acting perpendicularly, produce their greatest effect In the polar
regions the temperature is lowest, in consequence of the obliquity with which the sun's rays
fell on the earth's surface, and the great length of the winter night In the countries situated
between the equatorial region and the two polar regions, there prevails a medium tempera
ture, increasing as the zenith approaches the nearer of the two tropics, and diminishing as
it approaches the nearer of the polar circles.
A division of the earth's surface into five zones has been suggested by this difference of
^^ temperature from the equator towards either pole.
~.«^ In the adjoining figure let P p represent the earth's
"'^^^.^^ axis, P E ^ Q, a meridian, and E Q the equatorial
\^ diameter. Let E C Q, be the representation of a
\ circle on the earth's surfece equally distant from
\ the poles, which will therefore be the equator:
"^^^^ and F G H, fg h circles on the earth's surfece
 ¦  \ parallel to the equator, and at the distance of about
-J 285 degrees ; on each side of it and A B D, a b d
_.— -^Q circles round the poles P, p, and at the same dis-
 I tance of 23J degrees.
_S^"- At the tunes of the year when the sun is in the
/ tropic of Cancer, he will, in his apparent revolu-
/ tion, be vertical to all places on the circle F G H ;
/ and when he is in the tropic of Capricorn, he will
— ^./ be vertical to the circle f g h. The space on the
=^. earth's surface between tliese circles is the Torrid
' Zone.
When the sun is in the southem tropic he will not be seen anywhere in the space bounded
by the circle A B D. This is, therefore, the northern Frigid Zone : and when he is in the
northem tropic there is a like tract bounded by the circle a b d, round the south pole, where
he wUl then be mvisible. This is the southern Frigid Zone. The two tracts between the
torrid zone and the frigid zones are the temperate zones. , r j j
Another division of the earth into zones was used by tlie ancient geographers, founded on
the different lengths of the longest day, as we proceed from the equator towards either of
the poles These zones were denominated Climates, and were each of such a breadth, that
the lono-est day at the boundary nearer the pole exceeded the longest day at tlie boundary
nearer the equator by some certain space of time, as half an hour or an hour. Within he
polar circle, the climates were supposed of such a breadth as to make the longest day at tne
opposite sides differ by a month. , ,
The points in which the equator and ecliptic intersect each other are not immoveabl^t
appear, with respect to the fixed stars, to recede towards the west at the rate of J%jj
newly, annually, or about 1° in 72 years. This motion is called the Precession of tlie
Equinoxes When the constellations of tlie zodiac were first delmeated by the ancient

Book I. VICISSITUDE OP SEASONS. 93
astronomers, the middle of the sign Aries was at the point of tlie vernal equinox, from which
it is now distant more than 58° towards the east. In consequence of the precession of the
equinoxes, the time in which the sun moves from the vernal equinox to the vernal equinox
again, is less than the time in which he moves from any star to the same star again ; — the
point of the vernal equinox moving westward, so as to meet the sun, and thus anticipate tlie
time of his crossing the equator in the preceding year.
The intervals of time which separate the equinoxes or the solstices are unequal. Almost
eight days more elapse from the spruig to the autumnal equinox, than from the latter to the
former. We may therefore conclude, that the motion of the sun is not uniform. From
precise and multiplied observations, it has been ascertained that his motion is most rapid at
a point of the ecliptic situated near the winter solsticial point, and slowest at the opposite
pohit towards the summer solstice. At the former point the sun describes daily 1° 1' 10",
at the latter only 57' 11^". The distance of the sun from the earth is also variable. This
is proved by variations observed in his apparent diameter, which increases and diminishes at
the same time witli his angular velocity, but not in the same ratio. The angular velocities
at any two instants of time are, to one another, as the squares of the apparent diameters.
If V and v' be the angular velocities of the sun, or his daUy advances in the ecliptic at any
two seasons of the year, and d and d' his apparent diameters at the same time, then «:!)' =
(f :d'^
To diminish the apparent motion of the sun, it would be sufficient to suppose that body
removed to a greater distance from the earth, without altering his true angular velocity.
But if the dimmution of his motion depended entirely on this cause, the apparent velocity
would diminish in the same ratio with the apparent diameter. Since it diminishes, however,
as the square of the diameter, there must necessarUy be an actual dimmution of the
velocity of the sun while he recedes to a greater distance from the earth.
His distance being reciprocally as his apparent diameter, if D and D' be his distances at
the two seasons when his diameters are d and d', we have ii : u' = D" : D' ; and vVf = «'D'".
Hence it appears, that from the combined effect of the two causes influencing the sun's
apparent motions, — namely, the diminution of his velocity and the increase of his distance, —
his daily angular motion diminishes as the square of his distance increases ; so that the pro
duct of the square of the distance by the velocity is a constant quantity.
Let us imagine a straight line to join the centres of the sun and of the earth. This line
is usually caUed the Radius Vector. It is not difficult to prove that the smalLsector, or
the area which the Radius Vector traces in a day, in consequence of the sun's motion, is
proportional to the product of the square of this radius by the sun's daily motion, that is, to
V Dl This area is therefore constant ; and the whole area, described by the Radius Vector,
setting out from a fixed radius, increases as the number of days reckoned from the epoch
when the sun was at the fixed radius.
Since i;D^ = u'D", we have D' = D^!. Assuming, therefore, any Ime whatever for D,
and finding, by observation, the sun's angular velocity for every day of the year, the value
of D' for each day may be found.
Thus we shall be able to trace a curve line representing the orbit of the sun. This curve
is found to ,be not exactly circular, but a little elongated in the direction of the straight line
passing through the centre of the earth, and joining the points in tho orbit at which the sun
is at its greatest and least distances. The resemblance of this curve to an ellipse having
given rise to a comparison between them, their identity has been discovered. Hence we
conclude, that the apparent solar orbit is an ellipse having the centre of the earth in one
of its foci.
The solar ellipse is not much different from a circle ; for its eccentricity, which, from the
geometrical properties of the ellipse, is equal to half the difference of the sun's greatest and
least distances from the earth, is a quantity which bears but a very small proportion to the
distance of the sun. It appears, from observation, that there is a small diminution of the
eccentricity, — so small, indeed, as scarcely to be perceptible in a century.
The position of the greater axis of the solar ellipse is not constantly the same. Its
extremities have an annual motio.n eastward, in reference to the fixed stars, of about 12" in
the direction of the sun's motion. *
The obliquity of the sun's orbit, or of the ecliptic to the equator, is also subject to change,
and appears to have been continually diminishing from the remotest date of astronomical
observation. Its present rate of diminution may be stated at nearly 48" in a century.
The apparent elliptic motion of the sun does not represent, with perfect exactness, the
results of modern observation. The great precision now attained in the art of observing
}ias made known to us small inequalities, the laws of which it would have been almost
impossible to detetmine by mere observation. These laws can be investigated only after
the physical cause has been discovered upon which the phenomena depend.

^4 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part H.
CHAPTER IX.
DIVISION AND MEASURE OP TIME.
The notion of time is suggested by the succession of phenomena in the universe. When
two events exactly correspond in all their circumstances, they are conceived to occupy
equal portions of time. The descent of a heavy body to the earth, for example, from a
given height, if repeated under precisely simUar circumstances, will in every case be per
formed in the same interval of time. Suppose then that a number of heavy bodies fall to
the ground one after another from the same height— the descent of the second and of each
succeeding body commencmg at the instant in which the body that preceded it had reached
the ground ; the whole time occupied by the fall of these bodies will be divided into equal
portions, one of which may be assumed as the measuring unit of time. The vibrations of
a pendulum, performed under precisely the same circumstances, are employed for estimating
Uie smaller portions of time : the larger portions are determined by the motions of the sun;
from which arise the vicissitude of day and night and the change of seasons.
The Day, in civil life, is the time that elapses between the rising and setting of the sun;
and the Night the time between his setting and rismg. The Astronomical or Solar Day,
on the other hand, comprehends the whole period of the sun's diumal revolution, and is
reckoned from the time of his passing any particular meridian, to the time of his retuming
to the same meridian. The pendulum usually employed is of such a length as to divide the
mean astronomical day mto 24x60x60=86400 equal parts called seconds; 60 of these
parts make a minute ; 60 minutes make an hour ; and 24 hours complete the day.
As the apparent motion of the sun carries him eastward among the fixed stars, the time
that elapses between his passing the meridian, and his retuming to it again, is longer than
the tune that intervenes between two successive passages (called transits) of any particular
star. This latter period is the exact tune of the earth's revolution on its axis, and is called
a Sidereal day : it is about 23," 56"" 4" in length.
The motion of the earth on its axis bemg perfectly uniform, the length of the sidereal day
is always the same. This is not however, the case with respect to the astronomical or solar
day, which is affected by the unequable motion of the sun, and by the obliquity of the ecliptic.
At the summer solstice, towards which the sun's motion in the ecliptic is slowest the solar
day is more nearly equal to the sidereal day than at the winter solstice, when the sun's motion
is quickest.With regard to the effect of the obliquity of the ecliptic in reference to the length of the
solar day, it is to be observed, that, by the geometrical properties of the sphere, equal portions
of any circle, whose plane is perpendicular to the axis of revolution, pass over the meridian
in equal times ; but if the plane of a circle is oblique-to the axis, the arcs that pass over the
meridian in equal times are not equal. Hence, if the sun moved uniformly in the equator,
the solar day would be always of the same length : but as he moves in the ecliptic, whose
plane is oblique to the axis, even if he did proceed with a uniform motion, the equal arcs
which he daily described would pass over the meridian in unequal times ; so that the solar
day would be longer or shorter according to the sun's place in the ecliptic.
The motion of the shadow on a sun-dial marks out time as measured by the sun's motion
in the ecliptic : but if the sun moved uniformly in the equator at such a rate is to complete
the annual circuit of the heavens, in the same time as he does by his actual motion in the
ecliptic, time measured by his motion would then correspond with that of a well-regulated
clock. The difference between the time shown by the sun-dial, and that shown by the clock, is
called the Equation of Time. The part of this equation which depends on the obliquity of
the ecliptic, vanishes at the equinoxes and at the solstices ; because at these seasons the sun
comes to the meridian at the same moment as he would do if he moved in the equator.
From the vemal equinox till the summer solstice, and from the autumnal equinox tUl the
winter solstice, the time as shown by the sun-dial is in advance of tliat indicated by the
clock ; because then the sun's distance from the first point of Aries, and first point of Libra,
passes sooner over the meridian than the equal arc upon tlie equator, which the sun would
have described had he moved in that circle.
Again, the hour shown by the sun-dial is behind that shown by tlie clock, from tlie summer
and winter solstices, till the autumnal and vernal equinoxes ; because at these two seasons
the distance of the sun from the first point of Aries, and from the first point of Libra, re
quires longer time to pass over the meridian, than the equal arc upon tlie equator.
The part of the equation of time which arises from the unequable motion of tlie sun, wUl
vanish when ho is at his greatest and least distances from tlie earth; because he is in tliese
two points of his orbit at the same instants of time as he would be if he moved uniformly
with his mean velocity ; that is, with a rate of motion by which he would describe equally
the ecliptic in tlie same time in which ho describes it by his unequable motion.
The dial, during the time when tho sun is moving from the point of his greatest to the
point of his least distance from the earth, is fester than tlie clock; because the sun ia then

Book I.

DIVISION AND MEASURE OF TIME.

95

at no instant so far advanced in his orbit as he would have been if he had been moving uni
formly with his mean velocity. The reverse is the case while the sun is moving from the
point of his least to that of his greatest distance. Time measured by the dial is called
apparent time ; that shown by a well-regulated clock is called true -time. The effect of
the obliquity of the ecliptic, and that of the sun's unequable motion, in rendering the dial
faster or slower than tlie clock, sometimes combine witli and at other times counteract each
other. The amount of each is given in the two following tables for every fifth day of the
year ; and by taliing the sum or difference, according as the obliquity of the ecliptic and
the sun's unequable motion produce simUar or opposite effects, a table may be formed of
the equation of time.
Table showing the Part of the Equation of Time that arises from the Obliquity cf
the Ecliptic.

Dial Faster.

Dial Slower.

Dial Paster.

Dial Slower.

M.

S.

M.
S.
M.
S.
M.
a.
March - -
21
0
0
June - -
21
0
0
September
23
0
0
December -
21
0
0
i>5
1
39
2(i
1
48
28
1
;i9
20
1
48
;w
3
1.5
July. - -
1
3
32
October
3
3
15
31
3
.32
April - -
4
4
46
7
S
8
a
4
40
January •
5
5
a
9
0
9
12
B
35
13
«
9
111
fi
:i5
14
7
22
17
7
48
18
7
22
15
7
4R
I'J
8
2.3
22
8
45
23
a
23
20
8
45
Si4
<J
9
28
y
20
28
fl
9
25
9
20
3U
U
4U
August - -
2
y
49
November -
2
9
40
29
9
49
May- - -
5
y
53
7
y
S3
7
u
53
February •
3
9
53
10
9
49
12
y
40
12
9
49
8
9
411
IS
9
26
17
y
y
17
9
20
13
9
9
20
8
45
22
8
23
22
8
45
IR
8
23
2()
7
48
28
7
22
27
7
4H
23
7
22
31
0
33
September
2
6
y
December -
2
G
35
28
0
9
June • -
3
i>
8
7
4
40
7
5
h
March • -
.1
4
40
10
3
32
12
3
15
12
3
,32
in
S
15
10
1
48
17-
1
39
17
1
48
15
20
1
0
39 0
Table showing the Part of the Equation of Time that arises from the Inequality of the
Sun's Motion.
Dial Paster than Clock.
-
Dial Slower than Clock.
M.
S.
M.
s.
M.
S.
IW
s,
July- - •
1
0
0
October -
3
7
43
December -
31
0
0
March
30
7
43
7
0
40
8
7
42
January -
5
0
41
April
4
7
40
12
I
19
13
7
:i7
1(1
1
22
9
7
34
17
I
57
18
7
29
15
2
2
14
7
94
22
2
:is
23
7
18
20
2
41
19
7
19
28
3
12
28
7
;i
2.5
3
19
"4
6
50
August .
a
3
47
November.
2
C
45
29
3
.50
30
0
30
7
4
21
7
6
24
February -
3
4
30
May- . -
5
0
14
12
4
52
12
6
39
8
5
2
10
5
.50
17
6
22
17
5
32
13
5
¦¦12
15
5
92
22
b
so
22
5
2
18
5
39
90
4
,59
28
0
14
27
4
3(1
23
0
24
90
4
91
September
2
0
30
December -
2
3
S6
28
6
45
31
3
47
7
0
60
V
3
19
March - -
5
7
3
June - -
5
3
12
12
7
12
12
2
41
10
7
18
in
2
35
17
7
24
17
2
2
15
7
29
10
1
.57
23
7
34
21
1
22
20
7
37
21
1
19
28
7
40
20
0
41
25
7
42
26
0
40
The difference between the apparent and the tme time, is very observable about the
season when the day is lengthening or shortening with most rapidity. It is a common
remark, that when the day is shortening, the change is more observable in the evening than
in the moming ; but that the reverse is the case when the day is lengthening. This arises
from the clock being before or after the sun. Thus, in the end of October, the dial is
upwards of sixteen mmutes faster than the clock ; so that the time of sun-rise, and the time
of sun-set, wUl each, as indicated by the clock, appear earlier by 16 minutes, than as indicated
by the motion of the solar shadow. Hence the instant of noon, as shown by the clock,
appears not to divide equally the time during which the sun is above the horizon : the time
from sun-rise till noon, appears longer than from noon till sun-set. Again, about the middle
of Febraary, the dial is about 15 minutes slower than the clock ; so that the time of sun-rise
and the time of sun-set will each, as indicated by the clock, he later by 15 minutes than as
indicated by the dial ; and the time from sun-rise till noon, as shovni by the clock, wUI
appear shorter than the time from noon till sun-set
5>8 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part IL
As the return of the sun to the meridian marks out the day, so his return to the same
equinox marks out another portion of time of much importance to be determined with
accuracy ; namely, the Year. This period comprehends the seasons which divide it into
four parts. Within this period also, the moon goes twelve times through all her phases,
which occupy the space of nearly twenty-nine and a half days : hence the year has been
divided into twelve months, three of which are allotted to each season. By accurate obser
vation it ia found, that the time which elapses between the instant at which the sun passes
the vernal equinox, and the period of his return to it is 365" 5" 48"° 48". This period is
called the Tropical year. It is found to be shorter than the interval between two successive
retums of the sun to the same star by 20"" 29'. This last-mentioned period is called the
Sidereal year, and consists of 365'' 6" 9"° 11'.
In order to make such a distribution of time as is accommodated to the purposes of liffe,
it is necessary so to adjust the reckoning of the solar revolution to the length, of the mean
solar day, that the beginning of the year may coincide with the beginning of the day, and
the seasons may always recur in the same months. If the solar revolution consisted of an
exact number of days, there would be no difficulty ; but as it includes a fraction of a day,
it is evident that one year cannot be made equal to one revolution, without incurring the
inconvenience of making the year commence at a different point of time from the beginning
of the day. But though one year cannot be made equal to one revolution, a certain number
of years may be made equal to a like number of revolutions.
Julius Csesar introduced the first near approximation to accuracy on this subject hi the
45th year before the commencement of the Christian era. The Romans had before that
time estimated the year according to the course of the moon, in imitation of the Greeks ;
dividing it into twelve months, which consisted in all of 354 days; but as an odd number
was thought the more fortunate, one day was added which made the year consist of 355
days. To make the lunar year correspond with the course of the sun, on which depends
the vicissitude of seasons, an intercalary month was inserted every other year, between the
23d and 24th day of February. The intercalation of this month was left to the discretion
of the priests, who, from interested motives, inserted often more or fewer than the proper
number of days, so as to make the year longer or shorter, according as it suited their own
purposes. This caused the months to be transposed from their stated seeisons, the winter
months being carried back into autumn, and the autumnal months into summer. When Julius
Caesar became master of the state, he resolved to put an end to this disorder, by abolishing
the use of intercalations which had been the source of it; and for that purpose, by the
assistance of Sosigenes, a celebrated astronomer of Alexandria, he adjusted the year to the
course of the sun, and assigned to the respective months the number of days which they
still contain. That matters might proceed with regularity from the beginning of the ensuing
January, he made the current year, which was called the last year of confusion, consist of
fifteen months, or 445 days.
The Julian year is founded upon the supposition that the solar revolutkin is exactly
365'' 6\ For three successive years the six hours are omitted ; but in the fourth year an
additional day is mserted in the month of February, which makes the four years correspond
with four solar revolutions. This fourth year, consisting of 366 days, is called Bissextile
or Leap year. But as the true length of the solar revolution is not 365'' 6'', but only
365'' 5" 48'" 48', the Julian year is too long by 11'" 12'; so that before a new year begms,
the sun has passed the point of the ecliptic where the preceding year began. The error
thence arising is, however, so small, that it was long before it was observed. The Julian
Calendar was introduced into the church at the time of the CouncU of Nice, in the year 325
of the Christian era; and the vernal equinox was at that tune fixed to the 21st of March.
In the year 1582, however, it was found that the vernal equinox fell, not on the 21st of
March, but on the 11th of that month; so that the Julian year had fallen about ten days
behind the sun. If this erroneous reckoning had been continued, tlie seasons would have
entirely changed their places. It was therefore resolved to reform the calendar, which was
done by Pope Gregory XIII., and the first step was to correct the loss of the ten days, by
counting the day after the 4th of October, not the 5th, but tlie 15th day of the month. The
error in the Julian year reckoning, being about eleven minutes yearly, amounts to nearly
three days in four centuries. Hence to prevent its accumulation in future, it was agreed to
suppress three intercalary days in the course of four hundred years, by considering tlie last
of three successive centuries common, instead of leap years. The years in which the inter
calary days are omitted are 1700, 1800, 1900 : and, in general, the last year of every century
not divisible by four, is reckoned a common year, which in the Julian account is bissextUe.
The degree of accuracy thus attained is very considerable ; for taking the annual error at llj
minutes, in four centuries, it will amount to 4480 minutes, or to 3"" 2'' 40'°. Of tliis error,
the fractional part, 2'' 40'", is all that remains uncon'ected ; and this error will require the
lapse of 3600 years before it amounts to a day.
Other modes of inlrrcalation. If tlie tropical year were BOS'" 5'' 49'" 12', the Gregorian
intercalation would bo portbctly e.vact Accurate observation proves, however, that the year

Book L DHmSION AND MEASURE OP TIME. 97
is shorter by about 24 seconds. If scientific principles had been strictly followed, they would
have pointed out other modes of intercalation still more accurate, though perhaps not moro
convenient, than that which has been adopted. The determination of the methods of inter
calation best suited to make the computations in the calendar correspond as nearly as possible
with the real motions of the sun, requires all the integer numbers to be found, which most
nearly express the ratio of 5'' 48'" 48' to a day. These numbers are easily determined by the
method of continued fractions. In tlie Gregorian calendar, 97 days are intercalated in the
course of 400 years ; but it would be much more exact to intercalate 109 days in the course
of 450 years. If the tropical year were precisely 365'' 5'' 48" 48', this intercalation would, in
deed, be quite accurate : for 5'' 48'''' 48', multiplied by 450, give exactly 109 days.
The reformation of the calendar, or the change from the Old Style to the New Style,
did not take place in England, till the year 1752, at which time it was established by an
act of parliament. The alteration was ordered to be made on the 2d of September ; and as
the error of the Julian reckoning now amounted to 11 days, the 3d was to be counted the
14th of September.
Correspondence between the days of the week and month. As the common year consists
of 52 weeks and one day, it is evident that the beginning and end of each common year wUl
fall on the same day of the week. In a series of years, therefore, if no leap years occurred,
the first day of each month would, year after year, be one day ferther advanced in the week,
tUl, in tiie course of seven years, the same days of the month would return to the same days
of the week. But since leap year contains 52 weeks and 2 days, and occurs every fourth
year, it follows that the days of the week cannot correspond to the same days of the month,
till after the lapse of four times seven or twenty-eight years. This period is called the
Cycle of the Sun. When this period is completed, the sun's place in the ecliptic returns
to the same signs and degrees on the same months and days, so as not to differ a degree in
a century ; and the leap years, as well as the common years, begin the same course over
again with respect to the days of the week on which the days of the month fall. The year
of our Saviour's birth, according to the vulgar era, was the ninth year of the solar cycle :
hence, to find the current year of that cycle, we must add nine to the given year of the
Christian era, and divide the sum by twenty-eight ; the quotient will be the number of cycles
which have been completed since the birth of Christ, and the remainder will be the current
year of the present cycle. Thus, for the year 1829, the cycle of the sun is found to be 18.
The first seven letters of the alphabet have been employed to mark the several days of the
week. As one of those seven letters must necessarily stand against Sunday, it is printed in
the calendar in a capital form, and called the Dominical Letter : the other six letters are
inserted in a diflerent character, to denote the other six days of the week. When January
begins on Sunday, A is the Dommical letter for that year : but because the next year begins
on Monday, the Sunday wUl of course fall on the seventh day, to which is annexed the
seventh letter G, which wUl therefore be the Dominical letter for all that year : and as the
thfrd year will begin on Tuesday, Sunday will fall on the sixth day, so that F will be the
Dominical letter for that year, and so on. Hence it is evident that the Dominical letters
wUl succeed each other in a retrograde order, viz. G, F, E, D, C, B, A. As the days of the
week correspond to the same days of the month only once in twenty-eight years, it follows
that it is only after the lapse of the same period, that the series of Dominical letters can
proceed in the same order in reference to the days of the month. Every leap year has two
Dominical letters ; one answering from the beginning of January till the end of February ;
the other being the letter immediately preceding, answering for the remainder of the year.
The Dominical letter may be found for any year of any century by the following rule :
divide the centuries by 4, and take twice what remains from 6 : then add together this last
remainder, the odd years above the even centuries, and the fourth part of these odd years,
neglecting the remainder if any : divide the sum by 7, and the excess of 7 above the
•emainder is the number answering to the letter required. Thus, for the year 1830, the
Dominical letter is C. For the centuries 18 divided by 4 leave 2 ; and twice this remainder
taken from 6 also leaves 2 ; by adding to which the odd number of years 30, and their fourth
part 7, we obtain 39 : this sum divided by 7 leaves the remainder 4, which taken from 7
leaves 3, answering to C, the third letter of the alphabet.

CHAPTER X.
PROPER MOTION OF THE MOON. HER PHASES. ECLIPSES OP THE SUN AND MOON.
The moon, next to the sun, is the most interesting to us of all the heavenly bodies. Her
phases, or that series of changes in her figure and illumination which she undergoes in the
com-se of about a month, are one of the most striking of the celestial phenomena ; and present
a division of time so remarkable that it has been the first in use among all nations.
The moon has an apparent motion among the fixed stars simUar to that of the sun, but
Vol. L 9 N

PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY.

PartH.

much more rapid : it carries her eastward at the rate of nearly 13° lOJ', at an average, in
24 hours. When this motion is accurately traced out, it is found, that the moon describes
round the earth, in 27'' 7'' 43'°, a path or orbit inclmed to the ecliptic at an angle of neariy
5° 9'. The line in which the plane of the orbit cuts the plane of the ecliptic is called the
Line of the Nodes. The point in which the moon crosses the ecliptic when ascending
to the north, is called the ascending node ; and the opposite point, in which she crosses it
when descending to the south, is called the descending node.
The figure of the lunar orbit is determined in the same manner as that of the solar, by
observing the changes in the apparent diameter of the moon, and comparing these with the
variations in her angular velocity. It is thus found, that the moon's orbit, like that of the
sun, is in appearance an ellipse, having the centre of the earth in one of the foci, and that
the radius vector, or the line joining the centres of the earth and moon, describes areas pro
portional to the times. Neither the line of the nodes nor the greater axis of the lunar orbit
is fixed. The former has a slow retrograde motion, by which it makes an entire revolution
in something more than 18^ years ; the latter has a progressive motion, by which it com
pletes a revolution in something less than 9 years. The elliptic orbit is liable, indeed, to so
many changes, that the full investigation of the lunar motion has been found one of the most
difficult problems in astronomy. At the same time it is one of the most useful, as connected
with the finding of the longitude of places on the surface of the earth. Accordingly, the
efforts of astronomers have been assiduously directed to the perfecting of the lunar theory ;
and by employing the resources of modem science, and combining these with continued and
accurate observation, their labours have been crowned with wonderful success.
The phases of the moon depend on her position with regard to the sun. Let E be the
earth, M the moon revolving in her orbit
round the earth, E S the direction of the sun,
and let us suppose aU the solar rays which
illuminate the moon to proceed in straight lines
parallel to S E. The moon is an opaque body
like the earth, and is visible only in conse
quence of reflecting the light of the sun. When
she comes to the meridian, therefore, about the
same time with the sun, that is, when she is at
M, she must be invisible, on account of the
unenlightened side being tumed towards us.
It is then said to be new moon : and, in refer
ence to her position with regard to the sun, the
moon is said to be in conjunction. Again,
when the moon comes to the meridian about
midnight, that is, when she is at m, she is said
to be in opposition, and in that position she
presents an entire circular disc; because the
whole of the enlightened side is then turned
towards the earth. It is then said to be full
moon. At any point of her orbit between the
points of conjunction and opposition, the moon
turns more or less of her enlightened side towards the earth, according to her angular dis
tance from the sun, and presents exactly the same appearances as an opaque spherical body,
of which one side is Ulummated, would exhibit if viewed from a distance, and m the same
positions in which the moon is seen from the earth. After the conjunction, as soon as she
has emerged sufficiently from the solar rays, she is seen in the western sky, after sunset in
the form of a Crescent, as at M', having the convex side turned towards the sun, and the
concave bounded by an elliptic line. On every succeeding night the luminous part increases,
whUe the elliptic boundary continually approaches to a straight line. On the seventh night
from the time of new moon, the moon reaches the position M", where her distance from the
sun is 90° : she is then said to be in her first Q,uadr.\ture, and exhibits the appearance of
HALF moon ; that is, the disc is a semicircle. The enlightened part stUl continuing to
increase on the same side, the rectilineal boundary of the semicircular disc passes again
into an elliptic line, and the moon becomes gibbous, as at M'": on all sides the disc is con
vex, though it does not become entirely full orbed untU she reaches the point of opposition,
at m, about the end of seven days from the time of half moon. From the instant of opposi
tion the moon begins to return to the sun on the western side ; and in her progress towards
the conjunction she goes through the same series of changes in an inverted order, becoming
first gibbous, as at m' ; then half moon at the time when she reaches the position m", her
second quadrature ; then a crescent, as at m'", which, continually diminishing, at last dis
appears altogether. Tlius, on the supposition that the moon is an opaque body and nearly
spherical, and that she revolves in an orbit round the eorUi, the phenomena of her phases
are easily explained.

DooE I.

PHASES OP THE MOON.

99

Strictly speaking, the moon is not exactly 90 degrees distant from the sun when she pre
sents the appearance of half moon. This phasis
occurs at the moment when the moon is in such a
position that two straight lines drawn from her
centre, — the one to tlie centre of the earth, the
other to the centre of the sun, — form a right angle.
By observing, therefore, the moon's distance from
the sun, at the instant when the boundary between
the enlightened and dark part exactly bisects tho
lunar disc, we should have in the right-angled tri-
 angle S M F the angle at F ; and hence, since the
side P M is also known, S F, the distance of the sun may he determined. This was the
first method employed for finding the sun's distance from the earth ; but, from the nicety of
the observations required, it cannot be expected to lead to any very satisfactory result
To a spectator on the moon the earth must evidently exhibit a series of changes similar
to the lunar phases as seen from the earth. At the time of conjunction the moon is on the
Uluminated side of the earth, so that the earth must then appear, as seen from the moon,
an entire circular disc. Again, at the time of opposition, the moon is on the dark side of
the earth ; so that the earth must then be invisible. When the moon is seen as a crescent,
the earth will appear gibbous ; and when the moon appears gibbous, the earth wUl be seen
as a crescent.
The fact of the earth appearing to a spectator on the moon an entire luminous disc, at
the time of the moon's conjunction with the sun, furnishes an explanation of a phenomenon
with which every one is familiar. In clear weather, when the moon is three or four days
old, her whole body is visible. The horns of the enlightened crescent appear to project
beyond the old moon as if they were part of a sphere of considerably larger diameter than
the unenlightened part. Now, the part of the moon not directly Uluminated by the sun is
seen by the light reflected from the earth. The appearance of a lucid bow, connecting the
horns of the crescent, is produced by the circumstance of the eastern edge of the moon's
disc being more luminous than the Euijacent regions towards the centre. With regard to
the enlightened crescent appearing a portion of a larger sphere, this is an optical deception,
and furnishes a remarkable proof that of two objects of equal magnitude, but of different
degrees of brightness, the brighter appears larger.
A lunation or lunar month is formed by the time that elapses between one new moon
and another. It consists of 29" 12'' 44'° 3" nearly ; and therefore exceeds the period of her
mean sidereal revolution, which is 27'' 7'" 43" 11^'. This excess arises from the proper
motion of the sun in the ecliptic ; for it is evident that the period in which the moon goes
through all her phases must he equal to the time required to describe 360°, with an angular
velocity equal to the difference between angular velocities of moon and sun.
Cycle of the moon. In 19 Julian solar years there are 235 lunations, and about one
hour and a half more. Hence, after 19 years, the conjunctions, oppositions, and other
aspects of the moon recur on the same days of the month, and only about an hour and a
half sooner. This period is accordingly called the Cycle of the Moon, and has been
found of so much use in adjusting the lunar to the solar year, in order to know the time of
new and full moon, and to determine the time of Easter, and other moveable feasts, that the
numbers of it have been called Golden Numbers. The year of our Saviour's birth, accord
ing to the vulgar era, was the first year of the lunar cycle : hence, to find the golden
number, or the current year of that cycle, we must add one to the year of Christ for which
the golden number is required, and divide the sum by 19 : the quotient will be the number
of cycles which have elapsed since the birth oT Christ, and the remamder wUl be the golden
number or current year of the cycle.
The epact is the difference between the solar and lunar periods at the end of each year,
or the moon's age on the first of January. Since the Julian solar year is 365" 6", and the
lunar year, or twelve lunations, 354" S"" 48"' 36", if we suppose new moon to have happened
on the first of January, so that the epact for that year is 0, it follows that the .epact for the
next succeeding year wUl be 10" 21" 11" 24^ or nearly 11 days. For the third year, the
epact will be nearly 22 days. For the fourth year it will be 33 days, or (rejecting 30 days
for a complete lunation) 3 days, and so on.
The annexed table contains the golden num
bers with the corresponding epacts adapted
to the Gregorian calendar, tUl the year 1900.
The epact for each month of the year is, in
like manner, the moon's age on the first day
of the month, supposing new moon to have
happened on the first of January.

Golden
Numbers.

Epacts.

Golden
Numbers.

Epacts.

Golden
Numbers.

Epacts,

I.
II.
III. IV. v.
VI.
VII.

0
11
22 3
14
25 0

VIII. IX. X.
XI.
XII.
xm.
XIV.

1728 9
20 1
12
23

XV.
XVI.
xvir.
XVIII. XIX, I.

4
15
20 7
18 0

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

Apr.

May.

June.

July.

Aug.

Sep.

Oct.

Nov.

Common year

0,

1,

0,

2,

2,

3,

4,

5,

7,

7,

9.

Leap year

0,

1,

1,

3,

3,

4,

5,

0,

8,

8,

10,

100 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part IL
The epacts for the months of the common and leap year are as follows : — Dec. 9.
10.
It is evident that the moon's age will be found by adding together the epact of the year,
the epact of the month, and the day of the month, rejecting thfrty if the sum amount to that
number. Thus, if it is required to find the mtwn's age on the 11th November 1829; by
adding 1 to 1829 and dividing by 19, we obtain a remainder 6, which is the golden number
for the year 1829. Now, against VI. in the table, we find 25 for the epact of the year, and
9 is the epact for November: hence 25-1-9 + 11 — 30 = 15, which is the moon's age; so
that the mtxm is fiill on that day.
The lunar cycle of 19 years, though remarkably simple, is however far from being accu
rate. Nineteen years contain about an hour and a half more than 235 lunations ; so that at
the termination of that period the moon has advanced about an hour and a half in the next
lunation. This error amounts to a day in the course of 16 cycles, or about 300 years. But
to compensate this excess, the epacts may be advanced, one day every 300 years, and m
this manner the lunar and solar periods will be made to agree. In consequence of her
apparent motion eastward, the moon is about 48 minutes later after every diumal revolution
of coming to the meridian. As 48 minutes is equal to ^ of an hour, an approximation is
made to the time of her southing, by multiplying her age by 4, and dividing by 5. This
gives tho time, nearly, before or after noon, according as the moon is past the opposition or
conjunction. "The time of her rising and setting is aflfected by the same cause. In one part of the
orbit, however, this is in a great measure counteracted by the smallness of the angle which
the orbit makes with the horizon. For fecilitating tiie illustration of this phenomenon, let
us suppose the moon to move in the ecliptic, from which she never deviates much more
than 5°. By turning round the celestial globe, it will be seen that the ecliptic makes with
the horizon very different angles, as the points of their intersection vary. If the first point
of Aries be brought to coincide with the east point of the horizon, the angle which the
ecliptic makes with the horizon is equal to the difference of the obliquity of the ecliptic and
the complement of the latitude : but if the first point of Libra be brought into coincidence
with the east point, the angle between the ecliptic and the horizon is equal to the sum of
the obliquity and the complement of the latitude. When the moon is in Pisces or Aries,
her motion in her orbit will therefore produce a considerable change, each succeeding night
on the distance between the east and the point of rising, but the time of rising wUl not be
much affected. The reverse will be the case when the moon is in Virgo or Libra. Hence
it is obvious that in every lunation, at a certain time, the mtxm must rise nearly at the same
hour for several days together. This phenomenon, however, for the most part passes unob
served ; but in the harvest season it attracts attention, as being then much more conspicuous
than at any other time of the year. In the autumnal months the moon is full in the signs
Pisces and Aries, (the sun being at that season in the opposite signs Virgo and Libra,) and
on that account rises an entire orb (or nearly so) for about a week, almost at the time of
sunset, thus affording a supply of light very beneficial to the husbandman, in gathering m
the fruits of the earth. This lunation has accordingly been distinguished by the name of
the HARVEST MOON.
The inclination of the moon's orbit to the ecliptic, makes the harvest moon rise, more or
less, nearly at the same time that she would if she moved in the ecliptic, according to the
position of the line of the nodes. If we suppose the ascending node to be in Aries, the
moon's orbit makes with the horizon an angle upwards of 5° less tlian the angle which the
ecliptic makes with it and consequently the harvest moon will rise more nearly at the same
time than if the moon had been in the ecliptic. In a littie less than 9J years, however, the
line of the nodes will have made half a revolution, and the descenduig node will be in-lrifs.
The moon's orbit will then make with the horizon an angle more than 5° greater than that
which the ecliptic makes with it ; and, consequentiy, the liarvest moon wUl not rise so nearly
at the same time as if the moon had been m the ecliptic.
The quantity of moonlight which we enjoy in winter is much greater tlian in summer.
As the moon is always on the same side of the heavens with .tlie sun, at tlie time of new
moon, and on the opposite side at the time of full moon ; it is evident Uiat at midsummer the
moon, when seen as a crescent, will rise at a point of the horizon to tlie nortli of east and
set at a point to the north of west, and wUl be seen high in tlie heavens when she passes
tlie meridian. As she approaches full moon, however, she wUl rise fiirtherand fartlierto tlie
south of oast, will appear low in the heavens when on the meridian, and will set ferther and
farther tn tlie south of west. The reverse takes place at mid-wmter: tiie moon is low
when seen as a crescent, and rises higher and higher in the heavens as she approaches fiiU
moon, Slio also liwts to tlie south of oust when a crescent and sets to the soutli of west;
but, when full, rises and sets to the nortii of tiiese pouits. Thus tiie great quantity of moon
light during the long nights of winter ai'ises from tiie moon being ftill in the nortiiem signs

Book I.

PHASES OF THE MOON

101

of the ecliptic, and is analogous to that of sunshine in the long days of smnmer. As we
approach the pole, the quantity of moonlight in winter becomes still more remarkable ; and
at the pole itself, at mid-winter, the moon does not set for fifteen days together, namely, from
tiie first to the last quarter.
The lunar disc is diversified with a great variety of spots, which are quite permanent, hut
differ very considerably from each other in degrees of brightness. These inequalities of
illumination are visible to the naked eye. Since the discovery of the telescope they have
engaged the particular attention of several astronomers, by whom their relative positions
have been carefully ascertained, and laid down in maps of the lunar surface. From an
attentive examination of the Ughts and shades seen on the moon's disc, it has been inferred
that her surface is very irregular, being diversified by lofty mountains, precipitous rocks, and
deep caverns. The existence of these irregularities of surface is strikingly evident from the
serrated appearance of the line which separates the enlightened from the dark part of the
moon, and by a variety of bright detached spots, almost always visible on the dark part and
near the line of separation between light and darkness. These bright spots are the tops of
mountains Uluminated by the sun, while his rays have not yet reached the bottom of the
intervening valleys. The dark spots of the moon are smooth, and apparently level, whUe
the luminous parts are elevated regions, which either rise into high mountains or sink into
deep and immense cavities. The general smoothness of the dark spots naturally led to the
conclusion that they were collections of water ; but more careful observation has made it
appear that the line which separates the enlightened from the dark part of the moon is not
smooth and regular, even when it passes over a dark spot ; so that there is no reason to sup
pose that there is any large collection of water in the moon : and this conclusion is strength
ened by the constant serenity of her appearance, which seems undisturbed by any of those
atmospherical phenomena which arise on our globe from the existence of water. The
mountainous scenery of the moon, and more especially the immense caverns with which her
surface is broken, bear little analogy to what we see on the surface of the earth. The
resemblance may, however, he conceived to be considerably increased if all the waters of
the earth were removed, and the beds of the ocean, seas, and lakes were left dry with all
the inequalities of their surfaces exposed to view. The earth would then be diversified, not
only with the rocks and mountains now seen upon its surface, hut likewise with deep caverns
of immense extent, and having detached mountains and rocks rising from the bottom, similar
to the cavities discovered in the moon. From certain light spots which have sometimes
been seen on the dark part of the moon, at such a distance from the enlightened portion
that they could not arise from the light of the sun, astronomers have inferred the existence
of volcanoes in the moon. Dr. Herschel, in particular, two or three different times, observed
such spots.
The height of a lunar mountain may be measured by the following method. Let DAE
be a section of the moon made by a plane passing
through O, the eye of an observer on the earth, M the
sumjnit of a mountain situated in the dark part of the
lunar disc, and S the sun. It is evident that this plane
will be perpendicular to the line which joins the horns
ijliof the moon. Let D A be the arch of the circle
D A F, which passes over the visible portion of the
enlightened hemisphere. Whenever the point M be
comes visible to a spectator at O, it must be illumi
nated by a ray of the sun SAM, which will be a
tangent to the circle D A F at the point A, and there
fore at right angles to the diameter A P. Produce
O M to meet the diameter D E in ?n, and draw A r
and A n parallel to D E and M m ; also produce E D to meet S M in C. Because DAE
is a section of that hemisphere of the moon which is turned towards the earth, the visual
ray O M m is perpendicular to D E : hence the angles m M C, M C ??i are together equal
to two right angles. But because C A is perpendicular to A B, the angles A BG and A C B
(or M C m) are also together equal to two right angles : whence it is evident that the angle
m M C is equal to A B C ; and that the triangles A M r, A B ra are similar. We have,
therefore. An: AB = Ar: AM. Hence A M =  :  •
A n
Now, A r is the projection of A M on the lunar disc, and will be found by measurmg,
with the micrometer, in a direction perpendicular to a line joining the homs of the moon,
A n
the distance of the illuminated summit M from the enlightened disc at A ; also t~b'^= Sin.
A Jj
Z A B C, radius being unity, the angle A B C is equal to S M m the moon's distance or
Ar
elongatwn from the sun : wherefore we obtain A M = ^^  -¦,  7; — , a given quantity.
9 '* '"¦ ^ °"^^ ^'^^

102 PBLNCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. Part H.
Next, let A G H be a section of the moon made by a plane passing along the tangent A M,
and through the centre K : draw M K G ; then, by a well-known
property of the circle, AM' = GMxMH = MHX(GH+HM),
or, H M being much smaller than G H, we have AM'^ = MHXGH,
AM^
and M H = Frrr nearly. Now, A M and G H are both given ; there
fore H M, the height of the mountain above the general surface, may
be determined.
Suppose, for example, that when the apparent diameter of the
moon is 31' 15", and her elongation from the sun 93° 57^', the dis
tance between the enlightened part of her disc, and the summit of a
mountain situated in the dark part of it is found to be 41-j"; and let
it be required thence to determine the height of the mountain.
The diameter of the moon is about 2180 mUes; hence 31' 15" or 1875" : 41^" = 2180:
48'25, which is the number of mUes in 41^" on the lunar disc ; so that we have Ar = 48'25
miles.
Ar
Again, the Nat Sin. of the elongation 93° 57^ = '9976 ; therefore A M = h^  i  r- — •
:= .ama = 48'36 mUes.

Lastly. The height =AT _(.^:^ _ .,
G H — 2180 ~ '¦ "' ™"®-

Thus the height of the lunar mountain in question is found to be about a mUe. The
principle now explained is correct in theory ; but with regard to the results obtained from
the practical application of it, a greater difference of opinion exists than might have been
expected. These results are, however, highly curious and interesting. .
Moon's motion round the earth. The moon's surface, when viewed through a telescope,
is so strongly characterised by the spots visible upon it as to leave no doubt of its being
always the same. From this the inference is obvious, since we are certain from the moon's
motion round the earth, that she must revolve on an axis nearly perpendicular to the plane
of her orbit in the same time that she revolves about the earth, namely in 27^ days nearly.
Her rotation on her axis is equable ; but this is not the case with her motion in her orbit
which is periodically variable : and hence there are parts of the eastem and westem edges
of the moon which are seen occasionally. This appearance is called the libration of the
MOON IN longitude. It is entirely optical, and argues no inequality in the moon's motion
on her axis.
The moon's axis of rotation is not altogether perpendicular to the plane of her orbit but
inclined to it at an angle of 88° 29' 49". In consequence of this position of her axis her
poles are alternately visible, and a small portion of the polar regions ; this phenomenon is
called the libration op the moon in l.atitude.
The diurnal libration of the moon is another optical appearance arising from the moon
being viewed from the surface instead of the centre of the eartii. At rising, a part of the
western edge is seen, which is invisible at setting ; and, at setting, a part of the eastem
edge is seen, which is invisible at rising.
The explication of the lunar phases leads to that of Eclipses — those occasional obscura
tions of the sun and moon which have, in ages of ignorance, been objects of superstitious
terror to mankind, and at all times objects of curiosity to the philosopher. At the time of
new moon, the moon is upon the same side of the heavens with the sun, but for the most
part, passes either above or below the solar disc without obscuring any part of it This
arises from her orbit being inclined to the ecliptic : for it is evident tiiat if the planes of the
orbit and ecliptic coincided, the centres of the sun, moon, and earth would, at every new
moon, be in the same straight line ; so that the moon would be seen to pass over the sun's
disc, and the sun would appear to be totally or partially eclipsed, according to the position
of an inhabitant upon the earth's surface. Again, at the time of full moon, tiie moon is on
the opposite side of the heavens fi"om the sun ; and therefore she is on the same side of the
heavens with the shadow, which tiic earth, as an opaque body, projects into space. In most
cases, however, the moon passes above or below this conical shadow ; so that she is not
deprived of the sun's rays. But if tho plane of tiie orbit coincided witii tiiat of the ecliptic,
the centres of the sun, moon, and earth would evidently be in tiie same straight line at every
full moon as wi;ll as at every new moon: tiic moon would therefore fell into the earth's
sh.-idow, and would be eclipsed to all the inhabitimts on that side of the earth which is turned
towards the niodii at the timi:'.
Though the inclintijion of tho lunar orbit to tiie ecliptic prevents the occurrence at every
new and full moon of these phnionicna, there are certain distances from tiie nodes of the
moon's orbit, called ecliptic limits, within which, if the moon is situated at the time ol
new or full moon, there will be a solar or lunar eclipse.

Book I.

ECLIPSES.

103

To illustrate the general phenomena of lunar eclipses. Let A B, D E be sections of the
sun and earth, by a plane perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic. Draw A V, B V touching

the circles A B, D E on the corresponding sides in E and D, and meeting each other in V :
also draw B G, A H, touching these circles on the opposite sides in M and N. Then, if we
suppose the figure A B H G to revolve about the line C F, which joms the centres of the
circles, as an axis, the cone generated by the line E V represents the shadow which the
earth projects into space ; and from every point of that conical shadow the light of the sun
is entirely excluded. The spaces between E V, M G, and between D V, N H, wUl receive
the light of a part of the sun : and hence the space round the shadow, which is generated by
the motion of the lines G M, E V, is called the penumbra.
Join C E. It is evident that the angle E V F is equal to the difference of the angles
A E C, E C F. But A E C is the angle under which the sun's semidiameter is seen fi-om
the earth ; and E C F is the angle under which the earth's semidiameter is seen from the
sun. Both of these angles being known, their difference E V F is a given angle. Now, in
the right angled triangle E V P we have given the angle at V, and the side E P, which is
the earth's semidiameter: hence F V, the height of the earth's shadow, may be determined.
The height of the shadow varies from 213 to 220 semidiameters of the earth.
Again, let F O be the distance of the moon from the earth : draw K O L perpendicular
to F V, and join F L. The angle L F O, under which the semidiameter of the section of
the earth's shadow is seen from the earth, is equal to the difference of the angles, F L E,
F V L. But F L E is the angle under which the semidiameter of the earth is seen from the
moon, and F V L is, as has been shown, equal to the difference between the angle under
which the sun's semidiameter is seen from the earth, and the angle under which the earth's
semidiameter is seen from the sun : hence, to find the angle under which the section of the
earth's shadow through which the moon passes in a lunar eclipse is seen from the earth,
we must add toget'ner the two angles under which the semidiameter of the earth appears
when seen from the sun and moon, and from the sum subtract the sun's apparent semi
diameter, the remainder is the angle required. The angle L F O, when greatest is about
46': but the inclination of the lunar orbit to the ecliptic is upward of 5°, and to this distance
the moon may recede from the ecliptic. It is evident, therefore, that an eclipse of the moon
can take place only when she is near her nodes.
Let the circle A H B be the section of the earth's shadow at the moon ; A B a portion
of the ecliptic, and D F a portion of the moon's orbit near the ascending node. Draw C G
from the centre of the shadow, (which must be the point of the ecliptic directly opposite the
sun,) perpendicular to A B, and let it meet D F in G ; then G is the point of opposition at
which the moon wUl be 180 degrees of the ecliptic distant from the sun. Now, in moving
from D to G, the moon must enter the earth's shadow,
and will therefore be eclipsed. The beginning of the
eclipse will be the moment that she enters on the shadow
at K : the middle of the eclipse will be the moment when
her centre reaches the point E, the extremity of the per
pendicular drawn from C to D F ; and the end of the
eclipse wUl be the moment when she leaves the shadow
at the point L. The portion of the moon's disc that is
obscured will depend on the distance between E and C,
which will vanish when the point of the opposition coin
cides with the node. It is evident that had the eclipse
happened on the other side of the node, the oppositfe edge of the moon would have been
immersed in the shadow.
In eclipses there are various degrees of immersion. When this is entire, it is said to be
total ; when only a part of the moon is immersed, the eclipse is said to be partial ; and
when the centre of the moon passes through the centre of the shadow, the eclipse is said
to be central and total. The breadth of the shadow at the moon is about three times her
diameter, so that in the case of a total central eclipse, the moon may be entirely obscured
for nearly two hours.

104 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part H.
The time when eclipses shall happen may be computed from the laws which regulate the
motions of the sun and moon. This computation requires astronomical tables, and is per
formed with considerable labour. But it may be observed that in 223 lunations, or 18 years
10 days (or 11 days according as four or five leap years occur in the interim), 7 hours
43 minutes, the moon returns to the same position nearly with regard to the sun, and the
lunar nodes, and therefore the eclipses, will return nearly in the same order and circum
stances. This is thought to be the period called the Chaldean Saros, being used by the
Chaldeans in predicting eclipses.
When it is known that a lunar eclipse is to happen, it is easy to compute its general cir
cumstances. The distance of the moon from the ecliptic at opposition, the time of opposi
tion, the angles under which the earth's semidiameter is seen at the sun and moon, also the
apparent diameters of these two luniuiaries, are known from the tables. In the right angled
triangle C E G we have given C G, and the angle G C E, which is equal to the inclination
of the moon's orbit to the ecliptic, nearly ; hence we find C E and E G. Prom C E and
C P, the sum of the semidiameters of the section of the earth's shadow and the moon, we
find E F, which is equal to E D ; thence D G, G F become known. We can compute from
the tables the angular motion of the moon in her orbit relatively to the sun, the latter body
being supposed at rest Her motion relatively to the opposite point C is evidently the same :
hence we can determine the time of describing D G and G F; that is, the time that elapses
between the begmning of the eclipse and the opposition, and between the opposition and
the end of the eclipse. But the time of the opposition is known, therefore the tunes of the
beginning and end of the eclipse will also be known.
For estimating the quantity of an eclipse, tho diameter of the solar or lunar disc is con
ceived to be divided into twelve equal parts called digits ; and according to the number of
those parte which are obscured, so many digite are said to be eclipsed.
Let it be supposed that the edge of the moon's disc jist touches the edge of the section
of the earth's shadow at P, and that at the same tune
the diameters of the moon and shadow are each at the
maximum, and we shall find the ecliptic limit for lunar
eclipses. Produce E D and B A to meet in N : then
N C is the limit of the distance of the node from the
opposition at which an eclipse can happen. Since the
j'Ji line in which the centre of the moon moves (which for
a short distance may be considered as a straight line)
must be supposed parallel to the tangent to the circle
A P B at the point P, the angle at E is a right angle.
The angle N, is the inclination of the lunar orbit to the
ecliptic : also C E is equal to the sum of the semidiameters of the moon and shadow.
Hence from the spherical triangle C E N, C N may be determined ; and is found to be
about llj". Unless when the node and the point of opposition, which are both liable
to continual change of position, come within this distance, there ceinnot possibly be a
lunar eclipse.
Calculation of longitude. The penumbra makes it very difficult to observe, with pre
cision, the beginning or end of a lunar eclipse ; so that though these periods may be em
ployed for determining the longitude of places on the earth, no great degree of accuracy is
to be expected. The best method is to note the time of the arrival of the boundary of the
shadow at the different spots on tiie lunar surface, which may be considered as so many
different observations.
The moon seldom disappears entirely in lunar eclipses, but is seen of a dusky red colour :
even the spots on the lunar surface may be distinguished through tiie shade. This effect is
to be attributed to a portion of the sun's light, which enters the conical shadow in conse
quence of being refracted by the atmosphere of the earth. The nature and effects of atmos
pherical refraction will afterwards be explained.
Eclipses of the sun. With regard to the general phenomena of solar eclipses, we may
begin with remarking, that when the sun's light is intercepted by the moon, so that at any
place on the earth's surface he becomes partly or wholly invisible, properly speaking, it is
an eclipse of that portion of the earth on which tlie moon's shadow or penumbra falls.
The semi-angle at the vertex of the moon's shadow is determined in a similar manner
to that on which the semi-angle at the vertex of the eai-tii's shadow was found. It is equal
to the difference of tho angles under which the semi-diameters of the sun and moon would
be seen, if each of these bodies were viewed from the other at the time of tiieir conjunc
tion ; and will therefore not he very far from being equal to the apparent semi-diameter of
the sun as soon from the earth. Computing, then, the li^ngth of the conical shadow of the
moon, wo shall find it vary from about 60A to 5,'),^ semi-diamctors of tiie earth. The length
of tho shadow at the time of tho conjunction may tiierefore at one time exceed, and at
another time fall short of the moon's distance from the earth, which varies from 64 to 56
Bemi-diamotcrs. In the former case, if the conjunction happen when the moon is within a

Book I. ECLIPSES. 105
certain distance of the node, the lunar shadow wUl reach the earth, and a section of it wUl
traverse a portion of the earth's surface, producing, wherever it fells, a total eclipse of the
sun. Wherever the penumbra falls, the sun wUl appear partially eclipsed ; more or fewer
digits bemg eclipsed accordmg as the place is less or more removed from the shadow,
Beyond the penumbra the sun is not eclipsed at all. The section of the lunar shadow is so
near tiie vertex, that even when greatest the portion of the earth's surfece which it covers
is not very extensive, being only about 180 mUes in diameter : the penumbra, however,
extends over a consitlerable part of that hemisphere of the earth which is turned towards
the Sim. A total eclipse in any place cannot exceed 7' 58". If the vertex of the lunar
shadow just reaches the surface, the total eclipse tiien produced wUl be mstantaneous.
When the vertex of the lunar shadow fells short of the earth's surfece, at no place wUl
there be a total eclipse : but at places near the axis of the cone, there wUl be seen an
ANNULAR eclipse ; that is, the central parts of the sun's disc will be obscured, but a bright
ring wUl be left visible round the dark body of the moon. Thus let A B, C D be sections
of tiie sun and moon and V tiie vertex of the lunar

shadow which is supposed not to reach the earth. Produce P V the axis of the shadow to
meet the surfece of the earth in E. From E draw E C G, E D H tangents to the moon,
and intersecting the sun's disc in G and H. The circle of which the line joining G H is
the diameter, marks out the portion of the sun that is hid by the body of the moon from an
observer, at E, and the annulus, of which the breadth is A G, will be visible.
The general circumstances of a solar eclipse may be represented by projection ; and a
map may be constructed to show the progress of the shadow over the surfece of the earth.
The most simple projection is that which supposes the observer to be placed in the sun, and
to see the path which any place on the earth's surface describes in consequence of tho
diumal motion projected into an ellipse on the plane of the earth's disc, while the path of
the moon's shadow is projected into a straight line on the same disc. The geometrical con-
Btmction thus obtained is sufficiently accurate for the prediction of eclipses.
The circumstances of a solar eclipse may, however, be computed with considerable accu
racy. Thus, find for the given place, from the tables, the time of the conjunction of the
eun and moon. The position of the heavenly bodies in reference to the ecliptic is deter
mined by latitude and longitude, in the same manner as the position of a place on the sur
face of tiie earth in reference to the equator. Find, then, for the time of the conjunction,
the latitude and longitude of the moon, and apply to them the small change produced by
the spectator being placed on the surface instead of the centre of the earth ; a change
which depends on the angle which the earth's semidiameter subtends at the sun and moon
at the time : this wUl give us the apparent latitude and longitude of the moon as seen on
the concave surface of the heavens. Compute from these and tiie longitude of the sun,
that is, his distance from the first point of Aries, the apparent distance of the centres of the
Bun and moon at the instant of conjunction ; whence we may nearly conclude the time of
the beginning and ending of the eclipse, hy taking into account the apparent horary motion
of the moon in latitude and longitude at the time of conjunction, computed from the tables.
About the conjectured time of the beginning of the eclipse, compute two or three apparent
latitudes and longitudes of the moon, and thence, combuied with the longitude of the sun,
the apparent distances of the centres. From these results the time may be computed by
proportion when the apparent distance of the centres is equal to the sum of the apparent
semi-diameters, that is, the time of the beginning of the eclipse.
The magnitude also of the eclipse at any time maybe thus determined: let SE {fig. 28.)
be the computed apparent difference of longitude of the centres S, M, of the sun and moon, and
M E the computed apparent latitude of the moon. In the right-angled triangle M E S, we
have therefore given the two sides to find the hypothenuse M S, which, being known, we
obtain m n the eclipsed part of the sun : for m n=S m-f-M n — M S.
The ecliptic limits of the sun may be determined in the following manner : let S and M
(29— /g-. 1.) he the sun and moon, seen from E the centre of the earth at the moment of con
junction ; that is, when their centres are in the same circle S B perpendicular to the ecliptic.
Let the angle a E i, formed by taiigente drawn from E to the adjacent edges of the solar
and lunar discs, be equal to the greatest difference between the tme place B and apparent
Vol. L q

106

PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY.

Part H.

place m of the moon, which can arise from her being viewed from the surfece instead of the
centre of the earth. It is not difficult to see that this difference wUl be greatest when the
moon is in the horizon, and that its effect will be to depress her altitude. The distance of
the sun is so great, that we may at present consider his true and apparent place as coinci
dent Suppose now an observer on the earth's surface at A, whose horizon is at right angles
to S B, to have the moon in his horizon at the moment of conjimction ; it is evident that to
him the two discs would appear to be in contact : but to an observer on any other point of
the earth's surface, the discs would appear asunder. In the moment of conjunction, there
fore, the penumbra must have just touched the earth at the point A ; and when the centres
of the sun and moon approach nearest to each other before or after the conjunction, it wUl
spread over a very small portion of the earth's surface near A, so as to produce barely an
eclipse. Hence the distance of the sun from the node at the time of conjunction wUl be
the solar ecliptic limit nearly. In the right-angled spherical triangle S ot N {fig. 2.) let
N S be a portion of the ecliptic, and N m a portion of the mtxin's orbit, N being the node, and
let the pferpendicular S to be equal to S m in fig. 1. The arc N S is the ecliptic limit required :
and to find it, we have given the angle at N equal to the inclination of the mtxin's orbit to the
ecliptic, and S m equal to the sum of the apparent diameters of the sun and moon together
with the angle bE a, which is equal to B M m or A M E, the angle subtended by the semi
diameter of the earth's disc as seen from the moon. The angle N and the perpendicular
S m being known, the base N S is easily determined. The three quantities to the sum of
which S TO is equal, are variable in their values. Taking for S m the sum of the semi
diameters of the solar and lunar disc, and of the disc of the earth as seen from the moon
when they are greatest we find S N equal to 17° 12' nearly. But if S m be made equal
to the sum of the semidiameters when they are least S N is found to be nearly equal to
15° 19'. Within the former of these limits an eclipse of the sun may happen, witlun the
latter it must happen.
If the moon's apparent diameter be greater than or equal to that of the sun, the eclipse
will be total wherever the lunar shadow fells. But if the sun's apparent diameter be greater
than that of the moon, the eclipse will be annular within the lunar shadow.
Number of eclipses. The ecliptic limits of the sun taken on each side of the node, give
an arc of the ecliptic exceeding 30°, so that the sun wUl be more than a month in passing
through these Itmite. Hence there must be two eclipses of the sun every year. Since the
ecliptic limits of the moon, however, taken on each side give an arc only of about 23°, and
since through this portion of the ecliptic the sun passes in less than a month, there may be
no eclipse of the moon in the course of a year.
When a total and central eclipse of the moon happens, there may be an eclipse of the
sun at the preceding and following conjunctions, because between new and fuU moons the
sun describes only about 15 degrees of tiie ecliptic, so that each conjunction may happen
within the solar ecliptic limits. The same may take place at the opposite node : there may
therefore be six eclipses in the course of a year. The retrogradation of the node at the
rate of 20° yearly renders it possible, when the first eclipse of the year happens early in
January, that another eclipse of the sun may occur in the end of the year. On the whole,
there may be seven eclipses in the course of one year ; five of the sun, and two of the moon :
and there never can be fewer than two, but though more solar eclipses happen than lunar,
there are fewer of the former visible tiian of the latter; because a lunar eclipse is visible at
every place on tho earth which is turned towards the moon during its continuance ; but in
a solar eclipse the sun continues visible at all places over which the penumbra does not pass.
The greatest possible duration of the annular appearance of a solar eclipse is 12'° 24", and
the greatest possible time during which the sun can be wholly obscured is 7" 58".
As the beginning and end of a solar eclipse can be observed with considerable accuracy,
they are useful for determining the longitude, though the method which they fiirnish is
complex and laborious.

Book I. ECOPSES. 107
Effects of atmospherical refraction and parallax. In the preceding explanation of solar
eclipses we have had occasion to refer to the effects of atmospherical rbpraction ; also
to the difference between tiie apparent places of the sun and moon, called their parallax,
produced from their being viewed from the surfece instead of the centre of the earth.
Before leaving this subject we shall state a little more fully the effects arising from these
causes. Atmospherical refraction. The earth is suiTounded on all sides by an aeriform elastic
fluid, which is called the atmosphere. This fluid possesses weight and is compressible ;
and hence tiie parts near the surface of the earth are more dense than those above them, on
account of the greater superincumbent pressure which they sustain. The same thing holds
true of every stratum when compared, in reference to density, with that immediately below
it ; so that from the surface upwards the density gradually diminishes, at a few miles' eleva
tion becomes very small, and at some pomt may be considered as altogether evanescent.
Now, it is a well known principle, that if a ray of light after passing through one medium
(air, for instance), enters another (say water) of a different density, in a direction not per
pendicular to its surface, it is bent out of its course towards the perpendicular to the surfece on
which the ray is uicident if the second medium is the denser of the two; hut from that per
pendicular if the second medium is the rarer. In passuig through the atmosphere, therefore,
a ray of light wUl be continually deflected from the rectilineal into a curvilineal path ; be
cause at every point of ite course it is entering a medimn of a greater density. The ray is
said to be refreKted ; and as the tangent draws from the eye to the curve which it describes
is the direction in which celestial objects appear, it follows, that refraction renders the appa
rent altitude of all the heavenly bodies greater than the true. Hence they often appear
above the horizon when they are actually below it.
The deviation of the refracted ray from its original course increases with the angle of
incidence, and vanishes when the direction of the ray is perpendicular to the surfece of the
second medium. Hence atmospherical refraction is greatest when the object is in the
horizon, where it may be about 34' : at 45° altitude, it is about 57^" : in the zenith it
vanishes. Whatever alters the density of the atmosphere must affect also its refractive power. In
all accurate observations, therefore, the state of the barometer and thermometer must be
taken into account At the same zenith distances, the quantity of refraction varies nearly
as the height tjf the barometer, supposing the temperature to remain the same. The effect
of a variation in the temperature is to diminish the quantity of refraction about j-^Tfth part for
every increase of one degree in the height of the thermometer.
In passing through the atmosphere light is reflected as well as refracted. The reflective
power of the atmosphere produces the splendour of day by diffusing light in every direction.
Combined with ite refractive power, it causes that faint light called twilight, which is per
ceived before sunrise and after sunset ; — beginning in the morning in our latitude, and end
ing in the evening, when the sun's depression below the horizon is about 18°. Various
other phenomena are to be attributed to the same cause : the red and orange colour of the
moming and evening clouds ; the ruddy appearance of all the heavenly bodies when near
the horizon ; the blue colour of the sky ; and the bright azure of the distant mountains, are
all the effecte of the refractive powers of the atmosphere.
Refraction is also the cause of the oval appearance of the sun and moon when near the
horizon. The diameter of the disc that is parallel to the horizon remains unaffected in ite
apparent length, because both extremities are equally refracted ; hut the diameter perpen
dicular to the horizon is shortened by about jth of its length, because the lower edge of the
disc, being nearer the horizon, is refracted nearly five minutes more than the upper.
The great apparent magnitude of the sun and moon when in the horizon is another
remarkable phenomenon which we may here notice. This Ulusion, which is altogether
optical, is usually accounted for on this principle, that we form an erroneous judgment
respecting the distances of these bodies when they are in the horizon, compared with their
distances when they have attained a considerable elevation. When we see the moon, for
example, in the heavens at a considerable altitude, we intuitively suppose her nearer than
when she is in the horizon ; because, in the latter case, we see a multitude of objects, —
many of them at great distances, and the moon beyond them all ; but in the former case,
we have no uitervening objects by which to form an estimate of her distance. The angle
under which she is seen beuig nearly the same, we infer a greater magnitude when we
imagine the distance greatest that is, when the moon is in the horizon. Such is the error
into which we, in this instance, fall, in the rapid judgmente of the mind respecting magni
tude and distance connected with vision. "The more deliberate conclusion on this subject
drawn by reason is, that the moon must indeed be at a greater distance from an observer on
the earth, when she is in his horizon, than when she is in or near his zenith ; but that how
ever the eye may be tleceived, her apparent diameter must when exactly measured, be found
Jess. This is accordingly the case ; for, when accurately measured with the micrometer,

108 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part H.
the moon's apparent diameter, when she is in the horizon, is actually found to be less than
when she has attained a considerable altitude.
Parallax. We have formerly shown that, in comparison with the distances of the fixed
stars, the earth is but as a point in the universe ; so that their positions in the heavens appear
the same when viewed from the earth's surface, as they would if they were viewed from
its centre. This, however, is not the case with regard to the sun, moon, and planete. At
each of these bodies the earth presente a disc of an appreciable magnitude : and, on the
other hand, their positions among the fixed stars, when viewed from tiifferent points of the
surface of the earth, vary, and are different from what they would be were they seen from
the centre of the earth.
Let ABE {fig. 30.) be the earth, C its centre, and M, M", M' (a. heavenly body, for
example) the moon in the sensible horizon, the zenith, and
any intermediate position. The true places of the moon in
these positions, as seen from the centre C, and referred to the
starry heavens, will be to, ot", ot' ; and their apparent places,
as seen from B, will be n, ot", n'. It is evident that in the
zenith the true and apparent places coincide, so that there is
no parallax. In the horizon the parallax is greatest: it is
measured by the arc m n, and is equal to the angle BMC,
under which the semidiameter of the earth's disc appears
when viewed from the moon. At the intermediate position
M' the parallax is measured by the arc m' n' : it is less than
in the horizon, and decreases as the body ascends until it
vanishes when the body reaches the zenith. Prom the horizon
to the zenith, parallax diminishes the apparent altitude of a
body ; but as the altitude increases, this diminution becomes less and less. Ite effect there
fore, is contrary to that of refraction, which always increases the apparent altitude of a body.

CHAPTER XI.
MOTION OF THE PLANETS ROUND THE SUN.
The phenomena of the motions of the otiier planete differ from those of the mix)n, which,
as we have shown, are all easily accounted for, on the supposition that the mixin revolves
round the earth in an elliptic orbit subject to various changes ; which are confined, how
ever, within certain limite. The attempte which the ancient astronomers made to explain
the celestial phenomena, by supposing the earth to be the centre of the universe, introduced
a system, the ptolemaic, which was received for about 1500 years, as affording the tme
explanation of the planetary motions; but which the progress of scientific tiiscovery has
proved to be absurd. Ptolemy, an astronomer of Egypt, who flourished about 140 years
after the Christian era, supposed the planets to revolve about the earth in the following
order ; viz. the Moon, Mercury, Venus, the Sun, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn. Beyond the region
of the planete he placed the sphere of the fixed stars. While he tiius accounted for the
proper motions of the planete from west to east he conceived tiie ^vhole to be carried round
the earth by a diumal motion, in the opposite direction, in twenty-four hours. The irregu
larities of the planetary motions, — these being sometimes direct, at other times retrograde ;
sometimes swift, and at other times slow, — were imagined by him to arise fixim each planet
moving in a small circle, called an epicycle, whose centre was carried round a larger
circle, called the deferent, having the earth placed a little to the one side of ite centre.
The motions in these circles he imagined to be produced by tho revolution of transparent
globes ; each planet being supposed to be attached to a globe, which carried it round in its
epicycle ; and this globe again supposed to be contained in the shell of another globe of
sufficient thickness to receive it within its solid substancp, and to allow it to revolve on its
own centre, at the same time that it was can-ied in tiie deferent round the earth.
Betting aside the obvious objections to this theory, arising from tiie extravagance of the
suppositions, as well as the awkwardness and complication of the machinery which it em
ploys, an insuperable difficulty remains; viz. tiiat tiie whole system is entirely hypothetical,
and offers no proof of the existence of the agente to which it attributes such mighty effects.
It ia not surprising, therefore, that instead of being confirmed by subsequent discoveries, it
fell to the ground as soon as tlie true method of investigating the laws of nature was under
stood and adopted.
Of the planets, two. Mercury and Venus, always accompany the sun, never receding from
him beyond certain 1 imite : the rest are seen at all possible angular distances firom the sun. Let
us, then, fix upon Venus as the most conspicuous of tiie two which accompany the sun, and
upon Mars as one of tlie most conspicuous among tiiose which recede to all angular distances
from him; and by tracing out tiio ajiparent motions of tiiese planets, let us endeavour to
ascertain the centre about which tiiey revolve.

Book I. MOTION OP THE PLANETS ROUND THE SUN. 109
When the planet Venus is near the sun, she is invisible ; but when she has emergeii
Bufficiently fi-om his rays, she is seen in the twUight of the morning or evening, according
as she is to the west or east of the sun. In the former case she is the morning star ; in the
latter, the evening star. When she begins to be seen in the evening, she is found to be
receding from the sun towards the east, and thus disengaging herself more and more from
his rays. Having reached her greatest angular distance, or elongation, which is from 45°
to 48°, she begins again to approach him, and continues to do so till her angular distance is
about 28°. During elU this time her motion is direct, that is, in the order of the signs ; but
now she becomes stationary, and in a short time she is seen moving in a direction contrary
to the order of the signs, and has thus acquired a retrograde motion ; but still she continues
to approach the sun, until in a short time she is lost in his light. After being invisible for
about six weeks, she is again seen ; but now in the moming to the west of the sun, emerging
from the solar rays. Her motion is stUl retrograde ; but when she has reached about 28°
distance from the sun, she again becomes stationary ; and in a short time resumes a direct
motion, receding from him night after night, until her angular distance exceeds 45°. She
then retums to the sun ; is for a time lost in his rays ; and at length is seen in the evening
to the east of the sun, to repeat the same round of phenomena. While Venus thus appears
to have an oscillatory motion to the east and west of the sun, she is found, when viewed
through a telescope, to present phases exactly simUar to those of the moon, the illuminated
portion being always turned towards the sun. We may hence infer that Venus is an opaque
body, and shines in consequence of reflecting the solar light. At the same time her apparent
diameter also varies, ite variations having an evident relation to the position of the planet
with regard to the sun. The diameter appears least when the planet is about to be immersed
in the rays of the sun in the morning, or immediately after her emerging from them in the
evening. On the other hand, it appears gi-eatest when she is about to be lost in the solar
rays in the evening, or when she emerges from them in the moming. Such is a general
view of the apparent motion of Venus ; and by attending to the phenomena which she ex-
hibite, we are led to the conclusion that she revolves round the sun. When in the morning
she begins to disengage herself from the solar rays, she is seen to rise before the sun in the
form of a crescent; and it is then that her diameter appears greatest. At that time, therefore,
she must be nearer to us than the sun is, and not far from being in conjunction with him.
Her crescent increases, and her diameter diminishes, as she recedes from the sun : when she
has reached her greatest elongation and returns again towards him, she continues to discover
to us more and more of her enlightened hemisphere, her diameter all the time diminishing,
until she is lost in the moming, in the sun's rays. At the instant of her disappearing,
Venus is seen as a full disc ; and at the same time her diameter is least Hence we may
with certainty infer, that she is then at a greater distance from us than the sun, and again
nearly in conjunction with him. After haying remained for some time invisible, she re
appears in the evening to the east of the sun ; and in receding from and retuming towards
him exhibite, in an inverted order, the same phenomena, in reference to the changes in her
disc and apparent diameter, which she had presented when seen in the morning, on the west
of the sun : her enlightened hemisphere turns more and more from us, and her apparent
diameter continually increases, until she again disappears, or is seen as a black spot traversing
the disc of the sun.
From these phenomena only one inference can be drawn ; viz. that Venus revolves in an
orbit, near the centre of which the sun is placed. This conclusion, which rests on the firm
basis of observation, leads to a natural and simple explanation of all the peculiarities of her
motion. The planet Mars, the next to be considered, appears to be carried round the earth by a
motion which is subject to great inequalities. When he begins to be seen in the morning
emerging from the solar rays, his motion is direct and at its greatest rapidity ; but it gradu
ally diminishes until the planet's angular distance from the sun is about 137°- At that time
it changes into a retrograde motion, whose rapidity increases tUl the moment that the planet
comes into opposition with the sun, or is on the meridian at midnight. It is then at its
greatest rate, and presently begins to decrease, continuing to do so tUl the planet becomes
stationary when at the angular distance of about 137° from the sun. The motion now
retums to ite direct state, after having been retrograde for about seventy-three days ; and
in that period the planet describes an arc of retrogradation of about 16°. Mars continues
to approach the sun, untU he becomes immersed in his rays in the evening. These pheno
mena are repeated at every opposition of the planet with considerable differences, however,
in reference to the duration and extent of the retrogradations. At different points of his
course round the heavens, the apparent diameter of Mars is very different : it varies from
about 13,3" to 29.1". It is greatest when the planet is in opposition to the sun.
The phenomena now described can be satisfactorily explained in no other way hut by sup
posing Mars to revolve round the sun. As he recedes from the sun to all possible angular
distances, the earth must be situated within his orbit ; but the increase of his apparent
diameter as he approaches his opposition, and its decrease when he approaches the sun, show
Vol. I. 10

110 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part IL
that the earth is not the centre of his motion. Before he reaches the point of opposition,
his motion, from being direct, becomes retrograde ; after the opposition it resumes ite dfrect
State, when the planet is at the same distance from the sun, at which he was situated when
the motion became retrograde ; and it is at the moment of conjunction that this last motion
is most rapid. Now, all these circumstances evidently indicate that the apparent motion of
Mars is the result of two combined motions, which alternately conspire with and oppose each
other, and of which one depends on the apparent motion of the sun. As we have found
that Venus revolves round the sun, and accompanies him in his apparent annual motion
round the earth, we are led by analogy to extenii the same law to Mars, and to conclude that
he also revolves in an orbit round the sun.
The disc of Mars changes ite figure, and becomes sensibly oval, according to his position
relatively to the sun : hence we may conclude that Mars is an opaque body, and derives his
light from the sun.
The same reasoning being applicable in the case of the other planete, we may extend to
all of them the conclusion which we have now established in reference to Venus and Mars,
— namely, that they are opaque bodies, and revolve about the sun in orbite nearly circular ;
while that luminary of the system either describes or appears to describe an orbit about the
earth in the course of a year. This general law, which affords a simple and complete expU-
cation of the planetary motions, receives additional confirmation from the phenomena of the
satellites of Jupiter and the ring of Saturn ; for these phenomena prove directly that Jupiter
and Saturn revolve about the sun in nearly circular orbite.

CHAPTER Xn.
MOTION OF THE EARTH ROUND THE SUN.
The conclusion to which we have now been led, — that all the planete describe orbite that
have the sun near to their centre, — naturally suggeste the question, whether the earth itself
is not subject to the same law, and therefore to be ranked among the planete which revolve
round the sun. With regard to the celestial motions, every appearance would remain the
same to us, whether the earth described an orbit round the sun, or the sun with his accom
panying planets revolved round the earth. To which of these hypotheses the preference is
due wUl appear from the following considerations : —
The immense masses of the sun and of several of the planete, combined with their great
distances from the earth, render it much more simple to suppose that the earth describes an
orbit round the sun, than that the whole planetary system revolves round the earth. What
an inconceivable rapidity of motion is it necessary to assign to Saturn, almost ten times
more distant from us than the sun, or to Uranus, at about double the distance of Saturn, in
order that these planete may complete a revolution round the earth in a year, at the same
time that they revolve about the sun ! It is a law which is found to pervade the planetary
system, that the less body revolves about the greater body which is in ite neighbourhood;
and by supposing the earth, in conformity with this law, to revolve about the sun, which in
magnitude greatly exceeds all the planets taken together, we avoid all the complication and
rapidity of motion which follow from the supposition of the earth being at rest
The analogy which subsiste between the earth and the planete confirms the hypothesis of
the earth being carried round the sun by a motion of translation : Jupiter, for example, is
known to have a revolution on his own axis, and to be attended by four satellites. In these
particulars the earth resembles that planet, having also a revolution on ite own axis, and
being attended by one satellite, the moon. An observer placed on Jupiter would be led
from appearances to imagine that the planetary system revolved round him, in like manner
as an inhabitant of the earth supposes himself placed at the centre of tiie celestial motions :
and the greater magnitude of Jupiter would give to such a conclusion, when drawn by an
observer placed on that planet a greater resemblance to the truth than it would have when
drawn by an inhabitant of the earth. With such a close analogy in these respecte before
our eyes, may we not naturally conclude that it extends stUl farther ; and that as Jupiter
revolves in an orbit round the sun, the earth must also have a similar motion 1
Let us imagine ourselves to be placed on the surfece of tiie sun, and from tiiat position to
observe the earth and the planets. All these bodies would appear to move from west to east ;
the planets would be found free from all that complication in tiieir motion to which they
appear subject when viowed from the earth ; and the motion of tiie earth iteelf would in
every circumstance correspond with that of the planete. The more distant a planet is from
the sun, the longer is the time which it requires to perform ite revolution round him ; but
throughout the iilanotary system this remarkable law prevails, connectmg the periodic times
with the distnncru, — the .stiuari^s of the former are proportional to the cubes of the latter.
If we computn, by tiii.'i principle, what should be the time of revolution of a planet situated
at the distance of tho earth from the sun, we find tiie result correspond exactiy with the
sidereal year ; thus, the earth's distance from the sun being assumed as unity, the distance ot

BookL MOTION OP THE EARTH ROUND THE SUN. Ill
Mars is known to be 1-523693: his periodic time is 686-9796 days. Hence we have
(1-52693)3: 13;: (686'9796)2: (365-256)2 xhe periodic time of a planet, at the same
distance from the sun as the earth is, should tiierefore be 365-2.56 days, which is the length
of the sidereal year. This result leaves no doubt that the motion which the earth would
be seen to have, if it were viewed from the sun, arises from the same causes, and is regu
lated by the same laws as the motions of the planets : hence we may conclude that it is no
less real.
The motion of the earth in an orbit round the sun, which the preceding considerations
render so highly probable, is directly proved by the phenomena of the aberration of light.
It was long supposed that light was propagated from the sun and other luminous bodies
instantaneously ; but modern observations have proved that this hypothesis is erroneous, and
that light, like all other projectiles, occupies a certain tune in passing from one point of space
to another. The feet that light has a progressive motion was first discovered hy Roemer,
a celebrated Danish astronomer, from observations made on the eclipses which the satel
lites of Jupiter undergo when they fall into his shadow. He found that these eclipses
happened sometimes sooner and sometunes later than the time deduced from the tables of
their motions ; the observation being before or after the computed time, according as the
earth was nearer to or farther from Jupiter than the mean distance. Repeated observations
have proved, that when the earth is between the sun and Jupiter, his satellites are seen
eclipsed about 85 minutes sixiner than they should be according to the tables ; but that
when the earth is on the opposite side of the sun from Jupiter, the eclipses of his satellites
happen about 8J minutes later than the time shown by the tables. The only conclusion that
can be drawn from these facte is, that light occupies about 16^ minutes in traversing a space
equal to the diameter of the earth's orbit which is upwards of 190 mUlions of miles ; it
must therefore move at the enormous rate of nearly 210,000 miles in a second.
Now, if the earth is really in motion, it must be moving at the rate of about 20 mUes in
a second, in order to accomplish ite revolution round the sun in the course of a year. This
rate of motion, although small when compared with the velocity of light, bears to it a sensi
ble proportion ; so that an evident consequence of the earth's motion wUl be, that the appa
rent places of the heavenly bodies wUl not be the same as they would he if the earth were
at rest.
Suppose A B to be a portion of the earth's orbit, S a fixed star, and S A the direction
of light proceeding from the star to the earth at A. It is evident that if the earth were at
rest at A, a telescope presented in the direction A S would
receive the light of the star, which, proceeding along the axis
of the telescope, would reach the eye at A, and show the
star in its true position. But if the earth be supposed to
move from A towards B with a velocity that bears a sensible
proportion to the velocity of light, the ray S A, which enters
'>% the telescope at C, cannot reach the eye, but must in conse
quence of the motion, be lost against the interior of the tube.
In order that the light from the star may reach the eye when
carried forward by the earth's motion, the telescope must
have such an inclination to A B, that S F being supposed a
ray parallel to S A, and meeting the axis of the telescope in
D, A F may have to F D the same ratio as the earth's veloci
ty in its orbit has to the velocity of light ; that is, of 1 to
10,000 nearly. In this position of the telescope, the light entering at D will pass along the
axis as it moves from A to P, and will reach the eye at F ; but the star will be seen in the
direction, not of F S, but of F E : so that its apparent place differs from ite true by a quan
tity measured by the angle S F E or A D F. The angle D F E is the aberration which will
evidently be towards that part of the heavens to which the earth is moving. Let the axis
F E be supposed to be produced to the starry heavens : it will trace out on the convex sur
face a circle, if the star S is in the pole of the ecliptic ; but an ellipse in every other posi
tion of the star. The true place of the star is the centre of the circle or ellipse.
If the star be in the pole of the ecliptic, the angle D A F may be considered as a right
angle ; for the line joining the star and the earth will always be perpendicular to the direc
tion of the earth's motion. In this case, therefore, the angle A D F will be the greatest
possible ; for the ratio of sin. A D F to sin. D A F is constant, being the same with the ratio
of A F to F D, or of 1 to 10,000 nearly : so that sin. A D F is greatest and therefore A D
F is greatest when sui. D A F is the greatest possible ; that is, when D A F is a right angle.
In the case of any other star the greater axis of the ellipse which it appears to describe
round its tme place as a centre will be equal to the diameter of the circle which a star in
the pole of the ecliptic would appear to describe about tho pole as a centre : for the ellipse
wUl be the orthographic projection of a circle equal to that described about the pole, the
greater axis being the diameter, which is perpendicular to a circle of the sphere passing
through the star and the pole of the ecliptic, and at right angles to the ecliptic. When the

112 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. Part H.
star is in the ecliptic, it will appear to describe an arch equal to the greater axis of the
ellipse described by a star not in the ecliptic, or to the diameter of the circle of aberration
that would be described by a star in the pole of the ecliptic.
When angle D A F is a right angle, we have DP: F A : : rad : sui. Z A D P ; that is,
10,000 : 1 : : 1 : -0001 = sine of greatest aberration, which will therefore be 20" nearly.
The aberration of a planet will depend on ite own motion as well as on that of the earth.
If the motion of the planet were equal and parallel to that of the earth, no aberration would
take place. The aberration of a planet may be found by first considering the effect of the
motion of the earth on the apparent place, and then the aberration arising from the planet's
own motion.
Such are the effects which, if the earth have actually a motion of translation that carries
it in an orbit round the sun, must arise from that motion combined with the progressive
motion of light. To obtain, therefore, decisive proof of the earth's annual motion, it is only
necessary to ascertain by accurate observation the existence of these phenomena.
The true system of the world, which supposes the sun to be at rest in the centre, and the
earth and planete to revolve round him, while the moon revolves about the earth, and the
diumal motion of the heavens arises from the motion of the earth on ite axis, was taught by
several of the ancient philosophers, and particularly by Pythagoras. It was also held by
Archimedes ; but after him it was neglected, and even forgotten for many ages, untU at
length, in the beginning of the sixteenth century, it was revived and improved by Coperni
cus, from whom it took the name of the Copernican System. Notwithstanding the beauty
and simplicity which distinguished this theory, it was at first coldly received or utterly
rejected. Tycho Brahe, an illustrious Dane, was among ite adversaries. He regarded the
doctrine of the earth's motion as untenable, without abandoning the testimony of Scripture :
hence he was led to imagine another system, which bears his name ; in which the sun, with
all the planets and comets revolving round him, is supposed to perform a revolution about
the earth in a solar year, whUe at the same time aU the heavenly botiies are supposed to be
carried round the earth from east to west in twenty-four hours.
The only apparent difficulty connected with the Copernican system arises from the fact that
the earth's axis is always pomted to the same star, and that the stars preserve always the same
relative positions ; though by the annual motion of the earth, a spectator on ite surfece views
them at any two instante of time separated by the pericxl of about six months, from two
points nearly 200,000,000 miles asunder. During the seventeenth century the supporters
of the Copernican system laboured to remove this objection, by detecting a change in the
position of the fixed stars.
The minute and accurate observations instituted for this purpose led, in the end, to the
important discovery made by the celebrated Dr. Bradley, that the very efecte which we
have shown, must result from the annual motion of the earth combined with the progressive
motion of light. He found that each star describes, round ite trae place as a centre, a small
ellipse of which the greater axis is about 40" ; and that this ellipse approaches to a circle
or to a straight line, which are ite limits, according as the star is situated towards the pole
of the ecliptic, or towards the ecliptic itself. No parallax is observable in the fixed stars
arising from the earth's annual motion ; and hence it must be inferred that their distance
is so great, that even the diameter of the earth's orbit is to be regarded as a point in the
universe. Prom an attentive consideration of the celestial motions, we are therefore led to reject
as erroneous the notions which appearances at first suggest respecting the system of the
world. Instead of the globe which we inhabit being at rest in the centre of the universe,
it is a planet in motion about its own axis and about the sun. In regarding it under this
aspect, we find all the celestial phenomena explained in the most simple manner, the laws
of the motions of the heavenly bodies appear uniform, and every analogy subsisting among
them is preserved unbroken. Like Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus, the eartii is accompanied
by a satellite ; it revolves on its own axis as Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, and perhaps all
the planete; like them it receives light from tiie sun; and to complete tiie analogy, it
revolves about the sun in the same direction, and according to the same laws. By following
out the results arising from the earth's motion being combined witii the real motions of the
planets and of light we find all the phenomena of the heavens flow, as necessary conse
quences, from one great principle. Thus the motion of the earth acquires all the certamty
of which a physical truth is susceptible.
Tho vicissitudes of seasons arise, as we have already explained, from tiie obliquity of the
ecliptic to the equator. The ecliptic, which we have hitiierto considered as the patii of tlie
Bun round tiio earth, wo have now proved to be the orbit of tiie earth round the sun. The
axis of the earth's diurnal motion is inclined to the plane of ite orbit at an angle of about
C0° '.12', and remains, as the eartii revolves round the sun, nearly parallel to itself. Hence
the circle which the sun oppeitrs to trace in the heavens in the course of a year fomis with
the equator an angle of about 23° 2S'. This prtxluccs tiie differences in the distribution of
the solar I'^iit and heat which we observe tiiroughout tiie seasons of tiie year.

Book I.

ORBITS OF THE PLANETS,

113

The parallelism of the earth is not absolute ; for the axis is found to have a slow motion
of revolution from east to west round a line passing through the centre of the earth, and
perpendicular to the ecliptic ; its revolution being completed in the period of 25,'745 years.
In consequence of this motion the poles in the sphere of the starry heavens describe each a
curcle round the pole of the ecliptic, at the distance of 23° 28' nearly ; and the two points
in which the terrestrial equator, when produced to the starry heavens, cuts the ecliptic, shift
to the westward, at tiie rate of about 50J seconds yearly, which causes the precession of the
equinoxes. A small inequality has been observed in the precession of the equinoxes, and in
the mean obliquity of the ecliptic, which arises from a. slight motion in the earth's axis,
whereby ite inclination to the ecliptic is not always exactly the same, but varies backwards
and forwards some seconds. This is caUed the nutation of the earth's axis, and was discovered
by Dr. Braiiley whUe employed in verifymg his theory of aberration. The period of the
changes of tiiis inequality is nearly nine years.

CHAPTER Xni.
ORBITS OF THE PLANETS.
To an observer placed on the sun, all the planets would appear to trace on the concave
surfece circular paths, cutting each other at various angles, but all comprehended within a
certain zone of the heavens of some degrees in breadth. The angle which the plane of the
orbit of a planet makes with the ecliptic is called the inclination of that orbit ; and the line
of their intersection is called the line of the nodes. If a planet be observed twice in the
same node, the node being supposed to have in the mean time remained stationary, the posi
tion of the line of the nodes can be determined, and also the distance of the planets from
the sun at the times of observation.
Let a superior planet be observed in its node N from the earth at E, {Fig. 32), and after the
planet has made an entire revolution let the earth be at E'. Then, from the time and the theory
of the earth's motion, E E' is given, and the angles S E E', S E' E. But the angles SEN,
S E' N are known by observation ; therefore, in the triangle E E' N, the angles E E' N, E' E N,
and the base E E' are given ; and hence the sides N E and E' N may be found. Wherefore
from either of the triangles S E N, S E' N the distance S N is determined ; also the angle
ESN, which ascertains the position of the node as seen from the sun.
From observations of this kind, made at times considerably distant from each other, it ia
found that the nodes of each planet have a slow retrograde motion.
Again, the distance of a planet from the sun, and its place as seen from the sun, may be
determined from observations made at the time of ite opposition to the sun.
S

{Fig. 33). Let E be the earth, S the sun, P the planet O its place reduced to the eclip
tic, S N the line of the nodes passuig through the sun. Since the planet is in its opposi
tion, the pomte S, E, O are m the same straight line. The angle E S N is known by the last
problem, which determmes the position of the line of the nodes ; therefore the arch O N ui
the heavens, which measures it is also given. The angle P N O is equal to the inclination
of the planet's orbit to the ecliptic, and is therefore given ; also the angle P O N is a right
angle. Hence in the spherical triangle P N O, the perpendicular P O and the hypotenuse
P N may be found. Now the arc P O is the measure of the angle P S O, and P N is the
measure, of P S N; therefore these two angles are given. In the rectUmeal triangle P S E
the exterior angle P E O can be determined by observation ; the angle P S E or P S O is
given, and the base E S is known by the theory of the earth's motion; whence P S, the
distance of the planet from the sun, may be computed.
Vol. L 10* p

114 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. Part H.
Orbit of a planet. Since the angle P S N is also known, the line P S is given in posi
tion as well as in magnitude. If many oppositions of a planet are thus observed, and if the
radii obtained he laid down, the line connecting their extreme pointe will represent the orbit
of the planet. In this manner it is found that the orbite of all the planete are ellipses, having
the sun in their common focus ; and that the angular motions of a planet round the sun are
inversely as the squares of ite distance from the sun : so that the sectors described by the
radius vector are proportional to the times. This exactly corresponds with what was proved
respectmg the apparent motion of the sun in the ecliptic, and therefore the motion of the
earth is regulated by the same law.
The planets which move immediately round the sun are called primary, their satellites
are called secondary planets. Thus, the moon is a secondary planet to the earth. In
considering the lunar motion, we found that the moon describes round the earth an elliptic
orbit, and that the radius vector describes equal areas in equal times. The same holds of
the satellites of Jupiter, Saturn, and Uranus ; so that the same principle runs through the
motions of all the bodies of the planetary system.
When the mean distances of the planets are compared, and also their periodical times, it
is found that the squares of the periodic times are as the cubes of the distances.
The great general facte which have now been pointed out respecting the orbits of the
planete, and their motions in these orbits, were first discovered by Kepler, after he had
employed immense labour and ingenuity in the research, and are usually called Kepler's
LAWS. It may be proper to bring them under one point of view : —
I. The primary planets all revolve in elliptic orbite round the sun, which ixicupies one of
the foci of the ellipse ; the plane of the orbit passing through the centre of the sun.
n. The radius vector describes equal areas in equal times.
HI. The squares of the times of revolution in the planetary bodies are as the cubes of
their distances from the sun.

CHAPTER XIV.

The fixed stars and the planete are always visible when not obscured by the superior
light of the sun ; but the class of bodies called comets are seen only when they are in that
part of their several paths which lies nearest to the sun : at all other times they move through
regions of space far beyond the reach of our vision, even when assisted by the most powerftd
telescopes. The motions of the comets are, like those of the planete, performed in elliptic
orbits according to Kepler's laws ; but unlike the planetary orbits, the ellipses which the
comets describe are extremely elongated : so that the small portion of their orbite through
which we have an opportunity of tracing them coincides very nearly with a parabola, the
curve of which is the limit of the ellipse when ite greater axis is indefinitely increased.
The inclination of the orbite of the comete is very various ; some move in planes almost
coincident with the ecliptic, and others in planes nearly perpendicular to it They move
also in very different directions ; the motion of some being direct, and of others retrograde.
The comete differ widely from the planets in their appearance, as well as in the figure
and position of their orbite. When a comet is first seen, it is usually surrounded by a famtly
luminous vapour, which becomes more bright os the comet apprtjaches the sun, and at length
shoots out into a long luminous and transparent train, very much resembling a streamer, and
extending in a direction opposite to the sun. The dense part of the comet which both to
the naked eye, and when viewed through a telescope, resembles much the planetary bodies,
is called the nucleus ; the faintly luminous vapour by which it is surrounded is called the
coma ,- and the long luminous train proceeding from the comet in an opposite direction fixjm
the sun is called the tail. Between tiie nucleus and the coma lies a part fainter than the
former, but brighter than the latter, and in which the nucleus appears involved : this is called
the head of the comet.
The length of the tail is very various. Sometunes it extends only a few degrees ; in
other cases it has been found to reach over more than a fourth part of the heavens. If a
comet does not come very near the sun, the coma does not shoot into a tail, but retains the
appearance of a nebulosity round tiie comet during the whole period of ite being visible.
The tail sometimes consisto of two or more diverging streams of light and is always so
transparent that the smallest stars are seen tiirough it without any sensible diminution of
their brilliancy.
Nature of comets. In ages of ignorance, comete have always, from their extraordinary
appearance, been sources of superstitious terror to mankind. This fear has been dissipated
by the light of science, which has shown tiiat the appearances of comete are regulated by
the same laws as other celestial phenomena. We are still, however, almost entirely igno
rant of the nature of these bodies, diougli a great many hypotheses have been formed con
cerning them. They were considered by some of the ancients, and particularly by Aristotle,

Book I COMETS. 115
as accidental fires or meteors generated in the atmosphere of the earth ; but this opinion is
obviously groundless. If they were connected with the earth or its atmosphere, they would
partake of the diurnal motion on the axi3, and could not therefore appear to have a diurnal
revolution in the heavens along with the other celestial bodies. Besides, their having no
diurnal parallax proves that they are at a great distance from the earth ; while the fact of
their apparent motion being affected by the annual motion of the earth shows that they are
situated in the planetary regions. Observation has demonstrated that like the planete, they
are permanent bodies, and, in all probabUity, derive their light from the sun.
From the small portion of the orbit of any comet which we have an opportunity of observ
ing, we cannot ascertain with sufficient accuracy the elemente necessary for determining
the period of its return ; but supposing that their orbite are not disturbed by any cause in
those distant regions of space through which the greater portion of the paths of comete lie,
it is evident that by accurately observing all the comets that come within view, and care
fully recording the resulte, in the course of ages the return of many comets may be detected
and their periodic times ascertained. Hence the greater axis of the orbit of each may be
determined by Kepler's third law ; and the comet's least distance from the sun being found
by observation, the less axis will also become known. In this manner the periodic time of
some comete has been found, and their return predicted.
The first and most remarkable instance is that of Dr. Halley, who, by comparing his
observations on the comet of 1682, with those of Kepler on the comet of 1607, and those of
Apian on the comet of 1531, found reeison to conclude, from the agreement of the circum
stances of each, that what had been considered three distinct comete were only re-appear
ances of the same comet after a period of about 76 years. In all the three cases the dis
tance of the comet from the sun when nearest to him was almost the same ; the position of
the comet in the heavens at the time of ite nearest approach to the sun likewise corre
sponded ; as did also the inclination of the orbit, the place of the nodes, and the variableness
of the motion, as being direct or retrograde.
These coincidences rendered the identity of the comet almost absolutely certain. Hence
Halley predicted ite return in the end of 1758 or the beginning of 1759. It appeared about
the end of December 17.58, and made its nearest approach to the sun on the 13th of March
1759, differing not many days from the time expected. Again it made ite appearance, as
predicted, at the completion of ite period, toward the end of August 1835.
Though there can he no doubt of the identity of the comet of 1531, 1607, 1682, 1759, and
1835, the appearances were considerably different In 1531 the comet was of a bright
gold colour ; in 1607, it was dark and livid ; it was bright again in 1682 ; and obscure in
The mean distance of this comet from the sun is about eighteen times that of the earth ;
but in conseciuence of the great eccentricity of ite orbit ite distance, when at the farther
extremity of its greater axis, is nearly double that of Uranus, the most distant of the planete.
When nearest to the sun, ite distance from him is about -^th parts of the earth's mean
distance. A very remarkable comet was seen m the end of 1680 and begmning of 1681. Ite tail
extended 70°, and was very briUiant. This comet of all those which have been observed,
approaches nearest to the sun. Descending with immense velocity in a path almost per
pendicular to his surface, it proceeded until ite distance from his centre was only about
540,000 mUes. Sir Isaac Newton computed that, in consequence of so near an approach
to the sun, it must have received a heat 2000 times greater than that of iron almost going
into fusion ; and that if it was equal in magnitude to our earth, and cooled in the same man
ner as terrestrial bodies, its heat would not be expended in less than 50,000 years.
Three observations on comets are recorded in history, agreeing in remarkable circum
stances with the comet of 1680 : — one in the 44th year* before Christ ; another in the con
sulate of Lampadius and Orestes, about the year of Christ 531 ; and the third in the reign
of Henry L of England, in the year 1106. These dates are nearly at equal distances of
time, namely, 575 years ; which is also the period between 1106 and 1681. Hence Dr.
Halley conjectured that these might be successive appearances of one and the same comet
revolving about the sun in the period of about 575 years. If this conjecture is well
founded, this comet may be expected again, after finishing the same period, about the year
A comet remarkable for ite beauty appeared in 1811. The taU of this comet was com
posed of two diverging streams of famt light slighfly coloured, which made an angle of
from 15° to 20°, and sometimes much more, and were bent outwards. The space between
was comparatively obscure. When at its greatest length, the teU subtended an angle of at
least 16° ; and was then computed to extend about 23,000,000 miles in length.
Besides Dr. Halley's comet there are two others whose retums have been observed, and
the elements of their orbits determined, with such certainty, as to enable astronomers to
predict their re-appearance. One of these was recognised for flie first tune in 1819 as a
periodic comet Encke, a German astronomer, has determined the time of ite revolution

116 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. Part H,
about the sun to be three years and three months nearly. The other was last seen in 1832.
Its periodic time was determined by Biela, a Bohemian astronomer, to be six years and
three quarters. Altogether, then, there are only three comete whose periods are certainly
known. Danger from comets. As the comete traverse the planetary regions in all directions, it is
natural to inquire whether there is not a possibility that some one of them may approach
so near to the earth as greatly to disturb ite motion, or by an actual contact to produce the
most disastrous effects: Upon this subject there is no reeisonable ground for fear. If it is
not absolutely impossible that a comet may come in contact with the earth, the probabUities
against such an event happening are as millions to one. Among bodies so small in com
parison with the immense space in which they move ; and moving with all velocities, and
in orbite that are inclined in all directions, and are of all dimensions, how small must be
the probability that any two shall come in contact ! Small, however, as this probabUity is
for any one age, if we take into account a long series of ages, the probability may be greatly
increased. If we suppose the earth actually to receive such a shock, it is easy to unagine the calami
tous consequences which must follow. The axis and motion of rotation being changed, the
waters of the ocean would leave their ancient position, and would be precipitated towards
the new equator. A great part of the human race, and of the lower animals, would be
drowned by this universal deluge, or destroyed by the violent shock impressed on the ter
restrial globe. Whole species of animals might be aimUiilated. All the monuments of
human industry and invention would be overthrown. In such a catastrophe we find, too, a
cause adequate to account for the ocean having overflowed lofty mountains, on which it has
left incontestable evidence of its presence ; and to explain how the animals and plante of
the south may have existed in the climates of the north, where we find the remains and im
pressions of them. Lastly, such an event accounte for the recentness of the modem world,
the monumente of which go back scarcely 3000 years. The human race, reduced to a smaU
number of individuals, and to the most miserable condition, would for a long time be mainly
occupied in providing for their preservation, amidst the wreck which surrounded them, and
would lose all remembrance of arte and sciences ; and when, by the progress of civUization,
they at length became sensible of the want of these, they would find it necessary to recom
mence, as if man had been newly placed upon the earth.
It seems impossible to contemplate the picture of calamity here drawn, without being
forcibly stmck with this singular coincidence ; — that if we suppose the period of the comet
of 1680 (which in that year made a considerably near approach to the earth's orbit) to be
575^ years ; and count back, from the year 1680, seven revolutions, or a period of 40-28
years, we reach the year 2349 before Christ, — the year of the deluge, as fixed by chrono-
logers. If we take into consideration tiie great velocity with which the comete move in approach
ing to and receding from the sun, it is evident that the mere approximation of a comet to
the terrestrial orbit, would be productive of little or no effect. Accordingly, though a
comet is said to have eclipsed the moon, in which case it must have been very near the
earth, no sensible effect was produced.

CHAPTER XV.
LAW OP UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION.
Having now taken a brief view of the planetary motions, and pointed out generally their
laws, we may next inquire whether from these any general principle can be deduced to
which the motions regulated by them may be referred as to their cause.
The motions of the heavenly bodies have been variously accounted for. We have already
adverted to the rude mechanism of deferent and epicyclic spheres, by which some of the
ancient phUosophers attempted to explain the celestial motions. This doctrine originated
with Eudoxus and Callipus. But a more sensible attempt was made by Cleantiies, another
philosopher of Greece, wlio, from observing that bodies are easUy carried round' by whirl
pools or vortices of water, imagined that the celestial spaces are filled witii an ethereal
fluid, which is in continual motion round the earth, and that it carried the sun and planets
round with it. Though this hypothesis affords no real explanation of the phenomena, it was
revived in modern times, and maintained by two of the most eminent mathematicians and
phUosophers in Europe, namely, by Des Cartes and Leibnitz, and for a long time met with
general acquiescence. But a much nearer approximation to right conceptions on this sub
ject was made by many philosophers, both of ancient and modern times, who supposed that
the planets worn dpfli^ctt^'d from uniform rectilinotil motions, by forces similar to what we
observe in tho motions of mognetical niid electrical bodies, or in tiie motion of common heavy
bodies ; where one body sooms to influence tiie motion of onoUier at a distance from it witli
out any intervening impulsion. Format was the first who suggested that the weight of a

Book I. LAW OP UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION. 117
body is the sum of the tendencies of each particle of matter in the body to every particle of
the earth. Kepler made another approximation to the truth when he said, that if there were
two bodies placed out of the reach of all external forces, and at perfect lilierty to move, they
would approach each other with velocities inversely proportional to their quantities of matter •
when he asserted that the earth and the moon mutually attract each other, and are prevcntea
from meeting by their revolution round their common centre of attraction ; and when he
attributed the tides to the attractive influence of the moon in heaping up the waters imme
diately under her.
But Dr. Hooke made the most precise surmise to this purpose. At a meeting of the
Royal Society, May 3, 1668, he expressed himself in the following manner : — " I will
explain a system of the world very different from any yet received, and it is founded on the
three following propositions :
" 1. That all the heavenly bodies have not only a gravitation of their parts to their own
proper centres, but that they also mutually attract each other within their spheres of action.
" 2. That all bodies having a simple motion will continue to move in a straight line unless
continually deflected from it, by some extraneous force causing them to describe a circle, an
ellipse, or some other curve.
" 3. That this attraction is so much the greater as the bodies are nearer. As to the pro
portion in which these forces diminish by an increase of distance, I own I have not yet dis
covered it, although I have made some experimente to that purpose. I leave this to others
who have time and knowledge sufficient for the task,"
The truly philosophical views stated in these propositions relatively to the celestial motions
were illustrated by a very pretty experiment, which Hooke had some time before exhibited
to the Society. A ball, suspeniled by a long thread from the ceiling, was made to swing
round another ball laid on a table immediately below the point of suspension. When the
unpulse given to the pendulum was very nicely adjusted to ite deviation from the perpendi
cular, it (lescribed a perfect circle round the ball on the table ; but when the impulse was
very great or very little, it described an ellipse having the other ball in its centre. The
force, under the influence of which this circular or elliptic motion was produced, Hooke
showed to be a deflecting force, proportional to the distance from the other ball. But he
added, that although this illustrated the planetary motions in some degree, ^yet it was not
suitable to their case ; for the planets describe ellipses, having the sun not in their centre
but in their focus, so that they are not retained in their orbits hy a force proportional to the
distance from the sun.
Thus we see that certain points of resemblance between the motions of the planete and
the motions of magnete and heavy bodies, had attracted the attention of many phUosophers ;
but these observers failed to deduce from the principles which they so dimly perceived any
satisfactory conclusion.
At length the powerful genius of Sir Isaac Newton was directed to the subject, and by
his penetrating sagacity the law of universal gravitation was brought fully into view, and
successfully applied to explain the celestial phenomena. He had retired from Cambridge to
the country on account of the plague, and whUe walking in his garden he was led to meditate
on the planetary motions, and on the nature of that central force which retains tiie planets
in their orbits. The thought happily occurred to him that the same force, or some modifica
tion of the same force, which causes a heavy body to descend to the earth, might extend to
the moon, and might retain that body in its orbit by deflecting it from the rectilineal path.
However plausible this conjecture might appear, the mind of Newton was too deeply imbued
with the true spirit of philosophy to adopt it as the groundwork of a theory, unless it could
be shown by calculation to be coincident with fact. But before it could be brought to this
test, it was necessary that he should form some conditional hypothesis respecting the modi
fication of the force as the distance increased, and also that he should know nearly the
magnitude of the earth. The hypothesis which he assumed with regard to the modification
of the force according to the increase of the distance was correct ; namely, that the force
decreases as the square of the distance increases. But he made a false estimation of the bulk
of the earth ; so that his calculations showed that his conjecture did not agree with the phe
nomenon : he accordingly abandoned it. A few years afterwards he was induced, however,
to renew his calculations, having in the interval obtained more correct data, in consequence
of the measurement of a degree in France by Picard. The attempt now succeeded ; and it
is said that, as his calculations drew to a close, he became so agitated that he was obliged to
request a friend to finish them. His former conjecture was found to agree with the pheno
mena with the utmost precision ; and in exploruig the grand scene which was now laid open
before him, he was led to an explanation of the system of the world, consisting simply in an
accurate narration of facts, and such an arrangement of them as showed their mutual depen
dence, and, at the same time, their reference to one great fact of which they were all neces
sary consequences.
We are now to explain briefly the theory of gravitation ; but our account of it must of
course be very limited.

iia PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. Part H.
There is no phenomenon in nature more famUiar to us than motion ; and although it be
greatly diversified according to the causes by which it is produced, yet all motions are sub
ject to the three following laws : —
1st Law. Every body continues in a state of rest, or of uniform rectilinear motion, unless
affected by some mechanical force.
2d Law. Every change of motion is proportional to the force impressed, and is made m
the direction of that force.
3d Law. Every action is accompanied by an equal and contrary re-action.
It is a consequence of the first two laws, that if a body or particle of matter be subjected
at the same time to the action of two moving forces, each of which would separately cause
it to describe the side of a parallelogram uniformly in a given time, the body will describe
the diagonal uniformly in the same tune. By these very sunple laws, the result of expe
rience, and by the principles of geometry, Newton established the sublime doctrines of the
planetary motions.
It will not be expected that we should enter at any considerable length into the recondite
doctrines of physical astronomy. This subject requires for its fiill discussion ample space,
and all the resources of the higher mathematics : the mere elemente of geometry, however,
are sufficient to indicate generally some of the fundamental principles. Let us suppose that
S {Jig. 34.) is a fixed point
,~-..^ fs: and that a body moves in
'"'--.E,-'^ '^v the direction A B with an
S''-'^ /'^ \''^*«^'\T) ,'* uniform velocity, at such a
rate, that if not disturbed
by any external cause, it
would move from B to 6 in
Sp-^.jr^t a second of time. Let us
also suppose that when the
body arrives at B, it re
ceives an impulse in the
direction B S, and of such
intensity, that if acting
alone, it would cause the
body to move uniformly
from B to H in a seconil
Complete the paralleli>
gram H B 6 C, and draw
the diagonal B C : the impulse at B, combined with the tendency to continue ite motion in
the line B b, will cause the body to move along the diagonal B C ; so that at the end of a
second it will actually be at the point C ; and if no external cause acted on the body, by the
first law, it would continue to move uniformly ever after in the direction B C c ; so that in
the next second it would describe a line C c, equal to B C. But now suppose that the body,
when at C, receives a second impulse in the direction C S, by which it would be carried
uniformly from C to I in a second : then, completing the parallelogram D I C c, the actual
path of the body will be the diagonal C D, which wUl be uniformly described in a second ;
and if undisturbed, the motion would be continued uniformly in the straight line C D rf, the
distance D d described in the next second being equal to C D. A third impulse at D, in the
direction D S, such as would carry the body uniformly fi-om D to K in a second of tune,
would, when combined with the tendency to move in the tiirection D d, produce a motion
along D E, the diagonal of the parallelogram E K D d, and a fourth impulse in the direction
E S, would, when combined with the motion in the direction E e, produce a motion along
the diagonal E F, and so on. In this way, by successive instantaneous impulses, a body may
be made to describe the path A B C D E P, &c., which will be all in one plane.
Since the lines A B, B 6 are equal, the triangles A S B, B S 6 are equal ; but because
C 6 is parallel to S B, the triangle B S 6 is equal to the triangle B S C ; therefore the trian
gle B S C is equal to A S B. In like manner, it may be proved that C S D is equal to B
S C, and D S E to C S D, and so on : thus it appears that tiie triangles A S B, B S C, C S D,
D S E, &c. are all equal. If we suppose a straight line to be drawn from the moving body to
the fixed point S, and to be continually carried along with it it is evident that this line wUl
pass over or generate the equal areas A S B, B S C, C S D, D S E, &c. in equal intervals
of time : it is also evident that the shorter the interval between the impulses communi
cated to the moving body, the greater will be the number of sides of the figure formed by
the diagonals of tiie parallelograms, and the nearer wUl tiie line composed of these
diagonals approach to a curve. If we suppose, therefore, that tiie body is urged towards P
by a force acting, not at intervals, but incessantly, the body will move in that curve to
which, as its limit the line, composed of the diagonals continually approaches, whUe the
line drawn from the moving body A S, or radius vector, wUl continue to describe areas pro
portional to the times.

Book L LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION. 119
The force which urges the body towards S, is called a centripetal force. If the action
of that force were to cease, the body would proceed in a straight line, — a tangent to its
curvUuiear path. The tendency of the body to proceed in the direction of the tangent, is
called ite centrifugal force.
Prom the important conclusion to which we have now been led, we may infer, conversely,
that if a body revolve in a curvilinear path about a point, and if the radius vector drawn
from that point describe round it areas proportional to the times, the body is deflected from
the rectilineal path by a force directed to that point. Now, this is exactly the case of the
planete, both primary and secondary. The former describe curvilinear orbits round the sun ;
and, according to the second of Kepler's laws, the radius vector describes areas proportional
to the times. Hence we may infer, that each is retained in ite orbit by a centripetal force
directed towards the sun ; and that this force is counteracted by a centrifugal force genera
ted by the planet's motion in ite orbit. In like manner, each secondary planet revolves
about its primary, the areas described by the radius vector following the same law ; so that
the secondary must be acted upon by a centripetal force directed towards the primary
planet. The next thing to be determined is the law of the centripetal force when a body moves
in an elliptic orbit the force being directed towards one of the foci. First let us suppose a
body to revolve in the circumference of a circle ADC {fig. 35,), about any point S, as the
centre of ite motion, and let us inquire into the law of the centripetal force in that case.
35 Draw the chord A S C, and let A D be so small an arc, that
it may be considered coincident with its chord. Draw D E
parallel to the tangent A B, and join C D. Then A D will
measure the velocity of the body in its orbit at the point A,
and A E the space over which the centripetal force directed
towards S, if acting alone, would cause the body to move in
the time in which it moves from A to D. Put v to denote the
velocity, and / the centripetal force. Since the triangles A
DC, A E D, are equiangular and simUar, we have A C :
AD^AD: AE; that is,
A C : ¦» ^ D ; / : therefore/'= j^
Next let A P B {fig. 36.) be the elliptic orbit of a planeti
S the focus in whiph the sun is placed, A the point at which
the planet is at ite greatest distance from the sun, and P any other point in ite orbit Join
P S ; draw the tangent P D, and draw S D perpendicular to P D. Let v and v' denote the
velocities of the planet at A and P respectively ; and c and c' the chords of the equicurve
circles at A and P which pass through the point S, and let /be the deflecting force at A,
and /' the deflecting force at P. Then from what we have proved respecting a body
moving in the circumference of a circle round any point F as the centre of ite motion, we
have/.-/' = — : -t- = i)^c' : v'^c. But since the small arcs which represent the velocities
at A and P must be supposed to be described in equal times, the corresponding areas described
by the radius vector will also be equal. Hence it is not
-p  „„ difficult to see that dXAS = d'xSD, and x> : v' =
-S3^;f^ ^\^b S D : S A. We obtain, therefore, / : /'= S D'' X c':
S A^ X c. Draw P E perpendicular to the tangent
P D, meeting the axis in E, and draw E G perpendicular
to P E, and E H perpendicular to P G. IVom the pro-
b[ — "y 7!>ig.  \^ perties of the ellipse, P H is equal to half the principal
parameter, and consequently to half of c, the chord of the
circle, of equal curvature at A, which passes through S.
Also P G is half of c', the chord of the equicurve circle
at P, which passes through S. Therefore,
/:/'=2SD'X PG:2SA''X PH.
= S D'' X P G : S A" X P H.
Now, from the simUar triangles G P E, E P H, we have GP:PE = PE:PH; hence
G P : P H = G P' : P E'. But the triangles G P E, PSD being also shnilar, G P= : P E'
= P S^SD^ therefore, G P : P H = P S^ SD'; and P S^'XP H = S D^'XG P: and
smce it was shown that/ : f— S D'' X P G : S A" X P H, wherefore / : /'=P S' X P H : S A"
X P H ; or leaving the common factor P H out of the two consequents we have
/:/'=PS= : SA".
Thus we have arrived at this important conclusion ; that the force by which the planets
revolve round the sun in elliptical orbits, the sun being in one of the foci, and the radius
vector describing areas proportional to the times, is always inversely as the squares of the
distances.

120 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part U.
There remains yet another point to be determined respecting the forces which retain the
different planets in their orbits ; namely, whether there is any analogy between them.
From Kepler's third law, we know that the squares of the periodical times of any two
of the planets are proportional to the cubes of their mean distances from the sun. This law
is independent of the eccentricities of the orbits ; and the same relation would subsist
between the mean distances and the periodic times, though the eccentricities were to
become infinitely small ; or, what is the same thing, the orbits were to become circles. Let
us then suppose the planete to move with uniform velocities in circular orbite, having the
sun in the centre. This supposition differs very little from the truth. Put v, v' to denote
the velocities of two of the planets, r, r' the radii of their orbite, t, t' their periodic tunes,
and/,/' the forces by which they are retained in their orbite. From what we have already
shown respecting a body moving in a circle round any point as the centre of ite motion, we
have/= -^rand/' =^, therefore/:/' =^^ : -^r. But since the circumferences of circles
are to one another as their radii, and the velocity or the space passed over by the planet in '
the unit of time is equal to the circumference of ite orbit, divided by the periodic time
expressed in that unit it is evident that v : 11'=-?- :-p- : hence -y : -p-=;-^ '¦ ~ij or,
since t^ : f^=r-' : r'^ ^ = ^-7-=^ ¦ -^ = -^ = T2='-'^ : r'. Wherefore we obtam/:/'
z=r" : r".
This result shows that the forces which, acting on two planete, would cause them
to describe circular orbits, agreeing with Kepler's third law, are inversely as the squares
of the distances. Hence we may infer the sameness of the force which retains the planets
m their respective orbits ; since it varies from orbit to orbit, according to the very same law
which regulates ite intensity at different distances in the same orbit. This conclusion is
fully established hy the fact, that the force which acte upon the comete during their descent
to the sun, varies exactly according to the law which we have now assigned as the law of
the planetary force. The comet of 1759, which was predicted by Dr. Halley, came from
regions far beyond the most distant of the known planets, and approached nearer to the
sun than Venus ; and when it arrived at the same distance from the sun as any of the
planets, its deflection from the rectilineal course by the action of the centripetal force, was
the very same as that of the planet. We may, therefore, conclude, that it is one and the
same force which deflecte all. the planete as well as the comete.
Frwn what has now been shown, it is evident that if all the planete were placed at
the same distance from the sun, they would all be deflected equally by the centripetal force
independently of the quantity of matter in each. Hence it follows that, at equal distances,
the centripetal force must act equally on every particle of matter of which the planete are
composed ; so that if one planet contain exactly double the quantity of matter that another
planet contains, and if both are placed at exactly the same distance from the sun, the former
will receive a double impulse. We may infer, therefore, that another law of the force
which retains the planets in their orbits is, that <i< equal distances, it is proportional to
the mass on which it acts ; and that if two bodies act on the same particle of matter, the
forces which they exert are proportional to their masses. The force may be supposed to
be produced either by a cause residing in the body which is placed in the centre of motion,
or by a cause residing in the revolving body. In the former point of view, it is called a
force of attraction ; in the latter, a force of ge vvitation. The truth is, however, that the
cause of this force is absolutely unknown. We see only the effecte produced, and from these
we investigate the laws which connect them witii each otlier, and the general principles on
which they depend.
Thus, from the facts discovered by Kepler respecting the planetary motion, we
have shovim that each planet has a tendency towards the sun, in consequence of which
from a state of rest it would move towards liim, acquiring at every instant an increase of
velocity according to a fixed and determinate rule or law which applies alike to all the
planete. This tendency, if not counteracted, would bring the matter of the sun and planets
into one mass. This, however, is prevented from taking place, in consequence of an impulse
having been originally communicated to each planet giving it a constant tendency to move
in a straight line with an uniform velocity. 'The effecte arisuig from tiiese two tendencies
are so adjusted, as to produce elliptic orbits. But the law which regulates the effects arismg
from the tendency of the planete towards tiie sun remaining tiie same, sucli a velocity
might have been communicated to each planet, by the original impulse which gave it its
tendency to move uniformly in a straight line, as would have produced parabolic or hyper
bolic orbits. In a circular orbit, if die centre of motion coincide with tiie centre of the
orbit the velocity of a planet is uniform, and of such rapidity as at every pomt to produce a
tendency to move in a tangent to the orbit, exactly sufficient to counterbalance the tendencjf
to move towards the contrc of tiie orbit If tiie orbit be elliptical, and one of the foci
the centre of motion, the motion of the planet is variable, and ite tendency to move uni
formly in a tangent to tho orbit sometunes exceeds, and at otiier times &28 short of, that

Book I. LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION. 121
which would be necessary to cause it to revolve in a circle at tiie same distance from the
centre of motion. , , i. , , , ,
Let A D B E be the eUiptic orbit of a planet revolvmg about the sun, which is supposed
to be placed in the focus S, Suppose tiie planet to set out from Am tiie direction A P,
A being the point of its greatest distance from the sun. At A the direction of the planet s
motion is at right angles to the radius vector, and if the velocity were such as to produce
a tendency to move m the direction of the tangent A G, exactly equivalent to the tendency
of tiie planet to move towards the sun, the planet would revolve in a circle of which b is
the centre, and S A the radius. But the velocity being supposed less, the patii of the
planet wUl fiill within the cfrcle, and the angle S P H contamed between the radius vector
and tiie tangent P H, which shows the direction of the planet's motion, changes from aright
angle to an acute angle. The tendency of tiie planet towards the sun is now exerted partly
m accelerating ite velocity in its orbit and partly in-
curvating its path. WhUe the planet describes the
quadrant A P D, its velocity is always less than that
'^ which would produce a circular motion ; until it is at
the pouit D, and then the velocity is precisely what
would be sufficient for a circular motion about S, if ite
A direction were perpendicular to the radius vector : the
direction, however, being oblique, the planet is brought
StUl nearer to S. The tendency towards the sun is, in
a great measure, still exerted m accelerating the motion,
and as soon as the planet passes D, its velocity becomes
greater than what might produce a circular motion
about S. The angle S D K is, therefore, the least angle
which the radius vector makes with the dkection of the planet's motion, and from the moment
when the planet passes the point D, that angle begins to increase ; and the effect of this is
to cause the tendency of the planet towards the sun to be principally exerted in incurvating
the orbit Ite influence in acceleratmg the planet's motion, though it stUl existe, is gradually
diminished, untU the planet arrives at the point B, where it ceases altogether, in consequence
of the radius vector being at right angles to the tangent B L.
As the velocity of the planet at B is greater than what is sufficient to produce a motion in
a cu-cle of which the radius is S B, the path of the planet falls wholly without that circle ;
and consequently, it is now recedmg from the sun. The angle which the radius vector
makes with the direction of its motion becommg obtuse, the tendency of the planet towards
the sun is now partly employed in retarding its motion, so that its velocity is diminished.
The angle containeii between the radius vector and the direction of the planet's motion
increases while the planet is moving from B to E, and decreases from E to A, when it be
comes a right angle, as it had formerly decreased from A to D, and increased from D to B.
The velocity of the planet in ite orbit must, therefore, decrease from B to A, as it had for
merly increased from A to B ; at the point E it will be equal to what it was at D, and from
E to A, the influence of the planet's tendency towards the sun to diminish ite velocity will
become less and less, until when the planet has arrived at A, it wUl cease altogether. The
velocity is then the same as at first and the motion goes on in this way for ever.
Whatever has now been deduced fi-om Kepler's Laws respecting the orbits of the pri
mary planete, and the law of the force by which they are described, will apply equally to
the orbite of the secondary planets : for in each of these little systems, there is the same
analogy between the periodic times and the distances, which takes place in the general
system; the figure of the orbite is also elliptic, and the areas described by the radius vector
is proportional to the times. We may legitimately conclude, therefore, that the satellites
revolving about any planet, are retained in their orbits by a force inversely proportional to
the squares of their distances from their primary planet ; so that all the celestial motions
are produced by forces regulated by this general law.
The force that keeps the Moon in her orbit is, then, the attraction of the earth, or her gra
vitation towards the earth. But we find that the earth attracts all the bodies near its surface
by a force which is proportional to the mass of the body attracted. Whatever be the weight
of a body, it falls to the earth from the same height in the same time, and with the same
velocity. Thus, if the resistance of the atmosphere be removed, it is found by experiment
that the lightest feather falls to the earth, from a given height, in the very same time, and
with the very same velocity, as a stone, however great ite weight. Let us inquire whether
the force which retains the moon in ite orbit may not be identified with this attractive force
which causes the descent of heavy bodies to the surface of the earth.
We may without great error suppose the lunar orbit to be circular, and ite semidiameter
to be equal to sixty semidiameters of the earth. Let it be represented by the circle C M A,
the earth being supposed to be placed at the centre E ; and let M C he the small portion
Vol. I. 11 Q

122 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part H.
of the orbit which the moon describes in a second of time.
Draw M B a tangent to the orbit at M : draw also C D paral
lel to M B, and C B parallel to M A, the diameter of the orbit.
The arch M C may be regarded as coincident with its chord ;
therefore, joining A C, it is evident that in the right angled
triangle A C M we have A M : M C=M C : M D. Hence,
smce A M and M C are known, M D or B C, the deflection
of the mtxin from the tangent in a second, by the attraction of
the earth, may be found.
The moon describes her orbit round the earth in about 2711
T* 43'" or 2,360,580 seconds ; the circumference of her orbit is
about 60 times the circumference of the earth, that is, if we
reckon 69 J English mUes to a degree, 7,926,336,000 feet;
therefore the length of the arc M C, which the moon describes
in a second, will be found nearly equal to 3358 feet Again, A M, the diameter of the
moon's orbit is about 2,523,031,140 feet Hence we obtain M D equal to 00447 feet nearly.
This small fractional part of a foot is the space which a body, placed at the distance of the
moon, and fellmg from a state of rest by the action of the force which retains the moon in
her orbit, would pass over in the first second of time. Observing, now, that this force increases
as the squares of the distances decrease, we may determme the space which a body at the sur
face of the earth (or at the distance of one semidiameter from the earth's centre), and faUmg
from a state of rest would pass over in the first second of time, if urged by the same force.
For, since the moon's distance from the earth is equal to about sixty times the semidiameter
of the earth, we have 1^: 60^=00447: the space required, which is found to be 16-09 feet
Now, this is exactly the space which a body, falling from rest by ite own weight is found
by experunent to pass over in the first second of time. Hence we may infer, that the moon
is retained in its orbit by the very same force which produces pressure in a body supported,
or causes a body when unsupported to fall to the ground.
Though the attraction of the earth on bodies near ite surface is only a particular case of
a general principle, which produces all the planetary motions, the effecte are, to appearance,
considerably modified. At all the heighte to which we are able to ascend above the general
surface of the earth, or to which we can project a body, the force of gravity acts, as to sense,
uniformly : it also acts in the direction of straight lines, perpendicular to the horizon, and
therefore parallel to one another, for the greatest range that can be given to a projectUe.
Hence the phenomena, which depend on the force diminishing in intensity, as tiie square
of the distance increases, and on ite emanating in the direction of straight lines dra^Ti to
the centre of the attracting sphere, become imperceptible. In consequence of the compa
ratively small velocity with which human power can project a body, ite path always meets
the earth, and ite motion terminates. But if the whole matter of the earth were collected
into a point at the centre, a body projected from a point 4000 mUes distant from the centre,
and with such a velocity as human power can communicate, would be acted upon by the
same forces, with a body similarly projected from the surface of the earth. But on the sup
position now made, the body would meet with no obstacle, but would approach within a cer
tain distance of the centre, and would then recede from it until it reached another lunit
when it would again approach, and go on in this manner, apprtDaching and recedmg atter-
jiately, for ever. The path of the body would he an ellipse, resembling in figure the orbit
of a comet The extreme portions of the path would, as to sense, be portions of a parabola.
Hence it is usually laid down as a law regulating the motion of projectiles, that if a heavy
body be projected in a straight line, not perpendicular to the horizon, it wiM describe a
parabola situated in the vertical plane passing through that straight line, and having its
axis perpendicular to the horizon. This physical trutii was first discovered by GalUeo.
The force of gravity near the surface of the eartii being uniform in ite action, it is found
that the motion which it produces corresponds in all its circumstances with that which
mathematical reasoning shows should result from the action of a constant force. The spaces
through which the body falls are proportional to the squares of the times, and the velocity
is proportional to the time during which the body has been falling.
From the third law of Kepler, it is not difficult to see that the periodic time of a planet
in ite orbit is determined entirely by the mean distance, that is, half tiie transverse axis;
and is not at all affected by the increase or decrease of the conjugate axis. By supposing,
then, the conjugate axis to be continually diminished, we are led to this conclusion, that the
time in which a body would descend to the sun, if allowed to fell fi-om a state of rest at any
distance from him, is equal to half tiie time of revolution in an ellipse tiie semitransverse
axis of which is half of^ that distance. Let T be the time of revolution of a planet at any
distance, and t the time of revolution ot half that distance; tiien, by tiie tiiird law of Kepler,
 T  T
T' : <' : 2' : 1° ; hence we have t = y o' and ^t^ ^j 5, But it is the time in which a body
would fall from the distance corresponding to T, Hence the time in which a planet would

Book I.

LAW OF UNIVERSAL GRAVITATION.

123

fall to the sun by the action of the centripetal force is equal to the periodic time divided
by ^^ ¦ or (what amounts to the same thmg) to the periodic time multiplied by 0176776,
the reciprocal of the square root of 32. By this general rule, the tunes m which the dif
ferent planete would reach tiie sun, if the action of their centrifiigal force entirely ceased
at the moment when they are at their mean distances, are as follow : Days. Hra.
Juno  354 19
Vesta  205 0

Daya. Hrs.
Mercury in  15 13
Venus  39 17
The Earth  64 13
Mars  121 10
Ceres  297 6
Pallas  301 4

Jupiler  765 19
Saturu  1901 0
Georgium Siiliis  5425 0
TheiHoon would fall to the Earth in,, 4 20

The principle ui the Newtonian phUosophy, that the effects produced by the attraction
of a body depend very much upon the quantity of matter which it contams, fiimishes the
means of resolvuig a problem which at first sight may appear of such ilifficulty as to tran
scend the powers of the human mind ; namely, to determme the quantity of matter in the
sun and planete. Let / and /' denote the forces by which two bodies revolve m circular
orbits round two central bodies, of which the masses are denoted by m and m'. Let r and
r be the radu of the orbits, and t and t' the periodic tunes. From what we have aheady
proved with regard to a force that retains a body ui a circular orbit we have
/:/' =

: — : — But we have also/ : /' :
12 1'2

— ; therefore, — : — = — : — ; and
r'Z r2 r'i (2 ('2

consequently, m : m' — — : —
Thus it appears that the masses of matter in the bodies which compose the solar system
are directly as the cubes of the mean distances of any bodies which revolve round them,
and inversely as the squares of the times in which the revolutions are performed. By
means of this principle, the masses of the sun and of the planets which-have satellites may
be compared with one another. With regard to the planets which have no satellites, the
quantity of matter contained in them can only be guessed from the effects they produce on
the motions of the other planets. The quantity of matter in the moon can, however, be
determined with greater certainty, by comparing together the influence .of the sun and moon
in producing the tides and the precession of the equinoxes. Hence we' learn, that the mat
ter in the moon is about ys of tiie matter in the earth.
The following table exhibite the masses of the planets, that of the sun being considered
as unity : TABLE.

Mercury  srrsTis
Venus ..--.- nyy-BTr
The Earth  5J?W
Mars ...... .jyj-^jj^

Jupiter Saturn Uranus

3 512
litis

If we add together the numbers given in this table, it will be found that the whole matter
in all the planets is not one-six-hundredth part of the matter in the sun.
Knowing the masses of the planets and their diameters, we can determine the force of
gravity at their surfaces ; for, supposing them to be spherical bodies, and to have no rotation
on their axes, the forces with wliich a body placed on their surfaces gravitates to them will
be proportional to their masses, divided by the squares of their diameters.
From the masses of Jupiter and the earth, La Place calculates that if we suppose them
to have no rotation, a body which at the earth's equator weighs one pound would, if carried
to the equator of Jupiter, weigh 2.509 pounds, supposing the weights to be measured by
the pressures exerted in the two situations. If the centrifugal force produced by the rota
tion of the planets be taken into account however, this weight must he tiiminished by about
one-ninth part. The same body would weigh about 27.65 pounds at the surface of the sun.
Hence it follows that a heavy body would there descend about 425 feet in the first second
of time..
We have hitherto attended chiefly to the action of the central body upon that which
revolves round it ; but, in reality, the action is mutual. The planets attract the sun in the
same manner as the sun attracts the planets ; and the same action and re-action have place
among the primary planete and their satellites. Indeed, the gravitation of all the great
bodies of the system towards one another, appears only to be a consequence of a simUar
action between every particle of matter and every other particle of matter. This great
fact to which all the celestial phenomena are ultimately to be referred — that the particles
of matter mutually attract each other by a force varying inversely as the squares of the
distances—Is commonly called the principle of Universal Gravitation.
The mutual attraction of the bodies composing the planetary system gives rise to a tram
of consequences which it has required the utmost efforte of human ingenuity to unfold.
We have already remarked that the planetary motions are liable to a variety of irregulari-

124 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part H
ties with which accurate observation has made us acquainted. Now, here we see the cause
to which all these irregularities are to be referred. If the sun were fixed immovable in the
centre, and only one planet revolving round him, then the path of that planet would be an
ellipse, from which there would not be the least deviation ; and that focus which is the
centre of motion would coincide with the centre of the sun, supposing that body to be
spherical and composed of matter of uniform density. But since the planet attracte the sun
as well as the sun attracts the planet, with a force directly proportional to the mass and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance, it follows that the sun must also move
in an elliptic orbit round that point of which the condition is in no way disturbed by the
mutual action of the revolving bodies, namely, their centre of gravity. It is with this
point that the focus of the orbit of the planet, and that of the solar orbit would coincide,
and about which the radius vector of each would describe areas proportional to the times.
In reference to this point also, the squares of the periodic times would be proportional to the
cubes of the distances.
If we suppose two or more planete to revolve about the sun, it is evident that the motions
of all would be disturbed by their mutual gravitation. The immense magnitude of the
sun compared with that of any of the planete, or of all the planete taken together, might
however, give to his attraction such a preponderance as would preserve all the planetary
orbits nearly elliptical ; while his own orbit would become a more complicated curve, but
such as to fiirnish a centrifiigal force in respect of each planet just able tp counterbalance
the gravitation towards it The centre of gi-avity of the whole system would he a point to
which all their motions are to be referred. Now this is actually the case of the planetary
system. Accurate observation proves that the sun is not at rest in the centre, though his
motion is very small. His centre is never distant from the centre of gravity of the system
so much as his own diameter ; and hence the orbit which he describes must be very incon
siderable, when compared with the orbits of the planets. With regard to those planets
which are accompanied by satellites, it is not the centre of the primary which traces the
elliptic orbit round the sun, but the common centre of gravity of the primary planet and
secondary planete which revolve round it
The perturbations which the mutual attraction of the planete produce in each other's mo
tions are divided into two classes. The one class affect the figure and position of the elliptic
orbits, and increase with extreme slowness : these are called secular inequalities. "The
other class depend on the mutual situation of the different planets, and acquire the same
amount whenever tiie same relative positions occur : these are called periodic iNEQUAunEs.
Both these classes of inequalities have been demonstrated to be periodical ; that is, they
increase only to a certain extent, and then decrease. Amidst all .the changes which arise
from the mutual actions of the heavenly bodies, there are two things which remain perpeta-
ally the same ; namely, the greater axis of the orbit which the planet describes, and its
periodic time. Thus the permanency of the planetary system is secured.
To subject to calculation the perturbations of the system, requires the solution of the
following problem : three bodies of given magnitudes, as the sun, the ceirth, and the moon,
being projected into space with given velocities, and in given directions, and attracting each
other according to a given law, namely, invei-sely as the squares of their distances from each
other, and directly as their masses ; it is required to determine the nature of the curve, that
one of them, as the moon, describes about one of the other two, as the earth. This is the
celebrated problem op the three noniES, stated in all ite generality, but under this aspect
its solution is beyond the reach of the most refined methods of analysis which the mathe
matical sciences in their present state furnish. In its application to the purposes of physical
astronomy, there are certain conditions which render the problem less diflicult : viz. 1.
That the sun greatly exceeds in magnitude the other two bodies, and is nearly at rest 2.
Its distance from the earth and moon is so great that it may be considered the same for both.
This condition faUs, however, in reference to the action of the primary planete on one
another, a circumstance which augmente the difficulty of investigating the perturbations
arising from their mutual gravitation. 3. The planetary orbits are nearly elliptical, and
the aberrations from the ellipses in reference to each, are all tiiat is required. Even with
these limitations the problem is sufficiently difficult and lias engaged the attention, and
exercised the skill of the most celebrated mathematicians of modem times.
The general view which we have now given of the planetary disturbances is all that our
present object requires. We shall only, therefore, farther advert to the explanation which
the theory of gravitation affords of tiie figure of the earth, and of the tides.

CHAPTER XVL
figure and CONSTITUTION OP TIIE EARTII DEDUCED FROM THE THEORY OF GRAVITATION.
In the beginning (Chap. III.) we proved that tiie eartii must be nearly spherical, in order
to account for the general phenomena which we constantiy observe. As soon, however.

Book I. FIGURE OP THE EARTH. 12d
as the general law of gravitation was discovered, it was a necessary consequence that the
earth could not be a perfect sphere, but must rather be an oblate spheroid flattened at the
poles, and swelled out at the equator, and this inference is independent of all actual measure
ment, but may be confirmed by observation, and m fact has been so, as wUl be afterwards
fully proved. This deviation from the spherical figure is to he attributed to the influence
of the centrifugal force, arising from the earth's diurnal rotation, m dimuiishing the force of
gravity from the pole towards the equator, where the centrifugal force, in reference to the
surface, is the greatest possible. This tendency which every particle of matter in the earth
has to fly off m the dhection of a tangent to the circle in which the particle is carried by
the earth's motion of rotation would be increased if that motion were to be accelerated :
and may be conceived to be increased to such power as not only to overcome the force of
gravity, but also the force by which the particles adhere to one another, and so to cause the
earth to separate into firagments. Suppose a small satellite to revolve round the earth close
to ite surfece at the equator ; ite periodic time may be deduced from that of the moon, on
the principle that the squares of their periodic times would be to one another as the cubes
of their distances. For we have (since the moon's distance is about sixty times the semi
diameter of the ea.rth, and the time of her periodic revolution 39343 minutes),
60' : r=39343'' : sq. of the periodic tune of the satellite.
Hence we obtain the periodic time nearly equal to 84^ minutes. If the earth revolved
about ite axis in 84J minutes while such a satellite described a circular orbit close to its
surface, the satellite would therefore appear to be at rest on the surface, but would not in
the least degree press upon it, because the force of gravity would be exactly counterbalanced
by the centrifugal force produced by the motion of the satellite in its orbit Now, all the
objects on the surface at the equator would be in the very same circumstances with the
satellite ; for they actually describe circles in consequence of the earth's motion, and if the
earth revolved in 84^ minutes, their centrifugal force would become exactiy equal to the
force of gravity ; so that they would no longer have weight. If the earth's motion of rota
tion became stUl more rapid, they would fly off from the surface.
At the equator a body describes a circle of which the circumference is about 132,105,600
feet in 23' 56'" nearly : it must therefore describe an arc of about 1528 feet in a second
of time. From what we have shown already respecting central forces, it is evident that, by
dividing the square of this arc by the diameter of the earth, we shall find the deflection
from the tangent in a second, which will be the measure of the centrifugal force. This
deflection amounte to about y^ of an inch, or ^J^ of lOyV feet, the space through which a
body would fall in a second by the force of apparent gravity. The centrifugal force at the
equator is therefore the jW part of the sensible weight of a body, or -^\-^ part of ite real
weight Suppose, then, a hotly, when weighed at the equator by a spring-steel yard, to be
found capable of drawing out the sprmg to the division 288 : if that body were weighed -at
the pole, where the centrifugal force vanishes, it would draw out the spring to the
division 289.
It adraite of being demonstrated that, proceeding from the equator where the centrifugal
force is the greatest toward either pole, where it vanishes, the increase of gravity in different
latitudes is as the square of the sine of the latitude.
Such being the nature of the forces that act upon every particle of matter of which the
earth is composed, the determination of its figure from physical principles involves the
solution of the two following problems : —
1. What is the law according to which a particle will gravitate towards a solid of a
given form and constitution, the particle being supposed situated either within or without
the solid ?
2. What figure wUl a mass of matter, either wholly ,or partly fluid, assume in conse
quence of the joint effect of the attraction of ite particles (that attraction varying inversely
as the squares of their distances), and a centrifugal force arising from the rotation of the
mass about an axis'! Both these problems involve a great degree of difiiculty; and the
second is even more intricate than the first, in consequence of the reciprocal relations
subsisting between the figure of the attracting body and the law of gravitation at its surface,
which renders a knowledge of the one necessary to the determination of the other.
Assuming that an homogeneous fluid of the same mean density with the earth has the
figure of an oblate spheroid, and revolves on its axis in 23' 56'" 4' of solar time, it would be
in equilibrio, if the axis of revolution were to the equatorial diameter in the proportion of
229 to 230. This is the figure which Newton ascribed to the earth; and though the
assumption which he made of such a figure was certainly gratuitous, the result of his inves
tigation is almost the same as later writers have obtained by a more rigorous as well as
direct mode of reasoning than that which he emplbyed. Again, it has been demonstrated by
La Place, that a fluid and homogeneous mass, of the mean density of the earth, cannot
remain in equUibrium and possess at the same time an elliptic figure, if the time of its
rotation be less than 2' 2.5'" 17". If the time of revolution exceed this, there may always be
two elliptic spheroids, and not more, in which the equilibrium may be maintained. In the
11*

126 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part IL
case of the mass revolving in 23'' 56'" 4', the one spheroid is that which has already been
mentioned ; the other is one in which the polar diameter is to the equatorial in the ratio of
1 to 681. The extreme flatness of this spheroid must render the force of gravity at the
equator almost nothing ; the fiuid, therefore, would be so easily dissipated that this equUibrium
can scarcely be regarded as stable.
Another conclusion on this subject, deduced by Clairault, is, that if the fluid mass supposed
to revolve on its axis, instead of being homogeneous, be composed of strata which increase
in density towards the centre, ui order to remain in equilibrium, it must stUl possess the figure
of an elliptic spheroid, but the oblateness will be diminished.
The oblateness of the earth at ite poles is a phenomenon which the measuremente that
have been made of arcs of the meridian have placed beyond all doubt ; but there is stUl an
uncertainty as to the exact quantity of the compression. The resulte obtained, however,
render it highly probable that it is less than o^, which Newton, proceeding on the supposition
of a uniform density, assigned for the compression. Hence we may conclude, that if the
earth is a spheroid of equilibrium, it is tienser in the interior than at ite surface. This
inference has been verified by very accurate experimente made by the late Dr. Maskelyne
on the sides of the mountain Schehallien, in Perthshire. The object was to determine the
derangement of the plummet by the vicinity of this lofty and solid mountain ; and the results,
obtained from observation made at two stations on the south and north sides of it, showed
that the plummet deviated from the direction of gravity towards the mountain more than
7". The quantity of this change of direction gives the ratio of the attraction of the mountam
to that of the whole earth, or to the force of gravity, equal to the ratio of 1 to 17804. But
the bulk and figure of the mountain being also obtained by a trigonometrical survey, ite mean
density was found to be to the mean density of the earth nearly as 5 to 9, Thus it appears
that the mean density of the earth is not much less than double the density of the rocks
which compose the mountain Schehallien ; and these, again, seem considerably more dense
than the mean of those which form the exterior cmst of the earth.
It may appear an objection to this mode of reasoning concerning the figure of the earth,
that it is not evident how a centrifiigal force should produce the same effect on a solid body,
like the earth, that it does upon a fluid mass. But the feet that the earth has made an
approximation to the spheroid of equilibrium, is an indication that either the entire mass
was originally fluid, from whatever cause ; or the repeated waste and reconsolidation of the
parts near the surface has gradually produced the spheroidal figure. In either of these
modes the power of cohesion, which in the solid body resiste the effecte of the centrifiigal
force, may have been overcome. However irregular a body, whose surfece is composed of
land and water, may be in ite primitive form ; by the process of constant waste, the more
prominent parte are gradually worn down, and the matter which composed them is deposited
in the lower parts which are occupied by the water : here it acquires a horizontal stratifica
tion ; and having, by certain mineral operations, under the transforming hand of nature, been
consolidated into stone, the water being removed, it may again form a part of the solid crust
of the earth. In this manner the primitive irregular form wiU gradually tiisappear, and the
surface in the course of ages acquire a position at right angles to the direction of gravity;
so that, by the action of the centrifugal force, there will be a constant approximation made
to the spheroid of equilibrium. The irregular distribution of the heterogeneous materials
which compose this terraqueous globe may, perhaps, prevent the coincidence from ever
being complete.
It admits of being demonstrated, that if the earth were a perfect sphere, and composed of
matter of uniform density at equal distances from ite centre, the action of the solar and
lunar attraction upon it would be the same as if the whole terraqueous mass we'e condensed
into a point at the centre. Hence the position of ite axis would not in that case, be in the
least degree affected by ite gravitation towards the sun and moon, but would remain parallel
to itself while the earth performed its annual revolution. In consequence of the spheroidal
figure, however, the earth may be considered as composed of a sphere of which the radius is
half the polar axis, and of a quantity of redundant matter, which is distributed over it in
such a manner as to swell out the equatorial regions. The action of the solar and lunar
attraction on this redundant matter produces the precession of the equinoxes and the nutation
of the earth's axis. The complete explanation of these phenomena affords one of the hap
piest illustrations of the Newtonian doctrine of attraction ; but requires at the same tune
*^he aid of some of the most abstruse theories both in pure mathematics and mechanics.

CHAPTER XVIL
THE TIDES.
The alternate rise and fall of tho surface of the sea, or it flux and reflux, known by the
name of the tides, is a phnnomenon which has attracted tiie attention of mankind from the
earliest periods, Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus take notice of the daily flux and reflux

Book I.

THE TIDES.

127

of the waters of the Red Sea or Arabian Gulf, the latter historian describing it as a great
and rapid tide ; but neither of these writers forms any conjecture respecting its cause. Ob
servation must soon have shown, that this periodical ebbing and flowing of the waters of the
ocean had an intimate connexion with the position of the sun and moon in the heavens ; and,
accorduigly, we find that Pliny not only describes the phenomena of tides, but expressly
attributes them to the action of these luminaries.
It was not, however, untU Newton applied the principle of universal gravitation to explain
these phenomena that the theory of the tides was fully understood. The weight of a body
on the surfece of the earth arises from the tendency which the particles composing it have
to the centre (or to a point near the centre), in obedience to the law of gravity. But as
every object on the earth's surface gravitates towards the sun and moon, as well as towards
the earth, it follows that the solar and lunar attraction must affect the weight of terrestrial
objecte. Upon solid bodies, between the particles of which adhesive force is powerful, no
discernible effects are produced by this attraction. But the case is altogether different with
regard to the waters of the ocean, the component particles of which yield to the slightest
impulse ; so that any alteration in their weight that does not equally affect the whole must
be followed immediately by a motion of the parts of the fluid mass, which will continue
until, by a new arrangement of the particles, the equilibrium is restored.
To see what must he the general effect, arising from the action of the sun, if the whole
surface of the globe were covered with water ; let A C B O {fig. 39.) be the watery sphere, S the
39

40 0_

1 ^

KT \

\

\l

771,

L
R
S
sun, and E the centre of the earth. Let the gravitation of the central particle E to the sun
he represented by the line E S, and the gravitation of any other particle M by the line
M S D. Let the force M D be resolved into two forces, M H equal and parallel to E S, and
M G. The force M H does not in the least degree affect the gravitation of the particle M
towards the centre E ; and M G is, therefore, the only disturbmg force. If S M be pro
duced to meet the circle A C B O in the point m, the action of the sun on a particle situated
at m is less than ite action on the central particle E ; so that ii m d represent the gravita
tion of the particle m towards the sun, the point d will fall on the opposite side of S from
the point D ; and the force m d being resolved into two forces, m h equal and parallel to E S,
and the disturbmg force m g, it is evident that the tendency of the force m g- is to duninish
the gravity of the particle m, m like manner as the force M G diminishes the gravity of the
particle M. When the point M coincides with A, the angle E S M is the angle under
which the semidiameter of the earth is seen from the sun ; therefore E S M can never ex
ceed 8|" : whence, in determining the direction and quantity of the disturbing force from
tiie g:eometrical relations of the lines, we may consider the lines D G, S L,''and D M as
coincident, and M L may be taken for the disturbing force. Again, the difference between
128 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part H.
S M and S E is greatest when the point M coincides with C or O. But if we consider
that C E, the difference between S E and S M when greatest is only about sAns parf of
S E, it is evident that we commit but a very small error in supposing S M, S N, and S E
m every position equal. Now, since S E and D M represent the gravitation of the parti
cles E and M towards the sun respectively, we have SE:DM=SM^: SE^; therefore,
SN^
since S E and S N may be considered equal, D M = gj^^. But S N = S M + M N, there-
fore S N» = S M^ -f 3 S M' X M N -F 3 S M X M N^ + M N'. The quantity M N is so
small, compared with S M, that the two last terms of this expression for S N' may be ne-
SN'
glected : we have, therefore, S N" = S M' + 3 S M' X M N, and gj^2 = S M -|- 3 M N:
whereft^re, also, DM = SM+3MN; and taking S M from each, we find S D = 3 M N.
Now, since G D may be considered equal to L S + S D, and E S is by construction equal
to G D, it is evident that ES = LS+SD, or taking L S from each, E L = S D. Hence
E L =: 3 M N, and the disturbing force for any point M is determined both in direction and
magnitude. Suppose now that A C B O {fig. 40.) is the terraqueous globe, E S a line directed to the
sun, and A E B a section by that circle which separates the enlightened from the dark
hemisphere. Let M be any particle on or within the mass. Through the point M draw a
straight luie M N perpendicular to the plane A EB, and in E S take E L, equal to 3 M N:
join L M ; then L M represents the direction and intensity of the disturbing force which
the sun exerte on the particle M. Let the force L M be resolved into two forces, one, M E,
directed towards the centre of the earth, and the other, M R, tending from the plane A E B
towards the sun. Suppose the same construction to be made for every point of the sphere,
the whole being supposed covered with water, it is evident that the forces represented by
M E will balance one another, and therefore need not be considered. But the force repre
sented by M R will diminish the gravity of every particle M, reckoned in the direction of
a line perpendicular to the plane of that great circle of the earth which separates the Ulu
minated from the dark hemisphere. The force thus diminishing the gravity will be propor
tional to three times the distance of the particle from the same plane ; for R M is equal to
L E or 3 M N. Every particle in any column M N beuig thus acted on by a force which
evidently tends to destroy the equilibrium of the fluid mass, the water in that column can
not remain at rest. Its equUibrium may be restored, however, by the addition of a small
portion M m, which, by restoring the weight of the column, enables it to resist the pressure
of the adjacent columns. A similar addition may be made to each column, perpendicular
to the plane A E B : and the result will be that from being spherical, the figure of the globe
will be changed into that of an oblong elliptical spheroid, having its axis directed towards
the sun, and ite poles in those pointe of the surface which have the sun in the zenith and
nadir. Let the figure into which the watery sphere would be transformed by the solar action be
represented by the ellipse acbo {fig. 41.) : the pointe o and c are the poles of the spheroid ;
and at these points the waters are highest above the sphere A C B O of equal capacity, whUe
all round the circumference B E A tiie waters are below their natural levei By calculation
it is found that the difference between E c and E a is about twenty-four and a half inches ;
so that the deviation from the spherical figure is not great
The figure which the watery spheroid assumes must be in a slight degree influenced by
the spheroidal figure of the earth ; but the deviation from tiie spherical figure is so small,
that ite effect in changing the splieroidal figure of the waters on the surfece of the earth
must be quite inconsiderable. If the earth were at rest the watery spheroid would acquhe
that form which would produce an equilibrium among all ite particles. This, however, can
never happen under the actual circumstances of the case, because some time must elapse
before an accelerating force can produce a finite change in the disposition of the waters ;
but, by the motion of the earth on ite axis, the disturbing force is every instant applied to a
different part of the surface, so that the position of equilibrium can never actually be attain
ed. Such, then, is the general effect which the solar action would produce if the whole
globe were fluid, or a spherical nucleus covered with a fluid of equal density. To explam
the phenomena of the tides, however, it is indispensably necessary to take into account the
action of tho moon.
It is with the moon that the tides are principally connected ; aiiii the sun's influence is
known only by its increasing or diminishing the effecte of her uicre powerful action. This
greater influence of the moon in producing the tides arises from her vicinity to the earth,
when compared with the sun, her distance being only about ^jnr part of his. It must be
carefully kept in view, that it ia not the mere action of the sun and moon that produces the
tides in tlie ocean, but tlie iiirqunlilics in the action of each: and the gravitation of the
waters of the ocean to the moon is much more unequal than tiieir gravitation to the sun.
Whatever has been proved with regard to tiie influence of tiie sun in producing tides in the

Book I. THE TIDES. 129
ocean is equally applicable to the moon. The waters will be accumulated immediately
under her, and on the opposite side of the globe, producing a spheroid of the same kmd with
that which we have shown must be produced by the unequal action of the sun, but more
elongated ; and this spheroid, directed toward the moon, will follow her in her apparent
daily revolution about the earth. In consequence of this sunultaneous gravitation towards
both lummaries, the ocean must assume a figure different from both of these spheroids;
which will become blended and undistinguishable. The resulting figure resembles each of
the spheroids in being elongated, and its most elevated parte are found to follow the more
powerfiil of the disturbmg bodies, namely, the moon, in her apparent diurnal revolution about
the earth. We may, without sensible error, suppose that the change produced in any part
of the ocean by the combined action of the sun and moon, is the sum or the difference of the
changes which they would have produced if acting separately.
We have already remarked that the rapid motion of the waters, in consequence of the
diumal motion, prevente them from ever assuming the figure which would be requisite for
the equUibrium of the forces acting on them ; so that they oscillate continually, altemately
approaching to that figure and receding fi-om it. The motion thus communicated to them
is one not of transference, but of undulation, one part rising and another sinking, unless
when from want of depth of water the balance between the adjacent columns is destroyed.
We may, therefore, regard the two elevations produced in the ocean hy the inequalities in
the solar and lunar actions as two vast waves which follow the moon in her apparent diurnal
motion. The line joining the tops of these two waves is not directed to the moon, as would
be the case if the earth and moon were at rest, but is directed to a point about 30° to the
eastward of the moon. This arises from the inertia of the water, which causes it when
once put in motion, to continue to rise for a time after the impulse communicated has ceased.
If we consider the tides relatively to the whole surface of the globe, there is a meridian, there
fore, about 30° eastward of the moon where it is always high water, both in the hemisphere
where the moon is, and the opposite hemisphere. On the west side of the meridian the tide
is flowing, and on the east side of it the tide is ebbing. On the meridian which is at right
angles to the former, it is everywhere low water. If we suppose, , then, the sun and moon
to be in the equator, and an observer to be situated on the surface of the water under the
equator ; when the moon has risen 30° above his horizon, the state of the tide to that observer
.will be low water. As the moon advances towards his zenith, the tide will flow ; and when
she has reached a point about 30° to the westward of his zenith, the summit of the wave will
reach him, and then the state of the tide will be high water. As the moon approaches the
westem horizon, the observer wUl see the water gradually subside as it had formerly risen ;
and when she has descended 30° below the horizon, it is again low water. As the moon
continues her course below the horizon, the waters again gradually rise by the approach of
the other wave until ite summit arrives at the observer, and again produces high water ;
when the moon has passed the opposite meridian, and reached a point 30'^ beyond it, the tide
again begins to ebb as the wave rolls on, and the same phenomena are repeated in the same
order. Thus, in the space of time in which the moon performs her diumal revolution, which
may be called a lunar day, and consists of nearly 24' 50'", there occur two tides of flood and
two of ebb. The time between one high water to the next is about 12' 25"°, and the instant
of low water is nearly but not exactly the middle of this interval, the tide in general taking
about nine or ten minutes more in ebbing than in flowing.
Spring and neap tides. As the magnitude of the two waves which produce the rise and
fall of the tide depends on the action of the sun as well as on that of the moon, it is evident
that the height to which the water rises and falls must be affected by the relative position
of -the two luminaries. At new moon and full moon the actions of the sun and moon are
combined, but at the quadratures they counteract each other. In the former case, the two
spheroids produced by the solar and lunar actions have their axes coincident or nearly so ;
in the latter, their axes are at right angles to each other. Hence, at new and full moon the
flood tide will rise higher, and the ebb tide wUl sink lower, than usual. The reverse of this
will happen when the moon is in either of her quadratures : the flood tide will not rise so
high as usual, nor will the ebb tide sink so low. This is exactly coincident with experience ;
and we here perceive the cause of what are called spring tides and neap tides. About
the time of full moon and change the tides rise higher than when the moon presents any
other phasis. The highest tide does not happen, however, the first after the opposition or
conjunction, t;hough the disturbing forces are then united, but some time after; and the
cause of this is the same which prevente the time of high water of any one tide coinciding
with the time of the moon being on that meridian under which the tide happens ; namely,
the inertia of the water, or that tendency which all matter has to retain ite state whether
of rest or motion. At Brest where an accurate register was kept of the phenomena of the
tides about the beginning of the last century, it was found that the hightjst tide happened
about a day and a half after the new and fuU moon. If the time of high witer coincide with
the very time of conjunction or opposition, the third high water after that is the highest of all.
This is called le spring tide. Prom this period the tides gradually decrease, untU the thirtj
Vol. L R

130 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part U.
high water after the moon's quadrature, which is the lowest of all, and is called the heap
tide. But having reached their utmost tJepression, the tides again increase until the occur
rence of the next spring tide ; and so on continually. The higher the tide of flood rises, the
lower the ebb tide generally sinks on that day. The total magnitude of the tide is estimated
by the difference between high and low water. At Brest the medium spring tide is about
19 feet and the medium neap tide about 9 feet
Effect in different hemispheres. Let us next suppose the sun and moon to be situated in
one of the tropics ^ the two waves raised in the ocean by their actions on opposite sides of
the globe wUl now roll along under the tropics. If an observer be placed on the surface of
the water, and under the same tropic in which the sun and intx)n are situated, he wUl stiU
see two tides of flood and two of ebb ; but they will not correspond in all their circumstances,
as they did on the former supposition. The depth of the high water produced by the wave
situated in the same hemisphere with the moon, wUl evidently be greater than that of the
high water produced by the wave which rolls along under the other tropic in the opposite
hemisphere from the moon ; for the observer wUl see the very summit of the one wave, and
only the sloping side of the other. To an observer situated under the tropic on the opposite
side of the equator from the sun and moon, the case would be reversed ; and if he were so
fer removed from the equator as to be situated under the polar circle, no part of the wave
accumulated in the same hemisphere with the moon would reach him ; so that he would
see only one tide of flood and one tide of ebb daily produced by the motion of the other
wave. This also is consistent with what we know respecting the tides from observation. AH the
phenomena are found to be modified by the latitude of the place of observation ; and some
phenomena are found to occur in high latitudes, which are not at all seen when the place
of observation is under the equator. In particular when the moon and the observer are on
the same side of the equator, that tide in which the moon is above the horizon is greater
than the other tide of the same day which happens when the moon is below the horizon.
The contrary takes place when the moon and the observer are on opposite sides of the
equator : in this latter case, if the polar distance of the observer be equal to the moon's
declination, he will see but one tide in the day, continuing to flow for twelve hours and to
ebb for twelve hours. We have supposed for simplicity the sun and moon to be in the equa
tor, or in one of the tropics ; but it is evident that this can seldom be the case. The two
luminaries are capable of an infinite variety of positions in reference to each other, as weU
as in reference to any particular point of the earth's surfece. The phenomena with regard
to particular places must, therefore, be endlessly diversified ; but by tracing the general
features, the principles become apparent upon which all the phenoinena depend.
The influence of the sun and moon in producing tides in the ocean will evidently be aug
mented when these bodies are nearer to tiie earth, and diminished when their distances are
increased. From this cause it arises, that when the moon is in that part of her orbit where
she approaches nearest to the earth, the spring tide which happens at that time is the highest
and the next spring tide is the smallest ; because the moon is then nearly at her greatest
distance from the earth. This makes a difference of 2^ feet from the mean height of the
spring tide at Brest ; and consequently of double that quantity, or 5J feet between the
greatest spring tide and the least The neap tide which happens between these two very
unequal spring tides is regular, because the moon is then nearly at her mean distance. The
reverse of this takes place when the moon is at her mean distance at the time of the change:
the spring tide is regular, but the two neap tides differ considerably in height The increased
distance of the sun is the reason why the spring tides in our summer are not so great as in
our winter. At the mean intensities of the disturbing forces, the sun tends to raise the
waters about 24^ inches, and the moon about 58. Hence the spring tide should be about
58+24J:=82^ inches, and the neap tide about 58 — 24^^=33^ inches.
Variations caused by continents, islands, c^c. We have hitherto supposed the two
waves which produce the phenomena of the tides to meet with no intermption in their pro
gress round the world. This is, however, far from being the case ; tiiey are interrupteti by
continente and islands, and may be propelled or retarded by the action of the wind ; their
velocity and direction may also be changed by irregularities in the bed of the ocean : so that
to explain all the phenomeija at any particular place, the effect of local circumstances,
which is often great, must be taken into the account. The great Pacific Ocean is, perhaps,
the only part of the terraqueous globe in which all tiie forces have room to operate. But
the wave which they form must, in rolling westward, encomiter the coaste of Asia and New
Holland, with the interjacent islands ; and amidst these obstacles it must force ite way to the
Indian Ocean. Ite figure will thus be changed, and tiie phenomena of the tides, wjiich it
produces, powerfully modified. On ite eastem side tho Pacific is bounded by a vast stretch
of coast, extending without interruption from Cape Horn to Behring's Straits. This barrier
prevents all supply from the eostward for making up tiie watery spheroid, and must be
equally effectual in arresting the progress of the waters accumulated to the eastward of the
American continent So far as we have information respecting the tides in the Pacific

Book L THE TIDES. 131
Ocean, they appear to be very unlUie the European tides, untU we reach. about 40° or 50°
west from the coast of America. In the neighbourhood of that coast scarcely any tide
occurs when the moon is below the horizon. Even irl the middle of tiie Pacific Ocean the
tides are very small, but at the same time very regular. , , , ,^ •. i ^ j
As a great extent of surfece is necessary m order that the sea should be sensibly attecttjd
by the mequalities m tiie actions of the sun and moon, the tides which are experienced m
narrow seas, and on shores far removed from the mam body of the ocean, are not produced
in those seas, but are waves propagated from the great diurnal undulation, and movmg with
much less velocity. The tides which visit the coasts of England, must, in a great measure,
be supplied from the accumulation of water in the Indian and Ethiopic Ocean, from the east
ward, and by what is brought or kept back from the South Sea. The undulations will be
diffused as proceeding from a collection coming round tiie Cape of Good Hope, and round
Cape Horn. Consistently with this supposition, it is found that high water, which occurs at
the Cape of Good Hope at new and fiill moon about three o'clock, is later and later as we
proceed nortiiward along the coast of Africa ; later and later still as we follow it along the
westem coaste of Spain and France, untU we reach the mouth of the English Channel. The
wave now divides iteelf into three branches ; one part passing up St. George's Channel,
another proceeding northward along the western coast of Ireland, and the third passing up
the English Channel, between the British and French coaste. The two branches that pro
ceed along the east and west sides of Ireland unite and form one ridge or wave, which con
tinues ite progress along the westem coaste and islands of Scotland, and then diffiises itself
eastward towards Norway and Denmark, and circling round the eastem coaste of Britain,
comes southward through the German Ocean, until it reaches Dover, where it meets the
branch which passes up the English Channel. It is to be remarked, however, that this tide
which comes up the channel is not the same with that which meets it from the north, but is
a whole tide earlier if not two, as appears from the fact of the spring tide at Rye being a
tide earlier than the spring tide at the Nore : it even seems two tides earlier, for it appears
the one as often as the other. By tracing the hour of high water from the Lizard up St.
" Gfeorge's Channel, and along the west coaste of Scotland, it appears that the two tides which
pass along the east and west sides of Ireland and unite into one wave to the north of it,
travel round Britain in about twenty-eight hours, in which time the primitive tide has gone
round the whole circumference of the earth, and nearly 45 degrees more. By attending
also to the successive hours of high water along the westem coaste of Africa and Europe,
it appears that the wave, which divides into three branches at the mouth of the English
Channel, takes up nearly two days, or between four and five tides, in travelling thither from
the Cape of Gooti Hope. A similar progress of the same high water from the southward is
observed along the eastem shores of South America ; but beyond Brazil and Surinam the
Atlantic Ocean is sufficiently extensive to contribute greatly to the formation of the regular
spheroid ; so that the effect of this high water from the southward, being blended with the
tide raised in the Atlantic iteelf, becomes insensible. In an ocean of such a breadth from
east to west as the Atlantic, the water can rise on the one shore only by descending on the
other. In the middle, therefore, it will retain nearly the mean height between ite elevations
on the two opposite coaste : this appears to be the reason why the tides are small in islands
that are very fer distant from the shores.
The reflection of the tide from shore to shore is a great cause of irregularity in the tides.
The coaste may be so situated that the time in which the undulation that constitutes the
tide would of itself vibrate backward and forward from shore to shore, may be so exactly
accommodated to the recurring action of the moon that the succeeding impulses, being
always added to the natural undulation, may raise it to a height altogether disproportioned
to what the action of the moon can produce in the open sea, where the undulation diffuses
iteelf to a vast distance.
The inequalities which undoubtedly obtain in the bottom of the ocean affect the tides, by
changing the direction of the waters ; also their velocity either absolutely or in respect of
particular places. They may also influence the height by causing the tide to rush with
increasing velocity towards a particular point where the waters must at length be suddenly
checked, and therefore be accumulated in an extraordinary degree : this appears to be the
cause of the astonishingly high tides which occur in the Bay of Fundy. 'The high water of
the Atlantic Ocean at St Helena does not exceed four or five feet ; but, setting in obliquely
on the coast of North America, it seems to range along that coast in a channel or bed,
gradually narrowing till it is stopped in the Bay of Fundy, where the accumulation of the
waters becomes tremendous. The tide approaches with a prodigious noise in one vast wave,
that is seen many miles off, and the waters rise to the height of more than seventy feet in
the gulf of Cumberland basin ; the rapidity of the waters is so great as to overtake animals
feeding pn the shores.
In consequence of the length of time required for a tide to propagate iteelf up a great
river, one or two succeeding tides may reach the mouth of the river before the first tide has
arrived at the highest point to which it ranges up the stream. The second tide will also

133 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. Part H.
have propagated iteelf so far up the river, by the time that the thu-dtide reaches the mouth ;
and thus there may be three co-existent high waters in the river. The two intervening low
waters in the ocean will also produce two corresponding low waters in the river : these
changes in the depth of the stream are produced by the high waters which arrive at its
mouth checking ite velocity, and the low waters accelerating it To cause high water at
any particular point, it is by no means necessary that the water should be raised to that level
all the way from that point to the mouth of the river. Before such an accumulation could
take place, in many instances, places farther down the stream would be inundated. At many
places that are far from the sea, the stream at the moment of high water is down the river,
and sometimes it is considerable. At Quebec, the current in the St Lawrence runs at the
rate of not less than three mUes per hour : this is a clear proof that the water is not heaped
up, for there can be no stream without a declivity. The phenomenon termed the bore of a
river, which occurs chiefiy in large rivers that have a wide outlet and where the greatest
tides are experienced, arises from the waters accumulated in the gulf or outlet by one tide
not being, in such circumstances, discharged before the approach of the ensuing tide.
These accumulated waters encounter, therefore, the waters of the ocean flowing in an op
posite direction ; so that the re-action of the conflicting waves produces an elevation of the
water far above the natural level. The surge formed in this manner rolls up the river with
irresistible force, overwhelming every thing which it encounters ; untU, exhausted by the
resistance which it has to overcome, it at length sinks into a feeble undulation. The vio
lence and elevation with which the bore rushes along in some rivers is almost incredible : at
the mouth of the Severn the flood comes up in one head about ten feet in height ; but in the
great rivers of America, and particularly in the Amazon, it becomes a rolling mountain of
water, which is said to attain the height of 180 feet.
In confined seas of small extent, such as the Caspian, the Euxine, the Baltic, and the
great lakes of North America, the tides must necessarily be almost insensible ; the dis
turbing forces in such situations have not room to act to any extent : the greatest height to
which the waters of the Caspian can rise above their level on the shore, in consequence of ^
a spheroidal shape being given to them by the lunar action, does not exceed seven inches;
an accumulation which a slight breeze of wind is sufficient to counteract Even in cases
where a confined sea is connected with the ocean by a narrow channel, no sensible tide can
happen ; for the tide in the ocean cannot diffuse iteelf through the contracted inlet during
the period that elapses between two consecutive tides.
The Mediterranean is a confined sea of considerable extent ; and the tides there might be
very sensible if the effecte of the solar and lunar actions were not diminished by ite distance
from the equator. As the moon approaches the meridian of the eastem part of the Medi
terranean, there is a considerable elevation of the waters on the Syrian coast and a con
siderable depression at Gibraltar. In the middle of the length the water is at the mean
height ; in the Atlantic Ocean, an open and extensive surfece of water, the regular spheroid
al form is nearly attained, and the water stands considerably higher on the outeide of the
straite than on the inside ; it is nearly low water within, while it is about one third or one
half flood without Notwithstanding this accumulation, the communication is too narrow
to allow the tide of the ocean to diffuse iteelf in a regular manner into the basin of the
Mediterranean. As the moon moves westward, toward Gibraltar, the water wiU begin to
rise, but slowly, within the straits, while without it is flowing very rapidly. The accu
mulation within increases with the progress of the moon westward, untU it reaches high
water ; but by this tune the tide has been ebbing for some hours without the straite. It wUl
now he low water on the coast of Syria ; and during all this time the water at the middle
between the eastem and western extremities will not have sensibly altered ite depth.
The singular currents which prevaU in the Straite of Gibraltar appear in a great measure
explained by these peculiarities with regard to the tides in the Mediterranean Sea and
Atlantic Ocean. Changes of tide, always different and frequently quite opposite, are
observed on the east and west sides of the narrow neck which connects tiie rock with Spain ;
and the general tenor of those changes has a very great analogy with what has now been
described. It is a fact which strikes the attention, upon the most cursory observation of the pheno
mena of the tides, that they fall later every day. This variation ui the interval of the tides
is called the priming or lagging of the tides, according as we refer them to lunar or solar
time. If we suppose the sun and moon to be in the equator, and the watery spheroid to
attain instantaneously the form suited to its equUibrium, then tiie Ime joining the summits
of the two waves protiuced in the ocean by their combined actions wUl always be du-ected to
a point situated between their centres ; except in tiie case of the sun and moon being in con
junction or opposition, when it will be directed towards their centres. The followmg table,
calculated on tho above supposition, and for the mean distances of tiie sun and moon from
tim earth, exhibits the minutes of solar time that tiie moment of high water precedes or fol
lows tho moon's southing, corresponding to every tenth degree of tiie moon's elongation (east
ward) from tho sun or from tiie pomt opposite to the sun. It shows also the hour and minute

Book I.

THE TIDES.

133

of the day, nearly, when it is high water; and the height of the tide, supposing tiie height
of a spring tide to be 1000 : —

i§5gd
1

Time of High Water,

Height of
Title,

Time of High Water,

(=1
_o rt bt,
11

Before
Moon's
southing.

Afternoon
or Midnight,

Afternoon
or Mitlnight,

After
Moon's
southing.

Deg,

Min.

Ho, Min.

1000 987949 887806715 610 518453 429

Ho. Min,

Min,

Deg.

0
1020 3040 50 60 7080 90

0
Hi
22 31i4045 46i 40i25 0

0 0
0 28i
0 58
1 28i
2 0
2 35
3 13i
3 59i
4 55
6 0

12 0
11 31
11 2
10 31
10 0
9 25
8 46i
8 OJ
7 5
6 0

0
Ui
22 31J
40 4546J40J25 0

180170160150 140130120 110100 90

If we note the exact time of high water of spring tide for any harbour, and the exact
position of the sun and moon at that time, we can easUy make a table of the monthly series
for that port by noticing the difference of that time from the table, and making the same
difference for every succeeding phasis of the tide.

CHAPTER XVm.
GENERAL VIEW OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM,
Ten stars, among the countless number with which, in a clear night the heavens appear
so resplendent have been proved, by the observations and reasonings of which we have now
given a brief outline, to be planets revolving about the sun, and deriving their light from
him. The earth which we inhabit has been proved to have a similar motion, and to belong
to the same class of bodies. Several of these primary planete are accompanied by satellites;
and the whole are preserved in their respective orbits by a centripetal combined with a
centrifugal force. "Thus there subsist among these bodies relations which are regarded as
uniting them in one system, having the sun in the centre ; and which is therefore called the
SOLAR SYSTEM.
In regard to the -other planete, as we have employed the obvious analogy subsisting
between them and our earth, in proving its annual and diumal motion ; so, on the other
hand, from the same grounds, it seems reasonable to conclude that, like the earth, they are
designed and fitted hy Infinite Wisdom for the accommodation of inhabitants, and that in
all probability mUlions of beings are placed upon them. Though our observations in relation
to the subserviency of the arrangements of nature to the enjoyment of sentient beings is
confined to this narrow scene ; yet, seeing this small portion of the universe crowded with
examples of utUity, why should we imagine that Divine Goodness has not throughout the
system in like manner diffused its bounty t As our knowledge of the celestial phenomena
is extended, the probability becomes proportionably stronger that the other planets are stored
with inhabitants who share in the blessings of rational and sentient existence. Their rota
tion, their atmospheres, of which the telescope has enabled us to detect the existence, and
the changes which we see going on in these atmospheres, so much resemble what we expe
rience on the earth, that no man who clearly conceives them can divest his mind of the
thought that this is not the only part of the system where the Cseator has displayed his
bounty by giving existence to sentient beings. There is nothing that forbids us to suppose
that in each of the other planets there is the same inexhaustible store of subordinate
contrivances that we see here for living creatures in every situation, possessing appropriate
forms, desires, and abilities. Before abandoning such an opinion, there may surely be
expected, from those who require us to do so, some good reason for ite rejection.
In regard to the fixed stars, as the sun, if viewed from a sufficient distance, would be
diminished into a luminous point, while the planets that revolve round him would become
.invisible ; so, on the other hand, it is highly probable that each fixed star is iteelf a sun, and
the centre of a particular system, being surrounded with a certain number of planets and
comete, which, at different distances and in different periods, perform their revolutions
around it.
There appears strong reason to suppose that the sun, with his accompanying planets, has
a motion among the fixed stars, round a centre. Prom a comparison of ancient and modern
Vol, L 12

134

PRESrCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY.

Pari n.

observations, it appears that while the stars in one quarter of the heavens are receding from
each other, those in the opposite region are gradually approaching. Dr. Herschel has
found that these motions of the stars are nearly in the direction that would result from a
motion of the sun towards the constellation of Hercules. It is the opinion of Lalande that
there is a kind of equilibrium among all the systems of the universe, and that they have a
periodic circulation about their common centre of gravity.
TABULAR VIEW OF THE SOLAR SYSTEM.
L SECONDARY PLANETS.
1. The Moon.

Revolutions.

D. H, M, s,
Synodital  29 12 44 2.9
Anomalistic  27 13 18 37.4
Sidereal  27 7 43 11.5
Tropical  27 7 43 4.7
Nodical  27 5 5 36.0

5° 8' 47" .9

Inclination of Orbit to )
plane of Ecliptic  )
Greater semi-axis of Orbit =. 1.000000
Eccentricity = .054844

Semidiameter of Terrestrial Equator = 1,
Moon's mean distance = 59.96435.
in miles = 237000,
Moon's mean diameter = 2160 miles.
Her volume = ^ of volume of the Earth.
Her mass = ^ of mass of the Earth.
Her density = j-^ = .615 of density of the Earth.
Her light is jr^rjlh of the light of the Ban.

2. Satellites of Jdpiter.

3. Satellites op Saturn.

4. Satellites of Uranus.

s
m

Sidereal
Revolution.

Mean distance
in semidiame
ters of Jupiter's
Equator.

1
2 34

D. H. M,
1 IB 28
3 13 14
7 8 43
16 16 32

6.0499.623
15.350
26.998

i

Mean distance

;3

Sidereal

in semidiame

¦qJ

Revolution,

ters of Saturn's

EC

Equator,

D. H. M.

1
0 22 38
3.351
2
1 8 53
4.300
3
I 21 18
5.284
4
2 17 45
6.819
5
4 12 45
9.524
fi
15 22 41
22.081
7
79 7 55
64.359
i
Mean distance'
•j2
Sidereal
in sernidiame-
w
Revolution.
ters of Ura-
£
nus's Equator,
D. H. M.
1
5 21 25
13.120
2
8 16 58
17.022
3
10 23 4
19.845
4
13 10 56
SH.752
5
38 1 48
45.507
6
107 16 40
91,008
n. PRIMARY PLANETS AND SUN.
Eecentricity.
Mean Longitude.
Lonf.Perhelion.
IncliiLOt Orbit.
Long. Nodes,
MeanDaHr
Distanee.
Jan 1, 1801,
Jan. 1, 1801.
Jan. 1, 1801.
Jan- 1, 1601.
Motion in Ortit
D,
0 / n
O ' //
O 1 n
0 1 II
0 / II
Mercury . .
87.9692580
0,3870981
.20551494
166 0 4a6
74 21 46.9
7 0 9.1
45 57 30.9
4 5 32.6
Venus . . .
224.7t)07869
0.7233316
.00686074
11 33 3.0
128 43 53.1
3 23 28.5
74 54 12.9
1 36 7.8
Earth . , ,
363.2563612
1.0000000
.01678357
100 39 10.2
99 30 5^)
- .
0 59 8.3
Mare. , . ,
686.9796458
1.52S6923
.09330700
64 S 55.5
332 23 56.6
1 51 6.2
48 0 3.5
0 3126.7
VmU , , ,
1325.7431
2.3678700
.08913000
¦278 30 0.4
f249 23 44.4
¦ 7 8 9-0
ri03 13 18.2
0 16 17.9
1592.6608
2.6690090
.257&1S00
a 1 200 16 19.1
Si 123 16 11.9
g J 53 33 46,0
2 1 147 7 31o
gj 13 4 9.7
Si 10 37 26.2
a 1 171 7 4a4
ii 60 4124.0
0 13 32.9
Ceres , , ,
1681.3931
2.7672450
.07843900
0 12 60.9
16S6.5388
2.7-26860
.24164800
.108 24 57.9
U21 7 4.3
.34 34 65.0
U72 39 26.8
0 12 4a4
- 4332.584S212
5.2027760
,04816210
112 15 23.0
13 8 34.6
1 IS 51.3
98 26 IS.9
0 4 59.3
Saturn , . .
10769.2198174
9.5387661
.05615050
135 20 6.5
69 9 29.8
2 29 36.7
111 56 37.4
0 2 a6
Uranua . , .
30666.S20K96
19.1823900
.04667938
177 48 23.0
167 31 16.1
0 46 28.4
72 59 35,3
0 0 42.4
Planets and
Sun,
True
Diameter.
Volume.
Mass,
Density.
Gravi ty,
Sidereal Ro
tation.
Inclinetion of Axis
to Axis of Ecliptic,
Light and
Heat.
Mercury
0.398
0.398
iire'S'BTti
1,03
h. m. S.
24 5 28
0 ' /'
not known
6,680
Venus
0,975
0.927
rtFl'^TT
. .
0,98
23 21 7
not exactiy known
1,911
Earth
1.000
1.000
3TI537
3.9326
1.00
24 0 0
23 27 56.5
1,000
Mars
0„517
0.139
^¦srffTrair
. -
.33
24 39 21
30 19 10.8
0,431
Jupiter
10,860
1280.900
"nnii-T
.9924
2.72
9 55 50
3 5 30.0
0,037
Saturn
9,982
995,000
a ST 3
.5500
1.01
10 29 17
31 W 0
0,011
Uranus
4„332
80,490
TTTtriF
1.1000
¦
unknown
not known
0.003
Sun
111,4.34
1384472,000
1
1.0000
27.90
25 12 0
7 30 0
Moon
.0275
.000
Tin)2"ff?iyTr
2.4185
0.16
27 7 43
1 30 10.8
1.0U0
Book L FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH. 135
CHAPTER XIX.
FIGURE AND MAGNITirDE OF THE EARTH,
Wb have sufficiently established the important proposition that the earth is a round body ;
and have inferred from the figure of its shadow, as seen on the moon's disc in lunar eclipses,
that it must be a sphere, or at least that it approaches to that figure. The hypothesis of its
being exactly spherical is sufficient to explain, in a satisfactory manner, the general appear
ance of the heavens, as seen from different points of its surface ; and before the true doctrine
of motion and the law of gravitation, which connects the most remote bodies in the universe,
were discovered, a sphere was considered to be an exact representation of its shape, and the
ingenuity of mathematicians was exerted to discover its magnitude.
The determination of the magnitude of the earth might appear, to one altogether ignorant
of mathematical science, as a problem of insuperable difficulty, and, indeed, as too sublime to
be resolved by a human being. If, however, we suppose the earth an exact sphere, the
theory of the solution is by no means dUiicult ; it is within the bouniis of elementary geome
try, and has been known from the earliest ages : but the case is very different with the
practice. In the actual resolution, instruments of the greatest nicety are required ; and to
produce these, the ingenuity of man has been tasked to the utmost during the last two
hundred years ; besides, the application of them demands, in addition to the principles of
geometry, some of the miDst refined theories in physics : so that, on the whole, few problems
present a more ample field for the exertion of the mind of man, or have more extensively
called forth the assistance of arts and sciences.
It is now about two thousand years since Eratosthenes attempted to resolve this important
problem. He knew that on the day of the summer solstice
the sun illuminated the bottom of a well at Syene. At the
same instant he observed at Alexandria that the sun was 7°
12' from the zenith : and it was supposed that Syene was due
south from that place, and therefore that both were under the
same meridian. Let C (Jig. 42.) be the earth's centre, A
Alexandria, Z its zenith in the heavens, B Syene, and S the
sun at the instant when it iUuminated the bottom of the well,
and consequently was in the zenith ef that place. The angu
lar measure of the celestial arc Z S, or the corresponding ter
restrial arc A B, is the angle Z C S at the earth's centre.
Eratosthenes observed the angle Z A S, which by the elements
of geometry, is less than the former by the angle A S C.
However, this difference is so small, that it may be altogether
neglected in the present case ; and thus the angle A C B wUl
be nearly 7° 12', that is, one fiftieth part of 360° ; and conse
quently the arc A B of the terrestrial meridian one fiftieth of
the earth's circumference. The distance between Alexandria and Syene had been deter
mined to be 5000 stadia. Hence it immediately followed that the earth's circumference was
250,000 stadia. As it could not be supposed that this result was very accurate, Eratos
thenes reckoned the circumference to be 252,000 stadia, which give in round numbers 700
stadia to the length of a degree.
The geometrical principle here employed was quite correct, and indeed was the same
which is used at this time ; but the data were very inaccurate and uncertain, for Syene,
instead of being exactly south from Alexandria, lies considerably to the east ; and it may
well be supposed that the assigned distance between Alexandria and Syene was not an
accurate measurement, but merely a rude approximation.. It is impossible, however, now to
determine how near Eratosthenes came to the truth, fbr want of a knowledge of the exact
length of the stadium by which the distance was reckoned.
¦The principles by which Eratosthenes was directed in his measurement of the earth
appear to have been afterwards employed by Posidonius. This astronomer had remarked,
that at Rhodes the star Canopus was just visible in the horizon, but never rose above it ;
while at Alexandria it attained an altitude of 7^°, or jjth part of the circumference of a great
circle. The direct distance between these two places, which were supposed to' be on the
same meridian, was accounted to be 5000 stadia ; and therefore, according to this observa
tion, the circumference should have been 240,000 : but here the uncertainty of a distance
reckoned hy a sea-voyage, not to speak of other causes of error, renders the conclusion of
no value.
About the year 800 of the Christian era, the caliph Almaman directed that his astro
nomers should measure a degree of the meridian in the plains of Mesopotamia. The method
which they employed was susceptible of greater accuracy than that of the Greeks. They
divided themselves into two parties : after observing the altitude of the pole, one went
directly north and the other south, measuring as they proceeded, and takuig from time to

136 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Pakt U.
time the altitude of the pole, untU each party had changed its latitude by a degree. Thus
the measure of two degrees was obtained ; but, at the present time, our ignorance of the
exact length of the unit of measure renders all their labour useless to us, even if (what is
very unlikely) its accuracy might have been relied on. It appears, however, that their
estimation of the earth's magnitude was less accurate than that of the astronomer of
Alexandria. The method of Eratosthenes was practised in modern times, first by Fernel, a Flemish
physician. He travelled from Paris towards Amiens, which places are nearly under the
same meridian, untU he had passed over a degree of latitude ; and, by a contrivance attached
to the wheel of his carriage, he ascertained the number of revolutions it made in that dis
tance. In this way he found the length of the degree to be 57,070 French toises.
The same degree was afterwards measured by La CaUle, and found to be 57,074 toises.
The near agreement of Fernel's result with this last, obtained by a more accurate and
scientific process, is very remarkable.
The Dutch astronomer Snellius was the first who attempted to resolve this most inter
esting and difficult problem in practical geometry with those scientific aids which its import
ance required. In the year 1617 he published his Eratosthenes Batavus, in which he has
detailed the whole process. The extreme points of his meridional arc are terminated in the
parallels of Alcmaer, in lat. 52° 40^', and Bergen-op-Zoom, lat. 51° 29', the arc between
them being 1° llj'. He formed a series of triangles between these places along the earth's
surface, and determined (as well as the imperfect instruments of the time enabled him to
determine) their angles ; and by several base lines, actually measured, he found their sides.
He reduced the positions of his stations to the meridian ; and he concluded that a degree of
the meridian was 28,500 perches, which were equivalent to 55,100 toises of that period :
which, however, were rather longer than the toise as it is now estimated. The error of
Snellius appears to have been about 2000 toises on the length of a degree, of which 1900
may have arisen from the error in measuring the celestial arc, and the rest from the imper
fection of his geodetical measurements. Snellius measured his original base over again,
and corrected his conclusion : he died, however, before he could publish the result. Cassini
made certain corrections in his calculations, by which the length of the degree came out
56j^675 toises ; and Muschenbroek, by an examination of Snellius's papers, found that the
degree ought to have been reckoned 57,033 toises.
Richard Norwtxid made a remarkable approximation to the tme length of a degree in
1635, by apparently inadequate means. He measured the distance between London and
York, observing the bearings as he proceeded, and reducing all to the direction of the
meridian and the horizontal plane. He determined the difference of latitude to be 2° 28'; and
from the whole distance he determined the degree to be 367,176 feet English, or 57,800 toises.
As far as pure mathematical theory was concerned, the method of Snellius was excellent;
the chief imperfection was in his instruments : but an immense improvement was meide by
Picard, in the application of the telescope and the micrometer to the measurement of
angles ; and, with the assistance of instruments constructed on the new principle, this astro
nomer, by the direction of the French Academy, began the measurement of an arc of the
meridian, taking for its extremities the parallels of Sourdon near Amiens, and Malvoisine.
His general manner of conducting the process was the same as tiiat of Snellius. He con
nected the extreme parallels by a series of triangles, the sides of which were determined
from a base of 5663 toises, measured twice with great care at one extremity of tiie series.
There was a base of verification of 3902 toises measured at the other extremity. The
horizontal angles were measured by a quadrant of thirty-eight inches' radius ; and the
celestial arc, which was about 1° 12', by a sector ten feet in radius. He concluded the
length of a degree to be 57,060 toises.
"This was the first measurement in which confidence could be placed. It is true there
were several elements wanting in the determination of the celestial arc, owing to the imper
fect state of astronomical science at that time ; but, by a fortunate compensation, tiie errors
thence arising corrected each other. This measurement of Picard was of service to Newton,
in verifying his happy thought of the law of universal gravitation.
The measurement begun, by Picard was continued nortiiward to Dunkirk by La Hire ;
and in the opposite direction, as far as Perpignan, by the second Cassini, who published the
whole in 1718, in a work on the magnitude and figure of the earth.
The labour of the French astronomers determined the magnitude of the earth with a
degree of accuracy sufficient for the general purposes of geography ; but science was now
proceeding with rapid strides, and a new question was agitated, — Is the earth an exact
sphere, as had been hitherto supposed ? or, if it be not a sphere, what is its true figure f
Huygens and Newton had established the doctrine of the centrifugal force of bodies
revolving in circles ; and from this it was justly inferred tiiat the earth, in consequence of
its rotation on an axis, must necessarily deviate fl'om a spherical figure, and assume that of
an oblate spheroid ; that is, a solid generated by the revolution of an ellipse on its lesser
axis, the extremities of which in this case were the poles.

Book I. FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH. 137
This opinion received support from some astronomical observations made by Richer, who
was sent by the Academy of Sciences, in 1672, to Cayenne. He there found that his clock,
which had been regulated to mean time at Paris, went slower by a sensible quantity. This
interesting observation showed that the weight of the pendulum was less at the equator than
it had been at Paris; and hence the increase of the force of gravity in proceeding fi-om the
equator towards Uie pole, as shown tiieoretically by Newton, was completely established ;
and consequentiy also the oblateness of the earth at the poles, and its elevation at the equator,
which are the consequence of this diminution.
^g If the earth were a perfect sphere, then all the degrees
' ^ of the terrestrial meridian from the equator to the pole
would be equal in length. But this wUl by no means be
the case if the earth be a spheroid. For, supposing the
earth to be an oblate spheroid {fig. 43.), of which the
lesser axis is P P', that diameter of the earth which
¦JQ passes through P P' the poles. Let E Q he any equa
torial diameter, and E P Q, P' a section of the earth,
through the axis P P', which wUl therefore be a terres
trial meridian. Because the direction of gravity is always
in a line perpendicular to the earth's surface ; at the
poles and equator, the direction of gravity wUl pass
through the centre. It will be otherwise, however, at any point, D, between the equator
and poles ; for, by the nature of the ellipse, a line, D F, drawn perpendicular to the curve
at D wUl pass on one side of the centre. Now let us suppose that D F, H F, are two straight
lines perpendicular to the earth's surface at D and H, which meet in F, and contain an
angle D F H, of one degree ; also let G K, L K, be other two lines perpendicular to the
earth's surface at points nearer the pole ; and suppose these also to contain an angle G K L,
of one degree. The elliptic arc D H, because of its smallness, may be considered as an arc
of a circle of which D F or H F is the radius ; and similarly the elliptic arc G L may be
considered as an arc of a circle whose radius is G K or L K. The curvature of the ellipse
is greatest at E, the extremity of the greater axis, and gradually decreases to P, the
extremity of the lesser axis, where it is least. Hence the arc D H wUl be more incurvated
than G F ; and since the angles at F and K are equal, each being one degree, tiie almost
equal tines G K, L K, wUl be greater than the almost equal lines D H, H F ; and the arc
G L must therefore be greater than the arc D H. Thus, if the earth is an oblate spheroid,
a degree of the terrestrial meridian will, by actual measurement, be found to be least at the
equator ; and the degrees will gradually increase as we proceed towards either pole.
It is manifest that the case would be just the reverse if the earth were an oblong spheroid,
generated by the rotation of an ellipse on its greater axis E Q. Hence the important question.
What is the figure of the terrestrial meridian'! may be resolved by measuring arcs of the
meridian in diSerent latitudes.
None of the measurements before that begun by Picard were made with such accuracy
as to enable mathematicians to resolve the question. But it was then supposed that this
had been performed with such care as to afford the necessary data. Such, however, appears
not to have been the case. The degrees actually measured were found to be unequal ;
but, instead of increasing in going from south to north, the reverse was supposed to be the
fact ; and had this been really true, the polar axis would have been greater than the equa
torial, — a conclusion quite in opposition to that derivable from the doctrine of centrifugal
force. To determine this most important question, the Academy of Sciences resolved that degrees
of the meridian should be measured in various latitudes which might differ as much as
possible ; and it was determined that one party should be sent to the neighbourhood of the
equator, and another to the polar circle. Two scientific expeditions were accordingly
undertaken. Maupertuis, Clairaut, Comus, Lemonnier, and Outhier, went to Lapland, where
the Swedish astronomer Celsius joined them ; and there they measured an arc of fifty-seven
minutes of a degree, from which they concluded that a degree under the polar circle, viz. in
lat. 66° 20', was 57,419 toises, that is, about 349 toises greater than that of Paris. This
degree has been since remeasured with great care by Svanberg and other Swedish mathe
maticians, who found it to be .57,196 toises. This is 223 toises less than the determination
of the French academicans ; but it is certainly more correct.
The other party, composed of Godin, Bouguer, and La Condamine, performed a similar
but more extensive operation in Peru. After ten years' labour, they, with the assistance of
two Spanish officers, Don Jorge Juan and Antonio de UUoa, accomplished the measurement
of an arc of about 3° 7'. From this they concluded that the length of a degiree was 56,758
toises, which was shorter than the French degree by 302 toises. These measurements set
the question completely at rest. There could no longer be any doubt that the polar diame
ter of the earth was shorter tiian the equatorial.
The measurement of different degrees has been since performed many times in different
Vol. L 12* S

13S PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part H.
countries ; as again in France, and also at the Cape of Good Hope, by La Caille ; m Italy, by
Maire, Boscovich, and Beccaria ; in Pennsylvania, by Mason and Dixon ; in Hungary, by
Licsganig ; in India, by Lambton.
There have been, in addition to these, two admeasurements of arcs of the meridian which
deserve particular notice, on account of their extent, the excellence of the instruments
employed, and the skill with which the operations have been conducted. We are indebted
to the spirit of reform and improvement which sprung out of the French revolution for one
of these, and to the liberal and enlightened views of the English govemment for the other.
The great diversity in the units of a measure is an evil which has been long felt and com
plained of in every commercial country. The French Constitutional Assembly took up this
most important subject in the year 1790 ; and, at the suggestion of TaUeyrand, it was decreed,
that the king should request his Britannic majesty to engage the parliament of England to
concur with the National Assembly in fixing a natural unit of weights and measures ; that,
under the auspices of the two nations, commissioners of the Academy of Sciences, and an
equal number of members of the Royal Society of London, should determine the length of
the pendulum in the latitude of 45°, or other preferable latitude, and from this deduce an
invariable standard for all weights and measures.
The Academy named a commission, composed of Borda, Lagrange, Laplace, Monge, and
Condorcet, who gave a report, which is printed in the Memoirs of the Academy for 1788.
Three different fundamental units were suggested in their report. The first is the pendulum
which beats seconds in a given parallel. 'That of 45° was thought preferable to any other,
because there the pendulum is a mean among all those which beat seconds in the (Afferent
latitudes between the equator and the pole. They observed, however, that the pendulum
contains a heterogeneous element, namely, time ; and an arbitrary element, viz. the division
of the day into 86,400 seconds. They, therefore, considered it to be less proper as a standard
unit of lineal measure, than another which they regarded as unexceptionable. This is the
length of a quadrant of the meridian, a linear magnitude of the same kind as the thing to
be determined, and therefore more natural than the pendulum, which involved the considera
tion of time. There is yet another linear unit, namely, the circumference of the earth's
equator. But this is not better known than the elliptic meridian ; nor does it admit of being
determined with so much precision. On the whole, therefore, it was recommended that the
quaiirant of the meridian should be taken as the primary unit, and that its ten-millionth part
(a lineal space about SOjl English inches) should be the ordinary unit for the measurements
which occur in the affairs of life. This was named a metre.
Although in the beginning it had been proposed to invite the English philosophers to assist
in establishing a standard unit, yet, as the object to be attained could be accomplished per
fectly by the French mathematicians, without any foreign aid, it was recommended to
commence immediately the measurement of the arc of the meridian between Dunkirk and
Barcelona, an extent of nearly 9^ degrees. The operations necessary for this labour were,
1. To determine the difference of latitude between Dunkirk and Barcelona ; and, in general,
to make such astronomical observations on the whole line as might be thought useful. 2. To
measure again the bases which had served for the measurement of the degree made at Paris,
and the construction of the map of France. 3. To verify by new observations the series of
triangles which had formerly been employed for the measurement of the meridian, and to
prolong them to Barcelona. 4, To make, at the 45th degree, such observations as might
determine the number of vibrations which a pendulum equal in length to one ten-mUlionth
part of the meridian would make in -a. day, in a vacuum at the level of the sea, and at the
temperature of melting ice, in order that, this number being once known, the metre might be
determined at any time by the length of the pendulum. In this way the advantages of the
two methods of forming a standard would be united. 5, To verify by new experiments the
specific gtayity of pure water in a vacuum, and at the temperature of water just beginning
to freeze. 6. And lastly. To reduce all the old measures of every kind employed in com
merce to the new standards.
To accomplish these objects, it was recommended that six distinct commissioners should
be appointed. This was done by a decree of the National Assembly, dated 26th March,
1791 ; only it was thought to be better to commit the astronomical and geodetical observa
tions to a single commission. Immediately directions were given for the construction of the
necessary instruments. Lenoir, a celebrated French artist, was employed to malte repeatuig
circles, long rules of platina for the measurement of the bases, and a shorter rule ; also, balls
of platina and gold for the pendulum observations.
About the middle of the year 1792, Cassini and Borda began a series of experunents on
the pendulum ; and, in tho following year, Lavoisier was engaged in experiments on the
expansion of metals. And about the same time INferhain began his operations for the deter
mination of the portion of tho moriilian between Rodez and Barcelona, an extent of 170,000
toisi^a, Dolambre had undertaken the portion of the arc between Dunkirk and Rodez,
38,000 toisos in extent. This, howc^'er, had been twice measured before ; and for this
reason the labour was expt'ctotl to be less tiian was requisite for the other portion, which

Book I.

FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH.

139

was entirely new. Besides the privations and hardships, the ordmary accompaniments of a
service which requires those who perform it to live in elevated situations, with little shelter,
with few of the comforts to which they have been accustomed, and exposed to the vicissi
tudes of heat and cold, and the mfluence of the nocturnal dews, they had to encounter the
perils arismg from a disorganized state of society. Mechain was stopped in this neighbour
hood of Paris ; but when he pursued his labours at a distance from the capital, he met
with no farther intermption ; whUe Delambre, in the north of France, was often exposed
to the most imminent danger. In the heat of the French revolution, the people were
jealous of .what they did not understand; and the astronomers were at once exposed to the
machinations of their enemies at Paris, and to the brutality of the ignorant peasants in the
provinces. In the course of their operations they measured two bases, on the accurate determination
of which the utility of all their labours was to depend. One base, of 6075.9 toises, was
measured by Delambre at Melun ; and the other, of 6006.2478 toises, at Perpignan. The
distance between them was 360,330 toises, about 436 English miles. They were connected
by a chain of triangles, the sides and angles of which were all known ; so that the length
of one base being known, that of the other might be found by computation. It is a remark
able fact, that when the base of Perpignan was inferred by calculation from that of Melun,
the result was found to be only ten or eleven inches less than that obtained by actual mea
surement. This striking agreement afforiis a strong presumptive proof of the accuracy with
which the operations had been conducted.
The determination of the latitudes of the two extremities of the arc was also a matter
of the utmost importance. The pains which the astronomers took to arrive at true results
are almost incredible. Delambre made 800 observations to ascertain the tme latitude of the
Dunkirk extremity ; and a corresponding degree of attention was bestowed on different
intermediate points.
This most important undertaking was at last, after seven years' labour, brought to a con
clusion in the year 1799. Although the result was, in its first application, to be directed to
the establishment of a standard unit of lineal measure for the French nation, yet the advan
tages which may be deduced from it extended much farther, and were available to every
nation enlightened by science. For this reason, the states living in peace with France had
been invited to send eminent mathematicians and astronomers to assist in a rigorous exami
nation of every step of the operation. The astronomical and geodetical observations, in
particular, were subjected to the examination of Tralles, the deputy of the Helvetian republic ;
Van Swinden, the Batavian deputy ; and the two French phUosophers Laplace and Legendre.
They entered into all the detaUs of the measurement of the bases ; and they examined the
three angles of every triangle, and determined their values. -The calculations were then
separately performed by four different persons — Tralles, Van Swinden, Legendre, and De
lambre ; and this last astronomer calculated the length of the meridian by four different and
independent methods ; and a report was made to the National Institute at Paris, in June
1799, in the name of the Class of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, on the Measure of
the Meridian of PVance, and its Results.
The general feet, that the degrees of the meridian increase as we recede from the equator
towards the pole, was again fully confirmed ; so that the oblateness of the earth in the
direction of the polar axis is a truth now placed beyond all controversy. Notwithstanding,
however, the almost incredible care with which the operations were conducted, the exact
quantity of this compression was stUl left in some uncertainty. The limits between which
the true measure of the oblateness is contained are, however, narrower ; and it is likely
that the problem. What is the exact proportion of the polar to the equatorial axis 1 does
not, from its nature, admit of a nearer approximation to the truth than has been already
obtained. If we could suppose the measurements of lines and angles to be perfectly con-ect, it
would follow, that although on the whole, taking considerable mtervals, the length of arcs
of the meridian corresponding to equal celestial arcs go on increasmg from south to north,
yet the law of the increase is irregular, and not that which ought to result from an exact
elliptic meridian. The result of the measurement will be seen in the following table : 

Dunkirk Pantheon Evaux
Carcasaone Montjouy

Latitudes,

51 2 9.20
48 50 49 37
46 10 42.54
43 12 54.30
41 21 44.96

Intervals,

11 19,83
40 6.83
57 48.24
51 9.34

Intervals in
Toises,

124944.8152293.1 168846,7
105499,0

Length of a
Degree.

Toises.
57082.63 57009.3156977.80 56946.68

Mean
Latitude,

49 56 29.30
47 30 45.91
44 41 48.37
42 17 19.60

Arc of one
Second,

Toises
15.856283 15.852586
15.82716715.818508

140 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part IL
From this table we see that the length of a degree in the four mean latitudes goes on in
creasing. Also, from the column of mean latitudes, and that of the length of a degree, it
appears that a diminution of 2° 25' 43".39 in the first mean latitude corresponds to a
diminution of 13.13 toises in the terrestrial meridian: this gives 5.5 toises to-a degree.
Again, that a farther diminution of 2° 48' 57".54 produces a dimuiution of 91.51 toises,
which is at the rate of 32.4 toises to a degree. Lastly, that a third dunmution of 2° 24'
28".77 gives a diminution of 31.17 toises, which is at the rate of about 12.9 toises to a
degree. These changes of 5.5, 32.4, and 31.17 toises in the length of a degree in gomg
southward evidently do not follow a regular law, such as should result from a, contuiuous
increase of curvature. We may, therefore, reasonably suppose that all the observations
have not been equally perfect, or that, in addition to unavoidable errors in the estimation of
lines and angles, some disturbing cause must have operated : probably, an inequality of
density, in the density of the strata over which the measurement was performed, may have
had great influence in producing the irregularity.
The small discrepancies in the results of the observations must produce corresponding
uncertainty in the determination of the great objects to be attained. On the whole, how
ever, it was concluded that the length of the terrestrial meridian between the pole and the
equator was 5,130,740 toises ; and hence the metre, or ten-mUlionth part of the meridian,
was .513074 of a toise, which is 443,295986 Imes.
Another most important result, deducible from these observations, was the ratio of the
polar axis of the earth to the equatorial axis. This must partake of the uncertainty of the
data by which it is to be determined. We may, however, assume, without sensible error,
that the equatorial axis is to the polar as 334 to 333. 'The difierence, therefore, of the
semi-axes, compared with the equatorial radius, will be one part in 334. The fiiaction^—
that is, the difference of the semi-axes divided by the equatorial radius, — is caUed the cojn-
pression of the earth at the poles.
The astronomer Mechain had contemplated the extension of the measurement of the
meridian beyond the limit at first proposed ; but he did not live to carry his views into execu
tion. However, the undertaking was resumed, after a cessation of three years, by Biot and
Arago, French astronomers, with whom were associated MM. Chaix and Roiiriguez, Span
iards, all eminently distinguished for their talent and devotedness to the object to be ac
complished. By their exertions, a train of triangles was carried southward from the point
where Mechain and Delambre had stopped, to Formentera, a small island near Ivica, in the
Mediterranean, This is the southern limit of a most interesting labour: but, if ever
European civilization extends into Africa, the measurement may be extended to Cape tie
Gata, and thence across the Mediterranean to the coast of Africa, and continued to the city
of Algiers, which is nearly in the meridian of Paris ; so that in time the southem extremity
may be actually carried to the summit of Mount Atlas.
¦The other measurement of a considerable portion of the earth, to which we have alluded,
was begun under the auspices and at the expense of the British govemment as long ago as
the year 1784. At that time a memoir, drawn up by Cassini de Thury, was presented to
the minister (Mr. Fox) by the French ambassador. It stated the advantages which would
accrue to geography and astronomy by determining the difference of longitude between the
observatories of Greenwich and Paris, by means of a series of triangles from the former to
Dunkirk, to which place the meridian of Paris had previously been extended. The proposal
was communicated to the Royal Society ; and having been approved of, the execution was
committed to general Roy. The first step was to measure a base, from the length of which
the sides of all the triangles might be inferred ; and a line rather more than five mUes in
length was traced out on Hounslow Heath, and measured with the most scrapulous care.
It may at first sight appear a very simple matter to measure a straight line on the ground ;
but if the utmost exactness is required, the operation must be performed with insfruments
constructed with the greatest ingenuity, and the application of much physical knowledge.
Generally all solid bodies expand by heat, and contract by cold ; and, moreover, some change
their dimensions by moisture and dryness. To counteract or to estimate precisely these
changes, so as to allow for them in the final result, is a matter of great difficulty, and only
to be accomplished by infinite care and perseverance.
The measurement of the base was first undertaken with deal rods, twenty feet in length.
These, however, were found to be much affected by the changes in the atmosphere from
moisture to dryness : they were therefore laid aside ; and instead of tiiem glass rods, of the
same length in fi-ames, were employed. This substance was chosen, from a belief that it
was less affected by changes of temperature than the metals. The measurement, which
had been begun about the middle of June, was completed in the end of October; and it was
found that the base measured exactly 27404.08 feet, or 5.19 miles.
The work in tlio field was not carrioil further at tiiat time : it was, however, resumed in
1787. A theodolite of greater dimensions than had ever been employed in geodetical opera
tions was constructed by the celebrated artist Ramsden. The series of observations was
begun at the base in the beginning of August, by General Roy, assisted by Isaac Dalby, an

Book I.

FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH

141

excellent mathematician, and most veracious astronomical observer. After continuing to a
certain length, it was judged to be expedient to break off, and proceed with the instruments
to Dover. A series of observations was there made, in conjunction with the French acade
micians Cassini, Mechain, and Legendre, by which the triangulation between Paris and
Dunkirk might be connected with that between Dover and Greenwich, As a check on the
operations, a base of verification was also measured on Romney Marsh ; and in this, instead
of the glass rods, a steel chain, constructed for tiie purpose by Ramsden, was employed ; it
having been found by experience that there was no sensible difference in point of accuracy
between this and the glass rods, while the chain manifestly was more convenient. After
wards, when the two bases were connected by calculating the sides of the triangles, it was
found that the measured base differed from its computed value by only twenty-eight inches,
although Romney Marsh is more than sixty mUes from Hounslow Heath. The junction of
the observatories of Greenwich and Paris, by a series of triangles, was completed in 1788,
and an account of the operations communicated to the Royal Society ; but the death of Gene
ral Roy again suspended the survey until the year 1791.
At this time, by the exertions of the Duke of Richmond, Master-general of the Ordnance,
the survey was resumed with great vigour. A new theodolite, and various other instruments,
in addition to those formerly employed, were liberally supplied, and placed under the
direction of Captain (afterwards Colonel) Mudge of the Royal Artillery, and Mr. Dalby.
Beginning their labours by a re-measurement of the base on Hounslow Heath with steel
chains, they found the difference between this and the former, in which glass rods were
employed, to be no more than two inches and three quarters. They also measured another
base of verification, 36574.4 feet in length, on Salisbury Plain. When this was connected
by a chain of triangles with the base on Hounslow Heath, and its length computed, the
result did not differ more tlian an inch from the actual measurement ; a convincing proof of
the accuracy with which aU the operations had been conducted.
Although an accurate survey of tiie island was the main object for which all this labour
vvas undertaken, yet, as its complete accomplishment requires a knowledge of the figure and
dimensions of the earth, no opportunity of solving this grand problem is to be neglected. The
^ two stations of Beachy Head in Sussex, and Dunnose in the Isle of
Wight, are visible from each other, and more than sixty-four miles
asunder, nearly in a dfrection from east to west : their exact distance
was found by the geodetical operations to be 339397 feet. The azi
muth, or bearing of the line between them with respect to the meri
dian, also the latitude of Beachy Head, were determined by astro
nomical observations. From these data the length of a degree per
pendicular to the meridian was computed ; and this, compared with
the length of a meridional degree in the same latitude, gave the pro
portion of the polar to the equatorial axis.
The result thus obtained, however, differed considerably from that
obtained by meridional degrees. It has been found impossible to ex
plain the want of agreement in a satisfactory way ; and, for this reason,
it has been thought better to rest the .solution of the problem entirely
on the measurement of degrees of the meridian in different lati
tudes, which, on the whole, give results more consistent with one
another. Without noticing in detaU all the steps hy which the survey has
advanced, we shall next advert to the measurement of an arc of the
meridian between Dunnose, in the Isle of Wight, and Clifton, near
Doncaster ; the former in lat. 50° 37' 5", and the latter in 53° 27' 30"-
To accomplish this, the ingenuity of the artist Ramsden was again
exercised in the constmction of an instrument, a zenith sector, for
finding the latitude of the different points of the arc : this was almost
the last work of a man to whose genius astronomy and geography are
highly uidebted ; and it was superior to any thing of the kind ever
before constructed.
To give the reader a distuict notion of this most important operation, we here present a
sketch {fig. 44.) of the series of triangles, twenty-two in number, which connect the extreme
points together with the angles contained by the straight Imes which jom the different
stations, and the length of their sides. The numbers marked on the diagram mdicate the
names of the stations, by referring to the followmg table. The northem extremity of the
base. Beacon HUl, or Clifton, is marked No. 3. ; and the southem extremity, Dunnose, is 23.
The names of the intermediate points may be seen in the table.

142

PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY.

Part H

No. of
Triangles,

Names of Stations,

Angles corrected
for Calculation,

Distance.

Feet,

Butser Hill ,
Dean Hill...
Dunnose. , , .

.(22) .(21
¦(23)

76 12 21.5
48 4 31.75
55 43 K.75

From Dunnose to
Butser Hill 
to Dean Hill 

140580.4183496.2

Dean Hill...
Butser Hill .
Highclere .

62 22 47
48 28 40
09 8 33

Dean Hill from
Butser Hill 
Highclere ,

156122.1125084.9

Butser Hill.
Hind Head.
Highclere . .

81 31 44.5
60 15 54.25
29 12 21.25

Butser Hill from
Hind Head 
Highclere .

78905.7
148031.0

Highclere 
Hind Head 
Bagshot Heath,

.(18)

34 46 15
83 20 14
61 53 31

Highclere from
Bagshot Heath ,
Hind Head 

142952,6
160972.2

Bagshot Heath.
Hichclere 
Nuffield 

55 32 25.25
46 10 17.75
78 17 17

Nnffield from
Bagshot Heath ,
Highclere ,

1053213 120374.

White Horse Hill .
Highclere 
Nuffield 

63 7 53.5
03 18 17
53 33 49.5

White Horse Hill from
Nuffield 
Highclere .

120557.7108563.1

White Horse Hill .
Nuffield 
Brill 

Brill 
White Horse Hill . .
Stow on the Weld .

38 48 12.5
86 4 15
55 7 32.5

Brill from
White Horse Hill.
Nuffield 

146603.2 92805.3

50 14 45
64 45 42.5
64 59 32.5

Stow from
White Horse Hill.
Brill 

134365.6146326J

Brill 
Stow on the Weld ,
Epwell 

32 34 42.25
60 56 5.5
86 29 12.25

Epwell from
Stow 
Brill 

789383
128140

Brill 
Epwell . . . .
Arbury Hill

34 23 57.5
85 0 17.5
60 35 45

Arbury Eill from
Epwell 
Brill 

83098.4
146530

Arbury Hill.
Epwell 
Corley 

89 57 5.5
54 45 18.25
35 17 36.25

Corley from
Arbury Hill .
Epwell 

117463 143ffi7.8

The distance of Butser Hill (22,) from Dunnose, 140580.4 feet, had been previously found,
by a series of triangles connecting these stations with the bases measured on Hounslow
Heath and Salisbury Plain ; but, for greater security against error, a new base of 26342.7
feet was measured on Misterton Carr, in the northem part of Lincolnshire. From this the
sides of the triangles proceeding from the north to the south were computed, as exhibited
in the remainder of the table.

No. of
Triangles.

Names of Stations.

Angles corrected
for Calculation,

Distance.

Feet.

12.

Beacon Hill  (3)
North end of Base  (1)
South end of Base  (2)

O 1 II
20 47 20
60 17 13
98 55 27

Beacon Hill from

64461.7 73321.9

13.

Beacon Hill  (3)
North end of Base  (1)
Gringley  (4)

34 44 42
74 46 56
70 28 2i2

Grinfjiey from

44338375068.0

14.
Beacon Hill  (3)
Gringley  (4)
South end of Base  (2)
13 57 23
51 11 5
114 51 52
Grjnjrley from
750683
15.
Heathersedge  (5)
Beacon Hill  (3)
18 40 38
138 9 16
23 10 6
Heathersedge from
Beacon Hill 
Gringley 
9^73
156384.8
Gringley  (4)
16.
78 47 1
54 52 35
46 20 24
Sutton Ashfield from
Grinpley 
130399.7
115339.9
Heathersedge  (5)
Gringley  (4)
17.
Orpit  m
Heathersedge  (5)
Sutton Ashfleld  (6)
80 28,57
39 8 ;)8
60 23 25
Orpit from
101660 3
73826.6
18.
Hollar) Hill  (8)
44 43 31
113 49 7
21 27 22
HoIIan Hill from
383753
95975.3
Orpit  (7)
Orpit 
19.
Barilon Hill  (10)
42 58 59
74 52 37
62 8 21
Banion Hill from
124454.7
1:15895.3
Orpit  (7)
Orpit 
20.
55 ,32 43
68 24 3
56 3 14
Cnstle Rinc (torn
Orpit 
Bardon Hill 
1532353136717.8
Bardon Hill  (10)
Orpit  (7)
21.
72 32 46
47 .M 42
59 :W 32
Corley fVom
106357.312,3539.7
Onstl.'j Ring  (9)
Barilon Hill  (10)
Castle Rrng 
22.
34 14 33
107 20 14
38 25 13
Arbury Hill fVom
Bardon Hill 
Corley 
180426.0 117457,1
Corley  11)
Bardon Hill  10)
Book I.

FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH.

143

From the last triangle the distance between Corley and Arbury Hill comes out 117457.1
feet. This result has been found fi-om the base on Misterton Carr : but the same distance,
deduced from the bases on Hounslow Heath and Salisbury Plain, either of which is more than
150mUes distant from Misterton Carr, was found to be 117,463 feet, only six feet different. Here
we have a remarkable proof of the extreme accuracy with which the opera.tions have been
conducted; so that, from whatever cause any uncertainty in the conclusion sought may
proceed, it can hardly be found either in the want of perfection in the instruments, or of
care in those who used them.
By observations on the pole star, the exact bearing of Butser Hill from Dunnose (that is,
the azhnuth or angle which the line joining them makes with the meridian,) was found :
and by like observations the bearing of the station at Gringley from Clifton was determin
ed. By these data, and by the known lengths of the sides of the triangles, the portions
of the meridian intercepteii by perpendiculars on it from the stations was obtained. Their
sum gave 1,036,337 feet for the meridional distance on the surface of the earth, between
Dunnose and Clifton. Moreover, by the zenith sector, the arc of the celestial meridian
between them was found to be 2^ 50' 23" ,38, or 2,8398 of dUference of latitude. The
length of the measured arc of the meridian, viz. 1,036,337 feet, divided by this number,
gives 364,933 feet, or 6082 fathoms for the length of a degree hi the parallel midway
between Dunnose and Clifton, which is 50° 2' 20"..
In the same way that the length of a degree, at the middle point between Clifton and
Dunnose, was determined, the length of degrees at other intermediate points was found. The
latitude of the station at Arbury Hill was carefully observed with the sector. The latitude
of Greenwich was well known ; and that of Blenheim, an observatory belonging to the
Duke of Marlborough, had been determined from five years' observations. The two observa
tories were assumed as stations, in addition to those in the meridional chain of triangles,
and their position in respect of the others was found.
By comparing the celestial with the terrestrial arcs, the length of degrees in various
parallels was determined, as in the following table : —

Arbury Hill and Clifton 
Blenheim and Clifton 
Greenwich and Clifton 
Dunnose and Clifton 
Arbury Hill and Greenwich
Dunnose and Arbury Hill,.
Blenheim and Dunnose 
Dunnose and Greenwich. ..

Point.

Fatlioms

,'i20

50' 29". 8

60,766

.ra

38 56.1

60,769

,52

28 5.7

60,794

52

2 19.8

60,820

51

51 4.1

60,849

51

35 18.2

60,864

51

13 18.2

60,890

51

2 54.2

60,884

This table presents a singular deviation from the common rule ; for, instead of the degrees
increasing as we proceed from north to south, they appear to decrease, as if the earth were
an oblong instead of an oblate spheroid. The oblateness of the earth at the poles is, how
ever, a, fact so well established by more extensive measurements, that we must suppose
either that some error has been committed in the observations, — a thing, however, not
probable ; or else, what is more probable, that by inequality in the density of the strata,
producing a local attraction, the plumb-line of the sector has suffered a deflection at some
of the stations.
Notwithstanding the discrepancy of the results of the measurements in this particular
arc, the length of a degree at the middle station (viz. lat. 52° 2' 20") agrees very well with
the measurements of the meridian in France and other places. Indeed, the measurements
of the small arcs of the meridian in other countries have presented similar anomalies,
although in general not so remarkable. It is, therefore, only by comparison of the measures
of extensive arcs at considerable intervals that we can arrive at certain conclusions. The
British survey has now been extended from the southern parts of the island to Unst, the
noithemmost of the Shetland Islands. At present the engineer ofiicers who carried it on
are employed in the survey of Ireland ; but we may expect that at no remote period they
will resume the British survey, and supply the observations still wanting. When this is
done, and the complete triangulation is published, it will then appear how fer local attrac
tion may have disturbed the plummet in passing over the variety of rocks throughout the
island. Although the compression of the earth be small, yet an exact knowledge of its quantity
is of great importance, because of the deductions which are to be made from it. It has
been explained, that the direction of a plumb-line is always perpendicular to the earth's
surface ; therefore, and because of the continual change of curvature of the meridian in
going from north to south, the direction of gravity can only pass through the earth's centre
at the poles and equator. Thus it appears that there is a necessary connexion between the
form of the earth and terrestrial gravity ; so that the small variations in the latter, which
are owing to the deviations from the exact spherical figure, being known, that deviation
itself may be determined.

144 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part H.
If the earth were spherical and homogenous, the attraction of its mass upon different
points of its surface, or the force which solicits every particle of matter at its surfece
towards the centre, would be everywhere the same. -But the elliptic form produces a small
deviation from this equality, which increases in going from the equator towards the poles,
as the square of the sine of the latitude ; and tJiis would be true even if the earth were at
rest: but, by its revolution about its shorter axis, there is produced a centrifiigal force,
which acts in a direction perpendicular to that axis, and therefore diminishes the force of
gravity most of all at the equator, because there the two forces act in contrary directions.
At the pole its direction is perpendicular to the direction of gravity, and produces no effect
By the united operation of these two causes, in going from the equator towards the poles,
is produced a variation in the degree of quickness of descent of a heavy body, which increases
as the square of the sine of the latitude.
The oscillations of a pendulum afford a simple means of verifying this feet. The increase
of weight in a heavy body, — that is, the force of gravity in proceeding from the equator to
the poles, — will be indicated by a diminution of the time in which an invariable pendulum
performs a vibration. Accordingly the pendulum has been employed to determine the figure
of the earth ; and the results obtained have been found to accord perfectly with the geo
detical measurements which we have described.
The British and French governments have both instituted observations on the pendulum.
The latter, on the recommendation of the Academy of Sciences, directed that the intensity
of the force of gravity should be determined at different points of the arc of the meridian
between Dunkirk and Formentera ; and committed the labour to MM. Biot, Arago, Mathieu,
Bouvard, and Chaix : subsequently, Biot extended his observations to the northem extremity
of the British islands. These operations were begun in the year 1807, At a somewhat
later period the British govemment, with the assistance of the Royal Society, employed
Captain Kater, an eminent observer and experimenter, in the same labour ; and also sent
Captain Sabine, a British artillery officer, with invariable pendulums, to the equator on the
one hand, and the highest accessible latitudes of the northern hemisphere on the other. It
was expected that, by thus multiplying the places of observation, the combination of results
would destroy the irregular influences of local density, and give the true variations of the
force of gravity, which are owing to the earth's ellipticity. From a mean of all the obser
vations made by the British and French experimenters, it was found that the compression or
ellipticity of the earth was about jws- T ^ ^totb- Laplace had previously concluded, from
the combined measurements of terrestrial degrees and pendulum experiments, and the lunar
inequalities dependent on the figure of the earth, that the same important element was
5^ .If J. There is a difference between the two conclusions ; but, on the whole, all the results
which have been obtained are comprehended within limits which may be deemed moderate,
considering the dUficulty of the inquiry.
The following tables exhibit numerical values of the magnitudes of the degrees of latitude
and longitude, and their proportion to each other.
The first is from a valuable collection of astronomical tables and formute by F. Bailt,
Esq., President of the Astronomical Society of London. It shows the length of a degree
of latitude and longitude on the earth's surface, assuming the compression to be j-Jj, toge
ther with the length of the pendulum beating seconds there, supposing the compression to
be jj5 7, the measures at the equator being considered as unity ; also the increase in the
number of vibrations of an invariable pendulum beating seconds at the equator on proceeding
towards the pole. This merely shows the relative values of the quantities therein stated.
The second and third tables are from Mendoza's Tables for Navigation and Nautical
Astronomy. And the fourth is from the very valuable Introduction to Practical Astronomy
by Dr. Pearson, where it is stated to be computed from a Formula given by LieuL-CoL
Lambton in the Asiatic Researches, vol. xii.
The tables are constructed from different values of the earth's compression at the poles.
The uncertainty of this important element, in all questions of geography and astronomy, is
an inconvenience which cannot yet be got rid of.
In Tables II. and III., the dimensions of the degrees of latitude and longitude are given
in minutes of the equator. To change tiiese into feet or fethoms, we must know the number
of them in a degree of the equator.
Accorduig to Puissant and Svanberg, the equatorial degree, or 60 geographical mUes, is
60,847 fathoms.
Cagnoli has assumed = 60,893 fathoms.
Lieut,-Col, Lambton reckoned it to be 60,857 fathoms.
General Mudge concluded it to be 60,845 fatlioms.
Mr. Bally, as an accompaniment to liis table (Table I.), assumes the equatorial diameter
of tlio earth to be 7921 miles, and the polar = 7916 miles. A degree of longitude at tiie
equator will, on this supposition, bo 69.15 miles, =^ 60,8.^2 fethoms, = 365,110 feet: so one
Becond of timn, or fillt^i^ii seconds of a degree of longitude, will be 1521 feet.
Table IV, gives tho measure of each degree of latitude and longitude in fethoms.

Book I.

FIGURE AND MAGNITUDE OF THE EARTH.
Table I.

145

Compression -

Ttnt'

Compression = 357.

Degree of

Degree of

Length of the

Increase of

Longitude.

Latitude.

Pendulum.

Vibrations.

o
0

1.00000

1.000000

1.00000

II 0.0

5

0.99622

1.000076

1.00004

1,77

10

.98490

1.000301

1.00016

7.02

15

.96614

1.000669

1.00036

15.60

20

.94006

1.001168

1.00063

27.24

25

.90685

1.001783

1.00096

41.59

30

.86675

1.002496

1.00135

58,21

35

.82005

1,003284

1.00177

76,60

40

.76710

1.004125

1.00223

96.21

45

.70828

1.004992

1.00269

116.42

50

.64404

1.005858

1.00316

136,64

55

.57485

1.006699

1.00362

156,25

60

.50126

1.007487

1.00404

174.63

65

.42377

1,008200

1.00443

191.26

70

.34302

1.008815

1.00476

205.61

75

.25960

1.009315

1.00503

217.25

80

.17421

1,009682

1.00523

225.82

85

.08764

1,009907

1.00535

231.08

90

.00000

1.009983

1.00539

232.85

Table IL

The Measure of a Degree of Longitude, on each Parallel of Latitude m Minutes of the

Equator, on the Sphere and Spheroid. Compression = s^.
Par. of
Degree on the
Degree on the
Par. of
Degree on tbe
Degree on the
Par. of
Degree on the
Degree on the
Lat,
Sphere.
Spheroid.
Lat.
Sphere.
Spheroid,
Lat.
Sphere.
Spheroid,
0 0
/
60.000
/
60,000
0
30
1
51,962
/
52.002
0
60
30.000
/
30,070
1
59.991
59.991
31
51,430
51.473
61
29.089
29,158
a
59.963
59.964
32
50,883
50.927
62
28,168
28,237
3
59.918
- 59.918
33
50,320
50,367
63
27.239
27,307
4
59,854
59.855
34
49,742
49.791
64
26.302
26,369
5
59.772
59.773
35
49,149
49.199
65
25.357
25.422
6
59.671
59,673
36
48,541
48.593
66
24.404
24.408
7
59.553
59,556
37
47,918
47.972
67
23.444
23.506
8
59.416
59,420
38
47,281
47.336
68
22.476
22.537
9
59.261
59.266
39
46,629
46.686
69
21,502
21.562
10
59.088
59.094
40
45,963
46.022
70
20.521
20,578
11
58,898
59,904
41
45,283
45.343
71
19.534
19,589
12
58.689
58,697
42
44.589
44.651
72
18,541
18,593
13
58.462
58,471
43
43.881
43,945
73
17.542
17,592
14
58.218
58,228
44
43.160
43.225
74
16,538
16,586
15^
57.956
57,963
45
42,426
42.495
75
15.529
15,574
16
57.676
57,689
46
41,680
41,747
76
14515
14,558
17
57,378
57,394
47
40,920
40,988
77
13,497
13,537
18
57,063
57.080
48
40,148
40.217
78
12.475
12,512
19
20
56,731
56,750
49
39.364
39.434
79
11.449
11,483
56,382
56,402
50
38,567
38.638
80
10.419
10,450
21
56,015
56,037
51
37,759
37.831
81
9,386
9.414
22
55,631
55,665
52
36,940
37.011
82
8,350
8,376
23
55,930
55,257
53
36,109
36.181
83
7,312
7,335
24
54,813
54841
54
35.267
35,339
84
6,272
6,292
25
54378
54,409
55
34415
34,487
85
5,229
5,246
26
53.928
53.960
56
33.552
33,624
86
4,185
4.193
27
53.460
53,495
57
32,678
32,750
87
3,140
3.149
28
52.997
53,013
58
31,795
31,866
88
2,094
2,100
29
52,477
52.002
59
30.902
30.973
89
1,047
1.050
30
51,962
52.002
60
30.000
30.070
90
0,000
0.000
Vo
L. L
13
T
146

PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY.
Table III.

PartII.

The Measures of different Arcs of the Meridian in the Spheroid from the Equator to the Pole;
and also the respective Degrees of Latitude in Minutes of the Equator. Compres-
Bion-jiT.

o 0 1
234
5 67 8
9

*
0.000
59.628
119.257178.887
238.518
298,150 357.784
417,420 477.058536.699

(
59.62859.02959.63059.63159.632 59.634
S9.63659.638 59.64159.644 59.64759.65159,65559,659 59.66359.66859.67359.67959.68559.691 59.69759.70359.71059.717
59.72459.73259.739
39.74759.755
59.764

o
3031 323334
35363738 39

f
1790.302 1850.0741909,8551969.644
2029.442 2089.249
2149.065 K08.8912263.7202328.570

/
59.77259.78159,78959.79859.807 59.81659.82659.835 59.84459.85459.863 59.873
59.883 59.893 59.902
59.91259.922 59.931
59.941
59.951
59.960
59.97059.97959.98959.99360.00760.01660.02560.03460.042

o
606162636465 666768 69

/
3587.515 3647.5663707.0253767.6923827.767 3887.8493947.9394008.0364068.140 4128.251

60.05160.059 60.06760.07560.082
60.09060.09760.10460.11160,11760.12460.13060.13560.141
60.14660.15160.155
60.16060.16460.16760.17160.17460.17660.17960.181
60.182
60.18460.18560.18560.186

10111213 141516
171819

596.343 655.990715.641775.296834.955894,618954.286
1013.9591073.638
¦ 1133.323

4041 4343 4445 464748
49

2388.424 2448.287 2508.160 2568.0432627.9362687.8382747.7502807.6722867.6032927.544

70717273 74
75 7677
7879

4188.368
4248.492 4308.6224368.757
4428.8984489.0444549.1954009,350
4669,5104729.674

202122 23
2425 26272829 30

1193.014
1252.7111312.414 1372.1241431.8411491.5651551.2971611.036
1670.7831730.5381790.302

5051
5253 54
555657
58 59
60

2987.4953047.455
3107.425 3167.4043227.3933287.3913347.398
3407.4143467.4393527.4733587.515

80 81
828384
8586 87888990

4789.841
4850.0124910.1864970.3625030.5415090.722
5150.9045211.0885271,2735331.4585391.644

Table IV.

The Measure of each Degree

of Latitude and of a Degree of

Longitude in each Parallel of 1

Latitude from the Equator to either Pole. Compression j^^.

Par,

Degree of

Degree of

Par,

Degree of

Degree of

Par.

Degree of

Degree of

of

Latitude in

Longitude in

of

Latitude in

Longitude in

of

Latitude in

Longitude in

Lat,

Fathoms,

Fathoms.

Lat,

Fathoms,

Fathoms.

Lat.

Fathoms,

Fathoms.

o 0

60458,6

60857.1

o
30

60607.4

52746.9

o
60

60906.6

30503.5

1

60458.8

60847.8

31

60616.5

52210.0

61

60915.7

29578i!

2

60459.8

60820.2

32

60025.8

51657.2

62

60924.5

28643.8

3

60460.3

60774.2

33

60635.2

51088.0

63

60933.1

27700.6

4

60461.5

60709.8

34

60644.8

56504.5

64

60941.4

26748.8

5

60463.2

60627.0

35

60654.5

49904.9

65

60949.0

25788.7

6

60465.1

60525.8

36

60664.4

49290.2

66

60957.5

24820.7

7

60467.5

60406.4

37

60674.3

48660.3

67

609CS.3

23845.0

8

60470.1

60268.8

38

60684.4

48015.6

68

60972.7

22861.9

9

60473.2

60112.6

39

60694.6

47355.2

69

60979.8

21871.7

10

60476.5

59938.4

40

60704.8

46682.4

70

60986.7

20874,3

11

•60480.3

59740,1

41

60715.1

45994.2

71

60993.4

19871,4

12

60484.3

59535.6

42

60725.4

45292.0

72

60999.7

18861.8

13

60488.7

59307.1

43

60735.8

44576.0

73

61005.7

17846.4

14

60493.4

59060.6

44

60746.3

438405

74

61011.5

16855.4

15

60498.4

58796.3

45

60756.7

43103.0

75

61010.8

15799.3

16

60503.8

58514.1

46

00767.2

42346.6

76

61022.0

14768.2

17

60509.4

58214.2

47

60777.6

41577,3

77

61026.7

13732.6

18

_ 60515.4

57896.6

48

60788.0

40795,1

78

61031.2

12692.7

19

60521.6

57561.4

49

60798.4

40000.5

79

61035.3

11648.9

20

60528.2

57208.8

50

60808.7

39193.5

80

61039.1

10C0I.4

21

60535.0

66838.9

51

60819.0

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Book L LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 147
CHAPTER XX.
DETERMINATION OF LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE.
There are three knportant problems in geography which require for their solution the
doctrines of astronomy. The first requires to find the direction of the meridian at any point
of the earth's surface ; the second, to find the latitude of any place ; and the third, to find
the longitude. Problem I. — To determine the Meridian, or to draw a Meridian Line.
This problem, like many others in practical astronomy, admits of a comparatively easy
solution, if no great degree of accuracy is required ; but to obtain a very accurate result,
much care, and instruments of the most perfect construction, are indispensable.
The general principle of the solution is the fact, that the celestial bodies which do not
sensibly change their declination in the course of a day, have the same apparent altitude at
equal intervals of time before and after passing the meridian : also, that their altitude is
greatest or least when in the plane of the meridian ; that is, when they are due south or due
¦ north. About the time of the summer and winter solstice, the sun changes his declination very
little in the course of a day : and hence it happens that the shadow of an upright rod or
gnomon is almost exactly of the same length when the sun is at equal distances from the
meridian. To determine the position of the meridian, then, let a number of concentric
circles be described on a horizontal plane, and let a wire or rod be placed directly over
their common centre, and perpendicular to the plane ; and, the sun shining on the plane, let
the two points in which the extremity of the shadow of the wire crosses each circle be
exactly noted. Then, through any point of the plane which is at equal distances, from each
pair of intersections draw a straight line through the centre of the circle ; and this will be
in the plane of the meridian, or will be a meridian line. It is easy to see that one circle,
and one pair of intersections of the path of the extremity of the shadow and the circle,
would be suflicient : but several circles will fulfil the object with greater accuracy and
more certainty ; because a mean position of the meridian line may be found among all the
results ; and besides, one of a pair, or both, may be lost by clouds intercepting the light of
the sun.
The imperfection of this method of finding the meridian arises from the indistinctness of
the tennination of the shadow of the upright wire, and from the change of the sun's decli
nation between the ohservaticsis. There is, however, another as simple and exact as can
be expected, without the assistance of a telescope. It is known that the pole star and the
star Alioth, or e of the Great Bear, pass the meridian within about nine minutes of each
other. If, therefore, we suspend two plummets by threads to the ends of a rod which turns
horizontally on a pivot, and by moving the rod, keep the two plumb-lines exactly between
the eye and Alioth when near the meridian, then, at the moment when the pole star is also
seen along the two plumb-lines, the two stars and the plumb-lines will be all nearly in the
plane of the meridian. To keep the phimb-lines steady in the vertical plane, the plummets
may hang in vessels filled with water.
If we could determine the position of a star when its altitude is greatest or least, we
would then have a point of the heavens in the plane of the meridian : but that position cannot
be found with certainty, because the change of altitude is imperceptible to a sensible distance
on each side of the meridian.
The exact determination of the meridian requires the aid of the telescope, a well-regulated
clock, and an instrument for determining the altitude of the sun or a star : Hadley's sextant,
or a reflecting circle, are the proper instruments for this purpose. By the sextant we can
determine two instants of time when the star has the same altitude; the clock will give the
interval of time between them : and half this interval will be the time between each obser
vation and the passage of the star over the meridian. If we next day note the time by the
clock when the star again attains that altitude, and add to that time the above-mentioned
half interval, we shall have the time by the clock when the star wUl be on the meridian.
If at that instant a telescope, moveable in a vertical plane, be directed to the star, so that in
passing the meridian the star may be in the axis of the telescope, the position of the plane
of the meridian will be obtained : and if the telescope be fixed to a horizontal axis which is
perpendicular to that plane, it will have a vertical motion in the plane of the meridian, and
will be what is called a transit instrument. By this instrument the exact instant when
any celestial phenomenon is on the meridian is known. It is, therefore, one of the most
essential instruments in an observatory.
In a variable climate, it may happen that the observations necessary to determine the
meridian may be interrupted by cloudy weather. This, however, is an inconvenience to
which all astronomical observations are liable. It must also be observed, that a single set
of observations wUl not give so perfect a result as a considerable number of sets, from
which a mean may be deduced.

148 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. Part U.
If the celestial object change its position otherwise than by the diumal motions of the
earth, as happens when it is the sun, still the problem may be resolved, as has been explained,
by making allowance for the change of position, by applying the principles of spherical trigo
nometry to the laws of the motion.
Problem II. — To determine the Latitude.
In treating of the doctrine of the sphere, it has been already shown that the distance of
the pole of the world (that is, the point of the heavens about which all the stars turn) from
the horizon of any place is equal to its latitude. Now, in the course of twenty-four hours,
every star passes the meridian twice, at equal distances from the pole, and on opposite sides
of it. When the star passes the meridian below the pole, — that is, between the pole and
the horizon, — its altitude is the least possible ; and when it crosses the meridian above the
pole, or between the pole and the south part of the horizon, its distance from the north point
of the horizon y/ill be the greatest possible. If, therefore, with a suitable instmment, (a
quadrant for instance,) we take the star's altitude when it is least, and also when it is greatest,
and correct these for refraction, it is manifest that half their sum wUl be the latitude of the
place where the observations were made.
We have supposed the star to pass the meridian between the pole and the zenith, and then
its greatest altitude will be its distance from the north point of the horizon : but it may pass
to the south of the zenith, and then its altitude, reckoned from the south, must be subtracted
from 180° to get its distance from the north point of the horizon ; and half the sum of the
two distances, as before, will be the latitude.
Any one star that never sets, the pole star for instance, will serve to determine the latitude :
but it will be proper, if circumstances allow, to observe various stars, and the mean of all
the observations may be expected to be more correct than a single pair.
If, instead of the greatest and least altitudes of a star, its greatest and least distances from
the zenith be found, then half their sum wUl be the complement of the latitude ; that is, the
difference between the latitude and ninety degrees.
For example, by observations made on the pole star at the Dublin Observatory, it was found
that Its greatest zenith distance, corrected for refraction, was - - 38° 19' 43".ll
Least  34 53 49.55
The sum  73 13 32.66
Half the sum, or co-latitude of the observatory - - - - - - 36 36 46 . 33
The latitude  53 23 13.67
When the latitude of one place is Imown, the latitude of another place may be found by
observing with a quadrant, or other suitable instrument, the zenith distances of any star at
both places. The difference of these zenith distances, when corrected for refiuction, will be
the difference of latitude of the two places.
Thus, for example, to determine the difference between the latitudes of Greenwich Ob
servatory and Dunnose in the Isle of Wight, it was found that
At Dunnose the z. d. of |3 Draconis was --------- 1° 50' 5".24
And at Greenwich  0 58 33.13
DUference of latitude  0 51 32.11
The latitude of Greenwich was known to be .--..-- 51 28 30.05
The latitude of Dunnose is  50 37 8.39
The navigator has daily occasion to determme his latitude at sea. For this purpose, he
finds the sun's zenith distance, or its altitude at noon, by Hadley's sextant The Nautical
Almanac gives him the sun's declination, or distance from the equator at the tune he makes
his observation : the sum or difference of these is his latitude, according as the ship and the
sun are on the same or opposite sides of the equator.
Ex. On July 24, 1783, at a place in longitude 54° (3' 36") west of Greenwich, the alti
tude of the sun's lower limb, when cleared from refraction and parallax, was observed by a
sextant to be 59° 15' 30". By the Nautical Almanac, tiie sun's semidiameter was 15' 6",
and his declination at the time of noon in that longitude 19° 51' N. The calculation for
the latitude will stand thus : —
Altitude of the sun's lower limb ----.-..... 590 15' 30"
Add sun's semidiameter  -.-... 15 48
Subtract altitude of sun's centre ........... 59 31 18
From  90 0 0
To sun's zenith distance ------.-...-. .go 28 42
Add sun's declination ----•.•-.-..... 1951 Q
The latitude of the place is-------.  50 19 42

Book L LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 140
The navigator cannot always obtain an observation of the sun or a star when on the me
ridian. He may, however, be able to observe two latitudes out of the meridian, and the
interval of time between them. Witii these data, and the aid of spherical trigonometry and
the Nautical Almanac, he may find his latitude by rules given by writers on navigation and
astronomy. It is, in general, by one or other of these methods that the recorded latitudes
of all places have been obtauied, and arranged in a table for the use of the geographer and
navigator. Problem IIL — To determine the Longitude.
The interval of time between two successive passages of the sun over the meridian of any
place is twenty-four hours. If, therefore, we suppose a number of meridians to he drawn
at equal intervals, — that is, to form successively with each other equal angles at the poles, —
then, in the course of twenty-four hours, each of these meridians (supposing their planes
produced) wUl pass through the sun. Therefore twenty-four hours of mean solar time wUl
correspond to 360 degrees of longitude ; for the whole scale of longitude must be contained
between the eastem and westem sides of the meridian at the same place. At places situated
on the meridian opposite that on which the sun was at 0\ or, in civil reckoning, at 12 at
noon, the time would be 12', or 12 at night ; and 12' would correspond to 180 degrees of
longitude. At places situated on the meridian at right angles to the former, the time would
be 6' or 18', or, in civU reckoning, six in the morning or six in the evening ; and, accord
ingly, six hours and eighteen hours of mean solar time wiU correspond to 90° or 270° of
longitude ; and so on for intermediate meridians.
'The selection of a meridian, from which the longitude is to be reckoned, is entirely arbi
trary. The English take the meridian passing through Greenwich Observatory for the ^rsf
meridian, and reckon its longitude to be 0° or O*. The first meridian of the French is that
which passes through the observatory of Paris. An interval of 9'° 21' elapses between the
passages of the sun over the meridians of Paris and Greenwich : the longitude of Paris
Observatory is, therefore, by English geographers, accounted to be 9"° 21' east in time ; or
m degrees, 2° 20' 15".
Since it is noon at all places on the meridian of Greenwich from pole to pole at the same
instant, it wUl be an hour past noon, or l', at all places on the meridian 15° to the east of
that of Greenwich ; and two hours past noon, or 2', at all places on the meridian 30° east
from that of Greenwich ; and so on. On the other hand, it will want an hour to noon, or
wUl be 11", at all places on the meridian 15° west from that of Greenwich ; and it wUl be
two hours before noon, or lO', at places on the meridian 30° west from that of Greenwich ;
and BO on, reckoning an hour, or sixty minutes of time, to correspond to fifteen degrees, and
four minutes of time to one degree.
Since it appears that all places on the same meridian have noon, or any assumed hour,
at the same instant, and that the instant of noon is different at places on different meridians, —
being earlier or later on meridians having west longitude, according as they are nearer to
or farther from the first meridian, and the reverse on meridians having east longitude ; and
moreover, that the difference between the time of noon on two meridians is proportional to
the difference of their longitude, and therefore a measure of that difference ; it follows that
if, knowing the hour of the day at any place, we can at the same instant by any means know
the hour at a place on any other meridian, then we can determine the difference of longitude
between the meridians : for it will be the difference between the times of the day, as esti
mated on the two meridians, reckoned in hours, minutes, &c. ; and this may be converted
into degrees, minutes, and seconds, by reckoning fifteen degrees to an hour, and proportionally
for minutes and seconds of time.
The practical methods of determining the longitude are the foUowing : —
1. By a Chronometer or Time-keeper.
Let us suppose that a traveUer departs from any place, (St. Paul's, London, for example,)
and carries with him a watch regulated to mean solar time, and which indicates 12' at the
instant of mean noon at London : then, supposing the watch to go with perfect regularity,
if he go to Edinburgh, and compare the estimated solar time there with that shown by his
watch, he will find that they differ by twelves minutes twenty-one seconds ; so that when it is
12' at Edinburgh Observatory, it will be 12' IS" 21' by his watch. He may therefore con
clude, that the difference of longitude between London and Edinburgh is 12"° 21" west •
and smce St. Paul's is twenty-three seconds of tune west from Greenwich, the longitude of
Edinburgh Observatory is 12° 44' west, which corresponds to 3° 11'. If, leaving London, he
had gone to Paris, he would there have found the estimated time to be 9"' 44" earlier than
that shown by his watch : hence the difference between the meridians of London and Paris
is 9"° 44", and the longitude of Paris (from Gr'.enwich) 9"° 21' east.
In the same way the navigator at sea may determine his longitude by a good chronometer
He can determme tiie hour of the day by the sun's altitude, and tiie principles of sphericai

150 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part H.
trigonometry. Or he may take equal altitudes, noting the times ; the middle point of time
between them will be the instant of noon, as shown by the watch : he must, however, make
a correction for the change of the sun's declination, and the distance run by the ship in the
interval. Supposing now the chronometer to have been set to the true time at the port from
whence he sailed, and to have gone uniformly with a small known daily acceleration or
retardation, called its rate ; this correction being applied, he will have the time at the port
corresponding to his observed time of noon, and their difference will be the longitude of the
ship eastward or westward from the meridian whence she saUed.
¦The longitude of any point on the earth, either at sea or on land, may be determined by
a good chronometer ; in the latter case, however, the jolting it must suffer by carriage will
disturb its motion, and render the result sought uncertain. At sea, the mode of transport is
not so liable to sudden jerks ; and, therefore, the chronometer may be expected to go with
more regularity. If several be employed, considerable accuracy may be obtained. The
Board of Admiralty sent ten or twelve chronometers from Greeiiwich to Falmouth, and
thence in a vessel to Madeira, and in this way determined the longitude of Funchal from a
mean of their results.
The facility of this mode of determining the longitude makes perfection in the construc
tion of chronometers an object of high importance in a maritime nation like Britain. It was,
therefore, for many years encouraged by acts of parliament offering high rewards for pre
scribed degrees of excellence. These, however, are now repealed ; but the government has
not lost sight of this important subject.
2. The Longitude by Eclipses of Jupiter's Satellites.
If a celestial phenomenon can be seen at the same absolute instant of time in two dif
ferent places of the earth, this appearance gives the means of determining the difference of
their longitudes ; for if the phenomenon be seen at both places, and the times, according to
their reckoning, be noted, it is manifest that their difference will be the difference of longi
tude, in time, of the two places.
Now the eclipses of Jupiter's moons are phenomena of this kind. They may be seen,
almost at the same instant, everywhere in the hemisphere in which Jupiter is visible : and
such is the perfection of astronomy, that the times at which they wUl happen can be pre
dicted with considerable accuracy. These are computed according to Greenwich time, and
published, along with various other matters, in the Nautical Almanac, several years before
they happen, for the benefit of travellers. This method of finding the longitude can, how
ever, only be applied on land ; for at sea the rolling of the ship makes it next to impossible
to direct a telescope so steadily to Jupiter as to view the eclipse of a satellite.
Example. — Suppose an immersion of the first satellite should be observed at the Cape
of Good Hope, April 16, 1805, at 13'' 25"° 35' mean time ; the predicted tune given by the
Ephemeris being 12'' 12'" 2' at Greenwich. Here the difference is 1" 13"° 33' ; whence the
longitude of the Cape should be 18° 23' 15" east of Greenwich.
In this example, the observed time at the Cape is compared with the computed time of
the eclipse at Greenwich. If, instead of this, the observed time at Greenwich had been
used, greater accuracy might have been expected.
This method is easy, and therefore much practised ; but it is liable to uncertainty : for
two observers in the same room, but using different telescopes, wUl sometimes differ in noting
the time of an eclipse of the first satellite by as much as fifteen or twenty seconds. Delam
bre thinks that the time of an eclipse of the fourth satellite may be doubtfiil to the amount
of four minutes. 3. Longitude by an Eclipse of the Moon.
An eclipse of the moon has exactly the same appearance, at the same instant, wherever
seen ; but it is impossible to be quite sure, by observation, of the exact time of their begin
ning or end, because of the penumbra which bounds the earth's shadow. The results to be
obtained from them are therefore uncertain, to perhaps two minutes of time ; and therefore
only to be regarded as approximations to the trutii.
Example. An eclipse of the moon was observed Aug, 28. 1729, by the astronomer Cas
sini at Paris, and by Mr. Stephenson at Barbadoes.
At Paris, Imm. ) - 12" 19'° 13' Emer. ) - 13" 59'"
At Barbadoes, Imm. ) 8 11 0 Emer. ) - 9 51
^4 8 13 ~l 8"

By the mean of the two, the difference of longitude is 4'' 8'° 6"5 ; that is, Barbadoes is
62° 1' 30" west of Paris.

Book L LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE. 151
4. Longitude by Lunar Distances, or by Occultations of Stars by the Moon.
The moon is, of all the celestial bodies, the most convenient for determinmg the longi
tude, because of the greater quickness of her apparent motion among the stars. She makes
the complete circuit of the heavens m 27'' 7" 43'" 4'.7 (this is her mean sidereal revolu
tion) : therefore she changes her place among the stars more than half. a degree, or her own
apparent diameter, m an hour ; so that ui two minutes of time she passes over one minute
of a degree. This, or even its half, is quite a measurable quantity by a good sextant.
By the theory of the moon's motion, her place among the stars is known at any time:
that is, knowing the time of the day at Greenwich, the place of the moon is known ; and,
on the other hand, knowing the place of the moon, the time at Greenwich is known. The
Nautical Almanac gives the distance of the moon's centre from the sun, and some of the
brighter stars, as it would be seen fi-om the earth's centre, for every tiiird hour of the day,
Greenwich time. If, therefore, the Almanac show that the moon, considered as seen from
the eartii's centre, wUl be 10° from a certain fixed star at six o'clock in the evening at
Greenwich ; and we make an observation at a distant place, and find that the moon's dis
tance from the same star, reduced by computation to what it would be if seen at the earth's
centre, is 10°, we immediately conclude that at that instant it is six o'clock at Greenwich.
Thus the moon, with the brighter fixed stars near her path, serve the purpose of a chrono
meter. To determine the longitude in this way, one observer measures the moon's distance from
the sun or a bright star (one of those in the Ephemeris) ; another observer at the same time
finds the altitudes of the moon and star ; and a third should observe the exact time by a
chronometer or good watch at which the observations were made. These observations,
corrected for refraction, give data for finding what would be the apparent place of the moon
in the heavens, if it could be seen from the centre of the earth at that time. The Nautical
Almanac enables the observer to find the hour at Greenwich, when the position of the moon
in the heavens was such as he observed it, and the interval between the Greenwich time
and his own gives him his longitude.
This method of finding the longitude is commonly practised in the service of the East
India Company, and in the navy. By it the longitude may be generally known to within
twenty miles, and very often much nearer. This, although less accurate than the latitude,
is yet an invaluable acquisition to the navigator. A striking proof how much it may be
depended on has been given by a distinguished navigator (Capt. Basil Hall, R. N). After
a voyage of 8000 miles, occupying eighty-nine days, he arrived off Rio de Janeiro, having
passed through the Pacific Ocean, rounded Cape Horn, and crossed the South Atlantic,
without making any land. When within a week's sail of Rio, he set about determining,
by lunar observations, the ship's course and place at a determinate moment ; and having
found this, within from five to ten mUes, he trusted to the ordinary and more compendious
way of finding his position, such as is used in short trips, for the remainder of his voyage.
when he arrived within fifteen or twenty miles of the coast (according to his estimation),
he hove to at four in the moming, waiting for day-break. He then proceeded, although the
weather was hazy ; but about eight it become so foggy that he did not like to stand in
farther. The fog suddenly cleared off, and then he had the satisfaction to see the Great
Sugar-loaf Rock, which stands on one side of the harbour, so nearly right a-head, that he
had not to alter his course above a point in order to hit the entrance of Rio.
Occultations of stars by the moon serve exactiy the same purpose as a distance of the
moon from a star : these, however, are not so generally observed at sea as on land. They
give the distance of the moon from the star with almost perfect accuracy, and therefore are
an excellent method of determining the longitude. When an occultation has been observed,
we can, hy the lunar tables or the Nautical Almanac, which is a species of lunar and solar
tables, compute the distance between the centre of the moon and star as it would appear at
the earth's centre at the moment the occultation was observed, provided we know the lon
gitude of the place where the observation was made : but this longitude is the very thing
we want ; therefore we cannot proceed by a direct process. However, we may know the
longitude nearly by some other means; an, eclipse of one of Jupiter's satellites, for exam
ple. With this, as if it were the true longitude, we may calculate the apparent distance
between the star and centre of the moon reduced to the earth's centre at the time the occul
tation was seer If the longitude had been correctly assumed, this would have been exactly
the moon's semidiameter ; but it wUl differ more or less, according to the magnitude of the
errof we have made in the assumed longitude. There will, however, be such a determi
nate connexion between the error of the longitude and the difference between the moon's
semidiameter and computed distance of the star and moon's centre, that the one wUl be dedu
cible from the other by calculation. In this way, then, the error may be estimated, and a
nearer approximation to the longitude obtained ; and a repetition of the process wUl give a
stUl more correct result.

ISa PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY. Part n.
5. Longitude by the Transit of the Moon over the Meridian.
Let T be the time by the clock when the moon is observed on the meridian of any place,
t the time of transit of a known fixed star, 24 -f a; the interval between two successive
transits of the same star : then 24 -f a; : T - ( : : 360° : difference of right ascension of the
moon and star at the instant the moon was on the meridian ; to which adding the known
right ascension of the star, the right ascension (A) of the moon when on the meridian is
determined. Now the moon's right ascension when on the meridian of Greenwich is given
in the Nautical Almanac for every day of the year, from whence the daily increment of her
right ascension may be determined : let, therefore, a be the moon's right ascension when on
the meridian of Greenwich, E the increment of right ascension in the time between two
successive transits over the same meridian ; then, considering the change of right ascension
as uniform, E : fl - A : : 360° : the required longitude.
6. Longitude by Signals.
The most accurate way of determining small differences of longitude is by signals made
on the earth's surface. A rocket fired from an elevated spot on a clear night may be seen
distinctly with a telescope at the distance of twenty or thirty miles : therefore, by observing
the times at which the same explosion is seen at two places, the difference of longitude of
the places may be found.
The same method will apply to places at any distance, if they be connected by a cham
of stations sufficiently near to each other to admit of a rocket to be seen from every two
adjoining stations. 'The difference of longitude between Greenwich and Paris was deter
mined in 1825 in this way. Rockets were exploded at Wrotham, and seen simultaneously
at Greenwich and Fairlight Down : also at La Canehe on the French coast, which were
seen at Fairlight and Ligniers ; and at Mont Javoult, which were observed at Ligniers and
Paris. In the same way the difference of longitude between Geneva and MUan has been deter
mined by signals made by illumination on the tops of intermediate mountains.
The intensely brilliant light which Lieutenant Drummond, of the Royal Engineers, has
proposed for light-houses, and which is produced by placing a ball of lime, about the size of
a pea, in a flame supported by oxygen gas, may be employed in determining differences of
longitude. We believe that, in fevourable weather, this light exhibited on the top of Ben
Lomond may be seen at the same time at Edinburgh and in Ireland : indeed, we know that
it has actually been seen in the north of Ireland. Here, then, we have the means of deter
mining with great exactness the difference between the longitude of Dublin and Edinburgh.
7. Longitude by Triangulation.
The trigonometrical survey of Britain has determined the longitude of all the principal
points on the coast, as well as the mountains and cities in the interior, particularly in Eng
land. At present the survey is suspended in Britain, but is going on in Ireland. When
this is completed, the British survey will doubtless be resumed, and the geography of the
northern part of the island made as perfect in its minute detaUs as the southem, which,
from its proximity to the continent, is more necessary to be known in preparing plans of
national defence.

CHAPTER XXI.
REPRESENTATION OF THE EARTH.

The most natural and correct representation which can be given of the geographical divi
sions of the earth's surface is that which is made on a sphere or globe. In this way the
different countries may be truly delineated, so as to exhibit perfectly to tiie eye their relative
position, their magnitude, and boundaries ; and by such a representation of the earth, all the
problems in geography may be resolved with elegance and facUity.
But although the surface of a solid having the exact figure of tiie earth, or differing but
little from it, affords in theory the most complete and the only perfect representation of any
considerable tract of country, yet there is a limit in practice to this precious advantage. A
globe of a moderate size serves very well to give a distinct notion of the figure, the magni
tude, the position, and general features of the great continents and islands : but the largest
globe that can conveniently be constructed is insufficient for minute detaUs ; and then we
must have recourse to the more simple, although less perfect, representations of Maps.
It is impossible to represent on a plane a large extent of the earth's surface, so that the
distances of places in the plane map shall have to each other precisely the same proportion
as their distances on the globe. To obviate this difficulty, geographers have had recourse
to different methods of representing portions of the globe on a plane.

Book L REPRESENTATION OP THE EARTH. 153
By one method the countries are represented by the rules of perspective, as they would
appear to an eye that should view them on the surface of a sphere from a given pomt. The
different positions which may be assumed for the point from which tiie sphere is viewed give
rise to different ;)rq;eciions, which all answer very well when the surface to be represented
is of small extent, and tiie pomt of view, or projecting point, is nearly over its centre.
However, when the surfece is of great extent, a whole hemisphere for instance, those places
which lie near the border of the projection are in them all much distorted.
According to another method, the spherical surface to be represented is supposed to be a
cone whose'vertex is somewhere in the polar axis produced, and its curved surfece either
touches the sphere at the middle parallel of the map, or falls within the sphere at the mid
dle paraUel, and without it at the extreme parallels. The surface of the cone is then sup
posed to be extended into a plane. This way of constructing maps is called the method of
development. There are other mathematical hypotheses according to which maps are delineated, and
one in particular by which marine charts are constructed. In this, the parallels of latitude
and circles of longitude are all represented by straight lines (that is, a line making always
the same angle with the meridian), and the course of a ship saUing always on the same
rhomb is also a straight line. A representation of the earth in this way is commonly
called Mercator's chart, although the mvention is due to an English mathematician, Edward
Wright. Charts of this constmction are of great importance in navigation.
I. CONSTRUCTION OF MAPS BY PROJECTION.
There are two projections of the sphere by which portions of its surface may be truly
delineated by the rules of perspective : the orthographic and the stereographio. In each,
the plane on which the projection is made is called the plane of projection.
1. orthographic projection.
To project any point in space orthographically on a plane, a perpendicular is to be drawn
from the point on the plane and the bottom of the perpendicular ; that is, the point in which
it meets the plane is the orthographic projection of the point.
The orthographic projection of a line of any kind on a plane is found by supposing per
pendiculars to be drawn from every point in the line, and that line on the plane which passes
through the bottom of all the perpendiculars in the orthographic projection of the proposed
line. It is easy to see that the orthographic projection of a straight line must be a straight line,
because the perpendiculars drawn from every point in it to the plane of projectioii will all
lie in a plane, and the common section of two planes is a straight line. It is also apparent
that the projection of a rectilineal figure will be a rectilineal figure.
If a circle be paraUel to the plane of projection, its orthographic projection or representa
tion wUl be a circle : for the perpendiculars supposed to be drawn from every point in the
circle to the plane of projection wUl all be on the curve surface of a cylinder, and they may
be considered as constituting that surface. The circle and its projection will be the top and
bottom of the cylinder ; and since they are parallel, they wUl be alike and equal.
If the plane in which a circle lies be perpendicular to the plane of projection, its projec
tion wUl manifestly be a straight line, which will be equal in length to the diameter ; and
the projection of any arc reckoned from the extremities of the diameter will be projected
into its versed sine; also the complement of the arc, or what it wants of ninety degrees, will
be projected into its sine.
But if a circle be in a plane which is neither parallel nor perpendicular to the plane of
projection, then its projection will neither be a circle nor a straight line ; it wUl be an oval
figure. The bounding line will be an ellipse, a curve formed by cutting a cylinder by a
plane oblique to its axis ; and it is also one of the conic sections.
An exact notion may be formed of the orthographic projection of any line or figure by
holding it in the light of the sun, and observing its shadow formed on a plane which is per
pendicular to the direction of the solar rays. The rays which pass close to the figure are
the perpendiculars to the plane, and the shadow is the projection of the figure.
The plans and sections by which artificers execute different constmctions are no other
than orthographic projections of the things to be constructed ; with these all workmen are
familiar. The orthographic projection of any object, — the terrestrial gUhe, for example, — with all
its circles, and the continents and islands on its surface, is nearly the representation or pic
ture which an artist would delineate on a plane surface, if he meant to represent the globe
at a great distance from the eye; and it is exactly the.appearance which the globe would
have, supposing an eye could view it at an infinite distance.
From the nature of this projection, it appears that the orthographic representation of half
the surfece of the globe wUl show nearly the true figure and proportions of countries about
the middle ; that is, directiy opposite to the supposed position of the eye : but, towards the •
Vol. L U

154

PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY.

Part U.

80 B

extremities of the map, the graphic representations of places will imperfectly exhibit theh
true figure and position. For this reason it is seldom employed in geography, although its
use is frequent in astronomy.
(A.) To project the Sphere orthographically on the Plane of the Equator.
About any point, C, as a centre {fig. 45), with any radius, C A, describe a circle B A 90
to represent the equator. Draw two diameters,
A C 180, B C 90, perpendicular to each other :
these wUl be the projections of meridians distant
90° from each other, and C wUl be the projection
of the pole.
Divide each quadrant into six equal parts, and
let A 15, 15 30 be two of these; draw diameters
through 15 and 30, and these will be the projec
tions of meridians 15° and 30° from A C 180 ; and,
''¦'''' in this way, meridians dividing the equator into
twenty-four equal parts may be represented. Of
these, any one, C A, may be assumed as the first
meridian. To project the paraUels of latitude : divide A B,
one of the quadrants, into nine equal parts ; let 80,
70, 60 be the three of these points of division ad
joining to B : draw perpendiculars from these, and
aU the other points on the radius A C meeting it
in 80, 70, 60, &.c. About C as a centre at the distances C 80, C 70, C 60, &c. describe
circles, and these will be the projections of parallels ^f latitude at the distance of ten
degrees. The polar circles and tropics may be found by laying off an arc of 23^° from A towards
B, and from B towards A, and drawing perpendiculars from the points thus determined on
C A, circles described about C, through the bottoms of the perpendiculars, wUI be the pro
jections of the polar circle and tropic. In this way, the projection may be completed.
It is easy to see that the regions within the polar circle may be represented by this pro
jection so as to give a tolerable notion of their position and magnitude, judging by the eye;
but that the appearance of the equatorial regions wUl be altogether distorted.
(B.) To project the Sphere orthographically on the Plane of the Meridian.
Describe any circle, N E S Q {fig. 46.), to represent the meridian, and draw two diame
ters, E C Q, N C S, perpendicular to each other;
the former may be taken as the projection of the
equator, and then the latter wiU represent a meri
dian 90° from the meridian N E S.
To represent other meridians : divide a quadrant
S E into six equal parts, as at 15, 30, &c. ; from
^^ these points of division draw perpendiculars 15 o,
jio 30 6, &c. on E Q. Describe ellipses N a S, N i S,
[q having a common transverse axis N S, and the fines
C o, C 6, &c. for their semiconjugate axes; and
these will be the projections of meridians which pass
through every fifteenth degree of the equator. Or,
by dividing E S into nine equal parts, they may be
made to pass through every tenth degree.
For the parallels of latitude : divide the quadrants
E N, N Q, each into nine equal parts at 10, 20, 30,
&c. ; join the corresponding numbers by straight
lines, and these will be the projections of parallels of latitude at distances of 10°, 20°, S)°,
&c. from the equator. The tropics and polar circles ore to be drawn in the same way ; the
former at 23^° on each side of the equator, and the latter 23^° from the poles.
In this projection, the polar regions, and all places near the meridian N E S Q, are very
much distorted in appearance to the eye : it is only towards the centre that there is any con
siderable resemblance of a projected portion of the earth's surfece to its appearance on a
globe. 2. stereographio projection.
In the stereographio projection, the eye is supposed to be situated at a point in the surfece
of the sphere, and the plane on which the projection is to be made is the plane of that great
circle, which is everywhere 90° distant from the position of the eye : hence it must be evi-

Book L REPRESENTATION OF THE EARTH. 155
dent that the eye can see only the mside or concave surface ; however, we may suppose the
sphere to be transparent, and its various circles, and the islands, continents, &c. delineated
on its surfece to be seen through it If we now conceive a Ime to be drawn from the eye
to any pomt on the concave surfece, the point in which that line cuts the plane of projection
will be the projection of the point on the spherical surface.
To Ulustrate what has been said, let E A C B {fig. 47.) be a great circle of the sphere,
p q r s a plane passing through its centre, and perpen-
*^ ^^—£—^,3 dicular to the plane of the great circle ; let C E be a
ji,^:^^ld--^f\. diameter of the sphere perpendicular to the plane ; then
/^E^m^^-P"^/ \ assuming ^ g r s as the plane of projection, E, one end
/ \ \° 1 / \ ,, of that diameter, may be taken as the place of the eye
^^—.\..-\ — 7—-/  -Vn or projecting point If, now, straight lines EA, EB,
\J n\A— cKV^  \k\ EC' E I^' ^'^- ^® drawn to A, B, C, D, any points oh
Y\  Vi__i-^ J \ the surfece of the sphere, the points a, b, c, rf, &c. in
Y \ V', ! .¦ ,' \ which these lines meet the plane p r, will be the pro-
pT \ \ 1 / 7 ? jections of the corresponding points on the surface of
\ V\ i / / the sphere. Let A D B be any circle of the sphere :
N. VI / >/ conceive a straight line to be drawn from E, the place
^ — S — -'¦'^ of the eye, to D, any point in the circumference. If D,
^ the end of this line, be now carried round the circle,
supposing it always to pass through the fixed point E, the line wUl generate the surface of
a cone whose base is the circle, and vertex the place of the eye ; and the curve line adb,
which is the common section of the plane p r, and the surface of the cone wUl be the pro
jection of the circle.
It will now be sufiicientiy obvious,
1. That every circle which passes through the eye will be projected into or represented
by a straight line on the plane of projection.
2. That every circle whose plane is parallel to the plane of the circle will be projected
into a circle.
These two properties hold tme wherever the eye be situated. The assumption, however,
that it is in the surface of the sphere gives rise to geometrical properties which are peculiar
to this projection, and which by their simplicity and elegance give it great value.
One geometrical property is this : whatever be the position of the circle ADB (or base
of the cone) on the surface of the sphere, the portion of the cone between the projecting
point E and the plane of projection ^ r is always similar to the whole cone. If the plane
of the base be parallel to the plane of projection, the truth of this proposition is obvious ;
but writers on geometry prove, that when it is oblique, still the cones whose bases are ADB
and adb, and common vertex E, are similar ; only they have contrary positions. From the
similarity of the whole cone to the part cut off, it follows that,
3. In the stereographical projection of the sphere, the representation of any circle that
does not pass through the eye will always be a circle.
There is another proposition demonstrated by lyriters on spherical geometry which is of
great importance in this projection ; viz. if two straight lines be drawn from any point on
the surface of the sphere to touch it in that point, their representation on the plane of pro
jection wUl contain an angle exactly equal to the angle contained by the lines themselves.
Since straight lines touching the surface of a sphere at any point may be regarded as tan
gents to any circles of the sphere passing through that point, we have this other remarkable
property : —
4. The angle made on the surface of the sphere by two circles which cut each other, and
the angle made by circles which are their representations, are in all cases equal.
'This projection is extremely convenient m practice, because a circle may be easily de
scribed when three points in its chcumference are given, or when two points and its radius
are known; also, the property of lines making angles at their intersection on the surface of
the sphere equal to those formed by their projections, is of great value m the representation
of the surface of the sphere of a plane. Moreover, the contraction of tiie map towards the
extremities of an hemisphere is not so great as m the orthographical projection ; on all these
accounts, the stereographical projection deserves a preference.
Supposing E to be the projecting point, or place of the eye, and p r the plane of projection,
let C be the point of the sphere opposite to E, and therefore 90° everywhere from the circle
which IS the common section of the sphere and plane of projection ; it is evident that any
arc, A C, of a great circle passmg through C and E wiU be projected mto a straight line a c-
now this line is manifestly the tangent of the angle A E C to the radius E c, and the measure
of this angle is half the arc A C.
5. Hence it follows, that if a great circle pass through the projecting point, any arc of
that circle, reckoned from the opposite point of the sphere, is projected into a straight line
nassing through the centre, and equal to the tangent of that arc.

156

PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY.

Part IL

(A) To project the Sphere stereographically on the Plane of the Equator.
Describe a circle, A B D {Jig. 48,), to represent the equator, and draw any diameter
A C D and a. radius C B perpendicular to A D.
Supposing now that the parallels of latitude to every
tenth degree are to be represented in the map,
divide A B, a quadrant of the circle, into nine equal
parte, as at the points 10, 20, 30, &c. and draw
straight lines from the points of division to D, the
extremity of the diameter A C D, meeting the
radius B C m the points 10, 20, 30, &c. Then,
about the centre C describe circles to pass through
the pointe 10, 20, 30, &c., and these wUl represent
the parallels of 10, 20, 30, &,c. degrees of lati
tude. In this way, all the parallels of latitude may
be found, as also the tropic and polar circle, by lay-
mg off arcs of 23|° and 66-|° from B towards A
Next divide the circumference of the circle into
into 24 equal parte, and draw radu from the centre

to the pointe of diyision.
one hour.

These will represent the meridians which differ in longitude by

(B) To project the Sphere stereographically on the Plane of a Meridian.
Describe any circle N Q S E {fig. 49.), to represent the meridian on which the projection

BS-M

EM

is to be made ; which should be so chosen as to include
nearly one of the continente, — ^the eastem, for in
stance : this wUl be accomplished if N E S be the
meridian 20° west from London. Draw the diameter
N C S, which wUl represent the meridian that
passes through the projecting point, and therefore is
perpendicular to the plane of projection. Then N
''" wUl represent the north, and S the south pole ; draw
Q another diameter, E C Q, which will represent the
equator. Since, by the nature of the projection, all the
meridians will be represented by circles which pas
through the poles N, S, it will be sufficient if we
determine the points in which they cut the equator :
we shall suppose the meridians to pass through every
tenth degree of longitude : the pointe where they cut
the equator will be found by dividing one of the
quadrantal arcs, N Q, into nine equal parte, as at 10, 20, 30, &c., and drawing straight
lines from S to the pointe of division, meeting C Q in 1, 2, 3, &c. Then, a circle described
through the pointe N 1 S will represent the meridian which cute the equator 10° from Q,
and a circle through N 2 S will be the meridian that cute the equator 20° from Q. The
remaining meridians N 3 S, &c. will be determined exactiy in the same way ; and it appears
from the construction, that the centres of the circles will be in the diameter E Q and its
prolongation, and their distances from the centre will be the tangente of 10°, 20°, &c. ; viz.
the inclination of the circles to the plane of the primitive ; also, that their radii wUl be the
secants of the same inclinations.
To describe the parallels of latitude, divide the four quadrante each into nine equal parts,
as at 80, 70, 60, &c., and draw straight lines from E, one end of the diameter E Q, to the
pointe of division, meeting N S in 8, 7, 6, &c. Then circles described through 80, 8, 80 ;
70, 7, 70, &c,, wUl represent the parallels of 80°, 70°, &c. The centres of all the circles
will be in the line N S, and distant from it by the secante of the distances of the parallels
from the pole : also, the radii will be the tangents of the same distances. The polar circles
and tropics being described by the same rules at tiie distances 23^° and 665° from the poles,
the projection will be completed.
(C.) To project the Sphere stereographically on the Plane of the Horizon for a given
Latitude.
In this projection, the eye is supposed to be in tiie nadir of tiie place for which the pro
jection is made.
On C {fig. 50.) and C {fig. 51.) as centres with any radius, describe circles W N E S,
W'N'E'S', of which _^^. .50. is to be tlie primitive or horizon; the otiier, ^^. 51., is to serve
for determining the position of the circles to be described on fig. 50. Draw the diameters
NS, WE, N'S', W'E' in both circles perpendicular to one anotlier ; then N S in^g^. 50. wU!
be the projection of the meridian, and W E the projection of the circle passing through

Book L REPRESENTATION OF THE EARTH.
the east and west pohite of tiie horizon and the zenith,--that is the prrnie vertical ;
be tiie nortii pomt of tiie horizon, S tiie soutii, and E and W tiie east and west

157
NwUl points.

/ \»^^ t

~4

/ /
/

S

\ \ \ \ \

• 30 13

J

V

15

H"

51 _— -^

a_4o

.' \""^\2C»
^y^
¦rv, \-'^^^
¦''''' \^'
p,---' ?\ \\
M-'^:
" X \— n^"
/^ \ |"f!
K--  NJ^d
'"** .^
\^ 1
\ ^^^
\ /
\ y^ '*'"'•
\ /
\r ^
"¦"- \ /
--''pV
"-\/
yxi
30
Make the arc N'P', or the angle N' C P', fig. 51., equal to the latitude of the place ; join
W'P' cuttmg C N' in P; make C P in fig. 50. equal to C P mfig. 51., and P,j«^. 50., will
be the projection of the north pole. Draw the diameter E Q, fig. 51^ perpendicular to
P' C p' ; join W'Q' meeting C S' m Q'. Take C Q, fig. 50., equal to C Q, , fig. 51. ; de
scribe a circle tiirough the pomte W, Q, E, and the arc W Q E wiU represent the equator.
Next to project the paraUels of latitiide,— for example, those which are 40° and 20 from
the pole,— from P', fig. 51., take P' 40 and P' 40, each arcs of 40° on opposite sides of P;
also, P' 20, P' 20, arcs of 20°. Join W' 40, W 40, meetmg C N' in m and w ; also W 20,
W 20, meetmg C N' in r and s. In N C S, fig. 50., take C m, C n, C r, C s, equal to C m,
C n, C r, C s, fig. 51. ; describe chcles on m »i, r s as diameters, and these wiU be projections
of parallels of latitude at the distances of 40° and 20° from the pole. In tiiis way may all
the parallels, also the tropics and polar circle, be projected. ^
To project the meridian : in fig. 51. draw S' B perpendicular to N' S', meetmg P p
produced in B ; take C A, fig. 50., equal to S' B, fig. 51., and through A draw a perpen
dicular to C A. Let us suppose that the meridians are to make with each other angles of
15° : at P, in the Ime P A, draw P 15 and P 15 on each side of P A, makmg angles with
it of 1.5° ; and, in like manner, P 30, P 30, makmg angles of 30°, and so on to angles of
75°. On A, as a centre, describe a chcle to pass through P ; this will pass through W and
E, and wUl be the projection of the six o'clock hour circle in the heavens, or that meridian
on the globe that is perpendicular to the meridian of the place for which the projection is
made. On the pomts 15, 15 describe arcs aP a', aP a' to pass through P, and meet the
projection of the horizon in o, a' ; a, a' ; and in like manner on 30, 30 as centres describe
the arcs 6 P 6', 6 P 6', &c. aU passing through P : these will be the projections of meridians
on the terrestrial sphere, or of hour circles on the celestial sphere. Ia this way, the pro
jection may be completed. 3. globular projection.
In the orthographic projection, equal portions of the earth's spherical surfece are repre
sented by unequal plane surfaces ; and the deviation fi-om equality in the surface to be
represented, and ite plane representation, increases from the centre to the circumference of
the projection.
The same is true of the stereographic projection, but with this difference, that the dis
tortion in the representation of the figure of any portion of the spherical surfaces proceeds
in a contrary direction : in the former case, the degrees of longitude and latitude are gra
dually contracted from the centre to the circumference ; but in the latter, they are enlarged.
In the stereographic projection, the projecting point, or point of view, is the pole of the
circle on which the projection is made ; and in the orthographic, it may be supposed in the
axis, and at a very great, or rather indefinitely great, distance. It is this change of position
of the point of view that produces the change in the direction in which the degrees of lati
tude or longitude are contracted. Hence it maybe supposed, that, by taking a point of view
at some finite distance greater than the radius of the sphere, a perspective representetion will
be-obteined, in v/hich the degrees in the representation wUl be nearly equal, and the deviation
from equality in the representation of equal portions of the spherical surface in some mea
sure corrected.
Vol. L 14
158

PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY.

Part II

Let ADB {Jig. 52.) be a section of the sphere
by a plane passing through E, the point of view
and C the centre ; draw the diameter F D to pass
through E, and draw A C B perpendicular to D P.
Since the whole quadrant A F is to be projected
into the radius A C, if it be possible to make he
representetions of equal portions of it nearly equal,
ite halves A K and K F may be assumed as repre
sented by A H and H C, halves of the radius :
therefore, a line drawn from K to E must bisect
the radius in H. This determines D E, the dis
tance of the projecting point, to be equal to K G,
a perpendicular from the middle of the quadrant.
To prove this geometrical proposition, draw A F
and K C intersecting in I, and join H I. Then A
I=IFandAI:lF::AH:H C; therefore HI
is parallel to C F: hence,KI: IC:: KH: HE-¦
G C : C E. Now, K I=F G and I C=G C ; there
fore F G: G C:: G C: C E: hence F G-C E=G
C'=K G'=P G-G D; therefore C E=G D, and,
taking away the line C D common to both, D E is
equal to C G or to K G.
Hence it appears that the distence D E is the sine of 45° ; and therefore nearly 71 of
siich parts as the radius C A contains 100. This projection was first suggested by M. Dela-
hire, and is now commonly called the Globular projection. If we suppose the quadrant A
F divided into ten equal parts, then the projections of the arcs of 9°, reckoning from FtoA,
wUl be as in this table, in which the radius C A is supposed to he 10.

Arc.

Representation,

Arc,

Representation.

CO.,

9°

,991

450.,

540

1.017

9 ,,,

IS

,994

54 ..

63

1.020

18 .,,

27

,999

63 .,

72

1.015

27 ,.,

36

1.004

72 ,,

81

.997

36 ,..

45

1,013

81 ,.

90

.950

Ti 80

Prom this table it appears, that the approximation to equality in the projection of eqnal arcs
of a circle perpendicular to the plane of projection is considerable.
According to the principles of perspective, in this projection the circles of the sphere wiU
be represented by ellipses ; and they have been so delineated in two hemispheres, projected,
drawn, and beautifully engraved by Mr. Joseph Lowry, of London. He has placed London
at the centre of the northern hemisphere, and instead of .707, Delahire's distance of the
projecting point, he has made it .68 of the radius.
In general, however, the projection is made on a meridian, and the circles of the sphere
are represented by circles, and without any regard to the distance of a point of view. Also,
the degrees of longitude on the equator, and of latitude on a meridian, are made aU equal.
With these simplifications, the meridians and parallels on a hemisphere of the earth's sur
face may be represented by the following construction : —
Let us suppose the parallels of latitude to be traced through every tenth degree, and that
the meridians are to be an hour from each other.
Describe a circle, E N Q, S {fig. 53.), for the
representation of the meridian. Draw the diame
ters E Q, N S perpendicular to each other ; one, E
Q, to represent the equator, and the other, N S, the
meridian, which is 90° from that on which the pro
jection is made ; N being the north, and S the south
pole. Divide the quadrante E N, Q N, and the radius
,Q C N, each mto nine equal parts ; let N 80, 80 70,
&c. be the equal divisions of the quadrants, and Nc,
c d, &c. the equal divisions of the radius : describe
a circle through tiie tiiree pointe 80, r , 80, and it
will be tiie representation of the parallel of 80° of
latitude ; in like manner a circle described through
the pointe 70, d, 70 wiU represent the parallel of
70° ; the remaining parallels, the tropics and polar
circles, on botii sides of E Q, the equator, are to be
found in the same manner.

Boos L

REPRESENTATION OP THE EARTH.

159

Next for the meridians : divide the radii C E, C Q each into six equal parts at the pointe
a, b, &c. : describe circles through the points N a S, N 6 S, cSic. and these will be the repre
sentations of the meridians, any one of which, in laying down the positions of places by
their latitude and longitude, may be assumed as the first meridian.
II. construction op maps by DEVELOPE.MENT.
The three methods of projection which have been explained are usually employed in
the representetion of a hemisphere, but are seldom used in delineating the geographical
features of a single country. For these, the method of developement is commonly em
ployed. A perfect geographical representetion of a country should represent all its parts in just
proportion, and should exhibit ite true figure. This is exactly done on the sphere ; but it
can only be nearly accomplished on a plane surface.
The purposes of civU govemment require maps that give the true figure and dimensions
of territory. MUitary afehs require such as give correct distences ; and navigation demands
the exact bearing of one place from another. Ordinary maps fiilfil approximately the two
first purposes. The last is completely satisfied by a map of a peculiar construction, called
Mercator's chart ; but this is not immediately applicable to the other purposes.
It is a known property of a cone that ite curve surface can be expanded into a plane :
hence any figure delineated on it can always be exhibited exactly in all its dimensions on a
plane surfece. Now, a part of the surface of a sphere conteined between two parallels of
latitude, not very remote, wUl not differ much from the surface of a fi-ustum of a cone that
touches the sphere m the parallel midway between them ; and this will also be true if it
pass along the chord, or if it pass partly withm and partly without the sphere, cutting it be
tween the middle and extreme parallels : in each case the length of the slant side of the
frustum must be supposed equal to the length of the meridian between the extreme paral
lels. On this principle, different constructions have been given for representing the surface
of a sphere on a plane. 1. Conical Developement.
Let P A Q {fig. 54.) be a section of the meridian, P Q, the axis, C the centre, E C the
radius of the equator, B D any arc of the meridian, and A the middle point between B and
D : draw the tengent A O, meeting the axis in O. Suppose now the plane figure O A E
to revolve about the axis P Q; the semicircle P A Q, wUl generate a sphere, and the tangent
O A wUl generate the surface of a cone which touches the sphere in A. The points B, A, D
will generate the parallels of latitude B 6, A H a, D d, of which the middle paraUel AH a
wiU be a section of the cone perpendicular to ite axis.
Take H any point in the paraUel A H a; draw F H to ite centre, and join H O. Con-
, ceive now the cone to be expanded into a
" " plane, and that the surfece O A H be
comes, by developement O' A' H'. The
expansion of A H, the arc of the parallel
of latitude on the sphere, whose radius is
F H, the cosine of the latitude, wUl now
become A,' H', an arc of a circle whose
radius is A' O' = A O, the cotangent of
the latitude of the parallel.
In O' A' take A' B' and A' D', each
equal to A B or A D, and with the radii
^ O' B', O' D' describe arcs B' m, D' n.
Il' The plante figure B' m ra D' may now be
taken as nearly equal to the spherical sur-
n face bounded by meridians passing through
A and H, and the portions of the paral
lels B 6, A o intercepted between them :
and any tract of country delmeated on the
sphere may be nearly shown by a delinea
tion on the plane ; the approximation be
mg the more accurate as the breadth of
1 . ., -jji ,...•..,„. , , *^^ spherical zone is less.
Let the middle latitude E A and the angle A F H, or breadth in longitude of the spheri
cal surface, be supposed given, to determme the radius O' A' and the anrfe O' A' H'
Because the middle latitude is known ite cotangent O H is given m parte of the radius by
b»?f th!°""" T '^".f' '"¦.•* "^^^ K^ .expressed in minutes of latitude, by considering that
Pressed"'"'" '""' ^^ ""^'"^ " ^^ '' ^'^"^ ' '^^'^^°'^' *« ^adius'in minutes wUlbe
^ ¦ 60 X 180
"X1416 = 3437.7'.

/ x^

\

—i;^

A I i~

\n

^:— — ^

C /

y
u.
160 PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY. Part H.
Hence O' A', the radius of the middle parallel in the developement, wUl be expressed in
minutes of latitude by 3437.7' X cot middle lat
Next, to find the angle A' O' H'. The arc A H on the sphere and the arc A' H' on the
plane being equal ; by the principles of geometry, the angle A F H wUl be to the angle
A' O' H' as A' O' to A P ; now. A' O' =: A O is the cotangent of the middle latitude, and
A F is its cosine, and the cotangent is to the cosine as radius to the sine ; therefore, putting
L to denote the degrees of longitude between two meridians on the sphere, the angle A' O' H,
contained by the straight lines which represent them in the developement, wUl be in degrees
L X Sine middle lat.
The angle O', and the lines O' A', A' B', A' D', in the developement, are now known ; it
remains only to divide B' D', the representation of the arc of the meridian, and B' m, D' n,
the parallels of latitude, into equal parte to form scales of latitude and longitude : then,
circles described about O' as a centre, through the proper divisions of B' D', wUl form the
parallels of latitude ; and straight lines drawn joining corresponding degrees on the extreme
parallels B' m, D' n, will represent the meridians on the map ; which is now ready for the
delineation of the geographical features of the tract it is to represent. This is the way in
which the common maps are constructed.
Example. Let it be required to construct a map to comprehend the British islands,
which extend from 50° to about 61° of north latitude, and from 2° east to 11° west about 13°
of longitude. The middle latitude is 55° 30', of which the cotangent in the tables is .68728
and sine = .82413. From these data, O' A', the radius of the middle paraUel, is
3437.7 X .68728 = 2362' .7 : the length of the arc B D is 11° = 660' ; therefore, A' B' =
A' D', its half, is 330, and hence O B = 2362.7 X 330 = 2692'.7
O A = 2362.7 — 330 = 2032'.7.
The number of degrees of longitude (L) in this case is 13° ; therefore, angle A' 0' H'
= 13° X .82413 = 10° 42.
Knowing now the radii O' B', O' D', and the angle O', we can find the arcs B' m,D'n;
or we can find their chords.
Thus we have, chord of arc B' m = 2 O B Sm. J O' = 375' .6.
chord of arc D' n = 2 O D Sm. ^ O' = 502' .1.
We have now obtained the chords of 13° of longitude on the extreme parallels, and the
meridians which form their extremities in minutes of a degree of the meridian ; also the
radii of the parallels of latitude : with these, the intelligent student of geography wUl find
no difficulty in constructing a map of Britain.
2. Murdoch's Conical Developement.
There have been various modifications of the conical developement : of these, one was
given by the Rev. Patrick Murdoch, in the Lond. Phil. Trans. 1758. Let M denote the arj
of the meridian which is to be represented in a map: he proposed to make O' A', the radius
of the middle parallel, equal to chord of arc M
 ^Tf  X Cot mid. lat
arc M
the cotangent being supposed expressed by the radius of tiie sphere. The remainder of the
construction is the same as the ordinary conical projection.
By Murdoch's method, the surface of the developement is exactly equal to the spherical
surface which it represents, and the cone passes through points of the meridian between the
middle latitudes and the extremities of the projected arc, ite side being parallel to the tangent
at the middle latitude. 3. De Idsle's Conical Developement.
The astronomer De Lisle employed the conical projection in constructing a general chart
of the Russian empire, which extended from 40° to 70° of north latitude. He, however,
supposed the cone to enter the sphere so as to cut it in two parallels midway between the
mean and extreme parallels : these, in the developement, had the same dimensions as the
corresponding circles of the sphere, and its whole extent differed but little from that of the
tract it was meant to represent ; because the excess at tiie two extremities of tiie chart was
compensated, at least in part, by the opposite error in the middle.
4. Euler's Method.
Euler was also occupied with this projection : but he substituted for tiie determination of
parallels whicli sliould be common with tiie sphere, that of the point of concourse of straight
lines which roprosi-nt the meridians, and of the angle which they make when tney contain
one degree of longitmlo. Hi.^ calculations rest on tiie following conditions : — 1. That the
errors are equal at the nortiiern and southern extremities of the mao. 2. That they are

Book I.

REPRESENTATION OP THE EARTH.

161

also equal to the greatest of those towards ite middle. Hence he concluded that the pomt
of concourse of the meridians should be situated beyond the pole by a quantity equal to 5°
of latitude, and that the angle of two consecutive meridians should be 48° 44'.
5. Flamsteed's Projection.
The Entrlish astronomer Plamsteed, in constructing his celestial aUas, developed all the
parallels of latitude on the sphere into straight Imes, and also one of the meridians; viz. that
which passes through the middle of the chart : then tiie parallels, which are all perpen
dicular to that meridian, are exactly of the same length as on the globe, and consequently
the degrees of longitude on the parallels will be shown in their just proportion, that is, as
the cosmos of the latitude. If, now, the parallels on the map be divided into equal parts,
just as the parallels on the globe are, by the meridians, curve lines traced through corre
sponding pointe of division wUl represent the meridians.
The adjoining figure {fig. 55.) exhibite a sketch of a map of
this construction.
According to Flamsteed's method, any distance on the map in
the direction of the parallels is everywhere equal to the corre
sponding distance on the globe ; but the configuration of places
near the extremities is considerably distorted by the obliquity of
the meridians to the parallels, so that tiie spherical quadrUaterals,
°°""'' the sides of which cross at right angles, are in the map represented
by mixtUineal trapeziums, of which the angles are very unequal. Plamsteed employed this
projection in representing the positions of the stars ; but it is also employed in geography,
particularly in delineating countries which extend on both sides of the equator : Africa, for

North.

////

T\\\

///'

1 \\\

/V-ti-

\ \\\

nii^

\ \\\

instance.

6. Modification of Flamsteed's Projection.

There is a modification of Flamsteed's projection (Jig. 56.), which has been extensively
Kg employed, and which deserves particular attention, because it
^ correcte, in part, the defect of the obliquity of the meridians.
This substitutes arcs of concentric circles for the straight lines,
which he proposed to represent the parallels of latitude. The
common centare of the circles is in a straight line dra-wn
through the middle of the map as an axis, and which repre
sents a meridian ; and ite position in the axis ought to be such,
that the obliquity of the angles made at the intersection of the
curves which represent the meridians, and the circles which
represent the parallels, should be as little as possible.
The position of the centre is so assumed, that the radius of
the middle parallel of latitude is equal to its cotangent ; and
in this the modified projection of Plamsteed agrees with the
\g ordinary conical projection.
To exemplify this construction, let it be proposed to describe
the parallels and meridians for a map of Europe, which shall
extend from 35° north latitude to 70°.
Let us, as before, assume a minute of a degree of latitude for the unit of the scale
from which the measures of the lines are to be taken. Therefore, as before, the radius of
the sphere, of which a portion of the spherical surface is to be represented, will he 3437.7
minutes. Let O A C B {fig. 56.) he assumed as the axis or middle meridian of the map; and let
A D, B E be the halves of the part of the extreme parallels of latitude to be represented,
and C the point in which the middle parallel (52° 30') cuts the axis ; also, let O be the
centre of the circles, arcs of which are to represent the parallels.
By the nature of the projection, O C must be taken equal to the cotangent of 52° 30' ;
this, to radius = 1, is .76733, and to a radius expressed by minutes, we have
O C = .76733 X 3437.7 = 2637'.8.
Having found O C, the radius of the middle parallel, the radius of any other parallel may
be found by adding or subtracting its distance in minutes of the meridian from the middle
parallel. Thus we find the radu of parallels differing by 5°, as in the annexed table : —
Next, we must find the points in which some one meri
dian cute all the parallels. We shall suppose it to be 30°
of longitude from O C, the axis of the map.
From the nature of the developement, the arc of longi
tude on any parallel in the map is equal to the arc of the
parallel on the sphere which it represente. This has to an arc of the same number of
degrees of the meridian the proportion of the cosine of the latitude of the parallel to the
Vol. L 14* V

Parallel.

Radius,

Parallel.

Bailius.

350

36R7.8

55

2487.8

40

3367.8

60

2187.8

45

3087.8

OS

1887.8

50

2787.8

70

1587.8

162

PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY.

PartU.

radius. Therefore, an arc of 30° = 1800' on a parallel whose latitude is L wUl be in
minutes, leOOXcosme L.
By this formula, the lengths of the arcs may be easily computed by a table of logarithmic
sines; but, for a practical construction, it wUl be more convenient to have the chords of the
arcs. Now, in arcs not exceeding 30°, the arc diminished by a fraction whose numerator is
the cube of the arc, and denominator 24 times the square of the radius, is very near equal
to the chord ; that is, a being put for any arc, and r its radius,
chord a=a — gj— nearly.
Prom this formula, the chords may easUy be deduced from the arcs.
As an example, let the arc of 30° of longitude, and ite chord on the parallel 35°, be
required. For facility of calculation, we shall use logarithms.

Calculation of Arc.

Calculation of Log. of 24ra.

Logarithtnfl-

lijgwithms.

2

Log. of square of radius  7.13354
24  1.38021

3

Logarithm 24r2  8.51375
Differ, of arc and chord 9' .8  099214
Par. of Lat.
Am.
Chord of Arc.
35
1474.5
1464.7
40
1378.9
1369.4
45
1272.8
1263.8
50
1157.0
1148.7
55
1032.4
1025.0
60
900.0
893.6
65
760.7
755.5
70
615.6
611.8
Thus, by an easy logarithmic calculation, we have found the arc
to he 1474'.5, and ite excess above the chord to be 9'.8. There
fore, the chord is 1464'.7 of the meridian. By a tike process,
we have found the arcs of 30° of longitude, and their chorda
on the parallels to every fifth degree, as in this table.
Having now found the chord of 30° of longitude on the paral
lel of 35° to be 1464'.7 of the meridian, we must, with com
passes, place that distance taken from a scale of minutes from
B to E, and to e ; and the points E, e wUl be in the representations of meridians 30° of lon
gitude from the axis on each side. In the same way, the intersections of these meridians
with the other parallels are found. Curve Imes E D, e d must now be traced through aU
the intersections, and these wUl be the meridians on the map.
The intersections of the intermediate meridians with the parallels may be found by divid
ing each parallel into thirty equal parte, from the axis both ways ; and as many meridian
lines may be exhibited as may be thought necessary. In the figure here given, they are
traced to every tenth degree.
If the map is to extend further than 30° on each side of ite middle meridian, the divisions
of the parallels may be repeated on each, and meridians drawn.
This construction of a map is memorable, because it was adopted by the general depot of
war of Prance, about the year 1803, as the groundwork of a system of geographical charts
which should exhibit the French original territory, as well as the additions which had been
made, and were expected to be made, by conquest or negotiation.
Developement of the Curve Surface of a Cylinder.
The mariner, in navigating a ship between remote pointe on the globe, directe his course
by the compass ; steering as nearly as possible always in the same direction, supposing there
are no obstacles to prevent him. If the place from which he sete out and that of his des
tination, be due north and south from each other, the ship's path will evidently be a great
circle, viz. the meridian passmg through them. If, again, they have the same latitude, he
must sail on a parallel of latitude ; that is, his course must be due east or west But if tiie
places differ both in latitude and longitude, then it becomes a question, what is the nature
of the line on the globe along which a ship must sail, with her head always in the same
direction, as indicated by the compass, so as to pass from one to the other ?
The line in question, which is called a rhumb line or loxodromic line, has manifestly this
property, — it cuts all the meridians on the globe at tlie same angle. By this property, a
ship sailing along it will move always in the same direction, as shown by a compass : but it
will not be a great circle ; for the equator is the only great circle tiiat cute all the meridians
at tho same angle ; and hence it appears that the line on the globe by which a ship passes
froni one place to anotiier is never the shortest possible, except when they are on the same
meridian, or on the equator.
Supposing a navigator had a perfect delineation of the earth on a sphere, it is by no means
evident how he should find the course he ought to steer to reach a remote port By due con
sideration, however, he would see tiiat Uie path must be a spiral. It would also be repre-
Book H. REPRESENTATION OP THE EARTH. 163
sented by a spiral curve on a map, formed by the developement of a cone ; but navigators
required charts before the theory of such curves was understood ; therefore at that period his
art must have been imperfect.
The wante of the navigator, accordingly, gave rise to the construction of a chart in which
the meridians and parallels were straight lines ; and in this the developement of the curve
surface of a cylinder was employed. Let us conceive that a zone of the earth's surface, of
no great extent in latitude, is inscribed in or circumscribed about a right cylinder, whose
axis coincides with that of the globe : the planes of the meridians will cut the curve surface
of the cylinder in straight lines, parallel to the axis ; and the planes of the parallels will cut
it in sections perpendicular to the axis, which will be circles equal to the base of the cylin
der. But in supposing the surface of the cylinder developed into a plane, these circles wiU
oecome straight lines, perpendicular to the meridians. This developement has received the
name of the plane chart : ite invention is attributed to Henry, son of John, king of Por
tugal. This kind of chart has nothing but its simplicity to recommend it ; for the degrees
of longitude have, indeed, their just proportion to the degrees of latitude in the parallel com
mon to the cylinder and sphere, but in no other parallel.
In the developement of a cylinder circumscribing the whole sphere, the area of any zone
in the sphere is exactly equal to that of its representetion in the chart ; and indeed the same
equality may be observed in all cases, by a proper assumption of a parallel of latitude as the
base of the cylinder. The developement, however, has this great fault, — the degrees of
longitude always err in excess towards the north and in defect towards the south of tiie mean
parallel, which is assumed as the base of the cylinder.
There is a construction, described in books of navigation under the name of a plane chart,
the principle of which is somewhat different from that just described. In the seaman's piano
chart the meridians are parallel straight lines, and so also are the parallels of latitude ; and
both are so laid down that a degree of latitude and a degree of longitude are equal in all
latitudes. It may easily be conceived how incompetent such a representation must be to the
purposes of navigation or geography. Mercator's Chart.
The utter inadequacy of the old plane charte to the wants of geography and navigation
induced ingenious men to consider whether a chart might not be so constructed as to repre
sent the meridians and parallels by straight lines, and at the same time readily show the true
bearmgs of places from one another. The first that gave a true solution— at least an
approximate one — of this unportant problem was Gerard Mercator, who was born at
Ruremond, m Upper Guelderland, m the year 1512, and published a chart in 1556, wherem
the rhumbs, which on the globe are spirals, were represented by straight lines, as in the
plane chart; and so also were the meridians and parallels. It is not known by what prin
ciple Mercator constructed his chart; it has been supposed that he observed on a globe fiir-
nished with rhumbs what meridians the rhumbs passed in each degree of latitude - it is cer
tain he did not know the true principles of the construction; for these were first found by
Edward Wright of Cams College, in Cambridge, who communicated his discovery lio his
friend Thomas BlundevUle, with a short table, showing the correct distances of the parallels
of latitude from the equator, which was published m 1594 by BlundeviUe, among his Exer
cises The truth of the divisions of Mercator's chart was then tried by the numbers ffiven
by Wright and they were found to be inaccurate; hence it appears that Mercator d& not
understand the principles of the map bearing his name, and that this hnportant invention is
due to Wright who explamed it himself, in his treatise entitled The Correction of certain
Errors m Navigation, published 1599, but written many years before
Although Wright's numbers were sufficiently correct for all nautical purposes, and miffht
be carried to any degree of accuracy, yet in the progress of mathematical science, an im
provement was made m his theory. Napier's invention of logarithms had proved an inesti
mable advantage to navigation and geography, by shortenmg calculations : this, however
was not the only advantage that the navigator derived from the invention ; for, about thTyear
1645, Henry Bond showed that the division of the meridian in Wright's chart was aCether
analogous to the logarithmic tangente of half the complemente of the latitudes and St
be expressed by them. He seems to have fomid this by chance : such accideS drscoS
^llrZ^^^ll T7\ "'^'r "' *'y '""^ °{ ^^"'"^- He could not demonstrate hLmportan
n ifi^Q rnl^"^' ^'"^"'¦y ^T""^ '^ *™* « hi« Exercitationes GeometrtriT
Jished in 1668. The constmction of the chart was now made perfect ^''™""''°'' P^"-
The invention of Mercator's chart one of the most important m the 16th century afford.,
a notable instance of the slowness with which men adopt iinprovemente in science A IthnT
designed for the use of sailors, it was at first by no mefns generaUru ed w them mm^t
Burrough, a celebrated navigator, who had entered on hil profession at the »f^'„P^i
and risen by his merit to the rank of controller of Queen El Seh'smw f f ?^^^-"'
usefiilness. He said-'' By Mercator's augmentmg h^degrei of latitu^^^^^^
the same is more fit for such to behold as study in'cosmogSphy, byleadtSt S^he

longitude 120 Went from 60 Greenwicll 40

BookL

REPRESENTATION OP THE EARTIL

165

land, than to he used m navigation at the sea." It is curious to observe that logarithms, the
other grand auxUiary of navigation, met with a like reception from the German mathema
ticians that were somewhat advanced in years.
Mercator's chart may be produced by developement, as follows : — Conceive that a sphere
with the meridians and paraUels and countries delmeated on it, is mclosed m a hollow cyl
inder, and that the axis of the sphere coincides with that of tiie cylmder. Imagine now that
the sphere is expanded in ite dimensions, just as a soap-bubble is produced by blowing air into
it or as a bladder would sweU in all dhections by inflation, the parte always stretchmg uni
formly ; the meridians wUl lengthen in the same proportion as the parallels, tUl every point
of the expanding spherical surface comes into contact with the concave surface of the cyl
inder : the meridians wUl at last become sfaaight lines, and the parallels, circles on that
surface ; the former in the direction of ite length, and the latter parallel to its base, which
is the equator. Suppose now the surfece of the cylinder to be cut open along one of the
meridians, and spread into a plane ; the surface thus produced will be Mercator's chart.
Mercator's chart is constructed, then, on the following geometrical principles : — 1. The
meridians are parallel sfaaight lines at equal distances, for equal differences of longitude ;
and the parallels of latitude are also sfaaight lines, perpendicular to the meridians. 2. Sup
posing a meridian on the globe be divided into minutes of a degree ; one of these, at a,ny
parallel of latitude, wUl be to a minute of longitude taken on that parallel in the proportion
of the radius of the equator to the radius of the parallel, which is the cosine of the latitude ;
that is, as the secant of the latitude to radius. Now the same holds true in the chart ; that
is, a minute of the meridian, at any parallel, has to a minute of longitude in that parallel the
proportion of the secant of the latitude of the parallel to radius.
By the first of these properties a minute of longitude in the map is represented by a line
of the same length in every parallel ; therefore, by the second the minutes of the meridian
wUl be represented by lines which go on increasing from the equator towards the poles.
From this it follows that if a minute on the equator be taken as tiie unit of a scale, and that
unit be considered as the radius of a circle, then the representation of a minute of the
meridian, at any latitude, will be expressed by the number in the trigonometrical tables
which is the secant of that latitude. Thus it appears that, whUe the degrees of longitude
on the equator form a scale of which the divisions are all equal in the map, the degrees of
latitude marked on a meridian form a scale of which the divisions go on increasing from the
equator towards both poles, each being the sum of the secante of all the minutes in the
degree. The numbers which result from the addition of the secante of 1 minute, 2 minutes, and so
on to the last minute of any arc of the meridian, reckoned from the equator, are given in
books on navigation. They form the table of meridional parts, and serve for laying down
the position of any place in the chart. The addition of the secants is, however, only an
approximation to the tme length of the enlarged meridian in the chart ; but it is sufficiently
near the truth for nautical or geographical purposes. In strictness, also, it must be considered
that the earth is not a sphere, but a spheroid, and on that account allowance ought to be
made for ite compression at the poles. The following short table shows the length of the
enlarged meridian, both on the sphere and the spheroid, to every fifth degree of latitude.
The compression is assumed to be f^f.

Lat.

Meridional Parts.

Lat.

Meridional Parts.

Sphere.
Spheroid.
Sphere.
Spheroid,
0°
0.00
0.00
50O
3474.47
3457,39
S
300.38
298.37
55
396f.97
3950,57
10
603.07
599.01
60
4527.37
4509.41
15
910.46
905.28
65
5178.81
5159.93
20
1235.14
1217.69
70
5965.92
5945.51
25
1549.99
1541.17
75
6970.34
6951.07
30
1888.38
1877.99
80
8375.29
8352.24
35
2244.29
2232.09
85
10764.62
10741.75
40
2622.69
2608.35
90
Infinite,
Infinite.
45
3029.94
3014.41
To construct Mercator's chart {fig. 57.), draw two straight Imes W E, N S at right
angles to each other, mtersecting m C ; of these W E is to represent the equator, and N S.
a meridian, in the middle of the chart : from any convenient scale lay off equal parts alono-
the equator, from C both ways, to represent degrees of longitude, and each of which should,
if there be room, contain 60 subdivisions for minutes.
Assuming the equator as a scale of mmutes, lay off from C, north and south on the middle
meridian, the number of minutes in the enlarged meridian, corresponding to each degree of
latitude as shown by a table of meridional parts, of which that just given is an abridgement
Draw sfaaight Imes through every fifth or every tenth degree of the equator and divided
meridian, and perpendicular to them. The perpendiculars to the equator wUl be meridians,
and the lines parallel to it parallels of latitude.
166

PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY.
Pig. 57.

PartH.

N
30
f\
L
60
/
1
40
60
40
20
20 C
ao
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
160
140
120
100
80
w
20
40
S
60 80
To put any place in its proper position on the chart, assume some one meridian for the
first, and lay off from its intersection with the equator, and along it in the proper direction,
the longitude of the place in minutes ; draw a line through the point thus found perpen
dicular to the equator : this will be the meridian of the place.
On this meridian lay off the latitude, as shown by the table of meridional parte ; and the
point thus determined will be the true position of the place in the chart
To find the bearing of one point from another, or course in which a ship ought to sail in
passing from one to the other, draw a sfaaight line joining the two points, and the angle
which that line makes with the meridians is the course or bearing.
Thus, if L be the Lizard Pomt on the chart, and M the east end of the Island of Madeha,
draw L I parallel to the meridian N S, and the angle I L M wiU be the course on which a
ship ought to steer from the Lizard to reach Madeira.
¦The course may be found by a trigonometrical calculation, by considering that the meri
dional difference of latitude of the two places (as given by the table of meridional parte),
and the difference of longitude in minutes, are the sides of a right-angled faiongle, of which
the line joining the places is the hypotenuse, and the course one of the acute angles, viz.
that made by the meridian and line joining the places.
Again, the distance of the places, measured on the rhumb Ime passmg through them,
may also be found by trigonometry. It is the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle, of
which the proper difference of latitude (not the meridional difference) is one side, and the
course the adjacent angle.
These properties of the chart apply alike to the bearings and distances of all places on
the globe measured on rhumb lines. The bearing and distances of London, Edinburgh, and
Dublin, for instance, from each, may be found in this way from a table of meridional parte
and their known latitudes and longitudes.
It is evident that Mercator's chart does not serve well to show tiie figure of the counfaies
on the globe, nor their relative magnitudes. These are purposes, however, which it is not
intended to serve ; but it does serve perfectly the purposes for which it was first consfaucted,
and which, before its invention, were a desideratum in geography.
THE HEMISPHERES.

167

168 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. Part H.
BOOK II.
GEOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES.
Geology is that branch of natural history which treate of the atmosphere, the waters of
the globe, and of the mountain-rocks of which the earth is composed. No department of
natural history abounds more in unportant facte and interesting conclusions ; and therefore
we shall lay before our readers a short view, 1st, Of the natural history of the atmosphere,
or meteorology ; 2dly, Of the natural history of the waters of the globe, or hydrology ; and,
3dly, Of the solid materials of which the earth is composed, or geognosy.

CHAPTER L
METEOROLOGY.
This beautifiil department of science makes us acquainted with aU the properties and
relations of the atmosphere which surrounds our planet. Although in general but littie
studied by geologists, a knowledge of it is, nevertheless, most usefiil in a geological point of
view, of which the detaUs we shall now lay before our readers wUl afford ample proof
Sect. I. — Pressure, Height, Form, and Temperature of the Atmosphere.
The air in which we breathe, with the clouds and vapours floating in it surrounds the
earth on all sides to an unknown height and forms a moveable envelope denominated the
atmosphere. The human species, and other land animals, being thus entirely immersed in
this fluid, may with some propriety be said to inhabit an ocean as reaUy as the fishes which
live in the great deep. But the latter have the advantage in being able to mount up,
remain, or descend at pleasure in their element : whereas, without some additional aid, we
must content ourselves with the more humble allotment of remaining on the bottom of our
ocean. The winged tribes, doubtless, have the power of ascending to great heighte ; still
they can never reach the summit. There is nothing more essential to the existence or
health of man himself, or of the various inferior animals and vegetables which live on our
globe, than the air or atmosphere ; nor has any agent a greater share in the innumerable
changes which are daily taking place in the inanimate materials composing our planet. It
is not wonderful, then, that the composition and properties of the atmosphere should have
so often excited inquiry. To give an account of these, and of their relations to other
bodies, particularly to the various substances which are diffiised in the atmosphere, and
really or apparently deposited from it, constitutes the science of meteorology. \MiUst
engaging in this task, so far as our limite permit, it will be fully as instractive, and scarcely
more tedious, occasionally to introduce a very brief sketch of the mode m which some of the
leading fiicts were first discovered ; but there is reason to think that a few of tiie more obvi
ous properties of air have been known, as it were instinctively, from the remotest antiquity.
That air is a body or substance possessing the essential properties of matter, appears
from the resistance which it offers to the occupation of ite place by other bodies. Thus, if
an apparently empty glass jar be first inverted, and then immersed in a vessel of water, that
liquid will only enter a very little way into the jar, the rest being occupied by the air. This
familiar experiment shows that air is a body, by its resisting the entry of the water. At the
same time it shows the air to be an elasti'. or compressible substance, otherwise it should
have completely excluded the water. Thai it is a fluid is evident from the ease with which
bodies move in it, from ite pressing equally in every direction, and passing with great fitcUity
through exfaemely minute openings.
The ancients must have been aware of these properties, or at least of some of their
practical applications, otherwise they could not have constructed tiieir powerful air-guns,
nor availed themselves of the principle of the diving-bell : for, in those early ages, the
adventurers who dived in search of pearls, &c. were accustomed to hold large pote or ketties
inverted on their heads. The air which these open vessels contained both excluded the
water, and for a short time supported respiration ; tiius forming diving-bells in a portable
shape. The ancients likewise, in. some of their mechanical confaivances, avaUed them.selves
of that property, of air by which it expands with heat and confaacte with cold. It was on
this principle that, in more modern times, Sanctorio constructed the air thermometer.
Weight and pressure are properties of the air as of all otiier bodies : it presses on the
earth's surface, and on every other body witii which it comes into contact This was con
jectured even by the ancients. But the effects which are now known to result from the
weight and elasticity of the air were for a long time ascribed to a principle called nature's
horror of a vacuum. So late as the beginning of tiie seventeentii century, it was generally
believed, that the ascent of water in pumps was owing to tiiis principle, and that by means

Book IL METEOROLOGY. 169
of suction fluids might be raised to any height whatever. But GalUeo, though still mclining
to the old opmion, remarked that water did not rise in a common pump unless the sucker or
bucket reached witiim 34 feet of ite surface m tiie well. Hence he was forced to conjec
ture, that not the power of suction, but tiie pressure of tiie atmosphere on the surface of the
well, was the cause of tiie water's ascent; tiiat a column of water 34 feet high was a coun
terpoise to one of air on an equal base, but reachmg to the top of the atmosphere ; and that,
for this reason, water could not follow tiie sucker any farther. ,, ^ ^u
TorriceUi, a disciple of GalUeo, profited by this hmt. It occurred to him that the same
force which supported water to the height of 34 feet would sustain a column of any other
fluid which weighed as much on an equal base ; and therefore mercury, being 13.6 tunes as
heavy as water, should only be suspended to tiie height of 29 or 30 mches. Accordingly,
he took a glass tube from three to four feet long, and closed at one end ; this he filled with
mercury; tiien, stopping ite mouth with his finger, he inverted the tube, and on re-openmg
ite moutii m a vessel of quicksilver the result verified his expectation. The mercury,
obeying the laws of hydrostatics, descended ui the tube tiU the vertical column was about
30 mches above the level of the cistern, leavmg the remaining space at the top empty or
nearly a vacuum. Hence he inferred that it was only the weight or pressure of the
atmosphere on the mercury ui the cistern, which balanced the column m the tube. This
is usually called the ToriceUian experunent, and is the foundation of the barometer.
The mean pressure is everywhere the same at the level of the sea, and equal to about
144 lbs. on the square inch. It becomes less as the place is elevated above the sea, and
gre'ater if below its level. The pressure of the atmosphere, as measured by the mercurial
column, varies somewhat at every place on the earth's surface. Generally speaking, its
variations are greatest in the temperate zones, decreasing towards the equator and poles.
The annual range rarely exceeds half an mch m the torrid zone. It is about two inches at
London, and the same at St Petersburg, but rather less at MelvUle Island. It nowhere
exceeds 3| inches. The annual range is more considerable at the level of the sea than on
mountains ; and under the same latitude it is less, as the height of the place above the sea
is greater. The barometer has a tendency to rise from 4 P. M. to 10 P. M. ; to fall from
10 P. M. to 4 A. M. ; to rise from 4 A. M. to 10 A. M. ; and again to fall from 10 A. M. to
4 P. M. Different authors, however, differ a littie both as to the hours and the amount of
the dhirnal variation, which appears to be greater as the latitude is lower. The barometer
is likewise elevated a little at the quarters of the moon, and depressed at the new and flill.
The range of this instrument is greater in winter than in summer.
The barometer ranges higher in proportion as tiie weather is more serene and settled ;
calm weather, with a tendency to rain, depresses it ; high winds have a simUar effect In
extra-tropical climates, a fall in the barometer, with a change or rise of wind, is usually
followed by rain.
The law which regulates the elasticity of the air formed the next important step, after the
discovery of the pressure. Boyle in England, and Mariotte in France, discovered, much
about the same time, that the temperature being the same, the pressure or elastic force of
air is directly as ite density, or inversely as the space it occupies. This law, though received
as correct at the time of its discovery, continued to be suspected till within these few years.
But Dulong and Petit have recently examined it through a wide range of temperature ;
Professor Oersted has tried it under a great variety of pressures ; and within the limits of
their experimente it was found to hold good.
The variable capacity for heat forms another property of air of no less importance, but
which seems to have been little known or attended to till towards the end of the last cen
tury. When air undergoes a change of volume, it at the same time changes ite capacity for
heat ; becoming hotter by compression, and colder by rarefaction. The want of acquaintance
with this circumstance led Newton, and many others after him, into the mistake of con
cluding, that the particles of elastic fluids repel each other with forces inversely as their
central distances ; which cannot be the case if the capacity be affected, no matter in what
manner or degree, by a change of density. But very extensive experimente, made by some
of the most eminent scientific men in France, and repeated in England, are favourable to the
idea that the particles of air observe the same law as magnetism and electricity, repelling
each other with forces inversely as the squares of their distances.
•There is a gradation of density in the air. Being, as already stated, a compressible body,
it is obvious that the lower parte of the atmosphere, by susteinmg the greater weight or
pressure of the air above them, must be so much the more condensed ; and therefore, as we
ascend in the atmosphere, the density wUl continually diminish. Accordingly, it may be
shown from the principles already laid down, that were the temperature and the force of
gravity uniform at all heights above the earth's surface, the densities of the strata would
decrease in geometrical progression for altitudes taken in arithmetical progression, so as
nearly to halve the density for every 3,5 miles of ascent But independently of a triflino-
change in the force of gravity, this is not exactly the law of nature ; for it is found that the
temperature generally decreases as we go upward, and that not according to any fixed law.
Vol. I, 15 -y^

170

PRINCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY.

Part II.

Hence the relation between the density and altitude is not of a steady character, and can
only be obtained in any particular case from observing the pressure, temperature, and hygro-
metric state of the air. This is a research to which many eminent men have tumed their
attention ; and their successive labours have led to the formation of convenient rules, by
which the heighte of mountains can be obtained to a. considerable degree of accuracy, and
with great facility, by means of the barometer, &c.
The height and form of the atmosphere are objecte of interest. With an uniform tem
perature, the law of Boyle would involve the notion that ite height is infinite ; but this is an
idea which has scarcely any supporters, and is generaUy believed to be incompatible with
the laws of motion. Dr. WoUaston, whose opinion is entitled to great deference, mam-
teins that the atmosphere must terminate at the height where the repulsive force between
its particles equals their tendency to gravitate towards the earth. The law of gravity may
be admitted as known, but the same can hardly be affirmed of the law which regulates the
repulsive force, so long as the temperature at great heighte is unknown ; and this circum
stance leaves the boundary undetermined. A doubt of a more serious nature, however,
attaches to this speculation, on the ground that we are totally ignorant with what materials
the air may be mixed at great elevations. The atmosphere is generally supposed to be
higher at the equator than at the poles ; but we have neither data for computing the heights,
nor the proportion in which they differ : so that the oblate spheroidal figure which some give
to the atmosphere can be considered as little else than an ingenious conjecture.
The temperature of the atmosphere has great influence on most meteorological pheno
mena ; but it is exceedingly variable, and can as yet be determined only by actual observa
tion on the spot. Nothing would tend to throw greater light on many of the unresolved
questions in meteorology, than a ready mode of computing with certainty the temperature
which obtains at any instant in a point of the atmosphere remote from the contact of the
earth's surface, and at any point on the surface remote from the observer : but these are
likely to continue desiderata. The very little that is known of the temperature of air remote
from the earth's surface has been derived from a few aeronautic excursions, particularly the
ascent of M. Gay-Lussac to the height of 7630 yards.
The heat of the air in one shape or another is no doubt greatly derived from the sun,
either immediately, by intercepting the solar rays, or indirectly, from ite contact with the
earth's surface, which is more or less heated according as it is tumed more or less towards
the sun : but whether heat, in return, be projected from the earth or ite atmosphere towards
other regions of space, is a disputed question. Professor Leslie maintains that heat which
is not accompanied with or rather is not in the state of light, cannot pass through a vacuum,
and, of course, that it cannot pass the boundary of the atmosphere. If so, it would foUow
that the atmosphere does not continually draw off heat from the earth, but may oftener be
the warmer of the two. Many philosophers, however, are of a different opinion, among
whom was the ingenious Dr. Wells, with most of those who embraced his theory of dew.
These allege, that heat is constantly projected from the earth and atmosphere towards the
boundless regions of space. Observation shows, that much heat passes upward from the
earth's surface, especially when the air is clear. In this way, the stratum of air in contact
with the surface is cooled more than that which is somewhat higher. It is probable that
there exists a natural tendency in the atmosphere, as in most other bodies, towards an uni
form temperature throughout its whole.height ; and since currente in ite upper regions usually
come from a warmer quarter, and the lower currente from a colder, there is upon tiie whole,
independently of aeronautic observations, some ground for supposing that the decrease of
temperature on ascending in the atmosphere should be slower than the law of capacity as
increased by dilatation requires.
The following list of temperatures, chiefly observed at stations employed in the barome
trical measuremente of heighte, is taken from M. Ramond's work on that subject Only a
few of these measurements embrace the whole heights of the mountains on which they
were made, and the first case is of a different class. We have reduced the temperatures to_
Fahrenheit's scale : —

Flacca.

Height.

Temp, al bot.

Temp-
at top.

PlQcen.

Height.

Tomp.at bol.

Temp.nt top.

Tnrda. 7630 GIS7
47ba 40774070 3B409408 39^0S1T4 acoo3304

87.477.0eao ei.770.8 79.4 is.e78.170.8CO i
81. A
07.373.074.300,8 00.4oac70,077.0

o
14.8
30. 1
30,830.1 47.120.8 30.044.440.1 38.169.047.040.6 eo,7
40.0 3U.930.740.1HA

Vords 93179944 1808 1163 611
637 416

70.3 68.160171.470.36S.S 60.664.066.068.170 3
64.0OS.S76.6fll.E61.6 82.8 T4.6

61.8
87.6 61.646.440.8 49.836.6
44.6 43.441.467.9CJ.4 63.16D.474.148.496.87i.a

El MO :„„:.„.;.....:.*.".;¦.; ;:;;;;".:;:";::!
Col du Ucaiil 
Molntlrtlp 
DUIo 
Book H.

METEOROLOGY.

171

Equatorial zone

Temperate zone

Height in

from lat. flo to 10°.

from lat. 45° to 47°

feet.
Mean Differ.
Mean
Differ
Temp. ence.
Temp.
ence,
0 o
o
o
0
3195
65.1 S-^
53.641.0
,12.6 9.4
6393
31.6
9567
23.4
12792
15965
Tb.is table shows, in a very strikmg manner, with how littie certainty the decrease of
temperature can be estunated from the increase of height ; and how unsteady the rate of
decrease is often at the same place. M. Ramond, however, has collected some cases which
are still more discordant
The preceding table contains the temperatures of the air at different heights for one or a
few particular instante ; but we shall now add a table from Baron Humboldt of the mean
temperatures of elevated situations, as deduced from several years' observations. The
degrees are those of Fahrenheit's scale.
From this table it appears, that, in the mean state of the atmosphere, the temperature
does not decrease uniformly for a uniform ascent.
At the equator, the thermometer falls 10° in the
first 1000 yards of ascent or about 1° for 310 feet.
In the next 1000 yards, it is only 1° for 524 feet ;
but in the third and fourth stages there is a re
markable acceleration, which having attained ite
maximum rate, is diminished again in the fifth
stage to somewhat less than it was in the first or
to 1° in 320 feet. The mean rate in the varia
tion of temperature, throughout the whole height
of 15965 feet, at the limit of perpetual snow, is 1°
for every 341 feet The smaller rate of decrease in the second and third stages is ascribed
by Humboldt to the large dense clouds which are suspended in this region, and which, he
alleges, have the triple effect of absorbing the sun's rays, forming rain, and intercepting
the radiation of heat from the earth. In the temperate zone, the decrease is at the rate of
1° for 253 feet during the first 1000 yards of ascent. But throughout the whole height of
9587 feet, to the limit of perpetual snow, where the mean temperature is 23.4°, the decrease
is 1° for 317 feet, or almost 1° for 100 yards. As already remarked, observations made in
the free regions of the atmosphere have not yet been so numerous as to warrant any certain
conclusion regarding the temperature ; but so far as such observations go, they do not differ
very widely from the mean of those observed on the sides and summite of mountains. But
generally in the temperate zone, a difference of 1000 yards in height will produce a difference
of 12° of temperature ; and so on in proportion for smaller heights. In higher regions, the
difference between the heate of day and night, summer and winter, seem to be less than at
the level of the sea ; though from this there are some exceptions. Extensive table-lands
are usually warmer than insulated peaks of the same height. Humboldt calculates that, in
the temperate zone, an ascent of 110 yards diminishes the temperature as much as an addi
tional degree of latitude.
Temperature of air in mines. Having thus noticed the lower temperatures which obtain
in more elevated situations, we shall now give some account of the increased temperature
which generally prevails in air occupying deep caverns and mines. There can be no doubt
as to such facte, but the source of the heat is still a subject of controversy. There are some
mines intensely cold ; and as these were first observed, the explanation offered was, that
the colder portions of air had, by their greater weight descended into the mines : but this
solution entirely vanished when it was known that mines are generally hot The heat of
the workmen, their fires and lighte, have been stated as sources of heat ; as likewise the
chemical action of air and water on the minerals. Some again allege that a high tempera
ture obtains in the inte.rior of our globe, and consequently that the heat will always be
greater as we penetrate farther. However, it is found that on boring into the solid strata in
the bottom of warm mines, and letting down a thermometer, the temperature, so fer from
increasing, comes short of that in the mine. This sufiicientiy proves that, whatever be the
sources of heat some of them at least must operate in or be situated about the mine itself.
That a high temperature obtains in the interior, is in many instances evident from the
streams of hot water and vapour which issue from fissures in the strata : but in many warm
mines nothing of this is observable. Professor Leslie, Dr. Forbes, and afterwards Mr. Mat
thew MUler, have suggested the heat evolved by a current of air, while it undergoes an
increase of pressure in descending into the mine. The first two of these philosophers did
not deem this an adequate source of heat ; and Mr. Miller seems to entertain simUar doubts.
But from what is now known of the great heat evolved by the compression of air, there can
be little room to question that this furnishes a considerable supply, wherever there is a suf
ficient current of afr. Thus, if air at the temperature of 62° P. have ite density suddenly
increased by the 170th part, the temperature will be raised 1° ; supposing no heat to be lost
on the sides of the shaft. This would give 1° for a descent of 170 feet, which is still short
of the rate at which the temperature is observed to increase in British mines ; but when
added to the heat caused by the presence of the worlonen and horses, their lighte, blasting
of rocks, fires, &c. together with some increase of temperature belonging to the deeper
strata, there does not seem any mystery in the heat of some, although probably not of aU,
mines. Those mines, again, in which there is almost no circulation of air, and which pre-
172

SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY.

Paht 11

Bent a wide mouth to a clear sky, may have their temperature reduced by radiating heat
upwards, in the same way that plants are starved with cold by being too much sheltered
from the wind while they are exposed to a clear sky.
An immense collection of facts and observations relating to this subject may be seen in
the Transactions of the Geological Society of Cornwall, and in the first number of the
Edin, Phil. Journal. From the latter we extract the following summary of Mr. Bald's
observations, made in the deepest coal-mines in Great Britain : —

Whitehaven Colliery, County of Cumberland.
Air at the surface  550 p
A spring at surface  49
Water at depth of 480 feet  60
Air at same depth  63
Air at depth of 600 feet  66
JVorldngton Colliery, Cumberland.
Air at the surface  56
A spring at surface  >  48
Water at depth of 180 feet  5fl
Water 504 feet beneath the surface of the Irish
Sea 

.60

Teem Colliery, County of Durham.
Wa tor at surface  49

Water at depth of 444 feet  610 p
Air at same depth  68
Percy Miin Colliery, JVorthumberland,
Air at tbe surface  49
Water at surface  49
Air at depth of 900 feet below the level of the
sea, and immediately under the bed of the
river Tyne  70
Water at same depth  68
Here Leslie's hygrometer indicated dryness — 83
Jarrow Colliery, County of Durham.
Air at the surface  49|
Water at surface  49
Air at depth of 882 feet  70
Water at same depth  68

Water at most distant forehead and 1200 feet
below surface  74° P
Air at same depth  77
At this depth, distilled water boiled at  213
When at surface it boiled at  210-5

The engine pit of Jarrow is the deepest perpendicular shaft in Britain, being 900 feet to
the foot of the pumps, where the temperature of the air was 64°.
Eillingwortk Colliery, J^orthumberland.
Air at surface  48° F
Water at surface -  49
Air at bottom of shaft 790 feet deep  51
Air at depth of 900 feet, and a mile and half from
bottom of down-cast pit  70
The temperature of springs and caverns, in many places, coincides with the mean annual
temperature of the air : but Humboldt alleges that, in latitudes above 45°, the mean heat of
springs and caves exceeds that of the atmosphere. As connected with this subject, Mr.
Ferguson, of Raith, had four large thermometers sunk in his garden, to the respective depths
of 1, 2, 4, and 8 feet, in lat. 56° 10', and 50 feet above the sea. The stems and scales rose
above ground, and indicated the following monthly mean temperatures :

January. . .
February . .
March 
April 
May 
June 
July 
August. . . .
September .
October. . . .
November .
December. .

Mean of the Year

1816.

1817.

1 Foot.

2 Feet.

4 Feet.

8 Feet.

1 Foot.

2 Feet.

4 Feet.

8 Feet.

33.00

36.30

40.70

43.00

35.60

38.70

40.50

45.10

33.7

36.0

39.0

42.0

37.0

40.0

41.6

42.7

35.0

36.7

39.6

42.3

39.4

40.2

41.7

42.5

39.7

38.4

41.4

43.8

45.0

42.4

42.6

42.6

40.0

43.3

43.4

44.0

46.8

44.7

44.6

44.2

51.6

50.0

47.1

45.8

51.1

49.4

47.6

47.8

54.0

52.5

50.4

47.7

55.2

55.0

51.4

49.6

50.0

52.5

50.6

49.4

53.4

53.9

52.0

50.0

51.6

51.3

51.8

50.0

53.0

52.7

52.0

50.7

47.0

49.3

49.7

49.6

45.7

49.4

49.4

49.8

40.8

43.8

46.3

45.6

41.0

44.7

47.0

47.6

35.7

40.0

43.0

46.0

35.9

40.8

44.9

46.4

43.8

44.1

45.1

46.8

44.9

45.9

465

46.6

Had the thermometers been sunk considerably deeper, they might have been expected to
have indicated 47° 7', which is the constant temperature of a neighbouring spring issuing
from a trap rock.
The local temperature or climate of a country depends very much upon its distance from
the equator, and its height above the level of the sea : but the nature of the surface, the
proportion of humidity, tlie distance of the sea, of lakes, of mountains, of arid or fi-ozen
plains, and perhaps, also, the internal heat of the earth, have each tlieir share in the fertility
or salubrity of a country. The decrease of heat as we recede fi-om the equator follows dif
ferent laws in the two hemispheres, being greater in the
southern than in tlie northem, and is also affected by the
longitude. On the west of Europe, tlie cold increases less
with tlie latitude than in any other quarter. Under meri
dians which are 90° either east or west of London, the
increase of cold, as we go nortiiward, is more rapid than in
England. According to Humboldt, contments and large
islands are wai-mer on their western sides tlian on the eastern.
The annexed table shows tlie mean temperatures of western
Europe and North America continued to the equator.

Lat.

01(1
World.

New
World.

Diff.

Oo

B1.50

61.5°

OO

20

77.9

77.9

0

30

70.7

07.1

3.0

40

03.5

54.5

9.0

50

50.9

38.3

12.8

CO

41.0

2.').0

16.0

70

33.0

0.0

33.0

Book H. METEOROLOGY. 173
Isothermal lines have been considered as measuring the heat and cold of the eartli. The
climate of Eastern Asia comes nearer to tliat of Ea.stern America than of Western Europe.
Thus the latitudes of Naples, Peking, and Philadelphia are respectively 41°, 40°, and 40°,
whilst their mean temperatures are 63.3°, 54.8°, and 53.4°. Such differences are rendered
more sensible when we connect the places having the same mean temperature by lines
which Humboldt denominates isothermal lines. Thus, the isothermal line of 59° F. traverses
the latitude of 43° in Europe, but descends to lat. 36° in America; the isothermal line of
41° F. passes from lat 60° in Europe to lat. 48° ui America : but since the western coast
of North America is warmer than the eastem, the isothermal lines, being traced round the
northern hemisphere, would have concave summits at the east side of both worlds, and con
vex at the west.
The difference between the mean temperature of summer and winter is nothing at the
equator, and increases continually with the latitude. But the extreme difference of the
seasons is comparatively small in Western Europe, and great where the mean annual tem
perature is low, as on the east coasts of Asia and America. If we draw a line in a north
east direction from Bordeaux to Warsaw, and continue it to the Wolga, in lat. 55°, then
all places under this line, at the same elevation, will have nearly the same summer tempera
ture of 69° or 70° P. The lines of equal winter temperature decline in an opposite direc
tion. Thus a straight line drawn from Edinburgh to Milan, almost at right angles to the
former line, would pass over places which, if equally elevated, would have nearly the same
winter temperature of 37° or 38° F.
The extremes of temperature are experienced chiefly in large inland tracts, and little felt
in small islands remote from continents. In the United States intense cold is felt when the
wind blows from the frozen regions round Hudson's Bay. From snow-clad mountains, gusts
of cold wind, called snow winds, rush down and cool the adjacent plains. The heat accu
mulates to an astonisliing degree when the wind passes over extensive deserts of burning
sand, which are said, in some instances in Africa, to be heated to the boiling point. This
fine sand, or rather dust, sometimes rises in the air and obscures it like a fog, communicating
to it an intolerable heat In arctic countries the temperature is very much regulated by
the freezing of the water and the melting of the ice ; by the freezing of the water great
quantities of heat are given out which moderate the severity of the winter's cold, and thus
save from destruction the arctic land animals, and plants ; while in summer, the intensity
of the heat, produced by the long continuance of the sun above the horizon, is moderated by
the abstraction of a considerable portion of that heat by the water during the melting of the
ice. Had the arctic regions been entirely of land, neither plants nor animals could have
existed in them : for during summer, owing to the sun remaining above the horizon for
months, an elevation of atmospheric temperature would have been produced fatal to anunals
and plants ; and m wmter, the long darkness and intense cold would have proved equally
fatal to animated beings. The cold of the icy regions of the north has been alleged to
reach, by currents of air, southem latitudes, and thus to lower their temperature.
Baron Humboldt has added more to our knowledge of the distribution of temperature over
the globe than any other who had laboured m the same boundless field of research. The
table on the following page contains his general summary, to which is added Melville
Island. The temperatures have been reduced to Fahrenheit's scale, and the longitudes are
reckoned from Greenwich. An asterisk is prefixed to those places whose temperatures
have been most accurately determined, and m general by means of 8000 observations.
In treating on the mean annual temperature which obtams at different places, it is cus
tomary to give a table which makes the temperature depend entirely on the latitude. But
observation shows, that the temperature is usually higher at the same latitude m the old
world than m the new, and in north latitude than in south : and, as was already mentioned
It differs m the same continent under different meridians. So that more than one table would
be required for each quarter of the globe ; or else one very extensive table, mvolvmg the
longitude as well as latitude, which is the case with Humboldt's table, so far as it goes
As the earth and its atmosphere are continually receiving heat from the sun, it is plain
that their mean annual temperature must be continually on the mcrease, if no heat be
thrown off by them into surroundmg space. Professor Leslie accordingly alleees, that the
mcrease of temperature is at the rate of about 1° in 80 years. This would help to explahi
some of the changes of c imate wtich seem to have been gradually taking place duriuff
successn^e ages m many places, and particularly m the west of Europe. But the late cele
brated Marquis de la Place has endeavoured to show, from astronomical observations, that
the mean temperature of the earth has undergone no sensible change during the las two
thousand years. His arguments, however, are not free from objection.
Sect. IL— Effect of Climate on Plants and Animals.
The geographical distrihution of plants and animals appears to be chiefly reg-ulated bv the
temperature of the atniosphere. Each has generally a particular climate in which it thrives
best, and beyond certam Imiits it ceases to exist Since an increase of height has an efflct
15*

174

SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY.

Part II.

Isotber. mal

Names of Places.

Position.

Mean
Temperature of tlie
Year.

Mean Temperature of

Mean Temperature of

Lat.

Loos.

Hglit.

Winter.

Sprins.

Sum mer.

Autumn.

Vfarmes Month.

Coldest Monlli.

o* B
1 s

Melville Island 
Nain 

o /
74 47
57 8
68 30
46 30
71 0
65 3
63 50
59 56
63 24
55 45
60 27

o /
110 48 w.
6120w. 20 47E.
8 23e.
25 50E.
25 26E.
20 16E.
30 19E.
10 22E.
37 32E.
22 18e

Feet 0 0
13566390 000 00
970 0

O
— 2.00
-)-26.42 26.96 30.3832.0035.08 33.2638.84 39.92
40.10 40.28

o
—31.33 — 0.600.68
18.32
23.72 11.8412.92 170623.72 10.78
20.84

o
— 6.60
23.9024.98 26.42 29.6627.14 33.8038.12 35.24
44.06 38.30

O
33.78
48.3854.8644.9643.34 57.74548662.06 61.2467.10 61.88

O
— 3.84
33.44
27.3231.82 32.0835.9633.4438.66
40.10 38.30
40.64

0
39.0851.8059.54
46.2246.58 61.52
62.60 65.6664.94 70.52

0
-35.52-11.20
— 0.58
+15.08 2210 7.70
11.48 860
19.58 6.08

*Enontekie3 
Hospice de St. Go- .
thard 
North Cape 
*Ulea 

?Umea 

*St. Petersburg 
Drontheim 

Abo 

1 S
o

•Upsal 

59 51
59 20
46 47
59 55
47 47
55 41
54 17
51 25
50 5
51 32
47 22
55 57
52 14
46 50
53 21
46 5
46 12
49 29
48 12

17 38E.
18 3e.
71 Ow
10 48 E.
10 34E.
12 35e.
2 46w-
59 59 w-
14 24e.
9 53e.
8 32e.
3 10w.
21 2e.
9 30e.
619w. 7 26e.
6 8e
8 28e.
16 22E.

00 00
3066 00
0
0
456
1350 150 0
1876 0
16501080 432
420

42.0842.2641.74 42.8042.9845.6846.2246.94
49.46
46.9447.844784
48.5648.92
49.1049.2849.2850.18
50.54

24.98 25.52 14.1828.78
28.5830.74
30.86
39.5631.4630.38
29.6638.66
28.7632.36
39.2032.00
34.7038.80 32.72

39.3828.30 38.8439.02
42.08
41.18
45.14
46.5847.66 44.24
48.20
46.4047.48
50.004730
48.9247.66
49.64 51.26

60.2661.88 68.0062.6058.4662.60
56.8453-0668.90
64.7664.04
58.2869.08
63.3259.54
66.56
64.9467.1069.26

42.8043.1646.04 41.18
42.98
48.3846-2248.4650.1848.74
48.9248 56
49.4650.36
50.0049.8250.00
49.8250.54

62.42 64.04
73.4066.7459.36 65.66
58.1055.7666.38
65.6659.36 70.34
64.5861.1667.2866.56
68.72 70.52

22.4622.82
. 13.81
28.41 30.20
27.1434.8837.4029.6626.78 38.30
271429.4835.42 30.563416
33.4426.60

'Stockholm 
Quebec  ' 

Christiania 
*Convent of Peissen-

*Copenhagen 
*Kendal 

Falkland Islands . . .

Gottingen 

*Znrich 

'Edinburgh 
Warsaw 

*Coire 

Dublin 

Vienna 
2
45 46
47 29
42 22
48 50
51 30
51 2
52 22
50 50
52 36
39 56
40 40
39 6
48 39
47 13
39 54
45 28
44 50
3 5e.
19 lE.
71 7w.
2 20e.
0 5w.
2 22e.
4 50e.
422 E.
6 22e.
75 10 w.
73 58w.
8427w. 2 Iw.
132w.
116 27 e.
9 He.
0 34w.
1260 494 0
222 0 000000
510 0
0
0
390 0
50.0051.0850.3651.0850.36 50.54
51.6251.80 51.8053.42
53.78
53.78
54.14
54.68
54.8655.76
56.48
34.5233.98
33.9838.6639.5638.4836.8636.6836.6832.18
29.8-132.90
42.2640.46
26.4236.32
42.08
50.5451.08
476649.2848.5648.56 51.62
53.24
64.4070-5270.70
64.5863.1464.0465.84
f^fistn
51.2652.34
49.82
51.4450.1850.90
51.62
51.0854.32
56.48
54.50
54.86
55.7655.5854.3256.8456.30
66.2071.60
72.86
65.3064.40
64.76
66.92
67.28
6908
77.00
80.70
74.30
66.9270.5284.38 74.66
73.04
2a0427.7829.8436.1437.7637.7635.42
35.603290
32.72
25.34
30-20
41.74 39.02
24.62 36.14
41.00
*Buda 
Cambridge, Mass. . .
*Paris 
Amsterdam 
Brussels 
51.08 67.28
Philadelphia 
New York 
'Cincinnati 
51.44
51.26
54.1452.16
54.50
56.3056.1256.48
7a94
79.16
72.86
66.0268.54S2.5873.0470.88
St. Malo 
Nantes 
'Milan 
Bordeaux 
C o
Marseilles 
43 17
43 36
41 53
43 7
32 45
31 34
5 22e.
3 52e.
12 27E.
5 50e.
129 55 E.
91 24 w.
00
000
180
59.0059.3660.44
62.0660.8064.76
45.5044.0645.8648.3839.38
48.56
575656.6657.74
60.8057.56 65.48
72.5075.7475.2075.0232.9479.16
60.08 60.9862.7864.4064.2266.02
74.66 78.0877.0077.0086.9079.70
44.42
42.08 422646.4037.40
46.94
Montpellier 
'Rome 
Toulon 
Nangasaki 
'Natchez 
68oto 720.
'Funchal 
32 37
36 48
16 56w.
3 lE.
00
68.5469.98
64.4061.52
65.8165.66
72 50
S0.-24
72.327250
75.5682.76
64.0460.0856.1271.0669.98
7916
30 2
19 11
23 10
10 27
3018E.
96 l\v.
8213VV.6515W.
0000
72.3277.72
78.08 81.86
58.4671.9671.24 80.24
73.58,85.1077.90 81.50
78.98 83.30
71.4278.6278.9880.24
85.8281.8683.8484.38
'Vera Cruz 
•Cumana 
83.661
B2.04|
Book H. METEOROLOGY. 175
on clunate in some respects similar to an increase of latitude, it has been commonly sup
posed that there are properly no plants peculiar to high latitudes, because such may be raised
on the mountains under the equator, which embrace every variety of climate between their
summit and base, at least in so far as temperature is concerned. In point of atmospheric
pressure, however, the two. situations differ essentially ; and some naturalists allege, that
pressure is of vital unportance to the growth of plants. Professor Dobereinerds of opinion
that the diminutive size of plants, in elevated situations, depends more on the diminution of
pressure than of temperature. To ascertain this, he put equal quantities of barley and
moist earth into two equal receivers: the air in the one had a pressure of 14 inches of mer
cury, and the other 56 ; germination commenced in both at the same time, and the leaves
had" the same green tmt. At the end of fifteen days, the shoots in the rarefied air were 6
inches long, and in the other from 9 to 10. The first were expanded and soft and wet on
the surface, especially towards their extremities ; the others were firm, rolled round the stem,
and nearly dry. In some respects, .this accords with what Humboldt observed of the trees
on the Andes, that water transpires from them even in the driest weather. But such expe
riments are inconclusive, unless there were some contrivance employed to renew the confined
air frequently. Independently of pressure, the barley in the condensed air had the use of
four times the quantity of air in the other vessel.
Plants are most numerous, and exhibit the greatest variety of species, and the most luxu
riant growth, within the tropics, beyond which they gradually diminish. In the arctic
regions, and ui the north of Russia, the vegetable kingdom has dwindled to almost nothing.
The lines which limit the growth of certain plants depend on the average summer tempera
ture, for plants which require a long and moderate heat ; on the temperature of the warmest
month, for those which require a short but great heat ; and on the temperature of the coldest
month, for those which cannot bear cold. The transparency of the air is also of importance
to many plants ; but our limits will not admit of enlarging, and therefore we shall confine
ourselves to a short account of the climates of cultivated plants. The plantain, which is a
primary article of food in tropical America, requires a temperature from 82° to 73° F.,
which occurs between lat. 0° and 27° : but, in the equinoctial zone (lat. 0° to 10°), its fruit
does not ripen at a greater altitude than 3300 feet. The sugar-cane has nearly the same
range, but is cultivated, though with less advantage, in the old world to lat. 36° 5', where
the mean temperature is about 67°. The severity of the North American winter prevents
the cultivation of the sugar-cane beyond lat. 31° ; but it succeeds at an altitude of 5700 feet
on the table-land of Mexico. The favourite climate of the cotton plant lies between lat. C
and 34° ; but it succeeds with a mean summer heat of 75° or 73° F., if that of winter do
not descend below 36° or 38°. In America, it is cultivated at lat. 37° ; in Europe, at lat. 40° ;
and m Aslracan, at lat. 46°. The date palm thrives best between lat. 29° and 35° ; but,
vvhen sheltered from the north wind, it is cultivated on the shores of Italy to lat. 44°. The
citron has nearly the same range, but is cultivated at Nice, at altitudes of 400 feet. This
tree, with the sweet orange, grows in Louisiana to lat. 30°, but beyond that it is injured by
the cold. The olive ranges hi Europe between lat. 36° and 44° 5' ; it succeeds wherever
with a mean annual temperature from 66° to 58° F., that of summer is not below 71° nor
tiiat of the coldest month below 42°, which excludes all North America beyond lat 34°
The favourite clunate of the vine in the old world is between lat. 36° and 48° ; but it thrives
wherever the mean temperature is from 62° to 47.5°, provided that of Wmter is not below
d3°, nor summer under 66° or 68°. Such is the case on the shores of Europe to lat 47°
and m the interior to lat. 50°, but only to lat. 40° in North America. The cerealia or'comi
mon gram, ^ wheat, rye barley, and oats, thrive where the mean annual temperature
descends to 28° F., provided that of summer rise to ,52° or 53°. In Lapland barley
ripens wherever the mean temperature of summer rises to 47° or 48° The rapid'erowth
if 1,^1 c °?*^ ^^"^^^ ^^""^ *° ''^^ "'''"'' summers of th» north : they are found as hiffh
as lat. b)^ m Lapland, along with the potato. In some parts of eastern Russia, no ffrain
lat 58° inCV"'- f- ^"""^^ ^^''} " "" P^^-^^™"^ '^^P' ^"-J li"le cultivated beyond
at. 58° in western Europe, yields good retums m this part of the temperate zone when
the mean heat, while the gram is on the ground, is 55° ; but if no more than 46° none of
the cereaia come to ma urity. These species of grain are cultivated at a height of 3500
feet on the Alps, m lat. 46°. Barley and oats succeed at double that height ofcrucasus
and at almost a triple height on the Andes, along with wheat and rye In "he west of
Europe, maize has the same range as the vine, but reaches farther norft;n the ea't In its
S. T™'"'°'^' "/T.^ *' *^^f "^'''^l^ °f &°<J' fr°'n the river PlaTa to the lake" of
Canada Requiring a short but warm season of four months, it is well suited to the climate
600 or IZ T "^ 7 *°/"H^ °f 45° The oak ceases It lat 63o n Sorway It
60° or 61° in Fmland, and at 57° m the ffovemmpnt nf Pprm Ti,o ™ -i . -^'loi^way, at
fir, grows to a height 'of 60 feet in LapSTtlTTo', and 850 fLraL" re Je^eTof '.f
sea : there the birch is found at double that elevation Li eastem Rfr, T. ]^i °'^.*^
S M^eor "'^'"-^^'" ''-'''- ^^-^ '^' ««° ¦' -'•'atTdTonX 'ill Ses- c^e

l"76 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Paet n.
Sect. IE. — Composition of the Atmosphere. — Aqueous Meteors.
Regarding the composition of the atmosphere, abundantly vague and fancifiil notions
prevailed for many ages. The ancients considered air as one of the four simple elements,
of which they supposed all other bodies to be compounded. These were earth, air, fire, ani
water. How far the opinion was correct, which made fire an element, is a question on
which nothing is yet known; but the researches of modern chemistry have shown that the
other three are all compound bodies. The chief, and perhaps the only essential, component
substances in the atmosphere, are the two gases called oxygen and azote ; its other ingre
dients, occurring only in small and variable quantities, are rather to be considered as foreign
bodies. The analysis of air is a difficult problem. Many chemists have found it to consist
of 21 parts by volume of oxygen to 79 of azote ; and this proportion is sensibly the same
whether the air be from the polar or tropical regions, from the level of the sea or a mountain
top, from the most healthy or insalubrious countries. But Dr. Prout, guided by the laws of
definite proportions, alleges, that if the two gases of which air principally consists be really
combined, they ought to be 20 oxygen to 80 azote ; and it must be allowed that similar
conjectures of the same eminent chemist have been verified regarding the composition of
other bodies, which had apparently deviated farther from the atomic system.
The investigation of the component parts of the atmosphere did not keep pace with that
of its mechanical properties. Boyle, however, and his cotemporaries, put it beyond doubt
that it contained an elastic fluid and water in the state of vapour. They also conjectured
that it contained various other substances, which rose from the earth in the form of vapours,
and often altered its properties, rendering it noxious or fatal. Since the discovery of car
bonic acid by Dr. Black, it has been ascertained that this elastic fluid always constitutes a
part, though a very minute one, of the atmosphere.
With respect to moisture, or the state in which water exists in air, two opinions have
been formed ; 1. "Water may be dissolved in air, in the same manner as salt is held in solu
tion by water ; 2. It may be mixed with air in the state of steam or vapour, after havmg
been converted into vapour. The first of these was hinted at by Dr. Hooke, and afterwartls
proposed by Dr. Halley. It has been adopted by many others in succession, among whom
is Professor Leslie ; and it cannot be denied that many of the phenomena agree with that
theory. The second opinion seems to have originated with Mr. Deluc ; but it is to Mr.
Dalton and M. Gay Lussac that we are indebted for subjecting this theory to the test of
experiment. Evaporation from the waters on the surface of the earth is undoubtedly the source whence
the moisture which exists in air is derived. Accordingly we find that water exposed to' the
air suffers a gradual diminution of bulk, till it entirely disappears. It is then said, in com
mon language, to have dried up, or to have evaporated. Under an exhausted receiver, water
diminishes even more rapidly than in the open air. Were this owing to solution, the very
reverse ought to follow ; because, in place of vapour being caused by the presence of air, it
goes on more rapidly in its absence. By comparing a set of experiments made at Geneva,
with a similar set on the Col-du-Geant, 10,950 feet higher, Saussure foimd that, supposing
the temperature and dryness of the air the same at both places, the evaporation at the upper
would be to that at the lower nearly as 7 to 3 ; so that a duninution of about one third in
the density of the air more than doubled the rate of evaporation. It is well known, that
cold is always generated during spontaneous evaporation ; that is to say, that water, as it
disappears, carries off a quantity of heat. Dr. Black has rendered it probable, that the
quantity of heat which disappears durmg spontaneous evaporation is as great as that which
is required to form water into steam. A wet body is always cooled by exposure to dry air,
owing to the evaporation from its surface. Hence, in warm countries, liquors are cooled by
wrapping wet cloths round the bottles and exposing them to tiie air. M. Saussure observed,
that the evaporation from the surface of melting snow caused it to freeze again, when the
temperature of the air was 4° or 5° above the freezmg point. The simplest mode of illus
trating the cooling influence of evaporation, is to cover the ball of a thermometer with wet
cloth and expose it to the air, when it will be found to indicate a greater or less degree of
cold. This, it is true, does not take place if tiie air be very damp, because there is then no
evaporation. Wind tends to promote evaporation, both by communicating its heat to the
colder evaporating surface, and also by sweeping away the vapour as it is formed. On the
contrary, there is scarcely any evaporation in perfectly still air, unless some substance be
present which absorbs the vapour as it forins.
On this principle. Professor Leslie contrived an elegant mode of producing ice in any cli
mate. A cup with water is placed within tiie receiver of an air-pump, along wiih some
substnnco whicli absorbs the vapour. Tho rate of evaporation is tiien increased in an aston
ishing degroi', by (wliausting tiie air from tlie receiver; and tiie portion of the water which
is converted into viipour abstracts so much heat from the remainder, that the latter is speed
ily converted into ice.
Dew is a remarkable product of atmospheric moisture. The quantity of aqueous vapour

Boo? II. METEOROLOGY. 177
which can exist in a given space, as a cubic foot, is pretty generally believed to be the same,
whether there be air present m tiie space, or notiiing but tiie vapour alone. The quantity
is always {cml. par.) the same at the same temperature, but it is greater as the temperature
is higher ; and therefore, supposing the space to be saturated with vapour at a particular
temperature, a portion of tiiis will return mto drops of water whenever tiie temperature
fells. It is on this principle that a cold body, such as a bottl>L' of liquor, bemg carried intiD a
warm moist apartment, becomes bedewed on the outside, till, perhaps, the water trickles
down its sides : the contact of the cold surfece chills the air, which in return deposits a por
tion of its moisture. Now this is sunilar to the mode in which moisture is msensibly depo
sited from the atmosphere on bodies at the earth's surface, and which is Imown by the name
of dew. All bodies, placed m still air and exposed to the aspect of a clear sky, are found to
become colder than they would be if some screen or awning were interposed between them
and the sky. In such circumstances, bodies often become much colder than the surrounding
air, which, if sufficiently moist, deposits on them a portion of its moisture or dew. When
the temperature is low, the dew is frozen, and forms hoar frost.
The radiation of heat also deserves notice. About the commencement of the present
century. Professor Leslie discovered that bodies possess very diiferent powers of radiating
heat ; and that this depends on the nature and condition of their surfaces. Metals possess
this quality in a degree inferior to vitreous bodies, and it is duninished in all of them by
polishing the surfece. Most fibrous and filamentous vegetable substances are good radiators,
as are likewise bodies in general which are bad conductors or bad reflectors of heat. Now
the degrees of cooling, which different bodies undergo when exposed together to the aspect
of the sky, is observed to follow the same order as that of their radiating powers ; and, of
course, the order in which they begin to acquire dew, as also the quantity acquired, is regu
lated by a similar law, as will be seen from what follows.
For the investigation of the causes of dew we are chiefly indebted to the late ingenious
Dr. Wells. The ancients maintained, that dew appears only on calm and clear nights. Dr.
Wells found that, in opposite circumstances, very little is ever deposited, and that little only
when the clouds are very high. Dew never occurs in nights both cloudy and windy ; and
if in the course of the night, the weather, from being serene, should become dark and stormy,
dew which had been deposited will disappear. In calm weather, more dew will appear if
the sky be partially covered with clouds, than if it were quite clear. It often happens, that
even before sunset, dew begins to adhere to grass in spots which are sheltered from both sun
and wind ; for, in clear weather, such spots suffer much from the chilling aspect of the sky,
and may often continue to acquire dew during the whole night, and for some time after sun
rise. The quantity of dew depends on the moistness of the air, being greater after rain than
after long-continued dry weather. It is more abundant, in Europe, with southerly and west
erly winds, than with those which blow from the opposite points. The reason of this seems
to be the direction of the sea rendering the wind moist ; for, in Egypt, dew rarely occurs
unless the wind come from the sea. But with a southerly wind, which has passed along the
floods of the Nile, dew is usually observed in the Delta five or six days before the inunda
tion. After a long period of drought. Dr. Wells exposed to the clear sky, 28 minutes before
sunset in a calm evening, known weights of wool and swan-down, upon a smooth, unpainted,
dry fir table about 3 feet in height, and which had been placed an hour before in the sun
shine in a large grass jield. At 12 minutes after sunset the wool was 14° colder than the
air, but had gained no weight. The swan-down was 13° colder than the air, but had got no
additional weight ; nor was it any heavier at the end of 20 minutes longer, but it had then
become 14J° colder than the air ; whilst the grass was 15° colder than the air 4 feet above
ground. — From these, and many similar experiments, Dr. Wells concluded that bodies be
come colder than the neighbouring air before they are dewed. — He bent a sheet of paste
board into the form of a penthouse, making the angle of flfexure 90°, and leaving both ends
open. This was placed one evening, with its ridge uppermost, upon a grass-plat, and, as
nearly as could be guessed, in the direction of the wind. On the middle of the spot of grass
sheltered by the roof, was placed 10 grains of wool, and an equal quantity on a spot of the
grass fiilly exposed to the sky. In the morning, the first 10 grains were only 2 grains
heavier, whilst the other had gained 16. The wool does not here acquire moisture from the
grass by capillary attraction, for the same effect happens if it be placed in a saucer ; nor is it
by hygrometric attraction, for in a cloudy night, wool pla^d on an elevated board scarcely
gained any weight.
The quantity of dew varies accordmg to circumstances. When wool is placed upon a had
conductor of heat, as a deal board, a few feet from the ground, it will become colder and
acquire more dew than if laid on the grass. At the windward end of the board, it is less
bedewed than at the sheltered end ; because, in the former case, the wind keeps up t!ie
temperature nearer to that of the atmosphere. Rough and porous surfaces, as shavings of
wood, straw, &c., take more dew than smooth and solid bodies. Raw silk and fine cotton
collect more than even wool. Glass, being a good radiator of heat, is much more quickly
coated with dew than bright metals, which, indeed, receive it more readily than many other
Vol. L X

i78 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. Paet H.
bodies. This circumstance has given rise to the strange idea that metals absorb dew, though
they be the most compact bodies known. If we coat a piece of glass partially with bright
tin-foil, or silver leaf, the uncovered portion of the glass quickly becomes cold by radiation,
on exposure to a clear nocturnal sky, and acquires moisture ; which, beginning on those
parts most remote from the metal, gradually approaches it. Thus, also, if we coat a part of
the outside of a window-pane with tin-foil ui a clear night, then moisture will be deposited
mside, on every part but that opposite to the metal ; but if the metal be inside, then the
outside of the coated part of the pane will be sooner and more copiously bedewed. In the
first case, the tin-foil prevents the glass under it from dissipating its heat, and therefore it
can receive no dew ; in the second case, the tin-foil prevents the part of the glass which it
coats from receiving the calorific infiuence of the apartment, and hence it is sooner cooled
on the outside than the rest of the pane. When the night, after havmg been clear, becomes
cloudy, though there be no change with respect to calmness, a rise in the temperature of the
glass always ensues. In clear nights the temperature always falls, but, unless the ah be
sufficiently moist, dew does not necessarily follow ; from which it is evident, that the cold
cannot be the effect of dew. For a more particular account of these interesting phenomena,
we must refer the reader to Dr. Wells's elegant Essay on Dew.
Clouds. The various forms of clouds were first successfully attempted to be arranged
under a few general modifications by Mr. Luke Howard, and published in the 16th and 17th
vols, of the Philosoph. Magazine. The modifications of clouds is a term used to express the
structure or manner of aggregation, in which the influence of certain constant laws is suf
ficiently evident amidst the endless subordinate diversities resulting from occasional causes.
Hence the principal modifications are as distinguishable from each other, as a tree from a
hill, or the latter from a lake ; although clouds, in the same mtDdification, compared with
each other, have often only the common resemblance which exists among trees, hills, and
lakes, taken generally.
There are three simple and distinct modifications, which are thus named and defined by
Mr. Howard: —
(1.) Cirrus. A cloud resembling a lock of hair or a feather. Parallel, flexous, or diverg
ing fibres, unlimited in their extent or direction.
(2.) Cumulus. A cloud which increases from above in dense convex or conical heaps.
(3.) Stratus. An extended continuous level sheet of cloud, increasing from beneath.
There are two modifications which appear to be of an intermediate nature : these are —
(4.) Cirro-cumulus. A connected system of small roundish clouds, in close order or
contact. (5.) Cirro-stratus. A horizontal or slightly inclined sheet, attenuated at its circumference,
concave downward, or undulated. Groups or patches have these characters.
There are two modifications which exhibit a compound structure, viz. : —
(6.) Cumulo-stratus. A cloud in which the structure of the cumulus is mixed with that
of the cirro-stratus or cirro-cumulus. The cumulus flattened at top, and overhanging its

(7.) Nimbus. A dense cloud spreading out into a crown of cirrus, and passing beneath
into a shower.
Regarding the mode in which clouds are suspended in the air, philosophers are not agreed.
About the commencement of the last century, it was supposed that the aqueous particles of
clouds were in the form of hollow shells, specifically lighter than the air in which they float.
But as no evidence or probability could be adduced in favour of this theory, it has given
place to other speculations ; and, at present, many consider the suspension of clouds as an
electrical phenomenon. On attentively observing the forms of clouds, it will be found that
they have a tendency to assume one or other of the seven distinct modifications above men
tioned ; the peculiar characters of which may be discovered in all the endless configurations
exhibited by clouds under different circumstances. It may be observed ferther, that the
most indefinite and shapeless masses of clouds, if attentively watched, will sooner or later
show a tendency to assume the form of some of these modifications ; a circumstance which
shows not only their distinct nature, but also proves that there are some general causes, as
yet undiscovered, why aqueous vapour, suspended in the air, should assume certain definable
and constant modifications.
A more minute description of the formation and changes of the clouds, and of the
prognostics of the weather to be deduced from their peculiar appearances, shall now be
attempted. The cirrus or curl-cloud* may be distinguished from every other by the lightness of its
nature, its fibrous structure, and the great and perpetually changing variety of figures which
it presents to the eye. It is generally the most elevated of clouds, occupying the higher
regions of the atmosphere. As this cloud, under different circumstances, presents consider-
* This, and the other additional terms which follow, have been proposed as English names by Dr. Thomas
Forster.

Book U. METEOROLOGY. 179
able varieties of appearances, it wUl be proper to consider these separately, with reference
to tiie particular kind of weatiier m which they prevail. After a continuance of clear fine
weather, a whitish Ime of cloud may often be observed at a great height, like a wh e
thread s retched across the sky, tiie ends seemmg ost m each horizon: this is often the first
indication of a change to wet weather. To this Ime of currus, others are added laterally,
Sid sometimes, as it were, propagated from the sides of tiie Ime in an oblique or trarisverse
direction; the whole havi^il the appearance of net-work. At other times the lines become
gradually denser; descend lower m tiie atmosphere; and, umtmg with others below, pro
duce ram witiiout exhibitmg the above-mentioned transverse reticulations. Ihe above-
described varieties of cloud, tiiough composed of straight Imes, are ranged under the general
head of cirrus, from their resemblance to tiiis cloud when it appears under curved and con
torted forms. The comoid cirrus, popularly known under the name of the grey mare s tail,
is tiie proper cirrus. It somewhat resembles a distended lock of white hair, or a bunch ot
combed wool, and from this it got the name comoid. It usually occurs m variable weather,
and is reckoned a precursor of wind and ram. In changeable weather it vanes considerably
m a few hours; but when the fibres have a constant direction to the same pomt of the com
pass for any considerable time, a gale of wind generally sprmgs up from that quarter.
Durmg warm changeable weather, when there are light breezes of wmd, long and obliquely
descendmg bands of cirrus are often observed m the air, and sometimes seem to connect
distant clouds. Frequently, by means of the interposition of tiiese cirri between a cumulus
and some other cloud, as, for uistance, chro-stratus, the cumulo-stratus, and ultknately the
nunbus or ram-cloud, is formed. The cirrus, when attentively exammed, is found to be in
constant motion, not merely changmg its form, but often exhibiting an internal commotion
m the substance of the cloud, especially in the larger end of it. Every particle seems alive
and in motion, while the whole mass scarcely changes its place. This motion, on a minute
examination, often appears to consist of the fibres which compose the cfrrus, gently waving
to and from each other ; frequently, however, it seems like minute specks all in commotion.
This takes place more frequently in those large and lofty cirri, with rounded heads and
long pointed tails, so common in dry winds during summer and autumn.
The formation of the cumulus is best viewed in fine settled weather, about sunrise
or a littie after. Small specks of cloud are seen here and there in the atmosphere. These
seem to be the result of small gathermgs of the stratus or evening mist, which rising in the
morning grows into small masses of cloud, whilst the rest of the sky becomes clearer. About
sunrise these clouds increase; two or more of them unite, till a large cloud be formed, which,
assumhig a cumulated and irregularly hemispherical shape, has received the name of cumulus
or slacken-cloud. This is properly the cloud of day, as it usually subsides in the evening
by retracing the steps of its formation in the moming. It separates into small fragments
and evaporates, giving place to the stratus or fall-cloud, which is therefore styled the cloud
of night.
Some varieties in the forms of the cumulus deserve particular notice, as they are sup
posed to be connected with electrical phenomena. The hemispherical form is more perfect
in fine than in changeable weather. When such well-formed cumuli prevail during many
successive days, the weather is settled, and the electrometer pretty steady in its indications.
They are whitish coloured, and when opposed to the sun reflect a silvery light. Cumuli
which occur during intervals between showers are more fleecy, and variable in form and
colour. Sometunes they are blackish, and may at any time increase till they obscure the
sky, or assume the form of the twain-cloud or cumulo-stratus.
The .stratus or fall-cloud comprehends fogs, and all those creeping mists which, towards
evening, fill the valleys, and disappear in the moming. The cumuli which have prevailed
during a hot summer's day decrease towards evening, and by degrees there is formed a
white mist near the ground, increasing in density till midnight or even till morning, and
generally disappearing after sunrise. In autumn, this cloud sometimes lasts longer in the
morning. In winter it becomes still more dense, and sometimes continues a, whole day or
many successive days. A remarkable instance of this occurred in January, 1814, when a
dense fog prevailed for about a fortnight, extending over a great part of the south and west
of England. It was particularly felt at London, where the stagnation and subsidence of
the smoke more than doubled the dismal visitation. The stratus is often positively electrified,
and its component parts do not wet leaves or other substances connected with the earth.
On this, however, it may be remarked that dry bodies, which continue warmer than the fog,
must remain dry on the ordinary principles of evaporation. The stratus may be distin
guished from some varieties of cirro-stratus which resemble it,- by the circumstance that the
latter wets every object it alights on.
The cirro-cumulus or sonder-cloud is subject to some variations in the size and figure
of the orbicular masses of which it is composed, and in their distances from each other.
About the time of thunder storms, the component parts are denser in their structure, rounder
in their form, and closer together than usual. This has been frequently noticed by poets as

180 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. Part H,
a prognostic of thunder and tempestuous weather. In rainy changeable weather, this cloud
has a light fleecy texture, and is very irregular in the form of its component parts ; so that it
then approaches to the form of the cirro-stratus. Sometimes, indeed, it consists of nebecula,
so small and light coloured as to be scarcely discernible. In fine summer weather, the cirro-
cumulus is neither so dense as the stormy variety, nor so light as the one last described ; its
parts vary in size, and in their proximity. During fine dry weather with light breezes, small
detachments of cirro-cumulus rapidly form and subside, which do not lie in one plane ; but
their arrangement is commonly horizontal. The cirro-cumulus sometimes commences in the
clear sky. At other times the cirrus, the cirro-stratus, or some other cloud, changes into
cirro-cumulus, and vice versd. In summer, this cloud forebodes heat : in winter, the break
ing up of frost, and mild wet weather.
The cirro-stratus is remarkable for its shallowness, compared with its horizontal extent ;
so that when any other cloud assumes this form, it seldom fails to end in a cirro-stratus.
This cloud is constantly changing its form, and gradually subsiding; hence it has been
called the wane-cloud. There are many varieties in its figure ; sometimes it is disposed
in waving bars or streaks, varying almost infinitely in size and shape. A flat horizontal
cloud, consisting of such streaks, frequently occurs during changeable summer weather ; its
bars are generally confused in the middle, but more distinct towards the edges. A variety
of this sort constitutes what is called the mackerel-back sky. It is often very high in the
atmosphere, as is proved from its still appearing high when viewed from the top of a lofty
mountain. The cumulus, on the contrary, may be seen on a level with, or even lower than,
the observer. The cirro-stratus often appears in the form of a long plain streak, tapering
towards the extremities. Sometimes such a figure seems to alight on the cumulo-stratus ;
and, in these cases, the density of the latter increases in proportion as the former altemately
appears and evaporates again on its summits. The usual result is the formation of the
nimbus, and a fall of rain. Another principal variety of the cirro-stratus consists of small
rows of little clouds, curved in a peculiar manner : it is called the cymoid cirro-stratas, and
is a sure indication of approaching storms. The last variety of this cloud which we shall
now notice, is that large and shallow veil of cloud which covers a large portion of the sky,
particularly towards night, and through which the sun and moon are indistinctly seen.
Those peculiar refractions of the light of these luminaries, called halos and mock suns,
usually appear in this cloud. These are the most certain signs, yet known, of approaching
rain or snow.
The cumulo-stratus or twain-cloud is a stage towards the prtjduction of rain, and is fre
quently formed in the following maimer : — The cumulus which usually passes along in the
wind, seems retarded in its progress, grows denser, spreads out laterally till it overhangs
the base in dark and irregular protuberances. This change often takes place in all the
cumuli which are near to each other ; their bases unite, whilst the superstructure remains
asunder, rising up like so many mountain summits, or masses of rocks. The cumulo-strati,
in which hail showers and thunder storms occur, look extremely black and menacing before
the rain commences. Sometimes the cumulo-stratus evaporates, or changes again to t-umulus,
but it oftener ends in the nimbus and rain.
The nimbus remains to be described ; a cloud which always precedes the fell of rain,
snow, or hail. Any of the others above described may increase so much as to obscure the
sky, without ending in rain, before which the peculiar characteristic of the rain-cloud may
always be distinguished. The best way of obtaining a clear idea of the formation of the
nimbus or rain-cloud is to observe a distant shower in profile, from its first formation to its
fall in rain. The cumulus seems first arrested in its progress : then a cirrus or cirro-stratus
may appear to alight on the top of it. The change to cumulo-stratus then goes on rapidly ;
and this cloud, increasing in density, assumes that black and threatening aspect which is a
known indication of rain. This blackness is soon changed for a more gray obscurity ; and
this is the criterion of the actual formation of rain drops, which now begin to fell, while a
cirriform crown of fibres extends fi-om the upper parts of the clouds, and small cumuli
enter into the under part. After the shower has spent itself the different modifications
appear again in their several stations : the cirrus, the cirro-stratus, or perhaps tiie cirro-
cumulus, appear in the upper regions of the air ; while the remaining part of the broken
nimbus assumes the form of flocky cumuli, and sails along in the lower current of wind. The
reappearance of large cumulo-strati indicates a return of the rain. In showery weather, the
alternate formation and destruction of rain-clouds goes on rapidly, and is attended by the
other modifications in succession, as above described. From its connexion with local
showers, the nimbus is distinguished almost exclusively by bearing in its broad field of sable
the honours of the rainbow.
Rain. Theories of rain have been founded on the above observations. Since, as already
mentioned, a greater quantity of moisture can exist in a given space as the temperature is
higher, it is plain that there is a certain temperature at which air containing some moisture,
will just be saturated, and which is called tiie pomt of deposition, or the dewing point ; for,

Book IL METEOROLOGY. 181
if cooled in the least below this, the air will deposit moisture. When the cooling in the
body of air below the dew pomt is very slight, the effect is merely to disturb the trans
parency, or produce a fog. In the case of dew, formerly considered, tiie transpai-ency is
not affected; because it is not the mass of air that is cooled below the pomt of deposition,
but only a mmute portion of it which comes into contact with surfaces cooled by radiation.
When the coolmg in a body of air below tiie dewing pomt is considerable, the water is
deposited more copiously, and coUectmg mto drops, descends to the earth in the form of
rain ; or, if tiie temperatm-e be sufficiently low, the drops are partially frozen, and form
sleet ; if fully frozen, snow ; and if such drops be large and compact, they receive the appel
lation othail. ,. , , e
Dr. James Hutton of Edinburgh made the first attempt to account for the phenoniena ot
ram, &c. on known prmciples. Without deciding whether moisture be simply mixed or
chemically combined in the air, he conjectured from the phenomena, as is now established
by experiment, that the quantity of aqueous vapour which can exist m air varies in a higher
ratio than the temperature. Hence he inferred that whenever two volumes of air saturated
with moisture are mixed at different temperatures, a precipitation of moisture must ensue,
in consequence of tiie mean temperature not bemg able to support the mean quantity of
vapour. But if the ah, before mixture, was not fully saturated with moisture, then a
smaller quantity, or none at all, may be depositfed. This theory has been adopted by various
meteorologists, particularly Professor Leslie and Mr. Dalton : but Mr. Luke Howard has
justly remarked, that it involves the assumption that the mixture should have the mean
temperature, — a point which was then, and is even yet, not quite settled ; although so fer
as experiment goes, it is fiilly more favourable to the theory than the mean would be.
Mr. Howard accordingly rejects Dr. Hutton's theory, and alleges that rain is almost
in every instance the result of the electrical action of clouds upon each other. This idea,
he thinks, is confirmed by observations made in various ways upon the electrical state
of the clouds and rain; and he supposes that a thunder storm is only a more sudden
and sensible display of those energies which are incessantly operating for more general
purposes. There are two circumstances deserving of notice in the formation of the nimbus or rain-
cloud, the spreading of the superior masses of cloud in all directions, until they become, like
the stratus, one uniform sheet ; and the rapid motion and visible decrease of the cumulus,
when brought under the latter. The chri, also, which so frequently stretch from the
superior sheet upwards, like so many bristles, are supposed by some to be temporary
conductors for the electricity evolved by the union of minute particles of vapour into the
larger drops which form the rain. In an experiment of Cavallo's with a kite sent up 360
feet in an interval between two showers, and kept up during rain, it seems that the superior
clouds were positively electrified before the rain ; but on the arrival of a large cumulus, a
strong negative electricity took place, which lasted while the cumulus was passing over the
kite. We are not, however, warranted to conclude that the cumulus which brings on rain
is always negative ; as the same eifect might ensue from a positive cumulus uniting with a
negative stratus : yet the general negative state of the lower atmosphere during rain, and
the positive indications commonly given by the true stratus, render this the more probable
opinion. It is not, however, absolutely necessary to determine the several states of the
clouds which appear during rain ; since there is sufficient evidence in favour of the con
clusion, that clouds formed in different parts of the atmosphere operate on each other when
brought near enougli, so as to occasion their partial or entire destruction, — an effect which
can be attributed only to their possessing beforehand, or acquiring at the moment, the oppo
site electricities. Such is Mr. Howard's view of the subject ; but untO electricity itself, and,
in particular, the electricity of the atmosphere, be better understood, it is doubtftil if the
phenomena of rain be brought any nearer home by being ascribed to electricity. In the
present state of science. Dr. Hutton's theory has rather the advantage of depending on
principles which are better known, though there is some uncertainty regarding their fitness
for the purpose.
Ram is very unequally distributed to the different regions of the globe ; but nature has
so arranged it, tiiat it is most copious in those latitudes where evaporation is most rapid.
There are, however, exceptions to this rule ; for, on several tracts on the earth's surface, it
hardly ever rams. These are usually far inland, and are generally extensive plains utterly
sterile and uninhabitable. The want of rain is in some places partially supplied by the
copious deposition of dew. On the contrary, there are some spots where it always rains, and
which are mostly on the sea. As the whole atmosphere, when fully charged with humidity,
is calculated to hold no more water than would form a sheet 5 inches in depth, while the
mean annual deposit is about 35 or 40 inches, it is plain that the supply must be frequently
renewed. Rain is more abundant toward the equator than the poles, at the sea-coast than
towards the interior, and on elevated situations than on plains.
From' tiie most authentic sources, Mr. Dalton has constructed the following table, showing
Vol. L 16

182

SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY.

Paet II.

the mean monthly and annual quantities of rain which have fallen at several places, bemg
the average for many years : —

January 
February 

Is1^

.-00

J3 .
is

3S

c3

II
5S

A ^

Inch. 2.310 2.5682.098 2.01U 2.8952.502 3.6973.605 3.281
3.922 3.3603.832

Inch. 2.177 1.847 1.523
2.1042.573 2.8163.663 3.3113.0543.724 3.4413.288

Inch. 2.196 1.6521.322
2.078 2.1182.286 3.006
2.435 2.289 3.079
2.6342.509

Inch. 3.4012.995 1.753
2.180 2.4002.512 4.140
4.581 3.7514.151 3,7753.955

Inch. 5.299 5.I2G 3.151
2.986 3.4802.7224.959 5.039 4.8745.4394.785 6.084

Inch. 3.0052.837 2.1042.0172.568 2.974 3.2563.199 4.350 4.143 3.1743.142

Inch. 1.595 1.7411.1840.979 1.6411.3432.3032.746 1.617
2.297 1.904 1,981

Inch. 1.464 1.2501.172 1.2791.636 1.7,38
2.448 1.807 1.842
2.092
2.222 1.736

Fr. Inch.
1.2281.232 1.1901.1851.7671.697 i.aoo1.900
1.5501.780 1.720
1.600

Fr. Inch.
2.4T7 1.7001.927
3.6862.931
2.563 1.882
2347
4.1404.7414.187
2.397

^pril 

July 
Auijust 
September 
October 
November 
December 
36.140
34.118
27.664
39.714
53.944
36.919
21.331
20.686
18.649
33.9T7
The depth of rain, according to Humboldt, at the latitudes of 0°, 19°, 45°, and 60°, is,
respectively, 96, 80, 29, and 17 inches. In the torrid zone, a small thick ram fells almost
every day on that side of the equator where the sun is ; but it generally intermits during the
night. In many places, there are two wet and two dry seasons in the year ; and in some
regions, from the effect of the mountains and peculiar winds, places under the same parallel
have their wet and dry seasons at opposite periods. Though the annual depth of ram be
greatest toward the equator, the number of rainy days increases with the latitude.
Aqueous meteors, so essential to vegetation, have their salutary effects modified by the
chemical qualities of the moisture in the atmosphere. The salt rain and dew of the vicinity
of the Caspian Sea, owing to the vapours which are exhaled from the soil, probably contribute
to those saline efflorescences which are said to be gradually overspreading the once fertile
soil of Persia. The salt fogs in the west of Jutland are very injurious to the foliage of
trees, without being hurtftil to the grass. Rain has also been known to be impregnated with
sulphur, and with various substances approaching to that of animal and vegetable matters.
Some of these communicate to the rain a peculiar colour, as that of blood, &c. On the
other hand, fogs occur in which little or no moisture is present: such are called dry fogs;
and are supposed to he the vapours and ashes ejected by volcanoes, and diffused in the
atmosphere by the winds. Their occurring about the tune of great eruptions strengthens
this conjecture.
Glaciers. Ice and snow absorb a large portion of heat during liquefection, which they
give out again on freezing ; for, in the ordinary process of nature, water does not cool below
32° F. till the whole be frozen ; nor does its temperature rise above that point, while in
contact with ice or snow, — that is, till the whole be melted. This property has an important
effect on the temperature of snowy districts. It retards and often prevents the occurrence
of extreme cold, and it opposes a sudden rise of temperature above the freezing point. The
cold in the atrjosphere, as was formerly stated, continually increases with the elevation ;
and, at a certain height, depending on the climate or latitude, perpetual frost prevails.
Where the earth's surface attains this height, it is, with the exception of some steep or ver
tical cliffs, continually covered with snow. The snow acquires new additions from time to
time ; for, though it may melt slowly from the heat of the ground on which it rests, yet it
suffers little decay externally, except what the air carries off by evaporation. The warmth
of the solar rays may soften it a little, but this only tends to its ferther consolidation. Masses
of this sort are called glaciers. By accumulating in the manner just mentioned, they often
become top-heavy, or acquire such an enormous weight as to break their hold, or crush their
lower parts, which are besides liable to be undermined by the warmth of the mountain on
which they rest. Hence it not unfrequently happens, that huge masses of ice or conglo
merated snow slide or roll down the sides of mountains, transporting, perhaps, large stones or
fragments of rocks to which they had adhered, or which had been separated from their beds
by the agency of the weatiier. Detached glaciers often descend into districts having a
mean temperature considerably above the melting point of snow. But so great is the heat
consumed in liquefying such huge masses, that years may elapse before they entirely dis
appear ; and during that interval others descend ; and so on continually. So that the limit
of perpetual snow may be found in a climate where little snow falls fi-om the clouds. When
glaciers descend into the sea, and particularly when detached and floating, they are termed
icebergs. The snow-line, or lower limit in mountains covered with perpetual snow, descends m
winter and rises again in summer. Under the equator, this change is scarcely perceptible ;
Book H. METEOROLOGY. 183
but it mcreases with the latitude, and in high latitudes the snow-line has a great range. The
direction of the prevailing winds, with many circumstances too numerous to he detailed, has
each its effect. The snow-line is lower on the sides of mountams turned from the sun, than
on acclivities which receive his rays more perpendicular to their surfaces. Hence it happens,
that one side of a mountain may be covered with perpetual snow, whilst at the same height
on tiie opposite side it is in a state of cultivation. The snow-line, therefore, depends so
much on localities, that no general rule can be given for computing its altitude. Though
often employed for estimating the heights of mountains, it is a most fallacious criterion.
Humboldt gives the followmg heights of perpetual snow in different parts of the world : —
Andes of Quito (lat. 1° to 1° 30'), 2460 toises. Volcano of Purace (lat. 2° 18'), 2420 toisos.
Toluna (lat. 4° 46'), 2380 toises. Nevados of Mexico (lat. 19°), 23.50 toises. Hunalaya
(lat. 31°), northern side, 1950 toises ; southern side, 2605 toises. Summit of Sierra Nevada,
Grenada (lat. 37° 10'), 1780 toises. Caucasus (lat. 42° to 43°), 1650 toises. Pyrenees (lat.
42° 5' to 43°), 1400 toises. Swiss Alps (lat. 46°), 1370 toises. Carpathian mountams
(49° 10'), 1330 toises. Norway (lat. 61° to 67°), 850 to 600 toises; and (lat. 70° to 71° 30')
550 to 366 toises.
Colour of the Atmosphere. That the air has a blue colour, has been conjectured because
a distant landscape appears of that cast, which, however, is greatly duninished by a good
telescope. Newton ascribed this phenomenon to the greater refrangibility of the blue rays ;
and some consider it the effect of vapour. The appearance of the sky, when viewed from
a high mountain, is of a deep blue, approaching to black. But this must be in some way
illusory ; because the upper atmosphere is highly transparent, as the heavenly bodies shine
with increased splendour. Sect. IV. — Luminous Meteors.
The refi-action and reflection of light by air produce a remarkable phenomenon. While
the rays of light move in a medium of uniform density and composition, they are straight ;
but when they pass obliquely into a medium of a different density, they are bent or refracted
toward the denser medium. The rays of light, therefore, whilst coming through the atmo
sphere from the heavenly bodies, are always entering into a denser and denser stratum of
air, and are consequently bent down towards the earth. The different rays suffer different
degrees of refraction, according to their colour. That of red is the least, then orange,
yellow, green, light blue, indigo, and violet. All solid bodies have the property of reflecting
light ; and it is probable that all bodies whatever reflect light in a greater or less degree.
The clouds and air possess this property. The rays which are the most refrangible, are
also the most easily reflected. When the sky shines with a fine azure hue, it is by means
of the more reflexible rays, which are first reflected from the earth, and afterwards returned
by the atmosphere. The refraction and reflection of light enable it to difiuse itself over
the atmosphere, illuminating our hemisphere for a considerable time after the sun has gone
down and before he has arisen, producing the morning and evening twilight.
The rainbow is a circular image of the sun, variously coloured, and produced thus : —
The solar rays, by entering the drops of falling rain, are refracted to their farther surfaces,
and thence, by one or more reflections, transmitted to the eye. But on escaping from the
drop, they undergo a second refraction, by which the rays are separated into their different
colours ; and in this state are exhibited to an eye properly placed to receive them. The
rainbow is never seen but when rain is falling, and the sun and bow are always on opposite
sides of the observer.
The halo is a broad circle of a variable diameter, sometimes white, but more commonly
exhibiting a feint representation of the colours of the rainbow. It appears in a thin cloud,
or in a haze, around the sun and moon's disc.
The corona is a circular space, fiill of mild whitish light, around the moon's disc. It
sometimes passes into a yellowish or brownish colour towards the edges. This and the halo
are popularly known by the name of burrs ; and the latter is accounted a prognostic of rain,
especially when its diameter is large.
Parhelia or mock-suns are images which appear sometimes above and sometimes below
the disc of the tme sun. They are supposed to be seated in the points of intersection of
different halos, and to derive their brightness from the union of several reflections. Parhelia
are sometimes surrounded by a whitish border, sometimes by the colours of the rainbow.
They are rarely quite circular, and some have lummous trains, a,s has likewise the sun him
self, when near the horizon, in the vicinity of Hudson's Bay. It is there, and in sunilar
cold foggy situations, that parhelia are usually seen.
Mock-moons or paraselenae are of less frequent occurrence than parhelia, but they are
generally ascribed to a similar cause.
Luminous shadows or glories are remarkable phenomena, in which a spectator sees his
shadow projected on a cloud with a luminous ring, sometimes coloured like the rainbow,
encircling his head. The spectator, in such cases, must either be on an elevation, or the
cloud must be very low. The shadow is usually of an enormous size.

194 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. Paet E
Looming is the term used by sailors to express a curious optical deception, by which
objects come into view, though materially altered as to their real situation or position. The
French call it mirage, and the Italians fata morgana. It often happens at sea, that a dis
tant ship appears as if painted in the sky, perhaps in an inverted position, and not supported
by the water. Sunken rocks and sands appear as if raised above the surface. The Swedes
long searched in vain for an illusory island of this sort, which they saw from a distance, as
if placed between the isles of Aland and the coast of Upland. The shipping and buildings
on the shore of Naples have, from Messina, sometimes appeared floating inverted in the air.
In 1798, the French coast appeared distinctly raised above the sea, for an hour, as viewed
from the opposite shore of Sussex. To the French, whilst marching in the E^ptian deserts,
the sandy plain covered in the distance by a dense vapour presented the illusive image of a
vast lake, towards which they hastened, but could never reach it.
The aurora borealis, or northem light, is a remarkable luminous phenomenon which
occurs during night, and most commonly in clear or frosty weather. It is unknown in low
latitudes, and becomes more frequent as we recede from the equator. But it is doubtfiil if
its maximum either as to frequency or brilliancy be at the pole ; for in the late north polar
expeditions it was seen to tho south of the observer, whereas at greater distances from the
pole it appears to the north or a little to the west of north of the spectator. It is usually of
a reddish colour, inclining to yellow, and sends out frequent comscations of pale light,
which seem to arise from the horizon in pyramidal undulating forms, and shoots with great
velocity towards the zenith. Some maintain that a whizzing noise accompanies this pheno
menon, but this is not very well ascertained. The light appears sometimes remarkably red,
as was the case in many parts of Europe, Dec. 5, 1737. The aurora borealis frequently
appears in the form of a luminous arch, chiefly in the spring, and in the autumn of a dry
season. The arch is partly bright and partly dark, but generaUy transparent. This kind of
meteor is almost constant during the long winter nights, in high latitudes. The " merry
dancers," as it is called in Shetland, afford the inhabitants great relief amid the gloom of
their long dreary nights. They commonly appear at twilight near the horizon, of a dun
yellow, and sometimes continue so for several hours, without motion ; afterwards they break
into streams of a stronger light, passing into columns and innumerable different shapes.
During this, the colour varies fi'om all the tints of yellow to the most obscure russet, exhi
biting the most beautiful appearance. In the northem parts of Sweden and Lapland, the
aurora borealis is singularly beautifiil, and affords to travellers a very fine light during the
whole night. In Hudson's Bay it diffuses a variegated splendour sometimes equal to that
of the fiill moon. Similar lights were observed by Dr. Forster towards the south pole, but
they were much feebler than in the northern hemisphere. The cause of such phenomena is
unknown. Some ascribe them to electricity and magnetism.
The electricity of the atmosphere is very imperfectly understood. In storms, the clouds
usually exhibit the vitreous or positive electricity. In summer, when the earth is dry, and
the day warm and serene, the electricity of the air increases from sunrise to noon ; in which
state it continues for an hour or two, and again diminishes, till the dew appear. It revives
towalrds midnight, and again decreases till it become insensible.
The phenomena of thunder are so well known, as to require no description ; but no satis
factory explanation has yet been discovered, except that it is intimately connected with elec
tricity, which being itself in a great measure among the incognita, leaves us still in the
dark. Thunder is more frequent as we approach the equator, and decreases as the latitude
increases, being totally unknown in the arctic regions. It is a very rare phenomenon m
intensely cold weather, and seldom occurs during night in the temperate zones. It is
usually attended by heavy showers of hail or sleet, and less frequently by rain. The distance
of thunder may be estimated, by allowing 1100 feet for each second which elapses between
seeing the flash of lightning and hearing the report. It is seldom heard at a greater dis
tance than two miles, and only does mischief when very near.
St. Elmo's fire is a faint light which seems to adhere to the points of bodies carried swiftly
through the air. It appears on the tops of ship masts, and at tiie points of spears and other
warlike instmments when in motion. It is generally believed to be an accumulation of
electric matter. A single flame of this sort was called by the ancients Helena. When
seen in pairs, they were called Castor and Pollux.
Fire-balls are those luminous bodies which appear usually at a great height above the
earth, and were on that account long known by the term meteor, which is now applied to
many other aerial phenomena. They present a very imposing appearance, and are seen of
an immense size, sometimes red, but oftener of a vivid dazzling white. They traverse the
atmosphere with amazing velocity. This, and their great height, have been inferred from
their being seen from various distant places almost at the same instant. Sometimes they
burst in pieces, or discharge torrents of flames, witii a detonation making both the air and
earth to tremble. Some of these balls descend like lightning, break through the roofs of
buildings, destroy animals, and shatter vessels at sea ; in short, they are often attended with
all the disastrous effects of tiiunder and lightning, witii which they are occasionally accom-

Book H. METEOROLOGY. 185
panied. Some consider these balls to be great masses of electric matter, passing from one
place to another. Others suppose them to be the same with the aerolites.
Aerolites, or meteoric stones, have frequentiy descended from the atmosphere from the
remotest antiquity. Both the above opinions may be in so fer correct ; because the fire-balls
exhibit very different appearances. Philosophers are very much divided regarding the ori
gin of meteoric stones. Some unagme them to be ejected from volcanoes on tiie earth's sur
face ; others from volcanoes on the moon. A third class mamtam, that they are generated
by the combmation and condensation of their component parts, previously diffiised in the
atmosphere in the gaseous form. Others allege, that they are detached stones moving
through the boundless regions of space, and which casually come into contact with our
planet. All these are little else than conjecture, although their formation in the atmosphere
is the most plausible. A numerous list of the most authentic falls of such bodies is given
in Phil. Mag. vol. Ixvii.
Falling stars are very ordinary phenomena everywhere, but still they belong to a class
which is not well understood. Near the place of their apparent descent, a fcetid gelatinous
substance has frequently been found, of a whitish yellow colour.*
The zodiacal light is a luminous appearance, seen after sunset, or before sunrise, some
what similar to the milky way, but of a famter light, in the figure of an inverted cone or
pyramid, with its base towards the sun. Its axis is variously inclined to the horizon, and
makes an angle of nearly 7° with the plane of the ecliptic. The earliest distinct account
of it was given by Cassini hi 1683 ; but this affords no ground for supposing that it ha.d not
existed or been seen prior to that date : it is always observable, when the sky is clear, in the
torrid zone ; but is more rarely to be found as we recede from the equator. The season
most favourable for observmg it is about the beginning of March : it is much brighter in
some years than others, and was particularly brilliant at Paris, 16th February, 1769. The
-zodiacal light lies m the plane of the sun's equator, and is therefore supposed by some to be
connected with his rotation. Sect. V. — Winds.
Winds are currents of air occasioned by the disturbance of the equilibrium of the atmo
sphere by the unequal distribution of heat. The general tendency, in such circumstances,
is for the heavier columns to displace the lighter ; and for the air at the earth's surface to move
from the poles toward the equator : in consequence of the rotation of the earth on its axis,
another motion is combined with the currents just described. The air, which is constantly
moving from points where the earth's motion on its axis is- slower to those where it is
quicker, cannot have precisely the same motion eastward with the part of the surface over
which it is passing, and therefore must, relatively to that surfece, acquire a motion some
what westerly. The two currents, therefore, from the opposite hemispheres, will, on meet
ing, about the equator, destroy that part of each other's motion which is in the direction of
the meridian, leaving nothing but their united motion towards the west. Such is the cause
of the trade-wind, as proposed and rejected by Dr. Halley : it was shortly after revived by
Hadley, and is pretty generally received. The trade-wind (with certain exceptions) blows
constantly from the east, between the latitudes of 30° N. and 30° S. ; it declines somewhat
from due east, towards the parallel to which the sun is vertical at different seasons of the
year. The only supply for the air constantly abstracted from the higher latitudes must be
made by a counter current, in the upper regions of the atmosphere, carrying back the air
from the equator to the poles. In a zone of variable breadth, within the region of trade-
winds, calms and rains prevail, caused probably by the mingling and ascending of the oppo
site currents. High lands change or interrupt the course of the trade-winds : thus, under
the lee of the African shore, calms and variable winds prevail near the Cape Verd islands,
while an eddy, or counter current of air from the south-west, is generated under the coast
of Guinea. The lofty barrier of the Andes shelters the sea on the Peruvian shores from
the trade-winds, which are not felt till a ship has sailed eighty leagues westward ; but the
intervening space is occupied by a wind from the south. In the Indian ocean, the trade-
wind is curiously modified by the surrounding land : the southern trade-wind blows regularly
from the east and south-east, from 10° to 23° south latitude ; but between 10° south and the
equator north-west winds prevail from October to April, and south-east the rest of the year ;
while north of the equator, the wind is south-west in summer, and north-east in winter :
these are called monsoons, but are not fiilly understood.
As to the parts of the globe that lie beyond the region of trade-winds, calms prevail pretty
generally over a narrow space ; beyond which, the region of variable winds extends probably
to the poles. Mr. Forster observes, that beyond the tropics the west winds are most common.
He also supposes that east winds have an ascendency within the antartic circle. According
to Robins, a westerly wind almost constantly prevails about latitude 60° S. in the Pacific
* Professor Brandes, of Breslau, has published a curious Treatise on Palling Stars, to which we may direct the
attention of our readers.
Vol. I. 16* Y

186 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. Paet IL
Ocean. In Hudson's Bay, westerly wuids prevail during three fourths of the year, as also
in Kamtschatka. At Melville island, the north and north-west winds prevail : on account of
these winds, the Atiantic may be crossed eastward in about half the time of retuming
westward. Sea and land breezes arise from the same general principle which chiefly occasions the
trade-winds : during the day, when the sun renders the surface of the land warmer than that
of the sea, the warmer rarefied air of the land ascends, being buoyed up and displaced by
the heavier ah rushing from the sea, and thus forming the sea breeze ; but the reverse often
happens during the night, when the surface of the land becomes colder than the sea, and
occasions a wind from the land, or a land breeze. Winds of this sort are more frequent
about islands and small peninsulas than in other situations ; but they are not confined to any
particular latitude.
A variety of local winds have also been observed. The etesian, which is a northerly or
north-easterly wind, prevails very much in summer all over Europe. Pliny describes it as
blowing regularly in Italy for forty days after the summer solstice. It is supposed to be a
part of the great lower current moving towards the equator. Another northem wind, which
often continues about a month in February and March, is called the ornithian wind, because
some birds of passage then make their appearance in the south of Europe. A squall, or
sudden gust of wind, is common in many places ; and when its impetuosity is sufficient to
bear along trees, buildings, &c., it is called a hurricane ; such winds have frequently a
whirling motion, and are accompanied with torrents of rain or hail, and even thunder; these
are sometimes called tornadoes : they are principally confined to the torrid zone. The sirocco
is a hot southem wind, known on the shores of the Mediterranean ; when it reaches Naples
and Sicily, it is very moist and relaxing to the human frame. Some warm climates are
occasionally visited by excessive hot pestilential winds, generally from the south, and known
under a great variety of names in different quarters. Such are the kamsin of Egypt, the
simoom or samiel of Arabia and the Desert. The deleterious effects, which frequently cut
off whole hordes or caravans, are sometimes ascribed to the predominance of one of the
component gases of the air, or to a mixture of nitrous gas, &c. ; but this is not well ascer
tained. The very arid state of the air, bearing along vast quantities of burning sand and
dust, must of itself be very prejudicial to animal life. The harmatian is a warm, dry, east
wind, which occurs in Guinea, and is also of an unwholesome description.
The velocity of the wmd varies from nothing up to 100 miles in an hour ; but the maximum
is variously stated by different authors. Accorduig to Smeaton, a gentle breeze moves
between 4 and 5 miles per hour, and has a force of about 2 ounces on a foot ; a brisk pleasant
gale moves from 10 to 15 mUes, with a force of 12 ounces ; a high wind, 30 to 35 miles,
with a force of 5 or 6 pounds ; a hurricane, bearing along trees, houses, &c. has a velocity
of 100 mOes, and a force of 49 pounds on the square foot.
The force of the wind is nearly as the square of the velocity multiplied by the density of
the air. Some interesting experiments are described by Colonel Beaufoy, Annals Phil.
vol. viii. p. 94.
The atmosphere is the vehicle of sound, and we shall close this brief sketeh by noticing
this property. Till lately, the velocity of sound used to be greatly over-rated. From the
experiments of Dr. Moll, in the plains of Utrecht, in 1823, it appears, that the mean velocity
of sound is nearly 1100 feet per second ; but it varies a litlie with the temperature and
humidity of the air. See Phil. Trans, for 1824.

CHAPTER n.
HYDROLOGY.

This branch of natural history makes us acquainted with the various properties and rela
tions of the waters of the globe. Any definition of water is unnecessary ; but mankind must
have remarked, at a very early period, that the waters distributed over the globe differ con
siderably m their fitness for drinking, for preparing food, and for other domestic purposes.
These differences are occasioned by the foreign bodies which this liquid holds in a state of
solution or suspension ; for water is capable of dissolving a greater number of substances
than any other fluid. Hence it is scarcely ever found native in a state of absolute purity :
in some cases, the quantity of foreign matter is so minute, as to have little influence on the
taste or other properties ; but in other instances they are so abundant, as to render it unfit
for common use, or even noxious ; while at other times it is medicinal, &c., according to the
nature of the substances with which it is impregnated. Native water, free from colour, is
almost never poisonous, especially if it be at the same time tasteless ; but if blue fixim cop
per, green from iron, or brown from vegetable impregnation, it is unfit for the use of man.
Water performs the most important functions in the vegetable and animal kingdoms, and
enters largely into their compositions, as a constituent part.

Book H. HYDROLOGY. 187
The substance of water presents itself under three different forms of aggregation. If
under sufficient pressure, it is liquid at all temperatures above 32°, so far as is laiown. It is
densest at tiie temperature of 40°. When cooled down to 32°, it ordinarily assumes the
solid form of ice ; but if great care be taken to avoid agitation, it may be cooled almost to
zero, without freezmg. Congelation commences in the form of prismatic crystals, crossing
each other at angles of 60° or 120°, and the temperature, however low before, instantly
rises to 32°. During this process, the mass expands with a prodigious force, the volume
suddenly increasing about a nmth part. Glass botties filled with water, and properly stopped,
are burst during its congelation, and the same has happened to a strong bomb-shell. Water
passes mto vapour at all temperatures, and under any pressure ; when the elasticity of the
vapour equals or exceeds the incumbent pressure, the process proceeds with violence, and is
called boiling. Under the orduiary pressure of the atmosphere, this takes place at about
212° of Fahrenheit's scale; but the boilmg temperature varies with the pressure: hence,
water boils at a lower temperature on a mountain top, and at a higher in a deep pit.
The relations of water to heat are very remarkable. With the exception of hydrogen
gas, it absorbs more heat in warming, and parts with more in cooling, than other bodies do.
Hence, large bodies of water have a powerfiil influence hi checking or retarding sudden
alterations of temperature in the surrounding air. Ice, in melting, absorbs as much heat as
would raise its temperature 140°, and gives out the like quantity again in freezing, — a pro
perty that enables it to resist or retard sudden alterations of temperature in cold climates, in
a more remarkable degree than the other ; which, however, exerts its influence in the torrid
and temperate as well as in the frigid zone. Lastly, water, in assuming the elastic form,
absorbs heat sufficient to raise its temperature 1000°, and parts with as much during re-con
densing into water ; so that water possesses an almost boundless influence in tempering
climate. Water, as to its composition, was long ranked among the simple elements; but the
researches of modern chemistry have ascertained that it is a compound of 88.9 of oxygen,
and 11.1 of hydrogen ; or its composition by volume and weight may be thus stated : one
volume of oxygen combined with two of hydrogen, or eight parts by weight of oxygen, with
one of hydrogen. It is composed and decomposed, during many of the operations of nature,
and its chemical agency is almost universal. It is an ingredient in most bodies which
appear under the crystalline form. Sect. I. — The Ocean.
The ocean is the origin and fountain of all the other waters which occur, in whatever
form, on the face of the globe. According to some naturalists, it fomis the remains of the
menstruum or chaotic fluid, in which all solid bodies were originally held in a state of solu
tion, and from which they have been precipitated or crystallized, in short, brought to their
present state, during the countless ages which these processes are supposed to have occupied,
anterior to the creation of man : be this as it may, we are certain, that it is from the vapours
exhaled by the ocean that the atmosphere is furnished with sufficient moisture to support and
refresh the organized beings which mhabit the earth. All nature languishes when the
atmosphere withholds its ram and dews ; plants fade and droop ; animals feel their strength
failing; even man himself, breathing nothuig but dust, can with difficulty procure shelter
from the sultry heat by which his frame is parched and overpowered. The ocean is the
grand thoroughfere of commerce, forming a medium of communication between the most
distant and otherwise inaccessible portions of the earth. It consists of one contuiuous fluid,
spread round the land, and probably extendmg from pole to pole. All the gulfs, all the
inland seas, form only portions detached, but not entirely separated, from that universal sea,
denommated the ocean. Geographers roundly estunate the ocean and its branches to occupy
three fourths of the enthe surface of the globe. But to ascertam the exact proportion
between the land and water will afford them ample employment for ages to come, though
every day adds to the stock of information already acquired.
The ocean is variously subdivided by different authors: it may be conveniently divided
mto five great basins.
The Pacific, so named from its comparative tranquillity, and often called also the Great
South Sea, separates Asia from America. It is the largest of the basms, and somewhat
exceeds the entire surface of dry land. Its greatest extent, from east to west, is about 3700
leagues, and breadth 2700. It is bounded on the east by the westem and north-west shores
of America, and on the west by the eastern coasts of Asia : on the western side, and between
the tropics, its surface is studded with mnumerable groups of islands, all remarkably small •
and consisting generally of coral reefs, rising up like a wall from unknown depths and
emergmg but a very littie above the sea. These islands are the works of innumerable
mmute insects, whose incessant labours are thus gradually formmg new lands in the bosom
of the ocean. On the western side, it communicates witii the mland seas of Japan and
Okotsk, Uie Yellow and Chmese seas ; and on the eastern side, it has the mlets of California
and Queen Charlotte s Sound. The small isles of the Pacific, scattered over the torrid zone

188 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. Part H,
have their temperature so moderated by the ocean as to enjoy the most delightful climate in
the world.
The second basin, or Atlantic Ocean, is usually divided into the North Atlantic, and the
South Atiantic, or Ethiopic Ocean. The Atlantic is bounded on the east by Europe and
Africa; and on the west, by America: that part of it between Europe and North America
is frequentiy called the Western Ocean. The Atlantic basin extends from 70° N. to 35°
and 50° S. latitude ; but it is only about half the size of the Pacific Ocean. The length is
about 2800 leagues, but the breadth, which is very unequal, varies from 600 to 1800. ITie
South Atlantic contains few islands of any size, and no inlets of consequence ; but the North
Atlantic abounds in large islands, and in deep and numerous inland seas, which penetrate
far on each side into both the old and new worlds, and have fitted it for the most extensive
commerce on the globe. On its eastem shores it receives few large rivers except the
Niger; but on the west it receives the Plata, Orinoco, Amazons, and Mississippi,  the
largest rivers on the face of the earth.
The third basui is the Indian Ocean, which washes the shores of the south-east coasts of
Africa and the south of Asia. It is bounded on the east by the Indian islands. New Holland
and New Zealand : its length and breadth are each about 1500 leagues : it contains many
islands, the two large bays of Bengal and Oman, with the deep inlets of the Persian Gulf
and Red Sea. The half-yearly winds called monsoons prevail in its northem parts.
The fourth basin is the Arctic Ocean, an immense circular basin, surrounding the North
Pole, and communicating with the Pacific and Atlantic by two channels ; the one separating
America from Europe, the other America from Asia. Few points of the coasts of Emope
and Asia, which occupy a fiill half of the circumscribing circle, extend much beyond the
70th parallel ; and it is doubtfiil if the other boundaries, consisting of the northem coasts
of America and Old Greenland, reach nearer the Pole ; so that the mean diameter of this
basin may be taken at 800 leagues. Its interior or central parts are little known : several
islands are scattered over its southem extremities, the largest of which is Old Greenland,
whose northern limit is unknown ; the others are Spitzbergen, Nova Zembla, the Isles of
New Siberia, those lately discovered by Captain Parry, and several towards Baffin's Bay.
The White Sea, on the north coast of Europe, is the only deep gulf connected with tlus
basin, which is of any importance to navigation.
The fifth basin is the Antarctic, which is stUl less known than the preceding : it joins
the Pacific in the latitude of 50° S., and the Indian Ocean in that of 40°. Floating ice
occurs in every part of it ; but it is very abundant within the parallel of 60°. It was long
supposed, that a large continent of land and fixed iee occupied the greater part withm the
antarctic chcle. In 1819, Captam Smith discovered land lying between the longitades of
55° and 65° W., and beginnmg at the latitude of 62°. Mr. WeddeU has smce examined
this quarter nearer the Pole, which he believes to be free from fixed ice.
Of the inland seas, the Mediterranean is the largest and most important : it is deserving
of notice on various accounts, and in particular as havmg been tiie scene of by fer the
greater number of the nautical adventures of antiquity. It is the " Great Sea" of the Sacred
Writings, though we find it there spoken of under other names. Its greatest length, from
east to west, is about 2350 miles; and tiie breadtii, which is sometimes smah, is at the
greatest 650. It is bounded on the south by Africa, on tiie east by Asia, and on the north by
Europe. It communicates on the west witii tiie Atiantic by the Straits of Gibraltju-, and
with the Black Sea by the Dardanelles Strait on tiie east It has many islands, gulfs, and
bays, with a very deep inlet on the nortii called the Adriatic Sea, or Gulf of \ enice. -The
Black Sea is connected with tiie Sea of Azof; but tiiese confemmg only brackish water,
and being so far inland, have more of the character of lakes tiian branches of tiie ocean
Proceedtog still ferther eastward, we come to the Caspian Sea, which is abundantly salt, and
of great dunensions; but being wholly uncoimected witii tiie ocean, will be afterwards
BDoken of under the character of a lake. .,. ,,.1-v. ,. ui.
The Baltic is pretty much allied to the Black Sea, m havmg only brackish waters, which
are sometimes wholly frozen over for several months m winter, and tiie ice so strong, that
„,^i»= Lvp been marched across. The Baltic communicates with tiie German Sea by tiie
Z t caUod the cXga : ™eatest length is 1200 miles. The Nortii Sea, or German
Cut bounded by Britain a^d tiie Orkniys on tiie west, and the contment of Europe on
rpt'; Ll -ch£.rom the Strai. of Do^^^^^ ^H'^Tof^ttTs^^ZZ
a"!:;- H:ionWd bSKC; but^^^o must now proceed to treatof tiie different properties
and relations of tho ocean, so fer as our limits will permit
The Msunl colour which sea water exliibito is a W"ish peen, of vmous shade^ borne
mainfnin, tiiat this is its true and proper colour ; "^frs- tiiat it is an optical dlus^^^^
sioiH-d by the gronlor rcfrnngibility of the bluo rays of light,-opmions which may both be
trno In n co,-(nin cvtrnl. Tiic oconn seems often to assume various otiier colours sonie ot
tiinm MO (Ir.ubt r,vil, but ns often illusory. Among tiie more genera sources of deception,
may bo reckoned (lio aspect of tiio slcy : tiius, an apparently dark-coloured sea is a commM'

BookH. HYDROLOGY. 189
proo-nostic of an approachkg storm; not tiiat the water then is really blacker than usual,
but because the dark colour of the clouds mdistinctly seen in, or reflected from the waves, is
mistaken for the colour of tiie sea itself Whatever other colour the sky happens to wear
has a greater or less influence on the appearance of the ocean : tiius red clouds seem to tmge
it red, &c. On some occasions, the edges of tiie waves, by refracting the solar beams like a
prism, exhibit all tiie different colours of the rainbow, which is still more nearly imitated by
tiie refraction of the rays m the spray. Not unfrequently, an mdistinct image of the neigh-
bourmg coast reflected from the ruffled surface is mistaken for the colour of the water.
The variety of colours m the sea may probably arise from animal and vegetable matters
diffused tiirough tiie waters in a putrescent state, and communicating various tints. The
yellow and bright green shades seem to be owing to living marme vegetables, which grow
at the bottom, stretch their fibres through the water, or spread over the surface ; and it is
supposed that the colour of innumerable muiute animals is often confounded with that of the
sea. Near the shore, and especially towards the mouths of rivers, the diffusion of mud and
other earthy matters cannot fail to affect the colour of the sea : where it is shallow or very
transparent, the colour of the bottom is frequently mistaken for that of the water.
The colour of the Greenland Sea, according to Mr. Scoresby, varies from ultramarine blue
to olive-green, and from the most pure transparency to great opacity. These appearances,
he thinks, are not transitory, but permanent ; not depending on the state of the weather,
but on the quality of the water. Hudson, in 1607, noticed these changes, and observed that
the sea was blue where there was ice, and green where it was open. This, however, was
only accidental. Phipps does not mention the green water ; it forms, perhaps, one-fourth of
the Greenland Sea, between the latitudes of 74° and 80° ; often it constitutes long bands or
currents, lying north and south, or N. E. and S. W. Mr. Scoresby sometimes passed through
stripes of pale green, olive-green, and transparent blue, in the course of ten minutes. The
food of the whale occurs chiefly in the green water, and there the fishers look for them.
Whales are more easily taken hi the opaque green water than in the transparent blue, be
cause they do not readily see their enemies through the former. On examining the differently-
coloured sea waters, Mr. Scoresby found various substances and animalcules, especially in the
olive-green water. The number of medusae was immense : they were about one-fourth of
an inch asunder. Hence a cubic foot would contain 110,592. From these, and many similar
observations, Mr. Scoresby concludes, that the Arctic Sea owes its colour to animalcules, and
that they occasion the opacity of the olive-green water. The blue water contains few ani
malcules, and is uncommonly transparent. The surface of the Mediterranean sometimes
appears of a purple tint. In the Gulf of Guinea, the sea is sometimes white ; and around
the Maldive islands, black.
The transparency of the sea may in many places be very great, without such property
being readily noticed. Thus, where the water is sufficiently deep to be dark at the bottom,
it may seem quite opaque, unless some fish or other object happen to come within view.
Agitation of the surface wiU likewise tend to conceal the transparency. In general, the
sea is more transparent as we recede from the shore, and in cold clunates than in hot ; owing
perhaps, to the smaller quantity of organic matter diffused in the waters of high latitudes.
Froni this, however, there are exceptions ; as in the opacity of the Arctic Sea just noticed,
and in the case of the Caribbean Sea, which is often remarkably transparent. Admiral
Milne observed the bottom at a depth of 150 feet in the Caribbean Sea. Authors are not n
agreed to what depth the solar rays penetrate ; and indeed we have every reason to suppose
that this must depend upon and be as various as the transparency. Some limit the penetra
tion to a depth of 100 yards ; while others more than double that quantity. The light
should surely penetrate to at least double tiie depth to which an observer can see from the
surface. The temperature of the sea has probably a tendency to follow the mean temperature of
the climate ; but many powerful causes must interfere and modify it. Thus, between the
tropics, the mean temperature of the surface of the ocean is about 80°, and generally ranges
between 77° and 84°. Beyond the tropics, it begbs to decrease, but without observing any
strict connexion with the latitude ; because, on account of the great " specific heat of water,
powertol currents cannot fail partially to preserve, for some time, the temperature of the
place from which they come. Hence, currents from the torrid zone, on passmg into higher
latitudes, raise the temperature of the sea above what usually belongs to such parallels f the
reverse holds of cold icy currents from the arctic regions. The temperature of the ocean is
much more steady than that of the supermcumbent air, and has likewise a smaller annual
range : unless where very shallow, it has scarcely any diurnal range.
The temperature of the sea on descending below the surface generally decreases but not
according to any uniform or known law. Thus, at a depth of five fethoms, it is sometimes
1° colder, while in other instances it requires 100 fethoms for 1° Sometimes the cold
attains its maximum at a depth of 100 fathoms, and sometimes it requires 400 or 500 fethoms
Aceordmg to an experiment related by Capt. Sabine, the temperature of the Caribb^n Sea
was 45.5° at a depth of 1000 fethoms, while its surface was ^°. But tiie enormous pre^

^90 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. Pakt H.
sure at the bottom probably compressed the ball of the thermometer, and kept the apparent
temperature 45.5° above the truth. In the Arctic Sea, however, the temperature increases
with the depth. Mr. Scoresby, who first ascertained this, found an increase of 6.6° and 8°
at the respective depths of 120 and 730 fathoms ; Capt. Parry, 6° at 240 fathoms ; Capt.
Sabine, 7.5° at 680 fathoms ; Lieut Beechy, 10° at 700 fethoms ; and Mr. Fisher, 9.5° at a
depth of 188 fathoms. Thus, the rate of increase of temperature in the Arctic Sea has as
inconstant a connexion with the depth as the decrease in the temperate and torrid zones.
Sea water freezes about 28°; after which, the ice has been observed to cool down to
— 55° ; but we cannot thence infer, that a lower temperature does not occur in the polar
regions. The phosphorescence of the sea is a common but very remarkable phenomenon, concern
ing the cause of which authors are not agreed. But most probably, as Newton conjectured,
it proceeds from a variety of causes. Since his time, it has engaged the attention of many
eminent philosophers. The appearance of these lights is by no means uniform. Sometimes
a vessel, in traversing the ocean, seems to mark out a track of fire ; while each stroke of an
oar emits a light, sometimes brilliant and dazzling, at other times tranquil and pearly. These
lights are grouped in endless variety. Perhaps, at one time, innumerable shining points
float on the surface, and then unite into one extensive sheet of light. At another time, the
spectator fancies he sees large sparkling figures, like animals in pursuit of each other, inces
santly vanishing and re-appearing. Such lights have been ascribed to luminous animals,
and to the phosphorescence of semiputrescent matter diflhsed in the ocean. It is well known,
that various fishes and other marine animals emit light, which does not in every instance
appear to be voluntary, or to depend on the vital principle, as, in some of them, it continues,
and perhaps increases, after death : but motion seems to be either a principal cause, or at
least an exciting one ; for this light more rarely occurs, and is much fainter, in stiU water,
whilst it becomes more and more brilliant as the motion increases. It is also more abundant
immediately before and during storms. In vol. y. p. 303. of the Edin. Phil. Jour., Dr.
Francis Buchanan has given a very interesting account of an extraordinary shining of the
sea, which he observed, 31st July, 1785, m longitude 61° 25' E., latitude 6° 32' N. " About
a quarter past seven p. m.," says he, " the sea was observed to be remarkably white. The
sky was everywhere clear, except around the horizon, where, for about 15°, it was covered
with a dark haze, as is usual in such latitudes. The whiteness gradually increased tiU past
eight. The sea was then as high-coloured as milk, not unlike the milky way, the luminous
appearance very much resembling the brighter stars in that constellation. It continued in
this state till past midnight, and only disappeared as daylight advanced. The whiteness
prevented us from being able to see either the break or the swell of the sea, although both
were considerable, as we knew from the motion of the ship and the noise. There was much
light upon deck, as we could discern all the ropes much more distinctly than usual. We
drew several buckets of water, in which, even when at rest, there appeared a great number
of luminous bodies. The bulk of them did not appear to be more than one quarter of an
inch in length, and nearly as much in breadth. Some, however, were one inch and a half
long, and of the same breadth as the others. These were seen to move in the same manner
as a worm does in water. When taken up on the finger, they retained their shining feculty
even when dry. When brought near a candle, their light disappeared ; but, by minute
attention, an extremely fine white filament could be observed and lifted upon the point of a
pin. It was of a uniform shining colour and foi-rn, and about the thickness of a spider's
thread. In a gallon of water there might be about 400 of these animals emitting light.
The water itself, when in the bucket, had a natural appearance. The atmosphere was
seemingly free from fog. The stars were bright, and there was no moonlight The night
before, the same appearance was observed at ten p. m. ; it lasted only 20 minutes ; but as I
was below, I did not hear of it till it was over." — " 'The animalcules which occasion the
unusual luminousness of the sea emit light only when strongly agitated, and hence appear
close by the sides of the ship, or when any larger fish passes swiftly, or when a bucket of
water is drawn and suddenly poured out" — " In the year 1805, on returning from St Helena
to England, a little north from the equinoctial line, and near tiie coast of Africa, I had an
opportunity of seeing a still more splendid appearance of the luminous animalcules. Soon
after dark in the evening, it being nearly calm, we saw numerous lights at a distance, like
the lamps of a great city. The lights gradually approached tiie frigate, and on reaching us
appeared to arise from a great many large fishes (albicores) sporting in the water, and agi
tating the animalcules, so as to excite their luminous powers."
The depth of the sea is a question on which our information is very imperfect and there
is little likelihood that much accurate information will ever be obtained on the subject, so
far as regards the wide ocean. According to the speculations of tiie late celebrated Mar
quis Laplace, the depth of the ocean is comparatively small, and nearly unifbrm. If, how
ever, it be recollected that the bottom of tho sea is still a part of tiie earth's surfece, and by
much the groiitiT part too, one would be apt to ask, why tiiat larger part of the surface
should be more level than what appears as dry land I The soundings which have been made

Book H. HYDROLOGY. 191
m the ocean are quite madequate to decide the question. They, however, often indicate great
inequalities in the deptii ; but how far hollows may have been filled with debris, or asperi
ties wom down, it is not easy to say ; though it is more likely that the summits of moun
tams e.xposed to the alternate or combmed actions of air and moisture suffer a more rapid
abrasion than those which are wholly under water. In general, the slope of the adjacent
shore is continued downward for a good way under water ; that is, the sea is usually shallow
where the shore is flat, while its depth increases rapidly by the side of a cliff or steep moun
tam. It is therefore probable, that some islands, though very small, may be the tops of
sub-marine moimtams as large, perhaps, as the highest which occur on the eartii's surface.
In many instances, no bottom has been found; but this might proceed either from the
shortness of the line, or from its being borne aside by rapid currents. We have already
mentioned a sounding of 6000 feet in the Caribbean sea ; but Lord Mulgrave's line of 4680
feet did not reach the bottom of the Northern Ocean. In the entrance of the German or
North Sea, at the Straits of Dover, the central depth is 29 fathoms. This extensive basin
contains various shallows and sand-banks ; yet, generally speaking, the depth increases in
going northward, and near to Bergen in Norway it amounts to 190 fethoms. A very inter
esting account of the bed of the German Sea is given by Mr. Stevenson, Edin. Phil. Jour.
iu. 42. ; and in the third volume of the Memoirs of the Wernerian Society.
The level of the open sea is believed, generally speaking, to be everywhere the same ;
or to form a portion of the surfece of an oblate spheroid, to which the surface of the
land approaches with less accuracy. Some gulfs and inland seas appear to deviate in
some measure from the general rule. This is more particularly the case where the com
munication of such seas with the ocean is narrow ; and there are a few other exceptions.*
When the general motion of the ocean or of the trade-winds is directed into the mouth of
an inland sea, it has a tendency to raise its level above that of the ocean. On this account
it is that the Arabian Gulf or Red Sea is higher than the ocean, and still higher than
the Mediterranean, which, from the opposite action of the wind and the great evapora
tion, is supposed to be a little below the general level.f Some gulfs and inland seas, as
the Baltic and Black Sea, rise in spring, from the copious influx of river water, and are
lowered in summer by evaporation and the efflux at theh mouths. Of late years, there has
been considerable discussion regarding the subsidence of the Baltic below the level it had
formerly maintained. Whilst some support this opinion, and venture to explain the cause
of the subsidence, others deny the fact altogether. . The trade- winds and general westward
motion of the ocean force the water into the Gulf of Mexico, so as to maintain a higher
level there than on the western coast of the Isthmus of Darien.| The qonsequence of this
accumulation of water is, that it generates a current moving northwards ; and which, after
various windings through the Atlantic, at length reaches the westem shores of Europe, as
will be more particularly noticed hereafter. Some naturalists allege, that the debris, or
alluvial matters daily abraded by the action of the weather on the surfece of the land, and
swept into the ocean by the rain and rivers, must, at length, raise the level of the ocean till
it cover the whole globe, and restore the reign of ancient chaos. Unless there be some
compensatmg process, which either makes up for the exhausted materials, or gradually ele
vates the entire continents above the water, it is not very easy to guess at an alternative.
A compensating power is situated deep in the crust of the earth.
The taste of sea water is disagreeable and bitter, at least when taken from the surface or
near the shore ; but when drawn from great depths, its taste is only saline. It would there
fore seem that the bitterness is owing to the greater abundance of animal and vegetable
matter near the surface. Man, in a civilized state, cannot make use of sea water as drmk ;
yet it is said that the mhabitants of Easter Island, in the Pacific Ocean, make it their
usual beverage. Some of the lower anunals occasionally travel fer to drmk sea water.
Sheep are very fond of licking the dry salt ; and so are" horses and cattie. Witii them it is
a cure for various complaints. Several attempts have been made to render sea water pota
ble, or to free it from salt Distillation is the most effectual ; hut the expense of fuel is a
prions objection to this method at sea, and, after all, it does not divest it of all its bitterness
Thus, m the midst of water, marmers are frequentiy in danger of dymg of thhst, wheii
they run short of fresh water. Sea ice, when melted, affords nearly fresh water ; but bemg
devoid of aur, its taste is not very agreeable, though it would be highly prized in time of
need. A temporary, and m some degree an hnagmary, relief may be obtamed, by holdinff
salt water m the mouth. ¦ ' j s
The salme contents of the waters of the wide ocean do not, so fer as experience has gone
vary much m different latitudes and under different meridians, although we ought to find
the sea fresher m the spaces occupied by the internal limits of the trade-wmd, and also m
fliose tracts of the ocean where calms and a high temperature prevail, as on the west coast

* Straho says the level of the Gulf of Corinth is higher than that of the Gulf of Cenchreffi.
t Vide Madaren on the level of the Red Sea, in the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal
t The mean height of tbe Pacific ahove the Atlantic is said to be 3.52 feet.

192 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Pakt U.
of Africa. The mean is about 3.5 per cent in the weight of the water ; but the saltness is
more or less affected by currents and storms. It is diminished at the surface during heavy
rains, and by the discharge of rivers ; but increased by evaporation, which carries off the
water fresh, and leaves the salt behind : hence there is often little consistency in detached
observations. From a great variety of experiments, Dr. Marcet concludes : 1. That the
Southern Ocean contains more salt than the Northem, in the ratio of 1.0291 to 1.02757.
2. That the mean specific gravity of sea water near the equator is 1.02777, intermediate
between those of the northem and southern hemispheres. 3. That there is no notable dif
ference in sea water under different meridians. 4. That there is no satisfactory evidence
that the sea at great depths is more salt than at the surfece. 5. That the sea, in general,
contains more salt where it is deepest and most remote from land ; and that its saltness is
always diminished in the vicinity of large masses of ice. 6. That small inland seas, though
communicating with the ocean, are much less salt than the open ocean. 7. That the Medi
terranean contains rather larger proportions of salt than the ocean. This last is explained
from the fact, that a pretty strong current from the Atlantic always flows inward at the
mouth of the Mediterranean, to supply, as was supposed, the water which escaped by
evaporation, and left its salt behind. So great, however, is the influx, that this inland sea
ought to have become perfect brine, or perhaps to have deposited beds of salt, if there were
no efflux ; and accordingly it is maintained that there is an outward current at the bottom,
very deep, which carries off this excess of salt, and prevents its deposition in the vast hol
lows in the bottom. The water drawn up from this lower current is Salter, in a small de
gree, than at the surface.
The following are the mean specific gravities of the waters of different seas, according
to Dr. Marcet's experiments : —

Arctic Ocean  1.02G04
Northern Hemisphere  1.02829
Southern Hemisphere  1.03882
Yellow Sea  1.02291
Mediterranean  1.02930
Sea of Marmora  1.01915

Black Sea  1.01418
White Sea  1.01901
Baltic  1.01523
Lake Ourmia, in Persia  1.16507
Dead Sea  1.11100

The saltness of inland seas is subject to many varieties. In the entrance to the Black
Sea, the water is much Salter at the bottom than the surface. To account for this, it is said
that an under current enters from the Mediterranean. It is well known that there is an
outward current at the surfece, which brings with it the less salt water of the Black Sea.
The saltness of inland seas is often affected by the dhection and strength of the wind, either
forcing in, or retarding the entrance of, water from the ocean. Accordingly, from the expe
riments of WUcke, it appears that the saltness of the Baltic is increased by a west wind, and
still more so by a north-west wind ; but it undergoes a diminution when the wind is from
the east Thus, the specific gravities are, for a
Wind at W  1.0067 | Storm at W  1.0118
Ditto at N. W  1.0098 I Wind at E  1.0039
Hence, the proportion of salt in the Baltic depends in no small degree on the different winds;
a proof that the salt is not only derived from the neighbouring ocean, but that storms have a
much greater effect on it than has been commonly supposed.
The constituent parts of sea water have been an object of examination to many chemists,
and various sets of experiments made to determine them. The late Dr. Murray of Edin
burgh was of opmion that there were various sources of feUacy in analysmg sea water ; and
that different modes of operating on the same water gave very different results. Two
reasons are assigned for this ; viz. that some of the different salts mutually decompose each
other in the process, and that a part is lost altogether by evaporation, especially if the tem
perature be high. According to this eminent chemist, 10,000 parts of water from the Frith
of Forth, which is not sensibly different from that of the ocean, contain 220 parts of common
salt, 33 of sulphate of soda, 42 of muriate of magnesia, and 8 of muriate of lime. On
analysing sea water from N. latitude 25° 30', W. longitude 32° 30', Dr. Marcet made the
numbers respectively 266, 47, 52, and 12. According to Bladh, the saltness is greater about
the tropics than at the equator. Dr. Trail maintauis the contrary ; and also tiiat the salt
ness increases with the depth.
Ice is formed on the sea, though its saltness enables it to resist tiie process of congelation
at the ordinary freezing point of fresh water. This quality does not withstand the rigour
of the Arctic regions, where tiie temperature of tiie air has been observed so low as 55° F.
Sea water freezes about 28°, but the temperature varies a little with the saltness. — It is a
curious circumstance, that sea water parts with its salt in freezing. Hence compact trans
parent sea ice affords frosh water on being melted. Wlien, however, the ice is of a loose
or cellular texture, its pores sometimes contain liquid brine ; and therefore, on being melted,
it affords brackish water. It is supposed to be the affinity between the water and salt which
retards the congelation of sea water ; because the greater the saltness, the lower is the
freezing temjierature. Detached masses of ice are occasionally met with, floating in the
ocean at so low a parallel of latitude as 40° in both hemispheres ; having been conveyed

Book II HYDROLOGY. 193
tiiither by currents from the polar regions.* At tiie parallel of 50° they are more abundant;
and there it is common, in winter, to see the shallow edges of the sea covered with ice At
60° N. latitude, tiie gulfs and inland seas are frequentiy frozen over their whole surface.
As we proceed toward tiie poles, the ice becomes more and more abundant, and of larger
dimensions, till at length we come to fields of ice, and icebergs or mountains of ice. "The
process of cono-elation commences at tiie surface of the sea, witii the formation of slender
prismatic crystals resembling wet snow: this tiie seamen call sludge. The surface is at
first rough ; but, by the union of the crystals and tiie accumulation of tiie sludge, the surface
becomes smootii and forms a contmued sheet, which is next broken, by the agitation of the
water, into fragments of about three inches diameter ; these again coalesce mto a contmued
slieet of a staronger texture, which is m its turn broken as before, but into larger fragments
called pancake ice. Where the water is free from all agitation, the congelation goes on
more regularly, and some allege more rapidly. Durmg 24 hours of keen frost, the ice fre
quentiy attams a thickness of from two to three uiches, and is soon fit for walking on : it is
then called bay ice. When the tiiickness is about a foot, it is called light ice ; and when
three feet thick, heavy ice. The term field is given to a sheet of ice so extensive that its
farther end cannot be seen from a mast-head. Very large loosened pieces, whose boundaries
may be seen readily, are called floes. Fragments of thick ice floatmg together are called
brash ice. Floatmg ice of any sort, sufficiently loose to allow a vessel to pass through, is
caUed open or drift ice. Indeed, tiiere is no end to the terms which seamen apply to different
sorts of ice. The sudden disruption of extensive fields is sometimes produced by that power
ful tendency to undulation of the surface, communicated by the motions of the adjoining
liquid surface of the ocean during a continued storm, which is denominated a ground swell.
The ice, when thm, merely yields ; but, if thick and little flexible, it is broken with tre
mendous noise. A very interesting account of such a phenomenon is given by a party of
missionaries who passed along the coast of Labrador hi sledges drawn by dogs. They nar
rowly escaped destruction; but were near enough to witness all its grandeur. "The mis
sionaries met a sledge with Esquimaux turning in from the sea, who threw out some hints
that it might be as well for them to return. After some time, their own Esquhnaux hinted
that there was a ground swell under the ice. It was then scarcely perceptible, except on
lying down and applying the ear close to the ice, when a hollow disagreeable grating noise
was heard ascending from the abyss. As the motion of the sea under the ice had grown
more perceptible, they became alarmed, and began to think it prudent to keep close to the
shore. The ice also had fissures in many places, some of which formed chasms of one or
two feet ; but as these are not uncommon even in its best state, and the dogs easily leap
over them, they are frightful only to strangers. As the wind rose to a storm, the swell had
now increased so much that its effects on the ice were extraordinary, and really alarming.
The sledges, instead of gliding smoothly along as on an even surface, sometimes ran with
violence after the dogs, and sometimes seemed with difficulty to ascend a rising hill. Noises,
too, were now distinctly heard in many directions, like the report of cannon, from the burst
ing of the ice at a distance. Alarmed by these frightful phenomena, our travellers drove
with all haste towards the shore ; and as they approached it, the prospect before them was
tremendous. The ice, having burst loose from the rocks, was tossed to and fro, and broken
in a thousand pieces against the precipices with a dreadful noise ; which, added to the raghig
of the sea, the roaring of the wind, and the driving of the snow, so completely overpowered
them as almost to deprive them of the use both of their eyes and ears. To make the land
was now the only resource that remained ; but it was with the utmost difficulty that the
frightened dogs could be driven forward ; and as the whole body of the ice frequently sunk
below the summits of the rocks, and then rose above them, the only time for landing was the
moment it gained the level of the coast, — a circumstance which rendered the attempt
extremely nice and hazardous. Both sledges, however, succeeded in gaining the shore, and
were drawn up on the beach, though not without great difficulty. Scarcely had they reached
it, when that part of the ice from which they had just escaped burst asunder, and the water,
rushing up from beneath, instantly precipitated it into the ocean. In a moment, as if by
signal, the whole mass of ice for several miles along the coast, and extending as far as the
eye could reach, began to break and to be overwhelmed with the waves. The spectacle was
awfully grand. The immense fields of ice rising out of the ocean, clashing against one
another, and then plunging into the deep with a violence which no language can describe,
and a noise like the discharge of a thousand cannon, was a sight which must have struck the
most unreflecting mind with solemn awe. The brethren were overwhelmed with amaze
ment at their miraculous escape ; and even the pagan Esquhnaux expressed gratitude to
God for their deliverance."t
The term iceberg is applied to huge masses of ice resembling mountains, whether resting
on the land or floating on the sea. The latter part appear to be sometimes formed in the
? Horsburgh mentions icebergs having been met with in South lat. 350 5i^' , andWest long, I70 59'.  PhitMag.
t Brown's History of the Propagation of Christianity, vol. ii. p. 57
Vol. L 17 Z

194 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. Part U.
sea itself, by the accumulation of ice and snow; at other tunes to be fragments of land ice
bergs or glaciers, which have been piling up on the shore till quite overgrown, and ultimately
broken and launched into the ocean by theh own weight Masses of this sort abound in
Baffin's Bay, where they are sometimes two miles long, and half or one third as broad. They
are bristled with various spires, rising, perhaps, 100 feet above the surfece, and descending
half as much below it When compact ice floats in water, the part under the surface is
about nine times as great as that above it ; and hence the icebergs may sometimes descend
to a great depth, though they should be far from consisting of very compact ice. Icebergs
of an even surface, rising 90 feet above the sea, and having an area of five or six square
miles, are very common. Those of East Greenland are of mferior size, and they are still
smaller around Spitzbergen, where some of enormous dimensions occur on shore. The
reason which Mr. Scoresby assigns for this is, that, owing to the shallowness of the water
mto which the huge masses are precipitated, they are all shattered agamst the bottom into
a thousand pieces before they are fairly launched into deep water. " On an excursion to one
of the Seven Icebergs, in July 1818," says Mr. Scoresby, " I was particularly fortunate m
witnessing one of the grandest effects which these polar glaciers ever present A strong
north-westerly swell, having for some hours been beating on the shore, had loosened a num
ber of fragments attached to the iceberg, and various heaps of broken ice denoted recent
shoots of the seaward edge. As we rowed towards it, with a view of proceeding close to
its base, I observed a few little pieces fall from the top ; and while my eye was fixed upon
tiie place, an immense column, probably 50 feet square and 150 feet high, began to leave
the parent ice at the top ; and leanmg majestically forward, with an accelerated velocity
fell with an awful crash into the sea. The water into which it plunged was converted into
an appearance of vapour or smoke, like that from a furious caimonSling. The noise was
equal to that of thunder, which it nearly resembled. The column which fell was nearly
square, and in magnitude resembled a church. It broke into a thousand pieces. This ch-
cumstance was a happy caution ; for we might have inadvertently gone to the very base of
the icy cliff, from which masses of considerable magnitude were continually falling." A
huge mass of this sort which fell on a Russian ship, broke the fore and main masts, sprung
the bowsprit, and flung the ship over with such violence that a piece of ordnance was thrown
overboard from under the half-deck, and the captain and some of the crew were projected in
the same manner. The captain, however, escaped unhurt ; but the mate and two others
were killed, and many were wounded.
Icebergs variously affect navigation. They are often highly useful by protecting nayiga^
tors from gales, as well as from the concussions of drift ice, which moves more quickly when
acted on by the wind than the massy iceberg. To the latter, ships are sometimes moored,
but not without danger ; for these floating masses are sometimes so nicely balanced as to be
easily overturned, should they happen to catch the bottom of the sea, 'The concussion pro
duced in this way sometimes detaches large fragments ; and sometimes the iceberg rolls
forward, to the imminent danger of the vessel, though perhaps 100 yards distant, — so great
are the waves and whirls caused by such an occurrence. Many dangers and discourage
ments attend the navigation of the polar seas : but the recent attempts to discover a north
west passage through the Arctic Sea have rendered the ice a subject of considerable interest.
These attempts have not yet been crowned with success: but different navigators have
brought such different accounts of the state of the ice, that it is probably vecy changeable
and very difficult to examine. It is not quite agreed that any navigator has been within 6°
of the North Pole ; although some accounts pretend to a still nearer approach. Captain
Parry, in his last voyage, reached to 82° 45' N. lat The feilure of Captain Cook's attempt
to penetrate to the South Pole gave rise to an idea, which has been pretty generally enter
tained since his time, that the South Pole is surrounded with fixed ice to the distance of 18°
or 19° ; and a more recent Russian expedition gave still worse hopes, as they could not get
beyond the latitude of 70° S. Mr. Weddell, however, has since reached 255 miles nearer
the pole, and met with no such obstruction : this enterprising navigator contends strenuously
that the South Pole must be free from ice, and might be reached by sea. Some of his argu
ments are rather plausible ; but the question is involved in so many uncertainties, that nothing
less than actual trial can decide it.
The expansion and contraction of ice has unportant effects. Though water undergoes a
great expansion in the act of freezing, yet ice obeys tiie ordinary law of solids, — that of
expandmg hy heat and contracting by cold. The effect, therefore, of intense cold is to con
tract ice, which, if of large dimensions, or fixed all around, has no alternative but to rend
where it is contracting most. This is often attended with a tremendous report On the
contrary, a rise of temperature may not only bring the parts to meet again, but often makes
them lap over, or burst up with great violence.*
The motion of the waters of the ocean is almost perpetual ; and it is believed, that without
* The most satisfactory ncoount of tho polar ice is that of Scoresby, first published in the Memoirs of the Wer
nerian Natural History Society

Book H. METEOROLOGY. 195
this provision in the economy of nature, the sea, hi place of tempering and purifying the air,
would both become putrid and exhale noxious vapours.
Waves. The motions which first present themselves to our notice are the partial and
alternate rising and felling of the surface, known by the name of undulations or waves. This
sort of motion is caused by the wind, which, by dislodging or depressing a certain portion of
the waters, has desti-oyed the equilibrium or level, which they naturally endeavour to recover.
Waves may be compared to the reciprocation of water in a syphon or bent tube. It was in
this way that Newton deduced the velocity of waves, and the time required to an undulation.
If water ascend and descend alternately in the legs of a bent tube, and a pendulum be con
structed whose length between the point of suspension and centre of oscillation is equal to
half the length of the water in the tube, then this fluid wUl ascend and descend during each
oscillation of the pendulum. Hence the velocity of the waves is as the square roots of their
breadths ; the breadth being the distance between the tops of the ridges. In the same way,
it may be shown that the apparent progressive motions of waves through spaces equal to their
breadths are performed in tiie times in which pendulums oscillate whose lengths are equal to
these breadths. Hence waves, whose breadth is 39| inches, will seem to pass over that space
in one second. Waves are scarcely ever without progressive motion ; but the real progress
of the surface of the water is generally small, compared to tiie apparent motion of the
waves ; as is easily proved from any floating body which does not rise above the surfece so
as to be hurried forward by the wind. Waves are distinguished into natural and accidental.
The natural are proportional to the strength of the wind producing them : — the accidental
are occasioned by repercussion of the wind from hills and bold coasts, and by the dashing
of the waves on rocks and shoals. Divers, it is said, find the waters perfectly still at the
depth of thhty yards, during the greatest tempest. But this can only be known of some
sheltered spots ; for when do divers descend in an open sea during a tempest I Waves are
always seen rolling towards the shore ; but an obstacle opposed to them becomes the centre
of a new series which spreads in circles. One set of waves, however, may not interfere
with the motion of another, and they may mutually cross without intermption. Sometimes
the ordinary oscillations are combined with a distant swell, called the bore, which rises
impetuous after certain intervals. Breakers, or waves which break against some obstacle,
when formed over a great extent of shore, are distinguished by the name oisurf. The surf
is greatest in those parts of the ocean where the wind blows always nearly in the same
direction. Currents. There are two permanent and general sorts of currents in the ocean, which
are supposed to originate in two great movements, — that of the tropical waters westward
round the globe, and that of the polar waters towards the equator. But it is plain that the
latter, or polar currents, imply the existence of a third set, moving in the opposite direc
tion ; otherwise the waters at the poles would soon be exhausted, together with the ice from
which they are partly derived. It is well known that the ram, fog, or snow, which fells in
the polar regions, could never supply any perceptible current towards the equator. The
movement of the tropical waters westward is ascribed to the ageijcy of the trade winds,
which, blowing constantly from the east, must impress their motion on the sea to a certain
extent But the resulting current is necessarily modified by the position of the great conti
nents. This grand westerly motion prevails generally between 30° S. and 30° N. latitude.
According to Humboldt, its mean velocity is from nine to ten miles a-day. In the Atiantic
it separates into two branches, one of which forms the well-known Gulf Stream. This
branch flows northward, through the middle of the Atiantic, till it reaches the Cape Verd
Islands : it tiien turns west, passes through the Caribbean Sea, and the strait between Cuba
and Yucatan, winds round the Mexican Gulf, and mshes out by the Bahama Channel ; then
spreading out to a greater breadth, it sweeps along the shores of the United States to New
foundland. At this point it is deflected south-eastward by a southerly current from Baffin's
Bay, and passmg the Azores and Canary Isles, retums in a great measure into itself, and
repeats its chcumgyration. The waters of the North Atiantic, between the latitudes of 11°
and 43°, thus form a contmued whirlpool, completing a circuit of 3800 leagues in about 34
months. Its velocity is greater as the depth and breadth are less. Its breadth is 51
leagues m the Bahama Channel, and velocity from three to flve miles an hour. In its
retrograde course from longitude 50° to the Azores the breadth is 160 leagues, and velocity
from seven to eight miles a-day. An insulated expanse of almost motionless water, 140
leagues in breadth, occupies the interior of the circuit. This grand current sends off one
branch near Newfoundland, which proceeds north-eastward, and sometimes deposits tropical
fraits on the shores of the British isles and Norway. In 1776, Dr. Franklm traced this
current, by means of its high temperature, quite across the Atlantic ; and, since his time,
it has been more closely traced, especially by Captain Sabine. A second branch, escaping
at the Azores, enters the Straits of Gibraltar, and forms the upper and middle current which
prevails in that strait Another branch of the great tropical' current sets along the coast of
Brazil, and at length passes through the Straits of Magellan. In the Paciflc Ocean the
waters have a general westward motion from tiie coast of Peru, which must be partiy sup-

196 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. Pakt H,
plied by the last-mentioned current after doubling Cape Horn. The current from the
coast of Peru is less perceptible, till it enters the Indian Ocean ; when, strengthened by the
northerly currents there, it flows along the eastern coast of Africa, and doubles the Cape of
Good Hope, in a rapid stream, 130 miles broad, and from 7° to 8° warmer than the conti
guous sea. A current from the South Pole sets along the west side of New Holland into
the Bay of Bengal : it is supposed that other portions of the general polar current deflect
the great westerly current northward, after it has passed the southem promontories of Africa
and America. In the Northem Ocean, in the space comprised between Greenland and the
coasts of Britain and Norway, and between Labrador and Spitzbergen, a great body of
waters, acted on by three or four lateral currente, is supposed to perform a perpetual chcuit.
These waters receive their impulse eastward from a branch of the Gulf Stream, which
passes from Newfoundland along the north-west coasts of Scotland and Norway. At the
North Cape in Lapland, a great westerly current from Nova Zembla turns the waters north
westward along both sides of Spitzbergen. Beyond this island, being met by a current from
the pole, they turn south-westward, and pass along the coast of Greenland to Davis's Straits,
where they are deflected southward by a fourth current from Baffin's Bay ; and having re
tumed to Newfoundland, recommence their revolution. Thus two great whirlpools, con
nected with one another, touch at the Bank of Newfoundland, which seems to be a bar cast
up by their conflicting waters ; and revolving in opposite directions, occupy four-fifths of the
North Atlantic. The small current which sete from the Bay of Biscay across the mouth
of the English Channel, and through St George's Channel, is most probably a branch of the
Gulf Stream which had come off at the Azores. Were other parte of the ocean as minutely
examined as the North Atlantic, it is to be expected that other great vortices would be
discovered. Local or temporary currents are produced by winds, the discharge of rivers, the melting
of ice, &c. In general, currente which do not descend to a great depth are liable to change
with the winds, particularly when they blow for a long time with equal force, as the mon
soons do. These winds give by turns entirely opposite directions to the currents which pre
vail from the Maldivia Islands to Arabia and Zanguebar. When the supply of fresh water
in an inland sea falls short of what is carried off by evaporation, its level wiU have a tend
ency to fall below that of the ocean ; and hence the water will flow into it from the ocean.
But, as formerly noticed, a continual influx of salt water, to be concentrated by evaporation,
must have a tendency to render such inland sea Salter than the ocean ; and the Salter water
being the heavier, naturally endeavours to keep under the lighter, which enters from the
ocean. In this way, it forms an outward current in the bottom of the entrance. Such is
said to be the case with the Mediterranean, as was first hinted by Dr. Hudson in 1724. The
reverse of all this takes place where the supply of fresh water in an inland sea exceeds the
evaporation, as is the case with the Baltic, the Black Sea, and the Sea of Azof In these
the outward fresher current is uppermost, while the heavier Salter current enters below.
Since the mean quantity of salt brought in must equal what is carried out, if no permanent
change take place in the saltness of the inland sea, it follows that the Salter current is the
smaller of the two. However, the weather sometimes produces temporary exceptions to this
general rule. Trhe current which flows mto the Mediterranean by the Straits of Gibraltar
sets along the" shores of Africa and Egypt to Syria, where it turns north-westward; and,
joined by the current from the Dardanelles, it makes the circuit of the Adriatic, then of the
coaste of Tuscany, France and Spain, and ultunately returns to the Straite. In the Cattegat,
a northern current proceeds from the Baltic along the coaste of Sweden ; and another, a
southern current, enters into the Baltic along the coaste of Jutland. In the German Sea,
a north current sete from the Straits of Dover along the continental shore, while a soutii
current comes from the Orkneys along the British coast-
Whirlpools or eddies are produced by tiie meeting of currente which come in different
directions. These, by encountering in a narrow passage, turn, as it were, about a centre,
which is sometimes spiral, till they unite or one of them escapes. The most celebrated
whirlpools are the Euripus near the coast of Negropont, the Charybdis in the Straite of
Sicily, and the Malstroem on the northern coast of Norway. Such eddies sometimes aug
ment their force by means of two contrary high tides, or by the action of the winds. In
certain states of the tide, some of them cease altogether ; but tiiey do not feil to make up for
this afterwards. Their danger to navigation is well known ; but is, perhaps, inferior to the
dread which they inspire. They draw vessels along, and dash tiiem against the rocks, or
engulf them in the eddies. The wrecks, perhaps, do not appear till some time afterwards ;
or indeed, they may never be seen at all. This has given rise to the notion that these vortices
have no bottom. "The phenomena and dread of whirlpools have afforded excellent matter
for marvellous fables, both to tho ancient poets and more modern writers.
The tides form a remarkable phenomenon, consisting in the alternate rise and fell of
the surfiirn of the sea twice in the course of a lunar day, or at a mean rate every 12'' 25"
14". The instant of low water is nearly, but not exactly, in the middle of the interval
between two higli waters. The tide generally takes nine or ten minutes longer in ebbing-

Book IL HYDROLOGY. 197
than flowing. At tiie new and full moon tiie tides attain the greatest height, and the in
terval between two high waters is least, viz. 12" 19" 28- At the quarters of the moon the
tides are the least, and tiie intervals the greatest, viz. 12" 30" T. The time of high water
is mostiy regulated by tiie moon; and m general, m tiie open sea, is from two to three hours
after that planet passes tiie meridian, eitiier above or under the horizon. On the shores of
laro-e continente, and where there are shallows and obstmctions, great irregularities take
place in this respect; and when tiiese exceed six hours, it may seem as if the high water
preceded tiie moon's passage over the meridian. Though the tides seem to be regulated
chiefly by tiie moon, they appear also m a certam degree to be under the mfluence ot the
sun Thus, at the syzigies, when the sun and moon come to the meridian together, the
tides, every thing else considered, are the highest At the quarters, when the sun and
moon are 90° distant, the tides are least The former are called the spring, the latter the
neap tides. The highest of the sprmg tides is not that unm-ediately after the new or full
moon; but is m general the thhd, and m some cases the fourth. The lowest of , the neap
tides occurs much about the same tune after tiie quarters. The total magnitude of tiie tide
is estimated by the difference between the heights of high and low water. The higher the
flood tide rises, the lower the ebb tide generally sinks on the same day. At Brest, the
medium sprmg tide is about 19 feet, and the mean neap tide about 9. On other parts of
file coast of France opposite to England, the waters, bemg confined, rise to a great height,
and do so on both sides of the Channel. At St Malo it is from 45 to 50 feet. Nearly as high
tides occur at Annapolis Royal, in Nova Scotia. It is the obstraction which the land pre
sents to the motions of the waters which occasions tides of any consequence at all: were
the globe enthely covered vvith water, the tides would be very msignificant. Thus, in the
Pacific Ocean, the spruig tide amounts only to 5 feet, and the neap to from 2 to 2.5 feet
On the other hand, a free communication with the ocean is mdispensable, to produce-a high
tide. Thus, hi mland seas, the tides are very trifling, because the luminaries act nearly
equally over the whole surfece at the same time.
The height of the tide mcreases as the sun or moon is nearer the earth, but in a higher
ratio. The rise of the tides is likewise greater when the sun or moon is in the equator, and
less as they decline from it. When the observer and the moon are on the same side of the
equator, the tide which happens when the moon is above the horizon is greater than when
she is below it. The reverse occurs when the observer and the moon are on opposite sides
of the equator. If the tides be considered relatively to the whole globe and to the open sea,
it appears that there is a meridian about 30° eastward of the moon, where it is always high
water, both in the hemisphere where the moon is and in the opposite. On the west side of
this circle the tide is flowing ; on the east it is ebbing ; and on the meridian, which is at
right angles to the same, it is everywhere low water. These meridian circles move west
ward, keeping nearly at the same distance from the moon : only approaching nearer to her
when new or full, and withdrawing at the quarters. In high latitudes the tides are very
inconsiderable. It is probable that at the poles there are no diurnal tides ; but there is some
ground for thinking that the water will rise higher at the pole to which the luminaries are
at any time nearest, than at the opposite.
The great wave which follows the moon as above described, and constitutes the tide, is
to he considered as an undulation or reciprocation of the waters of the ocean ; in which
there is, except when it passes over shallows or approaches the shore, very little progressive
motion. In all this we are as yet overlooking the operation of local causes, winds, currents,
&c., by which these general laws are modified, overruled, or even reversed. Most people
find little difficulty in conceiving how the waters should rise on the side of the globe which
is next the moon ; but there can scarcely be a harder task than bringing many to see why
the waters should at the same time rise on the side which is tumed from the moon. We
must, however, confine ourselves to a very brief and palpable explanation. The force by
which the moon draws any particle of our globe towards her is greater when it is nearer to
her, and less when more remote. The force, therefore, with which the moon attracts the
particles on the side nearest her is greater than the average force which she exerte on the
whole globe. These particles, therefore, rise or endeavour to come near the moon. On the
other hand, the force by which the moon draws the particles which are farthest from her
being less than the average force, these particles endeavour to recede from the moon, and in
so doing they also recede from the earth's centre ; that is, they rise higher than the general
level. The action of the sun is similar to that of the moon ; but his being almost four
hundred times as distent, greatly diminishes his effect. At the new and ftill moon the
luminaries act together, and produce spring tides. The highest of all are a little after the
autumnal, and before the vernal, equinox ; and the least spring tides occur a little after the
solstices. At the quarters of the moon her action is opposed by that of the sun, and there
fore neap tides are the result.
The time of high water deserves consideration. The preceding is sufficient to show tiiat
the phenomena of the tides are effects that might be expected from the principle of attraction
or gravitation; but since the waters necessarily occupy some time in movina- from one
17*

^98 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Pakt Q.
place to another, this is the reason why the high water occurs, not when the moon is on the
meridian, but from two to three hours afterwards. For the same reason, when the sun is
before or vvest of the moon, he hastens the rise of the tide ; and when behind her, he retards
It. Considerable extent of surface is necessary, in order that the sea should be sensibly
!?ff ^ ^^^ action of the sun and moon; for it is only by the inequality of such action
on different parts of the mass of waters that their level is disturbed. In narrow seas, and
on shores far from the main body of the water, the tides are not caused by the dhect action
of the sun and moon, but are waves propagated from the great diumal undulation. Of this
the tides on the coast of Britain, and in the German sea, are remarkable examples. The
high water transmitted from the tide m the Atlantic reaches Ushant between three and four
hours after the moon has passed the meridian, and ite ridge stretehes north-west, so as to fell
a htUe south of the coast of Ireland. This wave soon after divides iteelf into three branches ;
one passing up the British Channel, another rangmg along the west side of Ireland and
Scotiand, and the third entering the Irish Channel. The first of these flows at tiie rate of
about 50 miles an hour, so as to pass through the Straite of Dover, and to reach the Nore
about midnight at the time of spring tide. The second being in a more open sea, moves
more rapidly, reaching the north of Ireland by six p. m. ; about nhie it has got to the Ork
neys, and forms a wave or ridge stretching due north ; at twelve the summit of the same
wave extends from the coast of Buchan eastward to the Naze of Norway ; and in twelve
hours more it passes southward through the German Sea and reaches the Nore, where it
meets the morning tide that left the mouth of the Channel only eight Lours before. Thus,
these two tides travel round Britain in 28 hours ; m which time the prunitive tide has gone
quite round the globe, and nearly 45 degrees more. Various curious anomalies are observed
in the tides of particular places : such as their ceasmg altogether for a day or two, at a
certain age of the moon ; while at other times they become considerable, though perhaps
occurring only once a day It is said that on some coaste there is never more than one
tide in the course of a lunar day, which is probably owing to some oversight : but it may be
shovvn from theory, that if the observer's distance from the pole be equal to the moon's
declination, he will see but one tide in the day. Small tides occur six times a day on the
shore of the Isle of Negropont.'*
The agency of the tides is probably very extensive in many of the operations of nature,
and in particular in those which regard geology. The late Professor Robison suggested how
experiments might be made to determme the mean density of the globe, from the temporary
change which is undoubtedly caused on the direction of gravity by the great body of water
brought to Annapolis Royal, and then withdrawn by the stream tides.
Sect. II. — Springs.
Springs are composed of the waters issuing from crevices in the earth. Of such there
are great varieties. Some of the principal distinctions, independently of the qualities of
their waters, are, — temporary springs, which only flow during a certein season of the year ;
perennial, which always run ; intermitting, which altemately run and cease, either wholly
or in part, at short intervals ; periodical, which flow and ebb regularly at particuletr periods ;
spouting, which issue with considerable force, forming, perhaps, a jet of water. The mag
nitude of springs passes through every gradation, from being scarcely perceptible, to con
siderable rivulete. They have, likewise, a wide range of temperature; but necessarily
limited between the freezing and boiling points. It is most usual for springs which are
large, and which appear to issue from a considerable depth, to have nearly the mean tempe
rature of the place ; and in some instances the temperature is remarkably steady, — not the
slightest variation being perceptible in the course of the year. Hence apparently, or rela
tively to the air, they are colder in summer and hotter in winter. It is, no doubt, this con
trast which has given rise to the popular notion, that good springs are really colder in sum
mer and hotter in winter. Nothing is more common than to see a well smoking during
intense frost, which shows nothing of the kind during warm weather; but it does not require
a really high temperature to exhibit such an appearance, but only " temperature not so low
as that of the air. The most that any spring keeps within the range of both seasons, is to
remain always at one temperature. The greater number of tiie smaller springs, however,
become a little warmer in summer and colder in winter ; particularly those which come
along for a considerable way at a small depth under ground. By so doing, they participate
in the temperature of tho surface, which varies witii the season : but all springs preserve a
greater warmth than the mean temperature of winter ; and, excepting the thermal or hot
springs, they do not reach the mean heat of summer.
Hot springs are those which preserve a heat above the mean temperature of tiie place.
Such as ore merely tepid are common in most countries, especially in mines. Those having
a considerably higher temperature are less frequently met with, and mostiy in volcanic dis
tricts ; but some of tiiem rcncli tho boiling pomt, or are actually boiling and spouting forth
* Plde Stevenson's great work on the Boll. Rock Light-house, for observations on Tides in the British seas

Book H. HYDROLOGY. 199
with great violence, which indicates their having had a still higher temperature before get-
tuig vent The most remarkable are the hot springs of Iceland, some of which are con
sidered among the greatest wonders of the world. They are believed to be more abundant
hi Iceland than hi any other country. But the interest which the number and variety of
these hot springs excites in a person who never saw any tiling similar, is quickly lost in the
feelings which are roused on beholding the magnificent and tremendous explosions of the
Geysers, as they are called. Besides the principal fountains, there is a great number of
boiling springs, cavities full of hot water, and several from which steam issues. There are
also some places full of boiling mud of gray and red colours. The silicious depositions of
the waters of the Great Geyser have formed for it a basin 56 feet in diameter in one direction,
and 46 in the other ; a projection from one side causing it to deviate from the perfect circle.
In the centre of this basin is a cylindrical pit or shaft 10 feet in diameter. Through this
the hot water rises gradually, filling it and the basin, after which it runs over in small quan
tities. At intervals of some hours, when the basin is full, explosions are heard from below,
lilce the report of distant cannon, and at the same time a tremulous motion of the ground is
felt all around the basin : immediately the water rises in a mass from the pit, and sinking
agaih, causes the water in the basin to be agitated and to overflow : another and a stronger
propulsion follows, and clouds of vapour ascend. At length, strong explosions take place,
and, large quantities of steam escaping, the water is thrown to a height of from 30 to 90
feet, and even to 200 or 300 feet. The steam, coming into contact with the cold air of that
climate, is condensed into thick clouds, which are tossed and rolled with great rapidity ; the
whole forming a very singular and magnificent exhibition. After continuing for some time,
the explosions cease, when the basin and pit are found empty. Bursts of steam sometimes
take place, when the water is rising, without any warning by subterraneous noise. These
phenomena seem to be occasioned by steam finding its way from below into cavities, where
part of it is condensed into water, which water is at length forced out hy the action of the
steam under high pressure. The New Geyser is somewhat smaller than the other. There
are many hot springs of less note in Iceland ; but perhaps the most curious of the whole is
the Tunguhver. Among a great number of boiling springs are two cavities, within a yard
of each other, from which the water spoute alternately : while from one the water is thrown
about ten feet high in a narrow jet, the other cavity is full of water boiling violently. This
jet continues about four minutes, and then subsides ; when the water from the other imme
diately rises, in a thicker colunrn, to the height of three or four feet This continues about
three minutes ; when it sinks and the other rises, and so on alternately.
The natural jete of water, called spouting springs, only differ from the rest in coming
down some close canal from a fountehion a higher level. Bemg thus closely confined, they
burst forth in consequence of the pressure, in the same manner as the artificial spouting foun
tains do.*
Intermitting fountains have sometunes been viewed by the multitude as of a miraculous
nature. One at Como, m Italy, rises and falls every hour: another at Colmars, in
Provence, rises eight tunes as often. At Fronzanches, in Languedoc, one has a period of
24 hours 15 minutes. England affords many examples of such springs ; particularly those
on the sea coast, whose waters rise and fell with the pressure of the tides. The town of
Tideswell, in Derbyshire, is named from a noted fountain of this sort which once flowed
there, but has now ceased to observe its tides. The principles on which mtermitting sprmgs
depend are attempted to be explained in every popular treatise on hydrostatics and
hydraulics.f Various have been the opinions of philosophers concerning the origm of springs. Some
suppose that sea water is conveyed through subterraneous ducte or canals to the places
where the sprmgs flow out of the earth : but in this way fresh-water springs could not be
produced ; because sea water cannot be freed from its'salt by filtration. It is, besides, dif
ficult to conceive how the water should filter upwards. In order to overcome these objec
tions, recourse has been had to subterranean heat, by which the water is conceived to rise
upwards in vapour through certein fissures and cavities of the mountains where it is col
lected, and issues forth, as we see, m springs. Others vary the hypothesis a little, by saying
that the sea water is raised through the mounteins by capillary action ; but here we ought
still to have salt springs ; and it has been fiirther objected that a current cannot be produced
by capillary action.
The most probable theory is that proposed by Dr. Halley, who maintained that springs
are nothuig more than a part of the water which falls on higher ground filtrating through,
and afterwards issuing forth at a lower level. This, it is true, does not at first sight appear
to account for the permanent flow of springs during dry weather. To complete the theory,
it is supposed that the water at first collecte in large subterranean cavities, from which it
afterwards filtrates slowly, and passes towards the springs. The disposition of the rocks in

* Vide Ed. New Phil. Journal, vol. ix. for observations on spouting springs and Artesian wells.
t Vide Ed. New Phil. Journal, vol. viii. for an account of intermitting springs.

^0 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part H.
strata contributes much to the coUectmg of the waters under the surface, and conveying
them without waste, as if ui close pipes, till they are united hi fountains, lakes, rivers,
&c. Dr. Halley showed that the evaporation fi-om the sea alone is a sufficient supply for
all the waters that the rivers carry into it His calculation was founded on a very complex
view of the subject, and liable to several objections. Buffon took a more simple view of
the matter, by selectmg one of those lakes that send out no stream to the ocean, and show
ing that the probable evaporation from the surface of the lake is equal to all the water car
ried into it.
The theory of hot springs is deserving of consideration. It has been ascerteined that the
greater number of warm and hot springs occur in volcanic countries — where volcanoes for
merly burnt or are still in a state of activity ; and of those that do not occur in volcanic dis-
tricte, some are associated with trap and granite rocks, to which most geologists assign an
igneous origin. Hence it is inferred that they owe theh temperature to the same cause or
causes as gave rise to volcanic and ignigenous rocks. That the heat of such springs is
often connected with volcanic action cannot admit of doubt; for, from the Geyser of Iceland,
the transition is almost uninterrupted to the hot springs in the dormant volcano of the
island of Ischia, and from thence to those connected with the process which formerly took
place in the now extinct volcanoes of Hungary and Auvergne. The hot and warm springs
of Bath and Bristol, however, occur in a limestone country where no igneous rocks are visi
ble ; but these may be under the limestone. This opinion is fm-ther countenanced by the
feet that many of the hot springs met with in primitive, and also in secondary, formations,
occur in spots where the strate appear to have been disturbed by igneous agency. Of this
there is a striking example at the hot springs of Carlsbad in Bohemia ; the hot springs of
Clifton issue from a limestone which appears, at an early period, to have been disturbed by
igneous action : the hot springs of Pfeffers, in the Grisons, gush from a ravine from 400 to
654 feet in depth, and so perpendicular that the provisions requhed for the inmates of the
bath are lowered from ropes attached to the summit of the cliff, and so narrow that the rocks
in some places touch overhead, and nowhere, perhaps, are more than 30 feet apart The
most obvious explanation of such a phenomenon is to be found in some convulsion of nature,
such as that caused by an earthquake, or the sudden elevation of a large tract of country.
The other hot springs in Switzerland appear in circumstences for the most part similaT.
Those of Weissenburg, in the canton of Berne, rise out of a gorge of the same kind as that
of Pfeffers : those of Louechi appear at the foot of the mural precipice of the Gemmi : whilst
the spring of Baden, in the canton of Argovia, from which the only remaining one, that of
Schinzath, is not far removed, lies near the point where, in consequence of the two moun
tains of Staffelegg and Lagern having been severed asunder by some great convulsion, the
waters of the Rhine and of the other rivers, — which appear to have once constituted a single
lake extending from Coire in the Grisons to this mountein ridge, including the lakes of
Zurich and of Wallenstadt, with the intermediate country, — in one contuiuous sheet of
water, flowed off by the channel now taken by one of the rivers, the Limmat alone. Thus
the Rhine, says Dr. Daubeny, may be supposed to owe its original direction to the event
which produced one hot spring, and its present course to that which occasioned anotiier.
Some springs apparently emit inflammable matter ; for when a light is applied, it seems
to take fire like ardent sphits. But it is not so much the water that is inflammable, as some
gas which it exiiales, or bituminous matter floating on its surface.
Springs in the sea. Powerfiil springs are occasionally met with boiling up in the bottom
of the sea, so as, in some instances, to rise above the surfece. From some of them naviga
tors can draw up fresh water fit for taking on board as store. The natives, in certein places,
know where to dive under the surface of the sea for fresh water ; which, perhaps, may be.
the only source whence they could obtein it.
Mineral waters, and the quantity of matter they deposit. Springs in their course through
strata convey along with them portions of the strata, not only from higher to lower situa
tions, but also from below upwards. They contain salte, earths, acids, metals, and inflam
mable matters, of very varied nature : the variety depending sometimes on the nature of the
strata through which they pass ; at other times, as in those that rise upwards in volcanic
districts, on igneous agency. Hoffman remarks, that when warm and hot springs, and
those richly impregnated with mineral matters, occur in countries at a distance from active
and extinct volcanoes, we observe the strata from which they issue to be much deranged,
thus intimating that formerly earthquakes and other igneous agencies were at work in the
districts where these springs now flow. The quantity of mineral water brought from tiie
interior of the earth by springs is very great ; whether that matter is abstracted from the
strata traversed by the springs, or is brought by them from a great depth, as in volcanic
countries. Even some calcareous springs in Britain deposit annually vast quantities of cal
careous tuffa and calcareous sinter. In the neighbourhood of Edinburgh there are great
calcareous deposits from calcareous springs that flow through limestone rocks ; and appeetr-
ances of the same description abound around all the calcareous springs in England. Near
to Clermont, in France, some calcareous springs, rising through rocks of g-ranite and g-neiss,

Book II. HYDROLOGY. 201
have formed a mound or hill 240 feet high. Many of the great edifices in Rome are built
of calcareous deposite from calcareous springs. The hot sprmgs of Carlsbad annually deposit
much calcareourtuffa and sinter. Otiier sprmgs, as tiie hot. sprmgs in Iceland and in the
Azores, deposit annually great quantities of sUica. Salt sprmgs also bring from *« interior
- of the earthT and spread over tiieir vicmity, much salt, which salt may be derived from the
salme clays and salt beds tiirough which tiiey pass; in otiier mstances the salt may come
from a ereat depth as an igneous production. .
Chemical nature of spring waters. The water of sprmgs, when very pure, is named
sofl ¦ if unpregnated witii calcareous salte, hard ; and if impregnated with various mineral
matters, mineral. It was long believed that hard water was unfit for brewing and distilla
tion ; and hence soft water was often procured for these operations, at great expense ; but it
is now found that water which owes ite hardness to lune is the most proper of all for the
fermentation of worte. A tune wUl, however, be necessary to remove tiie popular prejudice
hi fevour of soft water. We have, m the Table on the following page, given a view ot the
composition of the most celebrated mineral springs.
According to some chemiste, the salte found by chemical analysis in sprmgs are considered
as existmg m the waters; the late Dr. Murray considers the compound existmg before con
centration of the water as, in all cases, the most soluble salts that can be formed out of the
mgrediente present But, m reality, so far from our having determmed in any given case
the nature of the existmg combinations between the mgredients, we are ignorant even of
any method by which such knowledge is attamable. If, says Berzelius, the physician
inquhes of the chemist, what the proportion these salts bear to each other in any given case
may be, the latter must reply, that this is a question as to which we are at present entirely
in the dark ; as the proportion depends not only on the quantity of acids and bases present,
which admits bemg ascertamed, but also on the relative force of affmity subsistmg between
the one and the other, for determinmg which we have as yet no data whatever.
Sect. HI. — Lakes.
A lake is a body of water which does not communicate with the ocean. Independently
of the qualities of theh waters, lakes are disthiguished hito several sorts : — 1. Those which
receive streams of water, and have an outlet, are the class of lakes best known. It is rare
for a lake to give rise to more than one river, which often bears th» name of the prmcipal
stream which flows into the lake, though the two rivers may differ materially in every
respect. 2. Those which receive streams of water, and often great rivers, without haying
any visible outlet. This class is less numerous than the former, and is confined to warm
climates ; but the largest of all lakes, the Caspian Sea, belongs to it. 3. Those which
receive no running water, but have an outlet, — chcumstances which imply that such lakes
are fed with springs from beneath, or with small imperceptible streams from the adjacent
land. 4. Those which receive no running water, and have no visible outlet Lakes of this
class, exclusive of marshes, are for the most part small, and merit little attention. Without
regarding the foregoing distinctions, some writers subdivide lakes into two kinds, according
to the general character of the surface in which their basins are situated : viz. those which
are formed in deep hollows between the ridges or at the foot of mounteins, and fed by
springs or torrents ; and those which are formed in low and level countries for want of a
general declivity, or dammed up hy a mere accumulation of alluvial matter.
Subterranean lakes form a class of lakes differing remarkably from all the preceding, and
are bodies of water conteined in cavities quite covered over by earthy strata. It is only
when such cavities are laid open by earthquakes, by the falling asunder of mountains, by the
action of the weather or of rivers, by the operations of mining, or when the roof falls in,
that their situation becomes known. But they are probably very numerous, though perhaps
often of small size. It is not easy to account for the permanent and uniform flow of many
springs on any other supposition. Some of them appear to give rise to rivers, while others
are known to receive very considerable streams which lose themselves in the interior. Such
are the numerous cavities of the Julian Alps. It is to similar reservoirs that we must attri
bute the periodical disappearance of certain lakes situated above ground. There are some
caverns in Norway which afford a passage to rapid currente of water, as appears from the
sound heard through their roofs. It is natural to suppose that many streams, finding no
readier outlet, flow into subterranean cavities, are absorbed by the earth, or discharge them
selves under ground into the sea. In this way may be explained the origin of those springs
df fresh water that are to be seen spouting up even in the midst of the waves of the ocean.
The waters thrown up by volcanoes, the sudden and terrible mundation of mines, the number
of rivers which disappear, the mountains which are suddenly engulfed in the bosom of new
lakes, — all these facts leave no doubt of the existence of extensive subterranean cavities
containing large bodies of water. The digging of wells has supplied a fact still more inter
esting to physical geography. It appears that there are lakes, or rather sheets of water,
which extend under ground to considerable distances. In digging wells near Aire, in the
provmce of Artois, they always come to a clayey bed ; which being pierced, the water gushes
Vol. L 2 a

TABLE OF THE COMPOSITION OF THE MOST CELEBRATED MINERAL SPRINGS, &c.

Grains of
Water.

Cubic inclies of Oases.

Carboaa.(es of

Solpbates of

Muriates of

J 1

Oiy.
sen.
Carbo- nic
Acid.
Sulph.
Hydro gen.
Azote.
Soda.
Lime.
Magne sia.
Iron.
Soda.
Lime.
Mesne sia,
Iron.
Soda.
Lime.
Mapje. Bia.
Polasli.
Silica.
minx.
Reaitu.
Acidulous. .
¦Seltzer 
Pyrmont 
Spa 
Bergmann 
Ditto 
Ditto 
Klaproth 
Schmesser ....
8949 8950 8933
25320
138240
43.5
13.119.6 9.8
50.0 84.0 8.0 1.0
...
....
Grains. 1.9
38.5
Grains. 78.3 4.31.9
ia.5 2.4
Grains. 6.3
9.8
4.4 1.3
Grains.
Grains
Grains,
Grains.
Grains.
Grains. 13.7 1.70.2
32.5 6.0
Grains
Grains.
Grains.
Grains.
Grains.
Grains.
Cold.
Cold.
Cold. 165°
Cold.
0.7
0.7
0.1 0.3
....
8.4
5.4
Carlsbad 
66.818.2
' * * '
. .. .
' 0.6
' 2.8
2.3
' '6.6
tKilburn 
36.6

19.0 10.0
13.1 7.0
13.0
91.0
f Harrow gate ....
Solphu- J Moffat 
reous. 1 Aix-la-Chapelle .
L Eng-hien 
Garnet 
Ditto 
Babington 
Fourcroy 
103643103643 8940
92160
7.0
4.0
18.5
5.5
....
....

0.5
....
615.5 3.66.2
2.4
3.0
9.1

Cold.Cold. 143°
Cold.
15.321.4
5.9 1.3
18.5
¦
33.3
5.8

8.0


Saline.
rSedlitz 
58309
103643 14600 72917291
....
8.0
30.3
6.7
21.0 12.5
41.1
40.0
1444
36.5 12.5
Cold.Cold.Cold.Cold.Cold.Cold.Cold.Cold.
Cheltenham 
Plombieres . . . .
Dunblane 
FothergUl ....
Vauquelin 
Murray 
Ditto 
3.0
12.0
5.0
48.0 1.0
3.70.9
• * ' *
5.0
2.0
21.0 12.7
....
....
36.0
0.4 0.50.5
1.4
" 1.0
. . • .
0.2
a'o'.s
205
LFitcaithley ....
. . . .
. . . .

C Tunbridge 
Chalybeate. < Brighton 
I Toplitz 
Babington . . .
Marcet 
John 
103643 5830922540
10.618.0
4.0
1.0
1.3
32.7
0.5
12a61.3
28.5
2.3 6.0
]1.2
1.1
13.5
16.5
32.5

15.1
Calcareous, nearly pure. "
fBath 
Phillips 
Pearson 
Carrick 
15360
58309 58309
5830958309
2.4
1.6
10.513.5
.004
3.0
18.0 2.5
U.7
trace
6.61.5
4.0
0.4
114° 82 7466
Cold-
Buxton 
Bristol 
Matlock 
2.0
....
' * ' '
30.3
11.2
. . . .
7.3
• • ¦ .
• • • •
• ¦ > ¦
.Malvern 
Philip 

....
5.3
1.6
0.9
0.6
2.9
1.6
. . . .
. . . .
Dead Sea,  sp.gr. 1.211
Ditto  1.245
Ditto  1.283
Marcet 
Klaproth 
Gay-Lussac . . .
Murray 
100100
100
7291
~"~~~
.054
10.7 7.87.0
159.3
3.8
10.6 4.0 5.7
10.1
24.2 15.3
35.5
trace
Frith of F
orth 
....
••••
....
....
....

25.6
63
O
IoB o>^
o Q
>M
BookII.

HYDROLOGY. 203

forth m large bubbles, and forms permanent springs. In the country of Modena, vve find
everywhere, at the depth of twenty yards, abed of clay five feet thick; which being pierced,
the water spouts up with considerable force-indicating that it is comiected with a reservoir
Xch stands at a higher level. There is a district in the interior of Algiers, where the
inhabitants, after digging to a depth of about 200 fethoms, invariably come to water, which
flows up in such abundance that they call it the subterranean sea.
Lalres which receive much water, but have no outlet, were believed necessarily to com
municate witli the ocean by some subterraneous channel. The great distence of some oi
them fi-om the ocean seemed to stand m the way of such an explanation ; and doubts might
still have remahied, were it not for the discovery of the remarkable fact, that some ot the
principal lakes of this description have theh surfaces far depressed below the level ot the
ocean Thus the surface of the Caspian Sea, which is the largest known lake, and without
an outlet, was found by Engelhardt and Parrot to be 334 feet beneath the level of the Jilack
Sea. A shnilar depression has been ascertained of the level of the famous Dead Sea, in
Judea, which is also a lake without an outlet. Its surface is below that of the Meditenra-
nean in its neighbourhood, and consequently still farther below the higher level of the Red
Sea. The tme explanation as to the consumption of the waters of such lakes seems to be,
that" it is carried off by evaporation. The climates m which the two last-mentioned are
situated accord well with this supposition. The level of these lakes, however, varies with
the weather, and with the abundance or scarcity of the waters discharged into them by rivers
at particular seasons of the year. The variation m the height of the Caspian Sea is from
four to eight feet ; but the level, at a particular pomt of its shore, must be affected by the
dhection of the wmd, and probably by a very triflmg tide. When the banks of lakes are
very porous, they cannot fiiil, during very dry weather, to absorb a large portion of the water,
and to throw it off by evaporation.
The depth of great lakes has been seldom ascertained with much exactness. The gene
ral depth of the Caspian Sea is fi-om 60 to 70 fathoms ; but this increases towards the south
end to such a degree, that no bottom can be found with a line of 380 fathoms. In lakes, as
m the ocean, the slope of the bank is continued downward for a considerable way below the
water; that is, deep lakes are to be found in mountainous districts, and shallow marshy ones
in flatter countries. The depth of Loch Ness, in the Highlands of Scotland, is in some
places 130 fethoms, which is four tunes the mean depth of the German Sea ; and its bottom
is actually 30 fathoms below the deepest part of that sea, between the latitudes of Dover
and Inverness.* The Lake of Geneva attains the still greater depth of 161 fathoms. Many
other lakes are known to be exceedingly deep, without the amount being ascertained. Seve
ral have passed for ages as bottomless ; but this opinion now obtains little credit. It is more
probable, that most lakes are daily getting more shallow, firom being filled up with mud or
debris. The temperature of the surface of lakes depends on the climate and season ; but at the
bottom of deep lakes it undergoes little or no change throughout the year, and approaches
to that which corresponds to the maximum density of water, which different writers estimate
variously, firom 39° F. to 42.5° ; but 40° is most commonly received. In Loch Catrine and
Loch Lomond, the temperature, at all depths below 40 fathoms, is 41° ; but the mean for
the climate is 47°. The deep lakes of Thun and Zug, in Switzerland, have a temperature
of 42° at the depth of 15 brasses, Thun was 41.5° at the depth of 105 brasses, while the
surface was 60° ; and Zug, 41° at 38 brasses, with surface 58°. The bottom of the Lake of
Geneva has a temperature of 42° : that of the Lago Sabatino at Rome is 44.5°, at a depth
of 80 fathoms. Tepid springs may, in some cases, keep up the temperature, when they
occur at the bottom of lakes. From what we mentioned of the Caribbean Sea, it does not
appear that the climate has much influence ; and yet most powerful springs of fi:esh water
are known to boil up in its shallower parts. Such springs probably approach to the mean
temperature of the climate ; or, perhaps, those who "contend for an increase of heat with the
depth of the solid strata would claim for them a higher temperature. Deep lakes almost
never freeze, except in a very cold climate ; because the whole body of water must cool
below 40° before congelation could commence. Accordingly, neither Loch Ness nor its
efiluent river of the same name are ever frozen over.
The qualities of the waters of lakes are various, according to the nature of the substances
with which they may be mixed or contaminated. The principal distinctions, in this respect,
are fresh, saline, and alkaline. Lakes which receive much fi-esh water, and have a copious
efilux, are almost always fresh ; but those which lose much of their water by evaporation
may be slightly saline, especially if the neighbouring soil abound in salt. When lakes have
no outlet, they are invariably saline. To account for this, two reasons have been given,
which are quite compatible with each other. The one is, that salt lakes haying no outlet
are concentrated portions of the waters of the deluge, retained by the hollows of the earth's
surface ; and that all other lakes were originally such, and saline ; but those have had their
* Vide Stevenson, Wernerian Memoirs, and Edinburgh Phil. Journal.

204 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part H
salt washed out and carried to the ocean, which are traversed by rivers or other fresh water.
The other opinion is, that the salt in lakes has come from springs, or been washed from the
soil of the adjacent country by means of the rain and rivers : for such lakes are most abun
dant where the soil contauis saline matter ; and where lakes only lose water by evaporation,
the vapour goes off fresh and leaves the salt behind. The Dead Sea is the saltest of all
known lakes, and appears to have been so for upwards of 4000 years ; for in the book of
Genesis it is called, by way of distinction, the " Salt Sea," even- at a time when the adjacent
plain was as noted for fertility as it is now for barrenness. The waters of this lake are in a
state of saturation, containing about eight times as much salt as those of the ocean. The
salt must be accumulating in beds at its bottom ; for the river Jordan, which is brackish,
necessarily carries in more. Masses of bitumen frequently float on the surface, and seem
to rise from the bottom of the lake. The same thing occurs in other Asiatic lakes, some of
which are impregnated with borax. In the island of Trinidad, there is a lake which pro
duces an enormous quantity of bitumen fit for naval purposes.
Some lakes are both saline and alkaline, as is the case with a series of lakes in Lower
Egypt. These are called the Natron Lakes, from theh abounding in soda, which is there
called trona and natron, the nitre of the Sacred Writings.
Lakes appear to have been much more numerous at a former period than at present, and
to have occupied a large proportion of the surface of the land. Traces of their existence
occur everywhere. Many of them have been filled up with debris, and become level plains
traversed by a river ; some have been drained by the gradual deepening of theh outlets ; or
both causes have often operated together. Others have got vent through cracks caused by
earthquakes, or by the subsiding of a part of the basin. The kingdom of Hungary is sup
posed to have been originally the basin of a lake ; and some go so far as to allege the same
of the Mediterranean Sea. Geological phenomena also show that new lakes arise, and old
ones disappear, during those great risings and sinkings of the land which have taken place
during former periods, and even now are not without example.
There are several modes in which nevv lakes may be formed. In hot tropical climates,
many large lakes are formed during the rainy season, and enthely disappear on a change of
weather ; but such hardly deserve the name, being rather land-floods, though they would be
permanent lakes in a colder country. We have already mentioned the formation of a visible
or open lake from the felling in of the roof of a subterranean one. When a mountain falls
asunder, it often happens that it stops up a neighbouring river and valley, and forms a lake.
But the water of a river obstructed in this manner will always overflow, and can scarcely
foil to regain its former level, either by wearing away a cut for itself above, or by under
mining the ruins beneath. Shallow marshy lakes are frequently formed by the surplus
waters of rivers detained on flat ground by an accumulation of mud. Ice and snow some
times accumulate in narrow passes between mountains, so as to obstruct and make the water
stagnant, and form a temporary lake, increasing perhaps for years, till at length the pressure
of the water is augmented to such a degree as to burst the icy barrier. The consequences
are sometimes dreadful. So great a discharge of water and ice, precipitated from the
mountains, tears up not only alluvial substances, but frequently portions of rocks, which are
scattered over the plain below. Thus vDlEiges and fertile fields are almost instantly con
verted into deep hollows and heaps of rubbish. These cavities perhaps continue filled with
water, forming small lakes.
There are certain lakes which disappear and re-appear periodically, without regard to
the rainy season. Such are supposed to be filled and emptied in a manner similar to the
cavities of intermitting springs, or to communicate with some subterranean lake which
undergoes such periodical changes. That any lakes, remote from the sea, should communi
cate with it under ground, so as to rise and fall with the tide, is very improbable. In
Portugal there is a small lake near Beja, which emits a loud noise on the approach of a
storm. Other lakes appear agitated by the disengagement of gas. Near Boleslaw, in
Bohemia, a lake of unfathomable depth sometimes emits blasts of wind which raise up
pieces of ice. Some of the Scottish lakes, and the Wetter in Sweden, experience violent
agitations even during serene weather. A coincidence of dates has given ground for believ
ing that these agitations are connected with earthquakes in distant countries.
Sect. IV. — Rivers.
The origin and progress of rivers have been compared by Pliny to the life of man. " Its
beginnings are insignificant, and its infency is frivolous ; it plays among the flowers of a
meadow, it waters a garden, or turns a little mill. Gathering strength, in its youth it
becomes wild and impetuous. Impatient of the restraints which it still meets with in the
hollows among the mounteins, it is restless and fretful ; quick in its turning, and unsteady
in its course. Now it is a roaring cataract, tearing up and overturning whatever opposes
its progress, and it shoots headlong down from a rock ; then it becomes a sullen and gloomy
pool, buried in the bottom of a glen. Recovering breath by repose, it again dashes along,
till, tired of uproar and mischief, it quits all that it has swept along, and leaves the opening

Book IL HYDROLOGY. 205
of the valley strewed with the rejected waste. Now quitting its retirement, it comes abroad
into the world, journeying with more prudence and discretion, through cultivated fields,
yielding to circumstances, and winding round what would trouble it to overwhelm or remove.
It passes through the populous cities, and all tlie busy haunts of man, tendering its services
on every side, and becomes the support and ornament of the country. Increased by
numerous alliances, and advanced in its course, it becomes grave and stately in its motions,
loves peace and quiet, and in majestic silence rolls on its mighty waters till it is laid to rest
in the vast abyss." The sun and the host of heaven have, in all ages and nations, been
objects of sincere worship. Next to them, the rivers seem to have attracted the grateful
acknowledgements of the inhabitants of the neighbouring countries. They have every
where been considered a sort of tutelar deities, and each little district, every retired
valley, had its river god, who was preferred to the others. The expostulation of Naaman
the Syrian, who was offended with the prophet fbr enjoining him to wash in the river
Jordan, was the natural effusion of this attachment. " What (said he), are not Abana and
Pharpar, rivers of Damascus, more excellent than all the waters of Judea"! Might I not
wash in them and be clean 1 so he went away wroth." In those countries particularly
where the labours of the husbandman and shepherd depended on what took place in a far
distant country by the falling of periodical rains, or the melting of the collected snows, the
Nile, the Ganges, the Indus, were the sensible agents of nature in procuring to the iniiabit
ants of their fertile banks all their abundance, and they became objects of grateful adoration.
Theh sources were sought for even by conquering princes, and when found were worshipped
with the most affectionate devotion. These rivers preserve to this day the fond adoration of
the inhabitants of the countries through which they pass, and their waters are still held sacred.
The term river is applied to any large current of water which is not in the ocean or its
branches, and which may discharge itself into the ocean, into lakes, marshes, or into other
rivers ; for the waters of some rivers never reach the ocean ; as is the case with the Wolga,
the Jordan, and others, which discharge themselves into salt lakes, having usually the name
of seas. When the atmosphere supplies a country with more water than it has an opportu
nity of carrying off again by evaporation, the surplus either penetrates through the surface
or collects into small streams, which, afterwards uniting and receiving the water of springs,
gradually form larger and larger currents, which, if allowed to proceed increasing, at length
become rivers. Some rivers proceed from lakes or marshes, but none come immediately from
the sea. They invariably occupy the lowest parts of the districts from which their waters
are derived, and these districts are called their basins. The basins are usually bounded by
high lands, and sometimes by mountains. They form natural divisions in physical geography.
Tliose of the Rhone, Garonne, Loire, Seine, and part of the basin of the Rhine, comprehend
the greatest part of France. In some cases, the boundaries of basins are not well defined ;
as where the surfece becomes flat or marshy. This is the case between the basins of the
Amazon and Orinoco, which are connected by a natural and navigable communication. In
Europe, the sources of the Dwina, of the Niemen, and of the Borysthenes, are nearly united
in a marshy plain. It is evident that the deep ravines through which rivers flow could not
in many instances be the work of the rivers themselves; because the margins of such ravines
are often higher than other places of the district, through which the rivers ought to have
flowed before such valleys were cut, as some fancy, out of solid rock. A more rational
explanation is, that a crack or rent, — ^the effect of some earthquake or subsidence, — had
taken place ; and that the water, getting through such rent, had gradually widened it by the
attrition of its sand and gravel : the still more corroding action of the weather would mate
rially assist in widening the upper part of the ravine. Many rivers appear to have been at
first a series of lakes and cataracts altemately, through which the water was conveyed from
higher to lower ground. The bottoms of these lakes are gradually filled up with debris,
the outlets are by degrees deepened, or the basins rent through as above described. The
lakes at length become dry plains, traversed by the river; the cataracts, clefts or deep
ravines ; and the river acquires, upon the whole, a pretty unifbrm descent. There are traces
of these changes everywhere : the parallel roads of Lochaber, as they are called, seem to be
nothing else than the horizontal shelves with which lakes-are usually surrounded. From
these it appears that the valleys of Glen Gluoy, Glen Roy, and Glen Spean, have formerly
been the basms of lakes, which are now cut through and emptied. Three distinct basins
are observed in the course of the Rhine : first, that of the Lake of Constance ; the second
reaches from Basle to Bingen ; and the third from this to the sea. They are separated from
each other by rocky straits. In many cases, the subsidence of the water, at successive stages,
can be traced from one level to another, by means of the different horizontal shelves still
visible on the sides of the valleys. Sir Thomas Lauder remarked tliis, in the above named
glens in the Highlands of Scotland. In the valley of the Rhine, Professor Playfair distin
guished four or five such terraces, at the successive heights of twenty, thirty, or forty feet
above one another. The same thing occurs on the banks in the great chain of North American
lakes which are not yet empty.
The larger rivers are, their fall or declivity is generally so much the smaller. The reason
Vol. I. 18

206 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part IL
of this is, that large rivers necessarily occupy the lowest parts of the country ; and also, that
there are no materials of which beds of rivers are ordinarily formed, that could have resisted
the action of a great river, having a rapid fall, during the lapse of ages. In the last 200
leagues of the Amazons, the fall is only 10.5 feet; and m the 3000 miles above that, the
mean fall is only five inches per mile. The Seine, between Valvins and Sevres, has a fall
of about 9.5 inches per mile. The Loire, between Briaire and Orleans, has only one foot in
13,.596. Between the Himalaya chain and the sea, the Ganges has only four inches per mile.
The entire fall of the Wolga is 957 French feet, or five inches per mile. Notwithstandmg
the rapidity of the Rhine, it has only a fall of four feet per mile between Schaffhausen and
Strasburg; and of two feet between that and Schenckenschantz. Sometimes a river falling
into another with great rapidity, and at an acute angle, will at the tune of flood force the
latter to flow back for a short way. Such is sometimes the effect of the Arve on the Rhone,
which is forced back into the Lake of Geneva. '
The bore is a phenomenon which occurs on some great rivers, which enter the sea with
considerably velocity, and experience a sudden check or obstruction from the flow of the tide :
the consequence is, that an enormous wave, known by the term bore, and various other names,
is generated and sent backward or up the river with great velocity, to the no small danger
of the navigation. The principle on which this phenomenon depends is nearly allied to that
of the hydraulic ram : at the spring tides, it appears of a correspondingly greater magnitude.
In the Amazons, the height of this wave is estimated at 180 feet.
Rivers are subject to inundation. In the Sacred Writings, some allusions are made to the
overflowings of the Nile ; but those of the Jordan are distinctly mentioned, as covering all
the banks during harvest, and expelling the lions which lurked in the thickets, so as to
drive them infuriated through the country. Modern travellers, however, assert that this
river does not now overflow ; and they allege as a reason, that its channel is become deep
enough to hold the floods. It is as likely that the banks have been raised by the deposition
of mud and the growth uf vegetables : perhaps the fall of snow and rain upon Mount Leba
non, from which the floods came, is not so abundant since its forests of cedars were cut
down ; for some travellers are of opinion that this river must, from the accounts of the an
cients, have been formerly of much greater magnitude, at all seasons of the year, thjin it
now appears to he.
The excessive rains which fall in tropical regions, during a certain season of the year,
occasion the inundation or overflowing of the rivers which originate in the torrid zone.
The following is nearly the general rule for the rainy season ; viz., that periodical rains
sverywhere prevail from the equator to the parallel of latitude over which the sun is
vertical. Humboldt mentions as another pretty correct and stiU more general rule, apply
ing likewise to the frigid zone, that the season of floods falls within four months of midsum
mer. The floods of rivers originating in high latitudes proceed principally from the melt
ing of the ice and snow on the mountains, by means of the summer's heat. Such floods are
violent, but of short duration, and occur in the four months preceding the summer solstice.
Some of these rivers have two, or perhaps three, successive floods, corresponding to the
seasons of thaw in the low ground, on the sides of mountains, and on theh summits.
The ancients were quite aware that some rivers derived their floods from the sources we
have just mentioned ; but the overflowings of the Nile, in a country remote from both rain
and snow, excited their surprise. The mystery was, however, dispelled, when once it was
known that the Nile principally draws its waters from the tropical regions, where the exces
sive periodical rains cause other rivers to overflow. The Nile begins to swell in June, and
continues to do so till the middle of August, when it has reached its maxhnum height of
from 24 to 28 feet. With the exception of a few elevated spots, and some of the higher
accumulations of alluvia) matter, on the margm of the river, the whole of the Delta and the
long valley of Egypt is then covered with water. The rising of the Ganges, which is partly
owing to the meltmg of snow and partly to the rainy season, commences in April, and, like
the Nile, attains its maximum of about 31 or 32 feet m the middle of August Tropical
rivers which move parallel to the equator spread theh waters pretty uniformly over the low
ground : such is the case with the Orinoco and the Senegal. In rivers which descend from
great elevations, or move at right angles to the equator, the action of the tropical rams is
extremely unequal ; for the surplus water only overflows the low and flat districts. This is
exactly what happens with the Nile : but it is sufficient here to mention tlie general prmci
ples ; lis the inundations of particular rivers will be described along with their respective
countries. Waterfalls, or cascades and cataracts, are often formed by rivers in descending from prj
mitive mount!! ins into secondary coimtries. Compact durable rocks are requisite for pro
ducing a permanent effect of this kind : such arc the cataracts of the Nile, of the Ganges,
and various other rivers. Some cataract.-), like those of Tunguska, in Siberia, have gradu
ally lost their clcviitioii by tlie wearing away of the rocks, and have now only a rapid de
scent. According to Humboldt, the lieiglit of tJie great cataract of the Rio de Bogota, in
South America, long estimated at 1500 feet, is about 800 feet ; tliat of Staubbach is about

Book H. HYDROLOGY. 207
900 feet. The small river Ache, in Bavaria, which rises in the cavern of the glacier of
Mount Tauren, runs through the valley of Achenthal, and, after reachmg the Gulf of Tau-
ren, throws itself over an elevation of 2000 feet. It has five great falls ; the last of which
forms a most magnificent arch of waters, which is resolved into spray before it reaches the
ground. The noise of the waters is so terrible, that it is heard at the distance of more than
a league ; and the current of air produced by the descent of the water is so violent, that it
drives back those who attempt to advance towards the gulf: it is necessary, therefore, to
approach it by walkhig backwards. The fell of Garispa i-n India is 1000 feet. One of the
most considerable known falls takes place on the river Niagara, which connects Lakes Erie
and Ontario. The river here, just before the fall, is divided by Goat Island into two parts :
the one, 600 feet broad, falls to the depth of 150 feet ; while the other, 35 yards broad, falls
164 feet in perpendicular height. In Scotland the most considerable falls are those on the
river Clyde, near Lanark, where the river is precipitated down three successive precipices
of red sandstone. In the upper fall, that o? Bonniton, the whole river throws itself over a
precipice 30 feet high : lower down, at Corra Linn, it is precipitated from a height of 84
feet. The lowest fell, that of Slonebyres, consists of three stages, being broken hy two pro
jecting rocks ; its fall is 80 feet. In tho course of the river Foyers, on the side of Loch
Ness, there are two fells ; the upper fell is 40 feet high, the lower 90 feet. In the miner-
alogical report of Lapland, presented to the Swedish government, the discovery of a great
waterfall in the river Lulea is particularly mentioned. It is said to be one eighth of a mile
broad, and to fell 400 feet; if the mile be German, as is most likely (equal to four and a half
English miles), the breadth exceeds half an English mile.

CHAPTER m.
GEOGNOSY.
This branch of natural history makes us acquainted with the structure, materials, relative
position, and mode of formation, of the great mineral masses of which the crust of the
earth is composed.
In conveying to our readers a short view of this important subject, we shall adopt the
following arrangement : —
I. Describe the physiognomy of the earth's surface.
n. Give an account of the action of water and air on that surface.
III. Give an account of the action of volcanoes and earthquakes on the earth's surface.
IV. Describe the different structures observable in the solid mass of the globe.
V. Define and describe the different classes and species of rocks of which the crust of the
earth is composed. Sect. I. — Physiognomy of the Earth's surface.
Dry land. The dry land, or the land above the level of the sea, is arranged into masses
of various magnitudes and forms. It is not equally distributed ; for a much larger portion
of it occurs to the north than to the south of the equator ; and the difference in this respect
is so great, that the southern half of the globe is principally water, while the northern is
chiefly land. About the middle of the last century, it was asserted that a great continent
must exist towards the south pole, in order to counterbalance the mass of land in the north
em hemisphere ; but by the voyages of Cook and Bellinghausen, and particularly the late enter
prise of Weddel, it has been shown that in high southern latitudes, in place of a contuient,
there are but a few groups of islands. The absence of a continent near the south pole does
not itself prove that there is less land there than in the north, since it is possible that the
land in general may be only rather more depressed in the south, and consequently the ocean
is spread more extensively over the surface of the earth in that quarter. The dry land
is arranged into two grand divisions named worlds, viz. the Old World and the New
World. The Old World, in the eastern hemisphere, extends from S. W. to N. E., and
comprehends the three continents of Europe, Asia, and Africa. The New World, in the
westem hemisphere, extends from N. to S., and is composed of two continents, viz. North
and South America.
The general direction of the land in the two worlds is diflerent. In America, it is from
N. to S. : in the Old World, it is S. W. to N. E : and, if we omit Africa, it is almost parallel
with the equator. The longest straight line that can be drawn on the Old World com
mences on the westem coast of Africa, from about Cape Verd, and extends to Behring's
Strait, on the north-east coast of Asia : it is about 11,000 miles in length. A similar line
traced along the New World from the Strait of Terra del Fuego to the northem shore of
North America measures nearly 9000 miles.
The Old and New Worlds have the following features in common : northem and southern
halves, connecting isthmuses, a peninsula on the one side, and a group of islands on the
other. This arrangement will appear evident from the following details.

208 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part IL
The old world may be considered as composed of two great halves : the one, the we.stern,
includes Europe and Africa ; the other, the eastem, Asia and New Holland. In the westem
half, the two continents, viz. Europe and Africa, are connected together by the isthmus of
Suez, and have on the one hand the islands of the Mediterranean, and on the other the pen
insula of Arabia. In the eastern half, the two continents of Asia and New Holland are, to
a certain extent, connected together by the islands of Java, Sumatra, &c. ; and in front of
this broken isthmus is Papua and other islands, and on the other side the peninsula of India.
The New World is composed of two halves, a northem and a southem : these are connected
together by the isthmus of Darien ; and on the front are situated the West India islands, and
behind the peninsula of California.
Another general feature in the general distribution of the dry land, is the tapermg of all
the great peninsulas to the south. This, for example, is the case with the contment of Africa,
with Arabia, India, South America, Scandinavia, Spam, Italy, Greece, Corea, Alashka, Kam-
tchatka, California, Florida, and Greenland.
Besides the Old and New Worlds, as above described, there occur, dispersed through the
ocean, numerous smaller masses of land, forming islands of various magnitudes and forms.
Those islands situated near to the continents are considered as belonging to them. Thus
the British isles belong to Europe, those of Japan to Asia, the West India islands to
America, and Madagascar to Africa. But besides these there are other islands and groups
of islands, situated at a distance from continents, and which cannot be referred to any of the
preceding divisions, but to the oceans in which they occur ; as, for example, the Sandwich
Islands, in the North Pacific Ocean.
Subsect. 1. — Inequalities of the Surface of the Dry Land,
The surfece of the land exhibits great variety in aspect, forming mountains, hills, valleys,
and plains. The most general of these features are what geographers term high land and
low land. High lands are lofty, uneven, and widely extended masses of land : thus, the
mountainous tract of country extending from the Naze of Norway to the North Cape is a
high land. Low lands are widely extended low and flat countries : thus, the northem part
of France, the Netherlands, Holland, part of Germany, and Silesia ; Poland, and European
Russia form what may be called the great European low land. We shall first explain the
structure of high land, and next that of low land.
(1.) Structure of high land. In a high land, the central parts are generaUy the most
rugged and lofty, while the exterior districts, those which border on the low land, are lower,
and less rugged. The central part is named alpine, the lower and the exterior part hilly.
The alpine part of a high land is composed of a central and lofty chain of mountains, named
the central, or high mountain chain, towards which there tend a greater or lesser number
of lateral or principal ; and from these again subordinate chains. The high mountain chain
forms the water-shed (divortia aquarum) of the district ; and the hollows that traverse the
upper part of this chain are named passes {cols.) On passing from one side to another of
the alpine land, we do not always travel through a pass or col, but sometimes across a com
paratively flat tract many leagues in extent; such are named table-lands. In crossing
from Norway to Sweden, we pass in some parts across a table-land ; also in travelling from
Vera Cruz by Mexico to Acapulco. The inclined planes on which the lateral, or principal
and subordinate, chains are distributed are named the acclivities of the high land. The
hollows that separate these chains from each other -are named valleys : those valleys bounded
by principal chains are named principal valleys, and sometimes transverse valleys ; while
the valleys between subordinate chains are named subordinate valleys. The hilly or lower
part of the "^igh land is composed of comparatively low and less rugged chains, called chains
of hills, whwh are irregularly grouped, being entirely without a central or high mountain
chain. The valleys in this hilly land are shorter, less steep, and not so rugged as in the
more central or alpine part of the high land.
(2.) Structure of low land. Low land is formed principally of extensive plains, little
elevated above the level of the sea, in which we occasionally observe gentle risings and
undulations of the surface, that often extend to a considerable distance, and sometimes form
the limits between neighbouring rivers. Now and then conical and table-shaped hills rise
up singly and suddenly in a low country, as is the case with volcanic and igneous hills. The
plains of the low land are characterised by the presence of particular hollows or concavities,
which are named river-courses or river-valleys ; because in these rivers flow. In such hol
lows we distinguish the bed of the river, and the holm or haugh land ; further we observe
the high and low banks of the river, and the ravines or small valleys, that traverse the high
bank and terminate in the low bank. There is still another kind of hollow met witli in the
low land ; it is that in which lakes, generally shallow, are contained.
Coasts. The margin of the dry land, where it meets the waters of the ocean, has received
the general name of^ coast. It varies in its aspect. Sometimes it is low and shelving, and
then the neighbouring sea is shallow to a considerable distance ; at other times it is steep,
lofty, and rugged, and then the sea is deep. In many parts of Great Britain, and on the

Book H. GEOGNOSY. 209
continent, as m Holland, the coast is low and sandy, and the sand is occasionally blown into
hills. Caves. These are cavities of greater or less extent, which are either open to day, as in
the case of the magnificent caves m the Isle of Isla, those in Arran, those near Wemyss on
the coast of Fifeshhe, &c., when they are named external or open caves ; or they are more
or less concealed in the interior of the rocks in which they are contained, as Maclean's Cave
in the Isle of Egg, and many caves in the limestone of Derbyshire : such are named internal
caves. Sdbsbct. 2. — Inequalities of the Surface of the Submarine Land.
The bottom of the sea, like the surface of the dry land, varies in form. In some seas
there occur flats and plains ranging to a considerable extent, and near to the surface of the
water, forming what are called shoals ; in other cases, plains, of great extent, occur deeply
seated, or much below the surface of the sea, which are denominated deep submarine plains.
These submarine plains, like the plains on the dry land, sometimes contain hollows of con
siderable extent a^d of great depth ; the deep hollows under the sea off the coast of Scot
land, known under the name of Montrose pits, are of this description. The sea bottom is
sometimes hilly ; these hills vary in form and magnitude, and are either deeply seated, or
rise above the surfece of the water, forming rocks or islands. In tropical seas, the bottom,
when not very deep, becomes encrusted with coral ; which coral sometunes rises to the sur
face, and then forms coral shoals, coral reefs, or coral isles. If the bottom is very deep,
but sends up from below hills whose summits are not far below the level of the ocean, these
in tropical seas also become covered with coral.
Sect. H. — Effects of Water and the Atmosphere on the Surface of the Land.
Water is a very active agent in altering and variously modifying the surface of the earth,
and its energy is increased when it carries along with it mechanical matter, as sand, gravel,
&c., and particularly when aided by the gnawing influence of the atmosphere. Through
these agents the whole surfece of the dry land is kept more or less in a state of motion, by
theh breaking up the strata, and removing with greater or less rapidity, the broken rocky
matters from point to point, and often into lakes and the sea.
Water acts mechanically and chemically : it acts mechanically when it removes part of
the soil or broken rocky matter over which it passes, or corrodes the channel in which it
flows, or the reservoirs m which it is contauied ; it also acts mechanically, when, on bemg
hnbibed by rocks, it increases their weight and thus favours theh rending, slipping, and
overturnmg ; and, lastly, it acts mechanically, when, by its freezing in flssures, it breaks up
mountam masses and rocks. It acts chemically, when it dissolves particular mmeral sub
stances, as rock-salt out of the rocks through which it percolates.
Subsect. 1. — Mechanical destroying Effects of Water.
(1.) Rivulets and Rivers. Running waters, in their course from the higher to the
lower parts of a country, carry along with them the debris already prepared by the action
of the weather on exposed rocks, and also more or less considerable portions of the strate
of the basm m which they flow. The quantity of abraded matter depends in a great degree
on the quantity of sand or gravel the river carries along with it ; it being a fact, that running
water, when pure, acts but feebly on compact strata, and displays its scooping or excavating
power only when carrying along with it sand, gravel, and such other matters, which com
municate to it a mechanical destroymg action. As the velocity of the river dimmishes,
its carrymg power dhnmishes; and frequently, long before it has reached the. marsh, lake,
or the sea into which it disembogues itself, it carries only slime and sleech, leaving the
gravels and larger solid masses m higher parts of its course. The transporting power of
water is much greater than many are aware of: it is strikingly shown by the enormous
quantities of rubbish, and great blocks of stone, which are swept along by rivulets when in
the state of flood or swollen. This transporting power is materially assisted by the diminished
specific gravity of the rocks when hnmersed in the water, by which their weight is often
dimmished one-third, and even one-half The transporting of heavy stones by water m
situations where ice occurs is assisted by the ice which adheres to them, and which dhnm
ishes the specific gravity of the mass.
(2.) Lakes. Around the margms of many lakes we observe a beach, formed of the frag
ments of the neighbouring strata, broken off in part by the waters of the lake. The bursting
of lakes also occasions great changes in the neighbourmg country, which changes are of a
mechanical destroying nature.
(3.) Ocean. The waters of the ocean exercise a powerfiil destroymg effect on coasts
If the coasts are bold and rugged, they are violently assaulted by the waves of the ocean •
the crags and cliffs split and tumble down, in frightfiil and irregular succession. The perfol
rated rock, the Doreholm, on the west coast of Shetland ; the perforated rocks described by
Captain Cook near New Zealand ; the stalks, holms, and skerries on the coasts of Shetland
Vol. I. 18 * 2 B '

210 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part IL
Scotland, and Norway, are effects of the destroymg power of the waves of the ocean, con-
jomed with the gnawmg action of the weather. On those rocky coasts where the strata are
ot unequal hardness, the softer portions, and also part of the surrounding harder mass, are
removed by the actiop of the waves; and thus sea-caves are formed.
The waters of the ocean often also cause dreadful ravages in low countries exposed to
theu: fiiry. Holland fiimishes many strikhig examples of its devastatmg power. In the
^i^^^J?^ *^® waters of the ocean, agitated by a violent tempest mundated the country ;
the Rhme, swollen at the time by extraordmary floods, and retamed at a great height, partly
by the waters of the ocean, and partly by the whid blowmg in a contrary direction to its
course, spread over the neighbourmg country : but, the tempest havmg suddenly subsided,
the highly eleyated waters rethed, with such velocity and force as to carry with them a
considerable portion of the soil, and left hi its place the sea now named the Zuyder Sea.
In the year 1421, a great inundation submerged the southem part of the province of Holland,
drowned 60,000 persons, and on retiring formed the Bies-Boos.
The action of the sea on the submarme land is also worthy of notice. Stevenson speaks
of agitations of the sea reaching to a depth of upwards of 200 feet; stating that at a con
siderable depth the power of the ocean is so considerable as to break rocks in pieces, and
throw them upon the coasts in masses, of various sizes and forms. Thus he says, " numerous
proofs of the sea being disturbed to a considerable depth have also occurred since the erec
tion of the Bell-Rock Light-house, situated upon a sunken rock in the sea, twelve miles off
Arbroath, in Forfarshire. Some drift-stones of large dimensions, measuring upwards of
thirty cubic feet, or more than two tons weight have, during storms, been often thrown upon
the rock from the deep water. These large boulder-stones are so familiar to the hght-
house keepers at this station, as to he by them termed travellers.* On the coast of the main
land of Shetland, particularly on the west coast, we have observed many striking displays
of the power of the waves in moving enormous masses of rocks.
The currents that traverse the ocean, like rivers on the dry land, probably scoop out beds
for themselves, and carry away, and often to distant places, great quantities of abraded
matter. The gulf stream, and other branches of the great equinoctial current may act
powerfully in this way ; and the same may be the case with the currents in other seas,
and those that enter mediterranean seas and wind round them, as the Baltic and Medi
terranean. (4.) Action of water by its own weight. Water by its own weight contributes very much
to the degradation of the surface of the globe. Sometimes great masses of rock, particu
larly those of a soft and porous nature, imbibe much water, by which their weight is in
creased, and thus occasions breaking and rending, and slipping of masses often of enormous
magnitude. Clay beds sometimes become soft from the percolation of rain or snow water
from the superincumbent strate. When this tekes place the superincumbent beds lose theh
support, and if the clay and superimposed rocks are inclined at a considerable angle, the
rocks in vast masses separate, and slide down into the lower part of the country. The feu
of the Rossberg, in Switzerland, in September 1802, may be mentioned as an example of
this phenomenon. This mountain (Rossberg) is 5193 feet high, and lies opposite to the
Rigiberg, which rises 6182 feet above the level of the sea. The Rossberg is composed of
molasse, with beds of clay, and all inclined at an angle of 45° to 50°. It is said that the
clay in some of the beds was much softened by the percolating water, and the thick super
incumbent beds of molasse, in this way losing their support, were separated from the inclined
and soft surface underneath, and slid into the valley below. This avalanche of debris and
mud overwhelmed several villages, and destroyed from 800 to 900 persons. In the year
1714, the west side of the Diablerets, in the Valais, separated, and in its course downwards
covered the neighbouring country with its ruins for two mUes in length and breadth ; the
immense blocks of stones and heaps of mbbish interrupted the course of the rivers, and
lakes were thus formed. In the year 1618, the once considerable town of Pleurs, in the
Grisons, with the neighbouring village of Schelano, were overwhelmed by a vast mass
of rock, which had imbibed much water, and separated from the south side of the mountain
of Corto.
(5.) Effects of the freezing of water. In those regions of the earth where the freezing
and thawing of water takes place, the expansive and destroying action of ice is often dis
played on a grand scale. In the history of northern countries we meet with many accounts
of the noises and rendings of rocks, occasioned hy the expansion of water during its freezing
in the fissures of rocks. Terrible disasters take place in alpine countries by the bursting
and fall of great masses of rock, split by the freezing of the water in rents.
(6.) Destroying effects of ice and snow. Water hi the form of ice causes considerable
changes on the surface of the earth. Thus, when floated along in great masses by rivers, it
breaks up their banks, and thus affords them an opportunity of devastating the lower country ;
and the masses are often so great, that enormous heaps of the strate are thereby torn off and
carried to a distance. When sea ice is drifted against the clifls and precipices on the coast,
the breaking and destruction it occasions sometimes almost pass belief For the breaking
* Vide Wernerian Soc. Memoirs vol. iii.

Book II. GEOGNOSY. 211
up and movmg of large masses of rock, one of tlie most powerfiil engines employed by
nature are the glaciers. These masses of congealed water and snow, in their course down
ward, push before tliem enormous quantities of broken rocky matter, which form great
momids, named moraine. SresECT. 2. — Chemical destroying Effects of Water.
Atmospheric water enters into the fissures of rocks in a pure state, but issues forth again
more or less impregnated with mmeral matters of various kinds abraded from the strata
through which they pass. The most abundant substance brought out in this way from the
interior of the crust of the earth is lime, which is deposited from these calcareous waters in
the form of tuffii. Many of the excavations m limestone are partly owing to this destroying
effect of water. Spring waters, in passing through beds of gypsum and rock salt, dissolve
a portion of them, and in this way sometimes occasion considerable changes in the interior
and even the surface of the earth, by the superincumbent strata yielding over the hollows
formed by the removal of the salt and gypsum.
Subsect. 3. — Mechanical forming Effects of Water.
(1.) Forming effects of springs. Sprhigs bring from the interior of the earth muddy
matter of various descriptions ; and in the course of time, if the springs are spouting-springs,
hillocks and hills of considerable magnitude are thus formed.
(2.) Lakes. When lakes are filled up, or are emptied, we find the space formerly occu
pied by them covered, to a greater or less depth, with the alluvial matter brought into them
by the rivers that flow into them. When lakes burst theh barriers, at different times, they
leave on theh sides a series of natural terraces or platforms, of which we have a splendid
example in Glen Roy. In Glen Roy these terraces are known under the name of Parallel
Roads of Glen Roy'; because some have fancied they were not natural arrangements, but
works of art, — ^roads formed by the ancient inhabitants.
(3.) Rivers. When rivers are in a state of flood they often overflow their banks, and
cover the neighbouring country with their waters. Thus the Ganges, near its mouth, in the
rainy season overflows the country to the breadth of one hundred mUes, and to the depth of
nearly twelve feet ; and the Indus, during its period of inundation, extends thhty or forty
miles from its banks. This flood water carries with it muddy and other matters, and deposits
them upon the land. Gerard says that the annual floods of the Nile had raised the surfece
of Upper Egypt about six feet four inches, English measure, since the commencement of
the Christian era, or four inches in a century. In other countries extensive deposits,
extending along the sides of rivers, are formed by the overflowing of their waters. Where
rivers enter lakes and the sea, they form triangular pieces of land named deltas, from their
resemblance in form to the triangular-shaped Greek letter A. These deltas are more strongly
marked in lakes than in nearly inclosed seas, as the Mediterranean ; and in these seas than
in the ocean, where the depositions are much interrupted by currents. The most famous
in history of these deltas is that of the Nile. This delta has been considerably enlarged
since the time of Herodotus, but not to the extent stated by many writers. At no great
distance from the shore of the delta the depth of the Mediterranean is about seventy-two
feet, and ferther out the sea suddenly deepens to 2000 feet, — a depth very probably beyond
reach of the delta, and which may be conjectured to be the original depth of this part of
the Mediterranean sea. The deltas of the other rivers that flow into the Mediterranean,
as the Rhone and the Po, exhibit phenomena similar to those observed in the delta of Egypt ;
and by their considerable extent, and annual growth, furnish ample proofs of the forming
power of rivers, and of the resemblance of alluvial matters to strata of an older date. The
great sea-deltas, or those formed where rivers flow into the ocean, are sometimes on a great
scale, as is the case with the Ganges, of which a most mteresting account has been given
by Rennel and some other writers. A full description of this magnificent delta, as also of
the vast deposites at the mouths of the Mississippi, Orinoco, and other great rivers, will be
given in the body of this work. At present however, we may remark, that the quantity of
matter carried into the sea by all the rivers on the globe is very great, and fully as consider
able as that stated by some authors, who have been held as exaggerating the amount of this
earthy matter carried from the dry land to the shores of the ocean. The alluvial matter
brought down by rivers not only forins great tracts of land at theh mouths, but also, through
the agency of currents, assisted by the waves of the ocean, gives rise to extensive tracts of
low and flat land, which extend along the coasts.
Downs. When the sea-coast is low, and the bottom consists of sand, the waves push
this sand towards the shore, where, at every reflux of the tide, it becomes partially dried,
and the winds, which often blow from the sea, drift up some portions of it upon the beach.
By this forming action of the ocean, sandy flats and downs, or ranges of sand-hills, are
formed along the coast When this sand is moved about by the wind, it forms what is called
the sand-flood. Westward from the mouth of the river Findhom, in Morayshire, a district
consisting of upwards of ten square miles of land, which, owing to its fertility, was once

212 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part U.
named the Granary of Moray, has been depopulated, and rendered utterly unproductive by
the sand-flood. This barren waste may be characterised as hilly; the accumulations of sand
composing these hills frequently varying in their height and likewise in their situations.
The sand hills of Barry, at the mouth of the Tay, composed of blown sand, are from 200
to 300 feet high. Belhelvie luiks, hi Aberdeenshire, and the extensive sandy tracts in the
Shetland and Westem Islands, are of the same description. These blowing sands some
times block up the mouths of rivers and rivulets : thus, many years ago, the mouth of the
river Fhidhom in Moray havmg become blocked up with blowmg sand, it cut out for itself
its present channel, which conducts it by a more direct course to the sea. In consequence
of this, the old town of Findhom had changed its situation from the east to the west side of
the river, and its site has since been covered by the sea. The lake at Strathbeg, which
covers a square mile of country, on the coast of Aberdeenshire, about ten miles north from
Peterhead, was formed about 170 years ago, by the choking up by blowing sand of a small
stream that fell into the sea. These barriers sometimes give way, when the tract is again,
for a time, covered by the sea ; a new barrier again rises, and the sea is excluded a second
time. These operations, on a great scale, would afford alternation of productions of the land
and of the sea. The sands of the African deserts may be sea sands, or land sands, or both
together. Dr. Oudney, Major Denham, and Captain Clapperton have added to our knowledge
of the blowing sands of the African deserts. The coloured engraving of the sand-hills of
the African desert in Denham, Oudney, and Clapperton's Narrative, is a striking and in
teresting representation of the form of the moving sand-hills of Africa.
Sand banks. The bed of the German Ocean supports many accumulations of sand,
called sand-banks. One of these extends from the Frith of Forth, in a north-easterly
dhection, to a distence of 110 miles, while another, the Dogger Bank, extends, north and
south, for upwards of 350 miles. The average height of these submarine sand-banks is
estimated at about seventy-eight feet : the whole surface of the various shoals in this sea
laid down in charts, according to Stevenson, is equal to about one-fifth of the whole area of
the German Ocean, or about one-third of the whole extent of England and Scotland. These
banks are composed of quartz sand, varying in the size of the grain, from coarse to fine,
which is abundantly mixed with broken shells and fragments of corals. These banks arc
conjectured to owe theh origin to the action of currents and the tides.
SiiBSBCT. 4. — Chemical forming Effects of Water.
(1.) Springs. Many spring waters, after dissolving, by means of the superabundant
carbonic acid with which they are impregnated, calcareous matter abraded from limestone
rocks, or rocks containing lime, allow the carbonate of lune to crystaUize, m consequence of
the escape of the acid, and m this way form depositions of calc-smter, or calcareous alabaster,
on the roofs, sides, and floors of caves; or fiU up fissures in rocks, and form yems; or when
flowing over the surface of rocks, form, if the surface is horizontal, horizontal beds— h
inclined inclined beds— of calcareous sinter and calcareous tuffa. These beds sometimes
extend very far, and with a thickness of 200 or 300 feet The water of such sprmgs, when
coUected into hollows so as to form lakes, often deposits vast quantities of calcareous smters
and tuffas; and hence such lakes, when emptied, present extensive calcareous deposits
The travertme employed at Rome for buildmg is a lake or spring caJc^-eous deposit of
sinter and tuffe; and the town of Guancavelica m South America is built of a compact cal
careous tuffa from the calcareous sprmgs in the neighbourhood. In the mountam lunestone
districts in Euffland, also in the lias districts both m England and Scotland, the roofs, walls,
and floors of caves are often elegantly omamented by numerous varieties of calcareous
sinter In Persia, as mentioned by Sir John Malcolm, there are great deposits of a very fine
calc suiter which is extensively employed for ornamental purposes; and m the marshes of
the ffreat plam of the vast circular valley of Hungary, according to Beudant there is a
constant deposition of horizontal strate of calcareous tufla and sinter, which are so hard as
to be used for buUding, all the houses of Czlea being constructed of these mmerals. The
nea stone a beautiful calcareous carbonate, is formed m very considerable abundance from
the waters of calcareous hot springs, as those at Carisbad m Bohemia. As these calcareous
^nrinp-s often flow mto rivers, and these rivers temimate in the sea, it is evident that m this
way a vast quantity of carbonate of lime must reach the ocean where it will be deposited m
the various forms of sinter, tuffa, and limestone. The Geysers or hot sprmgs of Iceland,
nnd those of St Michael's m the Azores, deposit on the dry land vast quantities of siliceous
sintPr This siliceous mineral, which is sometimes like opal, although generally pure, is
n nlwnvs so being occasionaUy intermixed with other eai-tlis, and thus giving rise to par-
dcular mineral substances. Such springs also pour their waters into tlie ocean and even
r «P from the bottom of the sea, sometimes a considerable way upwards, or even jet above the
surface level of the sea, all the time throwing out much water mipregnated with silica,
which is deposited on the submarine land in various forms and states, depending on a variety
^f^irPiimHtnncps which our limits prevent our noticing.
(2r-^oiter HrvS ^reaxly noticed the calcareous depositions from the waters of

Book IL GEOGNOSY. 213
some lakes, we may now mention some other deposits that appwir to owe the ii- origin to
akes The bog hon-ore, or hydro-phosphate of iron, is often found m such s. uations as to
show that it has been deposited from Ihe waters of lakes; and m some countries it is col-
ectld from the sides Ld bottoms of lakes once in a certain number of years; thus showing
that it is Sill forming iu such situations. In salt lakes considerable depositions of salt take
pkce Ld when such coUections of water dry up, or are dramed off, the sides and bottoms
of ttie'hSlov^ ie found mcrusted with salt which is sometimes disposed m beds altemately
"^'(3 TMarinJ'incrustations. Collections of perfect and broken sea-sheUs and of corals are
sometimes found agglutinated by calcareous, clayey, or ferruginous matters, forming banks
or beds of consideFable extent Beds of this kind, particularly those formed of shells, are
met with m many parts of the coasts of this island. In other countries, as m the West
Indies, a solid conglomerate of sheUs and corals Imes a considerable extent of coast on
several of the islands. The human skeleton from the island of Guadaloupe, m the British
Museum, is imbedded m a rock of this description.
Subsect. 5.— Effects of the Atmosphere, <|-c.
Effects of the atmosphere. The ah and moisture of the atmosphere effect great changes
on the rocks at the surface of the earth. They either shnply disintegrate the rock, or not
only break it down, but also occasion a change m its chemical constitution. Sandstone, and
other rocks of the same general description, often yield very readily to the weather ; their
basis or ground is washed away, and the quartz, mica, and other particles remain in the form
of sand and gravel. When trap vems intersect strata, it frequently happens that the softer
parts of the rock are destroyed, while the harder trap appears rising several feet or yards
above the neighbourmg surface, and crossmg the country like walls ; hence, m Scotland,
they are named dykes. The variously shaped summits of mountains and hills owe much
of theh form to the destroying influence of the weather. Some caves, as certain open caves
in sandstones and limestones, are also formed by the destroying powers of the atmosphere.
The various changes m the form of rocks, by which they assume columnar, globular, tabular,
and indetermmate angular forms, and faU into scales, crusts, layers, gravels, and sands, are,
to a certam extent, effects of the destroying powers of the atmosphere. Valleys owe much
of their form and extent to the destroying influence of the atmosphere. Their sides and
summits, everywhere exposed to its action, become covered with debris ; and in this way
valleys experience greater changes than are produced on their bottom by the passage of
the river, and on its sides by the rushing of the torrent. The chemical destroying effects
are to be traced to the carbonic acid of the atmosphere, and to the vast quantities of the
same matter which rise from the interior of the earth : this acid dissolves lime, abstracts
alkaline matters from granite and other similar rocks, and by combining with iron, converts
that universally distributed substance into a soluble carbonate. The oxygen of the atmo
sphere also, by its action on the iron and other constituents of rocks, assists in breaking
them down.
Effects of electricity on rocks. Electricity, as a chemical agent, may be considered not
only as directly producing an infinity of changes, but also as influencing almost all that take
place. There are not two substances on the surface of the globe that are not in different
electrical relations to each other ; and chemical attraction itself seems to be a peculiar form
of the exhibition of electric attraction : and whenever the atmosphere, or water, or any part
of the surface of the earth, gains accumulated electricity of a different kind fi-om the con
tiguous surfaces, the tendency of this electricity is to produce new arrangements of the
parts of those surfaces. Thus, a positively electrified cloud, acting even at a great distence
on a moistened stone, tends to attract its oxygenous, or.acidiform, or acid ingredients; and
a negatively electrified cloud has the same effect upon its earthy, alkaline, or metellic mat
ter; and the silent and slow operation of electricity is much more importent in the economy
of nature than its grand and impressive operation in lightning and thunder.
Sect. HI. — On Volcanoes, and the Changes they produce on the Land and the Bottom of
the Sea.
The agents which the globe conceals hi its interior, and whose existence is manifested at
its surface, are made known to us by the phenomena of volcanoes and earthquakes. We
shall first describe these phenomena, and afterwards add some observations on theh causes.
Subsect. 1. — Distribution of Volcanoes.
Volcanoes, as is well known, are openings in the cmst of the earth, whence there issue
from time to time jets of burning substances and currents of melted matters which bear the
name of lavas. These openings are generally on the summit of isolated mounteins - they
have the form of a funnel, and take the name of craters. '
Position of volcanoes. Volcanoes occur in all quarters of the globe, and are often dis.
tributed in a linear direction.

214 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part H.
Distribution. — Europe conteins but few burning volcanoes. On the coast of Sicily, we
see iEtna rismg like a colossus to a height of 10,870 English feet On the opposite coast
of Itely we have Vesuvius, which does not attam more than the thhd of this elevation, viz.
3932 feet. Between them, in the Lipari islands, we find the smaU volcano of Stromboli,
and the volcanoes of Volcano and Vulcanello, which stUl smoke. The islands of the Archi
pelago, at Milo and Santorino, contam mountains which, during an early historic period, pro
duced terrible igneous phenomena. Iceland in the north, in the midst of snow and ice, pre
sents to our view many volcanoes, of which the most prominent, Hecla, rises to a height of
5500 feet. Farther to the north, in the desolate and dreary Jan Mayen's Island, extendmg
between north latitude 70° 49' and 71° 8', is the volcano of Esk Mount which rises to a
height of 1500 feet above the sea-beach in Jameson's Bay. The continent of Asia, as far
as is known at present exhibits but few volcanoes. We can scarcely reckon three or four
on its western shores, or on the edges of the Caspian : there are none m its northem part :
some but vaguely known exist in Central Asia : in the east the peninsula of Kamtschatka
contains five or six ; but in the islands which surround this contuient theh number is great
The islands on the coast of Africa, such as Bourbon, Madagascar, the Cape de Verd Islands, the
Canaries, and the Azores, also contain several volcanoes. In America, if we except those of
the West India islands, we observe the greater part of them on the ridge of that great Cordil
lera, which, like an immense wall or lofly terrace, borders the westem part of that conti
nent. They are remarkable not only on account of their position, but also for theh colossal
form, the nature of the masses of which they are composed, and the materials they throw
out Torrents of the rarely issue from them, but streams of water and mud are of frequent
occurrence : the total number of American volcanoes is about eighty-six; they are placed as
it were in groups. The kingdom of Guatemala presents about twenty ; in Mexico there are
six, in the number of which is the.Jorullo, so weU known from the account of Humboldt
But it is in Peru that the greatest occur : there are seven in that country, of which we shall
mention Pichincha, nearly 15,931 feet high ; Cotopaxi, wich rises to the height of 18,867
feet ; and Antisana, which attains a height of 19,136 feet. On a rough estimate, we state
the number of burning volcanoes including solfeteras at 303 ; of these 194 are in islands,
and the other 109 are on the continents : the most distant from the sea are those of America
and Asia; in Peru there are volcanoes thirty leagues from the sea; and that of Popocatepetl
near Mexico, which, however, is now only a smoking volcano, is fifty-six leagues ; and they
occur in the very centre of Asia. The chcumstance of the most active volcanoes being situ
ated in the vicinity of the sea, is a feet worthy of being recoUected ; it becomes stUl more
so when we observe, that there are submarine volcanoes burning in the midst of the waters.
The islands, and the phenomena which they have been observed to produce, at Santorino,
on the coast of Iceland, in the Azores, &c., leave no doubt respecting theh existence.
Independently of volcanoes in a stete of activity, the interior of our continents contains a
great number of extinct volcanoes, but which still present theh original form, or incontes
table remains of that form : perhaps no country contains more numerous and splendid displays
of them than France ; there are more than a hundred in Auvergne, Vivarais, and Cevermes.
They are conical mountains, composed of lavas, scorise, and volcanic ashes heaped upon each
other ; many of them present a crater, which has retamed its form m a greater or less degree ;
and sometimes there are seen as it were issumg from theh bases lavas which extend to a
distance of several thousand yards, and which have perfectly preserved the form of cur
rents : the matter of which they are composed resembles that of lava trap. We may fur
ther remark, that volcanoes are never or scarcely ever isolated ; they are collected mto
groups. This is the case with the American volcanoes ; those of Asia, and the different
Archipelagoes are shnilarly situated: in Europe, the Greek islands and southern Italy pre
sent distinct groups. Sometimes volcanoes are arranged one after the other in the same
Ime, as is the "case in South America, and in the extmct volcanoes in the neighbourhood of
the Puy de D6me. Subsect, 2. — Phenomena and Theory of Volcanoes.
Volcanoes do not incessantly emit flames, nor do lavas constantly flow from them ; they
remain for ages in a state of mactivity. Vesuvius was extinct from time hnmemorial, when,
awakenmg from its slumber, it suddenly rekindled, in the reign of Titus, and buried tlie
cities of Pompeii, Herculaneum, and Stabise under its ashes. It became quiet again at the
end of the flfteenth century ; and in 1630, when it resumed its action, its summit was inha
bited and covered with wood. The inhabitants of Catania regarded as febles the accounts
of history respecting eruptions of ^Etna, till tlie period when theh city was ravaged, and m
part do.-^troved, by the fires of that volcano,
Subtorra'nean noises, and the appearance or increase of smoke, which issues from the
Ci-atcr, are generally the first symptoms of volcanic action. Presently the noise becomes
louder, the earth trembles, it experiences shocks, and every thmg proclaims that it is in
labour! The smoke uicreascs, thickens, and becomes charged with ashes. When the air is
tranquil, the smoke is seen rising, under the form of an immense column, to a very great

Book H. GEOGNOSY. 215
height There, finding itself in a rarer atmosphere, it ceases to rise ; its upper part dilating,
forms as it were an expanded summit placed upon a lengthened shaft. The cloud, with the
supporting column, in favourable circumstances, has the figure of an immense umbrella, or
of the Italian pine, to which Pliny the Elder compared tliat of the eruption of Vesuvius in
A. D. 79, and which was accurately represented in October, 1822, At other times the smoke
disperses in the air : it tliere forms thick and vast clouds which obscure the day, and cover
the surrounding country with darkness. These columns and clouds are often traversed by
enormous jets of red-hot sand, resembling flames, and rising to extraordinary heights. Some
times tliey are traversed by flashes of lightning, and on all sides loud explosions are
heard. Then there are projected red-hot stones and masses in fusion. They issue from the
volcano with a noise which is frequently very loud. They rise into the air, spreading out in
their progress, and fall around the mouth of the volcano under the form of showers of ashes,
scorise, or stones. The shocks and quakings of the ground continue and increase in violence.
In the midst of these cofivulsions, and on these accessions, the melted matter which filled
the subterranean furnaces, already carried into the mountain, is raised up hy elastic fluids ;
it ascends to the crater, fills it up, and passing oyer the least elevated part of this enormous
cavity, spreads out upon the flanks of tlie volcano. It then descends, sometimes very quickly ;
sometimes, and more frequently, as a majestic river, quietly rolled along its peaceful waters.
Very frequently, when the lava rises, the walls which contain it being unable to resist its
immense pressure or its heat, give way and burst asunder. It rushes forth like an impetuous
torrent through this new aperture : rivers and torrents of fire make their way to the foot of
the mountain ; they spread out upon the neighbouring ground, carrying along or burying all
that they find in their way, breaking down or overthrowing every obstacle that opposes their
passage. In the midst of torrents of fire, enormous currents of water and mud sometimes
issue from volcanoes, and deluges falling from the atmosphere increase the ravages, lay
waste fields which lavas had spared, and carry desolation into places which had already
thought themselves happy in having escaped the scourges of the eruption. Mephitic gases
and noxious exhalations sometimes arise, particularly in low situations ; they destroy animals
and blast vegetation, and thus complete the scene of misery and desolation.
After the emission of the lavas the earth seems freed of the evil which agitated it the
earthquakes cease, the explosions and ejections diminish for some time, and the volcano
enjoys a moment of rest : but presently a new accession tekes place, reproducing in a still
more terrible maimer the same phenomena; and this state of things continues during a
variable period of tune. At length the crisis ceases, and the volcano finally resumes its
original tranquillity.
Havmg premised this general account of volcanic action, we shaU next treat of the sub
stances ejected or projected mto the atmosphere by volcanoes, and the lavas which they
pour out. a. Ejected Matters.
These are, 1. Smoke. 2. Ashes. 3. Sands. 4. Scoria?. 5. Volcanic bombs. 6. Unal
tered Masses ?
(1.) Smoke. The enormous columns of smoke which are seen issuing from the crater,
sometunes with extraordinary rapidity, are chiefly composed of aqueous vapour. This vapour
is generally charged with gaseous substances, and particularly with hydrogen gas, sometimes
also with carbonic acid. Sulphurous acid and muriatic acid are also given out. The smoke
is gray or white ; sometunes also brownish black, or fuliginous, and then the smeU is not
unlike that of asphaltum, or mmeral pitch. It often contains a great quantity of volcanic
ashes. (2.) Ashes. These ashes, which appear to be nothing else than the substances of the lava
reduced to a state of minute mechanical division, are formed of flocculent and extremely
minute particles of a gray colour, and forming a paste with water. They are always mixed
with a greater or less quantity of sand, which gives them the blackish colour which thev
sometimes exhibit The torrents of gas and vapour which issue from the craters carry
these ashes along with them, bearmg them into the atmosphere, where they form vast
clouds, sometimes so dense as to cover the surrounding country with darkness. Durino- the
eruption of Hecla m 1766, clouds of this kind produced such a degree of darkness that at
Waumba, which is more than fifty leagues distant from the mountein, people could only find
theu: way by groping. Durmg the eruption of Vesuvius in 1794, at Caserta, four leagues
distant, people could only walk by the light of torches. On the 1st of May, 1812, a cloud
of volcanic ashes and sand, commg from a volcano in the island of St, Vincent, covered th
whole of Barbadoes, spreadmg over it so intense a darkness, that at mid-day, in the onen air
one could not perceive the trees or other objects near him, or even a white handkerchief
placed at the distance of six inches from the eye. The distence to which these volcanic
ashes are carried by the winds is truly astonishing. Barbadoes is more than twenty leagues
fhP .fht7f V ' •^"'' """'^ ''-^^^ leagues from Glaumba. Procopius relates, that kf472
the ashes of Vesuvms were carried as far as Constantmople ; that is to say, to a distance of

'^IS SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. Part II.
250 leagues. These showers of ashes produce, in the countries where they fall, earthy
beds, often of great thickness, which, on being heaped up and penetrated by water, form
some kind of volcanic tuffa.
(3.) Volcanic sands. These are small particles of lavas which have been ejected into the
air in the form of drops, and there harden. They are nothmg but very smaU sized scoriee,
or fragments of ordinary scorie. They are, moreover, mingled with numerous smaU crys
tals of augite and felspar, or with fragments of these crystals. The quantity of these sands
which volcanoes eject is hnmense. They form the greater part of the ejections, and of the
mass of many volcanic mountains, of jEtna for example, accordmg to M. Dolomieu. The
finest mingle with the ashes, and form part of the clouds already mentioned. Others, accu
mulating in too great quantity to be sustained upon the acclivities of the mountain, slide
down and spread out at its base. In the eruption of Vesuvius of 1822, a current of sand of
this description, still red-hot was taken at a distance for a torrent of lava.
(4.) Scoria. The gases which come from the depths of the volcano, passuig through
the mass of melted lava with great force and velocity, carry off some parts of that viscid
matter, and bear them along with them into the atmosphere. They are there further divided,
in consequence of the resistance which the air opposes to them ; and, in cooling, they assume
the intumesced and slaggy appearance which the scoriaB of forges so frequently have.
(5.) Volcanic bombs. When the matter of lavas is projected in a soft state, as is most
commonly the case, it sometimes on cooling in the air assumes the form of drops, tears, or
elongated spheroids, to which the name of volcanic bombs is given. They abound in the
extinct volcanoes of Auvergne.
(6.) Unaltered ejected masses. Volcanoes sometimes eject stones, many of which bear
no marks of common fiision. These, by some, are considered as fragments of rocks, which
form the walls of internal cavities, and which may have been torn off and projected by some
current of elastic fluids ; others, again, maintain that they are fragments of rocks, which
have been formed by igneous solution and crystallization. Fragments of these dubious
masses are found in great numbers on the Monte Somma. There they are of granular
limestone, conteining mica, and many other minerals besides.
Projectile power of volcanoes. Did our space allow of it it would be interesting to
inquire what is the intensity of that force which throws such quantities of matter, to so great
a height We can only remark, that the greatest velocity in the case of .^tna and Vesuvius
was found to be equal to that of a cannon-ball at the moment when it issues from a cannon,
the velocity being from four to five hundred yards per second. The gigantic Cotopaxi pro
jected a piece of rock about an hundred cubic yards in magnitude to the distance of tliree
leagues. b. Lavas.
Eruptions of lavas. When we have an opportunity of seemg the liquid lava in the
crater, it resembles the melted matter in our furnaces, and appears as it were boilmg with
greater or less violence. Jets of the melted matter are thrown up from the liquid sur
face, through the agency of elastic fluids. It is by these elastic fluids that the lava is raised
upwards in the crater. When the mountem is high, as Teneriffe or jEtna, these fluids are
not sufficiently powerfiil to raise the lava to the summit or rather the sides of the mountam
are not sufficiently strong to resist the weight and force of the long and heavy column of
lava ; it therefore presses or melts the walls which surroimd it and thus forms an opening,
tiirough which it issues with great rapidity. When, on the contrary, the mountems are
comparatively low, as Vesuvius for example, the lava reaches the mouth of the crater and
flows over its lips, and from thence downwards along the acclivities of the mountam. On
reachmg the bottom they divide mto several branches, accordmg to the nature and slope of
the ground over which they flow. The currents or streams of lava vary much in regard to
the velocity with which they move. This velocity depends upon the slope of the ground
upon which it flows, as well as upon the quantity and viscidity of the lava. At Vesuvius,
M de la Torre saw currents passing over a space of about 800 yards in an hour. Sh
William Hamilton observed one which traversed 1800 yards in the same time. The eruption
of 1776 presented another, which moved more than 2000 yards m 14 minutes. Buchk
observed during the eruption of 1805, a torrent flow from the summit to the sea-shore, a
distance,' in a straight Ime, of about 7000 yards. Those we have mentioned, however, are
extraordinary velocities ; for in general lavas move slowly. Those of jEtna, flowing upon
an inclined plane, are considered quick when they traverse a space of 400 yards in an hour.
In flat grounds they sometimes occupy whole days m advancmg a few yards.
The slowness with which lavas cool is not less remarkable than that witli which they
move If their surface is quickly cooled and consolidated, the case is different with the
interior- the heat concentrates there, and is retamed for whole years. Currents are
mentioned whicli were flowing ten years after emerging from the crater, and lavas were seen
smoking in iEtiia twenty yonr.^ after an eruption , u u Th-.
The heat of liquid lava is nearly that of liquid trap, as greenstone or basalt Ihe

Book H. GEOGNOSY 217
particular temperatures are given by Dr. Kennedy, Sh James Hall, and Professor
Jameson.  , ^ , ¦ , ,
The magnitude of lava currents varies much. The largest current which has ever
issued from Vesuvius was about 14,000 yards long; that of the eruption of 1805 was
8000 ; that of 1794 was m length 4200 yards, in breadth from 100 to 400 yards, and in
depth from eight to ten yards ; that which issued from ^tna in 1787 was four times
larger ; and Dolomieu relates that that volcano furnished one more than ten leagues in length.
But the largest current known is that which hi Iceland, in 1783, covered an extent of
twenty leagues in length by four in breadth.
These currents, by bemg superinduced on each otlier, and haying mterposed between them
other products of eruptions, as sand, ashes, and scorise, form a series of inclined beds that
give rise to the cone of the mountain. In short the cone is composed of a series of con
centric layers or coats of lava, scorise, &c. ; the outgoings of which are sometimes well seen
in natural sections in the mountain. c. Different Kinds of Eruptions.
Watery and muddy eruptions. In the accounts of volcanic eruptions, mention is often
made of torrents of water and mud vomited fortli by volcanoes. Many of these watery and
muddy eruptions are external actions, as is the case with those mentioned as having taken
place in Vesuvius, jEtna, and Hecla ; others are internal, as those of Quito.
(1.) External aqueous and muddy eruptions. These are owing to great rams, which
frequently take place by the condensation of the great volumes of aqueous vapour that rise
from the craters during volcanic action. This rain, on mixing with the ashes and sands,
forms currents, more or less charged with earthy matters, which descend on the sides of the
mountain, spread themselves at its base, and sometimes to a distance in the low country.
The melting of bodies of snow by the lavas also occasions great floods of water and mud.
Of this a striking instance is related as having taken place on Mount jEtna in 1755, where,
by the sudden melting of a great body of snow by a stream of liquid lava, a terrible inunda
tion was produced, which devastated the sides of the mountain for eight miles in length, and
afterwards covered the lower parts of jEtna, together with the plains near the seE^ with great
deposits of sand, ashes, scorise, and fragments of lava. Shnilar floods of ashes and sand are
mentioned by authors as taking place in Iceland and in America, where the summits reach
above the snow line.
(2.) Internal aqueous and muddy eruptions. These waters also frequently make their
way into the mountain by infiltration. They there collect in particular reservoirs ; and at
the period of explosion, or when the mountain happens to split in consequence of some shock,
they issue forth, and cover the neighbouring countries. During the earthquake which over
turned Lima in 1746, four volcanoes opened at Lucanos and in the mountains of Concepcion,
and occasioned a frightful inundation. The mountains of Quito sometimes present the same
phenomena : but it is there accompanied with extraordinary chcumstances. The enormous
cones of Cotopaxi, Pichincha, Tunguragua, &c., are but in some measure the summits of the
volcanoes to which they belong, and whose acclivities are probably encased in the great mass
of the Andes. No true lavas, within the memory of man, have been vomited forth by these
volcanoes ; yet Humboldt saw consolidated lava currents on Sanguay, and even on Antisana.
It might be said, says Humboldt, that the volcanic agents, which seldom have force sufficient
to raise the column of lava to the summit of iEtna and of the Peak of Teneriffe, would stUl
less be able to raise it in volcanoes of nearly double the height In ^tna and Teneriffe, the
lava may force an opening at the lower part of the mountains, and thus burst out ; but this
could not happen in volcanoes whose sides are strengthened, to a height of nearly .3000
yards, by the whole breadth of the Cordilleras. These volcanoes confine themselves to the
emission of ashes, scoriEe, and pumice. They also vomit, immense quantities of water and
mud, but much more frequently by openings which take place on the sides of the cone than
by the craters. These muddy waters form, as it were, great lakes m the different cavities
which these enormous mountains contain. They issue from these cavities, as we have said,
when a communication is opened with the exterior. Thus, in 1698, the volcano of Cargu-
arazo, which is in the neighbourhood of Chimborazo, and perhaps forms a part of it, broke
down, and covered with mud eighteen square leagues of country. Similar muddy waters
are still contained m parts of the same country, which are of volcanic origin, but which no
longer present any mdication of fire ; and they are equally vomited forth during great
commotions- of the ground. In Peru and Quito it is not by fire and currents of burning mat
ters that the volcanoes commit their ravages, but by the water and enormous streams of
mud. This substance is mud which is at first of a soft consistence, soon hardens, and bears
the name of moya. It presents two curious phenoniena. Sometimes, as in the moya which
mundated the country of PUielo, and which destroyed the village of that name during the
earthquake of 1797, it contams a combustible matter, which renders it blackish and soilmg,
and which exists m so large a quantity in it that the mhabitants make use of this moya as a
kind of fuel. Frequently the same muddy waters, issumg from subterranean caverns, carry
Vol. L 19 2C

^^® SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part IT.
so i^eT tb,t^?=P '" '"'" °°* '"T *''l" ^°"'' ^'^'^^^ 1°"^- T'^^^^ number is sometime;
so great that diseases are occasioned in the country by theh putrefaction. They are the
ame as those which live m the brooks of the count^' What, then, has introduced them
mto these subterranean lakes? It would appear that there are some communications between
the upper and lower level of these lakes and the surface of the ground; but what could have
raisedthem from the level of this surface to the summit of the volcanoes, for they sometimes
issue from the crater! It is very difficult to give any explanation of thi.s. From all that
has been said above, it does not appear that the mud which issues from these volcanoes comes
maUer onaTO ™"^^" caverns where the volcanic fires have theh focus, and prepare the
Air and mud volcanoes. In some countries we observe issuing from the ground jets hn-
pelled by gases and charged with earth, which, on bemg deposited m the form of mfad, in
the neighbourhood of and chiefly around the apertures which have vomited them, form cones,
which represent on a very smaU scale volcanic cones, and which are therefore named air
volcanoes. One of the most remarkable of these is that of Macalouba in Sicily. It consists
of a hiU of dried mud about 160 feet high. Ite upper part, which is 2600 feet m circum
ference, presents a multitude of smaU cones of which the largest are not above a yard m
diameter. They have a smaU crater fuU of soft clay, which is every mstant traversed by
large bubbles of gas, which burst with an exploding noise, and scatter the clay around.
Some of these explosions have been seen throwing jete of mud to the height of 160 feet
In the neighbourhood of Modena there are many of these smaU mud volcanoes, where they
are called salses on account of the saltness of the water they scatter about The gas which
occasions the phenomena is hydrogen gas charged with petroleum and carbonic acid. Sunilar
mud volcanoes occur in the Crimea, Java, Trinidad, and America.
d. Periods of Activity of Volcanoes, and the Theory of their Formation.
Periods of activity of volcanoes. The periods of activity of volcanoes are but transitory
and of short duration. They are followed by years, and even ages, of rest Humboldt is
of opinion that the frequency of eruptions seems to be in the inverse ratio of the size of the
volcano. The smallest of tjliem, Stromboli, is continually throwing up volcanic matter ; the
eruptions of Vesuvius are less frequent there having been but eighteen recorded since 1701 ;
those of jEtna are much rarer ; those of the Peak of Teneriffe stUl more so ; and the colossal
summite of Cotopaxi and Tunguragua scarcely exhibit one in the course of a hundred years.
To periods of activity there sometimes succeed periods of repose. The crater is filled up
and becomes covered with forests. These burning furnaces, whence torrents of fire have
issued, become the reservoirs of subterranean lakes, whose waters are peopled with fishes,
and in elevated situations the sides and summits of the mountains become covered with snow
and ice. But most commonly the stete of rest is not complete ; the crater remains open,
and there is exhaled from it a greater or less quantity of vapours, which attack the masses
that lie in their way. Sometimes they produce different saline and metallic incrustations.
Volc9,nic districts in which, however, no eruption has taken place since the commencement
of our history, and in which the volcanic cones are nearly effeced, stUI betray by theh vapours
and exhalations the fire which formerly ravaged them, and which is not yet extinct Such
are the Phlegrean Fields, on the coast of Puzzoli, in the kingdom of Naples.
Cause of volcanoes. This is an obscure subject A conjecture, hazarded many years ago,
may be stated. There being no decided proof of a central heat in the commonly received
sense, it may be assumed that the matter of lavas is seated deep in the crust of the eartli, in
spaces of greater or less extent, from whence it is sent up from time to time among the
previously existmg strate, by the agency of elastic fluids.
Sect. IV. — Earthquakes.
On earthquakes, and the changes they produce on the earth's surface. Wemer distin
guishes two kinds of earthquakes. Some, he says, appear to be connected with a particular
volcano, and to have their focus in the same region as it. They are only felt to the distance
of a few leagues around, and their paroxysms are almost always connected with those of
the volcano. Others, which appear to have their focus at a much greater depth, and whose
effects are much greater, are propaga.ted to immense distances with incredible celerity, and
are felt almost at the same time at points thousands of miles distant from each other. Some
of the latter however approach the former, and are stUl connected with volcanic phenomena.
Thus, during the earthquake which overturned Lima in 1746, and which was one of the most
terrible that has been recorded, four volcanoes opened in one night, and the agitetion of the
earth ceased. .,,,,., . .
Universality of earthquakes. If in the more violent we mclude the slighter agitations
of the earth's surface in particular places, earthquakes may be said to be universsJ or general,
and we may affirm that no considerable country is entirely exempted from them. Sandy
deserts and fertile regions, primitive, secondary, and tertiary hills, extensive plams, and even

Book H. GEOGNOSY. 219
marshy districts but little elevated above the level of the sea, afford no protection against
these destructive phenomena, which are equally prevalent m cold, m temperate, and m tropical
clhnates. They are, however, generally considered more frequent near to coasts; thus,
Syria, the coasts and islands of Asia, America, the European coaste of the JVlediterranean,
and Iceland, are most subject to them; whUe the plains of Africa, Asia, a,nd the North of
Europe are least exposed. Viewmg the whole earth, and mcludmg every slighter agitetion,
earthquakes appear to be exceedmgly numerous, and it may be mamtamed that not a week
passes m which the earth's surface in some place or other is not more or less agiteted. The
great number of concussions observed m civilized countries, and the feet that some districts
are constantly agiteted by them, entitle us to draw the conclusion. Theh return m the
places most subject to them, and m the places where they are less frequent is not regulated
by any precise period of time. Theh appearance is not connected with any particular season
of the year or stete of the atmosphere, and they teke place by day as well as by night
Phenomena of Earthquakes. The phenomena peculiar to earthquakes are m themselves
sufficiently simple. They consist hi tremblings and oscUlations of the earth's surface, called
shocks; extendhig over greater or smaUertracte of country, and frequently followmg a par
ticular dhection. The shocks appear at first chiefly as perpendicular heavings ; then as
horizontal undulations or oscfllations; lastly, m some mstances, there is a violent agitation :
the motion is more or less rotatory. If to these we add the rendmg, slippmg, rismg and
sinkmg of the ground,' the violent agitations of the sea, lakes, rivers, and sprhigs ; consist
ing, in sprmgs, in their drying up or burstmg forth with great violence; in lakes, rivers, and
the ocean, m theh faUmg and rising, and rushhig backwards and forwards, owmg to the
smkmg and rising of the land, we obtain an enumeration of the principal phenomena. As
the subject is very interesting, we shall view it somewhat in detail, and under the following
heads : — 1. Shocks. 2. Extent of earthquakes. 3. Duration of shocks. 4. Magnitude of
rents formed, and the phenomena connected with them, 5. Elevation and subsidence of the
land. 6. Agitations in the sea. 7. Notice of particular earthquakes.
(1.) Shocks. The sUghter shocks of an earthquake, consisting of perpendicular heavings
and horizontal undulations, commonly produce rents in houses, moving light objects in them,
as articles of furniture. Persons imacquainted with the phenomenon, or who do not per
ceive it from the subterraneous noise resembling thunder which accompanies it, feel un
steady while in theh beds, but particularly when sitting, and beheve themselves seized with
a sudden giddiness. The shocks proceed gradually to be more violent, and then they are
very easUy perceived even by the inexperienced. Then the most substantial buildings are
shattered to pieces, and the inhabitants buried beneath their ruins ; while buildings of a lighter
constmction are only rent and very slender reed huts are least of all exposed to destruction.
In some cases the fracturing, or sis it were trituration, surpasses description. Hence, for
the plainest reasons, it is most dangerous to remain in houses or inhabited places ; but even
the fields and mountains themselves afford no perfect security, inasmuch as the fields fre
quently in some places open into fissures, and are rent asunder ; while mountains are not
only rent, but slide down into the valleys, dam up rivers, form lakes, and cause inundations.
Although the desolation produced by these convulsions exceeds all description, this is much
more the case with the rotatory motions ; a species of motion, however, the existence of
which has been denied by some geologists. In proof of it, however, it may be mentioned,
that during the earthquake of Catenia, whose general direction was from S. E. to N. W.,
many stetues were tumed round, and a large mass of rock was turned 25° from South to
East. But the rotatory motion was more strikingly exemplified in the earthquake at Val
paraiso, on the 19th November, 1822, by which many houses were tumed round, and three
palm-trees were found twisted round one another like willows. These rotatory motions of
masses of rock are particularly interesting when viewed in connexion with the pheno
mena of faults or shifts among strate in non-volcanic districts. It is only the slighter earth
quakes that pass by with a single shock ; in most of them more shocks follow at short inter
vals, and for the most part the number is proportioned to the violence of the concussion.
The first shock is sometunes the most powerful, but the second is as often, if not oftener,
equally violent. Further, the concussions are also repeated after longer intervals, as the
earthquakes in Syria, that sometimes continue for a number of months, with longer or shorter
intermissions ; but the first catestrophe is generally themost violent and destructive.
(2.) Extent of earthquakes. It is the agitation of the sea that pomts out the great extent
of the tracts of land convulsed by earthquakes. In this respect, the earthquake at Lisbon,
in 1755, was the most remarkable and most violent that ever visited Europe. In conse
quence of it by the concussion on the bottom, or momentary rising or upheavmg of the sub
marine land, the sea overflowed the coaste of Sweden, England, and Spain, and of the
islands of Antigua, Barbadoes, and Martinique in America. In Barbadoes the tide, which
rises only 28 inches, rose 20 feet in the bay of Carlisle, and the water appeared as black as
ink, owing probably to bituminous matter thrown up from the bed of the ocean. On the 1st
of November, when the concussion was most violent, the water at Guadaloupe retreated
twice, and on ite return rose m the channel of the island to a height of from 10 to 12 feet

220 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part H.
Similar appearances were witnessed at Martinique. A wave of the sea, 60 feet high, over
flowed a part of the city of Cadiz ; and the lakes of Switzerland, such as Geneva, were ob
served to be in commotion six hours after the first shock. It is also remarkable that agita
tions were noticed in lake Ontario, hi October, 1755. During the earthquake at Lima, 1586,
a wave of the sea rose 84 feet high in the harbour of Callao. Durmg the earthquakes m
Calabria in 1783, the sea not only overflowed the coast and drowned many people, but was
in general so much agitated that the guns on shipboard sprung from the deck to a height of
several inches.
(3.) Slipping of Mountains. Besides the common operations of earthquakes already
mentioned, others occur that do not immediately succeed the concussions, and therefore
happen less frequently. To these belong the sliding down of parte of mountains, as at
Dobratch in 1345, and the falling together of two mountains in Jamaica in 1692, by which
the bed of a river was dammed up. In the latter place, a part of a mountain slid down and
covered many plantations ; the city of Port Royal sunk to the depth of eight fathoms ; and
a plain of 1000 acres fell in, with all the buildings upon it
(4.) Duration of shocks. Shigle shocks frequently succeed one another very rapidly, and
often after greater or smaller intervals of time ; they are occasionally single, frequently very
numerous ; and in volcanic districte, shocks sometimes happen after a lapse of months or
years, are then followed by longer or shorter intervals, and even periods of 10 or 100
years. In regard to this, it is remarkable that since the earthquake which in 1204 shook
Antioch, Damascus, and Tripoli, Syria was spared till the latter half of the seventeenth
century, although no region of the earth suffers more from these destmctive phenomena
than that country. It is, in short, difficult to define the duration of a single shock. It is
undoubtedly brief in general ; and in slighter shocks, witnessed by tranquil spectators and
consequently observed with greater attention, it is not longer than a few seconds. In the
greater convulsions, for instance at Lima, Caraccas, Calabria, Catanisi, Zante, Antioch, &c.
the time is reckoned from fifty seconds to one minute an3 five seconds, or indefinitely from
a few mhiutes to a few seconds. When we consider how exceedingly distracted the atten
tion is when the shock is first perceived, that the duration cannot be measured by means of
a watch, but by supposition, and that by such a mode of computation we are in the habit of
reckoning time much longer than it really is, we may with great probabUity conclude that
the duration of a shigle shock does not go beyond a few seconds, and we may affirm that,
at the most, it rarely exceeds half a mmute.
(5 ) Magnitude of rents formed by earthquakes. These vary from a few feet to many
fethoms hi extent They have either a direction which is nearly straight or more or less
windintr, or they mn m aU dhections from a centre. Durmg the terrible Calabnan earth-
quakes'of 1783, rents were formed of great dunensions; m the territory of San Fdi there
was formed a rent half a mUe long, two feet and a half broad, and twenty-five feet deep; m
the district of Pfeisano, a rent of nearly a mUe m length, one hundred and five feet broad,
and thhty feet deep opened ; and in the same district two gulfs arose, one at Cerzulli, three
Quarters of a mile long, one hundred and fifty feet broad, and about one hmidred feet deep ;
and another nearly a quarter of a mUe long, about thhty feet broad, and two hundred and
twenty five feet dJ^^ UUoa relates that in the earthquake of 1746, m Peru, a rent took
pfece wMch was two mUes and a half long, and four or five feet wide. These rente some
times cTose agam ; thus, m the year 1692, m the island of Jamaica, during an earthquake,
™ ground la^ed lik^ a boiling sea, and was tiayersed by numerous rente, two or three
hundfed of which were often seen at a time openmg and closing rapidly agam
T) Elevation and subsidence of land during earthquakes It is evident that if the
land is fractured and then traversed with vast rente by earthquakes, that portion of the
and wUl hi some places sink and in others rise, and this not once but several times m the
J\Lf Tn the vear 1T72, during an eruption of one of the loftiest mountems m Java,
trgrS'begaf o'sihk all'agroft part o'f the volcano, and port of the neighbourmg
countov estimfted to be fifteen mUes long and six mdes broad, was swallowed up. During
the earthquake at Lisbon in 1755, a new quay entuely disappeared; thousands of the in
habitants had taken shelter on it to be out of the reach of the tottering and fellmg build-
n!« when suddenly the quay sunk down with ite thousands of human bemgs, and not one
7theh dLd Sever^floated to the surfece. In the year 1692, durmg an earthquake m
T!mnica a U-act of land about a thousand acres m extent sank down in less than a minute
T tr;p. mmediately took ite place. On the north side of the island several large tracte
wl tL rwtofe pSnlation were swallowed up, and a lake appeared in theu place covering
with their Whole popu examples of the upraising of the land by earthquakes
''^•T. V ren we Shall enumerate a few of them. On the 19th of November, 1822, a
""'^^PnllZartZuake visited the coast of ChUi; the shock was felt at the same time
most dreadtul '''^^^p „„/lhousand two hundred mUes from nortii to south. When the
throughout a jace of one fto^^^'fj^" ^„ ^^^ ^„,„i ,ft,, the shock, it was found that
country ^^""'IJ^^^ distance of more than a hundred mUes, was raised above ite
fime" fevel The Lea over which this upraismg took place was estimated ai one hundred

Book H. GEOGNOSY. 221
thousand square mUes: the rise upon the coast was from two to four feet ; at fte distance of
a mUe mland, it was estmiated from five to seven feet On the 18th of March in the year
1790, at St Maria di Niscomi, some mUes from Terranuovo, near the south coast of Sicily,
a loud subterranean noise was heard under the town just mentioned, and the day after earth
quakes were felt; then the ground gradually sunk down for a circumference of three Italian
mUes, during seven shocks, and m one place to a depth of thirty feet ; as the subsidence was
unequal, rente were formed, some of which were so wide that they could not be leaped over:
this fi-radual smkmg continued to the end of the month. About the middle of this period
an openmo- took place in the subsidmg land, about three feet m diameter; through these
contmued°to flow, for three hours, a stream of mud, which covered a space sixty feet long
and thirty feet broad ; the mud was saltish and composed of chalky marl and a viscid clay,
with fiigmente of crystallme lunestone ; it smelt of sulphur and petroleum. On the 16th
June, 1819, at Cutch m Bombay, a violent earthquake took place, during which, independent
of other changes, the eastern and almost abandoned channel of the Indus was much altered :
this estuary was, before the earthquake, fordable at Luckput, being only a foot deep when
the tide was at ebb, at flood tide never more than six feet ; but it was deepened at the fort of
Luckput after the earthquake, to more than eighteen feet at low water, showmg that a con
siderable depression had taken place. The channel of the river Runn was so much sunk
that mstead of bemg dry as before, during that period of the year, it was no longer fordable
except at one place ; and it is remarked by Captain Macmurdoch, — and the observation is of
high geological import as connected with the formation of valleys, of river districts, &c. —
" should the water continue throughout the year, we may perhaps see an inland navigation
along the northem shore of Cutch ; which, from stone anchors, &c, still to be seen, and the
tradition of the country, I believe to have existed at some former period." Sindree, a small
mud fort and viUage belonging to the Cutch government situated where the Runn joins
the Indus, was overflowed at the tune of the shock. The people escaped with difficulty,
and the tops of the houses and walls are now alone seen above water. In the year 1790,
in the Caraccas, during an earthquake, a, portion of granite soU sunk, and left a lake 800
yards in diameter, and from eighty to an hundred feet deep ; it was a part of the forest of
Aripao which sunk, and the trees remained green for several months under water.
(7.) Agitations of the sea. We have already noticed, in a general way, the agitations
observed in the sea during earthquakes ; we shall now add some particulars illustrative of
these motions. During the Lisbon earthquake of 1755, the sea rose along the coast of
Spain; and at Cadiz it advanced in the form of vast waves sixty feet high. At Lisbon
about sixty thousand persons perished. The sea first retired, and laid the bar dry ; it then
rushed in, rising upwards of fifty feet above ite ordinary level. At Kinsale, in Ireland, the
sea rushed into the harbour, and invaded the land. At Tangier, in Africa, it rose and fell
eighteen times on the coast At Funchal, in Madeha, it rose fifteen feet above high-water
mark ; although the tide, which ebbs and ftows there seven feet, was then half ebb. Even
ships at sea, a considerable distance from land, felt, in the midst of these convulsive motions,
as if hurried across a ridge of rocks. This took place, to a distance of 100 or 270 nautical
miles from the coast, during the earthquake at Lisbon in 1816. During the Lisbon earth
quake of 1755, the shock was felt at sea, on the deck of a ship to the west of Lisbon, and
produced nearly the same feeling as on land. At San Lucar, the captain of the Nancy
frigate felt his ship so violently agitated that he thought he had struck on the ground ; but,
on heaving the lead, found he was in deep water. Captain Clark, from Derina, in N. lat.
36° 24', between nine and ten in the morning, had his ship shaken as if she had struck
upon a rock, so that the seams of the deck opened. Dr. Shaw relates, that in 1724, being
on board the Gazelle, an Algerine ship of 50 guns, they felt such violent shocks, one after
another, as if the weight of twenty or thirty tons had been let fall from a good height on
the ballast. Schouten, speaking of an earthquake which happened in the Moluccas, says,
that the mountains were shaken, and ships that were at anchor in thhty or forty fathoms'
water were jerked as if they had run ashore, or come foul of rocks. Le Genii says, " that
ships at sea and at anchor suffer, during earthquakes, su«h violent agitations that they seem
to be falling asunder ; their guns break loose, and their maste spring."
(8.) Notices of particular Earthquakes. A fiill account of all the principal earthquakes
that are knowm would much exceed our limite ; we shall, therefore, select only a few of the
more interesting.
No part of Europe is more visited by earthquakes than Italy and the neighbouring
islands. The first earthquake particularly worthy of notice was that which, in the year
63, destroyed Herculaneum and Pompeh. Since that period they have frequently visited
Italy and Sicily, but much seldomer from A, D. 63 to the twelfth century, than from that
period tiU modem times, that is, till the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Of these
we shall describe one of the most recent in Calabria, and another of stiU later date in
SicUy. Earthquake of 1783. The earthquake that so much affected Calabria, and destroyed the
city of Messma, raged at unequal periods from the 5th of February till the 28th of March
19*

299 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. p^, „
SAood^ofAtoam^nfp'''"^' "' P""°¥ '""' ^'^ *^« «'"^" ^^ °f Oppido m the neighi
Wilh^ H»m!u • " ,«no«^-<=overed peak of the Apennmes. From this pomt savs Sir
cTX wtf sureHost^ndtr' of twenty-fiv^ miles, comprehends C^Sce^o?
describe the cirpWrfi. ' f- ^}^'^ ^^^ ^^^ *°^°^ ^"^ ^'"^^^s were destroyed. If we
whTchwiLarv w^v^ff 'f^^K^^u'^^^^'y-*^" ""^l^^'i* ^"1 ^«Me the whole counfry
Ttwo ,SnutesVellwrfl''y *" earthquake The first shock, on the 5th February^
viUaZ from the wplr ^l^^Featest part of the houses m all the cities, towns, and
S and TonvulsTttp '^f"'''^' °^ the Apemimes, in Calabria Ultra, to Messka in
on tte ^tli of March w^« 'l ^ ' °i ^^^- ?™*'^y- ^""^^'^ '^""^ ^^ich took place
through Calabria ftZ;nyrt'\l ""'"^^l^ ^'? ^'^*- '^^ S^^^'^e cham which extends
prSted wi ^a w?vp hI ^^^'''^was but slightly agitated, the prmcipal shocks being
wS el If wir™ IT w*.u'°"?^ ^^^ *""^"y ^'^"'J^' «^nd-stones, and clays, from
SonTf thP Jnnt ".""f i^*"* '^^ V°^^°'=^ "f ^^^ ^'^'^^ ^^^ g^^^test at the line of
junction ot the granite and tertiary rocks, occasioned probably by the intermntion of the
undulatory movement of the softer strata by the harder VnitJ. The SS rZe eUso
down fplT V^ .? T"' 'f'' ^il^ges were destroyed, more than one hundred hUls slid
nSito'il^lrpf'' T""*"^ "P "J^^'' '"^^ ^°"^^'^ ^^^^-^ "^"""^^""^ rente, often of vast
r^!f?^ ' '^^f/°'^'"ed; many subsidences and also upraishigs of the ground took place-
«coI^sfd"' Th^'"'"''" °^ the country were so much changed that thef could scarcity be
recognised Thus, m a very short space of time, the whole country was as much changed
as u It had been exposed to common mfluences for many thousand years. The total num-
Der ot human bemgs that perished was esthnated at 100,000, and it was difficult to find even
distant relations to succeed to the property of some famUies
Earthquake of Lisbon in 17.55. Li no part of southern Europe has so tremendous an
earthquake occurred as that which began on the 1st of November, 1755. On the mommg
01 that day, at thirty-five mmutes after nme, without the least wammg, except a noise hke
thunder heard under ground, a most dreadfiil earthquake shook, by short but quick vibra
tions, the foundations of Lisbon, so that many of the prmcipal edifices feU to the ground m
an instant : then, with a scarcely perceptible pause, the nature of the motion changed, now
resemblmg that of a wagon driven violently over rough stones, which laid m rums ahnost
every house, church, convent, and public buildmg, with an mcredible destmction of the
people. It contmued m all about six minutes. At the moment of ite beginnmg, some per
sons on the Tagus, near a mUe from the city, heard theh boat make a noise as if it had run
aground, though then m deep water, and saw at the same tune houses faUmg on both sides
of the river. Four or five mhiutes after, the boat made the like noise, caused by another
shock, which brought down more houses. The bed of the Tagus was hi many places raised
to its surface. Ships were driven from their anchors, and jostled together with great vio
lence ; and the masters did not know if they were afloat or aground. The large quay caUed
Caes de Prada, was overtumed, crowded with people, and sunk to an unfethomable depth
m the water, not so much as one body afterwards appearing. The bar was seen dry from
shore to shore ; then suddenly the sea, like a mountain, came rolling in, and about Belem
castle the water rose fifty feet almost in an instant ; and had it not been for the great bay
opposite the city, which received and spread the great flux, the lower part must have been
under water. As it was, it came up to the houses, and drove the inhabitante to the hiUs.
About noon, there was another shock, when the walls of several houses which were yet
standing were seen to open from top to bottom more than a quarter of a yard, but closed
again so exactly as to leave scarce any mark of injury. It is remarked, that on tlie 1st of
November, 1756, being the anniversary of the fetal tragedy of this unhappy city, another
shock gave the inhabitante so terrible an alarm that they were preparing for theh flight into
the country, but were prevented by several regimente of horse placed all around by the
king's orders. Many of the largest mountains in Portugal during the great earthquake were
shaken as it were to theh foundation, and many of them opened at their summite, split and
rent, and huge masses of them were cast down into the subjacent valleys. The same dread
ful visitation was experienced at Oporto. We axe told that at about forty minutes past nine
in the morning, the sky being serene, was heard a dreadful hollow noise like thunder or the
rattling of coaches over rugged stones at a distance ; and almost at tlie same instant was
felt a severe shock of an earthquake, which lasted six or seven minutes, during which every
thing shook and rattled. It rent several churches. In the streets the earth was seen to
heave under the people's feet, as if in labour. The river was also amazingly affected; for
in the space of a minute or two, it rose and fell five or six feet, and continued to do so for
four hours. The river Douro was observed to burst open in some parts, and discharge vast
quantities of air ; and the agitation was so great in tlie sea, beyond the bar, that it was ima
gined the air got vont there (ilso.
On the fatnl dny of the great earthquake of Lisbon, at Ayamonte, near wh^re the Gua-
diana fells into the bay of f '-adiz, a little before ten o'clock, immediately on a rushmg noise
bein" hoard, a terrible earthquake was felt, which during fourteen or fifteen minutes damaged

Book IL GEOGNOSY. 223
almost aU the buildmgs. In little more than half an hour after, the sea and river, with all
theh canals, overfiowed theh bounds wiUi great violence, laying under water all the coasts
of tlie islands adjacent to tlie city and ite neighbourhood, flowmg mto the streets. The
water rose three times, after it had as many tunes subsided. One of the swells was at the
time of ebb. The water came on in vast black mountains, white with foam at the top, and
demolished more than half of tlie town at the bar called De Canala. The earth was
observed to open m several places, and from the apertures flowed vast quantities of water.
At Cadiz, in the same mommg, some minutes after nme, the whole town was shaken
with a violent earthquake, whicli lasted about five mmutes. The water in the cisterns
under ground roUed backwards and forwards. At ten minutes after eleven, a wave was
seen commg from sea, eight mUes off, at least sixty feet higher than usual. It dashed
against the west part of the city ; at last it came upon the walls, heat in the breast-work,
and carried pieces of eight or ten tons weight forty or fifty yards from the wall. When the
wave was gone, some parte that are deep at low water were left quite dry, for the water
returned there with the same violence as it came. On the same eventful moming Gibraltar
was agiteted by an earthquake. It lasted about two mmutes. The guns on the battery
were seen to rise, others to sink, the earth having an undulating motion. Most people
were seized with giddiness and sickness, and some fell down, others were stupefied, though
many that were walking or riding felt no motion, but were sick. The sea rose six feet
every fifteen minutes, and fell so low that boate and all tlie small craft near the shore were
left aground, as were numbers of fish. Ships in the bay seemed as if they had struck on
rocks. The flux and reflux lasted till six next morning, having decreased gradually from
two in the afternoon.
This earthquake excited much attention, from the incredibly great extent at which slighter
contemporary shocks were experienced. They extended from Greenland and Iceland to
Norway, Sweden, Germany, Britein, Switzerland, France, Spain, Morocco, Salee, Fez,
Teutan, and even to the West Indies and the lake Ontario in North America.
However dreadful many of the earthquakes of Europe were, they bear no comparison
with those which have desolated many parte of Asia. Passing over those which were
observed in the islands, on the eastern continent, and in the environs of the Caspian Sea,
our attention is particularly drawn towards Syria, on account of the ravages it has frequently
experienced. Gibbon, m the forty-thhd chapter of his Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, gives the
following account of the earthquake that took place at Antioch in A. D. 526, May 30.
" The near approach of a comet may injure or destroy the globe which we inliabit ; but the
changes on its surfece have been hitherto produced by the action of volcanoes and earth
quakes. The nature of the soU may indicate the countries most exposed to these formidable
concussions, smce they are caused by subterraneous fires, and such fires are kindled by the
union and fermentation of hon and sulphur. But their times and effects appear to lie beyond
the reach of human curiosity, and the philosopher will discreetly abstam from the prediction
of earthquakes, tiU he has counted the drops of water that silently filtrate on the mfiam-
mable mineral, and measured the cavems which increase by resistance the explosion of the
imprisoned ah. Without assignmg the cause, history wiU distmguish the periods m which
these calamitous events have been rare or frequent and wUl observe, that this fever of the
earth raged with unconunon violence durhig the reign of Justinian. Each year is marked
by the repetition of earthquakes, of such duration, that Constentmople has been shaken
above forty days ; of such extent, that the shock has been communicated to the whole sur
face of the globe, or at least of the Roman empire. An impulsive or vibratory motion was
felt : enormous chasms were opened, huge and heavy bodies were discharged mto the air,
the sea altemately advanced and retreated beyond its ordinary bounds, and a mountam was
torn from Libanus, and cast mto the waves, where it protected, as a mole, the new harbour
of Botrys, in Phcenicia. The stroke that agitates an ant-hiHl, may crush the insect myriads
m the dust; yet troth must extort a confession, that man has mdustriously laboured for his
own destruction. The mstitution of great cities, which include a nation within the limite
of a waU, almost realizes the wish of Caligula, that the Roman people had but one neck
Iwo hundred and fifty thousand persons are said to have perished m the earthquake of
Antioch whose domestic multitudes were swelled by the conflux of strangers to the festival
of the Ascension. The loss of Berytus was of smaller account but of much greater value
That city, on the coast of Phoenicia, was illustrated by the study of the civU law, which
opened the surest road to wealth and dignity: the schools of Berytus were fiUed with the
rismg spirite of the ag-e, and many a youtli was lost m the earthquake who might have lived
to be the scourge or the guardian of his country. In these disasters, the architect becomes
the enemy of mankmd. The hut of a savage, or the tent of an Arab, may be thrown down
without mjury to the inhabitante; and the Peruvians had reason to deride the foUy of their
Spanish conquerors, who with so much cost and labour erected theh own sepulchres The
rich marbles of a patrician are dashed on his own head; a whole people is buried under the
nuns of public and private edifices, and the conflagration is kindled and propagated by the

224 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Pakt H.
innumerable fires which are necessary for the subsistence and manufactures of a great city.
instead of the mutual sympathy which might comfort and assist the distressed, they dread
fully experience the vices and passions which are released from the fear of punishment : the
tottering houses are pUlaged by intrepid avarice ; revenge embraces the moment and selecte
the victim ; and the earth often swallows the assassin or the ravisher in the consummation
of their crimes. Superstition involves the present danger with invisible terrors ; and if the
image of death may sometimes be subservient to the virtue or repentance of individuals, an
affrighted people is more forcibly moved to ejtpect the end of the world, or to deprecate with
servUe homage the wrath of an avenging Deity." In 1169 single shocks continued for four
months ; and in 1202 another earthquake destroyed many cities, filled up the valleys of
Lebanon, and shattered the basaltic districts of Hauran, so that according to the expression
then current 'it was no longer possible to say. Here stood this or that city. A dreadful
earthquake took place hi 1759 ; the shocks continued for six months. At the first shock the
cities of Antioch, Balbec, Acre, Tripoli, &c. were laid in ruins, and 30,000 persons kiUed.
The more recent earthquake, of 1822, lasted still longer, and committed dreadfiil ravages.
On the 13th of August, in one horrible night, Aleppo, Antioch, Biha, Cesser, mdeed every
single village and cottage within the pashalic of Aleppo, was, withm ten or twelve seconds,
completely destroyed, and converted into a heap of mbbish : no less than 20,000 people lost
their lives, and many more were mutilated; a very great number, considering the low
population of these places.
Africa is very little known, and we are therefore ignorant of any earthquakes in ite
interior, where they may occur as frequently as in other placea The southem extremity of
this continent is rarely visited by slight shocks, but they are more numerous in the north,
where, in March, 1825, they did considerable damage to Algiers and Blida. On the contrary,
America, particularly in the southem parte, is inferior to no part of the world for the magnitude,
number, and duration of ite earthquakes. We shall now mention a few of the greatest
recorded by naturaliste. To these belong the earthquake of 1746, which, within five minutes,
destroyed the greater part of Lima ; Callao was inundated ; and of 4000 persons, 200 only
escaped. The destruction of New Andalusia, on the 21st of October, 1766, was equaUy
terrible. The shocks extended over Cumana, Caraccas, Maracaibo, the shores of the Casanar,
the Meta, the Orinoco, and Ventures; and the granite districte in the mission of Encaranada
were also shaken by their violence. An earthquake, in 1797, destroyed a great part of Peru.
It proceeded from the volcano Tunguragua, continued with slight shocks during the whole
of February and March, and retumed on the 15th of AprU, with increased violence. Many
places were filled up by the summits of mountains tumbling down ; muddy water flowed from
the volcano ; and, spreading over the country, became afterwards an indurated crust of clay.
The entire number of persons who perished on this occasion was 16,000. No earthquake
could well be more destructive to any place than that which destroyed the Caraccas in 1812,
and of which Humboldt has given an exceUent description. The Caraccas was thought
secure on account of its primitive mountains, although in 1641, 1703, and 1778, violent
earthquakes were experienced, and a slighter shock hi 1802. Humboldt fi^om actaal mspec-
tion, had no doubt but this country, from bemg m a volcanic region, must be liable to such
disasters In December, 1811, various shocks were felt ; on the 12th of March, 1812, the
city of Caraccas was destroyed. The sky was clear, and m Venezuela^ there had not been
a drop of ram for five months : there vvas no forewarning prognostic, for the first shock at
seven mmutes past four hi the afternoon came on unexpectedly, and set the bells a ringing.
This was hnmediately succeeded by a second shock, which caused a w-avrng and rolling
motion in the earth, then a subterraneous rumbling noise was heard, and there was a third
shock in which the motion was perpendicular, and sometunes rolling horizontally, with a
violence which nothing could withstand. The people, m place of flying du:ectly to the
onen fields flocked in crowds to the churches, where arrangemente had been made for a
orocession ;¦ and the multitudes assembled there were buried beneath the rums. Two churches
^•V) feet h ffh, and supported by columns of from twelve to fifteen feet m diameter, feU m a
nmss of rubbish, and were for the most part ground into dust The Caserne el Quartel
vanished almost entirely, and a regiment of soldiers stationed there, and about to jom the
procession disappeared at the same time along with it ; a few mdiyiduals only escaped ; nme-
flni^rnf the city were completely destroyed, and most of the houses that remamed were
eSreduninhaLble ; the number of people killed was reckoned at n
frSo- those who perished afterwards from bmises and want of sustenance. The clouds
^f lust hav^^ ' Men, were succeeded by a serene night, which formed a frightfiil contrast
-.1 fLrW rnrtion on the earth, and with the dead bodies lymg scattered among the rums.
Th^taSn of each particular shock was reckoned by some 50 seconds by others 1 minute
lo ,^ndi These shocks extended over the provmces of Venezuela, Varmas, Maracaibo
nndlnto the mSa ns n the interior. La Guayra, Mayquatio, La Vega, St Felipe and
and into the "'°^"™'" ; , destroyed. In La Guayra and St Felipe the number of persons
£lS w^Xut 5000!" On the Sth'Lf AprU another violent earthquake took place, durmg

BookH. GEOGNOSY. 225
which enonnous fragmente were detached from the mountams. It was said that the moun
tain Silla lest from 350 to 360 feet of its height by sinking. volcanic eruptions and
Cause of Earthquakes.-The origmal hypothesis which attrMted volcanic emp^^^^
earthquakes to the operation of central fire, was at first f t=^^'^«f, f^^M,^^^^^^^
from the phenomena of two earthquakes observed at London on the f •? -X "ercharffed
nf March 1749 endeavoured to prove that they were caused by a highly overcnargea
Ite rf the electric fluT Andrew Bena affirms, that they are sudden explosions caused
by gaf in thetteriorof the earth, which he believes would be f-^^ *ere mcl ed in
reservohs of sulphur and bitmnen. Beccaria, as is known, endeavoured to at™ute to eiec
trkity every thi^g that had any probable affinity for it; hence he believed tha^ ">;'=,^"™"
lation of it in the cmst of the earth produced concussions with the clouds, and then exhibited
the appearance of earthquakes. Humboldt found it to be a prevailing opmion m America
that earthquakes are electrical phenomena; but observes, that this must be excused by
reason of the partiality entertamed for Franklm The mvention of the Vol^^^ P f '^"^
the observation of ite smgular operations, mduced many philosophers, at least ftose naturalise
who were perfectly intimate with the nature of this remarkable apparatus, to consider the
whole earth as a column or pUe of this description, or that it contains an apparatus ot this
description m ite interior. These fancies, however, lead to nothmg satisfectory. Where
then can we seek for the cause or causes of earthquakes 1 The subject is entu-ely hypothe
tical, as we have no means of reachhig the seat of these remarkable phenomena, ihe
theory of the earthquake is the same as that of the volcano. The agitations may be produced
by the motions of the liquid and gaseous matter at a great depth in the crust of the earth
endeavouring to escape.
Sect. V. — Account of the different Structures observable in the Crust of the Earth.
Before the tune of Wemer, little had been accomplished m regard to the determination
of the structures that occur hi the crust of the earth. Some mamtahied that everywhere
irregularity prevailed, and that it was m vam to look for order or regularity m the coarse
rocky masses of which mountains, hiUs, and plains are composed. Werner, however, on
general grounds, assumed that if determmate stractures and arrangemente occurred in the
vegetable and anhnal kmgdoms, the same must be the case m the mmeral kmgdom, not
only in sunple minerals, but also in the great and more generally distributed masses of
which the cmst of the earth is principally composed. His mvestigations fiilly confirmed
the tmth of this opinion, for minerals he found as well characterised as plante and animals :
and the following details will show that there existe among mountain rocks, or those great
masses of which the crust of the earth is composed, a beautiful series of stmcture, from that
of hand-specimens to the general arrangements of the great rock formations. We shall
consider these structures in the following order, beginning with the smallest and terminating
with the greatest Subseot. — Different Structures.
1. Stmcture of mountain rocks in hand-specimens.
2. Structure of strata and beds.
3. Structure of formations.
4. Arrangements of formations in regard to each other.
5. Structure of veins.
(1.) Structure of mountain rocks. The kinds of structure occurring in mountain rocks
are the following: — 1. Compact. 2. Slaty. 3. Granular. 4. Porphyritic. 5. Amygda-
loidal. 6. Conglomerated. In the compact structure, the mass is uniform, without slaty
or any other arrangement, and when broken exhibits various fractures as earthy, splintery,
conchoidal, even, &c. Common compact quartz is an example of this kind of structure.
In the slaty structure the rocks split readily into thin layers or slates, as in common roofing
slate. Rocks having the granular structure are composed of granular concretions or
imperfect crystals, as in primitive limestone or statuary marble. In the porphyritic structure
there is a basis or ground with imbedded crystals, generally of felspar or quartz, or both,
as in porphyry : in the amygdaloidal structure there is also a basis or ground ; but here the
base does not contain imbedded crystels, but amygdaloidal cavities, which are either nearly
empty, half filled, or completely filled with minerals. The rock named amygdaloid
exhibite this kind of structure. Lastly, the conglomerated structure is that which we
observe in the rock named conglomerate, which is composed of fragments imbedded in a
basis or ground.
(2.) Structure of strata and beds. When a mountain or hill is composed of tebular
masses of the same kind of rock, as of sandstone, that extend throughout the hill, it is said to
be stratified, and the individual tabular masses are named strata, as in fig. 58. If among
these strata there occur tabular masses of a different rock, the masses are named beds : a. fig.
Vol. L 2D

226 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. Part U.
68. represents a bed of limestone m the cliff of stratified sandstone. These strate and beds

vary in position ; sometunes they are flat or horizontal, or they are more or less inclmed untu
they become vertical, or are set on their edges. They also vary in the point of the compass
towards which they are inclined, or dip ; but it is worthy of remark that the dip is always
at right angles to the range or dhection of the strate ; and that if the dip is given, we know
the dhection : hut a knowledge of the direction wUl not give us the dip. Theh direction
also varies. The position of strate is determined by a well-known instrument, the clinometer,
which is a compass with an attached quadrant When we examine the structure of indi
vidual strata and beds, several varieties may be discovered : thus, in some beds, the rock is
arranged in columns, as in basalt ; in others, the arrangement is in tables, as in porphyry ;
or in balls, as in granite and greenstone.
(3.) Structure of formations. The idea of formations was first clearly brought out by
Wemer. To his views on this most important subject we can trace the new character of
geology, and the great progress made in geognosy within these last thirty years. But this
is not the place for discussing the subject All those rocks which appear to have been formed
at the same time, and in the same or shnilar chcumstances, and which agree in position,
structure, mass, petrifactions, imbedded minerals, &c. are said to belong to the same formation.
These formations are divided into simple and compound. Simple formations are those prin
cipally composed of one rock ; compound formations, of more than one species of rock :
granite is an example of a simple formation ; the first secondary sandstone, or the great
coal formation, of a compound formation, because it contains several rocks ; viz. sandstone,
slate, lunestone, coal, and honstone.
(4.) Arrangement of formations in regard to each other. When two formations occur
together, and the one rests upon the other, the subjacent formation is named the fundamerv-
tal rock! ani that which covers or lies upon the other, the superincumbent. The Ime where
the two rocks or formations meet is caUed the line of separation or line of junction. In
fig S9 a is the fimdamental rock, and 6 the superhnposed rook, and c c the Ime of junction.

When the strata of the superhnposed formation is pajallel with the steata of the fondamentel
S^uWnS, the stratUicati^ is said to be conformabk, as fig. 60 where a formation a,
60

we shall say of lunestone, reste on b, of sandstone. If the strate of the superhn^sed
foLatbn 7b disposed as at c, fig. 61., they are said to be unconformable. Lastly, if the

rirftta lie over the ends of the strate of the fundamental rock, as at 6, mfig. 59., they are said

Book H. GEOGNOSY. 227
to be unconformable and merlying. If the strate rest on the fimdamentel rock, as represented

zfig. 63., they are said to be saddle-shaped; if as represented iafig. 63., they are said to
63

be mantle-shaped; if disposed m a bason-shaped hollow, as m fig. 64., they are said to be

bason-shaped; if in a lengthened or trough-like hollow, as in fig. 65., thev are said to be

trough-shaped. In a mountein or natural section of Neptunian or aquatic rocks, as limestone,
sandstone, slate, &c., the undermost or lowest-lying strata are considered to be the oldest:
therefore, on ascending a mountahi, as that iafig. 66., from a to 6, we pass from the newer
66

to the older rocks ; but if from c to b, from the older to the newer. Formations were
formerly more continuous than at present, portions only remaining of extensive deposits.
The remaining portions occupying different -situations have received particulsir names, ac
cording to the situations in which they occur. When in patches on the summits of hills, as
represented at o a a in fig. 67., they are called mountain-caps. When in hollows, as at J 6,
they are named upfillings.

(5.) Structure of Veins. These are tabular masses that intersect the strata and beds of
the mountain or tract in which they occur. The tabular masses of trap or whinstone veins
that cut across the strata of Great Britain are there popularly known under the name of
whin dykes. Veins, like strats^ vary in position, being sometimes vertical, at other times
not much inclined to the horizon ; theh direction, inclination, and dip are determined in the
same manner as in strata. These intersecting masses vary in breadth from an inch or less
to many fethoms ; in length, from a few inches to several miles ; and in depth, from a few
inches to an unknown and vast depth. Veins appear to have been originally open rente or
fissures traversing the strata, which have been filled by an after-process with the mineral
matters they now contain. This being the case, we naturally expect to find the strata on

228

SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY.

Part IL
the walls of vems exhibitmg the same phenomena as occur m the walls of rente. When
rents cut across strate, they sometimes, as in fig. 68., at a, b, produce no derangement;

while, in other cases, the strate on the opposite sides of the rent do not correspond, owing
to the strate on one side sinking down, as represented in fig. 69. : this derangement is call
ed a shift, slip, or fault.

Such, then, are the different structures observable in the great masses of which the crust
of the earth is composed. We next proceed to give —
Sect. VI. — An Account of the different Classes and Species of Rocks of which the Crust
of the Earth is composed.
It was at one time a general opinion that the formations of which the crust of the earth
is composed were destitute of all regularity in distribution and in individual chsiracters.
Lehman, a German miner, was early convinced of a certein degree of order in theh arrange
ment ; and in his well-known work, first stated theh division into Primitive and Secondary ;
under the first including those destitute of fossU organic remains, while under the other he
arranged all those containing petrifactions or fossil organic remains. The fhst he said,
were generally in highly inclined strata, the other in horizontal strata. Wemer first dis
tinctly characterised these two classes of rocks, and added to them other two classes, viz.
the Transition and Local, or what are now called the Tertiary. The whole rocks, from
the oldest to the newest, were arranged by Wemer under the following names and in the
following order : — 1. Primitive. 2. Transition. 3. Secondary. 4. Local, the Tertiary of
the present geology. 5. Alluvial. 6. Volcanic. This arrangement more or less modified,
still remains, behig adopted by the principal geologiste in Europe and America.
Primitive rocks. The rocks of this class lie under those of the succeeding classes. Coun
tries in which they predominate are in general more rugged and lofty than those composed
of rocks of the other classes ; forther, their cliffi are more extensive, theh valleys narrower
and deeper, and more uneven, than those in secondary countries. The strate of primitive
mountains are very frequently highly inclined ; a chcumstance which contributes in an
especial manner to the increase of the ruggedness and inequalities of the surfece of primi
tive regions. The primitive strata in many countries maintain a wonderful uniformity of
direction. Thus, in Scotland the general dhection of the strata of primitive mounteins is
from N. E. to S. W. ; and the same is nearly the case in the vast alpine regions of Norway,
and in many of the lofty and widely extended primitive lands of other parte of Europe. The
rocks of which primitive mounteins and plains are composed are throughout of a crystelline
nature, and present such characters as intimate their formation from a state of solution.
These characters are the intermixture of the concretions of which they are composed at
their line of junction, theh mutual penetration of each other, tlieh considerable lustre, pure
colours, and translucency. Thus, in granite the concretions of felspar, quartz, and mica are
joined together without any basis or ground ; and at their line of juncture are either closely
attached together, or are intermixed ; and frequently branches of the one concretion shoot
into the other, thus ocpasioning a mutual interlacement, as is observed in bodies that have
been formed simultaneously and fi-om a state of solution. These characters show that the
concretions of granite (and the same applies to the concretions of limestone, gneiss, mica
slate, and other rocks of the primitive class,) are of a crystalline nature, and have been
formed at the same time. The strata are so arranged as to show tliat they are crystalline
formations. Primitive rocks contain no organic remams, hence are inferred to have been
formed before tmimals and vegetables were called mto existence. Primitive rocks abound

Book IL GEOGNOSY. 229
very much m metalliferous minerals, and hitherto no metal has been met witli which does
not occur, either exclusively or occasionally, in this class of rocks. Tin, wolfram, lead, cop
per, iron, cobalt zinc, manganese, arsenic, and mercury, occur either disseminated, in beds
and veins, or imbedded in vai-ious rocks of this class, and many primitive distjicte are char
acterised by the metalliferous deposits they contain.
The most beautifol of all productions of the mineral kingdom, the gems, occur in great
variety in primitive rocks. Nothing can be more beautifol than the drussy cavities met with
in primitive mountains, whose walls are lined with pure and variously tinted and crystallized
topaz, beryl, rock crystal, fluor spar, and calcareous spar ; the gneiss, granite, and mica
slate, with their imbedded crystals and grains of sapphhe, chrysolite, and garnet ; and the
veins in granite, clay slate, and other primitive rocks, with their emeralds, axinites, and
spinel rubies, aJTord to the mineralogist highly interesting combinations.
Species of primitive rocks. — The following are the species of rocks that form the primi
tive parte of the cmst of the earth : — 1. Granite. 2. Syenite. 3. Protogine. 4. Trap.
5. Serpentine. 6. Porphyry. 7. Gneiss. 8. Mica slate. 9. Clay slate. 10. Quartz rock.
11. Limestone.
Of these rocks one set, consisting of certain granites, witli trap, gneiss, mica slate, clay
slate, quartz rock, and limestone, are said to be of Neptunian origin, that is, have been de
posited from a liquid, probably water ; the other set, including certain granites, with syenite,
porphyry, protogine, serpentine and diallage rock, are named Plutonic or igneous, it being
probable that they have been formed from a state of igneous solution. We shall describe
first the Neptunian, and next the Plutonian primitive rocks.
Subsect. 1. — Neptunian Primitive Rocks.
(1.) Granite is a granular compound of felspar, quartz, and mica. It occurs in beds and
in imbedded masses, and also in included veins in gneiss, mica slate, and clay slate. From
ite intimate connexion with these rocks, it is inferred to be a Neptunian deposit.
(2.) Trap. Under this name we include all those granular primitive rocks in which
hornblende is the sole or predominant constituent part These rocks sometimes appear
arranged like the steps of a stah ; hence the name trap, from the Swedish word trappa, a
stair. (3.) Gneiss is a granular slaty compound of felspar, mica, and quartz.
(4.) Mica slate is a slaty compound of mica and quartz. Talc slate and micaceous talc
rocks may be arranged under this head.
(5.) Clay slate is a slaty rock, frequently entirely composed of minute scales of mica.
(6.) Quartz rock. This rock is almost enthely composed of quartz, either in granular
concretions or in the compact form ; and grains of felspar and scales of mica not unfrequently
occur in it When the felspar increases in quantity, Uie compound at length passes into
granite. When the scales of mica increase and the felspar disappears, mica slate is formed.
(7.) Limestone. This rock has generally a white or gray colour, is composed of shining
granular concretions, and is more or less translucent It frequently contains scales of mica
and grains of quartz, seldom or never grains and crystals of felspar.
Subsect. 2. — Plutonian or Ignigenous Primitive Rocks.
(1.) Granite. The structure and composition of this granite is in general the same as
that of the Neptunian kind already noticed. It differs from it in occurring in vast and often
widely extended masses, which form the central parts of mountain groups, and appear to
have come from below after the deposition of the Neptunian rocks that rest upon them.
The highly inclined position of the primitive strata is considered to have been occasioned by
this granite, with ite syenites and porphyries.
{2j Syenite is a compound of felspar, hornblende, and quartz : in short, it is a granite in
which the mica is replaced by hornblende. Some of the primitive traps belong to this head.
(3.) Porphyry is a rock with a felspar basis, including grains and crystals of felspar and
quartz, and sometimes scales of mica. This porphyry is a mere modification of granite.
(4.) Protogine is a granular compound of felspar, quartz, and chlorite. It differs from
granite in the mica being replaced by chlorite.
(5.) Serpentine is a simple green-coloured rock, with a compact fracture, feeble trans
lucency on the edges, which yields readily to the knife, and feels greasy.
(6.) Diallage rock is a compound of felspar and diallage. It belongs probably to the
primitive trap series. Sect. VII. — Transition Rocks.
The rocks of this class, in the regular succession, rest immediately upon those of the
primitive class. Most of the rocks are distinctly stratified, and the strata are frequently
vertical, and, like those of the primitive class, exhibit the same general direction through
out great tracte of country. Some of the deposits are of a chemical, others of a mechanical
nature ; limestone is an example of a chemical, greywacke of a mechanical deposit. They
Vol. L 20

^'^ SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part H.
are distmguished from prunitive rocks by the presence of fossU organic remains, and the
positive characters are drawn from the occurrence of certam fossU crustaceous animals,
Shells, and corals. The extensive deposite of lunestone, particularly of the variegated kmds
so highly pnzed for ornamental purposes, which they contam; the fine granites and por
phyries which they afford; and the ores of lead and copper distributed among them, are
proofs of theu importance in the arte. In this class there are also Neptunian and Plutonian
rocks. The Neptunian are the followmg, viz. 1. Greywacke. 2. Transition clay slate. 3.
Gneiss and mica slate. 4. Quartz rock.. 5. Red sandstone. 6. Limestone. 7. Glance coal.
Ihe PiMtoman are, 1. Granite. 2. Syenite. 3. Porphyry. 4. Trap. 5. Serpentme.
Subsect. 1. — Neptunian Transition Rocks.
(1.) Greywacke is a conglomerated rock, having a basis of clay slate, in which fragmente
of various prunitive rocks, as clay slate, quartz rock, &c. occur unbedded. When the
unbedded fragments become very small, and the quantity of the basis mcreases, the rock
acquires a slaty fracture, and is named greywacke slate.
(2.) Transition clay slate. This is the rock known under the name roofing slate. It
sometimes contains trUobites.
(3.) Gneiss and mica slate. These have the same general aspect as the varieties met
with in primitive regions.
(4.) Quartz rock. This rock very much resembles the kinds met with in primitive moun
tains. (5.) Limestone. It frequently occurs with less lustre and translucency than primitive
limestones, and often exhibite in the same bed various tinte and shades of beautifiil colours.
It is frequently traversed by veins of calcareous spar. Some varieties are conglomerated,
forming the brecciated marble of artiste ; and others contain fossU shells and corals, and also
the characteristic trilobite.
(6.) Glance coal, or Anthracite. Beds of this coal, known by ite metallic lustre, and
burning without flame or smoke, are met with in transition districte.
Subsect. 2. — Plutonian Transition Rocks.
(1.) Granite. This rock does not differ materially from that of the primitive period. It is
principally distmguished by ite bemg intermingled with greywacke and other transition rocks.
(2.) Syenite. This rock, which has the same mmeralogical characters with the pruni
tive varieties, very .generally contains crystals of sphene.
(3.) Porphyry. This porphyry has sometunes a basis of felspar, sometimes of clay stone,
and as usual contams imbedded grams and crystals of felspar. It occurs either alone, or
associated with syenite and trap, formmg mountams, and even ranges of mountains.
(4.) Trap. In this as in the prunitive trap, the sole or predommatmg mmeral is horn
blende. It passes mto syenite. . „ „ , . .,- i i- .i,
(5 ) Serpentine. This rock does not differ materially from the prmutive rock ot the
same name : geognostically it is disthiguished from it by ite altematmg with, and sometimes
traversmg m the form of vems, greywacke and other characteristic transition rocks.
Sect. VHI. — Secondary Rocks.
This very mteresting class of rocks reste, m the regular succession, hnmediately upon
those of the transition class. Much of the mmeral matter of which they are composed
appears trhav™n deposited from a state of mechanical suspension, a cu-cumstance which
may be cSred as distinguishing them, m some measure, from the transition class, where
S.Tmicard?posTte prevaU over thosi of a mechanical nature. They abomid in fossil organic
remTiT and it is here that for the first tune we meet with remams of vertebrated animals,
M™«Md other species of the same general description. Coal, which occurs but m
^arautnSyrtransition deposite, is profosely distributed among secondary fomiations
small quanuiy m "•>-"= , ,_1., ";, „t\i.^ ^„_,„ *;„„ „r,at imnnrtant m an economical

STeVeZrcfe-:tire';rei;pte;k7;^^^^^^^^ The Neptuni^ rocks are
ihe folfowing:-!. Sandstone. 2. Slate. 3. Lmiestone. 4. Gypsmn. 5. Coal. The
Plutonian are, 1. Granite. 2. Porphyry. 3. Trap.
Subsect. 1. — Neptunian Secondary Rocks.
T .1, „,!m;tivp nnd transition classes geologiste have not hitherto observed any very

Book U. GEOGNOSY. 231
red colour, and, being the oldest of the sandstones, is named the old red sandstone. It ia
composed of particles of quartz, with occasional scales of mica and fragments of felspar,
held together by an iron-shot basis or ground. Sometimes it is associated with a conglome
rate made up of fragmente of transition and primitive rocks.
Second secondary formation, or mountain limestone, or metalliferous limestone, or car
boniferous limestone of geologists. This deposit rests, generally conformably, sometimes
also unconformably, on the old red sandstone. It is distinctly stratified, and the strate
are frequently more or less inclined. Ite colours are generally gray; the fracture ia
compact Sometimes it has a granular foliated structure, particularly where it occurs in
contact with trap rocks. Some varieties, viz. those named lucullite, have a black colour.
It contsuns fossU organic remains of animals of various descriptions. Of these the most
characteristic are genera of the trilobite tribe.
Third secondary formation ; or the second secondary sandstone, or the great coal forma
tion. This very important deposit is a compound formation, therefore consiste of different
rocks. Of these rocks the predominating one is sandstone. The rocks of the formation
are the following : — 1. Sandstone. 2. Slate. 3. Clay. 4. Limestone. 5. Coal. 6. Iron
stone. 1. Sandstone. The general colours are white and gray ; sometimes also it is reddish,
and then it much resembles the old red sandstone. Some varieties are enthely com
posed of particles of quartz, held together by a very inconsiderable basis or ground ; others
contain, besides quartz, also felspar and mica ; these are by some geologists named arkose.
It frequently contains coaly matter, and casts and impressions of plants. — 2. Slate. Of the
slate' there are two kinds, named slate clay and bituminous shale, both of which are mere
modifications of clay with the slaty structure. These also contain fossil organic remains. —
3. Clay. This is compact clay without the slaty structure, and from ite use in the arte is
named fire clay. — 4. Limestone. This limestone very much resembles the mountain lime
stone which lies below the coal ; but hitherto no trilobites have been found in it It alternates
in beds with the other rocks of this formation. Some geologiste refer it to the mountain
limestone, and consequently that limestone to the coal formation ; an opinion which may be
correct — 5. Coal. The coal in this formation occurs in beds that alternate with the slates,
sandstone, and limestones. The coal is bituminous or black coal. — 6. Ironstone. This iron
stone is the common gray clay ironstone of mineralogists. It is an aluminous carbonate of
hon, and is the species of honstone which affords most of the iron manufactured in Great
Britain. It occurs in beds or imbedded, and most frequently in the slate of this formation.
Fourth secondary formation ; the second secondary limestone ; the magnesian and alpine
limestone of authors. This formation, in the regular succession, reste immediately upon
the coal formation. It contains several varieties of limestone. One of these, which fre
quently occupies the lowest part of the deposit has a brownish black colour, a thick slaty
fracture, and emite an anhnal bituminous smell, and is named bituminous marl slate.
Another variety has a yellowish gray, or even at times an ochre yellow colour, with a
compact or small granular foliated stmcture, with a low degree of lustre, and is named
magnesian limestone. Another variety has a brownish or yellowish colour, is sometimes
compact sometimes granular or cavernous, impregnated with sparry iron, forms the upper
part of the deposit, and is called calcaire ferrifere. When this variety becomes charged
with bitumen and cavernous, it is named by German miners rauchwacke. It abounds
in the fossil shell named Productus aculeatus. This formation does not abound in fossil
organic remains. No true fems, but fossil fuci and zosterce, occur in it. Remains of
the monitor, and it is said also of the crocodile, have been met with in it Fishes of the
genus chstodon and of other tribes, and numerous remains of shells and corals, occur moro
or less frequently in different varieties of the limestone. The trilobite tribe, so abundant in
the transition period, and also in the first secbndary limestone, occur here along with ortho-
ceratites. It is the species named trilobites bituminous. Entrochi and pentacrini of great
size also occur in it The shells are not distributed throughout the whole mass of the beds,
but rather occur in particular parts. The following are the shells : —
Orthoceratites, very rare. Encrinus racemosus. ^
Ammonites gibbosus. Productus rugosus.
Terebratula paradoxa. Mytilus rostratus.
Terebratula elongata. Terebratula ovata, lacunosa, trigonella.
Spirifer alatus.
Fifth secondary formation ; the third secondary sandstone, or variegated sandstone, or
new red sandstone. In this formation, besides the sandstone, there are, when the deposit
is complete, also beds of marl, with gypsum and rock-salt. The inferior part of this form
ation is a red coloured sandstone conglomerate, which rarely contains subordinate beds of
dolomite, but no fossil organic remains. Above this reposes what may be called the middle
part of the deposit, which is the variegated sandstone, so named because it sometimes
exhibite different colours, principally red, with yellow and gray blotches. It is composed
of fine grains of quartz, with a little mica, and sometimes felspar, held together by a base

232 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY. Part H.
of ferruginous clay. It contains but few organic remains, principally of vegetables. The
upper part of the deposit is generally composed of beds of a clayey marl, always more or
less slaty, and generally altematmg in the lower part with beds of the sandstone. Ite
colours are red, gray, and yeUow; sometimes it is variegated in the same manner as the
sandstone with which it alternates. It contains subordmate beds of gypsum, and rock-salt,
and sometimes also beds of dolomite. It contains littoral shells and bones of saurian anunals.
Sixth secondary formation ; the shell limestone, or muschel kalkstein. This interestmg
deposit^ in the regular succession, reste immediately on the variegated or new red sandstone
formation. This limestone is of a gray, yellow, or reddish tmt of colour. — ^It is compact,
but the fracture surfaces exhibit numerous shining facets from animal fossU remains. Beds
of marl, which are sometimes oolitic, altemate with it It often abounds in well preserved
fossil shells ; hence the name shell lunestone. It sometimes contains gypsum and rock-salt.
It conteins besides numerous species of fossil shells, often very well preserved, bones of great
saurian animals, and impressions of foci and ferns. Corals and echinites are rare, but
entrochites are sometimes so abundant that in some parte of Germany it is named trochital
limestone (trochiten kalk). The encrinites liliiformis, very common in this formation, is
considered to be characteristic of it. Of the fossil shells, the Ammonites nodosus and Avicula
socialis are considered as characteristic of the shell limestone.
Seventh secondary formation ; the third secondary sandstone, red ground, marnes irisees,
Keuper. This deposit is principally composed of sandstone, marls, and dolomites with salt
and gypsum. It has been divided into the following four groups: — 1. Keuper salt and
gypsum. 2. Inferior keuper, 3. Variegated marls. 4. Upper or superior keuper. — The
salt and gypsum, with their marls and beds of saline clay, the most important members of
this formation in an economical point of view, occupy the lowest part of the series. Several
extensive salt-mines occupy this situation. — The inferior keuper, that which reste on the
gypsum and salt, is a sandstone which is red in the upper strata, but graduaUy passes into
gray in the lower. This sandstone sometimes alternates with maris, slate clay, and dolomites,
and contains beds of gypsum and coal. The slate clay contains bivalve shells, a species of
Ophiura, and several species of Equisetum, Felices, and also some Cycadacece. — l^he varie
gated marls (marnes hisees), restmg upon the inferior keuper, exhibit altemate stripes of
white, green, violet, red, gray, and blue ; they are generally compact or slaty, and soft.
They contain few or no organic remains, very little gypsum, and no rock-salt— The upper
keuper is sandstone of a gray, yellow, or variegated colour. It is composed prmcipally of
grains of quartz, generally but loosely held together, so that the mass can frequently be
pressed into grains between the fingers. Contains some traces of coal, and a few fossU shells
and impressions of plante ,.,,,¦ j ,-,
Eighth secondary formation, ot fourth secondary limestone, contams the lias and oolite
limestones and Jura limestone of authors. This, which is one of the most extensive and
important of the secondary formations, may be divided mto the followmg members; pro
ceeding, as usual, from below upwards:— 1. Lias. 2. Oolite. 3. Oxford clay. 4. Coral rag.
5. Kimmeridge clay. 6. Portland oolite. , , . j
(DUas Lias is a provmcial name applied to limestone shales, and marl stones, and
some sandstones that occur along with them. The marls are sometimes very bituminous
and conta^beds of lignite or brown coal, and also fossil shells, and occasionally beds of
™m The fossU vegetables of the lias are lignites, fossil wood, sometmies sdiceous
hSpr™ions of ferns, cycfdacea,, and foci. The animal remains are numerous and mterest-
Z TtTin Lis deposit that bones and skeletons of extinct tribes of sauri^ animals ore
mfi with sich a the genera ^eo.«»r^.., ichthyosaurus, ani plesiosaurus. Different species
rf S^d of crabs dso occur. The lias contems an immense quan ity of fossi shels, of
which the predommatmg one is the Gryphaa arcuata; hence the marl stones or Imiestones
P fhp liL have been hamed gryphite limestones. Besides, the followmg may also be
mentoed a^ chamcter'trc teifs! viz. Ammonites Buclandii, Plagiostoma gigantea,
^tTo:UtrtToo^' ^Sf inrSor oolite and great oolite. B^ o^.
hence the '''¦fl^;}^°'i°l^^^i^^^n fossU organic remains. It contains, as at Brora m
^Ib'^rtud'^edTof coa.' The fossU yegetables,''which are numerous and often weU pre-
Sutherland, beds ot coai. |, ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^j f ^
served, are of the te n ana cy^ ^^.^^^ echmus, which makes
Great oolite. 1 nis is a uuck "''I'" ' /, , o fJurs' earth. Resting upon this oolite
beds of dolomite, and ^'^^^^ '^^^^Zarbuli^^^ ihe lUhograpl^ limestones

Book IL GEOGNOSY. 233
of flying reptiles, terrestrial rtmmmifera 7 saurian animals, insects, marine shells, and
vegetables. The upper member of this great oolite series is named cornbrash, which is a
bluish and whitish compact limestone with marl.
(3.) Oxford clay and Kelloway rock. The Oxford clay is a bluish argUlaceous marl,
which becomes brown on exposure to the air. It contains subordinate beds of calcareous
marl, and also the calcareous clayey nodules, named septaria. Underneath is the Kelloway
rock, a particular kind of calcareous rock. The marls sometimes contain bones of the ich
thyosaurus. The fossil shells are pretty numerous, but our limited space will not allow an
enumeration of them.
(4.) Coral rag is a loosely aggregated calcareous rock, abounding in different species of
madrepores ; the rock is sometimes marly, and of a gray colour. Below the coral rag is a
bed of ferruginous sUiceous sand, containing a calcareous grit or sandstone, and siliceo-
calcareous concretions. It is in this part that the fossU organic remains are most abundant
and most perfectly preserved. Fossil Cycadaceas occur; also, as in the calcareous grit,
bones of saurian animals. Nearly all the madrepores belong to the genera Astrea, Caryo-
phyllea, and Meandrina. Echinites of the genera Cidaris and Clypeus are met with.
The fossU shells have not been thoroughly examined.
(5.) Kimmeridge clay. The lower beds of the preceding deposit altemate with a blue or
yellowish gray marl, which is more or less slaty, and conteins beds of a very bituminous
slate, and even true lignite or brown coal, sometimes forming beds of considerable thickness.
An ichthyosaurus different from that in the lias is found here ; also remains of the plesio
saurus, and bones of whales, it is said, have been found in the Kimmeridge clay ; also fine
impressions of fishes. Serpula, also species of cidaris and asterias, occur in this formation.
Many species of different genera of marine shells are enumerated as occurring in it, parti
cularly ammonites, belemnites, &c. It would appear that the prevailing fossU shells in the
whole oolite formation are ammonites and belemnites. The belemnites do not occur lower
down in the series than the lias.
(6.) Portland oolite. This is a limestone which is frequently loosely aggregated, some
times oolitic, forming the last deposit of secondary limestone with this structure, none of the
superior or newer secondary limestones possessing it. It conteins petrified monocotyledonous
and dicotyledonous plants. Remains of large saurian animals, and also of fishes, are met
with in it. Ammonites, trigonia, and gryphites, are abundant. The most characteristic
shells are the Ammonites triplicatus and the Pecten lamellosus. A cidaris and madrepore
have also been discovered in it.
Ninth secondary formation. Wealden clay and Purbeck stone. This remarkable form
ation abounds in fresh-water shells and land plants ; but, in England at least, conteins no
marine species ; hence it is an example of a fresh-water deposit between two marine depo
sits, viz. the oolite and chalk. It is probable, however, that future observations will prove
that even in England it contains marine shells. There are two members of this formation,
viz. the Weald clay, and Purbeck stone.
(1.) Weald Clay. This is a bluish or grayish coloured clay, containing subordinate beds
of argUlaceous limestone. The limestone abounds in shells belonging to the fresh- water
genus paludintB ; also a great quantity of the crustaceous tribe named cypris. Brown iron
ore, beds of lignite, and beds of sandstone much resembling some of the varieties of the
coal formation, also occur in it It contains impressions of ferns, but of different species
from those in the coal formation.
(2.) Purbeck stone is a clayey limestone, which alternates with marls. It abounds in
paludinm, also contains beautifol impressions of fresh-water fishes, and of tortoises and
crocodiles. Tenth secondary formation, or chalk formation. This formation is well characterised,
by ite organic remains and flinte. Five beds occur in this formation ; viz. 1. Lower green
sand ; 2. Gault clay ; 3. Upper green sand ; 4. Tuffaceous chalk ; 5. Chalk.
(1.) Lower green sand. This sand does not differ from the upper ; but the fossil organic
remains are less abundant. The shells are ammonites, terebratulites, trigonia, &c. In
Great Britain the trigonia alasformis is considered as characteristic of this lower green
sand. (2.) ..Gault. The green sand is divided into two by a very thick bed of bluish gray clay,
known in many of the districts where it occurs under the name of gault It contains am
monites and other shells, particularly the Inoceramus sulcatus.
(3.) Upper green sand. The lower part of the tuffeceous chalk, conteining a prodigious
quantity of fossils and of iron pyrites, becomes more , and more charged with green points,
and we reach a mass composed of a green sand more or less marly, and often a green coloured
calcareous sandstone. Fragments of sUicified wood, and also parte of shells penetrated with
sUica ; teeth of fishes, but parts of no other vertebrated animals, occur in it The fossil
shells are very numerous : species of the genera cidaris and spatangus are met with, and
also corals of various kinds.
(4.) Tuffaceous chalk, which is generally composed of a cretaceous matter, clay and sand.
Vol. L 20* 2E

•^^ SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. Part H.
It IS softer than chalk, and towards the lower part of the mass the clay predommates, and
Slaty clay marl IS found. When the sand predominates, a loosely aggregate grayish sand
stone IS formed. No flmte occur in this tuffaceous chalk, theh place being teken by chert
j; ossil vegetables, even lignite, are found m it Fossils are most abundant in the lower part
ot this deposit The chief are belemnites, ammonites, nautilites, hamites, baculites, turri-
lites, echinites, with madrepores and encrinites.
. (f -^ T*^^ uppermost is the chalk properly so called, of which there are two prmcipal
• "I J 7^^' "^^*'" °'' ^^ °^ common chalk, which abounds m flinte m beds, vems, and
imbedded masses ; and the lower or hard chalk, in which flint is more rarely met with.
these chalks also contain u-on pyrites and calcareous spar. The fossUs are vertebra; and
teeth of fishes ; numerous echinites and terebratulites occur throughout the whole mass ;
and in the descendmg order, ammonites and belemnites first make theh appearance m the
lower part of the chalk. Subsect. 2. — Plutonian or Igneous Secondary Rocks.
Igneous rocks appear, at different determmate periods, to have broken in among the
Neptunian rocks of this class, and also to have forced up through them older rocks of various
descriptions, forming mounteins, mountain ranges, and groups of mountams. The igneous
rocks are porphyry, and sometimes also granite and syenite.
Sect. IX. — Tertiary Rocks.
Subsect. 1. — Neptunian Tertiary Rocks.
The rocks of this class were first pointed out by Werner ; but it was not untU the publi
cation of the excellent work of Cuvier and Brongniart on the geology of Paris, that theh
importance was felt and acknowledged by geologiste. In the regular succession they rest
immediately upon the chalk or uppermost member of the secondary class. Although the
rocks are looser in texture than those of the secondary class, yet among them beds occur
equally compact with those of the secondary class. They abound in fossU remains of the
animal and vegetable kingdoms ; although many species are different from the present ones,
many of the genera are the same. The following are the Neptunian rocks in the order of
their occurrence, from below upwards : 1. Plastic clay. 2. Calcaire grossier, or London
clay. 3. Gypsum with bones. 4. Superior marine sandstones and sands, sandstone of Fon-
teinebleau. 5. Upper fresh-water formation.
(1.) Plastic clay. This clay is frequently divided into two beds by a bed of sand ; the
upper bed is more or less mixed with the sand, the lower bed is pure, kneads completely with
water, and is infusible in the porcelain furnace. The upper bed abounds in fossU remains ;
the lower bed contains none. Jet and brown coal, which are fossUised remains of dicotyle
donous and monocotyledonous plante occur, in it Remains of the palm tribe are very
frequent ; but fems have not been met with. Insects weU preserved hi amber are also met
with. The fossil shells are partly fresh-water, partly marine, which are sometimes separate,
sometimes mixed together.
(2.) Calcaire grossier, or d cerites of French authors, the London clay of Enghsh
geologiste. This deposit is sometunes separated from the plastic clay by a bed of sand,
which occasionally contems pure and solid sandstone, but no petrifections. Restmg upon
this sand is a bed of shelly limestone, abounding in green coloured grains of sUicate of
iron, and which sometimes passes into a kind of sand ; it is in this limestone that the num-
mulite shells are so abundant, and which are mixed with corals and numerous shells in a
high stete of preservation. Immediately above this lies the great bed of true calcahe
grossier. It is so compact that in the Paris basm, where it abounds, it is used extensively
as a building-stone. It is the common building-stone in Paris. It conteins marine shells
well preserved, and also remains of plants. In some districts it is divided into two beds
by an mterposed bed of lignite or brown coal, which is mtennixed with fresh- water sliells.
It is hiteresthig to notice, that here a lunestone aboundmg m marme slieUs is separated
mto two beds by an mterposed mass of coal, filled with fresh-water sheUs. Around London
there is a great deposit of clay abounduig in the same shells as occur m the calcahe grossier ;
thence, for this and other reasons, it is considered as the equivalent of the Paris calcaire
grossier. The uppermost part of this formation consiste of sand, hornstone, and sandstone,
with alternating beds of limestone. It sometimes abounds in cerites.
(3 ) Gypsum with bones. This deposit may be considered as consisting of three stages ;
a lower, a middle, and an upper. The lower part, or that which reste immediately upon
the calcaire grossier, consiste of gray and white limestone, more or less compact penetrated
in all directions by silica. This sUica, when it finds ite way mto cavities m tlie lunestone,
linos them with chalcedony or with quartz crystels. It contains species of the fresh-water
genera Lymnea and Planorbis. The middle part is composed of gypsum which alternates
with layers of mari. It is in this gypsum that remams of the genera Palceothenum, Anaplo-

Book H. GEOGNOSY. 235
theriian, of various carnivora, also different species of birds and of fresh-water fishes, like
wise the Tronex, Testude, and Crocodilus, are met with : and of the shells, the most char
acteristic is the Cyclostoma mumia. Here also in the marls occurs that curious kind of
opal named menilite ; a mineral which hi some degree may be considered as characterising
this gypsum deposit In this gypsum is situated the salt of Wielickza. The upper part
consists of marls, with fi-esh-water shells of the lymnea and planorbis tribes, remains of
fishes, and frequently remains of the palm tribe.
(4.) Superior marine sands and sandstones. The lower part of this deposit is a green-
coloured argUlaceous marl with celestine, upon which there are marls containing fossil
oysters. The middle part consists of micaceous sands, and sandstones without shells. The
upper part is sandstone with marine shells.
(5.) Upper fresh-water formation. The lower part of this deposit consists of sands, marls,
and vesicular quartz or millstone (meuliere), without shells. The miUstone occurs rarely
in beds, usually in angular masses in the marls and sands. The upper part consists of cal
careous marls, limestones, and millstones, containing fresh-water shells. This formation
contains of fossil plante, species of Exagenites, Lycopodites, Poacites, Chara, and Nymphea.
It is fiirther characterised by the numerous fossil fresh-water shells of the same genera as
occur at present in the neighbourhood, but of different species. The genera are, Lymncea,
Planorbis, Potamides, Cyclostoma, Helix, and Bulimus. The gyrogonites ot Lamarck,
which are small round grooved bodies, are not animal remains, but seeds of the plant chara.
M. Desnoyers describes a marine deposit met with in the basin of the Loire, as resting
upon the upper fresh-water formation. The deposit appears to be the same as the crag of
English geologists, and has been lately met with also hi Provence.
Subsect. 2. — Plutonian or Ignigenous Tertiary Rocks.
The rough felspathose porphyries, known under the name trachyte, which occur in vast
abundance in many countries, appear to be of the same age with the tertiary rocks. Basalt,
a grayish-black compound of augite and felspar, in which the minerals are not distinguisha
ble by the naked eye ; greenstone or dolerite, a compound, but of a green colour, in which
the augite and felspar grains are distinguishable ; wacke, which is a clayey greenstone ;
amygdaloid, which is greenstone or wacke with the amygdaloidal structure ; and clinkstone
or phonolite, which is a slaty felspar, are found associated with tertiary rocks. Some classes
of mountains, as Mont Blanc, and the Scandinavian ranges, are conjectured to have been
upraised partly during and partly after the deposition of the tertiary rocks.
Sect. X. — Alluvial Rocks.
Under this head we include the various calcareous deposits, peat, clays, loams, sands, gra
vels, and rolled masses or boulders, which, in the regular succession, rest upon the newest
or uppermost rocks of the tertiary class. These deposite have been variously arranged ac
cording to theh supposed relative antiqvity : probably they may be arranged with sufficient
distinctness, according to theh situation, in the following manner: — l..IAttoral or sea-coast
alluvium, as downs. 2. River alluvium, that met with on the bottom and sides of rivers.
3. Lake alluvium, that on the sides, &c. of lakes. 4. Spring alluvium, that formed by
springs, as calc tuffa, calc sinter, travertine, siliceous sinter, &c. 5. Rain alluvium, that
deposited by and moved by rain-water. 6. Plutonian alluvium, that formed and distributed
over tracts of country by the upraising of chains of mountains.
In this alluvium, remains of vegetables and animals are of frequent occurrence. The
vegetables, as fer as is known at present, are either foreign species or species identical with
those of the country where their remains are found. In the older or Plutonian alluvia,
neither remains of human industry nor bones of the human species have been found ; but
numerous bones and skeletons of land quadrupeds.
These quadrupeds are either of extinct species of Cving genera, as the elephant, rhino
ceros, hippopotamus, tapir, bear, and lion ; or of living species, as the beaver, rat, ox, deer,
sheep, and dog ; or species of extinct genera, as mastodon and megatherium.
Sect. XL — Volcanic Rocks.
These are rocky masses which owe theh origin to volcanoes. They are divided into old
and new, or ancient and modem.
Ancient volcanic rocks. Under this division we include those volcanic rocks connected
with volcanoes, which have not been in a state of activity since the commencement of our
history. These rocks very much resemble basaU, and have been sent from the interior of
the earth in the form of streams or currents. In almost every country where they occur,
we find craters from whence they have streamed. These dark-coloured basaltic-like rocks,
are accompanied with puzzolana and scoriae, very much resembling those of active volcanoes.
Sometimes lighter coloured lavas, named leucostine, and which resemble trachyte, occur
along with the darker varieties.
Modern volcanic rocks. These, as already enumerated and described at p. 213, 214., are
lavas, scorise, ashes, sands, &c.

^^^ SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY, Part n.
BOOK III.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY UNDER ITS RELATION TO
ORGANIZED AND LIVING BEINGS.
In considering the extensive range of subjecte which this book embraces, we have arranged
them as they successively rise above the scale of inanhnate nature.
The first chapter treate of geography, in its relation to botany, or to the distribution of
plante over the surface of the globe.
The second chapter considers it m ite relation to zoology, or the distribution of animals,
mcludmg man viewed simply as to his physical condition.
The thud chapter views geography in reference to human society, to man in his political,
moral, and social condition.

CHAPTER L
GEOGRAPHY CONSIDERED IN RELATION TO THE DISTRIBUTION OP PLANTS.
In proportion as our knowledge increases relative to any of the sciences, we find a more
intimate relation and connexion between them. Formerly geography was only studied as it
regarded the surface of the earth itself, ite figure, the constitution of the several regions and
countries, their boundaries, &c. ; and botany has had too many votaries who devoted their atten
tion ahnost exclusively to determining the generic and specific names of plante, neglecting the
more beautiful and philosophical parte of the science. Of late years, indeed, our systems of
geography have, in some instences, conteined a meagre catalogue of the vegetable produc
tions of the different regions, but nothing that could give the least information with respect
to the laws of their general distribution : and now that some of the most able naturaliste and
philosophers of our day have, by theh labours, thrown new light upon this interesting sub
ject, we should feel that our work would ill merit the character which we hope it may obtain
with the public, were we to omit a notice of it. At the same time, the limite of our publica
tion will permit us to give only a sketch of what indeed must be considered as still in ite
infancy ; and those who have most devoted their attention to botanical geography wiU most
readily join with Mirbel in declaring that " we are even yet far from having arrived at that
period when it will be possible to write a good history of this subject What we do
know of climates and of vegetation, is little, in comparison with what we have yet to learn ;
and hence it would be rash in us to form an estimate of what we do not know by what we
are already acquainted with. The surest way is to confine ourselves to collecting and
arranging facte, leaving, to those who may follow us, the charge of discovering and de
veloping the theory."
To exhibit the present state of botanical science, we shall endeavour to put together the
more interesting facts, collected prmcipally from the writings of our most authentic travel
lers and naturaliste; and, devoting this memoir to vegetable geography m ite more en
larged and general sense, shall afterwards, in the different countries, under the head of
botany, point out some of the most striking and important productions of theh respective
regions. As the nature of the present work does not permit us to enter minutely into the
subject in all ite bearings, we shall give a popular view of it as little encumbered as possible
with technical terms.
That certain vegetables are confined to certam districte or lunits, dependmg in a great
measure, but by no means altogether, upon soU and climate, must be fiunUiar to tlie most
careless inquirer into the works of nature. In regard to clunate, the two extremes are re
presented by the country withhi the tropics, and that which approaches the poles. In the
one, nature exhibits herself in her most lovely and her most magnificent and exuberant form,
and the earth is covered with vegetables which mdicate a never-ending summer ; whUst m
the others a brief summer, a few days of freedom fi-om frost and snow, call into existence a
thinly scattered vegetation of smaU and stunted fiowering plante, which scarcely rise above
the mosses and lichens that surround them ; and the intermediate zones will be found to be
occupied by other races, gradually, however, increasing in difference as tliey approach to
one or other of these extremities. The same gradation existe, we kuow, upon a lofty moun
tain, situated within the tropics. At its base may be seen those plante which are peculiar
to the tropics ; and the beauty, the grandeur and perpetual verdure will gradually dimmish
in the ascent iintU a soil and climate be found on the higher summite similar m respect to
climate and productions to those in tho vicinity of the poles. .
In regard to climate and vegelable productions, our globe has been aptly compared, m its
two hemispheres, to two immense mountams, placed bass to base, tne chcumference of

Book IE. IN ITS RELATION TO BOTANY. 237
. which at the foot is constituted by the equator, and the two poles represent the summits,
crowned with perpetual glaciers.
That almost every country possesses a vegetation peculiar to itself, is also well known ; and
this is particularly the case with countries whose natural boundaries are formed by moun
tains, seas, or deserts, even m the same or different degrees of latitude. Europe exhibits a
widely different class of plante from that part of North America which lies hnmediately op
posite to it The botany of Southern Africa has little or no resemblance to that of the same
paraUels in South America, or to that of New Holland. In Great Britein, some plants are
confined to the eastern and some to the westem side of the island. In Scotland; the Tut-
sane and the Isle of Man Cabbage are never found but on the western side of the country,
and the same is the case witli the pale Butterwort (Pinguicula Lusitanica), both in England
and Scotlsind. Nature has constituted the barrier, for hy art they may be cultivated as well
on one as the other side of the island.
Botanical geography is constituted by considering plante in relation to their habitation,
region, or the country in which they grow, and in regard to their locality or particular station,
and forming a collection of facts, deduced from these circumstances, from which general
laws may be derived : nor is this a science destitute of advantages ; such, we mean, as are
immediately manifest ; for there are few, in the present age, who will be disposed to deny
that the study of the works of nature, like every thing that can exalt and refine the mind,
is highly deserving of our attention. Vegetable geography is intimately connected with hor
ticulture. Our gardens will be better stocked with vegetables and fruits, our forests with
trees, our fields with com, and our pastures with grasses, in proportion to our knowledge of
tlie relation of plante with the exterior elemente. Nay, Schouw has justly observed, that a
good chart of the distribution of the vegetable forms over any given country will afford a far
more correct idea of the productive strength of that country than many statistical tables.
The systematic botanist may thence derive benefit ; for by it he will be better able to deter
mine whether certain kinds of plants are species or varieties ; he will consider that a dif
ferent local situation produces different effects upon them ; that those growing in wet places
are less hairy or downy than those growing in dry ; that at great elevations plants are more
dwarf in theh stature, with fewer leaves, but with larger and more brilliant flowers than
those found at lesser heighte. The station, too, of certain plante, or groups of plants, fre
quently leads to a discovery of characters diverse from other individuals of other countries
with which they had been associated. Thus the Canadian Strawberry and the Canadian
chickweed Wintergreen (Trientalis), though long confounded with the European Strawber
ry and Trientalis, are found to be quite distinct The regions, too, and the limite of those
regions, of very important medicinal drugs, are determined by vegetable geography.
Sect. I. — Progress of Botanical Geography.
This branch of science had been, however, for a long time, wholly neglected. Linnseus,
indeed, with whom originated so many improvements in_ botany, besides what related to sys
tematic arrangement, was the first writer who gave stations for plants, as he called them, or
rather habitations, or frequently both combined, and this plan has been followed by every suc
ceeding systematic botanist. Yet although these stations or habitations are frequently con
sulted in the geographical arrangement of plants, they are too vague and uncertain to be
generally depended upon ; and they must be employed with caution. De Saussure, who so
assiduously studied vegetable physiology, was particularly attentive, on that account, to the
elevation at which plante grow above the level of the sea ; and appears to have been the
first to ascertain that elevation barometrically. Mr. Young, the celebrated agriculturist, in
his Travels upon the Continent, determined with considerable accuracy the northem boun
daries of several of the most important cultivated plants, the Olive, the Vine, and the
Maize ; whUst Soulavie, in the south of France, has dharacterised the limite of them, and
of the Orange and Chestnut. These, and other authors of less note, prepared the way,
during the last century, for the more important labours of the present, when the study has
begun to rank as a science. Stromeyer described, to a certain extent, the boundaries of the
vegetable kingdom, in a work entitled " A Specimen of the History of Vegetable Geogra
phy," Gottingen, 1800. The work of Kielmann, entitled " A Dissertation concerning Vege
tation in the Alpine Regions," Tubingen, 1804, was followed by that of Treviranus, named
" Biologic," which seems to be the first wherein attention was paid to the distribution of
plants according to their natural famUies ; the latter author dividing the globe into regions
or distinct Floras ; and. De CandoUe, about the same time, partitioned France mto regions in
the same way, and wrote on the influence of height upon vegetation. To the celebrated
Humboldt however, we are indebted for the most valuable writings on vegetable geography
which have first given it the tme character of a science. His " Essai sur la Geographic
des Plantes," in 1807, and his beautifiil " Tableaux de la Nature," contained his first ideas
on the subject ; while his celebrated " Prolegomena de distributione geographica Planta-
rum secundum coeli temperiem et altitudinem montium," forming the introductory chapter
to the botanical part of his travels ; his invaluable " Memoir on Isothermal Lines and the

239 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY, Part IL
Distribution of Heat over the Globe, published in the Memoires d'ArcueU, and translated
mto Brewster's and Jameson's PhUosophical Journal, vol. iu. ; together with his later work
on the subject, " New Enquiries into the Laws which are observed in the Distribution of
Vegetable Forms," likewise inserted m the Edin. PhU. Journal, vol. vi., may be considered
as the most important dissertations on a comprehensive scale that have yet appeared. In the
mean time, other eminent naturaliste, by their well-directed labours, contributed materially
to extend the science : Wahlenberg, for example, in his admhable Flora Lapponica, and in
that of a portion of Switzerland, and of the Carpathian Alps; whUst Von Buch, m his Tra
vels in Norway, detaUed many curious facts respecting the distribution of vegetables in that
climate, and also in his interesting Voyage to the Canaries, made in company with Pro
fessor Smith. Mr. R. Brown has published memoirs which rank among the most valuable
that have appeared on this subject We particularly aUude to his " Remarks, Geographical
and Systematic, on the Botany of Terra Australis, 1814," and " Observations on the Her
barium collected by Professor Christ. Smith, in the vicinity of the Congo, 1818." Dr.
Schouw compiled, in 1824, an admirable history of the science, of which some portions have
been translated into Brewster's and Jameson's Journals. This valuable work is accompa^
nied by an Atlas of several maps of the world ; each exhibiting the geographical extent of
certein tribes or families of vegetables, indicated by different colours ; so that we see, at one
view, upon a plan of the world, the countries in which these plante are found, their bounda
ries, and their comparative abundance, indicated by the greater or less depth of colour em
ployed. De CandoUe, in the " Nouveau Dictionnaire des Sciences Naturelles," has given
an admirable resume of these writers, and has added much importent original information.
A somewhat shnilar plan is adopted by M. Brongniart in the "Dictionnaire Classique
d'Histoire Naturelle." Mr. Allan Cunningham, both in Mr. Barron Field's " Memoirs of
New South Wales," and in the second volume of " Captain King's Survey of the Inter
tropical Coasts of Australia," has furnished some excellent remarks upon the distribution
of vegetables, especially of the less frequented parte of New HoUand. "The " Memoires du
Museum d'Histoire Naturelle" contain some important papers on this subject particularly
that of Mirbel, " Sur la Geographic des Coniferes," a tribe of plante valuable for ite eco
nomical uses ; and his " Recherches sur la Distribution Geographique des Vegetaux pha-
nerogames dans Vancien Monde, depuis VEquateur jusquau Pole Arctique : and, lastly,
we shall name a useful little manual, entitled a " Lecture on the Geography of Plants," by
Mr. J. Barton. Sect. II. — On the Influence of the Elements on Plants.
In regarding the limits to which certain plante are circumscribed upon the surfece of the
globe, we shaU see that it is with them as with the mighty ocean ; they are equally subject
to that fiat of the Almighty, " Thus far shalt thou go, and no farther." The Pahns, the
Tree-Ferns, the parasitical Orchidese, are ever confined to the tropics; the Cmciferous and
UmbeUiferous plante almost exclusively to the temperate regions ; while the Conherous
plante, and many of the Amentaceous tribes flourish hi those of the north ; and smce these
are all affected by physical agents, we must consider, before proceedmg any farther, the
influences which the elements or exterior agents exercise upon plante. These M. de Can
doUe considers -to be Heat, Light, Moisture, Soil, Atmosphere.
Subsect. I. — On the Influence of Heat.
Heat is the most obvious and powerfiil agent m aflectmg the existence and growth of
plants: and of this we have continual experience before our eyes. In wmter all vegetation
is at a stand, and we can only cultivate those plante which are m a contmued state of
vegetation, by arthicial heat Plante are nourished either by water alone, or by substances
dissolved or suspended in the water. Hence vegetation is arrested when the temperature
is below the freezmg pomt; for the water, becommg solid, cannot enter the vegetable
tissue Again, as in the great deserte of many countries, the heat may be so great that the
earth is dried up, and cannot part with ite nutritive properties. These effecte, however, it
is but reasonable to suppose, are more remarkable upon the surfece of the earth than at a
considerable depth : hence it happens that trees which have long tep-roote resist both the
extremes of temperature better than those whose roots are nearer to the surfece ; theu fibres
penetrate mto a soil, whose temperature is greater m whiter than tliat gf the outer air, so
that the fluids imbibed keep the mterior of large trees, as has been ascertamed by experi
ment at a degree of heat pretty nearly the same as tliat indicated by a thermometer placed
at the roote of such trees. Hence, the greater the tiiickness of the stem or branch, and the
greater the number of layers interposed between the pitli (the softest part bemg the moistest
and the most susceptible of cold) and the exterior air, the better are they able to resist the
severity of the cold. It is a well-known fact that a shrub or tree as it grows older becomes
more hardened agamst frost. De CandoUe relates that at Montpellier the Pndeof India
(Melia Azcdarach) when young is destroyed by a moderate degree ot cold ; but that when

Book HI. IN ITS RELATION TO BOTANY. 239
it attains a more advanced age, it wUl endure, in the garden at Geneva, an intensity of
atmosphere four times as severe as that which killed the young plant in the south of France.
Again, in proportion as the exterior layers are deprived of sap or watery fluid, and fortified
by a deposit of carbon and resinous matter, the more powerfully they withstand the cold.
Every gardener and cultivator is acquainted with the fact that in cold and wet summers
when the sun and heat have been insufficient to produce good bark upon the new shoots of
the fruit-trees, they ai-e liable to be affected by a very moderate frost in the ensuing winter.
Succulent plants and Monocotyledonous plants, in general, which have no distinct bark,
are highly susceptible of cold ; whilst the Birch, which is fenced around with numerous
layers of old and dry bark, and the Fir, whose bark abounds with resin, endure an intense
degree of it without injury. At Fort Enterprise, in North America, lat. 64° 30", Dr.
Richardson has ascertained that the Banksian Pine (Pinus Banksiana), the white, the red,
and black Spruce, the small-fruited Larch, and other Amentaceous trees, bear a degree of
cold equal to 44° below zero of Fahrenheit ; and in Siberia, lat 65° 28", the common Larch,
the Siberian Stone Pine, the Alder, Birch, and Juniper, &c. attain their greatest size, and
are not affected by the extremest cold of that severe climate.
Powerful summer heate are capable of causing trees and shrubs to endure the most trying
effecte of cold in the ensuing winter, as we find in innumerable instances ; and vice versd.
Hence, in Great Britain, so many vegetables, fruit-trees in particular, for want of a suffi
ciently powerfol sun in summer, are affected by our comparatively moderate frosts in winter ;
whilst upon continente in the same degree of latitude the same trees arrive at the highest
degree of perfection. Even in the climate of Paris the Pistacia tree and the Oleander will
not bear the winter. Yet the winters there are mUd in comparison with those which prevaU
in the environs of Peking, where the Oleander was found by Lord Macartney to remain
abroad the whole year ; and at Casbin in Persia, where Chardin assures us that the Pistacia
nute, produced in the open ah, are larger than those of Syria. On the other hand, the
heat of these two countries in summer is infinitely greater than that at Paris ; the summer
temperature of Peking especially nearly equals that of Caho, and surpasses that of Algiers.
For the same reason, too, the Weeping Willow becomes a large tree in England ; whUe in
Scotland, where the winters are at least as mUd, but where the summer affords much less
warmth, this beautifol tree can only be cultivated in highly favoured situations, and even
there ite vegetation is exceedingly languid : its young shoote, not ripened by the summer
sun, are destroyed even by a slight frost
Hence the influence of temperature upon the geography of plante is pointed out by M.
de CandoUe under three pointe of view : — 1. The mean temperature of the year. 2. The
extreme of temperature, whether in regard to cold or heat 3. The distribution of tempera
ture in the different months of the year.
The mean temperature, that point which it has for a long time been the great object to
ascertain, is in reality what is of the least importance in regard to the geography of plants.
In a general view, it may be use&l to take it into consideration ; but the mean temperature
is often determined by circumstances so widely different, that the consequences and' the
analogies to be deduced from them relative to vegetables would be very erroneous.
By attending to the extreme pointe of temperature, resulte more limited, but far more
exact are to be obtained. Thus, every locality which, though at only short intervals, affords
a degi-ee of cold or heat of certain intensity, cannot but produce plants which are capable
of supporting those extreme degrees. When, however, these widely different temperatures
recur at very long intervals, man may cultivate in such a country a vegetable which cannot
exist in a wild state ; either because, when destroyed by the rigour of the season, he restores
it by seeds or by plante derived from a more temperate country ; or because he shelters it
from the mclemency of the air ; or, because he is satisfied with the product of the plant,
although it should not bring ite seeds to perfection. And thus it is that in the south of
Europe, the Vine, Olive, and Orange trees often vegetS,te exceedingly well for all the pur
poses for which they are requhed, though, if left to themselves, they could not propagate
themselves, nor sustain the wmter. Thus we see a wide difference in the geography of
plante, between those in a state of nature, and those individuals whose growth is artificially
encouraged by man.
This, indeed, is a subject closely connected with the acclimatation of plants, or the
power which man is supposed to exert over them in inuring them by degrees to a clunate
not originally natural to them. This power is, however, denied by very able vegetable
physiologiste. Mirbel, in particular, declares that he has known many species mdeed
whose wante have been, to a certain degree, artificially supplied ; but not one whose con
stitution has been changed. "If," he says, "from time to time, exotics mingle themselves
with our indigenous tribes, propagate as they do, and even dispute the very possession of the
soU with the native mhabitante ; this, assuredly, is not the work of man, but it is the
climate which dispenses this faculty of naturalization." Cultivators, however, maintain that
seedlings from Myrtles, which had ripened their finiit in Devonshire in the open air, are
better able to endure the cold of the clunate than those seeds perfected by artificial heat, or

240 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY. Part H.
that have come from the warmer parts of Europe. It is true, the power of so acclimating
itself already exists in the vegetable ; but it is man that calls it into action, for naturally the
myrtle would never extend itself to these latitudes. Nay, something of the same kind
M. Mirbel himself allows, where he says, " When we consider that the Vine is cultivated
in the plams of Hmdostan and Arabia, between the 13th and 15th paraUels ; that h is cul
tivated on the banks of the Rhme and Maine, in lat, 51° ; in Thibet, at an elevation above
the level of the sea of from 9,000 to nearly 11,000 feet, under the 32d degree of latitude ;
what astonishes and intereste us the most is, not that the vine inhabite countries so remote
from one another, or that it grows at so great an elevation above the sea, but that it possesses
in so eminent a degree the property of accommodating itself to different climates ; a pro
perty, indeed, much more restricted m a great number of vegetables, which extend from the
equator to the tropics on both sides, without ever crossing them ; for notwithstanding the
greater distance between the 23d degree of south latitude and the 23d degree of north lati
tude, the climatic differences are much less from one tropic to the other than from the plains
of Hindostan to the banks of the Maine,"
The distribution of heat at different months of the year is what we shall find to be of
the most importance in regard to vegetable geography. Some clhnates are eminently uni
form ; a certain mean temperature is produced by a mild winter and a moderate degree of
warmth in summer. This is frequently the case on the sea-coaste, because the extremes of
heat are continually modified by the sea ; that vast reservoh of nearly equal temperature,
which therefore imparts heat in winter and cold in summer, and enables even tropical plante
to subsist in some situations of the temperate zone. Such are the western shores of Europe
and America, and a great portion of the southern hemisphere. A similar mean temperature
may indeed be produced by a combination of very severe winters and very hot summers, sis
in the great continente compared with islands, or the shores of those continente ; or the
eastern side of continents as compared with the western ; or the northem with the southern
hemisphere ; but these two climates, as may be expected, wUl produce a very different
vegetation. Annual plants, which require heat during the summer to ripen theh seeds, and which
pass the winter, so to say, in torpidity, in the state of grain, indifferent to the intensity of
cold,* abound most in those regions where the extremes are the greatest ; whUst the peren
nial plants, which can better dispense with the maturing of theh seeds, and which are
injured by the severities of winter, affect the temperate climates. Of these, again, those
kinds which have deciduous leaves accommodate themselves best to unequal temperatures ;
whilst the individuals on which the foliage remains, or evergreens, give the preference to
districts where the temperature is more constently equal.
Mirbel reckons that there are about 150 or 160 natural groups or famUies of plante m the
Old World, types of all which exist in the tropical parte of it Beyond these Ihnite, a great
number become gradually extmct. In the 48th degree of latitude, scarcely one half of
that number appear ; in the 65th, not 40 ; and but 17 m the vicmity of the polar regions.
He further estimates, that within the tropics the proportion of woody species, trees and shmbs,
equals, if it does not exceed, that of herbaceous, annual, biennial, and perennial plante.
The relative number of the woody species to the herbaceous, annual, biennial, and perennial,
decreases from the equator to the poles ; but as an equivalent the proportion of perennial
to annual or bieimial plants goes on increasing. Near the extreme Irniite of vegetation
these are, at least as twenty to one.
We must however, by no means conclude that the same elevation m corresponding
deo-rees of latitude is necessarily suited to the vegetation of the same plante. A number of
circumstances may exist to modify the degree of heat at the same elevation. In Switzer
land, for example, the elevation of the valley of Untersee is the same as that of Gestem ;
yet the thermometer, in 1822-3, fell only to 8° below zero in the former spot; whereas
at Gestem it fell to 10^°, and at Berne to 16°. The depth of the valleys mfluences
vegetation ; the deeper they are, the more mtense is the cold on the summite of the
surrounding mountains. Thus, the pine does not thrive on tlie Bragel, at a height of 5100
feet ; whereas it succeeds perfectly, at the same elevation, on the Rhetian Alps, the valleys
of the Linth, the Muotta, and Kloen being deeper than those of the latter districte. In like
manner, in the valley of the Davos, agricultural produce is certein m places much more
elevated than the Bernese valleys, because the latter are deeper. The warm wmds from
Italy have a perceptible power over the vegetation of the contiguous parte of Switzeriand ;
but the degrees of that influence depend upon circumstences. In the vaUey of the Inn,
bariey and flax are cultivated with success at an elevation of more than 5400 feet; whereas
at Laret, in the valley of Davos, though the height is only 4900 feet no gram wdl thrive.
Yet, these valleys are alike in most respecte, and are surrounded by mountams of simUa-
altitudes ; tliey arc botli sheltered from the north-east wmd ; tlieir soil is of the same nature ;
*S«>(lH bclnB, in g.-T,oral, f.inii.^hod with fcworRans which obound in moisture, are in "/«S;'«^,.''fXiI'l?,«
tho .ixtrojm-s of l.out nnrl colil ; k  ico it urises that, in convoying thtm from one country to another, they pass
tiirough a variety of elimnte iiniiijiireii.

Book III. IN ITS RELATION TO BOTANY 241
but in the valley of the Inn, the warm wmds from Italy are mtercepted only by a single
chain of mountins, whereas two chains lie between Itely and the valley of Da.vos: and,
besides, the latter bemg of smaUer extent than the former, it admits of the reception of less
solar heat In the Oberiand of Berne, an mcrease m height of 2000 feet dimmishes the
crop one third.* Subsect. 2. — On the Influence of Light.
The mfluence of the solar light upon vegetation De CandoUe considers to be as important
as that of temperature; and although it acte less powerfiiUy upon the geographical distri
bution of plante, it nevertheless merits a particular notice.
Light is that agent which operates in producmg the greatest number of phenomena m
vegetable life. It determmes, in a great measure, the absorption ; for plants imbibe less
humidity during the night and in darkness. It completely influences the watery exhalations
of the green parts of plants; for these parte do not exhale durhig the night or m obscurity,
whUst these exhalations are very considerable during the day, and especiaUy under the
dhect influence of the rays of the sun. The light affecte, hi most cases, the decomposition
of the carbonic acid ; and consequently the deposition of carbon hi vegetables, their sub
stance and theh growth, the hitensity of theu sensible properties, and the duection of many
organs. It is the prmcipal, and perhaps the only, cause of those smgular movements known
by the name of the sleep of plants ; and, lastly, during the absence of light the green parts
absorb a certam quantity of oxygen gas. Although these different causes affect all vege
tables, yet they are not affected in the same degree.
Light is more equally distributed than heat upon the surface of the globe ; but ite mode
of diSusion induces some very important consequences. In the countries situated under the
equator, an hitense light, since it acts more perpendicularly, influences vegetables nearly
equaUy, durhig twelve hours each day, throughout the whole year. In proportion as we
recede from the equator and approach the poles, the intensity of the more oblique rays gra
dually diminishes ; but m regard to the distribution of these rays, the light is completely
wanting durhig the whiter, when the absence of vegetation indeed renders it nearly useless
to plants ; and it is continued during almost the whole period of vegetation, in such a man
ner that its lengthened influence compensates whoUy or in part for its want of intensity.
Thus we see that, independently of what concerns the temperature, plante which lose theh
leaves can better exist hi northem countries, and that those whose vegetation is contmued
have need of the southern regions. And another beautifol and just remark is nmde by De
CandoUe, in reference to the distribution of light ; namely, that those plants whose foliage
and flowers maintain habitually and constantly the same position, can live in northern cli
mates, where the light is almost continued in summer ; whUst it is in the regions of the
south that w^e find, as might naturally be expected, those species which are remarkable for
the altemate closing and expanding, or sleeping and waking, of theh flowers, a motion
which has an intimate connexion with the alternation of days and nighte. Thus we see
why it is found so difficult in our country to cultivate many of the tropical vegetables, or, at
any rate, to bring them to perfection. M. de Humboldt has proved that it is less owing to
the absence of heat than to the want of sufficient solar light that the Vine does not ripen
its fruit beneath the foggy skies of Normandy ; and ,M. Mirbel has satisfied himself that the
uninterrupted action of the sun's rays, during a great number of days, is the cause of the
astonishingly rapid developement of alpine plants in high northem regions.f Dr. Richard
son, too, states that the sugar-boilers in the Canadian forests observe that the fiow of sap in
the Sugar Maple (Negundo fraxinifoliuin) is not so immediately influenced by a high mean
temperature as by the power of the dhect rays of the sun. The greatest quantity of sap is
collected when a smart frost during night is succeeded by a warm sunshiny day. Again,
Humboldt assures us, that in all places where the mean temperature is below 62° 6', the
revival of nature takes place in spring in that month whose mean temperature reaches 42°
8', or 46° 4'. At Cumberland House, Dr. Richardson found vernation to begin in May,
* We may here mention a curious fact of vegetation resting upon a basis of ice. The glacier of Roccosecco,
which forms one of the branches of the Berneria, has on its summit a valley filled with ice ; and on this the ava-
lanches have brought down masses of earth. This earth produces a number of alpine plants, that afford abun
dant and nourishing food to the flocks of the inhabitants of Samaden. This singular pasture has been used ever
since the year 1536.
t " Vegetables," says M. Mirbel, in his EUmens de Physiologic Figeiale, *' when secluded from the light, send out
long, thin, and whitish shoots ; tlieir substance becomes lax, and without firmness ; in fact, they are bleached.
The operation of the luminous beams on, these organised bodies consists chiefly in separating the constituent
parts of water and carbonic acid, which they contain, and in disengaging the oxygen of the latter. The carbonic
acid, with the hydrogen and oxygen of the water, produce those gums, resins, nnd oils, which flow in the vessels
and which fill the cells. These juices nourish the membranes, and bring them into the ligneous state ; a result
which becomes more marked as the light is strongest and its action most protracted. Darkness and light produce
therefore, diametrically opposite effects on vegetation. Darkness, by keeping up the softness of the vegetable
parts, favours their increase in length ; light, by ministering to their nourishment, consolidates them, and arrests
their growth. Hence it follows that a flne state of vegetation, such as unites in just proportions size and strength,
must depend, in a measure, on the nicely balanced alternation of day and night. Now, the hyperborean plants
spring up at a period when the sun is constantly above the horizon, and the light which incessantly acts upon
them confirms and perfects them before they have time to attain a considerable degree of length. Their vegeta-
tion is active, but soon over ; they are robust, but small.''
Vol. I. 21 2 F

242 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY, Pakt IL
"H^J^^A *!i ™^^" temperature was only 49°, nearly 3° below that which Baron Humboldt
considered necessary for the evolution of deciduous leaves; but he adds, "the influence of
me direct rays of the sun was at this time very great, and the high temperature of the last
Qecade of the month compensated for the first" We can imitate the native climes of many
01 the delicate exotics, as far as regards temperature; and in summer, when the days are
long, we see them flourish almost as if they were m their natural situations; but m winter
they languBh, and often die, especially the more tender species, such as the Hedysarum
gyrans, and the hwmble plant (Mimosa pudica). It is evident that they want that distribu
tion ot light which IS most congenial to them.
Plants, then, are arranged in theh different localities, accordhig to the certam quantity of
light which they may require. AU those with very watery leaves, which evaporate much.
Which are of a succulent nature, which, having few pores or organs of evaporation, need a
stimulus to determine theu action, all which have a tissue aboundmg m carbon, or which
contam very resinous or oily juices, or which offer a great extent of green surface, requhe
much light, and are generally found in exposed places; the rest, according as they are more
or less distinguished by these properties, exist either under the slight shadow of bushes, or
beneath the more powerful shelter of hedges and walls, or of foreste ; or, as is the case with
many Fungi, in caves and darkness. These last are, mdeed, destitute of any green colour ;
but Mosses, Ferns, and even some evergreens, such as the Ivy, flourish best beneath the
shade of dense foreste, if the trees of those foreste have deciduous leaves ; and in situations
where plante that vegetate only during the summer could scarcely live.
The subject however, of the action of light upon vegetation, has not yet received the
attention which it deserves. Many more observations and experimente are requhed before
we can employ it with certainty in connexion with botanical geography.
Subsect. 3. — On the Influence of Moisture.
Water being the vehicle by means of which nourishment is conveyed into the plant and,
indeed, iteelf yielding a large proportion or even the whole of the nutriment of many ve
getables, it follows that this element is not only of the highest importance in vegetable
economy, but one of the causes which affects most powerfuUy the geographical distribution
of plants upon the surface of the globe.
'Those vegetables, in particular, necessarily absorb a great quantity of water, which have
a large and spongy cellular tissue ; those which possess broadly expanded soft leaves, for-
nished with a great number of cortical pores ; those having few or no hairs on theh surfece ;
those whose growth is very rapid, which deposit but little oUy or resinous matter ; those of
which the texture is not subject to be changed or corrupted by humidity ; those, in fine,
whose roote are very numerous, generally need to absorb much moisture, and cannot live
but in places where they find naturaUy a large proportion of it On the other- hand, those
plants which are of a firm and compact ceUular tissue, which have smaU or rigid leaves,
furnished with very few pores, which are abundantly clothed with hairs, of which the
growth is slow, and which deposit, during the progress of their vegetation, much oUy or
resinous matter ; those whose cellular tissue is liable to be changed and decayed by too much
moisture, and of which the roote are not numerous, requhe little water, and prefer, for theh
natural situation, dry places. Great differences, however, are produced, accordmg to the
nature of the water that is absorbed ; the less it is charged with the nutritive principle, the
more necessary is it that the vegetable shall absorb, in a given tune, enough to suffice for ite
support Again, the more the water abounds with substances which alter ite fiuidity or
transparency, and which, inasmuch as they are solid particles, tend to obstmct the orifices
of the pores, or to hnpede absorption by theu viscosity, the less do such vegetables hnbibe m
a given time. , , . ,.
The very nature even of those substances dissolved or suspended m the water has a great
mfluence upon the topographical distribution or the locality of plante. The matters so dis
solved are, 1. Carbonic acid. 2. Atmospheric air. 3. Animal and vegetable substances. 4.
Alkaline principles or earths. Those plante whose cellular tissue is found to contain much
carbon, such as trees producing hard wood, avoid, more than others, the vicmity of waters
which are extremely pure, and which contain but little carbonic acid gas. Plants which
exhibit much azote m their chemical composition, such as the Cruciferous Plants and the
Fungi, seek those spots where there is much anhnal matter in solution. Those^agam, which
present, when chemically analyzed, a considerable quantity of certahi earthy substances,
such as sUica* in the Monocotyledonous Plants, gypsum in tlie Leguminoste, &c. wiU re
quire it in a greater or less proportion m the soil where they grow ; and if it does not exist
there naturaUy, the agriculturist must supply it artificially ; and tliose species which yield,
» This Bilicn wo know, abounds in the grasses, os well ns in other monocotyledonous plants ; and M. de Candolle
observes, that it is in ronseqnence of its existence in tho grasses, &c. and of the comparative indissolubdity which
is the result, that it is profcirod by almost all nations of tho world for a covering to their houses. Tlic people
of tho North thus employ straw for that purposo, on tho same principle that those of the tropics use the leaves ot
the palms.

Book HL IN ITS RELATION TO BOTANY. 243
when burned, a more abundant portion of alkalme substances than usual, can only flourish
or even live where these matters abound. The species which have need of carbonate of
soda wUl only grow successfully near the sea or saline lakes or springs. Thus the different
property of the substances dissolved in the water is evidently one of the many causes which
determine the stations of the vegetable species.
Subsect. 4. — On the Influence of the Soil.
The influence of soU M. de CandoUe considers as perhaps more complicated than that of
the preceding agents. He reduces it to the following heads : —
(1.) The soU serves as a means of support to vegetables, and consequently its consistence
or tenacity ought to possess, in this point of view, a peculiar fitness for sustaining, in a
greater or less degree, plants exhibiting very various forms. Thus, soils composed of blow
ing sand can only serve as a support to vegetables which are of very humble stature and
prostrate growth, so that the winds may not overturn them ; or to trees, furnished with very
deep and branching roots, which may attach them into this moveable matrix. The contrary
holds good in regard to very compact soils. Small-rooted plants may thus be firmly enough
fixed, and they may subsist ; but the very large roots are incapable of penetrating into soils
that are very tenacious. The two extremes of these soUs present an equally sterile vege
tation. Sands which are not sufficiently stationary (as those very remarkable ones on tlie
nortliern shores of the Moray Frith), water which is subject to very rapid currents, clay of
an extremely compact nature, or rocks of great hardness, are equally unfriendly to the
growth of plante.
(2.) The chemical natare of the earths or stones of which the soU is composed, affecte
the choice of vegetables, as regards their flourishing in such situations. But this subject,
simple as it appears at first sight, is in reality very complicated. For the different earths
act upon vegetation by physical circumstances ; as, for example, according as they absorb
the surrounding water with more or less facility, retain it with more or less force, or part
with it more or less easily. Now, the celebrated Khwan ascertained by a comparative
analysis of earths which were reckoned excellent for the growth of wheat in various coun
tries, that they contain more silica if the climate is more subject to rain, more alumine if
the contrary be the case ; in short, that the soil, to be good for any given vegetable, ought
to have the power of absorbing more moisture in a dry climate, less in an humid atmosphere :
whence it is plain that in different localities the same species of vegetable may be found in
different soUs.
(3.) Every kind of rock has a certain degree of tenacity, and a certain disposition to
decompose or become pulverized : whence results the greater or less facility of particular
soils to be formed either of sand or gravel, and to be composed of fragmente of a nearly
determined form and size. Certain vegetables, from causes which we shall presently indicate,
will prefer such or such of this sand or gravel ; but the peculiar nature of the soU does not
act here immediately ; thus, when we find calcareous rocks which decompose like argilla
ceous schist the same species of vegetation is observed. These two considerations are
particularly applicable to lichens.
(4.) Rocks, according to their colour or theh nature, are more susceptible of being heated
by the direct rays of the sun ; and consequently they may, in some degree, modify the
temperature of a given place ; and influence also, though slightly, the choice of plants
capable of succeeding upon them.
But independently of all these physical causes, it may be asked, whether the chemical
nature of rocks has any effect upon vegetables'! It is generally considered to be so ; but it
must be allowed that this action has been frequently very much exaggerated. Bory de St
Vincent mdeed, has assured us that calamine, or native carbonate of zinc, in the vicinity of
Aix-la-Chapelle, is always indicated, to a certamty, Vy particular plante ; and the fact is
confirmed by a little work, since published, called A Flora of the Envhons of Spa. The
yellow heartsease, a small variety of the common eyebright (Euphrasia officinalis), the white
Campion (SUene infiata), a Sandwort (Arenaria), a shrubby Lichen, a species of Bromus
(Brome-grass), constitute this poor but constant vegetation. These, however, no doubt,
grow in greater abundance and perfection in other soUs : the wonder is that they do not
altogether perish here ; for even the gallinaceous bhds, which eat gravel to triturate theh
food, die from swaUowing fragments of calamine. It must be remarked, m reality, that plants
do not often live upon pure rock, but among the decomposed matter of that rock ; that the
rocks, even though very circumscribed, often present very different natures ; that vegetable
mould is not only formed by the rocks which immediately surround it, but also by the
admixture of earthy substances carried by the waters, and transported by the winds, or by
the remains of animals and vegetables which have before existed there. Hence it wUl he
understood how the vegetable earths differ much less in themselves, than the rocks which
produce them or serve to support them ; and that the greater number of plants yield, in most
situations, the alimentary earths which are necessary for them. Indeed, after various
botanical journeys made through France, M. de Candolle has found nearly the same plants

244 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY, Pakt H.
^^S'^^thig spontaneously in almost all the different rocky substances. It has been said that
the Box (Buxus sempervirens) grows only in calcareous soUs, and it certainly prefers them ;
but it IS found abundantly in the argUlaceous calcareous schistose rocks of the Pyrenees ;
and it IS even seen among the granite of Britany and upon the volcanic parte of Auvergne.
The Chestnut has been said to avoid a calcareous country ; but there are beautiful chestnute
on both sides of the Lake of Geneva, at the foot of the calcareous mountams of Jura and
Chablais. Pure magnesia, M. Carradori has found, by chemical experiment acte as a poison on most
plante: yet M. Dunal, in visithig a portion of the environs of Lunel, where the soU presente
a great quantity of almost pure magnesia, found there the same plante as in the surroundmg
calcareous sod, and the roots flourishing hi the clefls of this magnesian rock. Thus we must
be carefol not to attach too much hnportance to the nature of the earth, which is frequently
acted upon by causes purely physicah
Subsect. 5. — Atmospheric Influence.
The atmosphere, teken in ite pure state, we know to be composed, at aU times, of the
same proportions of azote and oxygen ; and in such cases we may suppose ite action to be
simUar upon all vegetebles. But the atmosphere also is of different degrees of transparency
or density ; it holds in solution other matters or substances, which mix with it in certain
¦ places, and render it more or less suitable to certain species of plante. In mines, for instance,
the quantity of carbonic acid gas, or of hydrogen, may be so great as to preclude vegeta
tion altogether : or to allow only of the growth of such individuals as are very strong and
vigorous, or particularly absorbent of these substances. Then, too, the ah charged with
saline emanations from the sea injures some plante, and on the other hand encourages the
developement of such as require carbonate of soda ; as may be seen in the valleys of the
south of Europe, where maritime plante affording soda may be cultivated at a considerable
distance from the ocean, provided that they lie open towards the sea, and are exposed to the
winds that blow from it.
We cultivate in our inland gardens, languidly and but for a year or two, many of the
maritime plants, such as the Lithospermum. The Nitraria Schoberi is improved by em
ploying salt where it is grown. Many of the Statices may be, however, easUy cultivated,
and one of them, the common Thrift (S. Armeria) even succeeds in crowded towns, whence
its English name ; yet its native country is either on the shores of the sea or in salt marshes,
or upon the summits of the highest mountains.
The most general influence, however, exercised by the atmosphere, is ite power of con
taining and parting with moisture, or ite hygroscopic action. Tho atmosphere is habitually
charged with moisture ; sometimes in such a manner as to be invisible, and then only ascer
tainable hy the hygrometer ; at other times visible in a state of vapour or dew ; and we find
that vegetables m general succeed better in a climate where, at a given degree of tem
perature, the ah is moderately moist than in another where it is either too much saturated
with moisture or too dry. This is a chcumstance which cannot well be imitated in the cul
tivation of plants in the open air: but in our stoves, and especiaUy by the aid of steam, the
various degrees of humidity necessary to a vigorous vegetation may be produced to the
greatest nicety.
The agitation or movement of the air by winds and other causes exercises some power
over vegetation ; but we are too little acquamted with this subject to be able to deduce any
particular theory from it. . , • ,. ,
Of all the atmospheric influences, the most difficult to reduce to ite proper value is that of
density ; or, what is the same thmg, the mfluence of height or elevation above the level of
the sea. This M. de Candolle has made the subject of a memoh m the volume of the Soci
ety of ArcueU, and we shaU here give his general ideas upon it
In proportion as we are eleyated in the air, the temperature as well as the moisture con-
tmues to diminish ; a chcumstance which appears to depend upon this, that the rare air has
more capacity for heat than dense ah. The fecte that go to prove that the diminution of
the temperature upon high mountains is one of the causes which most affect the distribution
of vegetables, are the following:— . , , , . ,
(1.) The natural situation of each plant at a determined elevaUon above the level of the
sea is so much the greater in proportion as the country is nearer the equator, and less in
more temperate regions ; that is to say, tlie fartlier we recede from the equator, tlie greater
influence has the exposure upon the temperature.
(2 ) In temperate climates, as France, for instance, tliose plante which are but little affect
ed by temperature, and which grow in all ite latitudes, are found also at all those elevations
where the earth is not covered by eternal snows ; from Uie level of the sea to the summite
of the mountains. M. de CniidoUe has detected about 700 examples of this law; the crnn-
mon Heath, the .Juniper, the Birch, &c. grown indifferently at tlie level of the sea, and at
a height of 10,000 feet , , -
(3.) If plants which, accordhig to theh nature, avoid either too high or too low a degree ot

Book HI. IN ITS RELATION TO BOTANY. 245
temperature, yet grow at different latitudes, we may observe that it is at heights where the
effect of elevation may compensate that of latitude ; thus the native plants of the northern
plains will be seen to grow upon the mountains of the south.
(4.) Plante which are cultivated upon a large scale are guided by laws which entirely
correspond with the preceding ; those which are cultivated in various latitudes will grow
indifferently at various heighte ; those which are only found at certain latitudes wUl extend
no ferther than to proportional elevations. The potatoe, which succeeds so well in our
plains, is cultivated in Peru at an elevation of 10,000 feet above the level of the sea : the
olive, which nowhere passes 44° north latitude, wUl not grow at a height exceeding 1250
feet (5.) The elevation above the level of the sea, when we compare the temperature of the
seasons, establishes effects very analogous to those which result from the distance from the
equator ; so that there is the more analogy between the resulte on vegetation in the two
cases. Inproportion as we rise in a direct line, it follows, from the lessened density of the
ah, that the hitenseness of the solar light continues to increase ; this effect is represent
ed in the Ime of distances from the equator, because the perpetuity of light during the
continuance of vegetation is so much the greater in proportion as the latitude is more
elevated. (6.) In proportion to the greater height upon the mountains, so wUl the hygrometer be seen
to indicate a less degree of humidity ; the same general effect takes place as we recede from
the equator towards the poles.
On mountains, covered with perpetuEtl snow, where the plante are constantly moistened
with water in a freezing state, those species, to which a warm temperature is unfriendly,
wUl live at inferior heights to those which they brave in the same latitude, when they are
not watered from those cold sources.
It would appear therefore, fi-om all these considerations, that the situation or fixed locality
of plants at certain heights depends mainly on the fall of the temperature attributable to
that elevation. Now, the only purely theoretical point of view, saysM. de Candolle, accord
ing to which we can comprehend how the rarefection of the air bears in iteelf a direct infiu
ence upon vegetation, is this ; that plants require to absorb a greater or less degree of oxy
gen gas in their green or their coloured parts. It cannot be doubted that there is a certain
pohit of elevation where the atmosphere becomes too much rarefied to supply the wants of
plante ; but where this is the case the mountains are always clothed with snow. M. de
Humboldt, too, inclines to think that the pressure of the air may act in encouraging and in
creasing the quantity of evaporation. But we must say that direct experiment is still want
ing to confirm these opinions (and this is perhaps unattainable in the present state of
science), in order that we may form a conclusive judgment on their value.
Sect. III. — Station and Habitation of Plants.
The station and habitation of plants must next engage a portion of our attention. They
are both important : the former implies their situation as regarding local circumstances, and
the action of physical causes upon vegetables; the latter implies the geographical position.
When we say that such a plant is found in marshes, on the sea-shore, in woods, or upon
mountains, in England, in France, hi North America; hy the marshes, shore, woods, or
mountains, we mean what we here term the station ; and by England, PVance, or North
America, the habitation : such is the sense, at least, in which we shall here use the terms ;
for in systematic botanical writings the meaning is by no means always thus restricted.
The seeds of plante, by varied and beautifol means, are widely dispersed by the liberal
hand of nature ; whUst some, however, fall upon barren ground, or a soU unfit for the nature
of that particular vegetable, others take root in situations, both with regard to the earth
and surrounding medium, which are in harmony with their growth, and produce, " some
thirty, some sixty, and some an hundred-fold." There are, again, tribes which, under these
circumstances, increase so prodigiously that they destroy vegetables of a less vigorous
growth, and, to the exclusion of others, appropriate to themselves a great extent of the surfece
of the earth. Such are termed by Humboldt social plante. In this way, and notwithstand
ing the extreme poverty of the soU, the Seaside Sedge (Carex arenaria), the upright Sea
Lymegrass (Elymus arenarius), and the Sea-reed or Marram* (Arundo arenaria), occupy a
prodigious surface of the sandy shores of Great Britain, almost to the exclusion of other
vegetation ; their long, creephig, and entangled roots serving to bind the sands together, and
thus foiming a barrier to the encroachmente of the sea. Thus it is with the heaths in the
same country, where the sterile moors are purple with the blossoms of the heath.
The flowers of the Gentians cover, as with a carpet of the most brilliant ultramarine
blue, the sides of the alpine hills in Switzerland and the south of Europe. In England the
fields are too often red with Poppies, and the marshes are whitened with the "snowy beard"
cf the Cottongrass, and the pastures with the blossoms of the Cardamine pratensis, so that
* The Celtic name of this plant is Maraim. A village upon the sea. coast of Norfolk is named Marham from
the great abundance in which the Arundo arenaria grows in its vicinity, '
21*

246 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY, Part U.
they appear at a distance as if covered with linen laid out for bleaching, whence arises the
vulgar English name* of the latter plant Some of these plante thus livmg m society are
continually striving with theh neighbours, till the strongest obtain the victory. Many low
^if'^'^w"^^ ^^'^ herbaceous vegetables are overpowered by a colony of taller shrubs ; such as
the Whin or Furze and the Broom : and these in their turns must occasionally give place
to trees and shrubs of a larger and stronger growth, Mr. Brown has, however, noticed a
curious fact in regard to the Field Eryngo (Eryngium campestre,) and the Starthistle
(Centaurea Calcitrapa), which coyer much cultivated ground upon the contment: viz, that
these two engrossers are never mixed together mdiscrhninately, but that each forms groups
of partial masses, placed at certain distances from their rivals.
On the other hand, there are plante, which, from the circumstance of their not increasmg
much by root, or bearmg few seeds, or such seeds as from theh light andvolatUe nature are
much dispersed, and which are not particular m theh choice of soil, do net form groups, but
lie scattered {Plantes eparses, egrenees, or rares, of the French).
The former kind, or " social plante," are those which it wUl be most important for us to
consider in relation to Botanical Geography.
The stations of plants being thus, as we have already mentioned, liable to the influence
of physical agents, it becomes necessary to define them by terms which are calculated at
once to pouit out the places and the circumstances in which they grow. This, however, is
a task of no small difficulty ; for, without swelling the list to an immeasurable length, it will
be impossible to define the various local situations of plante. There are many situations
which produce only one or two kinds : for example, the snow, in the highest arctic regions
to which travellers have attained, has been found to nourish and to bring to the greatest per
fection that highly curious vegetable, the Red Snow (Protococcus nivalis). Tho truffle
(Tuber cibarium) is found entirely hid beneath the surface of the earth. Some fungi are
detected upon the dead homs and hoofs of animals (no plant existe upon living bodiesj), and
upon dead chrysalides ; and hoth fungi and mosses grow on the dung of animals. Paper
nourishes the minute Conferva dendroidea: the glass of windows, and the glass table of the
microscope, if laid by in a moist state for a certain length of time, produce the Conferva
fenestralis. Wine-casks in damp cellars give bhth to the Racodium cellare : and Dutrochet
has detected living vegetables in Madeha wine and in Goulard water, (a solution of Saturn).
These, however, and many others that might be noticed, may be numbered among the extra
ordinary stations, and they principally affect cryptogamic vegetables. In a popular view of
the subject, though we cannot altogether omit the notice of such minute yet curious vege
table productions, we shall mainly direct our attention to the more conspicuous plante ; and
they may be thus divided. 1, Maritime or saline plants. These are terrestrial, but grow-
ino- upon the borders of the ocean or near salt lakes ; as the Saltworts (Salsolae) and Glass-
worts (Salicorniae), &c. Hence these plants abound in the interior of Africa and the Rus
sian dominions, where there are saltpans, as weU as on the shores. 2. Marine Plants.
This tribe is indeed mostly cryptogamic, and comprises the Algce, Fuci, UIvie, &c. The
phsenogamous, or perfect marine plants, are the Sea-wracks (Ruppia and Zostera), and a
few others aUied to them. 3, Aquatic plants. Growhig in fresh water. Both stagnant
pools and rannuig streams in various situations, abound in plante. Some are enthely sub
merged, but in this case, with the rare exception of the little Awlwort (Subularia aquatica),
the flowers rise to the surface of the water for the purpose of fructification.t 4. Marsh or
swamp plants, b. Meadow and pasture plants. Q. Field plants. This tribe often mcludes
such as, introduced with the grain sown in those districts, are equally placed there by the
hand of man. 7, Rock plants, which may include the natives of very stony spots, and such
as grow upon walls. Walls, although artificial stractures, are known to produce many plante
in greater perfection than natural rock ; yet we must not suppose that any vegetable is
exclusively confined to this habitat. The Holosteum umbellatum and Draba muralis may
be cited as examples of this tribe in England ; and amongst mosses, the Grimmia pulvinata,
Tortula muralis, &c. 8, Sand Plants. 9, Plants of dry moors, where heaths (Ericae)
abound 10. Plants which attach themselves to the vicinity of places inhabited by man.
Such ai-e the Dock, Nettle, &c. ; these species follow everywhere the human footeteps, even
* Lndji's Smock. Such plants wore in olden lime dedicated to Our Lady the Virgin Mary.
t Schouw indeed, has a tribe of plants which he calls " Plants ipiiorr," attached to living animals. Thus, he says,
pJd and o«\er MgiB aro attached to whales, mussels, and barnacles. But in this case the plants manifestly adhere
to a dead portion of the animal ; like those vrgetables which exist upon the outer and dead part of the bark of trees,
tmvmnnd certainly observed, in the Pyrenees, n species of Crotefoot . the irater Orotr/ool (Ranunculus aqua-
til s^nrLng its flower and fVuit wholly und,-r water ; but upon a closer inyostigation of the phenomenon he
fn n 1 ?lmt in the" ra "s tho caWv enclosed a globule of air, with which this important function of fertilization
found '™« '" "''^¦„'^,,,^"™i ™ „n,,„,ir rolli^«maspiratis.has a still more wonderful contrivance for bringing the
mnlo"„"mK.,,mio flc^wZrmnt" The plant is diCDcions. The female flower is attached to the parent plant
Tmea^ of i vorrioi B "nllc spirally Iw stod like a corkscrew, so that when it is in perfection, it rises to the
sJrnir" 1 v"L^mtwi»fin" of lio^ The malo flowers, upon a s.M">rato plant, aro almost sessile, borne on a
ve V s on s ni.ht ,1,' "wl ir never couM reach the surnire without detaching themselves from the plant. This
iZv do . the nSper Jeason ; 1 -v float upon the top of the water along i, itli the female flowers, scatter their
pollen and die The femalo blossoms on tho contrary, by tho spiral twisting of their stalks, retire, and ripen
tlieir Boeds under water.

Book HI. IN ITS RELATION TO BOTANY. 247
to the huts and cabins of the highest mountains ; encouraged, perhaps by the presence of
animal substances, and the azote which in such substances is known to abound. 11. Forest
plants, consisting of such trees as live in society. 12. Plants of the hedges, as are many
climbing plants, the Honeysuckle, the Traveller's joy, the Bryony, &c. 13. Subterranean
plants. Those that live in mines and caves, and which, though tolerably numerous and im
portant, are yet mostly cryptogamous. One species, a fimgus, yields a pale phosphoric light
of considerable intensity. 14. Alpine or mountain plants, for it is very difficult to draw the
limit and indeed they will depend much upon latitude. A plant which grows upon a hill of
inconsiderable elevation in Norway, Lapland, and Iceland, will of course inhabit the loftiest
Alps of the south of Europe. Again, upon mountains that have no perpetual snow lying on
them, alpine plants wUl he found much higher than on such as have continued streams of
cold snow-water descending, which affect the state of the atmosphere at much lower regions.
15. Parasitic plants, such as the Misseltoe, the various species of Loranthus, &c., and the
most wonderfiil of all vegetable productions, the Rafflesia Arnoldii : these, as their name
implies, derive nourishment from a living portion of the vegetable to which they attach
themselves. This is the case, too, with many Fungi which subsist upon the living foliage
of plants ; some exclusively on the upper, others as invariably on the lower side of these
leaves ; and, lastly, the name of 16. Pseudo-parasites has been given to a very extensive
tribe, which subsists upon the decayed portions of the trunk or branches of the trees to
which they are attached, as many of the Lichens, Mosses, &c. ; or which are shnply attach
ed by the surface of their roots to tropical trees, obtaining no nourishment from them, but
from the surrounding element Among this number may be reckoned that numerous and
singular family of the Orchidece, called, fi-om their nature and property, " air plants."
Greatly as this list might be swelled, we shall find that even here there is a gradation and
an approxhnation of one tribe to another ; but these are amply sufficient for our purpose.
We have been able to account in some measure for the stations of plante, affected as these
are by local chcumstances ; but the study of the succeeding part, which refers to their habi
tations, considered in theh most extensive scale, for instance, as belonging to certain regions
or countries, we shall find to be much more difficult ; and we must frequently be content to
study and to admire the amazing variety of vegetable forms which the beneficent hand of
nature has scattered over the different parts of our world, without being able to account for
these important phenomena. In New Holland we find almost exclusively, all the species
of Banksia, Goodenia, and Epacris, and the curious Acacia without leaves, but with peti
oles so much enlarged as to assume the shape and perform the fonctions of leaves. At the
Cape of Good Hope, the Fig Marigolds (Mesembryanthema), the Stapelice, the numerous
kinds of Ixia, Gladiolus, Pelargonium, and Prolea abound. The Aurantiacece, the family
of plante to which the Orange and Lemon belong, are of Asiatic origin ; as the Camellia
and Thea are of Chmese. Those curious plants, the Mutisice, the various species of Fuch
sia, the Cinchona; or medicinal barks, the Cacti, are all peculiar to South America. If a
few of them are found m other countries, such circumstances are of very rare occurrence,
and do not overturn the general laws for the exclusive existence of many plants in certahi
countries. There are m the temperate parts of Europe one species of Ixia, one of Gladio
lus, and m the north of Atrica and south of Europe a few kuids of Fig Marigold. Within
the tropics the genera of plante throughout Asia, Africa, and America, are sunilar, but rare
ly are the species the same. This mle neariy holds good on the opposite continents in tem
perate climates. We find the Oriental Plane (Platanus orientalis) in the old worid, and
the Occidental Plane (P. occidentalis) in the new. Even in the two hemispheres, m shni
lar parallels of latitude, the genera of plants have a great affinity : the southern extremity
of the great contment of America has many in common with the north of Europe ; and the
plante of the latter region, transported thither, succeed extremely well.
To what extent plante migrate, unaided by man, it is not easy to say ; but that such mi
gration IS going on, by various means and causes, cannot be questioned. Islands which lie
near to continente, and which evidently appear at one period to have been joined with them,
as England for example, although they may contain a vegetation simUar to that of the neigh
bourmg continental shores, have always a smaUer number of species; and this can only be
accounted for by the interruption which straite or seas occasion to the progi-ess of the seeds.
Ihe Field Eryngo (Eryngium campestre), to which we have already aUuded, the Venus' s
Zoofe«^-^Z«ss (Campanula Speculum), and many other plante of France and Germany, seem
to stop at the line formed by the sea ; yet these, and many other vegetables of France, reach
a limit upon the same continent more northern than any part of England
The migration of plante may be reckoned to be facUitated by the following causes 1 The
sea and its currents, but to a very limited extent; for if the seed be of such a nature that
the water penetrates ite mtegumente and reaches the embryo, life is destroyed Yet to such
a distance are they carried by this medium, that upon the coaste of Britain, of Iceland and
Norway the seeds of the West Indies are frequently cast, and it is said sometimes even in
a fit state for vegetation. 2. Rivers, by the contmual movement of theh waters, convey
many plante to a considerable distance from theh original place of growth ¦ and the banks

^*^ SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY, Part IL
2m'ote''from'tlf,^"'''T/ ^'^^"I'^'.V ^^g^tation of a more varied kbd than the districte
remote from them. Thus, too, the different species of Saxifrage and other alpme plante
vllle™ '"°""*^"'°"« ^??'°n^' brought down from the higher situations, and flourish hi the
and bv mo ^^f'^'^hich waft the light, wmged, and pappose seeds to immense distences,
rfntp .. 1 of which they are widely dispersed. 4. Animals, which, in wanderbg from
^ace to place, often carry on theh coate those seeds which have hooked bristles, &c. 5
Birds, which, swallowing berries and other finite, pass the seeds hi a perfect state, and, it
Zt^^ A ^"?f *™.^ better fitted for germmation than before. In this manner the seeds
Xrw?«P S2f v!". ^^P^l*^? necessary for theh growth, and to which they could not
otherwise have reached ; of which a famUiar mstance is found m the Misseltoe.
look the'it^rrtlnl ""'^ active agent in the dispersion of plante, and we must not over-
dentnl InZn^?. consequences of his influence. Sometimes, mdeed, the causes are acci-
hn V n; ^1^1. IK "^"f *^^."J*'"*T'-^;. ^^^ shipwreck of a vessel on the island of Guernsey,
slT!™ th ^ *"" ^^1^ from the Cape of Good Hope, caused a plant to propagate m the
sands upon the shores of that mild climate, to which has been smce given the name of Ama-
ryllis isarniensis or Guernsey IMy, and a branch of trade of some importance is carried on
m the sale of this very root At Buenos Ayres, a species of Artichoke (Cynara Cardun-
culus) has mcreased so much by seeds hnported from Europe, that Mr. Head, m his amusina
Sketches of a Joumey across the Pampas," &c. teUs us that "there are three re.o-ions of
vegetation between Buenos Ayres and the base of the CordiUeras; a space of 900 mUes-
the first of which is covered, for 180 miles, with clover and thistles. This region," the
author continues, " varies with the seasons of the year in a most extraordmary manner In
winter, the leaves of the thistles* are large and luxuriant and the whofe surfece of tho
country has the rough appearance of a turnip field. The clover in this season is extremely
rich and strong; and the sight of the wild cattle grazmg m foil liberty on such pasture is
very beautifol. In spring the clover has vanished, the leaves of the thistles have extended
along the ground, and the country stUl looks like a rough crop of turnips. In less than a
month tbe change is most extraordmary ; the whole region becomes a luxuriant wood of
enormous thistles, which have suddenly shot up to a height of ten or eleven feet and are aU m
fiiU bloom. The road or path is hemmed in on both sides ; the view is completely obstracted ;
not an animal is to be seen ; and the stems of the thistles are so close to each other, and so
strong, that mdependent of the prickles with which they are armed, they form an unpene
trable barrier. The sudden growth of these plante is quite astonishmg ; and though it
would be an unusual misfortune m mUhary history, yet it is really possible that an mvadmg
fir.ny, unacquainted with this country, might be imprisoned by these thistles before it had
time to escape from them. The summer is not over before the scene undergoes another
rapid change : the thistles suddenly lose their sap and verdure, theh heads droop, the leaves
shrink and fade, the stems become black and dead ; and they remam rattling with the
breeze, one against another, untU the violence of the pampero or hurricane levels them with
the ground, when they rapidly decompose and disappear, the clover rushes up, and the scene
is again verdant."
The strong-scented Everlasting (Elichrysum foetidum), a native of the Cape of Good Hope,
has found a soil and climate equally suited to its growth on the shores of Brest where it
covers a great portion of the sands, to the exclusion of the aboriginal natives of the soU.
Wlieat is supposed to be indigenous to Barbary. The potatoe, first found in South America,
is now cultivated all over the world. Rice, from Asia, is grown to an immense extent in
America, &c. ; these, and many other plants similarly circumstanced, which we could men
tion, together with those that adorn our gardens, often owe theh wide diffusion to having
escaped into uncultivated places, and become to a certain degree naturalised there.
But there are limite to migration, for some of which we can account, and for others we
cannot Even many garden plants, which, escaping by accident or designedly placed in
uncultivated spots so as to appear wild, have only for a time maintained a languid existence,
and then have disappeared altogether. Thus we know that the beautifol Gentianella (Gen-
tiana acaulis) cannot have a title to a place in tlie British Flora, nor can some others, which
are mere outcaste from gardens. Some plante arc wholly confined to particular spote, and
can be found nowhere else. The Tree-Pink (Dianthus arboreus) grows stUl on the single
rock in the island of Crete, where Prosper Alpinus first detected it; and the Double Cocoa-
nut of the isle Praslin, one of the little group of islands called the Seychelles, notwith
standing the annual migration of ite nuts for many thousands of mUes, has never established
itself hi any other place. Nature has planted the common Thrift (Statice Armeria), the
Scurvy Grasses (Cochlearia anglica and danica), and tlie Rose-root (Rliodiola rosea), in
rocky and stony places, upon shores and on the tops of the highest mountains ; yet these
plants are never found in any intermediate places.
The visihlr obstacles to the migration of plants are — •
(1.) Tlie sea, whicli, thougli we have introduced it as a means of extending the habitations
* rrnm Fprriniens in orir nerlinriiiiii, we have ascertained that this thistle is the Cardooii (Cynara Cnrdunculus),
introduced no doubt from E-irojiit as an article of food, but now growing wild, useless, and pernicious.

Book III. IN ITS RELATION TO BOTANY. 249
of plants, is yet a fer greater mipedhnent by the injury it does to the seeds, and the dhfi-
culty of their behig conveyed to distant countries m a sufficiently short time to prevent the
natural death of the seed. It must be observed, too, that the greater number of seeds have
a specific gravity heavier than that of water when in a hving state. The Double Cocoa-
nut, when found floatmg, has always lost its vegetative property. The livmg nut is im
mensely heavy, and would inevitably sink.
(2.) Dry and burning deserts. These, in spite of theh oases, which have been happily
assimilated to the isles of the ocean, prove a powerful obstacle to the transport of seeds.
Thus, those districts of Africa which are separated from one another by the scorching sands
of Sahara exhibit a great dissimilarity in their vegetation. The plants of Morocco and the
northern parte of Africa have little resemblance to the indigenous growth of Senegal ; whilst
the affinity of the vegetables brought by Caillaud from Upper Egypt to those collected by
Palisot de Beauvois in Oware and Benin would in iteelf lead to the conclusion that no very
great and continued deserts intervene between these far distant countries.
(3.) Mountain ranges. The barriers which these present would almost be insurmountable,
were it not for the defiles which here and there occur, forming passages for men and ani
mals, as well as for plante. Thus, the plante on the Italian side of the Alps are quite differ
ent from those on the Switzerland side ; those of the Spanish Pyrenees from those of the
French Pyrenees ; and it was a subject of peculiar regret to the enterprising Drummond,
when he reached the summits of the Rocky Mountains in North America, that his commis
sion did not allow him to penetrate farther into the westem side of that great continent,
where he found, every step he took, a vegetation very different from what had been presented
to him by the eastern side.
A Imowledge of the Natural Orders of plants is in no department of botany so important
as in treating of their geographical distribution. The system of Linnseus, or the Artificial
Arrangement does not as we know, regard the habits and affinities of vegetables, but simply
and beautifully pointe out to us, by certain characters, the means of arriving at the know
ledge of any given species. The natural method, which owes so much to the labours of
Jussieu, DecandoUe and Brown, has a higher object in view, that of grouping plants together
according to theh natural affinities ; and by such an arrangement we are often led to other
and very important resulte. The primary divisions of the Natural Method are, first acoty-
LEDONEs, or plante which have no cotyledons to the seed : these are synonymous to the
Cryptogamia, and include the Mosses, Lichens, Sea-weeds, Fungi, Ferns, &c. ; secondly,
MONocoTVLBnoNES ; thoso whose seeds have one cotyledon, such as the Grasses, Liliaceous
Plants, the Rushes, Sedges, the Palms, 4"C. ; and, thirdly, dicotyledones, or the plants
which have two or rarely more cotyledons to the seed, such as our Shrubs and Trees, and
very many Herbaceous Plants. Each of these possesses external characters which, though
not very easily defined in words, yet cannot faU to strike the observer who devotes his atten
tion, even for a little whUe, to the subject; and we find that in a great proportion of
instances, they have not only a peculiar station, but that their geographical distribution is
different The AcoTYLEnoNous plante increase in number in proportion to the other great classes, as
we recede from the equator to the poles ; with the exception, however, of the Ferns. "The
latter abound more within the tropics than anywhere else: not, however, so much in open
plams as in the sheltered, moist, and hilly countries ; so that theh maximum is in the moun
tainous part of the tropics. The island of Martinique afforded to the Abbe Plumier a rich
and abundant harvest of fems; and some isles of small extent are said to have one-third of
theh vegetation composed of this kind of plante.
Among the monocotyledonous Plants, the Palms are exclusively confined to the tropics :
the Liliaceous plants abound there and in the warm zones ; the three famUies of Grasses,
Sedges (Cyperaceae), and Rushes (Junci), present some-important differences m regard to a
comparison with the phsenogamous or fiowering plante. The disparity between these latter
and the grasses is not great m each of the zones ; whUst the two other famiUes, the Cype-
racea and Junci, dimmish near the equator and mcrease towards the north. Nevertheless,
there are exceptions to this rule ; for the grasses are very rare upon the coaste of Greenland'
In what we have now said, we allude to the grasses, &c. in a wild state; having no refer
ence to those regions where so many of the grass tribe, as the Wheat, Barley, Oat, Maize,
Rye, Rice, &c,, are found simply m a state of cultivation.
The DICOTYLEDONOUS plants are the most extensively distributed, and we must offer some
further remarks upon them. The Compound or Syngenesious plants (Composita;), as every
one knows, form a very extensive natural famUy. They are diffused throughout the whole
earth, but they are most abundant m the temperate and tropical clhnates. Fewer, however
of them are found m the warm regions of equmoctial America than in the sub-alpine and
temperate districte of the same country. At the Congo and Sierra Leone in Africa m the
East Indies and New Holland, they exist in comparatively smaller numbers than in other
regions situated in sunilar paraUels, but which afford situations more congenial to their
Vol. L 2G

^^ SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY, P^t n
S}f^Lltot^ZfT^Zf'S'Sl^X^^
far"g?nerrb^ SSJT *? .1?'^"*°'"' «^°«P^^d^<=d in cerim comitrifl wherjp'rt^-
in slberTa and tb! Z^"^^ -^ °^ "i^™ "P""^^' §^'^^ '^ P^-'^l^ar ^^ature to the vegetation, as
found provmces of Russia, where so many Astragali or Bitter-vetehes are
tho^Jw^tWrti'^li?fV'°'"'y separated the natural order of Rubiace<e mto two groups:
Goo™J?3l1^™? fe' and no stipules (the Stellat<B of Lhrn^us), to which belong tte
zones^rd the tZi' f f ' "^ ^^"^-'l^' *'•' ^"^-^ ^^i-^l^ '^^ ^1°"°^' P«<='^i" to the templrate
(which are in fect^bni^vr''"' ""'^^ ?PP°f" P^™ °f 1«^^«^' «-°'J t''" "PP^^^te st^ules
hlZ^th!Zf'^.f^^ il^Tl' '^^•^'^ *°^ t'^"'^ ^"^ity with the Steitoffi), to which
seZl^i^rr vTrh^"l*"1^5"^'°'^^"^^'^°'^ ^"""^ °*^^^ n^^^ly related plante pos-
The^tr w irt *f ^ ^^"^- ^'^ ^^°'* ^boUy confined to the equmoctial regioM.
mil, well-known and extensive natural famUies, the Umbellifermts and Cruciferous
plants, are very rare m the tropics, if we except the mountems. They abomid hltheS
of Europe, and especiaUy about the vaUey or basm of the Mediterranean.
Sect. IV. — View of Botanical Regions.
To divide the globe into botanical regions or districte wUl not be difficult seemff that cer
tam countries possess a peculiar vegetation, and that numerous hnpedhnente prevent emi
gration; seeing, too, that certein forms or tribes are mcompatible with certam chmates
M. De Candolle has constituted twenty of those regions ; but although each is, to a certahi
degree, peciiliar m ite vegetable productions, it would requhe more space than we can devote
to such a subject to characterise them. We must, therefore, content ourselves with givhiff
a bare list 1. Hyperborean region. This district mcludes tbe northem extremity of AsiS
iiurope, and America; and graduaUy merges into the foUowmg. 2. European region-
comprismg aU Europe, except the part bordermg upon the pole, and the southern districte
approaching the Mediterranean. To the east it extends to the Altaic mountams. 3. Sibe
rian region, comprehending the great plains of Siberia and Tartary. 4. Mediterranean
region; comprismg aU the basm of this great mland sea; that is, Africa on this side the
Sahara, and that part of Europe which is sheltered from the north by a more or less conti
nued range of mountains. 5. Oriental region ; thus called relatively to southern Europe,
and contammg the countries bordermg upon the Black and Caspian Seas. 6. India, with
ite archipelago. 7. China, Cochinchma, and Japan. 8. iVeio Holland. 9. The Cape of
Good Hope, OT southem extremity of Africa, beyond the tropics. 10. Abyssinia, Nubia, and
the Mozambique Coast (hnperfectly known). 11. Equinoctial Africa ; viz. the neighbour
hood of the Congo, the Senegal, and Niger. 12. The Canary Isles. 13. The United
States of North America. 14. The Western and Temperate Coasts of North America.
15. The West Indian Isles. 16. Mexico. 17. Tropical South America. 18. ChUi. 19.
Southern Brazil and Buenos Ayres. 20. The Straits of Magellan.
Many of the productions of these regions wUl be considered somewhat at large in other
parts of this work ; and we shaU conclude our introductory sketch of Botanical Greography
by a notice of Professor Sehouw'si'Ayio-Geo^rBpAJcs or General Botanical Division of the
Globe. This is Ulustrated by a map, which accompanies this memoh. Unlike M. De Can
doUe, Professor Schouw characterises the regions by the most remarkable feature of theh
vegetation, adopting commonly used geographical terms only where he conceives that a cer
tein diyision of the earth ought to constitute a distinct region, but is not sufficiently acquainted
with ite productions to determine and define theh forms. He makes the characteristic fea
ture of his regions to depend on these facte : first, that at least one-half of the species should
be peculiar to that region ; secondly, that at least a quarter of the genera should belong
exclusively to it, or at least have there a decided maximum, so that theh species in other
districte might merely be considered as their representatives ; and, thhdly, that individual
families of plants be either peculiar to the region, or else have theh maxima there ; never
theless, when this last characteristic is wanting, while the difference in genera and species
is very considerable, it may yet be admitted as a region.
Professor Schouw in this manner reckons twenty-two regions : —
(1.) Region of Saxifrages and Mosses, or the Alpine Arctic Flora. — This corresponds
with Do CandoUe's first region, and comprehends all the countries within the polar chcle ;
namely, Lapland, the north part of Russia and Siberia, Karatechatka, Russian America, part
of British America, Greenland, and Iceland ; but Professor Schouw adds to it, with much
propriety, part of the Scottish and Scandinavian mountauis, as fiir as they fiill within the
alpine region, as also the mountains in the soutliern and central parte of Europe, inasmuch
as they are related to the alpine regions. It is characterised by the abundance of mosses
and lichens, the presence of the Saxifrages, Gentians, Chickweed tribe (Alsuiese), Sedges,
and Willows ; an entire absence of tropical fiiraUie? ; a considerable decrease of the peculiar

Book HI. IN ITS RELATION TO BOTANY. 251
forms of the temperate zone ; by the forests of beech or fir, or else the total want of trees ;
the scarcity of animals, and the prevalence of csespitose plante, whose blossoms are large in
proportion, and generally of a pale colour. ™, . ¦, , ¦ ,' , ,
(2 ) Region of the Umbelliferous and Cruciferous plants.— This tribe takes m the whole
of Europe, except what belongs to the preceding diyision, from the Pyrenees, the mountams
of the south of France, of Switzeriand, and the north of Greece, the greater part of Siberia,
and the country about Mount Caucasus. Schouw has characterized it by the cruciferous
and umbelliferous plante, because they form a larger portion of the total number than any
other kmds, and because it may thus be best separated from the vegetation of North America
in the same parallel It is not easUy disthiguished from the next region ; but it may be said
of it that F^ngi abound more, that the Rosaceous faimly and the Crowfoots (Ranunculacese),
the Amentaceous and Coniferous tribes (Pines), form rather a large proportion ; that it bears
a resemblance to many of the polar forms, especially in the abundance of its Sedges (Cype-
racese) ; that its meadows are most flourishmg, and that almost aU the trees are deciduous in
whiter. In the northem part of this region, the CichoracetB (a tribe of the Compositse or
syngenesious plante, including the Endive, Lettuce, Dandelion, &c.) much prevaU ; whUe
in ite southem division, or in northem Asia, the Cynarocephalce (Artichoke and Thistle
tribes), together with the Butter-vetches (Astragali), and Saline plants (Sea- worts and Glass-
worte), seem to have their maximum.
(3.) Region of the Labiate flowers and Caryophyllece (to which the Pink, the Catchfly,
the Sandworts, <Sz.c. belong) ; or the Mediterranean Flora. — This is bounded on the north by
the Pyrenees, the Alps of Switzerland and of the south of France, and the north of Greece,
and thus includes the three peninsulas of southern Europe, namely, Spain, Italy, and Greece ;
on the east by Asia Minor and its islands ; on the soufli it takes in Egypt and all the north
of Africa as far as the deserte ; and, lastly, it includes the Canary Islands, Madeha, and the
Azores. It is marked especially by the two famUies above mentioned, which are much rarer
both to the north and south of the countries just enumerated, and in the corresponding
parallels in North America. The Composite, the Stellatm {Goosegrass, Madder, &c.), and
the rough-leaved plante {Asperifoliee), are here in considerable numbers, as well as in the
simUar latitudes. A few tropical plante, or individuals allied to them, now appear ; one or
two Palms, the Laurels, the Arum tribe, the Terebinthacece (Pistacia, &c.), some tropical
grasses and tme Cyperacea. Nightshades (Solanese), Leguminous plante, the Mallow and
Nettle tribes, and the Spurges (Euphorbiacese), increase ; Evergreens are numerous ; vege
tation never enthely ceases, but verdant meadows are more rare. This region may be sub
divided into provinces: of the Cisti, Spain and Portugal; of the Sage and Scabious, the
south of France, Itely, and SicUy ; of the shrubby Labiatte, the Levant, Greece, Asia Minor,
and the southem part of the Caucasian country ; and of Houseleeks (Semperviva), the Cansiry
Isles, probably also the Azores, Madeira, and the north-west coast of Africa, Many Sem
perviva, some succulent plante. Spurges and Cacalia, characterise especiaUy this province.
(4.) The Japanese region.— The eastem temperate part of the old contment namely,
Japan, the north of China, and Chinese Tartary, probably forms a peculiar region ; but we are
too little acquainted with the botany of these countries to admit it with certainty, and still
less are we able to define correctly the characteristics of its Flora. Of the 358 genera found
in Japan, 270 occur in Europe and the north of Africa, and about the same number in North
America ; so that its Flora seems to occupy a middle place between those of the old and new
worlds. Ite vegetation, mdeed, approaches more to the tropical than to the European ; for
we meet with the Cycas family, the Scitaminea (to which belong the Ginger, Cardamom,
&c.), the Bananas, the Palms, the Anona or Custard-apples, and the Sapindaceee ; so that
there is a considerable affinity, as might be expected from its situation, to the flora of India.
"The femUies of the Buckthorns (Rhamni) and Honeysuckles are found m a relatively con
siderable number, and they exhibit some peculiar genera ; thus, perhaps, this region might
be correctly termed that of the Rhamni and the Caprifoliacem.
(5.) Region of the Asters and Solidagos (Michaelmas-daisies and golden-rods.)  The
eastem part of North America, with the exception of such as belongs to the fhst or arctic
district comprehends without doubt two regions ; for amongst 417 genera m Walter's Flora
of Carolma, 117 are wantmg in Barton's Flora of Philadelphia. The northem divisions of
the United States have, mdeed, but few genera which do not occur also m the southem - but
this only shows that a srniUar relation existe here to what takes place between the north and
south of Europe The southem region wUl mclude Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi.
l^uisiana, and Carolma ; the northem contams the other states of North America What
characterises this region is (besides the number of species of the genera Asterani s'olidaso)
the ^eat variety of Oaks and Firs ; the very few Cruciferce and Umbellifera, Cichoracea
and Cynarocephalm; the total absence of the genus Erica, and the presence of morenume-
rous^species of the allied family of Vaccinium (Whortleberries) than are to be met with hi
(6.) Region of Mag?iolia;.— This, which comprises thff southem parte of North America
is separated horn the precedmg region by the number of tropical forms which here appear!

^^ SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY, p^„T H,
tth^'t hJ'sZno^^'^lr' T'*' *''^^1"^'i% than on the similarparallelsof the old continent
S&c) fZ'i^ }! Sc*te«™e«, Cycadea, Anonacem, Sapindacea, Melast,Za,
mhshed bv n «1^^ "^"^ r'^-J' too, m corresponding latitudes, it is still forther distm-
KishinW Sw "^'T'^T °.f ^,f ^"^'^ ^-^^ Caryophyllea ; and by havmg more trees of
SLt &c/nX>h -'PH"^/! ^^°''°'T' ^*" Magnolias, the 'kzi;,-«ree, the Horse-
TlTLz^-' ^".'i^y'^th pinnated leaves (the Gleditschia, Robinia, Acacia, &c.)
the iovvPwCrtr! f- iS"**'- ^^PP"'"'' and Melastomas ; a very extensive region, including
GuinnT nnrf pJr "^ Mexico, Guatemala, the West Indies, New Grenada, Venezuela,
toee famSfef her'e^r^P 1^' 'i'°' " P"' °^ ^'^'^^^ ' ^ *°^' ^^ intertropical Aiierica. The
beloLs^xHulefv^rA ^"^ "^^^f pecuharly to characterise these comitries ; for the first
oS ofTese dS, ^''""^^ '".^ f • *' "^u""^ ^^° *^«^« «^'^t comparatively few species
Ihades and PoMnA fhf ' ^1 R^b^acea, the Solanea, (m which are classed the Mght-
sUaZThZlT.} '•"''^''-^^^^eci^Wis (Boraginee), the Passion-flowers and Coipo-
TLr'hfdJT \T ^^T^-A- ^' r^i ''^'^'°'* °f '^^^'^1- P^o^iJices, as that of the Ferns Li
Orchidea{m the West India islands) ; of the Palms (the continent of South America.)
Brazil ought certamly to constitute a peculiar provmce, if indeed it be not a distmct region ;
and the works of Spix and Martms, St Hilaire, the Prmce de Neuwied, &c., wiU soon eLble
us to characterise ite vegetable forms. The Melastoma and Palms appear tobelonff to the
more numerous inmates of this region. "s =
.u '^Pi ^"^^ "V^- <^''»='«'"'^ (or Medicinal Barks.)— It appears from Humboldt's works
that the middle districte (such at least m respect to theh altitude) of South America should
form a distmct region from that last mentioned, as they differ considerably from the low
fends ; and the name now proposed seems to be characteristic of theh vegetation, at least of
Peru and New Grenada, though certamly not of Mexico, where the species of Cinchrniaare
wantmg. (9.) Region of Escallonia, Vaccinia (Whortleberries), and Wintera (Wmter's Barks)
—These, accordhig to Humboldt, occupy the highest parte of South America. Besides the
plante mentioned, there belong to this region many species of Lobelia, Gentian, Slipper-
wort {Calceolaria), Sage, several European genera of Grasses, Brome, Festuca and Poa,
the Cichoracea, as Hypocharis and Apargia ; as well as the more strictly speaking alpine
plants {Saxifrages, Whitlow-grasses, Sandworts, and Sedges.) Perhaps also those parte
of the high lands where the species of Oak and Fir flourish belong to the same region, though
in all probability they constitute a peculiar province.
(10.) Chilian region. — It appears that ChUi should form a distmct region ; for amongst
the genera which appear there, not one half are found in the low districte of South America.
Its character, perhaps, most resembles that of the mountainous country in ite Slipperworts,
Escallonia, Weinmannia, Baa, Bellflowers, and Buddlea ; but yet the difference is
scarcely sufficient to constitute it a provhice. The Flora of this country appears to he essen
tially distinct from that of New Holland, the Cape, and New Zealand; though an approach
to them is observable in Goodenia, Araucaria (Chilian pine,) the Protea famUy, Gunnera,
and Ancistrum.
(11.) Region of arborescent Composita (syngenesious plante with tree-like stems.) —
This takes in Buenos Ayres, and in general the eastern side of the temperate part of South
America. It has been already remarked, that the Flora of this district of the world agrees
to a considerable degree with that of Europe ; amongst 109 genera, 70 are likewise European,
and 85 in the north temperate zone. On the other hand, it differs considerably from the
Floras of the Cape and of New Holland, for the Proteas, the Myrtle tribe, and the Mimosas
are either wholly wanting, or are seen but sparingly ; and there are no Epacrida, Heaths,
Iridea, Mesembryanthema, or Geraniums. Nor can it be compared with tlie Flora of the
north-west coast of America ; for amongst 189 genera mentioned, only 35 are found in ChUi.
The characteristics of this region seem to lie in the great number of Arborescent Syngenesia,
(particularly of the sub-famUy Boopidea), which, however, do not exclusively appertain to
it, but are also seen at the Cape.
(12.) Antarctic region. — This includes the countries near the Straite of Magellan. There
is a considerable affinity between the vegetation here and what is seen in the north temperate
zone ; for, amongst 82 known genera from thence, tliere are 59 of them which have species
in the northern hemisphere. The arctic polar forms also appear, such as Sedges (Carices),
Saxifrages, Gentians, Arbutus, and Primroses. Some resemblance to the highlands of
South America and to Chili is also shown in the Slipperworts, Ourisia, Baa, Bolax, Win
tera, Escallonia ; to the Cape, in the genera Gladiolus, Witseiiia, Gunnera, Ancistrum,
Oxalis ; and to New HoUand, in Proteacea and Mninrnm,
(13.) Rririon of New Zealand. — This weU deserves to be characterised as a separate
region, nltlinugh its vegetation be a mixture of what prevaUs on the neai-est continente, as
South Amoricn, Southern Africa, and New Holland. It has, in common witli South Ame
rica, AiiHstrttm, Wriiimaiinin, Wintera; with Southern Afirica, the Fig Marigolds, Gna-
phalium Xrranihema (Everlastings), Tctragonia (tho femous New Zealand Spinach), Wood-
sorrel, and Passcrina; and with "New Holland, tlie Epacris, Melaleuca, Myoporum; with

Book IH. IN ITS RELATION TO BOTANY. 253
both tlie latter, the femUies of Proteacea and Restiacea :^me species also are commoo
Sh to New Holland and Van Diemen's land, for in^ceMniarumbiflorum, Samolus lit-
loralis, Gentiana montana; the first also a native of the Straits of Magellan
(U) Region of Epacrides and Eucalypti: comprehendmg the temperate parte of JNow
Holland t^ether with Van Diemen's Land.-This region is yei7 marked. The famUies of
S^ckhou^!a^lTremandrea are quite peculiar to New HoUand, the Epacridea n^rly ^.
pToteaZ Macia, Aphylla, and the greater number of the M^^'^fai^ily especiaUy of the
glZa Eucalyptus, Leptospermum, Melaleuca): the Stylidea Restiacia C«s««nne.^
DioLea, sepZte it from ofiier regions. The tropical part of New Holland, according to
Brown, can hardly be united to this, but must be either a particular region, whose llora
resembles that of India, or else a province of this latter region.
(15) Region of Fig-Marigolds (Mesembryanthema) and Stapehas.— This comprehends
the southern extremity of Africa, the Flora of which is distmguished by a high degree ot
peculiarity. By the famUies Proteacea, Restiacea, Polygala (MUkworts), Diosmea, it may
be recognised from most others, except New Holland, and from this it is distinguished by the
two numerous genera Mesembryanthemum and Stapelia, and by the family Ericea, whicn
is here more abundant than anywhere else. Further characteristics of this region may be
found m the many Iridea, Gerania, Oxalidea, and the extremely large proportion ot Com
posita. On the otlier hand, there exist m this district as m New Holland, but very sparmgly,
those peculiar forms of the northern temperate zones, the Crucifera,Ranunculacea, Rosa
cea, Umbellifera, Caryophyllea.
(16.) Region of Western Africa.— We are only acquamted with Guinea and Congo, the
vegetation of which, as we have aheady remarked, possesses but few peculiarities, and is a
mixture of the Floras of Asia and America, though most resembling the former. The Ame
rican tropical famUies of Cacti, Peppers, Palms, Passion-flowers, are either absent entirely,
or they occur in small numbers. Leguminosa are more numerous than in America. Above
two thirds of the genera and some of the species of Gnmea are found also in the East
Indies. On the other hand, this region approxhnates to America, in possessing many Ru-
biacea, as also m the genera Schwenkia, Elais (a palm), Paullinia, Malpighia, and several
more which are wantmg in Asia, and in several species which it has in common with Ame
rica. A considerable proportion of Grasses and Sedges (Cyperaceaa), with the peculiar genus
Adansonia (the Baobab, which is the largest known tree hi the world), belong to the char
acteristics of this country. The interior of Africa is unknown to us.
(17.) Region of Eastern Africa.— Of the coast of this side of Africa and the adjacent
islands our knowledge is imperfect We are tolerably acquamted with the islands of Bour
bon and France ; of Madagascar we know but little ; and of th.e east coast itself scarcely
anything. The Flora of the two first-named islands has a considerable resemblance to tha*
of India! Amongst 290 known genera, 196 of them (equal to two thirds) are found also m
India ; and of the species, not a few are likewise Indian ; many of these, however, may have
been introduced by the constant intercourse that takes place between these two parte of the
globe. The genera Eugenia, Ficus (fig), Urtica (nettle). Euphorbia (spurge), Hedysarum,
Panicum, Andropogon, Sida, Pandanus (screw-pine), Dracana (dragon-wood), Conyza
are very numerous in species, as are the same genera in India. In ferns, these islands are
peculiarly rich. Again, their flora differs considerably from the South African ; an analogy
existing, however, in theh possessing single representatives of the Cape genera Erica, Ixia,
Gladiolus, Bleria, Mesembryanthemum, Seriphium, Emd several arborescent Syngenesia.
Still less is the affinity to the extra-tropical parte of New HoUand. The similarity is
stronger to the tropical portion of that country, of which the flora also approaches that of
India. Single genera are all that it seems to possess in common with America ; for instance,
Melicocca, Ruizia, Dodonaa, Dichondra. The foUowing are, perhaps, peculiar to this
region, Latania, Ilubertia, Poupartia, Tristemma, Fissilia, Cordylina, Assonia, Fernalia,
Lubinia, and others. The flora of Madagascar seems very peculiar. It agrees with the
islands last mentioned ; and several genera are seen nowhere else than in them and Mada
gascar ; for example, Danais, Ambora, Dombeya, Dufourea, Didymomeles, Senacea ; several
species also are common to both ; as Didymomeles Madagascariensis, Danais fragrans.
Cinchona Afro-inda. StUl, among the 161 known genera from Madagascar, 54 only are
found in the Isles of France and Bourbon ; so that there might be good grounds for forming
a separate region of the first ; unless, perhaps, the east coast of Africa should come under
the same. With New Holland and the Cape, Madagascar has probably still less in common
than the two other islands.
(18.) Scitaminean region (of the Turmeric, Zedoary, Cardamom, Indian-shot, Sic), or
the Indian Flora, — To this appertain India, east and west of the Ganges, together with the
islands between India and New Holland ; perhaps, also, that diyision of New Holland which
falls within the tropics. The Scitaminea are here in far greater numbers than in America ;
also, though to a less degree, the Leguminosa, Cucurbitacea, Tiliacea. The previously
mentioned South American forins are rare, or else wanting. This reffion should be separated
Vol. L 22

^^ SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY, Part II,
degreeTie^Sy!''' ''"' ^' ^'' ""' '^°'' *°° ^^"^' "^ ™'^'^''" ^'^'^ "^ ^'^'^^^ ^i* any
hpi*'n^'L?!?V^"'^*T feJg-Wanrf* ought to form one or perhaps two regions, theh vegetation
and ra^Z ''""'^'i: *° *^'-?f ^'^^ ^°^^'^^^= ^ t^« middle^egion, MeZ^ifo^,,., OrcMdea,
North Asi^i^PfT *°i?\7^'V ^ ^''^ ^'^^^'' *^ vegetation is more like the European aS
&e whole^rcpntr^^'y 1^1 •^^P'trf = '^''^ •'^^*"'='« P^^baps constitute one region witS
Kof India bfBif'^i^"*/w ¦*.'''" "^^^^^ ^« ^1^" know much more when the
%n^ -fl ^;^ Roxburgh and WaUich is completed.
esSally i^ ™w-!^' *°v"' "f^^.f^d of Cochinchina partly resembles that of India,
Sa n is tfuAh^t ri^'"' '.^* '^"^u I^-l^eiro's Flora contahis a great many peculia^
fhen ae velSfon nf^tv f ^^ °,r^'l '^. ^^^"^ genera might be%educed ; but even
Snct regfon! ^'^ ^'^^^^'^ P'°^^ sufficiently peculiar to constitute a
PereL'^ s^emrfii? "'^ *'^.' ?"***" ""''i ^'r*'"' ^''^'^^ P^'^v'^il particularly m Arabia and
fuSXZi, tl'''' ^ have a good right to be separated from India,'as it is already
bv Por,k^ distmct fi:om the Mediterranean region (No. 3.); for, of 281 genera mentioned
by Forskal, 109 only are found m the south of Europe. It is more probable that the Flora
^liinM P^f 1 ^^"'^r^ ^*^"=^ appertahis to this region. Abysshiia perhaps forms a
distmct region, ite elevated parts possessmg such a different clunate
(22.) The islands in the South Sea which lie withm the tropics form perhaps a separate
region ; though with but a slender degree of peculiarity. Among 214 genVra, 173 are
found in India; most of the remamder are m common with America; for histence, Chio-
cocca, Weinmannia Guajacum. Of the species which exist equaUy m them and Asia, are
liapania nodiflora, Kyllingia monocephala, Fimbristylis dichotomy, Toumefortia argentea.
Plumbago zeylanica, Morinda umbellata, Sophora tomentosa. In common with Aiierica,
Dodonaa viscosa, Sapindus saponaria (soap-berry): with both Rhizophora Mangle (man
grove tree) : it has also some m common with New Holland, as Daphne indica (a species
ot iipurge Laurel). Peculiar famUies, or such as have there a decided maxunum, can
scarcely be cited ; though, on the other hand, most of the species are pecuhar. The Bread
fruit IS among the characteristics of these islands ; though this tree is not confined to the
South Seas.
The Ihnit of the present essay does not allow of the mtended mtroduction of the geo
graphical situation of many of the more usefol and important plante, which Professor Schouw
has so ably delmeated ; such as that of the Beech, the Vine, the Fir tribes, the Heaths,
Corn, and such fraite or vegetables as are employed as bread : the Palms, the Proteaca,
which form so remarkably strUt ing a feature in the Cape of Good Hope and in New HoUand •
the Composita, which are perhaps more universaUy diflused than any other kind of plant ;
the Crucifera, to which the Cabbage, Turnip, Mustard, Scurvy-grass, &c. appertam ;
and the leguminous tribes, whose seeds (as the Pea and Bean), axe so valuable for man,
and whose foliage, as the Lupine and Trefoil, &c. affords most of the nourishment to cattle.
We must endeavour to incorporate these with the vegetation of the various regions where
they are found in the greatest abundance.

CHAPTER n.
GEOGRAPHY CONSIDERED IN RELATION TO THE DISTRIBUTION OF MAN AND AOTMALS.
The geographic distribution of animated beings is a branch of natural history which only
of late years has engaged the attention of phUosophers. The celebrated Blumenbach was
the first, we believe, who generalized the numerous fecte connected with the physiology of
man, and proved that all the varieties may be referred to certain types of form, equally
distinct in their physical stmcture and in tlieh geographic distribution. But whether from
prejudice, or from the varied and comprehensive sphere of zoology, which renders the subject
too vast for the power of any one mind, certain it is that animal geography has been almost
neglected. Isolated detaUs, relative to particular countries, classes, or famUies, have been suc-
cessfoUy investigated ; but no one has yet attempted to generalize these materials, and use them
towards the discovery of the laws of creation. An attempt to ascertain the range of par
ticular species simply within a certain district or kingdom, is merely an inquhy into theh
local distribution ; but if our views ai-e extended beyond such confines, and we embrace a
largo portion of the globe, tracing the relations of its animals, witli those of the remaining
portions, it is then only that we enter upon the comprehensive subject of geographic dis
tribution. The inquiries relative to physical distribution, when directed to the animal world, assume
a higher importance than those, however interesting, which regard plante: for not only do
animals appear incalculably more numerous than vegetables, but tlieir nateral range, depen
dent on a iimlliplicity of concurrent cau.scs, appears to be much more distinctly marked.

Book IH. IN ITS RELATION TO MAN. '55
Plante, mdeed, m a great degree, are stationary beings ; but nature has w^^^^^
theh removal and dispersion to the most distant regions, by the ^ versihed struc urc or tena
cious vitalitv with which the seeds of numerous femUies are endowed; hence they become
rsportedV various natural causes to distant shores and without any assi^^^^^^^^^
human aid, take root flourish, and mcrease m lands ^--d'stant from those which appear to
have been theh native regions. It is otherwise with animals: they may, it is true, be
removed Lm their S^^^^^ domesticated and naturalized elsewhere;
but with the exception of those which seem to have been origmally destined for the service
of man, such nataraUzation is only effected by artificial means, and by slow degrees through
several generations. If such transported animals be left to themselves, or rather to the
natural resources for supportmg life peculiar to theh new abode, they almost mvariably pme
and die. Agam, plante, from bemg inferior to anhnals m the complexity of then: structure,
are, perhaps, necessarily dependent on fewer causes for retammg the vital energy ; their
dispersion is, consequently, upon the whole, much more extensive. It may be mentioned,
m support of this remark, that out of 600 plante discovered m tropical Africa by Professor
Smith, one-twelflh have been ascertamed, by Robert Brown, to be natives also ot India and
South America, Now, if either the vertebrated or mvertebrated anunals, not aquatic, ot
Westem Africa, were compared m a shnilar way with those of the paraUel latitudes in
America and India, the proportion coUectively would hardly amount to one m a hundred:
mdeed, with regard to the vertebrated orders, it is very questionable whether even one spe
cies is truly mdigenous to tropica] Africa and to America; so totally different are the zoolo
gical features of these continente, even at theh nearest approxhnation : and yet, m the
above number of plante, no less than twenty-two species are enumerated, as common to equi
noctial Africa, India, and America. These facte, whUe they strengthen the belief that
zoology is a more fevourable field than botany for discovermg the laws of natural distribu
tion, lead us to consider the modes by which such inquhies are most beneficially prosecuted.
Sect. I. — Modes of investigating the Subject.
The powerfol effect produced on animals by temperature, food, and locality, are known to
aU : whether as regards the range of any particular species, or the numbers of which it may
be composed. The effect of these agencies is mdeed so great, that some writers have looked
upon them as primary causes, and have imagined that by such laws alone has nature regu
lated the distribution of the whole anhnal creation: Very many instances, no doubt, from
among the diversities of animal structure, may be urged in support of this theory ; but how
far it can be reconcUed with other and more general fects, which wUl be apparent on a
wider view of the subject, we shall hereafter investigate. It is clear that, by whatever
laws Nature may have been guided, numerous exceptions will be found, proportionate to the
vast and almost infinite variety she has displayed in her productions. There is, perhaps, no
theory professing to explain the laws of Nature, whether on animal distribution or natural
afiinities, which the wit of man could possibly devise, that might not be supported with great
plausibility, by certein fecte, presented by those radiating threads of connexion, and those
apparent deviations from her general laws, which are everywhere apparent : yet these wUl
frequently be opposed to other facte ; and thus it becomes necessary, before determining on
which side the preponderance of evidence lies, that we take as wide a survey of the general
distribution of animals as the existing state of knowledge will admit To set out with the
belief that the laws of geographic distribution are folly ascertained, and that nothing remains
but to make ourselves acquainted with the range of individual species, is a doctrine which
can only be compared to those principles of classification insisted upon liy the methodists of
the last age in natural history, who considered that all the generic groups had been discovered,
and that foture naturaliste had nothing left but to appropriate to them the newly discovered
species, in the best manner they could.
Towards the discovery of the natural geography of animals there is, however, another
mode of investigation, analogous to what we now pursue, in searching after the true series
of theh affinities : this is, to lay aside all preconceived theories, and to begin with considering
the primary causes of geographic distribution to be, what in truth they really are, totally
unknown. We are thus compelled to take a general survey of all the existing animals yet
discovered, and now dispersed over the globe ; and, from the facts so elicited, endeavour to
attain such general inferences as are supported by a preponderance of evidence, fomished
by nature herself. By the first method, as it has been traly said, we make nature bend to
our own arbitrary theories; while by the second we humbly endeavour to receive her
mstructions ; strivmg to obtam a glimpse of that stupendous plan which can never be folly
understood by fallible and imperfect mortals.
The geographic distribution of man is connected in our survey with that of anhnals ; not
so much in compliance with the popular notion, by which the noblest work of God is classed
as a genus next to the bmte, but because we may fairly presume, from the great diversity

"^^^ SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY, Pakt U.
observed among the human species, that theh variation and dispersion is regulated by some
general plan ; and that such plan may be analogous to that which is apparent in the distri
bution of anhnals. It may be urged, indeed, that such a remarkable coincidence, if proved,
mi^ht tend to sanction the modern theory of classing man and brutes together ; but the only
legitimate construction which we thmk could be fairly drawn from such a fact would be,
that there is but one plan of geographic distribution and of creation throughout nature.
Against classing man with quadrupeds we must enter our decided protest And here we
cannot refrain from expressing regret that a naturalist of no ordmary talent has recently
adopted this degrading theory, in apparent opposition to his former most just and philosophic
views of the subject He admits "the greatness of the gulf between man and the orang
outang ;' yet, because they possess certam analogies of physical structure, is it a necessary
conclusion that they form one group l {Linn. Trans, xvi. 1. p. 22.) This, at least was not
the opinion (as this philosopher candidly admite) of either Aristotle or Ray, whom he justly
considers the two greatest zoologists that have ever existed. It has been argued that the
natural pride of philosophy withheld such men from classing themselves with brates; but
we are more disposed to think they were influenced by higher considerations. However
this may be, there is an innate repugnance, or rather a disgust and abhorrence, in every
human mind, enlightened or illiterate, against the admission of such a relationship. Reve
lation everywhere places maji, even in his fallen state, hi absolute contrast and contradiction
with " the beasts that perish." It is not merely a feeling of pride ; it is an hmate loathing,
engrafted in our nature, apparently for the very purpose of teachmg us how immeasurably
far we are removed from the brutes that have no understanding. Man has fallen, miserably
fallen, but this is from the corruption of that pure sphit with which he was created : his
form was then, as it is now ; nor are we to suppose that man, as he came fashioned by his
Creator, without sin, was clothed in a different form to that which he now, in a sinfol state,
exhibits. Are we then to place such a being in a zoological chcle, surrounded with apes
and baboons ¦! or are material and immaterial natures so closely allied, that they may be
classed together?
There is another argument against including man in the zoological chcle, fomished by
the very theory upon which that hypothesis is buUt If the circular system is part of the
system of nature, whicli at this time of day is perfectly demonstrable, every being has two
affinities : by the one, it is connected to that which precedes it ; by the other, to that by
which it is succeeded. Now, before we can brmg man within the chcle of the Quadruma-
na, on the strength of his affinity (whether near or remote) to the orang outang, we must
show to what class of animals he is connected on the other hand. What then are our dou
ble affinities in the vertebrate circle 1 We may be allied distantly, perhaps, to Simia. But
where is the second affinity ¦? K this cannot be pointed out, the whole theory, in our esti
mation, falls to the ground, since the presumed type of the anhnal 'kingdom contradicts the
laws by which creation is supposed to be regulated ; man exhibiting a single affinity, and
the rest of organised matter a double one. "Take him from the animal chcle, — place him
between matter and spirit ; — and his double afiinities become at once apparent.
A general sketch of the physical peculiarities of man in all his variations wUl first claim
our attention ; the regions inhabited by the different races, and the affinities by which they
appear connected, wUl also be briefly noticed. This part of our subject wUl be conducted
on a somewhat different plan from that which we shaU pursue m the sequel. The profound
researches of Blumenbach and Cuvier, and the acute and patient mvestigations of Lawrence
and Pritchard, have aU conspired to produce nearly the same general conclusions on tliose
pomts to which we shall particularly draw the reader's attention. These conclusions, more
over, demand our fullest confidence, from being founded on as rigid analysis as the nature
of the subject wiU admit Hence, we have no need, m this place, of entermg into details,
or of pursumg the same mode of investigation to which we shall have recourse when sub
sequently treating of animal distribution.
Sect. II. — Varieties of the Human Race.
The varieties of the human race, accordhig to the opinion of the greatest comparative
anatomist, may aU be included under three primary divisions, between which, m theh typi
cal examples, a very marked difference is observed. These M. Cuvier has termed, 1. the
fair or Caucasian variety ; 2. the yellow or Mongolian ; 3. the black or Ethiopian.
The classification proposed by the celebrated Blumenbach, although apparently different
is but a modification of that promulgated by Baron Cuvier. The former considers the Etluo-
pian typo as divisible into three, 1, the American; 2. tlie Negro; and 3. the Malay. The latter
indicates tliese additional races, but considers their peculiarities as less prominent tlian those
of tho two former ; he does not therefore admit them among the primary divisions of the
human race. Without at present, offering any opinion upon this question, we shall first
take a rapid survey of tho peculiarities, physical and moral, of all these groups.

Book HI. IN ITS RELATION TO MAN. 257
(1) Tho Caucasian race {fig. 70.) is typically chai-acterised by a white skm ; red cheeks ;
70 

copious, soft, flowmg hsdr, generally curied or wavmg; ample beard; small, oval, and
straight face, with the features very distmct; expanded forehead ; large and elevated crani
um ; narrow nose ; and small mouth. ¦, • ^, , - 1, ..
The moral feelmgs and hitellectual powers of this race have been developed in the highest
degree of perfection which human nature has ever exhibited. The Caucasian has given
bhth te the most civUized nations, both in ancient and modern times, and has always exer
cised dommion over the rest of mankind, when not opposed by a vast superiority of physical
strength. The mighty nations of antiquity, and the no less resistless powers concentrated
in modern Europe, evmce the superiority of this race in aU that ennobles the immaterial
part of man, and all that renders him formidable to his fellow-creatures ; whUe every age
witnesses a progressive but a surprising advance in all those qualities which indicate intel
lectual endowment.
The origmal seat of the Caucasian race is supposed, as the name implies, to have been
that lofty cham of mountams between the Black and Caspian Seas. This supposition, as
Lawrence observes, is in unison with all that can be traced of the original abode of our first
parente ; and is further confirmed by the natives of these regions being, to this day, the most
beautifully formed of aU the inhabitante of the earth. From the Caucasian Alps different
branches of this race diverge in every dhection, as from a common centre ; the peculiarities
of each being modified, altered, and finally lost, in proportion as they recede from the ori
ginal seat of theh tribe.
Of the branches of the Caucasian race, the most powerfol is the Pelasgic, which spreads
over the greater part of Europe and Western Asia at its most northern limits, while it blends
with the Mongolian race by means of the Fins and Laplanders. From this branch sprang
the powerful nations of Greece and Rome, which have been succeeded by the mighty king
doms of modern Europe. The next is the Syrian, which takes a southerly dhection ; and
includes that portion of Asia formerly inhabited by the Assyrians, Chaldeans, and the ancient
Egyptians. "The Indian branch, by some thought to be the same with the Pelasgic, passes
to the East, and loses iteelf among the inferior casts of Hindostan. A fourth branch is the
Scythian or Tartaric, which spread over the more northem parte of Asia ; and gave birth to
those wandering and mthless hordes who, by the physical power of numbers, devastated and
finally overthrew the polished empires of Greece and Rome. The wandering and pastoral
habite of this tribe have conspired to preserve their pecuharities unmixed with those of the
neighbouring nations ; except, indeed, m Lesser Tartary, where this branch of the Caucasian
race loses itself in the Mongolian.
(2.) The Mongolian variety {fig. 71.) has these characteristics :— The skin, mstead of

white or fair, is olive yellow; the hair thm, coarse, and straight; little or no beard; broad
flattened face, with the features mnning together ; smaU and low forehead; square-shaned
cranmm ; wide and smaU nose ; very oblique eyes ; and thick lips. Stature inferior to the
Caucasian. In this race the moral and mtellectual energies have been developed in an inferior
degree. Tradition, indeed, has assigned to the most powerful nation, the Chinese a hic-h
degree of civUization, at a period when Europe was m a state of barbarism Yet there are
many circumstances which throw considerable suspicion on this feet : and even if it be allowed
a stronger proof could not possibly be produced to show the ihnited intellectual powers of this

^^ SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY, PartU.
^VJf ?i'^® the European Caucasian nations have advanced from rude savages to become
Tsta nn '¦'^°'^'^' '^' ^^^'''' ^^' '^^''^^S a certain state of civilization, We remahi!
fnyahS; ZT""^ TlT' '^T^^ "J""^ ^^"^^ °^ '^es. Solitary exce'ptions crn^t
hltorvtfnrl ' ^"i"^""'!^ "^^.^""^ *^'' "°' °"ly ^ ""-^ °^n t™es, but so far back as
three cPntnZ T' "^l ^^ *i'!."=lv?°^'',*''^ mventions, nor the improvemente of the last
ton. "=^"'^""^' have changed the Mongolian nations from what they then were, we can come
to no other conclusion than that they are nationally mcapacitated from further improve-
tei^s'of A^ltaf supposes that the origin of the Mongolian race may have been m the momi-
wWp itt 1.;^ .^®T '*- ^ 'P'^^^ °^^' the whole of central and northem Asia,
Tther T fl rthpTT *^ Fn"n"'' °" *^^ °°^ ^^-l' ^""i the Caucasian Tartars on the
and ; W . ^^"^%^ the Eastem Ocean, and includes the Japanese, the Coreans,
ferther tb«f 1 "^^ rw" ° V'V" J-'^'"^"'• ^^ "¦"'*' to the south appear to extend no
farther than to that part of Hmdostan north of the Ganges, while the Mongolian fea
tures only predominate over those of the Indo-Caucasian in the lower caste of ^e Eastern
reninsula. The origin of the Esquimaux and other polaric nations found on the most northern Ihnite
ot Europe and America, has given rise to great diversity of ophiion. Argumente of nearly
equal weight, but of opposite tendency, have been employed to show, on the one hand, that
the Esquimaux belong to the American variety ; and on the other, to prove theh structure
more in unison with that of the Mongolian. The latter opmion has been supported by Mr
Lawrence ; and although we consider the weight of argument to be on this side, it appears
not at aU improbable that both these suppositions are in part correct We have before
observed, that the characters of each race become less and less apparent, the farther they
are removed from their particular type. The proxunity of the northem regions of Asia to
those of America, renders it highly probable either that theh respective inhabitante mmgled
their races at a remote period, or that the northem Mongolians, whose civUization is sup
posed to be of so great antiquity, were the first to emigrate, and people the northem regions
of America. At all evente, it appears certein that the Esquimaux nations unite in themselves
many of the characters of two distinct races ; and the only theory by which we can recon-
cUe these doubts on their true origin, is that of supposing them to form the Imk of connex
ion between the Mongolian and that race which spreads over the remaining portion of the
new world. The brief notice we have now teken of the two most powerful races or varie
ties of the human form is sufficient to show theh marked superiority over aU others, whether
as regards the symmetry or beauty of theh physical structare, or the stUl more strikhig
developement of theh moral powers. Hence they both become typical, although in different
degrees,- of that perfection which the Creator has bestowed upon man, in this his probatory
state of existence.
The third primary division or leading variety of the human race, according to the views
of the illustrious Cuvier, is the negro or Ethiopian. This, again, presente three variations,
considered by Cuvier as secondary, and by Blumenbach as primary. Although these varia
tions are not so great as those between either the Caucasian, the Mongolian, or the African
(the latter being considered the type of the Ethiopian variety), stUl they are sufficiently im
portant to merit a particular specification under distmct names ; and tiiey are accordingly
termed the American, the Ethiopian, and the Malay varieties.
In the American variety {fig. 72.) the skm is dark, and more or less red ¦ the hah black,
72

straight, and strong, with the beard smaU; fece and skull very srniUar to the Mongolian,
but the former not so flattened ; eyes sunlc ; forehead low ; the nose and other features being
somewhat projecting. The moral and inteUectual character of tins race is m unison with
the great difference it presente in outward form from the Caucasian. LUce the Mongoliwi,
it has remained stationary; but stopped at a pomt very much below that to which the
Asiatics have reached. The ancient and now extmct empires of Mexico and the Incas
may be considered analogous to those of Chuia and India, exhibitmg the highest point ot
civilization to which the two races have ever reached ; but ferther than this the comparison
cannot be carried. Arts, sciences, and aU those intellectual endowmente which have fol-

Book IU.

IN ITS RELATION TO MAN.

259

lowed the progress of the Caucasian race, and to a certahi extent belong also to tiie Asiatics,
anlear to havfmade littie or no progress among tiie Americans, even m the gorgeous court
rZitezuma. men that moWS despatehed messengers to W^ an account o^^^^^^
first Soaniards who landed on his territories, so ignorant were the Mexicans ot hgures or
of writbTthat^heir report was made in complicated hieroglyphics, mixed witii rude figures
of The k-fses and persons of these unknown mvaders. Theh idolatrous worship enjomed
no mord dutieriike those of tiie superstition of Fo; and ite rites were celebrated by human
sSfs of "ich a revolthig nature'as to be worthy only of demons .It deserves attentio^
tiiat whUe the central portion of America presented m ite original mhabitants such a de
graded picture of the human mind, the nortiiern nations of the new world, partakmg more
of the Mongolian aspect, evmced a higher degree of inteUect It is true they were only
wandermg b-ibes of hunters, yet tiiey appear to have had a foU belief m the existence of
one "Great Sphit" and m a blissfol hnmortality for tiiemselves. The American race,
blendmg with tiie Mongolian to the north, spreads over the whole of tiie new world ; but
whetiier any traces of tiiis type exist beyond tiiese lunits, is a question which has not hitherto
been investigated. , , , , , „ , ,,
In tiie Etiiiopian variety (Jg. 73.), the skm is black ; hair short, black, and woolly ; skulJ
73

compressed on the sides, and elongated towards the front ; forehead low, narrow, and slant
ing ; cheekbones very prominent ; jaws projecting, so as to render the upper front teeth
oblique ; eyes prominent ; nose broad and flat ; lips (especially the upper one) particularly
thick. The African or Ethiopian race has ever remahied in a rude and comparatively bar
barous state. Their cities are but congregations of hute ; their laws, the despotic whim of
the reigning chief. Incessantly occupied in war or in the chase, they seek not to perpetuate
theh ideas. They have no written language, nor even a code of hieroglyphics. Abundantly
supplied by nature with every necessary of life, they have retained their character un
changed, after centuries of intercourse with the most enlightened nations. Different branches
of this type spread over the whole of the African continent, excepting those parte bordering
the north and east of the Great Desert, which are occupied by the Caucasian Syrians, and
where all traces of the negro formation disappear.
The Malay variety (Jig. 74.) varies in the colour of the skin from a light tawny to a deep
74

brown, approachmg to black; hair black, more or less curled, and abundant; head rather
narrow ; bones of the face large and promhient ; nose foil and broad towards the tip. Under
this variety, observes Mr. LawTence, are included races of men very different in organiza
tion and qualities. They nevertheless present certein general pohite of resemblance, which
forbid their association with either of the foregoing varieties. Under this head are, there
fore, mcluded the inhabitants of Malacca, of Sumatra, and of the mnumerable islands of the
Indian Archipelago and the great Pacific Ocean. Most of these tribes are stated to speak
the Malay language, which may be traced, in the various ramifications of this diversified
race, from Madagascar to Easter Island. Theh moral character is no less various than their

2^0 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY, Paet U.
outward form. In such as, by the colour of their skin and their woolly hah-, show a general
approximation to the African type, the mental powers are littie developed. Theh language,
however, is stated to be peculiar, and they appear to have a copious bushy beard. {Law
rence, 489.) Branches of^ this division of the Malay race spread over the great islands of
Sumatra, Bomeo, and Andaman ; and they appear also to occupy the Molucca and PhUippme
Islands. They are described as living in the same stete of wUd and savage barbarity as do
the Bushmen of Southem Africa, and such other branches of the Ethiopian variety as appear
the lowest in the scale of form and inteUect There is, however, a lighter-coloured and
superior race, inhabiting some of the Indian islands, where an oval countenance, longer hair,
and finer form, evince a much greater affinity with the Indo-Caucasian type on one side,
and a strong analogy to the New Zealanders and Pacific tribes on the other. Proceedmg
along the same insular chain, we meet with " negro-like men " having curly hah, in the
immense island of New Gumea, and m those south-western groups denominated New Ire
land, New Hebrides, and New Caledonia. The natives of the vast contment of New Hol
land show strong indications of the same origm, and of the same untameable barbarism ;
yet theh features are described as not unpleasant, theh skin is rather copper-coloured than
black, and their hah either curlmg or straight. The natives of the mterior have been
described as somewhat more civilized, and as speakmg a language different from that used
on the coast. In the neighbouring island of New Zealand a considerable change from the
black Malayan tribes takes place. The superior castes of these islanders in theh persons
are tall, active, and well made ; their skm is brown, and theh long black hah is sometunes
straight sometimes curlmg. A degree of inteUect superior to aU the tribes we have
enumerated, accompanies these personal advantages. Retaining many of the barbarous
customs of their neighbours, the New Zealanders have, nevertheless, made some progress
in the arte of life since theh intercourse with Europeans : they believe in a Supreme Being,
and in a happy immortality ; and evince, in various ways, a deshe to hnprove theh condition.
The natives of the Friendly Islands have the dark complexion of the New Zealanders, but are
a much superior race. They are of the ordinary European stature, though some are above
six feet high ; theh colour is a deep brown, verging in the better classes on a light olive ;
theh features, like those of the New Zealanders, are various, approximating in some respecte
to them, and also to the tme Europeans. Their progress in civUization and in intellectaal
developement is considerable ; as a proof of which, it is mentioned that they have terms to
express numbers up to 100,000. The Oteheitians have long been celebrated for theh per
sonal beauty : the lower orders, indeed, are of the same brown tint so generaUy prevalent
in the Friendly Islands, but in those of a superior caste this is gradually lost untU we find
in the higher ranks a skin nearly white, or at least but slightly tinged with brown ; and
although the usual colour of their hair is black, yet it is of a fine texture, and frequent
instances occur in which it is brown, flaxen, and even red. Theh persons are weU made,
their features sometimes even beautifol, and a blush may be readUy observed on the cheek
of the women. The harmony of their language, and their shnple though refined manners,
have been universally remarked. These national characteristics extend to the Society
Islands. Lastly, The natives of the Marquesas have been described as the finest race in the
Southem Ocean: "in form they are, perhaps, the finest m the world." Theh skm is
naturaUy " very fair," and the colour of theh hah exhibits all tiie varied shades, (excepthig
red), which are found in the different tribes of the Caucasian race.
Sect. IIL — On the Causes of these Varieties.
The foUowing questions naturaUy arise from considermg these characteristics of the most
prominent varieties of the human race ; founded as tiiey are on tiie concurrent testimony of
travellers, and generalised by the most eminent physiologiste :— 1. Wlietiier these races, so
dissimilar in their typical peculiarities, have origmally proceeded from one, or from distinct
stocks] 2. Are they so strongly marked as not to present many and great deviations ^ and,
3 To what causes are they to be attributed 1 • . ,.
In regard to the origin of the human race, there have not been wantmg those, who,
disbelieving the evidences of the Mosaic history, have attempted to establish tiie hypotiiesis
that tiiese races have each sprung from diflerent stocks; or, tiiat tiiey are, m feet, so many
species Now, this, at the best is but an assumption perfectly gratuitous ; not only because
every record from which it could receive any support is expressly opposed to it, but because
it is in direct violation of a primary and universal law of nature : a law by which the lowe^
beino- of the animal creation shrinks instinctively from intermixing ite species wMi that ot
another It has, moreover, been folly ascertained that however great tiie variations of the
human form may be, such variations among different breeds of tiie same species of ^una
arc even greater. Unless, tlierefore, it can be proved that the laws of nature with respect
to man and animals are contradictory, we shall, by attaching the least weight to the above
theory, openly violate every principle of philosophic reasoning, as we 1 as renounce all beliel
in revealed religion. On this head the Mosaic records are clear and explicit; and however
tiie sceptic may deny their inspiration, he cannot bring forward, on his side, any testunony

Book m. IN ITS RELATION TO MAN. 2&1
of such remote antiquity, or of such generally admitted credibUity. As to tiie second ques
tion, it must not be understood tiiat in arranging the varieties of man under a certain num
ber of divisions, and assignmg to each a peculiar character, there does not occiir many and
very remarkable exceptions m each. So much, indeed, is tins the case, tiiat there are not
wanting instances of native African tribes havhig the light skm of Europeans, Caucasians
combmino- the Mongolian witii the Malay stmcture, Americans resembling whites, and Afri
cans with the copper-coloured skhi of the American ; nay, even in the same island or pro
vmce, a great diversity both m language and in physical structure, is sometunes apparent, and
this between tribes bordering close upon each other ; so that with the exception of a coni-
poi-atively small portion of each principal race, we find so much diversity in the remaining
or aberrant branches — the typical peculiarities become so modified, altered, or evanescent,
that it is totaUy hnpossible to draw an absolute line of demarcation between them.
This pomt has frequently been adverted to by a well-known physiologist, who says, " there
is no circumstance, whether of corporeal structure or of mental endowment, which does not
pass by imperceptible gradations into the opposite character, rendermg all those distmctions
merely relative, and reducmg them to differences m degree. It is concluded, therefore, that
every arrangement of these varieties must be in a great measure arbitrary." {Lawrence's
Led. p. 472.) Yet admitting this variation to the foUest extent, it cannot alter the correct
ness of the principle on which these distinctions are founded. Whatever might have been
formerly thought as to the nature of terms employed by naturalists to designate the particu
lar groups of animals, it is now generaUy admitted that, throughout nature, there are no
isolating distinctions, save such as separate species. The characters of every zoological
group, of whatever magnitude or denomination, are subject to exceptions equally numerous.
The typical peculiarities may, indeed, he prominent ; but in proportion to the number of
objects which are embraced under any definition, will be the diversity of those imperceptible
gradations, those threads of connexion, which shoot out in all dhections, and unite not only
genera and orders, but the primary kingdoms of the animal and the vegetable worlds. It
is, therefore, irrelevant to argue that, because these divisions are liable to numerous excep
tions, and are not always uniform and constant, they are either artificial or objectionable :
for as we find that all natural groups, both in the animal and vegetable worlds, are subject
to the same variations, they are therefore liable to the same objections. In short, if such
reasoning is vaUd, the distinction between plants and animals can no longer be maintained ;
for it is to this day unsettled at what point the peculiarities of one are lost, and those of the
other assumed.
The causes that may have led to these variations in the human species, form the only
question of a general nature remaining to be discussed. It has been argued by some writers,
that particular climates, food, and modes of life, have gradually operated, through a succes
sion of ages, to produce these effecte on the colour, stature, and hitellect of diflerent nations.
But however greatly these causes may affect individuals, or even to a certain extent a whole
people, they entirely fail when brought to solve our present question ; were it otherwise, the
same causes would naturally have the same effect on all the mhabitants of a particular
region ; but such, as is weU known, is far from being the case. The negro, under a tropical
sun, is black ; while an Indian of Para, in the same degree of latitude, is reddish browm. No
race produces men more athletic, or more finely formed, than are witnessed among the Gold
Coast negroes; yet they inhabit proverbially, some of the most pestUential districte of Africa.
On the other hand, the New Hollanders, and the South African Bushmen, livmg in a salu
brious clunate, are described as lean, squalid, and whh an appearance scarcely human. It
is therefore obvious, that neither the physical nor the moral condition of man can be so
affected by clunate, or other external agencies, as to produce any great or permanent varia
tion m his form. Indeed, when we consider that such agencies have not produced any
physical change m any one nation, within the memory or the records of man, we are tempted
to believe that m a general pomt of view, theh influence has been very slight; otiierwise
tliere is no reason to doubt but tiiat the same natural causes which operated at one period
of time, would stiU contmue to do so at another; and that we should find the descendante
of Europeans long smce settled m the New World, and m Southem Africa, begimning to
assume the red tinge of the American, or the black skm of the Etiiiopian. StiU less can it
be supposed that this departure from one common standard has been effected by civUization
a consequent developement of the mental faculties, or even by diversified modesof life Man'
in remote ages, must have lived pretty nearly the same life m every region; whether as
shepherds hunters, or tillers of the field, theh food, habite, and modes oflife, misrhavebeen
simple and regular. Whence comes t, then, that nations which stiU retain a great portion
of what may be conceived then: primitive simplicity, do not exhibit a correspond ?esem
blauce in physical structere ? If food, raiment, and moral improvement have such alowerfu
effect m modifying the human frame, it would naturally foUow that tribes living nearlyin a
state of nature would all show a close approximation to one common type • that thev wnL
in short, retain more of tiie Ihieaments and characters which musthave belou^eH t7 1 I
parente, than if they had deviated from theh prunitive siTpSy fyet She y!ry revZe of

262 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY, Part H.
this 18 the feet. The apparent aborigines of every nation are those in which the leading
Characters ot their own tribe are most conspicuous; and which exhibit the strongest contrast
to those ot others. It is only when they have made some progress in the arte of life, when
conquest or commerce has led to a union with other races, that the national characteristics,
both personal and mental, give way, and begin either to blend or to be lost m otiier modifica
tions. These reasons, did they more immediately concern the purposes of this essay, might
be much enlarged upon, more particularly as they have been offered by some deservedly
eminent writers as a satisfactory solution of the question we are now discussmg. Yet allow
ing to aU these causes the foU effect they are known to have produced, we must yet confess
they appear to us totally madequate^to explain the origin of the races of man. A writer
intunately versed on this subject has weU observed, that " external agencies, whether phy
sical or moral, wiU not account for the bodily and mental differences which characterise the
several tribes of mankmd." {Lawrence's Lectures, p. 431.) We have, in short, now brought
the mquiry to a pomt where human reason is baffled : there is neither history nor tradition to
guide us in a research which carries us back to the obscurity of ages ; to that remote period
when the earth, for a second time, was again peopled, if not by a/ single pah, yet by the three
sons of a single famUy.
We are now to view the question in another light It has been generaUy admitted, even
by those who reject the Mosaic testimony, that the diversity in the human stmcture can in
no way be accounted for by any known combination of natural causes : are we, therefore,
to suppose, in a question which concerns the most perfect earthly being made by Omnipo
tence, that nothing supernatural is to enter 1 that causes which effect the developement not
only of the material but of the sphitual essence of man, have been left to chance'! Is it not
more reasonable to conclude, that, for purposes unknown to us, a supernatural agency was
employed 1 and that the immediate descendants of the sons of Noah were as distinctly mark
ed in their outward form as they were in their moral character? The sacred writings, it is
tme, are not written to answer phUosophic inquhies. Those who, in the present age, have
been the most profound investigators of nature, discover in every part of creation a symbolic
relationship ; a mysterious system of types and symbols, which extends from the most com
plex to the most simple of organized beings: and when we know, for instance, that even the
colours of a bhd or an insect have a direct reference to such a system, and are employed as
typical indications of its station in nature, can it be supposed that such a system dpes not
extend to man ? That this will not in the present infency of our inquhies, admit of such
direct and unanswerable proof as amounte to mathematical demonstration, we do not attempt
to deny ; but that such a supposition is in harmony with that perfection which belongs to
the works of Omnipotence, every reasonable person must admit. Nor are there wanthig
circumstances which give some degree of sanction to this belief The curse pronounced
upon Canaan as the son of Ham has unquestionably been folfiUed. Leamed commentators
agree in considering that central Africa was peopled by his descendante, and these have been
fBr ages, and still continue to be, " a servant of servante," to their more favoured brethren.
Even theh own despotic govemmente render the subjecte but slaves. In them the human
form is most debased, the divinity of mmd least developed. They stUl exhibit tiiose leadmg
resemblances which rendered Cain a type of Canaan : with few exceptions, they are, to this
day, but " wanderers and vagabonds" on the earth. The blessmgs pronounced on the two
remaining sons of Noah, it has been weU observed, are of a very different nature : Sbem was
more peculiarly favoured than his brother; from his race not only the great patriarchs who
typified Christ but even Christ himself, descended. The peculiarity of the Jewish polity,
which preserved the physical peculiarities of their race pure and unmixed through successive
generations, leaves us in no doubt that they belong to the Caucasian type, m which, both
in structure and intellect a marked superiority over all the nations of the earth has been
universally admitted. The early descendants of Japheth, as is plamly intimated by Moses,
were eminently warlike. All writers agree in considermg that from the MongoUan race
descended those vast and overpowermg hordes of barbaric warriors who, at remote periods
of tune, conquered all Asia, and devastated Europe under AttUa, Zingis Khan, and Tamer
lane. " It is remarkable," says Dr. Scott, " that the first kmg of whom we read m authentic
history, is Nimrod, the mighty hunter." The same learned writer mentions that there is
some ground for believmg that the greatest part of Asia (now peopled by tiie Mongolian race)
descended from Japheth. The population of Asia has been frequently mentioned as m an
equal ratio to the superiority of ite size over Europe, or rather of tiiose counti-ies over which
the Caucasian variety has spread. Thus, m every sense, it appears, tiiat the promise to
Noah's first son, " God shall enlarge Japhetii, and Canaan shaU be his servant, has literally
and figuratively been fulfilled. , , , , , ., ¦ i
That the three sons of Noah overspread and peopled tiie whole eartii, is so expressly
stated in Scripture, that, if we had not to argue agamst those who unfortunately disbelieve
such evidence, we might here stop : let us, however, inquire how far the truth ot this decla
ration is substontiated by other considerations. Enough has been said to show that there is a
curious, if not a remarkable, analogy between tiie predictions of Noah, on tiie future descend-

Book IH. IN ITS RELATION TO MAN. 263
ants of his three sons, and the actual state of those races which are generaUy supposed to
have sprung from them. It may here be again remarked, that although, to render the
subject more clear, we have adopted the quinary arrangement of Blumenbach, yet that
Cuvier and other learned physiologists are of opinion that the primary varieties of the human
form are more properly but three ; namely, Caucasian, the Mongolian, and the Ethiopian.
This number corresponds with that of Noah's sons : assigning, therefore, the Mongolian race to
Japheth, and the Ethiopian to Ham, the Caucasian, the noblest race, will belong to Shem
the third son of Noah, himself descended from Seth the third son of Adam. That the
primary distinctions of the human varieties are but three, has been forther maintained by the
erudite Pritchard, who, whUe he rejecte the nomenclature both of Blumenbach and Cuvier,
as implying absolute divisions, arranges the leading varieties of the human skull under three
sections, difi'ering from those of Cuvier only by name. That the three sons of Noah, who
were to " replenish the earth," and on whose progeny very opposite destinies were pro
nounced, should give birth to different races, is what might reasonably be conjectured. But
that the observations of those who do, and of those who do not believe the Mosaic history
should tend to confirm its truth, by pointing out in what respect these three races do actually
differ, both physically and morally, is, to say the least, a singular coincidence. It amounte,
in short, to presumptive evidence that a mysterious, but a very beautiful analogy pervades
throughout; and teaches us to look beyond natural causes, in attempting to account for
effects apparently interwoven in the plans of Omnipotence.
To reconcUe the different theories regarding the number of primary variations in the
human form is our next object. The greatest authorities on this subject are Blumenbach
and Lawrence, Cuvier and Pritchard. The first two, as already observed, maintain that the
primary divisions are five ; while the latter, with more show of reason, contend that there
are but three, although they readily admit the distinctions assigned to the other two. In
what maimer, therefore, can these opposite theories be reconciled ? To do this, we must
revert to a third and very remarkable one, which, although it has hitherto been solely di
rected to the animal kingdom, will yet be found to exercise a very hnportant influence on
the present question : we allude to the chcular theory of MacLeay. It is the opinion of
this leamed naturalist that every group of organised beings divides iteelf, as it were, into
two branches of affinities, which finally uniting again at their opposite extremities, form a
chcle ; and that this disposition of afiinities holds good, not only in every group, of what
ever magnitude or denomination, but throughout the animal and the vegetable world. It
has been further shown that as such a chcular arrangement of beings cannot, of necessity,
present any absolute or isolated divisions, (for it could not then be continuous and circular),
yet, that there may be traced, in each circle, five deviations or varieties of structure ; which,
however conspicuous in theh typical examples, are blended and lost the nearer they approx
imate to each other. Now, so far as regards the affinities of animals, this chcular theory
has been demonstrated ; but it long remained a matter of doubt what number of primary
divisions every group contained. Mr. MacLeay considers there are five ; and this accords
with Blumenbach's arrangement of the human species. M. Cuvier, and Dr. Pritchard, as
we have before stated, limit the leading varieties of man to three. In our arrangement of
the order Insessores {North. Zoology, vol. ii,), one of the most comprehensive divisions in
ornithology, we have showm that the primary divisions of every natural group are only three ;
one of which, by forming a circle of its own, includes three of those pointed out by Mr.
MacLeay, — thus making the number five. Now, this theory, on the natural divisions of
bhds, reste upon no speculative assumption ; it is founded on the most rigorous and minute
analysis, and has thus been capable of mathematic demonstration. The question, whether
this theory is applicable to one part only of the animal creation, or whether there is pre
sumptive evidence to conclude that it pervades all nature, has been discussed at some
length m the " Introductory Observations on the Natural System," prefixed to the same
work. In some respecte the trinary and the quinarp theory of divisions may be thought
vhtually the same ; and so far as regards our present subject considered abstractly, this
observation may be tme. We can analyze a group of insects, of birds, or of other animals,
but how are we to analyze the different modifications of man 1 The thing is utterly impos
sible. Now, as every true theory must rest upon analysis, our present views on this
subject would be purely speculative, did they not so strikingly and wonderfoUy coincide
with those in other departments of nature, into which we can prosecute minute research,
and attain logical demonstration. Besides, by supposing that there are five principal varia^
tions in man, each equally important with the other, we entirely destroy the beautifol
analogy between these variations and the sacred writings. But without entering farther
upon this question, it will be sufficient for our present purpose to repeat, that, in regard to
man, the views of Blumenbach and Cuvier are virtually the same ; for if, with the former
we reckon five, there will be two groups more conspicuously typical of perfection, and three
others, which, however distinct in many respects, possess several characters in common. If
on the other hand, we follow Cuvier and Pritchard, and restrict the number to three, we have
the Caucasian and the Mongolian as the two principal groups, while there is a thhd, typi-

264 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY, Pakt H.
cally represented indeed by the Ethiopian, but stiU so diversified as to admit of a threefold
division, into the American, the African, and the Malay varieties.
That the variation of man has been regulated hy similar laws to those which have been
traced throughout nature, is a conclusion supported hy strong and presumptive evidence ;
drawn both from the sacred writings, and from inferences in zoological science, which no
one has ventured to dispute. In establishing this pomt, I have studiously confined myself
to such facts, connected with the physical history of man, as rest on high and indisputable
authority. On a subject so vast and intricate, Ulustrated by the united labours of the most
acute philosophers now living, little tiiat is new could be said, and that little might have
been suspected of being brought forward to favour a particular theory. In the preceding
sketch of the principal differences in man, we have, therefore, merely condensed the obser
vations and facte detaUed hi the writings of Blumenbach, Cuvier, Pritchard, Lawrence, and
Sumner ; rather wishing, that, whatever inferences are drawn from such sources, the fecte
themselves should rest on testimonies of so much weight.
The order in which these races are here placed lea3s us to other considerations. Blumen
bach is of opinion that the American form is intermediate between the Caucasian and Mon
golian ; but we have failed to discover any assigned reason for such a disposition, which
also seems at variance with the progression of developement. The geographical situation
of the two continents, as we have before observed, renders it highly probable that the
American variety is more immediately connected with the Mongolian ; and the simple fact
that the Esquhnaux have been by some considered as of Asiatic origin, whUe by others they
are thought to exhibit more of the American type, is, perhaps, the strongest proof of their
intimate relationship to both. Neither does the American race exhibit any dhect affinity
to the Caucasian ; while, on the contrary, hoth theh physical structure and mental develope
ment seem to place them in close approximation to the Africans. For these and subsequent
reasons, we have felt no hesitation in adopting the series intimated in the Regne Animal.
We must now advert to another peculiarity in this arrangement which renders ite simili
tude to the zoological series stUl more remarkable. This is the progressive series of affinities,
resulting from placing the five leading varieties in the order in which they have been here
noticed. The Caucasian and the Mongolian races present the highest degree of civUiza
tion, although in very dififerent degrees when compared with each other : the regions they
respectively inhabit in like manner, approxunate so closely as not to be divided by water.
Yet the configuration of these races is so remarkable, that they cannot be mistaken or con
founded. In the third race, comprehending the American, the Malay, and the Ethiopian,
very marked deviations from the typical endowmente of the two former are manifest This
inferiority is first shown in the American, whose outward form and moral capacity is never
theless superior to the African. Yet, as nature m the animal kingdom is ever prone to
retrace her steps, and to return again to her original type ; so we observe that after exhibit
ing, in some of the African hordes, the lowest debasement of the human form, and the least
capacity for mental improvement she begins, as Blumenbach observes, m the diversified
races of the Malay variety, to show a progressive but a very marked mclhiation to return
throuo-h them to the Caucasian type. So strong, indeed, does this appear m many tribes of
the South Sea Islanders, not only m the beauty of theh forms, but m tiie advance they are
contmuaUy makmg towards inteUectual improvement that every voyager, who has visited
their shores, concurs m likening them to Europeans. _ -^ ,
The inferences to be drawn from this circular disposition are important h merely con
sidered m relation to those systems, which, by presupposmg a Imeal scale in creation, would
place the negro m immediate contact with the monkey. Now, without laymg any stress
unon that pnmary characteristic of man, a reasonmg, tiimkmg, and unmaterial soul, of
which the body is but a temporary receptacle, we must before we coi^ent to tins hypotiiesis,
set over difficulties which appear insurmountable. That tiie Etiiiopian holds the lowest station
amonff the varieties of his species, is folly granted; but tiiat tins admission implies an
affinity to the ape, does by no means follow. There may be an approximation: but it is
necessary, before we decide on the degree of such approximation, tiiat we should examme
the relative affinity which the Ethiopian bears to tiie Caucasian For if it should appear
that the difference between the most perfect and tiie most imperfect of the human races is
unquestionably less than between the latter and the brutes ; or, m otiier words, that tiie
sZa ties between the negro and the Caucasian are decidedly greater tiian tiiose between
Z negro and the ape; we must admit that tiiis latter appro.xiination is too slight to be
termed an affinity. If, on tiie other hand, we consider man only as a material being he
stamls so far removed from bmtes-the interval between him and them is so great--that it
vol be a vioSn of natural affinities, and certainly an insult on his better "afire to class
Um in the same system. To arrive at a just conclusion on tins ^^jec^ve ™^^^^^
much to any one point of comparison, or to mere anatomica analogies, but brmg tee dis
Siguishinrclmractoi-s of eachtoto direct comparison. Does tiie negro it may teen be asked
.vinco a deficiency of those qualities which belong to tiie Caucasians 1 we aUude no to te^
natural affections, for tiiese aro, m some degree, common to bratos; but m self-privation,

Book III. IN ITS RELATION TO MAN. 265
compassion, and heroic love of theh country. Are tiiey incapable of learning European
arts, or of inventing otiiers suitable to their wante or habite ? To deny them such qualities
would be preposterous; they possess tiie germs of others infinitely higher, which under
favourable chcumstances, have produced expert artisans, skUfol physicians, pious divines,
and pleasing poete. "I protest especially," observes Mr. Lawrence, " agamst the opinion
which either denies to tiie Africans the enjoyment of reason, or ascribes to the whole race
propensities which would degrade them even below tiie level of tiie brute. It can be proved
most clearly, that there is no circumstance of bodily structure so peculiar to the negro, as
not to be found also in other fer distant nations; no character which does not run into those
of other races, by as insensible gradations as those which connect togetiier all the varieties
of mankind." (p. 428.) To pursue this comparison farther is needless ; and to ask whether
the least mdication of such powers has ever been manifested hy the quadrumanous animals
would be ridiculous. The learned and eloquent Bishop Sumner forcibly observes, " There
is nothing phUosophical in the comparison of a being possessed of improvable reason with
one that is governed by natural instinct, because there is no just affinity between the talente
which are compared." (Records of Creation, vol. i. p. 23.) We consider this argument as
conclusive. To class man, therefore, in the same zoological division with apes, merely
because both have a hyoid bone, is, to our apprehension, as glaring a violation of natural
affinities as to arrange bats with bhds, because both fly in the air, and possess a crest to theh
sternum. So fer, indeed, from considering man as the type of a zoological order of brutes,
we cannot allow that he even belongs to the same system in which they are arranged. It
may be, that the deviations of his structure are regulated by those laws which govern the
universe ; yet nevertheless, by his nobler qualities (whicli in feet are his true distinctions)
he belongs to a higher order of beings : that he is, in short a link between matter and
spirit; that he carries this evidence, through revelation, within himself; and will hereafter
be most assuredly rewarded or punished, according as he suffers his spiritual or his earthly
nature to preponderate. Sect. LV. — On the Geographic Distribution of Animals.
The geographic distribution of animals over the globe, is the next subject of inquiry. In
the general outline of the variations in man which has been given above, we have deemed
it more important to seek after general results than to enter upon minute detaUs. Our atten
tion has been fixed, not so much on those ramifications which shoot out near the extremities
of every branch, and become too indistinct for clear elucidation, hut rather to the leading
branches themselves, on the nature of which there has been little diversity of opinion.
In the inquiry regarding the geographic distribution of animals, on which we now enter,
the same mode will be adopted, but with this difference, that whereas we have hitherto
drawn our inferences solely from the facte and general opinions of others, we shall now put
aside all theories heretofore promulgated on the distribution of animals, and merely depend
on simple facte for the support of those inferences which they may appear to sanction. We
shall first briefly notice those principles which have been applied to elucidate the phenomena
of animal distribution, and then inquire how far they appear conducive to that end.
That climate, temperature, soil, and food, exercise a paramount influence on the distribu
tion of animals, has been generally believed; and on this assumption naturalists have divided
the world into climates, zones, or provinces regulated by degrees of longitude or latitude.
Such has been the favourite theory not only of physiologists, but of professed naturalists,
whose knowledge of details might have furnished them with insuperable objections against
such views. Thus, the celebrated entomologist Fabricius conceived that the insect world
could be naturaUy divided into eight climates : one of which is made to comprehend all those
mountains, in every part of the world, whose summits are covered by eternal snow. It is,
therefore, not surprising that M. Latreille should consider such a theory as altogether vague
in some respects, and arbitrary in others. But will not the latter objection be equally appli
cable to the distribution which this eminent naturalist has himself proposed for this part of
the creation 1 At least, such is the opinion of one fully competent to judge the question.
" A chart of animal geography," says Mr. Kirby, " which is divided into climates of 24° of
longitude and 12° of latitude, wears upon its face the stamp of an artificial and arbitrary
system, rather than of one according with nature." On much the same principles another
theory has been bmU, by which the earth is divided into seven zoological provinces, or zones,
mainly dependent on the respective degrees of latitude they occupy. Now, so far as regards
one of these provinces— that comprehended within the arctic circle— this view of the subject
at first sight, appears perfectly just : for there is not only a strong analogy between the groups
of animals inhabiting such parte of the two continents as enter into this circle, but there is also
an absolute affinity between them ; inasmuch as the arctic regions contain not only o-enera
but numerous species, common to both continents. This theory, however, loses all its force
when applied to such divisions as are made to include the tropical regions of Africa Ame
rica, and Asia, in one province, and the southern extremities of America and Africa iii
another The zoologist immediately perceives that the only relation which these countries
Vol. j. 23 or

^^^ SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY, Part D.
SeKreUnnntb^« th"'' «'"™.^1 P'-ednctions, is purely analogical; and we are thus com-
ntber 1p1= 5 ^ ^ ^^^'^ ^^'''^ ^PP^*^^^ '=°'''fect only hi one point of view. These and
Thev « L ""^ writers appear to have erred in the very foundation of theh meteods
They assume as granted what has never yet been proved, that temperature exercises a piil
mary influence on animal distribution. Were such the case, it would naturally follow that
rWrpor f 1 ?-»T P",'^ °^ America, Africa, and Asia, as are placed hi corresponding
T£ZT °V . ^' ''™^'^ ^ ,r^'"ly °f ^'"^'^^^ species; or, at least of tiie same natural
fhpf ,;„; „ tl" '-"'-"^f '^"-^^ hereafter show, is not the fact Between the animals of
.«t ,n£,r.?w '^' '^u^f^ "i "^"^ '"^"y instances, a strong analogy : such, for histance,
Tnd th^^^w f '^- r ^^^'ochUida of the New World, the hnnyrida of Asia and Africa
n? Arn!.;^ /^ f= V*^ ^^^ Australian islands. Such, again, is that between the Toucans
ot America {fig^ 75. a), and the hombiUs of Asia {fig. 75. 6). Yet not one species of tiiese
bhds occur in any two of these countries. Nevertheless it
cannot be denied, that the temperatare and configuration of
a country exercises a powerfol influence on the distribution
of animals. But these effecte are of a secondary nature, and
totally fail when employed to elucidate those general princi
ples which appear to regulate the whole system of animal
geography. Such agencies, however, may be safely aUowed
to possess much weight, when we descend to details and in
vestigate the local Fauna of any particular country or dis
trict It has been observed by the celebrated Humboldt and
confirmed by an authority of nearly equal weight that with
regard to certain tribes of insecte, their geographical distribution does not appear to depend
solely on the degree of heat or humidity to which they are exposed, or on the particular
situation they inhabit ; " but rather on local circumstances, that are difficult to characterise."
This opinion is in unison with the whole tenor of the fecte to which we shaU hereafter
advert We must, therefore, agree with Mr. Khby, and consider that the distribution, not
only of insecte, but of animals in general, is " fixed by the wUl of the Creator, rather than
certainly regulated by any isothermal Imes." {Introduction to Entomology, vol, iv, p. 484.)
The distribution of animals, in connexion with that of the human race, remains to be
considered. From what has been already stated, there appears strong reason to believe, that
the variations in the stmcture of man and of animals are regulated by simUar laws ; and
this supposition wUl receive considerable weight, should it appear, upon investigation,
that those divisions of our globe which have been apportioned to the different varieties of
man, are equally characterised by certain peculiarities in theh animal tribes. Now, to
establish the truth of such a theory, it is necessary to waive all general abstract reasoning,
and to draw deductions from known facte. And it is equaUy obvious that, if such facte are
to be collected from the whole animal kingdom, this essay must be extended to several
volumes, even admitting that our materials were sufficiently extensive for such a purpose.
But the tmth is, that the data for such a comprehensive mvestigation are so few, so meagre,
and so unsatisfactory when compared with the diversity and vastness of tiie subject, that they
sink mto msignificance. Nor wUl this appear surprising, if we consider the astonishmg number
of animals that have been already described by naturaliste, or are known to exist in cabmete ;
setting aside the hosts of species yet unknown, which, m many departmente, may possibly
amount to double or treble the number we are acquamted with. Yet, as details of some
sort must be gone mto, it becomes absolutely necessary to select for such a purpose some
one department of nature ; and tiie result which might follow, we may fau-ly presume,
would be m unison with those that would attend tiie mvestigation of otiier divisions of tiie
anhnal worid, could they be mvestigated upon tiie same principles. Nature, m all her
operations, is uniform : and it cannot be supposed tiiat the disbribution of quadrupeds, birds,
insects, or reptUes, would each be regulated by different laws.
In choosmg, therefore, from tiie anhnal kmgdom some one order of bemgs for particular
investigation, it might be thought that the distribution of quadrupeds would present tiie best
field of inquiry. It possibly might did not theh investigation mvolve certam pointe of con
troversy connected with geology, which, however important, are not so intunately connected
with our present object as to render theh discussion necessary m this place Ihe division
of reptUes is subject to the same objection, and is not sufficientiy extensive for our purpose.
The annulose animals, on the other hand, are so numerous tiiat they appear to baffle our
inquiries; nor can we hope, whUe yet in tiie infency of geographic natural history, to do
more tha^ has been already done by the genius of Latreille. Birds 'done remam R^^^^^^^
indeed, been argued, that no very certain resulte can attend tiie study of tiieir distribution
because, from possessing tlio powers of locomotion,' and tiie mstinct of migration, ma high
degree, they appear more widely dispersed tiinu any otiier class of animals. How tar this
may bo tiuo has never, indeed, been made apparent; yet allowing the assertion ite full
weight, wo may safely conclude, tiiat if, under tiiese disadvantages, any definite notions
of geographic distribution can be gathered from tiie study of such volatUe bemgs, the

Book HI. IN ITS RELATION TO ANIMALS. 267
resulte would he materially strengthened if found to harmonize with what is already known
on the distribution of other orders of animals, which, from their physical construction, are
less capable of extending theh geographic range. It is here, however, necessary to premise,
that in this, as' in all other branches of natural history, the accounts and relations of tra
vellers, not hi themselves zoologists, must be received with great caution. Unacquainted
with those nice distinctions upon which not only the differences of species, but of genera
and famUies, are now known to depend, they perpetually contradict, by a hasty application
of well-known names, some of the most acknowledged truths in animal geography. Nor
can the facts detailed in the compilations of more scientific writers be always depended upon.
The voluminous works of a most industrious and zealous ornithologist of the Linntean school
abound with mistakes of this nature ; wherein not only species but genera are said to in
habit countries where they have never been found except in the vague and erroneous
narrative of travellers. It is the misfortune of those who complain against the multiplicity,
and regret the adoption, of modern divisions, that by so doing they debar themselves from
stadying the variations of physical structure, and neglect the main clue to enlarged concep
tions of zoological science. It is necessary to make these allusions, that the reader may be
apprised of our adoption, in this place, of the principal modem genera ; and our rejection of
many of the localities erroneously given to certain species in the general histories of birds.
1. The Caucasian or European Province.
The ornithological features of the Caucasian range, or of the regions over which the
Caucasian variety of the human species is said to be distributed, wUl first claim our atten
tion. It has been already shown that this range comprises such portion of Africa as lies
north of the Great Desert nearly the whole of Europe, and a considerable extent of Western
Asia. The ornithology of the countries bordering upon this region has been but partially
investigated ; yet sufficient is known to show that it presents a mixture of those species
which have their chief metropolis in other countries. It has been thought that the animals
of the arctic circle are so peculiar, as to justify us in considering that region in the light
of a distinct zoological province. The objections against this idea have already been alluded
to ; and they become more forcible when we discover, that on calculating the number of
birds, both terrestrial and aquatic, which occur within the arctic circle, they do not amount
to more than twenty-two ; and that most of these, during the greatest portion of the year,
are found in the more northern parts of Britain and America. They probably occur in simi
lar latitudes on the Asiatic continent; but on this point our information is defective.
The swimmmg bhds are known to possess a very wide range ; but this is less extensive,
perhaps, than is generally imagined. The number of species found on the shores of Europe
and Northern Africa, independentiy of those more peculiar to the arctic circle, is sixty.
Of these, two alone have been discovered in the four quarters of the globe ; three are com
mon to Europe, Asia, and America ; one to Europe, Asia, and Southern Africa ; and twenty-
seven to Europe and Northem America : thus leavmg twenty-seven (or nearly one-half the
number of European natatorial species) as peculiar to this zoological diyision of the world.
Among the Grallatores, or waders, some particular species are so widely dispersed as to
suggest the idea that the geographic range of this order is even wider than that of the
Natatores ; and this, generally speaking, may be true. Of the sixty-five species described
as natives of Europe, thirteen only occur in America, and two only can be reckoned arctic
bhds, althoi^h several others occasionaUy frequent those regions. Of the remainder, four
occur in Asia ; two in Asia and Africa ; four in Asia and
America ; seven in Asia, Africa, and America ; and the Whim-
brel {fig. 76.) {Numenius Phcepus) is said to be the same in
all the five divisions of the globe. It is consequently among
the wading birds that we find those whose range is most exten
sive ; yet on a general calculation, the number of species pecu
liar to Europe is considerably greater than those of the Nata
tores ; the former being as one to two, the latter nearly as one
to four. It thus appears, that, even among bhds of the most
vagrant habits, the ornithology of Europe is characterised by a
The Whimbrel. decided superiority in the number of its own peculiar species.
Ihe rapacious bu-ds, next to the aquatic orders, are thought to be the most widely distri
buted; particularly the nocturnal species. It is very remarkable, that out of thirteen dif
ferent owls inhabiting Europe, five only are peculiar to this continent; and two of these
more particuferly frequent the arctic regions. Of the rest five occur in America, two in
Southern Africa, and one both m Asia and America. The Falconida, or diumal bhds of
prey, in regard to their species, have a more restricted distribution ; yet, of these, the eaeles
enjoy no mconsiderable range. Out of eight discovered m Europe, one is more properiy
arctic, three have been found in several parte of Africa, and one occurs in America; leaving
three only to Europe. It is singular that those rapacious birds which, from the peculiar
structure of theur wmgs, have been supoosed to enjoy the greatest powers of flight amono-

^^® SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY, Part IL
fecTtEnf'nft'-^^^'^ """"^ '^^1'™''='' ^ ^^^" geographic limits. This is proved by the
havP Wn 1- '''^ht genuine felcons occurrmg m Europe and Northem Africa, two only
vlZr-ZoFA:'Jr".f—''T':^'-ii ^'t'"' ^°''''''' ^^'='"«y ^««" '"^'^^ that 'the FaU
Afrl^» r 1. 1 ^^''^ '^ identically the same as that of Europe: neither does Southern
rinrf^o * -f ' P^^^®^^ ^ ^'"S^^e European species, or not one of those inhabiting the
with t^ extremity of that peninsula; the Montagnard of Le VaiUant long confounded
w;/ % r°'>'? ^'''*"^' ^"""S a decidedly distinct species. Upon the whole, the distri-
Dution of the forty-four species of European Raptores wUl stand tiius: three are Arctic,
fp^yfr T T ''^^° '" America, two in Asia and Africa, and one m Asia and America;
leaving twenty-seven, or more than one-half, peculiar to European ornithology.
. The Gallinaceous genera are few ; and theh wide dispersion
IS decidedly agamst the theory, that aU bhds with heavy bodies
and short wings are more lunited in theh geographic range than
other terrestrial tribes. This argument has been mgeniously
used to account for the very restricted Ihnite withm which many
of the Indian parrote have been found ; one or two species being
frequently confined to a particular island. Omithologiste, how
ever, need not be told that the wmgs of the Psittacida are pecu
liarly adapted for strong and vigorous flight ; and those who have
seen these bhds in theh native regions cannot faU to have re
marked that theh flight is peculiarly rapid ; many genera, in
this respect, passing through the ah with the celerity of the
hawk. The wide dispersion of the Gallinaceous order is very
evident The range of the great bustard {fig. 77.) extends from
one extremity of temperate Europe to the confines of Asia ; and
the quail, remarkable for ite heavy body and short wings, per-
1 he Great Bustard. f^^^^ ^^^ annual migrations, from and to Northem Afiica, over
Europe and Westem Asia. We consider very few of the European GaUinaceous bhds as
truly arctic ; for nearly all the species appear to occur as plentifiUly beyond those regions
as within them. Many of the meridional European birds, as Upupa Epops, Oriolus galbula,
Coraceas garrulus, &c., might with equal justice be classed as peculiarly characteristic of
Central or Southem Africa. It nevertheless appears that even among the Gallinacese,
fourteen out of twenty-seven have their principal seat in Europe. The remainder are thus
apportioned : five extend to Westem Asia, five to the confines of the great African desert
two are dispersed in Central Asia and Africa, while two only occur in North America.
The Fissirostral birds, typically represented by the swallow,
are, of all the insectivorous tribes, most conspicuous for theh
powers of fiight With but one exception, the European King-
fi.sher {Alcedo europaa, fig. 78), they are all migratory : hence
we find that most of the species occur beyond the limite of the
European Fauna. The proportion of those which appear confoied
to Europe and Northern Africa is as one to three.
The smaU Granivorous birds not only present a great diversity
in their species, but a considerable preponderance in their nu
merical amount Forty-one are included in the European list ;
two of which, at certain seasons, frequent the polar regions in
great numbers, but are nevertheless abundant in all the northern
latitudes ; seven inhabit North America, and three extend both
to Asia and Africa ; so that Europe may be considered the metropolis of nearly thirty pecu
liar species.
The Scansorial birds are few ; yet eight out of the fifteen recorded as European are
unknown in other regions. It is among the Insectivorous and soft-billed birds that we must
look for the principal ornithological features of any particular region. The immense femily
of Humming-birds in the New World, and of Melliphagidie, or Honey-suckers, in the Aus
tralian islands, would alone he sufficient to mark these regions with a distmct zoological
character. To what cause we are to attribute the feet that these birds, by no means deficient
in the power of flight (which, indeed, in many of them is considerably developed,) should
nevertheless be so strictiy confined within certein geographic limite, remams unexplained.
We can only in this place illustrate the fact Of eighty-five species belonging to the Lin-
niran genera of Turdus, Sylvia, Parus, and Muscicapa, eighty-two are stiictiy European.
In this number we of course include those which migrate, at certain seasons, to Northern
Africa and Western Asia; for these regions, it must be always remembered, come withir.
the zoological province we arc now treating of; yet, if we deduct the number of those which
have actSaJIy been detected in parte beyond the shores of the Mediterranean on one side,
and Western Asia on the other, tiioy will amount only to ten; leaving seventy-two as a
marked peculiarity in the ornithology of Europe. In fortiier proof of the limited range Q>
these families, it may be remarked, tiiat three only out of eighty-five have been detected m

fM
Kuropean Kingfisher.

Book HI. IN ITS RELATION TO ANIMALS. 269
America; and that tiie identity of one of these (Parus ata-icapUlus L.) with an European
species (Parus palustris L.) is very questionable. . .
The Omnivorous birds, as the Sturnidss, Corvidce, &c„ are the last requiring notice. A
few of these appear widely dispersed ; but upon the whole, several species, and even peculiar
ffenera, are left to characterise tiiis portion of the world. We may state their rumber at
twenty-one : thhteen of which, or more tiian one half, habitually reside in Europe ; lour occur
in Northern and Central Africa; one (Pastor roseus T.) inhabite both the table-land of Asia
and the deserte of Central Africa ; and three have been found m Ame-ica.
These details, tedious perhaps to the general reader, but interesting to the man of science,
it becomes necessary to dweU upon, before any valid deductions can be drawn from the
fecte they exhibit In this difficult and somewhat laborious investigation we have been
much assisted hy the writhigs of Wilson, Temminck, and Le VaiUant ; but more than aU by
tiie liberality which throws the magnificent collections of the French Museum open to the
use of aU scientific inquhers, whatever theh object or theh nation may be.* It cannot,
however, be supposed that even with greater sources of mformation, some inaccuracies
may not have occurred. Such calculations, in short, from their very nature, can never
be perfect; because they are founded upon present knowledge, and that is perpetually
extending. The most that can be done is to make as near an approximation to the truth as
circumstances wUl admit; and havmg done this, the result may be entitled to some degree of
confidence. As a general recapitulation of the European birds, we may state the total number, exclu
sive of a few which occasionally appear at remote intervals as stragglers, at 388. Of these,
thirty-one are more peculiar to the arctic regions of Europe, America, and probably of Asia;
the proportion being as one to thirteen. Sixty-eight (forty being aquatic) occur also in tem
perate America; nine are dispersed over four divisions of the globe, to neither of which can
they be particularly appropriated ; and either one (Numenhis Phoepus) or two extend to
Australia. With these deductions, the number wUl thus be reduced to about 280. If from
these we abstract such others as may possibly have a partial range beyond the limits already
defined, the number may be further reduced to about 250; so that, even with this allowance,
nearly two thirds of the bhds of Europe, Northem Africa, and 'Western Asia may safely be
considered as zoologically characteristic of those countries.
Another character in European ornithology deserves attention. This regards the superior
number of generic types which it exhibite, in proportion to the number of species. These
genera amount to 108, omitting those which have not been generally adopted, or which, from
the modifications of form being but slight, should more properly be tenned sections. The
proportion vyhich these genera bear to the number of species (estimated before at 388)
amounts to more than two to seven ; or, in other words, does not give seven birds to two
genera. It is further remarkable, that most of these exhibit in their stmcture the greatest
perfection of those orders or families to which they respectively belong ; and which groups
are denominated by naturalists typical. True it is that such genera are widely dispersed ;
but in no division of the world do they appear so numerous, in proportion to the species, as
in Europe. This remark not only applies to the typical genera, but is frequently applicable
to the number of species they respectively contain. One instance may suffice. The noble
falcons, or those to whom the generic name of Falco is now restricted, are generally con
sidered the most typical group of their family: of these, the Kestril {fig. 79.) and five others
have their metropolis in Europe and Northem Africa. The
whole of North America has hitherto produced but four. Le
VaiUant enumerates the same number from Southem and Cen
tral Africa. Those of Central Asia are not Ialo^vn ; but only
two have been recently described as peculiar to the vast re
gions of Australia. Now, if we merely look at these respective
numbers, the difference does not appear very remarkable ; but
when the great inferiority between the Caucasian regions and
those of America, Africa, and Australia, in point of extent, is
taken into the account, it wUl be immediately seen that the
proportion of these eminentiy typical species in the European
, , regions is particularly great Among the typical groups of
the wading and swimmmg birds tiiis is stUl more apparent; so that, if we endeavour to
define what is'the most stiikmg feature in the ornithology of this zoological province none
IS so remarkable as the number of purely typical groups. This peculiarity wiU be more
apparent on looking forther into the matter. The total number of birds throughout the
world, existing in museums or clearly described m authentic works, may be estimated at
6000. These have been arranged under about 380 genera; hut as several of these genera
wiU comprise more than one sub-genus, we will put down 400 as a nearer approximation to
* VVa have been officially informed that, by the laws of the Zooloeical Societv of l.ondnn nr, ^„= „,„ -
permission to make use of their Museum, for general scientific purpofes, who is not a member *
23*

•270 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY, Pakt H.
correctness; this would leave rather more than fourteen species to each generic group
whUe, if the ornithology of Europe and Northem Africa is alone considered, the proportion
is no more than one to three ; and even this will be forther diminished when those geo
graphic groups among the Fringillida ani Sylvaida, which are decidedly peculiar to this
portion of the globe, are investigated and defined. Now, it is very singular that, in speak
ing of the leading varieties of the Caucasian race, a writer, whose testimony is no mean
authority, observes, " that the tribes among the Caucasians are more numerous than in any
other." And again — " Whether we consider the several nations or the individuals in each,
bodily differences arc much more numerous in the highly civilized Caucasian variety than in
either of the other divisions of mankind." {Lawrence, p. 442, 475.) "When we glance over
the list of those nations generally supposed to have sprung from this type, we are struck
with the justice of these observations. It is the more remarkable, as the regions they occupy
are disproportionably small, when compared with those peopled by the Mongolian and Ethi
opian races. That there are instances wherein typical forms of higher groups than genera
do not occur within the European range, is a chcumstance which wUl not materiaUy affect
the question. Thus the only European bird belonging to the Tenuirostres of M. Cuvier
is the European Hoopoe ( Upupa Epops), which is certainly not a typical example ; but this,
so far as tribes are concerned, is the only exception to the rule. It is curious, also, that this
exception should occur in that division which comprises the smaUest and weakest of bhds.
If we descend to famUies, there is scarcely one pre-eminently typical of ite own perfection
which is not European. A further objection may possibly be urged, that, although such
forms are indeed abundant in this Fauna, they are nevertheless found in nearly every other
part of the world ; and cannot, therefore, be looked upon as characterising Europe more than
any other country : but this will not be a just conclusion, unless it is first shown that
the proportion of such types to the total number of European species is not decidedly
greater than in any other region. Now the fecte we have already stated prove this
beyond doubt.
These resulte, obtained from unquestionable data, are so important to our present inquiry,
that theh hasty notice would not have been sufficient. The materials for Ulustrating the
ornithology of Europe are naturally more numerous than can be expected for other portions
of the globe ; and it became very desirable to ascertain how far the ornithology of those
regions, occupied by the Caucasian race, presented a peculiarity of character siiifficiently
strong to show a mutual relationship with the geographic distribution of this variety of man.
We are, I think, sufficiently authorised to consider that both are in unison. At least there
are so many singular points of analogy, as to render it highly probable that there existe an
intimate relationship between the distribution of one race of mankind and one of the prin
cipal geographic divisions of birds.
How far this view of European ornithology would be borne out by an extended investiga
tion of other orders of animals, it is impossible to say. Yet even if our present limite would
permit the inquiry, we should have to rely more upon theory than fecte. Many of the
quadrupeds of Europe have long been slowly but certainly disappearing, in proportion aa
culture and civilization have advanced ; and any conclusions drawn from those which stUl
remain in a wild state would be open to great objections, particularly as the question must
necessarily embrace the nature of those no longer existing, but whose bones occur in a fossU
state throughout Europe. We thmk it may fairly be presumed that in all those convulsions
which have agitated our globe, bhds have suffered less than any other vertebrated animals.
Their fossil remains are few, and of rare occurrence ; whUe extensive deposite of bones and
skeletons, belonging to quadrupeds, reptUes, and fish, occur more or less abundantly in
almost every region, and attest the wide destruction to which such animals were exposed.
It naturaUy follows that, in tracing the distribution of the featiiered creation, w^e are left
unshackled by geological controversy.
The few observations on the Ichthyology, Entomology, and Conchology of the Mediter
ranean we shall hereafter make, in conjunction with tiiose of Britain, will be found in unison
with those features in the geographic distribution of bhds we have already traced ; and wUl
equally evince the propriety of including the whole under one zoological division. This
we propose to name tho European. Such a designation is, indeed, somewhat objectionable,
inasmuch as it embraces not only Europe, but Northem Africa and Western Asia ; yet it
v/ill, perhaps, convey more definite ideas than if the name were adopted from the particular
race of men belonging to these regions.
2. The Mongolian or Asiatic Province.
The birds of the Mongolian range will be now adverted to. The typical nations of this
variety of man occupy the remaining portion of tiie vast continent of Asia; while their
characteristic peculiarities appear blended with the Malays in the more eastern islands of
tho Indian Archipelago. The ornithology of such a vast proportion of Asia is as varied as
it is remarkable ; but tho very imperfect nature of tiio materials hitiierto fiimished for ite
elucidation, renders it impossible for us to give those satisfectory data which have beer,

Book HI. IN ITS RELATION TO ANIMALS. 271
fomished by writers on the birds of Europe. Naturalists look forward witii the greatest
mterest to the speedy termination of the zoological researches of General Hardwicke, as
likely to supply these deficiencies. The vast stores of knowledge which a long residence
m the East and an ardent passion for natural history, have placed at the command of this
naturalist, render him peculiarly qualified for such an undertaking.
For our present purpose, minute detaU is not, however, essential. 'Whatever doubts might
at first have arisen on the propriety of considering Europe as the centre of an ornithological
province, there can be none with respect to Asia. It is in these regions that the chief seat
of the typical GaUinacete is placed ; they abound in China, Thibet, the Indian Peninsula,
and even extend to those islands which are considered the confines of the Mongolian race.
The larger species, arranged in the genera
Pavo and Polyplectron, appear to charac
terise the more elevated and central parts
of the continent ; while those of the genus
Gallus are more numerous in Sumatra,
Java, and the adjacent islands. The phea-
; sants of China and Thibet form a no less
striking feature in Asiatic ornithology ; five
species of magnificent plumage are pecu-
The Silver Pheasani. "--"^^^^i jj^^j. . pjjg ^f these, the elegant Silver Phea
sant {Nycthemerus argentatus) {fig. 80.) has been long domesticated in our aviaries. Three
other superb species represent a group {Lophophorus Tem.), discovered only upon the con
tinent. The whole of these Gallinaceous genera are totally unknown in Africa, Australia,
or in the New World. When to these we add the Hornbills {Buceridm), the Sun-birds
{Cinnyrida), the short-legged Thrushes (G. Brachypus), the short-taUed Thrushes {Pitta),
certain groups among the Psittacida, and many others totally unknown in Europe, N'orthern
Africa, and "Westem Asia, yet abounding in the Mongolian nations, no forther detaUs appear
necessary to mark the ornithological peculiarities of Asia, as distinct from those of Europe.
From the Asiatic islands it would, perhaps, be more natural if we proceeded at once to
notice the Malay or Australian range, as it is here that the Faunas of these divisions of the
globe evidently meet But as this would interfere with the order observed in the early
portion of this essay, we shall pass from the northem regions of Asia to those of the N'ew
World ; particularly as both present a mixed race of men, probably originating froqi the
Asiatic continent. 3. The American Province.
We proceed to a rapid sketch of American ornithology. It has already been shown that,
excepting the Natatorial birds, there are fewer species common alike to Northern America
and to Europe than might, perhaps, have been supposed ; yet, were the proportion much
greater, the circumstance would only prove that nature knows no abrupt distinction. It is
not to the remote ramifications which she employs to connect her chain of operations that
our attention is to be fixed ; for they are too subtile to be unravelled by beings with facul
ties so limited. But as soon as she quits these inexplicable mazes, and again displays her
self in a new but decided form, we may hope to gain some acquaintance with her laws.
It is not, therefore, from either extremity of the New World that we must form our ophiion
on its zoological peculiarities. The ornithology of the Northem latitudes is evidently
blended with that of Europe, and in all probability many of these species exist in Northern
Asia ; those of the more southem parts of America, beyond the Rio de la Plata and Para
guay, are nearly unknown. It is only within the last few years that the provinces, elevated
on the Mexican CordUleras, and now constituting a great republic, have been opened to the
naturalist ; and although, as yet, but superficially explored, there is perhaps no region in the
New World which promises to yield more interesting facts, as connected with the animal
geography of that hemisphere. Even the configuration of the continent at the junction of
ite two great divisions, is typical of this distribution. It appears as if nature, elevated as
on a throne upon this vast table-land, 7200 feet ahove the level of the sea, had dispensed
her forms to the right hand and to the left, retaining immediately around her a typical
representation of every group. To the north she has given innumerable flocks of slender-
billed insectivorous birds {Sylvicola, Sic), which annually depart to breed in those more
temperate climes. These are accompanied by particular species of Flycatchers, Thrushes,
Pigeons and Hangneste {Icterina) ; the two latter in such countiess numbers as to darken
the air. To Southern America has been more particularly assigned the Macaws, Toucans
Scansorial Creepers {Dendrocolaptes), Ant Thrushes {Myotherina), Ground Doves {Cha-
mapelia), Tanagers {Tanagra), Trogons, Fruit-eaters {Ampelida), and the numerous and
splendid race of Humming-birds. Yet of all these groups, save one {Ampelida), typical
examples are concentrated on the table-land of Mexico. These, moreover, are accompa
nied by some peculiar forms, not yet discovered in either portion of America, and bv
species among the natatorial tribes hitherto found only in the more northem latitudes

272 SCIENCE OF GEOGRAPHY, Part IL
The typical Gallinaceous birds begin to show themselves adjoining the equator, nearly
in the same parallel of latitude as they occur in Asia : they belong, however,
SI to distinct and peculiar types ; as the genera Meleagris, Crax, Penelope,
Ourax, Phosphea, Ortalida, and Opisthocomus. These find their represent
atives, for the most part in the ancient continente, but not one species has
been detected beyond the New World. The foregomg remark applies to
the two great divisions of the Simia, or Monkeys, so accurately Ulustrated
by those distinguished naturaliste, MM. Cuvier and Geoffrey St HUahe.
The Melliphagous groups of America, at the head of which shine the
splendid famUy of Humming-bhds {fig. 81.), form the chief peculiarity of
its ornithology ; other races, scarcely less beautiful, occur in Africa, Asia,
and Australia : yet the natural genera are totally distinct The number
of species, and the variety of forms, among the frugivorous bhds is another
striking feature in the productions of the New World. Under this term
Humming Bird, ^^ ^^^^ include the richly coloured Chatterers {Ampelida Sw.) and
Manakins {Piprina Sw.) ; together with the whole family of Tanagers {Tanagrina),
Hangnests {Icterince), and Parrote {Psittacida). The first four belong solely to this conti
nent, which more than any other abounds in vast forests of lofty trees, affording a perpetual
and countless variety of fruits and berries, adapted to nourish all the families of hard and soft-
billed frugivorous birds. If we turn to the other orders of vertebrated animals, the Mollusca,
Annulosa, or Radiata, each and all conspire to stemp certein peculiar features on the
zoology of the New World, and to mark it as a distinct zoological emphe.
4. The Ethiopian or African Province.
The chief seat of the Ethiopian variety of our species is central Africa; while most writers
agree in thinking that ite northern limits do not pass the Great Desert. The pestUential
atmosphere of tropical Africa has been an insuperable bar to the researches of Europeans ;
and all the ideas that can be formed on the zoology of such regions must be gathered from
the partial gleanings made by travellers on the shores of Senegal and of Sierra Leone. The
ornithological productions received from these districts evince a total dissimUarity from those
of Northern Africa, but intimately accord, both in species and genera, with the ornithology
of the south : to this, however, there are several exceptions. The Plantain-eaters (_1/uso-
phagifla), and the bristle-necked Thrushes {Trichophorus Tem.), are among the groups
hitherto found only towards Sierra Leone. The Guinea Fowl, as ite name implies, is most
abundant in the interior of that country, where three species have been discovered. The
common Bee-eater, and the Golden Oriole are the only species among the land bhds of
Western Africa that occur in the European range ; and these extend southward to the Cape
of Good Hope. The whole extent of Africa south of the desert exliibite, in short a marked
difference in its ornithological groups and species from those belonging to Europe, Northem
Africa, and Westem Asia. The comparatively few exceptions of bhds common to Europe
and the Cape cannot diminish the general force of this remark, but merely shows that a few
exceptions must never be taken as the groundwork of any particular theor)'. It is to one of
the greatest ornithologists that France, or indeed any other nation, has produced, that wo
are indebted for the most perfect account of South African ornithology yet published ; but it
must ever be regretted that this portion of M. le Vaillant's labours terminated abruptly ;
leaving the Gallinaceous, Wading, and Swimming orders to be completed by some other,
who, with equal enterprise and observation, should visit the same regions, and record theh
manners with the same veracity.
Between the ornithology of Africa and of America there is, withhi the same parallels of
latitude, a very strong analogy, although (in the sense in which we apply the term) there is
none of affinity. We know not, in short a single perching bhd common to both continente ;
although in the rapacious order, which among terrestrial bhds are well known to have nearly
the widest range, two or three species occur which likewise inhabit both extremities of
Africa no less than North America.
The other vertebrated animals, and the insects of Southern Africa, furnish simUar resulte.
On examining the large collection of insecte formed by Mr, Burchell, in the territories of the
Cape of Good Hope, we could not discover one out of many hundreds which was to be found
in a much more considerable collection brought by us from Soutii America, although many
generic groups, particularly among the Lepidoptera, appeared common to botii continente.
Between the faunas of Africa and America the difference is unquestionably striking; yet
there are several points of connexion between the ornitiiology of Africa, Asia, and Aus
tralia; and those appear not merely in gcuovic groups, but oven in species. The Drongo
Shrikes (G. Edolius), tho liarva-oaters (G. Ceblepyris), tiie typical Fly-catchers (G. Mtts-
cipelii, C), tho Crab-oatprs (G. Itnlci/mi), tho Grakles {Lamprotonis),the African Saxicolte,
the two groups of trciiiionl Fincho.-s {Kslrelda Atiiiidina Sw.), are all genera common to these
throe region.^, — to neither of which, in a geographic division, can tiiey be exclusively
assigned. But wc need not dwell further on such resemblances, which, after all, ai-e but sc

Book UI. IN ITS RELATION TO ANIMALS. 273
many pomts of connexion between geographic divisions, sufficientiy distinct in theh mpro
prominent characters. 5. TTie Malay or Australian Province.
The regions peopled hy the Malay tribes is the last zoological division requhing elucida
tion. We have already adverted to the great diversity of tribes comprised under this variety
of the human race, and the littie authentic hiformation yet collected concernmg theh origm
or history. The zoological resulte, however, are more definite.
On looking to the Indian Archipelago, as to that region where physiologists concur m
thinking that the Malayan form is first apparent, we are told that several of these islands
are peopled by two different races of men {Lawrence, p. 489. and Cuvier, p. 187.) ; the one
frequently confined to the inland tracts, whUe the other people the maritime districts : their
respective origins, however, are so little known, that it is stUl a matter of doubt which has
usurped the territories of the other. {Marsden's Sumatra, 326, 327.) We confine these
remarks to Sumatra and Java ; for with regard to the vast islands of Borneo, Celebes, and
those smaller groups to the eastward, we know little or nothing of theh productions or of
their people.
That the isthmus of Malacca and the adjacent islands exhibit the first indications of a
peculiar race of people, is a fact upon which all writers appear to agree ; and that we here
begin to discern the indications of a new zoological region is equally certain : yet it would
be altogether rash, with our present limited information, to hazard any theory which would
respectively assign to these islands a definite character in its inhabitante or productions.
But the zoology of Java and Sumatra have been of late so zealously and ably investigated
not only by two distinguished British naturalists,* but by othersf sent from Prance, that we
shall in this place attempt to draw some results from their labours. The ornithology of these
islands, with some few peculiarities, differs in no very decided manner from that of southern
India. In both, the Grallinaceous genera, when they occur, are the same, although some ot
the Javanese species differ. Of the more typical Sturnida, common to the Old World, but
as yet unknown to the Australian or Oceanic islands, no less than three inhabit Java. To
these groups must be added, Parus, Sitta, Bucco, Cursorius, Clareola, Buceros, Oriolus,
g2 Brachypus, and many other genera characteristic of the ancient
continents. The number of typical Scansorial birds within the
narrow limite of these two islands is truly remarkable. Eight
species of Picus are described by Dr. Horsfield, and four or five
others ; one, the Malacolophus Concretus, Sw. {fig. 82.), of a
 remarkably small size, have been sent to France by M. Diard.
''***' '*^^^^^^^, ''^he total absence ot this famUy throughout the whole Australian
¦S\^)j4^^^^^^ range, is a circumstance in itself sufficiently strong to place the
ijWBMl®®^^ ornithology of Java and Sumatra beyond such limits ; to which,
Malacolophus Concretus. nevertheless, it approximates very closely.
The birds of Java and Sumatra, which indicate an approximation to the Australian
province belong to certain genera common to both regions ; but unknown in Africa or
India : these are. Pitta, Centropus, Ocypterus, Prinea, Pogardus, Crateropus, Dacelo,
&c. In the Suctorial bhds (the Tenuirostres of M. Cuvier,) we find in Java an evident
departure from the typical form of Cinnyris towards the Melliphagida of Australia,
in the genus Dicaum; four of the known species being Javanese, and three Austra
lian. What little is yet known of the birds of New Guinea, and ite surrounding islands,
exhibite a still greater deviation fi-om the ornithological features of India. These enchant
ing regions, long the fairy-land of naturalists, remained nearly unknown until visited by
learned Frenchmen, to one of whom has been assigned the disthiguished honour of giving
to the world the fruits of their scientific and important discoveries.^ It is in these islands
that the Melliphagous genera begin to be developed in the most novel forms, and the most
sumptuous plumage. The grand Promerops of New Guinea can only be likened to the
Australian Ptiloris. Several typical Melliphagida are in M. Lesson's collections. To
these we can now add two species of genuine Philedons (Cuvier), and two of the genus
Vanga. The group of which the Muscicapa carinata (Sw.)5 is the type, displays itself in
three new and beautifol birds, accurately described and figured by M. Lesson. The stay of
the French naturaliste on the coast of New Guinea was comparatively short and theh
gleanings of ite ornithology could not fi^om necessity, be otherwise than scanty ; yet it is
Burprising that among the bhds thus procured, so large a proportion should belong to groups
hitherto supposed peculiar to New Holland. It is clear, therefore, in a natural arrangement
of omithological geography, that the islands of New Guinea may be safely brought into that
division which includes New HoUand, New Zealand, and their dependencies : this distribu-

* Sir Stamford RaiHes and Dr. Horsfleld. t MM, A. Duvaucel and Diard.
t M. Lesson, Voyage autour du Monde. § Zoological Illustrations, vol, iii. pi, 147. Zool. Journ. i. p. 306,
Vol. L 2 K

Menura Superba.

274 SCIENCE OP GEOGRAPHY, Part H.
tion has, indeed, been generaUy adopted by geographers, merely from the relative positions
of these islands.
On the zoology of New Holland it is scarcely necessary, in this place, to expatiate. All
naturaliste concur in viewing this insular continent as the chief metropolis of a peculiar cre
ation of animals ; whose limite on one side we have already traced, and whose range on the
other extends over the innumerable islands scattered in the great Pacific Ocean. The Menura
Superba {fig. 83.) is the most remarkable gal
linaceous bird of this range. The Australian
province is thus in foil accordance with the dis
tribution assigned to the Malay variety of our
I species : ite connexion with Asiatic zoology is
unquestionable ; but we have no means of judg
ing into which of the three remaining divisions
it blends, at ite opposite extremity. Of the bhds
peculiar to those remote clusters of islands ad
joining the north-west coast of America we are
completely ignorant ; nor are our materials
sufficient to furnish even a plausible conjecture
on the subject. Whether the Australian province, at ite northern Ihnite, unites again with
the Asiatic, the American, or the European, must therefore be left to foture discovery.
We have now completed a general survey of the distribution of bhds over the globe. The
facts we have stated show the propriety of arranging the whole under five great divisions or
provmces, which may be distinguished as the European, the Asiatic, the American, the
African, and the Australian : each of these corresponds, with littie variation, to the geogra
phic distribution assigned by authors to the different races of man. We must, therefore, now
adopt one out of the two following conclusions : either that there is just and sufficient
ground for believing that the distribution of man and animals in general has been regulated
by the same laws ; or, that man and bhds have been distributed alike, and aU other anunals
differently. To us, at least, the latter conclusion appears highly improbable ; not only as being
unsupported by the least shadow of evidence, but as opposed to that harmony in creation,
which is more apparent the more it is viewed in all ite relations.
^ Sect. V. — General Summary of the Subject.
In offering these elucidations of a subject so vast in iteelf, and so important in aU ite
bearings, it wUl be readUy perceived that two different relations between animal groups are
alluded to ; one we have considered as of affinity, the other of analogy ; and as the tmth or
fallacy of these views will mainly depend on the justness of these distinctions, a few obser
vations upon them appear necessary. Na;turaliste, in general, have considered those resem
blances which exist between certain groups placed in different regions, but in the same
parallels of latitude, as indicating affinities ; and on this supposition, as before stated, have
framed theories by which animal geography has been divided into zones or provinces, limited
more or less by certain degrees of latitude. It must be confessed that upon a superficial
view, there are many circumstances which appear to justify such a theory. Confining our
attention to that department of nature which we have throughout selected, we shaU partly
recapitulate our former observations.
The arctic regions, in one sense, may be considered an omithological zone ; for not only
the same groups, but the same species are found in such parte of Europe, America, and pro
bably Asia, as enter within ite limite. But admitting this to the foil extent let us ask if
these regions — by the number, variety, and peculiarity of their animals, are entitied to hold
a primary rank with the great geographic groups already mentioned "i Is there to be met
with among the arctic birds numerous species which are not distributed far beyond such
limite ¦! Are there any generic or sub-generic groups which do not occur even towards tiie
central parts of Europe, Asia, and America 1 These questions which must be answered in
the negative, sufficiently prove that the arctic regions do not possess tiie characteristics of a
primary division ; they must rather be looked upon as a point of junction, where the orni
thology of the three northern continents blends and harmonizes together.
The tropical regions of the Old and the New Worlds have likewise been united in one
province. How widely the ornithology of these countries really differs, has been already
explained. True it is, that in numerous instances one group typifies another, as in the case
of the American Humming-birds {Trochilida) being represented in the Old World by the
Sun-birds {Cinnyrida) ; and such relationship, in one sense, is certainly an affinity, inas
much as in the natural system they appear to follow one another ; but if we admit such a
degree of affinity to be a sufficient guide to a distribution of birds, we must also do the same
with regard to the varieties of man, since both appear dispersed upon the same plan. The
red Indian of America as certainly represents tiie black negro of Africa as the latter does
the sooty inhabitant of New Guinea; yet no one would think of classing them in the same
race, merely because they inhabited countries under similar degrees of latitude. The dis-

Book ffl. IN ITS RELATION TO MAN IN SOCIETY. 275
persion of particular groups and of their species, upon the whole, is more in a longitudinal
than in a latitudinal direction. This is exemplified in a remarkable manner by the migra
tory birds, which invariably proceed from north to south, or from south to north. It would,
indeed, appear, that if animal distribution is to be regulated by geographic degrees, as accu
rate notions might result from making the divisions of longitude as of latitude : both, how
ever, would be clearly artificial.
These parallel relations of analogy, which everywhere present themselves in the animal
kingdom, nevertheless deserve our greatest attention, as fraught with peculiar interest to
the reflecting mind. There are throughout nature so many immediate and remote relations,
so many unexplained ties of connexion, that the most careful of her students are perpetually
misled in attempting to trace her footsteps. In ordinary cases, the admirable distinction
that has been drawn between affinity and analogy {Hor. Ent.) is, perhaps, the best that can
be given ; yet instances might be named, in which even this is totally inadequate to the end
proposed. Natural relations are so complicated, that series of affinities apparently incon
testable, will frequently, upon rigid analysis, turn out completely erroneous; proving no
more than that nature, however diversified, presente so many points of general resemblance
and of connexion, that partial harmony wUl result even from a false combination of parte.
Let us not therefore conclude, as is now too generally done, that by synthesis alone we can
exhibit the true affinities of nature ; that we may henceforward, without hesitation, assign
to each of her productions its true station in the scale of being ; that we have suddenly,
and as if by magic, got foil possession of that mighty secret which at once explains her
laws, and expounds all that has perplexed the wise and confounded the learned, since science
first dawned upon man. That the chcular system is the nearest approach yet made to the
true disposition which pervades nature, — a system which, from the perfections of its Creator,
must be replete with order and beauty surpassing our utmost comprehension, — is indisputable,
because none other has attempted to explain the relations of parts and the unity of the
whole ; but farther than this ite pretensions must not be carried : it still involves questions
of great weight since by one theory the number of ite primary divisions is stated to he five,
while by another, founded on much more extensive analysis, it is maintained to be three.
The searcher after truth will give to these his patient investigation, his cool and unpreju
diced judgment : he may then hope to make one step nearer to truth ; for science, in all
ages, has ever remained most stationary when the advocates of any system have been most
prejudiced. It is with these qualifications that the views here taken on the distribution of man and
animals are given to the reader. It has been our desire to trace a connexion, and a unity
of plan, in both, and to simplify a subject hitherto involved in much intricacy. How far
tills object may have been attahied, it is not for us to determine ; but he who draws proofs
of a Divine Creator from the harmony and design apparent in his works, has surely not writ
ten in vain.

CHAPTER m.
GEOGRAPHY CONSIDERED IN ITS RELATION TO MAN IN SOCIETY.
Man, when considered not as a mere animal, but as a being endowed with thought reason,
and contrivance, capable of social intercourse and union, must be regarded as the most con
spicuous object m the delineation of the globe. These attributes raise him to the first rank
in this lower world ; and in every region occupied and improved by him, the communities
which he has formed become the most prominent characteristic ; all other beings are there
subordinate and subservient to hhn. The description therefore which, in the succeedmg part
of the vvork, will be given of the different regions of the globe, must be chiefly employed in
delmeating the aspecte which man, as an active and social being, presents. At present,
however, it would be premature to enter mto the numerous detaUs which this subject
embraces. We can do little more than indicate the following general heads, under which
it wUl be treated:— I. Historical Geography. 2. Political Constitution of the different coun
tries. 3. Productive Industry. 4. CivU and Social State of Man. 5. I^anguages.
Sect. I. — Historical Geography.
A survey of the history of man is necessary for enabling us accurately to understand,
and duly to estimate his present condition. Not only inanhnate nature, hut even the animal
and vegetable kingdoms, if left to themselves, would remain constantly in the same situation :
the changes and modifications undergone by them have been produced entirely by man's
interposition. That improved and civUized form under which he now appears, is the result
of a continued succession of changes, which have been taking place from the earliest periods
of authentic history. All the revolutions, both of ancient and modem times, have had a
greater or less influence in producing the present moral, political, and social condition of man
in the more improved quarters of the globe.

276 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY, Part IL
Subsect. l.-^Ancient History.
Ancient history is generally considered as comprehending the period which elapsed from
the earliest authentic records, and particularly from the rise of the great monarchies, to the
downfall of the Roman emphe. The various forms which government and society assumed
durmg that long period, though they were instmmental in preparing those which have exist
ed in the modern world, did not bear any exact resemblance to them. Through the conquest
of Rome by the barbarous nations, with which the first of these eras closed, almost every
connexion between them was cut off, except those of record and tradition.
The rise of the great monarchies, Egypt, Assyria, and Babylon, constitutes the first grand
epoch in ancient history. It nearly coincides with that of the great commercial republics,
Tyre and Carthage. Human society, which had before existed in a very rude and imperfect
shape, began to assume a regular, orderly, and even splendid character. All the arte which
contribute to man's support and accommodation were carried to a considerable degree of
improvement ; and the foundation was laid of those intellectual attainmente, which were to
constitute his highest honour. Alphabetic writing was invented and widely diffused ; the
arts of painting, sculpture, and architecture, made a considerable progress ; there were even
formed some elemente of science and phUosophy. During this period, too, whUe the world
generally was buried in the darkest superstition, a divine revelation, preparatory for another
more perfect, having been first communicated to the patriarchs, was more formally disclosed
to the legislator of the Jewish nation.
The Persian emphe embraced a wider extent of the globe than any that had previously
existed, and comprehended those countries which had been most remarkable as tbe seate of
improvement and civilization. Although, however, it thus became instmmental in linking
distant nations together, it bore chiefly the character of empty and barbarous pomp, and does
not appear to have produced any material advance in knowledge and improvement
The rise of the Grecian States formed, perhaps, the proudest era in the history of the
human race. The constitutions then formed afforded a degree of political liberty, and a
developement of the higher energies of the human mind, which could not be attained in
extensive empires, subjected to the arbitrary rule of a single individual. The military
exploits of the Grecian peopleif by which they baffled the force of almost the whole known
world united under the sway of Persia, were the most splendid that had hitherto Ulustrated
the annals of mankind. Genius was exerted with nearly unrivalled power in every departs
ment ; the historic page unfolded its utmost degree of energy and beauty ; and many sub
lime lessons of morality were taught by the Grecian sages. The fine arte, poetry, painting,
and architecture, reached an eminence which they have scarcely since refined, and in each
the purest models were left for future imitation. After Greece had long maintahied a glorious
defensive war against Persia, her arms were directed to conquest The reign and triumphs
of Alexander, whUe they subverted her admhed forms of civU'polity, diSused her language,
her arts, her knowledge, over a wide extent of the eastern world, and thus spread a chcle
of civilization, the traces of which have never been wholly obliterated.
The dominion of Rome, which succeeded and overpowered that of Greece, extended over
a StUl greater variety of countries and people, than had been comprehended under any for
mer empire. Her character, at first stem and austere, was gradually softened ; and on
arriving at her highest pinnacle of wealth and power, she made at the same time an unri
valled display of the pomp and refinement of polished life. She emulated, without folly
equallmg, what was most brUliant m the arts and intellectual attainmente of Greece. But
the most signal service which Rome rendered to the cause of civUization, was by extending
its empire over wide regions in northern and western Europe, which had previously been the
seat of almost complete barbarism ; though they now form the most enlightened and im
proved portion of the globe. Subsect. 2. — Modern History.
The downfall of the Roman Empire, which marked the commencement of modern his
tory, formed one of the most remarkable and disastrous eras in tiie destiny of the world.
During the fourth and fifth centuries, a succession of barbarous hordes from Grermany,
Scandinavia, Russia, and even the remotest extremities of nortiiern Asia, poured m upon
civUized Europe, and exterminated or reduced to bondage tiie greater part of ite people.
All the arts and sciences, which had shed such a lustre on tiie Greek and Roman name,
disappeared, leaving only some imperfect remnants, which were preserved in tiie depth of
monasteries. The empire was partitioned into a number of disorderly littie kingdoms, gra
dually merged into a few great monarchies, which, in tiieir general outiine, have continued
to tiio present day. This era was also distinguished, in tiie East by the introduction of the
religion of Mohammed, and the rise of the Saracen power, which undertook, by force of
arms, to diffuse that religion over the world. Its armed votaries overran a great part of
Asia, Africa, and even of Europe, and continue still to maintain a powerful influence over
the destinies of the human species. For some time, the states formed under this system pre

Book HI. IN ITS RELATION TO MAN IN SOCIETY. 277
sented a somewhat enlightened aspect and even revived the expiring lamp of science ; but
the final issue of Moslem ascendency has been, to diffuse through the world, ignorance, des
potism, barbarism, and every principle hostile to human improvement
The feudal system was established gradually among the barbarous states formed out of
the dismembered portions of the Roman emphe. The king, or chief, distributed the terri
tory among his nobles or followers, subject only to the condition of military service. These
nobles, possessing almost uncontrolled jurisdiction within their own limits, holding at their
disposal the services of numerous vassals, took advantage of every interval of weakness in
tiie reign of the sovereign, and rendered his power little more than nominal. They reduced
tiie body of the people to a state of comparative slavery, waged numerous private wars with
each other, and practised various robberies and extortions. During this turbulent era, all
refined arte and pursuits languished, while, on the basis of ignorance, superstition erected an
absolute and tyrannical dominion. The institutions of chivalry, however, which were then
formed and gradually improved, introduced a sense of honour, and a dignity and refinement
of manners, which have beneficially influenced modern society. 'This period was also
marked by the piraticEil inroads of the Scandinavians or Northmen, who ravaged all the
coaste of Europe, and obtained at least a temporary possession of considerable districts and
even kingdoms. It was marked, lastly, by those memorable expeditions into the East,
called the crasades, which, though attended with great extravagance, and occasioning much
disaster and bloodshed, tended, on the whole, towards the improvement of European policy
and social life.
The subversion of the feudal power, accompanied by the revival of knowledge, arte, and
industry, formed a most memorable era in the history of mankind. This change, which
had been for several ages silently preparing, was carried into complete effect during the fif
teenth and sixteenth centuries. The turbulent rule of the great nobles was then broken
down, and was succeeded by several extensive but mildly administered monarchies, along
with some free and commercial republics, and in one instance a limited constitutional mon
archy. The reformation of religion eminently distinguished this period ; but being opposed
by the violent intolerance of the Catholic church, it gave rise to a series of dreadfol and
sanguinary struggles. A general activity prevailed throughout the whole sphere of human
exertion. The revival of learning, the invention of printing, the extension of maritime
enterprise, leading to the discovery of new regions, and of new routes to those formerly
known, rendered the age peculiarly eventfol and interesting. It derived, however, a some
what disastrous character from the establishment of the Turkish empire in the East, by
which the throne of the Greek emperors at Constantinople was finally subverted, and very
serious alarms spread through the whole body of the European nations.
The modern system of polity followed, as the result of the great changes which had
taken place in the preceding period. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, when
it prevailed, civilization made very remarkable advances. The manners of social life became
more polished and refined. The arts and sciences were carried nearer to perfection, and
more widely diffused through the great body of mankind. Amicable relations, before un
known, were established between the different nations of Europe ; fixed laws were agreed
upon for regulating their intercourse ; and war, when it did occur, was carried on with
greatly diminished ferocity. The system of colonization in the other quarters of the globe
was also carried to a vast extent, particularly in America ; and though ite first establishment
was attended with many circumstances of injustice and tyranny, it had the effect of bringing
those quarters of the world into a more improved and civUized condition.
The era of political revolution, which commenced towards the end of the eighteenth cen
tury, being that which is still in progress, cannot be characterised in so decided a manner.
The formation of the great monarchies had delivered Europe from the turbulent sway of the
feudal chieftetns ; yet the almost absolute power with which the sovereign was then invested,
was found productive of many evUs. The hereditary nobles, exchanging their rural seate
for a residence in the great capitals, and indulging in ease and luxury, lost all influence over
the body of the people. The dhfosion of intelligence and wealth through the middling and,
in some degree, even the lower ranks, was followed by a demand, on their part, to be ad
mitted to some share in the administration of public affairs. This spirit after fermenting
for some time, and being diffused by the exertions of many distinguished writers, produced
the French revolution, and the extraordinary series of events which have thence arisen.
That great crisis did not merely agitate the interior of France, but by exposing it to foreign
interference, and then impeUing ite own mlers to schemes of conquest, it changed for some
time, in an extraordinary manner, the aspect of all Europe. Then, however, by a grand
re-action, France was driven back within her original boundaries, and the political relations
of the Continent were re-established nearly on their former footing. Considerable a.gita-
tions, however, stUl prevail in the interior of different kmgdoms, and theh' political constitu
tions have suffered, and are likely to suffer, material alterations.
Vol. L 24

278 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY, Pabt IL
Sect. II. — Political Constitution.
The political constitution under which any community subsists, forms a most important
element in its social condition. Being usually established within certain local boundaries,
and accompanied with a similarity in manners, religion, and other characteristic circum
stances, it is the leading agent in constituting a country or state. In distributing, therefore,
the four quarters of the globe into their smaller portions, the geographer uses chiefly politi
cal divisions. He finds states which have made any progress in civilization arranged into
kingdoms, empires, and republics. The elements of political power appear to consist of
monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy ; while the public functions, to be exercised within
any state, are the executive, legislative, and judicial.
A kingdom is a state of considerable though not vast extent, governed by a single person,
as France, Spain, Prussia. The subjecte are usually united by a simikrity of language and
manners, and pervaded by a national spirit. The power of the sovereign is commonly ex
tensive, though controlled in some instances by national assemblies ; and there is almost
always a body of nobles possessed of high privUeges and immunities.
An empire generally consists of a number of detached kingdoms, which have been united
by conquest under one head, as the Turkish, Persian, and Chinese. Being thus formed of
an aggregation of different states, empires are usually of very great extent ; and as mUitary
force has been the instrument of their combination, the sovereigns exercise almost always an
unlimited authority. The different members having been brought into union by force only,
rarely feel united by any national tie, and remain very dissimflar in manners, religion, and
social institutions.
Republics consist of states which own the supremacy of no king or sovereign, but are
governed by a senate, an assembly of the people, or by both conjoined. Though these govem
mente have acted a conspicuous part in the history of the world, they have been generaUy
of small extent, consisting, in many instances, of not more than a single city, with a
limited chcle of territory. Where this form of govemment has been diSused over a great
surface of country, it has consisted usually of a number of states, joined in a federal union.
This is remarkably the case with the United States of America, where such a government
has been introduced on a scale of greater magnitude than in any other quarter of the globe.
Monarchy, among the elements which compose the political system, holds the most con
spicuous place, and is the most generally prevalent. In some cases, the power of the
monarch is wholly or very nearly absolute. In a majority of instances, however, it is more
or less controlled by the influence of certain powerfol and privileged bodies. In some con
stitutions the power of the monarch is combined with that of aristocratic and popular bodies,
which share with the sovereign all the higher functions of govemment. These are called
limited monarchies, and are well adapted for the preservation of a great people in a state of
peace and prosperity. This form of govemment, after being for a long time confined to
Britain, is now spreading, though with some difficulty and confusion, over the rest of Europe.
Aristocracy, or the power vested in a distinguished and privileged class, is found existing
much less frequently as a distinct and decided form of government than as an element com
bined with monarchy and democracy. Venice, perhaps, aflbrded almost the only example
in which aristocracy subsisted for a series of ages pure and unmixed. In monarchies, the
aristocracy consists of a body of nobUity, possessing various gradations of personal and
hereditary titles and righte ; while in a republic it is formed into a deliberative body, or
senate, exercising or sharing the powers of the state. In mixed monarchies, both these
privileges are usually held by the nobles.
Democracy is the name given to the government in which the sovereignty resides in the
great body of the citizens. They exercise it, either in a general assembly of the whole
nation, or by means of persons elected, during a certain period, to act for the body of theh
constituents. The former was the mode usual among Uie ancient republics ; the latter is
more prevalent in modern times, and is alone compatible with the great extent of territory
occupied by the leading republics of the present day. Popular government has been very
generally combined in a greater or less degree with aristocracy, tiiough there seldom faUs to
be an almost incessant opposition between the two parties.
The legislative, among the different functions of the body politic, is justiy considered
supreme ; it establishes the laws and regulations, according to which all public affairs are to
be administered, and to which the persons exercising tiie otiier fiinctions are bound to con
form. Countries in which the legislative as well as the executive power is exercised by one
man, form absolute monarchies, where every thing depends upon tiie arbitrary will of that
single individual. A purely aristocratic legislature is commonly felt to be severe and oppres
sive by the great body of the people. A government cannot be considered as free, unless
the various classes of which tho nation is composed have a voice in legislative arrangemente.
Those political systems, however, in which the laws are enacted by tiie whole body of the
assembled people, are fitted only for a single city with a territory of limited extent Of
such a nature and scale were the ancient republics of Greece, and also that of Rome, during

Book HL IN ITS RELATION TO MAN IN SOCHITY. 279
tiie earlier periods of her history. But when the whole of a great people are convened into
one place, they form a mere tumultuary crowd, mcapable of any regular or effectual exer
cise of legislative fonctions. This disadvantage has, among modern nations, been studiously
remedied by the representative system, under which' the inhabitants of each different dis
trict elect an hidividual understood to possess their confidence, who exercises in their stead
the legislative fimction. Upon this basis have been founded those constitutions that have
been considered as exhibiting tiie most perfect forms of civil polity.
The judicial power provides for the security of person and property among all ranks of
individuals composing the political body, and forms thus one of the arrangements most essen
tial to general prosperity and well-being. The institutions for this purpose vary greatly in
different nations and stages of society. Among very rude tribes, the individual has only his
own strength and that of his kmdred to aid in repellmg aggression. As society advances,
the administration of justice between man and man becomes a leading object of public con-
cem. In the earlier forms of polity, however, the executive and legislative functions are
usually blended ; the monarch, or his deputy, site on the tribunal of judgment, and 1;he forms
of procedure are exceedmgly simple. "The parties appear, and plead their cause viva voce ;
whUe the judge decides promptly and on the spot In the forther progress of unprovement
it is discovered that this branch of public economy cannot be duly executed, without being
enthely sepairated from the legislative and judicial departments, and made independent of
them. Hence arise the different orders, judges, lawyers, and agents, by whom the different
stages of procedure are conducted ; written and voluminous codes of law are formed, with
the view of providing for every particular case. Yet the expense and delay consequent
upon these complicated arrangemente sometimes cause the society to look back with regret
on the simple and expeditious machinery employed by their rude ancestors.
Other important particulars are comprehended in the political state of a society : — the
titles of nobility, and the badges of honour and distinction among individuals ; the military
and naval force employed in the defence of a country ; the elements which compose it ; and
the manner in which these are arranged and directed. The same subject embraces also the
revenue, its amount, the sources whence it is derived, and the manner in which it is levied
and expended. Sect. HI. — Productive Industry.
The industry of a nation is employed in producmg the necessaries, the conveniences, the
ornamente, and the luxuries of life — all that is comprehended under the name of wealth. It
forms thus one of the most important constituents of their prosperity and well-being.
The sources of national wealth are usually divided into three ; agriculture, manufactures,
and commerce : each of these is divisible into several distinct branches, nor can the cata
logue be completed without including the two occupations of mining and fishing.
Agriculture, including the means of procuring every part of the produce of land, or what
land bears on its surface, is unquestionably the grand source of human subsistence and
accommodation. Hence chiefly are derived the materials used in manufacture ; the objects,
in the' exchange of which commerce consists. The modes in which support and the means
of enjoyment are obtained from land may be divided into three ; hunting, pasturage, and
tUlage, which last being the only form in which labour is employed upon the ground iteelf,
is more specially considered as agriculture. The collection of the spontaneous fruite of the
earth, being confined to a few tribes in the lowest stage of improvement, scarcely requires
to be taken into consideration.
Hunting, or the chase of wild animals, to obtain their flesh as food, and their skins as
raiment, is the earliest and rudest mode of procuring human support. This employment
requhes art and contrivance as well as bold adventure ; but is usually accompanied with rude
and turbulent habits, and, combined with them, constitutes what is called the savage state.
As culture advances, and the greater proportion of the soil is devoted to the plough, or to
the support of tame anhnals, ite range is greatly limited, and in a high state of cultivation
becomes little more than the amusement of the opulent. The chase of the for-bearing ani
mals, however, stUl affords one of the most valuable materials of commerce.
Pasturage, or the deriving of subsistence from herds and flocks, tamed and trained so as
to be subservient to the use of man, forms a more improved and comfortable occupation than
hunting. Peculiar habits of life usually distinguish nations subsisting solely by pasturage.
They are often destitute of any fixed abodes, moving from place to place in large bands or
encampments, living within their tents in patriarchal simplicity, hut towards other nations
practising on a great scale war and robbery. These habite constitute what is called the bar
barous state, still prevsiient among the Arabs, Tartars, and other nations occupying an exten
sive portion of the earth's surface.
Tillage, or the culture of the soil by the processes of ploughing or sowing, is employed
by all the more improved nations, as the most efficaciousmeans of drawing subsistence from
the earth. In proportion to the general improvement which any people have attahied, is
usually the skill and dUigence with which this most important art is practised. The com-

280 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY, Part IIL
munity which derives its chief subsistence from the culture of the soU, merits generally, to
a great extent, the character of civilized. Some of the oriental people, as the Hindoo and
Chinese, practise this important art with an indefatigable industry applied to every avaUable
portion of their soU, which is scarcely to be paralleled elsewhere ; but in Europe, and espe
cially in Britain, the use of machinery, the skUfol rotation of crops, and various improved
processes, render the same measure of industry much more productive. The objecte of
culture vary exceedingly, and for the most part according to the varieties of soU and cli
mate. Grain, the main staff of human subsistence, forms everywhere the most extensive
and important object of tillage. Climate chiefly determines the grain cultivated in any
particular region. In the tropical countries it is rice ; in the best part of the temperate
zone, wheat and barley ; in the colder tracte, oate and rye. Of luxuries, wine and oil are
the most grateful, and in the most general demand; they have their almost exclusive
growth in the warmer tracte of the temperate zone. The delicate fruite, from which they
are produced, do not flourish in the excessively luxuriant soil of the tropics. There, how
ever, the fragrant aromatic plante, and those filled with rich and saccharine juices, produce
valuable substances, which are eagerly sought after by the natives of less genial climates.
Fishery, by which subsistence and wealth are derived from the waters, forms a peculiar
branch of industry, which flourishes in every stage of society. Even the radest savages,
wherever their situation admits, conjoin it with hunting, as a means of aflfording an imme
diate supply to their wante. They practise it often with a great degree of dUigence and
contrivance; but the progress of industry leads to various processes for extending and
improving this branch. By the operations of salting and drying, fish is rendered fit to be
conveyed as merchandise to the most distant countries. Some of the great maritime nations
send large fleete into remote seas, where they find situations favourable to this pursuit The
whale, the cod, and the herring fisheries have, in this manner, been raised to the rank of
great national concerns.
Mining, or the extraction of valuable substances from beneath the surface of the earth,
can be extensively practised only hi a somewhat advanced state of human industry. Yet
nature has lodged in these dark repositories objecte the most essentially conducive to the use
and comfort of man, and others which afford his most brilliant ornamente. Here are found
the bright and attractive metals of gold and silver ; there the solidly useful ores of hon and
copper ; here glitter the diamond, the ruby, and the amethyst ; there extend vast beds of
coal, lime, and freestone. Gold, the most precious of the metals, is often the most easily
accessible ; but we can scarcely give the name of mining to the operation by which the
savage merely collects its grams in the sands of the rivers, or even extracte it by pounding,
when mechanically combined with other substances. But metals, in general, when lodged
in the bowels of the earth, exist in the form of ore, intimately and even chemicaUy united
with other materials, from which they can be separated only by smelting, refining, and other
elaborate and even scientific processes. From the toUsome nature of tiiese operations, and
from the gloomy depths in which they are conducted, it is often difficult to procure a supply
of workmen ; hence slaves and individuals condemned for crimes have been employed to a
later period in this than in most other species of labour. Whatever skUl may be employed
in mining, it is necessarily a local occupation, nature having hregularly and almost capri
ciously distributed ite objecte over the different regions of the globe. Even the experimente
made to discover whether metals are lodged in any particular spot are often attended with
considerable cost, and even peril.
Manufactures may be regarded as a process by which man creates, as it were, a value
for himself He cannot, indeed, make any new substance ; he can seldom even dter
essentially the quality of that which is furnished to him ; but he can altogether change ite
character and quality, can convert a rude and shapeless substance into one eminently con
ducive to benefit, convenience, or ornament. The excrescence shorn from an animal, the
pod hanging from a shrub, objects in themselves neither useful nor beautifol, are converted
into commodious and magnificent robes, adorned with the most brUliant tinte. Almost
every natural product requires to undergo some change before it is fitted for the use of
civilized man. Grain must undergo the process of grinding and baking ; the juice of the
vine, that of fermentation ; even animal food, that of cooking. But the name of manufac
ture is not given to these processes, nor to any which do not!, to a material extent mcrease
the value of the substances on which they are employed. The various articles of clothing
form the principal objects of manufacture ; next to which rank stuffe for ftiriiiture, metallic
implemcnte, and utensils. Manufacturing skUl and industry, carried to a certain extent
mark, beyond almo.st any otiier circumstance, the advance of a people in arts and civiliza
tion. The savage usually employs unaltered the substances with which nature fomishes
him. He feeds on the flesh of tiie animals which he has killed in the chase; he clothes
himself in their skins ; he consumes in tiieir crude state the roots and herbs which the earth
spontaneously affords. Even the nations which subsist by pasturage, and have made, per
haps, a certain progress in agriculture, though tliey have usually acquired a desire for articles
of fine manufacture, prefer to obtain them from more industrious neighbours, in exchange for

Book HI. IN ITS RELATION TO MAN AND SOCIETY. 281
tiieir own mde produce. The eastern empires, for the consumption of theh courts and great
men, produce a few articles of exquisite fineness and beauty by mere manual labour, vyith-
out any capital or any machmery at all costiy or complicated. It is among European nations,
tiiat tiie two prmciples, the division of labour and large capital employed in the construction
of the most ingenious machines, have enabled the manufacturer to produce fabrics which,
for abundance, elegance, and cheapness, have surpassed tiiose of every other age or nation,
and have found tiieh way mto all the markets of the globe.
Commerce, tiie thhd grand source of national wealth, does not even aim at producing any
new article, or alterhig the texture or quality of that in which it traffics. It merely con
veys it from a place in which it is superabundant, to another m which it is wanted. This
sometimes confers an exchangeable value on that which previously had none ; in every case,
where judiciously exercised, it very considerably enhances the value attached to the article
which it conveys from one place to another.
The home and the foreign trade form the two great branches mto which commerce is
divided. The former, m consequence of each of its transactions being on a smaUer scale,
and affording little scope for brUliant adventure and splendid speculation, attracte, in general,
less notice, and is considered of inferior political importance ; yet it is proved by Smith to
be by much the most extensive, as well as the most conducive to national prosperity. Its
basis consists in the exchange between the country and the town, of the gram, cattle, and
other raw produce of the one, for the varied commodities framed by the manufacturing in
dustry of the other, or, in countries of great extent of the raw or manufactured productions
of one section for those of another. Home trade is either coasting or inland, the former,
where practicable, being preferred for bulky commodities, or those to be conveyed between
distant parte of a kingdom ; much of the interior commerce also passes along rivers and
canals. Foreign trade has no limits but those of the habitable globe ; and, for reasons simi
lar to those just hinted at in another case, the more distant branches are considered generally
as the most brUliant and important ; while, in fact the trade with the countries most closely
contiguous, from ite quicker returns, ranks highest in real amount and value. Unfortunately,
it has been hitherto much fettered by the jealousy and rivalry between neighbouring nations,
which make each imagine the prosperity of another to be gained at ite expense, and every
commodity received from them, to be so much abstracted from its own wealth. Although
this Uliberal system has somewhat abated, yet the consequence stUl is, that intercourse with
distant colonial possessions is more sure and steady than with any power enthely foreign.
The extensive capitals now possessed by some European powers, especially Britain, enable
them to carry on the most extensive commerce with countries situated at the greatest dis
tance, and even at the opposite extremity of the globe. In the interior, also, of the great
continents, there is a foreign trade by land, carried on by caravans, which are so numerous
as to resemble armies, and proceed to an immense distance.
The instrumente employed in conducting and facilitating commerce, and which are chiefly
shipping, roads, and canals, form the most important part of what is called the fixed capital
of a country. Under the head of roads, the invention of railways, though yet only in its
infancy, promises to facilitate, in a remarkable manner, the interior communications of the
countries in which it is employed.
Sect. IV. — Civil and Social Condition of Man.
The population, or the number of individuals, of whom any community is composed, forms,
if not the most important, at least the most prominent circumstance in its social condition,
and one on which ite magnitude, and ite place in the scale of nations, intimately depend.
The ancient statesmen cjnsidered the increase of the numbers of a people as one of the most
important of national objecte, with a view both to its prosperity in peace, and its strength in
war. Some politicians of the present day take a different view of the subject, maintaining
that population in all chcumstances of tolerable peace and prosperity easily keeps itself on
a level with the means of subsistence, has even a tendency to rise higher, and by its super
abundance to produce a distressing degree of national poverty : they have suggested schemes
for checking the progress of population.
The actual amount of the population in any particular period or country, has been involved
m considerable uncertainty. It is only in modern Europe, and hi the United States of
North America, and there very recentiy, that general or careful enumerations have been
made. But in all the other quarters of the globe, the estimates are formed upon very vague
observation, founded on the density with which, on a superficial view, the districts appear to
be peopled.
A national character is found to pervade every community. The particulars have been
often exaggerated, fancifolly delineated, and rashly and indiscriminately applied to indi
viduals ; but to a certain extent such a variation may be always traced between one people
and another. The grand distinction, founded upon the progress of arte, letters, knowledge,
and refinement, is into savage, barbarous, and civUized : the first being marked by the totai
absence of these improvements; tiie second, by the possession of them in only an imperfect
Vol. L 24* ^ 2L

282 PRINCIPLES OF GEOGRAPHY, Part H.
and progressive degree ; the thhd, by theh having arrived at a certain maturity. The savage
state prevaUs among the natives of America, and the islanders of the South Sea ; the former,
howe'ver, being now in a great measure supplanted by European colonists. The barbarous
state is general throughout Africa, and extends over a great part of Asia. The civUized state
is found in the great empires of Eastem Asia, and in a higher degree, as well as under dif
ferent characters, among the nations of Europe, and their widely-spread colonies. In these
last, too, civilization appears to continue in a progressive and advancing state, whUe over the
rest of the world it is nearly stationary.
The religion professed by any people is a remarkable and most important feature in theh
social condition. Religious opinions do not come dhectly under the cognizance of the
geographer ; but he is called upon to mark this, as a particular in which nations strikingly
differ from each other. The inhabitants of the earth may, in regard to religion, be divided
into three great classes, — Christian, Mahomedan, and Pagan. The first, as to numerical
amount, does not exceed the second, and stUl falls short of the third ; but the nations pro
fessing it, have acquired such an ascendency in arte, social improvement, and poUtical
power, whUe theh colonies have filled, and are multiplying over all the lately savage and
unoccupied portions of the globe, that in all probabUity this faith will, in a few generations,
be more widely diffused than any other. The Mahomedan nations, though m numbers they
perhaps equal the last mentioned, and though they occupy a large proportion of the most
fertile regions of the globe, are yet sunk mto such a state of slavery and degradation, and
so decidedly surpassed by the Christian people, that theh sway is not likely to endure above
two or three centuries. Of the Pagan religions, much the most numerous, and the only
civilized, professors, are those attached to the kmdred creeds of Brahma and Boodh, estab
lished, the one oyer the greater part of Hindostan; the other in Chma, and other continental
kingdoms, and insular territories of Eastern Asia. From their peculiar habite, and the
hnmutable nature of their institutions, they are Ukely to adhere to these systems with
greater pertmacity than the votaries of superstition in Africa, the South Sea, and other
quarters, where the train of belief and observance, however fantastic, is of a slighter and
looser texture.
The progress of knowledge forms a most conspicuous chapter in the history of the human
species : it follows generally that train of civUization which we have aheady delineated. In
surveying different communities, various particulars connected with this subject are highly
deserving of the attention of the geographer. Among these we may mention the most
eminent philosophers, men of science, and authors who have flourished in any nation, — the
institutions formed for the promotion and advancement of science, — the degree in which
knowledge is diffused throughout the community, — the establishmente formed for public and
private education.
The fine arts, — which are intimately connected with the more elevated and inteUectual
part of man's nature, and of which the successfol cultivation confers glory on a people, and
polishes and improves their manners, — merit to be considered simUarly, and under the same
general heads, as theh intellectual attainments.
There are various pointe of minor importance, which yet are distinctive and characteristic
of a people, and excite thus a just and natural curiosity. Such are the amusemente in which
they chiefly delight, the peculiar costume in which they are atthed, the species of food on
which they subsist, and the liquor by which they are exhUarated, as weU as the mode in
which these articles are prepared for their use.
Sect. V. — The Languages of the World.
On the subjects now enumerated, it has been judged sufficient to indicate theh nature,
and the light under which they will be treated, reserving the details for the succeeding part
of the work, when they come to be considered successively in reference to the various regions
of the globe. But there is one subject into which it wiU be expedient, even at the present
stage, to enter more particularly.
Language is one of the strongest characteristics by which nations are distinguished from
each other ; at the same time the dialecte spoken by different communities, even when most
widely dissimilar, display in many cases relations and alliances indicative of a common origin.
There exist over the world classes of languages, each of which comprehends the speech of
numerous people, and forms a tie between them, marking early relations and connexions.
Language thus acquires a character especially geographical, illustratuig the origin and fami
lies of nations, and the connexions between different countries. It \yill tiien be advantageous
to consider, in a large and comprehensive view, first, the languages spoken generally over
the globe, and then those which prevaU in its different quarters.
The languages by which the nations of tiie eartii are distinguished, and from which are
derived the names, not only of its principal features, natural and artificial, but of ite different
regions, and of the places contained in tiiem, constitute an important department of geo
graphy. When we contemplate those names in maps, a little reflection suffices to convince
us that most of them are to be regarded, not as mere arbitrajy or fortuitous appellations, but

Book UL IN ITS RELATION TO MAN IN SOCIETY. 283
as terms of definite meanmg, or as significant memorials of tiie people by whom tiiey were
hnposed ; and,- m ti-acmg tiiose of ancient origin through the mutations tiiey have undergone,
we are compelled to summon history to the aid of geography, for the purposes of expfeming
them with reference to the great events which have, from time to time, altered the political,
civU, and social condition of the nations composing the great family of mankind, thus,
witiiout adverting to tiie rise, growth, and extinction of kmgdoms and empires in Asia, we
may observe, that tiie series of revolutions which ended in the overtiirow ot the Roman
empire, and the foundation of the existing system of Europe on ite rums, is m nothmg more
remarkable than m tiie change which it contributed to produce m the greater part of the
world, through the migration of nations ; a change so absolute, that it has served to mark
the distmction between ancient and modern history, ancient and modern geography, and
ancient and modern languages. Of this change the geographer, equally with the historian,
is at every step of his hivestigations reminded. France, for instance, conimemorates in her
modern name that branch of the Germanic famUy of nations who prevaUed in Gaul ; yet
she retams, not less in her topographical vocabulary than in her language generally,
unequivocal traces of Roman dommion ; and we recognise, though strangely curtaUed, the
imperial appellations Augustodunum and Aureliana, in Autun and Orleans. Italy and
Spam, preservmg a semblance of their ancient names, exhibit similar instances of disfigure
ment in those of particular places : Forum Julii and Casar- Augusta survive in Friuli and
Saragossa; but the Trashiiene suggests a less classic reminiscence as the lake of Perugia;
nor can the Betis and the Durias be recognised under the more sonorous names, the Gua-
dalquivh and the Guadalaviar (the great river and the white river), conferred on them by
the Arab conquerors of Spain. Appellatives, also derived from languages little known,
whether ancient or modem, are liable to mutUation from the varying orthography of travel
lers ; and we can no longer wonder at the confosion caused by voyagers in this particular,
when we call to mind the difference not only between foreign and vernacular names, but
between theh written and oral expression ; as when a German spells his native country
Deutechland, and pronounces it Teytehland ; or a Persian writes for Persia Iran, and. pro
nounces it Eeraun. But the different idioms of the human race claim our attention from
far higher considerations than the mere naming of places or of countries ; for geography,
considered as an auxUiary to what has been emphatically called " the proper study of man
kind," is principally valuable as combining, with a description of the earth, a view of the
different branches of the great human famUy by whom such vast portions of it have been
"replenished and subdued."
Ethnography is the term which has been employed to designate this branch of geographi
cal science. It distinguishes nations by theh languages, and professes to class them in king
doms, femilies, genera, species, and varieties ; but this systematic arrangement is as yet far
from being completed. Of the numerous languages that are or have been spoken on the earth,
many are so imperfectly known that it is difficult to determine to what family they belong.
For this and other reasons it has been deemed expedient by a modem writer, who appears to
have collated the labours of his predecessors on the subject,* to adopt a geographical arrange
ment and consider languages in their relation to the five great divisions of the globe ; the
Asiatic, the European, the African, the Oceanic, and the American. It is obvious, how
ever, that the ethnographical and geographical limite of a nation and its language may be
widely different ; the Spanish and the British, for instance, extend ethnographically to the
remotest regions of both the Indies. Adopting this arrangement, not only as most convenient
in regard to a branch of knowledge still in ite infancy, but as most suitable to a geographi
cal treatise, we shall proceed, without pausing to discuss the merits of any particular theory,
to offer, in this and subsequent parte of the present work, such a succinct view of the known
languages of mankind as its just proportions will allow.
The distribution of languages into Shemitic, Hamitic, and Japhetic, according to the
scriptural account seems however entitled to some notice, as being well warranted in rela
tion to the early languages of the world, if we can reconcUe our thoughte to an affinity of
languages after theh confusion, and the consequent dispersion of the human race. It has
been placed in a striking point of view by the able author of the " History of Maritime
and Inland Discovery," hi Dr. Lardner's Cabinet Cyclopadia ; and a brief sketch of his
observations may be usefol as an introduction to an account of languages more strictly
geographical. On reference to the sacred records, we find that in the order in which the generations of
the sons of Noah are given, Japheth tekes precedence of Ham and Shem, and is called the
elder. This the leamed writer we are now chhig has not noticed ; he has taken the names
in the order which long and universal usage has sanctioned.
" The family of Shem," he observes, " comprised the pastoral nations which were spread
over the plams between the Euphrates and the shores of the Mediterranean, from Ararat to
Arabia. The Hebrews themselves were of this stock; and the resemblance of theh ian-
* Balbi, Atlas Ethnographique du Globe, Paris, 1826.

284 PRLNCIPLES OP GEOGRAPHY, Part U.
guage with the Aramean., or ancient Syrian, and with Arabic, sufficiently proves the iden
tity in race of what are called the Shemitic nations. There is no difficulty in assigning to
each of the sons of Shem his proper situation. Elam founded the kingdom of Elymeis ;
Assur, that of Assyria ; and Aram, the kingdom of Aramea or Syria, a name stiU clearly
preserved in that of Armenia. From Arphaxad were descended the Hebrews themselves,
and the various tribes of Arabia ; and this close affinity of origm was always manifest in the
language and in the intimate correspondence of the two nations. Some of the names given
by Moses to the children of Shem are still used in Arabia as local designations : thus there
is still in that country a district called Havilah ; and Uzal, the name given to Sana by the
sacred historian, is not quite extinct.
" The descendants of Ham," continues this leamed writer, " constituted the most civUized
and industrious nations of the Mosaic age. The sops of that patriarch were Cush, Mizraim,
Phut, and Canaan. The name of Ham is identical with Cham or Chamia, by which Egypt
has in all ages been called by ite native inhabitente ; and Mizer or Mizraim is the name by
which the same country, or more probably the Delta, is still known by the Turks and Ara
bians." [We may add, that it is the name by which, in the original Hebrew, Egypt is called
in the admonition that precedes the decalogue.] " The land of Phut appears to signify Libya
in general ; and the name Cush, thohgh sometimes used vaguely, is obviously applied to the
southern and eastern parte of Arabia, The names of Saba, Sabtah, Raamah, and Sheba,
children of Cush, have long survived in the geography of Arabia. The posterity of Canaan
rivalled the children of Mizraim in the early splendour of arte and cultivation. Though the
Canaanites, properly speaking, and the Phoenicians, were separated from each other by
Mount Carmel, yet as the same spirit of industry animated both, they may in a general
sense be considered as one people. The Phcenicians possessed the knowledge of the Egyp
tians, free from superstitious reluctence to venture upon the sea. Theh local position
naturally engaged them in commercial enterprise. Theh chief cities. Tyre and Sidon, had
reached the highest point of commercial opulence, when the first dawn of social polity was
only commencing in Greece."
To Japheth, " the Japetus of the Greeks,'' this writer concurs with others in ascribing
the superiority over the sons of Noah, if not in the number of his descendante, in the extent
of theh possessions. All the Indo-Teutonic nations, stretching without interruption from
the extremity of Western Europe, through the peninsula of India, to the isle of Ceylon, he
considers as belonging to this common ancestor. The Turkish nation also, occupying the
elevated countries of central Asia, boasts the same descent, Theh own traditions accord
with the Mosaic history; and indeed the affinities of language, which are stUl evident among
all the nations of the Japhethian family, fully confirm the relation of the sacred writer ; yet
the meaning assigned to the patriarch's name in the Sanscrit language, Yapati, " lord of
the earth," tells for nothing unless we can suppose the name Japheth to be thence derived.
To Gomer, the eldest of Japheth's sons, is ascribed, on the authority of Josephus, the
distinction of being ancestor of the Celte. Magog may have been the founder of some
Scythian nation. Madai is recognised as the ancestor of the Medes. The posterity of Javan
and Tubal, and Meshech and Tiras, may be traced from Ararat always called Masis by ite
inhabitants, through Phrygia into Europe. Tubal and Meshech left theh names to the
Tibareni and Moschi, Armenian tribes, whose early emigrations appear to have extended
into Mcesia. In like manner the Thracians may have owed their origin to Tiras.
That the progeny of Japheth peopled Europe, seems apparent on another ground, which
we shall explain, after mentioning the remaining branches of his posterity. Ashkenaz, the
son of Gomer, is thought to be that Ascanius whose name so frequently occurs in the ancient
topography of Phrygia, and from whom, probably, the Euxine, at first the Axine, Sea derived
ite appellation. " In Togarmah," observes this writer, " we see the proper ancestor of the
Armenian nation, and it is even asserted by the Turks."
" Javan was the Ion of the Greeks, the father of the lonians. In the names of his sons
we find fresh proofs of the consistency of the Mosaic history. In Elishah w-e see the origin
of Ellis or Hellas. The name of Tarshish is supposed, with little foundation, to refer to
Tarsus in Cilicia. Kittim is said to mean Cyprus ; and Dodanim, or Rodanhn, is understood
to apply to the island Rhodes." Here we may remark, that the sacred text contains a most
important record relative to the descendante of Japheth : " By these were tiie isles of the
Gentiles divided in their lands, every one after his tongue after their families, in their
nations." Now, if the Oriental latitude of expression be allowed in this instance, the isles
of the GentUes must include not only the isles of the Mediterranean and other European
sens, but the peninsulas of Asia Minor, of Greece, of Italy, and of Spain.
To the Phoenicians m.'ist be partiy ascribed the discovery of those territories collectively
called " The isles of the Gentiles," and tlie earliest intercourse witii tiiem. Unfortunately
those early navigators have left no records of tiieir discoveries ; .ind the little we know of
their enterprises is derived from Scripture, and from the scattered notices of the Greek and
Latin authors. They were, as elsewhere observed, the pilote of Solomon's fleet ; and as often
as the fleete of Egypt are mentioned by ancient historians, we find them manned and guided

Book HI. IN ITS RELATION TO MAN IN SOCIETY. 285
by Phcenicians. Their commercial enterprises had contributed to augment the wealth of
that kmgdom, which had attained a high degree of social order and economy seven hundred
years before the Greeks became acquainted with the use of money. The numerous colonies
which they planted along the shores of the Euxine, the Mediterranean, and the Atlantic,
beyond the Straite of Gibraltar, attest the extent of their early voyages. Those of Utica,
Carthage, and Gades, or Cadiz, were founded between twelve and eight hundred years
before the Christian era ; but the seas of the west were probably explored for ages before
settlemente were formed at such a distance from the parent state. Theh geographical
knowledge, even in the fabulous times of Greece, probably embraced as large a portion of
tiie earth £is that of the Romans in the time of Augustus; but, with the caution characteristic
of a mercantUe people, they forbore to communicate that knowledge to the rest of mankind.
The silence of these descendante of Ham leaves us in uncertainty as to the progress of those
of Japheth in peopling the continent, the peninsulas, and the isles of Europe. In stUl deeper
mystery is involved the descent of the negro tribes of Africa from the father of Canaan.
Having thus briefly characterized the Shemitic, Hamitic, and Japhetic races, we leave to
the consideration of the curious the theories that have been framed upon them in respect to
the different idioms of mankind, and revert to the geographical arrangement which we pro
pose to adopt.
Separating all the known languages of the globe into five grand divisions, we name them
the Asiatic, the European, the African, the Oceanic, and the American, according to the
part of the world in which they are spoken. Then tracing, according to the best authori
ties, the several languages by their affinities, we class those which appear to be sister idioms
in one group, assigning to it a distinctive name ; as the Mongolian family, the Celtic family,
or the Sanscrit femUy, conformably, in most cases, to the name of the principal people of
each of those families. But here a difficulty arises from the variance between geographic
and ethnographic limits. Several nations included in one of these groups have dwelt from
time immemorial at once in Asia, Africa, and Europe ; others in regions partly European,
partly Asiatic : to which part of the world then must the family be assigned to which those
nations belong 1 Two reasons influence the decision ; the historical importance of the people,
and its mass, or relative number, as may be better understood from one or two examples.
That the Chaldeans, the Assyrians, the Arabs, the Hebrews, and other nations of the
great Shemitic family, were from the earliest tunes inhabitants of Westem Asia, we know
from the writings of Moses, with which the resulte of the most eminent philologers and
mathematicians wonderfoUy agree. These nations, therefore, belong unquestionably to
Asia ; and the comparison of the Gheez and Amharic vocabularies having demonstrated an
indisputable affinity between them and the people of Abyssinia, who speak the idioms com
prehended in the branch called Abyssinian, the languages of the latter also are classed in
the Asiatic branch, though in all epochs, even anterior to historical tradition, those nations
have dwelt in Africa.
The great mass of the Malay people occupies almost all the isles of the Indian Archi
pelago, those of Polynesia, and some of Australia. Hence we regard the Malay family
as Oceanic, and class all the people characterized by this idiom as belonging to that great
ethnographical group. Thus, besides the Malays of the peninsula of Malacca, whose settle
ment in the extremity of Asia is of no remote date, this division includes the Si Deia or
Formosans of Asia, and the Madecasses of the African isle Madagascar.
The Uralian nations belong equally to Europe and Asia ; because, from the little we
know of them, they have inhabited, tune out of mind, the north-east and east of Europe,
and the north-west and west of Asia. Following the demarcation prescribed by M. Malta
Bran, we flnd that the great mass of the Uralian or Finnish nations belongs to Europe. We
therefore regard the Finnish famUy as European, and class among them all the ancient and
modem nations who, from strikhig analogies in theh respective idioms, seem to belong to
them. The Esquimaux have from time hnmemorial extended over all the north of the New
World ; while the sedentary Tchutchhis, who speak a language evidently related to the
idioms of those American tribes, occupy only the extreme north-east of Asia. The Tchutch
his vve therefore consider as American colonies, and, following the precedent of Balbi,
re-unite them as such to the other nations of America who form the fkmily of the Es
quimaux. Under a perfect ethnographical arrangement, the languages of the Indo-Germanic nations,
extending fi-om Ceylon and the Ganges to the extreme west of Europe, and even to Ice
land, would form, not a single family, but rather an ethnographic kmgdom divided mto six
families. In subsequent parte of this work, the languages of the earth wiU be considered as divided
mto five prhicipal branches ; the European, the Asiatic, the African, the American, and
the Oceanic.

286

MAP OP EUROPE— west part.

Fig. 84,

.JS^C, North

Longitudii 6 Woit

S LongitudB Eaiit 10 from Greenwich 15

Fio. 85.

MAP OP EUROPE— EAST part.

287

Ix)iigitude East 30 from Greenwich

288

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part HI.

PART III.
GEOGRAPHY CONSIDERED IN RELATION TO THE VARIOUS REGIONS
OP THE GLOBE.
In the second part of this work, the prmciples of geography have been treated of as
founded upon a general survey of the globe. The most extensive portion of our task still
remains. We must delineate the leading objecte of nature, art, and human life, as they
appear successively in each different region into which the earth is divided.
Pive great general divisions of the earth are now usually recognized : — 1. Europe. 2.
Asia. 3. Africa. 4. America. 5. The extensive and numerous islands of the South Sea,
to which the Prench give the name of Oceania, the English those of Australasia and Poly
nesia, to which we may add the islands of the Polar Sea. Each of these will form the sub
ject of a separate book.

BOOK I.
EUROPE.

Europe is the smallest in extent of the four great continente, and yet we may pronounce
it the most important of all the divisions of the globe. Asia, indeed, was the cradle of
civilization and knowledge ; but her emphes soon became, and have ever since continued
stetionary ; while Europe has carried the sciences, arte, and refinement, with almost unin-

Ref

erences to the Map of Europe. — West Part.

ENGLAND.

19, Tonesinger

6. Lintz

SWITZERLAND

. 43. Aurillac

55. Almeria

1. Durham

20. FrederickBhall

7. Krems

1. Constance

44. Privas

56. Malaga

2. Morpeth
3. Carlialo

a Presborg

2. Berne

45. Chamberry

57. Ecija

SVyEDEN.

9. 'Vienna

3. Geneva

46. Grenoble

58. Carmona

4. Kendal

1, Tarna

,10. Sopron

47. Digne
59. Huebla
5. York
2. Tasjo
11. Oratz
WEST PRUSSIA. 48. Draguinon
60. Seville
6. Manchester
3. Liden
12. Brack
1. Miinsler
49. Toulon
61. Gibraltar
7. Lincoln
4. Ostursund
Vi. Villach
2. Wesel
50. Avignon
62. Cadiz
8. Chester
5. Sundswall
14. Saltzburg
3. Clevca
51. Nismea
9. SU Asaph
6. Hede
15. Hall
4. Cologne
PORTUGAL.
0. Card gan
7. Tara
16. Brixen
5. Ooblentz
SPAIN.
1. Molgaco
1. LlandafF
6. Sarna
17. Milan
6. Pruym
1. Ferrol
2. Braganza
•i. Worcester
9. Hudiksvall
18. Mantua
2. Santiago
3. Almeida
3. Gloucester
10. Soderhamn
19. Padua
NETHERLANDS
. 3. Vigo
4. Oporto
4. Petcrboroueh
11. Ilu3by
20. Venice
1. Amsterdam
4. Orense
5. Aveyro
5. Norwich
12. Sala
ai.Belluno
2. Rotterdam
5. Lugo
6. Guarda
6. Cambridge
13. Orebro
22. Rimini
3. Antwerp
6. Astorga
7. Coimbra
7. Canterbury
14. Carlsbad
23. Laybach
4. Ghent
7. Leon
6. Leria
8. Dover
15. Oville
24. Agrain
5. Brussels
8. Oviedo
9. Lisbon
9. London
16. Nykopiog
25. Carlatadt
6. Liege
9. Lanes
10. Obidos
0. Manchester
17. Linkoping
26. Zara
7. Luxemburg
10. Santander
11. Abrantes
21. Rrietol
18. Jonkoping
27. Spalatro
11. Bilboa
12. Evora
22. Poole
19. Gottenburg
FRANCE
12. Pampeluna
13. Alvilo
23. Exeter
20. Folkenberg
21. Malmo
ITALV.
1, Genoa
2. Turin
3. Alessandria
1. Calais
2. Amiens
13. Vittoria
14. Burgoa
14. Ourique
15. Lagos
SCOTLAND.
22. Christianstad
3. St. auintin
15. Paleocia
16. Faro.
1. Thurso
9 Invprnoaa
23. Kalmar
24 Gmin
4. Rouen
5. Evreux
16. Zamora
17. Salamanca
^. lllVCItlCaD
3. Banff
jUH. .JJIIlll.
4. Parma
5. Bologna
6. Florence
7. Loffhorn
8. Orbetello
9, Rome
10. Neltuno
11. Naples
12. Pohcaslro
13. Tarnnto
6. Caen
18. Ciudad Rodrigo
a Dal. R.
4. Aberdeen
5. Perth
6. Edinburgh
7. Selkirk
8. Ayr IRELAND.
DENMARK.
1. Aalborg
2. Wiborg
3. Veile
4. Ripen
5. Sleswick
6. Kiel
7, Copenhagen
7. St. 1.0
8. St.Brieox
9. Brest
10. Quimper
11. Vannes
12. Rennes
13. Alencon
19. Avila
20. Segovia
21. Soria
22. Tudela
23. Huesca
24. Ago
25. Barcelona
b Moisen, L.
c Wener, L.
d Wetter. L.
e Oder, R.
f Elbe, R.
g Weser, R.
h Kbine, R.
1. liondondorry
2. Sligo
3. GfiTway
4 Limerick
4. Chartres
5, Paris
26. Tarragona
27. Lerida
i Meuse, R.
j Seine, R.
k Loire, R.
1 Garonne, R.
ICELAND.
14, Bitonto
5. Foagia
6, Pescara
6. Sdissons
17. Metz
28. Peniacoia
29. Saragossa
5. Cork
1. Ilolnr
18. Slrasburg
30. Teruel
m Douro, R.
6. Wexford
2. Bessested
7. .^ncona
19. Epinal
20. Chaumont
31. Utrilla
n Tagua, R,
7. Dublin
3. Sandfall
18. Pesaro
32. Guadaxara
0 Guadiana, R.
fi. Droeheda
9. Belfast
21. Chatillon
33. Hoeto
p Guadalquivir, R.
PRUSSIA,
GERMANY,
22. Troyca
34. Toledo
q Ebro, R.
1. Colberg
1. Slralsund
23. Orleans
35. Madrid
T Rhone, R.
NORWA'S.
2. Stargard
2. Hamburg
24. Tours
36. Piacentia
B Geneva, L. of
1. Saltdalen
3, Sletlin
3. Bremen
25. Angers
37. Truxillo
t Constance, L. 0.
S. Seines
4. Berlin
4. Oldenburg
26. Nantes
38. Badajoz
u Po. R.
3. Rys Vand
5. Frankfort
5. Osnaburg
27. La Rucho
39. Moura
V Drave, R.
4. SoBVUg .
5. Dronlheini
6, Posen
6. Hanover
28. Poitiers
40. Zafra
w Danube, R,
7, Gnesna
7. Brunswick
29. Goeret
41. Cordova
d~1^NTmTJ-<< A
6. Romsdal
8. IjlHSA
8. Cassol
30. Moulina
42. Andufar
CORSICA.
7. Forde
9. Rrfislnu
9. Fnlda
31, Lons
43. Ciudad Real
1. Corte
8. Ardnt
10. Giniz
0. Tlrirmsladt
32. Lyons
3,'l, Macon
44, Torrenueva
2. Porto Vecchio
9. Loorig
11. Sngan
I. Wurms
i.! Alv^cete
SARDINIA.
1. Sassari
3. Oristngni
3. Cagliori
0. Horgon
12. Tiirgnu
2. Heilbronn
34. Clermont
46. Villo de Canos
I.Tondal
13. Magdoburg
13. Froyburg
35. Poricnux
47. Murviedro
2. Stttvangor
14. Ulm
36, Bordeaux
48. Vilencin
3. ChrialianBand
AUSTRIA.
15. Augsburg
37. Dnx
49. Villencia
4. Tonsborff
1. Otmuiz
16. N unioh
38. Pau
50, Alfuento
SICILY.
5. Konaborg
6. Goef
2. Brunn
17. Nuroniburg
39. Toulouse
51. Murcia
1. Messina
3. Tnbor
18, 1 of
40. Albv
41. Rodez
52, Vera
2. Palermo
7. Christiania
4. Praguo
19. Leipzig
53, Baza
3. Sciacca
8. Faaldberg
5, Pilson
20, Dresden
4S. Agen
54, Granada
4. Syracuse
Book I.

EUROPE.

289

terrupted progress, to the comparatively elevated state at which they have now arrived. All
the branches of mdustry are conducted with a skill and to an extent unattained in any other
part of the earth. European vessels carry on the commerce of the most distant regions.
The military and political mfluence of Europe is now of a magnitude with which the most
powerful and populous empires of the other contments can no longer be compared. European
colonists have now peopled, and are more and more peoplmg, all the formerly savage and
unoccupied quarters of the. earth; and, with the exception of some strongholds of ancient
and imperfect civilization, the whole world is, through their influence, rapidly becoming
civilized and European.

CHAPTER I.
GENERAL SURVEY OP EUROPE.

Europe is bounded on the north hy the Arctic Ocean, and on the west by the Atlantic.
On the south, the grand inlet of the Mediterranean divides it from Africa ; and the Grecian
Archipelago, with its subordinate branch, connected only by a narrow strait, the Euxine
or Black Sea, divides it from a great part of Asia. Between the north-east extremity of the
Black Sea and the Northern Ocean is an interval of 1400 or 1500 miles of land, forming
the eastern boundary of Europe. Had this been known to the ancients, they would perhaps
have identified Europe with Asia ; hut the separation is now too deeply marked, anti is de
fined by too many characters, moral and political, ever to be altered. The absence of sea,
the natural and most obvious boundary of a continent, has somewhat embarrassed modem
geographers ; for even a river limit is here wanting. The chain of the Urals, running from

References to the Map of Europe. — East Part.

SWEDEN
1. Altengaard
2. Jukas Jervi
3. Gellivare
4. Of Kalix
5. Goijan
6. Arjeplog
7, Lulea
8. Pilea
9. Lyeksele
10. Lofangera
11. Umea
12. Sanga
13. Upsal
14. Stockholm RUSSIA.
1. Enare
2. Kola
3. Voronezkaya
4. PaDoi
5. Palilza
6. Oumba
7. Ekostrovskayo
8. Kandalskava
9. Sodankyla
10. Kittila
11. Kemitrask
12. Rovamemi
13. Tornea
14. Aio
15. Uleaborg
16. Krest Novolok
17. Kounle
18. Vigo
19. Andozero
20. Sotkamo
21. Kajana
22. Brakested
23. Carleby
24. Pie Pisjarvi
25. Pi<!lls
26. Kibelirs
27. Puc:nala
28. Riiovear
29. Wasa
30. Cbrislinestad
31. Biorneborg
32. Abo
33. KUkala
34. Tavaftehus
35. Borgo
36. Vyborg
37. St. Petersburg
38. Olonetz
39, Petrozavodsk
40. Povienetz
41. Vaaevskaya
4y. Onega
43. Archangel
44. Rougl
45. Staroiabische
46. Mezene
47. Labavko
48. Nikilza
49. Ousa

50. Ovinnika
51. Gelova
52. Stchemasa
53. Borovakaya
54. Moualeijskaya
55. Pinega
56. Verk'ouakei
57. Sheetdzerskoi
58. Chalchelskaya
59. Karebakovska
60. Makaoovska
61. Kraanobosk
62. Metverskava
63. Yarensk
64. Oust Sisolsk
65. Kai
66. Tcberdin
67. Solikamsk
68. Vilrenskoe
69. Orlova
70. Obva
71. Garshkova
72. Mishamovak
73. Ivotovska
74. Aksenterakoe
75. Velikoustong
76. Vielak
77. Pudog
78. Vitegra
79. Bielozersk
80. Kirilov
81. Vologda
82. Tolma
83. Tehuchloma
84. Kologhiv
as, Nikofsk
86. Sergievitza
87. Kotelnitch
88. Slobodekov
89. Viatka
90, Nolinsk
91. Glazov
m. Ochansk
93. Perm
94. Osa
95. Krasharfunsk
96. Birak
97. Sarapoul
98. Elabouga
99, Malmish
100. Kazane
101. Sviajsk
102. Kozinoderai- anak
103. Yaransk
104. Vetlouga
105. Varnavin
106. Semenov
107. Inrevetz Povol-
108. KoBlrom
109, Jaroalav
110. Ribinak
111. PoaechoD
112, Ostiuina
113. Tikvin

114. Yamburg
115. Narva
116. Revel
117. Derpi
118. Luga
119. Novgorod
120. Valdai
121. Otiisbkaij
122. Borovitchi
123. Vishnei Volo-
tchoki
124. Ouglltch
125. Petrovak
126. Kovrov
127. Nizney Nov
gorod
128. Bouinsk
129. Sinbirak
130. Singilei
131. Sizzan
1:12. Kanader
133. Ardotov
134. Potchinki
135. Norovtchat
136. Temnikov
137. Murom
138. Sudogda
139. Kaamov
I40.-Moacow141. Pokov
142. Tver
143, Majaiak
144. Zublzov
145. Bieloz
146. Velikie Luki
147. Obolm
148. Pakov
149. Ostrov
l50. Luitzin
151. Valk
152. Penau
153. Riga
154. Mitau
155. Liban
156. Memel
157. Seventziani
158. Vileika
159. Driasa
160. Polotzk
161. Witepak
162. Veliz
163. Smolensk
164. Dorogobuz
165. Kalouga
166. Kalomna
167. Toola
168. Kiazane
]69. Kozlov
170. Tambov
171. Tchembar
172. Penza
1 73. Petrovak
174. Volsk
175, Saratov
176. Balashev
177, Novokhopeck

178. Usman

243. Novogrigorevak 10. Tchernetz

179. Voronez

244. Aleksandrovsk

11. Jogodina

180. Phatez

245. Ekaterinoslavl

12. Usitza

181. Livni

246. Oriekhov

13. Sarajevo

182. Krapivna

247. Alesbki
^48. Chorson

14. Moatar

183. Bolchov

15. Cattaro

1S4. Orel

249. Tiraspol
250. Nov Doubaaari

16. Novibazar

185. Saraz

17. Scopia

186. Koslovl

251. Billzi

18. Niaaa

187. Moghilew

252. Bender

19. Widin

188. Rogatchev

253. Akermann

20. Sophia

189. Sloutzk

254. Ismail

21. Oreava

190. Borisev

22, Nicopoli

191. Minsk

PRUSSIA,

23. Shumla

192. Wilna

1. Sczueryn

24. Burgoa

193. Grodno

2. Konigsberg

25. Midieh

194. Nowograd

3. Heilaberg

26. Constantinople

195. Warsaw

4. Marienburg

27. Rodosto

196. Rawa

5. Dantzic

28. Adrianople

197. Vidava

6. Gneana

29. Cavalla

198. Lublin

7, Culm

30. PhilippoU

199. Mienjirietz

8. Thorn

31. sbnr

200. Brest Liloy

9. Plotak

32. Petolia

201. Bielsk

10. Posen

33. Salonica

203. Kobrin

11. Sieradz

34. Scutari

203. Pinak

12, Ratibor

204. Visotzk

GREECE.

205. Ovroutch

AUSTRIA,

1. Berat

206. Mozir

1. Treulaen

2. Butrinto

207, Cholmitch

2. Schemnicz

3. Jannina

208. Tchernigov

3. Eperies

4. Aria

209. N. Bieletza

4. Huaa

5. Lepanto

210. Hilak

5. Dobreczen

6. Tripolitza

2I1.Soumi

6. Agria

7. Corinth

2 2. Kocrsfc

7, Hant

8. Athena

2 3. Oskol

8, Buda

9. Zeiloun

2 4. Volouiki

9. Bolt

10. Larissa

215. Bnbrov

10. Peta

216. Favlorak
11. St. Maria
Rivers and Lakes
217. Zatovakaya
12. Races
a Dwina, R.
218, Kaniiahin
13. Belgrade
b Mezene, R.
219. llolinakaya
14. Temeswar
c Pitchova, R.
220 Tzarilzin
15. Arad
d Kama, R.
221.Tilkha
16. Bihar
6 Viatka, R.
222. Koslin
17. Clausenburg
f Volga, R.
223. Sheslibalotch-
18. Carlaburg
h Don,' R.'
™ kaya
19. Hermanatadt
224. Tcherkaak
20, Kuti
i Donetz, R.
225. Dpnelsk
21. Tarnopi
i Dnieper, R.
k Dniester, R,
226. Iziuna
22. Stry
227. Charkov
23. Sember
1 Pruth, R.
298. Poltava
24. Lemberg
m Danube, R.
229. Novomoskovsk 25. Sendee^
n Vistula, R,
230. Krement
26. Sendoinii;ie
0 Niemen, R.
231. Zolotonosha
27. Cracow
p Dwina, K.
232. Kozeletz
q Tchudskoe, L.
233. Kiev
TURKEY
r Ilmen, L.
2:14. Padomist
1. Jassy
2. Bijrlat
3. Adgrad
4, Galatz
B Ladoga, L.
2.15. Jilomir
t Onega, L.
236. Rovno
u Poruvesi, L.
2:i7. Kametz
V Sego. L.
238. Balta
5, Ibraila
wViiolL:
239. Gaiain
6. Silistria
X Top, L.
240, Tcherk.
7. Bukareit
y Imandra^ L.
341. Novomirgorod
8. Slatina
z Enaro, L
242. Olviopol
9. Ciotova
Vol. I.
25
2M
290 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part HI.
north to south, forms so important a feature, that it has been taken as the grand line of
division ; and is protracted to the Black Sea by means of continuous portions of the great
rivers Kama, Volga, and Don. .
The form of this contment is singularly broken and varied. 'While Asia, Africa, and the
two Americas are each formed mto a vast inland expanse, Europe is split into many distinct
portions ; peninsulas, large islands, and kingdoms, with extended and winding coasts. This
form arises chiefly out of its inland seas, which penetrate farther, and are more deeply
embayed, than those of any other part of the globe. Numerous gulfs, scarcely secondary
in magnitude and importance, branch out from them. The Mediterranean, which forms,
as it were, a little ocean, separating Europe, Asia, and Africa, is connected with the Atlantic
only by the celebrated Straits of Gibraltar, twenty miles in breadth. Its great enclosed
branches of the Adriatic and the Black Sea penetrate, and render maritime, some of the
most inland districts of the continent. In the north, the Baltic, with its great gulfs of
Bothnia and Finland, is neither indeed so extensive nor so accessible ; but it is of the highest
commercial value, as afibrding a channel by which the rude necessaries, the metals and
woods of the north, may be exchanged for the wines, the silks, and other luxuries of the
south. The British isles, by their varied configuration, enclose beween themselves and the
opposite continent several important seas and channels. We may add, that the mountains
and the plains of Europe do not display those immense unbroken groups, or those level and
almost endless expanses, which give so vast and monotonous a character to the interior
regions of Asia arid Africa. In general they are separated into smaller portions, and are
happily and commodiously interchanged. They have kept Europe divided into a number of
separate nations, holding easy intercourse. Probably, this relative position has been one
great cause of that intellectual activity, and those vigorous exertions in all liberal and in
genious arts, which have raised this part of the globe to so high a pre-eminence. The
immense inland plains of Russia and Poland, presenting an aspect wholly Asiatic, remained,
even afl;er the civilization and improvement of all westem Europe, sunk in the deepest bar
barism, from which they are but slowly and with difiiculty emerging.
Sect. I. — Natural Features.
The surface of Europe, as we have observed, is very diversified. Its mountains do not
reach that stupendous height, nor stretch in such unbroken chains, as those of Asia and
America: nevertheless, we may trace pretty distinctly two highlands, the northem and
southern, and an intermediate lowland. The southem highland comprises the most elevated
mountains of the continent, the Alps and the Pyrenees, connected together by the low chain
of the Cevennes. Inferior branches from the Pyrenees extend through the Spanish penin
sula; while from the Alps branch forth the Apennines, which range through all Italy,
and spread their lower slopes over the greater part of southem Germany. The extremity
of the JVilian Alps, and the mountains of Dalmatia, connect the range with the great
Turkish chains of Hiemus and Rhodope ; parallel to which, though with a large group
intervening, stretches the circuit of the Carpathian mountains. North of this, the great
European lowland comprises the largest part of France, the south of England, the
Netherlands, Northern Germany, all Poland, and the greater part of Russia. In the
extreme north of Europe the mountainous character again prevails. The Dofrines reach
through Scandinavia ; while the north of England and nearly all Scotland is covered with
mountains of secondary magnitude. Of all the European mountains the Alps are by much
the highest, and perhaps may rank fourth to the Himalaya, the Andes, and Caucasus, among
the mountain chains of the globe. Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa exceed 15,000 feet above
the sea. The numerous other summits of this chain exemplify all tlie descending grades of
elevation. The Apennines vary from bOOO to 6000 feet ; but jEtna, at their utmost extremi
ty, is nearly 11,000. The most elevated of the Pyrenees rises somewhat above that height.
The Spanish summits are in general of the level of the Apennine, except the Guadarrama,
which exceeds 8000 feet, and the Sierra Nevada, which equals tlie Pyrenees. The Thracian
chains have not yet been subjected to survey ; but they doubtless exceed those of Greece,
which ascend to 6000 or 7000 feet. The Dofrines, notwithstanding tlieir snowy and terrible
aspect, are not of first-rate elevation. The great Norwegian chain does not quite reach
9000 feet ; Ben Nevis is only 4300 feet ; and none of the English motmtains reach that
altitude. The rivers of Europe are numerous, but none of them of tlie very first magnitude.
The two largest flow through the great eastem plain, a semi-Asiatic region, and terminate
in distant and interior seas, where they contribute little to commercial intercourse. Tlie
Volga, which alone can come into rivalry witli the great rivers of Asia, passes the Asiatic
limit, whore it spreads into the great interior expanse of tlie Caspian. The Black Sea absorbs
the other rivers IVom the groat plain of Russia and Poland : it receives also the noble stream
of the Danube, which belongs indeed to the central region of Europe ; but directing its
lower course tlirongli barbarous and uncultivated regions, and terminating in this distant
receptacle, it conduces only in a secondary degree to tlie distribution of wealth and plenty

Book I. EUROPE. 291
through the continent. Western Europe is too much broken into separate portions, and
crossed by high mountain barriers, to allow to its rivers a length of more than from 400 to
600 miles ; and they have usually their entire course through a single country, — the Rhme,
the Elbe, and the Oder, through Germany ; the Loire, the Rhone, and the Garonne, through
France ; the Po through Italy ; the Ebro, the Douro, the Tagus, and the Guadalquivir,
through Spain. The northern rivers of Britain and Scandinavia, restricted to a still nar
rower field, seldom accomplish so long a course as 200 miles. Yet, though Europe does
not present the grand rivers which distinguish the greater continents, it is on the whole
happily and commodiously watered. Almost every part of it enjoys the benefit of river
communication ,¦ it is neither overspread by the dreary swamps of America, nor the sandy
deserts which render uninhabitable so great a part of Asia and Africa.
The lakes of Europe are numerous, chiefiy enclosed within its mountain regions ; but few
of them are of sufficient magnitude to rank as inland seas. Those alone entitled to this
distinction are the Ladoga and the Onega, which, forming a sort of continuation of the Gulf
of Fuiland, and bemg situated in bleak and frozen regions, mmister very little to internal
intercourse. Finland is covered with sunilar lakes. The 'Wener and Wetter of Sweden
rank next in magnitude, and, surrounded by immense woods and iron mines, possess consid
erable beauty and value. Switzerland, with its Italian border, is the chief lake-region of
Europe: its waters, particularly those of Geneva and Lucerne, enclosed between the loftiest
snowy pinnacles of the Alps, present scenes of grandeur and beauty almost unrivalled ; but
they are not on such a scale or so situated as to afibrd any important inland navigation.
Those of England and Ireland are merely small picturesque features. Those of Scotland
are larger and more numerous ; and a chain of them, having been connected by a broad
canal, was expected to form a great naval route across tlie island.
The European soil is distinguished for productions, perhaps surpassing in value those
of any other quarter of the globe. It does not, indeed, possess that brilliant luxuriance of
vegetation which adorns the equatorial regions of Asia and America. But corn and wine,
the most substantial and most agreeable articles of human diet, are nowhere produced on so
great a scale or in such high perfection. Grain, of one description or another, is raised over
its whole surface, excepting in the extreme north ; wines throughout all its southern king
doms. In hemp, flax, and wool, those staple materials of clothing, Europe is equally pre
eminent Silk, another valuable commodity, it produces copiously, though not so as to be
independent of supplies from India and China. Cotton is the only great material which the
immense manufactures of Europe derive almost entirely from foreign regions. If we except
the horse and the camel, for which Asia is renowned, Europe contains , the most valuable as
well as the most numerous breeds of domestic animals. Its northern forests produce the
finest timber in the world, with the exception of the teak ; and its iron, the most useful of
metals, surpasses that of the re.st of the world : but all the more precious substances, gold,
silver, pearls, jewels, exist in an extent so limited as scarcely to be deserving of mention.
The cultivation of the soU is carried on with much greater diligence than in any countries
except in the south-east of Asia , while in science, skOl, and the extent of capital employed
upon it, European agriculture is quite unrivalled.
In manufacturing industry, this quarter of the world has, within these few centuries, far
surpassed all the others of the globe. Asia, indeed, has long boasted some fabrics of extra
ordinary beauty, — silks, muslins, carpets, and porcelain, — which are not yet altogether equal
led : but the looms and workshops of Europe now yieM a variety of fine and beautiful fabrics,
in such proftision, and at so cheap a rate, as to place them within the reach of almost
every class of society. This continent thus clothes all the young nations which have
issued from her own bosom, and which fill nearly two entire quarters of the habitable earth.
Commerce, on so great a scale as to connect together the distant quarters of the world,
can hardly be said to exist out of Europe. European vessels are found in the utmost bounds
of Asia and America, in the snowy regions of either pole, and crowding the ports of the
Austral continent. There is not now a place on earth, however remote, afibrding any scope'
for the employment of commercial capital, which is not immediately filled with the same
promptitude as if it had been situateti in the heart of Europe. The ships of that contuient
exceed those of all the others in number and dimensions : they are also the most skilfully
constructed, and navigated by the only seamen who are qualified to guide a vessel across the
great oceans. All these observations are liable to one exception : the new American states
are beginning to form a commercial and maritime system, modelled on that of Europe — a
system which may one day surpass the original.
Sect. II. — Inhabitants.
The population of Europe, though more closely calculated than that of any other quarter
of tte globe, is yet far from being ascertained on data that are very precise. In regard to
some districts, and in particular to the whole of the Turkish empire, no census has ever
been instituted ; in others, the computation is founded only on the number of houses : and in
some, ten, twenty, and thirty years have elapsed since any was attempted.*
* See the Table at the close of this book.

292 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III.
The people of Europe are divided chiefly into three great races, which differ, to a very
marked degree, in language, political situation, and habits of life. These are the Sclavonic,
the Teutonic, and a third which Hassel calls the Romish, as occupying the chief of those
countries which once composed the Westem Empire.
The Sclavonic races cover the greater extent of Europe, since they occupy the whole of
the eastern plain bordering on Asia. The people have a resemblance to those of that
continent; and were considered almost as beyond the social and political pale of Europe, td]
within the last half century. They have now forcibly thrust themselves into tho European
system, and rank among its most influential members. The Sclavonic people consist of
about twenty-five millions of Russians, ten millions of Poles, Lithuanians, and Letts, and
about ten millions of other races, known under the names of Windes, Tcheches, Slawakes,
Croats, Morlachians, which have found their way into eastem Germany, Hungary, and lUy-
ria. Without wishing to consider intellectual and moral qualities as necessarily belonging
to any particular race exclusively, we may notice it as a fact, that the Sclavonians are, in
both respects, less improved than other Europeans. They have only some infant forms of
art and literature, which have sprung up from the imitation of those of the eastem nations.
They are generally subjected to absolute monarchy, and the greater part of them are only
beginning to emerge from the degrading condition of personal slavery. All the habits of
life which connect them with polished society have been recently and studiously imported
from the west, and are still intemiingled with deep remnants of barbarism. The majority
profess that superstitious form of Christianity acknowledged by the Greek church. Yet they
are a brave, enterprising, and persevering race, and have established themselves as a ruling
and conquering people, in reference to all the con1:iguous nations of Europe and Asia.
The Teutonic race occupies generally the centre and north of Europe ; besides Germany,
their original seat, they have filled the greater part of Scandinavia, the Netherlands, and
Great Britain, and may be reckoned at upwards of fifty millions. Under the limitations
above stated, we may describe the Teutonic people generally as brave, hardy, intelligent,
and industrious, though somewhat blunt and unpolished. All the sciences, and even the
arts, both useful and ornamental, have been carried among them to the highest perfection ;
yet they are accused of wanting some of the graces and agremens which embellish the
courts £md fashionable circles of the south, by whom they are treated as semi-barbarians. A
great majority of the Teutonic nations are Protestants ; and that profession is in a great
measure confined to them, and to the nations in the other parts of the world who have sprung
from them.
The race called Romish, which comprehends the modem inhabitants of France, Italy, and
Spain, has only a very imperfect claim to that title. The Teutonic nations, in conquering
these countries, poured into them a vast mass of their own population : but Roman manner
and the Roman language had taken such deep root in countries which once constituted the
main body of the westem empire, that the latter forms stUl the chief basis of the dialects
spoken in this part of Europe. The Romish were the most early civilized of the modem
nations. They have carried the polish of manners and the •ultivation of the elegant arts
to a higher pitch than any other known nation. In solid energy and intelligence, they
scarcely equal the Teutonic nations. The Roman Catholic is the ruling religion in all these
countries, and has among them her metropolitan seat.
Certain interesting and antique races inhabit the rude and mountainous extremities of
Europe. The Celts were the most numerous people, and at a period of high aritiquity, the
possessors of all western Europe. Subdued and tlisarmed by the itomans, they rapidly declined
when the falluig empire could no longer protect them, and became the helpless victims of
that mio-hty torrent of barbarous invasion which poured in from the remotest extremities
of Europe and Asia. At this dreadfiil period they sought or found a refuge, partly in Ire
land and the Highlands of Scotland, where they exist under the name of Gael ; partly in
Wales and Britany, where they are called Cymri ; and partly in the north of Spain, where
they are termed Basques. Having retained their condition unaltered during so many ages,
they cherish a fond attachment to antiquity, and trace tlieir pedigree higher than any of the
Romish or Teutonic nobles. They have a traditional poetry celebrating tlie exploits of tlieir
ancestors, to which they are fondly attached ; but in general they have, in the rapid pro
gress made by the more modern races, been left somewhat behind ; tiiough individual emi
grants have raised themselves to eminence in every department Hassel calculates the
Gael at 3,720,000, which, from the last census of Ireland, must he much too low ; the
Cymri at 1,610,000 ; the Basques at 630,000. The Greeks, once tlie most illustrious of all
the races, no longer plant their colonies along the shores of the Mediterranean, but still
occupy their old seats, and are spread through different parts of the Turkish empire. De
pressed by two thousand years of slavery, tliey had ceased to display those high attributes
which excited the admiration of mankind ; but the prospects of independence winch they
have now opened for themselvc.'i, afiord some hope tliat tliey may regain tlieu- place m tlie
scale of nations.' Their number may be about 2,100,000. The Jews, tliat singularly mte
resting people, are spread through all Europe, but especially tlie eastern countries, Poland,

Book I. EUROPE. 293
Russia, and Turkey. They are supposed rather to exceed 2,000,000. Tlie Gipsies, in an
humbler sphere, are strangely scattered over all Europe to the supposed number of 340,000 ;
a wild, roaming, demi-savage race, of unknown origin, but probably Asiatic rather thaa
Egyptian. Several Asiatic nations have penetrated by conquest or migration into the east of Europe.
These are chiefly Tartars, whom Hassel estimates at 3,250,000 heads. The most prominent
branch is that of the Turks, the ruling people in the Ottoman empire, though they form in
a few districts only a majority of the population. It seems doubtful, however, if all the
Tartars who wander over the southern steppes of Russia can be considered as Asiatic in their
origin. The Magyars, who, to the number of 3,000,000, prevail in Hungary and Transyl
vania, appear to be also Asiatic, or at least to have sprung from that most eastern border of
European Russia, which can scarcely be distinguished from Asia.
The religion of Europe is almost entirely monotheistic. A mere handful of pagans, the
Samoiedes, are found in its north-eastern extremity, on the shores of the Icy Sea. Europe
is almost entirely Christian ; and the small population of Mahomedans who have found their
way uito it consist of Asiatic races, Turks and Tartars. The Jews, however generally dif
fiised, have nowhere a national church, nor are they in any nation fiilly identified with the
body of the people. The Christians of Europe are divided into three great churches, the
Greek, the Latin or Roman Catholic, and the Protestant.
The Greek or Eastem church, which was that of the Constantinopolitan empire, was
severed from the Latin by the great schism in the ninth century, caused by some abstruse
questions respecting the nature and person of Christ. It is still professed by the modern
Greeks, is the established religion of Russia, and has votaries in Hungary and all its append
ant territories. Hassel reckons its numbers at 32,000,000 ; Malte-Brun at 50,000,000 — a
strange discrepancy. We should think the former much nearer the truth, though perhaps
somewhat under it. This religion having been long prevalent among unenlightened and
degraded nations, has become encumbered with empty pomp and childish ceremonies ; and
many of its clergy are ill-informed and of irregular lives.
The Roman Catholic religion, which reigned so long with supreme sway over Europe,
embraces stUl a numerical majority of ita people. In Italy, Spain, France, and the dominions
of the house of Austria, it is dominant and almost exclusive. It still holds attached to it
a large portion of the smaller states of Germany, and of the Cantons of Switzerland. The
greater part of Ireland and of Russian Poland continue attached to it, without regard to the
opposite systems supported by the state. That intolerance which gave birth to so many
struggles in attempting to extirpate the Protestant faith, has been greatly mitigated, and,
except in Italy and Spain, all professions enjoy an almost complete .toleration. The number
of Roman Catholics seems to be fairly estimated at between 90,000,000 and 100,000,000.
The absolute authority of the Pope in matters of faith and worship, auricular confession, the
prohibition of the Scriptures in the vulgar tongue, and a splendid ritual calculated to dazzle
the eyes of the multitude, form the peculiar characters of the Roman Catholic system. The
monstrous pretensions once advanced to excommunicate and depose kings, and to grant indul
gences to commit crime, seem now to be generally withdrawn.
The Protestant or Reformed religion raised its standard early in the fifteenth century, and
made most rapid progress, especially in the north of Europe. It sought to purge Christianity
from the superstitious observances which had enveloped it during many ages of darkness ; to
introduce a more spiritual and simple form of worship ; to break up the institutions devoted
to celibacy ; to deny human authority in matters of doctrine, and rest it solely on the found
ation of Scripture. It had to maintain a dreadfiil struggle against the Romish see, which
armed in its cause all the great monarchs of Europe ; and in France and Bohemia, after
taking deep root, it was nearly extirpated. It has be^ finally established, however, in Great
Britain, in the Netherlands, the north of Germany, and the Scandinavian peninsula. Not
withstanding its numerical inferiority, it now rante among its votaries the most powerful, the
most opulent, and the most intelligent nations of Europe and the globe. Its rejection of
human authority, and direct appeal to the Scriptures, have caused it to be split into numerous
sects and divisions. The most prominent is into Lutherans and Calvinists ; the Lutherans
retaining still many of the Romish rites and doctrines, to which, in every point, the Calvinists
place themselves in the most decided opposition. The English church may be considered a
sort of medium between the two, inclining nearer to the Lutheran. In the Protestant
countries, numerous smaller sects have asserted the right of private judgment, on which the
Reformation was founded. Among these are the Anabaptists, chiefly in Germany, the Neth
erlands, and England, whom Hassel perhaps underrates at 240,000 ; Methodists and Quakers
in Britain, estimated at 190,000 ; the Moravian brethren in Germany, 40,000. The Unita
rians have an established church in Transylvania, comprising 40,000 souls, and are difiused,
openly or secretly, through the other European countries, especially Britain.
In learning, art, science, all the pursuits which develope the intellectual nature of man,
which refine and enlarge his ideas, Europe has far surpassed every other continent The
empires of Southern and Eastern Asia alone have an ancient traditional literature, of which
25*

294 DESCEIPTIVB GEOGRAPHY. Part IU,
the remains are yet preserved. But, besides being now in a very decayed state, it never
included any authentic history, sound philosophy, or accurate knowledge of nature. An
extravagant though sometimes poetical mythology, proverbial maxims of wisdom, and a
poetry replete with bold and hyperbolical images, compose almost its entire circle. The
science of Europe has been employed with equal success in exploring the most distant regions
of the universe, and in improving the condition of man in society. Astronomy, which else
where is a mere mass of superstition and wild conjecture, hcis here not only delineated with
perfect precision the situation and movements of the heavenly bodies, but has disclosed
numberless systems of worlds, of which without her aid the existence could never have
been suspected. Chemistry, which was formerly a mere collection of empirical receipts and
chimeras, is become a mighty science, which analyses the most secret operations of nature,
and (liscovers important, and before unknown, substances. A similarly sound and compre
hensive character marks her attainments in physical science, and in every branch of natural
history. In regard to poetic fancy, although some natural flights may be found among the
rudest tribes, and though the Orientals possess a peculiar vein of leamed and studied orna
ment, it is in Europe, during either ancient or modem times, that the polished and classic
models of poetical composition have been exclusively produced.
The invention of printing, and the consequent general difi'usion of information among all
classes, are features especially European. By theu: means, in its enlightened countries, the
essential branches of knowledge are now placed within the reach of the humblest classes,
and even the highest branches are not absolutely beyond then: attainment The endowments
for the support of learning are very extensive, founded in a great measure during the middle
ages, and bearing some stamp of the then infant state of literature ; but they are now adapting
themselves to modern improvements. The extensive and extending institutions for the
instruction of the lower orders have produced a general difiiision of intelligence, to which
in the other parts of the world, if we except America, there is nothing analogous.
The political state of Europe is also peculiarly fortunate. Elsewhere, with rare exceptions,
a turbulent anarchy prevails, or vast empires are subjected to the absolute sway of a single
despot. It is in this continent only that the secret has been found of establishing a regular
and constitutional liberty, in which the extremes of tyranny and licentiousness are equally
avoided. Even the absolute monarchies are generally administered with mildness, according
to legal forms, and afford to the bulk of the people a tolerable security of person and pro
perty. The European states have also established among themselves a balance of power,
which sets bounds to the encroachments of any particular state, and has repeatedly rescued
the whole continent from the imminent danger of universal subjugation. The military and
naval power has been raised to a height, to which none of the other continents can ofler any
effectual resistance. A great proportion of them has now been conquered, occupied, or
colonised by Europe ; and if the whole is not reduced under this condition, it is only through
distance and extensive deserts that many great coimtries still preserve their independence.
The geology of Europe will be more advantageously treated of under its respective
countries. Sect. III. — Botany.
The botany of Europe presents some general characters, which it may he important to
notice. In the preliminary observations, we have given a very general and rapid sketch of
the vegetable geography of the globe, taken in its more enlarged sense. We must now
survey it in its subordinate divisions; and the plan which we have prescribed to our
selves, is, in the first instance, under the great principal divisions of the eartli, to mention
the more striking vegetable features ; and then, under each respective cotmtry, to give a
more particular statement of the plants belonging to it which deserve notice, either from
their extreme abundance, their rarity, their peculiar properties and qualities, or some circum
stance of general interest.
The nature of the present publication only allowing us to consider, in a very general
way, the vegetable productions as connected with tlieir geographical distribution, we can
not devote much space to what concerns the primary divisions. The artificial boundaries
of Europe, especially to the east and to the south, are of that nature tliat many of what
might otherwise be ranked among its more striking botanical features are gradually blended
into those of Asia on the one hand, and of the north of Africa on tlie otlier. Local circum
stances, as we have already seen, afl'ect the presence or absence of certain plants, to an extent
more than equal to that of any artificial geographical arrangement. Temperature, which
has so powerful an effect upon them, varies in a regular progression upon a lofty motmtain ;
but it is not so in all situations, and with the same regularity, especially on the great conti
nents, upon the plains and low gi'ounds. " Sometimes," says the eloquent Mirbel, " a chain
of mountains forms a barrier against the fi-eezing winds of tlie north,* and receives and
* In one spot, iu the oxtremo south of Sweden, focing tho sen, and hacked by lofly hills, olives have succeeded
in the open air, nnd ripened their fi-uit ; while, nt the distance of six Swedish miles northward, the inhabitants
clothe themselves with furs in the winter, to protect themselves ftom tho severity of the cold.

Book IH.

EUROPE.

295

refracts upon the plants tlie heat which it derives from the solar rays; sometimes a parching
sirocco from the soutii raises the temperature ; in some places, the winters are tempered by
the proximity to the sea ; whilst at other times all these causes combined, produce a climate
so mild, that, to judge of its geographical position only by the indication of the thermometer,
we should suppose its latitude to be much nearer the tropics than it actually is. Again,
continued plains of vast extent, exactly on a level with the sea, are of rare occurrence ; and
if there be but an elevation of 1000 or 1100 feet, it suffices to produce a considerable reduc
tion of temperature. This, in its turn, obtains an influence over the vegetable creation ; it
changes the line of the progress of plants in their migration ; it arrests them, and limits their
boundaries. Sometimes the northem species proceed southward towards the tropics ; some
times those of the soutii migrate northwards ; and sometimes groups belonging to both of these
tribes exchange countries, passing one an
other ; each about to establish colonies in privi
leged stations, in the midst of a vegetable popu
lation to which they are no less strangers by
their physiognomy than by their temperament."
We shall here confine, as much as pos
sible, our observations to a table, by M. Mir
bel, of the phsenogamous (or flowering) plants
of Europe ; to which have been added, for
reasons already alluded to, part of those of
Asia and of Northern Africa. He divides
the northern hemisphere into imaginary belts
or zones ; the equatorial, the transition tem
perate, the temperate, the transition frozen,
and the frozen zones. The temperate transi
tion, where European vegetation commences,
is limited, to the north, by the disappearance
of the Olive ; the temperate zone by the ces
sation of the Oak; and the ^ozera transition
by that of the Fir {Pinus sylvestris) in the
west, and of the Spruce (P. Abies) in the
east. The frozen zone is divided into two
bands ; the lower or southern, and the upper
or northern. Both are entirely destitute of
trees ; but in the first band are many shrubs
and snfli:uticose plants :* whilst in the second
scarcely any thing is found but small herba
ceous plants ; and these cease where the line
of perpetual snow commences, f Here, too,
another important fact must be considered, —
that, in the frozen or arctic regions, almost
exactly the same flora is exhibited in Europe,
Borassus. Date Tree. Dwarf Palm Asia, and America.
In the extent of country to which the following table is more peculiarly applicable, the
Dwarf Palm {Chamarops humilis), and the Date Tree {Phcenix dactylifera), {fig. 86.), are
the plants that have tlie nearest approximation to a tropical vegetation, and which are, of
course, the njjjst southern. The plant which is found the
nearest to the pole, and which, there is every reason to
believe, ascends to it, is the Palmella nivalis {Hooker),
Red Snow {fig. 87.) of arctic navigators, belonging to
the Cryptogamic family, and which will be more especially
noticed hereafter. In speaking of vegetation, however,
generally, and except the contrary is otherwise expressed,
the Cryptogamic plants are not taken into account ; partly
a because we are at present but imperfectly acquainted
with their extent or limits, and partly because they are not
of such general interest

T,- w'U^'"^'''''' or suflruticose plants of the southern band of the frozen zone, are fifteen willows: the Dwarf
Birch {Betula nana), the Humble Birch (S. jmmila), the White Birch [B. ana)-XMs last ia only found on the
southern coasts of Greenland ; the Hoary Birch {B. incdTia), the Juniper {Junirerus communis), the Trailing Azalea
(Aprocumbens), the Blue Menziesia (Jlf. cerulea), the Ledum palustre and L. latifolium, the Lapland Diapensia
the Downy Whortleberry {Vaccmium pubescens). the Marsh Whortleberry (r. nliginosnmy the Red Cowberry (V
ntts Idaa), the Cranberry (f. Oxycoccos), the Glaucous Kalmia, eight species of Rhododendron the Alnine Artm.'
tus, the Crowberry, the Common Heath, the Shrubby Potentilla, and the Rowan Fir (Pynis aucnvaJa) on the
southern shores of Greenland. ^ ^ •'' ^
t Almost the only shrubby plants of the northern band of the frozen zone, are the little Arctic Willow ( laii^^
polarU), the reticulated Willow {S. reticulata), and the four-sided Andromeda (.« tetragma). ^

296

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part IU.

COMPARATIVE TABLE
Of the pbienogamDUB vegetation of a part of the Temperate Transition Zone (Palestine, Syria, Asia Minor, and
the Caucasian regions ; a portion of the north of Africa and the south of Europe being comprised in this zone) ¦
of the Temperate Zone (Central Europe as far as the Ural Mountains and the Caspian Sea, and parts of Tartary
bordering upon that sea) ; of the Transition Frozen Zone (Northern Europe, Siberia, and Kamtschatka) ; and all
the Frozen Zone (Polar Regions) of the Old and New World. Extracted from M. Mirbel's table, in the Mem. du
Muaium d'Hist. JVot. de Paris.

NunM of Natnnl FamlllM.

Teniperate
TranBitloa Zone.

Temperate Zoue.

Froun
Tramiiion Zod;.

Frozen Zone.

Is

kji

liij ml

1.-

pa

b

PIlifl

1

14
mi

Eecd-Maces, Tnihlnae, and Ainma, Aroldeae...
GrBBBeB, OraminKae. 
SeilgcB, Cyperaceae 
22
603 195
' 40
38 se 12
180 40ei
loe la 1
a
34
joe 8
20
103 16 s
30 I
69
104 17
6667
10
65 10
20a 78
41
22 4 1
46
joa
431 4
19
37 2
128
1188 eo40
113 27
S68 7013
Si
60 e
«i 8
10
94 3
10
300B76 16
SO 1
3S 61
70 11
9
80 3 3
66 SO
883 6
10 6
IB
IflO 86
640 93 91 60 1
103
0.002o.oai0.0330.0040.0030.0030.0010,0210 004
0,0060.0130.001
0.OO4
0.013
0 001
0.0030.011
0.0030.001
0.0030.007
0.0110.0020.007
D.OOS
0.001
0.0070.001
0 036
0.010 0 005
0.003
0.0050.0230.053 0.0030.0040.0160.1430.0100.0050.014
0.003 0.046
0.0080.0010.004
0.009
0.001
O.OOl0.0010.003
0.00&
o.oar0.1190.003
0.0030.004
0.009
O.OOl0.004
0 006
0.0D3
0.0460.0010.003o.ooa
0.018 0.0040.006
0.0090.0040.001
0.0010.039
10
846
276 4380 11 0
78 11
36
H a
13
63 S9
86 3
10
46
136 24
21 9
66 8
J60 3860 81
11
80
136 1
3
3860
620 353064 19
182 49 8
14
36 7
1
6
33 11
152
2t<3 9
13 6
S 1
28 1
6
13 4
13IT
180 3 74
94SI 4
263 13
IB 6
fl
190
0.002 0.0610.009O.OIO0 007
0.003
0.(»30.0300.008
0.000 0.0J3
0.003
p.0030.016
0.0010.0030.009
0.003
O.0O2O.OU0.031
D.COl
0.006
0.005
0.001
0.0014 0.0020.0070.009 0.013
00020.0030.0200.0330.007 0.0140.1310.008
0.0050.0160.005
0 046
0.013
0.0010.0030.009
0.001
O.OOl0.0060.003
O.0S80 070
O.0O3
0.001
0.0080.0010.0090.0010.0030.0O4
0.0460.003 0.001
0.000
0.006 0.0010.OG3
0.0O30.0040.G01
0.091
8
184 SO 1
87 Ifl e4
38 17
43 6
9
46 e
11 33
<
36
47 3
12
17
30 9
93 10
86 3 37
4877 1
83Ifl
333 11 6
S3 13
74
31 6S
16 81
18 7
108166 6391
13 a
6 1
04
136 64
10
140 16 689
116
0.003
0.0030.0420.013o.ooe0.003
0.0010.018o.oos0.016
0.003
0.0040.0310.003
o.ns0.001 0.001
0.001
0.016
0.0390.001o.ooe
o.ooe
0.019
00040.04800040.0160.0010.001 0.003
0.033 0.036
ol I
.0013 O.OOT
0.1040.0050.003
O.OIO
O.0O5O.DSO
O.OH
0.003O.OOl
0.007
0.008
O.OM0.003
0.0600.079
0.001
0.0070.0010.003 0.009
0.0030.0560.009
0.009 0.O660.007
0.0090.0010.001
0.064
87S311 32 1
6
1
20 9
23
ao
as le 1
39 9
~60 S
31
0.0880.0710.028 0.0050.0050.002
0.013
0.0030.H50.031
0.007
0,002
0.0250.0050.0540.009
- -
0.0040.0050.0030.0630.0070.097
0.0Q5
0.007
0.059
0.009
0.014O.OSl0.038
0.0030.080 O.0O6
0.1180.003
aoo6
0.060
36
617
S65 1
62 898116
207 43 70
128 14 13
38
178 0
21
112 161332 1
E6
166 IS
78
71 3
10
109 14
S65 93 88
26 4 9
53
253479 4
19
61 2
146
1450 9448
140 34
443 94Ifl
32
9112 1
9
13
36 3
21
S95
1168 16
SS 1
39 S 1
7« 11
10
41 36
60 35
696 8
U 6
99
164 96
717 3740 789
713
Lilies, LUlnceae, 
Iria, Trideae 
Orrhia, OTchideoB 
BaiaQophortae '„?;;; '.'. '.'. '.'. '.'. '.'. v. ::::;.' :; :;:: ^
epurgcH. Euphorbloceae 
Birthwort, Ariatolochiac, 
Ben DucliIhorD, Eleagneac  j
Sandal-wood, Saatalaceae, .,  (
Thrift, PInmbagineae,'.  '.'."
NightHhado, Solaneae 
UmbDlllferouB. Umbel life roe, 
Lythrum, 8iillc;nrmi^ 
RiincH, Ronui-i'Qe, 
LcnuminoiiB pinnlc. Leguminosae, 
BumBchB, Tei-ebinlhorcjaf 
Ducklhornt. Rharani'De, 
Corlarin, Corioreuo  ....
Iluc, Riitairrac 
WoodBorrelB, Oxttlidcne 
BalBaiDB, DalHamineaL-, 
OrrDnlunia, Oeraniacoae 
VineH, Ampelldeai; 
Azcdarach, MellDCL'flL-, 
Orange, Auraotlacuae,  .....•• 
LiDilen, Tlllaccac, 
MllkworlH, Polyunli-ac 
SuadowB, Droaeniccau  ..~ 
VIoloU, Vloleac 
Glim Clfltua. Ciatlneae,  ¦
Capor, Cnpparl(l(«c, ,,., 
Poppy, rap^vornconc, 
Wulorllly. NjrrapliQuacuno 
Banuucului, RaDuncutnouao, 
8103
S983
1
3199 1
1
10,909
• Tbli lolltaiT Caclui li lotnxlui.'ed from Ameilca,
Book III.

EUROPE.

297

In the temperate transition zone, out of 8193 species, 1262 have been ascertained to be
woody, and 6898 herbaceous ; and of these latter 3861 are known to have perennial, and
2373 annual or biennial roots.
In the temperate zone, out of 3982 species, there are 357 woody, and 3625 herbaceous ;
of which 2610 are understood to have perennial, and 944 annual or biennial roots.
In the frozen transition zone, out of 2129 species, are 193 woody plants, and 1936 herba
ceous; of which 511 are supposed to have perennial, and 363 annual or biennial roots.
In the frozen zone, of the 438 species, 46 are woody, and 392 herbaceous ; of which 371
are estimated to have perennial roots, and only 15 annual or biennial roots,
We have already stated that in the frozen or polar region the vegetation is very similar
throughout the north of Europe, Asia, and America ; which may in part arise from its
limited extent, and from the continents approaching comparatively so near to each other.
There must necessarily, too, be a greater equality of temperature than in the other zones ;
the vegetation everywhere appearing nearly upon a. level with the sea. In Greenland,
Schouw estimates that there is hardly one-sixth of the plants that are not equally found in
Lapland. Of the genera of Greenland only two are not found in Lapland {Streptopus and
Coptis), and both occur in North America. We shall, by-and-by, notice how analogous is
the vegetation discovered during Captain Parry's arctic voyages to that both of the European
and American continents, in corresponding latitudes. Even in Kamtschatka, one half of
the plants found by Wormskiold are European ; and of the genera only eight or ten are not
European ; and they are North American. But, as we proceed from the Arctic Regions to
the south, we find the vegetation gradually becoming more and more dissimilar between
America and Europe ; except, indeed, when the high mountains in the respective countries
are examined, and then the resemblance again appears. Pursh, whose flora comprises, to a
very limited extent, the plants of the arctic or sub-arctic regions, or of the lofty mountains
of North America, but is principally confined to Canada, and to those districts of the United
States whose latitude corresponds pretty nearly with that of the more temperate parts of the
European continent, has about one-seventh of his species only European ; and if the doubt
ful natives, those probably introduced from the Old World, be taken into account, only one-
tenth: out of 716 genera of North American plants, 480, or two-thirds, also occur in
Europe, or in Northern Africa.
Schouw estimates the most striking disparities between the vegetation of the westem
parts of the Old World, and the eastern parts of the New, to be as follows : —
1. The Cruciform {fig. 88. a) and Umbelliferous families (6) : those of the Pinks (c) euid
Labiate flowers (d) are much the most numerous on the old continent. The first, in North
America, may be estimated at -jVi in Europe at about -^ ; and the other families may be
classed in the following proportions : —

Umbelliferous ¦
Pink Family
Labiate flowers

Norlh America. France.

TS

Of the family with Compound flowers {Composita), the groups of the Endives (e)
{Cichoracea), and of the Arti
chokes and Thistles {Cynaro-
cephala), are more abundant
in Europe ; whilst, on the
other hand. North America
possesses such a number of spe
cies of Michaelmas Daisy (As
ter), and Golden Rod {Solida-
go), that they constitute one-
third of the compound flowers
of that country, forming a
striking feature in the vegeta
tion of the United States, and
carrying the preponderance in
favour of North America.
3. The family of Bellflow-
' ers(/)f Campanulacea)ahoani
I most in the Old World ; that
of the Cardinal Flowers {Lo-
beliacea), in the New.
4. Not a single species of Heath {g) is found in the new continent ; while, in the old,
immense tracts are covered with them ; but their places are taken in America by the Whor
tleberries {Vaccinia).
5 Both in North America and in Europe, the forests are constituted by the families of
Vol. I. 2N

298 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part HI
the Cone-bearing {Coniferee) and Amentaceous {Amentacea) trees ; but in America they fer
exceed those of Europe in respect to the number of species.
6. In North America we find the types or representatives of many tropical families;
as, for example, of the Cactuses, Scitamineous plants, the Sago {Cycadea), the Custard
Apples {Annonacea), the Sapindaceous, and the Melastomaceous plants : these are wholly
wanting in similar latitudes in the Old World ; and in regard to many others, which are
common to both countries, such as the Palms, Laurels, Swallowworts {Asclepiadea),
Sumachs, Cassias, and Mimosas, they are more abundant, and generally reach a higher
northern latitude, in North America than in the Old World. In Europe, again, there are
fewer arborescent plants ; for, according to Humboldt, while North America has 137 trees
whose trunks reach the height of 30 feet and upwards, Europe possesses only 45 of that
character. Siberia, bounded as it is on the side of Europe by the Ural Mountams, diflers from the
latter country in a much less degree ; and it is mostly in North American genera that this
difference lies ; as in the presence of the genus Phlox, Mitella, Claytonia, &c. and in the
predominance of the tribes of Michaelmas Daisy {Aster), Golden Rod {Solidago), Meadow
sweet {Spiraa), and especiaUy of the Milkvetches {Astragalus) and Wormwoods {Arte
misia), as well as (on account of the numerous saline lakes) the (3oosefoots and Saltworts.
In the southern hemisphere, the vegetation is very different from that of Europe in the
corresponding degrees of latitude. In Southem Africa, Thunberg enumerates 118 species
which are analogous to those of Europe ; which would probably be found considerably to
exceed the truth, if the species were accurately examined. Mr. Brown assures us that the
Alpine Catstail Grass {Phleum Alpinum) and the Moonwort Fem {Botrychium lunaria)
exist in the Banksian herbarium, which were gathered in the extreme parts of South Ame
rica : and the same accurate writer observed 45 European phsenogamous plants in Terra
Australis, of which 23 are dicotyledonous and 21 monocotyledonous, and 121 acotyledonous
or Cryptogamia; namely, 2 of the Fem family, 25 Jlosses, 14 Hepaticae, 38 Lichens, 10
Fungi, 12 Algae.* The very general distribution of plants of this class over the surface of
the globe, we have before, indeed, had occasion to notice.
Sect. IV. — Zoology.
The zoological features of Europe, although sufficiently important to render this continent
a primary division of geographic natural history, are neither so extensive nor so varied as
those of more genial regions. We have already shown the propriety of including within
this range the southern parts of Africa bordering the Great Desert ; while the westem
provinces of Asia appear to partake both of the European and the Oriental zoology. It
might be imagined that such a division, including countries suffering by the extremes of
cold and heat, would present animals of the most diversified nature : but such is by no means
the case, at least to any great extent. The chief seat of this zoological province appears
to be on the southem side of Central Europe, towards the Alps, or those countries lying
between the latitudes of 40° and 50° N. ; as within these parallels the greatest proportionate
number of species appear to be found. It may, however, be more natural to consider this
zoological region as presenting three minor divisions : 1. The arctic ; 2. The central ; and,
3. The southern.
The arctic division will include Greenland, the islands of Spitzbergen and Iceland, and a
considerable part of Norway, Sweden, and Northern Russia. The central division may he
said to commence towards the northern limits of Scotland, and to reach the shores of North
ern Italy ; or, more properly, to about the 45th degree of north latitude. The southern
range includes the whole of the Mediterranean countries. Northern Africa, and Asia Minor.
The animals more particularly belonging to the arctic circle are few in species. Those
dreary and inhospitable regions afford but little sustenance to ruminating quadrupeds, or to
insectivorous land birds ; while the intense cold is as inimical to vegetation as to the pro
duction of insects. Yet these undisturbed solitudes are instinctively chosen by multitudes
of marine animals, as secure retreats from the interruption of man, for breeding and pro
viding for their young. The polar seas abound with innumerable water-fowl ; they congre
gate and build among the rocks, whose surface tliey almost cover by their numbers.
Of the Herring, {fig. 89.) Pennant was among the first naturalists who believed that
89 .<^^ ^^^ countless myriads which annually visit the northern
shores of Europe, migrated from the Arctic Ocean.
, The account given by this eloquent writer is so inte
resting, that we shall repeat it nearly in his own
words : — " The great winter rendezvous of the herring
BritiBh llorring. is within the arctic circle. There they continue for
many months, in order to recruit themselves after the fetigue of spavming ; the seas within
that space swarming with insect food in a degree far greater than in our warmer latitudes.
Thus renovated, this mighty army begins to put itself in motion in the spring. They appear
*0f tho 121 acotyledonous plants it may be observed, that all, except one, the Marsilea quudrifblia, are found
In Great Britain,

Book I.

EUROPE.

299

off the Shetland Isles in April and May t these are only the forerunners of the grand divi
sion, which comes in June ; and their appearance is marked by certain signs, and by the
numbers of birds which follow to prey upon them : but when the main body approaches, its
breadth and its depth are such as to alter the appearance of the very ocean. It is divided
into distinct columns, of five or six miles in length, and three or four in breadth ; and they
drive the water before them with a kind of rippling. Sometimes they sink for ten or fifteen
minutes, then rise again to the surface, and, in bright weather, reflect a variety of splendid
colours, like a field of the most precious gems."
The zoology of arctic Europe has received much less attention than that of Northern
America ; we must, therefore, be somewhat concise on this head. Among the few original
writers wlio have treated on the fauna of arctic Europe, the learned and acute Otho Fabri
cius, many years a resident in those dreary regions, deservedly ranks foremost. He enumer
ates thirty-two species of Mammalia as natives of Greenland, nine of which belong to the
genera of Walrus and Seal {Trichecus and Phoca), and fifteen to the cetaceous order; thus
leaving but eight species of terrestrial quadrupeds, a propor
tion at once explained by the wild and desolate nature of these
regions. The number of birds, comprehending such as are
occasional visiters, amounts to fifty-two. Seven of these are
rapacious, and five are referable to the families of Warblers
and Finches {Sylviada and Fringillida); the remainder, with
the solitary exception of the Ptarmigan {fig. 90.), or Lago-
pus mutus, belong to the wading and swimming orders, to
whose nourishment and increase the arctic solitudes are par
ticularly congenial. Nevertheless, by far the greater number
of these birds occur abundantly in more soutliern latitudes ;
and many extend their flight to the warm shores of the Me
diterranean. Those species, in fact, which habitually live
within the arctic circle, as if by preference, are remarkably few, and offer no good founda
tion to ground a belief that these regions constitute one of the primary groups in animal
geography. The zoology of Central Europe may be said to commence towards the 60th degree of
northern latitude, where a sensible change in the number and species of animals may be
perceived ; vegetatiqn assumes a marked and decisive character ; and those animals which
depend for their support both on the produce of the earth and on the insect world are greatly
increased, at once in number and in species. Vegetables furnish nutrition to insects, and
seeds to birds: the former, again, become the prey of the latter; and thus
the supplies of nature are nicely and accurately balanced, with a just
regard to the preservation of all her creatures. The dark pine forests of
Norway, Sweden, and Lapland are the most northem boundaries of the
Woodpeckers ; one of which {Apternus tridactylus Sw.) is remarkable
for having but three toes to its feet {fig. 91.), and is more peculiarly a
native of these high latitudes. The insectivorous and omnivorous tribes
begin, also, to be common ; while the wading and natatorial birds diminish
in numbers, though not in species ; for as they congregate at certain seasons
in the polar seas, so during winter they disperse themselves on the shores
of Great Britain and the Continent. We have no very precise iaforma-
tion as to the extreme northern range of those birds whose chief metropo
lis is in Central Europe ; and we are still deficient in a Fauna Scotica.
Most of the Arctic birds occur on the northern shores of Scotland, the islands of Orkney
and Shetland, and on the coasts of Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. Miiller, in his Zoologia
Danica, enumerates 57 species of Mammalia, and 131 of birds, as natives of that kingdom.
Among the former, 3 only are marine, and 14 are Cetacea: while the land birds amount to
87, exclusive of 26 belonging to the rapacious genera of Eagles, Falcons, and Owls. On
comparing these numbers with those of the Greenland fauna, we observe, on the one hand,
a considerable diminution of marine Mammalia, and a very large addition to the list of
terrestrial birds ; this latter circumstance is easily accounted for, — they are not formed to
endure extreme cold ; and being dependent upon insects and seeds for their support, their
dispersion is naturally limited by the facilities afforded by nature for supporting life. Pro
ceeding to those countries which lie towards the centre of Europe, there is a gradual aug
mentation of animal life : we may even trace this change in the local distribution of the
animals peculiar to the British islands. Many species, in every department of zoology, are
common in the southern and western counties of England, which are totally unknown in the
northern counties and in Scotland. Even among the domesticated races, a greater develope
ment of structure under a more genial climate is apparent in the horse, the sheep, and the ox
of Britain, when compared to those of the islands and mountains of Scotland ; while among
birds the gallinaceous genera, which, in the former climates, breed and live at all seasons in
the open air, are reared and preserved with difiiculty in countries ferther north; of these the
peacock and Guinea fowl may be cited as examples.

Three-toed Woodpecker.

300

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

PAHf ni.

The southem part of central Europe is, then, the field best calculated for studying the
peculiarities of European zoology. Commencing with the existing quadrupeds, we may
remark, that while two species alone appear to inhabit the cold regions of Denmark, there
are thirteen described as natives of France and the adjacent kingdoms, seven of which have
been enumerated among British quadrupeds. The great white Bear, which is perhaps more
truly an arctic animal than any other, disappears on the southem shores of the Polar Sea,
and is replaced in temperate Europe by the common brown species. Of this genus there are
ccording to Cuvier, but two recent species belonging to Europe, the brown (fig. 92.) and the
black bear. Others imagine, with some show of reason, that
there are more ; as the varieties from the first are very remark-
I able. The second is the black bear of Europe, differing from
that of America in many important points of stmcture : only
one living example appears to have been seen and dissected ;
and this, having died in confinement, afforded no clue to a
knowledge of its haunts or manners.
The Wolf and the Fox, under different varieties or species,
appear generally distributed over Europe : to these we must add
the Lynx and the Wild Cat, as the only tme rapacious or car
nivorous animals that have been appropriated to this division of
the globe. The Lynx, once common in central Europe, is now
only knovni in some parts of Spain, the Apennines, and in the northem kingdoms. The
wild cat is still said to be a native of Britain, and is spread over other kingdoms on the Con
tinent. A recent author includes among the " extinct animals" of Britain the hyasna and
tiger whose bones have been found in the caves of Kirkdale, as forming part of the modem
geographic distribution of animals. This hypothesis lies open to many- and great objections.
If such formidable and terrific carnivorous animals have existed in Europe since the last
revolution of our globe, what others constituted their prey ? Their food being flesh alone,
what were the other races of quadrupeds destined by nature to furnish them with subsistence ¦!
These questions must be first considered, before we can assent to an opinion so confidently
advanced. Whatever might have been the character of European zoology before ^the deluge,
certain it is, that in its present state it exhibits that harmony and consistency which peculi
arly marks a wise provision for all created things. As the number of European Mammalia
is so disproportionably small, when compared with those of Asia, AfricEt, and America, so are
the species which are to keep their own class under subjection feeble and few ; and this law
is not only apparent among quadrupeds, but is equally observable in every other division of
animals. Now, as birds are much more numerous, we find that in addition to the natural
enemies in their own class, there is a group of quadrupeds more particularly destructive to
the feathered tribes. These are the Mustela, or Weasels ; few perhaps in species, but im
portant in their numbers, and in their powers of destruction. No less than eight species
inhabit different parts of Europe. Like the monkeys of the tropics, many of them climb
trees and suck eggs ; and by thus destroying birds in every stage oflife, from the egg to the
adult, are peculiarly adapted to prevent an undue increase of numbers.
On the granivorous quadrupeds it maybe observed, that although the woods of Europe are
deficient in that variety of pulpy fmits so abundant in tropical countries, and upon which the
numerous monkeys, bats, and other animals of those regions priocipaUy live, yet there is a
qo great diversity of nuts and grain. Hence we find a propor
tionate number of small quadrupeds, whose subsistence en
tirely depends upon these bountiful supplies of nature:
under this head may be enumerated the Hedgehog, Squirrel,
and the various Mice, of which seven species belong to
Europe. The Beaver {fig. 93.) is found in the vicinity of
the Rhone, the Danube, the Rhine, and other of tlie larger
European rivers. If naturalists are correct in considering
this to be identical with the American beaver, it is one of
the very few instances of the same species of animal inhab-
Beavor. iting the temperate parts of the old and new continents.
The black bear of Europe was long confounded with that of America ; and a similar differ
ence may possibly exist between the beavers of tho two continents.
The different species of Mice, &c., now arranged under many genera, form an unportant
part of European zoology ; as will appear from tlie following list, furnished by Mr. Griffith
from the valuable Mammalogie of M. Desmarest : —

Arvicola amphibius  Water Rat.
 nrvulis  Field Mouse.
 fulviis  Fulvnua ditto,
 nrHcntorntniiHifl  Strnshiirn ditto.
Georycllua Norvogicus  The Lentiiiing,
 tiTrostris  Land ditto.
Mus sylvaticuH  Field Mouse.
 campestris  Plain ditto.

Mus musculus  House Mouse.
 niessarius  Harvest ditto.
 minutus  Small ditto.
 nprnriiis  Setuic ditto,
 soricinus  ,  Shrew-like ditto.
 diclirurus  Partycoloured Eat.
 iBlandicus  Iceland ditto.

Book I. EUROPE. 301
The Hamsters, remarkable for their cheek pouches, and belonging to the same natural
family as the mice, have their chief metropolis in Siberia; yet one species {Cricetus vul
garis) extends to central and northern Europe. The Marmots {Arctomys Marmotta, Bo-
bac) are likewise nucivorous, and occur on the mountains of central and northern Europe,
too'ether with the Spermophilus citillus, or Soulisk of the Germans. Of the Hare, four
species are European, the snowy, the common, the calling, and the rabbit ; and these com
plete the list of European Glires.
Among ruminating quadrupeds, the Elk and Reindeer are well-known inhabitants of the
northern countries ; the latter giving place to the Fallow-deer, the Stag, and the Roebuck,
in tlie midland parts of Europe. In the lofty mountains and inaccessible precipices of the
Alps and Pyrenees, the Chamois, Yzard, and Ibex still live in partial security, notwith
standing the daring intrepidity of their hunters. The Musmon is another European quad
ruped deserving particular notice, as being generally considered the origin of all our domes
tic breeds of sheep. It appears still to exist in a state of nature among the high mountains
of Corsica and Sardinia ; and although now extirpated upon the continent, is well ascer
tained to have formerly been common in the mountains of Asturia in Spain. Lastly, it
appears incontestable that the ox, one of the most valuable of nature's gifts to man, originally
existed in a wild state over the whole of Europe, but whether as a distinct species or mere
variety is still uncertain. The white ox of Scotland is a peculiar breed, still preserved in
some few parks of the nobility, and will be noticed hereafter. But a much larger race, dis
tinguished by Hamilton Smith under the name of the Fossil Urus (Griff. Cuv. iv. 414.),
although, probably, in existence long after the invasion of Csesar, is now only known, like
the elk of Ireland, by its gigantic bones.
From this brief enumeration of the European quadrupeds it will be perceived that their
numbers are too few, and their original dispersion too obscure, to allow of any correct notions
being formed as to their natural distribution. With regard to the origin of our domestic
animals, and the several races, breeds, or varieties that have apparently sprung from them,
the reader must be referred to the writings of F. Cuvier, and the extensive researches of
Hamilton Smith, whose acquaintance vvith the order of ruminating animals, more particu
larly, is, perhaps, superior to that of any other living zoologist.
The ornithological features of the zoological province to which Europe belongs, have
already claimed our attention. We shall, therefore, now merely notice a few circumstances
connected with the ornithology of central Europe. On the highest
summits of the Alps, and in the vast forests which clothe their sides
in Hungary, Switzerland, and the Tyrol, are fonnd all the four spe
cies of European Vultures : only one of these, Vultur fulvus (Jig.
94,), appears to have a range in countries farther north ; yet all are
distributed over the southern kingdoms, and two are again met with
on the northern limits of Africa and western Asia. The Iceland or
gyr Falcon, long supposed to be peculiar to the high northern lati
tudes, is now considered the same with the Falco candicans of the
northern parts of Germany. The wide geographic range of the
rapacious order has already been adverted to ; nor do we find any
species besides the Vultures which serve to mark the ornithology
of central Europe. The forests of Germany, Austria, Switzerland,
and France appear to contain all the European Woodpeckers, which.
Fulvous Vulture. notwithstanding their wide dispersion, are but thinly and partially
scattered in the northern and southem kingdoms.
The range of the small insectivorous birds, or warblers, requires much investigation ; nor
are we at this moment aware of any species in Germany which does not occur in France or
towards northern Italy. The few gallinaceous birds of Europe are nearly all found towards
its centre, although the different species of grouse seem to aflect the more northern lati
tudes. The warm covering of feathers which protects their feet, is peculiarly adapted as
a defence from the intense cold of the polar regions. The Bustards, on the contrary, occupy
the middle regions of Europe, and extend latitudinally from the confines of Asia to the shores
of the Atlantic. The Bee-eater (Merops apiaster), the Roller, the Hoopoe, and the Golden
Oriole, in their annual migrations from Africa, visit all the central parts of the Continent,
but become progressively scarce as we advance northward.
In the third portion of the European range, we comprehend the south of France, the whole
of Spain, Italy, and Turkey, together with the coasts and islands of the Mediterranean Sea
bordering Asia Minor, and Northern Africa.
On the geographic range of the quadrupeds more peculiar to these countries, little can be
said ; as the materials to be gathered from the relations of travellers unacquainted with zoology
are generally most imperfect. There is no evidence of the great northem ruminating animals,
such as the Elk and the Reindeer, being found wild in any of the countries which border
the Mediterranean Sea, although a small species, probably the fallow deer or the roebuck.
Vol. L 26

302

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

PabtIH

Sturnus Uoicolor.

is represented as still to be met with in the extensive forests of Calabria. The Porcupine,
now wild in those countries, is supposed, (but with a slight show of reason,) to have been
introduced from Africa ; but for what purpose we are uninformed. The Buffalo is domesti
cated in Greece and Turkey, and some parts of southem Italy ; where it is sometimes, though
rarely, used for draught.
The ornithology of the countries bordering upon the Mediterranean presents many
interesting peculiarities. The vultures, which are seldom found northward of the Alps,
occur more frequently as the climate becomes warmer. This tribe appears to follow the
course of the Apennines in Italy, and of the higher mountains of Spain and Greece from
whence they extend their range to Asia Minor and northem Africa. The Imperial Eagle
(Falco imperialis Tem.) is chiefly found in southem Europe, while the Golden Eagle is
much more numerous in the colder latitudes. The gigantic Owls of the polar regions are
here unknown ; but two or three horned species, of diminutive size, follow the migratory
troops of smaller birds in their annual journeys across the Mediterranean. Two of these
small owls have not yet been described. In the extensive family of the warblers, many
appear peculiar to Italy, Spain, Sicily, and Sardinia ; and in the latter island there has recently
— been discovered a second species of European Starling (Sturnus
unicolor Tem.) (fig. 95.) The grouse of northem Europe are
rarely, if ever, seen. But two species of bustard {Otis Tetrao
and Houbara) seldom met with farther north, are common in
Spain, Italy, and Turkey. Here also we first meet with the
African and Asiatic genera Cursorius and Hemipodius ; birds
which delight in the dry and arid plains of those continents,
where they run with amazing swiftness. The rocky and tm-
cultivated wastes of Spain, Turkey, and Asia Minor, furnish
two species of rock grouse (Pterocles) long confounded with
that northem genus, of which it is the representative in warm
climates. The beautiful Wall-creeper, with its bright rosy wings, although rare in other
parts of Europe, is not uncommon in Italy ; while the Golden Oriole, the Bee-eater, the
Hoopoe, and the Roller, four of the most beautifiil European birds, are so abundant in the two
Sicilies during the spring and autumnal migrations, that they may occasionally be seen hang
ing in the poulterers' shops of Naples and Palermo. The union of the African, European,
and Asiatic ornithology on the coasts of the Mediterranean is fiirther apparent among the
water-birds. The Pelican, the Spoon-bill, and the Flamingo, are stiU to be met with in these
countries ; although, from their large size attracting the sportsmen, they are never seen in
any considerable numbers.
The European reptiles are too few to afford any material illustration of animal distribution.
The most remarkable forms and the greatest numerical proportion occur in southem Europe,
particularly in Italy and Greece, and the islands of Sicily and Malta : some of these, as the
Gecko, or house lizards of Naples and Sicily, belong to genera not met with farther north,
but common on the opposite shores of Africa and Asia Minor.
The fish and other marine animals of the Spanish and Portuguese coasts bordering on the
Atlantic have not been well investigated, and our slight acquaintance with them is insufficient
to give us any correct idea of their nature ; but on entering the Mediterranean, we find, at
Gibraltar, many of those peculiar to much more southern latitudes. Spain and Portugal
cannot be said, like England, France, or Holland, to have national fisheries ; but no sooner
do we pass Gibraltar, than these natural sources of prosperity and plenty Eire again opened
to the industry and support of man. The enormous shoals of Anchovies, (Jig. 96.) annually
employ, in their capture and preparation, a great number
of persons : and the exportation of this highly flavoured
little fish, to all parts of tlie world, creates an important
branch of permanent commerce. The Herring and, we
believe, the Pilchard, are not unknowTi in the fish-mar
kets of Sicily and Malta; but, notwithstanding tlieir
abundance in northern Europe, they are scarce in the Mediterranean, and never seen in any
considerable numbers. The tunny fishery is peculiar to Sicily, altliough there is very little
doubt that the same fish frequents the shores and islands of the Peloponnesus ; yet the total
disregard of the Turks to all sources of national wealth blinds them to this, and to every
other advantage which Nature has placed within their grasp. The Ichthyology of southem
Europe is certainly of a more marked and peculiar character than any other department of
European zoology. Of nearly 150 species observed in the Mediterranean Sea, not more
than one-third belonged to the Ichthyology of Great Britain and nortliern Europe.
The Turtle of the Mediterranean is that described by authors under the name of Testudo
caretla : writers have uniformly copied each other in asserting that tliis is the same as the
Loggerhead Turtle of the West Indies ; and that its flesh is coarse, rank, oUy, and not

Anchovy.

Book I.
edible.

EUROPE.

303

Loggerhead Turtle.

The ace iracy of both these statements may be questioned. Whatever may be the
qualities of the West Indian Loggerhead, we know, from
personal experience, that the fiesh of the Mediterranean
species is delicious. We were once becalmed off the Isle
of Elba, and in one morning captured a sufficient number ot
small turtle to supply the cabin table for a week. They
made exquisite soup ; and although one of the company was
UI, it arose from repletion. We omitted to draw and describe
the animal, from a belief that it was the Hawk's-bill Turtle,
the only species described as inhabiting the Mediterranean ;
the figure given by Gottwold (fig. 97.) has been considered,
by Dr. Shaw, as representing the Testudo caretta.
Of European insects, a bare enumeration of the genera would alone fill a volume ; and in
the half-artificial, half-natural, arrangement in which our entomological systems at this
moment remain, it is impossible to form any precise idea even on the natural distribution of
the fiunilies. As we approach the provinces of southern Italy and tlie Peloponnesus, we
find many genera which more properly characterise Western Asia and Africa ; while, in
Sicily and Malta, the geodephagous groups, particularly the
Linnsean Carabii, are diminished ; apparently in species, but
certainly in numbers. It is in these countries that the Ants,
those universal scavengers of nature in tropical countries, begin
to appear in almost every situation, and to perform those offices
which in more temperate regions have been assigned to the
Geodephaga, Brachelytra, and Necrophaga among coleopter
ous insects. Most of the northern Butterfiies (Papiliones Sw.)
Cleopatra's Butterfly. are common even in Sicily, where, notwithstanding a dissimilar
vegetation and u. more heated atmosphere, we find only three or four species unknown to
the British fauna : among these, the Gonepteryx Cleopatra (fig. 98.) or Cleopatra's Butter
fly, much resembles a British species, but has the middle of the anterior wings of a rich
orange. The Radiated animals of the Mediterranean are particularly numerous ; the many har-
99 hours, coves, and sub-immersed rocks, sheltered from those violent
commotions which agitate the mighty Atlantic, afford them secure
protection, and contribute to their rapid increase. Their investiga
tion, hitherto much neglected, offers a wide field for the discoveries
of naturalists who can study them in their native seas. Numerous
¦ species of Sea Anemone, or animal flowers, unfold themselves in
the crevices of the rocks ; one of these {fig. 99.), ornamented with
rich purple, is particularly common on all the shores of Sicily.
The tubular and cellular polypes, whose habitations axe termed
corals and corallines, are generally abund- 100
ant in warm latitudes. Among these a
vast number of species occurs on the '
shores of Sicily, Italy, and the Greek
Animal Flowers. islands, which do not inhabit the British
coasts. Sicily, for many ages, has been celebrated for its fisheries
of the true red coral (fig. 100.) ; and it still affords employment at
certain seasons to many fishermen : but the produce of the old
grounds of late years has materially diminished, through want of
care and due preservation. The Bay of Naples likewise produces
this beautiful substance, but the pieces usually found are small, and
in no great abundance.
The Molluscous animals or shell-fish of southem Europe are in

Red Coral.
It is no uncommon thing

great variety ; and are much prized by
all classes, as general articles of food.
to see from twelve to fifteen different sorts of shell-fish, none of
a small size, exposed in the principal market at Naples; and we
have been assured that double this number are not unfrequently
served at the tables of the higher ecclesiastics and nobility of
Tarentum during Lent, that city bemg highly celebrated for its
shell-fish. The Solen strigilatus {fig. 101.) is abundant at
Solen Strigilatus. Naples, and considered most delicate food.
On comparing the conchology of the Mediterranean with that of Britain, there does not
appear so much difference as at first might have been imagined ; nor are we aware of more
than three or four genera in those southern latitudes of which examples have not been found
in the British seas. Yet, on descending to species, the difference is much greater. Perhaps

804

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

pAKTin.

two-thirds or three-fifths of the Mediterranean shells have been found in the Channel, and on
the western or other coasts of Britain. The remaining portion indicate a strong affinity with
the conchology of India and the Red Sea on one hand, and that of Africa, towards Senegal,
on the other. The fluviatile species are most numerous in central Europe, where the heat
of summer is less calculated to dry up those small pools and shallow streams, in which most
of these univalve mollusca delight to dwell. The fluviatile bivalves are few ; but are of
species which seem peculiar to the European range. Independently of those common alike
to Britain and the Continent, there are others in France and the south of Europe (fig. 102).
Unio littoralis (a) and the true U. batava {b) are common in the Seine ; and we have received
another shell from near Gibraltar, which we suspect to be a new species, intermediate be-
102 .^^  - ¦ b .,^g»v tween the latter and ovatus ; we name it
provisionally Unio intermedins (c, c).
The Cephalopoda, or cuttle-fish of the
Mediterranean, though not of many species,
are sometimes found in prodigious numbers,
and frequently grow to an enonnous size.
The zoology of the Black and Caspian Seas
is very little known.
The phosphorescence of the Mediterra
nean is at times so brilliant, that it excites
the admiration of all voyagers; it therefore
deserves to be particularly mentioned. This
River Bivalve Shells. phenomenon, is entirely produced by various
marine animals. Spix, the Bavarian naturalist and traveller, in his passage down the Medi
terranean, caused several buckets to be filled with this luminous water ; and the following
results attended his experiments : —
These luminous animalcula adhered to whatever was wetted with the water, and continued
to shine thereon ; the buckets, when shaken, appearing full of luminous particles. The
, water, examined by a microscope, was filled with little bodies, some roundish, some oblong,
and generally about the size of a poppy-seed ; each of these had, at one end, a small navel
like opening, encircled by from six to nine delicate filaments which float within the bladder,
and with which the animal seems to attach itself to other bodies, and to seize its nourish
ment. In the inside of these bladders there were many other small darker points, crowded
together on one side, or here and there some larger ones, which might be either the remains
of smaller animals which they had swallowed, or their own spawn. These globular animal
cula (which Spix considers to be of the nature of Medusse) have been named by Peron and
Lechenault Arethusa pelagica, and by Savigny Noctiluca miliaris. They swim in greater
or less numbers at night, but in the sunshine they appear to the naked eye like little drops
of grease. When put into a vessel they soon die and fall to the bottom ; when they come
near together, they appear involuntarily to attach each other, so that they form whole groups.
The same phenomenon is sometimes observed in the day-time, when the sky is dark, which
rarely happens : as these animals are seldom found in water taken up in the day-time, it is
probable they then sink to the depths of the ocean, and only return near the surfece towards
night. {Spix, Trav.)
Other luminous bodies resemble balls as large as a nut ; and every wave striking a ship,
when filled with these animals, lights up all surrounding objects. Besides these, there are
sometimes insulated luminous bladders, like fiery balls, a foot in diameter, which rise smgly
above the water ; and the strikmg of two waves together produces a shallow bluish streak
of light, resembling the reflection of lightning on the water. (Spix, Trav. i. 44. 47.)
The quadrupeds of Europe, according to the most recent distribution of the species (Griff.
C«D,), under the modern divisions, comprise about ninety species, arranged under the fol
lowing genera and sub-genera. To these must be added the fish-quadrupeds, or Cetacese,
chiefly inhabiting the high northem latitudes : —

Bats.
Ilinolphus . , , 2
PlecoUw . , , . I
Voaporlilio ... IS
Land Quadrupedj.
Eriniiccua . , , , 2

Sorei .
Mygalo .
Talpa ,
Ursu3 .
MelcB .
Oulo . .
PutoriuBMaries ,

tutra .
CaJiiB .
Viilpes .
I.ynx .
Castor .
ArvicolaGoorycbiii

. . 1
. . 1
. .3
. . 1
. . 1
. . 1
. . 4
. . 1

Myoxus .
MlIB . . .
Cricetus
GorbiUua .
AspalAT .
ArctomysSciurus . ,
Pteromys

Hystrix. .
Lepus . .
La^omys .
Cennis . .
ADtilope .
Rupricapni. Capni , .
Ovia . .

Taarus .... 2
Marine.
Fboca  1
Trichecus .... 1
Otari?.  I
Mirounga. .... 1

The genera of European birds, in reference to our former remarks on the geographic dis
tribution of animals, deserves particular attention. Those marked * are typical of families or
su]>families ; those f include sub-genera, or subordinate variations of structure to which we
shnll not attach a distinct patronymic name ; cither because the higher groups have not been
sufficiently analyaod, or because these subordinate forms have been mistaken for genera.
Decided stragglpr.-^ nrc excluded; other genera, of uncertain rank, are not marked. The
typical genera of the wading birds have not yet been ascertained.

Boos I.

Rapacious BinU.
* Vultur Auct.
• Gypastos Slor.
Neopbron Sav,
FajiaioQ Sat).
Halixtus Sav.
Aquila Ray,
Aster Accipitcr•Falco tButeot Circus
tStrii JfustrosfrtJ.
Caprimulguj • Hirundo
CTpselus/U.• Merops
Coracias• Alcedo

EUROPE.

305

Dentirostrta Cut.
* Muscicapa
* Louius
• Merula Jloy.
Ciudus • Onolui
* Sajcicola
ErytbJ£ca Sua.
Phtcntcura Suf.
* Philomela Sw.
t CuiTuca Bech.
• t Sylvia. Liru
• t nnu Lin.
Accentor Bech,
Budrtes Cuo.
* MotacitU Xi'n.
t Anlbus BicfL
• Bombycilla Brti.
• tAkuda
• t^mbeiya
#Cuduelis

Pymta Cuv,
• t Fringilla Sw.
* Pyrrhula Cuti.
• Sturnus
• t Pastor Tmu
Nucifraga Brit,
« t Corviw
• Garrulus
Fregilus Cuv,
* Coccothnustes Bris.
Corythus Cuv,
Climben.
• Cuculus
Dryotomus Suf.
Dendrocopus Sw,
AptemuB Sw.
CtuTsoptilus SiO.
• Sitta Lin.
* Certhia Lin.
Ticbodroma Troglodytes

• Upupa Lin,
OaltiTJUceous Birds,
Tetrao Lin.
Lagopus Jiay,
Lyunn Sw.
* Columba Lin.
* Phasianus Lin.
» Perjix Lin.
• Colurnix Tem,
Pterocles Tem,
• OUs Lin, Waderi,
Balearica Bris,
Grua Ant.
kricAAnt,Fbccnicopterufi Liri.
Platalea Lin.
Tantalus Lin,
Ibis Ant.
Numenius Bris,

t Tolanus Beehit.
Recurviroslriat LimOB*
Scolopax t Machetes Cw>.
t PhalaropUB
Phseopus Cuv.
GlareolaRail us
Crex Bteh,
Gallinula Bris.
Porphyrio Bru,
Fulica Hsematopus
t Calidres lUxgtr,
Tacbydromus IU.
Strepsilas III,
t TriDga, L,
Vanellus Bris.
t Cbaradrius Liru
(Edicuemus Cuv.

Uimantopus Bris.
Swimnurt.
* t Anser
* t Aoaa
» t Mergus
t Cygnus
Podiceps Lath.
ColymtiUB
tUria MormoD IIU
tAlca
HalicuB 10.
Dysporufi IU.
* Pelecanus Lin,
* Stuma L.
Thalassidroma. Fig,
# IdTUS L,
Lestris IU.
Frocellaria L.
Puffiaus iiay.

Sect. V. — Languages.
Europe, considered in regard to its languages, comprehends the whole globe, through those
immense colonies which have been founded by the nations of this continent in every other
quarter of the world.
The European languages, ancient and modem, form six families : — 1. The family of the
Iberian languages; 2. That of the Celtic languages; 3. That of the Thraco-Pelasgic or
Gr<Eco-Latin languages ; 4. The family of the Germanic languages ; 5. That of the Scla
vonic languages ; 6. The family of the Uralian languages, commonly called the Finnish or
Chudic, Subsect. 1,
The Iberian or Basque family has been divided into the two following branches :— 1,
Ancient languages long extmct, under which are classed the idioms spoken by the Iberians
in the greater part of the Spanish peninsula, in southern Gaul, and in some parts of Italy
and its three great islands. 2. Ancient languages still living; of which the only one remain
ing is the Escuara or Basque, formerly spoken in a large portion of Spain and of southern
Gaul, and now spoken only by the Vascongados or Basques in the Spanish provinces of
Biscay and Navarre, and in some parts of the south of France. The Basques are the
descendants of the ancient Vascones. Their language, which resembles no other European
idiom, though it has adopted several Latin and some German words, appears to have a certain
affinity to the Shemitic languages, and, in its conjugations, some analogy to the languges of
America. Subsect. 2.
The Celtic family exhibits, like the Basque, two branches : — 1. Ancient languages long
extinct, among which are classed the idioms spoken by the numerous Celtic nations in Gaul,
in Belgium, in the British Isles, in parts of Germany, Italy, and also Galatia in Asia Minor.
2. Ancient languages still living, of which there are two : 1. The Gallic, Gaelic or Celtic
Proper, spoken in different dialects by the descendants of the true Celts, in a large portion
of Ireland, in the Highlands of Scotland, in the Hebrides, and in the Isle of Man. 2. The
Cambrian or Celto-Belgic, formerly spoken by the Cymri or Belgse in Belgium an"d Britain,
and now confined to a part of England and France. In this language are distinguished
three principal dialects : the Welsh, spoken and written by the people of that name descend
ed from the ancient Britons ; the Cornish, formerly spoken throughout Cornwall, but extinct
fiince about the middle of the last century ; and the Bas-Breton, called also by P^rench writers
the Celto- Breton, spoken in the part of France formerly called Lower Bretagne, by the
descendants of those British fugitives who, in the fifth century, sought refiige and settled in
Armorica. The Bas-Breton has many sub-dialects and varieties.
Subsect. 3.
The numerous family of the Greeco-Latin languages may be divided into four branches :
I. The Elyrian ; II. The Etruscan ; III, The Hellenic ; IV. The Italic, including the Latin,
the Romaic or Romano-Rustic, the modern Italian, the French, the Spanish or Castilian, the
Portuguese, and the Valaque or Wallachian.
I. The Thraco-Illyrian branch includes all those Thracian and Ulyrian nations once seated
in Asia Minor west of the river Halys, and in Europe all over its eastern portion, from Nori-
cum, occupied by Celtic tribes, to the mouths of the Danube and the Dnieper, and even
beyond. Of those nations, long extinct, or confounded with others, the prhicipal were the
Phrygians, the Trojans, the Bithynians, the Lydians, the Carians, the Lycians, the Cinunerii,
the Tauri, the Thracians properly so called, the Msesi, the Getae, the Macedonians, the
ancient Illyrians, among whom were the Dalmati and the Istri, the Pannonians or Pseones,
the Veneti, and the Siculi. In this branch, according to M. Malte-Brun, may be not impro
perly placed —
The Albanian, spoken in Albania and other countries by the Skipatavt named Amauts by
Vol. I. 26* 20

306 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part HI.
the Turks, and generally known under the name of Albanians. They form the principal
population of Albania, and are scattered throughout European Turkey, especially in Eou-
melia, Bulgaria, and Macedonia ; others on the Slavonic military confines of the Austrian
empire, and others in various parts of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies. This Scyp, or
Albanian language, accordmg to M. Malte-Brun, appears to be formed of one-third of ancient
Greek, especially the jEolic dialect, one-third Latui, and one-third of an idiom not yet ascer
tained, probably the Ulyrian. The Albanians have three different alphabets : one sacred or
hieratic, now fallen into disuse ; another, the Greek alphabet ; a third, the modem Italian or
Latin. II. The Etruscan, (we are here reminded of the Osci and Heterosci, quasi Etrusci T)
spoken by the Etrurians, called also Tyrrhenians by the Greeks. This nation, according to
some, appears to have been a mixture of Rhsetian Celts with the Aborigines of Italy. The
Etruscan alphabet was the same with the primitive alphabet of the Greeks ; it had sixteen
letters, and was written from right to left.
ni. The Pelasgo-Hellenic, including the idioms in ancient times spoken by the famous
Pelasgi and Hellenes, long since incorporated with other nations. The people of early
origin who may with probability be classed under this branch are, the Pelasgi, the Leleges,
and other tribes enumerated by ancient geographers among the population of Greece and its
isles, especially the Grseci, originally a small community of Thessaly, but remarkable for
having given name to the whole of that celebrated nation, whose language was —
The Hellenic, or ancient Greek, formerly spoken in Greece and its dependencies, and
at a later period in a great part of Sicily, Lower Italy, Asia Minor, Egypt, and its dependen
cies, in part of Gallia Narbonensis, and in other districts bordering on the Mediterranean.
During the Macedonian empire the Hellenic was spoken at all the courts of the descend
ants of Alexander, and by persons of distinction in all the countries subject to the Macedo
nians. In a subsequent age, it was studied by all the most distinguished subjects of the
Roman empire, and was the prevailing idiom in the East until the fall of Constantinople, at
which period it was studied with renewed ardour in the West. In this language, 270 years
before Christ, was vnritten the femous version of the Hebrew Scriptures called the Septua-
gint ; in this language also was the Gospel promulgated by the Apostles ; and it thus became
for ever sacred. It appears not the least wonderful among the dispensations of Providence,
that the light of Christianity should have been originally diBiised under the most powerful
empire and in the most cultivated language of the ancient world, and that it should prevail
notwithstanding the power of the one, and the learning and philosophy for which the other
was so proudly distinguished. The literature of the Greeks, comprehending some of the
finest productions of the human mind, is, perhaps, the richest in the world, and presents an
unparalleled series of eminent vsrriters, extending from the age of Homer to the middle of
the fifteenth century. The language is one of the most flexible, harmonious, and copious
that have ever existed; its grammatical forms are almost identical with those of the Latin,
to the formation of which it has greatly contributed, but in many essential points it is
superior, and especially in the unlimited feculty of making as many compounds as can be
required. M. Malte-Brun distinguishes in the ancient Greek two different idioms : — 1. The
primitive Hellenic, which he subdivides into three principal dialects — the Arcadian, the
Thessalian, with the ancient Macedonian, and the CEnotrian, transported into Italy and mm
gled with the Latin ; 2. The Hellenic of the historical tunes, divided mto four prmcipal
dialects and several varieties.
The Romaic, or the modern Greek, spoken by the Greeks of our own times, especially
in the Morea, in Livadia, Thessaly, the isle of Candia, the Archipelago, part of Albania,
Macedonia, Roumelia, Thrace, Asia Minor, Cyprus, and by the Greeks established in Wal-
lachia, Moldavia, S3rria, and Egypt. The Romaic is also spoken by the inhabitants of the
Ionian Isles, by considerable numbers of Greeks in the Austrian and Russian empires, and
some hundred of Mainotes in Corsica, near Ajaccio. It is divided into two principal dialects,
the Romanic and the jEolo-Dorian, each including various sub-dialects.
IV. The Italic branch, so called, as mcluding the languages of tlie aborigines of Italy,
which form the stem of the modern idioms comprised in this branch. Those aborigines
were, the Euganei, the Ausones, the Lucani, the Brutti, the Piceni, the Marsi, the Latmi,
the Sabines, and the Samnites. From a mixture of tlie three last idioms, primarily with
the original Hellenic, afterwards with the old .ffilolian and ancient Doric, was formed, as M.
Malte-Brun inclines to think, the language spoken by the Romans, and called the Latin
language. The languages included in that branch are, —
The Latin, which was the written and current language of the higher classes m Italy
and throughout the Roman empire. It was very different from the lingua plebeia or rustica,
spoken in the rural districts of the peninsula, and by the lower classes m Spam, Gaul, and
the other provinces. Its grammatical forms are similar to the Greek, though less perfect.
Latin literature, formed on that of Greece, is very rich in all branches of knowledge, and,
together with tho Greek, is the source from which flows the literature of the modern nations
of Europe. Its most brilliant epoch was tlie Augustan age. In this language St, Jerome

Book I. EUROPE. 307
wrote the Vulgate, or Latin translation of the Bible which is used in the Romish church.
The overthrow of the Roman empire in the fifth century gave birth to a corrupt Latin,
mingled with a great number of barbarous words, and named low Latin, which, until the
fourteenth, vras, almost exclusively, the written language throughout the West. In the two
succeeding centuries, Latin literature again flourished, especially in Italy ; but it was only
to contribute to the improvement of modern languages, which being diligently and success-
fiiUy cultivated, the Latin was restricted to works of erudition alone. Its phraseology has
had a marked influence on that of the most polite nations of Europe. It is now a dead lan
guage, except in Poland and Hungary, where some educated persons speak it in ordinary
life with considerable purity, and with the continental pronunciation, of course almost unin
telligible to English travellers, who cannot or will not relinquish the Saxon diphthongal
sounds of the vowels A, I, and U, the chief causes of their embarrassment. Latin is no
longer employed except in the Catholic liturgy, in medicine, in the diplomacy of the court
of Rome, and partially in the literature of all tbe civilized nations of Europe. The alpha
bet, of twenty-three letters, having been improved in its characters by the Italians and
French, is used by all the people of Europe, except the Greeks, the Russians, and some
other nations who have particular alphabets. This same Latin alphabet, with the Gothic
forms it assumed under the pen of the writers of the middle ages, is used by the Germans
and Danes, and by the Bohemians, and other Slavonic nations ; and, according to some
authors, its capital letters, truncated and squared to fecilitate the inscription of them in wood
or stone, constitute the Runic alphabet, formerly used in the north of Europe.
The Romana, or Romana Rustica, spoken in the brightest ages of Rome by the lower
classes in the south of the empire, excepting Greece, and some other counties. After various
modifications more or less considerable, it appears still to subsist among the vulgar dialects
spoken throughout a great part of Spain, France, Switzerland, and some districts of Italy.
The chief of those dialects, according to M. Champollion Figeac, are the following, classed
with reference to those four regions : — In Spain, Sardinia, and the Balearic Isles, the Catalan,
the Valencian, the Majorcan. In France, the Languedocian, the Provencal, the Dauphinois,
the Lyonnais, the Auvergnat, the Limousin, and the Gascon. In Switzerland, the Romanic,
or Celto-Romanic, (frequently called Romance, Khurwelsh, and Rhtetish,) the Valaisan in
the Valais. In the states of the king of Sardinia are spoken the Savoisian ; and the Vaudois
in the vales of Lucerne, Perosa, and part of Piedmont. To these might be added the
jargon called lingua Franca, in which Catalan, Limousin, Sicilian, and Arabic are the princi
pal uigredients. The Romance literature is also called that of the Troubadours. From the
mixture of this language with the diflerent Germanic, Slavonic, and other idioms, were
formed, in the tenth century, the following languages : —
The Italian, spoken by the Italians in almost all Italy, in the isles geographically connected
with that peninsula, and in various Alpine territories ; also frequent in Dalmatia and the isle
of Tino ; very common at Constantinople, and in several mercantile towns of the Ottoman
empire. The written language, which is nowhere generally spoken, is common with all
well-educated Italians, and differs considerably from the vulgar tongue, which is subdivided
into a great number of dialects. The principal of these are, the Piedmontese and Genoese ;
the Milanese, or Lombard proper ; the Low Lombard ; the Bolognese, the Bergamasc ; the
Venetian, the Friulian, the Tyrolean, the vulgar Tuscan; the Roman; the Sabine and
Abruzzan ; the Calabrian and Apulian ; the Tarentine ; the Neapolitan ; the Sicilian, and
the Sardinian.
The French language, spoken by the French almost throughout the north of France ; by
the Walloons and Flemings in various Netherlandish provinces ; by the Swiss, in several of
their cantons ; by the people of Jersey and Guernsey ; also in some parts of the Austrian
and Russian empires, and of the Prussian monarchy ; by the French colonists in Asia, Africa,
and America. The following are the principal dialects : — the Picard, the Flemish, the Nor
man, the Walloon or Rounchi, the vulgar French, the Breton French, the Champenois, the
Lorraine, the Burgundian, the Franche-Comte, the Neufchdtelain, the Orleannois, the
Angevin, and the Manceau. To these might, perhaps, he added the jargon spoken by the
negroes and Creoles m the French West Indies.
The Spanish or Castilian language, spoken by the Spaniards in the greater part of Spain,
and, with some variation and admixture, by their descendants in Oceania, Africa, and America ;
also by the numerous Spanish Jews established in the Ottoman empire, and in other states
of Europe, and of North Africa ; in the isle of Trinidad belonging to the crown of Great
Britain ; in some parts of Florida and Louisiana ; and in the eastem part of Hispaniola or
St. Domingo. This language is also common to all the inhabitants of the towns of Spain
where the Basque and Romance languages are spoken. The written and polished language
is almost identical in its grammatical forms with the Romance and the Portuguese ; and
differs little from the Italian ; it is very rich and harmonious, notwithstanding some guttural
and aspirate sounds taken from the Arabic, from which it has borrowed many words. It is
singular to remark, that the German is characterised by similar gutturals or aspirates. The
reigns of the emperor Charles V. and of his son Philip II. were the golden age of Spanish

308 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paht IU,
literature ; after which it fell into decay, but partially revived under the Bourbon kings
Philip V. and Charles III. Of the dialects, which difl^er little from each other, the following
are the principal : — the dialect of Toledo ; that of Leon and the Asturias; the Andalusian;
the Murcian; the Galician, or Gallego; and the Transatlantic, spoken in America; where,
next to the English, the Spanish language is spoken by the greatest number of inhabitants.
The Portuguese language, spoken by the Portuguese in Portugal and the Azores, and,
with some differences, by the Portuguese Jews settled in Hamburg, Amsterdam, the Tyrol,
and other parts of Europe, Asia, and Africa ; also by the descendants of the Portuguese in
their Asiatic, African, Oceanic, and American colonies. The Portuguese is as rich and
concise as its sister languages ; it has borrowed some words from the Arabic and the French •
to the French it seems indebted for the soft sound of g, and for the nasal syllables ; it is
sonorous, soft, and unimpeded by the aspirates and gutturals of the Spanish ; but the fre
quency of hiatus, and of the modem nasal ao, equisonant with the French am or an, injure
liie harmony of the language. Its origin, like that of the Spanish, is dated in the eleventh
century ; and it had attained its maturity in the sixteenth. The Portuguese literature,
which Camoens illustrated with one of the finest epics in existence, is as varied and rich as
the Spanish, though less known. It revived in the memorable reign of Joseph. The
language may be said to exhibit no differences of dialect ; there are only varieties : those
which differ most from the written language are, the Minho, Algarve, and Azores varieties
in Europe ; the Brazilian in America ; those of Congo and Mozambique in Africa ; and of
Goa and Macao in Asia. Some, however, regard as a dialect of the Portuguese, the jargon
called lingua geral, spoken along the east and west coasts of Afnca, also along the coasts of
Ceylon and the Indian peninsula. In Africa, as well as in Asia, it presents the phenomenon
offered by the lingua Franca in the Mediterranean, and attests the power formerly held
by the Portuguese in those regions.
The Valac or Wallachian, spoken by the Rumanje or Roumouni, better known as Valacs,
a people apparentlyliescended from the ancient Roman colonists settled in Dacia and Thrace,
and the Slavonic and other nations dwelling there. Its literature is very meagre. Among
its numerous dialects the more remarkable are the Roumounic or Valac proper, spoken in
Wallachia, Moldavia, and Bessarabia ; the Hungarian Valac, the Macedo-Valac, and the
Kutzo- Valac, spoken in various sub-disileets, in several parts of European Turkey, south of
the Danube. Subsect. 4.
The family of the Germanic languages next claims our notice. Without entering into
the history of the Germanic nations, which rivals in importance that of the Grseco-Latin, we
may class these different idioms, according to M. Malte-Brun's theory, in four branches ;
the Teutonic, the Saxon or Cimbric, the Scandinavian or Normanno-Gothic, and the Anglo-
Britannic. The Teutonic branch, which comprises the idioms of the various ancient nations and
tribes recognised as German by the Roman historians and writers ; as the Bastamse, the
Suevi, the Marcomanni, the Hermonduri, and the Franci, presents the following idioms : —
The ancient high German (alt hoch Deutsch), formerly spoken in different dialects
throughout South Germany, Switzerland, Alsace, Hesse, Thurmgia, Wetteravia, and a
great part of the countries once subjected to the Franks. It has been extuict for several
centuries : its three principal dialects were, the Francic, and the Alemannic, which are of
contemporary origin, and contain the most ancient productions of that language, and the
Middle High German, which succeeded them. The Francic or Tudesc was the language
of the Franks : it was spoken at the court of the Merovingian and Carlovmgian sovereigns,
until Charles the Bold ; after whose reign it gave way to the old French in France, but
continued to be the court language in Germany until the times of the Hohenstaufen. The
Middle High German is the language in which were composed the numerous works of the
Suabian, Bavarian, Austrian, andSwiss writers, and several other autliors in Middle and Lower
Germany, from the eleventh to the fifteenth centuries. Its finest productions are dated in
the period of the Hohenstaufen, from 1136 to 1254, called also the Minnesdnger, the
trouvturs and troubadours of Germany. The Nibelungen-lied, the finest epic in this lan
guage, is supposed by Winter to have been composed in 1290, by Conrad of Wiirtzburg.
The German, called also neu hoch Deutsch, in which distinction must be made between
the written and the spoken language. The latter is divided into a great number of very
diflTiirent dialects, subdivided into several sub-dialects and varieties. The written language
is nowhere spoken by the people ; it was formed at the period when Luther, rejectmg the
Middle High and the Middle Low German, adopted in preference the dialect of Misnia or
Meissen, which had begun to be written much later. This Misnian dialect, ably employed
by that great man and his numerous followers, soon became, ns the language of books and
of good society, common to all well-educated Germans, and also ranked as the learned lan
guage of the north and great part of tlie east of Europe. The literature of Germany, m
regard to tiie quality of its productions, rivals those of France and England, and surpasses

Book I. EUROPE. 309
them in abundance. The German is the richest in words of any language in Europe ; and
this distinction it owes to the great number of its monosyllabic roots, with which it creates
new terms ad infinitum, by derivation and composition. Its principal dialects are, the Swiss;
the Rhenish ; the Danubian, with its four sub-dialects, the Bavarian, the Tyi-olean, Austrian,
and Bohemo-Hungaro-Silesian ; and the Franconian, or Mittel-Deutsch. To these, on the
authority of Adelung, we may add two others, remarkable for the strange admixture of words
totally foreign ; these are, the German Jewish ; and the Roth welsh, spoken by the Jenish
or Jauner, who are generally reported to be thieves and vagabonds. It contains a multitude
of terms and expressions quite different from German.
The Saxon, or Cimbric, which comprises the idioms anciently spoken by the Cimbri ; also
by the Angli, who, with the Jutes and Saxons, afterwards made so great a figure in northem
history ; the Bructeri and Chauci, the Menapi, the Tungri, the Batavi, the Frisones, and
other nations of less note, the ancient Saxons, and probably the Longobardi. This branch
includes the four following idioms : —
The ancient low German (alt nieder Deutsch), called also the ancient Saxon, after the
people who spoke it. This language, now extinct, was current throughout Lower Germany
and the Netherlands, except in the countries occupied by the Frisones and the Angli. About
the commencement of the seventeenth century it wholly ceased to be written. Its principal
dialects are, the Saxon proper, or idiom of Lower Saxony ; the Eastern Saxon, spoken in
various sub-dialects in Prussia, and the Westphalian, or Western Saxon.
The Frisic, formerly spoken along the coast, from the Rhine to the Elbe, by the Frisones,
and their allies the Chauci, the ancestors of the present Frisians, who are now far from
numerous, and speak a language very different from the ancient Frisic, being mixed with
other idioms. Its three principal dialects are, the Batavian Frisic, the Westphalian Frisic,
and the North Frisic, or Cimbric.
The Netherlandish, or modern Batavian, has two principal dialects, the Flemish, and the
Hollandish, or, as it is commonly called in this country, the Dutch. The Flemish is spoken
in the southern provinces of the kingdom of the Netherlands, excepting those where Ger
man and French are spoken. It was the written and oral language of the seventeen pro
vinces once subject to the Counts of Burgundy, ^fter their extinction, and under the
Spanish rule, the Flemish idiom gradually gave way in the north to the Dutch, in the south
to the French language. The Dutch is spoken in different varieties in the seven provinces
of the North, and ui some bordering districts of the South : with certain changes and
admixtures it is also spoken, or at least understood, in the various settlements founded by
the Dutch in Africa, Oceania, and America, and in several places in Ceylon, India, and the
peninsula of Malacca ; in South Africa ; at the Cape of Hope ; and on the American con
tinent in Guiana. Some descendants of Dutch settlers also in the United States retain their
native language. It was only in the sixteenth century that this vulgar idiom of the pro
vince of Holland, in some degree polished and improved, became the national language of
the Dutch. It is a mixture of ancient Francic, Frisic, and low German.
The Scandinavian, or Normanno-Gothic, comprises the idioms formerly spoken by the
Jutes, the Goths or Gutse, and other less considerable nations of pure Gothic race. There
are five diflerent idioms in this branch : —
The MoEso-Gothic, formerly spoken by the Goths established in Moesia. According to
Grimm, this is the richest of the Germanic languages in grammatical forms : it has not less
than fifteen declensions, with 120 cases, and sixteen conjugations. The Moeso-Gothic has
been dead many centuries. Its most ancient productions are, the famous Codex Argenteus
of Upsal ; and other fragments of the translation of the Bible, made between the years 360
and 380, by Bishop Ulphilas. The Moeso-Goths appear to have been the first to embrace
Christianity of all those nations who overthrew the Roman empire.
The Normaimic, called by Grimm the Alt-Nordisch. It is the language of the Edda, of
the Voluspa, and other poems of uncertain date, and was generally spoken throughout Scan
dinavia in the eighth, ninth, and tenth centuries.
The Norwegian, ancient Norwegian, Norrcena tunga, not to be confounded with the
modem Norwegian or Norsk, which ia only a dialect of the Danish. Its principal dialects
are, the Icelandic, the Norwegian proper, the Dalska, or Westem Dalecarlian, the Jamt>-
landish, and the Norse, spoken in the Shetland Isles.
The Swedish {Svenski), spoken by the Swedes throughout the greater part of the Swed
ish monarchy ; also in the principal towns of Finland and the isle of Runoe, in the Russian
empire. It has two principal dialects, the Swedish, and the modern Gothic, subdivided into
several sub-dialects and varieties.
The Danish, spoken by the Danes in Denmark, and in their Asiatic, African, and Ame
rican settlements; also by the higher classes in the Feroe Isles, and in Iceland. It has two
principal dialects, each having several sub-dialects and varieties : the Danish proper, which
includes the insular Danish, the ancient sub-dialect of Bomholm, the modern Norwegian,
and the idiom of Scania. The Jutlandish, or modem Jutic, including the Normanno-Jutic,
the Dano-Jutic, and the Anglo-Jutic.

310 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Past HL
The Anglo-Britannic (not to be confounded with the British, which is Welsh), comprises
only two idioms.
The Anglo-Saxon, formed by a mixture of the idioms spoken by the Angli, the Saxons,
and the Jutes, who, invited by the Britons against the Picts, finally took possession of the
country, where their language was successively preserved in three dialects, until the eighth
century. During the invasions and temporary ascendency of the Danes, it was so modified
as to become Dano-Saxon, or rather this may be called a dialect of the Anglo-Saxon. For
several centuries this language has been totally dead.
The English, spoken in England, in the east and south-east of Scotland, in part of Ireland
and of Wales ; in the Shetland Isles, in the isles of Jersey and Guernsey, in the British
colonies of Asia, Oceania, Africa, and America. It is the national language of the United
States of America. It is also cultivated and spoken by a great number of persons of differ
ent nations in all parts of the world on account of its literary, political, and commercial
importance: the two latter considerations render it very current m the kingdom of Hanover,
in the Ionian Isles and Malta, in Portugal and Brazil, and m the republic of Haytl The
English language is a mixture of the Anglo-Saxon and the Neustrian French or Franco-
Norman, with some Celtic words, and a few of ancient British origin. It has imported
largely from the Greek and Latin, as knowledge and culture advanced in the nation. If the
number of words in the language be taken at thirty-eight thousand, those of Saxon or north
ern origin will be found lunited to about eight thousand, the rest bemg prmcipally Greek
and Latin derivatives. Copious and energetic, the English language is the simplest and
most monosyllabic of all European idioms ; and it is that also of which the pronunciation
differs most from the orthography. It did not become the language of the state until the
reign of Edward III., since which time it has rapidly improved. Towards the commence
ment of the seventeenth century may be dated its regular developement, and in the begin
ning of the eighteenth it took its fixed and invariable form. The English language occupies
one of the most eminent places in European literature ; it is comparable with any of them
in elegance, and perhaps, surpasses them all in energy. It is no less graceful than concise ;
its poetry is at once manly and harmonious ; and, like that of the cognate languages of the
north, is admirably adapted to depict the sublimities of nature and pourtray the stronger pas
sions : as the language of political and parliamentary eloquence, it is without a rival. Of
the number of its dialects it might be difficult to speak with precision: foreign philologers
distinguish four as the principal : — the English proper ; the Northumbrian English, called
also Dano-English from the great number of Danish words retained in it, and spoken in
various sub-dialects in Yorkshire, Lancashire, Cumberland, and Westmoreland : the Scottish
or Anglo- Scandinavian, including the Lowland Scottish, with the Border language ; and
lastly the Ultra- European English, prevalent in the English colonies and in the United
States. It has been observed that the English language is spoken by the greatest number
of the inhabitants of the New World. StTBSECT. 5.
The family of the Slavonic languages is widely diSused. From the neighbourhood of
Udina in Italy, from Sillian in the Tyrol, and from the centre of Germany to the remotest
extremities of Europe and of Asia, and even to the north-west coast of America, are nations
of Slavonic origin to be found ; the tract of country over which they hold sway amounting
to about a sixth part of the habitable surface of the globe. These nations exhibit almost aU
the varieties of the human race, both physical and moral, if not from the most exalted, at
least to the most degraded.
The Slavonic languages, so far as is at present known, may be regarded as forming
three branches :— 1. The Russo-Illyrian. 2. The Bohemo-Polish. 3. The Wendo-Lithu-
anian. (1.) The Russo-Illyrian is so called from its chief people, the Russians, and from the
general appellation Ulyrian given to most of the nations who speak Servian or Create. The
languages comprised in this branch are : —
The Slavonic, Servian, Serbe, or Ulyrian, called also by some authors Rutena, spoken in
different dialects by the more southern Slavi, generally denominated Illyrians. They dwell
in the Austrian and Ottoman empires, e.xcepting a small number, settled as colonists in south
Russia. The dialects differing most from each other, and from the ancient Slavonic, are
the Servian or Serblin, with various sub-dialects; tlie Ilaliano-Slavojiic, spoken on the
coast of Dalmatia ; the Uskokc, spoken by the wandering tribes in Servia, Bosnia, Dalmatia,
Croatia, Maritime Hungary, and Carniola. It is mixed witli many Turkish words. Lastly,
tho fiulgarian, spoke uin Bulgaria, in the Ottoman empire.
The Russian, Ruski, or modern Russian, spoken tiiroughout the Russian empire oythe
Russians, who arc tho ruling nation; also spoken in a great part of Gallicia and part of Hun
gary in the Austrian empire. Since the reign of the Czar Peter, when the Slavvenski was
abandoned for the Ruski, it became the language of literature and of business throughout
Russia. It has the following dialects, which differ little from each other, the Vdiki-Ruski

Book L EUROPE. 311
or Russian of Great Russia; the Malo-Ruski, or Russian of Little Russia; the Suzdalian;
the Olonetzian, and the Rusniac.
The Create, spoken by the Creates or Khorbates, who delight to call it the Ulyrian.
The Wende or Winde, spoken by several Slavonic nations subject to the Austrian
empire, and known by different names in the countries they inhabit. In the Wende
appear to be distinguished three principal dialects, the Carniolaji, the Carinthian, and the
Styrian. (2.) The BoHEMO-POLisH, named from its two principal nations, the Bohemians and the
Poles. The languages belonging to this branch are the Bohemian or Chekhe, including the
Bohemian proper, and certain idioms, bearing the character of principal dialects, and spoken
in the Austrian empire.
The Bohemian proper, or Chekhe, is spoken in several very different sub-dialects by the
Chekhes or Czecks, better known by the appellation of Bohemians. The dialect of Prague
is the most elegant and pure. The others are the Slowac, the Hannac, the Straniac, the
Passekarsk, the Sallashac, and the Szotac.
The Polish is spoken by the Poles, called in the middle ages, Lechen or Liachy. They
form more than three-fourths of the population of the present Russian kingdom of Poland,
almost the whole population of the province of Cracow, and of the western part of Gallicia,
in the empire of Austria. They also form three-fourtlis of the population of the grand
duchy of Posen, two-thirds of that of West-Prussia, and part of that of Silesia. The Polish
is also the national language of the nobility and part of the commonalty in all the countries
formerly belonging to the kingdom of Poland, and is spoken by thousands of colonists in
Russia. Its principal dialects are those of Great Poland, of Little Poland, of West Prussia,
of Mazovia, of Polish Silesia, of the Geralys or highlanders, belonging to part of the Carpa
thians in Gallicia. The preference given in Poland to the Latin, long retarded the progress
of this national language.
The Serbe or Sorabe, spoken until the fourteenth century by the Serbes, or Sserske. It
has two dialects ; the Upper Lusatian, and the Lower Lusatian.
(3.) The Wento-Lithuajjian, called also the Germano- Slavonic. This branch comprises
the following idioms : —
The Wend, spoken until the fourteenth century in different dialects throughout the
north of Germany, from Holstein to Pomerania, by various nations, as the Wagrians, the
Polabes, the Wilzians, the Obotrites, the Rugians, and the Pomeranians. Since the
fourteenth century it has been extinct, with the exception of the Linonish, improperly
called the Polabish dialect, which subsisted in some districts, until the latter half of the
eighteenth. The Prucze or ancient Prussian, formerly spoken in eleven very different dialects, by the
tribes forming the powerful nation of the Pruczi, dwelling between the Vistula and the Pre
gel. It is almost entirely extinct.
The Lithuanian or Littauish, formerly spoken by those powerful nations the Lithuanians
and Kriwitschi, and now current only among the common people ; as the higher classes
speak Polish, with Russian or German, according to their different countries. Its principal
dialects have been thus classed : — The Lithuanian proper, the Samogitian, the Kriwitsh,
and the Prusso-Lithuanian.
The Lette, Lettwa, Lettonian, or Lettish, spoken by the Letts or Lettons, forming the
bulk of the population in the govemment of Mitta, a large part of that of Riga, a small por
tion of that of Witepsk in Russia, and of the province of East Prussia. It has five principal
dialects, subdivided into a multitude of very different sub-dialects. The former, according
to Mr. Watson, are, the Lette proper ; the Semgallian or Sengallish ; the Letto-Livonian
or Lieflandish ; the Seelian, spoken by the Seeles in Courland : the Wende by the Wendes,
in the north-east of that duchy, particularly in the neighbourhood of Windau. This language
aboimds with German phrases and expressions.
The Slavonic nations employ five different alphabets : — 1. The Cyrilian, invented by St.
Cyril in 865, called also the Servian or Ruthenian. 2. The Glagolitic, Slavonic, Kruko-
witza, or Divinica, called also that of St. Jerome. 3. The Russian alphabet of the Czar
Peter, which is the Cyrilian modified by that emperor : it has thirty-five letters, and is in
use throughout the Russian empire. 4. The Sorabes, Bohemians, and Slavo-Silesians use
the German alphabet or character. 5. The other Slavonic nations, as the Poles, Lithua
nians, Lettes and Wendes, use the Latin or Roman letters. To these five alphabets may
be added the Runic Wend, the Greek alphabet, adopted, accordmg to Karamsin, by those
Slavi who, in the eighth century, settled in Peloponnesus ; and lastly, the Bulgarian, uni-
tated from the Glagolitic, and used by the Bulgarians.
Subsect. 6.
The family of the Uralian languages, also called the Finnish or Chudic, completes the
ethnographic division of Europe.
From the north-west coast of Norway to the long chain of the Urals, and beyond those

812 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part HL
mountains to near the Yenisei in the centre of Siberia, in another direction from the Leitha
to the Seret, and from the Carpathians to the Danube, nations of Uralian race live among
other nations, and retam the manners, habits, and language of their forefathers. In marking
the gradations among the people composing this family, we may consider the Hungarians
and the Ostiaks as exhibiting the two extremes in a moral as well as physical respect, not
withstanding the great affinity of their respective languages.
The Uralian family includes four branches, according to Klaproth; but some languages
not included in them may be separately considered as a fifth.
The Finnish, or Germanised Furnish branch, includes the four following languages : —
(1.) The Fiimish proper, or Sumenkieli, spoken by the Suomi, better knovni as the Fins
or Finlanders. Its principal dialects are, the Finlandish, the Tawastian, the Carelian or
Kyriala, the Olonetzian, and the Watailaiset.
The Esthonian spoken by the Esthonians or Esthen, whose ancestors were formidable
pirates, and who now form the most numerous part of the population of the government ot
Reval, and of the circles of Pernau and Dorpat ui that of Riga. Its two prmcipal dialects
are that of Reval and that of Dorpat.
The Lapponian, spoken by the Sames, better knovra as the Lappons or Laplanders, inha
biting the northern extremity of Europe, partly under the monarchy of the Swedes, and
partly under the Russian empire. This language, which is said to have more affinity with
the Hungarian than with the Finnish, has a great number of very different dialects, which
have been classed under the Lappa- Norwegian, the Lappa- Swedish (westem and eastem),
the Lappo-Russ, spoken in the cu-cle of Kola, in the govemment of Archangel. Through
the beneficent care of the Swedish government, at the close of the last and the beginning
of the present century, the Laplanders have been reclaimed from idolatry, and have begun
to enjoy the blessings of Christianity and civilization.
The Livonian, spoken formerly by the Lives or Liven, who gradually abandoned this
idiom for the Lettish, in consequence of which it is become nearly extinct.
(2.) The Wolgaic branch includes the languages spoken along the Wolga and its tributa
ries. They have a strong admixture of Turkish, and may rank under two classes, the Che-
remisse and the Morduine, including as dialects the Mokshau and the Ersan.
(3.) The Permian branch includes two languages, the Permian proper, spoken by the
Komi or Permians, and the Syrenes or Syranes ; and the Wotieque, spoken by the Udi or
Wotiaks scattered among the governments of Wiatka, Oremburg, and Kasan. They are all
Christians, and the most industrious people of Uralian race in the Russian empire, except
the Fins and perhaps the Esthonians.
(4.) The Hungarian branch includes the following languages : —
The Hungarian or Magyar, spoken by the Magyars or Hungarians. They form about a
third of the population of Hungary, and almost a fourth of that of Transylvania ; several
thousands also of this people are settled in the Bukowine in Gallicia, and about forty thou
sand in Moldavia, under the Turkish sway. The Hungarian, according to Czaplovicz, has
four principal dialects : — 1. The Paloczen. 2. The dialect of the Magyars beyond the
Danube. 3. That of the Magyars of the Theiss ; and 4. That of the Szekler, living in
Transylvania, in the Bukowine, and in Moldavia. The Hungarian language is very harmo
nious ; and is mixed with many foreign words, especially Slavonic, German, and Latin.
The Wogoule, spoken by the Mansi or Manskum, more knovni as the Woguls, and called
Wogoulitshe by the Russians. They are almost all Christians, and live prmcipally as
hunters and fishermen, scattered over the government of Saratow, in the high valleys of the
Ural, in that of Perm, and m that of Tobolsk, between Kourjan and Beresow. Klaproth
distinguishes in it four dialects, that of Chiasow, those of Werchoturia, and Cherdm, and
that of Beresow in the government of Tobolsk.
The Ostiak, or Obi-Ostiak, which is not to be confounded with the Yenisei family. The
As-jachs or Ostiaks of the Obi, who speak this language, are mostly Christians ; some are
still idolaters. The principal dialects are those of Beresow, Lumpokol, Wass-i-gun, and
Narym. Under the branch still uncertain are ranked the Hunniac, the Awar, tlie Bulga,'
-ian, and the Chazar. 
CHAPTER n.
ENGLAND.
The British islands, placed nearly in the north-western angle of Europe, command pecu
liar advantages, no less for natural strength in war, than as on emporium of commerce m
peace : on the southern side, they are almost in contact witli France, Holland, and Germany,
for ages the most enlightened and flourishing countries of the civilized world ; on the east,
n wide expanse of sea separates them from the bleak region of Scandinavia; on the west,
they overlook the Atlantic Ocean, whose limit in another hemisphere is the coast of Ameri
ca; while, in the extreme north they may be almost said to face tlie unexplored expanse ot
the Polar Sea. Exclusive of the northern uisular appendages, tliey may be considered aa

Fig. 103.

MAP OF THE BRITISH ISLES.

S13

^yretlnr 1.
SHSTLAND ^i^^m^ISLANDS

^ Fair I. "^
T^^ Nlh. RoiMlSihay
lAr^^^^B Sanda;
ORKNEV^^'^^

Longitude West i from Greeawiclk 2
27

2P

314

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

PaktJII.

situated between the fiftieth and fifty-ninth degrees of north latitude, and between the
second degree of east and the tenth of west longitude. They are geographically divided
into two islands of unequal magnitude. Great Britain and Ireland : Britain, again, is divided
into two unequal parts : England, which, including Wales, contains 57,960 square miles ;
and Scotland, which contains 30,500. The three, though united into one kmgdom, respec
tively exhibit peculiarities which characterise them as distinct countries. It will, therefore,
be requisite to describe each separately, commencing with England, the seat of empire and
legislation. The chapter which treats of England will afford the proper place for many
details, particularly of a political nature, which are alike applicable to the two sister
countries.

References to the Map of the British Islands.

ENGLAND
1. Alnwick
S. Rothburr
3. Morpeth
4. Blytlie
5. Newcastle
6. Hexham
7. Blllingham
8. Carlisle
9. Cockermouth
10. Egremont
11. Ravenglass
12. Ulverston
13. Kendal
14. Keswick
15. Penrith
16. Appleby
17. Aldstone
18. Darlington
19. Durham
20. Sunderland
21. Stockton
22. Stokesley
23. Guisborough
24. Whitby
25, Pickering
26. Thirsk
27. North Allerton
28. Hawes
29. Ripon
3a Kendal
31. Lancaster
32. Garstang
33. Poulton
34. Bradford
35. Skipton
36. Knarcaborough
37. Leeds
33. York
39. New Malton
40. BiUington
41. Scarborough
42. Great DriSeld
43. Hornsea
44. Hedon
45. Kingston on Hull
46. Barton
47. Gritnsby
48. Ravendale
49. Saltfleet
50. Thedlethorpe
51, Boston
52. Alford
53. Horncastle
.M. Lincoln
55. Gainsborough
56, Ashby
57. Doncaster
58. Sheffield
59. Ponterract
60. Manchester
61. Preston
62. Liverpool
63. Chester
64. Newcastle
85. Newport
66. Stafford
67, Burton
68. Derby
69, Ashbourn
70. Chesterfield
71, Mansfield
72, Alfrelon
73, Nottiniiham
74, Melton Mowbray
75, Granthatn
76, Newark
77, Slcnford
78, Spalding
79, Lvnn Regis
80, Wells
81, Cromor
82, Yarmouth
63, Hecclca
B4, Harlcston
85, Norwich
80. Reopham

WI. East Dereham
88, Diss
89. Thetford
90. Ely
91. March
92. Peterborough
93. Oundle
94. Stamford
95. Harborough
96, Leicester
97, Coventry
98. Tam worth
99. Lichfield
100. Birmingh:im
lOI.Bridgcnorth102. Shrewsbury
103. Plynlimmon
104. Ludlow
10.5. Tenbury
106. Leominster
107. Bromford
108. Tewkesbury
109. Worcester
110. Alcester
111. Warwick
112. Evesham
113. Towcester
114. Northampton
115. Wellingborough
116. Thrapston
117. Huntingdon
118, Bedford
119, Cambridge
120, Mildenhall
121, Bury St, Ed
mund's
129, Framlingham
123, Aldborough
124. Ipswich
125, Sudbury
126, Harwich
127, Colchester
128, Coggeshall
129, Royeton
130, BisWs Btort-
ford
131, Hertford
1,32, St. Albans
133. Aylesbury
134, Winslow
135, Buckingham
136, Woodstock
137, Burford
138. Gloucester
139. Hereford
140. Ross
141, Oolford
142, Bristol
143, Molksham
144, Malmesbury
145, Cirencester
l46, Swindon
147, Hungerford
148. Kennet
149, Abingdon
150. Oxford
151. Wallingford
152, Thamo
1.53, Windsor
154, Uxbridge
155. Kingston
156, Croydon
157, Greenwich
158, London
159, Chelmsford
160. Maldon
101, Maidstone
162, Canterbury
163. Maritalo
l64, Ramsgate
165, Dover
166, Ryo
107. Ilaslings
168. Scnfurd
160, Battle
170, East Grinstoad
171. Roigate

172, Horsham
373, Brighton
174, Arundel
175. Pulborough
176, Guildford
177, Godalming
178, Petworth
179, Chichester
180, Portsmouth
181. Southampton
182, Whitchurch
183, Andover
184. Salisbury
185, Lymington
186, Poole
187, Shaftesbury
188. Bath
189, Uxbridge
190, Wells
19], Glastonbury
192, llchester
193, Taunton
194. Porlock
195. South Barn
staple
196. Bideford
197. Torrington
198. Launceston
199. Bodmin
200. St. Agnes
201. Penzance
202. Falmouth
203. Tregony
204, Tavistock
2a5, Plymouth
206, Modbury
207, Dartmouth
208. Ashburton
209. Chumleigh
210. Tiverton
211. Exeter
212, Sidmouth
213. Honiton
214. Lyme Regis
215. Dorchester
216. Weymouth
_ Rivers.
a Tyne
b Tees
c Derwent
d Swale
o Wharfe
f Aire
g Don
B Trent
1 Ouse
i ThamesAvon
1 Severn
mDee WALES.
I. FUnt
2. St, Asaph
3. Denbigh
4. Aberconway
5, Bangor
6. Beaumaris
7. Holyhead
8, Caernarvon
9, Llan Haiarn
10, St. Mary's
11. Harlech
12, Bala
13. Corwen
14, Montgomery
15. Dinnamowd
16, Towyn
l7, Aberystwith
18. Rhainder
19, Bault
20, Trogarron
21, Llanbear
22, Cardigan
23, Newport
34. Fisoard

25, St. David's
26. Pembroke
27. Caermarthen
28. Cwyrgryg
29. Brecon
30. Monmouth
31. Uake
32, Chepstow
33, Newport
34. Cardi/r
35, Landaff
36, Llantriasent
37, Swansea Rivers.
a Towey
b Tievy
c Dee
. SCOTLAND
1. Durness
S, Tongue
3, Reay
4, Thurso
5, Wick
6, Dunbeath
7, Helmadale
8. Dornoch
9. Tain
10. Fortinleik
11. Ullapool
12. Pooiew
13. Torridon
14, Loch CarroD
15, Dingwall
16, Beauly
17, Inverness
18, Grantown
19, Nairn
20. Elgin
21. Inveravea
22. Cullen
23. Banff
24. Huntley
25. Tarreff
36. Fiaaeraburgb
27. Peterhead
28, Newburgh
29, Aberdeen
30, Stonehaven
31, Bervie
32, Tulloch
33. Braemar
34. Fort Augustus
35, Gleoeig
36, Arasaig
37. Appin
38, Fort William
39. Perth
40. Dnnkeld
41, Blair Athol
42, Brechin
43. Montrose
44, Forfar
45, Arbroath
46. Dundee
47. St. Andrews
48. Anstruther
49. Kinross
50. Inverkeithing
51. Clackmannan
52. Muthill
53. Stirling
54, Inverary
55, Oban
56, Dumbarton
57, Greenock
58, Paisley
59, Irvine
60, Hamilton
61, Glasgow
62, Falkirk
6.3, Linlithgow
64. Whitburn
65. Peebles
66, Edinburgh
07. Haddington

68, North Berwick
69, Dunbar
70. Berwick
71, Kelsoe
72, Jedburgh
73, Hawick
74, Ashkirk
75, Bigger
76. MoSrat
77. Sanquhar
78. Lanark
79. Kilmarnock
80, Ayr
81. Girvan
82. Ballintrae
83. Stranraer
84, Port Patrick
85, Wigton
86, Kircudbright
87, New Galloway
88. Monihive
89, Dumfries
00, Langholm
91. Annan Rivers.
a Spey
b Don
c Deo
d Tay
e Clyde
f Ken
e Nith
n Annan
i Tweed IRELAND.
1. Belfast
2. Antrim
3. Lame
4, Glenarm
5, Ballycastle
6, Ballymoney
7. Coleraine
8, Tubbermore
9, Strabane
10. Londonderry
II. White Castle
12, Rapboe
13, Liffbrd
14. Letterkenny
IS. Killybegs
16. Donegal
17. Ballybofy
18. Omagh
19, Pomeroy
20. Clogher
21, Dungannon
22. Armagh
23. Lurgan
24. Donaghadee
25. Portaferry
26. Downpatrick
27. Strevoy
28, Newry
29. Dundalk
30. Monaghan
31. Cavan
32. Callahill
33. Enniskillen
34. Churchill
35. Sligo
36. Drumeirn
37. Ballymore
38. Colooney
39. Ballina
40. Killala
41. Ballyglass
42. Claggan
43. Newport
44. Westport
45. Kumor
46. Ballinrobe
47. Castle Barr
48. Kilcolman
49. Tuam
50. Elphia

51. Roscommon
52. Leitrim
53. Longford
54, Moynalty
55. Carrickmacrosa
56. Dunleer
57. Drogheda
58. Balbriggan
59. Dublin
60. Screen
61. Trim
62. Maynooth
63, Naas
64, Tullamore
65, Mnlliagar
66, Athlone
67. Eyrecourt
68. Ballyforan
69. Newton Bellew
70. Loughrea
71. Ommore
72. Ougntera
73. Galway
74. Gort
75. Innistymon
76. Kilruah
77. Clare
78. Ennis
79. Limerick
60, Portumn
81, Ncnagh
to. Killaloe
83. Thurles
84. Roscrea
85, D arrow
68. Alh
87. Kildare
68, Carlow
89. Tullow
90, Ballinglass
91, Blesaingtoa
92, Togher
93, Wicklow
94. Gorey
95, Ballycanoe
98. Enniscortby
97, Wexford
98. Fethard
99. Waterford
lOO. Tboroas Town
101. Kilkenny
102. Carrick on Suire
103. Clonmel
104. Ballyporeen
105. Tipperary
106. KiTlmallock
107. Askcyton
108. Ballylongford
109. Tralee
110. Castle Ford
111. Killamey
112. Kenmare
113, Castletown
114. Bantry
115, Castletown
116. Kinsale
117. Cork
118. Killady
119, Tuchgeela
120. Mallow
121. Ralhcormuck
122. Kildorery
is:i. Lismnre
124. Youghall
12,5. Dungarvan
126. Tramore Rivers.
a Ban
b Carlingford
c Boyne
d Barrow
e Nore
f Suire
s BInckwatet
h Shannon
i Buck.

Book I.

ENGLAND.

315

Sect. I. — General Outline and Aspect.
England is bounded on the south by the English Channel, interposed between its coast
and that of France ; on the east by the German Sea, on the north by Scotland, fi-om which
it is separated by the Tweed, the Cheviot hills, and the Frith of Sol way ; on the west by the
Irish Sea and St George's Channel : the promontory of the Land's-End, forming its south
western extremity, faces the vast expanse of the Atlantic.
The greatest dimension of England is from south to north, between the Lizard Point,
49° 58' N., and Berwick on Tweed, 55° 45' N. ; four hundred miles in length. The points
of extreme breadth are the Land's-End (fig. 104.), m 5° 41' W., and Lowestofie, in 1° 44' E.,
forming a space of about 280 miles. There
is no point, however, where a line of this
extent can be carried across the island, and
the northem part does not on an average
exceed one hundred miles in breadth.
The surfiice of England is of a diversifi
ed character ; the eastern districts are in
general level, and there are several direc
tions in which hundreds of miles may be
travelled without seeing a hill. Along the
western side of the island are large tracts,
not only hilly, but sometimes rising even to
mountain grandeur. Such are the counties
of Cumberland and Westmoreland, the bleak ridge of Ingleborough, extending like a spine
through the north of England : of the same character are Derbyshire, the whole principality
of Wales, and a great part of Devon and Cornwall. These tracts exhibit all the varieties of
mountain scenery : in Cumberland, encircling little plains filled with beautiful lakes ; in
Wales, enclosing narrow valleys through which the rapid mountain streEtm dashes ; in Der-

Ref erences to the Map cf England. — North Fart

NORTH SERIES.
1. Berwick
2. Meldrum
3. Belford
4. N. Charlton
5. Alnwick
6. Wliitlingham
7. Uswayford
8. Eladon
9. Rothbury
10. Warkworth
11. Morpeth
12. BIythe
13. Clifton
14. Stamfordhatn
15. Kirk Harle
16. Harlington
17. Belliogham
18. Bultershaugh
19. Shillbura
20, Kennel
21, Bewcastle
22. I.ongtown
23. Brampton
24. Haltwhistle
25. Simonburn
26, Hexham
27, Hicklcy
28. Newcastle
29. North Shields
30. Tynemirath
31. South Shields
32. Sunderland
33. Shotton
34. Durham
35. Chester-le-Street
36. Lancheater
37. Wotsingham
38. Stanhope
39. Aclon
40. Aldstone
41. Crosseill
42. Kirk Oswald
43, Lasonby
44, Hutton
45. Carlisle
46, Orton
47. Wigton
48. Abbeyholme
49. Maryport
50. Workington
51. Cockermouth
52, Ireby
53. Keswick
.54, Matterdale
55, Penrith
56, Clifton
57, Appleby
58. Milburn
59. Brough
SO, Slackholm

61, Middleton

21, Aldborough

22. Grimsby

80. Newark

138, Ashborne

62, Eggleston

22, Knaresborough 23, Ravendale

81, Mansfield

139. Derby

63. Barnard Castle

23. Ripon

24. Caistor

82. Bolaover

140, Belper

64. Staindrop

24, Masham

25, Glanford Bridge

83. Chesterfield

141. Nottingham
142. Bottesford

65. West Auckland 125. Whernside

26, Kiiton

84. Alfreton

66. Bishop Auck

126. Graasington

27, Brumby

85. Matlock

143. Grantham

land

127. Arncliffo

28, Crowie

86. Wirksworth

144. Sleaford

67, SedgeSeld

128. Settle

29. Thorno

87. Winster

145. Foikingham

68. Hartlepool

129, Ingleton

30. Doncaster

88. Buxton

146. Donnington

69. Seaton Carow

130. Kirkby Lons

31. Budsworth

89. Lognor

147. Boston

70. Guisbrough

dale

32. Barnesley

9a Leeke

148, Burnham

71. Whitby
72. Stokesley

131, Hornby

33. Penistone

91. Horton

Market

1;12. Lancaster

34. Huddersfield

92. Macclesfield

149. Castle Rising

73. Raunton

133. Garslang

35. Meltham

93. Congletoo

150. Fakenham

74, Yarm

134. Slaidbum

36. Ashton-under-

94. Talk

151,NewWalsing-

75, Darlington

135. Ciithetoe

Line

95. Nantwich

lam

76, Croft

136. Colne

37. Manchester

96. Middlewich

152, Holt

77. Rokeby

137. Paythorne

38. Rochdale

97. Northwich

153. Cromer

78. Bowes

138, Skipton

39. Bury

98, Tarporley

154. N. Walsham

139. Thurcroas

40, Bolton

99. Chester

80.' Kirkby Stephen 140. OtIey

41, Leigh

100, Hnlt

ISLE or MAN

81. Orton

141, Harewood

42. Wigan

101, Wrexham

1. Ramsey

82. Mardale

142, Ripley
143, Wetherby

43. Ormskirk

ice. Mold

2. Peel

83. Ambleside

44. Formby

103. Flint

3, Douglas
4. Castletown

84. Seathwaite

144. Tadcaater

45. Liverpool

04. Ruthin

85. Whitehaven

145. Cawood

46. Preacot

03. Denbigh

86. Egremont

146. York

47. Newton

06. St. Asaph
07. Abergeley

Rivers.

87. Ravenglass

147. Pocklington

48. Warrington

a Till

88. Whitbeck

148. Middleton

49. Knutsford

108. Aberconway

b Aln

89. Ulverston

149. Market Weigh- 50. Altringham

109, Llanrwst

c Coquet

90. Hawkshead

ton

51. Stockport

110. Pentre Voelaa

d Wensbeck

91. Kendal

150. Beverley

52. Disley

11. Tremadoc

e Blyth

92. Fawcett

151. Brandaburton

53. Chapel in tbe

12. Bangor

f Tyne

93, Millthorpe
94, Sedberg^

152. Hornsea

Frith

13, Beaumaris

g Wear
h Tees

153. Aldborough

54. Tideswell

14, Amlwch

95, Hawes

154. Hedon

55. Caatleton

115. Llanerchymedd i Esk

96, Askrigg
97. Middleham

155. Pattrington

56. Sheffield

116. Holyhead

j Bye
k Derwent

57. Dronfield
117. Caernarvon
98. Richmond
SOUTH SERIES. 58. Rotherham
118. Bwich Mawr
1 Ouse
99. Catlerick
1. Poulton
59. Worksop
119. Pwllheli
m Swale
100. Bedale
2. Blackpool
60. Birth
120. Crickieth
n Ure
101, Burneaton
3. Kirkham
61. Retford
121. Harlech
o Wharf
102. Thirsk
4, Preston
62. Gainsborough
122. Arrennig
p Air
103, North Allerton
5, Chorley
63. Willoughton
123, Llanuwch-
q Calder
104, Helmsley
6. Blackburn
64. Wragby
Uwyn
r Don
105. Kirby Moorside 7. Burnley
65. Market Rasen
124. Bala
s Rother
106. Snainton
8. Halifax
66. Louth
12.5. Corven
t Derwent
107. Cloughlon
108. Scarborough
9, Keiebley
67. Sallffeet
126. Llangollen
u Dove
10, Bradford
68, Sutton
127. Ellesmere
V Trent
109, Filey
11. Dewsbury
69, Alford
128. Wem
w Ankholm
110. Hunmanby
12. Wakefield
70, Burgh
129. Whitchurch
X Witham
1 1. Bridlington
13, Leeds
71,Wainfleet
130. Malpas
y Conway
1 2. Kilbam
14, Pontefract
72, Soilsby
73, Horncastle
131. Drayton
z Clwyd
113. Driffield
15, Snaith
132. Eccleshall
a* Dee
114, Sledmere
16, Selby
74, Tattershall
133. Stone
b* Weaver
1 5, Wintringham
17, Howden
75. Dunston
134, Newcaatle-un-
c* Mersey
116, New Malton
IS. Burton
• 76. Navenby
der-Line
d* Ribbla
1 7. Garraby
19. South Cove
77. Lincoln
135, Burslem
e* Lune
1 a Stillenham
20. Hull
78. Thorney
79. Tuxfoifl
136. Cheadle
Pisr-*
1 9, Coxwold
31. Barton
137. Utloxetet
120, Easingwold
316

MAP OP ENGLAND— NORTH.

Pie. 109

s

21

LizafdPL

Longitiida Weit i bom GkcqwIeIi 0 Loneitado I East

818

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

PartHI

byshire, presenting rocky scenery in every picturesque and fantastic shape ; while in Devon
shire low broad steeps overshadow wide and beautiful vales.
With one exception, the most important rivers of England traverse the breadth of the
kingdom : rising among the western hills, and flowing toward the German Ocean, they do
not attain tha,t length of course which the extent of its territory in another direction would
have admitted. Though deficient, however, in magnitude, they are numerous, commodious,
and valuable ; flowing through broad vales and wide-spreading plains.
The Thames, though not the longest, deserves to be ranked as the first of British rivers.
It originates from a number of rivulets on the borders of Wilts and Gloucestershire, which.

References to the Map of England. — Soulh Part.

NORTH SERIES.
1. Tallybout
2, Dolgelly
3. Dinasmowddy
4, Hcndre
5. Llanfyllin
6. Pool
7. Llanfair
8. Shrewsbury
9. Oswestry
10. Wellington
11. Newport
12. Stafiord
13. Cannock
14. Lich6eld
15. Abbot's Bromley
16. Burton
17. Ashby de la
Zouch
18. Kedgworth
19. Loughborough
SO, Mount Sorrel
21. Melton Mowbray
22, Oakham
23. Corby
24. Bourn
25. Stamford
26. Market Deeping
27. Crowland
28. Spalding
29. H.ilbeach
30. Wisbeach
31. Islington
32. Lynn Regis
33. Narborough
34. Litcbam
:15. Swaffham
36. East Deerham
37. Foulsham
38. Aylsham
39. Norwich
40. Wroxham
41, Yarmouth
42. Lowestoft
43. Beccles
44. Loddon
45. Bungay
46. Harleston
47. New Bucking
ham
48. Wymondham
49. Hingham
50. Walton
51. East Harling
52, Thetford
53, Brandon
54. Methwold
55. Downham
56. Ely
57. March
58. Ramsey
59, Thorney
60, Peterborough
61, Norman Cross
62, Oundle
63. Rockingham
64. Uppingham
65. Leicester
66, Market Harbo
rough
67, Lutterworth
68, Hinckley
69, Nuneaton
70, Alhcrstono
71.Tamwoith72, Coleshill
73. Sutton Coldfleld
74, Walsall
7.5, Birmingham
76, Wolverhampton
77. Bridgonorth
78, Brosoloy
79. Much Wenlock
80. Bishop's Cnstle
81. Montgomery
82, Newtown
83. Llanfair
84, Machynlleth
85. Towyn

86, Aberystwith 170,
87, Aberflowyn 171,
88. Sputty Ystwith 172.
89. Llanidloes 173.
90. Rhayadergwy 174,
91, Llandegley 175.
92. New Radnor 176,
93. Knighton
94. Clunn 177,
95. Ludlow 178,
96, Cleubury Mor- 179,
timer 180,
97. Bcwdley 181.
98. Kidderminster 182.
99. Stourbridge 183.
100. Harlesowen 184.
101. Bromsgrove 185.
102. Droitwich 186.
103. Henley in Arden 187.
104. Warwick 188.
105. Coventry 189.
106. Leamington 190.
107, Daventry 191,
108. Rugby 192.
109. Rothwell 193.
110. Northampton 194.
111. Kettering 195.
112. Thrapston 196.
113. Kimbolton 197,
114. St. Neot's 198,
115, Huntingdon 199.
116. St. Ives 200.
117. Willingbam 201.
118. Newmarket 30-.!.
119. Lillle Barton 203,
120, Bury St. Ed
mund's 204.
121. Stow Market
122. Ixwortb 205.
123. Diss 206.
124. Eye 207.
125. Debenham 208.
126. Wingfield 209.
127. Framlingham 210.
128. Snuthwold 211.
129. Dunwich 212.
lao. Saxmundham 213.
131. Aldborough
l.TO. Woodbridge 214.
133. Ipswich 215.
134. Hadleigh 216.
135. Whal6eld 217.
136. Bildeston 218.
1-J7. Needham 219,
138. Lavenham
139. Sudbury 220.
140. Haverhill 221.
141, Linton 222.
142. Cambridge 223.
143, Caxton 224,
144. Royston ^.
145. Potton 226.
146. Bedford g7.
147. Olney W.
148. Newport Pag- 229.
nel 230.
149, Penny Stratford 231,
150, Toweester 232.
151, Buckingham 233,
152, Brackloy 234,
1,53. Bandbury 235.
154. Kineton 236.
155. Shipston upon 237,
Stoor m
156. Campden 219.
157, Stratford on 240,
Avon 241.
158. Alcester 242,
159. Evesham 243.
MO. Worcester 244.
101, Pnrshoro 245,
162. Upton 246.
103. Ledbury 247.
1114. Bromyard 248.
165. Leominster 249.
166, Weobly 250,
167. Hereford 251.
168. Thruiton 352.
169. Hay

Talgarth Llyswen
Buillth Landulas
TregaronLlampeter New Castle
Emiyn
CardiganNewport St. David's

253. Minchinhamp- ton
254. Stroud
255. Berkeley
256. Blackney
2.57, Monmouth
258, Usk
259. Chepstow
280, Newport
261. Merthyr Tydvil
262. Llantrissent

Haverfordwest 263. LlandafT

Milford
PembrokeTenbyNarberthSt, Clear's
Lanvernach
CaermarthenLandebie Langadoe
LanaoveryTrecaslleBreconCrickhowellAbergavenny
St, Weonard's
RossMitcheldean
Newent Gloucester
'Tewkesbury Cheltenham
Northleach Stow in tbe
Wold

264, Cowbiidge
265. Pyle
206. Neath
267. Abernant
268, Pontardylais
269. Kidwelly
270, Penrice
SOUTH SERIES,
1. Thornbury
2, Chipping Sod-
bury
3. Bristol
4. Wriugton
5. Peosford
6. Marshfield
7. Bradford
8. Chippenham
9. Calne
10. Wotton Basset
ll. Marlborough
12. Hungerford
13. Lambuurne
14. E. llsley

Moreton in the 15. Reading

Marsh
Charbury WoodstockDedington Bicester
Winslow Aylesbury
Wendover
Ivinghoe

16. Wokingham
*17. Maideonead
18. Windsor
19. Uxbridge
20. Kingsto
21. Ewell
^, Croydon
23. London
24, Woolwich

Leigbton Buz- 25. Graveseod
zard 26. Rochester
Luton 27. Chatham
Stevenage 28. Sheernesa
Baldock 29. Faversham
Hatfleld Bishop 30. Canterbury
Hertford 31. Margate
Bishop's Stort- 32, Sandwich

ford
Dunmow
Thaxted Braintree
Coggeshall HalsteadColchester
HarwichSt, Osyth
BradwellRochfordMaldon
Chelmsford
Ingatostone Horndon Romford

33, Deal
34, Dover
35, Hythe
36, Wye
37. Ashford
38, Smarden
39. Lenham
40. Maidstone
4l. Wrotham
42. Tunbridgo
43. Sevenoaks
44. Westerham
45. E. Grinstead
46. Reigate
47. Dorking
48. Ripley

Chipping Ongar 49. Guildford
Epping 50. Godalming
Enfield 51. Alton
St, Alban's 52. Odiham
Watford 5.1. Basingstoke
Berkhampstead .54, Newbury

AmershamMarlowWallingford Oxford Abingdon
Wantage Whitney
Burford LochladoCirencesterMalmesbury
Wotton under
Edge

55. Whitchurch
56. Andover
57, Ludgershall
58. Amosbury
59. Stonehenge
60. Devizes
61. 'Trowbridge
62. Westbury
63, Bath
64, Bruton
65, Shepton Mallot
66. Glastonbury

67. Wells
68. Axbridge
69, Blackford
70, Bridgewater
71. Whatchet
72, Minehead
73, Portlock
74, Combe Martin
75, Ilfracombe
76, Barnstaple
77, Appledore
78. Bitleford
79. Hartland
80. Torrington
81. South Molten
82. Dulverion
83. Wiveliscombe
84. Wellington
85. Taunton
86. Longport
87, Somerton
88. llchester
89. Milbom Port .
99, Castle Gary
91. Wincaunton
92. Shaftesbury
9:). Mere
94. Warminster
95. Hindon
96. Wilton
97. Salisbury
98. Downtou
99. Romsey
100, Stockbridge
101. Winchester
102. Bramdean
103. Petersfleld
104. Midhurst
105. Petworth
106. Haslemere
107. Horuham
108. Cuckfield
109. Uckfleld
110. Tunbridge Wells
111. Wadhurst
112. Goudhuist
113. Cranbrooke
114. Appledore
115. New Romney
116. Lydd
117. Rye
lia Winchelsea
119. Hastings
120. BatUe
121. Hailsham
122. E. Bourne
123. Seaford
124. Lewes
125. Brighton
126. N. Shoreham
127. Sfeyning
128, Worthing
129. Arundel
1,30. Chichester
131. Havant
132. Fareham
133. Southampton
134. Newtown
135. Newport
i;)6. Yarmouth
137. Lymington
138, Christchuroh
139, Kingwood
140, PooTo
l41, WimboroMin- eter
142, Blandford
143, Beer Regis
144. Wareham
145. Corle Castle
146. Melcombe Re
gis
147. Weymouth
148. Dorchester
149. Cerne Abbas
150. Bridport .
151. Lyme Begis

152, AxmiDster
153. Chard
154. Honiton
155, Colylon ,
156, Sidmouth
157, Exmonth
158, Silverlon
159. Collumpton
160. Credilon
161. Chumleigh
162. Crockernwell
163. Oakhampton
164. Hafherleigh
16.5. Sheepwash
166. Holswortfay
167. Stratton
168. Jacobstow
169. Camelford
170. Launceston
171. Callinglon
172. Tavistock
173. Stanford Spiney
174. Moreton Hamp
den
175. Exeter
176. Chudleigh
177. Newton Bushel
178. Ashburton
J79. Totness
180. Dartmonth
181. Kingsbridge
182. Modbury
183. Plympton Eali
184. Plymouth
185. Saltash
186. Sr. Germans
187. Liskeard
188. Looe
189. Fowey
190. Lostwitbiel
191. Bodmin
192. SLMinver
193. Padsiow
194, St. Michael
195, Grampottnd
196- Tregony
197. Truro
198. Redruth
199. Penryn
200. Helston
201. Marazion
202. St. Ives
203. Penzance Rivers.
a Welland
b Neu
c Old Bedford
d Old Ouse
e Ouse
f Wenson
g Coin
h Lea
i Thames
iCbarwell Kennet
1 Wey
mMole n Medwn
o Stour
p Rother
q Arun
t Avon
8 Exe
t Tamer
u Taw
v Perrot
w Axe
X Avon
y Severn
z Tome
a* Wye
b* Taaf
c* Towey
d» TeiH
e* Ystwith
f*DoToy

Book I. ENGLAND. 319
uniting at Cricldade, form a stream which is about nine feet broad in summer, and is called
the Thame. Near Oxford it receives the Charwell and the Isis, assuming on its junction
with the latter river the compound name of Tamesis, which has been abbreviated into Thames.
After a course almost southward to Reading, it winds northward through the wooded vale of
Henley and Maidenhead, and thence by the castellated heights of Windsor. Its course to
London is by Chertsey, Hampton, Twickenham, and Richmond, among the magnificent
woods and palaces of this paradise of England. Near Teddington its current is slightly
acted upon by the extreme ebb and flow of the tide, which rises higher in this than in any
other river of Europe. It divides the capital into two unequal parts, having on its northem
bank the cities of London and Westminster, and on its southern the borough of Southwark.
Below London Bridge it is navigable for vessels of large burthen ; its ample channel, and the
spacious docks connected with it, are there constantly filled with forests of masts, and seem
to contain, as it were, tlie wealth of the world. It winds its way to the ocean through a
country presenting few objects of interest, except the vast naval establishments situated on
the south bank of the river. Woolwich claims particular attention, not only on account of
the royal dockyard, and the national depot of artillery, but for its military academy, which
ranks as the first in the empire. The estuary of the Med way, opening into the river firom
Kent, affords commodious sites for the naval stations of Chatham and Sheerness. The entire
course of the Thames is about 220 miles.
The Trent, with its tributary, the northem Ouse, traverses the whole midland territory of
England, and several of its principal manufacturing districts, to which it afiords a communi
cation with the eastem, and by canals with the western, ocean. It rises among the low
Staffordshire hUls, and at Burton, it becomes navigable for vessels of moderate size. Re
ceiving the Dove and Derwent, which, after dashing through the rocky recesses of Derby
shire, have already subsided into peacefiil streams, it passes Nottingham, and at Gainsborough
becomes navigable for steam-boats, and other vessels of larger burthen. After a farther
course of about thirty miles, it flows into the Humber, already rendered a broad estuary by
the Ouse, which has collected the principal streams of Yorkshire. The Ouse, formed by
the confluence of the Aire and the Swale fi-om the uplands of the North Riding, is subse
quently augmented by the Wharfe. The Aire, with its tributaries the Calder and Don, ena
ble it to communicate with all the great manufacturing towns of the West Riding, and the
confluence of the Derwent fi-om the East Riding renders it equal in magnitude to the Thames.
The Ouse, with its branches, forms one of the most usefiil and least beautifiil of English
rivers. It winds a sluggish course through manufacturing districts and rich arable fields
without any diversity of scenery. The Humber, formed by the junction of the Trent and
Ouse, resembles an arm of the sea ; and its trade contributes mainly to the commercial
prosperity . of Hull.
The Severn is the only great stream which runs from north to south for a considerable part
of its course. Rising in Wales, near the foot of Plinlimmon, it flows through the vales of
Montgomery, and, after winding round Shrewsbury, directs its course to the southward,
through some of the richest and most beautiful plains of England, passing by the cities of
Worcester, Tewkesbury, and Gloucester. In commercial importance it also ranks high,
since it flows through Colebrook Dale, and other principal seats of the iron trade ; while the
tracts on its lower course have for ages been distinguished for the manufacture of fine wool
lens. Its navigation is not free firom obstructions, but much has been done to obviate these
disadvantages, and to connect the Severn by canals with the other great rivers. In approach
ing Bristol, it receives the Wye, which, rising in Wales, flows through scenery that renders
it the most picturesque of English rivers. The Severn then expands into the estuary of the
Bristol Channel, the seat of a commerce once second only to that of the metropolis, but now
surpassed by that of Liverptwl.
The other rivers of England are small ; the Eden, the beautiful river of Cumberland,
forms the Solway; the Mersey of Lancashire, with its tributary the Irwell, is important, for
the mass of commodities which it conveys fi-om the great manufacturing districts to Liver
pool ; the southem Ouse, combines with the Witham of Lincolnshire in forming that broad,
shallow, marshy estuary called the Wash, through which is exported a considerable quantity
of grain firom the agricultural districts ; the Tyne and the Tees in the north of England are
the channels of extensive trade ; the Tyne, in particular, which carries down the product
of the vast coal mines of Newcastle.
The lakes of England occur principally in the counties of Cumberland and Westmoreland,
which are denominated the country of the lakes. These, of which Windermere, the largest,
is only twelve miles long and one broad, have been raiseii to distinction by the taste of the
age for picturesque beauty, rather than as geographical features of the country. Their
number, which is considerable, entitles them to notice ; and a description of them will accom
pany that of the districts to which they belong.
Sect. II. — Natural Geography.
This subject will be treated under the heads of Geology, Botany, and Zoology.

320 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part IIL
Subsect. 1. — Geology of England.
While in Scotland the prevailing formations belong to the primitive and transition classes,
in England the deposits that most abound are the secondary, tertiary, and alluvial. Hence
it ia that Scotland appears lofty and rugged, when contrasted with the hilly, flat, and low
land of England. To enable our readers to form a general conception of the geognostical
structure of England, we shall consider the mineral formations in the following order :  I.
Primitive and Transition. II. Secondary. III. Tertiary. IV. Alluvial.
I. Primitive and Transition. These rocks are principally confined to the more moim
tainous parts of England, and appear most abundantly, in Cumberland and some neighbouring
counties ; in Wales ; and in Cornwall and Devon.
(1.) Cumberland district. This district is bounded to the west and the south by the Irish
Sea and Morecombe Bay ; towards the north it descends into the plam of the new red sand
stone, within the basm of the Eden ; and on the east it is bounded by the central carbonifer
ous chain of the north. Within these limits there are two sets of rocks, viz. Plutonian and
Neptunian ; the more central parts being Plutonian, and the others Neptunian. The order
in which they occur, is as follows : —
1. Granite and Syenite. They form the geognostical axis of all this region, and extend
from the centre of the Skiddaw range to the neighbourhood of Egremont. There is a fine
display of the granite in the bed of the Calden, where it is intersected by veins of quartz,
and contauis, besides other mmerals, molybdena, tungsten, wolfram, and phosphate of lime.
2. A series of crystalline slaty deposits, forming the centre of the Skiddaw region, extend
ing across Crornac lake, and by the foot of Ennerdale, as far as Denthill, is composed of
gneiss, mica slate, hornblende slate, and chiastolite slate. In some parts of Skiddaw and
Saddleback the curious mineral named chiastolite occurs : veins of quartz and galena occur
in Thomthwaite, Newlands, Loweswater, and other places; a copper-mine was formerly
worked in Newlands. The salt springs of Borrowdale issue fi-om these rocks.
3. Deposit of clay slate.
4. An enormous formation of a green felspathose slate, intimately associated with porphyry,
like that of Snowdonia in Wales, and the Needle's Eye in Scotland. The famous graphite
or black-lead mine of Borrowdale is situated in the upper end of the valley of that name,
where the graphite occurs in irregular veins associated with calc spar, brown spar, and
quartz. The graphite is in nests in these veins, and the veins are contained in a Plutonian
rock, viz. felspar porphyry, which is in some places amygdaloidal. Some nests of graphite
have afforded 3000Z. worth of that mineral.
5. Greywacke, with subordinate beds of limestone enclosing organic remains. A gryphaea
and turritella occur near to Kirby- Lonsdale ; a pecten, plagiostoma, trigonia, and patella
near to Keswick. On the north side of the geognostical axis the Neptunian formations are
repeated, with the exception of the greywacke series, which is probably buried under the
old red sandstone and mountain limestone ; and on this northern side, notwithstanding its
less extensive developement, there is a group of mountains, almost entirely composed of
diallage rock, and other minerals ; of which, it is said, no trace occurs in the south. These
occupy the place of the green felspar slate and porphyry series of No. 3. of Wales, after
wards to be noticed ; and seem to be in the precise place of the serpentine of the Lizard in
Cornwall. Further, there is on the west side of Cumberland another formation of granite
and syenite, which underlies, traverses, and overlies the clay slate. No. 3., and is considered
the great centre of elevation of the region. It never overlies, it is said, the mica slate,
chiastolite slate, &c. ; but is probably connected with veins of syenite, and other detached
masses of crystallme rock, which do not belong to the ordmary rocks of superposition. A
range of transition limestone extending from Mellam in Cumberland to the neighbourhood
of Wasdale Head in Westmoreland, nearly across the whole region we are now describing,
is finally cut off by a protruding mass of granite, newer than the limestone.
(2.) Wales, including the Isle of Anglesea. The Neptunian and Plutonian rocks in this
extensive district are arranged as follows :— 1st, Granite rising among the clay slate strata in
the Isle of Anglesea. 2dly, A group of slaty rocks consisting of mica slate, chlorite slate, and
quartz rock. These appear upheaved by the subjacent granite. They occur in the Isle of
Anirlesea. In this island are the great Mona marble and Paris copper mines, hi which the
ore°is common copper pyrites. The Mona marble, a beautiful compound of marble and ser
pentine, occurs among these rocks. 3dly, A great group contaming a very large proportion
of felspathose rocks and porphyries. Of these tlie district of Snowdonia is probably the
lowest portion. Some of the slates of the Snowdon range contain organic remains, prmci
pally of shells, some of which appear referable to tlie genus Producta. 4thly, A vast
deposit of clay slate. 5thly, Greywacke, which forms tlie uppermost or newest member of
tho proat series of deposits. Connected with these series are great beds of limestone.
Possii organic remains are met with in this series, and much more abundantly than in the
deeper-seated slates. Corals of various kinds, crinoid animal shells, and Crustacea occur
among those rocks, in a fossil state. Offish, the remains of bones, teeth, and the defensive

Book I. ENGLAND. 321
fin-bones named ichthyodorulites, are met with. In the lists of organic remains of these slates
we find extinct genera, and genera that still exist : and, judging from the nature of the
remains, we infer that some of the animals were inhabitants of deep, others of shallow, seas.
The organic remains in greywacke rocks are rare, and form a very small proportion to the
extent of the rock.
(3.) Cornwall and Devon. In this district of England the rocks of the primitive class
are arranged in the following order : — 1st, Granite. There are four great projecting masses
of granite rising through the bounding slaty strata : they send arms or veins among the
Neptunian strata, and have upraised and variously modified them. The granite is traversed
by contemporaneous veins of granite, and also encloses contemporaneous masses and veins
of a compound of quartz and schorl, named schorl-rock. It is also traversed by veins of
porphyry, called elvan. 2dly, Resting upon, or adjacent to, the granite there is a vast deposit
of clay slate, named, in the county, killas. It abounds in ores, hence is sometimes named
metalliferous slate. Where m the vicinity of granite, there is interposed gneiss or mica
slate, or both ; and in many parts it contains subordinate beds of greenstone, felspathose
slate, &c. 3dly, Apparently above the preceding slates there occurs, in two places, a form
ation of serpentine, which, in the Lizard, contains diallage rock, talc slate, hornblende
slate, and mica slate, and appears to occur below the greywacke. -ithly, Greywacke. This,
which appears to form a great mass, is the uppermost and newest member of the stratified
series. It contains considerable beds of limestone, including various organic remains.
Mines in Cornwall and Devon. Cornwall and Devonshire present three principal mining
districts. The part of Cornwall situated in the vicinity and to the southward of Truro, the
neighbourhood of St. Austle, and the neighbourhood of Tavistock. The first of these dis
tricts is the most important of the three, firom the number and richness of its mines, in which
copper, tin, and lead are obtained. The ores of copper, which are principally copper pyrites
and gray copper, form regular veins, having a direction nearly from E. to W. in the rock
named killas ; and sometimes in the granite which projects amongst the slaty strata. The
tin occurs principally in veins, which, like the preceding, traverse the killas and granite.
They have also, very often, a direction nearly firom E. to W. ; they have a different inclina
tion from that of the copper veins, which intersect and interrupt them, and which are,
consequently, newer. The tin also occurs in contemporaneous masses and veins, and dis
seminated through the granite. Some veins afford, at the same time, copper and tin ; but
most of them produce only one of these metals in any quantity. There are also in Cornwall
cross veins, that intersect the veins both of copper and tin ; these contain argentiferou^galena,
native silver, and ores of silver. Near to Tavistock there are veins of copper, tin, and lead.
Mines of antimony occur at Huel Boys in Devonshire, and at Saltash in Cornwall. The tin
and copper ores of Cornwall are accompanied with arsenical pyrites, which is turned to profit
by manufacturing oxide of arsenic from it.
n. Secondary Rocks. The rocks of this class form the largest portion of the surface of
England, and the districts composed of them are generally flat or hilly ; never assuming
the mountainous character, unless where the old red sandstone or mountaui limestone appears.
We shall now describe the different formations in the order in which they occur, beginning
with the deeper-seated or oldest (the old red sandstone), and finishing our view with an
account of the newest, or chalk.
(1.) Old red sandstone. This sandstone, which is distinguished from those newer in the
series by its greater hardness and red colour, occurs in greatest abundance in Herefordshire
and Brecknockshire. Smaller portions occur in the Cumberland district, the Isle of Man
and the Isle of Anglesea.
(2.) Mountain limestone, metalliferous limestone, or carboniferous limestone. This rock
is generally grey coloured ; sometimes, however, it exhibits various tints when it is worked
as an inferior kind of marble. Its fracture is compact, lustre glimmering, and opaque or
translucent on the edges. Its structure is sometimes oolitic, as is the case in the vicinity of
Bristol. Veins of calcareous spar frequently traverse it, and occasionally contribute to the
beauty of the varieties used as marble. Sometimes remains of the encrinus are so abundant
in it, that it is named encrinal limestone. Its name carboniferous is from its sometimes
occurring along with coal, as that of metalliferous firom its, in some districts, abounding in
ores. It abounds in organic remains of various genera of corals, radiaria, and shells ; also
some genera of Crustacea and fishes. These bear a strong resemblance to the fossils of the
transition limestone in the greywacke districts. Derbyshire, Northumberland, and Cumber
land afford fine displays of this formation.
Mines in mountain limestone. The mountain limestone forms several mountainous dis
tricts in England and Wales ; in which there are three districts rich in lead mines. The
first of these comprehends the upper parts of the valleys of the Tyne, the Wear, and the
Tees, in the counties of Cumberland, Durham, and York. Its principal mines are situated
near Aldston Moor in Cumberland. The veins of sulphuret of lead or galena, which form
the principal object of the works, traverse alternately beds of limestone and sandstone. They
are remarkable, firom the circumstance that they suddenly become thinner and poorer on
Vol. I. 2Q,

322 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part UI.
passing from the limestone into the sandstone ; an arrangement probably connected with
som(3 electro-magnetic action. There is also a copper mine S. W. of Aldston Moor. The
ore is common yellow copper pyrites, which is associated with galena in a vein of great
extent, and which does not seem to belong to the same formation as the other veins in this
county. The iron mines of Ulverston are in this district. The ore is red hematite, which
traverses the limestone in the form of veins ; some of which are said to be 30 yards wide.
Near Whitehaven great masses of reniform hematite alternate with red beds of mountain
limestone. The second metalliferous district is situated in the northem part of Derbyshire,
and the contiguous parts of the neighbouring counties. The districts called Peak and Kings-
field are the richest in ore. The blende, associated with the lead, is worked as an ore, and
zinc is obtained from it. A vein of copper pyrites occurs at Ecton in Staffordshire, on the
borders of Derbyshire. The Derbyshire veins have been long famous on account of the
beautiful minerals they produce, especially _^Mor spars, and also from the interruption which
the metalliferous veins experience on meeting with trap rocks, called loadstone, which occurs
alternately with the limestone. The third metalliferous district is situated in Flintshire
and Denbighshire, which form the N. E. part of Wales. It is the most productive next to
Aldston Moor. Besides lead, it furnishes also calamine or true ore of zinc. The mines are
situated partly in the mountain limestone, partly in various rocks of older formation. To
the S. W. of this district there are also leaid mines in Shropshire : like the preceding, they
occur partly in mountain limestone and partly in older rocks. They yield a great annual
return of lead. Some mines of galena and of calamine are mentioned as occurring in the
Mendip hills to the south of Bristol ; but they appear to be now abandoned. Many beautiful
and interesting muierals are met with in these mines. Of the vein stones, quartz, in Corn
wall, is the most abundant ; while it is fluor spar and calcareous spar in Derbyshire ; in
Yorkshire heavy spar or sulphate of barytes ; and in Cumberland, heavy spar and fluor spar.
(3.) Coal formation. This, which is the most important of the secondary deposits, follows
in the regular succession the mountain limestone, on which it therefore rests. The lower
beds of this deposit sometimes alternate with the upper strata of the mountain limestone.
The rocks of which it is composed are shale, sandstone, clay ironstone, indurated clay, and
coal, alternating in various ways with each other. The shale, sandstones, ironstones, and
clays contain numerous fossil remains of extinct species of plants, rarely of animals, the
animal remains occurring principally in the limestone. No country of the same size in the
world affords so much coal as England, and nowhere has its natural and economical history
been so well examined as in this island. Messrs. Conybeare and Phillips arrange the different
coal districts in the following manner : —
1. Coal district north of the Trent, or grand Penine chain. — 1. Northumberland and
Durham. 2. North of Yorkshire./ 3. South York, Nottingham, and Derby. 4. South of
Derby. 5. North Stafford. 6, South Lancashire. 7. North Lancashire. 8. Cumberland
and Whitehaven. 9. Foot of Crossfell.
2. Central coal district. — 1. Ashby de la Zouch. 8. Warwickshire. 3. South Stafford
or Dudley. 4. Indications near the Lickey hill, &c.
3. Western coal district, divided into, 1. North Western or North Welsh. — 1. Isle of
Anglesea. 2. Flintshure.
4. Middle western or Shropshire. — l.Tlain of Shrewsbury. 2. Colebrook-dale. 3. The
Clee hills and South Shropshire. 4. Near the Abberley hill.
5. South Western. — 1. South Wales. 2. Forest of Dean. 3. South Gloucester and
Somerset. These different districts are accurately described in Conybeare and Phillips s Geology of
England and Wales. m j rm.
Changesofthe coalfields from the British Channel to the Tweed. The great coal fields
in England experience a great change of structure in their range fi-om the Bristol Channel
to the valley of the Tweed : these changes we shall now enumerate, using the view given
by Sedgwick. In the various coal basins on the Bristol Channel, the limestone strata are
developed only in the lower, and the coal beds in the upper, part of tlie series ; and the
two members are separated by nearly unproductive deposits of millstone-grit and shale.
The arrano-ement in Derbyshire is nearly the same; there, however, the mUlstone-grit is
more varied, and is of very great thickness, and subordmate to the great deposit of shale,
and here and there, very thick masses of a peculiar argillaceous sandstone, disposed in a
tabular manner On the re-appcarnnce of the carboniferous limestone, at tlie base of the
Yorlcshire chain, we still find the same general analogies of structure; enormous deposits
of limestone form the lowest part, and the coal fields tlie highest part of tlie whole series;
and, as in tlio formnr instimcos, wc also find the millstone-grit occupymg an intermediate
position. The millstone-grit, however, becomes a \-cry complex deposit, with several
subordinate beds of coal; antl is spparatpd from tlie great inferior calcareous group (the scar
limn.'^lono), not moroly liy tho groat shale and shale-limestone, as in Derbyshire, but by a
still more complex doptisit, in some placo.s not less tlian 1000 feet tliick; m which five
groups of limestone strata alternate with great masses of sandstone and shale, abound m

Book I. ENGLAND. 323
impressions of coal plants, and three or four thin beds of good coal extensively worked for
domestic use.
In the range of the carboniferous chain from Stainmoor, through the ridge of Crossfell to
the confines of Northumberland, we have a repetition of the same general phenomena. On
its eastem flanks, and superior to all its component groups, is the coal field of Durham.
Under the coal field, we have, in a regular descending order, the millstone-grit, the alterna
tions of limestone and coal measures nearly identical with those of the Yorkshire chain,
and at the base of all is tlie great scar limestone. The scar limestone begms, however, to
be subdivided by thick masses of sandstone and carbonaceous shale, of which we had hardly
a trace in Yorkshire ; and gradually passes into a complex deposit, not distinguishable from
the next superior division of the series. Along with this gradual change is a great devel
opement of the inferior coal beds alternating with the limestone ; some of which on the
north-eastern skirts of Cumberland, are three or four feet in thickness, and are now worked
for domestic use.
The alternating beds of sandstone and shale expand more and more as we advance
towards the north, at the expense of all the calcareous groups, which gradually thin off and
cease to produce any impress on the features of the country. And thus it is, that the lowest
portion of the whole carboniferous system, firom Bewcastle Forest, along the skirts of the
Cheviot HUls, to the valley of the Tweed, has hardly a single feature in common with the
inferior part of the Yorkshire chain ; but, on the contrary, has almost all the most ordinary
external characters of a coal formation. Corresponding to this change, is also a gradual
thickening of carbonaceous matter in some of the lower groups. Many coal works have
been opened upon this line ; and near the right bank of the Tweed (almost on a parallel
with tlie great scar limestone) is a coal field, with five or six good seams, some of which are
pretty extensively worked. The beds of sandstone, shale, and lunestone, forming the base
in the carboniferous system in the basui of the Tweed, are often deeply tinged with oxide of
iron ; and have been compared sometimes with the new, sometimes with the old, red sand
stone: to the new red sandstone they have no relations; "and I would rather compare
them," says Sedgwick, " especially as the old red sandstone of the north of England seldom
exist but as a conglomerate, and is seen in that form on the flanks of the Cheviot Hills, with
the red beds of mountain limestone and sandstone, which, both in Cumberland and Lan
cashire, sometimes form the base of the whole carboniferous series."
These coal fields are traversed and variously deranged by great faults ; interesting
descriptions of which, particularly those in the northern fields, have been published by
Messrs. Phillips and Sedgwick.
The coal strata, or metals as they are sometimes called, are in some parts of England
affected by Plutonian trap rocks, but in a very inferior degree to what takes place in Scot-
la.id. The principal trap rock is greenstone, which appears in the form of overlying masses,
as at Clee Hill and at Dudley ; in the form of intersecting tabular masses or dikes (veins),
as in Northumberland and Durham. Sometimes the trap mass has been forced between the
strata, when it has the character of a bed, or these bed-like masses may be some of the rocks
of the coal formation softened and recrystallised in situ by heat from below. The great
whin sill of Northumberland, and the toadstone beds of Derbyshire, are examples of these
trap beds. The strata near the trap frequently appear changed, the clays hardened, the
limestone rendered crystalline and magnesictn, the coal charred, and the sandstone hardened,
&c. ; and these strata are either moved firom their original position, or are unchanged.
Although rather foreign to our subject, we may, as an Olustration of the importance of
the coal formation to England, mention the quantity of iron manufactured, and of coal con
sumed, in the carboniferous district of Wales. The quantity of iron, according to Mr.
Forster, annually manufactured in Wales, has been calculated at 270,000 tons. Of this
quantity a proportion of about three-fourths is made into bars, and one-fourth sold as pigs and
castings. The quantity of coal required for its manufacture on the average of the whole,
including that used by engines, workmen, &c. will be about 5J tons for each ton of iron ;
the annual consumption of coal by the ironworks will, therefore, be about 1,500,000 tons.
The quantity used in the smelting of copper ore imported into Wales from Cornwall, in
the manufacture of tin-plate, forging of iron for various purposes, and for domestic uses,
may be calculated at 350,000, which makes altogether the annual consumption in Wales,
1,850,000 tons.
(4.) Magnesian limestone formation. The upper part of the coal formation has some
times a red colour with an arenaceous and conglomerated character. Above or resting upon
it we have the magnesian limestone deposit. This deposit extends through Yorkshire and
Durham. Its lower part is said to be separated from the coal formation by a deposit of sand
and sandstone, with occasional red marl and gypsum. The magnesian limestone itself con
sists in its lower part of a bituminous marl slate, abounding in fossil fishes of the genus
Palaothrissum; the middle and upper parts being a yellowish small granular or glimmer
ing magnesian limestone. The organic character of this limestone approaches nearly to

324 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part HI
that of the mountain limestone already described. It contains Producta, which, however
do not occur higher in the series ; also Spirifera, a tribe found as high as the oolite.
(5.) Variegated or new red sandstone, with the red variegated marl deposit. As the
shell limestone is wanting in England, the variegated sandstone and the red and variegated
marls come together, and may here, therefore, be viewed as one formation. They rest
immediately upon the magnesian limestone, but of the two sets the marl appears in general
to be the uppermost or newest. The sandstone is of a looser texture than that of the old
red sandstone deposit, has a red or variegated colour, and the strata are generally horizontal.
The marls are red or variegated in colour. In these sandstones and marls, beds and great
masses or nodules of gypsum occur, as in Derbyshire, Staffordshire, &c. All the salt mines
in England are situated in this deposit. At Northwich there is an extensive deposit of solid
rock salt, forming two beds, together not less than 60 feet in thickness. These beds are
supposed to form large insulated masses of this mineral, extending m length about a mile
and a half, and in breadth about 1300 yards. The salt works at Droitwich in Worcester
shire are also in this red marl deposit. Iron-sand and iserine are said to occur in this sand
stone on the banks of the Mersey opposite Liverpool ; and in other places sulphuret of cop
per, gray oxide of cobalt, and black oxide of manganese occur in the sandstone or its marls.
It forms the surface of vast tracts extendmg with little mterruption from the northem bank
of the Tees in Durham to the southern coast of Devonshire. We find a tract in the great
plain in the centre of England of about 80 miles in length and sixty in breadth, principally
covered with this deposit ; several islands of the older rocks, however, rising, in various
places, through it. These are, 1st, the syenite, greenstone, and slate district of Chamwood
forest in Leicestershire ; 2dly, the coal district surrounding Ashby de la Zouch in the same
county ; connected with which are several patches of the carboniferous magnesian lime
stone, and a patch of millstone-grit at Stanton-bridge on the Trent ; 3dly, the coal-field of
Warwickshire ; 4thly, the coal-field in the south of Staffordshire, with the transition lime
stone on which it rests; 5thly, the lower and northern range of the Lickey hill, near Broms
grove in Worcestershire, which exhibits strata, probably of transition quartz rock. Some
trap rocks occur in this formation at Upton Pyne, a village five mUes north of Exeter, and
at other points near that town.
(6.) Lias and oolite formation. This great formation occupies a zone having nearly 30
miles in average breadth, extending across the island fi-om Yorkshire on the north-east, to
Devonshire on the south-west. It is eminently remarkable on account of the number and
variety of fossil organic remains which it contains, and its wide distribution not only in
England, but also in many other parts of the world. In this formation, at Stonesfield, the
first or earliest remains of mammiferous animals were found. Crocodiles and many vast
and strangely (organised reptiles occur in this deposit, with a vast variety of shells, many
radiaria, and also corals. Fishes are also met with in a fossil state, but by no means so fre
quently as reptiles. Fossil plants of various tribes also occur, and thus add to the organic
variety of this remarkable formation : they belong to the Alga, Equisetacea, Filices, Cy
cadea, Conifera, and Lilia. Beds of coal, generally of an indifferent quality, occur in
different parts of the country in this deposit
(7.) Wealden clay and Purbeck stone. This formation, which lies immediately upon
the oolite, consists of limestones, sands, and clays abounding in fossil organic remains,
principally of terrestrial and fresh-water plants and animals, marine species being rare. In
the lower part of this formation, in the neighbourhood of Weymouth, there is a bed of black
earth, called the dirt bed, containing, in a sUicified state, long prostrate trunks of coniferous
trees, and stems of Cycadeoidea. These trunks lie partly sunk into the deep black earth,
like fellen trees on the surface of a peat bog, and partly covered by the incumbent Purbeck
limestone. Many trunks of trees also remain erect, with tlieir roots attached to the black
soil in which they grew, and their upper part in the limestone ; and show that the surface of
the subjacent Portland stone was for some time dry land, and covered with a forest ; and
probably in a climate such as admits the growth of the modern Zamia and Cycas, remains
of these genera being found here. This forest has been submerged ; first, beneath the fresh
waters of a lake or estuary, in which were deposited the Purbeck beds, and sands and clays
of the Wealden formation (amounting together to nearly 1000 fi^et), and subsequently
beneath the salt water of an ocean of sufficient depth to accumulate all tlie great marme
formations of green sand and chalk that rest upon it.
(8.) Chalk formation with green sand. This great deposit consists principally of chalk,
with less e.xtensivo subjacent beds of green sand and tuffaceous chalk. It stretches, with
little interruption, from Flamborough Head on the coast of Yorkshire, to near Sidmouth on
the coast of Devonshire; forming a range of hills often of some hundred feet high, and of
which the most precipitous face is generally on tlie north-west side. From this long range
several rann-es slioot toward the east and soutli-cast. Chalk does not often bear the charac
ter of a level or flat country ; but, on the contrary, is subject to perpetual undulation of sur
face, the hills being remarkable for their smooth rounded outline, and the deep hollows and
indentations on their sides.

Book I. ENGLAND. 325
The upper part of this formation, through a great part of England, is characterised by
the presence of common gun-flint, arranged in thin beds or in variously-shaped masses, dis
posed more or less m parallel Imes. In the lower part of the formation the flints become
less and less abundant, and at length entirely disappear. This arrangement, however, is not
always to be observed, for in some places the lower chalk abounds in flints. In tho chalk
formation, the upper and middle parts are of chalk, while the lower and under are of sands,
sandstones, and clays. The upper part may be considered an original deposit, the matter
derived from the interior of the earth ; the lower of a mechanical and alluvial nature.
Chalk abounds in fossil remains of animals, and also contains fossilised plants. Corals in great
variety, radiated animals, particularly echinites, are in vast numbers ; shells of all the grand
divisions and in great variety add to the zoological interest of the formation, which is further
heightened by the fossU crabs, fishes, and reptiles, occasionally met with in it. The plants
are Conferva, Fuci, Zostera, Cycadea, with dicotyledonous wood perforated by some
boring animal. The formation, as it occurs in England, appears to have been variously
elevated and depressed at different times by some subterranean actions ; but, as far as we
know, it does not anywhere occur in contact with trap or other Plutonian rocks.
ni. Tertiary rocks. Hitherto, in England, these deposits have been found only in what
are called the London basin and the Isle of Wight basin ; two spaces conjectured formerly
to have had the basin shape, but now more or less filled with tertiary rocks ; an opinion,
however, which the late observations of Professor Buckland have shown to be less plausible
than has been generally believed. The boundary of the first of these supposed basins may
be stated, generally, as a line running from the inner edge of the chalk, south of Flam-
borough Head, in Yorkshire, nearly south, till it crosses the Wash, then south-west to the
upper part of the valley of the river Kennet, near Hungerford, in Wiltshire ; and thence
trending south-east to the south of the Thames, and the north-west angle of the Isle of
Thanet : in all these directions the boundary line is formed by the chalk hUls ; on the east
side, the boundary is the coast of the German Ocean. The boundaries of the Isle of Wight
basin may be stated as follows : — on the north, a few miles south of Winchester ; on the
south, a little north of Carisbrook in the Isle of Wight ; on the east, Brighton ; and on the
west, Dorchester. It is everywhere circumscribed by chalk hills, excepting where broken
in by the channel between the Isle of Wight and the main land. The different members
of the tertiary series met vvith in England, are named Plastic clay, London clay, Bagshot
sands, the Freshwater formations of the Isle of Wight, and the Crag. — Plastic clay. This
deposit consists of a plastic clay with gravel beds, alternating with beds of sand (sometimes
in a state of sandstone) and clay. Its organic remains are principally marine shells, with
layers of lignite or brown coal. — London clay. This is a bluish or blackish clay, sometimes
60 much impregnated with carbonate of lime as to form a kind of compact marl. Layers or
nodules of septaria (a calcareous concretion) frequently occur in it. It is the great clayey
deposit on which London is built. It has been bored to a depth of 700 feet, without reach
ing its bottom. The highest point it attains is the summit of High Beach in Essex, being
7.59 feet above the sea. It abounds in fossil organic remains from the animal as well as
from the vegetable kingdom. CrocodUes, turtles, fishes, and crabs have been observed ; but
these are few in number compared with the host of fossil shells. These shells are often
very beautifully preserved, frequently retaining the appearance of recent species. There are
very few genera of recent shells which have not some representative in this forma!tion, but
the specific character is usually different; on the other hand, but few of the extinct genera,
so frequent in the older formations, occur in this. The Isle of Sheppey, formed of London
clay, affords a vast variety of fossil fruits and seeds, very few of which agree with any
known seed-vessels ; many of them are conjectured to belong to tropical plants, some to the
cocoa-nut and spice tribes. Fragments of wood pierced by a shell animal, resembling the
Teredo navalis, are met with ; a fact which shows that the wood may have floated about in
the sea. — Bagshot sands. These rest upon the London clay ; they consist of sand, with
greenish-coloured clay, variously coloured marls, containing grains of green sand, and fossil
trochi and pectinites. — Freshwater formations of the Isle of Wight and Hampshire. The
Freshwater strata of the Isle of Wight are divided into two deposits by a rock characterised
by the presence of marine remains, and named the upper marine formation, from being a
supposed equivalent to the sands which intervene between the two freshwater deposits of
Paris. The lower freshwater deposit of Binstead, near Ryde, consists of a limestone formed
of fragments of freshwater shells, white shell marl, sUiceous limestone, and sand. One
tooth of an Anaplotherium and two teeth of a Palaotherium have been found in the lower
marly beds of the quarries at Binstead. In the same quarries several rolled fragments of
pachydermatous animals, and the jaw of an animal allied to the musk-deer tribe. In Colwell
Bay the upper part of this deposit contains a mixture of freshwater and marine shells.  The
upper marine formation. This deposit of calcareous beds abounds with freshwater shells
in the lower part, but in the upper part we find marine shells ; hence it is conjectured to
have been formed in an estuary.— Upper freshwater formation. This consists principally
of yellowish white marls. The organic remains are either freshwater or land The ireo-
Vol. L 28

326 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part IH.
logical history of the tertiary deposits in England has not yet been placed in direct con
nexion with that of simUar deposits on the continent of Europe. No trap or granite rocks
have hitherto been met with in England in any way connected with the tertiary strata.
IV. Alluvial rocks. Nearly the whole of England is more or less covered with alluvium,
or debris of previously existing rocks : thus it occurs on mountain ridges, and on the sides
and bottoms of valleys ; it is spread over plains, fills up, wholly or partially, fissures in rocks,
and caves, and caverns, and forms beaches and other accumulations of greater or lesser
extent on the sea coast. It varies in age, from the oldest called diluvium, which stands in
immediate connexion with the crag or upper tertiary deposit, to the newest, those forming
at present through the agency of the atmosphere, springs, lakes, rivers, and the waves and
currents of the ocean. It encloses numerous remains of plants and animals, either more or
less mineralized, or simply bleached : those of the oldest deposits appear to be of animals,
and sometimes of plants, which are cpparently extinct ; while the newer enclose remains
only of living animal and vegetable species. Although our limits do not allow us to enter
into details on this very important and curious department of geology, we may remark, that
the characters and modes of distribution of these alluvia are, in many instances, intimately
connected with risings and depressions of the land ; and consequently with apparent sinking
and rising of the waters of the ocean, and the violent agitations sometimes induced in the
great mass of the ocean, and also in lakes, by changes in the level of the solid parts of the
globe. Subsect. 2. — Botany.
The botany of the different parts of the British empire is so similar, that we propose to
treat under one head that of England, Scotland, Ireland, and their adjacent islands.
Extending through eleven degrees of latitude. Great Britain includes a considerable vari
ety of climate, but everywhere, more or less tempered by the surrounding ocean ; so that,
in no part of the island, except on the mountains, or high table-lands, can the temperature
be compared to similar latitudes, upon the European, much less upon the American conti
nent Yet, from its proximity to the former, the vegetation is, with few exceptions, simUar
to that of the adjacent districts of Europe. Although in consequence of the unfavourable
summers, the frequent obscurity of the sun, the damp and foggy atmosphere, it is not pos
sible, without artificial heat and protection, to bring many of the fruits of more favoured
climates to perfection ; yet the mildness of the winter renders it easy to introduce and to
naturalise plants of much more southern latitudes : so that the gardens, parks, shrubberies,
and even forests, are adorned with the most varied vegetation, producing the most beautiful
flowers, or the most valued timbers.
On the extreme southern coast of England and Ireland, the native vegetables of the
warmer temperate zone are successfully grovvn in the open air, and come to considerable
perfection. In the south of Devonshire, the orange and lemon trees are loaded with fruit
of the finest kind, trained, indeed, to a wall, but without protection, or only provided with it
during a very short portion of the winter months ; the Lemon-scented Vervain (Lippia
citriodora, formerly called Verbena triphylla, becomes quite a tree, without any artificial
protection ; the American Agave, the creepmg Cereus, the Prickly Pear, myrtles from the
south of Europe ; the Tea, Camellias and other Chmese and Japanese plants, thrive well in
the open air, as well as the Magnolias, and many other trees, from the southem states of
North America, whose native latitudes lie many degrees nearer to the tropics.
The only two floras of Great Britain, which are so complete as to demand particular atten
tion, are Sir J. E. Smith's English Flora, and Gray's Arrangement of British Plants; the
former classed according to the Linntean system, extending, however, only to the end of the
class Polygamia, and the first order of the class Cryptogamia FUices. Gray's Flora mcludes
the whole of the British vegetables, arranged according to the natural method, and is the
only one that approaches, however deficient it may still be, to any thing like a catalogue of
our present state of knowledge of the Cryptogamia. Among the Phaenogamous plants,
however, Mr. Gray has included a great number that are only kno\vn in a state of cultiva
tion, as has been done by De Candolle, in his Flore Franqaise, and many other contuiental
botanists. We have, therefore, deemed it convenient thus to give a list of the plants,
according to each of these authors ; and the increased number in the columns of species,
according to Mr. Gray, will be thus easUy accounted for.

Book 1.

ENGLAND.

327

A List of the Number of Species of British Plants, arranged according to the Classes and principal Families to
which they belong; exliibiting the relative proportion which these latter bear to the whole of the respective
Classes.*

Names of the Natural
FamiUes.

Fungi 
AlgtE 
Lichenes 
HepaticEB, by Hooker. .
Musci, by Hooker 
Filices 
ACOTYLEDONES 
GraminefE 
Cyperaceffi 
Junceae and Restiacee . . .
GlumaceEB 
OrchideEE 
Monocotyledones caeterEE -
MONOCOTTLEDONES ....
Coniferse 
Amentacea 
Euphorbiaceje 
Scrophul. and Orobancheae
Labiatffi and Verbenas.
Boragineas  • >. •
Ericineie and Pyroles.
Campanulaceffi 
CompositEE 
Rubiaceie 
UmbelliferBE 
Rosaceee 
Leguminosse 
MalvaccEB 
Caryophylleffi 
CruciferEB 
Ranunculaceffl 
Dicotyledones cajterse .
DlCOTTf LEDONES 

90
290 58

121 92
32

245 3773 4
78 16
52562322 14
137 21 64 8166 6
5971
36
342

355

1148

?oe

.8
'* s «

16tV 5i
26 101
17
47 6J
40f ~4f
376 19^
94
28i 26J
lto65^ 67
1071 11 71i23| 18*
221
250i 25^
4if

800 400 400 97
290 58

170 9133

2045

294 33

7
72 16
55692322 15
144 19
6981 69 6
6073
42
378

416

3 °

1%B

2«S

lto2 4 4
16„i Oil
28i 4
9!
18
49^ 5J
49j Qj_
234 22f
102;i- 294
23|
lto71^ 74|
109 IU
8623| 20^23J
272| 27t^22439

1220

A List of the Species of
Scottish Plants.-f

Species.

lto2 4 4
16| 4
27jV 11 17|
48} 5!
45 4
305 2198
29^25}
lto68i 701
108i lU78?23| 19t
23}
2611 26A 2lf40l

974465260 73
264 48

2084

ItoU 2^ 4^
144 4
22|

260

188 19
53 3
56 7
37
39 1818 9
105 16
44 5243 5
45 56 25
245| - 823

o£PMtn
1 to 29 J
28^
lOJ
24?20|
2524 19i
1t=
It must be remarked, that in Cyperacea, Juncea, Salix, Saxifraga, Rosa, Rubus, and
some others, the species are not formed on the same rules as in Smith's English Flora ;
and therefore, before drawing a parallel between these orders in Scotland, and in the whole
of Britain, a considerable number of species ought to be added. To make this comparison,
then, about twenty species may be added to the Monocotyledones, and about fifty (say forty-
seven), to the Dicotyledonous plants, making these two, 280 and 870 ; whence the Monoco
tyledones of Scotland are to the whole of those in the British dominions as one to one and a
quarter, or as four to five ; and the Dicotyledones as eight to eleven.
Ireland possesses a flora which partakes of the nature of those of England and Scotland.
A list of the phaenogamous plants has been recently published by Mr. J. T. Mackay, of the
Dublin College Botanic Garden. It exhibits a much poorer vegetation than its sister island,
including only 934 species ; of which there are, 41 FUices ; 211 Monocotyledones, and 682
Dicotyledones. So that the proportion of Filices to Phaenogamous plants is as 1 to21J;
Monocotyledones to Phaenogamous plants, 1 to 4J ; Dicotyledones to Phaenogamous plants,
1 to Ij. The proportion of Irish Monocotyledones to British Monocotyledones (according
to the species of Smith) is as 1 to 1|, or as 3 to 5 : of Irish Dicotyledones, 1 to If, or as 3 to 5.
* Drawn up by G. A. W. Arnott, Esq. of Edinburgh.
t The proportions in the Cryptogamia will be found probably much more correct for Scotland than those given
ill the British table are for the whole of Britain ; owing to the researches made in that tribe by Dr. Greville, and
Captain Carmichael ; particularly by the latter in the Fungi and Algse ; the discoveries of that gentleman alone
in those two groups, in one small district (Appin) in the west highlands of Scotland, amount to more species than
were previously described as inhabiting the whole of the British dominions.
328 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paet III.
Few, indeed, of the species of plants now enumerated as natives of England, Scotland,
and Ireland, and the adjacent islets, can be considered as exclusively belonging to these
countries. For though there are many which are not referred to as species in the works of
other authors, yet they are, for the most part, among such famUies as are not well under
stood, and about which there will always exist a difierence of opinion ; as among the Grasses,
Willows, Brambles, &c.
Many plants reach their northem limits in the south of England and Ireland. We must
particularly mention the Strawberry Tree (Arbutus Unedo, fig. 107.), which forms so
charming a feature in that most beautifiil of all scenery, the Lake of Killamey. Some have,
indeed, supposed that it was introduced into Ireland by the monks of Mucruss Abbey, at
107 :A 108

strawberry Tree. „ . , „ . «... , „ .
Comisb Heath. Cihated Heath.
some very remote period. Its appearance is, however, altogether that of an aboriginal native,
coming to a great size,* perfecting its bright scarlet berries, which are disseminated over the
rocks and islands in every direction. The Erica vagans, or Cornish Heath (fig. 108. a), is
found nowhere in Britain except Cornwall ; and the same may be said of the newly-disco
vered E. ciliaris {b), and the following, of great beauty or rarity : Lobelia Dortmanna,
Phyteuma orbicularis and P. spicata, Sibthorpia europaa and Isnardia palustris, are quite
southern plants in the British dominions.
The Water-Soldier (Stratiotes aloides) ; the Water Violet {Hottonia palustris) ; the small
Maidenhair Grass (Briza minor) ; the Sweet Violet ( Viola odorata) ; several Mollis ; the
Primrose-peerless (Narcissus poeticus and biflorus) ; the common Snake's Head (Fritillaria
meleagris); the Agrostis setacea, the Star of Bethlehem (Ornithogalum pyrenaicum) ; the
two species of Squill {Scilla autumnalis and bifolia) ; the Mountain Spiderwort (Antheri-
cum serotinum) ; the Solomon's Seal {Convallaria polygonatum) ; and Sweet Sedge (Acorus
Calamus) ; the Yellow-wort {Chlora perfoliata) ; the Mezereum (Daphne Mezereum) ; the
Flowering Rush {Butomus umbellatus) ; the Yellow Marsh Saxifrage (Saxifraga Hirculus) ;
though on the Contuient a very arctic plant, the Clove Pink (Dianthus caryophyllus) ; and
D. prolifer ; several Catchflys (Silene) ; Euphorbias, Cistuses, Anemones, the TraveUer's
3oy (Clematis Vitalba); the GroandPine (Ajuga Chamapitys) ; the Wood-Sage (Teucrium
Scorodonia) ; the crested and field Cow-wheat (Melampyrum cristatum and arvense) ; some
Orobanches, the Vella annua, Draba aizoides, and [beris amara, some Fumitories (Fumaria
solida, lutea, and parviflord) ; the yellow and crimson Vetchlings (Lathyrus Aphaca and
Nissolia) ; the Vicia hybrida, laevigata, and bithynica, Hippocrepis comosa ; Orchis Morio,t
pyramidalis, ustulata, fusea, mUitaris, tephrosanthos, hircina ; Aceras anthropophora, Her-
minium monorchis ; all the species of Ophrys, Epipactis rubra, Malaxis Loeselii ; tlie beau
tiful and rare Lady's Slipper {Cypripedium Calceolus) ; the Birthwort (Aristolochia Clema-
titis) ; the Roman Nettle ( Urtica pilulifera) ; the Xanthium strumarium and Amaranthus
Blitum; the Spanish Chestnut Tree {Fagus castanea); and Misseltoe (Viscum album);
the Sea Buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides) ; and White Poplar {Populus canescens): these
are some among the most striking of the British plants, which do not reach the middle of
the kingdom, and fail below the south of Scotland.
The most interesting of the Scottish plants are, principally, such whose types are found
on the continent of Europe, in high northern latitudes, or in the extreme arctic regions of
both Asia and America ; such as Veronica firuticulosa, saxatUis, and alpina, several alpine
grasses, and other glumaceous plants ; such as Phleum alpinum and Alopecurus alpinus,
Eriophorum alpinum ; Juncus castaneus, arcticus, and biglumis ; and Luzula arctica. Primula
scotica (fig. 109. a), the Myosotis alpestris (d). Azalea procumbens, Gentiana nivalis (c)
Sibbaldia procumbens, Convallaria verticillata, Epilobium alpinum. Arbutus alpina, Pyrola
uniflora (6), Saxifraga nivalis and rivularis, Stellaria scapigera (tlie latter is exclusively
* Mr. Maeltny inen.itirnd a trunk of this flne evorgreon tree on Rough Island, nearly opposite O'SuUivan's Cas-
cailo, whirh, in 1HI)5, wiih 9J I'ci-t In girth, nt a foot from the ground.
¦f On the nuthoriiv of Lightfoot, iiKh'ed, this plant, so abundantly found in England, is given as a native of
Bcutlundi hut no living botanist, that I am aware of, has ever seen it there.

Book I.

ENGLAND.

829

Britisli), Arenaria rubella and fastigiata. the Cherleria sedoides, Lychnis Viscaria and alpina,
Spergula saginoides, PotentUla opaca, Nuphar Kalmiana, Ranunculus alpestris, Ajuga pyra
midalis, Cwdamine bellidiflora, Orobus niger, Astragalus uralensis and campestris, Erigeron
j^°' rffe,..'^ . A, 110

o, Scottish Primrose. h, Rock Scorpion Grass. a, Trifld-Leaved Cinquefoil.
c. Single-Flowered Watei^Green. d, SmaU Alpine Gentian. b. Jointed Pipewort.
alpinum, Corallorhiza innata, Achillaaa tomentosa, Goodyera repens ; the most alpine Caricea
and Salices, and the Dwarf Birch (Betula nana).
There are two plants which deserve particular notice, as natives of Great Britain, and
found nowhere else in Europe ; but these are again met with in North America ; the one is
Potentilla tridentata (fig. 110. a) abundant in arctic America and upon the Rocky and White
Mountains, the other the Eriocaulon septangulare (fig. 110. 6). This latter genus is mostly
tropical, or a native of the warm temperate zones in America, the East Indies, and Australia.
The only exceptions to this rule are the Eriocaulon pellucidum of Michaux, and the plant in
question ; the former being found in North America as high as Canada ; and, upon exami
nation, the two species prove identical. In these instances, the Eriocaulon and the Poten
tUla seem to have overcome many obstacles in their migration, and to have reached their
eastern boundary. The Eriocaulon is confined to a few lakes in the Hebrides, where we
have been surprised in the month of September at the high temperature of the water, which
probably never fireezes ; and in some spots in the south and west of Ireland : the PotentUla
is only found on one hill in Angusshire.
It is worthy of remark, that the genus Pedicularis, which is so numerous in species, in
the eastem and southem parts of Europe, almost wholly disappears in Britain ; for, notwith
standing the vast numbers of it which are found in Siberia, the South of Russia, Switzer
land, extending even to the Pyrenees, and Germany, Great Britain possesses but two,
which are equally abundant upon the Continent ; and although almost wholly an alpine
genus, the British mountains possess not one really alpine species. It would appear that the
climate is peculiarly unsuited to their nurture: for in North America, in the same and espe
cially in still higher northem latitudes, they again become abundant.
Ireland exhibits a few striking peculiarities in some of its vegetable productions. Besides
the Strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo) already mentioned, it can boast of Pinguicula grandi-
flora (fig. 111. a), a beautiful flower, native of FVance and the Pjrrenees ; Menziesia poll-
"1 c

Vol. I.

a. Large-flowered Butterwort.
d. Naked-stalked Vellow Poppy.

b, Irish Menziesia.
e. Marsh Ledum.
28*

c. Kidney-leaved Saxifrajo

2R

330 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paet IIL
folia (b), a species belonging to the latter country and to Spain, and found in a wild state in
no ether parts of the world ; it is, too, a most lovely one : also St. Patrick's Cabbage {Saxi
fraga umbrosa) and the London Pride (S. Geum, c) and their varieties, which are scarcely
known to exist but in Switzerland and the Pyrenees ; Arenaria ciliata, a native of the
mountains on the continent of Europe ; and to these rarities have lately been added by Pro
fessor Giesecke, the Yellow Poppy (Papaver nudicaule, d), and the Ledum palustre (e,)
both of them peculiarly arctic productions, and plentifiil on the northem extremity of Ame
rica and Greenland ; and with these we must be permitted to number, though Cryptogamic
plants, the Trichomanes hrevisetum (fig. 112. b), which
scarcely grows anywhere else in the world but in Ma
deira and m Yorkshire (if it be not now extinct in the
latter habitat), the Adiantum CapUlus Veneris (a), whose
only locality in the British dominions is the west of Ire
land, and one spot in Wales, but which is frequent in
the south of Europe, and even m the tropical parts of
America; and two mosses, Hookeria latevirens, and
Daltonia splanchnoides, entirely peculiar to Ireland.
That country also possesses three remarkable vege
table productions, now pretty generally distributed in
gardens and shrubberies throughout the kingdom, and
universally known by the names of the Irish Broom,
Irish Furze, and Irish Yew. The former we believe to
be the Spartium patens of Linnaeus, a Spanish species,
with very hairy pods; and it is, probably, not wUd in
, True Maiden-Hair. that Country. The Irish Furze has an appearance very
b, Short-styled Bristle-Fern. different from that of the European or Dwarf Furzes
( Ulex europaus and nanus), having yery erect short branches, and closely placed spmes ;
so that the whole plant has a remarkably dense and compact habit, appearing almost as if
it were kept close clipped with shears. It blossoms rarely,
but we have seen both flowers and seed-vessels, which do
not differ in any material point from those of Ulex nanus.
In some gardens it is called U. europaeus var. strictus ; but
^*vW^ / ' X ^^- Mackay considers it to be quite a distinct species, and
^^ ^Ws ' . "^ ''® ^^^ called it, in his " Catalogue of the Indigenous Plants
*" ^\ir/y ' 7 of Ireland," Ulex strictus. StUl, the only stations for this
plant are in the Marquess of Londonderry's park and shrub
beries, at Mount Stewart, county of Down, where there are
some very large bushes ; but whence it came, no one can
tell. This would, however, be a very valuable plant to the
agriculturist ; for, it has been planted (it increases readUy
by cuttings) in dry hUly pastures in the north of Scotland,
and in the early spring throws up an abundant crop of suc
culent shoots, which are greedily eaten by sheep, when there
is little or no grass to support them.
The third Irish botanical curiosity is the Irish Yew (fig.
113), Florence-Court Yew, as it is called in that country,
from its being first discovered at Florence Court, tlie seat of
Lord Enniskillen. Mr. Mackay does not consider it to be
wild ; but Mr. Hervey, in the Agricultural Magazine for
October, 1828, says, that it is an undoubted native, and plen
tiful in the neighbourhood of Antrim, where there are trees
at least a century old. It is distinguished by its upright
branches, which give the whole plant somewhat the habit" of
a Cypress ; by the leaves growing, not in a distichous man
ner, but from all sides of the stem : tlie drupe or berry, too,
is of a different form from that of tlie common Yew.
The trees that are aboriginal natives of Britain are the Oak (two species) ; the Elm (five
species) ; the Beech, the Ash, the Maple, Sycamore, Hornbeam, Lime (three species) ; the
Spanish Chestnut (l) ; the Alder, Birch, Poplar (four species) ; and the Scotch Fir ; to which
may be added the Mountain Ash, which in some parts of Scotland attains to a gi-eat size.
Of these, then, the Oak, the Beech, Birch, and Scotch Fir, live in society, forming vast
fornsts, almost to tlin exclusion of other trees. The finest forests of Oak and Beech are
to bo seen in tlic southern parts of England; the latter flourishing, in an extraordinary
degree, in the chalk and deep clay soils of Sussex and some of the neighbouring counties.
In Scotland, the oak, though there may be some exceptions, generally forms copse woods,
and is mostly confined to the valleys. Its northern limit is scarcely within the British domi-

Book I. ENGLAND. 331
nions. It extends to lat 60°, on the contment in Russia, and 64° in Norway; and if in Scot
land oaks are not found m the extreme north, it is rather owmg to want ot shelter and of
suitable soU, than to any other circumstance.
The Pine, (Pinus Sylvestris, fig. 114.) constitutes noble forests among the mountainous
^ districts of Nortii Britain, filhng the valleys,
and ascending, probably, to the height of 2500
feet upon the hUls, among the northern Gram
pians, and exhibiting individual specimens of
great size and beauty.
Of the fi-uit trees which are successfiilly cul- •
tivated in the open air, the number is limited.
In the south, exclusively, or, perhaps, as far as
M the centre of the kingdom, under favourable
di'l circumstances, the Vine, the Fig, the Qumce,
% the Mulberry, Chestnut, Walnut, and Medlar
may be advantageously planted. The Apple,
Pear, the Plum of various kinds, the Peach,
Nectarine, and Apricot ; all, according to soU,
exposure, and other local circumstances, ripen
their fruit in the open air, if afforded the protec
tion of a wall, as high north as Inverness, and
some of the most hardy ones much higher ; but
Scotch Fir. jjjg ^ant of sun must ever be a hindrance to the
thorough perfecting of good fruit in the north of Scotland.
Of the various Irnids of Corn, which are used as food for man or cattle. Wheat, Barley,
Bere, Bigg, Oats, and Rye are the universal crops ; and these all succeed in situations
not too much elevated above the level of the sea, as far to the northward as Inverness,
beyond which the wheat becomes a very uncertain crop ; and even considerably south of
Inverness, to the north of the Forth and Clyde, in lat. 56°, the cultivation of wheat is
almost whoUy confined to the eastem side of the country, the west being the district for
pasture. In regard to the height at which certain plants will grow above the level of the sea, the
southem and midland parts of Great Britain do not contain mountains upon a sufficiently
lofty scale to render their investigation particularly interesting. The northern parts of
England possess mountains of upwards of 3000 feet ; and as Winch's " Essay on the Geo
graphical distribution of Plants throughout the Counties of Northumberland, Cumberland, and
Durham," of which the lat. 55° may be considered the medium, embraces a very great pro-
tion of this very country, which, from its situation, may, in point of clunate, be considered as
intermediate between the more northern and southem floras of Great Britain, we select
from his work what concerns the more valuable and more striking vegetable productions.
The Oak, in lat. 55°, attains a large size in the valleys ; it ascends the hUls, but gradu
aUy becomes of stunted growth in Weardale and Teesdale, to the elevation of 1600 and
1700 foet.
The Common Elm ( Ulmus Campestris) is not indigenous north of the Tees ; its place
being taken by the Wych Elm ( U. montana), which skirts the mountains at a height of
2000 feet.
The Beech and Aspen flourish beautifully in the low sheltered spots, but do not climb
the hills to equal heights with the oak. The White and Black Poplars (Populus alba
and nigra) are doubtful natives of the north of England, as of Scotland ; though the White
Poplar is remarkable for withstanding the north-easterly winds, which are so destmctive to
vegetation in the counties of Northumberland and Durham. 'The Lime, {Tilia Europaa),
the Chestnut (Castanea vesca), and the Hornbeam {Carpinus Betulus), stand in the same
predicament. Holly trees are among the chief ornaments of the woods m Durham, Northumberland,
and Cumberland, as is the Yew (Taxus Baccata). The Birch (Betula alba) is not found
on the mountains at a greater elevation than the Sycamore {Acer Pseudo-platanus), which
m the subalpme regions seems to be as vigorous, and to attain as great a size as it does
near the sea-coast. The Mountain Ash (Pyrus aucuparia) is found on the hUls ; the White
Beam (Pyrus Aria) may be traced from the High-Force of the river Tees to the coast ;
the Alder (Alnus glutinosa) and the Guelder Rose (Viburnum Opulus) accompany the
streams ; and the Hazel, Black Cherry {Prunus Cerasus), Bird Cherry (Prunus Padus),
the Spindle-tree {Euonymus europaus), the Raspberry {Rubus idaus), and the common
Elder, (Sambucus nigra), are found in all the woods from the sea-shore to those situated on
an elevation of 1600 feet : but the common Maple (Acer campestris) occurs only in the
hedges, in some parts of the flat country.
The Ash tr^e (Fraxinus excelsior), the White Thorn {Mespilus Oxyacantha), the Crab
tree, or WUd Apple (Pyrus Malus), and Black Thorn {Prunus spinosa), abound throughout

332 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Past IIL
the district in question. The Bullaee {Prunus insitilia) is rare : and the Plum-tree {Prunus
domestica). Pear {Pyrus communis). Red currant {Ribes rubrum), the Berberry {Berberis
vulgaris), and Gooseberry (Ribes Grossularia), though of frequent occurrence, appear not
to be original natives of the soil. But the Rock Currant (Ribes petraum), the Acid Moun
tam Currant {Ribes spicatum), Alpine Currant (Ribes alpinum). Black Currant {Ribes ni
grum), and Privet (Ligustrum vulgare), are indigenous, and not unfrequent.
The Furze {Ulex europaus,) attains to an elevation of 2000 feet in sequestered spots,
accompanied by the Bramble. Juniper may be traced from the coast to the height of 1500
feet. The Cloudberry (Rubus Chamamorus), the Bearberry (Arbutus Uva Ursi), and Sand
Willow (Sahx arenaria), attain the same elevation ; while the Dwarf WUlow (Salix her-
bacea), but without its usual attendant the Reticulated WUlow (S. reticulata), reaches
to the tops of the loftiest mountains, upwards of 3000 feet above the level of the sea.
Coarse Grasses, Sedges, and Rushes too often cover the wet moors with a scanty and
almost useless vegetation. To the agriculturist the different Heaths are scarcely more
acceptable ; but they are unquestionably among the most beautifiU of the native plants, and
then abundance and the vast extent of ground which they clothe, give a peculiar character
to very many parts of Great Britain, especially m the North. In the districts in question,
the common Heather (Calluna vulgaris), the Ffr-leaved Heath (Erica Cinerea), and the
Cross-leaved Heath (Erica Tetralix), the latter, however, less fiugrant, and preferring moist
situations, flourish in various situations, from 1000 to 3000 feet above the level of the sea,
but never in calcareous soil, which cfrcumstance occasions the strikmg difference between
the heaths of Durham and Northumberland, and the Yorkshire Wolds as they are called,
where the substratum is chalk.
The most considerable elevation to which the cultivation of wheat extends in the north
of England does not exceed 1000 feet above the level of the sea. Oats grow at nearly
double that height ; but in unfavourable years the sheaves may often be seen standing among
the snow, which not uncommonly covers the tops of the mountains in October, and is never
later in fiilling than the middle of November. The limits of Barley and Rye are between
those of wheat and oats ; but Bigg, a more hardy kind of grain than either of the former, is
no longer cultivated. Turnips, though of small size, and Potatoes, grow at the same height
as Oats. On the soil of the moors being ploughed for the first time, and lime applied. White
Clover {Trifolium repens) comes up in abundance.
Subsect. 3. — Zoology of Great Britain.
The Zoology of the United Empire might be treated of under the three kingdoms of which
it is composed, were our materials sufficiently ample to mark the peculiarities of each. But
although every year witnesses an accession of new species to the British feuna, no attempt has
yet been made to generalise these discoveries, with reference to the geographic range of groups
or species. The zoology of Ireland has been sadly neglected, and we are still without a
Fauna Scotica. We must therefore consider the natural history of Britain in the aggregate;
noticing such species as more particularly belong to the northern and the southem extre
mities. Of Quadrupeds, the most recent catalogue contains sixty living species, including the
whale tribe ; besides those which progressive civilisation, and the effects of the chase, have
now extirpated from the islands. Nine species of Bats have been detected, four of which
have as yet been found only in the southern and western counties : two belong to the division
of horse-shoe bats, so named, from their nostrils being fiimished with a complicated membrane,
like a horse-shoe ; an appendage which is probably intended to act as a sucker to assist tlie
animal in retaining its prey. The Vespertilio murinus, or common bat, has been so far
tamed as to take flies out of its master's hand, carefully throwing aside tlie wings. The
woods and heaths still shelter the Hedgehog {fig. 115.), a harmless and a most usefiil animal
J15 in destroying snails, slugs, and worms ; but persecuted by the
vulgar for a long list of imaginary and nonsensical properties.
These prejudices have been extended to the Mole, whose little
hillocks form the best top-drcssuig, as a sensible farmer once
assured us, to poor lands, that can possibly be given : their soft
fiir has long been mixed with that of tlie Beaver, in tlie making
of hats. Allied to tho Mole, in general conformation, are tlie
Shrew Mice, of which two species are natives, tlie common and
the Water Shrew {Sorex araucus and fodiens) : both these
appear to be widely distributed. Of true Mice there are three
distinct sorts: the Common or House Mouse, the Field Mouse, nnd tlie Harvest Mouse; tlie
latter being as destructive to the farmer as tlic firet is to tlie housewife. The Brown and
tho Block Rat infpst dwellings, nnd are ei|ually injurious: tlie latter is known by the taU
being longft- thnn tlio body; whoiT.is, in the Browi'i Ral, both these parts are equal. The
pretty little Dormouse {J\ti/nxiis avcllnnarius), like tlie Squirrel and jerboa, eats its food in
an erect attitude, sittmg on its haunches, and using its forefeet as hands. The Water Rat

Book L ENGLAND. 333
wid Short-tailed Mouse of Pennant (now placed in the genus Arvicola) occur in England :
Dut the former is stated not to have been found in the northern islands ; the latter is a most
destructive little animal in gardens, where it gmbs up seeds, particularly peas, just after
they have begun to germinate. A few years back, the short-tailed mouse suddenly appeared
in immense numbers in the New Forest, and notwithstanding every artifice employed to
stop their ravages, they destroyed many tliousands of young trees, and devastated whole
acres of young plantations.
The Badger is a nocturnal feeder, sleeping in its hole during the day, yet, when attacked,
is remarkably quick in its motions, and successful in its defence. If undisturbed, it is harm
less and inoffensive, chiefly subsisting upon vegetables, although it will likewise devour frogs
and slugs. The Otter has become much less frequent than formerly ; it was once considered
as a beast of chase, as old game-books mention otter hounds particularly trained for hunting
this animal. It feeds entirely upon fish, which it dives after with great celerity ; and, unless
pressed by extreme hunger, invariably leaves the taU extremity untouched. The legs are
very short ; and the toes being connected together by a membrane, gives to the animal the
power of swimming very rapidly.
The rapacious or carnivorous quadrupeds of Britain are very few, and from their small
size t(X) insignificant to inflict much personal injury upon man. The Bear and the Wolf
have long been extinct in Britain, and the Fox might have shared the same fate, had it not
been preserved as a beast of the chase since the extirpation of more formidable game.
Pennant mentions three varieties of this animal found in Wales and other mountainous parts
of Britain : — 1. The Milgri, or Greyhound Fox, is the largest, tallest, and boldest, and is
distinguished by a white tag or tip to the taU. 2. The Mastiff Fox, which is less, but more
strongly buUt. 3. The Curgi, or Cur Fox, of a still smaller size, and having the tip of the
taU black. (Brit. Zool. i. 87.) The varieties do not appear, however, to have fallen under
the actual observation of subsequent naturalists.
The Ferret tribe comprehends the Polecat, Weasel, Stoat or Ermine, the Common Marten,
and the Pine Marten.
The Polecat (Putorius vulgaris Cuv.), called also the Fitchet, Fitchew, or Foumart,
measures, with the taU, about twenty-three inches. Its fetid smell is proverbial. Although
included in the list of British quadrupeds, it appears, according to Strabo, to have been
imported from the north of Africa. Like all its congeners, its habits are sanguinary; for it
will destroy and suck the blood of many victims, before it attempts to carry off their bodies.
The well-known Ferret is considered only a variety of this species. The Weasel is much
smaller, and although repulsive from its odour, is yet an eiegant-shaped animal. It feeds on
mice and small birds, but will occasionally attack anunals of a much larger size. Few
persons suspect that the skins they see naUed against farm out-houses frequently belong to
an animal whose fur, in another state, forms a most elegant and expensive ornament to
female dress. This annual, despised in one state, and valued in another, is the Stoat
{fig. 116.), the pest of the farmer, and the destroyer of his poultry. In the temperate and
116 117

°'e'"- Pine Marten.
southern parts of Europe, its fiir is yellowish-brown above, and pale yellow beneath ; yet
so soon as its geographic range enters on the more northern countries, as Russia, Norway,
and Siberia, these colours vanish, leaving the fur of a pure white in every part but the taU,
which IS tipped with deep black; and in this state the skm is called ermine. In Scotland
the animal, durmg winter, is frequently found in an intermediate stage of summer and win
ter clothing Although small, it wiU attack large rats, and has been known to pursue a
young hare by the scent.
The Common or Beech Marten {M. Fagorum Ray) seems to prefer dwellmg near habita
tions, choosing the shelter of out-houses and farm-buildings, as convenient retreats for carrv-
mg on Its depredations among poultry, of which it is a great devourer; it also breeds
occasionally in the hollows of trees.
The Pine Marten (JVf. Abietum-RM.y,fig. 117.) is rather larger, and is further distinmished
from the last in having the throat and breast yellow, instead of white. It is wUd and .solitarv
shunning mankmd ; and only dweUs in thick woods and forests, principally those composed
of pmes. It climbs with great facility; preys upon birds and their eggs, and also upon
squirrels; the female generally making use of the nest of one of her victims for the rearing

334 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pakt HL
of her own young. The skui of this is much more prized than that of the common Marten,
and appears to have been formerly, at least in Scotland, a lucrative article of commerce.
The Wild Cat closes our list of these small but ferocious indigenous animals. Its manners
are similar to those of the lynx, and Mr. Pennant justly calls it the British tiger. In its
savage state it appears to be much larger than the ordinary domestic cat ; and the teeth and
claws, for the size of the animal, are tremendous. It is still found, although rarely, in the
mountainous and woody parts of Great Britain. Formerly they appear to have been much
more numerous, and to have been considered a beast of chase. The best authorities agree
in considering this species, common to the forests of Europe, as the origin of our domestic
breed, the usual varieties of which are well known. Another, which seems peculiar to
Cornwall, is without any visible tail, and is stated to be an hereditary variety. {Cuv. n. 489.)
To enumerate the varieties of the Dog now domesticated in Britain would be tedious,
particularly after the luminous manner in which this subject has been treated by Pennant
(Brit. Zool. i. 70.). Britain has been famous for her dogs from remote antiquity. The British
mastiffs were held in such estimation by the Romans, that their emperors appointed an officer
in the island, with the name of Procurator Cynegii, whose business was to transmit thence
such as would prove equal to the ferocious combats of the amphitheatre. Strabo also men
tions that the mastiffs of Britain were in great repute, being trained for war, and used by
the Gauls in their battles.
The Bloodhound, during the troubled periods of English history, was in high estimation,
and much used to track the footsteps of robbers and marauders ; but the breed is now extinct.
A remarkable variety of the Greyhound, more peculiar to Ireland (hence called the Irish
Greyhound or Wolf Dog), is nearly lost, a few couples alone having been preserved in one
of the parks in that island. The Terrier is the best house guard ; whUe the Shepherd, the
Water, and the Newfoundland dogs are probably the most sagacious.
Of ruminating animals now existing in a state of nature, there are but three ; the Stag or
Red Deer, the Fallow Deer, and the Roebuck. It would appear, however, that the first two
are not indigenous to these islands. Mr. Pennant writes — ¦" We have two varieties of faUow
deer, which are said to be of foreign origin : these were introduced by King James I. out of
Norway, which he visited for his intended bride, Anne of Denmark. He first brought some
into Scotland, and from thence transported them to his chases of Enfield and Epping, to be
near his palace of Theobald's." The only memorial of this palace is probably preserved in
the name of Theobald's Road. M. Cuvier, indeed, expresses a doubt whether the stag was
originally European ; but Major Hamilton Smith, with much better reason, considers the
Fallow Deer (Cervus Dama) as indigenous to Europe ; adding, that it is still found wUd
from Sweden to Gibraltar, and from Ireland to Constantinople. The Stag (Cervus Elaphus)
seems to be unquestioned as an indigenous species ; and although the wUd breed is yearly
diminishing in numbers, it is still found in Gloucestershire, the north-west part of Devon,
and in some of the remote districts of Scotland. Pennant, by some unaccountable mistake,
has placed the Stag and the Fallow Deer as varieties of one species.
The Roebuck {Cervus capreolus Ham. Smith) is much less than the two preceding, and
is, indeed, the smallest of European deer. It is remarkably gracefiU and active, habitually
preferring the sides of elevated woods or forests. As he leaves a strong scent, nature has
given him peculiar sagacity to perplex his pursuers : he begins, after a forward dash, bv
doubling over his track, to mislead the hounds, and then by some great bounds he springs
forward to a cover, where he lies down to let the chase pass. The roebuck is now become
very scarce in Britain, and was equally so in Scotland, but we are told it has re-appeared of
late years in Fifeshire, in consequence of the increased plantations. (Brit. An. p. 26.)
The Ox is the only remaining animal of this order which claims a place among the
indigenous quadrupeds. We have before observed, that in remote ages, a gigantic race of
oxen was numerous throughout Europe ; and that, although now extinct, tliere is reason to
believe that the colossal species mentioned by Caesar, as existing in his time, was of this
race," now only known by its fossU bones. These remains lie scattered through the whole
of temperate Europe, in the same strata with the lost species of Elephant; but that the race
was preserved to a much later period is proved by similar bones occurrmg in more recent
formations, as in peat mosses, drained lakes, marshes, and beds of sand. The wild races,
of inferior size, belonging to this species, may probably, as Major Smitli observes, even now
exist in Asia. Iiowever this may be, it appears certain tliat the real Urus was found wUd
in the Vosges mountains, and in the forests of Ardennes and Germany ; whUe its existence
in England is mcontestably proved by Fitz-Stephen, who spealvs of the Uri silvestres, which
in his time (that is, about 1150) infested the great forests — ^round London !
The only existing breed of wild oxen now known, is the white Urus, or Urus scoticus of
Ham. Smith. Its skull agrees with the fossU breed in being " square from tlie orbits to
the occipital cro.st, somewhat liollow at the forehead, and tlie horns sliowing a peculiar rise
fi-om their root, at tlie siilo of tho above crest, upwards, and tlipn bendmg outwards, then
iuiward and inward" no domestic race shows this turn." The true Urus was further dis-

Book I.

ENGLAND.

335

Wild Scottish Ox.

tinguished by a mane, which is stUl observed about two inches long, in old bulls of the Scot
tish race (fig. 118.). Wlien this breed was exterminated
from the open forests is not known ; but it was confined
to parks long before the Reformation. The colour is en
tirely white, with the muzzle wholly black. Their man
ners are singular : upon perceiving a stranger, they gallop
wildly in a circle round hun, stop and gaze, toss their
heads, and show signs of defiance ; this is repeated seve
ral times, each circle being made smaller, till they ap
proach sufficiently near to make an effective charge. The
cows conceal their young eight or ten days: and when
one of the herd is wounded or enfeebled, the others gore
it to death. The breed is still preserved at ChiUingham
Castle, near Berwick-upon-Tweed, WoUaston in Notting
ham, Gisbume in Craven, Lunehall in Cheshire, and at Chartley in Staffordshfre.
¦ The domestic Ox (Bos Taurus), considered by some as a variety, and by others as a dis
tinct species from the last, is supposed by Hamilton Smith to have been first domesticated
by the Caucasian nations of western Asia. It is stated to have fourteen ribs, whereas those
of the B. Urus are but twelve ; a distinction sufficiently important to sanction the belief of
a specific difference. Whether or not this parent of our domestic races ever existed in these
islands in a state of nature, is very doubtful. The various breeds for which Britain has long
been justly celebrated wUl be noticed under the head of domestic animals.
The marine and cetaceous maimmalia are few, and are not very generally dispersed. Two
species of seal have been noticed by Pennant. The Piked Whales (Balanoptera musculus
and boops), the Razor-back Whale, and several others of the great northem cetacea, wander
near the Hebrides and Orkney islands, and occEisionally visit the shores of Northumberland
and Yorkshire. The Porpoise and the Grampus have a wider range, and large shoals roam
unmolested near all the coasts.
Exterminated native animals. In every country the increase of civilization and agricul
ture is marked by the progressive diminution and final extirpation of the larger quadrupeds,
particularly of such as are injurious to man. Among those which history clearly informs us
were once living in Britain, the most remarkable are the Bear, the Wolf, the Beaver, and
the wUd Boar. To the writings of Pennant and Hamilton Smith we are indebted for the
following notes on these lost inhabitants of our forests.
It appears that Bears, in the time of Plutarch, were transported from Britain to Rome,
where they were much admired. They appear to have been extuict in Britain long before
Queen Elizabeth's time.
Wolves. It seems to have been a vulgar error that the wolf was extirpated in Britain
by the salutary edicts of King Edgatr, who accepted their tongues and heads as tribute, or as
a commutation for certain crimes : for in the reign of Edward I. these animals had again
increased to such a degree, that officers were appointed to promote their destruction, and
lands were held by hunting and destroying them. Wolves infested Ireland many centuries
after then- extmction in England ; some having been killed so late as 1710. In Scotland,
the last on record was destroyed in 1680.
The Beaver was still an inhabitant of the Welsh rivers in 1188, as is attested, according
to Pennant, by Giraldus Cambrensis ; but even at that remote period they must have con
siderably diminished, as the historian only mentions their being found on the river Teivi.
Local names of other waters in the principality attest their existence in other places. FossU
remains of this species are stated to have been found in beds of marl, under peat moss in
Berkshire ; and simUar bones have occurred in Perthshire and Berwicksliire.
The Wild Boar, from which have sprang the domestic breeds of swine, must be reckoned
among mdigenous quadrupeds, although now extinct in Britain. William the Conqueror
punished those who killed the Wild Boar, the Stag and the Roebuck, by the loss of their
eyes. Fitz-Stephen affirms that the vast forest, which in his tune stood on the north side of
London, was the retreat of Stags, Fallow Deer, Wild Boars and Bulls. At a more recent
period, Charles the First turned out Wild Boars in the New Forest ; but they were destroved
durmg the civU wars.
Fossil quadrupeds. The splendid discoveries that have resulted from the investigations
of Buckland, ManteU, Conybeare, and other eminent geologists, have opened a field of re
search, which m Britain had long been overlooked or neglected. Without entermg into the
question whether these fossU remains belong to animals which did or did not at some period
mhabit the spots wherem their bones have been found, it is sufficient to confine ourselves to
simple facts. The remains of the cave bear of Dr. Buckland occur in several caverns and
are sufficient fo prove the living animal must have equalled a horse in size. The Kirkdale
and Plymouth caves abound with the bones of an extinct hyaena, somewhat resembling- in
Its osteology that now existing in South Africa ; with these have been found the bones of a
tiger, which must have been as large as the Bengal species. The tuslcs, teeth, and other

336

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Paet HL

Jaw of Marsupial Animal.

The long-horned Ox.

fragments of an extinct species of elephant, totally different from those now in existence,
have been detected in marl clay, &c. joined with those of two
other gigantic quadrupeds, a rhinoceros and hippopotamus; while
the jaw of a marsupial animal, unknown among the existing
race of beings, has been found in the Stonesfield slate quarries
(fig. 119.)
Domestic quadrupeds. No nation, perhaps, has been more
solicitous to improve their originally poor breeds of domesti
cated quadrupeds than the British ; and hence their present superiority over most of those
on the Continent. Under this head we commence with the ruminating animals, as the ox,
the sheep, and the goat, so essential in supplying food and clothing to man ; whUe the horse,
the ass, and the dog assist him in his labour, or protect his property.
The principal breeds of oxen more peculiar to Great Britain have been arranged by Major
Hamilton Smith under nine divisions. Of these, three belong to England, three to Scotland,
two to Wales, and one to Guernsey.
The long-homed or Lancaster breed {fig. 120.), as the name implies, is remarkable for
long horns; they have firm thick hides, long close hair,
large hoofs, and give in proportion less mUk, but more
cream. They are of various colours, but are in general
finched, that is, with a white streak above the spine,
and a white spot inside the houghs. The improved
Leicester is a slight variety, originally bred near Co
ventry. The short-horned breed includes those that are named
the Holdemess, Teeswater, Yorkshire, Durham, and
Northumberland. This has been the most improved,
producing usually twenty-four quarts of mUk per day,
and three firkins of butter per season. Their colour varies, but is generally red and white
mixed ; called by the graziers flecked.
The middle-horned includes the Devon, Hereford, and Sussex breeds : they are active,
hardy, and much esteemed for draught : but although they fatten early, do not mUk so well
as the last. The pure Devons are of a high red colour, without spots, a light dun ring
round the eye, fine in bone, clear neck, thin faced, and the taU set on high : the north Devon
is most esteemed for eating. The Sussex and Hereford are latrger, the ox weighing from 60
to 100 stone.
The Scottish breeds may be arranged under the Polled, the Highland, and the Fifeshire.
The Polled Galloway is the most esteemed : it is straight in the back, the hair soft, the
colour black or dark brindled, and the size not large. They travel well, and reach the
London markets without deterioration. The Suffolk Dun is a variety of this race. The
Highland race includes several varieties, the most valuable ones being the West Highland,
Argyle, or Skye, and the Kyloe from the Hebrides. The Norlands is another variety, with
coarse hides, long legs, and of a narrow make. The Orkney or Shetland are very diminu
tive : an ox weighing about 60 lbs. a quarter, and a cow 40 lbs. Their colours are various,
and their shapes bad ; but they give an abundance of excellent mUk, and fatten rapidly.
The Fifeshire appears an improved breed of the Highlainds, crossed with the Cambridge
shire ; they are black, spotted with gray ; the horns small, white, and very erect : a variety
occurs in Aberdeenshire.
The Welsh have two breeds : the first is large, dark brown, with some white ; the legs
long and slender ; the horns white, and turned upwards : these, next to the Devon, are the
best in yoke, and are a cross of the long-homed : the second is lower, well formed, black
with little white, and are good milkers. The Alderney or Guernsey race is proverbially
small : their colour is mostly yellow or light red ; marked witli white about the face and
limbs, and with crumpled homs. The true breed is luiown by being yellow within the ears,
and at the root of the tail and its tuft.
Respecting draught Oxen, we cannot refrain from here inserting an excellent and judi
cious remark of Pennant. " It is now," observes this sensible writer, " generally allowed,
that, in many cases, oxen are more profitable in the draught than horses : their food, harness,
and shoes being cheaper ; and should they be lamed or grow old, an old working beast wUl
be as good meat, and fatten as well, as a young one." {Brit. Zool. i. 28.)
The Sheep is scarcely inferior in utility to the ox : and tlie breeds now cultivated in
Britain, taking all tlieir qualities into consideration, are perhaps tlie most valuable in the
world. It is a curious fact, that the fiuned Merino sheep of Spain originated from the Eng
lish breed, sent to that country by Edward IV. as a present to King John of Arragon. {Bah.
Chron. p. 206.) Major II. Smith estimates the present annual value of wool shorn in Eng
land, at five millions sterling.
The British sheep, according to Mr. Culley, may be arranged under fourteen different
breeds, and some others might also be enumerated. These may be classed under two prin-

Book I.

ENGLAND.

337

cipal divisions ; those derived fi-om the ancient race bemg fiimished with horns, while the
others in general have none.
Of the horned breeds, the most ancient is the black-faced {fig. 121.), still met with m
some heathy parts of Yorkshire, and the adjacent northern counties: the wool is coarse and
shaggy. The Norfolk and Suffolk sheep, also, have the horns large and spiral, with the face
black, but the wool is short and fine : they have a voracious appetite, and a restless dispo
sition. In the Dorset the fece is no longer black, but both sexes are usually horned. This
breed is remarkable for producing lambs at almost every season, and is therefore highly valu
able for supplying the London markets with house lamb. The Wiltshire is a much larger
variety, having no wool on the belly. The Hertfordshire is a fine productive variety, with
short tails. The Exmoor comes from Devonshire : it is small, the wool long, and the face atnd
legs white. Scotland furnishes three breeds of horned sheep ; the Dun-faced, the Shetland,
and the Hebridean.

122

The Black-Faced Sheep.

.i*HJiHI\l,i^|Hll>i*

The Hereford Sheep.

The hornless race may be divided into nijie breeds. The Lincoln has long wool and a
white face : in the Teeswater the wool is shorter and lighter, and the legs longer. The
Dishley, or new Leicester, is distinguished by a clean head, and the excellency of its flesh.
The Devonshire Nets, like the three preceding, are long-wooUed ; they have white faces and
legs, thick necks, short legs, and large bones. The short-woolled hornless breeds are the
following : — The Hereford (fig. 122.) have very fine wool, which grows close to their eyes,
the legs and face being white : the store sheep of this country are called CoUings or Rylands.
The South Down, principally cultivated on the chalky downs of Sussex, have the face and
legs gray, and are highly esteemed for the table. The Cheviot have the head bare and clean,
and are sometimes spotted with gray or dun ; the fleece is very short and fine. The Hird-
wicke is peculiar to the rocky districts of Cumberland, and is speckled on the face and legs.
The Goat, which in some parts of Italy supplies the only milk and butter known to the
inhabitants, is of little utility in a country abounding in sheep and oxen. But to the Welsh
mountaineers it is a valuable animal : the suet will make excellent candles ; the meat is
little inferior to venison, and those who have habitually feasted upon mountain kid, know
how superior its flavour is to lamb.
The Horses of Britain, improved as they have been by the most sedulous care, next to
the Arabian, are the finest in the world. "The British breeds, originally but ill adapted for
the saddle, have progressively unproved ; and the crossing of the indigenous kind with those
of other countries has produced four principal classes of horses, — the Racer, the Hunter, the
Roadster, and the Dray Horse ; to these may be added the Poney, one of the original breeds.
The Ornithology of Great Britain, after the general observations already made on that of
Europe, wUl be here but briefly dwelt upon. The native birds may be arranged under three
natural divisions: — 1. the rapacious; 2. the perching; and 3. the walking, running and
swimming orders.
The rapacious birds, as in all other countries, are the smallest in number, but the most
formidable in strength. Among these the Golden Eagle {Aquila chrysaetos,fig. 123.) is the
123 largest known in the British islands: this noble bird
weighs twelve pounds, and is still found among the
highest of the Welsh and Cumberland mountams ; it is
said also to breed m Orkney. The Erne or Sea Eagle
IS somewhat smaller, and is principally confined to the
maritime rocks of Wales and North Britain. The Fal
con tribe is more numerous in species ; but the destruc
tion to which they are doomed by game preservers has
Golden Eagle ^°,°^ ^^^^ dimmishmg their numbers : some species are
_, „ /D J- rr 7- s ^™°st extirpated, and nearly aU are now become rare.
The Os^rey{Pandwn HaluBtus), or Fishmg Eagle, is now seldom met with. The two
species of Henharrie (OircMS cyaneus and cinerascens) were first discriminated by Montaa-u
The Owls are similar to those of the Continent, but the great Snowy Owl has onlv of lat^
years been detected m the north of Scotland as a native bird. The Eagle or great horned
Owl IS of the same size; the former hunting by day, the latter by night. The Barn or
^le lob'^ '' " *° "''^''^ ' ^""^ ""^^^^'^ *° ^^ distributed over the whole habi-
yolV' 29 2S

338

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part IU.

124

The toothed-bill or perching birds {Dentirostres Sw.) are those fiimished with a notch to
their bUl, by which then: food is held firm before it is swallowed. Some are formed to climb,
others to hop on the ground, and a few catch their food (like the swallows) upon the wing.
They are united to the rapacious order by the shrikes or butcher-birds, so called from their
singular custom of impaling insects and small birds upon the thorns rounti their nests. Three
species of these birds are known in Britain. The melody of the Blackbird and Song-thrush
need not be eulogised ; and during spring and summer the woods and hedges are enlivened
by numbers of warblers, or small insectivorous birds, which visit them in the breeding season :
among which the Nightingale is most conspicuous. Large fiocks of Finches, and similar
hard-billed birds, feast, in winter, upon the red berries of the black and white thorn; whUe
Crows, Starlings, and Fieldfares devour prodigious quantities of slugs, worms, and other
animals noxious to the farmer. The Woodpeckers, Creepers, and Titmice prey only upon
those insects prejudicial to trees ; the Swallows, during summer, join with the warblers in
keeping within due bounds the myriads of insects, which would otherwise increase to an
alarming extent.
The entire-billed birds (Curtipedes Sw.) are those which have no notch at the end of their
bill, and never seek their ftxid among trees : they are united to the former by the Pigeons,
and comprise the gallinaceous, wading, and swimming tribes. Among the first Britain pos
sesses the Partridge, Grouse, and Quail, but more particularly the Great Bustard, the largest
of the European gallinacea: its weight is about 25 lbs., and its flesh exceUent. To enume
rate the wading and swimming birds would far exceed our limits : they visit the coasts prin
cipally in winter, and depart in spring.
The exterminated birds are very few; for although some, as the Egret (fig. 124.) and the
Crane, are no longer #ommon in Britain, yet individuals are some
times met with, showing that man and not nature has scaired them
from their hereditary range. Perhaps the only extirpated species
is the cock of the wood, or capercaUlie grouse ( Tetrao Urogallus L.),
a noble bird of game, weighing near thirteen pounds ; once com
mon in the fir forests of Scotland, but which has not been seen, it
is said, since 1760. «
Of domesticated birds the Pheasant originally came from Asia
Minor; the Guinea Hen from Africa; the Peacock and Fowl from
India; and the Turkey from America.
The fishes, both marme and freshwater, are numerous: most are
edible, and many highly esteemed. Whale, and other cetacea, are
mostly confined to the northem shores: but those of the west are
famous for the herring and pilchard fisheries. The John Doree is
as remarkable for its grotesque form as for its exquisite flavour.
The Turbot, Cod, Sole, &c. are well known. The chief river fish
are the Salmon, Trout, and Char ; and these are principally fiir-
nished by the northern counties. The sahnon fisheries are highly important, and have long
engaged the attention of the legislature: the eggs of one fish wUl often exceed 15,000.
The Char is confined to the lakes of Cumberland and Westmoreland ; those of Wmdermere
are the best, and when potted become a great delicacy. The Herring and Sprat supply the
poor, during winter, with a wholesome dish ; whUe the citizens of London consider another
species, called the White Bait, as possessmg a peculiarly fine flavour. The Anchovy is not
unknown m some of our estuaries ; and even the Flying-fish has occasionally wandered to
the Welsh coast.
The reptiles of Britam, known m a livmg state, are very few. Besides the Warty Eft
(Lacerta palustris Lin., fig. 125.) there are two other water lizards, and probably as many
125 126

Egret.

Warty Eft. Common Viper.
soecirs inhabiting the land. Of the Frog and Toad two sorts of each occur. The snakes
Td fc, blind-wo?m are harmless ; the Common Viper (fig. 126. being the only venomous
reptile : yet thTs species varies so much in its colours, that naturalists have described it under
several names. The Great or Gigantic Frog of Pennant is only a variety of the common
^"'Extinct reptiles. The researches of geologists have brought to light the remams of such
gigantic and extraordinary reptiles, that, but for such mdubitable proofs their existence
might be thought fabulous. At tho head of these we may place ^e M«<?°'»*««?:"*'/,f/'°
bling both a lizard and a crocodile, whose probable length was near 40 feet ! Ihe Ichthyo

Book I.

ENGLAND.

339

saurus, uniting the characters of a lizard with the snout of a dolphin, the teeth of a croco-
dUe, the fins of a turtle, and the vertebrae of a fish, is scarcely less wonderfiil. The Plesio
saurus is StiU more extraordmatry ; for with the fins of a turtle, it had the head of a lizard, and
a long neck, formed like the body of a serpent. Lastly, the remams of several distinct
species of crocodUes have been discovered in simUar strata. All tliese attest the existence,
at some unknown period, of a stupendous race of aquatic monsters, which have long been
swept away from the existing animal creation.
Among the radiated animals, vast shoals of transparent Medusa wander about the coast
during summer, and are frequently by a sudden change of wind cast up on the beach in
great numbers. But the deep recesses of the ocean frequently give to the nets of the
fisherman animals still more singular. The Black Line Worm, or Sea Long Worm {Lin-
naus longissimus Sow., fig. 127.), whose mouth is hardly a quarter of an inch wide, is said,
by the fishermen, to measure twelve fathoms in length : it is soft, and so fragile, that the
entire animal seems not yet to have been procured. 128
127

Black line Worm.

May-blo8Bom Coral.

Ellis was the first to make known the tme nature of those plant-like productions generally
termed corallines. Of Corals, the British seas afford few native species ; the largest and
most elegant is the May-blossom coral {Caryophyllia ramea), (fig. 128.), common in the
Mediterranean, and occasionally found upon the Cornish coast : it is cinnamon-coloured ; and
retains, for many years, a slight scent, like that of hawthorn.
The Conchology of Britain, in the number and interest of its species, compensates for its
deficiency in large or richly coloured objects. The beautifiil varieties of Pecten opercu-
laris are, nevertheless, frequently variegated with the most lovely tints of yellow, orange,
pink, and deep red ; they also afford a nutritious food to the lower classes. The most cele
brated edible shell-fish is the oyster, well known and highly prized by the luxurious Romans ;
and every one is acquainted with the superior excellency of those from Colchester and
MUton. Fluviatile shells, in a country so humid and watered as Britain, are more abundant
than towards the south of Europe. Most of the rivers produce Unio pictorum (fig. 129. a),
and Unio ovatus (b) : Cyclas cornea (d) is generally found in the same situations. The ponds
and stagnant waters are frequently covered with Lymneus palustris (e), ovatus (g), and
Planorbis comeus (Z) ; whUe the large Duck-mussel (Anodon anatinus) (c) burrows in the
129

130

Unio Margaritifera.

Fluviatile Shells.

muddy bot1»m, A little fragUe sheU, Succinea amphibia (/), crawls upon rushes and aquatic
plants; and Physa fontmalis (h), Ancylus lacustris (t), and Planorbis vortex (k) prefer clear
shady streams and ditches overhung with wood.
Native pearls were reckoned by the Romans among the productions of Britain They
are the produce of a fluviatUe bivalve shell, the Unio margaritifera, {fig. 130 ), still com-
mtsn m many of the northern counties ; but it was on the banks of the Welsh rivers that the
British pearl fishery was chiefly carried on.

340

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part IIL

in nnn ^^"o- *^°"S'dering the nature of the climate, it may excite surprise, that more than
1U,000 different species have actually been found to inhabit Britain. Yet the bee mav be
reckoned the only insect whose services are immediately and obviously beneficial to man
Among the butterflies, are many of great beauty; while Eurymus Europome, or the Cloudeti
ciuipliur {fig. 131.), IS considered one of the rarest British msects.

Clouded Sulphur

Bed Grouse.

Scotland. The zoology of Scotland exhibits many arctic animals as common inhabitants,
which are only known as rare visitants to the westem shores of England ; m other respects,
it does not materially dUfer from that of South Britain. The northem islands give shelter
to innumerable wild fowl, and to many peculiar land bu-ds, as the Ptarmigan and the Golden
Eagle. The great homed or Eagle Owl, is found to breed in Orkney. The Highlands are
famous for an abundance of Grouse, the red species (Lagopus scoticus, fig. 132.) being the
only bird peculiar to Great Britain.
The domestic animals are of a small size ; in other respects, they are highly valuable.
The polled or hornless cattle, with the Highland and the Fifeshire, have already been noticed.
The Kyloe breed are so named, because in their progress to the south from the Hebrides,
they cross the kyloes or ferries in the main land and Westem Islands. {Ham. Smith.)
The same writer considers that the sheep of this kingdom spring from three principal breeds :
the first is generally named dun-faced sheep ; they are a small, homed race, satid to have
been originally imported from Denmark or Norway, and are stiU found, with slight varia
tions, in the North of Scotland and the isles. In Kincardineshire, this breed is known by
its yellow face and legs, and by the dishevelled texture of its fleece, which is in part coarse,
and in part remarkably fine wool ; its fiesh also is delicate and highly flavoured. The Shet
land breed carry a very fine wool, in three different successions yearly, two of which resem
ble long hair more than wool, and are called Fors and Scuddau The wool is of various
colours. The Hebridian sheep is the smallest animal of its kind ; its homs are usually short
and straight, the face and legs white, the tail very short, and the wool of different colours.
The Highland Ponies and Shetland Ponies (fig. 133.), notwithstanding their diminutive
size, are greatly esteemed for their activity and strength.
133 134

,  „ Scottish Greyhound.
Highland Pony.
Among the numerous breeds of dogs, there appear to be tliree more particiUarly found in
Scotland : the true Shepherd's Dog, or Colly, is stiU preserved, unmixed, in many of the
sheep districts : the Shetland Hound, approaches in character to the Greenland Dog ; whUe
the Scottish Greyhound {fig. 134.), common in the Highlands, is possessed of great sagacity,
strength, and swiftness.
The Zoology of Ireland has been much neglected ; nor are we prepared to sliow what
peculiarities belong to its natural history. The Irish Wolf Dog, called also the Irish Grey
hound, has generally been thought peculiar to tliis island ; but otiiers consider it the same
breed as the French mfitin (Canis Inniarius L.) It is a noble animal, standing near four
feet in height, and seems to have been mainly instrumental in clearing the country of the
numerous wolves which once over-ran it. The cattle and sheep are inferior to those of
Britain. Yot Ireland exports vast quantities of saltecl provisions, besides the supplies fiir-
nished to tho navy and shipping mtcrnsta. The remains of the Fossil Elk {fig. 135.) are of
frequent occurrence in beds of shell marl, beneath peat. Its antlors measure from the
extreme tip of each, no less tlian ten feet ten inches, and from the tip of the right horn tc

Book I. ENGLAND: 341
its root, five feet two mches. Remams of the same animal have been also found in England,
and a very perfect specunen in the Isle of Man. The Irish shores fiirnish the conchologist
with several native shells, seldom seen on the British coasts, particularly the Isocardia cor,
01- Heart Cockle {fig. 136.). 136

135

Fossil Elk. TT .^11
Heart Cockle.
Sect. III. — Historical Geography.
Britain was originally peopled from Gaul, by mhabitants of the Celtic race. For a long
tune it appears to have been noticed only as a country supplying tin ; a rare and usefiil metal,
not then found m any other part of Europe, or in Westem Asia. To obtam this valuable
mineral, the coasts of Britain were at an eaxly period sought by the ships of various mer
cantUe states, especially the Carthaginians ; and the tin of Tarshish, mentioned by Ezekiel,
was doubtless brought from the mines of Cornwall.
Britain was invaded by the Romans, about fifty-five years before the Christian era. Of
the thirty tribes of barbarians among whom the country was then divided, the most consid
erable were the Belgae in the west, the Brigantes in the north, the Silures in South Wales,
the Iceni in Norfolk and Suffolk, and the Cantii, who occupied Kent and part of Middlesex.
The latter had made some progress in agriculture and the arts of civilized life ; but the
other inhabitants derived their subsistence from flocks and herds, clothed themselves in skins,
and painted their bodies. The precaxious authority of the chiefs derived support from the
influence exercised by the Draids, in one of the most terrible forms of superstition that ever
enslaved the human mind. Besides the ordinary implements of war, they had armed chariots,
which they managed with surprising dexterity ; and they were united in a species of politi
cal confederacy, of which Cassivelaunus was the head. They could not, however prevent
the landing of Julius Caesar, but that conqueror was. prevented by more urgent affairs from
prosecuting an enterprise of which the difficulties were not likely to be compensated by its
glory. In the reign of Claudius the hardihood of Caractacus, and the heroic desperation of
Boadicea, faUed of exciting an effectual resistance to the disciplined legions of Rome, whose
victorious progress was continued during the reign of Nero. In that of Domitian, the Ro
man dominion was extended by the wisdom and valour of Agricola, who defeated the Cale
donians uilder Gralgacus, at the foot of the Grampians ; and the only part of the island which
remained unsubdued was the region which lies north of that natural rampart.
The Britons now subjected to the Roman empire were compelled to cultivate the habits
and arts of peace : but when that empire, weakened, distracted, and verging to its decline,
was compelled to withdraw its protection from its distant provinces, the Scots and Picts,
emerging from their mountain fastnesses, then broke in, and committed dreadful devastations
among their unwarlike neighbours. The Romans had recourse to the expedient of frontier
waUs ; first, one between the Forth and Clyde, called the Wall of Antonine, and afterwards
a simUar rampart between the Tyne and Solway, called the Wall of Severus. About the
middle of the fifth century, the Roman forces weie finaUy withdrawn, and the Britons
were left to depend entirely on their own resources.
The Saxons were called in as allies, about forty years after the dissolution of the Roman
government. These hardy adventurers, originating from the north of Germany, and occupy
ing the line of coast from the mouth of the Rhine to Jutland, had long infested by their
piracies the neighbouring parts of Britain and Gaul. They eagerly accepted an invitation
to a country so superior to their own. In the year 450, 1600 men under Hengist and Horsa,
arrived in Britam, and obtained an easy victory over the Scots and Picts. The success of
the two brothers attracted numerous bands of their countrymen; and in the course of a cen
tury, colonies arrived from the mouths of the Elbe, the Weser, and the Rhine, chiefl>
composed of three valiant tribes, the Jutes, the Old Saxons, and the Angles. From allies
they became formidable enemies to the Britons ; whom, after a long and sanguinary struffffle
of one hundred and fifty years, they compeUed to retire into Wales and Cornwall.
Thus was established the Heptarchy, or Seven Saxon Kingdoms in Britain : viz. 1 Kent •
2. Sussex, including Surrey; 3. EastEnglas, including Norfolk, Suffolk, the Isle of Ely and'
Cambridgeshire ; 4. Wessex, including all the southern counties from Berkshire to Cornwall ¦
5. Northumberiand, mcluding aU the northem counties of England, and the southern coun
ties of Scotland to the Frith of Forth ; 6. Essex, includmg Essex, Middlesex, and part of
¦4y

342 DESCRffTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paet HI.
Hertfordshire; 7. Mercryc, or Mercia, the largest division, including the midland districts
of England to the confines of Wales.
About the year 800 these small states were united into one kingdom, under the name of
England, by Egbert, king of Wessex. The Anglo-Saxon dynasty derived its chief lustre
from Alfred, one of the wisest and most virtuous monarchs that have appeared in any age or
country. He delivered his country from the thraldom of the Danes ; but in the course of
the ensuing century, however, they regained the ascendency ; and in 1017, Canute, king
of Denmark and Norway, added England to his dominions. It was held successively by his
sons, Harold and Hardicanute ; but on the death of the latter, it was restored to the Saxon
dynasty, and Edward the Confessor ascended the throne.
The conquest by WiUiam of Normandy, in 1066, overthrew for a time the liberties of the
people of England. Claimmg the crown by virtue of a pretended grant from Edward the
Confessor, and acquu-ing it by victory over Harold II., himself an usurper, to the prejudice
of Edgar Atheling, the rightfiil heir, he maintained by tyranny a dominion gained by fraud
and violence. One of the consequences of the acquisition of the English crown by WUliam
was to convey to the kings his successors certain claims on the French territory, which led
to long, expensive, and sanguinary wars.
Henry the Second, surnamed Plantagenet, son of Geofl3-y of Anjou, who married MatUda,
daughter of Henry L, in the right of his father, was master of Anjou and Touraine; in that
of his mother, of Normandy and Maine; m that of his wife, of Guienne, Poitou, Samtonge,
Auvergne, Perigord, Angoumois, and the Limousm. To these states he afterwards annexed
that of Bretagne. The possession of provinces composing above one-third of the French
monarchy, and superior in opulence to the rest of the territory, rendered this vassal more
powerfiil than his liege lord, atnd contributed to provoke that rivalry which for ages existed
between England and France. Henry the Second acquired the sovereignty of Ireland ;
Edward the First annexed Wales to his dominions, and for a time subjugated Scotland.
The contending claims of the houses of York and Lancaster for the crown of England, after
a civU war of nearly sixty years, were adjusted by the marriage of Henry the Seventh with
Elizabeth, daughter of Edward the Fourth. Among the memorable events that occurred
under the Plantagenets, may be noticed the signature of Magna Charta, extorted by the
barons from King John ; the rise of the House of Commons in the reign of Henry the Third ;
and the reformation of the church, commenced by John Wickliffe, ui 1369.
The reign of Henry the Seventh was signalized by the overthrow of the feudal sway, and
by the introduction of the modern system of polity. The emancipation of the kingdom from
papal dominion was effected by his successor. In the reign of EUzabeth, the most strenuous
exertions were made to strengthen the maritime power of England, ctnd extend her com
mercial intercourse. The result of these measures was to raise tlie nation to a very pros
perous and flourishing condition, and to overturn the lawless domination of the nobles,
substituting for it, however, an authority almost absolute on the part of the sovereign.
The union of the two crowns on the accession of James the Sixth of Scotland to the throne
of England, terminated those animosities which had proved alike injurious to both countries.
The despotic conduct of Charles the First led to a struggle in which he lost both his crown
and his life. In the interregnum which ensued under the Commonwealth, the vigUamt,
energetic, end decisive policy of Oliver Cromwell exercised a commanding influence over
every cabinet in Europe. Charles the Second suffered England to lose the ascendency
which she had attained, and the infatuated conduct of James the Second led to the revolu
tion of 1688, from which epoch to the present time, the industry, commerce, and wealth of
Great Britain, rapidly rose to a height unporaUeled in any other nation, ancient or mtDdem ;
but her political power sustained various fluctuations. She acquired in the East and in the
West two empires, each fer more extensive than her own territory. That in the East she
retains and is continually extending ; that in the West, having become independent, is her
rival in commerce, and manifests a disposition to dispute, at no distant period, her maritime
supremacy. Among the memorable transactions and events of Uiis period may be ranked
the union with Scotland in 1707 ; that with Ireland in 1801 ; tlie Scottish rebellions in 1715
and 1745 ; the Irish rebellion in 1798 ; and a series of wars with France, occurring at
intervals rarely exceeding eight or ten years. The contests arising from the French
revolution were distinguished by the most brilliant naval achievements, and afterwatrds by
successes which raised the military glory of England to a level with her maritime renown,
rendering her influence paramount among the states of Europe.
Sect. IV. — Political Geography.
The constitution of Great Britain centres in the laws by which the country is governed,
and in tho union of powers by which the laws are made and tlie government is administered.
The lei(ishifivc power is vested in the Parliament, consisting of the King, an hereditary
lovorcign; tho Loans, an hereditary aristocracy ; ami the House of Commons, consisting of
members chosen by tho people from among themselves, and therefore said to represent tlie
commons of the realm. The executive power is entrusted to the king.

Book I. ENGLAND. 343
Of the three estates of the realm thus composmg the legislature, tlie King is the highest :
he is the head or chief of the pariiament : and except '" «-™ "^X'd J prrred S^^
he held unless convoked by him, nor can it except by him be d's^oljed^ or prorogued His
assent is reauisite to ffive the force of law to any measure proposed by either ot Uie; two
houses and Creed upo^ by them. Propositions of laws, or bills as they are technically
called i^v be brouffht forward in either house ; all money bUls must take their origin m the
House rCommonsf but only m one mstance can the king initiate an act of pariiament, and
Satfs, an acTIgra'ce, for the pardon of persons after a rebeUion, or for the release of msol-
""^ThtlS is not supposed to hold his throne by divine right, or in virtue of any indefea
sible hereditary claim. The nation, by its supreme councU, has dictated certam rules of
exclusion with regard to the succession, of which the most important is, that the sovereign
shall maintain the Protestant reformed religion, and, either at his coronation or on the first
day of the first parliament, shaU repeat and subscribe the declaration against ptipery. On
the death or demise of the king, his hefr becomes instantly mvested with the kmgly office
^"B^f constitutional fiction accordant with the feudal policy, aU lands are held mediately or
immediately from the crown. Thus the kmg is entitled to all lands left by the subsiding of
the sea; and estates may revert to him by escheat, from the commission of crime by their
possessors. He is sovereign in aU ¦seas and great rivers ; he alone has a prerogative to erect
beacons and lighthouses ; he is entitied to all royal mines of gold and sUver.and is entrusted
with tiie comage. All persons bom in his dommions are his subjects, and owe to him an
allegiance which they can neither renounce nor transfer to any foreign P™ce. He is su
preme head of the church withm his dominions; and as patron paramount of all the benefices
in England, he has a right to present to all dignities and benefices of the advowson of arch
bishoprics and bishoprics during the vacancy of then- respective sees. He is the fountain of
justice, and has an undoubted prerogative m creatuig officers of state, mmisters, judges, and
other functionaries. To him, as parens patria, belongs the care of aU who are unable to
take care of themselves ; he has an origmal right to supermtend the disposal of charities ;
and in all such cases the application is to the Court of Chancery. He has, in certain cases,
the high prerogative of pardoning, and likewise that of issuing special proclamations for tiie
prevention of offences. The power of making war or peace is lodged singly m the king. He
is held to be incapable of doing wrong, and if an unlawful act be done, the minister mstru-
mental m that act is alone obnoxious to punishment. By virtue of his prerogative the king
may make grants and letters patent, conferring various rights and privileges. Lastiy, the
king cannot be attainted, and is never a minor; though when the crown has devolved to a
very young heir, it has been thought prudent to appoint a regent, or councU of regency.
The same expedient has been adopted when, by reason of grievous iUness, the exercise of
the royal functions has been interrupted.
AU supplies granted by parliament are given to the king ; but of these the largest pro
portion belongs to the public or its creditors ; that which pertains to the king in his distinct
capacity, caUed the Civil List, is the provision for the support of the honour and dignity of
the crown. On the commencement of the reign of WiUiam LV., the civU list was entirely
new-modelled, being limited to the personal expenses of the sovereign, and the maintenance
of his state ; while the branches of administration hitherto defrayed out of it were charged
upon the Consolidated Fund. The sum of 510,000Z. was granted, under the foUowing
heads : —
Privy purse. King's,  -  £60,000
Queen's,  -  50,000
Maintenance of royal establishment, --.-.------- 171,000
Salaries in the departments of Chamberlain, Steward, Master of the horse,
home secret service, &c. --------------- 154,000
Pensions,  75,000
£510,000
Thus the royal prerogative is counterbalanced by the control which the representatives
of the people in parliament exercise over the public purse. The king has the prerogative
of commanding amnes and equipping fleets ; but without the concurrence of his parliament
he cannot maintain them. He can confer appointments to offices ; but without his parlia
ment he cannot pay the salaries. He can declare war ; but without the aid of parliament
he cannot carry it on. He has the exclusive right of assembling parliaments ; but by law
he must assemble a parliament every three years. Though head of the church, he cannot
alter the established religion, or caiU individuals to account for their religious opinions. He
cannot create any new office inconsistent with the constitution or prejudicial to the subject.
He has the privilege of coining money ; but he cannot alter the standard. He has the power
of pardoning offenders ; but he cannot exempt them from making compensation to the injured
parties. Even with the mUitary power he is not absolute, since it is declared in the BUI of

344

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

PartIII.

Rights that a standing army without the consent of parliament is illegal. The king himself
cannot be arraigned ; but if any abuse of power be committed, those who were either the
advisers or the instruments of the measure may be impeached and tried before the House of
Lords ; in which case it is of no avail to plead the king's command, or to produce his pardon.
A dissolution of parliament does not abate an impeachment, neither can the royal authority
interpose to stay or suspend its course. Other restraints on the prerogative exist in the
uncontrolled freedom of speech in parliament, secured by the BUI of Rights, and in the im
portant provisions by which, during the reign of George HI., the independence of the judges
was established.
The House of Lords is composed of the lords spiritual and temporal of England ; sixteen
temporal peers of Scotland ; one archbishop, three bishops, and twenty-eight temporal peers
of Ireland. The roll of the lords spiritual and temporal forming the House of Peers, in the
session of 1833, exhibits 426 lords, including the Catholic peers of England. They are thus
distinguished : —

Royal dukes  4
Archbishops ..•¦•¦  3
Dukes with English titles  21
Marquesses  19

Earla  109
Viscounts  18
Bishops  27
Barons  181

Peers of Scotland  16
of Ireland  38

Total.

The Lords Spiritual are, for England, two archbishops and twenty-four bishops ; and for
Ireland, one archbishop and three bishops ; the English hold then seats for life, the Irish by
rotation. The archbishops rank above all dukes except the princes of the bltxid; the bishops
next below viscounts.
The Lords Temporal are not limited in number, it being the prerogative of the king to
raise to the peerage any of his subjects whom he thinks deserving. They consist of dukes,
marquesses, earls, viscounts, and barons. The sixteen peers of Scotland are, by the articles
of union, elected by the peers of that country from among themselves: the election is
renewed for every parliament. The Peers of Ireland are, as established by the act of union,
four lords spiritual sitting by rotation of sessions, and twenty-eight lords temporal elected for
life by the peers of Ireland. As a supreme court of judicature, the House of Lords exercises
jurisdiction in civil causes upon appeals or writs of error from the inferior courts ; and in
criminal questions, when brought before them, by presentment of the House of Commons, in
the form of an impeachment.
All members of parliament have the privilege for themselves and their menial servants of
being freed from arrests or imprisonment for debt or trespass ; but not from arrests for treason,
felony, or breach of the peace. The peers have other privUeges peculiar to themselves. In
all cases of treason, felony, or misprision of felony, a nobleman is tried by his peers ; but in
misdemeanours, he is tried like a commoner. In judicial proceedings, a peer gives his ver
dict not upon oath, but upon his honour ; he answers also to bUls in chancery upon his honour;
but when examined as a witness in the inferior courts or in the high court of parliament,
either in civil or criminal cases, he must be sworn. Slander against a peer subjects the
offender to veiy heavy punishment, being branded by the law with the term scandalum mag-
natum. Every peer, by license from the king, may make a proxy to vote for him in his
absence, a privilege which cannot be held by a member of the lower house. All bUls which
may affect the rights of the peerage, are, by the custom of parliament, to originate in the
House of Peers, and to suffer no changes or amendments in the lower house.
The House of Commons, as u, distinct branch of the legislature, is the peculiar boast of
the British constitution. In the earliest times of which any record exists in English history,
there appear to have been assemblies of the nation, convoked to deliberate on occasions of
great emergency ; but it was not until (A. D. 1266) after the overthrow of Simon Montfort,
earl of Leicester, that the people were regularly summoned by the king to send represent
atives to the great council of the nation. The crown, littie apprehensive of the formidable
character which the House of Commons was afterwards to assume, fevoured all the steps of
its early progress, hoping by those means to counterpoise the overbearing sway of the great
barons, and at the same time to obtain supplies of money from tiie growing wealth of the
people. The decline of the feudal system had for some time fevoured such a course of policy.
Baronies escheated by forfeiture or for want of issue had been subdivided ; hence arose a
class of men called minor barons, holding by knight's service ; and these beuig too numerous
and too poor to be all called to parliament, and to rank with the greater barons, were allowed
to sit by representatives. Of these knights, each shire wets summoned to send two; writs
to that effect being addressed to the sheriffs of the several counties. The Cinque Ports
probably about the same period sent their barons, and the cities and boroughs their burgesses.
In early times these representatives appear to have considered attendance in parliament as
a hardship ratiier than nn advantage. It was expensive, and, from tiie imperfect police then
established, often insecure ; and the summons, being always tiie prelude to a demand for
money, was by no moans welcome. With the granting of supplies, however, was neces
sarily eombinfvi tho right of petition, of stating grievances, and demanding guarantees; and
these could not, by a sovereign pressed by various exigencies, be always denied.

Book L ENGLAND. 346
The election of tiie Commons never rested on any principle of universal or even general
Eufii-ao-e, excepting perhaps tiiat of knights for each shire. As tiie kings, however, could
only a°ttain their objects by assembling the most powerfiil and mfluential of the people, they
endeavoured to make an equal distribution of tiie right of election, so far at least, as re ated
to property and influence, at the time when such a measure was adapted to countervail the
preponderance of the barons. In after-tunes, when seats m parliament came to be appre
ciated as conferrmg a desirable privUege, and as constituting a powerfiil check on tiie pre
rogative of the monarch, it would have been irregular to have allowed to the king an arbi
trary selection; and all parties adhered to the rights conferred on them by early gift; or long
usage. This permanence of the elective franchise, amidst the local changes tiiat ensued m
the course of ages, gave rise to some very striking anomalies. Manchester, Leeds, and
several other towns, which within the last century have become the commercial capitals of
the kingdom, did not send a smgle representative ; while places once important, but now
dwmdled mto msignificance, returned each two members. CornwaU, at a period when the
rest of the kmgdom was poor and rude, enjoyed an abundant source of opulence in its tin
mines, and retauied a number of chartered boroughs, beyond all proportion greater than those
of any other county. The places holdmg the right of election were in many instances so
small, that what is called the patronage of them was easily acquired ; and that patronage of
course involved the advantage of nominating one or both candidates for the representation.
These were called close boroughs, or, more reproachfully, rotten boroughs. Another anomaly
consisted in a number of what were called treasury boroughs, the nomination of which rested
with the administration. With the view of remedying these defects, the Reform Bill was
passed, in 1832, after long discussion and opposition. By this bill fifty-six of the smallest
boroughs were entirely disfranchised, atnd thirty were reduced from two members to one,
whUe Weymouth and Melcombe Regis were reduced from four to two ; a reduction wats thus
made of 144 members. In the room of these, twenty-two large places, — Manchester, Bir
mingham, Leeds, Sheffield, Greenwich, Sunderland, Devonport, Wolverhampton, Bolton,
Blackburn, Bradford, Brighton, Halifax, Macclesfield, Oldham, Stockport, Stoke-upon-Trent,
Stroud, and four districts of the metropolis, viz. Marylebone, Finsbury, Tower Hamlets,
and Lambeth, — received each the right of electing two members ; while twenty smaller
towns, — Ashton-under-Line, Bury, Chatham, Cheltenham, Dudley, Frome, Gateshead, Hud
dersfield, Kidderminster, Kendal, Rochdale, Salford, Soutii Shields, Tynemouth, Wakefield,
Walsall, Warrington, Whitby, Whitehaven, and Merthyr Tydvil, — acquired the right of
nominating one member each. At the same time twenty-seven counties acquired the power
of sending each two additional members, and seven that of sending one additional member.
The representation of Great Britain now stands as follows : —
English members for counties  143
universities  4
cities and boroughs  324
 471
Welsh members for counties  15
cities and boroughs  14
 29
Scotch members for counties  30
cities and borouglis  23
 53
Irish members for cotmties  64
university  2
cities and boroughs  39
 105
Makinginall  658
The qualifications requisite for a member of the House of Commons, in respect to pro
perty, are these : — A person to be eligible as a member for a county must have a freehold or
copyhold, or must have been mortgagee in possession at least seven years, of a clear estate
of the value of 6001. per annum ; and to be eligible for a city, borough, or other place
except the universities, of the value of 300i. per annum. The person so qualified is also to
be of mature age, and must take the oaths imposed as indispensable to a member of the
legislature. Among the persons who cannot sit ui the House of Commons are judges, cler
gymen, persons holdmg certain offices under the crown, and persons havmg pensions under
the crown durmg pleasure or for any term of years; sheriffs of counties, and mayors and
baUiffs of boroughs, are ineligible in their respective jurisdictions; but a sheriff of one
county IS eligible as knight for another.
The quaUfications required in electors dUfer, as they relate to counties or to borouehs In
the election of county members every member must have a freehold of the clear yearlv
value of forty shUlings, over and above all rents and charges payable out of and in resnect
of the same, and must have been m the actual possession of it for twelve calendar months
unless It came to hun within that time by descent, marriage setUement, devise, or promotion
to a benefice m the church, or to an office. To these freeholders the new bill has added aU
Vol. 1. grn

346 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part m.
persons holding property to the amount of ten pounds on copyhold, or on lease of not less
than sixty years ; and also those occupying lands or tenements for any period, at a rent of
not less than 50Z. per annum.
The qualifications of electors for cities and boroughs were, previous to the present act,
extremely various. The right of voting in different places resided variously in the free
holders, the corporations, the burgage tenants, and sometimes in the whole body of resident
householders. The new act, however, admits only the simple qualification of occupying a
house rated at not less than 101. per annum. Those, however, who were freemen under the
former system are still entitled to vote, although not possessed of the 101. qualification,
provided they reside within the borough.
The mode of proceeding to an election for a county and for a borough is nearly the same.
On a dissolution of parliament, writs, pursuant to a warrant from the king, are issued under
the great seal, addressed to the sheriffs of counties, directing them to summon the people to
elect two knights for each county, and one or two burgesses for each borough. To supply a
vacancy whUe parliament is sitting, the warrant for the writ proceeds from the House of
Commons. A certain day after, the date or teste of the writ is fixed for the election to com
mence ; and on that day the candidate or candidates are put in nomination, at the place
appointed, in the presence of the retummg officer. In a county election, the sheriff or
the under-sheriff is the returning officer ; in a city or borough, the mayor or baUiff. If there
be rival candidates put in nomination, the returning officer calls on the voters for a decision
by a show of the hands, after which the friend of any candidate, if dissatisfied, may demand
a poll. The poll was formerly taken at only one place, and might last for fifteen days ; but
under the new act, the cities and counties are divided into districts, with separate booths, or
polling-places, appropriated to each. The poll is allowed to continue only for two days,
which must be successive, and it must close at four o'clock in the afternoon of the second
day. Poll clerks attend, to record the names of the voters, and their accuracy is watched
by inspectors nominated on each side. The returning officer who presides must, if required,
oblige the candidates to swear to their qualifications. At the close of the election, or
on the following day, the returning officer declares the names of the persons who have the
majority of votes ; and, unless a scrutiny be demanded, he forthwith makes his return.
The duration of a Parliament has, for more than a century, been extended to the term of
seven years, from that of three, to which it was formerly limited. The king, however, has
the power of dissolving parliament at any time ; he can also prorogue it at any time and for
any period ; and, as such prorogation concludes the session, it puts an end to all bUls or other
proceedings depending in either house, which must in the next session be aigain instituted,
as if they had never been begun. Either house, or both houses, may adjourn of their own
accord, and, at their meeting again, may take up the bills and other proceedings in the state
of advancement in which they were left. A session of parliament usuaUy commences in
January or February, and continues until June or July.
At the commencement of every session committees of the whole house are appointed ; one
called the Committee of Supply, to consider the amount required by the crown for the ser
vice of the army, navy, ordnance, and other departments ; and the other the Committee of
Ways and Means, to devise modes of raising, by taixes or loans, the sums which the house
have granted. In this committee of ways and means, the chancellor of the exchequer, in
an exposition technically called the Budget, demonstrates to the house in detail that the
sums voted are sufficient to justify the committee in imposing such taxes, or sanctioning
such loans, as are then recommended. When the two committees are closed, the House of
Commons pass a bUl in which the grants made in the committee of ways and means atre
recapitulated, and directed to be applied to the services voted by the committee of supply,
specifying the particular sums granted for each service.
Parliament have the sole right of making, altering, and amending all the laws of tiie
kingdom, and by their authority alone can taxes be imposed or levied. An annual vote of
the House of Commons is requisite to maintain the land and sea forces at the degree of
strength which is every year fixed and determined upon. By these and other privileges,
the annual meeting of parliament is secured without any express stipulation to tiiat effect
By withholding these annual votes they may testify their disapprobation of the measures of
government, and even compel it to change its ministers ; indeed, tiie principle has now
become indisputable, that the minister who cannot rely on a majority of votes in parliament
is disabled from conducting the affiiirs of the nation.
The Privy Council is composed of persons, appointed by the king, who are bound by oath
to advise their sovereign to the best of tiieir judgment with all the fidelity and secrecy which
thoir station prescribes. The king with the advice of his privy council publishes proclama
tions binding on the subject; but tiiey are to be consonant to, and in execiition of, the laws
of the land. The power of the council is, to inquire into all offences against the govern
ment, and to commit the offenders to safe custody for trial in some of the courts of law ; but
persons so committed aro entitled to their habeas corpus as much as if they had been com
mitted by an ordinary justice of the peace. The privy councU is a court of appeal in plant-

Book I. ENGLAND. 347
ation and admiralty causes, which arise out of the jurisdiction of tiie kingdom, as also in
cases of idiotcy and lunacy. When questions arise between two colonies respectmg the
extent of their charter, " the king in council" exercises original jurisdictwn » them, on the
principles of feodal sovereignty; he also determmes, on the same principle, the validity of
claims to an island or provmce founded upon grant from the- king or his ancestors. But from
all the dommions of the crown excepting Great Britain and Ireland, an appellate jurisdiction,
in tiie last resort, is vested in the privy council. The judicial authority is exercised in a
committee of the whole privy councU, who hear allegations and proofs, and make then-
report to his majesty in councU, by whom judgment is finaUy given. The dissolution of the
privy councU depends on the pleasure of the king, who may at his own discretion discharge
any member, or the whole of them, and appoint another council. It contmues six months
after the demise of the crown, unless sooner determmed by the successor. Any natural-
born subject of England is capable of bemg a member of the privy councU, taking the proper
oaths for security of the government and test for the security of the church. A privy coun
sellor, if he be only a private gentiem-m, is styled right honourable, and takes precedence
of all knights, baronets, and the younger sons of aU barons and viscounts.
A cabmet councU is not, strictly speaking, recognised by the constitution, but by usage
it is regarded as a body selected by the sovereign to conduct the business of the state ; and
the members composing it are held to be the responsible advisers of the crown. The cabinet
councU usually consists of those mmisters of state who exercise the most important functions
of the executive authority; their number and selection depend only on the king's pleasure;
and each member receives a summons for every attendance. Though this body, as consti
tuting what is essentially the government, be composed principally of officers of state ; yet
a privy counsellor selected by the king as a member of his cabuiet councU, may hold his seat
as such, without accepting any particular office. The officers of state are those enumerated
in the following lists : — officers of State forming the Cabinet.
First Lord of the Treasury. Secretary of State for Colonies and War.
Lord Chancellor. Chancellor of the Exchequer.
Lord Privy Seal. First Lord of the Admiralty,
President of the Council. Master-general of the Ordnance.
Secretary of State for the Home Department. President of the Board of Control.
Secretary of State for the Foreign Department. Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster.
Officers of State not of the Cabinet.
Lord Chamberlain Vice-President of the Board of Trade.
Lord Steward. Postmaster-General.
Master of the Horse. Lieutenant-General of the Ordnance.
Secretary at War. First Commissioner of the Land Revenue.
Treasurer of the Navy. Attorney-General.
President of the Board of Trade. Solicitor-General.
Paymaster of the Forces. Ireland.
Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. Vice-Treasurer.
Lord Chancellor. Attorney-General.
Commander of the Forces. Solicitor-General.
Chief Secretary,
That officer of state who holds the appointment of First Lord of the Treasury, is by
eminence the minister. In the event of a change of ministry, the person who is directed
by the king to form another, receives an implied offer of that high office, and is generally
placed at the head of the administration. The first lord of the treasury, that is, the first of
the five lords commissioners for executing the office of lord high treasurer, possesses most
of the powers formerly held by the lord high treasurer, and is sometimes, though not in
variably, chancellor and under treasurer of the exchequer. The revenue applicable to the
general purposes of the state is, with a trifling exception, derived entirely from taxes. In
the course of the last century it increased to an amount unparalleled in the history of any
other country ; but in consequence of the wars in which Great Britain was engaged with
little intermission until the year 1815, it did not keep pace with the expenditure, and an
enormous debt was gradually contracted, the interest on which occasioned a correspondent
increase of taxation.
Since 1817, a deduction has been made of about sixty millions from the principal of the
debt, and about five millions from the annual charge on its account. This diminution has
been prmcipally effected by taking advantage of the fall in the rate of interest since the
peace, and offering to pay off the holders of different stocks, unless they consented to accept
a reduced payment.
The system of funding by which the debt has been rendered national, rests on the prin
ciple of assigning for the amount of a loan, an equivalent amount of nominal capital, bearing
interest charged on the national revenue in half-yearly payments called dividends, or of
terminable annuities also payable half-yearly. Annuities granted for an indefinite period
are called redeemable debt, being redeemable at the option of government when at par ;
those granted for a limited period are called irredeemable debt ; they exist only for a certain
number of years, and a portion of the capital is annually absorbed m the interest. The

348

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY,

Part HI.

fiinds are respectively designated according to the rate per cent, they bear; and the shore
which a public creditor holds in any of them, bemg transferable by sale under the name of
stock, they constitute a kind of circulating capital.
The rate of mterest granted on certain portions of the national debt, though nommally
lower than that of five per cent, allowed by law, has been rendered advantageous to the
lender by being charged on a larger amount of nominal capital than the sum borrowed
Loans have been made ui funds at four and five per cent., but the greater part has been
made in a fund bearing three per cent, interest on the nominal capital, and commonly called
the three per cent, consolidated annuities. The prices of these and other annuities consti
tuting the redeemable debt are rated according to the money value of one hundred iwunds
on such stock ; terminable annuities according to the number of years' purchase which thev
are supposed to be worth. '
Particular taxes were, at an early period of the fimding system, appropriated to defiuy
the mterest of diflerent descriptions of debt; but m the year 1786, the whole were collected
into one fimd, called the Consolidated Fund. The particular branches of revenue included
m It were tiie customs (with the exception of a certam amount applicable to other public
services), the excise, the stamps, the land and assessed taxes, and the post-office. To this
fimd are applicable moneys arismg from other resources, specUied in the annual accounts
Ihe followmg statement shows the progress of the national debt, from the Revolution to
the present time : —

Debts at the Revolution in 1689 

Principal.

Interest.

£
664,263
15,730,439

£ 39355
1,271.(S7

Excess of debt contracted during the reign of WiUiam IIL above debt
paid off. 

16.394, 7(K

1,310,942

Debt at the accession of George I. in 1714 

54,145,363

3,351,358

Debt at the accession of George II. in 1727 

52,092,238

8,217,551

Debt at the peace of Paris, in 1763 

138,865,430

4,852,051

Debt at the commencement of the American war in 1775 

128,583,635

4,471,571

Debt at the conclusion of the American war in 1784 
Debt at the commencement of the French war in 1793 

249,851,628

9,451,772

239,350,148 608,932,329

9,208,495
24,645,971

Total funded and unfunded debt, 5th January, 1817, when the English and
Irish Exchequers were consolidated 

848,282,477

33,854,466

A sinking fiind for the gradual reduction of the debt had been formed by Sir Robert Wal-
pole in 1716, hut had been so frequently encroached upon, that in the course of half a cen
tury, it hetd not extinguished above fifteen mUUons. Its revival formed part of the financial
arrangements of Pitt in 1786. Out of the aggregate of the taxes applicable to the consoli
dated fund, government then pledged itself, that one mUlion annually should be paid to the
commissioners for the reduction of the national debt. To this annual miUion were added the
amount of govemment annuities ais they successively expired, and the interest of such stock
as wats annually redeemed. In 1792, Pitt obtained an act of parliament, declaring, that
besides a provision for the interest of any loam that might be thenceforward contracted, taxes
should be imposed for a sinking fund of one per cent, on the capital stock created by it,
which should be exclusively employed in the liquidation of such particular loatn; and that no
relief should be afforded to the public from the taxes which constituted the one per cent.
sinking fiind, until a sum of capital stock, equal in amount to tiiat created by the loan, had
been purchased by it. That being accomplished, both the interest and the sinking fund were
to be applicable to the public service. It was calculated that, under the most unfevourable
circumstances, each loan would be redeemed in forty-five years from the period when it was
contracted. "The provisions in this act, and in the former act of 1786, were altered by sub
sequent enactments ; but, by an act passed in 1813, those alterations were rescinded ; and
it was provided first, that, as a sum equal to the debt of 1786, and bearing an interest nestrly
equal to the interest of that debt, was then vested in tiie hands of the commissioners, the
debt of 1786 should be declared discharged as soon as the interest of the debt redeemed
should become fully equal to tiiat debt ; the sums appropriated to its interest and sinking
fund applied to the charge of future loans, and no new tauces imposed for interest and sinking
fund of those loans, till the same should amount to a sum equal to the interest of that con
sidered as released. Secondly, that, instead of applying tiie one per cent, sinking fund on
each loan to the separate discharge of that loan, the whole funds of that kind united should

BookL ENGLAND. 349
be applied to tiie discharge of tiie first conti-acted loan, and successively to the redemption
of all the loans contracted smce 1792; tiie whole sinking fund created in 1786, or subse-
Quentiv, being continued for the redemption of all debts then existmg or to be created. The
system established by tiiis act continued until March, 1823, when an act of pariiament was
passed, directmg tiiat on tiie 5th of April of tiiat year, all payments out of the consolidated
fund to the commissioners for the reduction of tiie national debt should cease, all stock m
tiieir names be cancelled, and that in fiiture the annual sum of five mUlions shall be payable
quarterly to tiie commissioners, and set apart for the reduction of the debt, not to be mfrmged
upon untU the accumulation of this sum shaU amount to one hundredth part of the debt then
existmg: at present, however, the smking fund is declared to be the excess of income over
expenditure, whatever tiiat may be. In 1830 it amounted to 2,792,707Z. 14s. Old.
On the consolidated fund are likewise charged the annuities for forty-five years, created
m the year 1822, for the purpose of apportionmg the burden occasioned by the mUitary and
naval pensions and civU superannuations (coUectively caUed the Dead Weight), amounting
to 5,000,000/., mto equal annual payments. The origmal intention was to contract with
parties who might be wiUmg to engage to pay into the exchequer within forty-five years the
sum wanted, for a fixed amount of annuity for forty-five years ; but no catpitalists bemg found
to accept these terms, it was agreed, mstead of assigning the fixed annuities to any corporate
body, or to private individuals, that they should be vested, namely, 2,800,000Z. terminable at
the end of forty-five years, and charged upon the consolidated fund, in trustees appointed by
parliament; payable at the exchequer half yearly (viz. October 10. and AprU 5.), and to
cease ui AprU, 1867. In March, 1823, a portion was sold to the Bank of England by the
trustees, on condition that the bank should undertake the payments to be made in pursuance
of the act, from the 5th of January, 1823, to the 5th of January, 1868, upon the transfer to
the bank of an annuity of 585,740/., to commence from the 5th of April, and to continue for
the temi of forty-five years. The total amount of payments undertaken to be made by the
bank in consideration of the said annuity is 13,089,419/.
Besides the funded debt, there is generally a considerable amount in exchequer bills,
navy bills, and ordnance bills, denominated the unfunded or floating debt. Exchequer bills
are issued in consequence of acts of pairliament, for obtaining part of the money required for
public service. They are sometimes granted on the credit of supplies for the current year,
and the produce of the annual taxes is in this way often anticipated. Sometimes they are
charged on the supplies of the following year ; and in time of war, a large sum to be thus
raised is generally authorised by a vote of credit previous to the rising of parliament. New
exchequer bills are often issued in discharge of former ones ; and it has frequently been found
necessary to fund them, by granting capital in some of the stocks on certain terms, to such
holders as are willing to accept them. Exchequer bills are issued for 100/., 500/., 1000/.,
and upwards, but none for less than 100/. ; and they bear interest at two-pence a day for
every 100/. After being in circulation they are received in payment of taxes or other debts
due to govemment, and sometimes they are paid off pursuant to previous notice by advertise
ment. The daily transactions between the bank and the exchequer are chiefly carried on
by bUls of 1000/. each, which are deposited by the bank in the exchequer, to the amount of
the sums received by them on account of govemment ; they remain in the exchequer as
pledges or securities, of course bearing interest until the advances on which the bank first
received them are paid off.*
Number of persons deriving incomes from the funds. It appears from the regular
retums, that in 1830 (and the number has not sensibly varied since), 274,823 dividend
warrants were issued to persons deriving mcomes from the fiinds. The number of persons
dependent upon the fiinds for support is, however, much greater than appears upon the face
of this account: for the dividends upon the fiinded, property belonging to public establish
ments, are paid upon smgle warrants, as if they were due to so many private individuals.
The customs and excise form the two main branches in the collection of the revenue ; the
former relating to goods imported, the latter to those produced and manufactured within the
country. Among the accommodations to trade, established by Mr. Pitt, is the bonding
system, by which the goods of merchants are warehoused under the joint custody of the
proprietor and of govemment; payment of duty not being demanded untU a sale is effected.
This has been also extended to British spirits.
The navy is the force on which Great Britain mainly relies for maintaining her own
mdependence and her ascendency over foreign nations. By it she has acquired the sover
eignty of the seas, and the advantages, which that sovereignty confers, of securuig her pos
sessions m the most distant quarters of the globe, of protecting her commerce, and sustaining
the exertions of her armies durmg war. During the most active period of the last maritime
war, the number of seamen in employment amounted to 140,000; and there were in com-
mission 160 saU of the Ime and 150 frigates, with 30,000 marines. The estimate for 1831
* See Statistical Tables, at end of Chan. IV.
Vol. L 30

350 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part HL
comprehended 22,000 seamen and 10,000 marines. The pay of these men amounts to
1,081,000/. ; their subsistence, to 603,000/. ; which, with the cost of stores, and allowance
for wear and tear, raised the regular cuB-ent expense to nearly 2,000,000/. The building
and repair of vessels, the charges of the dock-yards, pay of officers connected with the navy,
and a variety of other items, amounted to about an equal sum. These charges, with
1,688,000/. in half pay and pensions, made up the sum of 4,657,000/. as the entire navy
estimate for the year 1831.
The military force of the nation, at the close of the French wars, amounted to 200,000
regular troops, exclusive of about 100,000 embodied mUitia, a large amount of local mUitia
and volunteers, to which might also be added a number of regiments employed in the terri
tories of the East India Company, and in its pay. After the peace of 1815 a rapid reduction
of the military establishment was effected. The militia were disembodied; the regular force
was reduced, and in 1835 the estimates were for 81,271 men, mdependent of 19,720 employed
in India, and paid out of the land revenue of that country. The charge for these forces was
5,784,808/. ; but about half of this sum consisted of half-pay, retired allowances, pensions,
and other charges consequent on the former immense establishment.
The laws of England, established during ten centuries of legislation, constitute the most
extensive system of jurisprudence ever constructed. The municipal law is divided into two
kinds, the unwritten or common law ; and the written or statute law. The common law
derives its force from immemorial usage ; and its evidences exist in the records of the seve
ral courts of justice, as well as in books of reports and judicial decisions. It includes not
only the system by which the ordinary courts of justice are guided and directed ; but certain
portions of the ancient civil and canon laws which are used in the ecclesiastical courts, the
mUitary courts, the court of admiralty, and the courts of the two universities. The written
laws are those made by the king, lords, and commons, in parliament assembled ; they are
judicially called Statutes, and are either declaratory of the common law, or remedial of
some of its defects. The statutes are also distinguished as either general or special, public
or private.
The high court of parliament, independently of its legislative functions, is the supreme
court of judicature in the kingdom. The House of Lords exercise jurisdiction in civU
causes, upon appeals or writs of error from the inferior courts, and in criminal questions,
when brought before them by presentment of the House of Commons, in the form of an
impeachment. The high Court of Chancery, in which presides the Lord High ChanceUor, has two dis
tinct tribunals : the one ordinary, being a court of common law ; the other extraordinary,
being a court of equity. From the ordinary or legal court issue all original writs that pass
the great seal, all commissions of charitable uses ; as also of bankruptcy, idiotcy, and lunacy;
for such writs it is always open to the subject. In the extraordinary court, or court of equity,
the chancellor exercises a most extensive jurisdiction, determining causes beyond the reach
of the ordinary tribunals, and others in which reason and justice require that the rigorous
application of the rules of common law should be mitigated. These decisions emanate from
the judgment of the lord chancellor alone. An assistant judge, called Vice-chanceUor of
England, has power to hear and determine all causes depending in the court ; aQl his decrees
are valid and effectual, subject, however, to reversal by the lord chancellor, and not to be
enrolled until signed by him ; nor are they to discharge, reverse, or alter any decree of the
lord chancellor or of the Master of the Rolls. The Master of the Rolls, who ranks next to
him in dignity, and holds his office for life, acts in a judicial capacity as aissistant to the lord
chancellor, and also hears and determines causes on certain appointed days ; but his orders
and decrees cannot be enrolled until signed by the lord chancellor, who has the power to
discharge or alter them. The masters in chancery are twelve in number, including the
Master of the Rolls, who is their chief, and also including the Accountant-General. They
are assistants and associates of the lord chancellor and the master of the rolls, and sit with
them in court by turns, two at a time. In 1826 the property of suitors in chancery amounted
to more than 40,000,000/. The masters make up their accounts with the Accountant-
general, and pay into the Bank of England all moneys remaining in their hands, to be placed
to his account. He merely keeps the account with the bank, the governor and company
being answerable for such moneys.
The Court of King's Bench is the supreme court of common law in the kingdom, and
takes cognisance both of criminal and civil causes : tiie former in what is called the crown
side or crown office ; the latter in the plea side of tiie court. It is also a court of appeal,
into which may be removril, by writ of error, determinations of all the courts of record m
England. The court consists of a chief justice, and three puisne judges.
The Court of Common Pleas takes cognisance of all civil actions depending between sub
ject and subject. Many questions, however, may, by legal contrivances, be brought into
this or into the Court of King's Bench at the option of tiie parties. The Court of Common
Pleas consists of a chief justice, and three puisne judges.

Book I. ENGLAND. 351
The Court of Exchequer has jurisdiction botii in law and equity. In it are tried all ques
tions relating to the revenue, and, by fictions of law, various civil actions and personal suits.
The iudses are four ; a chief baron and three puisne barons. j ¦ », , j
Trial by jury, an institution coeval witii the origin of the constitution and justly valued
by the people as the bulwark of tiieir liberties, is employed in all cases between the crown
and the subject, in all criminal cases, and in all those for which damages are awarded. The
jury in England consists of twelve persons, whose verdict must be delivered by their fore
man as unanimous, or, in the technical phrase, as agreed upon. .„..-. p
Courts of Assize and Nisi Prius are auxUiaries to the superior courts at Westminster tor
tiie trial of causes in every county in England, twice a year in most counties, once a year
in others The counties are comprised in six circuits : 1st, the Home Circuit ; 2d, the Mid
land ; 3d, the Norfolk ; 4tii, the Oxford ; 5th, the Northern ; and 6th, the Western Circuit.
These circuits are supplied by the twelve judges, two being appointed to each. In these
courts, the senior or superior judge generaUy sits on the crown side for the trial of criminals,
and the junior or mferior judge on the nisi prius side, for the decision of cases of property.
A Court of General Quarter Sessions of the Peace, held in every county once in every
quarter of a year is the most important of the mmor tribunals. Its jurisdiction extends to
all felonies and trespasses ; but capital felonies are usually remitted to the assizes. The
sherifi"'s tourn is also a court of record, held twice a year at some ^place within the county.
The court -leet or view of frank-pledge is a court of record held once a year, within a par
ticular hundred, lordship, or manor, before the steward of the leet. It is the King's court
granted by charter to the lords of those hundreds or manors. In aid of these, and other
institutions tending to the maintenance of order and tranquillity throughout the country,
subordinate magistrates are appointed in each county, under the name of justices of the
peace. They hold special commissions from the king, and are empowered to suppress riots
and afirays, to take securities for the peace, and to commit felons and inferior criminals.
Their jurisdiction is enforced by constables and other subordinate officers.
Sect. V. — Productive Industry.
The productive industry of England, at this moment, far surpasses that of any other
country, either ancient or modern. Her fabrics clothe the most distant nations ; her vessels
traverse alike the polar and equatorial seas. The downfall of the feudal power ; the civil
and social advantages which the people acquired under the last Henries ; and, above all, the
spirit of enterprise diffiised among them under Elizabeth, gave a great impulse to commerce
and industry. It was riot, however, tUl the era of the Revolution, that the nation entered
upon that grand career of prosperity, in which she has ever since proceeded with accele
rated activity.
Agriculture, as the greatest and most essential source of human wealth and comfort, must
always claim pre-eminence over the other branches of human industry. For two or three
centuries the English tenantry have been an independent and substantial race. Such had
been the progress of agriculture, that, even in the middle of the last century, England had
become a regular gram-exporting country. Still, fifty years ago, the practice of this
unportant art was comparatively cumbrous, costly, and unproductive. Since that time,
nobles and statesmen have vied with each other in their zeal for the promotion of agricul
ture. Prizes, exhibitions, and other institutions calculated to excite a spirit of improvement,
have been established on a great scale. Even royal patronage was extended to this most
usefiil of arts, and a board was formed under public auspices for its promotion. An extraor
dinary impulse was also given by the scarcity at the close of the eighteenth century; when
the continental ports were closed, and gram rose to an unprecedented price, from which it
has smce been reduced, indeed, but not to its former rate. The old routine system was
after that crisis, broken up, and every exertion made to augment the products of the soU'
Commons were enclosed, marshes drained, grasses of the most usefol species cultivated anti
every process that multiplied experhnents had proved to be advantageous, introduced Par
ticular attention was bestowed in improving the breed of cattle and sheep; and 'for the
accomplishment of this purpose, the best species were hnported from abroad. At the same
time, economical farming was greatly studied; the disproportionate number of horses and
oxen wa.s reduced; and machmery, particulariy the threshing-machine, came into general
Zfit f r V^^^ augmentation took place m the produce of the soil; stUl greater in the
Fnf n ™^''' u"** much the greatest in the rent of the landlord, which, in many
instances, was more than tiipled. The reduced prices, however, which have iltimatelv
tliP Jii! T of.this augmented production, have, at last, rendered it difficult to support
the great advance m this last particular. ouppun.
FnTil ""h'^^ *"^'.''''*^ °t ^"g'^^d ^^ n?t equal to that of the countries in the south of
Europe. Her pastures, however, are richer; and her soil is capable of yieldino- all thl
valuable kmds of gram m abundance and of good, if not superior quality. ThZe natural
advantages, improved by her extraordinary industry, raise the agricultural producL of En^
land to a much greater amount than those of any other country in Europe P™""*^ °* ^"S"

352 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pabt m.
The surface of England is thirty-seven millions of acres. About half a miUion is occu
pied by roads ; and if we also make allowance for waters, natural and artificial, &c., we may
probably have to deduct two millions from the part which forms the proper subject of agri
culture. Of this, half is under the plough, and half devoted to pasturage ; upwards of three
millions are in wheat ; about three millions in oats and beans, and between two and three
miUions in barley. About 300,000 cwt. of hops, of the value of £200,000, and 4,400,000
gallons of cider, are annually produced.
The manufactures of Britain, still more than even the immense products of her agricul-
tur(3, ha.ve astonished the world, and raised her to a decided superiority over all other nations.
This distinction she has attained, not so much by their extreme fineness ; for, as to this
particular, France excels not only in sUks and cambrics, but even in woollens ; and British
porcelain does not equal that of Dresden. But she stands unrivalled in the immensity of
useful and valuable products, calculated for the consumption of the great body of mankind ;
and above all in the stupendous exertions made in contriving and constructing the machinery
by which they are produced.
The woollen manufacture is the old staple of the country. As soon as England began to
exercise any kind of industry, her first aim was to manufacture her own wools, mstead of
leavmg this operation in the hands of the Flemings. The fabric began in Kent and Sus
sex ; but soon spread, and fixed itself in the interior districts ; that of coarse woollens in the
West Riding of Yorkshire, and that of the finer cloths in Gloucestershire and WUtshire. In
1800, the total value of the fabrics was 20,000,000/., of which not much less than half was
exported. In the course of the century it has contmued increasing, though not with the
same rapidity as some other fabrics. The quantity exported has not, however, been aug
mented in proportion. In 1802, it exceeded 7,000,000/. ; but in 1832 was only 5,240,000/.
This manufacture, however, depending chiefly upon home consumption, is less liable to vicis
situde than those which have their principal market in foreign countries.
The wool is partly produced in Britain, partly drawn from abroad. English wool is
divided into long and short. The former was long considered ais exclusively adapted to
worsted stuffs ; but the recent improvements in machinery have enabled the manufacturer to
produce these stuffs almost equally well from shorter wool. The short wool is fitted for
cloth and hats ; but all that is produced in England is of secondary fineness. Efforts were
made, about the close of the last century, to introduce the merino breed from Spain, and not
without success ; but the flesh being bad, the farmers gave it up, and, devoting themselves
to the improvement of the carcase, have allowed the wool even to degenerate, though the
increased quantity is supposed to indemnify them. The best short wool is that of Sussex
(Southdown) and Norfolk ; the best long wool that of Lincoln. The number of short-wooUed
sheep throughout England, in 1828, amounted to about 14,850,000, that of long-wooUed tc
4,150,000 ; and the produce was 264,000 packs of long, and 120,000 packs of short wool ;
to which might be added 69,000 packs of lamb's wool, and 9000 for Wales ; making in all
463,000. The defect of English wool renders it necessary to import a large quantity from
abroad. The fleece chiefly valued is that of the merino, long confined to Spain : and Spanish
wool, in the early part of this century, was introduced to the extent of 6,000,000 lbs. annu
ally, but in 1827 it fell short of 4,000,000 lbs., and in 1832 did not exceed 2,626,000 lbs. It
has been supplanted by the wool of Saxony, and other parts of northern Germany, where the
merino breed has been introduced and propagated with the greatest success. The importa
tion from Germany, which in 1810 was only 778,000 lbs., was m ia30 so high as 26,073,000 lbs.,
though m 1832 only 19,832,000 lbs. : New Holland and Van Diemen's Land in that year
furnished 2,377,000 lbs. of very fine wool ; and the supply is mcreasing. The entire im
port amounted in 1830 and 1831 to about 32,000,000 lbs. ; in 1832 to only 28,140,000 lbs.
The annual value of the woollen manufacture appears to be about 20,000,000/. sterling,
and the persons employed between 400,000, and 500,000. There were exported, m 1832,
396,661 pieces of cloth; 23,453 pieces napped coatmgs, duffels, &c. ; 40,984 pieces of ker
seymeres; 34,874 pieces baize; 1,800,714 stuffs or worsted; 2,304,750 yards flannels;
1,681,840 yards blanketing; 690,042 yards carpeting, &c. There were exported also
4,199,000 lbs. of British wool, and 2,204,000 lbs. wooUen yarn.
The cotton manufacture is of much more recent introduction, and for a long period the
progress of this branch of industry was slow. In 1760, the value of the fabric was only
200*^^000/. In 1767, James Hargreaves, a common Lancashire weaver, invented the spinning
jenny, by which at first 8, and finaUy 120 spindles were moved by a single spinner. Har
greaves became exposed to the persecution of the working people employed in this operation ;
was obliged to flee to Nottingham; and died in poverty. Richard Arkwright, a barber of
Nottingham, invented the water-twist, or "perpetual twist," spinning frame, in which the
whole process was performed by the machine, and the workmen hod only to supply the material
and watch its progress. Samuel Crompton, in 1775, produced the machine called the mule,
a. combination of the two preceding, which it soon superseded both ui tiie finer and more
valuable articles.
That machinery should weave as well as spin, was necessary to consummate the triumph

Book L ENGLAND. 353
of art. This was accomplished by the Rev. Mr. Cartwright, a clergyman of Kent, who in
vented a machme by which clotii wa^ woven ; but the first ti:ial wa^ unsuccessful as toprofit
and an impression long prevailed that cottons could be woven 'cheaper by the l^^d. Within
the last few years, however, tiie system of Power-loom weavmg h\«. ''f " ^^J'^o"* f „?" ™-
mense extent; it is estimated tiiat there are in Britain 80,000, absorbmg ]9'^'0^^'- °^^^
Tnd ^000,000/. of floating capital, employmg 160,000 operatives, aiid workmg up 124,800,000
^The%°teM-engme, tiie moving power, tiie greatest of all tiiese discoveries, remains to be
mentioned. Machines moved by horses and water, origmally employed m manufaoturmg
and otiier processes, were cumbrous, expensive, and often unmanageable. The steam-engme,
brought to perfection by Watt, became at once tiie moving power of all this machmery, and
the prmcipal cause to which its vast results may be attributed.
The cotton wool hnported into Britain, which in 1781 littie exceeded 5,000,000 lbs., rose
m 1809, to 93,000,000 ; m 1817, to 126,000,000; and m 1832, to 288,000,000. The finest
is that caUed Sea Island, a name given to what is grown on the coast of Georgia and Caro
lma. The bowed Georgia, produced in tiie interior, is not of equal value. Next to the Sea
Island rank the West India and BrazU. Of tiie quantity imported m 1831, there came
from the United States, 219,333,000 lbs. ; from BrazU, 31,695,000; from tiie East Indies,
25,805,000; from tiie West Indies, 2,401,000; and from Egypt, 7,714,000 lbs. The con
sumption of prmted cottons has diminished in England, sUk being preferred as an ornamental
dress, and the use of cotton, printed or dyed previously to weaving, havmg become preva
lent The demand abroad, however, is stiU extensive, so that the amount of pieces prmted
is about 4,500,000, giving employment to 100,000 persons.
The produce of tiie cotton manufacture is 34,000,000/. annually. Of this 18,000,000/. is
paid m wages to 800,000 persons employed m its dififerent branches ; and allowmg for those
who are dependent upon them, and for the subsidiary employments, it affords subsistence to
not much fewer than 1,400,000 people. The value of cotton manufectures exported in 1831
was 13,282,000/. ; of twist and yarn, 3,975,000/. They were chiefly of the followmg
descriptions: — Calicoes, cambric muslins, dimities, &c., 299,597,000 yards; lace, gauze-net
and crape, 48,164,000 yards ; cotton and linen, mixed, 1,668,000 yards ; velvets and vel
veteens, 404,000 yards ; counterpanes and quUts, number, 23,000 ; hosiery, shawls, handker
chiefs, &c., 536,000 dozen ; tapes, bobbms, &c., 99,000 dozen ; thread, 1,105,000 lbs. ; twist
and yarn, 48,098,000 lbs.
The working in metals is also one of the branches in which England has attained to a
most decided pre-eminence. About the middle of the sixteenth century it rose to the rank
of a staple ; and within the last half century it has greatly increased in importance. Shef
field, perhaps the original seat of the trade in England, is still distinguished for the most
solid and useful articles, knives, grates, and their appendages, agricultural implements, &c.;
while Birmingham adds to these utensils a variety of small articles, ornaments, and toys,
which, though minute in detail, amount to a vast value in the aggregate. Each of these
two great cities forms, as it were, the centre of a large circle of population, all employed in
the same manner. The number of persons employed in the product and manufecture of
metals is estimated at 350,000, and the entire produce at 17,000,000/. The export of hard
ware and cutlery in 1831 amounted to 16,799 tons, value 1,620,000/.; in 1832, it was 15,294
tons; value, 1,433,000/.
The silk manufacture was of late origin in England ; but it was considerably improved by
the revocation of the edict of Nantes, which drove a number of French weavers into that
country. It is established in a quarter of the metropolis, called Spitalfields, where it em
ploys about 25,000 men : at Macclesfield, Manchester, Coventry, and in other parts of the
country, the number occupied in it may amount to 40,000. The entire value of the manu
facture was estimated some years ago at 4,000,000/. ; and may now, probably, be between
5,000,000/. and 6,000,000/. Notwithstanding the removal of the prohibitory duties on the
importation of foreign sUks, the British manufacture has maintained its ground, and gone on
mcreasing. The unportation of raw and thrown sUk in 1832 was 4,224,000 lbs. : of which
1,814,000 lbs. were from the East Indies and China; 1,006,000 lbs. from France ; 564,000 lbs.
from Italy ; and 458,000 lbs. from Turkey. The exports amounted in 1832 to 525,000/.,
chiefly to North America and the West Indies.
In the manufacture of earthenware and porcelain, England has of late made vast ad
vances, and brought its various products to a high degree of beauty and elegance. Burslem
in Staffordshu-e had, for centuries, been noted for its fabrication of a, coarse kind of ware;
but it was reserved for Mr. Wedgwood to carry this art to perfection by a combination of
elegance and cheapness. Fine white clay from the south-western counties, and ground flint
are the chief materials of this celebrated ware, which bears the name of its inventor. The
white ware of Derby and the porcelain of Worcester, though on a smaller scale, are still
finer productions. The latter is composed of a mixture of 13 different materials, and each
cup passes through 23 hands. Earthenware pays no duty, so that its amount cannot be offi
Vol. L 30* 3U

*54 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pakt m.
ciaUy ascertamed ; the eaport, however, has dimmished from nearly 700,000/. m 1815-lfi
to only 490,000/. in 1832. loio-io,
Hides are imported from all quarters of the world ; the entire quantity m 1824 was
800,000 cwt., value 700,000/. In 1830 only 225,000 cwt. were hnported. In that year the
hides tanned or otherwise manufactured amounted to 46,800,000 lbs., value 3,900,000/.; and
as tiie value of the finished article is supposed to be three times that of the material, this
value wiU amount to nearly 12,000,000/. The shoes made m England are estimated at
6,800,000/. and the whole manufacture employs about 250,000 persons.
Beer, glass, soap, and candles are branches of production which employ a large capital
and numerous workmen, and yield a yearly amount of great value. In London the quantity
of malt liquor annually brewed is 1,700,000 barrels, of which 38,000 are exported. This is
chiefly porter, a liquor peculiarly appropriate to London, and for which she is famous through
out the world. In all England, there were brewed, in 1829, about 7,400,000 barrels, of the
value of upwards of 22,000,000/. ; without including 1,500,000 barrels of table-beer. Can
dles.— In 1829, the manufacture amounted to 110,000,000 lbs., which would make a value
of 3,208,000/. Soa;). — The manufacture, in 1829, was 100,000,000 lbs. which would
amount to 3,175,000/.
The Imen manufacture is that m which England is most deficient ; for though she is sup
posed to produce the value of 1,000,000/. a year, this does not supersede the necessity of
large imports from Scotiand and Ireland. Of late, the elegant manufacture of lace has
been carried to great perfection by means of bobbinet frames. By this manufacture a value
of 160,000/. m silk and Sea Island cotton is wrought into lace, estimated at 1,890,000/. and
employing 208,000 persons. Distilled liquors or spirits, too, though they produce a revenue
of 2,000,000/., are neither equal in quality nor amount to those of the sister countries of
Scotland and Ireland, whose produce, if it had not been excluded by national jealousy, would
probably by this time have driven that of England out of the market. The quantity distiUed
m 1831 and 1832 averaged 7,350,000 gaUons.
Mines form one of the most copious sources of the wealth of England. The useful metals
and minerals, those which afford the instruments of manufacture and are subservient to the
daUy purposes of life, are now drawn from the earth more copiously there than in any other
country. Her most valuable metals are iron, copper, and tin ; her principal minerals are
coal and salt.
Iron, the material of so important a class of manufacture, abounds in England, particiUarly
in Wales, Staffordshire, and Derbyshire. WhUe it was supposed, however, that the blast
furnaces could be composed only of charcoal, the limited supply of wood depressed the pro
duce, and in the middle of the last century, the iron made in England from fifty new fur
naces did not exceed 17,000 tons. It was then found, however, that, furnaces filled with
coke might be heated to the same degree ais those of charcoal, amd the inexhaustible supply
of coal might be employed in bringing the iron mines into vailue. Hence, the increased
production has been astonishingly rapid. In 1796, it amounted to 125,000 tons ; in 1806, to
250,000 tons ; in 1830, it was 680,000 tons, worth 5,100,000/. ; and which the additional
labour of forming it into bar iron may raise to 6,300,000/. The export amounted in 1832 to
about 150,000 tons, worth 1,120,000/. It is exported chiefly in the forms of bar iron, to the
amount of 74,024 tons ; bolt and rod iron, 6938 ; pig iron, 17,566 ; cast iron, 12,495 ; hoops,
9417; nails, 4347, &c.
Copper, also, has risen to importance in the course of the last half century. It is found chiefly
in Cornwall, to the amount, m 1832, of 11,947 tons, and is carried thence to Swansea, to be
smelted with the coal of North Wales, which itself produced 1320 tons of copper. The
total produce is 14,449 tons, which, at 90/. per ton, will be 1,300,410/.
Tin, a rare and peculiar metal, is found only in Comwall and part of Devon. So early
was it known, that we find the British Islands first recognized by its name, and it is enu
merated among the articles with which the Carthagmians supplied tiie markets of Tyre.
As Cornwall, with the exception of the Indian island of Banca, is the only tract kno\vn to
produce tin in large quantities, there is a considerable export to most countries of Europe,
particiUarly France and Italy. The annual produce of the muies amounts to 83,000 cwt. ;
of the value of 115,000/.
Lead is found in Cumberland, Derbyshire, and Northumberland, to the supposed amount
of about 16,000 tons annually ; which, at 20/. per ton, wUl be wortii 320,000/. In 1833, tiie
British lead exported was 13,898 tons. .-,....
Coal, the most valuable of all the mineral substances from which Britain derives her pros
perity, exists in almost inexhaustible quantities m the counties of Northumberland, Derby,
and Stafford, and in that of Glamorgan in South Wales. It fuses the metals, produces tiie
steam which sets the machinery in motion, and is, indeed, instrumental in brmging almost
every substance into a useful and merchantable form. By superseding also the neces
sity of extensive plantations for fuel, it enables a much greater proportion of the soU to be
devoted to cultivation. Tho Northumberland and Durham field has been estimated at 732
square mUes, the South Wales field is 1200 ; which, allowing for the average depUi, wUl,

Book I. ENGLAND. 355
it is calculated, be sufficient to supply all England for 1700 or 2000 years. At dl events it
seems certain tiiat she is secure for many centuries agamst wy deficiency The quantity
shipped from Durham and Nortiiumberiand is stated at 3,300 000 tons; and the whole em-
ploved as fuel, and in tiie manufectories and mines tiiroughout England (addmg 700,000
exported to Ireland), at not less than 15,500,000 tons. The mines on tiie Tyne employed
8491 persons underground, and 3463 above; tiiose on the Wear, about three-fourths of this
number : tiie conveyance of these coastwise employs 1400 vessels and 15,000 men ; while,
in London, 7500 whippers, lighter-men, factors, agents, &c. are engaged m landmg anti
distributing it. Taking into view the whole of Great Britain, Mr. M'CuUoch considers that
the coal ti^de will give occupation to not less than 160,000 persons. In 1829, the total
quantity shipped was 6,224,125 tons; of which, 5,014,132 were sent coastwise; 840,246, to
Ireland ; 128,893, to the British colonies : 356,419, to foreign countries.
Of salt, Britain possesses an immense supply. The finest and most valuable kind is the
rock salt, drawn from mines and from brine springs ui the county of Chester. The salt is
refined by being boiled along with the brme of the sprmgs, and is then caUed white salt.
The annual produce is 15,000,000 bushels, of which about 10,000,000 are exported, chiefly
to North America, the Netherlands, and Russia.
The commerce of Britain, like her manufacturing industry, is now completely without a
rival. The exports of Britam consist almost wholly of her manufactured produce. Cotton
takes the precedence of aU others. In 1830, the quantity exported, mcluding twist and
yarn, was valued at about 15,000,000/. sterlmg ; beuig two-fifths of the whole exportation.
They are sent to every country, but most especially to those from which the raw material is
hnported. The United States take an immense quantity ; the West Indies and BrazU im
port largely ; the market in the independent states of South America is daily enlarging, and
they make then: way in increasmg quantities even into the East Indies. In Europe, Portu
gal and Italy are extensive markets ; and though studiously excluded from Spam, large con
signments are sent to Gibraltar, evidently with a view to clandestine introduction. Germany
takes a great quantity both of manufactured goods, and of yarn and twist for her own ma.nu-
factories. The woollen manufacture has a different and less extensive range. The United
States, the greatest market, take three-eighths of the whole ; after which rank the East In
dies, Russia, Portugal, and Germany. The wrought metals find a great variety of markets.
Of bar u:on, 7000 tons, and copper 50,000 tons, go to the East Indies. Ireland takes 7000
tons of bar, 700 of cast, and 2300 of wrought iron. The West Indies take largely both
iron and copper.*
Among the imports, a large portion consists of raw materials, brought in vast quantities to
be manufactured, in many instances for the use of the regions from which they come. Under
the head of manufactures, we have enumerated the principal of these articles, and the
countries from whence imported. They are chiefly cotton, wool, silk, and hides ; to which
may be added, bark, ashes, and barUla ; cochineal, indigo, madder, and other dyeing stuffs.
Although grain and provisions are now produced in sufficient quantity for internal consump
tion, there is much want of the raw produce of uncultivated land. Under this head a promi
nent rank may be assigned to timber and naval stores. Fir and oak timber, and staves, are
brought chiefly from North America ; masts, deals, and deal ends, from Norway and Russia ;
oak plank from Prussia.
The import trade of consumption is, after all, the most extensive : it consists chiefly in
obtaining from southem regions, amd those warmed by tropical suns, the accommodations and
luxuries which cannot be matured under a less genial sky. Wine would have been intro
duced to a very great extent, had not its exclusion been made a prime object of fiscal regu
lation. This, however, has been so potently applied, that the use of wine has not increased
in any proportion to the general wealth of the nation ; and it has been forced from the near
est and best wines of France, to the less palatable prodnce of Spain and Portugal. Brandy,
akso, stUl accounted the finest of spirituous liquors, forces itself, to a certain extent, into the
circle of imports. But the saccharine and aromatic products of the tropical plains form the
basis of an immense commerce, which even 'the adherents of the mercantUe system cherish,
under the idea that much of it is carried on with English colonies. The leading articles are
sugar, tea, coffee, tobacco, and spices. Notwithstanding the immense cotton manufacture
of Britain, the piece goods of India, by their peculiar excellence, stUl find their way into
the cotmtry.
The shipping by which so extensive a trade is carried on, must necessarily be very exten
sive. In 1663 it was only 95,000 tons. It rose in 1701 to 273,000 ; m 1751, to 609,000 ;
in 1792, to 1,186,000. The vessels belonging to the British emphre at the end of 1834, were
25,055, of 2,716,000 tojis, and navigated by 168,061 men. The entries and clearances for
the coasting trade, in 1832, amounted each to 8,500,000 tons. Besides these, in the same
year, 4546 foreign vessels, comprismg 639,979 tons, and navigated by 35,399 men, entered
the ports of Great Britain.* *See Statistical Tables, at end of Chap. IV.

356 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pabt UL
The fisheries do not seem to have been so much cultivated in Britain, as the hardy enter
prise of the nation might have led us to expect. The whale fishery was considered so valu
able, both for its products, and as a nursery for seamen, that, till 1824, a bounty was granted
m proportion to the tonnage of the vessels employed. They have found their way to the
antarctic polar sea, m search of an oil which, though not superior for burning, is better
adapted to the purposes of manufacture, than that drawn from the arctic regions. This
fishery, within the last twelve years, has considerably diminished both in amount and in the
value of its products, owing to the use of gas, the greater cheapness of rape-oil for manu-
fatJture, and also to a larger part of the trade being engrossed by Scotland. In 1829 there
saUed from England only 41 vessels, of 13,766 tons burden; which brought m 4912 tuns of
oil, and 289 tons of whalebone. The foUowing year was stUl more deficient, owing to the
disasters encountered by the vessels engaged in the fishery.
Of the fisheries in the British seas, that of Herrmgs, the most unportant, belongs almost
entirely to Scotland. Next to this ranks that of Pilchards, on the coast of ComwaU and
part of Devon. The fish is found there in such immense shoals, that it forms the chief food
of the people during the greater part of the year, and is also largely salted for exportation
The value annually taken is reckoned at 50,000/. or 60,000/.
The interior navigation of England is justly regarded as one of the prime sources of her
prosperity. TiU the middle of last century, the makmg of canals did not enter mto the
system of English economy. In 1755 was formed the Sankey canal, a Ime of twelve mUes,
to supply Liverpool with coal from the pits at St. Helen's. The example then set by the
Duke of Bridgewater gave a general unpulse to the nation. Since that time, upwards of
30,000,000/. sterling have been expended in this object. Twenty-one canals have been car
ried across the central chain of hills, by processes in which no cost hats been spared ; all the
resources of art and genius have been employed ; every obstacle, however formidable, which
nature could present, has been vanquished. By locks, and by inclined planes, the vessels
are conveyed up and down the most rugged steeps ; they are even carried acriMS navigable
rivers by bridges. When other means faU, the engineer has cut through the heart of rocks
and hills a subterraneous passage. Of these tunnels, as they are caUed, there are said to be
forty-eight, the entire length of which is at least forty mUes.
The Duke of Bridgewater formed the plan of opening a communication between Man
chester and his extensive coal-mines, at Worsley. The obstacles were so great, both from
nature and art, that the attempt must have proved abortive, had he not been seconded by the
genius of Brindley, who, from a common mUlwright, raised himself to be the first engineer
of the age. The canal was carried through vast excavations, made partiy in the interior of
the mine itself; it was led by aqueducts over a succession of public rtjaids, and over the river
Irwell by a magnificent bridge, which left space for vessels with their saiUs spread to pass
beneath. By deep cuttings, and by artificial mounds, in some places supported upon piles,
a level of upwards of fifty miles was completed. The Duke expended, in this undertaking,
his whole fortune, amounting to 350,000/. ; and its failure would have left him destitute :
but, as it immediately enabled him to reduce the price of coal in Manchester to one half, the
trade in a short time yielded twenty per cent, upon his outlay, and rapitUy produced an
immense income.
The Grand Trunk Canal, an undertakmg on a stUl greater scale, formed under the
patronage of the Marquess of Stafford, by a course of ninety mUes through Staffordshire,
connects the Trent with the Mersey, Liverpool with Hull, and the eastern with the westem
coasts. It gave animation to the trade of all the districts through which it passed, particu
larly that of the Potteries, and served as a ba^is for various canals and raUways branching
from it. From a point near the commencement of the Grand Trunk, the Ellesmere carnal
has branched far into Wales, and conveys to Liverpool the mmeral and agricultural produce
of that principality. From its eastem termination, large branches have been extended to
Derby, to Nottingham, to Grantham, and other considerable towns.
The Leeds and Liverpool Canal, by a more northerly line of one hundred and twenty
mUes, connects the Mersey with the Aire, a tributary of the Ouse, and thus enables Liver
pool and Hull to communicate by another line across the great cloth-manufecturing districts.
An important branch of this canal is carried to Lancaster, and on to Kendal.
From the vicinity of London the Grand Junction, at an expense of two miUions, -was car
ried by a line of ninety miles to the neighbourhood of Coventry. Near Daventry, the Grand
Union strikes off, and joins the Grand Trunk, thus securing for London an mland communi
cation with Liverpool, and with aU the great manufecturing cities of the West A great
system of canals was formed round Birmingham, of which one result was to connect the
Grand Trunk with the Severn, and thus to form a connexion between aU the four great
rivers of England, and all its commercial and manufecturing cities. A canal had already
been formed from Coventry to O.xford. That of the Thames and Severn joined tiiese two
main rivers at the highest navigable point of tiie former. The Gloucester and Berkeley is
a lateral canal to the Sevom, by means of which Gloucester is connected with tlie Bristol
Channel by a direct luie. The principal canals to the soutii of the Thames are the Kennet

Book I,

ENGLAND.

357

and Avon canal, and tiie Berks and WUts canal, tiirough which a communication is formed
from the Thames near Abingdon to tiie cities of Batii and Bristol. The total lengtii of canals
in Great Britain, excluding those under five mUes, is 2581 miles. j f „
Railways fori another contrivance, by which tiie conveyance of goods is wonderfully
feciHtoted bv cousino- the wheels to roll over a smootii surfece of iron. Railways were at
firsf S'onVon a^mdl scale, chiefly in tiie coal-mines round Newcastle, for conveying
tiie mineral from tiie interior to the surface, and thence to tiie place of shipping; and it is
reckoned that round that city there is an extent of about three hundred miles of tiiese rail
ways They were gradually employed on a greater scale, particulariy m Wales, where the
county of Glamorgan has one twenty-five miles long, and ui aU two hundred mUes of raU-
way. The railway between Manchester and Liverpool extends tiiirty-one mUes, and is car
ried over sixty-three bridges, thirty of which pass over the turnpike road, and one over the
river Irwell. The entii-e cost was about 820,000/.; but tiie intercourse has been so exten
sive as to afford an ample remuneration. The Cromford and High Peak raUway is earned
over the high mountainous district of Derbyshire, connecting the two canals which bear
tiiese names. Its length is tiiirty-tiiree mUes, carried over fifty bridges, and rising to a level
of 992 feet above the Cromford canal. The entire expense has not exceeded 180,000/.
The common high roads of the kmgdom are also an object of high unportance to trade and
general mtercourse. Half a century ago most of them appear to have been in a miserable
state, but they are now, perhaps, the best in the world, chiefly through the application of the
turnpike system, under which they are made and repafred by tolls levied upon the travellers,
and admmistered by county trustees. There are a few cases where roads are to be carried
through poor provinces, or form grand lines of national communication, in which government
judges it expedient to assist, or even to undertake the entire construction of tiiem. In 1823,
the turnpike roads extended ui all to 24,531 mUes in length. The amount of tolls was
1,214,000/., burdened with a debt of 5,200,000/.
Bridges, in a country intersected by numerous and often broad rivers, necessarUy attracted
a great share of attention ; and the ingenuity and wealth of England have been employed
in making extensive improvements in this branch of architecture. Southwark Bridge is the
most complete of any yet formed of iron. This species of bridge has the advantage of being
lighter, and of requiring much fewer arches than those of stone. A still more daring form
has been given to this material by
bridges of suspension, formed by
iron chains stretched across, and
supported by fixed points on each
side. This construction, on a cer
tain scale, has existed in China
from the earliest ages. The Ame
ricans were the first to adopt it of
Menai Bridge. any western nation. The greatest
undertaking of this kind yet executed is the Menai Bridge (fig. 137.), over the strait which
separates Wales from Anglesea, Arches of masonry on each side, at the distance of five
hundred atnd sixty feet, are united by a bridge of suspension, composed of iron chains.
Sect. VI. — Civil and Social State.
The population of England in former times was imperfectly known, being calculated only
from very vague surveys and estimates. In 1377 the results of a poll-tax were given as
2,300,000 ; but from the many evasions to which such a census would give rise, that number
was probably below the truth. In the reign of Elizabeth, during the alarm of a menaced
Spanish invasion in 1575, a pretty carefol survey was maije, the result of which gave 4,500,000.
At the time of the Revolution, the increase appeared to be about a million.* From the com
mencement of the present century decennial enumerations have been made, of which the
following, are the results: —

Population, ISOl.

Increase
per cent.

Population, 1811.

Increase
per cent.

Population, 1S21.

Increasefier cent.

Population, 1S31.

8,331,434 541,546470,598

14S 13

9,551,888 611,788640,500

17

11,261,437 717,438 319,300

16 12

13,098,338 805,236277,017

VVale"  :  t 

Total 

9,343,578

27J

10,804,170

34J

12,298,175

28

14,180,591

* population of the British Empire and Colonies.
Great Britain and Ireland  24,311,834
North American Colonies  1,.^00,000
¦" ' ' "¦ " BOoioOO

West India
African "
Asiatic "
Australian "
East India Company

Total .

300,000
1,000,000 95,000
123,000,000 150,806,834 IAh. Ep.]

358 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part hi.
Proportion of deaths, marriages, 4"c. to the population. — Among the facts that attest the
improved condition of the people of England since 1770, the extraordinary diminution in the
rate of mortality is one of the least equivocal. In 1780, the deaths in England and Wales
amounted to about 1 in 40 of the population ; hi 1790, to about 1 in 45 ; in 1811, to 1 in 52 ;
and at an average of the five years ending with 1830, 1 in 54. The improvement has been
particularly conspicuous in the great towns ; and is to be ascribed to the more comfortable
situation of all classes, the greater attention paid to cleanliness, &c. The proportion of
marriages to the population has recently declined. In 1760, there was 1 marriage for every
116 individuals ; in 1780, 1 in 118. During the five years ending with 1810, it was as 1
to 122 ; and during the five years ending with 1830, it was ais 1 to 129. But this decrease
is to be ascribed wholly to the greater prevalence of moral restraint, the proportion of Ule-
gitimate births not having increased. The number of births to a marriage in England is
about 4. Consumption is the most fatal disease.
The national character of the English exhibits some very bold and marked features. Of
these the most conspicuous is that love of liberty which pervades all classes. The liberty
for which the English have successfully contended, includes the right of thinking, sayinc,
writing, and doing most things which opinion may dictate, and inclination prompt. The
knowledge that the highest offices and dignities in the state are accessible to all, redoubles
their activity, and encourages them to perseverance. It is but little more than a century
since they began to be distinguished as a manufacturing and commercial people, yet they
have already outstripped other European nations in mechanical ingenuity, in industry, and in
mercantUe enterprise. The enormous increase of capital, and the substitution of machinery
for human labour in most of their manufactures, seem Ukely at no distant period to produce a
total change in the condition of British society. Much of its tone is given by the landed
gentry ; a numerous body, whose estates, though generally considerable, are not enormous :
whUe, on the Continent, landed property is usually in one or other of two extremes ; either
divided into minute portions, or partitioned into a few princely domains. The English gentry,
unlike their continental neighbours, reside during the greater part of the year at their coun
try-seats ; appearing in London and at court only for a few months in the spring. In this
class, and indeed among the English in general, an uncontrolled temper, elevated by the
feeling of independence, often impels individuals into extremes both of good and evil. No
where exists a purer spirit of patriotism ; nowhere break forth more violent exces.ses of
faction. In no country of Europe, perhaps, are there so many men who act steadily upon
principle ; yet hi none exists, at the same time, so large a proportion of individuals living in
habitual and open violation of all principle, and frequently hi contempt of legal ordinances.
Domestic life is cultivated by the English more sedulously than by any of the continental
nations ; the sanctity of marriage is more carefully guarded ; and chastity in the female sex
more strictly observed. In its minor features, the English character has undergone various
changes. The vices of drinking and swearing, once so prevalent, are happUy no longer
fashionable. Horse-racing, hunting, and rural sports, are earned to excess by some of the
country gentlemen ; and the more barbarous practice of boxing stUl has cultivators. Per
haps the most estimable quality of the English is then love of justice ; the source of aU
honourable dealing among the higher classes, and of what is emphatically called fair play,
in the transactions of humbler life. The prmciple, that a man's word should be his bond, is
acted upon most rigorously where the greatest interests are at stake ; as on its observance
more than on that of any law that has been or can be devised, the commercial and financial
prosperity of the country depends. The English are the most provident people m the world.
More than a million of individuals are members of friendly societies, and the deposits m
savings banks exceed 13,000,000/. The great extension of life msurance affords anotiier
proof of this laudable disposition. The English also deserve to be called a humane people,
zealous, both from feeling and from principle, for the promotion of every thing tiiat tends to
the welfare of their fellow-creatures. Crime in England has undergone a considerable
change Hiirhway robbery, so prevalent towards the beginning and middle of last century,
is now nearly unknown, and aU sorts of crimes and violence have been materiaUy lessened.
On the other hand, there has been a very rapid increase, particularly witiim the last twenty
years of crhnes against property. A material change has recently been effected m tiie
criminal law of England, by the abolition of an immense number of capital punishments.
P™,.i«ion for the Poor. A compulsory rate has been levied on all kinds of fixed property, for the support of all
provision JOT me ruor. ^ _¦•"", !'''___'  _.„„„ ,,,„ ,^. „ „r Kii,„i,„,i, i„ fim ih« rntcs ainoimted to about

' crantiiiiz relief, and the pi-rn cious practice ot CKing out wugra uj wi.liii,uliuii> .lu.u ^..= .-...= ,...0 ¦•¦¦;¦¦"•--
artn, oU F,nm lis period, down to the t.nnination of the late French war, the progress of the '» f ^aj™ ^
rapid, m that tlu'v ainnuntr.l tn 9,320,000;. in tlic year 1817-18 They have since been ¦''''•uced but they still
nrai.unted in 1H31-:K to 8,5011,000;. Tho abuses ansinft out of the practice of paying wages out of rates are not
inlierent in tho system. Tliov wore engrafted upon it so late ns 17il5, and may, ami it is to be hoped will, be en
tiroly removed. A r..r.)nn nf This sort would of itself take nearly a third part from the rates. [By the net ot 14in
Aiigiist, 1H.-14, which i>rnviclcs fnr the appointment of three poor-law commissioners, with power to make^ruies^ana
regulations for tho mt ' - -  j .... -j-  i™ „f .h.  1.,.,.
rcrorined.— Ah. Ed.]

Book I. ENGLAND. 359
The English are, in general, a people soberly religious, though the nation, among its other
excesses, has presented strikmg displays of infidelity and fanaticism. The Church of Eng-
land was established m tiie reign of Queen Elizabeth, when the reformation was completed
which had been begun m tiiat of Hem-y VIII. It is an integral part of the constitution, hav-
ino- for its head the king, who, as head of the church, nommates to vacant bi^oprics and
ce°rtain otiier preferments, constitutes or restrains ecclesiastical jiirisdicUons, inflicts eccle
siastical censures, and decides in the last resort in all ecclesiastical causes, an appeal lying
ultimately to hhn m chancery, from tiie sentence of every ecclesiastical judge. In respect
to its church government, England is primarily divided into two provmces or archbishoprics,
Canterbury and York. Each provmce contains various dioceses or seats of suffragan bishops,
Canterbury mcludmg twenty-one, and York three, besides the bishopric of Sodor and Man,
which was annexed to it by Hem-y VIII. Every diocese is divided mto archdeaconries,
of which the whole number amounts to sixty, each archdeaconry mto rural deaneries, which
are the circuits of the archdeacon's and rural dean's jurisdiction ; and each deanery into
parishes, towns or villages, townships, and hamlets. The principal church of each see is
appropriately called the cathedral church ; it is possessed by a spiritual body corporate, called
a dean and chapter, who are the councU of the bishop, but derive their corporate capacity
from the crown. Chapters are usually composed of canons and prebendaries ; the mainte
nance or stipend of a canon as well as of a prebendary being a prebend. Prebendaries are
distmg-uished into shnple and dignitary. A simple prebendary has no cure, and nothing but
his revenue for his support ; a dignified prebendary has always a jurisdiction annexed, which
is gamed by prescription. The archdeacon has authority in the bishop's absence to hold
visitations, and under the bishop to examine clerks previous to ordination, and also before
institution and induction. He has also power to excommunicate, to impose penances, and
to reform irregularities and abuses among the clergy, and has charge of the parish churches
within the diocese. Below the archdeacon and the ecclesiastics composing the chapter, no
member of the Church of England is entitled to the appellation of dignitary. The inferior
orders constitute what is called the parochial clergy. The principal person of a parochial
church is entitled either rector or vicar, that title, which is really more appropriate and
honourable, having become corrupted by vulgar misuse. The revenues of the church of
England are very extensive ; and considering the different oflSces and gradations of its mem
bers, very variously distributed. The rental subject to tithe has been stated, in returns made
to parliament, at 20,000,000/. Besides the tenth of this amount, that is to say, the tithe,
the clergy have other funds, which are supposed to raise their entire income to upwards of
3,000,000/. The Episcopal revenues are of various amounts ; that of the see of Durham is
estimated at 30,000/. per annum, and is usually considered the largest. The lowest, that of
Landciff, falls short of 3000/. The prebends enjoyed by canons and prebendaries are some
of them very ample ; those which exceed 1000/. a year are called golden prebends. Those
dignitaries are also competent to hold livings as rectors and vicars. The salaries of curates
were formerly in many cases extremely small ; but, by a legislative provision and by funds
allotted out of the public revenue, most of them have been augmented in proportion to the
value of the benefice and its population ; 80/. a year is the lowest stipend, and, if the living
be worth 400/. per annum, the bishop may allow the curate of such living 100/. a year,
whatever be its population.
In her intellectual character, England may be justly considered as standing proudly
eminent. Bacon, Boyle, Locke, Newton, Davy, with a long train of coadjutors, have dis
closed to mankind perhaps a greater sum of important truths than the philosophers of any
other country. Strong, clear, sound sense appears to be the quality peculiarly English ;
and her reasoners were the first to explode those scholastic subtieties which, having usurped
the name of philosophy, so long reigned m the schools. It was then: merit to discover and
establish true phUosophy, and apply it to objects of real interest and utUity.
In works of imagmation, the genius of the English is bold, original, and vigorous. In the
drama, Shakspeare stands unrivalled among ancient and modern poets, by his profound and
extensive knowledge of mankind, his boundless range of observation throughout aU nature,
his exquisite play of fancy, and his irresistible power in every province of thought and feel
ing, the sublime and the pathetic, the terrible and the humorous. In epic poetry, MUton
is acknowledged by common consent to stand first among the moderns. Spenser and Dryden
are ahke emment, the one for sweetness, the other for versatUity ; whUe in correctness of
taste, and the polished harmony of numbers. Pope has no rival among the poets of any
modern nation. at- j
In historical writing, England has many iUustiious names, among which that of Gibbon
deserves an honourable place. In oratory, some of her statesmen have acquired ffreat
renowm, though the general taste both in the senate and at the bar seems to deliffht rather
m plain sense and m cogency of argument, than in those elaborate, ornate, and declamatorv
th^ir heLIrs ^''^^* speakers of antiquity acted on the imagmation and passions of
The mstitutions for public education in England are extensive and splendidly endowed.

^^ DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pakt m.
The two universities of Oxford and Cambridge are not only the wealthiest but the most
ancient m Europe. They enjoy among other privUeges that of retuming each two members
CO parliament, and of holding courts for the decision of causes in which members of their
own body are interested. They were of ecclesiastic origin ; but they have long been con-
sidereil as lay corporations. Their resources have been augmented by the munificence of
sovereigns, and of opulent individuals. The establishments composing them are distinffuished
into colleges and haUs; the latter being academical houses not mcorporated or endowed
though they have had considerable benefactions, which are dispensed to the stiidents hi exhi
bitions limited to a stated period. Oxford has nhieteen colleges and five halls; Cambrida-e
has thirteen colleges and four haUs, which last, however, possess the same privUeees as the
former Each university is under the government of a chanceUor, high steward, vice-
chancellor, and other officers; the persons who preside over the different estabUshments as
masters, wardens, rectors, prmcipals, or provosts, bear the general denommation of heads of
colleges, and each college has a number of fellowships to which large emoluments and easy
duties are attached. They possess also extensive patronage m church Uvmgs, and a number
of exhibitions or scholarships. These, though of considerable value, are not supposed ade
quate to defray the expense of a residence at a university, which, at tiie lowest, is calcu
lated to amount to 150/. a year. On the books of each university are the names of many
members who have long ceased to reside ; but, exclusive of these, the number actuaUy resi
dent at Oxford may be stated at 3000, and those at Cambridge amount to considerably more.
students, according to their proficiency in leammg, are entitied to tiie degrees of bachelor
and master of arts, bachelor and doctor in divinity, and bachelor and doctor in the faculties
of physic and law. The time required by the statutes to be occupied m study before each
student can be qualified for taking those degrees is three years for a bachelor, and about four
years more for a master of arts ; seven years after that he may commence bachelor of divmity,
and then five years more entitie him to take the degree of doctor m divmity. In law, a
student may commence bachelor after six years', and in physic after five years' standmg.
Only one year's attendance and the hearing of a smgle course of lectures are requhed as
preparatory for entering into holy orders, the lowness of the mferior church livuigs, and the
expense of residence, rendering it difficult to exact more from the greater number of can
didates for ordination. The qualifications for a bishop include the degree of doctor in divinity.
The mode of instruction is by private tutors, who teach classical literature and the
mathematics, the latter branch of study being particularly cultivated at Cambridge. The
public examinations are conducted with great dUigence, and excite emulation. The lucra
tive fellowships may sometimes tempt their possessors to indulge in luxurious ease ; but to
those who ore seriously disposed to study, they afford facUities for research hardly attamable
in any other sphere.
Two educational establishments, the London University and King's CoUege have been
recently instituted in London.
Of the public schools of England, the most distmguished are those of Westminster, Eton,
Winchester, and Harrow. Although originaUy founded as charity-schools, yet being now
appropriated to the education of boys of the first femilies, the habits formed in them are
very expensive. Greek and Latin are almost exclusively taught there by masters eminently
qualified ; and Englishmen of education generally excel in the knowledge of both languages.
For boys of the middle rank, and those destined for commercial pursuits, there are numer
ous private academies.
Colleges for the particular study of law and equity have long been established in the
metropolis, under the names of inns of court and inns of chatncery. The principal of tiiese
are the Middle and Inner Temple, Lincoln's Inn, and Gray's Inn. Before amy person can
be admitted to practise as an advocate, he must be regularly entered in, and be a member
of, one of the inns of court for five years, and must have kept his commons in such inn,
twelve terms. In favour of those who have taken a degree of master of arts or bachelor of
laws at an English university, three years are sufficient to be a member of the inn. After
complying with these conditions, and paying the regular fees, the student may be called to
the bar without having been required to make any public demonstration of his proficiency or
abUity. Of primary schools for the great body of the people, there formerly existed a considerable
number ; but the deficiency of them, at present, is greatiy to be deplored. The metropolis,
indeed, contains several, of which the most considerable is Christ-church Hospital or the
Blue-coat School, in which about 1100 children are mamtained and educated. The number
of charitable foundations in different parts of the country amounts to 3,898, yielding an
income of 65,395/. Of these, however, many give also board and lodgmg, so that their
advantages can extend to only a small number; others have been neglected, and left exposed
to those abuses to which old establishments are generally liable. So greatly was the in
fluence of these institutions on tiie great body of the lower orders diminished, that within
the last 30 years the larger proportion of labouring people were unable to read. The evUs

Book L ENGLAND 861
arismi. from want of education among them have, at lengtii, been strongly felt; and very
^ea^°exertions have been made, chiefly by tiie benevolence of private mdividuals, to remedy
^''Oft^^scientific institutions of England tiie foremost is " th^^X^fnTectiU of^Hver
for improvuiff Natural Knowledge." In its infancy it owed much to tiie protection of Oliver
Cromwelir^d having survived the Commonwealth, was incorporated by royal chapter in
1663 The Society publish an annual volume under the name of Philosophical Transac
tions The Society of Antiquaries tiraces its origin to the reign of Queen Elizabeth, but
i not mcorporated untU 1821. It has published a series of volumes entitied Archaologia.

mose orancnes. uesiaes iubbb aiiu utuci iii=i.ii,iii,iuiio .u v"v- .....v*„r" — > -- — -- - = ,
provincial towns, as Manchester, Bristol, Derby, Liverpool, and Newca,stie, have formed
literary and phUosophical societies, which have made some unportant contributions to science
and literature in their Transactions. . e ¦ *
The prmcipal public libraries have owed theurorigui to the spirit and enterprise of private
individuals; the Bodleian Library at Oxford was the bequest of Su Thomas Bodley, and
was enriched by successive donations. The British Museum derived its first treasures from
tiie coUections of Sir Robert Cotton and Sir Hans Sloane ; but has acquired, through purchase
by pariiament, the Harieian and Lansdowne MSS., the libraries of Major Edwards and Dr.
Burney, and several valuable collections of coins and minerals. It has also been enriched
by the entire collection of George III., presented to the nation by his successor. With
this accession, the library, which previously consisted of 125,000 volumes, has been aug
mented by one-haE The Museum is also very rich in specimens of natural history, par
ticularly of mineralogy.
Institutions of a highly usefiil character have sprung from the general desire of knowledge
which marks the present age. Their object is to communicate knowledge to the commer
cial classes, as well as to persons who have not opportunities for a regular course of study ;
and the chief meains employed for this purpose are a library, a reading-rtxim, and courses of
lectures. Of these establishments are the Royal Institution, the London Institution, &c.;
and all the great cities and towns have now their public libraries.
Of the Fhie Arts, that of painting has been greatly neglected in England. Portrait
pamting, indeed, always met with encouragement; yet Vandyke, the leader in this branch of
art, was a foreigner. It was only toward the close of the last century that Reynolds formed
a style decidedly English, and of distinguished excellence.
The Royal Academy, under the immediate patronage of the king, consists of forty artists,
including the president, while a number of others are attached in expectancy ais associates.
There are four professors, viz. of painting, of architecture, of anatomy, and of perspective,
who annually read public lectures on the subjects of their several departments. To the
schools of this academy free admission is given to all students properly qualified for receiv
ing instruction, and there is an annual exhibition of paintings, sculpture, and architectura I
designs, to which all artists may send their works for admission, if approved by the commit
tee appointed to judge them. The splendid collection of paintings formed by the regent
duke of Orleans was imported entire, and the greater part of it now embellishes the gallery
of the Marquess of Stafford. The nobles of Italy, also, on the devastation of that country
were obliged to strip their palaces of these valued ornaments, and to dispose of them at
low rates to English speculators. From those sources were formed the Grosvenor, the An-
gerstein, and many other private collections. On the death of Mr. Angerstein, in 1824, his
collection was purchased by parliament, and made the basis of a national gallery, which has
since received considerable additions both by purchase and bequest.
In the other departments of the fine arts, music, sculpture, and architecture, the English
have been far excelled by the continental nations ; in engraving, they have produced some
distinguished names.
The publishing and selluig of books form one of the prmcipal branches of her productive
industry. Periodical literature has a very extensive circulation. In the metropolis nearly
sixty magazines and reviews are published, of which the monthly value has been estimated
at 6000/. Another important characteristic of the national spirit may be remarked ih the
immense circulation of newspapers, notwithstanding a heavy stamp-duty. There are in
London eight daUy moming papers, and five daily evening papers ; seven papers published
thrice a week ; and upwards of forty weekly papers. Of the latter species of newspaper,
every provhicial city has two or three, and every town of consequence has one. The num
ber of stamps issued for the London newspapers in 1832 was 21,432,882. "The produce of
the duty in that year was 490,451/,
The favourite amusements of the English are those which combine the advantages of air
and exercise. The stage, though eminently rich in dramas, and supplied with actors of high
talent, is not the habitual resort of the people. In former tunes hunting was almost the
6ole business of life among the English squires ; and though their tastes are now much
Vol. I. 31 2V

362

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Pakt m.

varied, this original pastime, in all its forms, continues to be eagerly followed. By the
nobility and gentry, horse-racing is supported with equal ardour, and no country rivals Eng
land in the high excellence to which she has brought the breed of animals employed in this
diversion. The races of Doncaster, of York, and above all of Newmarket, are attended by the
most distinguished persons in the country for rank and opulence ; and other race-courses
attract great multitudes of miscellaneous spectators. Among the common people boxing
matches present a, simUar occasion of laying wagers. Bull-baiting was put down only by
statute. Of the national out-door games, those of cricket and tennis deserve especial com
mendation, from their tendency to enliven the spirits and invigorate the frame.
In their habits and modes of ordinary life, the English may be called a domestic people,
especially when compared with the French. In common with other northem nations, the
English retain a taste for fermented or distilled liquors, which, however, has been in a
great measure corrected and subdued among the higher and middle classes. Beer and porter
constitute the staple drink of the great body of the people ; but malt spirit of a cheap and
very pernicious kind is consumed in great quantities by the lowest orders, especially in the
metropolis, where it is rapidly accelerating their degeneracy. Among the middle classes
the wines of Spain, Portugal and Madefra are in general use ; but the cellars of the rich
are stored with the choicest products of the French vineyards. Convivial excess, so long the
reproach of the English, has become comparatively rare.
Sect. VH. — Local Geography.
England and Wales are divided into counties or shires. Wales, untU the time of Ed
ward I., was an independent principality, but is now an appendent territory, of very inferior
magnitude. It has still, however, its own courts of judicature, and retains some national
peculiarities. The number of counties in England is forty, and in Wales twelve ; making in
all fifty-two. The foUowing statistical table, gives a general view of the extent, popula
tion, employment, and wealth of each county : —

Income
in 1814-15, arising from
Counties.
II
10/. and
upwards.
Beatal
of Houses.
tlOD,
1831.
land.
Tiade.
Offices.
s|
jutes, ISM?
Cities and Towns.
£
£
£
£
£
£
Bedford 
430
723
13,619
95,383
364,276
94,796
1,481
90,994
Bedford 
i Reading 
< Windsor 
( Newbury ....
. 6,959
. 15,595 7,103
. 5,959
Berks 
744
3,713
83,572
145,289
719,889
299,703
3,217
129,533
Bucks 
748
1,894
35,655
146,529
662,872
222,981
1,998
158,483
Buckingham .
Aylesbury . . .
. 3,610
. 5,021
Cambridge 
686
2,645
49,781
143,955
705,371
239,687
S,109
115,163
C.tmbridge...Ely 
. 20,917 6,189
Chester (o) ...
1,017
1,784
92,854
334,410
1,114,927
289,309
4,207
26,608
144,102
Chester 
Macclesfield .
21 ,.163
23,129
Cornwall 
1,407
2,852
48,117
302,440
922,258
230,112
3,233
77,986
121,202
Launceston..
Falmouth 
2,231 4,760
Cumberland . .
1,497
2,400
43,040
169,681
737,438
179,752
3,447
46,297
58,650
Carlisle 
20,006 11,393
Derby (4)....
1,077
2,287
45,633
837,170
883,370
210,583
2,908
43,000
108,303
Derby 
23,62737,93240,651 34,883 7,655
6,4594,075
Devon 
Dorset 
2,4881,129
1S,397 3,051
237,000 57,868
494,168159,252
1,924,912 726,263
754,444
241,634
9,471
4,002
32,800
250,713104,822
• Plymouth 
Devonport ...
Weymouth . .
Poole 
Sherborne . . .
Durham (c) . . •
1,040
4,269
69,471
253,827
885,580
253,031
3,771
52,300
100,646
Durham 
Sunderland . .
10,13517.000
Essex (d) 
1,525
6,284
139,806
317,233
1,584,108
603,935
8,630
52,248
320,541
Colchester .... 16.167
Harwich  4,297
Saffl-on Walden 4,702
Gloucester  11,933
Gloucester (c).
1,122
9,080
251,974
380,904
1,315,723
367,243
2,897
201,402
*l Tewkesbury .
59,074 5,780
Hereford 
Hertford 
Huntingdon . .
971602345
1,794
3,490 045
30,424
70,299 16,791
110,970 143,341 53,149
629,156583,657 325,094
61,851
262,989 68,401
2,790 4,3194,156
70,000
115,092 50,092
( Cirencester ..
Hereford 
Hertford 
Huntingdon .
5,420
10,282 5,247 3,267
13,649
Kent{/) 
1,462
10,129
347,110
479,155
1,687,442
l,686,iS8
19,342
399,686
IDeptford and
1 Greenwich.
' Maidstone ...
44,348 15,387
ia) Nantwich -
(W Chostcrfiold  ,
Matlock - - - 3,262 1
__  15,177 I Stockton - - 7.763 I («) Cheltenham 22,942 I
ishop Wear- South Shiolda 9,074 Stroud - - 8,607
moiith - - 14,4631 WChelnuford 3,435 (/) Rocheitet 9,8911
4,8B8 I (c) Gatmliead
5,773 Bii "
Deal - - 7,268
Margate- - 10,339
Raousate - 7,9IJ5
Book I.

ENGLAND.
TABLE — continued.

868

Income
in 1814-15, arising from
Counties.
M
Houses,
10/. aai
upwards.
Rental
of Houses.
I&31.
Land.
Trade.
Offices.
1^ ll
Bates,
Cities and Towns.
£
jE
£
£
£
£
( Manchester..
182,812
Lancashire (a)
1,806
28,406
795,832
1,336,854
3,139,043
2,292,079
39,020
413,529
) Liverpool 
Lancaster . ¦ .
Wigan 
12,613
20,774
Leicester (6) . .
816
3,357
62,748
197,003
951,908
319,007
5,827
152,594
Leicester 
Lincoln 
39,30611,843
Lincoln 
2,787
4,026
78,094
317,244
2,096,611
373,071
6,550
228,952
• Boston 
Stamford 
11,240 ,5,837
Middlesex 
297
116,279
5,143,340
1,358,541
5,763,373
15,255,245
1,174,805
779,125
Part of London ana j
Westminster. 1
Monmouth . • .
."ilO
1,088
31,572
98,130
298,981
102,571
437
9,200
32,089
Monmouth . .
4,916
Norfolk (c)...
3,013
5,333
97,067
390,054
1,516,651
523,010
16,505
338,867
1 Norwich 
1 Yarmouth . . .
61,11621,115
Northamp ton 
965
2,237
40,327
179,276
947,578
185,204
1,421
173,013
j Northampton
) Peterborough
15,351 5,553
Northum berland (d)
1,809
6,140
120,424
222,912
1,291,412
436,404
5,763
59,900
88,035
Newcastle . . .
Berwick 
42,260 8,920
Nottingham . .
774
3,597
71,396
225,320
751,626
314,501
2,073
106,707
Nottingham .
50,680 9,557
Oxford 
742
3,628
61,809
151,726
790,866
312,809
4,815
151,235
Oxford 
20,649
Rutland 
200
241
4,621
19,385
138,216
30,938
799
12,872
( Shrewsbury. .
23,492
Salop 
1,403
3,402
03,091
222,503
1,083,701
279,932
4,861
20,205
99,665
1 Bridgenorth .
f Ludlow 
( Bath 
5,2985,253
38,063
Somerset (e) . .
1,549
16,568
512,909
403,908
2,308,723
1,329,205
13,827
20,100
209,566
< Bridgewater .
( Taunton 
7,897
11,139
Southamp- i
ton  j
l,.'i33
9,362
198,321
314,313
1,240,547
923,713
10,751
8,700
239,122
( Southampton
< Portsmouth. .
19,134
50,309
( Winchester..
8,712
C Stafford 
6,950
Stafford (/)...
1,196
6,122
108,507
410,485
1,200,324
536,720
10,826
48,000
171,578
< Newcastle . . •
( Lichfield 
( Ipswich 
8,1920,499
20,201
Suffolk 
1,566
3,573
01,909
296,304
1,151,304
453,484
11,972
299,684
< Bury St. Ed-
( mund's 
11,436
Surrey 
811
33,865
964,438
486,326
1,589,701
1,564,532
21,023
321,304
Southwark . .
Guildford 
Brighton 
91,501 3,916
40,634
Sussex (g) 
1,461
6,81E
202,837
272,328
919,350
372,058
4,610
289,051
< Lewes 
( Chichester . . .
( Birmingham.
8,590
8,270
146,986
Warwick (A)..
984
9,36£
190,60a
330,988
1,269,750
669,369
12,966
10,950
192,303
< Coventry 
< Warwick....
27,070 9,109
Westmore- )
land 
722
1,039
21,120
55,041
299,582
52,575
1,184
32,044
Kendal 
10,015
Wilts 
i,2a3
3,022
08,577
239,181
1,215,619
376,070
6,981
3,100 220,931
Salisbury 
9,876
Worcester (t) .
674
4,872
100,820
211,356
820,020
273,303
1,137
3,800 97,178
Worcester . .
(York 
18,610
26,454
Tork(i) 
6,013
20,189
415,539
1,371,296
4,700,424
1,719,886
24,416
02,200 580,126
1 Leeds 
iHull 
30,293
f Sheffield 
59,111
N. Wales.
Anglesea 
Caernar- }
von(Z)---- i
itm
220
4,0807,982
48,32565,753
94,760
131,212
3,998
20,041
19,196
23,440
( Beaumaris...
2,497
775
538
220
! Holyhead ....
Caernarvon.
4,282 7,642
850
14,411 3,375
J. 578
83,167
60,012 35,609
66,485
312,576 175,115112,516
212,083
19,677
11,666 7,261
18,748
• 305795
41,13925,513 16,76038,665
Denbigh ....
Holywell 
Dolgelly ....
Welshpool . . .
3,7868 909
Flint (n)../...
170
15,400
292
08
4,0875.255
Montgomery .
S. Wales.
605
7,971
794
7,599 999
47,76364,780
16] ,989
146,816
22,783 13,727
20,92820,685
5,0262,795
Cardigan (o) . .
726
74
282
Cardigan . . .
Caermarthen .
Glamor- )
gan (p)... \
926
570
8,363
100,655
282,091
30,320
5,361
37,957
Caermarthen
9,955
1,712
31,268
126,612
372,603
103,203
3,149
55,900 42,301
Swansea . . .
13,604
Pembroke (ff) .
740
12,701
81,424
220,241
45,348
1,531
 28,308
Pembroke ..
6,511
174
2,202
24.651
101,956
3,429
40
Radnor 
1,989
(a) Bolton
Salfnrd
Rochdale -
Prestcin - - -
OMham - -
Pilkington CromptonBlackburn
Toxteth Park
Chorlton Row
Warrington -
41.195
40.786 S.'i.TJS3:1,11232,381 11,006 7,004
27,09124,067 20..569 16,018
Bury -
Chorley
Preecpt -
(J) Loughbo- roURtl - -
(c) Lynn Re^is
id) Tynemouth
North Shields
Hexham - -
Morpeth - -
(e) Wells - -
15.086 9,2825,055
10,800
13,370 10.182 6.744 6,0423,890
6,649
(/) Wolverhamp
ton - - - 24,732
Bilston . - 14,492
(g) Hastings 10.097
Rye - - - 3,715
Leamington 6,209
_:enilwotth - 3,097
(i) Dudley - - 23,043
Kidderminster 14.981
Hornbridge - 6,148
Evesham 3,991
%l
Droitwich
(*) Whitby -
Scarborough
Beverley - -
Doncaster -
HuddersOeldHalifax -
Bradford -
Barnsley -
Ripon - -
Pontefract
2,487
11,725 8.7608,302
10,801 19035
15,38223.23310,330 ?,080 4,832
(l) Bangor -
(m) Wrexham
LlnngoUen -
(ji) Mold - -
Flint - - -
(o) Aberystwith
(p) Merthyr Tyd
vil - - - 22.083
Cardiff - - 6,187
(fflHaverfordwest 3,915
Tenby - - 2,128
4,7515,4833,630
8,086 2,216 4,128
364

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Pahf IIT.

The topographical details of England may be distributed under the foUovring subsec
tions : — 1. Southern counties ; 2. Eastem counties ; 3. Midland counties ; 4. Northem coun
ties ; 5. Western counties. Subsect. 1. — Southern Counties.
Under this head, Kent, Surrey, Sussex, Berkshire, Hampshu-e, Wiltshke, and Dorset, the
counties south of the Thames, and along the Channel, will be comprehended. This fine
district is, in general, of a level character ; but is traversed, however, by ranges of low hills
or downs, which give to it a varied and picturesque aspect. Chalk is a predominant feature
in its soil ; and, on the coast, forms those bold cliffs, which characterise the southern bound
ary of Britain. Many tracts are under high cultivation, yieldmg, in perfection, the usual
agricultural products, with others of great value, peculiar to this district; particularly hops,
in Kent, and part of Sussex and Surrey. A prominent feature consists of large expanses of
downs, composed of chalky soU, scarcely fit for the plough, but pastured by vast flocks of sheep.
Kent, the largest and finest of these counties, holds a conspicuous place in English annals.
The men of Kent have been noted as a race peculiarly stout, hardy, and courageous. In
the west are extensive wealds, presenting still many finely wtxided districts ; also large marshy
tracts, interspersed, however, with dry cultivated portions, in which the best grain in the king
dom is raised. The interior around Maidstone and Canterbury forms almost a continued
garden, supplying fi-uits for the markets of London ; and above all, hops, that essential ingre
dient in the staple beverage of the English nation.
Canterbury, the chief place in Kent, is one of the most ancient and venerable of the English
cities. It is the ecclesiastical metropolis of the kingdom, the residence of its primate ; who,
as such, places the crown on the sovereign's head, and ranks next in dignity to the royal
femily. Its cathedral (fig. 138.) is of early
origin and of vast extent ; while revered through
the Catholic world as the shrine of the mur
dered Becket, it was visited by crowds of pil-
grims, and enriched with offerings ; but of these
treasures it was stripped by Henry VUL Can
terbury is built in the form of a cross, and in
tersected by branches of the Stour. Manufac-
I tures of cloth, silk, and cotton were early in-
> troduced, and still subsist, though they cannot
bear a comparison with those of the great towns
' of the interior and of the north.
Maidstone and Tunbridge are among the
Canterbury Cathedral. agreeable inland towns in Kent The former,
of great antiquity, has one of the most elegant parochial churches in the kingdom. It is
the chief market for hops ; and has some manufectures, particularly of paper. Tunbridge
Wells, situated five or six miles firom the town of Tunbridge, have long been a place of
public resort. The springs are considered efiicacious in cases of debility and certain chronic
disorders. The town has also a thriving manufacture of Tunbridge ware, consisting of
various wooden ornaments, snuff-boxes, children's toys, &c.
But the chief places of Kent are maritime, the most ancient bemg tiiose called the
Cinque Ports. At an early period, they were considered the most unportant stations for the
defence of the kingdom, and were bound to fiirnish and etpiip fifty-seven vessels, each
manned with twenty-one sailors ; in return for which, their citizens held the rank of barons,
and sent two members to parliament from each port Their greatness is now departed, and
some of their harbours have been filled up by sand.
The Kentish Cinque Ports are Dover, Sandwich, Hytiie, and Romney. The first is still
a place of considerable note. The spacious castie on a commanding eminence, the white
and towering cliffs, present to tiie approaching marmer an imposmg spectacle. As the main
channel of communication with France, it mamtams twenty-seven packets m constant ser
vice. Romney and Hythe are of littie maiitune importance. Sandwich on the east coast,
yields in importance to its nominal de-
139 ^ l-^j, pendencies, Deal, Margate, and Rams
gate. Deal derives its prosperity from
the vicinity of that fine anchorage, tiie
Downs, where the outward-bound fleets
of England usually remain for a certain
period, when tiiey obtain supplies and
refreshments from Deal. Margate is
crowded, though not fashionable ; and
the establishment of steam-packets al
lows daily intercourse with the metto-
Dovor Castle. polis. It likewise carries on some trade

Book I.

ENGLAND.

365

with the Baltic, and supplies the metropolis with gram and fish. Having risen -within the
last half century, it is built with regularity, and contains twelve marble baths, uito which
the sea-water is admitted for those who prefer that mode of bathing. Ramsgate, situated
on the isle of Thanet, possesses the advantage of a smooth and extensive beach. Conside
rable improvements have been made in the harbour at the expense of government, with the
view to its yielding protection to vessels navigating this coast, where the dangerous shoals
of the Goodwin Sands have often proved fatal.
Deptfbrd, Woolwich, Chatham, and Sheerness, are grand establishments for the construc
tion of ships of war. Deptford contains also the Victualling Office. Woolwich is the de-
p6t of artillery, and the theatre of all the operations connected with its construction and
preparation. Here is also tiie Royal Military Academy, in which an hundred young men of
respectable family are trained in all the branches of loiowledge necessary for the engineer
ing department ; and who, after a strict examination, are appointed to commissions in the
service. Chatham is the grand magazine of naval stores. The rope-house is 1128 feet long,
in which cables 101 fathoms in length, and upwards of two feet in circumference, are con
structed. Twenty forges are constantly employed in the fabrication of anchors, some of
which are five tons in weight This important post, with the exception of Portsmouth, is
now the strongest in Britain. Sheerness, on the Isle of Sheppey, is a smaller station,
chiefly employed in the repair of shattered vessels.
Greenwich, about two miles below Deptford, is celebrated for its superb hospital (fig. 140.)
for disabled and superannuated ma
riners. This edifice was begun by
Charles IL, on a design of Inigo
Jones, as a royal palace. It remained
unfinished, until the reign of Wil
liam III., when it was converted
into a naval hospital. It was en
larged by the addition of three wings,
enriched by donations, and by a tax
of 6d. a month from every seaman,
and it now supports 3000 btjarders,
and pays pensions to 5400 in dif
ferent quarters of the kingdom. In
Greenwich Hospital. Greenwich park stands the cele
brated observatory, furnished with the best instruments that can be obtained for perfecting
astronomical observations. The recorded observations of Flamsteed, of Halley, of Bradley,
and of Maskelyne, rank among the most important contributions to astronomical science.
At Gravesend, near the mouth of the Thames, the vessels employed in foreign commerce,
both in going up and down, must stop and tmdergo an examination. Rochester, with an
ancient cathedral, contains in its vicinity numerous seats, among which may be particularly
noted Cobham Hall. Lee Priory is also remarkable for its works of art ; and Knowle Park
fbrms a magnificent structure of great extent
Sussex extends about forty miles along the Channel. It is covered to the extent of
170,000 or 180,000 acres with noble oaks which are sought for the use of the royal navy.
The Sussex sheep are peculiarly valued both for mutton and wool.
The capital is Chichester, an ancient littie city with a cathedral. Winchelsea, Rye, and
Hastings are Cinque Ports, which have lost their ancient importance ; but Hastings, from
its fine views of land and sea, attracts numerous visitants during the summer. Brighton, the
gayest of all the southem watering-places, from being a large fishing village, rapidly rose to
be an elegant town. Its extensive lawn called the Steyne, sloping towards the sea, forms
an agreeable promenade. The Pavilion, or palace buift by George IV., and the cham pier
are among the objects of note.
The rough downs and bleak heaths of Surrey contrasted with its numerous fine parks
and wooded districts, give to its scenery a striking and picturesque character. Southwark
is in Surrey ; but it is too entirely a part of London to be treated separately fi:om the rest of
that capital. Along the southern bank of the Thames are Kew, with its palace and fine
gardens, containing plants fi-om every quarter of the world ; Richmond and its hill, which
commands a magnificent view of the Thames winding among wooded parks and palaces.
Camberwell, Clapham, and other villages in the vicinity of the capital, are entirely composed
of the villas of opulent citizens, and the seats are numerous. At St. Anne's Hill, a beautiful
villa on the Thames, Fox passed the latter years of his life in literary retirement.
Berkshire contains extensive sheep pastures ; and a great expanse of its eastern border is
occupied by forests ; yet more than half its extent consists of fine arable land. The sheep
fair of llsley is the most considerable in the kingdom, the annual number sold averaging two
hundred and fifty thousand. The hogs also of this county are in high repute. Berkshire is
remarkable for its manufactures of copper, which is brought from Swansea to the annua)
extent of six hundred to one thousand tons. 31*

366

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part IH

Reading, the capital of Berkshire, is remarkable in history, as several parliaments were
held there, and a siege was sustained during the civil war. It stUl enjoys some prosperity,
through the export of the produce of the fertile surrounding district.
Windsor, firom the beauty of its site, on an eminence near the Thames, and the magnifi
cence of its royal castle {fig. 141.), forms a commanding feature in the prospect for many

141

Windsor Castle.
miles around. William I. constructed here a fortress of considerable size ; but the whole
structure was re-modelled by Edward III. Since it ceased to be important as a place of
strength, it has been occupied as a palace ; and is the only one, in fact, suitable to the dignity
of the monarch. The noble terrace walk 1870 feet in length, commands a finely varied
and extensive prospect. George III. completely repaired St George's chapel, and partly
restored the north front of the upper ward ; but in consequence of his illness, the improve
ments were suspended for eleven years. George IV. resumed them on a scale commensurate
with the importance of so venerable an edifice ; and large sums of money were voted by
parliament for this national purpose. The royal apartments contain an extensive collection
of paintings, among which are some fine portraits by Vandyke, and some historical pictures
hy Guido, Correggio, Carlo Dolci, and Leonardo da Vinci. The chapel of St George is
considered one of the finest specimens of the ornamented Gothic in the kingdom. The choir
in particular is of admirable workmanship, and adorned with banners of knights of the garter
ranged on each side. It includes also the tombs of many of the English princes, particularly
their late majesties, and the Princess Charlotte ; and some of its windows are painted after
the designs of Reynolds. To the south of the palace extend Windsor Great Park, and
Windsor Forest, grand features, first formed by William the Conqueror. Even after the
considerable abridgment that has taken place, the domain is still fifty-six miles in circum
ference, containing within its range some noble tunber. Parts of it were devoted by George
III. to his favourite pursuit of experimental farming.
The other towns of Berkshire are small ; at Newbury, two obstinate battles were fought
in 1643 and 1644. Maidenhead (formerly Mainhithe), on the Thames, is beautifully encircled
with villas.
Hampshire contains extensive remains of those grand forests which once overspread so
great a part of England. The principal is the New Forest, bordering on the Channel and
the bay of Southampton. From this tract of about 92,365 acres, William the Conqueror
drove out the inhabitants, and demolished the parish churches, that the royal sports might be
carried on undisturbed. The forests of Bex, Holt, Alice, &c., containing upwards of 30,000
acres, belong also to the crown. The wood is chiefly oak and beech ; the former with a
short thick trunk and strong crooked branches, rendering it of excellent service as knee-
timber for the navy, while the masts and acorns feed hogs of vast size, weighing sometunes
eight hundred pounds, and producing the best bacon in the kingdom.
Winchester is one of the most ancient and venerable cities in England. During part of
the Saxon period, it was the metropolis. It had at one time upwards of ninety churches and
chapels, with colleges and monasteries attached to them. Being frequented on account of
its fairs, and chosen as one of the staples for wool, it became at one period tiie seat of a very
extensive commerce. After the Norman conquest, when London became tiie royal residence,
the decline of Winchester commenced, and was accelerated by the removal of the wool
trade ; but above all by the dissolution of the monasteries, in tiie time of Henry VIII. It
now owes its importance to its rank as an episcopiJ city, and a county town in which assizes
are held alternately with Southampton. Its venerable catiiedral (fig. 142.) has been the
work of succp.s.sive ages. It was founded under tiie Saxon kings, enlarged by William of
Wykeham under Edward III., and completed by Bishop Fox, in the sixteenth century, when

Book I.

ENGLAND.

367

extensive additions were made to it in the highly ornamented and pointed English style ;
142 y^^~. .¦-T' ^^- °f which several of the specimens hero pre-
r- ^v"-- served are reckoned the finest in the king-
V — i, ^0^ rpjjg college, or rather school, founded
by Bishop Wykeham is also a magnificent
edifice, and is one of the four great classical
schools to which the distinguished youth of
England resort. Southampton now surpasses
Winchester, and is a flourishing tovni, at the
head of the bay called Southampton Water.
It carries on a considerable trade with the
south of Europe, and regular packets sail
Winchester Cathedral. j^.^^ jj j^ ^layre de Grace.
Portsmouth is the grand arsenal for equipping the powerful navies of Great Britain. The
harbour is formed by a considerable bay, with a commodious entrance, perfectly landlocked,
and sheltered firom every wind, affording secure anchorage all round ; and capable from its
dimensions of containing the whole British navy. The Isle of Wight forms at its eastem
extremity the safe and magnificent road of Spithead, the principal rendezvous of the national
fleets. The place has been strengthened by fortifications, till it has become the strongest
and most fmished fortress in the empire, and is considered absolutely impregnable. Ports
mouth itself is situated on an island about fourteen railes in circumference, separated from
the land only by a narrow channel. The suburb of Portsea, on the same island, begun only
a century ago, has now outgrown the original town, and contains the principal dockyards.
Here are carried on, upon a gigantic scale, all the operations subservient to building, equip
ping, and refitting ships, and supplying the navy. The sea-wall of the dockyards extends
nearly three quarters of a mile, and encloses an area of one hundred acres: the forge, where
anchors of huge dimensions are formed ; the ropery, above a thousand feet long ; the spacious
dry docks ; the endless range of warehouses ; the gun- wharf, the armoury, are objects which
astonish by their immensity.
Christchurch is noted for a fine ancient church ; Beaulieu for the ruins of its venerable
abbey ; Andover, Basingstoke, and Romsey are considerable towns.
The Isle of Wight is about twenty-three miles m length, and thirteen in breadth; divided
by a channel of only a few miles fi-om the coast, on which are the bays of Portsmouth and
Southampton. It is traversed by a ridge of chalky downs, in which are fed about forty
thousand fine-woolled sheep of the Dorsetshire breed. On the north are luxuriant meadows,
supporting valuable breeds of horses and cattle; while on the south are fine arable plains,
yielding grain much beyond the consumption of the island. The island is celebrated for its
striking and peculiar scenery ; the grttnd views of land and sea enjoyed from its high open
downs ; the lieep and dark ravines of its southem shore, and the boH romantic cliffs which
it there presents to the expanse of the English Channel. One of the most conspicuous
features is the range of coast called the Undercliff. This district presents the appearance
of a series of gigantic steps rising from the shore, to the summit of the great perpendicular
wall. The chines, or chasms, with torrents bursting through them, are also characteristic
features. The westem part of the Isle presents the rugged and pointed cliffs, called the Needles,
and a range of magnificent white cliffs, rising perpendicularly to the height of 500 or 600
feet. These precipices are inhabited by gulls and puffins, the eggs of which are taken by
the islander, suspended in a basket, which is fixed by a rope to the summit. The eastem
shore presents the Culver Cliffs, a range of precipices which, in grandeur and ruggedness,
are not surpassed by any other on the island.
The castle of Carisbrook is an ancient edifice, in which Charles I. was fbr some time
imprisoned. The towns, Newport, Yarmouth, Cowes, and Ryde, are small.
Dorset consists of open chalky downs, fit only for sheep, which are here of a breed called
j^ the Southdown (fig. 143.), peculiarly fine both as to carcase and
wool. The fleece is very short and fine ; the mutton fine in the
grain, and of an excellent flavour. The number of sheep is estimated
at 800,000, producmg 2,790,000 pounds of wool. The islands of
Purbeck and Portland are valuable for the production of fine free
stone. Dorsetshire has no remarkable towns. Dorchester, the capital;
Poole, with an excellent harbour ; and Weymouth, finely situated
for a bathing-place, are the principal.
Wiltshire is a fine county ; the chalk hills here terminating, form
the table-land, termed Salisbury Plain ; a naked, undulating surface, which affords pasturage
for sheep. The northem part of Wiltshire, watered by the Thames, is chiefly underwood
and pasture, and supports a valuable breed of cattle, from whose milk is made the excellent

Southdown Sheep.

^^ DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part ffl.
cheese bearing the name of the province. Wiltshne is a manufacturmg county. The pro-
auce IS ot the finest description; superfine broadcloth, kerseymeres, and fancy articles; fine
^"r l^* Salisbury, and at Wilton the carpets which bear its name.
balisbury, the capital, is a handsome and well-built town. The streets are spacious and
regular, crossmg each other at right angles, and kept clean by streams of water, from the
river Avon. The pride of Salisbury is its
cathedral (fig. 144.) completed in 1258,
which is considered the most elegant and
finished Gothic stmcture in the kingdom.
It has also the loftiest spire, rising to the
height of four hundred £ind ten feet
Wiltshire has a number of thriving little
towns, in which fine woollen manufactures
are carried on with activity : Devizes,
Marlborough, Chippenham, Ma,linsbtiry,
Warmmeter, Wilton, &c. Most of them
are adorned with fine old churches.
Stonehenge (fig. 145.), m Salisbury
Plain, a remarkable monument of antiquity,
is supposed to be the remnant of a temple
of the Dmids. " It consists," says Mr.
Sullivan, " of the remains of two ch-cular
and two oval ranges, having one common
centre. The outer circle is one hundred
and eight feet in diameter, and in its per-
The upright stones are from eighteen to twenty
""*¦ **¦ — '¦-"'• '"¦'-'-- and bemg placed at tiie

Salisbury Cathedral.
fection consisted of thirty upright stones.
feet high, from six to seven broad, and about three" feet thick
145 distance of three feet and a half
fi-om each other, are joined at
the top by imposts or stones laid
across. The inner circle is
somewhat more than eight feet
from the inside of the outward
one, and consisted originally of
stonehenge. forty smaller stones ; of which
only eleven are standing." In the interior of all are two oval ranges, supposed to be the prin
cipal part of the work, composing the cell or adytum. The stones that form it are stupen
dous, some of them measuring thirty feet in height The whole number is computed to have
been originally one hundred and forty.
No county is adorned with so many fine seats as Wiltshire. Wilton House contains the
finest private collection of ancient sculpture in the kingdom. Corsham House and Longford
Castie contain celebrated collections of pictures. Wardour Castle is distinguished for its
grand terrace ; Stourhead for the romantic beauty of the grounds : Longleat is a superb seat
Subsect. 2. — The Eastern Counties.
Under this title are comprehended the counties of Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk, Cambridge,
Huntingdon, and Lincoln. The surface of this division is flat and unvaried. Its sluggish
streams unite in the shallow marshy estuary of the Wash ; a great proportion of its waters,
however, never reach that receptacle ; but, spreading and stagnating over the lalhd, form the
Fens, a tract which is not unproductive to the husbandman, but sends forth pestilential
vapours, subjecting the inhabitants to attacks of fever and ague. The district contains wide
portions of good arable land, which are well cultivated by skilful farmers with large capitals;
and is noted for its breeds of cattle, and for the products of butter and cheese.
Essex, situated along the north of the Thames, is, perhaps, the richest of tiie English
counties. It is diversified by gentle undulations, which do not interrupt the careful culture
given to its rich alluvial soil. Its wheat, with that of Kent, is reckoned the best in Eng
land ; but the districts near the metropolis are chiefly in pasture, or artificial grass, for sup
plying calves to the London market, or for fattening the cattle brought up from the north.
Chelmsford, the county town, is a small regulai-ly built place, with a handsome town-hall.
Colchester, the ancient Camelodunum, contains a strong castie, said to have been founded
by the Romans. It is supported by a manufecture of baize, and by the oyster fishery.
Harwich, a seaport with a deep and spacious harbour, is the place where the government
packets, in time of peace, sail for Holland and Germany. Many villas have been erected in
this county, in consequence of its vicinity to the metropolis.
Suffolk is bordered by only a small portion of eastern coast The greater part of it is

869

Book I. ENGLAND.
capable of good cultivation, and is carefully tilled. The county is almost purely agricuL
'''^;:^T^':zin!Ti:^i"^'^^^

an ancient town,_i= ...... =.^^ ^^--^-^-^--^-^ ^- ^^ ^^^i„^ g^^ery. ,.,.,,
Norfolk, though inferior in fertility tp.tiie tw^.countie_s_now descnbed, tes, ^ ite m^dustry,

IS rendered venerable by some
easterly point of England, is a i
tiius formed is peculiarly fevourable to the growtii of bariey, m which gram two-thirds ot
the coury i^kid out Norfolk has extensive manufectures ; producmg various omamentel
febrks of silk and worsted. The ports carry on a considerable export of gram, and a spnrited
'^Nofwich is the finest city m tiie east of England. The chief industiy of Norwich how-
everrc^nsists m manufactures. Towards tiie end of the sixteentii century, a large colony
of Flemmgs settied tiiere, and established tiie febric of woollens, which soon reached an
"nprecTented height The light and ornamented fomis became the staples; bombasines
^ s 6 ^^^^^^^ g^^ camblets, and worsted damask. In its
general stmcture, it has the defects of an old town,
the streets bemg narrow and windmg, though those
recently built are in a more improved style. The
catiiedral (fig. 146.), founded in the eleventh cen
tury, ranks among tiie finest ecclesiastical edifices in
the kuigdom. Its style of architecture is the Saxon,
of that broad and massive character which prevailed
before the introduction of the pointed arch and the
light ornamental style. The castie, placed m the
P"' |iH|| ^'~'~~p centre, is more ancient still, since antiquaries refer
i^^^rW^mi Jlir^S-v-.. i' to tho reign of Canute. Its style is Saxon ; the
keep remains entire.
Yarmouth, by commerce and fishery, has attained
a prosperity almost equal to that of Norwich. Situ
ated at the mouth of the Yare, it is the chief chan
nel by which the manufactures of that city are
transported to foreign parts. A more important
resource is its herring-fishery, which employs six
thousand seamen, and produces annually upwards
of fifty thousand barrels. Its quay, upwards of a
mile long, is said to be second only to that of
Seville. Yarmouth is also much firequented as a watering-place.
Lynn Regis is a flourishing seaport on the Wash, at the mouth of the Ouse, which, with
its tributaries, brings down the agricultural produce of many rich counties.
Seats. — Norfolk contains several of the most superb seats in England. Holkham, built by
Lord Leicester on a design of Inigo Jones, and particularly noted for a gallery room, is richly
adorned with sculpture and paintings, and has also a very extensive library. Houghton is a
magnificent seat.
Cambridgeshire presents a considerable variety of surfece. Its northem district, called
the Isle of Ely, intersected by the lower channels of the Ouse and the Nen, exists almost in
an intermediate state between land and sea. Drainage, however, to a great extent has been
effected, and many tracts have been converted into f5ne meadow, or made to yield large
crops of oats, though the danger of inundation can never be wholly averted. The classic
stream of the Cam or Granta, in descending to join the Ouse, waters a valley called " the
Dairies," where some good cheeses and long rolls of excellent butter are prepared for the
tables of the Cambridge students. The southern and westem districts, encroached upon by
the downs from the south, are only fit for the pasture of sheep.
The capital of Cambridge is the seat of one of the two great vmiversities. There are
thirteen colleges and four halls, ui which the masters, tutors, and students, not only teach
and are taught, but are lodged and boarded. Some of the largest of these endowments are
stated to be for " poor and indigent scholars ;" but are filled with the sons of opulent families,
who cannot live there but at a very considerable expense. Yet the resort continues to
increase, and the existhig colleges are insufficient to contain the applicants, who must often
wait several years previously to admission. These colleges are large, and generally fine
and liandsome buildings ; yet they do not produce the same noble and imposing effect as
those in the sister university. There are, however, two stmctures such as its rival cannot
Vol. 1. 2 W

Iforwich Cathedral.

370

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part in

147

Kiog^s College Chapel.

match. The fiurst of these is the chapel of King's College, {fig. 147.), built between the
reigns of Henry VI. and Henry VIII. Its
interior has been called matchless; the roof
is of the most perfect workmanship, and its
support without pillars has been viewed as
an architectural mystery. But the most
striking characteristic is the prodigious
blaze of painted glass, on each side, fi-om
twelve brilliantly tinted windows fifty feet
high, giving to the fabric the appearance of
being walled with painted glass. The other
is Trinity College, particularly admired for
its library, two hundred feet long, designed
by Sir Christopher Wren, and perhaps the
most elegant library-room in the kingdom.
The hall is also the largest in Cambridge ; and the roof is omamented with fine specimens
of old wood-work. Its chapel is marked by a beautiful simplicity, and contains RoubOiac's
statue of Sir Isaac Newton, supposed the best resemblance that exists of that great man.
The principal library contams 100,000 volumes, many of which are scarce and valuable.
Trmity college, in its ornamental hall, has 40,000. Earl Fitzwilliam, from his seat near
RichmtDnd, presented lately a handsome library, some fine pictures, and a large collection of
engravings. The botanic giarden is inferior to none in the kingdom, except those of Kew
and Liverpool. The collection of valuable manuscripts and antiquities is likewise extensive.
Since the university was adorned by the immortal name of Newton, mathematics and natural
philosophy have been the mling pursuits ; and, notwithstanding the lustre reflected on it by
Milton, as well as by Bentley and Person, it hsis left to Oxford the foremost place in classical
knowledge. At Newmarket, horse-racing has chosen its most favourite ground. This town lies amid
bleak hills, that have, however, a sufficient extent of level heath to make the finest course
in the kingdom. It consists of one long street, chiefly filled with inns and coffee-houses for
the reception of the sporting world, who crowd thither in the appropriate seasons, which are
April, July, and October. The bustle is then immense. " Trains of horses," says Dr.
Spiker, " were led up and dovm the streets. Excellent equipages, gigs, curricles, landaus,
flew past us and past each other with the swiftness of an arrow. Horses were prancing
about with their riders ; jockeys were carrying bridles to and fro : in short, all was life and
bustle." The course is covered with turf, whence the pursuit of horse-racing itself is usu
ally designated the turf. Close to the goal is dravm on rollers a small wtxiden house, in
which sits the judge, usually an experienced groom, who decides which is the winner. The
stand is an open raised house for ladies and other curious spectators ; but men of real busi
ness crowd round the betting post, immediately behind the judge, where they remain closely
wedged together, " and nothing is heard but the continual cry of twenty, thirty, forty, two
hundred pounds on such a horse."
The small city of Ely rises like an island amidst the surrounding fens, and displays a
magnificent cathedral. Wisbeach, a thriving town on a navigable branch of the Ouse,
combines a prosperous trade with some spirit of literary enquiry.
Huntingdonshire lies to the eastward of Cambridge ; the two are governed by the same
sheriff, chosen alternately in each. Huntingdon is entirely agricultural ; the pastures are
peculiarly rich, and adapt it for producing the famous Stilton cheese. Huntingdon, the
county town, though small, has an antique and respectable appearance. St Ives is a large
village on the Ouse.
Lincolnshire occupies the eastem coast from the Wash to the Humber. The southern
territory, called, from that circumstance, " Holland," comprises more than half of the Bed
ford level, or fen country, and is naturally an almost continuous swamp ; but a great extent
of it has now been drained, and produces fine pasture land, and excellent crops of oats. The
rearing of live stock forms the chief occupation; and Lincoln has breeds of every descrip
tion that are held ui high estimation. The sheep, v/hich amount to upwards of 2,000,000,
produce the long wool, which, from the length of its staple, is chiefly fitted for worsted,
baize, and other fabrics. Rabbits, almost innumerable, are bred in the upper districts ; and
the unreclaimed fens, during the wet season, swarm with teal, ducks, geese, and aquatic
game of every form and description, with which London and many other parts of England
are chiefly supplied from this county. Manufectures have entirely deserted it ; even its
own wool, since the late inventions in machinery, is no longer spun or carded witiim itself.
The Trent, during all its course through this county, is navigable for large vessels, and
artificial channels unite its streams, particularly the Foss Dyke, between the Witham and
tho Trent. Foreign commerce, however, is much limited by the increasing sand-banks, by
which the coasts and harbours are obstructed.

Book L ENGLAND.. 371
The city of Lincoln was, during tiie middle ages, one of the most conspicuous and splen
did capitals of England. The cathedral (fig. 148.) still holds the first rank among religious
148 1 ll I edifices. From a distance its tiiree towers
appear conspicuous ; two of them 180, and
one 300, feet high, and omamented with
various pillars and tracery; and as the
structure stands on a hill, in the midst of
^..-arrr^. .,,-.-^ r-i^_i=yq,,«»- j^r-pi^o^ III a vast surrouudlng flat, it has the most
r-i..,i?.r.*t^^^^yei^^|,,^.„^s^i|i^ commanding site in the county. When
¦^'Si:r^::^?^'Sij.«-^*^H4a^.!l^'i[,i.''i plundered by Henry VIII., it was found
k.wi|p% to contain an extraordinary treasure, in
llfV ^ sol*! and silver, pearls, diamonds, and
\„iif '& other precious stones. Lincoln, supported
only by its county trade, and by the re
maining opulence of the catiietlral, now
holds a moderate rank among provincial
Lincoln Cathedral. towns. Its fifty churches are reduced to
eleven ; and the fragments of the others are dispersed throughout the town, many ordinary
houses being adorned with Gothic arches, doorways, and windows.
Boston, on the Witham, carries on the trade of Holland, or southem Lincolnshke. It
exports the grain, and affords a great market for cattle ; and has thus doubled its population.
A fine Gothic church attests the early prosperity of Boston.
Subsect. 3. — Central Counties.
Under this term we comprehend that part of the interior which is bounded on the soutii
and south-west by the two divisions already described ; on the north and north-west by York
shire and Lancashire ; and on the west by the counties of Salop, Worcester, and Gloucester.
In a description of this portion of the country, LonnoN claims a, distinct and separate
notice. As the metropolis of the united kingdom, it is the seat of legislation, jurisprudence,
and government ; the principal residence of the sovereign, at which affeirs of state are
transacted, and relations maintauied with foreign courts ; the centre of all important opera
tions whether of commerce or finance, and of correspondence with every quarter of the globe.
London, in its comprehensive sense, includes the city and liberties of London, the city of
Westminster and its liberties, the borough of Southwark, and the parishes and precincts
contiguous to those three component parts of the metropolis. Its extent, from Poplar in
the east to Belgrave-square in the west, is nearly eight mUes ; its breadth, from Islington
in the north to Walworth in the south, exceeds five miles. The circumference, allowing for
inequalities, is computed at thirty miles. The buildings, streets, squares, and other spaces,
including that taken up by the river Thames, winding from the eastern to the westem
extremity, about seven miles on an average breadth of a quarter of a mile, occupy an area
of eighteen square miles.
By a more convenient topographical arrangement, London has been divided into six grand
portions : 1st, the City, which may be termed the central division ; 2d, the westem division,
including Westminster ; 3d, the north-west division, including the district north of Oxford-
street and west of Tottenham-court-road, — these two last mentioned divisions constitute the
west-end of the town ; 4th, the northern division, comprising the whole district north of
Holbom and the City fi-om Tottenham-court-road on the west to Shoreditch and Kingsland-
road on the east, including St Pancras, Somers-town, PentonvUle, Islington, Hoxton, and
Kingsland ; 5th, the eastem division, including the whole district east of the city and of
Shoreditch ; 6th, the southem division, comprising the borough of Southwark, and the
mass of buildings extending from Rotherhithe to Vaushall, and ranging southward for more
than two mOes. The divisions north and south of the Thames communicate by five bridges,
—London Bridge, Southwark Bridge, Blackfriars, Waterloo, and Westminster bridges!
The port of London extends from London Bridge to Deptford, a distance of about four
mUes, with an average breadth of from four hundred to five hundred yards. Its divisions
are the Upper, Middle, and Lower Pools, and the space between Limehouse and Deptford.
Connected with it are certain spacious docks, which will be hereafter noticed.
The population of London, accordmg to the returns in 1831 of the census in 1830, is thus
stated : — Persons
City of London within the walls  5^ gpg
 without the walls (including the Inns of Court)  '.!".'.'.!'.'.*.'. .07' 878
Borough of Southwark  ,\ .. '.*.*.*.'.* .91 501
City of Westminster  ', .'.'.'.*.'.'.'.*.'.'.*.*.*..* 202' 080
Parishes within the bills of mortality  .*!.'!.*!.'!! !.'!.' 701 348
Adjacent parishes not within the bills  '.!'.'.!!! !!.'.'.*! 293 507
Total 1,474,069

372 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part HT.
The north division of London, as viewed from the most central and elevated point, rises
gently from the Thames, and extends to the foot of a range of hills on which are situated
flie villages of Hampstead and Highgate. On the east and west are fertile plains extendmg
at least twenty miles, and watered by the windmg and gently flowing Thames. On the
south, the distant view is bounded by the high grounds of Richmond, Wimbledon, Epsom,
Norwood, and Blackheath, terminating in the horizon by Leith Hill, BoxhOl, and the Rei
gate and Wrotham Hills. Shooter's Hill is a conspicuous object to the eastward ; and, in a
more northerly durection, parts of Epping Forest and other wooded uplands of Essex.
So early as the reign of Nero, London had become a place of considerable trafBc, as appears
from Tacitus, the earliest of the Roman historians who mentions it by name. The Romans
fortified it with a wall, and made it one of their principal stations. At the beginning of
the thhd century, it is represented as a great and wealthy city, and considered to be the
metropolis of Britain. In the end of the sixth century, it became the capital of the East
Saxons, whose king, Sebert, is reputed the founder of the cathedral church dedicated to
Samt Paul, and of the abbey and abbey church of Westminster. After the union of the
seven kmgdoms, Egbert, m 833, held here his first wittenagemote, or council : but London
was not constituted the capital of England until its recovery from the Danes by Alfred.
William of Normandy, whose interest it was to conciliate the citizens, though he buUt the
fortress called the Tower, to keep them m awe, confirmed the privileges and unmunities
which they had enjoyed under Edward the Confessor. Notwithstandmg several visitations
of fire and pestilence, London contmued to increase, especially after the accession of the
Tudors, when the overthrow of feudal vassalage, and the more frequent resort to the capital,
caused an augmentation so rapid as to alarm the government The dissolution of monas
teries, of which London contained so large a proportion, accelerated this increase, while it
gave an impulse to industry and commerce. In the reign of Elizabeth, the influx of strangers
driven from the Netherlands, by the persecutions of the Duke of Alva, heightened the alarm,
and the queen was even induced to issue the absurd decree that no more dwelling-houses
should be built : a prohibition which did not retard the growth of the city. In 1636, the
refinements of Paris and Madrid were emulated in London by the introduction of hackney
coaches and sedan chairs.
The reign of Charles H. includes the most memorable epoch in the history of London.
In 1665, a plague swept away 100,000 persons. In September, 1666, broke out that great
and awfhl fire which destroyed 400 streets, 13,000 houses, and 89 churches. For the re
building of the city, an admirable plan was presented by Sir Christopher Wren, the archi
tect : the difficulty of reconciling confiicting interests, allowed it to be but very partially
adopted. He rebuilt the cathedral of St. Paul and most of the parish churches in the
Grecian style, and the front of Guildhall in the original Gothic. Instead of wood and plaster,
the chief materials of the former city, the new buildings were of brick, in the substantial
though heavy style then in vogue. There were no flagged ftwtpaths ; the streets were ill-
paved : and as there was no system of drainage by sewers, and no distribution of pure water
by pipes, they were in some places far from endurable. The city, however, gained by the
change, though with the sacrifice of many interesting memorials of its ancient state, and of
its most glorious times.
Westminster, though founded in the time of the Saxons, and chosen at an early period as
a royal residence, did not at first keep pace with London. The abbey and its church, founded
by Sebert, were rebuilt by the architects who reared so many splendid febrics of Gothic
masonry in the reigns of Henry III. and Edward I. The celebrated hall was buUt by William
Rufus in 1097 and 1098, and it underwent a thorough repair in that of Richard II. On the
dissolution of monasteries, Henry VIII. converted this religious establishment into a college,
and afterwards into a bishopric. Westminster thus became a city, and has ever since re
tained that rank by courtesy, though it never had but one bishop, having been transferred by
Edward VL to the see of Norwich.
The city of Westminster is comprised in the united parishes of St Margaret and St.
John ; the liberties include seven other parishes, St. Martin's in the Fields, St James's, St
Ann's, St Clement Danes, St Mary's le Strand, St George's Hanover Square, and St. Paul's
Covent Garden, with the precinct of the Savoy and that of St. Martin's le Grand. Several
of the parishes westward of Temple Bar had each its church and contiguous village, com
municating with each other by roads and footpaths. The Strand was originally a high road
connecting London with Westminster by the village of Charuig. After the Restoration,
the west end of the town rapidly increased ; and its inhabitants, affecting superior refine
ment of manners, claimed to bo considered as a distinct class of beings from the industrious
merchants east of Temple Bar. By degrees, as the vacant ground was built upon, the two
cities and their suburbs were united ; and at length tiie distant villages of Mary-le-bone
and St Pancras became integral parts of tiie metropolis. A splendid quarter, now occupied
by the most fashionable part of the community, has been built to the west of St James's
Park and the new palace. The villages surrounding London, formerly at some distance,-

Book I.

ENGLAND.

373

on the east. Stepney and Lunehouse ; on the south, Peckham, Camberwell, Brixton, Clap-
ham ; on the west, Brompton and Knightsbridge ; on the north, Hackney, Hoxton, Islington,
Highgate and Hampstead, — being now joined to the metropolis by continued ranges of
streets, may be considered as integral portions of it The population within a radius of
eight miles from St Paul's, which is all virtually London, does not fall short of 1,800,000.
The growth of London, as a port, was at first by no means rapid. In 1832, besides boats
and other craft not registered, there belonged to the port of London 2669 ships, of the burthen
of 565,174 tons ; manned by 32,786 men and boys. In the same year, the gross customs
duty collected m the port of London amounted to 9,434,854?. The port of London has
already been described as extending from London Bridge to Deptford, a distance of four
miles ; the average breadth being fiilly a quarter of a mile. Even these limits were far
from affording adequate accommodation to the shipping ; and the example of improvement
exhibited by Liverpool at length roused the merchants of London to form companies for con
structing docks, with commtDdious quays and warehouses. The West India Docks, stretch
ing across the isthmus forming the Isle of Dogs to the Middlesex side of the river, were
opened in 1802. They consisted originally of an import and export dock, the former con
taining about 30 and the latter about 25 acres of water, exclusive of basins. To these have
recently been added the south dock, formerly the City Canal. The warehouses at the West
India Docks are of vast extent, and are, in all respects, most commodious. The London
Docks, also of very great extent, are situated at Wapping. The tobacco warehouse be
longing to them is the largest and finest building of its kind in the world. It covers a space
of near 5 acres ! The vaults underneath the ground are ISj acres in extent, and have
Stowage for 66,000 pipes of wine ! There are also the St. Katharine's Docks, adjoining the
Tower ; the East India Docks, at Blackweli ; and the Commercial Docks, on the Surrey
side of the river.
Southwark, the third great portion of the metropolis, (more commonly called the Borough,
and as such returning two members to parliament,) is situated on the south bank of the
Thames. The Borotigh was governed by its own bailiffs until Edward VI. granted South
wark to the city of London for a sum of money ; after which it became one of the city
wards by the name of Bridge Ward Without It is much frequented by agriculturists from
Kent, Surrey, and Sussex ; and is the principal hop-market in the kingdom. Numerous
streets in every direction connect it with the surrounding villages ; and by the five magnifi
cent bridges it communicates with every quarter of London and Westminster.
London, is well built, well paved, well lighted, and abundantly supplied with water. For
eigners who visit it for the first time soon discover that utility, not ornament, is the main
- characteristic of the town, and that business, not amusement, occupies the minds of its
inhabitants. The main streets are spacious ; and all the streets have the advantage of flagged
foot-pavements on each side. The houses are of brick ; and though in the most populous
streets discoloured by smoke, have by no means a gltximy appearance. The charm of London,
as a great city, is its variety. Those who dislike the narrow streets of the city, shady in
summer, and sheltered from cold winds in winter, may delight in the spacious streets and
squares of the west end ; those who desire to contemplate what Dr. Johnson called " the full
tide of human existence," may visit Cheapside, Fleet Street, or the Strand : Bond Street is
the resort of gaiety and fashion ; and Regent Street, for architectural effect, is one of the
grandest streets in Europe. Great improvements have been made on the north side of the
Strand from Charing Cross to Burleigh Street by taking down an immense mass of small
and old houses, partiy in narrow streets and courts, and erecting others of large dimensions
and forming wide and handsome streets. Here also has been erected the elegant and com
modious structure of Hungerford
Market. Another improvement is
that of opening a line northward
from Bridge Street, Blackfriars,
through the site of Fleet Market
and across Clerkenwell, to Isling
ton : it is intended that a parallel
line should extend from Waterloo
Bridge across the Strand, past the
portico of Covent Garden Theatre,
and into the northern district of
the metropolis.
St Paul's Cathedral (fig. 149.),
the masterpiece of Sir Christopher
Wren, is the finest specimen of
^-*^-=i^s^~^f—----'-—^'"-'^-~— modern architecture m the king-
^'- '''"''°; dom, and, after StPeter's at Rome,
may rank as the finest ecclesiastical structure in Christendom ; but it is so surrounded with
Vol. I. 32

149

t\

ii^:fi&.

374

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

PartIII.

buildings that the beauty of its exterior cannot be appreciated. The style, which is Grecian,
unites grandeur of design with just
ness of proportion. The interior of
St. Paul's is too bare of ornament ;
but the defect is partly supplied by
marble monuments of various de
grees of merit
Westminster Abbey (^g. 150.)
'"< ftSIB- f^fiFSt^¥# ^ ^ noble specimen of Gothic archi-
1^ ^'*/5™b fflBlHiM tecture. The mterior is grand m
l!*^i!wl§ftlSBl flHiiilliH design and rich iu detail, and the
interest which it excites is en
hanced by the numerous monuments
of kings, warriors, statesmen, phi
losophers, and poets, which it en
closes. The chapel buUt at the
westem extremity by Henry VII.
in honour of the blessed Virgin, is
in the richest style of the later
Gothic, and its exterior has been skilfully renovated.
Among the parish churches of the metropolis, that of St Stephen's, Walbrook, is distin
guished for the fine proportions and finished elegance of its interior. The stately portico of
St. Martui's, Charing Cross, excites universal admiration ; next to which may rank that of
the new church of St. Pancras ; the steeple of which is constructed on the model of the Temple
of the Winds at Athens. The other public buildings are too numerous to be described, and
a bare mention of them would give little satisfaction. The principal inns of court, and their
subsidiary inns, are remarkable rather for plainness than magnificence of architecture. The

Westminster Abbey.

151

Somerset House.

pile called Somerset House (fig.
151.) would have a grand effect
if its eastem wing were com
pleted; and this desideratum is
partly supplied by the buildings
assigned to " King's College, Lon
don." The Banqueting House at
Whitehall is a memorial of the
fine taste of Inigo Jones ; and its
ceiling is decorated with an alle
gorical painting from the pencil
of Rubens, which is stdl exposed
to view, though the apartment has
been converted into a chapeL
Westminster Hall, of which the portal has been rebuilt in the original style, is reputed the
longest hall in Europe unsupportetl by pillars. It is 276 feet long by 76 broad. Within it,
on coronation festivals, 10,000 persons have dined. On its south side are entrances to the
new law courts, the King's Bench Common Pleas, Exchequer and Chancery, with an addi
tional court for the vice-chancellor. The House of Peers is a spacious and lofty chamber,
decorated with tapestry representing the defeat of the Spanish armada. The subordinate
apartments and passages are of recent construction and of a dig
nified elegance. The House of Commons, originally a chapel dedi
cated to St. Stephen, retains, perhaps, too much of that character
in its front and side galleries, the seats rising on either hand
beneath them, and the speaker's chair exactly in the place where
a pulpit might have stood. The house was altered and enlarged,
to admit tiie accession of members consequent on the union with
Ireland.* The Bank of England, a building of great extent ; the
Royal E.xchange ; the East India House, in Leadenhall street ;
the Tower, which has still an arsenal and a garrison, being the
depository of the regalia of the United Kmgdom ; the Trmity
House, and the New Muit, both situated on Tower Hill; the
new Post Office, in St Martin le Grand ; the new Palace m St
James's Park, Sue. deserve mention.
The Monument (fig. 152.) is one of the most conspicuous orna
ments of the metropolis. The pedestal is 43 feet, the shaft of tiie
The Monument. column 120 feet, the cone at tiie top with tiie blazing um of gilt
brass 40 feet, making the total height of the monument 202 feet It was erected by Su:
Christopher Wren, to commemorate the fire of London, m 1666.

152

• The Parliament Houses were burnt down in 1834.

Book 1.

ENGLAND.

375

The bridges of London atta-act attention by tiieir beauty and utJity. Until the year 1740,
tiie only one existing was London Bridge, buUt in the twelfth century, with arches so nar
row, unequal, and ill-placed, as to form a sort of breakwater, occasioning a rapid or fall of
the stream, highly dangerous to boats and barges. The new London Bridge (fig. 153.) com-
153

New London Bridge.

menced in 1824, and opened in 1831, has taken its place. The bridge consists of five semi-
elliptical arches ; the centre arch 152 feet span, with a rise above high water mark of 29 feet
6 mches ; the two next the centre arch, 140 feet span, rise 27 feet 6 inches ; the two abut
ment arches, 130 feet span, rise 24 feet 6 inches. The length of the bridge from the extremi
ties of the abutment is 928 feet , within the abutments, 782 feet The roadway is 53 feet
between the parapets ; of this width, the footways occupy 9 feet each, and the carriage-way
35 feet Southwark Bridge leads from Queenhithe to Bankside, Southwark. Of its three
arches of cast iron, the central one is 240 feet span ; the others 210 feet each. The piera
and abutments are of stone, the rest of the work non : this is the most stupendous bridge
of these materials in the world. Blackfriars Bridge, built between the years 1760 and 1769,
has 8 piers and 9 elliptical arches ; length 995 feet. Waterloo Bridge (fig. 154.), of granite,
154

Waterloo Bridge.
has nine arches, each 120 feet span ; the piers are 20 feet thick. Westminster Bridge has
fourteen piers supporting thirteen large and two small arches. The width of the middle
arch is 76 feet; that of the two next, 72, that of the last, 52. Waterloo Bridge is the finest
piece of masonry in Europe : the expense exceeded 1,000,OOOZ. These immense works,
with the exception of London Bridge, have all been accomplished by associations of private
individuals. The municipal institutions of London have received from time such modifications as were
requisite to improve them. The city is divided into twenty-five wards, the Borough, as
Bridge Ward Without, making the twenty-sixth. Each has for its magistrate an alderman
chosen for life : and those persons collectively form the Court of Aldermen. The chief
magistrate, styled Lord Mayor, is elected annually, from the Courtof Aldermen, by the great
body of freemen called the Livery. The Common Council is an elective body representing
the several wards. — These public bodies form a sort of parliament, the court of aldermen
ranking as peers, that of common council as the commons. The military force of the city
formerly consisted of the Train Bands ; but under an act passed m 1794, two regiments of
militia are raised by ballot, each consisting of 2200 men. No troops can enter the city nor
can its own militia depart from it, without permission of the lord mayor. His power is very
great ; and tht^ugh his office be elective, his authority does not cease on the demise or abdi
cation of the king, as that of the commission officers does : and in such cases the Lord Mayor

376 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part IE.
of London is said to be the principal officer of the kingdom. There are two sheriffs, one for
London and one for Middlesex ; but they make but one officer ; and if one of them dies, the
office is at an end until a successor to him is chosen. The next officers in rank are, the
Recorder, the Chamberlain, and the Common Sergeant.
The police of the metropolis has not been brought to a very high degree of efiiciency, but
is continually undergoing improvements. There are eleven ofiices : the Mansion House ;
the Guildhall; Bow Street; Queen Square, Westmmster; Marlborough Street; High
Street, Mary-le-bone ; Hatton Garden ; Worship Street ; Lambeth Street, in Whitechapel ;
High Street, Shadwell ; Union Street, Southwark ; and Wapping New Stairs, for offences
connected with the shipping and port. The Bow Street Police Ofiice is wholly under the
direction and management of the Secretary of State for the Home Department All the
magistrates belonging to it are in the commission of the peace for the counties of Middlesex,
Surrey, Kent, and Essex, this being the chief police office of England. Subject to its
authority is the body of foot and horse patrole by which the roads within ten miles of the
metropolis are watched and guarded during a considerable part of the night In another
department of police a most important change has been effected by sutetituting for the
nightly watch appointed by different parishes without concert or co-operation, a constabu
lary POLICE force, regularly organized, and subject to officers appointed by the Home
Secretary of State. The men are maintained by rates levied on the different parishes,
and are on duty night and day, in successive divisions, relieving each other like gendarmes.
The gaols and prisons cannot be passed without notice. The King's Bench prison, in
Southwark, is under the particular authority of the Court of King's Bench. The liberties,
or rules, comprehend an area three miles in circumference, within any part of wiich debtors
may reside on paying certain fees. The Fleet Prison, chiefly for debtors, is situated on the
east side of Farringdon Street Whitecross-street prison was erected in 1817, for the
reception of such debtors as were liable to be confined in the city gaols of Newgate and the
Compter. Newgate, a place of confinement for prisoners before and after trial, has been
placed under new regulations through the efforts of benevolent persons anxious to render it
a place of reform. Bridewell, Blackfriars, though a prison, is usually ranked among the
hospitals. The Middlesex House of Correction, in Coldbath Fields, has long been the terror
of delinquents, through the double punishment of incarceration and hard labour. The Peni
tentiary at MUbank is destined for the reception of convicts selected from those sentenced
to transportation or to confinement on board the hulks for a certain term of years. They are
confined here to hard labour for a shorter term, part of which is remitted if they behave well.
Tothill-fields Bridewell is a large pile of building, finished in 1833. A new House of Cor
rection has been erected at Brixton, in Surrey.
The charitable institutions of London would require a volume for their description.
Chelsea and Greenwich hospitals are asylums provided by national gratitude to support the
aged or infirm who have devoted their best days to the service of their country by land and
sea. St. Bartholomew's and St Thomas's hospitals are assigned to the maimed and diseased.
Bridewell Hospital to the correction of the idle, and Christ's hospital to the support and
education of the young and helpless. For the cure of diseases, and for the relief of acci
dental injuries, there are various institutions ; such are the London, Middlesex, St George's,
and Westminster hospitals ; St. Bartholomew's, St Thomas's, and Guy's, are also celebrated
as schools of surgery ; the hospitals of Bethlehem and St Luke's are appropriated to insane
patients : there are sixteen medical charities for particular purposes, as the Ophthalmic
Institution, the Small-pox Hospital, the Vaccine Society, &c. ; fourteen lying-in hospitals
and charities ; schools for the indigent blind, and for the deaf and dumb ; tiie Philanthropic
and Humane Societies, the Refuge for the Destitute, the Foundling Hospital, the Magdalen
Asylum, the Female Penitentiary, &c. To the class of charitable foundations belong also
the alms-houses of the various city companies.
The most distinguished schools of the metropolis are, Christ's Hospital, the Charter-house,
Westminster, St. Paul's, and Merchant Tailor's schools. For the acquisition of the higher
branches of knowledge, an important provision has been made in tiie establishment of the
London University, anti in that of the institution called King's College, London.
Of the scientific and literary associations of the metropolis, the most considerable are the
Royal Society, the Society of Antiquaries, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts and
Manufactures, the Royal Institution for facilitating the introduction of usefiil Inventions and
Improvements, the London, and the Russel Institutions. The College of Physicians, and the
Royal College of Surgeons, decide on the admission of members to practise in each of thtase
professions. For the cultivation of sciences connected with them, four eminent societies
exist, and lectures are established at various theatres of anatomy and hospitals. Of institu
tions for particular branches of knowledge, tiie more eminent are the Linnean, the Geological,
the Horticultural, the Geographical, and the Zoological societies. As a national repository
of literature, of antiquities, and of objects belonging to natural history, the British Museum.
elsewhere described, is daily rising in public estimation.
London is the principal literary emporium of tiie kmgdom. Almost all books of import-

Book L ENGLAND. 3T7
ance are there printed and published ; and tiience distributed over tiie kingdom ; forming a
considerable branch of commerce. The annual value sold is estimated at from 1,000,000?.
to 2,000,000?. sterling. Bemg also the centre of intelligence relative to public aflkirs, the
metropolis gives cn-culation to a prodigious number of newspapers and periodical journals.
Some of the newspapers circulate upwards of 8000 a day ; and by this profit derived from
such extensive sale, and from advertisements, they are enabled to maintain complete and
costly establishments for obtammg early political intelligence, and for reporting trials and
parliamentary proceedings. The number of single papers, published annually in London,
as calculated from the stamp returns, exceeds 16,000,000.
The manufactures of the metropolis are too miscellaneous to be particularised ; indeed,
London may be called a commercial rather than a manufacturing city. The most consider
able is the Spitalfields silk manufacture, which, however, has for years remained stationary,
while that of other parts of the kingdom has been rapidly extending. In household furni
ture the artisans of London take the lead both in the design or fashion of the articles, and
ui the excellence of then- construction. The same may be said of coaches, carriages, and
harness, of watches, of gold and silver plate, and of jewellery. Of articles of consumption,
the peculiar product of London is porter. In 1823-4, the quantity brewed was 1,168,000
barrels, inclutling a comparatively small quantity of ale ; and almost the whole of which
was produced by eleven great establishments. The distilleries of British spirits are very
extensive. The foreign trade of London has, since the peace, continued nearly stationary. The vici
nity of Liverpool to the manufacturing districts, anti her more easy and frequent intercourse
with Ireland, give her considerable advantages. But, on the other hand, the vast piDpulation
of London and of the basin of the Thames, her proximity to the Contment, the immense
wealth and connexions of her merchants, will most probably suffice to ensure her predomi
nance. The charges on vessels frequenting the Thames, though within these few years
very heavy, are now extremely moderate.
The inland trade of London is very extensive, as appears from the number of arrivals by
all the great roads of the metropolis, and by the Regent's Canal, extending from the Thames
to the basin at Paddington, a sort of internal port, communicating with the principal canals
of the kingdom. Sixty-four mail-coaches and a great number of steam-packets maintain a
constant communication between the London General Post-Office and the cities and towns
in Great Britain and Ireland. The regulated speed of the mails is eight miles an hour,
including stoppages.
London is the great money market of the empire. The Bank of England, founded in
1694, has become the greatest bank of circulation and deposit in Europe. Its usual issue
amounts to about 20,000,000?. sterling ; it advances about 10,000,000?. sterling to govern
ment and discounts bUls to the value of about 3,000,000?. Though some of its privileges
are curtailed by the late act, this is compensated by the regulation which makes its notes a
legal tender. The Stock Exchange is the place where purchases and sales are effected by
brokers, at a commission of one-eighth per cent on the amount of stock purchased or sold.
The establishment consists of a certain number of brokers, about thirteen hundred, elected
annually by ballot, and bound in a certain sum to the observance of certain regulations,
which are superintended and enforced by a committee. None but members are admitted on
the stock exchange ; and no stock-broker can, by the regulations, become a dealer, and sub
ject himself to the operation of the bankrupt laws. If he becomes a bankrupt, he is desig
nated a scrivener. The property bought and sold in this market, between the hours of ten
and four, is sometimes enormous. The Insurance Companies are about twenty in number,
of which only three are incorporated by charter. Of other joint-stock companies, for pur
poses immediately connected with London, the principal are the Water and Gas Light Com
panies. As the seat of legislation and jurisprudence, London is necessarily the resort of the prin
cipal persons in the kingdom during the session of parliament, which usually continues from
Christmas to midsummer ; and as that period includes three of the four law terms, the afflux
of strangers is increased by those who are interested in any proceedings before the courts.
The town mansions of the nobility and gentry are not so remarkable as their country resi
dences for architectural beauty ; but some, of them are celebrated for their treasures of lite
rature or art The grounds of St James's Park, Hyde Park, and Kensington Gardens,
emphatically called the lungs of London, and the fine enclosure of the Regent's Park, are
destined for the recreation of the public.
Middlesex may be regarded as the dairy and garden of London. Its soil is mostly a poor
gravel ; but, by the application of manure, it is fitted for kitchen gardens to the extent of
nearly three thousanti acres ; the same extent of fruit gardens, and about half that extent
of nurseries, whence the greater part of England is supplied with choice plants and exotics.
But the largest portion of Middlesex is in grass, partly for the support of 10,000 cows,
whicli supply London with milk, and partly for furnishing it with hay, that of Middlesex
being said to be made in a superior manner to any other in the kingdom. Great profits have
Vol. I, 32 * 2 X

378

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part ni.

Hampton Court.

been derived from that species of clay which is convertible into brick. Large tracts have
yielded 4000?. an acre ; and after this clayey substance has been pared off, the soil has been
easily restored, by manure, to the uses of agriculture.
Hampton Court (fig. 155.), buUt by Cardmal Wolsey, and enlarged by Sir Christopher
Wren, forms one of the largest of the
English palaces. Here are many fine pic
tures, among which are seven of the car
toons of Raphael, regarded as the master
pieces of that renowned painter. Bushy
Park, the seat of William IV. while Duke
of Clarence, is surrounded with magnifi
cent woods. Chiswick, the villa of the
Duke of Devonshne, and Osterley Park,
both in this vicinity, contain fine pamtings.
Syon House is the seat of the Duke of
Northumberland. But the chief ornaments
of Middlesex are the villas of the wealthy
citizens of London. At Twickenham, bar
barous hands have demolished Pope's villa. Strawberry Hill is a light fantastic febric, buUt
by Horace Walpole. The villas which cover the hUls of Hampstead and Highgate com
mand beautiful prospects.
Hertford, Bedford, Buckingham, Oxford, Northampton, Leicester, consist generally of a
vast plain, varied by gentle undulations ; the air is healthy and pure ; the agriculturists are
careful and laborious. The horses and black cattle of Leicestershire are famous throughout
the kingdom. Bedford and Berks have some fabrics of shawls, straw hats, and bone lace.
Silk and woollen hosiery have found their way into Leicester and Oxford shires, and Coven
try has for centuries been renowned for its silk manufecture.
Oxford justly claims the first rank among the midland cities. Its tmiversity, the most
richly endowed in Europe, and the nursery of so many great men ; the numerous and exten
sive edifices connected with it arranged in such a manner as to produce a tmly noble effect,
render it one of the most interesting places in England. The visiter, as he passes along
either of the two main streets (fig. 156.), beholds at every step some antique and majestic
structure ; even the houses of pri
vate individuals, presenting the
aspect of ornamented cottages rising
one above the other, have a better
eftect than the usual mechanical
lines of street This beautiful city
is supported almost entirely by the
university, which is of great anti
quity, and the principal buildings
which now ornament it were built
between the times of Henry VI. and
Elizabeth. Oxford, in the reign of
Charles I., was a place of consider
able political importance; parlia
ments were summoned to meet
there, and the king maintained it
long as his last strong-hold. It has
nineteen colleges and four halls, in which reside above three thousand persons, of whom
atbout a third are maintained out of the funds of the colleges; and many, under the charac
ter of masters, fellows, and other functionaries, enjoy liberal incomes.
The Bodleian Library is the most extensive in England, after that of the British Museum.
In the spacious quadrangle which contains this library are also the public schools ; a large
gallery of portraits having refftence to the university ; the Arundel marbles, and the Pom-
fret statues, which, though much mutilated, present some fine specimens of ancient sculp
ture. The Radcliffe Library is the finest library room in Oxford ; but it labours under a
deficiency of books. Christ-church is an ample and venerable edifice, adorned with some
fine old painted glass. In an adjoining apartment is the collection of pictures bequeathed
by General Guise, which contains some specimens of unquestioned excellence. New Col
lege chapel attracts admiration by its fine series of paintings on glass, executed by Jervis,
after the designs of Sir Joshua Reynolds. All-Souls College, Magdalen College, and
Queen's College, display architectural beauties of no common order.
Woodstock has a gay aspect ; to the interesting features in English history and romance
it adds the solid betiofit of a large manufacture of leather gloves. Buckingham and Da
ventry aro small antique towns. Newport Pagnell, in Bucks, forms a sort of centre of tiie
lace trade. Bedford carries on some manufactiures of this description ; and being situated in

High Street, Oxford.

Boor L

ENGLAND.

879

Blenheim.

B rich valley, watered by tiie Ouse, has a considerable stir in transmittmg its produce. The
industry of Dunstable is attested by the straw hats which bear its name. Hertford is a
small provincial capital, chiefly remarkable for tiie college which the East Indi.a Company
have founded for tiie education of the civil servants whom tiiey send abroad : St. Alban's
is venerable for its antiquity, and its cathedral. Nortiiampton, a place of considerable name
in English history, a well-built town on tiie Nen, with a market-place which has been
reckoned the finest m the kmgdom, has a manufactory of boots and shoes for exportation,
and of lace. It is a great centre of the inland travellmg between London and the north ;
and tiie trade m horses has always been carried on m great fairs at this place. Leicester
is a still more important provmcial capital. It is a place of note in English history, and
attests its ancient importance by some fine old churches ; but it had fallen into considerable
decay, till it was revived by the prosperity of the surrounding country, chiefly m conse
quence of tiie introduction of new breeds of stock mto fine pastures. Leicester has also a
large fabric of woollen stockmgs, in which it is only excelled by Nottmgham, and which,
under fevourable circumstances, employs seven or eight thousand persons. Oakham, the
capital of Rutlandshire, is a very small town.
The seats of this extensive district, though not so thickly planted as in the southern, are
jgy . yet numerous. Foremost stands Blen
heim (fig. 157.) that proud monument
of a nation's gratitude to its long un
rivalled hero. Its exterior displays that
minuteness of detail and general hea
viness, which characterise the designs
of Vanbmgh : some of the apartments,
however, are of almost unequalled
grandeur; particularly the great hall,
fifty-three feet by forty-four, and sixty
high ; and the library, one hundred and
eighty feet by forty-three. The woods,
also, the lake, and the general disposition of the grounds, are greatly admired. The gallery of
pictures is one of the very finest m tiie kingdom, containing some of the best works of
Rubens, Vandyke, and Titian. Stowe, the seat of the Duke of Buckingham,, is celebrated
as the most elaborate and splendid example of the species of gardening called classical, in
which an attempt is made to present nature herself in an omamented form. Her own pro
per ornaments, of wtxid, water, hill and plain, are heightened by the introduction of tem
ples, ruins, statues, inscriptions, and other objects calculated to excite lofty and poetical
ideas. Modern taste rejects many of these accessories, as breaking in upon the idea of
simple nature, to which it seeks to make the nearest possible approach ; yet, a space of four
hundred acres, filled with groves, temples, and meandering streams, must present many
beautiful sites. " The rich landscapes," says Walpole, " occasioned by the multiplicity of
temples and obelisks, and various pictures that present themselves as we shift our situation ;
occasion surprise and pleasure, sometimes recalling Albano's landscapes to our mind, and
oftener to our fancy the idolatrous and luxurious vales of Daphne and Tempe." The house
also is handsome and richly ornamented, and contains some fine paintings. Wobum Abbey,
where the house of Russel, by princely shows and festivals, have thrown a new lustre on
British agriculture, is a. magnificent edifice. The stables, experimental farm, and other
appendages of the most useful of arts, excite the admiration of every farmer and even ama
teur ; nor is this residence deficient in the lighter embellishments of painting and statuary.
Althorp, near Northampton, is adorned with many rare and valuable works of art ; but it is
in London chiefly that Earl Spencer keeps his librar}?, the first in the kingdom. Opposite
to Stamford is Burleigh, a noble old residence of Cecil, Elizabeth's minister. It contains a
fine library of books and manuscripts ; and the Exeter family have enriched it with a col
lection of paintings, generally supposed to be the most extensive in England. Near Oak
ham, is another Burleigh on the hill, once the seat of the gay revels of Buckingham. It
has a noble terrace in front, and contains a good library, with some curious paintings. On
the border of Leicestershire and Lincolnshire, stands the Duke of Rutland's proud castel
lated edifice of Belvoir. From a lofty height it overlooks a vast extent of country, includ
ing the vale of the same name, one of the richest and most beautiful in England. The col
lection of paintings is of great value.
Warwick is a noble county. Its woodlands, the remains of the wide ancient forest of
Arden, are still extensive, and a great part lies in fine natural grass. Pasturage predomi
nates greatly over agriculture, occupying nearly two-thirds.
Warwick, an ancient and well-built town, still preserves a portion of its prosperity by the
manufacture of woollens. Coventry is a large old town, built very irregularly, and many of
the houses exhibiting the uncouth architecture of a distant period. Its ecclesiastical monu
ments, however, are of importance. St Michael's is a very light and elegant structure,
with a spire rising to three hundred feet The fabric of silk, introduced more than a cen-

380

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part IH.

tury ago by the French refugees, has made a most rapid progress, so that in 1819 it employed
2819 looms. In the making of watches, also, this city now rivals London. Leamington,
though its spa is mentioned by Camden, never became a scene of crowded resort, till the
beginning of this century ; yet so great since that period has been its attraction, that it has
risen from a mere village to be a flourishing place. There are both hot and cold baths ; and
the waters are used either for drinking or bathing. Leamington now possesses, on a hand
some scale, baths, inns, a theatre, an assembly-room, — all the accommodation for the sick
and the gay. Stratford, a considerable town on the Avon, to which the muse has given a
deathless name, is the birth-place of Shakspeare ; the poetical pilgrim here beholds the
genuine tomb of the poet, and the site of the house chosen by him for his final residence ;
though the house itself a barbarous hand has demolished. Birmingham is in Warwickshire,
but as it is the capital of the iron country, which is almost wholly in Staffordshire, we shall
class it with the great towns devoted to the working of that material.
There are two castellated seats in this county, Kenilworth and Warwick, both of almost
matchless grandeur ; but the former presents only the picturesque remains of its pristine
158 state (fig. 1.58.). Founded m the
reign of Henry I., it was extended
and adorned by Jolm of Gaunt ; and
remained with the princes of the
house of Lancaster till wrested from
them by the triumph of the house of
York. It continued thenceforth a
royal appanage ; and was bestowed
by Elizabeth on her handsome fa
vourite, Leicester, whose residence
Kenilworth Castle. here, and the splendid fetes and ro
mantic incidents connected with it, have been so happily worked up by the greatest romance
writer of the age. At the close of the civil wars, it was given up wholly by Cromwell to
his soldiers for plunder, and was reduced to the totally fallen state in which it now appears.
The walls were indeed entire, but completely naked and roofless ; and the visiter who stands
at the interior foot of the tower can trace only by chimneys, and other slight marks, the
successive apartments rising above each other till they are terminated by the dome of the
sky. Kenilworth exhibits the feudal age in its total downfall ; but the traveller has only to
proceed a few miles in order to see it entire and in full glory. This is the proud mansion
once inhabited by the king-making Earl of Warwick {fig. 159.). It was buUt by the Earl
of Warwick, who, in the four
teenth century, distinguished him
self at the battles of Cressy and
Poitiers. Edward IV. seized an
opportunity of annexing it to the
crown. It was afterwards bestowed
by King James on Lord Brooke,
who spent a large sum in restoring
it from a state of decay ; and the
late earl repah-ed it so judiciously,
and made his additions in such
harmony with the origuial pile,
that he may be considered almost
the creator of the edifice in its
Warwick Cnstle. present State. The entrance, cut
through a rock, and opening at once on three of the loftiest towers, has an effect truly
striking. The interior is equally grand and interesting. First is a passage or corridor up
wards of 300 feet in extent, seen from end to end, and along which the state apartments are
arranged. The grand hall, 62 feet long, is wainscoted with oak, hung witii armour, and
maintained in full feudal keeping.
. Staffordshire has a somewhat bleak and uninviting aspect ; the ferms are smaller, and
improvements less advanced than in the other midland counties, but its mineral stores are
immense. Tlie region of coal is supposed to be about 50,000 acres in e.xtent, and cannot be
exhausted for ages. Besides its economical uses, this mineral is tiie main basis of the works
and manufactures of the county, and of all those in the north-west of England, which, but
for this ample supply of fuel, could never have attained tiieir present astonishing height
Iron, the most useful of metals, exists in equal abundance ; and since the discovery that it
could be worked with coke, iron works have been established on nn immense scale. The
whole district from Wolverliampton to Birmingham may be called a Cyclopean Istnd, where
furnaces without number .tre continually pouring out fire and smoke. The clays afford the
material of the pottery, which forms the otiier great Staftbrdshire manufacture. It is long
since some coarse vessels were made at Burslem ; but Mr. Wedgwood raised this febric to

Book I. ENGLAND. 381
the highest perfection, and rendered it an object of national importance. Not content with
the native materials, he imported the finest white clays and best flints from the southern
counties ; and formed that variety of articles called Wedgwood's ware, applicable to all
purposes of use and ornament, and superior in some respects to the best porcelain. Hence
has sprung up a range of villages forming a district called the Potteries, of which Burslem
is the centre, and which contain about 60,000 inhabitants.
The principal cluster of large towns in Staffordshire consists of those in the southern
quarter which are employed in making iron, and manufacturing it into various forms. Of
this district Birmingham is the capital ; and at the remotest periods iron is mentioned as its
staple, but the grand impulse given was early in the last century, when John Taylor, the
founder of the wealthy family of that name, Matthew Boulton, Esq., and other individuals,
by the spirit of their undertakings, and by their liberal patronage of skill and ingenuity in
every line, contributed greatiy to the establishment of the manufacturing fame of the town.
Mr. Boulton, having secured the celebrated Mr. Watt, established, in conjunction with him,
at Soho, near Birmingham, their immense manufactory, in which talent, science, capital, ex
perience, united every thing which could raise hardware articles to perfection. Pre-eminent
above all is the steam-engine, which Mr. Watt, its great improver, not only applied to the
use of his works here, but constructed for the rest of England. The copper coinage exe
cuted at Soho by steam-power for the use of government has been greatly admired. Under
the impulse of such an example, the citizens of Birmingham soon produced their standard
articles of a cheapness and excellence which defied all competition. The articles manu-
fectured in Birmingham consist, in a great measure, of such as, individually, appear un
worthy of being named, yet astonish and dazzle by their magnitude, when half the world is
to be supplied with them ; such as pins, buttons, nails, paper trays, filigree, and toys. There
are not wanting, however, fabrics of greater magnitude, taken even singly, such as that of
fire-arms, &c. During the last war, the gunsmiths of Birmingham met the demand with
such energy, that on one occasion, they delivered to government 14,000 muskets in a week.
Of ponderous machinery, none, perhaps, is more interesting than that of the metal rolling-
mills. Birmingham is commodiously built, with suitable churches and other edifices, but
without any thing prominent in architecture, or any antique monuments. The town can
boast of enlightened citizens, under whose auspices letters and the arts have been cultivated
with ardour. The institutions for the education of the poor are not, perhaps, surpassed by
any in the kingdom for extent and efficacy.
The other great manufacturing towns, almost all in Staffordshire, are Wolverhampton, a
very populous place, of considerable antiquity, with a fine old church ; but indebted for its
present greatness to the making of locks and keys in a manner superior to any town in the
world. Wednesbury has a fine old Gothic church ; but its main boast at present is, the
making of all the hard materials of coach harness in an unrivalled manner. Walsall flour
ishes by the making of every thing connected with saddlery ; Dudley by its nails : but it
has also a castle of some note in history, commanding a view of seven counties.
The nominal capital, Stafford, is yet to be noticed ; an ancient but small town, of neat
appearance, ornamented with the usual county buildings. The Grand Trunk Canal, how
ever, passing by it, has given an impulse to its industry ; and it carries on a considerable
manufacture of boots and shoes. Newcastle-under-Line, and Tamworth, are both consider
able towns on one of the great London roads.
Lichfield is a more elegant and interesting place. Its most prominent object is the cathe
dral, of high antiquity, the finest part of which was built in 1140; some particular portions
are equal to any thing of the kind in Britain : such are the portico, richly adorned with
sculpture ; the choir ; and St Mary's chapel. The society fixed there by this richly endowed
establishment, together with the neatness of the town, and its pleasant situation, have
induced many of the gentiy in this quarter to make it their residence. These circumstances
have contributed to give to Lichfield that intellectual character which is so conspicuous,
and has made it almost the literary metropolis of south-western England. The birth and
early education of Johnson and Garrick are alone sufficient to immortalise it. Lichfield
enjoys high privileges as a city, having a district of some extent round it considered a county
of itself
Derbyshire, in its natural features, is perhaps the most remarkable of any county of Eng
land. Except in the lower and southern districts on the Tient, the whole county is traversed
by ranges of rugged and rocky hills, penetrated by vast excavations, and separated by
narrow valleys. Lead is abundant, chiefly in the form of galena. Iron is also worked very
plentifully. This county is also celebrated for the variety and beauty of its calcareous sub
stances, particularly the kind called Blue John (fluor spar), which, by the skilful application
of a gentle heat, is made to exhibit the most brilliant colours. Lastly, there are numerous
hot springs variously impregnated ; and the county contains two of the most remarkable
watering-places in the kingdom, Matlock and Buxton.
In proceeding to Castleton, the traveller passes through the Winyats, or gates of the

382

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY

PartIU.

160

Peak Cavern, Derbyshire.

winds, a narrow road of about a mile in length, between precipices a thousand feet high,
dark, rugged, and perpendicular. At the
end of this road opens on one side Mam
Tor, or the Shivering Mountam, 1300 feet
high ; on the other the High Peak crowneti
with the ruins of a Saxon fortress ; and
at its foot, the wonder of wonders, " the
Peak Cavern." (fig. 16 J.) This is a huge
gulf, 42 feet high and 120 long, at the foot
of perpendicular cliffs. The visiter is
thence guided through a succession of
dark cavernous apartments, and is ferried
along a subterraneous river ; above which
the rocks rise so close, that he must lie
flat on his fece. At the end of somewhat
above 2000 feet the cavern terminates, or,
at least, becomes no longer passable.
Elden Hole is a fissure near Buxton, which
descends perpendicularly to an unknown depth. A line of 2652 feet has been let down
without finding a bottom. Poole's Hole, near Buxton, is chiefly remarkable for the petri
factions with which it is filled.
On descending into the Low Peak, a milder grandeur presents itself The most rugged chains
of Derbyshire are interspersed with beautiful valleys ; but none equals that of Maticx;k, where
, -,- the banks of the Derwent are bordered
by extensive woods, interspersed with
the boldest and most varied forms of
rock. Dovedale (fig. 161.) is a wilder
scene, where the river Dove is hem
med in by perpendicular rocks, of forms
so bold, and covered with such variety
of trees and shrubs, that this has some
times been deemed the most picturesque
spot in England.
Derby, the capital of this county, on
the Derwent, is handsome and well
buUt, and has extensive manufectures.
Silk, introduced at the commencement
of the last century, has continued to
flourish. Porcelain is also manufec-
tured here ; and what is called its white ware is considered almost unrivalled. A consider
able number of workmen are employed in cutting and polishing marble ; and the Derbyshire
spar is fashioned into a variety of beautiful forms.
The watering-places in Derbyshire have the next claim to notice. Matiock contains
mineral springs, efficacious in consumptive and rheumatic complaints. Buxton, in the High
Peak, surrounded by naked mountains, attracts a much greater multitude ; and its waters
are considered very powerful in rheumatism, gout, and otlier diseases. The Duke of Devon
shire has here constructed a superb crescent, occupied by inns, shops, ball-rooms, and every
thing that can contribute to the accommodation and gaiety of the visitants.
Of seats, Chatsworth has sometimes been considered the finest in England. It was built
by William first duke of Devonshire, in 1702 ; and is 191 feet square, of the Ionic order,
richly ornamented both within and without. Keddlestone House has a fine Doric front, 360
feet long, considered one of the finest architectural features in England. Hardwicke Hall
was long the residence of the unfortunate Mary ; the furniture and the portraits remain, in
many respects, in the same state as during her residence.
Nottingham is watered by the broad stream of the Trent, its tributaries, and numerous
canals. The Vale of Belvoir, to the south-east, ranks with the richest tracts in the island.
The north-western part contains tiio remnant of tiie great forest of Sherwood, famed for the
revelries of the merry outlaw Robin Hood. Being covered, also, in a great measure, with
the ornamented grounds of noblemen of high rank, it is called the " dukeries." The manu
factures of hosiery in this county, Leicester and Derby, employ 33,000 frames and 73,000
operatives, producing in cotton 880,000?., worsted 870,000?., silk 241,000?. The lace trade
employs 1.50,000 embroiderers in this county.
Nottingham is a large town, boldly and picturesquely situated upon the Trent Its streets
are arranged along tiio face of a hill so steep, that the ground floors of the street behind, in
some instances, rise higher than the roofs of those in front. The rocky materials of this hill
are so soft and yielding, that they are cut to a great extent into cellars and warehouses.
The makmg of etockmgs has always been the staple of Nottmgham. They are worked on

Dovedale.

Book L ENGLAND. 383
frames, which, in the middle of last century, scarcely exceeded 1200, and at present amount
to 10,000. .The lace trade recentiy added is of very great importance. There are stated to
be 1240 machines in the town, and 1070 in the neighbourhood ; and the lace sold in its mar
ket is valued at 130,000?. Nottmgham has also a great inland trade by the Trent and canala
connected with it.
Newark is noted for its castle, and for a parish church, said to be the finest m the kmg
dom. Nottinghamshire may boast some splendid seats. Worksop Manor, built by the Duke of
Norfolk, contains fine portraits of the Howard family. Clumber Park is fitted up in a mag
nificent style by the Duke of Newcastle, with a very valuable collection of pictures. Wel-
beck Abbey, a seat of the Duke of Portland, is noted for its fine stables. Newstead Abbey
had been stripped of its fine furniture and paintings before it came to the late Lord Byron.
Subsect 4. — The Northern Counties.
The northem counties of England may be described, generally, as reaching from the
Humber and the Mersey to the Scottish border. They include the wide extent of Yorkshire,
divided into three ridings, and of Lancashire, Durham, Northumberland, Cumberland, and
Westmoreland. The eastern portion is interspersed with large bleak tracts of mountain,
moss, and moor. Its ports carry on a thriving trade in coarse, bulky, and useful commodities.
The south-western, comprising Lancashire and the west riding of Yorkshire, by the vast pro
duce of its manufactories, leaves far behind it every other district in the world. The north-
westem, or the countiy of the Lakes, has a higher degree of picturesque beauty than any
other part of England.
The counties of Northumberland and Durham are hilly and elevated ; and their chief
wealth is subterraneous. A species of coarse coal, mixed with lead, everywhere abounds ;
and the lead is exported to the extent of from five to ten thousand tons. But within this
mineral region there is enclosed a smaller one, reaching from the mouth of the Coquet to
the Tees, a length of aboilt fifty miles, and having its greatest breadth of about twenty miles
upon the Tyne. Within this tract are found uninterrupted beds of that valuable coal with
which London is wholly supplied, and of which great quantities are either sent to other parts
of the kingdom, or exported.
Newcastle was femed at an early period in the military annals of England. It formed a
leading point in the wall of Hadrian and in that of Severus. Robert, son of the Conqueror,
built here a castle of immense strength, more than two miles in circuit, which served long
as the main bulwark against Scottish invasion. Scarcely a trace of it now remains ; and
the occupations of Newcastle are entirely changed. Both banks of the river, down to Tyne
mouth, form an immense wharf, to which, by railways and steam wagons, coals are conveyed
from the contiguous pits. In 1830, the quantity exported was 867,513 chaldrons, about
2,300,000 tons. Newcastle carries on very extensive manufactories, particularly that of
glass. There are thirty-one works on the Tyne, which in some years have produced glass to
the value of 500,000?. In shipping it is second only to London, having belonging to it, m 1832,
1077 vessels, of the burthen of 220,784 tons. Foundery, pottery, weaving, are not on a
very great scale. Newcastle is now, on the whole, a well-built town, though some of the
streets are inconveniently steep : it is highly omamented by the spire of St. Nicholas, con
sidered by the best judges as one of the finest specimens of the Gothic. It possesses a lite
rary society, which has published valuable transactions ; and an antiquarian society, destined
particularly to receive the Roman coins, &c. which are frequently dug up on this line. The
large town of Gateshead, on the opposite side of the river,' though placed in Durham, is really
part of Newcastle, and raises its population to 57,000.
A continued range of great commercial towns cluster thick around Newcastle. Near the
mouth of the T3me are North Shields and South Shields, on opposite sides of the river ; the
latter being in the county of Durham. They carry on with activity the coal trade, and the
others proper to Newcastle ; particularly ship-building and the making of ropes and sails.
Tynemouth, at the immediate opening of the river into the ocean, displays, on a bold prom
ontory, a castle, a light-house, and a fine old abbey ; they form a striking and romantic scene,
which contrasts with those immediately above. At the mouth of the Wear, are Sunderlanti
and Wearmouth, — the one a very great, and the other a considerable port Their prosperity
is supported by the same great trade of coals, of which in 1832 they sent 600,000 tons to
the port of London, two-thirds of that which comes down the Tyne. They carry on also
the same manufactures, particularly ship-building, in which Sunderland is supposed to exert
a greater activity than any other place in the kingdom. The bridge there has long been
celebrated : it consists of one arch of iron framework thrown across the river, 200 feet span,
and 100 feet high, allowing very large vessels to pass under without lowering their sails.
"Nothing," says M. Dupin, "can be more striking than this view of the two cities, and the
bridge that unites them ; that majestic arch drawn against the sky, which allows large vessels
to pass under its vault with their sails flying." He afterwards adds, in regard to these ports
generally : " It is an admirable thing, within an extent of coast which a man may walk over

884 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part HI
on foot in three or four hours, to see two great rivers receive 16,000 vessels, and send
them away loaded with the produce of their banks. On the same narrow space are six
flourishing towns, containing a population of 85,927 persons, all devoted to commerce and
industry." Durham is handsomely built, though on very uneven ground ; its grand ornament is the
cathedral, reared in the eleventh century, which is perhaps unrivalled as to its situation,
ranging along the summit of a precipitous rock eighty feet high above the Wear, which
winds along its base. The see of Durham is the richest in England ; and the cathedral,
besides a dean, twelve prebendaries, and two archdeacons, has attached to it about sixty
s spiritual servants of various ranks.
The number of smaller towns in those counties is still considerable. In Durham, Stock
ton near the mouth of the Tees carries on the trade of that river ; in 1832 it carried 173,000
tons of coal to London, and has also the Baltic trade, and the manufacture of sailcloth and
other naval materials. Hexham, on the Upper Tyne, is the capital of interior Northumber
land, and of the grand ancient scene of border debate. Morpeth has a weekly market for
the cattle brought up from Scotland.
IQ2 The seats are chiefly great baronial
castles, at the hoctd of which staniis Aln
wick (fig. 162.). This proud keep of the
Percies covers five acres, and is defend
ed by sixteen towers. An expense of
200,000?. has been incured in converting
the interior from a feudal castle into the
most splendid of modern mansions. Wark-
worth Castle, another seat of the Percies,
retains its antique character. Lumley,
_  ^^  the feudal castle of the Earls of Scar-
Alnwick Castle borough, presents entire its august and
formidable front. Raby Castle, Howick, Lambton Hall, and Bishop Auckland, are fine seats.
Yorkshire is next in order : its eastern division resembles the two counties just described ;
while the western forms part of the great central seat of English manufacture. The York-
shireman has a character of his own, marked by shrewdness, simplicity, good humour, and a
species of drollery ; so that the London comic stage is considered incomplete without one of
his representatives. The North Riding consists, to a great extent, of moorlands ; the hUls
of which rise often to a considerable height. These dreary tracts spread over the whole
Riding, so that culture can exist only in the valleys. The East Riding, which extends to the
Humber, is traversed also by a range of high wolds, which, though rugged, have not been
able to resist the energies of British industry. These Ridings present to tiie German Ocean
high and often precipitous rocks, of which Flamborough Head, nearly 500 feet high, forms
one of the boldest features in English landscape. The West Riding is composed chiefly of
a wide, flat, fertile plain, traversed by the Aire, the Calder, and other navigable rivers, which
convey its produce to the eastern, and, by means of canals, to the western sea. In this tract
is placed the immense manufacturing district of Yorkshire ; in its extreme west is the dis
trict of Craven, the most rugged and mountainous of all England ; for here rise Ing'leborough,
Wharnside, Pennigent, each to the height of nearly three thousEmd feet There is scarcely
a county in which the spirit of agricultural improvement has been so active as in Yorkshire ;
and vast tracts of waste and common land have been reclaimed and rendered productive.
Hull, the principal port, is the fourth commercial city in England, only surpassed by Lon
don, Liverpool, and Bristol. It carries on a most extensive export of goods brought by the
interior system of rivers and canals. It is the principal of the whale-fishery ports ; though
this branch has lately declined. During the nine years ending with 1818, the average
number of vessels fitted out from Hull for the whale fishery amounted to SSf ; while in 1830,
it sent out only 33. In 1832, it owned 557 ships, carrying 68,892 tons, and there entereii
its port 1279 vessels, of the burden of 192,661 tons. The Old Dock, completed in 1778, the
Humber Dock in 1809, and the Junction Dock in 1829, contam a space of twenty-three
acres. Goole, on the Ouse, a little above its junction with tiie Humber, is beginning to share
with Hull in the exportation of woollens. Though a few years ago a mere village, and stUl,
in 1831, containing only 1670 inhabitants, it has two spacious docks, and in 1829 tiie customs
exceeded 40,000?., and the declared value of exports amounted to 625,000?. Goods sent
from Leeds or Wakefield by rivers or canals can be embarked at Goole in the course of
twelve hours.
Whitby is a very ancient town, with the remains of a fine abbey built soon after the Con
quest. Its modern importance is derived from large mines of alum. The export of their
produce forms a considerable trade, to which Whitby soon added the other branches preva
lent on this coast, and became second only to Hull.
Scarborough, romantically situated on a promontory between two rocks overlooking tiie
Bea, is the chief watering-placo of the north of England.

Book I. ENGLAND. 885
York, the capital, is the first object that strikes us as we proceed into the interior of the
North and West Ridings. This celebrated city, though so much eclipsed by several that are
only of to-day, still boasts a dignity superior to tiiem, and to almost any other in England.
Eboracum was a distinguished Roman station ; for some time York disputed with London the
distmction of being the capital of England ; and when obliged to give up this claim, contmu
ed the unquestioned metropolis of tiie north, till the creative powers of trade raised up rivals
to it m the north-west The houses are high, and the streets narrow ; yet, altogether, York
is a handsome, respectable-lookmg old city. It boasts one feature of almost unrivalled
beauty, — its cathedral, (fig. 163.) On the exterior all the richness and elegance of Gothic
igg ^^ ornament has been lavished, particularly
""' upon the western front and the large win
dow in the eastern. But the interior is
without a rival in the empire ; its effect is
altogether sublime : its numerous windows
of painted glass shed a dim, solemn, reli
gious light, in accordance with the charac
ter of the edifice. The chapter-house is of
singular elegance and magnificence; and,
though of great extent, has its roof support
ed by a single pin. The choir of this splen
did edifice suffered severe injury from a fire
 kindled by the hands of a maniac; but by
York Cathedral . great oxertlons has been fully repaired. The
remains of the ruineti abbey of St Mary, and those of several of the twenty-three churches
of York, are also deserving notice. There are likewise some elegant modern edifices, par
ticularly the assembly room, the county hall, guildhall, the mansion-house, and the museum
of the Yorkshire Philosophical Society. York is still a gay town, visited by many of the
northern gentry, particularly at the time of its races. It carries on some inland trade by
the Ouse, which passes through it.
Doncaster is much frequented during the time of its races. Pontefract is surrounded by
a great extent of garden and nursery ground, the produce of which is sent to a considerable
distance. Scarcely a vestige remains of that immense and powerful keep, covering seven
acres, in which Thomas of Lancaster, Richard IL, and many other fallen chiefs and states
men, were immured. The parliament, during the civil wars, having taken it after three
successive and arduous sieges, caused it to be completely demolished.
Leeds is the capital of western Yorkshire, and, in a commercial sense, of the whole
county. Although it was of some note even in early times, its present greatness is modern,
and of the most rapid growth. The population, which in 1775 was only 17,117, amounted
in 1831 to 123,393 ; being thus nearly quintupled. A peculiar activity and spirit of enter
prise has been observed among the manufacturers of Leeds: it was, doubtless, greatly
favoured by the vast extent of inland navigation, which seemed to centre here, connecting
it with the capital, with both seas, and with the counties to the south, from which it derives
inexhaustible supplies of fine coal. The woollen manufacture is not carried on wholly in
large towns; the cloth is wrought to a certain state of for wardness in the numerous villages,
thence sent into Leeds, where it is purchased and worked up into a saleable state. The
cloths are sold in weekly markets, held in the cloth halls, the most remarkable feature in
Leeds. That for mixed cloths was built in 1758, that for white cloth in 1775. They form
quadrangular edifices round an open area, and are divided into stands, of which in the first
hall are 1800, and in the second 1210. These are let at a moderate rent to the owners of
the cloth, who, on the ringing of a bell, occupy their a(tands, and though the market remains
open only an hour, goods to an immense value are often disposed of Although the staple
of Leeds and of Yorkshire be common cloth, yet other branches are in some degree included,
as sail-cloth, cotton, carpets, and superfine cloths. Mr. Drinkwater states the persons em
ployed in the mills for wool at 5290 ; worsted, 702 ; flax, 2434 ; cotton, 80 ; silk, 1.58 ; in
aU, 8664 ; of whom 5318 are males, and 3346 females ; to which may be added 1814 in the
suburb of Holbeck. The town of Leeds is mostly well built, with several broad and spa
cious streets ; and the theatre, the new court-house, and the commercial buildings, finished
in 1829, are elegant structures. Kirkstall Abbey, three miles distant, presents, in a beauti
ful situation, the most complete specimen of the architecture of the 12th century that is
extant. The people of Leeds have formed a literary and philosophical society, and an insti
tution for the promotion of the fine arts ; for the purpose of which a very handsome and
commodious edifice has been erected: meritorious exertions have also been made for the
education of the poor.
Of the other towns of the clothmg district, which cluster round Leeds, Wakefield, beauti-
fiilly situated on the Calder, has a cloth market, on a smaller scale, resembling that of Leeds
and also great grain and cattle markets. Halifax, and the whole tiistrict about twenty miles
round it, has been converted from a desert into a populous and prosperous scene, containino-
Vol. L 33 2Y *

386 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part IU.
altogether 110,000 inhabitants. Its staples are what are properly called stuffs ; shalloons,
serges, baize, moreens, kerseys ; and it has lately embraced a considerable share of the cot
ton manufacture. Huddersfield is also a very thriving town, employed nearly in the same
branches ; and its market hall is supposed, next to that of Leeds, to present the greatest
show of woollens in the kingdom. Bradford and Keighley are large towns, which carry on
to a great extent the manufacture of worsted : besides which, Bradford has great iron found
ries in its neighbourhood.
In the southem part of this riding, the manufactures of iron and cutlery take the place of
those of woollen ; and flourish to such an extent, that they are second only to the great iron
district around Birmingham. Sheffield is the capital of this district It early derived im
portance from the fabrication of arms, but it has reached a much higher degree of greatness
since it betook itself to the more useful febrics of knives, forks, razors, snuffers, scissors,
combs, buttons, saws, sickles, and various instruments of husbaniiry. The art of plating
goods with sUver is carried to a vast extent The sUver is soldered upon the copper ; and
the articles are wrought by the hand or stamped. The cutlers of Sheffield keep many hun
dred patterns of knives, of which some are of the value of seven or eight guineas, contain
ing twenty-eight blades within the handle ; while others, after passing through a multitude
of different hands, are sold for a penny each. The rapid growth of Sheffield commenced
about the year 1750, when the river Don was rendered navigable to within a few miles of
the town. Since that time its advance has been steady ; new branches having been con-
staiitly adding, and the former ones extending. The houses are chiefly modem, and well
buUt ; and the town makes a tolerable appearance, notwithstanding the smoke of the forges
in which it is involved. The military barracks erected here form an extensive pUe of budd
ing. The infirmary is considered equal to any in the kingdom ; and great credit is due to
Sheffield for the excellence of the schools which it maintains for the education of the lower
orders. It supports also many public charities ; has a literary society, a mecheinics' insti
tute, and a library.
Barnsley produces wire, nails, and other articles, but derives its chief importance from the
linen manufacture. Rotherham has a great foundery for cannon. The first iron bridge was
constructed here at the works of Messrs. Walker ; and they have since executed those of
Sunderland, Staines, and Yarm. Rotherham, being in a fine country, has also a great com
£ind cattle market.
The superb seats which adorn Yorkshire are so many, that to enumerate even the most
distinguished can with difficulty suit our limits. Castle Howard is a magnificent pUe, noted-
for its classical collection of sculpture and painting. Dtmcombe Park is admired for tbe
noble view obtained from the terrace in front, and for the ruins of Rivaulx Abbey, situated
in a beautiful vale at a little distance ; Studley Royal, an almost unrivalled specimen of an
ornamental park, encloses within its precincts, Fotmtain's Abbey, one of the grandest of
monastic remains, covering several acres. Wentworth House is generally considered the
noblest mansion in the north. The principal front extends upwards of 600 feet, forming a
centre and two wings, in the middle of wliich is a fine Corinthian portico.
Lancashire, situated beyond the hilly border of York West Riding, forms the capital or
central seat of manufacture for Britain, and even for the world. Its soU and climate are
unfavourable ; the upland tracts being rocky and barren, and the coast too low and flat, whUe
the moisture from the Atlantic is injurious to the growth of the finer kinds of grain. But
coal traverses in large beds the south and south-eastern parts of the county ; and being con
veyed by short canal lines to all the great towns, affords cheap and abundant fuel for the
steam-engines and other grand manufacturing apparatus. Canal navigation, which origi
nated in Lancashire, has been carried to a greater extent there than in any other part of the
kingdom; Besides those smaller canals which connect all the great thriving towns, it has
the Lancaster Canal running north and south through nearly its whole extent, and into
Westmoreland as far as Kendal ; and the stUl more important line of the Leeds and Liver
pool Canal ; whUe, in the southern border, the Grand Trunk connects it with London and
the' whole centre of England. A most important additional communication has recently
been opened by the railway, elsewhere described, by which Liverpool and Manchester, so
far as respects personal conveyance, are brought almost into contact
Manchester, the centre of British industry, and the manufecturmg capital of the empire,
is favourably situated on the Irwell ; though this stream, navigable for barges, scarcely makes
any figure beside the vast artificial lines formed from its waters. Although the cotton manu
facture is now widely diffused throughout England, Manchester continues the centre of the
trade ; receiving and distributing the raw material, collecting the produce worked up in
numerous towns and villages, and transmitting it to tiie various markets. From the middle
of the last century she has advanced with amazing and accelerated rapidity ;and the system of
inland navigation having afforded copious channels by which the material can be introduced
and the manufactured article exported, every obstacle to the absorption of the whole into
this centre was removed. Its manufacture embraces tiie finer muslins and other delicate
fabrics, with the plain and useful forms of dimities, fustians, velveteens, checks, shirtings,

Book L ENGLAND. 387
emghams, diapers, cambric muslms, figured muslms, calicoes for printmg, and various fancy
loods The different cotton fabrics generally denominated Manchester goods, are not all
manufectured withm tiie town itself, but in the neighbourhig towns and districts ; and, after
bemo- bleached, and some of tiiem printed, are sent in a finished state to Maiichester to be
soldi the chief market days bemg Tuesdays and Saturdays. Thus Marseilles quUtmgs,
cambric muslks, calicoes for prmtmg, bed quilts and counterpanes, checks, fiistians, and
shh-tmgs, are brought in from the surrounding towns and villages. A vast deal of yarn is
also spun for exportation. Manchester has extensive establishments for printmg and dyeing ;
also, for constructing and keepmg in repair steam-engines, as well as other machmes
employed m manufacture. Even iron founderies are necessary to supply the materials.
Other important branches have recentiy been added. Manchester now rivals Macclesfield
and Norwich in the manufacture of silks, and Nottingham m that of lace. In 1832, there
were at work m the townships of Manchester and Salford, 96 cotton mUls, 16 sUk, 4 woollen
and worsted, and 2 flax mUls. The number employed in cotton factories amounted to
20,585 ; of whom, 5361 were male and 7035 female adults ; 4286 male and 3903 female
chUdren. The wi^es paid to them per month were 40,333?., makmg about Qs.Qd. of ave
rage weekly earnings to each individual. There were 7174 mule sphmers, earning 15,106?.
per month, averaging 10s. M. each per week ; 1497 spmners of a higher class, earning
8491?. per month, or 1?. 8s. Id. each per week. Piecers' scavengers 2944, earnmg 3287?.
per month, each weekly 5s. Qd. In the power looms, women receive 8s. to 12s. ; men, 13s.
to 16s. lOd. ; dressers, 28s. to 30s. per week. Manchester is not an elegant town ; some
parts of its interior are narrow, crowded, ffiU of warehouses and factories in huge masses.
The entrances, however, have been made handsome ; and, in the extremities of the town,
streets of elegant houses have been built for the accommodation of the opulent merchants.
It has one handsome Gothic collegiate church of the fifteenth century, and several more
modern, that are creditable to the taste of the town, as the Exchange, which includes a
news-room and a good library ; the Infirmary (which in one year received above 12,000
patients) ; the Town Hall, which contams one of the most splendid public rooms in Europe ;
and the Royal Institution for the Promotion of the Fine Arts. The prison called the New
BaUey is an immense structure, — the inmates of which are classed and provided with
employment to a considerable extent. Manchester is remarkable for its charitable institu
tions ; hospitals of diflerent kinds ; and schools for the education of the poor. Cheetham's
Hospital, maintaining eighty poor children, has a library of 18,000 or 20,000 volumes, con
taining rare and valuable works. In 1781, a literary and philosophical society was formed
at Manchester, and produced several valuable volumes of Transactions, enriched by the con
tributions of Percival, Ferriar, Dalton, Henry, and other eminent gentlemen tiiere resident.
In 1774, the population of the whole parish was 41,000 ; the amoimt of 142,000 for 1831 by
no means comprehends all that may be considered Manchester. The large towns and vU-
lages which have spnmg up within its parish form really its suburbs, and raise the entire
population to 270,000. Of these, the most important are Salford, immediately contiguous,
and now raised to the rank of a borough ; and Chorlton Row, which in 1801 contained 675
mhabitants ; in 1831, 20,565.
Huge towns, resembling cities, devoted to the cotton manufacture, are found in every
direction round Manchester. To the north are Blackburn and Bolton ; the former chiefly
employed in the branch of printed calicoes, which are supposed to be produced to the annual
value of 2,000,000?. A great advantage is derived from th6 Leeds and Liverpool Canal
passing close by it Bolton is a tovm anciently of some strength, but now supported entirely
by industry. Some of the greatest improvements in the cotton manufacture, have been
made by Arkwright and Crompton, residents in this place. Preston, a flourishing seat of
manufacture, elects two members on a basis of almost universal suffrage. Wigan is a large
town, which adds to those of cotton and linen some manufactures of brass and pewter.
Bury, very near Manchester, besides extensive cotton works, has some of woollen. Oldham
was early a place of some consequence, carrying on a large fabric of hats ; but the intro
duction of the cotton manufacture has caused it to make an astonishing progress, so that in
thirty years it has nearly trebled its population, and the parish, including PUkington, Cromp
ton, and other towns, contains 67,500 inhabitants. There are here now 65 cotton mills and
140 steam-engines, almost all erected during the present century.
Some large towns employed in other manufactures than those of cotton lie on the borders
of Lancashire. Rochdale, near the western point of Yorkshire, and in character a York
shire town, has for its staple woollen stuffs and flannels, of which 8000 pieces are made
weekly ; fifty-seven steam-engines are employed here, and about 84,000 lbs. of cotton yam
spun in the week. Warrington, on the Mersey, which is navigable 'for vessels of eighty
tons from Liverpool, in Henry "VlII.'s time was superior to Manchesfer ; but it is now left
far behind. Its staples of sailcloth and coarse linens have been exchanged for cotton to
which it adds glass and pins. Prescot is noted for the making of watch-wheels, springs,
chains, &c. several of which have been invented and improved by its workmen. Near it'
at St Helen's, is a great manufactory of plate glass, employing 300 persona.

388 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. PaUt HL
Liverpool, the commercial capital of Lancashire, is, if possible, a still grander object, and
far surpassing indeed every other seaport, with the exception of the metropolis. Nothuig
can be more remarkable than the contrast of its present state with its humble origin. In
the sixteenth century, it is described as a small place with only a chapel, having no parish
church within four mUes. It had then 138 inhabitants, and two or three ships, whose aggre
gate tonnage was 223 tons ; and in a petition to Elizabeth, about the year 1578, it is styled,
" her majesty's poor decayed town ;" it continued gradually to increase during the seven
teenth century, till, in 1700, it was constituted a parish, and had 5000 inhabitants.
Since that time it has advanced with rapid and accelerated steps ; in 1730, it had 12,000 ;
in 1760, 26,000 ; in 1800, 56,000 inhabitants ; but the most rapid growth has been between
1811 and 1821, when it rose from 94,376 to 141,487. The mcrease to 165,000 in 1831
appears less rapid ; but in fact, the population during this period has overflowed into the
adjacent vUlages, and swelled them into large towns ; Toxteth-park increased from 2069 in
1801, to 24,067 in 1831 ; West Derby, Kirkdale, Everton, form in fact the suburbs of Liver
pool, and, added to it, make an amount of 203,000. There must always have been a consi
derable port at the mouth of the Mersey ; but this estuary, in its natural navigation, could
never come in competition with the Humber or the Severn. When, however, its disadvan
tages as a seaport were partly removed, by the formation of docks, — and, much more, when
it became the basis of a canal system reaching eastward to the German Ocean, and south
ward to the Thames, — Liverpool could communicate with an immense interior circle. It
derived benefit, above all, from the cotton manufacture established, on such an extensive
scale, in the country immediately behind ; the materials of which were brought to Liverpool
from the opposite side of the Atlantic, and the finished febric thence exported, partly to the
same quarter. At the same time Liverpool imported, for a great part of England at least,
articles of consumption from America and the West Indies. It found also a most extensive
employment in bringing grain and provisions from Ireland, and retuming salt, coals, and pot
tery. The merchants of Liverpool, meanwhUe, were most active in improving these cir
cumstances, particularly by the construction of that immense line of docks, which M. Dupin
has described with such admiration. A dock, or space enclosed all round, and fed with
sluices, in which the vessels while they receive or discharge their cargoes are kept regu
larly afioat, without being exposed to swell, tide, or current, is an obvious improvement upon
the best natural harbour. The expense, however, is great ; and it was not tUl 1710 that
Liverpool began the first dock in Britain, called the Old Dock, which has recentiy been filled
up. Twenty years were employed in its completion ; and a stUl longer time in that of the
next, or the Salthouse Dock. The others were, however, constructed on a more extensive
scale, and with greater rapidity : — George's (II.) Dock ; the King's Dock, for Greenland
ships and tobacco ; the Queen's Dock, directly for the Baltic and North American trade.
On a still larger scale have been constructed the Prince Regent Dock, opened in 1821, and
the Clarence Dock, m 1830. The Brunswick Dock, for the accommodation of vessels with
cargoes of timber, nearly completes the present plan, when the whole area of water in the
docks will exceed 90 acres. In 1832, there belonged to this port 853 registered vessels, of
the burthen of 166,028 tons. The customs paid at the port amounted, m 1765, to 269,000?. ;
in 1810, to 2,675,000?. ; and in 1832 they had risen to 3,925,062?. The followmg are the
leading articles of import m the year 1830 :— 792,350 bags of cotton, 510,000 hides, 42,000
hogsheads of sugar, 8000 hogsheads of tobacco, 300,500 barrels of flour, 7800 casks and
7300 barrels and bags of coffee, 27,000 casks of palm oU, 900 seroons and 1430 chests of
indigo, 12,000 puncheons of rum, 31,200 bags of rice, 22,500 barrels of American ashes,
42,500 barrels of tar, 51,000 barrels of turpentine, 6200 tons of logwood, 5650 logs of maho
gany. The dock duties, which m 1800 were only 23,379?., amounted, m 1832, to 170,000?.
In 1832, the ships entered inwards were 10,266, tonnage 1,361,000 ; outwards, 8717 ships,
tonnage 1,218,645. Of this, 610,000 tons were from foreign parts, chiefly the United States
and British America, the rest coasters, of which 386,000 were from Ireland. The value of
agricultural produce from that country amounted to 4,444,000?.
Liverpool has numerous lines of packets to all the principal foreign ports. Every month
four saU to New- York, two to PhUadelphia, one to Boston, two respectively to Rio Janeiro,
Genoa and Leghorn, and to Lisbon ; one every three weeks to Oporto. The New- York
packets are first-rate vessels containing splendid accommodations fbr passengers, and the
value of goods conveyed in one of them has been known to exceed 140,000?. Trading ves
sels also are continually sailing to the above and to all other commercial places throughout
the world. An almost daily communication is maintained by steam packets with Dublin,
Belfast, Glasgow, Whitehaven, and all ports of any consequence ui Ireland, and on the
western coast of Eng^jnd. The solid construction of its docks ; the powerfiil iron gates by
which they are enclosed ; tho long covered ways where the goods may be landed without
injury from the inclemency of the weatiier ; tiie immense magazines, some rising to the
height of 12 or 13 stories,— all denote a gigantic industry and a magnificence which spares
no sacrifice to attain objects of public utility. The inhabitants of Liverpool have generally
shown the same spirit in their other arrangements as in tiiose connected with trade. The

Book I.
town is well lighted with gas.

ENGLAND.

389

The public building have an elegant and classical character,
almost peculiar to Liverpool. The Town-
Hall (fig. 164), is a fine Grecian edifice,
ornamented with a superb cupola and ap
propriate statues. The Exchange forms
behind it on elegant square, in the midst of
which is a sculptural composition by West-
macott, representing Nelson and his victo
ries. The new edifice erected for a market
is, perhaps, the most spacious and commo
dious of any employed in the kingdom for
that purpose. There are also several ele
gant modern churches, one formed of cast-
iron. The finest view of Liverpool is
Town Hall, Liverpool obtained from the sea, where the vast height
and extent of the exterior dock wall, the forest of masts above, and the town behind, make
a most imposing appearance. The charitable institutions are administered on a great scale,
and with activity. Foremost stands the Blind Asylum, the first established in England, which
receives inmates from all parts of the kingdom. The infirmary is in a very spacious and
airy situation; and, among the other institutions common to great towns, the Strangers'
Friends' Society distinguishes itself by its generous exertions. The English mercantile
towns generally show a zeal to combine intellectual pursuits with those of wealth ; but
none, perhaps so successfully as Liverpool, — one of whose merchants, while carrying on an
extensive business, produced works which rank him among the most classical English
writers. Although this example be single, it is connected with a general spirit, which
displays itself in the liberal procedure of several individuals; in the Lyceum and the
Athenaeum; two public libraries and literary institutions, supported by subscription; and in
a botanic garden, which ranks as the first that was formed, and at least the third as to
eminence, in the kingdom. Both the Athenseum and the botanic garden owe their founda
tion to the public spirit and the munificent example of Mr. Roscoe, who had also the
magnanimity to exert his powerful talents for the abolition of the slave trade, in a town lono-
devoted to that traffic.
Lancaster, the county town, is handsomely buUt of a beautiful free-stone ; the Town-hall
, ati and some other buildings are handsome ;
- ' * but the castie (fig. 165.) forms one of
the grandest monuments of the feudal
age. Its vast extent; its commanding
site ; the greatness of all its features,
even now, when three of its seven towers
are fallen into rum; produce the most
powerful unpression. It has been con
verted into a well-arranged prison for
the county. Lancaster, though its river,
the Lune, is not navigable for vessels of
more than 250 tons, possesses 73 sail.
It builds some ships, makes sailcloth,
and manufectures, upon a small scale,
. . r. , • ¦ , , ., ^°™^ '^°**°" fabrics. About a mile from
it, the Lancaster Canal is carried over the Lune by a very noble aqueduct bridge
The counties of Cumberiand and Westmoreland, or the country of the Lakes, form a bold
and pecuhar region, presentmg a stirikhig contrast to those recentiy surveyed ; being enriched
neither by natural wealth, nor by human industry. Wide ranges of high and rocky moun
tams, enclosmg long lakes and narrow vales, afford scanty space for the plough A oreat
proportion of these fells and moors is absolutely barren ; in the more favoured spots the her
bage IS often scanty; and even the arable tracts are, in general, fit only for the coarser
gram of oats. But the multitude of mountams crowded together, their bold, perpendicular
anti often prtjjectmg forms; the pleasmg though not extensive lakes, and soft pastoral
valleys, which they enclose, render this the most beautiful country of England, and the
favouriteresortofall the admirers of the picturesque and sublime.
Three divisions are distinctly seen in these counties, reaching from north to south I A
plain eastward of the mountams, through which the high road runs by Kendal and Carl'islp
to London. H. The mtDuntams and lakes, occupying the larger portion of their surface
ill. A sea-coast, containing some harbours of importance.
The first part consists of a plain, which, though narrow, is in many places fertUe- and
contains some large towns. In the northem part is " merry Cariisle," long distmguished "n
the border annals, and the scene of mteresting events in the contest of 1745 Carlisle bem^
a military post of tl,e first consequence, its castle and walls were consitiered a models
33*

Laocaster Castle.

390

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part IU.

166

strength, according to the ideas of the middle ages; the cathedral is an ancient edifice, still
nearly entire, in the heavy Saxon style. Carlisle has of late begun to carry on some manu
facture, chiefly cotton ; also woollen, linen, and a few minor articles. A canal connects it
with the Solway, and enables it to employ some shipping. Eastward from Carlisle is the
great debateable line ; and near Brampton is Naworth Castle, that powerful station where
Lord William Howard undertook to bridle the license of the border. Yet, however strong,
it forms rather a dark border keep, than a display of feudal grandeur. Lord Howard's
apartments, which, with their books, furniture, and armour, remain almost undisturbed, are
separated by four strong doors from the rest of the castle ; and secret passages lead to every
part and to the dungeons beneath. Farther south is Kendal, the chief town of Westmore
land ; a considerable place, with an old manufactory of wtjoHens bearing its name, and
some of cotton and leather. Burton and Kirby Lonsdale are small neat towns on the border
of Lancashire.
The second division comprises the country of the Lakes, forming the peculiar character
istic of the country, and chiefly distin
guished by its scenery. UUswater, (fig.
166.) divided into three reaches. The
mountains are numerous, steep and lofty,
not broken or impending, but of a bold
and swelling form. The two highest in
the region are Helvellyn, and the square
rocky mass of Stone Cross Pike, rearing
their almost perpendicular forms to an
amazing height ahove the wooded hUls
which cluster rotmd them. Opposite
rises the immense precipitous steep of
pj^^^ Fell; and the whole produces a
scene of solemn and simple grandeur. At Patterdale, though the features be grand, the
'^^ "'"' beautiful predominates. From the
meadows bordering, the lake, the nu
merous glens branching off, with the
scattered abodes of the shepherds and
dalesmen, present one of the sweetest
of alpine pastoral scenes. Keswick or
Derwentwater (fig. 167.) is of equal
grandeur, but a quite different aspect
The mountains preserve no regular
form, but are broken, shattered, im
pending, shooting into a thousand fen-
tastic shapes ; and though they do not
produce the same grand unity of effect, astonish by a continual change of scenery. In
the wooded cliffi and waterfeU of Lodore (fig. 168.),
and on the rocks of Borrowdale, nature seems to have
sported her wUdest ftncies. Yet exquisite beauty is
here mingled with horrors, particularly in the views of
the lake from the south, with Skiddaw behind ; and in
a lovely rural vale, which runs along its northern bor
der, and is seen to peculiar advantage from the road to

Keswick Lake

Lodoro Waterfall. Wmdermere Lake.
Ambleside. Windermere (fig. 169.), is of much wider extent ; not shut in by mountainous
cliffs, but bordered by wooded and ornamentc-d hUls. Around its nortiiem banks, however,
is ranged an amphitheatre of very high mountains, which, with their varied summits, form
a sublime background to all its landscapes. These are generally grand, open, diffusive, and
extended. The otiier lakes, Coniston, Grasmere, Buttermere, Cromack, Wastdale, Enner-

Book L ENGLAND 391
dale, have attractions for the admirers of nature. In this district, the only places to which
the name of towns could be given are Keswick on Derwentwater, and Ambleside on Win
dermere ; and even these are only large villages, supported by the resort of travellers, and
by some persons of distmction who are induced to reside there by the beauty of the neigh
bourhood. The thurd division consists of the sea-coast. The most considerable port is Whitehaven,
which has become flourishing in consequence of the immense coal mines found and worked
in its immediate vicinity. Some of them have a depth of 320 yards, supposed to be greater
than any other in the world ; and some extend several miles beneath the sea. The total
quantity worked is estimated at 100,000 chaldrons, chiefly exported to Ireland : besides which,
¦Whitehaven has pushed its trade to Africa, America, and the West Indies ; and carries on
much ship-buUding. Subsect. 5. — Western Counties.
The westem counties form the last division of England Proper, comprising the counties
south of the Mersey, which form the western boundary of England. This extensive line
has scarcely any character which can be said generally to apply to it. We mention Cheshire,
Shropshire, Hereford, and Monmouth, as bordering on Wales, and the last three partaking
somewhat of its rude and romantic character ; Worcester, Gloucester, and Somerset, occu
pying the fine valley of the Severn, — a region filled with commerce and cultivation, and
containing several great cities ; lastly, Cornwall and Devon, the extreme corner of England,
but marked by a mild climate, rich mines, and a surface agreeably diversified.
The soil of Cheshire is generally fit for all the purposes of agriculture, particularly in the
valley of the Dee : but the dairy is the branch pursued with peculiar success ; and it pro
duces the cheese which, bearing the name of the country, equals in richness, though not in
delicacy, any other in Britain. There are valuable mines of coal, and some of iron ; but
the mineral substance of which Cheshire chiefly boasts is salt. The pits were discovered
about a century and a half ago, at Northwich, Middlewich, and Nantwich, and have proved
of the highest importance to the nation, at once for internal consumption, for the curing of
fish, and for exportation.
Chester is, perhaps, the city in Britain which bears the most venerable character of
antiquity. The very name implies a Roman camp, the form of which is still preserved in
the direction of its principal streets. The effect is heightened by the mouldering red stone,
of which its most ancient edifices are built The principal streets have a very peculiar
stmcture. The lower story, which has been hollowed out of the rock, consists of shops,
above which is a paved way covered by the projecting upper story ; but the middle part of
the house appears thus retired from the open street behind this species of arcade. The
arrangement is neither very elegant nor very convenient. The castle of Chester presents
a very complete specimen of early mUitary architecture ; connected with it is a range of
handsome Grecian buildings, containing the barracks, county haU, and county gaol. The
cathedral displays considerable grandeur, and has a very elegant chapter-house. The im
provements on the Dee enable vessels of 300 tons to come up to Chester, which has 62
vessels, of above 4000 tons ; yet its trade with Ireland has been transferred to Liverpool.
Of the other towns, the most remarkable are those near which the salt mines are situated,
particularly Northwich. There are fourteen pits of rock salt, and between thirty and forty of
brine salt The rock salt is hard and brown ; the pits, after being dug to a certain depth,
are excavated horizontally, leaving a portion of the salt for a roof. They thus form apart
ments, ofl»n of more than an acre in extent ; and the reflection of lights from the mmeral,
like that of numberless precious stones, produces a magical effect Stockport and Maccles
field have flourished greatly in consequence of the introduction from Lancashire of the
cotton manufacture, to which Macclesfield adds some lyanches of that of sUk.
Among the seats are Eaton Hall, a magnificent Gothic etiifice, which Earl Grosvenor has
erected at an expence, it is said, of 400,000?.
Shropshu-e, or Salop, consists chiefly of a wide plain watered by the Severn. On its
eastem border it shares to a great extent in the mineral wealth of Staffordshu-e, coal and
iron. These are carried on in a remarkable manner at Colebrook ; a deep-wooded vale on
the Severn, here traversed by the first iron bridge erected ni the kmgdom. This county is
also mteresting to the student of English history; many spots having been the scenes of
remarkable events, on which the destinies of the kingdom have depended.
Shrewsbury, the capital, is particularly rich in memorable recoUections. Being the strong
est fortress on the western marches, it became a rendezvous of the royal army, both for
overawmg the Welsh, and for northern expeditions ; many of the streets are narrow, wind
ing, and irregular, and the old and new buildings too closely intermingled ; only a small
part of the castle remains ; St Mary's church is elegant and entire. The free school
founded by Edward VI. and Queen Elizabeth, has produced several eminent teachers and
pupds. Shrewsbury is praised for its house of industry, and for the arrangement of its
county gaol.

392

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Paet Iir.

Ludlow, an ancient town, was frequently the residence of royalty, and the regular station
of those powerful officers the Lords Presidents of the Marches. The castle, placed on a
wooded rock overhanging the Terne, was considered one of the strongest places in the king
dom. In its vicinity occurred many of the most distinguished events in the contest between
the houses of York and Lancaster. It was afterwards dismantled ; yet remained a splendid
private mansion, m which Milton's " Comus" was first performed, and where Butler wrote a
part of his " Hudibras." It is now entirely roofless and covered with ivy, but stUl adorns
the town, which is well built and pleasantly situated.
Hereford and Monmouth, two demi-Welsh counties, fill the interval from Shropshire south
wards to the Bristol Channel. Being traversed by the Wye, the most picturesque of the
English rivers, they vie in beauty with almost any part of the kingdom. The chief industry
is in the rearing of fruit, and the whole country is as it were covered with orchards: hence
Hereford draws its staple production of cider and perry, in peculiar abundance and perfection.
The crop is precarious ; but in a good year the produce of an acre will be from eighteen to
, „/^ twenty-four hogsheads, sometimes of such flne quality, that it wUl
sell from the press at 20?. a hogshead. The westem district of
Hereford produces also a large quantity of hops, and has one of
the finest breeds of cattle in the kingdom, both for draught and feed
ing. The breed of sheep, called Ryeland (fig. 170.), besides the
excellence of their fiesh, bear the very finest wool in the kingdom.
Monmouth is not so fertile : its chief wealth is mineral, coal being
most abundant ; and iron works are established to such an extent,
Ryeland Sheep. (.[jg^j. ^[jgy jjg^yg jjggjj jjjio^„ to produce a thousand tons in the week.
Of the towns, Hereford bears venerable marks of antiquity, particularly its cathedral, not
withstanding the fall of its principal
tower. Ross, once the residence of
Mr. Kyrle, celebrated by Pope as
" the Man of Ross," is a beautiful
village, considered as a sort of centre
of the picturesque scenes of the Wye.
The towns of Moiftnouthshire are
small. The capital has a limited
trade along the Wye ; but its situa
tion, in a delightful country, has
attracted the neighbouring gentry.
There are stUl remains of its once
powerful castle, and of a Benedictine
priory. A few miles from Monmouth
is Tintem Abbey (fig. 171.), the most
Tintern Abbey. picturesque, perhaps, of aU the English
monastic remains. This arises, not merely from its extent and beauty, although these be
great: but from its roofless and ruined state, whence the walls, both within and without,
1 72 «WV- ^® overgrown with luxuriant ivy, and de-
.¦n^Strnk caying art and nature are blended together.
In another direction is Ragland castle, the
seat of the dukes of Beaufort (fig. 172.),
and considered one of the strongest of the
ancient fortresses ; but after the gallant de-
ffence made by the marquess of Worcester
for Charles I., "Cromwell," says Gilpin,
"laid his iron hand upon it and shattered it
to ruins ; to which it owes its present pic
turesque form." Chepstow, at the mouth
of the Wye, is a neat town, and carries on
some trade. It is chiefly interesting, how-
ag an asi e. ever, from the remains of its castle, one of
the most striking of all tiie mighty fortresses of Wales. Five or six large towers still re
main, with the outer walls of a magnificent chapel.
Worcester and Gloucester occupy tho lower valley of the Severn, which there becomes a
river of the first magnitude. This valley is broad, smooth, and fertile, yet nowhere degene
rates into a dead unvaried level. Worcester has, on the west, the Malvern HiUs, some of
whose summits rise to the height of nearly 1500 feet Gloucestershire, again, has to the
east the Cotswold Hills, more rugged, though not so elevated ; while to the west are the
rugged remains of the Forest of Dean. Worcestershire has, besides, the valley of the Lower
Avon and of Evesham, famed for their beauty and fortuity. The vales of these fine counties
are fitted for produce of every description, — grain, fruits, pasturage, with some preference of
the two latter. Gloucester is particularly distinguished for its dauries, which produce that

Book L ENGLAND. 393
rich cheese well known under its name. The best, or double Gloucester, is produced in the
vale of Berkeley, situated along tiie lowest part of tiie course of tiie Sevem. Both counties
have flourishing manufectures, tiiough not on the vast scale of the nortiiem districts
Gloucester, m particular, has a very extensive febric of fine woollens, carried on tiirough
nuXrless vUlages, m what are called "the Bottoms," a range of territory along the lower
nart of Uie Cotslold HUls. Its scarlet and blue woollens are m particular repute.
Worcester is a considerable and very handsome city, tiie principal streets bemg spacious
and reeular, witii many good houses, and presenting a general an: of neatness and comfort.
It I of high antiquity, tiie catiiedral {fig. 173.) having been founded m the 7th century,
^ tiiough the present structure was almost en-
173 yjjj tu-ely erected m the 13th and 14th centuries.
It is of great extent, simple and august,
without the rich ornament which distin
guishes some others. It contams the tornb
of King John, one of the most ancient in
England ; also that of Prince Arthur. Wor
cester is chiefly noted in history for the
great battle hi which Cromwell totaUy routed
the Scots army, and compelled Charles II.
to quit England as a fugitive. The city has
lost its woollen manufacture; but has stiU
one of porcelain, the finest in the king
dom. Fifteen different materials are used,
Worcester Cathedral chiefly white granite, and steatite from Com
wall ; and every piece passes through twenty-three hands before it is brought to perfection.
Gloves are also made ; and there is a considerable trade up and down the Severn.
Kidderminster is large and flourishing, in consequence of a very extensive manufactory
of carpets. Droitwich is noted for its salt springs. They are covered with a deep stratum
of gypsum : and for a long time the salt was made only from the brine which penetrated this
bed ; but, about a century ago, it was bored through, when the brine mshed up in vast quan
tities, and a large salt river was found to flow beneath. Thus the salt can now be procured
in any quantity, and supplies a great part of England.
Gloucester is also an ancient and fine city, though not quite so large as Worcester. It
bears, in the arrangement of its streets, the marks of having been a Bioman station. It was
formerly also, a place of great strength. The manner in which it frequently baffled the
utmost efforts of Charles 1. was one of the circumstances which contributed most to the
downfall of the royal cause. The most conspicuous feature at present is the cathedral,
built in the Saxon and Norman styles, between the 11th and 13th centuries. The beautifiil
lightness of its tower ; its east window, said to be the largest in the kingdom ; and its whis
pering gallery ; attract peculiar notice. The gaol, built at an expense of 40,000?., afforded
one of the first applications of the beneficent principles of Howard. Pins are the chief
manufecture of Gloucester ; and, small as the article is, the sale is so great as to render the
amount it returns considerable. Its trade has been much obstructed by the bad navigation
of the Severn ; but since the parallel line of the Berkeley Canal has just been completed, by
which large ships can come up from the Channel, Gloucester is placed almost on a footing
with Bristol. >
Cheltenham, by the fame of its waters, and its attractions as a place of feshionable resor^
has become a greater and more crowded place than Gloucester. The waters are at once
salme and chalybeate ; and, being thus both tonic and aperient, are efficacious in indiges
tion, biliary affections, and similar disorders. Cheltenham now ranks second only to Bath,
both as a resort for invalids and a gay rendezvous of the fashionable world.
There are other interesting towns in Gloucestershire. Tewkesbury has in close vicinity
the " Bloody Meadow," on which was fought the great battle which finally crushed the for
tunes of the house of Lancaster. Placed at the junction of the Sevem and Avon, it is a
venerable old town, containing the Abbey church a remnant of that grand monastery, of
which the superior, being a mitred abbot, sat in the House of Peers. Chencester, a town of
great historical name, covers only part of its ancient site, but contains one of the finest parochial
churches m the kingdom. Stroud is the centre of the woollen manufacture carried on, not
in itself, but m the surrounding vaUeys, and raising the population of the parish to 42,000.
Bristol we shall consider as belonging to Somerset.
Of the seats the most interesting is Hagley, the grounds of which Lord Lyttelton adorned
with ckssic taste. Near it is the interesting spot of the Leasowes, embellished by Shen-
stone with all the taste of a poet Berkeley Castle is a grand castellated edifice, almost as
old as the Conquest, and tbe scene of Edward II. 's death ; retaining stUl its antique cha
racter. Somerset has vales almost as extensive as those of Gloucester, yet it is crossed by long
ranges of those ragged hills which pervade all the extreme west of England The most
Vol. L 2 Z

394 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part HI
easterly are the Mendip Hills, rich in mineral stores ; farther west are the Quantock HUls,
whUe on the borders of Devon lies Exmoor Forest, the most elevated of all these tracts— its
highest point Dunkerry Beacon, being 1668 feet high. The prevailing husbandry is pas
turage, chiefly of rich natural grass ; and, besides a number of catfle sent to the London
markets, the dairy is a great branch of industry. Chedder cheese is considered equal to any
in England ; and a great quantity of what is called Gloucester is produced in Somerset.
The orchards are extensive, and cider and perry nearly as abundant as in the counties on
the Severn. The Mendip Hills yield excellent coal, lead of fine quality, and calamine. The
manufactures are considerable, both woollen and linen ; the former chiefly of the finer sorts ;
the latter, mostly dowlas, tickens, and sail-cloth.
Bristol, since we have attached it to Somerset, must hold the first place. This city
ranked long as second to the metropolis in commercial importance ; but in the course of the
last century, it has remained nearly stationary in extent and population, though not in wealth.
In 1736, it had 80,000 mhabitants ; in 1821, 87,771 ; but m 1831, with its suburbs, 104,886.
It has still a very extensive trade, chiefiy with Wales, Ireland, and the West Indies. Nor
does its spirit seem abated ; since, in 1809, it completed, at an expense of 60,000?., a series
of extensive improvements, by which the rivers Avon and Frome were spread out into vast
basins, for the commodious reception of vessels. The manufactures of Bristol are very con
siderable ; its glass-works are twenty in number ; its brass founderies the most extensive
in the kingdom ; to which it adds shot pottery, &c. In 1832 there belonged to it 296 ships,
of the burthen of 46,567 tons. The amount of customs, in 1831, was 1,168,978?., chiefly
from duties on West India produce ; and there entered its port 2547 vessels, of the bur
then of 625,000 tons. It has still the remains of a magnificent cathedral, and the beau
tifiil church of St Mary Redcliffe, with many interesting monuments. The old interior of
Bristol is ill-built and inconvenient ; hut the merchants in the new quarters of the city have
reared some handsome streets and squares. Bristol has wells, considered very efficacious,
especially in consumptive complaints. Visiters chiefly resort to the beautiful village of Clif
ton, about a mile distant, amid the romantic rocks of St Vincent Bristol stands conspicu
ous for its beneficent institutions, in which those for education stand prominent. Chat-
terton, Southey, and Coleridge were natives of Bristol.
The name of Bath (fig. 174.) implies the circumstance to which from the earliest ages it
has owed its importance. The Romans made it one of their principal stations, and buUt

splendid baths, of which the remains have been discovered. Near the middle of the last
century, it became very distinguished as a scene of fashionable residence, and continued
to increase till recently, when its attraction was sliared by Cheltenham and some newer
places of resort It became the most beautiful, we may nearly say the only beautiful, city
in England. The houses, built of a fine fi-eestone, while those of almost all the other great
towns are of brick, have a decidedly superior aspect; and several of the streets, as Great
Pulteney Street, the Crescent, the Parades, &o., being not only composed of fine houses, but
formed on a regular plan, may vie with the finest in Europe. The city, moreover, rising by
a gentle ascent from the Avon, large portions of it may often be seen at once in the most
advantageous points of view. The pump-room, the assembly-room, and every structure
raised for tiic sick or the gay, are unequalled in splendour. Bath has a Gothic cathedral
one of the latest built, and on a small scale, but tiie most highly ornamented in the king
dom ; the chief beauty is in the west front

Book I.

ENGLAND.

395

Other venerable and mterestmg cities are found in Somersetshire. Wells is chiefly
distmguished by a cathedral {fig. 175.), which ranks with the finest m England. The
western front, built in the 13th century,
is one of the most splendid specimens
existing of the light and highly orna
mented Gothic. In the interior, a chapel
dedicated to the Virgin is much admired ;
the rest is Saxon, and heavy. About two
mUes distant is Wookey Hole, a natural
cavern ; the aperture, at first, merely al
lows one man to pass ; but it soon opens
into a succession of large apartments,
filled with spars, concretions, petrifac-
Weiis Cathedral. tious of the most fantastic forms. A sub
terraneous river prevents ferther advance. Glastonbury contains the small remains of the
most extensive monastery in the kingdom ; which, with its various gardens and' offices,
covered sixty acres, supported 500 monks, and enjoyed a revenue of 25,000?. Even the
church attached to it rivalled the greatest of the English cathedrals. Bridgewater and
Taunton are towns of note in history, which carry on some trade and manufactures. Wel
lington gives a title to the greatest commander of the age, in whose honour a pillar is there
erected. Frome is a large and flourishing town, employed in the woollen manufacture.
Devonshire is traversed by ridges of hills, low, broad and flat, which, seen from a height,
appear often as one uninterrupted plain ; but on minuter inspection are found separated by
deep valleys called coombs, walled in by the steep sides of the hUIs. This structure pro
duces many sequestered and romantic sites ; it renders, however, many of the roads steep and
circuitous, and in some places scarcely passable. The forest of Dartmoor, an extensive dis
trict on the west of the county, is of a character peculiarly rugged, broken into fantastic
summits, and the valleys chiefly under wood or lying waste. On the other hand, the Vale
of Exeter, and what are called the Hams, in the southem districts, are distinguished for
fertility, which is rather heightened than injured by the moderate inequalities of the surfece.
Grain, cattle, sheep, potatoes, excellent cider, are raised according to the situation, and are
all generally good. The cattle are of a very superior breed, both for feeding and draught.
Devonshire does not rank high as a manufacturing county ; yet woollens are made to some
extent hi Exeter and several other places. Fishing is carried on with spirit and success,
both in the sea and in the rivers ; of which last, the Exe and the Tamar are the principal.
The Westem Canal, joining the two channels, passes chiefly through Devonshire.
Exeter, the capital, is an ancient and pleasantly situated town, near the mouth of the
Exe. In consequence of its advantages for education and society, many of the gentry from
different parts of the county have made it their residence. Its manufacture and export of
serges and kerseys have declined, but are still considerable ; the East India Company taking
them to the annual value of 400,000?. The cathedral holds a high rank among ecclesiasti
cal antiquities. Some part of it'is traced to the ninth century ; but the greater proportion
belongs to the thirteenth and fourteenth. The painted east window, and the bell of
12,500 lbs. weight the gift of Bishop Courtenay, are particularly noticed. Some modern
embellishments have been added.
Plymouth is the most important of the towns of Devonshire, and one of the great naval
arsenals of Britain^ The main and central depdts lie at Portsmouth and on the Thames ;
but it is important that the fleets should have this exterior station, where they may rendez
vous, and receive their final equipment and supplies before leaving the Channel ; where
also, when exhausted, they may put m and refit. The Plym and the Tamar, .at their junc
tion, form an estuary of nearly two mUes broad, composing a harbour, or rather a series of
harbours, capable of containmg 2000 vessels in a state of perfect security. In that of Ha-
moaze, on the Tamar, 100 saU of the line may be safely moored. Catwater, the port at the
mouth of the Plym ; and Sutton Pool, hnmediately adjoining the town ; are both exceUent and
extensive. Plymouth Bay forms also an excellent roadstead, though exposed to the heavy
swell which came m from the Atlantic. To remedy this, government undertook that stu-
176

Plymouth Breakwater.

pendens work the Breakwater, a mole formed by immense stones heaped upon each other
stretchmg across the entrance, and at a certam distance from either shore (fig, 176.). "The

396 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. PaUt IH
estimated expense was 1,170,000?. ; and the quantity of stone, 2,(M)0,000 tons. It has com
pletely answered expectation ; and, in proportion as it has advanced, has rendered the
roadstead more secure. As the approach was also rendered dangerous by the Eddystone
rocks, a light-house has, after much difficulty and several unsuccessful trials, been erected
there by Mr. Smeaton, sufficiently firm to withstand the furious assaults of the Atlantic
waves to which it is exposed. Plymouth is now divided into two nearly equal parts —
Plymouth and Plymouth dock, at the mouth of the Tamar, recently called Devonport, and
raised to the dignity of a separate borough. The dock-yard is most superb ; 3500 yards in
length, and from 1000 to 1600 in breadth. All the establishments connected with it, the
ropery, smithy, saw-pits, mast-houses, as also the victualling departments, are on the most
extensive scale, yet conducted in the most regular order. Plymouth is not, on the whole,
a well-built town : but it contains some handsome edifices ; as the government-house ; the
theatre, chiefly of cast-iron ; the public library, &c. The charitable institutions are nu
merous. Bamstaple is a sort of capital of North Devon, situated on a rich plain, and retaining a
few manufectures. Dartmouth carries on some foreign trade ; whUe between it and Teign-
mouth is Torbay, where, sheltered from the heavy gales that blow up the Channel, the
British fleet can ride safely at anchor.
Cornwall is a peninsula of a triangular form, bounded by Devon, and the sea. The hills
form a bleak central ridge, terminating in the rugged and obtuse point called the Land's
End. But some of the narrow valleys wear the aspect of smUing fertUity. In some se
cluded spots the climate is so genial, that the myrtle and other shrubs peciiliar to the south
of Europe flourish in the open air. Comwall has from the earliest ages been renowned for its
mineral products. These are principally tin and copper ; it also yields some lead. These
metals occur in the granite chain, extending eastward as far as Dartmoor in Devon ; but at
present the principal mining district is that between the Land's End and St Austel.
The most celebrated are the tin mines of Palgooth,* about two miles west of that town : in
these there are no fewer than fifty shafts, of which twenty or thirty are constantly in use.
The principal vein of ore, which is about six feet thick, rons from east to west, and dips to
the north with an inclination of about six feet in a fathom. The ore is of the vitreous
kind, but rarely found in crystals ; the colour for the most part grayish-brown ; the country
of the ore is a gray kUlas. The water is carried away. Steam power has been substituted
for that of horses in moving the machinery employed for raising, washing, and stamping the
ore ; after which last operation it is carried to the smelting-house. Tin cannot be sold untU
it is assayed and stamped with the duchy seal ; for which purpose meetings are usuaUy held
four times a year. The annual produce is estimated at 20,000 or 25,000 blocks, each block
weighing from 2| to 3| cwt, and valued on the average at ten guineas. Grain tin, which
is obtained from stream ore, is deemed superior in value to the common metal, and has been
procured to the amount of 2000 or 2400 blocks annually. The annual produce of copper
is about 13,000 tons, estimated at 1,300,000?. The lead mines are not much worked. The
tinners are in many respects a distinct body of men ; they have a court and parliament of
their own. The stannary laws, by which the mines and the operations connected with
them are regulated, do not appear to have undergone any -change smce the reign of
Charles II. The mines give employment to about 16,000 men.
The pUchard fishery affords another source of wealth to Comwall. The pUchards appear
annually in vast shoals about the middle of July ; and are taken in large nets of a peculiar
form, called scans, each sean managed by three boats, containing eighteen men. After lying
salted in store for six weeks, the fish are packed in hogsheads, so closely that the whole
contents, when turned out, appear in a compact state. The oU expressed from tiiem is so
considerable in quantity as to have become an article of trade. The quantity annually
exported from the Cornish coast may be worth 50,000?. includmg the receipts for oU. The
number of persons employed in this fishery is about 5000.
The towns of Comwall are small. Launceston, situated on the Tamar, extends up the
side of a hill, on the summit of which are the remains of a small fortress called Castle Ter
rible, where a vigorous stand was made to sustain tiie sinking fortunes of Charles T. Truro
is a neat thriving town, the trade of which consists in a considerable export of tin. Penzance,
near the Land's End, from the mild salubrity of its air, has been found highly beneficial to
persons of delicate constitutions, particularly of a consumptive tendency ; and tiiose who
take up their residence at Penzance, are agreeably surprised by the lovely scenery in its
neighbourhood. Falmouth, the westernmost of the fine harbours on the Channel, is the prin
cipal packet station for Lisbon, the Mediterranean, and the West Indies.
Subsect 5. — Wales.
Wales is a territory which, though united to England by early conquest, stUl retains the
title of a separate principality, and possesses a national aspect The verdant and extensive
* Dr. Mnton'fl Observations on the Western Counties.

Book I.

ENGLAND.

397

plains of westem England here give place to the lofty mountam, the deep va ey the roar
ing torrent, and tiie frightiul precipice. Wales has rivers and torrents witiiout number,
which roU tiurough its mountam valleys, and whose banks, adorned with verdure and culti
vation, combme m tiie most strikmg manner with tiie lofty and varied summits which tower
above tiiem. The loftiest mountains are in North Wales; its valleys are deeper and
narrower; and it presents more sti-ikingly all the characteristic features of Welsh scenery.
In Soutii Wales, on the contrary, tiie valleys are broader, more fertUe, and fiiUer of towns
and vUlages ; tiiey often even expand into wide plams, still encircled by a mountam bound
ary. Agriculture, in such a country, labours under many disadvantages, and is carried on
too often upon the old system of mfield and outfield. Manufactures are nearly confined to
tiie article of flannel, which has always been a febric of the Welsh, in which they stUl excel
their Yorkshire rivals. It is to mining, however, that tiie industry of Wales has been chiefly
attracted, by the profiision of mmeral wealth which nature has lodged in the bowels of its
mountams. The lead of Flmt, Caernarvon, and otiier counties of Nortii Wales, the copper
of Anglesey, and above all, the iron of Glamorgan and other counties in the British Channel,
are objects of extensive hnportance. Coal is found almost everywhere, and is employed
either for domestic purposes, or in fusing and refining the metallic ores.
The Welsh are a Celtic race, the descendants of the ancient Britons, who, m these moun
tain recesses, sought re&ge from the destroying sword of the Saxons, which so completely
dispossessed them of the low country of England. They could not resist the overwhelming
power of Edward I., who annexed 'Wales to the English crown. In order to hold it in sub
jection, however, he was obliged to constmct, not only on its frontier, but in its interior,
castles of immense extent and strength. Yet they did not prevent formidable insurrections,
in one of which Owen Glendower maintained himself for years as an independent prince.
Within the last 300 years, the Welsh have been as peaceable as any otiier subjects of the
empire. They have retained, of their feudal habits, only venial fellings. Among these is
national pride, through which the genuine Cambrian holds his country and his nation supe
rior to all others ; and regards the Sasna or Saxon as a lower race of yesterday. With this
is connected, in a high degree, the pride of pedigree ; even the humblest Welshman tracing
his origin far above any lowland genealogy. Strong ties of friendship subsist between the
landowners and their tenants : manifested, on one side, by indulgence and protecting kind
ness; on the otiier, by a profound veneration for the representatives of the ancient chiefs of
their race. The Welsh have many superstitions, mixed with much genuine religious feeling.
They are hardy, active, lively, hospitable, kind-hearted ; only a little hot and quarrelsome.
Then: English neighbours complain that they have not yet attained that pitch of industry
and cleanliness in which the former place their pride.
North Wales comprises the cotmties of Caernarvon, Merioneth, Montgomery, Denbigh,
and Flint, with the island of Anglesey. The characteristic feature of this division consists
in the very elevated chahis of mountains which cross it from north to south, facing the Irish
Channel. The chief is Snowdon {fig.

1'77,) which raises its head to the height
of 3700 feet; yet it is only the most ele
vated of a crowd of summits, many of
which rear their peaks almost as high.
They cover a great part of the county of
Caernarvon, at the northern part of which
they present to the Bay of Beaumaris the
lofty steep of Penmanmawr, whose broken
fragments threaten to bury him who
tiavels the difficult path which has been
formed along its almost perpendicular
sides. Merioneth is chiefly covered with
?;ii t™,„,j n, *!. . ¦ , inferior, but lofty and rugged mountains.
Wale? Ri,!'vervww\'^''''"'*^' '^% t°^« mto Cader Idris, tiie selond summit of
lowers the li„ Jp ^ f w 'i?' '''''^^' ^"."^ Precipitous. Lastiy, m the heart of Montgomery,
lowers the huge mass of Plmlunmon, with a crowd of attendant mountahis ^
ihe vales which intervene between these heights diversify bleak and barren regions

SDOwdun.

ft^r;jSlM° ^¦fl'T^T^^^^^^ TLrsrextensive
k ahniiMwi7, ' •? "^ ?™'l °^ Denbigh, where the mountain chains gradually sink It
hriW wT^ '}f V^^'Sth, and four or five m average breadth; and presents a more
¦r^^r X'^^f "''''^''^' heightened, doubtiess, by contrast, tiian almost t ^

kl the island Ti;;^' "«'g"'^^'^?°' louM'ess, by contrast, tiian almost any other spot
ferlv thnf nf Tl 1 "T^' vales, however, present more of picturesque beauty, particu
larly that of Llangolen, where the Dee, wmding throuffh cultivated and n==w„i
overhung by high rocks and cliffs, presents at ev^y stefa va S la^Tslr tIIs^S
of Anglesey is generally level, and its scenery presents few striklnrSes excenf tf
rocks of Its westem shore. It has happened, fortunately for the movement of this^fl
daWe^range of territory, that it lies on the highway fro,^ London toCrds DuImu ;'td wi;^

398

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part 111.

179

the view of facUitating the mtercourse between the kingdoms, govemment, at the national
expense, has formed one of the finest roads in the world ; among the principal features of
which is the iron suspension-bridge,
formed across the arm of the sea, called
the Menai Channel. The chief centre
of the flannel manufacture is m Mont
gomery and Merioneth. The lead mines
of Holywell and the copper mmes of
Anglesey possess an unportance scarce
ly inferior to those of South Wales.
Caemarvon is a handsome, well-built
town. Its chief ornament is the castle,
a stately edifice (fig. 178.), built by Ed-
Caernarvon Castle. "^ff \ ^^^"^l *« ^Pi^'' °f the newly
, , _ subdued Welsh. It encloses an area of
two acres and a half; the towers are of stupendous magnitude, and crowned by light and
beautiful turrets. To the South of Caemarvon is the steep ascent of Snowdon, whence a
view of astonishmg extent is commanded ; though only to be seen m those fortunate days
when the veU of mist, which usually
wraps it has been dissipated. On
its declivity is the wild and rocky
lake of Llanbieris, with the ruined
castle of Dolbadem overhanging its
banks. Nearly at the opposite ex
tremity of the county is Conway;
a poor town, but containing the walls
of a stUl more magnificent castle
(fig. 179.), also erected by Edward
I. The interior is in a state of total
ruin ; but the view, from a little dis
tance, of its eight mighty towers,
ranging along the summit of a lofty
rock, which overlooks the Bay of
Beaumaris, presents an image of
CoDway Castle. grandeur which scarcely any other
castellated structure in the kingdom can rival. About midway between those two castied
sites is Bangor, a pleasant littie town, on the high road to Holyhead and Dublm. Here, and
at Penryn, is a great shipment of slates, brought
from the steep sides of the neighbouring mountains.
Merioneth has a few large vUlages, each enclosed
by a circuit of lofty and almost inaccessible mountains.
Bala is supported by a small manufeqture of knit
gloves and stockings, and by the vicinity of the largest
of the little lakes of Wales, which has clear water
and abounds in fish. Dolgelly, about midway between
Snowdon and Cader Idris (fig. 180.), is seated in the
very heart of all the grandest scenery of Wales. On
the coast, the castle of Harlech, built also by Edward,
Cader idria. bears marks of great strengtii.
Montgomery, though its centre is occupied by the "huge Plinlimmon," whence branches
shoot out in every direction, is yet on the whole, of a milder aspect The to^vn of Mont
gomery is small, pleasantly situated on the declivity of a hill, crowned with the ruins of a
once noble castle. Welshpool is an ill-built straggling town, but has a great market for flan
nels ; and communicates by a canal with Chester and Ellesmere. Near Montgomery is Powis
Castle, which dates from the twelfth century, and was long one of the proudest fortresses in
Wales : it is still a superb modern seat.
In proceeding to Denbigh and Flint, we come to broader valleys, and hills gradually dimin-
ishhig down to the level plain of western England. Denbigh, a pleasant, ancient littie
town, is crowned by a castle, seated on a high rock, lookmg down to the vale of Clwyd, pro
verbial for its smiling fertility. In the valley of tiie Dee, is Wrexham, noted for its fens, in
which Welsh flannel is the staple commodity. But the chief ornament of Denbigh is Llan
gollen Vale, on the upper Dice, where tiie mixture of culture and wildness produces the most
striking variety of scenery. Among its leading features are tiie ruined castie of Dinas Bran,
crowning tiie steep summit of one of tiie principal hiUs ; and tiie remains of tiie Abbey of
Vallr Crucis. This lant is situated in a valley connected witii tiiat of Llangollen, enclosed
by lofty mountains verdant to the summit, and sprinkled witii trees. The edifice has been
in the shnplest style of Sa.xon arcliitecture ; but the situation renders it one of the moet

Book I. WALES. 399
picturesque spots in England. Chirk has near it a castie, one of the most perfect of the
many with which Wales is adomed. Near it also is the fino aqueduct of Pont-y-CysUte, by
which Mr. Telford has conducted tiie Ellesmere Canal over the Dee, restmg on 18 piers,
1007 feet m length, and 126 feet above the level of the river. ^ ™. , , ., „
Flint is rich in lead and other mineral stores. The county town of Flmt, and its castle,
have entirely lost tiie importance tiiey possessed when tiiey were the prison of Richard 11. ;
and the glory of Caerwys, tiie ancient scene of musical and poetical <;ontest, has entirely
passed away. Holywell, besides its extensive lead mine, carries on works in brass and
copper, and even some cotton fabrics. Here the sacred well of St. Winfrede, from which
it derives its name, is beneficially applied to tiie purposes of industry. The lead mine of
Llan-y-Pander is the most extensive in the kingdom, and employs four vast steam-engines m
clearing off the water. Mold is a pretty large town, in the centre of a rich plam of the
same name. St Asaph attracts notice by its neat cathedral.
The Island of Anglesey is generally a naked and gloQ-my flat It was ancientiy the cen
tral seat of druidical superstition, stiU attested by the cromlechs, or large, flat stone tables
supported by rude pillars, which are more numerous here than in any other part of Britain.
Its importance has rested almost entirely upon its copper mines, but of late they have become
¦ig-i unproductive, and the annual amount is only
from 750 to 950 tons. Beaumaris, the capital,
^^~^^y^ t^ ...^ s is a neat little town. Much more unportance
\^ 'U~^ ,,jtejL» attaches to Holyhead, now the main point of
^ ' "^ '^ .^^^f^^^r^-^ communication between England and Ireland.
To render it such, government has constructed
a noble road from London across the most rugged
part of North Wales, and also made an admira
ble harbour. The neighbouring coast is very
bold, and the promontory, called the Head (fig.
Holyhead. 181.), consists of immense masses of precipitous
rocks, hollowed into deep caverns. The town itself has been rapidly extended and improved.
South Wales comprises the counties of Radnor, Cardigan, Brecknock, Caermarthen, Pem
broke, and Glamorgan. It presents scenery equally romantic with that of North Wales,
mingled with a greater degree of softness and cultivation ; and its agricultural and mining
products are of considerably greater value.
Radnor is composed of bleak ranges of mountains, in some parts almost impassable ; the
greater part is only fitted to afford pasture for sheep, the wool of which is valuable. New
Radnor, once a fortified city, is dwindled into a village.
Cardigan includes some of the boldest features of Welsh scenery. The domain of Hafod,
in particular, has been covered with extensive plantations, so happily disposed as to render
it almost a scene of enchantment. At a few miles' distance is " the Devil's Bridge ;" an
arch thrown over a deep and narrow rocky chasm, overgrown with wood, at the bottom of
which rolls the Mjmach, after rushing down three lofty cascades ; forming altogether the
grandest scene of the kind in the kingdom. The lead mines of Cardiganshire are extensive,
though the want of fuel has caused the working of many of them to be discontinued. Car
digan is a small old town, which carries on a considerable coasting trade, having nearly 300
small vessels belonging to it There is great resort to Aberystwith, an agreeable bathing
place ; its trade also is considerable.
Brecon, or Brecknock, is mountainous and mgged, but has some fertile lands in the valleys
of the Uske and the Wye. Brecon, an ancient town on the Uske, amid lofty mountains, has
the remains of a castle, which was once strong, and held by Buckingham, the favourite and
afterwards the victim of Richard III.
Caermarthen includes an ample proportion of blejk and barren hills, intermixed with
large fertile valleys. There are abundance of coal, and some iron works on the Glamorgan
border. The capital, situated on the Towey, which admits to it vessels of 300 tons, is one
of the most fiourishing and best built towns in Wales.
Pembroke consists of a peninsula branchuig out between the Irish and British channels ,
it presents merely an undulating surface, rising at most to elevations of 200 or 300 feet
Its breed of cattle is in high repute, and its indented coasts contain some of the finest har
bours in Britam. Two Roman roads cross this county, which is also rich in druidical and
feudal monuments. The ancient city of Pembroke is strikhigly situated on an almost in
sulated neck of land on the bay of MUford Haven, the highest part of which presents the
vast remams of its castie, one of the most magnificent structures of Wales or England.
The town contams some ancient churches. The large bay composing MUford Haveii
forms the most capacious and secure harbour in Britain. Hence government have been
mduced, at the new towns of MUford and Haberstone, on its northern shore, to form dock
yards and establish packets for the south of Ireland. St David's, the ecclesiastical capital
of South Wales, is now only a large dnty vUlage, adomed, however with venerable ancient
stractures.

400

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III.

Glamorgan is the finest county in South Wales, and, as to wealth, superior to any other
in the principality. Its coast, along the Bristol Channel, and for some miles inland, is level,
and fertUe in the extreme. Thence the ground rises into hills of continually increasing
elevation, till, on the frontier, they rise to the height of upwards of 2000 feet, and unite
with the Brecon chains. From these heights descend numerous streams, which, in their
progress to the sea, produce all the varieties of ravines, wooded vales, falls, and cataracts;
which, with the beauty of the plains below, and the fine views over the Bristol Channel,
render Glamorgan equal in picturesque beauty to any other county in Wales. The crops
of every description of grain are ample ; and there are good breeds both of cattle and sheep.
But these objects are trifling, when compared with the mineral treasures of Glamorgan.
It forms the centre of a vast field of coal and iron, from which branches extend into the
neighbouring counties. Since it was found that iron could be smelted with coke, the work
ing of this metal has prodigiously increased, and the town of Merthjfr TydvU, near which
it is most abundant, has grown from a mere village to be the most populous place in Wales.
In consequence also of the abundance of fuel, the copper ore dug out in Anglesey, ComwaU,
and Ireland, is brought hither to be smelted and refined. The plating of iron with tin is
also an extensive occupation. The iron is reduced by rollers to the requisite thinness, and
is then cut by scissors into plates, which afterwards require little more than simple immer
sion into the smelted tin. The coal, besides its essential use in these various works, is in
itself a most extensive object of exportation, amounting in some years to 300,000 tons. The
rivers of Glamorgan are very imperfectly navigable ; but this defect has been supplied by
industry. From Neath, Cardiff, and Swansea, canals reach far into the interior ; and their
benefits being extended by raUways, a channel has been opened for conveying to the sea the
produce even of the most interior mines. Cardiff ranks as the county town, but is now much
surpassed by others. Yet it carries on a considerable trade ; having a commodious harbour,
and being connected by a canal with the interior works at Merthyr TydvU. It is now much
surpassed by Swansea, which has risen to its present importance by immense works in iron
and copper, and by the exportation of coal ; which is furnished in such abundance, that a
large vessel may enter at one tide and go out loaded at the next Its pleasant situation on
a fine bay has also made it an extensive re-
182 .,„ soj-t for sea-bathing, and led to the erection
of many elegant buUdings. Swansea has
thus risen into a sort of capital of South
Wales; yet it is not so large as Merthyr
Tydvil has been rendered by the extensive
iron works in and round it There are near
it seventeen furnaces, in one of which 11,000
tons of pig iron and 12,000 tons of bar iron
are produced annually. CaerphUly, a thriv
ing little town, with some manufactures,
deserves notice chiefly from the remains of
' its immense castle (fig. 182.), which pre
sent a most stupendous scene of ruins. It
is stated to have been a mUe and a quarter
in circumference, and capable of contain
ing a garrison of 20,000 men. Llandaff, the only nominal city in the county, is only a vil
lage, the seat of the least richly endowed bi.shopric in Wales. The cathedral, however, is
a fine ruin.
The small islands attached to England are unimportant Man, thirty mUes in length by
twelve in breadth, is nearly equidistant from each of tiie three kingdoms. It comprises a
considerable extent of level territory ; but rises in the interior mto high mountains, among
which Snowfell, nearly 2000 feet high, stands conspicuous. Man ranked long as an mde
pendent sovereignty, held by the Earls of Derby, and is celebrated for the gallant defence
made by the countess of that name for Charles I. It descended afterwards to the Duke of
Athol, fi-om whom the sovereignty was purchased, in 1765, by tiie British government, -with
a view to the prevention of smuggling, and to the establishment of a free trade. The natives
are a Celtic race. Castietown, the capital, is the neatest town in tiie island ; and in its
centre, Castie Rushen, the ancient palace of the kings of Man, rears its gloomy and majestic
brow. Douglas, however, as being the spot in which the whole ti-ade circulates, is now of
superior importance, and has attracted a great number of English settlers.
The Scilly isles, situated at some distance from the western extremity of Comwall, are
tenanted by 2000 poor inhabitants, who raise a littie grain, but depend chiefly upon fishing,
pilotage, and the making of kelp. i • • n
Jersey, Guernsey, and Alderney, with Sark, form a group naturally French, and originally
part of "the patrimony of tiie Norman kings, which tiie naval superiority of England has
enabled her to retain. They enjoy certam privUeges and immunities, founded on this dis
tinction, as laid down by Coke, tiiat, " though parcel of tiie dommion of the crown of Eng-

CaerphiUy Castle.

Book L SCOTLAND 401
land, tiiey are not, nor ever were, parcel of the realm of England." Jhe climate is mUd
and agreeable, and the soU generaUy fertUe. Jersey, tiie toe^t of the ™ "^^^ f ~
m ordiards, tiiat cider forms tiie chief object of exportation. St Helier, the capital ot Jersey,
is a handsome town.

CHAPTER m.
SCOTLAND
The place which Scotiand holds as part of Great Britain, has already been exhibited in
the iSrErio tiie chapter on England. We shall now describe m detaU this miport-
ant, though secondary, member of the empure.
Sect I. — Geographical Outline.
Scotiand is bounded on tiie s^th by England, from which it i^ Beparated by a line drawn
along the Tweed, the Cheviot HiUs, and thence to the Solway Frith,
183

On every other side
it is bounded by the Atlantic, the Northem
and the German oceans. The "iength of
Scotland, from the Mull of Galloway

Mull of Galloway.

(fig. 183.), in about 54° 40' to Dunnet
Head, Caithness, m 58° 40', is 280 mUes.
The greatest breadth, from Buchan-Ness to
a point on the opposite shore of Inverness is
130 mUes. This breadth varies little in the
interval between the friths of Forth and
Moray ; but to the south of the former, the
average breadth scarcely exceeds 100, and
to the north of the Moray Frith, 40 or 50
mUes. "The entire extent of Scotland is
29,600 square mUes.
Scotland, in its general outline, consists of
„wo great and perfectly distinct parts : the Lowlands and the Highlands. The former com
prehends all Scotiand south of the friths of Forth and Clyde ; for the pastoral hUls of the
southern and western borders, less elevated than the northem mountains, and inhabited by
a different race, are not considered as forming any tie between these and the Highlands
properly so called. Immediately north of the Clyde, the highland ranges begm to tower in
endless succession ; but on the east coast, the Lowlands extend beyond the Forth and north
ward through the counties of Fife, Forfer, Kincardine, and Aberdeen ; though these last are
closely encroached upon by the mountain territory. The lowland district also extends
round the northern promontory of Aberdeen, and along the borders of the Murray or Moray
Frith, which contain as level tracts of territory, and enjoy as mild a climate, as any part
of Scotland. This level tract does not comprehend quite the half of the country ; even the
Lothians, and stUl more the western provinces, are hemmed in by low ridges of bleak table
lands, covered, in a great measure, with heath and moss. The arable lands are almost
solely comprised in broad flat valleys, chiefly along the friths, called straths or carses.
Several of th§se are much femed for fertility, a blessing but partially bestowed even on the
best districts of Scotland.
The Highlands, which comprise the whole west and centre of northem Scotland, form a
region of very bleak and rugged aspect. A chain of long and lofty ridges extends from
south-west to north-east, not reaching, however, the German Ocean or the Moray Frith, but
leaving between them the level interval of the northem lowland. These mountains usually
dip, almost perpendicularly, into the lakes and seas on which they border ; and even the in
terior valleys are on so high a level, that in this climate they admit only in scattered patches
the culture of the coarser kinds of grain, particularly oats and bigg. "These mountains, par
ticularly the great Grampian barrier, which extends across from Ben Lomond to Blair- Athol,
lock in closely with each other, and can be entered only by formidable and easily defended
passes. The consequence has been, that they have preserved within their recesses a primi
tive people, who, in dress, language, and the whole train of their social ideas, differ essen
tially from the Lowlanders, and have retained antique and striking characteristics, both
physical and moral, that are obliterated in almost every other part of Great Britain.
The Isles comprise the third part of Scotland. On the east, indeed, and even on great
part of the south-west coast, only a few bold and naked rocks rise perpendicularly from the
ocean. But the western highlands are bordered by the Hebrides, an extensive range of
large islands, some of which are separated from the continent by such narrow channels, that
they may almost be considered as forming part of it. Again, the northern extremity of
Scotland is prolonged by the two ranges of the Orkney and Shetland islands, in a continu
ous luie with each other, but at some distance. These islands are rocky and bare, exposed
Vol. L 34* 3 A

402

MAP OF SCOTLAND.

Pig. 184

6 LoD^tude West

Book I.

SCOTLAND.

403

to excessive moisture and the perpetual storms of the Atlantic. The population bears, in
language and features, the marks of a Scandinavian origin ; dating from the period when
the piratical rovers of the north made extensive inroads on the western states of Europe.
Among the Scottish mountains, the most considerable are the Grampians, a name which
is given very generally to all those which cover the surface of the Highlands, but applied
more particularly to the chain running across the counties of Perth and Argyle, and com
prising Ben Lomond, Ben Ledi, Ben More, Ben Lawers, and others of that elevated ridge
which directly fece the low country of Stiriing and Perth. Several of these mountains
exceed the altitude of 4000 feet. Ben Nevis rises to the height of 4315 feet. On
the borders of Inverness and Ross-shire, Ben Wyvis, and some others, are of nearly equal
elevation. The south of Scotland is also very hilly ; but its heights are seldom more than
2000 feet, green and pastoral. The most remarkable are the boundary chain of the Cheviot,
celebrated in the annals of early feud, hunting, and border warfare. The Lowthers, a steep
high ridge, including valuable lead mines ; the pastoral hills of Ettrick and Yarrow ; and
Criffel and Cairnsmuir, in Galloway, form important objects : the lower ranges of the Pent-
land and Lammermoor border the Lothians.
The rivers of Scotland are not so much distinguished for their length or magnitude, as
for the pastoral scenery through which they wind their early course, and for the magnificent
estuaries which they form at their junction with the sea.
The Forth rises near the foot of Ben Lomond, flows east towards Stirling, near which it
is swelled by the larger stream of the Teith ; whence, after many windings through the
beautiful plain overlooked by Stirling castle, it opens into the great frith on which the capi
tal of Scotland is situated.

References to the Map of Scotland.

NORTH PART.
1. Dunnet
2. (Jaaoesby
3. Freswick
4. Wick
5. Ulbster
6. Easkay
7. Thurso
8. Brachry
9. Strathy
10. Farr Kirk
11. Riviegill
12. Tongue
13. Inch Keanloch
14. Loch EriboU
15. Gradey
16. Drumacray
17. Scourie
18. Colesreme
19. Inver Bagasly
20. Loch Naver
21. Loch Baden
22. Achnahoe
23. Latheron
24. Berrydale
25. Helmsdale
26. Clyne
27. Achintran
28. Dalmor
29. Lairg
30. Tulloch
31. Loch Slim
32. Asaynt
33. Stoir
34. Domey
35. Cannahoulish
36. Ullapool
37. Porlinlicfc
38. Bra
39. Golspie
40. Dornocli
41. Tarbat
42. Crotnarty
43. Tain
44. Invergorden
45. Kincardine
46. Kildrimore
47. Ben Wyvis
48. Lochbrootn
49. Loch Puir
50. Tinafidine
51. Melveg
52. Erridale
53. Gairloch
54. Loch Maroe
55. Loch Fannieh
56. Loch Luichard
57. Kiltearn
58. ForlroBe
59. Fori George
60. Nairn
61. Forres
62. Elgin
63. Rothes
64. Fochnbers
65. Cullen
66. Marnoch
67. Portsoy

68. Banff
69. Turreff
70. Aberdour
71. Frasersburgh
72. Strichen
73. Peterhead
74. Cruden
75. Ellon
76. Rolhie
77. Meldrum
78. Cusalmond
79. Kinnethmont
80. Achindore
81. Huntley
82. Kinnacoil
83. Aberlour
84. Grantown
85. Edenskille
86. Dymer
87. Cairmichyle
88. Inverness
89. Dares
90. Obriachan
91. Kilmuir
92. Beauly
93. Mucrich
94. Kilnacrow
95. Atladale
96. Torridon
97. Vonebane
93. Applecrosa
99. Killilan
100. Glen Shiel
101. Affarie
102. Dundragan
103. Loch Ness
104. Be]laloin
105. Aberarder
106. Aviemore
107. Kincardine
108. Abernethy
109, Achenraw
110. Sirathdon
111. Towie
112. Cluny
113. Kinlore
114. Inverury
115. Foveran
116. Fintray
117. Old Aberdeen
118. New Aberdeen
119. Stonehaven
120. Teroan
121. Birse
122. Balmoral
123. Braemar
124. Inck
125. Invcrnahaven
126. Laggan
127. Fort Augustus
128. Loch Garry
129. Loch Lochy
1:10. dunes
131. Loch Arkeg
332. Rosary
133, Ruddrech
134. Loch Money

135. Arasaig
136. Sminasary
137. Loch Shell
138. Cromer
139. Strane
140. Ben Nevia
141. Fort William
142. Aberardet
143. Loch Laggan
144. Dalwhinnio
145. Etrish
146. Clachay
147. Clova
148. Mennuir
149. Craigour
150. Glenoervie
151. Bervie
152. Montrose
153. Brechin
154. Lunan
155. Oalhlaw
156. Glenisla
157. Moulin
]58. Blair-Athol
159. Dalnacardoch
160. Shechallion
161. Loch Rannoch
162. Loch Ericht
163. Loch Treag
164. Kinlochmore
16.5. Corriherich
166. Aryhoulan
167. Scarnadale
168. Langall
169. Liddesdale
170. Kinlochaline
]7l. Morven
172. Ardnamurchan
SOUTH PART.
1. Appin
2. Ardchattan
3. Glencoe
4. Loch Efive
5. King's House
6. Fingar
7. Ben Lawera
8. Killin
9. Loch Tay
ID. Kenmore
ll.Aberfeldy12. Amubrie
13. Dunkeld
14. Blairgowrie
15. Cupar-Aneua
16. Meigle
17. Arbroath
18. Muirdrum
19. Dundee
20. Kilmeny
21. Cupar
22. Newburgh
23. Penh
24. Crieff
25. Comrie
26. Loch Earn
27. Craggan

28. Loch Voil
29. Loch Lochart
30. Glenurchay
31. Cladick
32. Kilmore
33. Ardraaddy
34. Craignish
35. Kilmartin
36. Inverary
37. Slrachur
38. Kilmorish
39. Ben Lomond
40. Lock Katrine
41. Loch Lubnaig
42. Doune
43. Williamstown
44. Muchart
45. Forteviot
46. Kinross
47. Falkland
48. St. Andrew'a
49. Anstruther
50. Leven
51. Kinghorn
52. Dunfermline
53. Clackmannan
54. Airth
55. Stirling
56. Dumbfane
57. Milton
58. Campsie
59. Loch Lomond
60. Tarbat
61. Kilmodan
62. Gilphead
63. Acbahoish
64. Carnmore
65. Killarraw
66. Kilchenzie
67. Southend
68. Camphellton
69. Suddale
70. Gorton
71. Skipnesa
72. Ruban
73. Greenock
74. Kilbirnie
75. Dumbarton
76. Paisley
77. Renfrew
78. Glasgow
79. Both well
80. Airdrie
81. Whitburn
82. Falkirk
83. Linlithgow
84. Borrowstown- neas
85. Edinburgh
86. Dalkeith
87. Musselburgh
88. Haddington
89. North Berwick
90. Dunbar
91. Scateraw
92. Bunkle
93. Dunse

94. Paxton
95. Ecclea
96. Gordon
97. Channelkirk
98. Lauder
99. Middleton
100. Linton
101. Peebles
302. Carnwath
103. Lanark
104. Hamilton
105. Eaglesham
106. Stewarton
107. Dairy
108. Irvine
109. Ayr
110. Mauchline
111. Kilmarnock
112. Strathaven
113. Douglas
134. Crawfordjohn
315. Crawford
116. Culter Fell
117. Galashiels
118. Melrose
119. Selkirk
320. Kelso
321. Yetholme
322. Hownam
323. Southdean
124. Jedburgh
125. Hawick
326. Bedford Green
327. Kirkpatrick
128. Sanquhar
329. Kirkconnel
330. Ochiltree
131. Dalrymple
132. Girvan
133. Ballintrae
334. fialloch
135. Gariy
136, Minihive
337. Dunscore
338. Penpont
139. Lochmaben
140. Westerkirk
141. Langholm
142. Gretna Green
143. Annan
144. Dumfries
145. Caerlaverock
146. Douglas
147. Urr
148. Loch Ken
149. Newton Stew
art
150. Craighach
151 . New Luce
152. Stranraer
153. Portpulrick
154. Maidenkir
155. Ardwell
156. Glenluce
357. Mochrum
358. Whitehorn
159. Wigton

160. LauriestoD
161. Kirkcudbright
162. Colvend Rivers.
a Naver Water
b Thurso Water
c Oikel
d Orrin
e Nairn
f Find horn
g Spey
h Doveraa
i Don
i Dee
k Esk
1 Tay
mEarn n Forth
o Tweed
p Annan
q Nith
r Ken
s Ayr
t Clyde
SKYE ISLE.
l.Di^2.urg3. Totnacrach
4. Snizort
5. Stein
6. Roag
7. Bracadale
8. Drumah
9. Gillan
30. Broadford
11. Kyle
MULL ISLE.
1. Kilninian
2. Tobermorie
3. Keallan
4. AroB
5. Achnacraig
6. Carnbus
7. Moy
8. Fidden
JURA ISLE.
3. Leaghall
2. Lagg
ISLAY ISLE.
1. Sanaig
2. Kilchoman
3. Bolsha
4, Askaig
5. Bowmore
6. Kildalton
7. Kintra
ARRAN ISLE
1. Gran
2. Corrie
3. Kilbride
4. Kilmory

404 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part HI
The Clyde rises on the borders of Dumfries-shire ; flows for a considerable space through
a wild pastoral valley ; and descends, by a succession of most picturesque cascades, into the
lower region of Lanarkshire. After passing through a tract which may be denominated the
garden of Scotland, it enters Glasgow, becomes a broad stream, and expands into a winding
frith, not so broad as the Forth, but the scene of a much more active trade.
The Tweed rises from the same chain as the Clyde, arid running eastward, waters the
most beautiful and classic of the pastoral districts of Scotland, in whose verse Tweed is the
favourite name. Of similar fame are ite tributaries, the Yarrow, the Gala, the Teviot ;
swelled by whose waters it forms, on reaching Berwick, a capacious harbour.
The Tay rises in the central Highlands, descends into the lowlands of Perthshire, and
after winding beautifully round the city of Perth, expands into the Frith of Tay, and forms
the harbour of Dundee.
The Spey has a longer course than any other ; but, rising in the midst of the Perthshire
highlands, and rolling northward through the wild recesses of Athol and Braemar, its line is
comparatively obscure. The other rivers of Scotland are of subordinate rank ; the Dee of
Aberdeen, the Esk of Montrose, the Nith and Amian of Dumfries, the Ayr and Irvine
of Ayr.
Lochs form a characteristic feature of Scotland ; many of them are long arms of the sea,
running up into the heart of the mountauis. Among these. Loch Lomond is pre-eminent.
The traveller admires its vast expanse, its gay and numerous islands, its wooded promon
tories and bays, and the high mountain barrier at its head. Loch Katrine, in a smaller
compass, presents a singular combination of romantic beauty. Loch Tay, enclosed by the
loftiest of the Grampians, presents alpine scenery on the grandest scale ; while at Inverary,
Loch Fyne unites the pomp of art with that of nature. The long chain of Lochs Linnhe,
Lochy, and Ness, stretching diagonally across Scotland, comprises much fine scenery,
and has afforded facilities for making a navigable communication between the German and
Atlantic oceans. Sect. II. — Natural Geography.
This section will contain Geology only, as the Botany and Zoology of Scotland were de
scribed along with that of Great Britain in general, under the head of England.
Subsect. 1. — Geology of Scotland.
Scotland may be divided geologically into the following great districts : — 1. Southem ; 2.
Middle ; 3. Northern ; 4. Insular.
(1.) Southern division. This division includes that part of the country bounded on the
south by the northern frontier of England ; and on the north and west, by the comparatively
flat country between the Forth and the Clyde. It is traversed from St. Abb's Head on the
east coast to Portpatrick on the west coast by a high land, named the great southem high
land of Scotland, in which are situated the highest mountains in this di\-ision of Scotland.
This lofty range sends out branches in different directions, many of which reach tlie sea-
coast, while others terminate in the lower and flatter parts of the country that lies around
them. Although abundantly supplied with rivers, the southem division contains but few
lakes, in this respect forming a striking contrast with the middle and northem divisions.
The mountainous regions are composed of transition rocks, whUe the lower and flatter con
sist principally of secondary and alluvial formations.
I. Transition rocks. The predominatmg roclis of the Neptunian class are greywacke,
with subordmate beds of clay slate, flinty slate, and transition limestone ; the Plutonian
species are granite, syenite, porphyry, serpentine, and trap ; by far the most abundant rock
is the greywacke, in which the principal lead-mines in Scotland, those of Leadhills and
Wanlockhead, are situated. They have been worked from an early period, and during a
long course of years have yielded to the proprietors a very rich return. Of late years,
owing to the disturbed state of the world, their prosperity has been intermpted. Copper
ores have been raised in Galloway, but not in considerable quantity ; and the same may be
said of the sulphuret of antimony, formerly mined at Glendinning in Dumfries-shire.
II. Secondary rocks. Scotland is distinguished from England by the smaller number of
its secondary formations, and their more lunited distribution ; the southern division contains
a greater proportion than the middle or northern ; and hence approaches more nearly to
Eno-land in a general gengnostic point of view. The following secondary formations have
been observed :  1. Old red sandstone. 2. Mountain limestone. 3. Coal formation. 4. New
red sandstone. 5. Various trap and porphyry rocks.
1. Old red sandstone. This formation skirts the transition chains of mountains lymg
imnirdiately upon the greywacke, &c. It is well exposed in the Pentlands, the upper part
of the rivor district of tho river Clyde, in the course of the river Tweed, in various points
in Dumfrios-shire, &c. In the districts where it occurs, it is frequently quarried as a
building-stone. 2. Mountain limestone. Tho beds of limestone in the lower part of the coal formation

Book I. SCOTLAND. 405.
in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, and the beds of limestone upon which the coal formation
rests in other quarters, as in Dumfries-shire, belong to the mountain limestone.
3. Coal formation. This important deposit occupies considerable portions ot biast. Mid,
and West Lothian, and extends westward to Glasgow. It forms extensive tracts m Ayr
shire • in Dumfries-shire ; and in Berwickshire. The coal mmes in the Lothians and around
Glasgow are the most productive in Scotland. The annual quantity of coal brought mto
Glasgow is 561,049 tons; of which 124,000 are exported. It may also be noticed, as con
nected with coal, that in Glasgow, during twenty-four hours in the winter months, the gas
company make upwards of 500,000 cubic feet of gas from coal ; and during the same period
in the summer months, about 120,000. The pipes extend to more than 100 miles through
streets. The great iron-works at Carron are supplied with the ore from which the iron is
obtained, from the coalfields of this and the middle division of Scotland. The ore or stone,
which is an argillaceous carbonate of iron, occurs in beds and embedded masses, and princi
pally in the slate of the coal deposit. The admirable building-stone around Edinburgh and
Glasgow is a sandstone which occurs in beds in the coal formation.
4. New red sandstone. This formation in the regular succession rests upon the coal
formation, in which position it is to be seen in the neighbourhood of Cannoby in Dumfries
shire. 5. Trap and porphyry rocks. These ignigenous masses occur in many parts : they
abound, for instance, all around Edinburgh ; forming part of the Calton Hill, Castle Hill,
Salisbury Craigs, Arthur Seat, the Pentlands, &c. : the beautiful conical hill named North
Berwick Law, the Bass Rock, the Isle of May, Traprain Law, are also formed of trap and
porphyry rocks. Renfrewshire and Ayrshire also abound in splendid and interesting displays
of trap and porphyry. In many parts of the country these rocks are used as building-stones,
and the greenstone of the trap series aflhrds an admirable material for road-making. The
splendid causeways and roads around Edinburgh are of greenstone.
in. Alluvial rocks. In various parts of the country there occur deposits of old alluvium,
or what is called diluvium ; and everywhere the modem alluvium, or that daily forming
meets the eye.
(2.) Middle division. This division of Scotland is bounded to the south by the southern
division ; on the north by the Moray Frith and the great chain of lakes extending from
Inverness to Fort William and the Linnhe Loch. It is traversed in a north and south
westerly direction by the Grampian range of mountains, which extends from the Mull of
Cantyre to Stonehaven in Kincardineshire, and to the rocky northern coasts of Aberdeen
shire and Banffshire. The country in general falls rapidly to the west of this great moun
tain range, and comparatively gently to the eastward of it : hence the western acclivity is
steep and short, the eastern gentle and long. On the eastern acclivity and the low lands
connected with it are situated the Sidlay, OchU, and Campsie hills, forming a pretty conti
nuous range ; and Kellie Law, Largo Law, the Lomonds, and the Saline Hills in Fifeshire,
forming a less continuous and lower range of hills. Water is abundantly distributed over
this district, in the form of rivers, lakes, and springs. Lakes, which are so rare in the
southem division, are here abundantly distributed, and exhibit many beautiful and splendid
scenes. Of these lakes the most considerable are the following : Loch Lomond, Loch Tay,
Loch Ness, and Loch Awe. The rocks are more varied in this tlian in the southem divi
sion ; magnificent displays of primitive, transition, and secondary formations present them
selves to our attention.
I. Primitive and transition rocks. The Neptunian kinds are granite, gneiss, mica slate,
clay slate, talc slate, chlorite slate, quartz rock, greywacke, limestone : the Plutonian rocks
are granite, syenite, porphyry, trap, and serpentine. The Neptunian rocks generally range
from north-east to south-west ; most frequently dip under an angle of about 45° ; and are
variously upheaved, broken, and disturbed by the Plutonian rocks. They are principally
confined to the Grampian high land and its branches. The most remarkable granite and
syenite districts are Cairngorm, Benachie, Aberdeen, Peterhead, Ben Cruachan ; and Ben
Nevis conjoins along with its slaty Neptunian strata, granite, syenite, and porphyry. In
some quarters the limestone is raised a» marble, as in Glen Tilt; but more frequently it is
burnt mto quicklime. The clay slate quarries of Luss, on the banks of Loch Lomond ; those
of Balachuhsh, m Argyleshfre ; and the slate quarries in the interior of Aberdeenshire, are
of considerable extent, and employ many workmen. There were formerly lead-mines in the
neighbourhood of Tyndrum, where the lead glance, or sulphuret of lead, was disposed in
vems in quartz rock and mica slate.
n. Secondary rocks. These are, old red sandstone, mountain limestone, coal formation,
and new red sandstone, and probably the lias formation : these strata are variously inter
mingled with trap and porphyry rocks.
1. Old red sandstone. This rock, in some parts of the country, as in the vicinity of
Stonehaven and near Blair-Gowrie, exhibits magnificent cliffs of conglomerate. It forms
the principal rock in the great tract of country included between lines drawn from Stone
haven by Blair-Gowrie, Comrie, Callender, Dumbarton, Stirling, Kinross, Dundee, Arbroath

406 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pakt HI.
Montrose, and Bervie. It appears again near Invemess, and on the banks of Loch Ness.
In many localities there are extensive quarries, the sandstone being used as a building-stone,
and as a pavement-stone. The Kinguddie sandstone and the Arbroath pavementrstone, from
old fed sandstone localities, are well known.
2. Coal formation. The coal formation in the middle division of Scotland has not been met
with farther north than Fifeshire. The counties of Fife, Clackmannan, and Stirling, abound
m coal ; of these counties, Fife is that which contains the greatest fields of this valuable
mineral. 3. New red sandstone occurs apparently in some points on the east coast, and also on the
north coast between Cullen and the Cromarty Frith.
4. Lias formation. Near to Banff there are beds of clay, which, from the organic re
mains contained in them, may turn out to belong to this formation.
5. Plutonian rocks. These are various traps, as greenstone, amygdaloid, trap tufia, and
basalt; and porphyries, having a basis of claystone or clinkstone. The famous headland the
Red Head, on the east coast, exhibits a fine display of Plutonian rocks, connected with the
red sandstone. Bervie Head and the vicinity are interesting from their porphyry rocks.
The trap rocks of Montrose are famous on account of the agates they afford. Kinnoul HiU,
at Perth, is composed of amygdaloid, tuffa, and other rocks of the trap series, and abounds
in agates. The OchU Hills are principally composed of trap and porph3rry ; and trap rocks
abound in the Campsie range. The Fifeshire hUls, viz. Kellie Law, Largo Law, the cones
of the Lomond, and the Saline Hills, are of trap. These various traps and porphyries have,
as is generally the case, broken and changed more or less the Neptunian strata with which
they are intermingled.
III. Alluvial rocks. These have the same general characters as those met with in the
southern division. In a few districts, however, as near to Peterhead, and in the vicinity of
Banff, there are numerous chalk flints. These, by some, are considered as alluvial, and
foreign to Scotland ; whUe others are of opinion that they are remains of the chalk forma
tion, formerly distributed in some of the tracts where the flints are found.
(3.) Northern division. This division is bounded on the south by the chain of lakes
which forms the northem limit of the middle division, and on the north, the east, and the
west, by the ocean. The high land ranges throughout its whole length, from south-west to
north-east. The western acclivity is steep and short ; the eastem comparatively gently
inclined and long. Rivers, springs, and lakes are numerous. The whole of this division,
nearly, is composed of primitive and transition rocks, the secondary occurring principally
along the east coast and a small extent of the north-west coast.
I. Primitive and transition rocks. The Neptunian species are disposed in strata that
often range from south-west to north-east, are of gneiss, mica slate, clay slate, quartz rock,
talc slate, limestone, and greywacke. The Plutonian rocks are less abundant than m the
middle and southern divisions of Scotland ; and are granite, syenite, porphyry, and trap.
The only mines are those at Strontian, where the ore is lead glance, or sulphuret of lead,
in veins traversing gneiss. The mineral in which the Strontian earth was first found
occurs in these mines, along with other curious minerals, of which the cross-stone is the
most interesting.
II. Secondary rocks. The formations of this class are both Neptunian and Plutonian.
The Neptunian are old red sandstone, new red sandstone, lias, and oolite ; the Plutonian, trap
and porphyry.
1. Old red sandstone. Much of the county of Caithness, and some tracts on the east
coast, and a few points on the west, are composed of this formation.
2. New red sandstone. The county of Caithness affords examples of this deposit, which
is remarkable on account of the beds of fossil fishes it contains.
3. Lias and oolite. This formation occurs on the east coast of Sutherland. The coal
mines at Brora are situated in this deposit ; the coal is, however, of indifferent quality.
4. The Plutonian rocks are not frequent, and consist principally of trap and porphyry.
III. Alluvial rocks. These exhibit the same characters as in the middle and southern
divisions. •
(4.) Insular division. This may be subdivided in the following manner:— 1. Forth
Islands ; 2. Clyde Islands ; 3. Hebrides ; 4. Orkneys ; 5. Shetlands.
(1.) Forth Islands. The Bell Rock is of a red sandstone, havmg the same characters as
that on the neighbouring coast at Arbroath. The other islands are principally composed of
trap rocks, occasionally associated with clinkstone porphyry, and rocks of the coal formation.
(2.) Clyde Islands and the Cumbrays are composed of secondary rocks ; the Neptunian rocks
are chiefly old red sandstone, which is traversed and overlaid by different kmds of trap rocks,
of which there are magnificent displays in these islands. The southern part of Bute is
almost entirely composed of rocks of igneous origin, belonging to the trap series ; the mid
dle, of old red sandstone ; tlic northern of clay slate, mica slate, quartz rock, and trap. Arran
affords highly illustrative examples of Neptunian and Plutonian rocks of the primitive and

Book I. SCOTLAND. 407
transition classes, viz. clay slate, mica slate, greywacke, as Neptunian deposits ; and granite,
as a Plutonian rock. The junctions of the granite, of which there are two formations, with
each other and with the Neptunian slates, are most instructive. Reposmg on these rocks is
a deposit of the old red sandstone, on which rests the coal formation; and the whole are
covered, more or less completely, with new red sandstone. These Neptunian secondary
rocks are traversed in all directions by Plutonian rocks of the porphyry and trap series,
affording an admirable study to the geologist. Alluvial deposits occur all round the coast,
and covering, more or less deeply, the bottom and sides of valleys. Both old and new allu
vium are met with in Arran. The Craig of Ailsa, which is 900 feet high, is composed of
secondary syenite, in several clifis disposed in magnificent columns, and traversed by veins
of secondary greenstone, &c.
(3.) The Hebrides or Western Islands form two groups; the one, ranging hnmediately
along the coast, the Inner Hebrides ; the other, lying beyond, to the westward, the Outer
Hebrides. Inner Hebrides. Gigha, Isla, Jura, Colonsay, Oronsay, Scarba, and the Slate Isles, are
principally composed of Neptunian primitive and transition strata, having frequently a north
east and south-west direction ; and variously disposed, from the slightly inclined to the ver
tical position. The rocks are mica slate, quartz rock, talc slate, chlorite slate, hornblende
slate, clay slate, limestone, and greywacke. These are traversed by, and intermingled with,
Plutonian rocks of the trap and porphyry series. The clay slate is extensively quarried in
the isle of Eisdale, one of the Slate Islands. In Isla there is a great deposit of limestone,
in which formerly lead-mines were worked. lona, Tiree, and Coll are principally composed
of gneiss, mica slate, quartz rock, hornblende rock, with occasional intermixtures of granite
and syenite, and all traversed, more or less frequently, by veins of trap rock. Mull, with
the exception of two or three points, which are composed of granite, gneiss, and mica slate,
is composed of secondary trap and porphyry rocks, with occasional intermixtures of lias lime
stones, and lias coals. The usual alluvial deposits appear in different parts of the island.
Staffa, which is composed of basalt, amygdaloid, and trap tufEi, has been long celebrated on
account of its splendid columnar basaltic cave, the Fingal's Cave of travellers. Eigg is
principaUy composed of trap rocks, occasionally intermingled with lias limestones. The
Scure Egg is a remarkable columnar ridge of pitchstone porphyry, presenting the most
splendid display of the natural columnar structure to be met with anywhere in the British
islands. Canna is entirely composed of secondary trap rocks ; and Rum, a wild, rugged,
and hUly island, besides red sandstone, which forms a prominent constituent part, also con
tains many varieties of trap, some of which are remarkable from their containing agates,
bloodstone, opal, &c. Skye, the largest of the Inner Hebrides, exhibits great variety of
scenery and of geological arrangement. The southern part of the island is composed of
primitive and transition rocks, principally of the Neptunian series ; namely, mica slate, clay
slate, chlorite slate, hornblende rock, quartz rock, greywacke, and limestone. The middle
part afiords magnificent displays of Plutonian rocks, as syenite, porphyry and trap, which
are frequently observed intermixed with lias lunestone, which in many places is seen con
verted into marble through the agency of those ignigenous rocks : the northem division of
the island is principally composed of various trap rocks, often abounding in zeolite and other
curious minerals, and intermingled with lias limestone and coal. The alluvium here exhibits
its usual characters. Rasay. The southern and middle parts of this island are of secondary
formation, principally of old red sandstone and lias sandstone ; the northern extremity is of
primitive rocks, prmcipally gneiss. Rona. This island, which appears formerly to have
been a part of Rasay, is entirely of primitive formation, the prevailing rock being gneiss,
with subordinate mica slate, quartz rook, hornblende rock, &c., traversed by splendid veins
of granite.
Outer Hebrides. This group, which lies in a north-east and south-west direction, con
sists of the foUowiag islands ; viz. Lewis, Harris, North Uist, South. Uist, and Barra. The
whole range of islands is nearly of prunitive formation, and the predominatmg rocks, which
are gneiss and mica slate, range generally from north-east to south-west. The following
rocks, which are generally subordinate to those just mentioned, viz. quartz rock, clay slate,
chlorite slate, hornblende rock of various kinds, limestone (}), serpentine, with masses and
veins of granite, syenite, and porphyry, present many interesting phenomena.
(4.) Orkney Islands. This group of islands is distinguished from aU others that lie around
the coasts of Scotland, by the uniformity of its structure and composition. With the excep
tion of a small extent of transition rocks near Stromness in the island of Pomona, the largest
of the Orkneys, that island and all the others are composed of the old red sandstone, with
some rare appearance of secondary trap.
(5.) Shetland Islands. This very interesting group of islands exhibits great variety in
its geognostical structure and composition. Mainland. With the exception of a band of
old red sandstone extending from the line of Sumburgh Head to Rovey Head, on the east
coast the whole of this island is formed of primitive rocks. The Neptunian strata are

408

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

PahtHI.

gneiss, with subordinate mica slate, clay slate, quartz rock, limestone, and hornblende rocks ;
the Plutonian rocks, which frequently alter and upraise the Neptunian strata, are granite,
syenite, porphyry, greenstone, and epidotic syenite. Yell is ahnost entirely composed of
gneiss, variously intersected by veins of granite. Unst is composed of gneiss, mica slate,
talc slate, chlorite slate, and limestone, which are variously intermixed with serpentme and
diallage rocks. Hermaness, the most northem pouit of the British dominions in Europe, is
composed of gneiss ; while the Land's End of Cornwall, the most south-westerly cape of
Britain, is formed of granite. Unst and the neighbouring island of Fetlar abound in chro-
mate of iron. Hydrate of magnesia, grenatite, precious garnet, and other beautiful minerals,
occur in this island. Fetlar is composed of serpentine as the predominating rock, with
diallage rock, gneiss, mica slate, chlorite slate, and quartz rock. Whalsey is composed of
gneiss. Bressay, Noss, and Mousa are composed of old red sandstone. Barra and House
are composed of gneiss and mica slate, with subordinate limestone ; Papa Stour is a mass of
porphyry. In Foula the predominating rock is old red sandstone ; at one point there is a
limited display of primitive rocks of granite, gneiss, mica slate, and clay slate.
Sect. HI. — Historical Survey.
To the Greek and Roman writers, Scotland was not known as a distinct country. Albion,
or Britain, was viewed as one region, parcelled out among a multitude of different tribes.
Agricola first penetrated into that part of Britain, which we now call Scotland. He easUy
over-ran the low country, but encountered the most obstinate resistance when he approached
the Caledonians, who appear then to have held all the northem districts. An obstinate
battle, the precise place of which has never been ascertained, was fought at the foot of the
Grampians. All the mde valour of Caledonia could not match' the skUl of Agricola and the
discipline of the Roman legions. The whole open country was abandoned to the invaders,
whose progress, however, was stayed by what they termed the Caledonian forest, under
which they seem to have vaguely comprehended the vast pine woods of Glenmore, and the
steep barrier of the Grampians. Their military occupation, however, is attested by the form
ation of numerous camps, of which that of
Ardoch, (fig. 185), ten mUes north of Stir
ling, is the most extensive and complete.
The Romans endeavoured to resist the in
cursions of the natives, by rearing at different
periods, two waUs, one between the Forth
and Clyde, and the other south of the low
country of Scotland, between the Solway
and the Tyne. The northem tribes, how
ever, continued their inroads, now chiefly
under the name of Picts, who seem clearly
to have been the same people with the
Caledonians. In the fifth century Britain
was abandoned by the Romans, and over-run
by the Saxons, who occupied the eastem
part of the south of Scotland, as fer as the
Forth. The westem part was formed into the
kingdom of Strathcluyd. It flourished for
about 300 years, and was rendered Ulustrious
by the name and exploits of Arthur and his
knights, whose power from 508 to 542, is
represented by tradition as having been predominant over the south of Scotland and tlie north
of England. The capital and bulwark of this kingdom was Alcluyd, called afterwards Dun
Briton and Dumbarton, seated on an insulated precipitous rock at the mouth of the Clyde.
The Strathcluyd Britons, closely pressed by their Saxon neighbours, endeavoured to defend
themselves by a lengthened /esse, of which the traces have been supposed to remain in the
CatraU or Picts'-work Ditch, drawn across the counties of Selkirk and Roxburgh. Such
feeble defences could not support a sinking monarchy ; in 7.57, Alcluyd was taken by the
Saxons, and the kingdom subverted.
The Scots, before this time, had come from Ireland, their original seat, which, in the fourth
century, was often called Scotland. Even before the departure of the Romans, the Scots,
joined with the Picts, are mentioned as the ravagers of defenceless Britain. They appear at
one time to have been driven back into Ireland ; but in 503 they agam landed in Cantyre,
and during the next four centuries, spread gradually over tlie kingdom. At length under the
victOTious reign of Kenneth, which commenced m 886, they wrested the sceptre from Wred
the 1 ictish kmg, and established supreme sway over the whole of that country, which, from
them, was ever afterwards called Scotland.

Camp at Ardoch.

Book L SCOTLAND. 409
The Scoto-Saxon era, as Mr. Chalmers calls it, is memorable rather for an insensible
change, than for any sudden revolution. After the subversion of the kingdom of Strath
cluyd, by the Saxons, that people had colonized and filled the whole south; and the Scottish
kings, though of Celtic origin, having established themselves in this more fertUe part of their
territories, soon began to imbibe the spirit of its occupants. From this or other causes the
whole lowlands of Scotland is in language and manners Teutonic, and the Gael or Celts
were again confined within their mountain boundary.
An era of disputed succession arose out of the contending claims of Bruce and Baliol,
after the death of Margaret of Norway. Edward I., avaUing himself of this dissension,
succeeded in mtroducing himself under the character of an arbiter, and having established
Baliol on the throne by an armed interference, sought to rule Scotland as a vassal kingdom.
The result was a struggle, calamitous to Scotland, but which, however, placed in a con
spicuous light the energy and heroism of the nation, and brought forward the names of
Wallace and Bruce, ever afterwards the foremost in her annals. The result was glorious ;
the concentrated force of the English was finally defeated in a pitched battle at Bannock-
burn ; they were compelled to renounce their ambitious pretensions, and allow the kingdom
to be governed by its native princes.
Under the turbulent and unfortunate sway of the Stuarts, Scotland continued for several
centuries without any prominent revolution, though with a continual tendency to internal
commotion. This dynasty, from their connexion with the French and English courts, had
acquired the idea of more polished manners, and habits of greater subordination as due from
the nobles. Such views were ill suited to the power and temper of a Douglas, and many
other powerful chieftains, through whose resistance the attempts of the monarchs were
followed with disaster, and often with violent death. The introduction of the reformed
religion especially, in open opposition to the court, which granted only a reluctant and pre
carious toleration, was unfavourable to the crown, and fatal to a princess whose beauty and
inisfortunes have rendered her an object of enthusiasm to the gay and chivalric part of the
Scottish nation.
The union of the crowns, by the accession of James VI. in 1603, to the English throne,
produced a great change, in itself flattering to Scotland, whose race of princes now held
sway over all the three kingdoms. The struggle between presbytery and prelacy gave rise
to a conflict which stUl powerfully influences the temper and character of the Scots. The
efforts of the presbyterians, acting under the bond of their League and Covenant, first
enabled the English parliament to rear its head, and had a great effect in turning the scale
of contest against the crown. The Scots revolted, however, at the excesses of the inde
pendents, and endeavoured to rear again, on a covenanted basis, the fallen crown of the
Stuarts. These brave but unsuccessful eflbrts were UI requited by an embittered persecu
tion against all the adherents of presbytery, till the Revolution finally fixed that system as
the established religion of Scotland.
The union of the kingdoms, in 1707, placed Scotland in that political position which she
has ever since maintained ; and, by allaying internal contest, and opening a free trade with
the sister kingdom, this union has produced results highly beneficial, although the devoted
attachment of her mountain tribes to the exUed Stuarts repeatedly impelled them to attempt
to replace that house on the throne ; attempts which, at one critical moment, spread alarm
into the heart of England. Sect. IV. — Political Constitution.
The political system of Scotland being now almost completely incorporated with that of
England, little is to be added to the statements given under the head of the sister kingdom.
A few peculiarities, however, may be deserving of notice.
The representation allowed to Scotland at the union was somewhat scanty. It consisted,
for the House of Commons, of forty -five members, fifteen from the boroughs, and thirty from
the counties. The members were elected, not by the burgesses, but by the magistrates,
who themselves were appointed chiefly by their predecessors in office ; thus constituting
close boroughs, in which a party having once obtained a majority might keep it in perpetuum.
In county elections, the right of voting was attached to the possession of lands held im
mediately of the crown, and of the valued rent of 400?. Scots. But the feudal superiority
which entitled to vote was separable from the actual possession of the property. The original
proprietor, who, perhaps, had a number of these votes on his estate, might either sell or
distribute them among his friends, so as to multiply his own elective influence. The free
holders of Scotland amounted to not quite 3000, of whom a certain number, for the reason.
stated, had no actual property in land. The peers of Scotland are represented by sixteen
of their number, elected at the commencement of each parliament. There are, besides
upwards of twenty who are British peers, and sit in their personal right.
Vol. L 35 3 B

410 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part HI.
By the Reform Bill of 1832, the power of retuming members to the House of Conmions
is vested in the following cities and burghs : — Members.

Edinburgh 
Glasgow 
Aberdeen 
Paisley 
Dundee 
Greenock 
Perth 
Leith, Portobello, Muaselburg 
Kirkwall, Wick, Dornoch, Dingwall, Tain, Cromarty 
Fortrose, Inverness, Nairn, Forres . . . ; 
Elgin, Cullen, Banff, Inverary, Kintore, Peterhead 
Inverbervie, Montrose, Arbroath, Brechin, Forfar 
Cupar, St. Andrew's, Anstruther Easter and Wester, Crail, Kilrenny, Pittenween .
Dysart, Kirkaldy, Kinghorn, Burntisland 
Inverkeithing, Dunfermline, Kinross, ^ueensferry, Culross, Stirling 
Renfrew, Rutherglen, Dumbarton, Kilmarnock, Port Glasgow 
Haddi ngton, Dunbar, North Berwick, Lauder, Jedburgh 
Linlithgow. Lanark, Falkirk, Airdrie, Hamilton  .' 
Ayr, Irvine, Campbellton, Inverary, Oban 
Dumfries, Sanquahar, Annan, Lochmaben, Kirkcudbright 
Wigton, New Galloway, Stranraer, Whithorn 

These members are retumed by the inhabitants paying rent to the value of lOZ. and upwards.
The counties continue each to elect a member, except that only one in conjunction is re
turned by Elgin and Nairn, one by Ross and Cromarty, and one by Clackmannan and Kin
ross. The power of voting, too, is attached to the possession of actual property yielding
101. of yearly rent.
The judicial administration of Scotland has always continued distinct from that of the
sister kingdom. The supreme court, or Court of Session, consisted untU lately, of fifteen
members, sitting together, and deciding in all civU causes, whUe six of these constituted a
Justiciary Court for the trial of criminal cases. The trial by jury was employed only in the
Justiciary Court, and in revenue questions, which are tried before the Court of Exchequer.
But the supreme court is now divided into two chambers, one of six and the other of seven
members. Trials by jury, in civil cases, have been introduced, and are now carried on, like
others, under the direction of the Court of Session. The Court of Exchequer, which con
sisted of five barons, the Consistory and the Admiralty Courts have been abolished, and their
jurisdiction transferred to the Court of Session.
The revenue of Scotland has been hitherto coUected separately from that of England,
and by separate boards for each branch ; but, under recent regulations, the whole has been
placed under the direction of boards resident in London, and the systems have been in a great
measure incorporated together. In the year ending 5th January, 1831 — £
The Scottish excise was  2,395,490
Customs  1,357,000
Stamps  526,000
Assessed taxes  292,000
Post office  201,000

4,771,490

Sect. V. — Productive Industry.
Scotland has always ranked as a poor country ; and, for a long time, natural obstacles were
enhanced by moral impediments. The Scots showed an aptitude to embark in all schemes
of turbulence ; but indolence, and dislike of plain hard work, might be recognized as a
national characteristic. Since the age arrived, however, when industry cEime into honour,
and when improved processes were studiously applied to all the useful arts, the Scots have
entered with peculiar spirit and intelligence into this new career ; and in its prosecution
have been more successful, in some respects, than their souUiern neighbours.
The agriculture of Scotland has to contend with obstacles which must be manifest, when
we look at its rugged aspect, and its vast hUls and morasses. Forty years ago, moreover,
the progress of Scotland in this primary art was generally behind that of the rest of the
empire. As soon, however, as the great system of agricultural improvement was adopted
througliout the kingdom, the Scottish formers not only shared in it, but carried it ferther
than those of England. The farmers of tlie Lotliians, of the Carse of Govraie, and even of
the district on the Moray Frith, made a complete reform in the whole train of agricultural
operations. They brought extensive tracts of common and waste under cultivation, reduced
the number of cattle and improved the breed, cultivated the artificial grasses, dismissed

Book L SCOTLAND. 411
superfluous hands, and adopted the use of machinery, of which the most important, the
threshing machine, was of Scottish invention. The consequence was, that considerable
fortunes were made by successful formers, and that rents were m almost every instance
trebled, and in some cases raised to eight or ten times their former amount. In the moun
tainous districts, also, a new system was introduced, which proved more profitable to the
landlord. The numerous little farms hitherto held by tenants or vassals, were thrown mto
extensive sheep-walks. Considerable depopulation, in the agricultural districts, was the
consequence ; a great proportion of this brave and warm-hearted race were forced to quit
their native glens, to which they were fondly attached, and to seek support, either in the
great manufecturing towns, or in settlements formed on the other side of the Atlantic.
The cultivated lands of Scotland, and the amount of its produce, after all these improve
ments, are stiU limited. Of the 18,944,000 acres, its computed extent of land, only 5,043,000
are under regular cultivation, and not more than 1,800,000 under grain. Of these only
140,000 produce wheat, though this is considered the most profitable crop, and is raised of
good quality, where the soU and clunate admit Oats, a hardy plant, is the staple produce
of Scotland, and the food of its mral population : it covers 1,260,000 acres. Barley occupies
280,000 acres, being raised chiefly for distUlation ; but in the higher districts it is the ruder
species called bear or big. The chief exportable produce consists in cattle and sheep, which
are sent in numbers to the English markets. The sheep are not equal to the fine English
breeds, but the mutton of the Grampians and Cheviots is of exquisite flavour.
The manufacturing industry of Scotland has, within the last century, advanced with pro
digious rapidity, being quite equal, compared with the extent and population of the country,
to that of England. Woollen, the grand original staple of England, has never obtained more
than a very partial footing in Scotland. Linen, with other products of flax, is the original
staple of Scotland. It was throughout the country a household manufecture, and for house
hold use. Flax, in almost every famUy, was diligently spun into yam, which was then sent
out to be woven and bleached. The coarser kinds of linen still form the staple of the eastern
counties, though Dunfermline excels in fine sheeting and diaper. The linen made in Scot
land was estimated, in 1810, at 26,457,000 yards, value 1,265,000/. The increase in the
manufecture has since been so great, that in 1831, Dundee alone exported more than
57,000,000 yards ! By far the greater proportion of the raw material is imported, very little
hemp or flax being grown either in Scotland or England; almost all the former, and more
than half the latter, is brought from Russia, the rest of the' flax from Holland, Flanders, and
Germany. The cotton manufacture, though of comparatively recent introduction, has, in Scotland,
no less than in England, risen to be the first in point of magnitude. Glasgow and Paisley
produce febrics carried to an extreme degree of fineness. The muslin of Paisley is one of
the most delicate fabrics existing. The printing of cottons, particularly shawls, is also carried
on to a greater proportional extent in Scotland than in England. The total quantity of cotton
wool spun in Scotland in 1832, amounted to 24,500,000 lbs. of the value of about 4,000,000/.
DistUlation of spirits from grain has been long a characteristic branch of Scottish industry ;
and in the highland districts, the quality of the article has been carried to very great per
fection. It has been much cramped by fiscal restrictions, which have, of late, been almost
entirely abolished. In the first seven years of the present century, the quantity paying duty
averaged 2,000,000 gallons; it then gradually approached to 4,000,000; but in 1824, upon
tiie reduction of the duty, it suddenly increased to above 5,000,000, and in 1830 it rose to
6,070,000. Scotland has various other ordinary manufactures, and generally supplies itself with all
the common necessaries of life. The ale of Edinburgh and of some Scottish towns eniovs
reputation even out of Scotland. In 1829, there were brewed in Scotland 110,000 sallons
of strong b3er, and 229,000 of table beer. Glass is made to the extent of nearlV double the
consumption of the country; the surplus being exported, chiefly to Ireland Salt which
does not exist ma mineral form, is largely extracted from sea-water by boUing; and'thouffh
not equal m quality to English rock salt, nor fit for use in the fisheries, its cheapness recom-
The mineral wealth of Scotland is chiefly of an humble and useftil description. Its moun
tarns are not meta liferous In Lanark and Dumfries is a large deposit of lead mixed w^S,
sUver, which, together with some smaller mines m the Hebrides, is supposed to ytSTIe OOOZ
m the former metal, and 10,000Z. m the latter. Ironstone occurs extensivelv Tn thf '
coal districts. In 1825, the annual production of pig iron irScoS waVIo 900?^"'
which IS not, however, suflicient to supply the founderies at Carron and el^ewhS^'^te
at Carron are considerable, the casting being chiefly of ordnance fnatTvZ v °^®
sels Coal lime, and stone, compose the soliS mmemllaltrof gco land' Thp ^7 ^'f
field extends m a diagonal line of 100 mUes along the friths of cfyde S'FoS ; T^gSg

412

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

PABTHt

south of the former, and ending north of the latter. It is immensely rich in coal of pretty
good quality, though not equal to the best English. A large quantity is exported to Ireland,
Lime is furnished abundantly, both for building and manure. Freestone, chiefly on both
sides of the Forth ; granite, in Aberdeenshire ; slate, in the Hebrides and Argyleshire, afford
excellent materials for building.
The flsheries form a considerable branch of industry in Scotland ; the herriag, cod, and
haddock abound on various parts of its shores. The Dutch long monopolised the great
northern herring bank ; and, by a superior mode of cure, obtained a preference in all mar
kets. The British govemment, however, has for some time made great exertions for the
promotion of the Scottish fisheries ; and there has been a wonderful increase in the quantity
caught, and a corresponding improvement in the processes of cure. The former, which in
1815 was only 160,000 barrels, had risen in 1830 to 329,000, of which 237,000 were exported.
In the same year, 63,.500 cwt. of cod were cured in a dried state, and 5400 cwt. in pickle ;
of the former, 23,000 were exported. Salmon, taken in all the considerable Tivers, and kept
fresh by being packed in ice, chiefly supplies the London market. The whale fishery in
Greenland and Davis's Straits has for some time been prosecuted by Scotlemd with increased
activity. In the nine years ending in 1818, she sent at an average only 40 ships: in 1830,
she sent 47 ; the produce of which was 5613 tuns of oU. Kelp was in extensive demand
during the late war ; but the repeal of the duty on salt, and the reduction of the duty on
barilla, have ruined this branch of industry.
The relative foreign commerce of the principal ports of Scotland is exhibited in the fol
lowing Table : —

Aberdeen. .. .
Bo'ness 
Dundee 
Glasgow 
GrangemouthGreenock 

Tonnaee in 1830.

46,200 9,100
26,000
41,10024,30036,200

Produce of
Cuslnms in 1929.

jE
52,400 5,400
68,000
25.000
431,000

Invemess 
Irvine 
Leith 
Montrose 
Perth 
Port Glasgow

Tonnage in ISIO.

7,300
13,30014,800
28,300 16,100 6,800

Produce of
Customsin 1829.

£
2,000
4,4006,800
44,400 9,000
248,600

Commerce, till the union of the crowns, and even of the kingdoms, could scarcely be con
sidered as existing in Scotland ; but it has since been cultivated with great ardour and enter
prise. One branch of commercial intercourse is that with her opulent sister kingdom. In
England she finds a market for cattle, her chief agricultural surplus ; for her wool, such as
it is ; for her saU-cloth and other coarse fabrics fi'om fiax and hemp ; for part of her fine
calicoes and muslins, &c. In return, she receives almost all the woollen cloth, and a great
part of the silk consumed by her ; hardware and cutlery of every kind ; tea and other East
India goods ; and through this channel a part of all the foreign luxuries which she requires.
The trade with Ireland is chiefly supported by the exchange of coal and iron for oats and
cattle. That with the Baltic, particularly Russia, is very active ; the eastem part of the
kingdom deriving thence the hemp and flax, which form the material of her staple manu
facture ; also timber, iron, and the other bulky and useful staples of that trade. Having
few articles of her own with which this market is not already stocked, the payment is made
chiefly in bullion and colonial produce. The flourishing trade carried on from the west coast
with America and the West Indies, is supported by the export of cottons, linen, wearing
apparel, and other commodities ; and by the import of cotton, sugar, rum, and the various
luxuries of those fertile regions. The Mediterranean trade is not neglected ; and since the
opening of that to India, Greenock has adventured into it with considerable success.
The roads, which half a century ago were almost impassable, are now, through all the
Lowlands, little inferior to those of England. After the rebellion of 1745, govemment con
structed excellent roads into the heart of the Highlands as fej as Inverness ; and in 1803, a
body of commissioners was appointed by government, for improving the roads of the north
of Scotland. They proceeded upon the principle, that half the expense must in every case
be defrayed by the county proprietors, and in eighteen years good roads were formed into
the remotest tracts of Inverness, Skye, Ross, and even to the farthest point of Caithness.
Artificial navigation meets with peculiar obstructions from the ruggedness of the surfece,
and hence canals have never become very numerous. The "Great Canal," admits vessels
of considerable size to pass from the Frith of Forth to that of Clyde, and thus unite the Ger
man and Atlantic oceans. Branches to Glasgow and to the fine coal-field at Monkland have
been advantageously opened. The Union Canal, completed at an expense of nearly 400,000/.,
connects the Great Canal, near its eastern point, with Edinburgh, by a line of thirty mUes
through a country very rich in coal and lime. The Caledonian Canal, imiting the chain of
lakes which crosses Scotland diagonally through the counties of Inverness and Argyle,
allows even ships of war to pass, from the east coast, into the Atlantic, without encounter
ing the perils of the Pentland Frith and Cape Wrath. It was finished in 1822, at an
expense of nearly 1,000,000/. sterling, entirely defrayed by government The gates of the

Book I. SCOTLAND. 413
locks are of iron; the expense of each lock was 9000/. The locks are twenty-three in all,
eight of which, lookmg down from Loch Eil, where it opens into the western sea, are called
by saUors the " stair of Neptune." The canal is fifty feet broad ; length twenty-two miles,
with forty mUes of lake navigation. Sect. VI. — Civil and Social State.
Of the population of Scotland an estimate was first attempted in the year 1755, when it
was computed to be 1,265,380. The reports of the clergy for the " Statistical Account,"
between 1792 and 1798, gave 1,526,492; which was raised by the government enumeration
of 1801 to 1,599,000. The census of 1811 gave 1,805,000 ; which was raised by that of
1821 to 2,093,456. In 1831, it was 2,363,842. , v v u
In point of disposition, the Scots are a grave, serious, and reflecting people; but bold,
enterprismg, ambitious, and unbued with a deep-rooted determination to pursue the objects
of their desire, and repel those of their aversion. Under these impulses, they quit, without
much regret, a land Which affords few opportunities of distinction, and seek, either in the
metropolis and commercial towns of England, or in the most distant transmarine regions, that
wealth and fame which they eagerly covet ; yet, amid this distance and these eager pursuits,
their hopes and affections remain fixed on the land of their nativity; and they usually seek
to spend the evening of their days in Scotland. The Scots appear naturally brave ; a quality
which is particularly observable among the highland tribes, and by which they rendered
themselves formidable, first under Montrose, and afterwards m the rebellion against the house
of Hanover. Since they were concUiated by the wise measures of Pitt, they have crowded
into the British army, and formed some of its bravest regiments. Among the lower classes,
crimes against the order of society are of comparatively rare occurrence, and there is less
necessity for capital punishment ; there is also less of extreme dissoluteness among the higher
ranks. Among the Scottish females, in particular, the obligations of the marriage tie are
much more seldom disregarded ; and if the other sex too often abuse the license which public
manners are supposed to allow, they are at least obliged to observe some outward appear
ances. The pride of birth is stUl prevalent, particularly among the highland clans ; and it
is accompanied with a general ambition to rise above their original station, and a propensity,
with that view, to spend their moderate wealth rather in outward show than in solid com
fort. The sister nations accuse the Scots as selfish, yet Scotsmen raised to power have not
sho^vn any backwardness, either in the general offices of humanity, or to promote the pros
perity of their country and countrymen.
To their religious duties the Scots people have always shown an exemplary attention. In
catholic times, the Romish church in Scotland enjoyed more influence, and had acquired a
much greater proportion of the national wealth, than in England. But they entered upon
the cause of reform with an ardent zeal, which left behind it that of all their neighbours.
After a desperate struggle, on which, for nearly a century, the political destinies of the king
dom depended, they obtained their favourite form of presbytery, the most remote from that
pompous ritual, for which they have entertained the most rooted abhorrence. The principle
of presbytery consists in the complete equality of all its clerical members, who have each a
separate parish, of which they perform all the ecclesiastical functions. The title of bishop,
so long connected with wealth and power, has been rejected, and that of minister substi
tuted. In the management of the poor, and some church functions, the minister is assisted
by a body of lay members called elders, who constitute the kirk session. The government
of the church consists in presbyteries formed by the meeting of the ministers of a certain
district, with lay members from each session, the last of whom, however, attend only occa
sionally. A synod is formed by the union of several presbyteries ; and the General Assem
bly is composed of deputies, partly clerical and partly lay, from each presbytery and borough.
They meet every year, and an appeal lies to them upon every subject ; but the laws of the
church, though proposed in the Assembly, can be passed only by a majority of presbyteries,
after being debated in each. The king sends a Commissioner, who is present at the debates
of the Assembly, and seems even to claim a right of constituting and dissolving it ; but this
is denied by the church itself, which acknowledges no human head, and accounts itself and
the state as powers entirely independent.
The nobles avaUed themselves of the downfall of the catholic establishment, to appro
priate nearly the whole of the immense income with which it had been endowed. They
took at first not only the lands, but the tithes ; and even when obliged to make a provision
for the presbyterian clergy out of the latter, they retained part, valued often at a very low
rate, but subject to be called upon if needed. Thus the Scots clergy have enjoyed only
such incomes as enabled them, with strict economy, to maintain their place in the middle
rank of society. When even this became impossible under the increased expense of living
augmentations were granted out of the tiends, or valued tithes ; and where these were
exhausted, the legislature have come forward, and raised the lowest stipend to 150/. a year.
No body of clergy have maintained a fairer character, or more efficiently performed their
important duties, than those of the Scottish church.
35*

414 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pabt HL
The dissenters from the Scottish church consist chiefly of persons zealously attached to
presbytery, and who have seceded because they considered its principles as not maintained
in sufficient purity within the establishment. Their chief complaint is against the system
of patronage exercised by the landed interest, who present generally to the vacant parishes.
Two great bodies, into which they were formerly divided on the subject of the burgher oath,
have, since the abolition of that test, been united into what is called the Associate Synod.
A considerable proportion, especially of the higher ranks, is attached to episcopacy, either ^
as it was established in Scotland under the Stuarts, or as it now exists in England ; indeed,
an union has been recently formed between these once separate branches. None of the
other sects, independents, baptists, methodists, &c. are numerous ; and the Roman catholics
consist chiefly of emigrants from Ireland, though their form of religion stiU prevaUs in some
of the remote highland districts.
Literature, soon after its revival in Europe, was cultivated in Scotland with peculiar
ardour. Even in the age of scholastic pursuits, Duns Scotus and Crichton were pre-emi
nently famed throughout the Continent. When the sounder taste for classical knowledge
followed, Buchanan acquired the reputation of writing Latin with great purity. Letters
were almost entirely suppressed during the subsequent period, marked by a conflict between
a licentious tyranny and an austere religious party, who condemned or despised the exer
tions of intellect and the creations of fancy ; and literature lay dormant till the middle of the
last century, when Scotland, with a church and universities alike poorly endowed, produced
as illustrious a constellation of writers as had been called forth by the most lavish patronage
in the great European capitals. We shall only mention, in history, Robertson and Hume ;
in moral and political phUosophy, Hume, Reid, Smith, Ferguson, Kames, Stewart, Brown ;
divinity, Blafr, Campbell, Macknight; poetry, Home, Thomson, Beattie, Bums; physical
science, Gregory, Black, Playfair, Leslie. In the present generation, the most popular of
fictitious writings, and one of the most able periodical works known in modern times, have
issued from the Edinburgh press.
The universities of Scotland have been a powerful instrument in supporting her literary
feme. Though not richly endowed, the fees of well-attended classes afford a liberal income,
and have enabled them to attract the most learned among the clergy ; while, in England, a
wealthy church draws eminent scholars from the universities. The students live generally
in the towns, without any check on their private conduct, or even any obligation to attend
ance, except what arises from the dread of the refusal of a certificate at the close. The
chief exertion of the professors is bestowed on their lectures, by which they hope to attract
students to their class and seminary. The more dUigent combine with them examinations
and exercises, but not on the same systematic and searching plan as in England ; emd the
degrees are conferred, in many instances, with culpable laxity. A much greater proportion
of the people receive a college education than in England. The church exacts an attend
ance of eight years ; four for languages and philosophy, and four for divinity : the feculty
of medicine requires also several years ; and the gentry and higher grades of the middle
ranks in general consider an attendance on the elementary classes as an essential part of
education. The public libraries are not rich. That belonging to the advocates or barristers of Edin
burgh contains upwards of 100,000 volumes, among which there are ample materials, both
printed and in manuscript, for elucidating the national history; The university library is
half as large ; and those of Glasgow, King's College Aberdeen, and St. Andrew's, are highly
respectable. Each of these universities can claim a copy of every new work.
Scotland has a native music, simple and pathetic, expressive of rural feelings and emotions,
to which she is fondly attached. Golf and foot-ball are the only amusements that can be
deemed strictly national. Skating, and curling, or the rolling of smooth stones upon the
ice, are also pursued with great ardour during the season that admits of those amusements.
The recreations of the higher ranks are nearly the same as in England. Dancing is prac
tised with peculiar ardour, especially by the Highlanders, who have fevourite national steps
and movements.
The Highlanders retain the remnants of a national costume peculiar to themselves ; the
tartan, a mixture of woollen and linen cloth, adorned with brilliant stripes variously crossing
each other, and marking the distinctions of the clans ; the kilt, or short petticoat, worn by
the men, the hose fastened below the knee, which is left bare ; and tlie bonnet, which in
another shape is also still worn by the shepherds of the border.
In regard to food, the Scots, in general, are temperate. Even Uie rich attach less import
ance than their southern neighbours to the gratifications of the palate. The peasantry, pre
viously to the rise of wages, which took place about thirty years ago, were content with the
hardest fare. Neither wheaten broad nor animal food formed part of tlieir ordinary diet
Oatmeal, not accounted in tlie south of England an article of food for human beings, was
prepared licre under the forms of cakes or porridge, and constituted the chief means of sub
sistence. To this was occasionally added barley broth, witli greens or kail, the chief pro
duce of their little gardens. The Scots have some dishes which they cherish with national

Book L

SCOTLAND.

415

enthusiasm, and among which the haggis holds the foremost place. This is a mixture of
oatmeal, fet, liver, and onion, boUed up in the bag which composed the stomach of the ani
mal. They have, moreover, hotch-potch, and other soups, the merit of which has been
acknowledged by English palates. Sect. VII. — Local Geography.
The following is a table of the extent, population, and rental in the different counties of

Scotland, derived from agricultural reports and

parliam

entary retums : —

c"""""- te

Acres
under Cul-
tiTOtion.

Rental in
1812.

Houses
in 1821.

Popula tion in
1831.

Towns, with Population in 1881.

1,900 3,129 ],039 645442 161687 48
228
1,253 354
473
467 888
272
4,054 380 72
821J942
120 195
1,280 319
2488 225
2,885 715
263489
1,754 451J

451,000 270,000 325,000 123,000137,000 29,000 92,00023,00054,000
232,000 145,000
121,000
209,000 369,000139,000
244,000 92,000
27,000
168,000
271,000 57,00037,000
46,000
24,000
580,000 72,000
170,000
206,000 10,000
195,000 63,000
101,000


£
301,000207,000 369,000 85,000
286,000 20,000 32,000 39,00063,000
264,000713,000 66,000
378,000
326,000
213,000 172,000 88,00024,000
192,000
616,000 91,00012,000
20,00060,000
512,000
234,000 111,000
242,000 41,000
207,000 28,000
131,000

27,579 16,059 17,842 8,971 5,8032,205 5,3192,145 3,536
12,24819,077 6,668
18,94416,812 6,2.30
17,055 5,894
6,441
47,016 3,302
9,176
1,750
26,718 10,490 13,638 6,5871,081
8,984
4,6545,819

177,651 101,425145,055 48,604 34,048 14,15134,529 14,729 33,211
73,770
219,592 34,231
128,839
139,606 36,145
94,79731,431 9,072
40,599
316,819 23,291 9,354
58,23910,578
142,894 133,443 74,82043,663 6,883
72,621
25,518 36,218

Aberdeen . . . 58,019 Peterhead . . . 6,698
Campbellton 9,472 Inverary  2,133
j Ayr  7,606 Kilmarnock . 18,093
1 Irvine  5,200
Banff  3,711 Cullen  1,593
Dunse  3,469 Lauder  2,063
Rothesay . . . 4,819
Thurso  4,679 Wick  9.850
Clackmannan 4,266 Alloa  6,379
Dumbarton . 3,623
Dumfries... 11,606 Sanquhar .. . 3,268
(Edinburgh. 136,303 Leith  25,a'i3
! Dalkeith... 5,586 Musselburgh 8,961
Elgin  6,130 Forres  3,895
Cupar  6,493 St. Andrew's 5,621
Kirkaldy... 5,034 Dunfermline 17,068
Dundee.... 45,355 Montrose ... 12,055
Forfar  7,949 Arbroath.... 6,660
Haddington . 5,883 Dunbar  4,735
Inverness . . . 15,324
Bervie  1,137
Kinross  2,917
Kirkcudbright! 3,511
j Glasgow . . . 202,426 Hamilton . . . 9,503
) Lanark  7,672
Linlithgow . 4,874
Nairn  3,266
Kirkwall . . . 3,065 Lerwick  2,750
Peebles  2,750
Perth  20,016 Dumblane... 3,228
Paisley  57,466 Greenock  27,571
Port Glasgow 5,192 Renfrew  2,133
Dingwall . . 2,124 Tain  3,078
Cromarty . . 2,901
Kelso  4,939 Jedburgh .... 5,647
Hawick  4,970
Selkirk  2,833
Stirling  8,340 Falkirk  12,743
Dornoch  501
\ Wigton .... 2,337 Stranraer ... 3,321
i Portpatrick 2,239

Avr 

Clackmannan 
Fife 
Kirkcudbright 
Orkney and Shetland
Peebles 
Perth 
Renfrew 
Ross and Cromarty. .
Roxburgh 
Selkirk 
Stirling 
In treating of Scotland in detaU, we shaU divide it into three constituent parts-— 1 The
Lowland counties ; 2. The Highland counties ; 3. The Islands.
Subsect. 1. — The Lowland Counties.
The whole of the south of Scotland, though diversified by elevated ranges of hills is
niS»T f ^%telongmg to the Lowlands. It presents, however, three districts of
nfCt'o Ti''-~i The agricultural counties along the German Ocean and the Frith
of ^ orth, 2. The southern pastoral counties ; 3. The -manufecturmg counties of the west
The agricultural district of southem Scotland consists of the counties of Berwick (-for
merly the Merse), of Haddington, Edinburgh, and Unlithgow (fiilly as famiHar under the
Zt Sdl'^l^ ^''¦r'^ West Lothiani, and of Stirling, wiich' touches westward Sn
the highland borindary. Even of this range, the cultivated part is closelv hemmed in bv
Lammenn(»r, alow,broad, moorish ridge, which fills all the easteninterfor^^d has even
a considerable extent along the shore of the German Ocean ""«"or, ana nas even
tJJI^ cultivated part of Berwickshire consists of the Merse, extending chiefly along the
IwchVfitt f 'v 'S^ ^ ""^^ ?"^- '^^°"\'' \ Lauderdale, or the Valley of the Launder!
Znr m .^7 ^°\ §:'^^^"'ff' ^"^ t™<=hes closely on the heaths of Lammermoor Ber
wick-upon-Tweed, though Its harbour be indUferent, is the chief channel for exportinff the
valuable produce of the Mei^e, to the annual amount, it is said, of 80,000 boZoSrain
The strong wall and deep ditch, whi,ch once defended Berwick, still remah, though nerfected
and large barracks have been erected. Greenlaw, the seat of county business md Lauder
tiie only borough, are but smaU places in the upper district. Dunse, in tKSural St;
416 , DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part ID.
is the most thrivmg. Coldstream, a large village on the Tweed, is noted as the scene of
Monk's retirement. In the western part of Berwickshire is Dryburgh Abbey, a fine old
Gothic edifice, in which rest the remains of Scott.
Haddingtonshire, or East Lothian, runs along the Frith of Forth, between which and the
range of Lammermoor extends a plain about twenty mUes in length and twelve in breadth,
perhaps the largest in Scotland, and all under high cultivation. Edinburgh is chiefly supplied
with wheat from the market at Haddington, which is considered one of the first in the
country. The towns are of secondary importance. Haddington is supported only by the
market and by its court for legal proceedings. Dunbar has a little trade and fishery. Its
castle, the ruins of which extend over a promontory of broken rocks, stretching out into the
sea, forms a truly grand object. The Bass, " that sea rock immense," which rises to the height
of 400 feet, forms a perpendicular precipice, on which build crowds of that rare species of sea-
fowl called Solan goose. Their young, whose down is of some value, are taken by the
perilous exertions of fishermen, suspended by ropes from the top of the clifi: There are stUl
some remains of the fortified prison which was in ancient times reserved for state ofienders,
and in which some of the most eminent covenanters were confined for several years. On
the shore immediately opposite, crowning a perpendicular cliff, appears Tantallon, a strong
castle of the Douglases, now in a ruinous state. Prestonpans, a long dirty vUlage, has some
manufactures of salt and vitriol.
Mid Lothian, or Edinburghshire, is penetrated by a branch of the Lammermoor, and by
the long range of the Pentlands : and, at the distance of a few mUes south from Edinburgh,
a general high level begins, which is favourable only to the production of oats and barley.
There are no manufactures of any consequence, the county being entirely supported by the
metropolis and its appendages.
Edinburgh, the capital of Scotland (fig. 188.), is a city of no very high antiquity. T^e
Castle HUl, indeed, whose rocky and precipitous sides support on the summit a level spr'e

Edinburgh.
of some extent, accessible only by a narrow ridge at one point, must always have been of
importance in a mUitary age. It is named in the Pictish annals under the title of Castrum
Puellarum, which is supposed to have originated from the custom of placing the princesses
and ladies of rank to be educated there, as in a place of security. In the tenth century,
mention is first made of the town of Edin ; but David I., in the twelfth century, founded
the abbey and palace of Holyrood ; and, under the sway of the Stuarts, Edinburgh became
the capital of Scotland. Edinburgh is buUt upon three ridges, mnning from east to west,
and separated from each other by deep ravines. The Old Town, which, till the last half
century, formed the whole of Edinburgh, is situated on the middle ridge, extending nearly
a mile of gradual descent from the Castle to the palace of Holyrood. To secure the protec
tion afforded by this site, the houses were crowded into the very smallest possible space ;
they are raised six or seven stories on the side facing the street, which from the acclivity
of the ground, gives to that facing the ravine a height of ten or even fourteen stories. From
this oentral street, there descend on each side closes or lanes about six feet broad, and
slopmg very abruptly. The Cowgate, a poor street, inhabited by small tradesmen, extends
along the bottom of the ravine, and terminates in a spacious Grass-market, completing old
Edinburgh. Although it contains many excellent houses, it is now occupied only by the infe-
,-ior orders of tradesmen, who occupy spacious apartments at very low rents. The wealthy
citizens have migrated to two towns, built on the opposite sides of the Old Town; one on
the south side, or St. Leonard's HUl, occupied by citizens of the middle class, those con
nected with the university, or such as are fond of retirement ; the other, called properly the
New Town, is on the north ; and comprises the residence of almost all the opulent and
fashionable classes. Being built on a regular plan, and of fine freestone, it forms one of the
most elegant towns in Britain.
The beauty of Edinburgh is enhanced by its situation ; being overlooked on one side by the
eminence of the Castle, and its ancient towers, and on the other by a range of bold hUls, the
highest of which is called Arthur's Seat. The lowest, tlie Calton HUl, round which walks
of easy access have been formed, commands a fine view of Edinburgh, the Frith of Forth,

Book L SCOTLAND 417
and its surrounding shores. The general efffect, rather than that of any particular edifices,
constitutes the merit of Edmburgh. Of antique structures, there is nothing very fine, except
the large hospital for boys, erected from the fiinds bequeathed by George Heriot, the cele-
rated goldsmith. The great cathedral of St. Giles has been admired almost solely for its
spire, and Holyrood Palace, a comparatively modern structure, for its littie ancient chapel.
The former has been now externally rebuUt on a very handsome plan, and the latter has
undergone a thorough repair. Four mUes south, in a very commanding situation, are the
remains of Queen Mary's pleasant country palace of Craigmillar. TheRegister Office, the
new College, and new High School are elegant structures ; but the National Monument, on
the Calton HUl, begun on the model of the Parthenon, is stopped for want of fimds.
The mhabitants in 1801, including Leith, were 82,560; in 1831, they had increased to
162,156. The prmcipal support is derived from the law ; the professors of the university,
and private lecturers, fiz.c. constitute a considerable number; and genteel famUies are
attracted from every part of Scotiand by the opportunities of education and agreeable
society. Edinburgh is a city eminently scientific and literary, and has even become known
under the appellation of the " modern Athens." Connected with these pursuits, an extensive
trade in printing and publishing books is carried on by some enterprising individuals. There
are few manufectures, with the above exception. A great quantity of ale is brewed, which
has attained to a high reputation; and there are in the neighbourhood some considerable
distUleries. Shawls are manufactured equal to any in the empire. There are extensive
banking establishments, both public and private, and considerable fortunes have been made
in that branch of commerce.
The University of Edinburgh, founded in 1581, has risen to great fame, both as an institu
tion for teaching, and a nursery for eminent men. The medical school, in particular, attracts
students from all the three kingdoms. The annual number of students at the University
exceeds 2000. They are lodged in the town, and are not subject to any personal discipline,
except that of attendance on the lectures. Edinburgh has its Royal Society for physical and
literary researches, its Antiquarian and Horticultural Societies, an Institution for the promo
tion of the Fine Arts, and an Academy for Painting.
Leith is the port of Edinburgh, and carries on a considerable import trade for the supply of
that capital and all the interior country, for which purpose she carries on a constant inter
course with London and other ports on the eastem coast. Her intercourse with the Baltic
is very extensive ; and that with the West Indies considerable. The harbour of Leith is
not good ; but large sums have been expended in the construction of an extensive range of
docks for the accommodation of its shipping ; and of a pier stretching far into the sea, so as
to enable vessels to enter at all times of the tide, with a breakwater opposite. The roads,
at the distance of about a mile, afford excellent anchorage. Leith, originally a collection of
dirty lanes, is now everywhere skirted by excellent streets, and ranges of villas, erected by
the opulent inhabitants for their private residence. In 1832 there entered its port 334
vessels, tonnage 46,200.
Besides these great towns. Mid Lothian contains only some large pleasant vUlages. Porto
bello is the principal bathing place of Edinburgh. Musselburgh has a good turf, which has
supplanted Leith sands for the annual Edinburgh races. The valley of the Esk contains
the finest scenery in the Lothians. Roslin chapel, though not on an extensive scale, exhi
bits some exquisite specimens of Gothic sculpture ; and the ruins of the castle bear marks
of great strength. All the south and west of this county consists of wild, hilly, and pastoral
scenery, in the heart of which is a pleasingly retired spot, chosen by Ramsay as the scene
of his Gentle Shepherd.
Linlithgow or West Lothian consists, in its upper part, of a bleak table-land; in its
lower, of an extensive, fertile, and highly cultivated pliiin. It abounds with coal, freestone,
lime, and marl. The Union Canal passes through this county. The towns are small;
but Linlithgow stUl retains somewhat
of the aspect of grandeur suited to a
once royal residence. The palace,
(fig. 189.) situated on a hill behind
the tovim, and overlooking a beautiful
little lake, forms one of the grandest
ancient edifices in the kingdom. There
is also a Gothic church of some beauty.
^^_^^_ Stirling, an extensive and beautifiil
libdithio^Ma^e. county, the Imk between the High
lands and Lowlands, extends for thirty-
five mUes along the Forth. It encloses several of the richest carses in Scotland; but the
greater part is hUly and pastoral, whUe many of the lower grounds consist of fine meadows,
adomed by the beautiful meanderings of the Forth. It even encroaches on the Highlands,
since its westem extremity includes Ben Lomond. This county is traversed by the cele
brated Roman wall between the Forth and Clyde, usually ascribed to Antoninus, though,
Vol. I. 3 C

418

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Stirling Castle.

Part HI,
from the account of Tacitus, it would appear to have been first formed by Agricola. It
seems to have reached from near Dumbarton to Carriden, rather more than thirty-six miles
Stirling is also crossed by the great canal between the Forth and Clyde.
The toviTi of Stirling can boast a situation as noble and commanding as any in Scotland.
The view from its castle, which includes entire the principal range of the Grampians, the
meadows or links through which the Forth winds, and a part of thirteen counties, is gener
ally considered the finest in the country. The main street, like that of Edinburgh, descends
gradually down the ridge of the hUl on which the castie stands {fig. 190.). This fortress,
190 in feudal times, was accounted one of the bulwarks
of the kingdom ; and Stirling was the frequent
seat of royalty, and the scene of many of the
most memorable and tragic events in Scottish his
tory. The town owes its present limited pros
perity chiefly to its carpet manufacture and other
branches of industry. Falkirk is a larger town,
situated in a broad and beautifiil carse, through
which the Forth flows. The three great annual
trysts exhibit an immense show of highland cattle
and sheep brought up for the supply of the south
em districts. Near Falkirk is Carron, accounted
only a vUlage, but the seat of the greatest iron
works in Scotland, in which, during war, 2000 men
were employed. It particularly excels in grates, and in that species of artUlery first cast
here, and hence denominated carronades. Grangemouth, at the connecting point of the
great canal with the Frith of Forth, derives from this situation a considerable trade.
The next district, including the counties of Roxburgh, Selkirk, Peebles, Dumfries, and
part of Lanark, may most properly bear the appellation of pastoral Scotland. It is covered
with long ranges of hills, from one to two thousand feet high, clothed with pasturage to their
summits. This is the region of Scottish poetry. It was amid these scenes that Thomson
and Scott caught that inspiration which has rendered their poetry the delight of their country.
The chief occupation in this tract is sheep-farming.
The towns in this tract are generally small and agreeable. Kelso is one of the most
beautifiil in Scotland, being surrounded by ornamented vUlas and extensive woods. The
abbey is not without grandeur ; and the ruins of the castle of Roxburgh are striking. The
village of Melrose is only distinguished by its abbey (Jig. 191.), founded by David I., in the
twelfth century, and the finest edifice
ever erected in the south of Scotland.
The profiision of the ornaments, and
the beauty of the sculptures, which
remain nearly entire, have rendered
it the study of the painter and the
theme of the poet. Selkirk and Pee
bles, capitals of their respective little
counties, are only pleasjmt villages,
bordering on the great pastoral vales
of Ettrick and Yarrow. Dumfries, a
well-buUt, gay-looking city, is a sort
Melrose Abber. of southern Scottish capital, and it
has been so distinguished from an early period ; but no traces remain eitiier of the castie,
or of the monastery in which Gumming fell by the hand of Bruce. The town carries on
some trade by the Nith, which admits vessels of one hundred and twenty tons, and it has
two great annual markets for the cattie from the west ; but it is chiefly supported by the
gentry who make it their residence. Annan is agreeably situated at the mouth of the river
of that name. A smaU spot, famed in the annals of gallantry, is Gretna Green, close on
the English border ; whither fly many a fond matrimonial pair, to escape the jealousy of
parents and guardians. On the bleak northern boundary is Wanlockhead; and nearly con.
tiguous to it Leadhills, in Lanarkshire. Wanlocldiead yields annually lead to tiie amount
of about 15,000 bars, of nme stones each ; and Leadhills about 18,000.
— Seats. The Duke of Buccleugh has
numerous seats in the district, of which
the chief is Drumlanrig Castle {fig. 192.),
a magnificent edifice, on the Nith, and
surrounded by extensive parks and planta
tions. Among many others round Kelso, is
Flours, the splendid seat of the Roxburgh
femUy. Abbotaford, from the many addi
tions made by its illustrious proprietor, has
Drumlanrit Cn.ile. become a Striking and picturesque object.

Book I. SCOTLAND. 419
The three counties of Ayr, Wigton, and Galloway compose what is called the West of
Scotiand. They are chiefly under pasture, and tho cultivators are mainly occupied in the
rearmg of cattle. The range of mountains which separates Ayr and Galloway is almost
as elevated as any in Scotiand ; but the upland country of the latter is, in general, diversi
fied only with steep rocky emmences of two or three hundred feet high. In Ayr, too, though
the soutiiern district of Carrick be very mountainous, the middle one of Kyle has a level
coast ; whUe Cumiingham, the most northerly, consists almost entirely of a fertUe plain.
Both counties, from the boundary line of mountains, are watered by fine rivers ; in one, the
Ayr, the Doon, and the Irvuie ; in the otiier, the Dee and the Cree. The Ayrshire breed of
horses, called also the Clydesdale, is highly esteemed ; and generally supplies the markets
in the east of Scotland ; but the little active breed called galloways are now become scarce.
The kine of Ayrshire are valued chiefly for the dairy. The Galloway bullock produces
beef of a peculiar exceUence. The northern division of Ayr participates to a certain extent
in the flourishing manufactures of Lanarkshire. It has immense beds of valuable coal, which
not only serve for the supply of the inhabitants, but are exported to Ireland in such quanti
ties as to form the chief trade of this county. To facilitate the transport, the Duke of Port
land has formed a fine harbour at Troon, and has connected it by a raU-road with Kilmar
nock. Ayr, at the point where the rivers Doon and Ayr fall united into the sea, forms a sort of
capital for the gentry of a considerable part of Scotland. It was the principal scene of some
great historical events in the time of Wallace and Bruce ; and was carefully fortified by
Oliver Cromwell ; but the bar at the mouth of the harbour has been unfavourable to its
progress. It exports, however, chiefly to Ireland, a considerable quantity of coal, brought
by railways. The town is irregularly built, but has one handsome principal street. Its
theatre, its academy, and some charitable institutions, are on a greater scale than the size
of the town might lead us to expect. The ports of Troon, Saltcoats, and Ardrossan send
large quantities of coal to Ireland ; whence they receive grain for the supply of the great
interior towns. Saltcoats, which has sprung up within the last century, is also noted for
the manufacture of salt ; and Ardrossan is now a watering-place of increasing resort.
Largs, the celebrated scene of the defeat of Haco, the last Danish invader, attracts many
visiters by the extreme beauty of its situation. In the interior of Ayrshire is Kilmarnock,
its largest and most thriving town. The manufacture of various woollen stuffs, and fabrics
of leather ; and latterly branches of the cotton weaving from Glasgow, place it high in the
list of Scottish manufacturing towns.
Galloway is almost entirely a rural district. Its capitals, Wigton and Kirkcudbright, are
pleasant country towns, and the latter, having a good harbour, has, of late, considerably
increased. Portpatrick, the nearest point of Great Britain to the Irish coast, is the main
channel of communication between Scotland and Ireland ; for which purpose an improved
harbour has lately been constructed, and regular packet-boats are established.
The counties of Lanark and Renfrew constitute the valley of the Clyde, the grand thea
tre of Scottish commerce and industry. Lanarkshire, or Clydesdale, is divided into three
regions, of widely different character; the upper valley is altogether a rude pastoral region.
Below Tinto, the banks of the Clyde assume a softer and gayer character, exhibiting a suc
cession of gardens and orchards. Below Hamilton comes the flat district around Glasgow,
which supplies that city with inexhaustible stores of excellent coal.
Glasgow is the commercial capital of Scotiand, and in population ranks as the third
town in the island. Tradition ascribes its origin and erection into a bishopric to St.
Mungo, in the year 560. Its rapid rise commenced with the union, which opened to it the
trade with America and the West Indies, hitherto monopolised by the English ports. In 1718,
for the first time, a vessel from the Clyde sailed across the Atlantic By the middle of the
century, the merchants of Glasgow imported more than half the entire amount of tobacco
which came into Great Britain ; and to them the French farmers-general chiefly looked for
their supply of this important article.
Then: intercourse also with the West Indies, which had hitherto been very limited, was
now carried on to a vast extent. A still greater source of wealth was opened at home.
Glasgow had, in the course of the century, become a great manufacturing city, employing
her industry on the old staple of linen of the finer descriptions, as cambrics, lawns, gauzes ;
also in the making of stockings and of shoes for exportation ; but its product in these
branches never exceeded 400,000Z. But when cotton was extensively introduced into
Britain, Glasgow devoted herself entirely to this new manufacture. She became the rival
of Manchester ; and, if circumstances did not allow her to obtain so great a share of the
manufacture, she produced some finer fabrics, and was as prompt in availino- herself of
every improved process ; immense fortunes were realized, and an annual value of nearly
4,000,000i. sterling produced. Glasgow was one of the first places which adopted the in
vention of power looms, and she has now 10,000 of these, and 32,000 worked by the hand.
In 1830, the number of persons receiving parochial aid was only 5000, not quite one-fortieth
part of the inhabitants, and the sum expended on the poor was only 17,287?., although

420 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY, P.uit m.
Glasgow is now the largest town in Great Britain, London and Manchester excepted. The
harbour is at the Broomielaw, where there is an extensive quay along the Clyde; but so
great are the obstmctions to its navigation, that Glasgow depends chiefly for imports on
Greenock and Liverpool. In 1832 there entered its port only 79 vessels, of 8154 tons. Glas
gow is a handsome and well-built town. Its original streets of Argyle and Trongate are
broad and spacious ; and several handsome squares have been buUt withm the limits of the
city ; but the fashionable residences are now almost exclusively in the west, where, along a
range of somewhat elevated ground, a number of elegant and spacious streets have been
erected. Gorbals, Calton, Bridgeton, Hutchesontown, Tradeston, and Anderston, are the
principal suburbs, and form the manufacturing part
of the city. The public edifices deserve admiration.
The cathedral (fig. 193.), one of the finest in Scot
land, is a massive structure, with a wooded hUl ad
joining, on the top of which a monument has been
erected to the memory of John Knox. The modem
edifices are also handsome ; the Lunatic Asylum, the
Assembly-rooms, the Infirmary, the Roman Catholic
chapel, the new Exchange Ileading-rooms, &c. de
serve mention. The bridewell is esteemed the most
perfect in Scotland, both in point of constmction and
Glasgow Cathedral. management Glasgow is not a mere commercial
town ; its university, foimded in 1450 by Bishop TumbuU, has been adorned by a long suc
cession of Ulustrious teachers, of whom Simson, Hutcheson, Reid, Smith, MiUar, are suffi
cient to ensure its celebrity. It is at present attended by 1400 students, and its name stands
as high as at any former period. The library contains 30,000 volumes. The Museum be
queathed by the late Dr. Hunter, is rich in anatomical preparations, sheUs, insects, fossils, as
well as in coins and medals. An elegant Grecian edifice has been erected for its reception.
Auxiliary to the University is the Andersonian Institution, founded with the vipw of com
municating to the commercial classes a knowledge of the elements of physitil science ;
for which purpose it bets been found highly efiicacious. The intellectual spirit of the citi
zens is also proved by three libraries, and a botanic garden, aU supported by public sub
scription. Paisley, though in Renfrewshire, may be considered next, in order to connect together the
great seats of manufacture. This town anciently derived its distinction from its ecclesias
tical character. The abbey founded in 1160, was in a great measure demolished at the
period of the Reformation. Several of the windows, however, stiU afford fine specimens of
the omamented Gothic ; and the nave was left so far entire, that it has since served as a place
of worship. Paisley was a small town untU the middle of the last century, when it con
tained little more than 4000 inhabitants. Soon after, its manufactures, which were already
begun, made most rapid advances. Dovni to the year 1783, they consisted chiefly of linen,
fine thread, gauzes, both of linen and sUk, and other delicate and elegant febrics. On the
introduction of cotton, the manufecturers of Paisley, like those of Glasgow, cultivated this
branch almost exclusively, preferring its most elegant species. Muslm, the finest of all the
productions of the loom, became the staple of Paisley. In 1805, there were 20,500 persons
employed in weaving muslin, the entire produce of whose labours was rated at 1,2.50,000?.
Since that time, the population having increased one-half, the productive industiy has not,
probably, advanced in a less proportion. By the improved navigation of the Cart and a canal,
this town has communication with the Clyde, and tiie canal from Glasgow likewise, destined
for Ardrossan, has been carried as far as Paisley. The county gaol £ind bridewell form one
of the finest stmctures of the kind in the kingdom ; the town-hall and several of the churches
are very handsome. The operative weavers of Paisley are equal in intelligence to any class
of the same rank elsewhere ; and this spirit has led to the formation among them of a num
ber of book societies, reading rooms, and subscription libraries.
Greenock is entirely a commercial and maritime station ; it is the only great western port
of Scotland, but by far the larger proportion of the vessels belong to Glasgow. The prin
cipal trade consists in importing the produce of the West Indies, to which is added a very
extensive herring fishery, and a share of tiie cod fisheries of Newfoundland and Cape Breton.
The sum of 90,000/. has been lately expended in the improvement of the harbour, which
can now contain 500 sail, and a handsome custom-house has been built by government In
1832 there entered this port 282 vessels, tonnage 78,131. Greenock is not an elegant town ;
but the hills behind it command a noble view of the river, and of the mountains of Argyle
on the opposite coast.
Port Glasgow, about three miles higher tlian Greenock, and a much smaller port, continues
subservient to Glasgow, receiving such vessels belonging to that city as are too bulky to
ascend the Clyde ; in tiiis capacity, its trade is very considerable. Here was built the first
dock in Scotland, in front of whicli a spacious quay extends along the Clyde, for the accom
modation of those vessels which do not require to enter tiie basin. Renfrew, the capital of

Boos I.

SCOTLAND.

421
The

Botbwell Castle.

tiie county, is an old town, which has not shared in the prosperity of its neighbours.
Jihabitants, however, receive a littie employment from the manufacturers of Glasgow.
The banks of the Clyde above Glasgow, whose vicinity forms only a small part, however
unportant, of the extensive county of Lanark, are stiU to be surveyed. First occurs Both-
well (fig. 194.), one of tiie principal seats of tiie Douglases. Here Edward I. placed the
chief garrison, which was intended to hold Scot
land in subjection. It is now a bold and striking
ruin, rising above the river banks. A littie above
is Bothwell Bridge, so noted as the disastrous
scene of the rout of the covenanting army. Far
ther up is Hamilton, a pleasant handsome town in
a fine country : it is supported by the residence of
the famUy of Hamilton, and by a branch of the
cotton manufacture. Prom HamUton the road
leads through a range of orchards, and the most
beautiful scenery, to Lanark. This town, though
bearmg the name of the county, is only a large
straggling village; but about a mUe distant is
New Lanark, noted for the extensive cotton manu-
fectory established by the late Mr. Dale, and lately conducted by Mr. Owen. Whatever
may be thought of the speculative tenets of the latter gentleman, the attention paid to the
behaviour and comforts of those employed presented, certainly, in many respects, a model
worthy of imitation. But Lanark has a still greater attraction in the fells of the Clyde,
Boniton, Corra, Stonebyres, situated above and below it, at about two miles' distance from
each other. Their height does not exceed eighty or ninety feet ; but the mass of water,
with the grandeur of the rocky walls and hanging woods, render them one of the finest
examples of this description of scenery.
The northem Lowlands, beyond the Forth, form a belt of about twenty mUes in breadth,
reaching the shores of the Moray Frith. 'The coast is generally level and fertile ; but a
great part of the interior is bleak and moorish. This district contains, however, several
cities and seaports of considerable magnitude and importance.
Fife was formerly distinguished as the centre of Scottish industry ; and one of its cities
forms the ecclesiastical capital of Scotland. All the foreign commerce of the country was
carried on in its ports ; and less than two centuries ago its rental amounted to a tenth part
of that of the whole kingdom. Since Scotland has ceased to be agitated by war, Edinburgh
and the opposite side of the Forth have attracted all these advantages ; and the numerous
seaports on the northem coast of the Forth, have dwindled into fishing villages. Fife is, in
general, a level country, yet diversified by a few hills of considerable elevation, as the
Lomond HUls, and Largo Law. A great part of the interior is bleak and unproductive ; and
farming is less advanced than in the Lothians ; the spinning and weaving of flax is carried
on chiefly for domestic use, unless at Dunfermline, where there is a large fabric of fine sheet
ing and diaper. The westem coast abounds in coal, and in fine limestone, which is exported
to a very great extent. The county town is Cupar, a place of moderate size, neat, with
some stir of gaiety. A greater interest attaches to St. Andrew's from its former greatness,
from the remarkable scenes there acted, and
from its splendid edifices, of which frag
ments still remain. It is seated on a bold
coast, facing a wide bay of the German
Ocean; and has two fine, broad, parallel

T .I*'"'" '

¦j^C

streetSj of which one is now almost deserted.

radii . .- "^ i.( -

St. Andrew's Cathedral.

The castle and cathedral (fig. 195.) have
been demolished ; but a high square tower,
and a gable of the chapel of St. Rule, still
attest the elegance of the latter structure.
S^ The university contains a school of theology
and philosophy, but has no classes in law
or medicine. Founded under the auspices
of Buchanan, it can boast many eminent
professors and pupils ; though, from its almost insulated situation, it does not attract so great
a concourse as Edinburgh. Kirkaldy has some foreign trade, and a considerable linen manu
facture. Dunfermline, anciently the most flourishing town in Fife, was a place of impor
tance, and the frequent residence of royalty. Malcolm Canmore founded here an abbey,
which became one of the richest and most spacious in the kingdom ; it has been nearly
demolished, yet its ruins evince its former splendour ; and part of them has been appropri
ated as the parish church. On a contiguous spot, the tomb of Bruce was lately discovered.
Dunfermline is distinguished by an extensive manufactory of damask, diaper, and other fine
linen cambrics, which employ 1500 looms, and yield an estimated annual produce of 120,000/.
Kinross, the capital of tho county of the same name, is. a pleasant littie town, chiefly
Vol. 1. 36

Lochleven Castle.

422 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pabt III.
noted for its situation on the shores of Lochleven. This is a littie lake, of considerable
beauty, having, on an island in its cen
tre, a castie, (fig. 196.), anciently of
great strength, and noted in history,
even before it acquired the romantic
interest derived from the imprisonment
of Mary, and her adventurous escape.
Only a square turreted building and
one of the walls of the chapel now re
main. On another island are the traces
of a very ancient and considerable priory.
Clackmannanshire is a pleasant littie
county, with a considerable extent of
fine carse land, and great quantities of
coal and lime. The town of Clackmannan is distinguished for the beauty of its situation.
Close to it is an ancient tower, built by Robert the Bruce. Alloa, two mUes ferther down,
is a thriving little place, in whose vicinity are mines of coal, of which about 35,000 tons are
annually exported.
Forfar, more usually termed Angus, is of somewhat rough aspect, the western border
being encroached upon by lower branches of the Grampians, while the Sidlaw HiUs, a range
of considerable height, traverse the centre. Between those is a portion of the great valley
of Strathmore, which is here fertile and beautiful, as is also the plain between Sidlaw and
the coast. Its prosperity depends chiefly upon manufactures, commerce, and fishery.
Dundee, the largest town in Forfarshire, ranks fourth in Scotland as to population and
wealth. It was of early importance and strength, deriving its origin from Malcolm Canmore,
and it obtained a fatal celebrity through the sieges, by Edward I. ; by the Marquis of Mon
trose; and by Monk, who gave it up to indiscriminate piUage. Dundee, however, has reco
vered from these disasters, and is become one of the most flourishing commercial towns in
Scotland. Her staple employment consists in the importation of flax and hemp, and work
ing them into coarse linens, sailcloth, &c. There have been exported in one year 100,713
pieces of Osnaburg, 148,377 of sheeting, 81,754 of sailcloth, with bagging, sacking, dowlas,
and other fabrics, of the entire value of about 1,500,000/. ; four-fifths of which were made
in Dundee itself. Dundee has belonging to her, 270 vessels of 33,000 tons ; and in a single
year a tonnage of 212,000 has entered the port. The harbour has been greatly enlarged by
wet docks and other additions ; and a railway opens a communication into the valley of
Strathmore. The population, exceeding 45,000, shows a remarkable increase since 1821
when it was only 30,500. Dundee is agreeably situated on an eminence above the Tay;
the old streets are narrow and steep, but ,new and handsome ones are buUt and building in
.every direction ; and the vicinity is adorned with elegant villas. There is an academy,
distinguished by the scientific attainments of some of its teachers.
Arbroath carries on upon a smaller scale, the same branches as Dundee ; and is adorned
with the ruins of a magnificent abbey. Montrose is prettily situated at the mouth of a
river, bearing, in common with many
197 others, the name of Esk. Its trade
and industry are considerable ; and it
has a safe harbour. A number of the
neighbouring gentry have been at
tracted by its agreeable situation,
which renders it the most fashionable
place in the county. Forfar, the
county town, situated in the valley
of Strathmore, is chiefly supported by
the business of tiie courts; there is
also a manufecture of brown linens.
The village of Glammis is distinguished by the magnificent castie (fig. 197.) in its vicinity.
Kincardine is closely hemmed in by the Grampians on the west : it contains, however, in
its soutliern district, the termination of
198 the great valley of Stratiimore, which is
here called tiie " How of the Meams ;"
and forms a tract equally fertile and de
lightful. The northem part consists
chiefly of mountains and moors of the
most bleak and dreary aspect The coast
is of great extent, and very bold, pre
senting in many parts high precipitous
clifft, covered witli innumerable flocks
of sea-birds; on one of these are the
Dnnnottor Castle. extensive remains of the castie of Dun-

Glammis Castle.

Book L SCOTLAND. 423
nottar, (fig. 198.), considered formerly as impregnable, where the regalia of the kingdom
were at one time deposited. Stonehaven, the county-town, carries on some trade, and has a
manufacture of brown linen. . ,, ,. „
Aberdeen is a large and important northern county. It has a very considerable line ot
coast, both to the east and to tiie north, and extends, witii increasing breadth, far into the
interior. There it forms Mar, or Braemar, a highland district, one of the most eleyated in
the kingdom, some of tiie mountains rismg to above 4000 feet, and containing extensive
forests of ancient pines, with large flocks of wUd deer, in tiie deep glens or valleys. From
the heights of Braemar descend the Dee and the Don, the first of which forms some very
picturesque falls in its early course. Even the Lowland districts are in general bleak and
moorish, adapted only to the cultivation of inferior species of grain, and the rearing of cattie.
The old staple fabric of knitting worsted stockings has been greatly injured by the cheap
ness with which these are now produced elsewhere by the aid of machinery ; but other
wooUen branches, together with those of linen and cotton, the latter to a considerable
extent, have been introduced. The beautifiil rock crystals called cairngorms, and also the
topaz and the beryl, are found in the mountains of Braemar ; and tiie fine granite which
abounds near Aberdeen, yields 12,000 tons to be annually shipped to London and elsewhere.
The fisheries also constitute a leading occupation. That of salmon in the Don and Dee, and
the whale-fishery, are extensive branches ; and from the German Ocean, haddocks, cod, ling,
turbot, and shell-fish, are taken in great quantities.
Aberdeen, " the Queen of the North," and the largest city beyond the Forth, is situated
between the Dee and the Don. Old Aberdeen is situated near the Don, whose entrance is
obstructed by a natural bar, which renders this harbour inadequate for the town. The mass
of population has settled on the banks of the Dee, the narrow entrance of which opens into
a basin, forming an excellent harbour. It had, however, a bar at its mouth, liable to con
tinual increase by the sand blown from the beach which extends along the coast ; a mole of
1200 feet in length has been carried out into the sea, and a channel has been formed, by
which vessels of 700 tons may enter. New Aberdeen is a handsome city, especially the
principal street, composed of a long range of new and good houses, built of its fino granite.
Its commerce, manufectures, and fishery are those of the county, all these branches center- ¦
ing in Aberdeen. This city is now the principal ship-buUding port in Scotland, possessing,
in 1832, 355 ships of 41,671 tons burden. The old town has rather the aspect of a village,
if we except the detached houses of the professors of the university, and a range of villas,
the opulent tenants of which have been attracted by the agreeable situation. It is adomed
by the fine old edifice of King's College, from which rises a square tower, with a light and ele
gant crown. This seminary was founded in 1494 ; the salaries are moderate, but the bur
saries for poor schools are very extensive. Attached to it is a library of considerable value.
Marischal College, founded by the Earl Marischal, nearly a century later, is situated in the
heart of New Aberdeen. It is not so well endowed as King's College ; but has an excellent
cabinet of natural philosophy, and a well-fiimished observatory.
Peterhead, an improving place, much frequented for sea-bathing and for a mineral water
in its vicinity, has two natural harbours. It sends thirteen ships to the whale fishery, and
carries on that of herrings with considerable spirit. To the south is a range of precipitous
cliffs, called the Bullers of Buchan, against which the waves dash with perpetual fiiry.
Three counties, Banff, Moray or Elgin, and Nairn, occupy the southern shore of the Moray
Frith. The interior districts border on the loftiest highlands ; but the coast, only diversified'
by gentle hills, constitutes the ancient province of Moray, which the early Scottish writers
describe with admiration as the most fruitful part of Scotland, and as enjoying fifteen days
more of summer than any other district Its rivers afford ample fisheries of salmon, which
is exported to the computed annual value of 25,000/. The herring fishery also is prose
cuted with considerable success.
Elgin is an ancient town, situated on the Lossie, and tias a tolerable harbour ; but its chief
distinction rests on its cathedral, which, even in min, may dispute with Melrose the glory
of being the finest Gothic edifice in Scotland ; in 1568 the privy council ordered its leaden
roof to be taken off for the payment of the army, and from that time it gradually decayed.
In a neighbouring valley are also the remains of the fine priory of Pluscardine. Banff is a
somewhat larger and more thriving place, situated at the mouth of the Deveron ; carrying
on some linen manufactures, and a considerable herring fishery. Nairn is a neat little
county town, possessing some industry, and frequented for sea-bathing.
SiiBSEOT. 2. — TTie Highland Counties. ¦
The Highlands of Scotland comprise somewhat more than half the surface of the king
dom. They include the whole region north of the Forth and Clyde, except the belt on the
eastern coast, between the friths of Forth and Moray, which has just been described. This
region consists altogether of continuous ranges of lofty mountains, which on the borders,

*^ DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part IH.
leave between them some of the fine and broad vaUeys, caUed straths, but m the mterior
^^ 'oedeep and often rocky intervals called glens. They are peopled by a race totally
distinct from the Lowlanders. These mountaineers wear a costume, already described, quite
peculiar to themselves ; they speak a Celtic dialect, deep, strong, and guttural, bearing no
resemblance to the Teutonic speech of the Lowlands and of England. They have Iver
mamtamed that valour, which, under Galgacus, set bounds to the career of Roman conquest,
and preserved their mountains untouched by the invader ; and they have since been con
verted from formidable foes into gallant defenders of the rest of the empire. Down to the
year 1745, they acted in clans, led by hereditary chiefs, to whom they were entirely devoted,
and who exercised over them a paternal but absolute sway. The spirit of clanship led them
to attach themselves strongly to the hereditary right of the Stuarts, of which, under Mont
rose, they gave powerfiil proofs, which had nearly tumed the tide of war in its favour.
Afterwards, in 1745, they suddenly invaded England ; and, in the absence of the army in
Flanders, struck alarm into the d3rnasty of Hanover. The issue of that contest broke
entirely the independence of the highland chiefs. A number were either brought to the
scaffold, or sent into exile ; mUitary roads were made, and forts erected in the heart of their
territory ; they were deprived of their feudal privUeges ; even the national dress was pro
hibited, on account of the recollections it w£is calculated to excite. After the first alarms,
however, had subsided, the British government adopted the plan of concUiation. Pitt con
ceived the idea of forming the highlanders into national regiments, allowing even a lunited
use of the appropriate dress ; and they have since ranked with the bravest and most distin
guished troops in the British army. Out of the forfeited estates and other fimds voted by
government, vast sums have been expended on the Caledonian Canal, roads, bridges, and
other great works for the improvement of this rude territory. The lairds, deprived of their
absolute power, and attracted by the gaieties and luxuries of cities, soon accustomed them
selves to view their estates only as " material capitals, to be worked according to the great
principles of political economy." The multitude of little spots, divided among vassals, in
whose numbers they placed their strength, were throvjm into large sheep-ferms ; and the
tenants were driven out to seek a home wherever they could find it. Some migrated to the
'lowland cities, and a great proportion went to America ; yet, in consequence of the advance
of commerce and fisheries, even the highland counties augmented their population during
this period, though not in the same proportion as the Lowlands. Between 1801 and 1821,
it increased from 434,000 to 512,000. There is one great manufecture, generally difl^ised
throughout this region, which tends rather to disturb the peace than to improve the condition
of the community ; this is whiskey, which the people prepare in small stUls from their bere,
or coarse barley, and give it a flavour superior to any other spirit made in England or Scot
land. The Highlands are composed of two great districts, — the west and the north. The formei
comprehends the shires of Dumbarton, Argyle, Bute, and part of Perth ; the latter embraces
the counties of Inverness, Ross, Sutherland, &c. The Hebrides, or Westem Isles, belong
to the counties of Bute, Argyle, Ross, and Inverness.
Perth is a noble and extensive county, formmg the link, as it were, between the Lowlands
and Highlands ; in its different parts uniting the beauty and fertUity of the one with the
grandeur of the other. The former qualities are conspicuous in the carse of Gowrie ; &
broad sloping plain, on the north bank of the Tay, profiisely covered with orchards and cul
tivated fields. The upper part of Strathearn, also, between Perth and Crieff, varied with
gentle hills, cultivated valleys, and the windings of two great rivers, may almost be called
the garden of Scotland. As we proceed to the north and west, tiie Grampians gradually
swell, and at length are found occupying the whole interior of the county, m a line from
north-east to south-west, and comprehendmg the mighty summits of Ben Lawers, Benmore,
Beneloe, SchehaUion, Ben Voiriich, Benledi, Benvenue ; aU fi-om 3000 to upwards of 4000
feet high Within tiieir recesses they enclose the three large lochs, Tay, Eam, and Katrme.
These lakes varied with woods and verdure, exhibit in many parts scenes of great grandeur
and beauty In the lowlands of Perth, agriculture is carried to great perfection; tiie high
land tracts, on the contrary, are in general fit only for pastura^. They are, however,
covered with the remains of ancient forests, to which tiie great proprietors have been
makinff very extensive additions. The towns of Pertiishire participate m tiie different
national manufactures: the bleachfields and prmtfields are numerous; but tins can m no
view be eenerally regarded as a manufecturing county. • ... i • j
PpTth is weU buUt and, as to situation, one of the most beautifiil cities m the kmgdom.
ThVv iew of it from the north, in particular, in tiie heart of a finely wooded plam, with tiie
Tav winding round it, and the Hill of Moncrieff rising above, is almost witiiout a rival in
the kingdom. Perth might, for a long time, be considered tiie capital of Scotiand. It was
he frenuent residence of the kings. Parliaments and General Assemblies met tiiere oftener
ban in any other place; and, in tiie civU contests, tiie possession of Pertii was considered
Jrvital importance by the contendmg parties. At present it has declined to a rank decidedly

Book I. SCOTLAND. 425
provincial ; and its commerce, once considerable, has been almost wholly transferred to
Dundee. It has linen and other manufectures, which produce an annual value of about
200,000/. ; whUe its advantageous site, and the exceUent education afforded by the grammar
school and academy, attract a number of the neighbourmg gentry, and render it gay and
feshionable. The other towns of Perthshire are small, but distinguished for the grand and picturesque
scenery amid which they are situated. Dunkeld, in this respect, is generally considered the
pride of Scotiand ; the finely wooded and rocky hiUs through which the Tay meanders, with
the valleys and glens opening on every side, produce
a diversity of landscape scarcely equalled elsewhere.
The late Duke of Athol, whose spacious domains
cover this part of Perthshire, was most active in
respect to plantations, since those of Dunkeld alone
cover 11,000 acres ; and the whole number of trees
planted by the duke amount to 30,000,000. A route
of twenty miles, directly north, passing opposite to
the fine mountain vUlage of Logierait, and through
the bold pass of Killikrankie, leads to Blair, also part
of the Athol territory, and one of the most picturesque
spots in Scotland. Its striking features consist in the
lofty mountain Bengloe, the glens of the Tilt and the
Garry, and the picturesque rocky falls of the Bruar
(fig. 199.). Westward is Loch Rannoch, surrounded
by extensive forests of fir, and overhung by Sche
hallien, on whose lofty summit Dr. Maskelyne per
formed some of his operations for the measurement
of the earth. Out of it flows the Tumel, a rapid
Fall of Bruar. stream, which forms some romantic cascades. From
the Tumel, a mUitary road leads to Loch Tay, the largest of the lakes, and surrounded by
the loftiest mountains of Perthshire. Ben Lawers, with a chain of attendant mountains.
overhangs it from the north ; while Benmore shuts it in on the west ; and perhaps there is
no lake in Britain enclosed by so grand a circuit. The sides of the mountains are somewhat
naked ; but the grounds of Taymouth, at the head of the loch, form a rich foreground.
Farther south is the vale of Strathearn, at one end of which, Crieff, a thriving little town,
looks up on the windings of the river, and the vast mountains from amid which it issues.
Loch Earn, a small lake, is bounded on the south by grand ranges of very lofty moun
tains. The upper valleys of the Forth and the Teith have some very remarkable scenery. On
the Allan, is Dumblane ; a pleasantly situated little town, with the remains of a fine
cathedral ; Callender, overhung by Benledi, is chiefly frequented as the key of Loch Katrine,
situated about ten miles to the westward, and approached by a narrow road along the small
lakes of Venachoir and Achray. The scenes of beauty and grandeur which adorn the
eastem extremity of this lake, the mighty clifis of Benvenue, the wild wooded glen of the
Trosachs, and the beautifiil little island in the centre of the scene, have obtained celebrity
from the muse of Scott. Farther south, the Forth, rising from Ben Lomond, rolls through
a pastoral mountain valley, once the seat of the power and the scene of the adventures of
the outlaw Macgregor. It forms several little lakes, of which Loch Ard is the largest and
most beautiful.
The county of Invemess is purely highland, presenting range after range of mountains,
of which Ben Nevis, Cairngorm, and several others, are the most elevated in the United
Kingdom. The intervals between them are filled eitiier by long lakes, or by narrow glens,
the level space of which does not usually exceed a mile in breadth. The principal one,
called the Great Caledonian Glen, reaches from Inverness in an oblique direction across the
kingdom, filled with an almost unbroken chain of lakes, — Loch Ness, Loch Oich, Loch
Lochy, and Loch Linnhe ; which last opens by the Sound of Mull into the westem sea ; a
continuity which facilitated the formation of the Caledonian Canal. In the east, the district
along the upper course of the Spey, bearing the name of Strathspey, comprises an unusual
extent of level land. Only about a fortieth part of the county is capable of cultivation ; but
that fortieth, composed of haugh or alluvial land, on the rivers, or the lakes, is extremely
fertile. The greatest branch of industry consists in the rearing of black cattle, sheep, and
goats. Game of all kinds abounds, and there are still considerable remains of the great
Caledonian forest, composed chiefly of fir.
Invemess, the gay capital of the Highlands, is of a very dUTerent character from that of
the wild region over which it holds a sort of dominion. Seated on a bay, at the head of the
Moray Frith, it partakes in a great measure of the mild and fertUe character of its shores,
and stands at some little distance from the awful ranges of mountains by which it is enclosed.
Vol. L 36* 3D

426

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

PahtHI.

200

Fall of Fyers.

After suffering a considerable decline from its ancient importance, it has, within the last
thirty years, nearly tripled its extent and population. In general, a considerable polish
of manners is observable ; and it has been remarked that the English language is spoken
in greater purity than in any other part of Scotland; a circumstance which has been
ascribed to the residence of English officers after the battle of CuUoden. Inverness has a
town house, infirmary, assembly-rooms, and theatre. Manufectures of hemp, flax, and tartan
have been established. The views, both of sea and land, in its vicinity, are almost un
rivalled. Inverness-shire has scarcely another place which can make much pretension to the name
even of a village. Ben Nevis, usuaUy considered
the loftiest mountain in Scotiand and in the
United Kingdom, is 4370 feet above the level of
the sea ; the view from the summit is very exten
sive, embracing a great portion of the Hebrides.
To the east of Loch Ness, the rivulet of Fyers or
Foyers (fig. 200.), forms the greatest waterfeU in
Scotland; the lower or principal faU descends
from a height of 212 feet ; but the stream is not
very copious.
Argyle, commonly called the Westem High
lands, is a wide and irregular territory, stretch
ing into long promontories, and indented by deep
arms of the sea, so as to form a coast of very
great extent In general the shore is bordered
by high hUls, and the interior covered with ranges
of rugged mountains. Its industry is almost en
tirely pastoral ; herds of black cattle and vast
flocks of sheep are fed on the sides of its moun
tains. The herring of the west coast, and especially of Loch Fyne, enjoys a high reputa
tion. The county is chiefly tenanted by Campbells, who were wont to rally round the Mac-
callummore, a designation of their chief the Duke of Argyle, with all the ardour of kindred
and national attachment. Dumbarton is mostly a part of the same district ;
yet it has a lowland strip extending along the north
ern banks of the Clyde. In the westem part are the
Great Canal, joining the Clyde at Dunglass; and
the wall of Antoninus, called by the Scottish vulgar
" Graham's dike." The approach to Dumbarton af
fords one of the most striking prospects in Scotland ;
and its castle (Jig. 201.), tiie ancient and mighty
hold of the Britons, towering on the summit of a
perpendicular rock, stUl maintains its importance as
a fortress. Dumbarton has a large manufactory of
crown glass, which is exported to foreign parts ; and
on the banks of the Leven there are extensive printfields.
Loch Lomond (fig. 202.) is celebrated for the expanse of its waters, and the many beautifiil
islands with which is studded. From its foot,
202 y'^ bordered by cultivated hUls and omamented
villas, to its mountain head, there is a con
tinued transition from beauty to grandeur,
and at the central point of Luss they are
remarkably united. The numerous and
beautiful islands, and the long wooded pro
montories stretching into the water, with
the majestic form of Ben Lomond in the
background, produce a combination of land
scape which perhaps no other spot in Britain
can equal.
On turning the head of Loch Long at
Arrochar, the view opens on the romantic valley of Glencoe, enclosed between two ranges
of mountains rising almost perpendicularly to an amazing height, and leaving between them
only a narrow vale, through which a rivulet fiows. The vtile of Glenfinglas is then passed,
whose high sloping sides covered with innumerable flocks inspire pleasing pastoral images,
and at the termination of which appears the grand estuary of Loch Fyne.
Inverary, the capital of the Western Highlands, is situated near the head of Loch Fyne.

201

Dumbarton Castle.

Loch Lomond.

Book L

SCOTLAND.

427

203

Its environs are not mountainous; but its noble castle (^fig. 203.), surrounded by wood
ed hills and wide lawns, with the lofty
mountains which shut in the distant view,
render it a magnificent and delightfiil spot
The town is small and neat, without any
employment, except the herrmg fishery.
About ten miles below Inverary, the Crinan
Canal jouis Loch Fyne to the western sea,
and has made LochgUphead a place of some
consequence. The interior and the western coast of
Argyleshire are in many respects interest
ing. Parallel to Loch Fyne, at the distance of
Inverary Casiie. (.gjj q,. twelve mUes, is the long line of Loch
Awe ; an interior lake, over whose head towers Ben Cruachan, the loftiest summit in Argyle.
The castle of KUchurn, rising on one of the islands, produces a highly picturesque effect
Beyond tliis, Loch Etive, a narrow arm of the sea, stretches far into the interior. Climbing
the high mountains at the head of Loch Etive, we come to Glencoe, which in terrific
grandeur surpasses perhaps every other spot in Gr^at Britain. This effect is produced by
its bold and broken mountain forms, its spiry rocks, and black precipices ; at the bottom of
which, in a deep chasm or ravine, flows the rivulet of Coe. This stream is the Cona of
Ossian, believed the favourite haunt of that celebrated Caledonian bard. The vale has also
a gloomy recoUection attached to it, from the massacre of 1691. Emerging from this scene,
the traveller is cheered with the gay aspect of Loch Leven, which presents much pleasing
highland scenery, whUe the hUls round the ferry of Balachulish aflbrd valuable quarries of
slate. From Balachulish, along the broad expanse of the Linnhe Loch with which the great
Caledonian chain terminates, extends Appin, a beautifiil district, diversified with fine woods,
rich pasturage, and more culture than is usual in Argyleshire. On the opposite side of the
Linnhe Loch is a peninsular district called Ardnamurchan, separated only by a narrow
sound from the Island of Mull. The district of Strontian contains lead-mines of some value.
Crossing the Linnhe, and passing Lismore, a long, level, and fertile island, we find Lome,
separated by Loch Creran from Appin, to which it is even superior in beauty and fertility.
Near the opening of Loch Etive into the sea, tradition places Beregonium, the reported
capital of the Picts in the third century ; and near it is found Dunstaffnage (fig. 204.), once

204

the scene of Scottish regal pomp,
now aruin, crowning a cliff along
the western sea. The long pen
insula of Cantyre stretches far
out into the sea, being visible
from the Irish coast of Antrim.
The Macdonalds, lords of the
Isles, long held sway over it,
tUl they were driven out by the
earls of Argyle. Campbelltown,
Dunstaffnage CasUe. ^^^^ j^^ southern extremity, is
a thriving port, now the largest on this coast, and serving in particular as a general ren
dezvous for the herring fishery.
The three extreme counties, Ross, Cromarty, and Sutherland, form the most remote and
northerly portion of the Highlands, and, Caithness excepted, of aU the mainland. The south
eastern border of the friths of Moray, Cromarty, and Domoch contauis some fine land, and
several thriving towns ; the rest is a continued range of rock, mountain, heath, forest, and
loch, simUar to Invemess, but stUl wilder. The lochs which indent the western coast are
.large and numerous, particularly Loch Carron, Loch Terridon, and Loch Broom ; and they
have generaUy grand mountain boundaries. Cape Wrath, the north-western pouit of Scot
land, is a lofty pyramidal rock, standing in front of a vast range of broken cliffs, and breasting
2Qg the whole wide expanse of the ocean. On
the northern coast is Loch Eribol, a wide
kilet, bordered by limestone rocks, per
forated by caves of great extent and re
markable form. Sutherland presents numer
ous Duns, or ancient forts of peculiar struc
ture, of which the most remarkable is Dun
Domadilla (fig. 205.), situated on the lofty
sides of Ben Hope, not far from Loch
Eribol.
Dun DomadiUa. Cromarty, the capital of the littie county
«f the same name, stands at the foot of its

428 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paet m
own frith ; whUe Dingwall, the county town of Ross, is situated at the head. Cromarty is a
considerable fishing station. On the south side of the Domoch Frith is Tain, and on the
north is Dornoch, an ancient town, of whose cathedral some part stUl remains.
Caithness forms the north-eastern angle of Scotland : it is scarcely a highland county, only
the Paps of Caithness rising to the character of mountains. Its surface is moist, bleak, and
bare, filled with little lakes, and covered with extensive moors. The chief branch of industry
is the herring fishery. Kelp is also made from the sea-weed throsvn on its shores. Thurso,
the county town, is an improving place, in the midst of a cultivated country. Its bay affords
a safe roadstead, peculiarly valuable for ships, which, in rounding the north of Scotland,
must pass through the Pentland Frith, rendered dangerous by its violent and rapid currents.
Wick, the grand rendezvous of the herring fishery, owes to this advantage a very rapid
increase. The north-eastern point of Caithness and of Scotland bears the femUiar appellation
of John o'Groat's house ; though there is not the vestige of a house to correspond to this
title, which is founded on a mere traditionary story.
Subsect. 3. — Scottish Islands.
The islands appendent on Scotland, form one of its most conspicuous features. Though
neither rich nor fertUe in proportion to their extent, they exhibit a great variety of bold and
striking scenery, and are peopled by a race whose habits of life and forms of society are
peculiar to themselves. They may be divided into the islands at the mouth of the Clyde ;
the Hebrides, or Western Islands; and the Northem Islands, or those of Orkney and
Shetland. The islands of the Clyde are chiefly Bute and Arran, with the smaller ones of the Cum
brays and Ailsa. Bute is of beautiful aspect, with a climate accounted the mUdest in Scot
land, and for that reason resorted to by invalids ; a considerable part of the surface is arable
and well cultivated. Rothsay is a pretty town, much frequented for sea-bathing, and en
riched by a considerable herring fishery. Arran presents much bold alpine scenery, the
central mountain of Goatfield rising to nearly the height of 3000 feet, whUe the glen of
Sano.x at its base has the highest character of savage and romantic grandeur. Lamlash, the
principal toviTi, possesses an excellent harbour. Ailsa, off the Ayrshire coast, is a rock 900
feet high, with lofty basaltic cliffs, formed into columns several hundred feet in height.
The Hebrides, or Westem Islands, stretch far into the Atlantic. Their general aspect is
highland, with rude rocks and mountains, deep and dark vaUeys, large expanses of peat-moss,
hill pastures, and scanty harvests ; the mountains ascend rather in single peaks than in long
ranges ; and the rocky cliffs which face the sea assume, in many places, columnar forms of
peculiar grandeur. The climate is moist ; yet mUder than on the mainland. The earliest
inhabitants seem to have been Celtic. About the eleventh century, they were conquered,
together with Man, by Harold Harfeiger, and were governed for several centuries by a Nor
wegian dynasty, after which they owned the nominal sovereignty of the Scottish kings, but
fell really under the sway of the Macdonalds, lords of the Isles. Their territory including a
great part of the west coast of Scotland, formed a considerable power, tiU it feU partiy under
the dominion of the Scottish crown, and was partiy divided among a number of petty chiefe,
whose feuds deform the subsequent pages of Hebridean history. At present these islands
may be considered as retaining more of highland habits and feelings, than any part of the
mainland. The Hebrides may be divided into two main ranges. One of them consists of the large
islands of Islay, Jura, Mull, and Skye, with several minor attendants, which are nearly
contiguous to the west coast, and separated from it only by narrow straits and sounds ; the
other is composed of North and South Uist, Harris, Lewis, which are considerably out at
sea, and are classed, with no very strict propriety, undei the general appellation of Long
Island. Islay contains a good deal of level and fertUe territory, which induced the lords of tiie
Isles to make it their residence ; good crops of barley, oats, and even wheat, are raised ; and
the black cattle, which form the main export, are held in great estimation. Jura is separated
from Islay only by a sound, the opposite sides of which correspond so exactiy as to suggest
the idea of their having been disjoined by some violent shock ; it is one continued tract of
brown and rocky mountain pasture ; all the inhabitants, if collected, would scarcely people
a large village. Scarba consists of a single conical mountain broken into rocky precipices,
and forming a striking object Between Jura and Scarba is the perUous strait of Corryvre-
kan, a whirlpool noted for shipwreck. Colonsay and Oronsay form one long island, the
channel between them being passable at low water. The fomier has a verdant appearance ;
at Oronsay are the remains of a priory, ranking as the finest in the Highlands next to that
of lona.
Mull is a large, rough, stormy island, with winding and deeply indented shores, separated
by a long narrow sound from the Argyleshire coast The shores are almost everywhere
rocky and precipitous ; tho two once mighty holds of Duort and Arcs crown rocky cliffs on its
eastern shore. The great keep of the former, with its walls nine feet thick, encloses an area

Book I.

SCOTLAND.

42&

of tiiirty-six feet by twelve. Black cattie, black-faced sheep, celebrated for their delicate mut
ton, kelp, and herrings, axe exported. . , ,, ,.«. ,_¦ , 1.
Staffa, a large rock, about a mile and a half round, and encircled by cliffs, which nowhere
exceed in height 144 feet, contams the
Cave of Fingal (fig. 206.) Almost all
the rocks of the island are basaltic and
columnar; but here they are arranged
so as to produce the most singular and
magnificent effect. An opening, sixty-
six feet high and forty-two wide, formed
by perpendicular walls terminated by an
arch at the top, admits into a natural
hall, more than two hundred feet long,
and bounded on each side by basaltic
columns rising in regular symmetrical
succession. "Two other caves, the Cor-
Fingai'B Cave. morants' Cave and the Boat's Cave,
present similar scenes. Of the columnar rocks, which extend over a great part of the
island, msmy are bent and twisted in a remarkable manner.
lona (fig. 207), a small island near Staffa, excites the deepest interest by the venerable
_ _.-:;;..._ ruins which attest, in this secluded

comer, the early existence of re
ligion and learning, at a time when
the rest of the kingdom was buried
in barbarism. St. Columba, about
the middle of the sixth century,
founded here a monastery, and
made it a centre whence he en
deavoured to diffiise the light of
Christianity. This religious estab
lishment was enriched and extend
ed, and a nunnery was afterwards
instituted under the same auspices.
The Culdees, or followers of Co
lumba, appear to have rendered very great services to Britain, and even to the whole North.
Teachers were often dravvm from among them for seminaries in England ; and they under
took missionary expeditions to Norway, and even to Russia. They taught, in a great
measure, the principles of primitive Christianity, rejecting both the vows of celibacy, and
the ceremonies of the Romish church. lona, however, at length became Roman catholic,
and continued to flourish till the Reformation, when its monks were dispersed, and its edi
fices demolished. The cemetery also remains, in which, according to tradition, were buried
forty-eight kings of Scotland, eight of Norway, four of Ireland, and one of France. Al
lowing the scepticism of Dr. Macculloch as to this magnificent list, it appears confirmed,
from the ornaments on the tombs, that many of the West-Insular chiefs chose this as a
sacred spot, where their ashes might repose. The ruins are extensive. The cathedral is
164 feet long and 34 broad ; and near it is a chapel sixty feet long. The style of architecture
is early and rude ; and the sculptures, though pretty numerous, are, with a few exceptions,
grotesque in design and execution.
Skye, the most northerly of this inner chain, is the largest of the group. It is forty-
five mUes long ; but its shores are so winding, and so penetrated by lochs, that it may be
said to form a cluster of peninsulas. Ranges of rocRy mountains, many of them 3000 feet
high, cover almost the entire surfece, and the high rocks with which it is everywhere
bordered, display objects of striking and romantic grandeur. In Strathaird, near the
southern point, is the celebrated spar cave ; it is about 250 feet from the entrance to the
extremity ; but a great part of the passage is gloomy and rocky, and only in its most inte
rior part do the stalactites begin to branch out into that variety of intricate and brilliant
omaments which make the cave so beautifiil. The great body of the island is a hilly moor
land, barren, brown, and rugged ; the peaks being generally from 500 to 1000 feet high ;
but some points are level and arable. The exportation of cattle, with that of a considerable
quantity of kelp, forms the chief trade of the island ; large quantities of herrings are also
taken, and cured by fishermen, who carry on this branch of commerce on a small scale. The
property of Skye is almost shared between the femUy of Lord Macdonald who claims descent
from the ancient lords of the Isles, and that of Macleod. Duntulm, the almost ruined seat of
the Macdonalds, and the Macleods' castle of Dunvegan, a magnificent pUe, founded in the
thirteenth century, are on the north-west coast. On the east is Rasay, masked by long
lofty cliffs of fine sandstone, which have on their tops green and cultivated farms. To the
south-west is Rum, a wild and rugged mass of mountains, surrounded by shores scarcely

430

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Pakt HI.

accessible, and involved in almost perpetual tempest. On the east of Rum is Egg or Eigg,
which contains several large caves.
Long Island is the general name given to the exterior chain of the Hebrides, which con
sists of five large and many smaller islands ; so closely contiguous that the whole may be
considered as one island. It is a strange mixture of bogs, rocks, lochs, and sands ; its pas
tures are chiefly occupied with cattle destined for the markets of the mainland ; and large
quantities of kelp are produced, which yield considerable profit.
Lewis is the largest of all the Hebrides, being upwards of eighty mUes from north - east
to south-west, and, at some points, more than twenty in bresidth. Of its inhabitants, those
occupying its most northern point, called the Butt of Lewis, appear to be Danish, the rem
nant of that colony who once ruled the island. The people are industrious in cultivating
their rude soil, and in the fisheries which have rendered Stomoway, the capital of Lewis, a
place of some consideration. Harris, a peninsula on the southem point of Lewis, consists
of a mass of rugged rocks, which project in long promontories into the sea, giving to the
shore a very picturesque aspect. The arable patches are small, and in such inaccessible
sites that they can be cultivated only by the spade. Sheep are more numerous than black
cattle, being better adapted to this rugged surface. North and South Uist, with Benbecula,
exhibit the general aspect of Long Island, of whose length they compose about eighty
miles. The cattle are small, and not exported in very large quantities. The most flourish
ing branch of industry is kelp, of which they yield annually about 2500 tons. Barra is
distinguished for the industry of its fishermen, who carry their cargoes through the Crinan
canal to the Greenock market. About half a mile from the southem shore is ChisamU, the
castle of the Macleans, now partly in ruin, but of such extent eis to have been capable of
containing 500 men.
St. Kilda is the remotest point of the Hebrides ; small and solitary, far out in the Atlantic,
whose waves dash continually against its perpendicular cliffs. It is about three mUes long,
girt on all sides by a wall of rook, which at one point is about 1300 feet high ; Conoxhan,
the loftiest hUl on the island, being there
cut down perpendicularly from the summit
to the base. " Dizzy heights, from which
the eye looks down over jutting crags ; a
boiling sea below, without a boundary;
dark cliSs beaten by a foaming surge, and
lost in the gloom of involving clouds ; the
mixed contest of rocks, ocean, and sky,"
are the scenes -which characterise St
Kilda. On the top of the rocks is a green
and somewhat fertUe surfece, on which are
fed sheep of the Norwegian breed, with
short taUs and coarse wool, but whose mut
ton is delicious ; there are a few cows, and
a little very fine bear is grown. But the
favourite food of the natives is drawn from
the fece of the perpendicular clifis, which
in fearfiU and dizzy height overhang their
shores. Suspended by a rope, they step
from point to point, and talte the eggs or
young of the solan goose, puffin, cormorant,
petrel, and others of the numerous species
which breed on their sides.
The Orkneys form a group of about
thirty in number; but Pomona or Main
land contains nearly as much ground as all
the rest put together. Notiiing can be
more irregular than their form; tiie deep
sounds by which they are penetrated, and the narrow straits which separate tiiem from each
other, cause a complete intermixture of land and soa. These straits are rendered dangerous
by numerous currents and eddies from the two oceans which rush in from opposite sides.

Pig. 209. Map of the Orlcney Islands.

,^^ Stromness %I*iv,/p^
^ N. Ronaldaayl-'th. ^ ^'ns^
 fl^^,C=^-i= Holms of Irei^^^STailiiess
HTSrfi.liVj^»ipone.» #^^&S,„,
^r'?."^'' ^=e!&''TA, J^hll"' ^iA. ^ta Papa StroMi
Locli Stents, iS T fm . {ry= h "» "4
Loch Ha*.y^»,3" ^^^HW,!/ '*«
¦-'. irw^ 1 ..^^^fy o^^/T~=CopinBha
Hoy Hill^igj^Ek-" ®*^ ^^— &<*/.,
Koi.:iy M v,/T^^-ralf I.&S^ Rowncss
° 'Ser?sJ:'.^^;,S*SpT)uiTay I.
^¦''¦"Jc/J^^^^.^^^^iitli Roimldshay

°A^AnBkeny

X^^ioicansby Hd.

Ntfurcnce to Ote Map of the Orkney Islands.

NORTH RON-
ALIISIIAY.
1. TlulllLMll. SAND.W.
1. TriftHncaa
2. Siivil
3. Mfiykirk
4. CrtiB.'t and Burnoss
S. Stove.

WESTRAY.
1. Newark
2. Bpuniifiay
3. Pyrnwnll. ROWSAY.
1. fliivoskdol
2. WralBido.
SIIAPIN.HIIAY.
1. Wulluubu

Q. Kirkbuslor
3. Holland. POMONA or
MAINLAND.
1. St.. Andrew's
2. SiindHido
3. Holm
4. Piinljiy
5. Giuuip

6. Snlio
7. Kirkwall
8. Firth
9. Scapa
10. Wank
11. Orpliir
12. CliOBTron
13. Turnston
14. Kendall
15. Woodwick

Ifi, Burpar
17. Birea
18. Marwick
19. Kirkness
20. Holorow
21. Snndwick
"HQ, BtroinacEa. HOY.
1. Hoy

2. Bring
3. Air
4. St. Walby.
SOUTH EON-
ALDSHAY.
1. Cara
2. Kirk
3. Berwick
4. Brougb.

Book I.

SCOTLAND.

431

Fig. SIO. Map of Ihe Shetland Islands.

The Pentland Frith, in particular, between Orkney and the Mainland, is a most formidable
passage. The opposing currents keep the channel in a state of perpetual ebullition, and produce
at several points, violent whirlpools. Orltney is in general low, bleak, boggy, and bare ; though
its western islands face the Atlantic witii some very bold and rugged cliffs. About a twelfth
part is cultivated in a rude manner with the plough ; a somewhat larger portion is under
regular pasture ; the rest is moor and waste. The cattle, tiiough small, are of a good
breed ; and about 50,000 sheep, almost in a wild state, roam through tho commons. The
fisheries are not extensive ; kelp is the staple commodity for export : it has averaged annu
ally 2500 tons, employing 3000 men. There is some coarse woollen, and of late there has
been some linen manufecture. As most of the vessels destined for Hudson's Bay and the
whale fishery, and many of tiiose which, from the east coast, saU to all parts of the world,
pass by the north of Scotland, the ports of the Orkneys are frequented, and a market is
afforded for their provisions.
The topographical detaUs of Orkney do not possess any peculiar attraction. Kirkwall,
however, bears marks of the periods when it was a Danish capital, and a residence of the
sovereign Earls of Orkney. There is
a large and massive cathedral, in some
parts very elegantly ornamented ; also
ruins of a king's palace, an earl's castle,
and a bishop's palace. The town has
of late been considerably extended and
improved, and it has a good natural har
bour. Stromness has one of the best
harbours in the kingdom, and is the
favourite resort of vessels which seek
on this coast for shelter and refreshment.
Near Stiomness is that remarkable
remnant of antiquity the " standing
stones of Stennis," which in magnitude
and singular character almost rivals
Stonehenge. Shapinshay, Stronsay,
Rowsay, Eday, Westray, Papa, and
Sanday, are small islands stretching to
the north-east Burra and South Ro-
naldshay are towards Caithness; and
to the west the long island of Hoy,
which presents a series of bold and
rugged promontories.
The Zetland or Shetland islands,
called by the natives Hialtland, form
one of the extremities of Europe, en
circled by the Ulimitable extent of
the Arctic and Atlantic oceans. Placed
thus far north, and amid so wide a
waste of waters, the climate of Zet
land is cold, bleak, swept by furious
winds, and deluged by torrents of rain.
The surface is rugged, without being
mountainous ; it is everywhere pene
trated by long lagoons with flat shores,
called voes, by which even the largest
islands are so intersected, that there is
scarcely a spot in them two mUes distant from the sea. The extensive mosses, and the
trunks of trees dug out of them, prove that a vast expanse was once covered with natural
forests; but these are now totally eradicated, and the violence of the winds and sea-spray
has rendered abortive every attempt to replace them, so that the aspect of the country is
now completely naked, scarcely producing even a shrub. The coasts are peculiarly steep,
rocky, and bold, the rocks being hollowed into deep caverns, and broken into precipices and
clifis of the most varied forms. The aspect of these shores, against which the waves of the
great surrounding ocean dash with almost perpetual fury, is equally grand and terrible. The

UNST.
1. Norwick
2. Vesgarth
3. New Kirk.
YELL.
1 Windhouae

Bef erences to the Map of the Shetland Islands.

2. Olaberry

8. Jagon

3. Orbusla

9. Berfild

4. Stenaess

10. Melby

5. SutberhoUBO
Il.Mur.klure
MAINLAND.
6. Deal
12. Culswick
1. Skea
7. Bwagh
13. Sandateng
H. Brak
]5. Dingwall
16. Tjerwick
17. St. Paul's
18. Maywick
19 Bigtowo.
20. Quendal.
, BRESSAY
1. GardiB
2. St. Andrewi
432

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

PaktIH,

author of " The Pirate" draws a most lively pictiire of these " deep and dangerous seas of
the north, their precipices and headlands, many hundred feet in height — their perUous
straits, and currents, and eddies — long sunken reefs of rock, over which the vivid ocean
foams and boils, — dark cavems, to whose extremities neither man nor skiff has ever ven
tured, — lonely and often uninhabited isles, and occasionally the ruins of ancient northem fest-
nesses, dimly seen by the feeble light of the arctic winter." The dangers of the navigation,
however, are considerably mitigated by the spacious and commodious havens, formed by the
deep bays and voes, or by the sounds and channels, between diflerent islands.
The Shetland Islands contain about 20,000 acres of arable land, and nearly as many of
good meadow ; but this comprises little more than a twentieth part of the surface, all the
rest consisting of waste or common, on which the horses, cattle, and sheep are tumed out,
to find pastures as best they may. The horses are of a very small size, with a huge mane,
but active and hardy. The cows are equally diminutive, and give very little mUk, but both
the milk and the flesh are of good quality. The sheep are most numerous of all, being
reckoned at seventy or eighty thousand ; they are stunted, like the other animals, and their
wool is very scanty ; but some of it is peculiarly fine, affording the material of almost the only
manufacture of Shetland, — that of knit hosiery, of a texture close, soft, and warm. The
greatest branch of Shetland industry, however, is the cod and ling fishery. All the coasts
abound with these fish ; and, within the last few years, a particularly rich and extensive
bank has been discovered to the westward. At the proper season, fleets of boats issue from
all the bays and voes, to the haaf or deep sea-fishery, which is carried on, not without peril,
at the distance of from twenty to thirty mUes from the coast. The fishermen are supplied
by the landlords with boats and implements, on condition of their delivering to them the fish
at a stipulated rate ; and as their farms are held at wUl, they are in a state of vassalage
more complete, perhaps, than any other class in the United Kingdom.
The annals of Shetland are Norwegian. These islands, according to the earliest tradition,
were peopled from Norway. In the ninth century they were conquered by Harold Harfa-
ger, or the Fair-haired, the most powerful and formidable of all the sea-kings of the north.
The Norwegian sway extended for several centuries over all the Scottish islands ; but in
the Shetlands it was undisputed, till the cession of them, along with those of Orkney, as
the dowry of a princess of Norway maiTied to James III., in the end of the fifteenth century.
Lerwick, the capital, is a thriving village, ill and irregularly built, but improving.
The opposite island of Bressay forms Bressay
Sound, one of the finest harbours in the
world, and the rendezvous of aU the vessels
destined for the north and the whale fishery.
Off Bressay is the Noss (fig. 210.), a smaU
high island, with a flat summit, girt on all
sides by perpendicular walls of rock. The
communication with Bressay itself is main
tained by strong ropes stretched across, along
which a cradle is run, in which the pas
senger is seated. The promontories of Sum
burgh and Fitflil Head, at the southem ex
tremity of the Mainland, are also distin
guished by the boldness of their aspect and
tiie perils with which they threaten the ma
riner. The number of the Shetiands has
been variously estimated, according to the gradations of islets and rocks included ; but only
about forty are inhabited. Of these, Yell, and Unst, stretching northwards from the Main
land, are alone of any magnitude. The last, though tiie most nortiierly, is rather the most
fertile of any, and distinguished by its numerous caves. Adjacent to Yell is Fetlar ; on the
east of the Mainland are Whalsay and Bressay ; to the west, Burray, Housa, Frondray, Papa
Stour, Muckle and Little Rooe, all so close as to be little more than peninsulas. Considera
bly out at sea, Foula, a small rocky islet, feces the Atiantic, witii high clil6 covered witii
numberless flocks of sea-fowl.

210

Nobs Holm, Shetland.

CHAPTER IV.
IRELAND.
Irfxand is a fine extensive island, situated to tiie west of England, and forming one of
the three grand portions of the United Kingdom.
Sect. 1. — General Outline and Aspect.
The grnatrst dimon.qion of Ireland is from Ciipc Clear, in 51"^ 19', to Malin Head, in 55°
23 N. latitude ; making about 280 miles. Tlie utmost breadtii, if reckoned from the mos*

Book I. IRELAND 433
easterly point of the county of Down (opposite Bur Island) to Dunmore Head in Kerry, will
be 218 mUes ; but it is nowhere so broad under the same parallel of latitude. The island,
according to Beaufort, contains more than 30,000 English square miles, or nearly 20,000,000
acres ; but, till tiie survey be completed, precision on this subject cannot be attained.
The surface of Ireland cannot on the whole be called mountainous ; its central districts
composing one vast plain, which crosses the kingdom from east to west. It is, however,
diversified by ranges of mountains, superior in extent, and, with the exception of those of
Wales, equal in elevation, to any in England. Wicklow, in the vicinity of Dublin, may be
classed as an alpine region. On the borders of Leinster and Munster, the Slieve-Bloom,
the Knockmele Down, and the Galties, form long and lofty ranges, commanding an exten
sive view over the wide plains that stretch beneath them. AU these, however, are much
surpassed by the extreme south-west county of Kerry, which presents a complete chaos of
lofty and rocky summits. The most elevated are those which enclose the beautiful and
finely wooded lakes of KUlarney, Mangerton and Macgillicuddy's Reeks, the last of which
is considerably more than 3000 feet high. At the opposite or north-eastern extremity of
Ireland, Antrim presents to the Scottish seas a barrier of rocky cliffs, less lofty, but of a
very bold and peculiar character ; precipitous, and formed into long columnar ranges ; a
phenomenon which the Giant's Causeway exhibits on a greater scale than any other spot in
the known world. The Mourne mountains, a lofty granite range in the south of the county
of Down ; those of Carlingford, which extend into the county of Armagh ; with considerable
ranges in Tyrone, Derry, and Donegal, may dispute the pre-eminence with those of the
south. In Connaught there are also some considerable detached mountains, of which Croagh-
patrick in Mayo has been reckoned by some to exceed even Macgillicuddy's Reeks ; but Ire
land has no extended table-lands, like those which cover a considerable part of England.
The most elevated part of the Bog of Allen, in that central point where the rivers divide,
is not more than 270 feet above the level of the sea.
The Shannon is without a rival in the three kingdoms. It rises far in the north, from
Lough Allen in the province of Connaught, and has a course of 170 miles, throughout the
whole of which it is more or less navigable, the only obstruction which existed having been
removed. Below Limerick it expands into an estuary about sixty miles in length, by which
the largest vessels have access to that city. The Barrow is also an important river, which
mns southward through the greater part of Leinster, receives from the west the Nore and
the Suire, and finally forms the harbour of Waterford. The Boyne, so celebrated for the
victory gained on its banks ; the Foyle, which, after passing Londonderry, forms Lough
Foyle ; the Bann, which passes through Lough Neagh, and affords a flourishing salmon
fishery ; and the Blackwater, which terminates in the bay and port of Youghal, are also de
serving of mention. The other rivers are rather numerous than of long course ; but they
almost all terminate in wide estuaries and loughs, which diffuse through Ireland the means
of water communication, and afford a multiplicity of spacious and secure harbours.
Lakes or loughs are a conspicuous feature in Ireland, where this last name, like the
similar one used in Scotland, is in many instances applied to arms of the sea. Lough Neagh
is the largest lake in the United Kingdom, covering nearly 100,000 acres. Its banks are
flat, tame, and in many places marshy and inundated. Loiigh Erne, also in Ulster, is
divided into two reaches, the united length of which is about thirty miles, while its circuit
includes a great variety of rich and ornamented scenery. Lough Foyle, Lough Swilly, and
Belfast Lough, are properly bays. The Shannon forms several lakes, of which Lough Ree
is the principal ; and the whole of its course downwards from Limerick resembles more a
lough or bay than a river. Connaught has several extensive lakes. That of Killamey, in
the south, is famed, not for its extent, but for the singular grandeur and beauty of its
shores. A fuller description of this and some others now mentioned will be found under the
local section. Sect. II. — Natural Geography.
The Botany and Zoology of Ireland, having been treated under the head of England, this
section will be confined to Geology. Subsect. 1. — Geology of Ireland.
The geology of this part of the empire is not so well knovsm as that of Great Britain.
The following sketch will enable our readers to form a general conception of the geognos
tical sfi-ucture of those parts of the island which have been already surveyed ; viz. — 1. North
of Ireland ; 2. Connaught coal district ; 3. East of Ireland ; 4. South, and part of the west
of Ireland.
(1 .) North of Ireland. This district, limited by Dundalk Bay on the south-east, and by Lough
Foyle on the north-west, is marked by three distinct systems or groups of mountains, one of
which occupies the more southern counties , while the more northem are divided between
the two others.
1st system. The Mourne mountains. — The Mourne mountains form a well-defined
Vol. L 3T 3 E

434

MAP OP IRELAND.

Fig. 211

10 ao M 40 ftO 80
I ¦ '  JL,  1 I I
Bagliilt'Milel

^-

B longllude Weit 8 from Qreoowicb 7

Book I.

IRELAND.

435

group, extending from Dundrum Bay to Carlingford Bay, in the southern extremity of Down.
Slieve Donard is the highest summit of this group, and rises about 2654 feet above tho level
of the sea. The north-west of the main group, the Fathom Hill, Slieve Girken, or the
Newry mountains, and Slieve Gullen, are situated in the south-east of Armagh ; and the
Ravensdale and Carlingford mountains, in the north of Louth, may be considered as its ap
pendages. Granite, which is the prevailing rock of these mountains, contains beautiful
rock crystals, also felspar and mica crystals, topaz and beryl. To the north of the Mourne
mountains Slieve Croob, composed of syenite, and Slieve Anisky, of hornblende rock, form
an elevated tract, dependent upon, but placed at some distance from, the main group. Horn
blende rock, greenstone, and porphyry are said to be abundant on the skirts of this granite dis
trict. The Plutonian granite and syenite hills rise through strata of transition rocks, which
are greywacke, greywacke slate, transition clay slate, and transition limestone. The Plu
tonian rocks bear but a small proportion in superficial extent to those of the transition class,
the latter advancing west and north into Cavan, and to Belfast Lough and the peninsula of
Ards. The points of tlie coast of Scotland, directly opposite the peninsula of .Ards, present in
tlie neighbourhood of Portpatrick, and through the great alpine band which traverses the
south of Scotland, and terminates on the east coast of St. Abb's Head, the same transition
rocks. Hence it is probable that the great southern high land of Scotland was formerly
joined with the transition hills of the Mourne mountain group by a ridge of land extending
across the Channel from Scotland to Lreland. In this district, there are some patches of
mountain limestone and of old red sandstone,
2d system. Primitive chain of Londonderry. — This mountain group rises at the distance
of about 30 miles to the north-north-west of the external chams of the first system, including
the counties of Londonderry and Donegal. One of the highest points in this district is Sawell,
said to be 2257 feet above the level of the sea. This great tract of country is principally
composed of mica slate, with various subordinate beds, as limestone, quartz, &tf. On the
eastern bank of the Roe, these mica slate hills and mountains are succeeded by a range of
secondary hills covered by a great platform of secondary trap, and forming a part of the
third system of hills, afterwards to be described. These newer rocks repose upon and con-

Ref erences to the Map of Ireland.

NORTH PART.
1. Newtongleoa
2. Ballycastle
3. Clough
4. Rasharkan
5. Ballymany
6. Golerauie
7. Garvagh
8. Giant's ScoDCe
g. Ballykelly
10. Muff
11. BallyDally
12. Malm
13. Cara
14. Burnfoot
15. OsnakitI
16. RaLhmullin
17. Gortyhock
18. Dungloe
19. Cuavoy
30. StraDorlan
2t. Raphoe
22. Londonderry
23. Lifford
24. Strabane
25. Clady
26. Maghera
27. Swatteragh
28. Kells
29. Gienarm
30, Ballyeorry
31. Carrickfergus
32. Crumlin
33. Antrim
34. RandalstowQ
35. Moneyraore
36. CookBtown
37. Prederickatown
38. Newton Stewart
39. Besebell
40. Berg Bridge
41. Ardrea
42. Tillen
43. Kiflybegs
44. Tnver
45. Donegal
46. Balljrsbannon
47. Garrison
48. Churchill
49. Caesidy
50. Ke3h
51. Omagh
52. Glogherny
53. Ballygawley
54. Blackwater
55. Dangannon
56. Kingsinills
51. Maze
58. Belfast
59. Holy wood

DonaghadeeGray Abbey
Portaferry Downpatrick
KillinchyHillsborough DundrumRathfrilaod
Loughbrick- land
Lurgan Armagh
Newtown Ha
milton
MonaghanAugher Clogher
Five Mile
Town
Donough
Lisnaakea Callowhill
EnniskillcQ Largay
Stridock Sligo
Dunatra Bunro
Killala Battiglass
Inver CloganBallinaFox ford
Swineford BalcarraBallymote
Leitrim Balling more
BelturbetCavan DrumBallybay Castle Blaney
Jonesboro NewryNarrow Water
Kilkeel Carlingford
Dundalk Louth
Lurgan ClogherLady rath
NobberMoynaltyBaliyboroughStradone Bally Jamesdu
Roesduif

117. Jamestown
118. Elphin
119. Carrick on
Shannon
120. Tulsk
121. Ballyhadireen
122. BalhhauntB
123. Kilkelly
124. Kilcolman
125. Beartree
126. Ballinvary
127. Newport
128. Caetlebar
129. Westport
130. Killery
131. Claggan
1.^. Bunowen
133. Cong
134. Ballinrobe
135. Hollymount
136. Kilmainmore
137. Blenwell
138. Dunmore
139. Glanamoddy
140. Ballintober
141. Roscommon
142. Tarmanbarry
143. Longford
144. Kenagh
145. Edgsworlhe- town
146. Johnstown
147. Mullingar
148. Clonmellon
149. Trim
150. Summerhill
151. Navan
152. Skryne
153. Drogheda
154. Naut
155. Swords
SOUTH PART.
1. Kilkerran
2. Inveran
3. Sunna
4. Killameen
5. Galway
6. Headford
7. Bel dare
8. Athenry
9. Monivia
10. Tuam
11. Caatle Blackney
12. Ballinastoe
13. Ballinamore
14. Knockroughry
15. Athlone
16. Maystown

17. Moat a Grenogue
18. Ballimore
19. Philipsiown
20. Tyrrcl's Pass
21. Ballydemot
22. Longwood
23. Cloncurry
24. Clane
25. Maynooth
26. Raloath
27. Rathcoole
28. Dublin
29. Killgobbin
30. Inniskerry
31. Wicklow
32. Donard
33. Blessington
34. Naas
35. Old KilcuUen
36. Kildare
37. Portarlington
38. Mounlmelick
39. Birr
40. Bangher
41. Eyre Court
42. Porlumna
43. Aughrim
44. Loughrea
45. Carnamart
46. Gort
47. Killany
48. Killfenora
49. Innislymon
50. Ennis
51. Clare
52. Talla
53. Scarriff
54. Killaloe
55. Nenagh
56. Burresakan
57. RoBCrea
58. Rathdowny
59. Ballynakill
60. Maryborough
61. Athy
62. Carlow
63. Stratford
64. Baltingtass
65. Rathville
66. Tinchely
67. Rathdrum
68. Arklow
60. Gorey
70. Perns
7J.Clonega]l 72. Burrifl
73. Old Loighlm
74. Kilkenny
75. Uriingford

KillenauleBurrisleaghToomevara
Silver Mine
Newport LimerickBridgetown
Six Mile Bridge
Paradise Clanderlagh Kilruah
Dunbeg^ Bally heigh
Lixnaw
Millstreet
Ballylongford Listoweu
Ahbyreale
Glynn ArdagbAskeaton
Kiddogh BruresPatrick's Well
BruftCullen
Tipperary Cappagh
Goloen Bridge
CashelFethardBallypatrick
Knocktopher Innifatioge
Thomaston
New Robs
Enniscortby
Killane Ballymartin
Taghmon Wexford Duncornuck
Clonminea Whitechurch Waterford
KilmacowKilmacthomas ClonmelBallynamultCahir
Ballyporeea Aragiin
Kil worth "
Bally hooly
DoneraileMallow Liscarrol
Newmarket Cos Island

135. Abbey Odome
136. Tralee
137. Lispole
138. Dingle
139. Cahir
140. Agbart
141. Glanliagh
142. Milltown
143. Kenmare
144. KUlarney
145. Shinagh
146. Mill Street
147. Macromp
148. Cork
149. Fermoy
150. Ratcormuck
151. Lismore
152. Dungarvan
153. Afflish
154. Youghal
155. Cloyne
156. Carlisle Fort
157. Passage
158. Camden Fort
159. Kinsale
160. Innishannon
16L Inchigeelagh
162; Dunmanaway
163. Glengarr
164. Gacinish
165. Bantry
166. Dunmaniis
167. Baltimore
168. Skibbereen
169. Leap
170. Timoteague
Rivers. Sfc.
a Foyle, R.
b Bann, R.
c Mayola, R.
d Newry Canal
e Boyne, R.
f Liffey. R.
g Slaney, R.
h Barrow, R.
i Nore, R.
i Suire. R.
k Blackwater, R
1 Lee, R.
m BandoD, R.
n Flesk, R.
o Shannon, R.
p Carnamart, R.
q Moyne, R.
r Suck, R.
B Moy, R.
t Deel, R.
u Munree, R.

436 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part UI.
ceal the mica slate in the eastern part of Derry, but the mica slate again emerges from
beneath this covering, after an interval of about 30 miles, on the north-east coast of Antrim,
and rises into hUls, which break down abruptly towards the coast between Tor Point and
Cushenden Bay. The mica slate rocks on this part of the Irish coast may be considered a
continuation of those that occur on the opposite coast of Scotland at the Mull of Cantyre,
or, on a more general view, as a continuation of the great Grampian range, which may, in
this way, be said to extend from the north-east coast of Scotland to the western shores of
Ireland, on the coasts of Donegal. In the eastern part of Tyrone, which intervenes
between the transition mountains and the mica slate mountains, a coal formation occurs
associated with that kind of limestone which is usually found below coal in Great- Britain.
The position of this coalfield offers another analogy with Scotland, where the space between
the southern and northern mountains is principally occupied by rocks of the coal formation.
3d system of mountains. The Trap group. — This group may be described as separated
into two chains, bounding on the east and west the trough or valley through which the river
Bann flows from Lough Neagh to the ocean. The eastern chain lies in the county of An
trim, being comprehended between the valley of the Bann and the North channel. It pre
sents an abrupt declivity towards the sea, falling with a gentle slope towards the west, in
which direction the beds composing its mass incline. Knock-lead, in the northem extremity
of the chain, is the highest summit : it rises 1820 feet above the level of the sea ; but the
basis of this hill is occupied to the height of 500 feet by primitive mica slate rock, leaving
only 1320 feet for the thickness of the secondary strata peculiar to this system. Diris Hilf,
near the southern extremity of the chain, is wholly composed of secondary strata, and
attains an elevation of 1475 feet. The westem part of the chain included between the
Roe and the Bann forms the exact counterpart of the former ; but the strata here dip nearly
in a contrary direction, viz. towards the north-east ; the fall of the hUls being gradually in
this direction, while they front the west and south with abrupt and precipitous clifis. Crag-
nashoack, at the southern extremity, rises 1864 feet above the-sea, and is the highest sum
mit of the group. The geological nature of this third system is very different from that of
the two former ; all the principal formations belonging to the secondary class of rocks.
These rocks are partly Plutonian and partly Neptunian. The Neptunian rocks are gene
rally covered with an enormous mass of secondary trap, which appears to attain its greatest
thickness on the north ; the trap cap of Beny-Avenagh, the most northern summit of the
western chain, measuring more than 900 feet : the average depth of this superimposed mass
may therefore be estimated at 545 feet, and its superficial extent at 800 square mQes. The
trap rocks are greenstone, basalt, amygdaloid, wacke, and red bole ; occasionaUy associated
with them, forming isolated tracts,, as in the Sandybrea district, there are porphyries of dif
ferent kinds, as pitchstone and pearl-stone porphyries. The amygdaloid and also some of
the other rocks of this series contain calc spar and white calcedony, semiopal, felspar, and
steatite, or serpentine. The basalt contains olivine. Iron pyrites is a mineral frequently
disseminated in the greenstone. Wood coal occurs in seams varying from two inches to
four or five feet in thickness, alternating with trap rocks, near Ballentoy ; also in the clifis
of Fortnoffer on the east of the Giant's Causeway, at Killymoris near the centre of the trap
area, and at Portmaoc, and other places on the eastern shore of Lough Neagh.
Veins of trap. Trap veins exhibit many interesting phenomena, particularly in their pas
sage through chalk, which they sometimes convert into a kind of marble. They traverse
not only the Neptunian strata, as chalk, lias, and coal formation, but also trap itself. The
most interesting and splendid displays of the trap rocks occur at the Giant's Causeway and
Tairhead, so well known to travellers ; and the cliffi of Kenbaan exhibit very interesting
displays of the commingling of the trap and chalk.
Underneath and sometimes intermingled with this vast mass of trap are the following
Neptunian formations : — Chalk, which is frequently very compact, and sometimes, as where
in immediate contact with the Plutonian rocks, changed into a granular limestone resem
bling marble : the average thickness does not amount to more than 200 feet Underneath
the chalk occurs the deposit known under the name mulatto stone, tlie green sand of Eng
lish geologists, lying upon the lias limestone. Underneath the lias occur beds of red and
variegated marl, variegated sandstone with gypsum, and from these issue salt springs.
These four formations, which, together with the trap, form the whole moss of tlie hills
belonging to the third system, cannot be estimated as possessing a less average tiiickness
than from 800 to 1000 feet. The whole system appears at the nortli-eastern and south
western extremities to repose upon the coal formation and its accompanying rocks, and
those on the transition or primitive rocks."" Coal occurs in Tyrone, at Cool Island and Dun
gannon, and in Antrim, near Ballycastle. Of these, the collieries at Ballycastle, which
occupy an extent of not loss than one English mile along tlie coast, aro tlic most considerable.
They have been long wrought, and wero once hi a more prosperous state tlian at present, as
* PairlifH of iiid mi naiul^iniio orcur on tlio oust coast between Ballygelly and Glenarm Bay; and also on Uio
same coat>t to tho southward ol' Ocrron Point,

Book I. IRELAND. 437
they used formerly to send from 10,000 to 15,000 tons of coal to the market yearly ; whereas
now the quantity exported does not amount to more than 1.500 or 2000 tons. The coal of
these districts is almost entirely what Berger calls slate coal. In one of the works, how
ever, in Coal Island, a bed of cannel coal, six feet thick, is said to have been wrouglit.
The most remarkable minerals of the alluvial kind found in this part of Ireland are the
fossil woods of Lough Neagh, a sheet of water 132 feet above the level of tho sea, about
nineteen miles six turlongs long from N. W. to S. E., and forty-five feet deep at its centre.
The wood is silicified, and in some specimens one extremity will be petrified, while the other
remains in a ligneous state. The oak, the holly, and the hazel appear to have been the
ti-ees thus affected. It occurs in alluvium in the neighbourhood of the lake.
(2.) Connaught Coal District. This district occupies a portion of the counties of Ros
common, Sligo, and Leitrim, in tlie province of Connaught, and part of the county Cavan in
the province of Ulster. Lough Allen, situated near the head of the river Shannon, forms a
basin in the centre of the district.
A range of primary mountains, varying in breadth from three miles to a quarter of a mile,
extends from Foxford in the county of Mayo, to Colooney in the county of Sligo, and ter
minates two miles to the north-east of Manor-Hamilton, which may be viewed as the base
on which the newer formation of this part of Ireland rests. This range of cotmtry is prin
cipally composed of mica slate, with some subordinate rocks. Benbo Mountain, near Manor-
Hamilton, 1403 feet above the sea, may be cited as exhibiting an interesting display of the
vEirious primitive rocks. The summit, and about 800 feet immediately below it, are com
posed of a fine granular granite : the granite is covered on both sides of the mountain with
gneiss, dipping in tlie direction of its declivity at an angle of 50°. At the base of the
mountain, mica slate, with garnets, hornblende rock and hornblende slate, are seen. Large
blocks of beautiful syenite, also of serpentine with embedded garnets,, were foimd in a stream
at the base of the mountain near Lurganboy. The western side of Benbo is traversed by a
vein of copper pyrites, which was formerly wrought, but apparently to no great extent.
Veins of iron pyrites also occur there.
Resting upon these old rocks in many places, we observe the first or old red sandstone
formation. A tract of this sandstone extends in Roscommon from west to east, from Derry-
naslieve to Cashcarrigans, and in greatest breadth in a southerly and northerly direction,
from Leitrim to the neighbourhood of Drumshambo. Resting upon this sandstone, forming
the base of the coal district, and encircling it, is the mountaui or carboniferous limestone.
This limestone exhibits the usual character of the formations. The coal formation rests
upon the limestone, and is the uppermost or newest of the secondary deposits met with in
this part of Ireland. The external aspect of this coal district is described as being hilly
and dreary, and as extending in greatest length in a north and south direction, from Down
Mountain to Keddue, about sixteen mUes, and in greatest breadth from the hills above Swad-
linbar to KiUargy, sixteen miles. The area of the whole coal country within the edge of
the limestone is about 114,000 Irish acres ; exclusive of Slieve Russel, which is detached
from the great district by the limestone valley of Swadlinbar. The rocks which form the
coral series in the Connaught coal district are similar to those met with in other coalfields.
Besides coal, which is the black bituminous species, the formation contains sandstone flag,
slate clay, bituminous slate, clay ironstone, and fire clay. Some kinds of the coal afford in
the 100 parts, 71.42 carbon, 23.37 bitumen, and 5.21 gray ashes. Iron-works. The beds
of clay ironstone that occur in all parts of the Connaught coal district appear, at an early
period, to have attracted the attention of miners ; and works, on a small scale, called
bloomeries, were carried on in various parts of the adjoining country, as long as any wood
remained to supply them with charcoal, but they have since been given up.
(3.) East of Ireland. This district extends nearly 100 miles from north to south, and
between sixty and ninety miles from east to west, comprehending about a third part of the
island. It is bounded on the east by the Irish Channel, on the south and west by the moun
tains which confine the Suire and the Shannon, and on the north by the clay slate hills of
Louth and the mountain limestone hills of Meath, the clay slate hills of Cavan and the
mountain limestone of Longford, and by a line produced from thence to the bay of Galway.
In the landscape of Ireland there is one very remarkable feature, which cannot fail to strike
every observer : in traversing most parts of the island, we meet with ranges and groups of
bold mountainous and hUly tracts, in some degree isolated, while the interval between them
is generally occupied by a surface that appears nearly level, when viewed on the great scale,
but which is found, on a nearer view, to present a gently waved outline : a considerable
expansion of the plain occupies the central counties of Ireland, and extends across the island
from Dublin Bay on the east, to Galway Bay on the west ; and in general, where a similar
plain surface occurs, the immediately subjacent rock is mountain limestone ; to the abund
ance of which mineral, next to the mild temperature and general moisture of the climate,
the soil of Ireland is probably more indebted for its superior fertility than to any other cause
In this district mountainous and hilly tracts arise above the surface of the limestone plain,
on the east, the south, the west, the centre, and the north. The eastem chain extends from
37*

438 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pakt ffl.
the north side of Dublin Bay to the confluence of the Barrow with the Suire on the south.
The highest point is Lugnaquilla, which is 3070 feet above low-water-mark in Dublin Bay.
It consists almost wholly of primitive and transition rocks, of which the following species
occur : granite, mica slate, quartz rock, clay slate, greywacke, trap and porphyry. Metalli
ferous minerals are wanting on the west side of the granite chain, but abound on the east
side. In the granite and mica slate districts there are veins of galena or lead glance ; of
these the most considerable are hi Glenmalur; in the clay slate tract eleven different
metallic substances have been met with, viz. gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, zinc, tin, tung
sten, manganese, arsenic, and antimony.
Native gold occurs in the Ballinvalley streams at Croghan Kinshela: and in 1801, regular
mining was commenced, but did not lead' to any unportant results ; and after a time the working
vvas given up. The gold of Croghan Kinshela occurred in grains and masses from the smallest
size to lumps of considerable weight; one piece weighed twenty-two ounces. The gold was
found in alluvium, accompanied with other metallic substances, as magnetic iron ore, iron
glance, red iron ore, brown iron ore, iron pyrites, tinstone, wolfram, gray manganese ore, and
fragments of quartz and chlorite. In some specimens the gold was observed ramified in slen
der threads through the wolfram, and in others incorporated with iron ochre : some of the gold
was crystallized in octahedrons, and also in the elongated garnet dodecahedral form. Native
gold was also found in Croghan Moira mine, about seven miles distant from the former
mountain, but in small quantity.
The copper mines of Cronbane and Tigrony, in this district, are situated in clay slate and
quartzose clay slate. The ores, which are copper pyrites and black copper ore, are asso
ciated with iron pyrites, and rarely with galena ; and auriferous silver occurs in beds in the
slaty strata. In the twelve years ending in 1811, the produce of the mines was 19,342 tons
13 cvvt. of ore ; yielding 1046 tons 10 cwt. of copper. The mineral waters flowing from
the mines are impregnated with blue vitriol or sulphate of copper. These waters are re
ceived into tanks, ia which the muddy particles are allowed to subside. The clear waters
are then passed into pits filled with plate and scrap iron, which occasions a precipitation of
the copper.
The other tracts of this district are composed of secondary rocks, more or less deeply
covered with diluvial and alluvial deposits. The secondary rocks are old red sandstone,
mountain limestone, (or as it is called in Ireland, Irish limestone,) and the coal formation.
Of these formations the mountaui limestone is by fer the most abundant ; indeed, with the
exception of the counties of Derry and Antrim in the north, and Wicklow in the east, there
is no county in the island in which it does not prevail more or less. The coal formation
occurs in the Leinster coal district. The sandstone, slate, ironstone, clay, and coal, which
constitute the series, altemate with each other, and the whole rests on the mountain lime
stone, and is frequently disposed in the basin shape. The coal of this district is glance coal,
the blind coal of miners, the anthracite of Prench geologists, the Kilkenny coal of some
authors (so named because the town of Kilkenny is situated in this coalfield).
The most interesting alluvial phenomena are those exhibited by the limestone gravel, the
granite blocks, and the vast peat bogs. The great limestone field abounds in hillocks and ridges
of limestone gravel. Sometimes these ridges appear like regular mounds, the work of art,
forming a continued line of several mdes in extent. That which passes by Maryborough,
in the Queen's County, is a remarkable instance of this kind ; and similar mounds, hillocks,
and ridges occur also in the counties of Meath, Westmeath, Kildare, Carlow, and other por
tions of the limestone field, in which . the limestone gravel and sand frequently exhibit a
stratified arrangement, the alternate beds being very distinct from each other. The in
equality of surface thus produced, seems to have occasioned the formation of those extensive
tracts of peat bog which cover so considerable a portion of the limestone plain of Ireland.*
The natural course of springs and streams being obstructed, stagnant lakes and pools of
water were formed ; thus promoting the growth of those aquatic reeds, grasses, and rushes,
which, by their constant increase and decay, appear to compose the mass of the bogs of Ire
land. In this manner it is conceivable that shallow lakes may in process of time have
become entirely filled with peat ; and that peat bogs may tlius have gradually acquired a
convexity of surface, or at least that greater declivity by which their borders are dis
tinguished. The average depth of these bogs is commonly from sixteen to twenty-five feet,
but the extreme depth observed is forty-seven feet. In tlie same manner we may conceive
the gradual growth of peat bog to have successively extended from tlie higher regions to
the flanks, and thence to the feet, of mountains. That fellen forests were not the primary
origin of these peat bogs seems evident from the circumstance that two and even three suc
cessive growths of trees have been observed at different depths in a section of the same bog.
In these instances, the trees lie horizontally, fi-equently crossing each otlier, and either
attached to their roots or broken over ; and in the latter case tlie stumps usually stand erect
where they grew. The prostration of trees, however, may to a certam extent have acted
'''Poat ii estimated to extend over a tenth of tlio whole island.

Book I. IRELAND 439
as an auxiliary in promoting tlie growth of peat bogs ; and this prostration appears in general
to have taken place either from natural decay, or from trees possessing little hold of a wet
spongy soil having been overturned by storms. This may partly account for trees of all ages
being found in the bogs of Ireland, whether these bogs be situated in plains, or form the im
mediate cover of high mountain tracts. The universal destruction of the forests of Ireland
is principally to be attributed to the general introduction of iron furnaces, as the most profit
able mode of consuming the timber, then a materiatl esteemed of little value ; and hence the
almost total neglect of copsing those tracts in which the woods had been felled. The marl
beds, so frequently met with in these peat bogs, are curious in a zoological view, from their
occasionally containing remains of that splendid animal the fossil elk. But the remains of
the extinct species occur also in the gravel ; and the late Mr. Edgeworth observed the re
mains of the red deer in the same marl as that which contained the extinct species.
(4.) South of Ireland. Under this division we comprise the counties of Cork, Kerry,
Clare, Waterford, Tipperary, and part of Galway.
This mountainous, hilly, and diversified region is chiefly composed of chains having
generally a direction from east to west, and attaining their greatest elevation in the moun
tains of Kerry, where Gurrane Tual, one of Macgillicuddy's Reeks, near Killamey (the
highest land in Ireland), is 3410 feet above the sea. The rocks in this elevated county are
chiefly of the transition class : they decline gradually towards the north, and finally pass
under the old red sandstone and mountain limestone of the midland counties. The follow
ing may be considered a general estimate of the geognostical relations of the south of
Ireland : —
Transition rocks. In Kerry, the transition strata range from east to west, and dip to the
north and south, with vertical beds in the axes of the ranges : the strata, as they diminish
in inclination on each side, form a succession of troughs. The rocks are chiefly Neptunian,
the Plutonian being comparatively rare. The Neptunian are either simple or compound ;
the simple are clay slate, quartz rock, hornstone, Lydian stone, and limestone : the com
pound are, greywacke, greywacke slate, sandstone. The Plutonian rocks are greenstone
and porphyry. Organic remains occur in the limestone, slate, and greywacke, but more
frequently and abundantly in the limestone than in the other rocks. In Kenmare these
fossils consist of a few bivalves, and some crinoidal remains; and these also are most
numerous in the Mucmss and Killamey limestones. At the foot of the Slievemeesh range
this limestone includes asaphus caudatus, calamine macrophthalma, with orthoceratites,
.^Uipsolites ovatus, ammonites, euomphalites, turbinites, neritites, melanites, and severfl
species of terebratula, spirifer, and producta. Near Smerwick harbour similar organic re
mains are abundant in slate and greywacke, together with hysterolites, and many genera of
polyparia. Transition coal. All the coal of the province of Munster, except that of the county of
Clare, is referable to the transition class. At Knockasartnet, near KUlarney, and on the
north of Tralee, there are three beds of glance coal, alternating with strata of greywacke
and slate. In the county of Cork this glance coal is more abundant, particularly near
Kanturk, extending from the north of the Blackwater to the Allord. The ravines of the
latter river, and various other defiles, expose clay slate, greywacke, talc, and sandstone, in
nearly vertical strata ranging from west to east. This transition tract extends to the river
Shannon on the north-west. As the strata range from west to east, in a series of parallel
narrow troughs, they exhibit great variety of inclination, dipping rapidly either to the north
or south, and becoming horizontal between the ridges. The glance coal is raised in sufficient
quantities for the purpose of burning the limestone of the adjacent districts.
The Qoal and the strata with which it is accompanied abound with impressions of equi-
setEB and calamites, and afford some traces of fucoides. Beds of glance coal also occur in the
county of Limerick, on the left hank of the Shannon, north of Abbeyfeale, and at Longhill ;
and on the right hank of the river at Labbasheada. 'The transition rocks of Kerry and Lime
rick extend into Cork and Waterford.
Mines. Copper mines occur in limestone in Ross Island in the lake of KUlarney. In the
county of Cork, there are copper mines at Allihies, Audley, and Ballydehol ; and others,
producing lead, at Doneen and Rinabelly. The mine at Allihies is one of the richest mines
in Ireland ; it was discovered in 1812, and yields more than 2000 tons of copper ore annually.
The ore occurs in a large quartz vein, wliich generally intersects the slaty rocks of the
country from north to south, but in some places runs parallel to the strata. It is remarked
that all this portion of the county of Cork indicates a very general diffusion of cupreous par
ticles, so much so that in the year 1812, there existed a cupriferous peat-bog on the east side
of Glandore harbour, forty or fifty tons of the dried peat producing when bumt one ton of
ashes, containing from ten to fifteen per cent, of copper. The lead-mines of Doneen and
Rinabelly are in slate.
Coal formation of Clare. The transition clay slate of this county is bordered by a zone
of old red sandstone, to which succeeds, in ascending order and conformable position, the
mountain limestone and coal formation, both of which occupy flat and undulating hills, and

440 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paet HI.
the strata are nearly horizontal. The best sections are seen in the cliffs on the west coast,
where bituminous shale, slate clay, sandstone, and sandstone flag, rest upon limestone. Coal,
however, is of rare occurrence, and when found, is of indifferent quality.
As in every other part of Ireland, the district abounds with alluvial deposits. In regard
to the distribution of the older of these, or the diluvium in the south of Ireland, it is remarked,
— 1. That boulders, gravel, and sand, derived from the transition rocks, are distributed along
the borders and sides of the mountains in Kerry. 2. In a small district of Limerick and
Tipperary, situated between the Gaultees and Slieve-na-muck, the rolled masses consist not
only of portions of contiguous rocks, but contaui also porphyry, which is not to be found in
situ near the vicmity of Pallis Hill. 3. In the penmsula of NenvUle, near Galway, the sur
face of the mountain limestone is strewed over with numerous boulders of red and gray
granite, syenite, greenstone, and sandstone, which must apparently have been conveyed from
the opposite side of the bay of Galway.
Sect. III. — Historical Geography.
The earliest inhabitants of Ireland, from which the native race now existing has sprung,
appear, by the language still spoken, to have been Celtic. The Romans, in occupying
Britain, could not fail to acquire much information relative to leme, Hibemia, or Ireland ;
and accordingly we find that the map of that country by Ptolemy is less defective than the
one which he gives of Scotland. About the fourth century, we find Ireland bearing the
name of Scotland, from the leading people on its eastem shore, who afterwards passing into
Argyle, and making themselves masters of all Caledonia, communicated to it the name of
Scotland, finally withdrawn from the country to which it originally belonged.
The Danes, during the height of their power, from the ninth to the twelfth centuries,
possessed almost the whole eastem coast of Ireland, making Dublin their capital. Before
this time Ireland had been converted to Christianity, and a number of celebrated monasteries
had been founded, the tenants of which were distinguished, even over Europe, for their piety
and learning.
The English sway commenced in 1170. Richard Strongbow, earl of Pembroke, as a pri
vate individual, formed the first settlement ; but Henry II. soon assumed the title of " lord of
Ireland." The range of dominion was long restricted to a portion of the kingdom enclosed
within what is called the English pale, without which the Irish remained still under the rule
of their native chieftains. Henry VIII. assumed the title of " king of Ireland," but without
any material extension of his authority over that kingdom.
The Irish massacre was a dreadful outrage, to which attachment to popery and zeal for
national independence united in impelling a proud and fierce people. Forty thousand
English settlers are supposed to have perished, and the rest were driven into Dublin.
Cromwell, however, afterwards crossed the Channel, and made cruel reprisals ; he took the
principal fortified towns, and reduced Ireland under more full subjection than ever. Yet
the disposition of the people remained the same ; and when James II. was driven from the
English throne, he was received with enthusiasm in Ireland, and became for some time its
master. The battle of the Boyne, followed next year by that of Aughrim, decided the fete
of the empire, and more especially of Ireland, which then felt for the first time the miseries
of a conquered country. The estates of many principal native proprietors were confiscated ;
the Catholics were deprived of. all political privUeges ; they were rendered incapable of
holding any office or employment in the state ; they were debarred even from holding land,
from devising property, and from exercising other important ftinctions of civU society. Under
these severities they pertinaciously retained their political attachments togetiier with their
religious creed ; and a continual ferment prevailed, which broke out from time to time into
partial rebellions.
The gradual emancipation of Ireland commenced at the period of the American war. TUl
that era England had denied to her the right of trading directly with any foreign nation ; and
had compelled her to export and import every commodity through the channel of Great
Britain. The extremity, however, to which Britain was reduced enabled the Irish to place
themselves in a formidable attitude ; and by forming armed associations, and adopting other
threatening measures, they induced parliament to grant them free trade with all nations.
From this time also the most obnoxious of the restrictions on the Catliolics were gradually
repealed or fell into disuse ; and before the end of last century, they had obtained almost
every political privilege, except that of sitting in parliament, and of holding the very highest
offices of state. The propriety of conceding these also became one of tlie leading questions
which long divided the public mind.
A very formidable rebellion broke forth in spite of these concessions. The Prench
revolution, which caused a general ferment in Europe, was intensely felt throughout
Ireland. A society was formed of "United Irishmen;" and secret meetings were held,
having in view the entire separation from lOnglaiid, nnd tlie formation of tlie kingdom into
an independent republic. The vigilance of government, and tlie feUure of the Prench in
their attempts to land a force of any magnitude, prevented matters from coming to the last

Boor L IRELAND. 441
extremity till 1798, when a violent msurrection arose in four of the counties nearest
Dublin. The rebels, though zealous and brave, being without discipline, were routed in
successive encounters with much inferior bodies of regulars and militia ; and being unsup
ported by French aid were completely put down in a few months. The exasperation,
however, produced hy the tragical events of this short period contuiued long to rankle in
tlie minds of the Irish, and to aggravate the evils under which they laboured. To soothe
this irritation, another expedient was employed, which materially affected the situation of
Ireland. The difficult and reluctant union of the two kingdoms was effected in 1800 by Mr. Pitt.
Ireland gained thus considerable commercial advantages ; and, from the example of Scot
land, it was hoped that a gradual tranquillity would be the result. This expectation has not
yet been fiilfilled. The peasantry of the south, inflamed by national jealousy, by religious
animosity, and by the severe privations under which they labour, have continued, if not in
open rebellion, at least in a state of turbulence constantly tending towards it; and their dis
contents have been increased by the indiscreet zeal of the Protestant party.
The bill for Catholic emancipation, so unexpectedly introduced, in 1828, by the Duke of
Wellington, and carried after such a violent ferment of parties, has made a remarkable
change in the political constitution of Ireland. The political disabilities under which the
Catholics had hitherto laboured have been finally removed. They are made admissible to
the highest offices of state, with the exception of that of lord chancellor ; an exclusion
decided upon, not so much on account of the dignity of that office, as the extensive church
patronage attached to it. Roman Catholics are also made admissible to sit in both houses
of parliament, and to every other political privilege enjoyed by their fellow countrymen.
Sect. IV. — Political Geography.
The political evils under which Ireland labours will sufficiently appear from the foregoing
survey of her history. Prom the earliest times she has been in the situation of a conquered
country, without ever becoming reconcUed to the yoke, or assimilated to the ruling nation.
Within the last two centuries, her devoted adherence to a religion which had been renounced
by her rulers, has had a most fetal tendency, which we may however hope to see much miti
gated by the healing measures that have now been adopted. In consequence, also, of
repeated scenes of rebellion and forfeiture, by much the greater part of the lands are in the
possession of English and Protestant proprietors, who, having no natural influence over the
occupiers of their estates, hold their place only by the hated tenure of dominion and law.
Being connected with the country by no natural ties, and attracted by the superior brilliancy
of the English and Prench capitals, most of them quit Ireland, and become habitual absentees.
When the Scottish Highlanders arrayed themselves against the govemment, they acted
mider the influence of a few leading chiefs, whose interests and passions aflbrded a lever by
which the people could be moved. But the Irish people, deprived of any such guidance,
chose their leaders from among themselves, or from those who courted their favour by fos
tering all their national propensities. Secret associations, party badges, mysterious names,
have exerted an influence over their minds, the extent and nature of which it is impossible
to calculate.
Ireland, like Scotland, has been united to England ; yet it retains somewhat more of the
aspect of a separate kingdom. A lord lieutenant still displays a portion of the state and
exercises some of the fiinctions of royalty. He has not only a household establishment, but
a chancellor, a secretary, and other ministers of state. The courts of justice, and the dif
ferent orders of magistracy, are nearly on the same footing as in England ; yet they have
not the reputation of exercising their functions with quite the same dignity and impartiality.
The violence of party spirit acts upon judges, and still more upon juries ; and in the country,
the absence of great proprietors, and the want of any middling class, render it difficult to
find materials for a respectable and effective magistracy. Ireland sent to the Imperial par
liament 100 members of the House of Commons, of whom 36 were for cities and boroughs,
and 64 for counties, which latter sent two members each. The large proportion of this
latter class was expected to render the representation more respectable; but, unfortunately,
the low qualification required, amounting only to 40s., enabled the great proprietors to split
votes among their numerous little tenantry to such an extent as almost to produce universal
suffrage. The very system of letting farms on leases for lives, which confers the right of
voting, extended that right to almost every tenant. This could scarcely be said to confer
the real right of suffirage, as the dependence of the tenants was almost always such as to
enable the landlord to dictate their vote ; though in late elections, the influence of the priests
was in several counties successfully exerted. To remedy these evUs, the same act which
removed the disabUities of the Catholics, raised the qualification of freeholders m Ireland
from 40s. to 101. a year, and thus reduced them to less than a third of then: former number.
Many also of the principal boroughs, as Belfast, Wexford, Cashel, Sligo, Dundalk, Ennis-
kUlen, were entirely close, the members bemg chosen by twelve self-elected burgesses ;
while, in others, the whole ground on which a borough stood belonged to the nearest great
Vol. L 3 F

442 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Past IH.
proprietor. The consequence was, that an oligarchy, formed by the possessors of those vast
properties into which the greater part of Ireland is divided, held an almost unlimited sway
over the country. Previous to the union, the influence of the three houses of Beresford,
Ponsonby, and Poster was such, that the aid of one, and, if possible, two of them, was neces
sary for carrying on the measures of govemment. That influence, however, has been on
the decline, and there is no prospect of its renewal.
The Reform Bill gave to Ireland only five additional members, and it made no material
change in the returning boroughs ; but, by placing the election in the hands of all house
holders paying 101. annually, it rendered those nominations jpen which had formerly been
made by the small number of individuals composing the corporation.
The naval and mUitary force of the empire in general defends Ireland. There is a com
mander of the forces resident in Dublin ; acting, however, under the orders, not of the lord
lieutenant, but of the British commander-in-chief. The number of regular troops stationed
at different points is always considerable.
The revenue levied in Ireland has never borne the same proportion to her natural resources
as that of England. The rates in all the principal articles of consumption have been lower.
The tax on hearths, however, was found very oppressive ; as it required inquisitorial visits,
and affected the lowest of the people. This and all the other assessed taxes were so irregu
larly levied, that, notwithstanding the discontent excited by them, they did little more than
cover the expenses of collection. For this reason, by a motion of the chancellor of the
exchequer, they were entirely remitted. In 1800 the revenue was 2,684,000Z. and the debt
25,662,000?. At the union, the stipulation was made that Ireland should pay two-seventeenths
of the whole expenditure of the empire; this arrangement has led to a continual increase^
both of debt and revenue. In 1811 the former amounted to 77,382,000?., and the latter to
3,906,900?. In 1830 the revenue was 3,548,822?., and in 1835 it amounted to 4,400,953?.
The particulars for the latter year were : —
Customs  £1,744,764 I Stamps  jE470,5!86
Excise  1,966,531 | Postage, &c  219,372
The public expenditure in 1830 was as follows : —
Charges of funded debt  £1,178,454 I Army  £986,209
Civillist,&c  584,969 | Miscellaneous  747,689
The national debt of Ireland in 1817, when it ceased to form a separate item in the public
accounts in consequence of the consolidation of the British and Irish exchequers, was
134,602,769?. For local and patriotic objects in Ireland, very considerable sums are allowed out of the
public revenue. Of these, for the year 1832, there appear the following :-

Schools and Education  £30,000
Protestant Charity Schools  3,000
Foundling Hospital  26,314
Four other Hospitals  10,045
House of Industry  21,192
Richmond Lunatic Asylum  1,388
Hibernian Marine Society  050

Female Orphan House  £1,833
Roman Catholic College  8,028
Royal Dublin Society  5,300
Belfast Academical Institution  1,500
Nonconforming and other Ministers  24,224
Public Works  33,564
Dunmore Harbour  7,500

Sect. V. — Productive Industry.
Ireland, in this respect, has long presented a painfiil spectacle ; a great proportion of her
people being involved in extreme and squalid poverty. 'The Irish do not want enterprise, or
even industry ; but various causes have combined to degrade them in the scale of improve
ment. Among these the conduct long held by Britain must be considered as prominent;
thus, after other expedients had proved ineffectual, it was prohibited to export woollens to
foreign countries. Similar measures were taken with regard to glass, hops, and every
branch in respect to which any rivalry was apprehended. There was one article, however,
the production of a large surplus of which could by no means be avoided. This was black
cattle and sheep ; but the value of these was effectually cut down by the prohibition to
import them into England, the only accessible market. Under these regulations, all the
exertions of Ireland to better her condition were cramped, and while Britain was making
the most rapid advances, Ireland continued in the same state of depression. However, in
consequence of her spirited efforts at the end of tlie American war, and of the embarrass
ments of the British government, the most odious and pernicious of these restrictions were
repealed. Further advantages were obtained at the time of the Union ; and at present,
every exertion is making to place the two countries in a state of perfect reciprocity. The
consequence has been, that in the course of forty years, Ireland has made a rapid progress
in industry and commerce ; yet some of her greatest evUs are so deeply seated, that they
have scarcely yet begun to give way to the influence of a more auspicious system.
Agriculture has been long in a backward and very depressed state. The fiirms were, for
the most part, small, managed by tho farmer himself and his femily, destitute of capital,
with wretched implcment.>i, and with a pertinacious adherence to all tlie obsolete practices
of a rude iigc. The best yoils exhausted a great portion of their strength in tlirowing up
weeds, which no effective measures were taken to extirpate. The system also of infield and

Book I. IRELAND. 443
outfield was strictly adhered to, the ground being heavily cropped as long as it would yield
any thing, and afterwards of necessity allowed two or three years to recruit. Although
these defects still exist to a considerable extent, yet in all parts of the country, but particu
larly in the east and nortli, improved practices and implements are beginning to be intro
duced. The Irish tenures are long, some of them perpetual, in which case they may be considered
as property, the rent being a mere trifle ; a lease of thirty-one years and three lives is very
common. These long leases are attended with scarcely any of the benefits which might
be naturally expected. As the farmer commences usually without any capital, tmsting for
the payment of the first year's rent to the produce of his ferm, he almost always falls more
or less into arrear, and thus lies at the mercy of his landlord. This would be less pernicious,
were it the landlord himself with whom he had to deal ; but the landlords of Ireland, hold
ing usually properties of immense extent, and being mostly resident out of the country,
cannot or will not undertake the task of dealing with this impoverished multitude of small
tenants. They devolve it upon the intermediate agents and middlemen. The latter, a class
peculiar to Ireland, take a large extent of ground, which they let out in small portions to
the real cultivator. They grant leases, indeed ; but as the tenant, from the circumstances
above mentioned, soon comes under their power, they and the agents treat him with the
greatest harshness, exact personal services, presents, bribes; and draw from the land as
much as they possibly can, without the least regard to its permanent welfare. This system,
whUe it crushes the tenant, is not less injurious to the landlord, into whose coffers there
often passes less than one-half of the sum paid by the tenant. The only use to which the
latter turns his long lease is to divide and subdivide the lands among his chUdren, tUl the
share of each affords only the most miserable aliment, and an overgrown population is fixed
upon the farm. An attempt to let land on a different footing can only be effected by the
ejection of more than half its existing occupants, who in that case are apt to fly to violent
and revengeful courses, so that even a partial endeavour to introduce such improvements
has been a main cause of the existing disturbed state. Another injurious mode is that of part
nership leases, in which a number of persons take a farm jointly, and make it a sort of common
property. Each is allowed to put upon it a certain number of collops ; the collop consisting
of one horse, two cows, or twelve goats. A degrading stipulation is often introduced into
leases, by which the occupant is bound to work for his landlord either without wages, or at
a rate lower than ordinary.
Tithe is one of the evUs of which the Irish cultivator most grievously complains. Al
though it must in all cases fall ultimately on the landlord, yet to take from the cabin of the
peasant the pig which he has reared, or the handful of potatoes which he has raised for the
support of his "family, is an act peculiarly discouraging and irritating. The exemption of
grass lands tends also to discourage tillage. Measures taken by parliament to promote the
commutation of tithes, have been attended with considerable success; and by a late act
arrangements are made by which the church rates, instead of being taken out of the farmer's
produce, are paid by the landlord out of his rent.
The extent of country, and the objects of culture in Ireland, vary considerably from those
of the sister kingdom. Its superficial extent is computed at 12,000,000 Irish, or 19,278,760
English acres. Of this, notwithstanding the considerable amount to be deducted for moun
tain, lakes, and bogs, Mr. Young calculates that there is a greater proportion of productive
land than in England. The soil of Ireland is shallow, consisting most generally of a thin
sprinkling of earth over a rocky ground ; but the copious moisture wafted from the sea,
by which it is everywhere surrounded, produces a quick and rapid vegetation, and in par
ticular a brUliancy of verdure, not equalled perhaps in any other region of Europe. Such
a country is of course highly favourable to pasturage ; and as this pursuit is suited to the im
perfect stages of culture, the rearing of live stock has been long the main staple of Irish
husbandry. Its luxuriant plains are depastured by vast herds of black cattle ; and from this
source is derived the very large quantity of salted provisions shipped from the southem
ports. The number of oxen and cows annually kUled for this purpose was reckoned at
18,000. This trade has considerably decreased since the peace ; but the export of live
cattle is extensively carried on. Great facilities »4iave been lately afforded for it by the
steam packets. The dairy is also a great branch of industry in Ireland. None of its
cheeses, indeed, have acquired a reputation ; but butter of excellent quality is made and
largely exported. Another species of live stock is an essential article to the economy of an
Irish cultivator. The pig usually shares his cabin, and is fed, like himself, on potatoes. It
is too great a luxury to be killed for his own consumption ; but is sold and driven to the ports
to be salted for exportation. Sheep are bred extensively on the mountain tracts, which are
unfit for rearing any other stock. In many places they are bred for the wool and mUk. In
this last respect, however, goats are more productive ; and they are reared in immense quan
titles in the mountain districts in the north. The Irish horses are small, hardy, and capable
of doing much work upon little food. Poultry are fed in great numbers in and around all the
cabins, the interior of which they are admitted to share ; a practice extremely favourable to

444 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part HL
their increase. Great quantities of geese are kept for the sake of the feathers, which are
cruelly plucked from the animals alive. The produce of grain is also large, notwithstanding
the imperfect processes employed in cultivating it. Wheat and barley were little raised tUl
of late, when both the culture and export of the former have been greatly extended. Still
the main objects are oats and potatoes ; the former as the subject of a large export, the
latter as the staple food of a considerable body of the people. The Irish boast of the potatoe,
as if it were nowhere else produced in equal perfection. Compared with grain of any kind,
it certainly affords the means of supporting a greater population upon a given extent of
ground. The scope, however, which it affords for the multiplication of the people in miser
able circumstances, is generally considered by the political economists as one of the causes
of the present distress in Ireland. Flax is also a valuable product of Irish husbandry, afford
ing the material of the linen manufacture. According to a return made to the trustees in
1809, the extent sown was 76,749 acres ; in addition to which, the various little scattered
patches raise the number probably to about 100,000 acres, supposed to produce at an average
about 30 stones per acre ; which, at 10«. 6d. per stone, would make the entire value about
1,500,000?. There is a want of trees in Ireland. The immense forests which some centuries ago
covered a great proportion of its surface, have fallen and been converted in a great measure
into moss or bog. The bogs of Ireland present an extensive obstacle to cultivation. They
are estimated by the parliamentary commissioners at 2,330,000 English acres. From them,
indeed, fuel is supplied to many districts, yet the draining of a large portion would be cer
tainly desirable ; and the commissioners seem to think that, from their generally elevated
position, this might be done with great facUity and advantage. The great quantity of water
beneath these bogs causes often a singular phenomenon, that of moving bogs. Bursting the
surface, the bog inundates the surrounding lands, spreading desolation and barrenness
through its whole course, which in one instance extended no less than twenty mUes.
In respect to manufactures, the state of Ireland cannot be described as flourishing ; a mis
fortune for which she may accuse the oppressive policy of England. One species of febric,
however, she has been allowed and even encouraged to cultivate, and it has attained to a
very considerable magnitude.
The linen manufacture was first introduced by the Earl of Strafford, who brought flax
seed from Holland, and workmen from France and the Netherlands. His attainder, and the
subsequent troubles, suspended the undertaking ; but it was revived by the Duke of Ormond,
who established near Dublin a colony from Brussels, Jersey, and Rochelle, and gave lands
on advantageous terms to those willing to embark in the business. After the Revolution,
the English parliament created a board for the promotion of the linen manufacture, and
granted bounties both on the raising of flax and the export of linen. These- exertions met
with great success ; and the manufacture has become general throughout Ireland, and par
ticularly in Ulster. The following, according to a late parliamentary report, was the
reputed value of brown or unbleached linens sold in the markets of Ireland in the year
1824:— Ulster  £2,109,309
Leinster -  - - - - 192,888
Munster  110,421
Connaught  168,090
Total  £2,580,708
The mode of conducting this manufecture is, however, in several respects, very mde and
imperfect. It is generally practised by individuals holding little spots of ground, the culture
of which they combine with that of weaving. The same person, or at least the same family,
in many cases raises the flax, dresses it, spins it into yarn, and weaves it into cloth. There
is too much anxiety to obtain the greatest possible quantity of yarn out of a given quantity
of flax, without regard to the quality ; and the sorting of the yam, so tliat it may be of an
uniform texture, suited to the kind of linen intended to be woven, is almost wholly neglected.
In some instances, however, it is worked to a most extraordinary degree of fineness. Anne
M'Quillin, in the county of Down, could spin 105 hanks to tlie pound, which would reach
214 English miles. Exertions have lately been made to introduce mill-spinning, which, it
is supposed, would generally improve the quality of yarn, though it could not produce it of
such extreme fineness as some of that spun by the hand. Twenty years ago the mill could
not produce above fifteen cuts to a pound ; now it can make nearly fifty.
The export of linen from Ireland, in the year 1824, amounted in all to 49,491,037 yards,
of which 46,466,9.50 were to Great Britain ; and 3,024,087 to foreign parts. The real value
of the whole was 2,412,858?. Of that sent to Great Britain, 31,314,533 yards were retained
for home consumption ; the rest wero re-exported to the same quarters as Scotch linen. This
great niainifactiire is chiefiy suppofled by its own growth of flax. Ireland, however, im
ports 25,000 tons of lii'iiip IVimi aliroiid, and XiOO from Britain; also about 7500 tons of
linen yarn ; of all which materials the value falls short of 45,000?.

Book I. IRELAND. 445
DistUlation is another branch of industry characteristic of Ireland, but by no means
attended with the same happy effects. It has hitherto been carried on chiefly in defiance
of the revenue and government, and has given birth to a vast system of contraband, equally
destructive of morals and of public order. All the mountains, bogs, and deep valleys of the
north and west abound with illicit stills, in spots where the most diligent search can scarcely
discover them ; and where detected, they can scarcely be seized without the aid of an
armed force. When the troops are seen advancing, concerted signals are made, and the
small light stUls are soon conveyed to a distant quarter. The farmers and proprietors en
courage illicit distUlation as the most ready mode of affording a market for their grain. The
quality of the spirit was long much superior to that produced by the legal distUlers, owing
to restrictions hnposed on the latter ; so that, in selling, it was considered the highest re
commendation that it " never paid duty." The most rigorous laws were enacted in vain, for
they only rendered the people concerned in this practice more desperate and determined.
Of late, however, the duty, as in Scotland, has been reduced and free exportation permitted.
The effect has been remarkable ; the quantity of spirits paying duty, which from 1818 to
1822 varied fi;om 3,000,000 to 4,000,000, rose in 1824 to 7,800,000, and in 1832 to 8,657,000 ;
thus warrantmg a presumption; that the contraband fabrication of this article has been
greatly diminished.
The kUling and salting of beef and pork for sale forms a great branch of Irish commerce.
The beef is packed in three different forms, called planter's beef, India beef, and common
beef; the first two, having the coarse pieces taken out, and charged 4s. additional
per cwt WhUe the export of salt beef has diminished, that of pork has of late been much
extended. The cotton manufacture, since 1822, has spread through Ireland in a very surprising
manner, particularly in the counties of Antrim, Down, Louth, and part of Dublin. The
coarser linen febrics are disappearing before it, and proceeding to the westward and south
ward, retaining still an equal hold of the kingdom in general. More recently this fabric
has rather declined, and linen has regained the ascendency.
The other manufactures are not of primary importance. A great quantity of wool is, in
deed, worked up by the peasantry into frieze, linseys, and flannels, for their domestic use ;
but the oqly fabrics on a great scale, which are those of broadcloth at Carrick-on-Shannon,
and of flannels at Kilkenny, are on the decline. Breweries have been established in the
principal towns, and are rather in a flourishing state.
In the distribution of minerals, Ireland has by no means been neglected ; but some unpro-
pitious circumstances have prevented any of them from being turned to great account. Of
these impediments the most material is the want of a sufficient supply of good coal. The
fuel of Ireland is in general either coal imported from England and Scotland, or the turf
dug out of its immense bogs; but the latter has not ;et been found applicable to the fusion
of metals. From these causes the veins of iron ore, which are very extensively diffused
through the island, have. not yet been turned to any important use. The copper, also of
fine quality, which is found in the counties of Wicklow and Cork, must be sent over to
Swansea to be smelted. The lead, however of Wicklow is worked to a considerable ex
tent with imported coal.
Fishery is a branch of industry for which the extended shores and deep bays of Ireland
would be peculiarly adapted. Nor do the inland waters, the rivers and lakes, less abound in
the species of fish appropriate to them. The diligence of the Irish in taking fish for im
mediate consumption is considerable, being urged on by the frequent abstinence from other
food which their Catholic profession enjoins. Their trout and salmon are distinguished
both for size and taste : the salmon are caught by weirs, stake-nets, and other contrivances,
but with so little precaution that their number kas been sensibly diminished. The curing
of fish has made very little progress, when compared with the opportunities which the
coasts of Ireland afford ; and Ireland cannot come into competition with Scotland.
Commerce. — The manufactured products of Ireland are quite inconsiderable ; she has, how
ever, great facilities for the production of raw materials ; and it is in all respects more suit
able for her, as well as for England, that she should direct her efforts to this department,
and import manufactured articles from Britain, than that she should attempt to enter into an
unequal competition with the latter in manufacturing industry. In 1825 the restraints on
the intercourse between Ireland and Great Britain were mostly abolished ; and owing to this
circumstance, and to the establishment of a regular intercourse by steam packets between
Liverpool, Glasgow, Bristol, and the principal towns on the east and south coasts of Ireland,
the trade between the two countries has been vastly increased. Owing to the circumstance
ot this intercourse being now placed on the footing of a coasting trade, no account has been
kept later than 1825, of the reciprocal imports and exports of each, except in the case of
corn. In 1829, the imports from foreign parts were valued at 1,669,406?. ; in 1831, they were
1,552,228?.; in 1832, they were 1,348,828?. The exports in 1831 were 608,938?. ; in 1832
they were 452,775?. Within the last few years there has been a most extraordinary in-
VoL. I. 38

446

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part Ifl.

crease in the quantity of grain and live stock imported from Ireland into Great Britain. The
former, on an average of 1830 and 1831, amounted to 543,618 quarters of wheat, and
1,563,593 quarters of oats and oatmeal. In 1832, there were imported into Liverpool alone,
338,649 quarters of wheat, value 948,217?. ; 325,720 quarters of oats, 309,434?. ; 14,486
quarters of barley, 24,626?. ; 69,624 cows, 765,864?. ; 149,090 pigs, 484,542?. ; 74,260 sheep,
129,955?.; 24,077 lambs, 24,077?. ; 169,817 loads of meal, 203,780?. ; 177,252 sacks of flour,
407,679?. ; 10,771 bales of bacon, 64,626?. ; 292,830 firkins, 15,861 half firkins, and 10,348
coolies of butter, 819,141?. These, with some minor articles, made up a value of 4,444,.500?.
The imports into London, Bristol, and other ports, may be presumed to be as much more,
and perhaps the whole may not fall short of 10,000,000?. sterling.
The following table exhibits the relative foreign commerce of the principal ports of Ire
land in the year 1824. We add the ships and tonnage belonging to and the amount of cus
toms on each, which a recent report enables us to bring down to 1829 : —

Entered at

Tonnage Entered.

British. Foreign.

Tons. Tone.

Belonging.

Ships. Tonnage.

Belfast 
Cork 
Drogheda. . .
Dublin 
Galway 
Limerick . - .
LondonderryNewry 
Sligo 
Waterford . .
Wexford 

19,123
15,025 890
24,306 540
5,223 3,293
6,705 1,085
7,6001,409

11,992 13,976 420
10,467 2,0203,4895,479
7,612
2,4633,137 232

247256 30
289 19
3932
161 20
76
135

25,00017,0CO 2,300
24,000 800
1,800
4,300 8,000
1,200 7,0006,700

259,000 196,000 12,000
669,000 4,800
85.700
74,000 55,000 1,600
116,000 4,800

The shipping of Ireland is small, compared with that of the sister island. On the 31st
December, 1830, she had 1424 vessels ; the tonnage of which was 101,820, navigated by
7794 men and boys. In 1832 there were built twenty-five ships, of 1909 tons. There were
entered inwards, in 1831, 14,499 ships, of 1,420,382 tons ; outwards, 9801 ships#l,073,.545
tons. Of this were employed in trade with Great Britain, 13,584 ships, and 1,262,221 tons,
inwards; 9029 ships, 921,128 tons, outwards; in foreign trade, 915 ships, 158,161 tons,
inwards ; 772 ships, 152,417 tons outwards.
Canals have been undertaken in Ireland on an extensive scale, but with oiUy a small por
tion of the expected benefit. This seems partly owing to the excessive magnitude of the
plans, and partly to the prevalence of jobbing. The two chief undertakings are the Grand
and the Royal canals, both proceeding from Dublin into the interior. The former, com
menced in 17.56, has, by large advances from government, been completed, at an expense of
upwards of 2,000,000?. It is carried across Kildare and King's County to the Shannon, near
Clonfert. This distance is eighty-seven mUes, which, with a branch to the Barrow at Athy,
one westward to Ballinasloe, and several others, makes an entire lengtii of 156 miles. The
Royal Canal, of nearly the same dimensions, reaches from Dublin through Meath and Long
ford, nearly eighty-three miles, to Tarmonbarry, on the Shannon. The expense was
1,420,000?., whUe the tolls, in 1831, amounted only to 12,700?.
The roads of Ireland have long been excellent. Any person may present a. memorial to
the grand jury of the county, showing the necessity of a new road, and if this presentment
be approved, the work immediately proceeds. Govemment has established mail-coaches to
all the principal towns, and, since the rebellion, has made fine mUitary roads into the interior
of Wicklow; but stage-coaches and other means of conveyance are indifferent
Sect. VI. — Civil and Social State.
The population of Ireland, from its great amount and rapid increase is considered as one
of the chief causes of the severe poverty which presses upon the body of the people. Till
the census of 1821, the data upon which it was calculated were conjectural. Between 1712
and 1726, upon a calculation from the number of houses, at six teahouse, it was represented
as varying from 2,000,000 to 2,300,000. Calculations founded on the produce of tlie hearth
duty gave in 1754, 2,372,000 ; and in 1788, 4,040,040. In 1812, it was estimated at 5,937,000.
In 1821, a census gave 6,801,000. That of 1831 amounted to 7,767,401, of whom 3,794,880
are male, and 3,972,521 female.
The Irish character presents very marked features, many of wliich are amiable, and even
admirable. Hospitality is an universal tniitT nnd is enhanced by the scantiness of the portion
wliich is liberally shared witii tlie si ranger. Tlie Irish are brave, lively, merry, and witty;
and (^veii llie lowest ranks linve n ennrteoiis nnd polite addri'ss. Tliey are celebrated for
warmth of he.-irt, and liir strong ntlneliments of liindred nnd friendship, which leads them, out
of tlieir scanty means, to support tiieir iigi>d relations with tiie purest kindness. Benevo
lence is a distinguishing feature of the higher ranks. They are curious, intelligent, and

Book I. IRELAND. 447
eager for information. With so many good qualities, it were too much to expect that there
should not be some faults. They ai-e deficient in cleanliness ; have little taste for conve
niences or luxuries ; and are destitute of that sober and steady spirit of enterprise which
distinguishes tlie English. The love of fighting seems to be a general infirmity. The fairs,
which, in every town and village of Ireland, are regular and of long duration, afford the
grand tlieatres, first of unbounded mirth, and ultimately of bloody conflict. The Irish do not
fight single-handed, but in bands, and on a great scale. On receiving a supposed injury,
they go round to their companions, friends, and townsmen, and collect a multitude, with
which they make a joint attack on the objects of their wrath. The other blemishes of the
Irish are rather frailties than sins. They are represented as vain, talkative, prompt to speak
as well as act without deliberation: this disposition, with their thoughtless gaiety, betrays
them into that peculiar blunder called a bull, which their neighbours have so long held forth
as a national characteristic. '
The ecclesiastical state of Ireland has been one of the chief causes of its unsettled con
dition. The native Irish did not share in any degree the reformation so unanimously adopted
in England and Scotland. Wlien, therefore, the English church was introduced as the
established religion, it threw out, as dissenters, the bulk of the Irish population. Even of
the protestant part, a large proportion introduced as colonists from Scotland, were attached
to the presbyterian form.
[From a parliamentary paper, it appears that, in 1835, there were, — per cent.
Roman Catholics, -------- - 6,427,712 - 80J
Members of Established Church, ------ 852,064 - - lOJ
Presbyterians,  - - - 642,356 - - 8
Othex Protestants, -------- - - 21,808 - - i
7,943,940.
Although there is here some slight inaccuracy, yet this statement serves to show very
nearly the proportion of the different sects. The places of worship are stated in the same
paper to be, —
Roman Catholics, ................ 2105
Established Church,  1544
Presbyterians, ................. 452
Others, -  - - 403
In 41 benefices there was no member of the Established Church. — Am. Ed.]
The Roman Catholic clergy receive no stipend from govemment, but are entirely sup
ported by their flocks. They are formed, however, into a regular hierarchy, at the head of
which are four archbishops; Armagh (the primate), Tuam, Cashel, and Dublin. Under
them are twenty-two bishops, with a vicar-general, dean, and archdeacon in each diocese.
The number of Catholic griests has been stated at 1400, besides several hundred friars.
Their income arises less from any fixed allowance, than from dues, offerings, and presents ;
and the bishops, to make up their incomes, receive from the parish priests a portion of what
they have collected. Mr. Wakefield has attempted an estimate, according to which,
Christmas and Easter offerings amount to 337,000?. ; marriages produce, in licenses, fees,
and coUections, 78,500?. ; christenings, 12,500?. ; burials, 12,500?. ; in all, 440,500?. Ac
cording to Archbishop Curteis, the income of a bishop is about 500?. a year ; that of a priest
varies from 100?. to 400?. Although a conge is asked from the pope, the real election to
vacant places rests with the clergy themselves ; but as their incomes depend entirely on the
fevour of their hearers, they are subject to a necessity of choosing popular priests, which is
not felt by the established Catholic churches. Hence the influence of the priests, always so
remarkable under the Catholic system, e:!^ists in Ireland to an extent perhaps unequalled.
On the other hand, many, especially among the bishops, are remarked for their exemplary
life, and for the diligent discharge of their functions. They are even sometimes instru
mental in preventing riot, in discovering theft, and procuring restitution. The recent
admission of Roman Catholics to all political privUeges, though it does not make any change
in the condition of the clergy, has been haUed by the body in general with peculiar satisfac
tion. It is hoped that it will either make them more friendly to the established government,
or diminish their influence in estranging from it the minds of the people.
The Presbyterians, as already observed, are nearly confined to tjlster, where they are the
most numerous sect. The synod of Ulster is formed into a sort of establishment, consisting
of 201 congregations, besides which there are 110 congregations in communion with the
Scottish seceders. The ministers receive a royal gift of 14,000?. annually, which aflbrds
from 50?. to 100?. to each. The Presbyterians form the most industrious, thriving, and
intelligent portion of the people; yet a great proportion have imbibed republican ideas, and
they emigrate to America more readily than any other class.

448 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pakt HI.
The Established Church of Ireland is in union with that of England, and every way simi
lar. It consists of four archbishoprics and eighteen bishoprics ; but by an act recently passed,
two archbishoprics are to be converted into bishoprics ; and ten bishoprics are to be abolished.*
The entire revenue of the Irish church has been ascertained to exceed 150,000?. for the
bishoprics, and 715,200?. for other benefices. The lands belonging to the bishops are of far
greater value ; but in consequence of being let on old leases renewed from time to time on
payment of fines, and never coming to a termination, the rent derived from them was greatly
under the real value. It is proposed now to offer these leases to the present incumbent, in
perpetuity, on payment of six years' purchase of their estimated value, which, it is calculated,
will produce about 3,000,000?. A tax, moreover, varying, according to the amount of income,
from five to fifteen per cent., is to be laid on all livings above 200?. ; and its produce to be
applied to the augmentation of the poorer livings, and the buUding of glebe houses and of
new churches. Hence the parochial tax, called the vestry cess, or church rate, amounting
to aboilt 90,000?. a year, is no longer to be levied.
The literature of Ireland in modem times, cannot boast any very distinguished pre-emi
nence ; yet she has maintained her station in the literary world. In wit and eloquence,
indeed, she has excelled both the sister kingdoms. In the former quality, Swift and Sheridan
shine unrivalled ; and in the latter, Burke, Grattan, and Curran have displayed daring and
brilliant flights. In her graver pursuits, Ireland has not been so happy; though Usher
attained the first eminence in theological learning, and Berkeley was the author of a highly
ingenious system of phUosophy.
The Irish establishments for education are scarcely adequate to the magnitude of the coun
try. There is only one university, that of Dublin, founded by Elizabeth on the model of
those of England, but not on so great a scale. Of it and of other Irish literary institutions,
an account will be found under the head of Dublin. As the constitution of this university
is strictly Protestant, and does not allow the teaching of Catholic theology, the students of
that faith must have been all educated abroad, had not govemment endowed for their use
the College of Maynooth. It is supported by a revenue of about 9000?. a year, and contains
a president, vice-president, and eleven professors, all with moderate appointments. The
students receive board and education ; and the whole annual expense of each is not supposed
to exceed 20?. The students of the north resort chiefly to Glasgow for theology, and to
Edinburgh for medicine ; though there has been an attempt to obviate this necessity by the
formation of an institution at Belfast
The education of the poor in Ireland is a subject which excites tho deepest interest in all
the friends of that country. It appears that by the 8th of Henry Viii., every clergjrmEm, on
his induction, becomes bound to keep or cause to be kept an English school. This act,
however, is either obsolete, or so far evaded that only 23,000 chUdren are now taught in
these parochial schools. The greatest effort at Irish education, however, is that made by
the Charter Schools, instituted in 1733, which, by parliamentary grants and private bene-
fections, have enjoyed an income of 30,000?. a year. But this sum, which might almost
furnish schools to the half of Ireland, is spent upon 2000 boys, who receive board as well as
instruction. Although the act recites no other object than isstmction in the English
tongue, proselytism has become almost the sole aim. The Hibernian Society, the Baptist
Society, and that, for discountenancing vice, support schools to a very considerable extent
The Kildare Street Society, established in 1812, founded numerous schools, in which they
endeavoured to induce the Catholics to attend by renoimcing all attempts to gain prose
lytes ; but from the entire Scriptures being road in these schools, and other alleged causes,
the Catholics were supposed to view them with jealousy. The allowance made to this
society was therefore withdrawn, and a new plan instituted, in which the moral and literary
is separated from the religious education, and is communicated to the youth of both religions
during four or five days in the week, whUe, in the remaining period, religious instruction
is expected to be administered by the clergy of the respective churches. Extracts only
from the Scripture, approved by the leading Catholic clergy, are read in the common
* The new arrangement, when completed, will be as follows : Income.
Armagh (with Clogher, Archb.)  £13,170
Meath  5,ffil
Derry (with Raphoe)  8,033
Down (with Connor and Dromore)  5,896
Kilmore (with Ardngh and Elphini  7,478
Tuam (with Killala nnd Achonry)  5,020
DuBi.iM (with GlaridrlUKh and Kildare)  9,321
Ossory (with Leighlin and Ferns)  6,550
Cashel (with Emly, Waterford, and Lismore)  7,354
Cloyric (with Cork and Ross)  .5,009
Klllalo (with Kilfenora, Clonfert, and Kilmacduagli)  4,532
liimericit (with Ardfcrt and Aglmdoe)  5,369
Total  82,953 [Am. Ed.]

Book I. IRELAND. 449
Echixils. Local funds, to a certain extent, are required to be contributed. Although this
system has met with many opponents, yet, in the beginning of 1833 there had been estab
lished under it between 500 and 600 schools, calculated for the education of about 90,000
scholars. In 1824, the number of schools in Ireland was 11,823, and scholars 560,549.
Of these scholars 394,742 paid for their own instruction, and among this number were
307,000 Catholics, who thus showed no small ardour in obtaining the benefits of knowledge.
The following table, from parliamentary documents, shows the number of pupils receiving
public instruction in the years specified. Males. Females. Total
1821  205,606  129,207  394,813
1826  349,912  209,927  568 964*
1834  84,645  60,876  145,521
The fine arts do not appear to have attained any great excellence in Ireland. Her best
painters have sought for patronage in the British metropolis ; and the attempts to establish
an annual exhibition in Dublm have not succeeded. The Irish harp and native Irish melo
dies enjoy considerable reputation. The ecclesiastical structures have not that splendour
and richness which so strongly mark many of those in England ; but the modern edifices,
especially in Dublin, display a taste as well as magnificence which render that capital
almost pre-eminent.
In fimerals, marriages, and similar solemnities, the Irish retain several old national cus
toms. The practice of hired howling women at funerals, called ululates, is very prevalent ;
a considerable sum is paid to those employed, though, in cases of necessity, they howl gratis.
A still more unfortunate custom is that of the wakes, where thirty or forty neighbours
assemble, are entertained with meat and drink, and indulge in every sort of fun. Marriages
in many parts of the country are marked by some real, or at least apparent, violence ; the
bridegroom collects a large party of friends, seizes and carries off the seemingly reluctant bride.
Alluding to this custom, her going to her husband's house, even in ordinary cases, is called
the " hauling home." This is not prompted by any peculiar shyness on the part of the fair
sex ; on the contrary, the mothers, with whom the affair chiefly rests, display even a fever
ish anxiety that their offspring should not remain long in a state of single blessedness. The
fair sex are treated among the higher ranks with a gay and romantic gaUantry ; among the
lower almost as slaves, being subjected to the most degrading labour.
Amusement forms a copious element in the existence of an Irishman. Ample scope is
afforded to the Catholics by their numerous holidays, and the Protestants vie with them in
this particular. The fairs afford a grand theatre for fim of every description. The chief
bodUy exercise is hurling, which consists in driving a ball to opposite goals ; to this are
added horse-racing, cock-fighting, cudgelling, leaping, and dancing ; to say nothing of drink
ing and fighting. The conversation of the Irish is distinguished by loud mirth, seasoned
with a good deal of humour, by singing, and telling long stories. Thus employed, even the
poor will often sit up to a late hour.
The houses of the Irish, if we except those of the rich, or in towns, which are formed
after the English model, are mere hovels formed of earth, taken out of the ground on which
they stand ; whence the floor is reduced at least a foot below the outer level, and becomes a
receptacle for all the superfluous moisture. This is the more incommodious as it has no
boards, and the bed no frame ; nor is the latter raised from the ground, being merely straw
spread upon the floor. This humble mansion is shared by all the living creatures, which the
famUy are able to muster ; cows, pigs, geese, and fowls ; which are rarely separated by any
partition from the other tenants.
No compulsory provision exists in Ireland for the support of the poor ; a circumstance to
which we are inclined to ascribe much of their distressed state, as well as of the backward
state of the country in general. Not being obliged to contribute any thing to their support,
the landlords and occupiers have, generally speaking, manifested great indifference to the
condition of the peasantry. Pew among them have hesitated to allow their estates to be
subdivided into minute portions to advance their political interests, or to obtain an increase
of rent. But it is abundantly certain that they would have paused before venturing on such
a course of proceeding, had they been made responsible, in all time to come, for the paupers
they were thus introducing upon their properties.
The dress of the Irish peasantry consists chiefly of the native wool, worked rudely up
into frieze or linsey ; for they seldom can afford to vvear the fine linen which they fabricate.
But the most prominent feature of this attire among the lowest class, is its lamentable de
ficiency ; in many instances it covers little more than half of the person, and presents an
image of extreme poverty. When this deficiency does not exist, the Irishman loves to dis
play the extent of his wardrobe ; when going to a fair, he puts on all the coats he has, though
the season be midsummer.
The food of the Irish peasant is no less scanty than his dress and habitation. It is almost
* Including 9,125 not ascertained.
Vol. L 38* 3G

450

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY

Part HI.

wholly comprised in the potato, without any other vegetable (for he is a stranger to the
luxury of a garden), and only in favourable circumstances is it accompanied with milk. This
food, however, is sufficient to preserve him in full health and vigour. In the north, the use
of oatmeal in the form of cakes and pottage has been derived from Scotland.
Sect. VH. — Local Geography.
Ireland is divided into four provinces, or rather regions : LeJnster in the east, Munster in
the south, Connaught in the west, and Ulster in the north. This is independent of the
minuter English division into counties, a number of which are comprised in each of the
four provinces. These last, indeed, when Ireland was ruled by native governments, formed
separate kingdoms. They are still distinguished by marked boundaries, by a different aspect
of nature, and by a considerable variation of manners and customs.
The following table exhibits the leading provincial statistics of Ireland. The population
statements differ considerably from those hitherto published ; but they have been furnished
by Mr. Porter, of the Board of Trade as the result of the latest and most accurate digest of
the retums for 1831.

Provinces and
Counties.
Leinster.
Dublin 
Louth 
Meath 
Wicklow. ..
Wexford . . .
Longford. ..
WestmeathKing's Co.
(iueen's Co,
KildareKilkenny . .
Carlow

Ulster.
Down.. ..

Improved

Unim
proved Acres.

Estimated Annual Value.

Cities and Towns, witb (heir FopoMioiL

221 173
512
486 535209 361440367369
469 214

237,819 191,345
561,527
400,704 545,079 192,500313,935
394,569335,838 325,988
417,117 196,833

10,81214,916 5,600
94,000 18,500
55,24755,982
133,349 60,97266,447
96,569 23,030

£
250,211 164,763
510,414296,822395,134 151,595
251,063 317,019277,767255,082437,693164,895

35,74021,302
27,942 17,289
29,159 18,987
23,01522,56423,105 16,478
29,789 13,028

380,167 124,846
176,826
121,557182,713112,558
136,872 144,225
145,851108,424193,686 81,988

Dublin 
Drogheda ....
Trim 
Wicklow ....
Wexford 
Longford ....
Enniscortby .
Mullingar . . .
Philipstown .
TuUamore . . .
PortarlingtonAthy 
Kildare 
Kilkenny 
Carlow 

204 155
17!365 Dundalk 
2,470 2,046 Arklow 
8,326 3,783 New Eosa . . .
3,557
4,100 Atldone 
1,931 Birr 
5,517 2,877 Maryborough
3,693 Naas 
1,516
23,741 8,035

9,256
3,808 4,475

11,362 5,406

2,6773,073

4,113,260

635,424

3,472,460

278,398

1,909,713

Antrim —
Londonderr.
Donegal . . .
FermanaghCavan 
Monaghan .
Armagh. .. .
Tyrone . • ¦ .

Munster,
Clare 
Kerry 
Cork 

Waterford Tipperary.

Limerick.

ConnaughL
Leitrim . . . .
Sligo 
Mayo 
Galway 

544605479
1,061 440 478280283724

502,677483,106 372,667520,736320,599431,462309,968
267,317550,820

108,569
235,970 136,038
644,371 101,953 30,000 9,336
42,473
171,314

489,123 569,159 310,962349,501
259,291 307,741
212,581 178,955
528,065

59,747 48,028 34,691
44,80023,585 34,148
33,378 36,260
47,164

335,615 222,012289,149 149,763227,933 195,536
220,134 304,468

Newry 
Donnaghadee Belfast 
Antrim 
Londonderry.Ballyshannon Enniskillen..
Cavan 
Monaghan. ..
Armagh 
Omagh 

10,013 Downpatrick 4,123
2,795
53,000 2,485 9,313 3,831
2,3992,3«J 3,738 8,493
2,095 Dungammon. 3,243

I Carrickfergus 8,706
; Lisbum'  4,684
I Colerain"  4,851
Lifford  976

4,894

3,749,352

1,469,933

3,305,378

359,801

2,286,622

744
1,012

1,638

410 867

604

524,113581,189

1,068,803

353,247819,658

588,843

259,584552,862

700,760

118,034 182,147

91,981

441,293344,616

1,203,926

295,364 886,539

629,932

35,373
35,597

114,459

23,860
55,297

42,409

258,322263,136810,732

177,054
402,563

315,355

Ennis  6,701
Tralee  7,547 Killamey  7,014
Dingle  4,988
Cork  107,016 Bandon  10,179
Kinsale  7,068 Youghal  8,969
Fermoy  6,702 Mallow  4,114
Waterford . . . 28,831 Lismore  2,330
Clonmel  15,590 Cashel  6,548
Tipperary... 6,348 Carr.-on-Suir 7,466
Roscrea  5,239
Limerick  66,554

5,375

3,935,853

1,905,368

3,801,670

306,995 2,227,152

Roscommon

400 386
1,3351,546 541

366,640257,217871,984955,713
453,455

128,167 168,711
435,124 476,957 131,063

210,187227,443550,018868,794 379,628

21,762 27,059
53,051 58,137 37,399

141,534 Carrick-on-Sh. 1,673
171,765 Sligo .
366,328 Castlebar  5,404
414,684 Galway  33,130 Tuam .
Ballinasloe . . 1,811
249,613 Roscommon . 3,015

4,571

4,108

1,330,033

2,236,070

1,343,914

»18,633 14,603,473 5,340,736 12,715,578 1,142,603|7,767,401

SuDSECT. 1. — Leinster.
Leinster is the richest and most cultivated of the four great divisions, and, as containing
the seat of government, the most important theatre of political events. Though the sur
face be level to a great extent, it is not destitute of considerable ranges of mountains. These
[* This is tho Irish milo of 40 to a degree. Tho area has already been stated to be 30,000 English square miles
-Am. Eb.]

Book I.

IRELAND

451

include almost the whole county of Wicklow, whose bold and picturesque summits are seen
even from Dublin. In the interior, the long range of Slieve-Bloom stretches towards the
borders of Munster. A considerable part also of the midland counties is covered by the
great bog, which crosses the whole centre of Ireland. After all deductions, however, there
remains a large extent of level land, fit either for tillage or pasturage. This is the part of
Ireland where wheat is grown to the greatest extent, oats being elsewhere almost the only
grain ; and its rich pastures supply the capital with cattle and the products of the dairy.
Leinster comprises the counties of Dublin, Kildare, King's county. Queen's County,
Wicklow, Carlow, Kilkenny, Wexford, Meath, Westmeath, Longford, and Louth.
The county of Dublin owes its distinction almost exclusively to its containing the capital
of Ireland. The city of Dublin disputes with Edinburgh and Bath the reputation of being
the most beautiful city m the empire. If the brick of which the houses are built impair the
effect of the general range of its streets and squares, its public buildings, composed of stone,
surpass in grandeur and taste those of any of its rivals. There is no period of Irish record
in which Dublin was not an important place. It is mentioned by Ptolemy under the name
of Eblana. The Danes, in the ninth century, made it their capital, and enclosed it with a
wall about a mile in length, the course of which may still be traced. As soon as the Eng
lish began to establish themselves in Ireland, its proximity induced them to make it their
head-quarters ; it grew with the improvement of Ireland and the extension of the English
sway, but all its splendour has arisen within the lotst sixty or seventy years. The numerous
streets and squares formed during that period have been built on a regular plan, and contain
several superb mansions, which once belonged to the principal nobles. The squares are par
ticularly admired ; that of St. Stephen's Green is nearly seven furlongs in circuit ; Merrion
Square, which contains the splendid mansion of Leinster House ; Rutland Square, in the
interior of which are the gardens of the Lying-in Hospital ; and Mountjoy Square, are also
spacious and finely laid out. Of the streets, the finest is Sackville Street, 170'feet wide,
and adomed with many splendid mansions. To the west is the old town, now bearing marks
of decay, and stUl ferther west is the tract called " the Liberty," as being out of the juris
diction of the magistrates. It is inhabited only by the lowest orders, and exhibits scenes of
filth and wretchedness not to be paralleled in any city of the sister island. A room fifteen
feet square is frequently let to three or four families ; and one house was ascertained to have
lodged 108 persons. Dublin has been " shorn of its beams" since the Union ; when the
nobles and gentry, no longer called to attend parliament, transferred their own residence to
the metropolis of the empire, and their Dublin mansions have been converted to humbler pur
poses. The Castle, the residence of the lord lieutenant, is extensive ; but its architectural
beauty is almost confined to a modern Gothic chapel. The cathedral of St Patrick (fig. 212.),
and Christ Church have a venerable aspect ; but they can rank only secondary to the fine
212 structures in the English cities. The splendid
structure, formerly the parliament-house of Ire
land, and now the national bank (fig. 213.),
213

St. Patrick's Cathedral. Bank of Ireland, Dublin.
was buUt between 1729 and 1739 ; but an eastern front was added in 1785, and a westem
front shortly after. The portico is 147 feet in length, supported by lofty Ionic columns ; the
whole covering an acre and a half of ground. The Royal Exchange (fig. 214.), forms a
square of 100 feet, and its principal front has a richly decorated portico of six Corinthian
columns. The Four Law Courts, situated on the north bank of the river (fig. 215.), form
,«^ 215
214 ^^^...^Ti:.  T 
>... " ^ ,1 -llj.il

Exchange, Dublin.

Four Cour(3, Dublin.

452 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part IH.
also one of the noblest structures in Dublin : it consists of a square of 140 feet, presenting a
front of six Corinthian pillars, supporting a circular lantern and magnificent dome. The
quay is ornamented by the Custom-house, of which the front is entirely of Portland stone,
embellished with a Doric colonnade, and extending 375 feet The Post Ofiice, in Sackville
Street, is extensive and magnificent, with a front of 223 feet, adorned with an Ionic portico
of Portland stone ; the main structure is of granite. In the centre of SackvUle Street, is
the monument erected to Nelson ; an object by no means ornamental. The inns of court,
the theatre, the half-finished Roman Catholic metropolitan chapel, and several other churches
and chapels, with many of the hospitals, may be mentioned as adding to the architectural
splendour of Dublin. All the usual associations for the relief of distress are supported on a
liberal scale, and great zeal is shown in favour of all institutions for the promotion of know
ledge. Trinity College was founded in 1593 ; and its students amount to 1600. There are
25 fellowships, and the livings in the gift of the university, which are considerable in num
ber and value, are offered to the fellows in the order of seniority. The gradations of
rank, amongst the fellows in Trinity College, are indicated by a different dress and table.
The library contains 100,000 volumes ; but its other collections are not equal to those of the
Dublin Society. Usher, Swift, Berkeley, Chandler, Leland, Pamell, Burke, Grattan, Curran,
with other distinguished characters, are mentioned as pupUs of this seminary. The buUdings
of the College are on a large scale, divided into three quadrangles, for the accommodation
of the fellows and pupils. The front towards College Green extends 300 feet, and is adomed
with columns of the Corinthian order. The library forms a fourth quadrangle, built of hewn
stone, with a rich entablature ; and the principal room, 210 feet long and 41 feet broad, is
elegantly fitted up. At a short distance from town is a botanic garden. The Royal Dublin
Society, incorporated in 1749, for the promotion of husbandry and the usefiil arts, has a
botanic garden ; a museum of natural history ; a school for drawing, with models ; and
teaiihers in all these departments. The Royal Irish Academy, incorporated in 1782, has
published many volumes of Transactions. The Dublin Institution has been formed on the
model of that of London, and a city Library established. Although a great literary spirit
prevails in Dublin, there are few books printed there, and the art of printing is in a back
ward state. The works of Irish authors issue from the London presses. Dublin has very
little foreign trade ; but she has a considerable trade with England, particularly with Liver
pool. The bay is spacious, and has good anchorage ; but the entrance is beset with formida
ble sand-banks, particularly those called the North and South Bulls, which cannot be passed
by large vessels at low water ; so that vessels embayed at that time of the tide, and attacked
by strong easterly gales, can scarcely escape being driven upon one of them. To avert these
evils, a double wall has been constructed three miles in length, composed of enormous blocks
of granite, dovetailed into each other, the interval filled with gravel ; and a light^house
erected at the end. Another pier of great extent has been buUt at Dunleary, now Kings
town, on the southern side of the bay, which is connected by a raUway with the capital.
To these advantages Dublin unites that of being placed at the termination of the Grand
Canal on the south, and the Royal Canal on the north, which penetrate by different lines to
the Shannon and the interior of Ireland. In 1829, Dublin paid the sum of 660,000/. of duty
on imported goods, while that paid at all the other ports of Ireland amounted only to 910,000i.
The environs are celebrated for their beauty. The vast number of vUlas and vUlages which
cover the adjacent districts, and are rendered conspicuous by the ground sloping down to the
bay ; the foreground of the Dublin mountains, and the picturesque summits of those of
Wicklow in the background, render the situation striking and delightfal. To the west,
Phoenix Park, a royal demesne of several mUes in circumference, affords an agreeable pro
menade, and has lately been adomed with an obelisk, 210 feet high, in honour of the Duke
of Wellington. The rest of the county contains only viUages, and the interior possesses few
interesting objects. The shores of the bay, however, include many striking sites ; and the
view from the Hill of Killiney is almost matchless.
Wicklow is in general composed of bog, forest, and mountain, and contributes little to the
wealth of Ireland. It is, however, celebrated for picturesque beauty. Its coast, diversified
by hills, broken into glens, and richly wooded, is almost covered with the seats of the gentry
and opulent citizens of Dublin. These variegated and embellished grounds, having on one
side the expanse of the Irish Channel, and on the other the lofty mountains in Uie interior,
produce a number of beautiful sites. The demesne of Powersconrt is pre-eminent, tlie water
fall (fig. 216.), descending 360 feet down a steep hill, amid vast hanging woods. The interior
of the county presents features of a very different description ; glens between lofty mountains,
naked and desolate. Among these is Glendalough (fig. 217.), which is surrounded by a most
majestic circuit of mountains, and contains some remarkable ecclesiastical monuments attri
buted to St Kevin, a great patron saint of Ireland in the seventh century. One of his disci
ples founded at Glendalough a little city, long celebrated as a seat of religion and learning.
Only its site can now be traced ; but there are distinct remains of seven churches, among
which the cathedral and St Kevin's kitchen are tlie most entire. Loughs Dan and Bray,

Book I.

IRELAND.

453

216

situated in the bosom of the wildest mountains, and enclosed by dark and lofty rocks, present
nature under an aspect the most rudely sublime. Wicklow has veins of copper and lead :
gold was collected in one year to the value of 10,000Z. ; but the vein was soon exhausted.
The towns of Wicklow and Arklow, though well
buUt, are inconsiderable ; yet the latter, at the
mouth of the Ovoca, has a little trade, and was once
the residence of the kings of Ireland. It was the
scene of a memorable action in 1798, when the in-
217

Poweracourt Waterfall Glendalough
surgents, above 30,000 strong, were defeated by a small British detachment.
Wexford, to the south of Wicklow, is separated from it by a range of mountains ; but
the interior contains a great deal of level land, in which agriculture is pursued with greater
dUigence, and the tenantry are more comfortable, than in most other parts of Ireland. Barley
is a prevailing crop. The woodlands also are extensive and valuable. Wexford is a place
of some consequence, with a harbour much obstructed by sand ; yet it carries on some trafiic.
Some woollens are made both at Wexford and Enniscortby. New Ross, in the western part
of the county, is a flourishing town, on the Barrow, which admits of large ships coming up
to its quay.
Kilkenny, a fine and extensive county, separated from Wexford by the Barrow, is watered
not only by that river, but by its tributaries the Nore and the Suire. These streams carry
off the superfluous moisture, and prevent the formation of bog or marsh to any extent Kil
kenny, being chiefly level, or intersected only by hills of moderate height, is composed
almost entirely either of arable or fine pasture land. The latter is employed in extensive
dairies, but the system of cultivation is still imperfect. Kilkenny, the capital, advantage
ously situated on the Nore, is partly buUt of the marble of the surrounding quarries. Its
cathedral is one of the finest in Ireland, and the castle, with its remaining gates and bastions,
exhibits indications of that strength which enabled it to hold out against Cromwell longer
than any. other city in Ireland. At present Kilkenny flourishes by inland trade, and by a
manufactory of blankets and other woollens. The foreign trade of the county is carried on
by Waterford.
Carlow is encompassed by mountains, which however enclose a champaign tract of great
beauty and fertility, equally fit for tillage and pasture, and producing the best butter in Ire-
leind. The town of Carlow is a considerable place, distinguished by an abbey and castle,
both of great antiquity. The town has a manufactory of coarse woollens, and carries on a
considerable trade down the Barrow. An extensive Catholic seminary has lately been
founded here.
Queen's County and King's County form a table-land of moderate elevation. Part of the
great chain of bogs crosses these counties, and renders a large proportion of them unpro
ductive, though it supplies them with cheap and abundant fuel. The remaining surface is
highly fertile. Queen's County is situated along the heads of the Barrow and the Nore ;
King's County reaches to the Shannon; and both communicate by canals with Dublin.
Portarlington, on the borders of the two counties, is a well-buUt place, with good schools,
and the residence of a considerable number of gentry. Tullamore, on the great canal, and
Birr or Parsonstown, are the most thriving towns in King's County.
KUdare, with the exception of abdut a sixth part of bog, forms a plain of the finest arable
soU, well cultivated, and whence the capital is chiefly supplied with grain. The Grand and
Eloyal Canals, which both cross its northern border, afford the means of ready conveyance
to Dublin. Kildare-town, presenting a lofty round tower and some other vestiges of past
unportance, is only supported by the races held on the curragh of Kildare, an expanse of
several thousand acres of the very finest turf Naas and Athy are larger towns, and the
castle of the former bears testimony to the period when it was the residence of the kings

454 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pakt HI.
of Leinster. In this county is Maynooth, a small town containing the college established
by government for the education of the Roman Catholics.
Meath is one of the most favoured counties of the kingdom in respect to soU. Its rich pas
tures support vast herds of black cattle, which supply the markets of the capital, and are ex
ported to England. The products of the dairy are abundant, though not of very superior
quality. Trim, where the assizes are held, is a small town ; Navan and Kells are larger.
Louth, though the smallest in area of any Irish county, is one of the first in point of natu
ral and acquired advantages. An active spirit of improvement has brought almost every
part of its excellent soU under cultivation. Its linen manufacture produces chiefly dowlas
and sheetings, with some cambric. Louth presents many samples of the earthen mounds
called raths. Dundalk, the capital of the county, is ancient, populous, and fiourishing. It
has been the theatre of important historical events ; but its lofty towers and castles are now
demolished, and have given place to comfortable dwellmgs. The town consists chiefly of
one large and broad street, whence many lanes are seen diverging. It is the only place in
Ireland where the cambric manufacture has been introduced, and continues to flourish.
Drogheda, at the mouth of the Boyne, was of stUl greater importance as a mUitary station,
being considered one of the keys of Ireland. In the great rebellion of 1641, it stood a long
siege, but was afterwards taken by Cromwell, who punished its resistance by a most barba
rous massacre of the garrison. In 1690, two mUes above Drogheda, was fought the battle
of the Boyne, that memorable field which established the civil and religious liberties of the
empire. The fortifications are of obsolete structure, and are commanded on several sides.
The place has an excellent harbour, and extensive commerce in grain brought down the
river m considerable quantities for exportation ; in return for which, coals and other commo
dities are imported.
Westmeath and Longford, reaching westward as fer as the Shannon, consist chiefly of a
very extensive plain considerably encumbered with lakes, bogs, and morasses, and subject in
part to the overflowing of the Shannon, but including fertUe tracts of great extent. Ath
lone, the largest inland town of Ireland, is situated partly in Westmeath and partly in Ros
common. It is memorable for its resistance to General Ginkle in 1691, previous to the battle
of Aughrim, and is stUl considered an important military station. It is divided by the Shan
non into two parts united by a bridge. With this exception, these provinces contain only
small country towns and large viUages. Mullingar, in Westmeath, has a considerable trade.
Longford is the capital of the county of that name.
Subsect 2. — Munster.
Munster includes the south and south-west of Ireland, and, though not the most extensive
division of the kingdom, is one of those which presents the boldest and most striking fea
tures. Most of the great mountain chains of Ireland traverse Blunster ; among which are
conspicuous the Galties and the mountains of Kerry, which encircle KUlarney ; so that, not
withstanding the almost boundless plains of Limerick and Tipperary, and the level character
of a great part of Cork, it may be considered as a mountainous region. It has manufectures,
though not on so great a scale as those of the north ; and its commerce is very considerable,
chiefly in the export of salted provisions. The Catholic religion prevails, with little inter
mixture of that of the English church. Munster is divided into larger and less numerous
portions than Leinster ; its counties are Tipperary, Waterford, Cork, Kerry, Limerick, and
Clare. Tipperary, extending over almost the whole frontier of Leinster, is crossed by a long
chain of mountains called variously Slieve-Bloom, the Devil's Bit, and other uncouth names ;
and on the south it includes part of the Galties. On the north a small portion of the great
central bog extends across the county ; but one district, along the upper course of the Suire,
bears the appellation of the Golden Vale. The sheep and horned cattle are of excellent
quality. There are manufectures, chiefly for domestic use ; and some coal,- simUar to that
of Kilkenny. Clonmel, the county town, is one of the most considerable in the interior of
Ireland : it stood a long siege against Cromwell, who after its reduction demolished the strong
walls and castles by which it was defended. It is a well-built town, with four streets cross
ing each other, and carries on a brisk inland trade. Cashel is a large and handsome city,
the seat of an archbishop, to whose residence a considerable library is attached. In ancient
times, it was the capital of the kings of Munster, of whose palace some remnants may stUl
be tracotl. Noble fragments remain of tho ancient cntlicdral, majestically seated on tlie
summit of a precipitous rock. The clioir and nave, 210 feet long, are strewed with tlie re
mains of its rich ornaments. Here was deposited the Lia Palo, or fetal stone, on which the
kin^'H of Munster wero crowned. The structure is now abandoned to decay, and a modern
cathedral of fine Grecian arcliiti^rtnre has bren substituted. Cashel contains remains of
other monastic edificos, of wliich I lure Abbey, on the same rock with tlie catiiedral, is a
magniftcttnt spccimc^n, stUl alnuist entire.
Waterford is a mountiiinous county, and only a small portion is under cultivation; tha

Book I.

IRELAND.

455

chief branch of rural industry is the dairy, and great quantities of butter are salted for ex
portation. Waterford, its capital, one of the principal sea-ports of the empire, being placed
at tlie confluence of the Barrow and Suire, the second and third rivers of Ireland, enjoys a
most extensive intercourse with the interior. The quantity of beef, pork, butter, and grain
exported to England, in 1831-2, was valued at 2,065,861Z. ; of" which bacon was 547,000Z. ;
butter, 538,000Z. ; wheat and flour, .566,000?. ; oats, 128,000?. ; live pigs, 117,000Z. The
southern packet communication with England is carried on from Waterford to Milford Haven.
Within these few years, seventy vessels have been fitted out for the Newfoimdland fishery.
Waterford enjoys the benefit of a deep and spacious harbour, and a fine quay half a mile
long. Its ecclesiastical monuments are of considerable magnitude, and it has an elegant
modern cathedral, with other fine public edifices. Twenty mUes to the west, on a small
bay, is Dungarvan, the largest fishing town in Ireland ; and its antiquity is attesteti by a cas
tle and several monastic remains. Lismore, on the Blackwater, is now deserted ; but its castle,
erected by King John, in 1185, still presents marks of ancient grandeur, and has been lately
repaired. Cork is the largest county of Ireland. On the northern border is the lofty range of the
Galties, which present many picturesque features, and command extensive and beautiful
prospects ; its western border partakes of the mountainous character of the neighbouring
districts of Kerry ; and the rocky shores and headlands washed by the waves of the Atlantic,
are of an awful and terrific character. About a fifth of the county consists of mountain and
bog ; the rest is only traversed by hills of moderate elevation, enclosing fertile and often
beautifiil valleys, especially that along the river and bay. The style of culture is altogether
Irish ; in small farms, by poor tenants, chiefly by the spade, and potatoes the prevailing crop.
The manufactures consist of saUcloth, coarse linens and woollens. There are also some
extensive distilleries.
Cork, the great southern emporium of Ireland, has a population of 107,000 ; being, in point
of wealth and magnitude, the second city in the island. Its monastic structures, once con
siderable, have almost entirely disappeared. Its great prosperity is modern, in consequence
of the provision trade, of which it has become the chief mart. The river Lee, at its junc
tion with the sea, forms the spacious enclosed hay, called the Cove of Cork, composing one
of the finest harbours in the world. In consequence of its convenient situation, the West
India bound fleets usually touch there, and take in provisions. The export of salted beef
and pork has somewhat diminished since the peace ; but that of provisions in general, and
particularly grain, has been greatly augmented ; and Cork, on the whole, is in a very
flourishing and prosperous state. A great part of the old town consists of miserable and
crowded alleys ; but a number of handsome new streets have been built, and several chan
nels branching from the Lee, which flowed through the city, and were detrimental to the
health of the inhabitants, have been filled up. Cork has a literary institution, with the usual
appendages of library, lectures, and botanic garden ; and it supports the charitable estab
lishments usual in great cities on a liberal scale.
Kinsale, on a fine bay at the mouth of the Bandon, was much more frequented than Cork
by the early English monarchs, who bestowed on the place extensive privileges, and viewed
it as the key of southern Ireland. It has now, however, sunk under the superior importance
of its neighbour ; and it is chiefiy supported by a fishery. Youghal, at the mouth of the
Blackwater, has a good harbour, though obstructed by a bar ; and carries on some trade and
manufacture. Kerry presents an assemblage of mountains wild, rocky, and desolate. These are inter
spersed with valleys and narrow plains which are almost wholly employed in pasturage ; and
Kerry has a small breed of cows, which yield plenty of excellent milk. Its coast is broken
into several very deep bays, particularly those of Dingle, Kenmare, and Tralee. A considerable
quantity of herring is caught in these bays. Tralee, the county town, exhibits the remains
„..„ of a strong castle, once the residence of
the Earls of Desmond, when, under the
title of Palatine, they exercised the real
Sf?'.^ '- sovereignty over this part of Ireland ; a
jl^^sa^^^^^pigiBlj,^ sway which terminated with their attain-
.irj., "J* ¦ -^ jjA'^^^^^^^^^^^m/j ^^^ under the reign of Elizabeth.
~^'^^<-l'^-Si>-,tr''*^^^^^^^^^^^/3^ Killamey and its lakes, as to scenery,
'^^^¦^_ ^"^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ have no rival in Ireland. There is only
' "¦''^¦"' -^^^^^^^^^^^g one body of water, to which, however,
¦ .^^^^^^^M^^& the term lakes is usually applied; so
____ ... 'S^^^^^^^^^^^^ completely is it divided into three bays
-.-ri'""'*''-^ j""" '^^^^^gz^i^^^'^ united only by narrow straits, and pre-
Lakes of Killamey. senting each a different aspect The lower
lake, immediately adjoining Killamey
(Jig. 218.), forms the main expanse of water, and presents all the features on the greatest

456 scale.

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part. HI.

On the eastern shore rise the mountains known by the name of MacgUlicuddy's
Reeks, the highest of which rises to 3400

219

MucrusB Abber.

feet, the most elevated point in Ireland.
On this side also are the mountains of
Tomies and Glena, with their immense
forests. Near the westem bank is the
beautiful island of Innisfallen. At the
most southern point of the lower lake a
much smaller bay branches off from it,
through channels formed by Dinis Island.
This bay, called Turk Lake, is over
hung on one side by the precipitous
sides of the lofty mountain of that
name, and bordered on the other by
the long wooiied and winding penin
sula of Mucruss. The venerable ruin
of Mucruss Abbey (fig. 219.) adds
greatly to the interest of this part of the
scenery. Prom Dinis Island, a long
winding channel of more than two miles leads to the Upper Lake. The scenery seen in
this passage is of surpassing grandeur and beauty. The most striking spot is at the Eagle's
Crag (fig. 220.), a stupendous and
"^^ rugged cliff, which bursts suddenly
on the view, rising in a pyramidal
form from the water. Throughout
all the rocks of Killamey, but here
most particularly, the effect of echoes
is most powerfiil and striking. The
Upper Lake, the least extensive but
the most sublime, exhibits all the lof
tiest mountains under the most im
posing point of view. Its shores are
winding and varied with numerous
islands, whose rocky sides contrast
with the brilliant green of the ar
butus. The ascent of the highest
mountains, Mangerton to the north,
and Gheran Tual, the highest of the reeks to the south-east, discloses awfiil ranges of rugged
precipices and of dark and rocky ravines ; and their summits command an astonishing view
of the mountain glens and rocky shores of Kerry, and the expanse of the Atlantic, and the
distant plains of Cork and Limerick.
Limerick is one of the finest counties of Ireland. Its borders include some branches from
the high mountains of Kerry and Tipperary ; but the main body consists of a fertUe plain.
An alluvial tract, two or three miles broad, along the Shannon, is quite exuberant That
noble river, now expanded into an estuary or bay sixty mUes in length, runs along the whole
northern border of Limerick.
The city of Limerick, now outstripped by Cork, is the third in Ireland Its situation, in
the centre of the grand internal navigation of the kingdom, secures to it an extensive trade ;
and the largest vessels can ascend to the harbour. Limerick is one of the great marts for
the export of grain and provisions ; the value of those shipped from it in 1831, having been
estimated at 854,600?. It was anciently the strongest fortress in Ireleuid, antl has always
stood out to the last extremity for the Catholic cause. Ireton, Cromwell's lieutenant re
duced it only after a long siege, aided by a party within the place. In 1690-1, it stood two
long sieges, and yielded only upon those advantageous terms called the " capitulation of
Limerick." Its capture was considered as closing the contest in support of the Stuarts. At
this day, not more than a twelfth part of the population of Limerick is protestant The
spacious monasteries are almost entirely demolished ; the streets are narrow, crowded, and
gloomy ; but since the fortifications were demolished, they have been carefully widened. In
a quarter built by Lord Perry, and bearing his name, they are spacious and regular ; and the
houses, though only of brick, built in the most handsome modern style. The assembly-rooms,
theatre, and other modern structures, are elegant and commodious.
Clare county is a wild, hilly, romantic district, abounding witli fine creeks and harbours,
but without commerce, and with mines of lead, iron and coal, which have not been turned to
account. More than half the surface consists of mountain, bog, and waste ; its hills, how
ever, support numerous flocks of sheep, the wool of which is of superior quality. The plains
on tho banks of tlio Shannon and the Fergus vie in fertility with any in tlie kingdom. Ennis,
tho capital, is situated on tlic banks of the last-mentioned river, by which it communicates

Eagle's Crag.

Book I IRELAND 457
with the Shannon. It is considerable, though irregularly buUt ; and its abbey, in the purest
style of Gothic architecture, is considered the finest in Ireland.
Subsect. 3. — Connaught.
Connaught forms a great peninsula, the most westerly part of Ireland, extending from tho
Shannon to the Atlantic. This division is of all others the most decidedly Irish, having
continued unsubdued long after the English kings claimed the proud title of lords of the
island. It still contains fewer English inhabitants ; the religion is more universally Catholic ,
industry and manufectures have made less progress, and all the imperfect agricultural im
plements and processes are in more general use. Disturbances, however, have never taken
place here to so great an extent as in Munster and Leinster. Its shores are penetrated by
deep and extensive bays, forming some of the finest harbours in the world. The counties in
Connaught are Galway, Mayo, Sligo, Roscommon, and Leitrim.
Galway presents to the sea ranges of steep cliffs, which, with the waves of the Atlantic
dashing against them, exhibit a grand spectacle. The interior contains two extensive lakes,
and is diversified with hUls, though there are few which are not fit for pasturage. The cattle
are of good quality, and the flocks of sheep are more extensive than in other parts of Ireland.
The fisheries of herring and salmon are considerable. Galway has always been a consider
able town, and is stUl supported by some inland and foreign commerce, by a considerable
fishery, by the resort of the gentry to it for sea-bathing, and as the only scene of gay society
to be found in Connaught. It was once very strongly fortified both by nature and art ; and
to obtain the protection of the walls, the streets were made narrow, and the houses high,
massive, and gloomy ; but they have of late been considerably opened, and suburbs buUt, of
a more gay and elegant description.
Tuam is an ancient, handsome town, of considerable extent, the seat of an archbishopric.
Ballinasloe, on the eastem border, holds the greatest cattle fair in Ireland, where the oxen
and sheep of the peistoral counties of Galway and Mayo are mustered for the capital. At
the mouth of the bay of Galway are the bold and rocky islands of Arran.
Mayo is chiefiy elevated and rugged ; some of the mountains rising to upwards of 2600
feet ; but many of their sides are verdant, and the valleys rich and well watered ; so that
Mayo is a fine pastoral county. The estates are large, but the farms small, and much sub
divided. Mayo contains no town of suflicient importance to return a member to parliament.
Castlebar, the county town, is well buUt, with a linen hall ; and the linen manufacture
flourishes. Killala, a straggling village, on a bay of the same name, is chiefly noted for tha
landing effected in 1798, by a body of Prench troops under General Humbert, who pene
trated to Castlebar, hut were finally obliged to surrender to Marquess Cornwallis.
Sligo contains a considerable quantity of bog ; but the remainder consists of a sandy
gravelly soil, well adapted to the production of barley and oats ; so that pasturage is not so
exclusively the employment here as in the two last-mentioned counties. Salmon is caught
in large quantities. The linen manufacture has made considerable progress, and is extend
ing. Sligo, the capital, at the mouth of the river and the head of the bay of the same name,
was in early times a considerable place : it has suffered severely in civil contention ; yet, by
the advantage of a good situation and harbour, it has attained considerable importance and
trade. In the vicinity is a remarkable circle of stones, called the Giant's Grave, somewhat
resembling Stonehenge.
Roscommon is mostly level, finely watered, and celebrated for rich pastures ; but the in
crease of population and manufactures has caused a great part of them to be lately brought
into tillage ; it contains some pretty little lakes, among which Lough Key is particularly
admired. Roscommon is ancient, and marked by some ecclesiastical antiquities, but it is
not now so important as Boyle, pleasantly situated on a river of the same name, over which
there are two fine bridges ; in its neighbourhood are the ruins of a stately abbey, founded in
1512, the arches of which, forty-six feet in height, are deemed models of Gothic architect
ural grandeur. Elphin, the seat of a very ancient episcopal see, is only a village.
Leitrim is filled with high mountains, presenting nature under bold features, often height
ened by the ruined castles which crown their summits. There are veins of iron, lead, copper,
and coal, the last of which has been wrought. There are good pastures in the valleys, and
on the sides of the hills ; and pretty large quantities of oats are raised. The linen manu
facture is extending, and there are some considerable potteries. Carrick on Shannon, the
county town, and Leitrim, which gives name to it, are only vUlages.
Subsect. 4. — Ulster.
This part of Ireland presents in many respects a superior character to the other three, its
population bemg more industrious, better instructed, and in more comfortable circumstances.
The Presbyterian form of worship, introduced by the Scottish settlers under the reign of
James I., is the prevailing one. The linen manufacture, the staple of the country, has here
its chief seat, and is carried on almost in every village. The harbours of Belfast, London
derry, and Lough Swilly, are sufficient for the wants of commerce. The coast of Antrim,
Vol. L 39 3H

4&B DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part HL
in the boldness and peculiar character of its rock scenery, is without a match in any other
part of the world. The counties of this province are, Fermanagh, Donegal, Londonderry,
Antrim, Down, Armagh, Tyrone, Monaghan, Cavan.
Fermanagh is a somewhat rough county, comprising a large proportion of mountain and
bog, but with fertile valleys, in which, besides the usual products of oats and potatoes, flax
is cultivated to the extent of about 5000 acres. The waters of all the high grounds flow
down into Lough Erne, a noble lake, upwards of twenty miles in length. It is studded with
numerous islands, covered with fine woods ; long wooded promontories are seen stretching
fer into the waters ; and, though the immediate borders of the lake are not mountainous,
.ofty distant eminences form the general background to its prospects. Castle Caldwell, Bel-
turbet, and Belleisle are the spots in which its beauties are peculiarly concentrated. The
chief town is Enniskillen, delightfully situated on an island, accessible only by two opposite
bridges; this site enabled it to make its noble stand against the army of James H.
Donegal includes a great extent of the north-western coast of Ireland, fiill of deep bays
and fine harbours. In its interior, however, it consists almost entirely of mountain, moss,
and moor, with only a few productive valleys. It is often called, with some adjoining dis
tricts, " the black north of Ireland." Distillation forms an active branch of its industry.
Lifford, its small county town, stands on the Foyle, upon the borders of Derry. Ballyshan
non, almost at the opposite extremity, is a thriving town, beautifully situated on the channel
by which Lough Erne pours its waters into the Atlantic. Raphoe is a celebrated episcopal
see, but now only a decayed vUlage.
Derry, or Londonderry, a large and fine county, is crossed by a range of motmtains, whose
principal peaks are from 1000 to 1500 feet high, and a considerable part of whose surface
consists of heath and bog. There are, however, fine valleys, and extensive plains, which
are cultivated with some diligence, but according to that system of minute subdivision which
is the bane of Irish agriculture. 'The linen manufacture fiourishes in fiill vigour, chiefly
according to the Irish system, among the little farmers and cotters, who combine if with the
cultivation of a few acres. Londonderry is a fine city, situated at the point where the Foyle,
after traversing a great part of this county and that of Tyrone, falls into the broad basin of
Lough Foyle. It is ancient, being the theatre of remarkable events even in the time of the
Danes. In 1608, after the attainder of O'Neale, it was granted by James L to the citizens
of London, whence it derived the first part of its name. But its chief distinction was fixim
the siege sustained by the city in 1690-1, against the united forces of Ireland under James
II. Londonderry is composed of four main streets crossing each other at right angles, and
surrounded stUl by its oM walls in ftill repair, serving rather for ornament than defence. It
has an ancient Gothic cathedral, and some handsome modem edifices. It is now supported
by an extensive commerce, for which Lough Foyle, though its entrance is somewhat impeded
by a bar, affords a spacious and secure harbour. Its chief intercourse is with the United States
and the West Indies, to which it exports the linen manufactured in this part of the country.
Coleraine is a well-built town on the Bann, which flows from Lough Neagh, and on which
is the most extensive salmon fishery in the island ; but the rapidity of the stream obstructs
the navigation upwards.
Antrim, occupying the north-eastern corner of the kingdom, opposite the coast of Scotland,
is one of the most remarkable districts of Ireland, in regard to natural features as weU as to
commerce and industry. A great part of the surface consists of rugged moimtains, com
posed chiefly of rock and moss, and even its best soils are scarcely avaUable for agricultural
purposes tUl improved by the use of the lune with which the country abounds. The moun
tains, where they face the ocean, are broken into vast perpendicular precipices, exhibiting
the basaltic columnar foim on a grander scale than exists in any other part of the world.
Of these objects, the Giant's Causeway {fig. 221.) is the most celebrated and magnificent.
Three natural piers or moles, 400 feet
in height, here stretch out into the
sea, and are visible above the water
for about 300 yards. The walls are
composed of dark basaltic columns, of
the most regular form, and so closely
united, tliat only the blade of a knife
can be thrust between them. Each
column is distinct from the others, and
divided into jointed portions, as per-
_. ^ ., _ feet as if art had formed them ; there
The Giant's Causeway. u'_- i i ¦.-i-u
bemg m each part a projection, which
IS lodged in a corresponding concavity or socket of the one contiguous. The coast eastward
of the causeway is composed of a succession of capes, presenting tlie most sublime scenery ;
dark precipitous cliffs, rising regularly in gradually retiring strata, and formed into various
broken colonnades which might suggest the idea of palaces overwhelmed in ruins.
Other striking features distinguish the coast of Antrim. Conspicuous above all others is

Book I.

IRELAND.

459

222

Fairhead, called also Benmore ; a promontory which forms nearly the north-eastern point of
Ireland. It consists of a vast mass of columnar greenstone, composing a mural precipice,
rudely columnar, and 250 feet high. At its feet lies a chaos of huge masses of rock, heaped
together in the wUdest confusion, and forming a scene of ruin the awfiil grandeur of which
has scarcely a parallel. Against this
the sea heaves in a solemn majestic
swell, the peculiar attribute of the At
lantic waters. Carrick-a-Rede (fig. 222.)
is a small island composed of a mass of
basalt, imperfectly formed into columns,
separated from the continent by a chasm
of sixty feet. The fishermen, however,
have occasion to resort to it with the
view of placing nets to intercept the
salmon ; to reach it, therefore, they have
constructed a daring and singular bridge,
Carrick-a-Rede. formed of two strong parallel cables fixed
to each side, with planks inserted between them. This slight pontage is subject to violent
movements, and, if not judiciously trodden, may precipitate the passenger into the abyss ;
but the fishermen, accustomed to tread it, carry great loads across without the slightest
apprehension. Several of the precipitous cliffs are adomed with the ruins of ancient castles,
the grandest of which is Dunluce (fig. 223.), whose extensive area covers the long ridge of
an almost insulated rock, which presents
its perpendicular face to the ocean. The
walls enclose the entire surface of the
rock, and rise up as a continuation of its
precipitous sides. In one place, the rocky
base having given way, the apartment
above actually overhangs the sea.
Belfast, the grand emporium of the
north of Ireland, has risen to greatness
by rapid steps. Carrickfergus, by means
of peculiar privUeges, monopolised all
the trade of this part of Ireland, till these
privileges were bought up by the Earl
i^uumw ^< ^j. g(.j.j2ford. The career of competition
was then opened to Belfast, and she gradually outstripped all her rivals. In 1660, the town
contained about 6500 inhabitants. At present the population is 53,000, exclusive of a large
suburb in the county of Down. The linen manufacture is very flourishing at Belfast, and
that of cotton is rapidly extending ; besides which there are various minor fabrics. Com
merce, however, is the main source of its wealth. The linen fabrics of the north are largely
exported, along with oats, oatmeal, and salted provisions ; the entire value of which, in 1810,
amounted to 2,900,000?. The duties of customs, which in 1801 were 182,314?., had risen
in 1829 to 259,000?. Belfast Lough forms a noble and secure bay, and the channel at the
mouth of the Logan has been so deepened by art that vessels drawing thirteen feet water
can come close to the wharves. Belfast is mostly built of brick ; but several public edifices,
recently erected, the Commercial Buildings, the Museum, St George's Church, &c., are
ornamented with pillars of freestone. Belfast has several commercial and literary institu
tions ; and in 1810, the Royal Academical College, a seminary on an extensive scale, was
founded. The other towns of Antrim can boast little more than names known in history. Antrim
itself has lost its former importance, though beautifully situated near the great body of water
called Lough Neagh, which covers about 100,000 English acres, and borders on five coun
ties, — Armagh, Tyrone, Londonderry, Down, and Antrim. Its flat shores possess little of
interest or beauty ; and its overflowings have converted into bog about 60,000 acres round it.
Carrickfergus, at the mouth of Belfast Lough, is a very ancient town, once the emporium
and key of northem Ireland, but it has yielded the palm of commerce entirely to Belfast,
and is supported only by being the county town and resorted to as a watering-place. Lis-
bum is a prosperous town, with a manufacture of damask.
Down is a fine county, penetrated by several large lakes, as those of Strangford and Car
lingford. • The last of these receives the Newry, which communicates by a canal with Lough
Neagh. The Mourne mountains, on the southern border, exceed 2600 feet in height, and
form a conspicuous object ; but a large extent of the county is level, and a greater propor
tion is under tillage than pasturage. The combination of farming and weaving exists in a
remarkable degree ; and the linen fabrics are not only extensive, but some of them very fine.
Of late, however, those of cotton have gained a preference in many districts. Down, or
Downpatrick, celebrated in tradition as the burial-place of the patron saint, is cf moderate

460 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part HL
dimensions, and its public buildings respectable. Newry is larger and more flourishing.
These advantages are owing to its situation in the bay of Carlingford, and its canal commu
nication with Lough Neagh, which enable it to export the linen manufactures and provisions
produced in an extensive district It is ancient, but in 1689 was reduced to ashes by Mar
shal Berwick ; so that it is now quite a new town. Donaghadee, a considerable port, with a
large substantial quay, is chiefly remarkable for the ferry between it and Portpatrick, the
shortest sea communication with Britain, and by which packets are despatched and live stock
in very great quantities conveyed over.
Armagh is also a fine and agreeable coimty. In general it is only pleasingly diversified
with little hUls, the bogs are no more than requisite for supplying fiiel, and only a small part
is left unprtxluctive. Both culture and manufacture are prosecuted with great activity.
The linens produced in 1824 were reputed at 568,000?., exceeding a fifth of the produce of
the whole kingdom. Armagh, the capital, was celebrated in the early history of Ireland
as one of its most extensive and populous cities, and has always been the ecclesiastical me
tropolis of the kingdom. The Augustine monastery, and the college attached to it, ranked
for a long time among the most celebrated institutions in Europe for religion and learning ;
the latter, it is said, could once boast of 7000 students. Armagh sunk, however, under suc
cessive ravages by the Danes, the English, and, finally, the Irish insurgents imder O'Neale,
and fell into decay ; but by good fortune had for its primate Dr. Richard Robinson, to whose
munificent exertions is ascribed its revival and its having become one of the prettiest little
cities in Ireland. To him Armagh is indebted for the repair of its cathedral, for a library,
and an observatory. The linen market is well supported by the flourishing state of the
manufacture in Armagh. The only other place of consequence is Lurgan, a thriving manu
facturing town.
The three counties of Tyrone, Monaghan, and Cavan occupy a great proportion of the
interior of Ulster, and present a very uniform aspect ; a considerable extent of mountain and
bog, fertile plains, rude cultivation, and the linen manufecture. O'Neale, Earl of Tyrone,
was long one of the most formidable enemies of the English power. Omagh is the county-
town of Tyrone, but is not so considerable as Dungannon, a large, populous, and handsome
place, once the chief seat of the O'Neales ; but this powerfiil castle was demolished by the
parliamentary forces. Strabane is also a populous place, finely situated on the Foyle.
Monaghan and Cavan are both tolerable county-towns, which alone possess any importance
in their respective shires.

FINANCES OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.
I. Income for the year 1834.
Customs  je21,118,920
Excise  16,756,716
Stamps and Hackney Coaches, &c  7,462,755
Taxes  4,667,350
Post Office  2,319,980
Miscellaneous  456,118
East India Company  60,000
Balance on hand  1,907, 190
Repayments  618,732
i:53,456,571
n. Expenditure for the year 1834.
Payments out of the gross Revenue.
Drawbacks, Repayments, Sec  .£2,204,296
Charges of Collection, &c  3,582,635
Miscellaneous  738,810
 6,525,741
Paid at the Exchequer.
Interest and Management of Permanent Debt  24,158,879
Terminable Annuities  3,653,923
Interest on Exchequer Bills  691,294
Russian Loan, raised in Holland  190,810
Civil List  510,000
Civil, Naval, Military and Judicial Annuities and Pensions  502,310
Salaries and Allowances  162,930
Diplomatic Salaries and Pensions  181,448
Courts of Justice  433,610
Mint  14,850
Army  6,493,925
Navy  4,503,910
Ordnance  1,068,223
Miscellaneous  2,335,590
Advances for Public Works  2,014,513
Total Expenditure  ia3,441,9S5
III. Public Debt— January, 1834. Charge for 1833.
Funded Debt  £751,658,883 £27,782,116
Unfunded Debt  27,906,900 779,769
Totali  £779,565.783 ia8,Sei,88S

Book I.

TRADE OF THE UNITED KINGDOM.

461

I. Account of the Official and of the Real or Declared Value of the principal Articles of British Produce and
Manufacture exported in 1832, 1833, and 1834.— (From the Annual Finance Book for 1835, pp. 121—128.)

ArUcles.

Official ValuB.* |

Declared Value. ' |

1832.

1833.

1834.

1832.

1833.

1834.

Brass and capper manufachiraa

L. 1. d.
1,126,246 IS 3
37,20a480 10 4
6,726,562 17 6
878,361 17 1
2,408,183 18 3
2,785,549 13 6
5,898 7 8
353,824 19 2
475,165 19 2
348;286 8 3
1,292,489 9 8
358,259 10 1
149,991 12 4
122,124 19 9
6,556,294 8 8
4,232,981 1 6

L. •. d.
1,018,284 11 5
40,133,343 2 3
6,279,076 6 8
966,503 4 7
2,690,253 14 3
?5S,539 0 8
50,125 16 5
392,053 7 8
695,324 0 6
453,910 17 5
693,131 14 4
371,634 3 4
175,479 12 3
113,191 3 9
7,788,842 6 3
4,578,646 12 11

L. t. d.
1,086,594 2 4
44 266,902 13 0
6,802,237 IS 9
947,476 IS 11
2,621,672 9 8
3,850,763 14 6
^,169 10 9
371,469 19 10
633,683 9 7
382,198 10 0
1,141,565 14 4
370,115 18 10
81,382 17 10
99,933 II 9
6,514,703 3 10
4,678,680 1 6

L. 1. d.
916,563 1 5
I2,675,6ta 6 6
4,722,759 3 6
1,434,431 7 11
1,190,747 12 10
1,774,726 13 9
8,705 7 0
I49,ei8 1 6
529,990 10 10
315,644 16 3
1,038,789 16 0
355,056 9 2
219,650 1 0
235,307 7 6
6,244,558 11 8
6,532,293 11 9

L. 1. d.
884,149 4 9
13,782,375 17 6
4,704,024 9 1
1,466,361 12 11
1,405,034 19 3
2,167,(H3 7 I
72,006 6 0
184,175 10 2
737,403 17 10
362,284 19 1
563,092 4 3
369,162 0 2
332,503 17 4
246,204 0 0
6,294,432 3 9
6,097,113 0 3

L. >, d,
961,823 2 11
15J02,571 7 1
5,211,014 17 8
1,485,233 1 1
1,406,872 2 I
2,443JM4 18 7
136,312 11 9
152,126 14 10
637,198 5 4
263,972 4 11
916,391 9 6
370,382 11 5
192,175 14 I
238,543 16 9
5,736,870 11 0
6,194,358 1 6

Hardwares uid cuUery 
Iron and steel, wrought andun-

Linea maim&,ctuiei 

Silk m-inufactorei 

Tin, wrought and unwrought -

Woollen and worsted yam - - -
WooUen manufictures 
All otlier artidei - - 
Totals 
Whereof from Great Britain - -

65,(B6,702 II 0

69,989,339 13 8

73,831,650 15 4

36,444,524 18 7

39,667,347 8 5

41,649,191 9 6

64,582,037 9 7
444,665 I 6

69,633,853 16 1
356,485 17 7

73,495,535 11 3
336,015 4 1

36,046,027 11 5
398,497 7 2

39,305,512 19 8
361,834 8 9

41,286,594 6 6
362,597 4 0 |

II. Account of the Real or Declared Value of the various Articles of the Manufacture and Produce of the United
Kingdom, exported to Foreign Countries during tlie eight years ending with 1834 ; specifying their Value, the
Countries to which exported, and the Value of those annually shipped for each.— {Papers published hy Board qf
Trade, toI. iv. p. 227.)

Countries to which exported.

Exports.

1831.

1S34.

Russia -..----•----•--
Sweden  - 
Norway -..----.--•---
Denmark -...---------
Prussia ------ 
Qermany ..-.--.------
Holland 
Belgium --------------
France ---------------
Portugal, Proper 
Azores .----¦•--
Madeira --.----•
Spain and the Balearic Islands • -
Canary Islands - -  • ¦
Gibraltar 
Italy and the Italian Islands - • -
Malta 
Ionian Islands  .---
Turkey and (^ntinental Greece (ex
clusive of the Morea) - 
Morea and Greek Islands  -
Egypt (Ports on the Mediterranean)
Tnpoli, Barbary, aiid Morocco - - -
Westem Coast ot Africa 
Cape of Good Hope 
Cape Verd Islands 
St Helena 
Isle of Bourbon --- 
Mauritius -•--  -¦¦
Arabia -  -- 
East India Company's Territories
and Ceylon  ¦
China  -  '
Sumatra and Java -------
Philippine Islands ---- 
New South Wales. Van Diemen's
Land, and Swan River  -
New Zealand, and South Sea Islands
Ports of Siam 
British North American Colonies • -
British West Indies 
Hayti 
Cuba and other Foreign West Indies
United States of America 
Mexico ..--------- 
Guatemala ---------- --¦•
O]lombia  '"
Brazil 
States of the Rio de la Plata 
Chili 
Peru 
Isles of GuerTisey, Jersey, Alderney,
and Man •.--.-------•-

1,408,970 46,73139,129
104,916 174,338
4,654,618 2,104,561 446,952
1,400,044 26,687
39,916
225,414 48,821
1,045,266
1,942,752 200,949 37,196
531,704

8,201
155,759216^58 ^6
41,430 127
195,713

L.
1,318,936 42,699 53,582
111,880
179,145
4,394,104 2,142,736

945,016 27,940 39,802
301,153 38,152
l,038,ffi5
2,176,149 239,458 41,078
185,842 335
35,302 13,745
191,452
218,049 5,856
31,36235,188
155,972

1,435,805 38,25264,23495,247
189,011
4,473,555 2,050,014 491,388
1,195,404 31,244
40,283
861,675 60,010
504,163
2,202,030 224,010

X.
1,489,538 40,488 63,926
118,813
177,923
4,463,605 2,022,458 475,884
1,106,695 23,629
38,444

Totals •

3,662,012 610,637 120,747

1,397,350
3^83,222 257,931649,378
7,018,272 692,800 1,943
213,972
2,312,109 lS4ig5
400,134 228,466

4,256,582

443,839 2,487

1,691,044
3,289,704

5,810,315 307,029 6,191
261,113
3,518,297

36,812,756

244,253 257,501 240
45,531 16,341
205,558

255,885 4,721
310,688 845

1,581,723
3,612,085 297,709672,176
4,823,415 303,562

232,703
2,516,040 758,540 818,950300.171
319,996

35,842,623

42,620
292,760
3,251,379 189,135 66,963
1,139,616 9,694
110,^7 1,138
252,123 330,036 1,710
38,915 10,042
161,{E9

314,677 1,396
10,467
1,857,133

321,793 618,029
6,132,346 978,441

216,751
2,452,103 632,172
540,626368,469
344,036

38,271,697

X.
1,191,565 57,12758 580
92^94
192,816
3,642,952 2,082,536 602,688
975,991 41,638 38 960
597,848 33,282
367,285
2,490,376 134,519 60,883
888,654 10,446
122,832 426
234,768257i45 ^15
39,431

34,528 93,396
258,556
6,068,997 2,789,398 674,791640,792 77,920
28,038
442,^26 21,053
461,470
2,361,772 96,994 55,725
915,319 10,149

148,475

21,236
163,191

3,377,412

3,514,779

150 606
102,284

1,576

2,089,327 2,581,949 376,103663,531
9,053,583

248,250
1,238,371 339,870 651,617
409,003324,634

2,075,7252,439,808 543,104633,700
5,468,272 199,821

283,568
2,144,9tB 660,152708,193 275,610
317,496

L.
1,531,002 59,549 65,038
99,951
144,179
4,355,548 2,181,893 886,429848,333 967,091 54,430 33,411
442,837 30,507
385,460
2,316,260 135,438 38,915
1,019,604 25,914
145,647 2,350
329,210
346,197 146
30,041

83,424

3,495,301 471,712

658,372 936

2,0^,5502,597,589 381528 577,228
7^79,699 421,487 3,700
121,826
2,575,680 515,3^ 816,817
387,524335,934

L.
1,382,300 63,094
61,9SS 94,595
136,423
4,547,166
2,470,267 750,059
1,116,885
1,600,123 63,27538,455
325,907 30,686
460,719
3,282,777 242,696 94,498
1,207,941 37,179
168,877 14,623
326,483304,382 530
31,615 7,091
149,319 250
2,578,569 842,852
410,273

716,014 19,742
1,671,069
2,680,(^4 357,297 913,005
6,844,989 459,610 30,366
199,996
2,460,679 831,564 896,221
299,235 360,665

* The rate at which all articles of export and import are officially valued was fixed in 1696, but an account of
the real or declared value of the exports is also prepared ; there is, however, no such account of the imports, and
therefore their official value alone can be given. 39*

462

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part IIL

III. Account of the Cluantities of the Principal Articles of Foreign and Colonial Merchandise imported into,
exported from, and retained for Consumption in the United Kingdom, with the Nett Revenue accruing thereon
during the Years ended 5lh January, 1834, and 1835.~{Paper3 published by Board of Trade, vol, iv. pp. 13-19.)

DescriptiOD of Merchandise.

QuanliLicB imported.

Quantities exported.

Quantities retained for
Consumption.

Nett Revenue.

Ashes, pearl and pot,  - - cnla.
Barilla and alkali -••--•--- 
Bark for tanning or
dyeing ---  — ^
Coffecj viz. :—
British plantation ----.---- lbs.
East India and Mauritius  —
Foreign plantation  —
Totals 
Cocoa ----....  lbs.
Husks and shells --.-..-.--- —
Cotton wool from foreign countries,
viz. : —
United States of America  —
Brazil  —
Turkey and Egypt  —
Other foreign countries  —
Cotton wool from British possessions,
East Indies and Mauritius - • - - —
British West Indies, the growth
of  —
British West Indies, imported
from  —
Other British possessions - . - 
Total quantities 
Indigo  lbs.
Lac dye  —
Logwood  --- -- tons.
Madder  -  cwts.
Madder roots  -  
Flax and tow, or codilla of fax
and hemp  
Currants ----  —
Lemons and oranges -..¦---- chests
Raiains  cwts.
Hats of straw  No.
Plaiting of straw  - - -lbs.
Hemp undressed ----  cwts.
Hides, untanned, viz. : —
Buffalo, bull, ox, cow, or horse
hides  -  cwts.
Hides, tanned^ viz. : —
Buffalo, bull, ox, cow, or horse
hides -----  iijg.
Leather gloves  --.. pairs
Molasses  cwts.
Oil- Olive ---  •- galls.
Palm  -  '- cwts.
Train, spermaceti and blubber - • tuns
Saltpetre and cubic nitre ----- cwts.
Flax and Linseed  bushels
Silk- Haw  lbs.
Waste and knubbs  —
Cassia Lignea  —
Pepper  —
Pimento  —
Sugar, viz. : —
West India --  cwts.
East India and Maunlios  —
Foreign  —
Tallow  —
Tea  —
Timber, vi/. : —
Battens and batten ends  —
Deal and deal ends • - - - great hund.
Masts 6 and under 8 inches in dia
meter  No.
Masts 8 and under 12 inches in dia
meter  —
Masta 12 inches and upwards - - Ids.
Oak planks  —
Slaves  gt. hund.
Fir, S inches square and upwards,loadB
Oak, ditto  
Unenumerated, ditto  
Wainscot logs, ditto - - - - - 
Tobacco, viz. : —
Unmanufaclured  -•- lbs.
Manufactured or aegars  —
Snuff  —
Wool, sheep and Iambs'  —
Wine, viz, : —
Capo  Imp. galls.
French  
Forlu^al  —
Spanish  
Madeira  -  
Other sorts  
All sorta  - . ¦.—

169,729
214,523

852,201
18,933,830 6,218,2999,373,980

94,134
193,971

1^,089,123 9,951,1419,824,847

3,996,097
11,158,501

6,136
3,233 1,132
768,946
6,3(3,562 a 177,972

219,503 854,279
20,941,194 1,799,319 1,471

849,561
22,224,073 1.558,604 2,416

22,741,984

7,506,7588,463,821 987,262
1,696,1082,755,164 1,653,166

26,08061,397 66,6K
1,129,633 142,539351,951 158,324

65,7a2
1,436,472 717,934

267,194 32,876
165,746
2,179,135 2,785,109 649,451
1,297,710
8,729,552
4,844,973 3,655,621 737,653
346,013
1,1)5,427
32,057,832 10,59765,798

3,136 4,4162,381
63,896
466,694 27,622
32,484

22,082,579 386,609 3,864
38,046,087 464,394 275,366
2,226,7333,368,530 801,057 817,761

2,984,894

32,920,8 1,672 2

4,155,296 708,959 21,054
72,004 80,297
811,7K 192,786
266,323213,729 16,550
45,372
673,811

60,262
1 697,944 678,382
2,318,142 270,669 25,334
359,486
2,210,2373,643,6!2 1,012,951
2,066,6367,675,340 1,396,773
3,844,243 697,1412(B,C30
1,397,407
33,643,980 13,360
67,105 10,223 3,8534,470
2,739
86,855

484,298
363,376
4,213,4273,446,563 372,698685,754

2,351,877

2^5,316

17,363,882

3 664,814 52,811 7,045 756 27

10,554 5,294
3R127 56,093 2,801
32,170

10,450
" 1,332
397,367 19,738

3,928,226 88,234 4,543 1,527

66,187
1,341,546
3,997,027 2,810,384 Ra
. 366,550 Refiu
245,698 39,245
264,460

484 213
465 19
3,0S1 910 4290

19,56912,967 1,460
27,63523,956 2,832
19,672

2,078
234,930 20,412 3,727
68,276

1,680,350
6,391,247 1,799,143 598,744
i. 401,044 19,068
1,181,005

2,323,300 435,572 17,595
72,166
60,549
1,1 12,190
140,445319,147 137,692 21,469 22,079
512,^3

48,578
1,411,215 643,886
1,368,217 216,225 3li42
160,235
2,222,9674,417,027 267,472 77,067
2,228,393 330,245

12,38467,291

8,756

2,549
65,480
481,523 27,236
33,111

210,914 2,359
442,696 16,436
99,540
243,577732,306209,194
312,245

12,980,961 273,360 10,303
807,362 6,569
129,506
29C,538

20,502,971 143,856 13S

173,910
346,576

645, lei
232,550
2,596,5302,246,0E6 161,042
426,372

1,173,795 443,786

302,935,657

2,447,827 393,474 14,026
70,951 75,271
794,272 163,523
254,783 147,467 11,48725,470

342,718 40,339
1,603,828 507,980
2,225,227 264,806 21,462
215,963
2,211,968

100,182
2,457,020 323,751
3,741,5ra I,160,!80
34,969,651 13,560
Q,S08 9,595
3,612 3,7912,616
83.186
493,200 26,854 40.332

21,048,324 145,385 161
40,840,271 524,081

2.780,3032,279,853 150,369
435,308

1,505
16.703
Drawbacks &
repayn^nls

29,781 1,170

14.730 3,-rai

149,195 6,0%

2,110

39,027

45,74327,043 1,761
4,184
13,923
15,900 iK2
1,778
111,174 6,894

171,605
3,444,102

116,215
621,494

10,449 10,149
43,386
437,629 33,775 8,308

- 3,140,085 137,855 75.97563,165
> 1,491,078

i 4,460

614,434

373,812

32,056 1,057
2,9427,207

3,405
242,180 57,434
122^ 3,260
20,915 2^

13,860 450
2,196
122,852 6,726

3,569,361

129,774
601,914

10,442
36,756
440,300 33,075 10,170 8,867

3,223,648 131,319

72,048
71,131

1,662,341

7,443,841

9,760,111

1,613,298

6,207,770

6,490,644

1,629,219

1,706,6129

Book L

DENMARK.

463

IV. A(M:ount of the Shipping employed in the Trade and Navigation of the United Kingdom in 1834; specifying
the Number and Tonnage of Vessels entering Inwards and clearing Outwards (including their repeated Voy
ages), and the Number of their Crews ; separating British from Foreign Vessels ; and distinguishing the Navi
gation with each Country.

Rusia- - •
Sweden - -
Norway -
Denmark -

Germany 
Holland 
Belgium 
France - - 
Portugal, Proper 
Azorea . - - - -
Madeira - - • .
Spain and tbe Balearic Islands
Canary Islands -..-..-
Gibraltar -- 
Italy and Italian Islands - •
Malti 
louiui Iskkiids .......
Turkey & Continental Greece
Morea and Greek Islands
Egypt 
Tripoli, Barlrary, fc Morocco
Coast of Afnca^fixim Morocco
to the Cape of Good Hope
Cape of Good Hope - . - - .
Eastern Coast from the Cape
of Good Hope to Babel
Mandel ---.-.-.---
Isle of Bourbon  ---
Cape de Veid Islands - - - -
St. Helena and Ascension - -
Mauritius -.-..-----.
Arabia -.----.---•-
East India Company's Terri
tories, Singapore k Oylon
Sumatra- ---..------
China ---  -
Java --------------
Philippine Islands - - - - -
Ports of Siam -.-..----
New South Wales 
British Northern Colonies- -
British West Indies - - - - -
HayU 
Cuba, and other Foreign West
Indies- -----------
United States 
Mexico -----..-.---
Guatemala ..--------
Colombia -----------
Brazils ------------
States of Rio de la Plata - - -
Chili 
Pern 
The Whale Fisheries - . - -
Isles of Guernsey, Jeney, and
Man 
Greenlaud (Ice) 
Foreign parts (not distin
guished) ----------

Shipa. 1,519 103

193
701
1,011 407
li65 614 165

Totals - -  13,

Tom.
297,013 15,353 6,403 5,691
32,021
115,278137,546 40,875
128,017 59,015 12,333 2,475
45,254 3,6303,720
68,142 1,0638,469
18,688 2,311 1,124
4,014

764398276
1,506
6,502 6,6843,265
12,168 3,492 753

3,218 67
462
1,012

Foreign.

20,909

29,308 1,901

1,905 918 13

2,380

12,400
624,606
246,605

7,152
94,658 6,893 272
7,459
29,371 10,120 6,341 2,768
34,161
146,543

2,649 9985

672
23;270 13,387 113

4,073 366

1515 626338

Tffns.
.59,166 36,91098,30363,282
118,111 46,471n,23043,68374,382 4,539

3,8Q 104

5
492

2,298,263

1,367
4,529 490

508
1,074

Men. 2,725 1,731
6,1393,1386,0812,552 3,6672,2609,207

BritiBh.

Skips. 1,0S2

335 165
719 877
373
1,674 60S 165 20
341 34 94
473 80

833,905 I 45,897

Tona.
217,375 16,278 4,177
56,703
26 609
117,964120,584 34,051
131,941 61,618 12,493 3,432
36,799 3,711
11,734
71,076 12,022 6,753
20,789 1,168
6,067
2,634
35,533

2,168 9,192 537

2,766 728
337
29,567
503,393 246,609 7,728
16,755
133,754 6,6023,820
41,154 9,2066,532 2,176
33,014
122,365 231
1,169

Men. 9,941 770
283
2,667 1,2J6
5,6696,8472,896
12,361 3,832 84S 197
2,176

3,943 645306

13,639 ) 2,296,325

1,756
23,315 13,836 454

6,217 314

Foreign.

S/iivB. 132 125

597332
1,202 90

11
646

Tffna.
38,82622,174
107,809 86,720
88,39648,86564,214
36,36966,469 16,833 261

1,151
12,947 934

129,504 I 6,^3

1,4761,623

3,236
220,913 490

249
20,669

Men. 1,7321,051
5,4064,696
3,817 2,7213,891 1,893

146
9,261

913

652,827 I 46,829

CHAPTER V.
DENMARK.
Denmark is an ancient kingdom, formerly very powerful, holding sway over the surround
ing regions, and, as a predatory state, the terror of all Europe. Though now reduced to
the secondary rank, her situation renders her of importance in the general system of the
Continent. Sect. I. — General OvCtline and Aspect.
Denmark consists mainly of an extensive peninsula, shooting out from the north-west
comer of Germany, and a cluster of large islands to the east of the penmsula. The northern
shores of Denmark approach close to the southern point of the Scandinavian penmsula,
bounding the great interior sea of the Baltic. She commands the only channel by which
the countries around this sea can transmit their products to the rest of Europe ; a circum
stance which gives her some consideration as a maritime state, at the same time that the toll
she imposes on ships passing and repassing the Sound, is productive of revenue. The Danish
peninsula is termed Jutland; and the islands in the interior of the Baltic, interposed be
tween Jutland and Scandinavia, are Zealand, Funen, Odensee, and a few others of smaller
note Denmark holds also the German territories of Sleswick and Holstein ; with Iceland,
the Faroe Islands, and some settlements on the coast of Greenland, remnants of her former
"" Theextent of the dominions of a country broken into such a variety of detached portions
can with difficulty be estimated. The only compact mass consists of Jutland, Sleswick,

464

MAP OP DENMARK.

Fio. 223.

English Mil«i

9 Longitude East

from Grcenwicb It

Book I.

DENMARK.

465

and Holstein; bounded on the west and north by the North Sea or German Ocean ; on the
east by the sounds which form the entrance of the Baltic ; on the south by the Elbe. This
tract lies generally between 53^° and 57^° north latitude, and 8° and 11° east longitude.
We have thus a length of 280 miles, and a breadth of 120. The total area of the Danish
monarchy, is about 22,000 square miles.
The surface of Denmark is nearly flat ; forming, with the exception of Holland, the lowest
part of the great plain of Northern Germany. The islands, in particular, in many places,
rise only a few feet above the level of the sea. The soil, as in the rest of this plain, is fre
quently sandy and marshy ; the climate humid, though not liable to those severe frosts which
prevail in the interior of Scandinavia. Hence it affords good pasturage, and its soil is favour
able to the growth of the coarser species of grain.
The waters of Denmark consist chiefly of its numerous sounds and bays ; the Skager-rack,
which comes in from the North Sea, and separates Jutland from Norway; the Categat,
which, running southward nearly at right angles to the Skeigerrack, separates that peninsula
from Sweden ; the Sound, a narrow sti-ait at the extremity of the Cattegat, between Zealand
and Sweden, and which forms the main entrance into the !6altic. The insular and penin
sular character of her territory gives Denmark an extent of coast which certainly does not
fall short of 600 miles ; and there is said to be no part of the land more than ten miles distant
from the sea. This structure leaves no room for the formation of any rivers of the least
consequence, except the Eyder in Holstein, and the canal of Kiel, by which an important
communication is formed between the ocean and the Baltic. Jutland contains a number of
shallow but extensive lakes, closely bordering on the sea, with which they in many places
communicate, and may hence be regarded as bays.
Sect. II. — Natural Geography.
Subsect. 1. — Geology.
Denmark. The geology of this low and flat country has not been completely ascertained.
As far as is known at present, it contains neither primitive nor transition rocks : the only
secondary deposits are Weald clay, and the various members of the chalk formation ; both of
which are generally covered up with tertiary soils ; which, in their turn, are as deeply covered

References to the Map of Denmark.

NORTH PART.
1. Lykenshuua
2. HiortQ^
3. Harshals
4. ToerBteii
5. Skagen
6. Aalbek
7. Fladstraod
8. SoEbye
9. Bottergaaid
10. Blokhuua
il.Tolatrup13. ThusB
13. Byslet
14. Biersted
15. Vaai
16. Aliz
17. UlBted
18. Hals
19. Sandbye
20. Aalborg
21. LoestoT
22. Koflerup
23. KiorupFrse- stegaard
24. Kolbye Herra-
gaard
25..Tisled26. Forbre
27. Ageer
28. Viabyo
29. Sundby
30. Rented
31. Nykiobing
32. Hierk
33. Strandbyo
34. Malle
35. Gundersted
36. Aara
37. Bisley
38. EUeaboy
39. Kongsley
40. Siem
41. Vive
42. Sodritlgholin
43. Mariager
44. Hnbroe
4.5. Isindunn
46. Boldrup
47 Ulbierg
48. Skive
49. Kaas
50. Borbeirg
SI. Lemvig
Vol.. I.

63. 64.
65.66. 67.68.69. 70.
71.
72. 73.74.
75. 76.
77.
78.
79. 80.
81.
82. 83.
84.85.86. 87. 88.
89. 90. 91. 92.
93.
94. 95.96.97.
98.99.
100.
101.102.103.
i04.105.

Harboe Ore
Neea Ulborff Vringelberg Holstbroe Hodsager
Sorup
KnudstrupOver WiborgSkierne Laurber^
Randers Horning
Oerstea Ulstrup GierildGreenaaeAlboge
Ebeltost
Hekenaes Thorsager Hornslet
Skeibye Aarbuus
Dover
Dailerup
Midstrup AgerafeovEngisvangSunds Arenburg
NorommeSondervangRinhiopingDijberglund Herningebolm
FaurgaardBrandholm SneeGiveGrendstrup
Scandeiborg TvenatrupHaldrup
HoraenB
AastrupEngum Veile
Ringgive GreeneOdd am
FrostrupgaardLundage

106. North Bork
107. Haureis
108. Kiergaard
SOUTH PART.
1. Hoe
2. Varde
3. Jerne
4. Hodde
5. Giording
6. Folding
7. Vaarbase
8. Odaled
9. Smidstrup
0. Frederica
11. Colding
12. Chrisliansfelae
13. Aaroe
14. Hadersleben
15. Gram
16. Hyam
17. Hiortland
18. Ripen
19. Reisbye
20. Ballum
21. Hoyer
22. Lygum Kloatei
23. Hoiat
24. Schrudatrup
25. Apenrade
26. Gravenstein
27. Holebul
28. Ucke
29. Tonder
30. EmbsbuU
31. Leek
32. Ockkolm
33. Bredatedt
34. Medelburg
35. Jorl
36. ArenhoU
37. Flenaborg
38. Steerup
39. Gelt ing
40. Kappel
41. Windemark
42. Eckernforde
43. Sleswick
44. Hollingstede
45. Treya
46. Huaum
47. Mildsted
48. Frederiekstadt
49. Gardicff

Tonningen
Weslingburen
Tellingstedt Rendsburg Barloch Schnetm
KielRumor ReeadorfPreelz Ploen
Sleaen
Krukan DransanLut.genburgHalendorfOldenburg
BurgHeiligenhafen GromnizNeustadtEutin Sarau
Schamersdorf Neumunaler
WildenseharenOsterated Gribbom
Meldorf
Marne
Brunabuttel Itzehoe
Krempe
GluckstadtUeteraen Barmatedt Hohenhorst
Oldealoh SedgbergTravemunde
Lubeck Labenz SterleyGudow
Greven Boitzenburg LauenburgStunauWolhoroLemsalPinnebergWedelHamburg Bergedor

Rivers.
a Skiern
b Gielst
c Widaw
d Eyder
e Stor
f Eibo
g Trave liAAI.AND.
1. Frederickadal
2. Raunsholt
3. Nakekov
4. SkibbcJunde
5. Rydo
6. Marieboe
7. Rod bye
8. Nyeated
9. Saxkioping FALSTER.
1. Onslev
2. Slubbekioping
3. Karleby
4. Nyekioping MOEN.
1. Monde mark
2. Steege
3. Phanefiord
ZEALAND.
1. Tomnaerup
2. Ramlos
3. Gillelye
4. Etsinore
5. Fredensborg
6. Slangerup
7. Lyngl)ye
8. Copenhagen
9. Golstrup
10. Ballerup
n. Gylling
12 Krobbesholm
13. Holbek
14. Nyukioping
15. Egemark
16. Callundborg
17. Giorlov
16. Undloae
19. Aagerup
20. RoBchild
21. Kloge

22. Otteatrup
23. Tryggevelde
24. Ruholte
25. Glumaoe
26. Ring ated
27. Soroe
28. Antvorskov
29. Slagelae
30. Shielskiov
31. Saltoeslot
32. Vallenaved
33. Neatved
34. Proeetoe
35. Wordingborg SAMSOE.
1. Nordbye
2. Selves FUNEN.
1. Middelfarth-
2. Jndaiov
3. Bogenaee
4. Bederelov
5. Kierteminde
6. Ronkebye
7. Nyborg
8. Bellinge
9. Odcnee
10. Broebye
11. Hunabye
12. Oersted
13. Assona
14. Dreslette
15. Sailings
16. Risling
17. Gudbier
18. Svendborg
19 Faaborg ALSEN.
1. Nordburg
2. Augustenburg
3. Sonde rburg
ARROE.
1. Soebye
2. Kiupmg
LANGELAND.
1. Humble K.
3. Rudkiobing
3. Stoense 31

466 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part IH
with diluvium of sand, and calcareous loam ; which latter are occasionally concealed by newe-
alluvial deposits.
Iceland. This island, so fer as is known to geologists, is entirely composed of ignigenous
rocks. These are of two classes ; viz. Plutonian and volcanic. The Plutonian formations
are greenstone, and its accompanying rocks, and basalt, with its associated tuffas, amygda-
loids, &c. Of all the rocks of the trap series, amygdaloid is that which contains the greatest
variety of minerals ; and of these the zeolites and calcareous spars are the most interesting
and beautiful. The volcanic rocks exhibit the usual characters, and in Iceland are spread
around in vast abundance.
Faroe Islands. This small insular group consists of seventeen large inhabited islands,
and of many smaller, with and without inhabitants. In none of the inhabited islands are
the most elevated summits lower than 1000 feet ; the highest land is in the island of Osteroe,
which rises to fully 2,800 feet above the level of the sea. The two prevailing rocks are
greenstone (dolerite) and claystone. The greenstone is sometimes basaltic, sometimes por
phyritic, or amygdaloidal. The claystone is red, yellow, brown, and green. It alternates
with the greenstone, in beds of varying thickness. The beds of greenstone and claystone
of the group all incline or dip towards a central point of the group, rendering it probable
that the islands are but portions of one whole. The upper surface of the greenstone is
slaggy, showing that the mass had been in a state of igneous solution. There are two
principal varieties of greenstone ; one porphyritic, with crystals of glassy felspar, the other
without the porphyritic structure. In some of the islands there are beds of pitchcoal, asso
ciated with fire clay, slate clay, and sphserosiderite, resting upon the trap, and covered by it.
The beds of greenstone and slate clay are often traversed by veins or dikes of basaltic and
porphyritic greenstone, which, however, do not appear to occasion any change in them ; but
the greenstones are changed in position and direction by the invasion from below of a
conglomerated rock, a kind of trap tuffa. The trap rocks of the Faroes have been long
celebrated, on account of the splendid zeolites they afford : some species of this beautifiil
family appear to be daily forming. The chloropcerite, peridote, and precious opal are also
productions of this insular group. Subsect. 2. — Botany.
Denmark and Sweden, Norway and Lapland, the Faroe Islands, and Iceland, — the latter
giving a name, indeed to a plant equally common in the other
224 ^ ^jfe, countries, Lichen islandicus, or Iceland Moss, (fig. 224.), —
may be considered under one head, so far as regards their
vegetable productions; for it is difficult to draw an exact
line of demarcation, and even of these the very nature of our
work does not allow us to treat much at large : this is the
less to be regretted, because the classical works of LinnEEUs
and Wahlenberg are in the hands of every botanical student ;
and they contain a mine of valuable information in the Flora
Lapponica and Suecica of both these authors, and a fund of
interesting and delightful narrative in the Lachesis Lap
ponica of the great Swedish naturalist. The various writings
of CEder, Vahl, and Homemann afford much usefiil matter
relative to the plants of Denmark. The vegetation of a great
portion of these countries may be considered the same as that
of the more northern and mountainous parts of Great Britain.
Yet as the northern regions of the continent of Europe pre-
Iceland Moss. ^^.^^ ^^ alpine and arctic vegetation, in a much more perfect
degree than islands, we should scarcely do justice to our subject, did we not offer some re
marks on the distribution of the vegetable productions of a portion of that more interesting
and extreme northern European territory ; namely Lapland. The natural boundaries of this
country are formed by some low mountains, about 500 feet in height, at a distance of from
five to eight Swedish miles from the extremity of the Gulf of Bothnia, They present no
naked summits, but are covered with forests of Spruce Fii* (Jig. 225.) : these may be con
sidered as the last subalpine range in northern Europe. Commencing in tlie south-east, a
little beyond the lake Kemistrask, in lat. 67°, it tends towards Upper Tornea, and near to
Ofover Calix in the west ; stretches south to Edifers, in Lulea ; and reaches its southermost
point at the Tafvelsjon, in Umean Lapland, lat. 64°. This mountain chain exhibits Calla
palustris (fig. 226.), (a plant of a poisonous family, closely allied to the Arum maculatum
or Wake-robin, and to the Caladium esculentum of tlie tropics ; and, as with them, a kind of
bread called Missenbrod, or the bread of famine, is made by the Laplanders from the roots) ;
Sweet gale*, common Speedwell*, Ox-eye*, Meodow Fescure-grass*, and Carex stellulata*.
The Birch* there produces its leaves in the beginning of June.
* Tho names marked with an aeterisk are those of plants found also in Britain.

Book I.

DENMARK.

467

The inferior and woody district of Lapland has its upper limit at Sondankyla in Kemean
Lapland, between Kengis and Munoniska in Tornea, at Jockmock in Lulea, and at Falstrak,
in Umean Lapland; and it yields, besides the Spruce Fir, the Meadow Trefoil, the Lysima-
chia thyrsiflora* Lily of the Valley*, and White Water Lily*, which grow abuniJantly.
Some plants which are peculiarly subalpine begin to appear, as Tofie^ldia palustris* and Ser-
ratula alpina*.

226

225

Calla Palustris.

227

Spruce Fir.

Kein-deer Moss.

The upper woody district is distinguished by the absence of the last-mentioned plants; but
the forests of spruce stUl abound. Where the Spruce ceases, in places of warm exposure,
the upper limit of this region is indicated. Its boundary in Kemean, Tornean, and Pitean
Lapland, is more distinctly marked, because the country is flatter, and destitute of deep
valleys ; but in such situations, in Lulea and Umea, the Spruce Fir approaches nearer to the
Alps, and the sides of the mountains are covered with it. There its utmost northern limits
are found to be at Kyro, near the great lake of Enare, in lat. 69° north. Here, too, is the
most northem boundary of many well-known plants, such as Trifolium repens*, Festuca
rubra*, Rumex aquaticus*, the Yellow Water Lily*, and several other aquatics. Many
alpine plants commence, as Salix glauca*, extending south to the middle of this region,
Salix hastata* confined to the north, and Bartsia alpina*, with Lychnis alpina*, on the banks
of the streams. The culture of barley still succeeds ; but scarcely beyond this line.
The subalpine mountains in this region are very dry and remarkably gravelly and stony ;
abounding in that plant which Linnseus has so beautifiilly described, in his Flora Lapponica,
as the main support of the Rein-deer, and consequently of the Laplander, Lichen Rangife-
rinus* (fig. 227.), or Rein-deer Moss. Ill could the Laplander subsist without the supplies
afforded by that useful animal ; it is his sole wealth. Almost the only winter food of this ser
viceable animal is the moss, which the deer are so fond of, that though it is commonly buried
at that season under a great depth of snow, yet, by scratching with their feet, and digging
with their antlers, they never fail to get at it. In short, without this lichen, both the rein
deer and the Laplander must perish. " Thus," adds Linnsus, " things which are crflen
deemed the most insignificant and contemptible by ignorant men, are, by the good providence
of God, made the means of the greatest blessings to his creatures." Linnaeus assures us
that this lichen grows so luxuriantly in Lapland, as to be found sometimes a foot in height.
But as the hills scarcely rise to the limits of perpetual snow, about 200 or 300 feet higher
than the woods are found, they are fertile in such plants as flourish in a dry and barren soil ,
viz., Menziesia caerulea*. Arbutus alpina* Juncus trifidus*, Lycopodium alpinum*. Azalea

468

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

P.VRT m

Cudbear.

procumbens,* and, though rarely, Diapensia lapponica. Here the Lichen tartaieus {fig. 228.)
ooQ or Cudbear, abounds, and is, both here and in Sweden and
Norway, collected and exported to the dye-manufacturers.
Wahlenberg distinguishes by the term " Regio subsylva-
tica," or partially wooded region, that where the Scotch
Fir grows, but not the Spruce. This is more contracted
than the other regions, and more difiicult to be defined. It
is not unfrequently eight Swedish miles broad in northem
Lapland ; in Kemea extending to nearly 70° of lat. Be
fore the Scotch Fir ceases, the Carex globularis disap
pears, and, in the more northem parts. Prunella vulgaris.
Within the Fir region, the beautiful Pedicularis lapponica
appears scattered through the woods ; Viola bifolia, and
Thalictrum alpinum* following the course of the streams ; Salix lanata,* with its splendid
golden catkins, at the margins of marshes and springs, and also Ranunculus lapponicus.
The cultivation of barley scarcely succeeds, and the colonists are miserably poor. The
Birch comes into leaf at the summer solstice. The lakes and rivers have an elevation of
about 1000 feet above the level of the sea. The subalpine region still yields the Birch*
(Betula alba), though other trees will not grow. Its upper boundary is marked by the
dwarf stature of these, where they scarcely attain a height of six feet. The Aspen* (popu
lus tremula) and the Bird-cherry (Prunus Padus) cease before the Birch : the Sorbus Aucu
paria,* or Mountain Ash, extends as far. The Birch always in Lapland reaches to a much
greater elevation and more northem latitude than the Scotch and Spruce Firs. Its limits
are more easily determined ; yet, on a geographical map, they are with difficulty expressed,
because the Birch ascends to the alpine regions, circumscribes all the mountains, and pene
trates all the lesser valleys : thus it extends almost to lat. 71° in Westem Finmark, and
stops but little short of the North Cape. The dry portion of this region is again the habi
tation of the Lichen rangiferinus, and of Azalea procumbens,* Luzula spicata,* and Juncus
trifidus.* On the borders of Russia, the Birch as well as the Scotch Fir extend even to
the Northem Ocean.
The lower alpine region, or the Lower Alps, commence where the Birch ceases to exist,
and where the snow, not of perennial duration, except in caves and hollows, melts before
the middle of July. There the Diapensia lapponica, Silene acaulis,* and Andromeda hyp-
noides are found. The Salix myrsinites* and Dwarf Birch still grow erect. Nearly the
same vegetation as is met with on the Lower Alps exists
upon the maritime alps of Finmark, to the most northem
promontory, with this difference only, that the steep
and precipitous rocks harbour more moisture and snow,
and the affinity is greater with the alpine range in the
higher mountains, which retain tlie snow during the whole
summer, the partial melting of which creates a moist
and even a boggy soil. Here, therefore, are seen the
little Dwarf Willow* (fig. 229.) (Salix herbacea,) Ra
nunculus glacialis and nivalis, Pedicularis hirsuta and
flammea, Stellaria biflora, Erigeron uniflorum;* plants
eminently alpine, and peculiar to those situations.
Beyond these is the region of perpetual snow. Towards the Norwegian Ocean, another
form of the alps presents itself; lofty mountains without any plains, circumscribed with very
narrow zones, which Wahlenberg defines as the more elevated sides of the alps, reaching
nearly to the limits of perpetual snow, consequently always irrigated with snow-water :
they nourish a, few, and those marshy, plants. The Ranunculi (Crowfoots) principally
abound. The lower, or less elevated, sides of the alps, generally destitute of perpetual snow, yield
the Dwarf Birch* in the moister spots ; and, on the drier, Andromeda hypnoides, the Alpine
Speedwell*, Juncus bifidus*, and the Procumbent Azalea.*
The bases of the alps are where the Birch grows, but no Pines. Among the Birches,
scarcely six feet high, the Purple alpine Saxifrage*, with Saxifraga nivalis and cemua,
abound in the moist and precipitous places, and, in those tliat are more dry, Aspidium
Lonchitis. The lower portion of this zone affords tall birches, such as are found in the more
northern regions, only in the inmost recesses of the deep bays, and, beneath them, Aspidium
Filix Mas*, Osmunda Struthiopteris, the Blue Alpine Sowtliistle*, and the Red Currant.*
The maritime alps include the islands and promontories ; so exposed to the winds that
they derive their alpine character more from their peculiar situation tlian from their eleva
tion above the level of the sea ; and so bare are they of trees and shrubs, that even the
Juniper will not succeed there. They are almost equally destitute of the more alpine shrubs,
such as Andromedas; but thoy are adorned with succulent alpme plants, such as Saxifraga
oppositifolia*, Silene acaulis*, and Dryas octopetala. Near tlie shore occur some produc-

229

Dwarf Wrillow.

^OK L DENMARK. 469
tions of the alps of the south of Europe, such as Erigeron alpinum*, Sedum villosum* and
Gentiana involucrata, which in Lapland are found nowhere inland. The Norwegian alpa
nourish numerous annual plants ; but the dryer ones of Sweden, remote from the sea, are
remarkable for the little alpine shrubs, particularly Azalea lapponica, which scarcely occurs
in Norway ; Salices alone, such as S. myrsinites*, occupying their place.
The subalpine spots and valleys are marked by the presence of the Pme ; but the most
extended Fir forests are only found at the heads of the deep inlets of the sea, in narrow
ravines, sheltered by the loftiest mountains. These valleys enjoy a much milder climate
than all the rest of Lapland : there are found the Convallaria verticillata*. Campanula lati-
folia* and Fragaria vesca*, in abundance ; but no alpine plants will grow, except the Starry
Saxifrage* (Saxifraga stellaris) along the margins of the rills.
A more interesting account of the vegetation of Lapland, at different elevations, is pub
lished by Sir J. E. Smith, in the Appendix to the Lachesis Lapponica of Linnseus. It is
translated from the Swedish of Dr. Wahlenberg ; his " Observations
made with a view to determine the height of the Lapland Alps."
(1.) On approaching the Lapponese mountains (Fjall), we first
reach the line where the Spruce Fir ceases to grow. This tree
had previously assumed an unusual appearance ; that of a tall
230 slender pole, covered from the ground with short, drooping, dark
branches : a gloomy object in these desolate forests ! The Arctic
Raspberry* (fig. 230.) (Rubus arcticus) had already, before we
arrived at this point, ceased to bring its fruit to maturity. With
the Spruce we lose the Cinnamon Rose {Rosa cinnamomea*), and
the Twin-leaved Solomon's Seal (Convallaria bifolia), &c. ; and
the borders of the lakes are stripped of their ornaments of Reeds
(Arundo Phragmites*), Lysimachia thyrsiflora*, Galium boreale*,
and Carex globularis. Here is the trae station of the Arctic Colts
foot (Tussilago nivea). The last beaver-houses are seen in the
rivulets ; and no pike nor perch is to be found in the lakes higher
up. The boundary of the Spruce Fir is 3200 feet below the line
of perpetual snow, and the mean temperature 37° of Fahrenheit.
(2.) Scotch Firs* {Pinus sylvestris) are still found, but not near
so tall as in the lower country. Their stems here are low, and their
The Arctic Raspberrr. branches widely extended. Here are seen the last of Ledum pa
lustre*, Salix pentandra*, Veronica serpyllifolia*, &c. The bogs have already a very sterile
appearance. Near the utmost boundary of the Scotch Fir grows Phaca alpina. Higher up,
hardly any bears are to be met with ; and the fruit of the Bilberry* does not ripen well.
The Gwiniad and Grayling, two species of the Salmon tribe, soon after disappear from the
lakes. The upper limit of this zone, at which the Scotch Firs cease, is 2800 feet below the
line of perpetual snow, and the mean temperature about 36° Fahrenheit. A little short of
this point, or about 3000 feet before we come to perpetual snow. Barley will not ripen ; but
small farms, the occupiers of which live by grazing and fishing, are met with as far as 400
feet higher ; for instance, Naimaka in Enontekis, and so far also potatoes and turnips grow
large enough to be worth cultivating.
(3.) Beyond this, the dwarf and stunted forests consist only of Birch.* Its short, thick
stem, and stiff, widely-spreading, knotty branches, seem prepared to resist the strong winds
from the Alps : its lively light green hue is delightful to the eye, but evinces a weakness
of vegetation. The birch forests soon become so low, that they may be entirely commanded
from the smallest eminence. Their uppermost boundary, where the tallest of them do not
equal the height of a man, is 2000 feet below the line of perpetual snow. This zone ia
therefore much wider than the preceding. Long before its termination, the Alder* (Alnus
incana), the Bird-cherry* (Prunus Padus), and the Aspen {Populus tremula*), were no
more to be seen. A little before the Birch ceases, we miss the Mountain Ash*, which for
some time had not presented us with any fruit; the Arctic Bramble* {Rubus arcticus) was
already likewise barren ; the Ling* (Erica vulgaris), Aconitum Lycoctonum, &c. Where
the birch forest becomes thinner, the reflection of the heat from the sides of the mountains
is the strongest. Here, in many spots, we find the vegetation of Sonchus alpinus*, Struthi
opteris, and Aconitum Lycoctonum remarkably luxuriant. The dryer spots now become
covered with the Iceland Moss* (Lichen rangiferinus) : Tussilago frigida and. Pedicularis
sceptrum-carolinum extend to the utmost boundary of the Birch. Thus far only the Char
{Salmo alpinus) is found in the lakes, and higher up all fishing ceases.
(4.) All mountains above this limit are called Fjall (alps). Near rivulets, and on the
margin of bogs only, is found a little brushwood, consisting of Salix glauca*, whose gray
hue affords but little ornament to the landscape. The lower country is covered with the
dark-looking Dwarf Birch* (Betula nana), which still retains its upright position. A few
Juniper bushes*, and some plants of Salix hastata*, are found scattered about. Every hill
is covered with Arbutus alpina*, variegated with Andromeda cserulea*, and the Wintergreen*
Vol. L 40

470 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pabt ffl.
(Trientalis europaa). The more boggy ground is decorated with Andromeda polifolia* in
its greatest beauty, and Pedicularis lapponica. On the sides of the mountains, where the
reflected heat bears most power, grow Veronica alpina*, Viola biflora*, Pteris crispa*, and
Angelica archangelica.* This zone extends within 1400 feet of the line of perpetual snow.
The glutton (Mustela Gulo) goes no higher than this. The berries of the Cloudberry
{Rubus Chamaimorus) still ripen here, but not at a greater elevation.
(5.) Now no more brushwood is to be seen. The white Salix lanata* is not aiove two
feet high, even about the rivulets, and Salix myrsinites* is of stUl humbler growth. The
Dwarf Birch* occupies the dry spots, and creeps entirely upon the ground. The hUls are
clothed with the rather brown than green Azalea procumbens*, and A. lapponica, which
give this zone its most peculiar feature. Verdant spots between the precipices, where the
sun has the greatest power, produce Lychnis apetala*, Erigeron uniflorum*. Astragalus
leontinus and montanus, with Ophrys alpina. In boggy places, Aira alpina*, Carex ustu
lata*, and Vaccinium uliginosum* are observable. The only berries, however, which ripen
at this degree of elevation are those of the Crowberry* (Empetrum nigrum) ; but these are
twice as large as what grow in the woodlands, and better flavoured. The upper boundary
of this zone is 800 feet below the line of perpetual snow. The Laplanders scarcely ever
fix their tents higher up, as the pasture for their reindeer ceases a very little way above
this point. The mean temperature is about 34° Fahrenheit.
(6.) Next come the snowy Alps, where are patches of snow that never melt. The
bare places between still produce a few dark shrubby plants, such as the Crowbeny*, des
titute, however of fruit ; Andromeda tetragona and hypnoides, and Diapensia lapponica.
Green precipices, exposed to the sun, are decorated with the vivid azure tints of Gentiana
tenella and nivalis*, and Campanula uniflora, accompanied by the yellow Draba alpina.
Colder and marshy situations, where there is no reflected heat, produce Pedicularis hirsuta,
and Dryas octopetala.* This zone reaches to within 200 feet of the limits of perpetual and
almost uninterrupted snow.
(7.) Beyond it, the eternal snows begin to cover the ground, and we soon arrive at a point
where only a few dark spots are here and there to be seen. This takes place on the alps
of Quickjock at the elevation of 4100 feet above the sea ; but nearer the highest ridge, and
particularly on the Norway side of that ridge, at 3100 feet. Some few plants with succulent
leaves are thinly scattered over the spongy brown surface of the earth, where the reflected
heat is strongest, quite up to the line of uninterrupted snow : these are Saxifraga stellaris*,
rivularis*, and oppositifolia* ; Ranunculus nivalis and glacialis ; Rumex digynus*, Juncus
arcuatus*, and Silene acaulis. The mean temperature, at the boundary of perpetual snow,
is 32i° of Fahrenheit.
(8.) Above the line of perpetual snow, the cold is occasionally so much tempered, that a
few plants of Ranunculus glacialis, and other simUar ones, may now and then be found in
the clefts of some dark rock rising through the snow. This happens even to the height of
500 feet above that line. Farther up, the snow is very rarely moistened, though some um-
bilicated Lichens (Gyrophorce), &c. still occur in the crevices of perpendicular rocks, even
2000 feet above the line of never-melting snow. These are the extremes of vegetation,
where the mean temperature seems to be 30° Fahrenheit. The Snow Bunting (Emberiza
nivalis) is the only living being that visits this elevated spot.
Subsect. 3. — Zoology.
The native Zoology, in conjunction with that of Norway, has been ably Ulustrated by the
celebrated Danish naturalist Miiller, and shows that the feuna of those kingdoms is much
richer than their northem and ungenial climate would lead us to imagine. The total num
ber of land quadrupeds, including the domestic species, is forty-one. Among these we find
the lynx, the glutton, the beaver, the lemtng, and the flying squirrel ; together with four
of the largest deer inhabiting Europe ; namely, the elk, the stag, the rein-deer, and the
fallow-deer. The Elk (Cervus Alces) (fig. 231.) of Europe is not the same with the Moose-deer of Ame.
rica : it is found in Europe between latitude 53° and
65° : in size it is higher than a horse ; and, to support
the enormous weiglit of its horns, sometimes nearly
fifty pounds, its neck is short, tliick, and very strong.
Its movements are rather heavy : it does not gallop, but
ambles along, the joints cracking so much at every
step, that the sound is heard to some distance. During
winter it chiefly resides in hilly woods ; but in summer
it frequents swamps and tlie borders of lakes; often
going deep into the water, to escape the stings of gnats,
&c., and to feed without stooping. With its enormous
horns it turns down branches of trees, to feed upon the
bark, with great dexterity ; and these are also used as
The Elk. ^^ " shovels, to get at pasture when covered with snow.
The young are so simple and fearless, that they will

Book I. DENMARK. 471
suffer themselves to be taken by the hand. An unusually large elk, killed in Sweden, is
said to have weighed 1200 lbs. These animals do not now appear to be employed in any
domestic office.
The Wolverine, or Glutton, is one of those animals whose history has long been shrouded
in fiction and romance. It is only now that its true habits have been given to the world, by
that enterprising traveller, Dr. Richardson. The Wolverine of America, generally consi
dered the same with the European Glutton, feeds chiefly upon beasts that have been acci
dentally killed ; but it will hunt smaller animals, as meadow-mice, marmots, &c. and occa
sionally attack disabled animals of a larger size. In its gait it resembles the bear ; and,
although not fleet, is very industrious. Mr. Graham observes, that it does more damage to
the small fur trade than all the other rapacious animals conjointly ; as it will follow the
martin-hunter's path round a line of traps extending sixty miles, and render the whole
unserviceable, merely to get at the baits. Yet it flies from the face of man, and may be
kUled with a stick. Its total length is not more than two feet and a half.
The Birds, according to Miiller, amount to 232 species : the greater part of these are
common to the northern countries of Europe ; but the
>^^k^ Mocking Jay (Corvus infaustus Lin.) (fig. 232.), and
the Nutcracker (Nucifraga caryocatactes) are unknown
in Britain and more southern latitudes : the bill of the
latter is shaped much like that of a woodpecker, and is
said to be used for breaking the shells of nuts : whence
its name. The species of fish, from the maritime nature
of the region, are numerous.
Domestic animals. It appears that the breeds called
the lesser and greater Danish Dogs are much more com-
.pi^ JJ . . J mon in other countries than in that from which they
have been named. The horses and cattle are of very
large-sized breeds, generally called the Holstein. The greatest number of oxen seem to be
bred in Jutland : they are fattened, during summer, in the rich marshes of Holstein, and
driven, in the autumn, to Hamburg. Sect. HI. — Historical Geography.
During the early period of the middle ages, the swarms of pirates sent forth by Denmark
spread desolation and terror to the remotest extremities of Europe. Canute king of Den
mark even ascended the English throne in 1017. Denmark, at the same time, carried on
frequent wars against the contiguous districts of Germany and Poland, and often held sway
over large portions of them. But her most brilliant era was the reign of Margaret of Wal
demar, surnamed the Semiramis of the North, who, by her courage, popularity, and address,
succeeded in effecting the union of Calmar, which placed on her head, and on that of her
nephew Eric, the crown of the three northem kingdoms of Denmark, Sweden, and Norway.
The decline of Denmark began m the thirteenth century, under the violent and tyranni
cal reign of Christian I. The sanguinary course by which he sought to punish an insurrec
tion of the Swedes roused all the dormant spirit of that brave people, who found a deliverer
in Gustavus Vasa, and were finally freed from the Danish yoke. During the two following
centuries, Sweden, led to victory by a succession of heroic monarchs, rose to the highest
pitch of mUitary glory ; while Denmark, always defeated, was stripped of many of her most
important territories, and sunk into the rank of a secondary state. Still she successfiilly
cultivated maritime commerce and shipping, and obtained some valuable possessions in the
East and West Indies.
In the great crisis produced by the conquests of Napoleon, Denmark was thrown into an
unfortunate predicament. Placed, as it were, at the point of collision between France and
Russia, she could with difficulty escape being crushed between them. Circumstances of
peculiar hardship threw her into the arms of France, to whose cause she adhered, and at the
great contest which ended in the downfall of Napoleon, she became a victim. First, she
was deprived of Norway, that it might be ceded to Sweden, and that Russia miglit retain
Finland. Denmark received in return Swedish Pomerania as an inadequate compensation.
Next, she was required to exchange Pomerania for Lauenburg, a territory of still inferior
extent and value ; but, as it borders on Sleswick and Holstein, it has rendered her dominion
more compact, and extended her frontier to the Elbe, so that she is perhaps rather a gainer
by the exchange. Sect. IV. — Productive Industry.
The agriculture of Denmark is conducted under considerable disadvantages both of cli
mate and soil. The climate, though not subject to severe frost or intense cold, is chill and
damp ; and the land consists in a great measure of sand and marsh. Every part of the king
dom, however, is capable of some cultivation, and occasional tracts of luxuriant fertility
occur. Such are the islands of Zealand, Laaland, and Falster ; and, in a still greater degree,

473 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Past IH,
the sea-coast of Sleswick and Holstein ; for the interior is arid and sandy. The industry
of the peasant in Denmark Proper suffers many severe checks ; he has been but recently
emancipated from personal bondage, and is still subjected to many feudal usages. Life-
leases, under which the payment is made in produce or personal services, are common. The
proprietors are generally embarrassed, and unable to expend much on the improvement of
their lands. The farmers of Holstein and Sleswick carry on the process of cultivation vvith
great skUl and activity. The chUl moisture of the climate is less favourable to the cultiva
tion of wheat than of barley, rye, and oats ; all of which afford a large surplus for exporta
tion. The rearing of cattle is also an extensive branch of industry, though too little atten
tion has been paid to the improvement of the breeds, unless on the west coast of Sleswick,
on whose moist and rich meadows is produced what bears a high reputation under the name
of " Hamburg beef" Over all Denmark, the produce of the dairy forms the basis of a large
export trade.
The manufactures of Denmark are extremely rude, and consist chiefly in working up the
flax and wool of the country in a coarse form for domestic use. A great proportion also of
the wool is exported. Govemment have employed great efforts to raise Denmark to the
rank of a manufacturing country ; and some fabrics in the different kinds of cloth, brandy,
sugar-refining, &c., have, under its patronage, been set on foot in the large towns; but these
are all languishing, and with difficulty support foreign competition.
The commerce of Denmark is in a more active state than the other branches of industry ;
though it is still not such as to give her a prominent place among the powers of Europe.
The basis consists in the exportation of its raw produce. The grain exported from Jutland
and the islands, at an average of seven years to 1827, amounted to 29,000 quarters of wheat ;
141,000 quarters of rye ; 190,000 quarters of barley ; 43,000 quarters of oats. The rye
was chiefiy exported to Norway, to be used as bread-corn, and the barley to be employed in
distillation. The value of these articles amounted, in 1825, to $2,300,000. That of butter
and cheese exported was, in the same year, $1,300,000. Holstein and Sleswick, called the
duchies, exported at an average also of seven years, 78,000 quarters of wheat ; 55,0{X) of
rye ; 75,000 of barley ; 130,000 of oats. The value of butter, cheese, and salted meat, is
still greater. Denmark, from its situation between the northem and middle states, has a
considerable carrying trade of the bulky articles produced by the former ; and has also a
good deal of ship-building. Both the whale and herring fisheries are likewise carried on to
some extent Sect. V. — Political Geography.
The constitution of Denmark, originally founded on the basis of the most complete feudal
independence, to the extent of rendering the monarchy itself elective, imderwent a com
plete change in 1660, when Frederick HI. had the address to obtain an act by which the
crown was declared hereditary, and himself invested with supreme and absolute power.
The sway of the Danish princes has, however, been exceedingly mUd and popular, and their
despotic power exerted in a manner beneficial to the people, as it limited the oppressive
rights exercised by the nobles. These, however, continue to be extremely obnoxious ;
and it is only within a very few years that the body of the people were emancipated from
a state of personal slavery. The nobles are few in number, consisting only of one duke,
nineteen counts, and twelve barons. The king himself presides at the supreme national
tribunal. The revenue amounts to from abou t $7,500,000 to $8,000,000. There is a nominal debt of
$76,000,000 ; but the interest paid upon it is small.
The mUitary and naval establishments are on a scale suited to a greater country than
what remains of Denmark. The army is kept up to nearly 40,000 regular troops and 60,000
militia. The navy has not recovered from the severe shock which it received during the
last war: at present it consists of six ships of the line, six frigates, and four corvettes, besides
smaller vessels. The sailors being all registered, no difficulty is ever found in manning the
navy. Sect. VI. — Civil and Social State,
The population of the Danish dominions in 1832, amounted to 2,049,000; of which
1,640,000 were in its ancient domain of the islands Jutland and Sleswick; 404,000 in Hol
stein; 40,000 in Lauenburg ; 51,000 in Iceland ; 14,000 in Greenland and the Faroe Islands.*
National character. The Danes are generally quiet, tranquil, and industrious. The
inhabitants of the towns, who are chiefly engaged in U'ade, have a great share of the patient,
thrifty, and persevering habits of the Dutch. The peasantry, poor and oppressed, are begin
ning, however, to raise their heads ; and the nobles, no longer addicted to those rude and
* The Danish colonins ure Chriatianaborg and other stations in Guinea, with 44,000 inhabitants ; Santa Cruz,
Bt. Thomas, and Bt.John in the W^cst Indies, with 47,000; and Tranquobar and flictories on the Coromandel coast,
in the East Indies, with 00,000.— Ah. Ed.

Book T. DENMARK. 473
daring pursuits which rendered them once so formidable, live much in the style of opulent
proprietors in other European counti-ies.
The Lutheran religion was eai-ly and zealously adopted in Denmark, to the extent, indeed,
of granting toleration to no other ; but the liberal principles now diffused throughout Europe,
have made their way fully into that country. Science was at one era somewhat brUliantly
patronised in Denmark. The observatory at Orienbaum was the theatre of many of the
most important modern observations; and Tycho Brahe ranks as one of the fathers of
modern astronomy. CElenschlager and other writers have introduced a school of poetry and
dramatic literature, founded upon that of the modern German. The govemment has
bestowed a laudable attention on the general education of its people, and has even passed a
law, requiring every chUd, of a certain age, to be sent to school. The schools, on the plan
of mutual instruction, amounted, in 1829, to 2500, and more were in progress; there are also
3000 grammar and parish schools. Sect. VH. — Local Geography.
The local divisions of continental Denmark present little variety in consequence of the
uniformity of its surface, and the small number of considerable cities. Its divisions are Zea
land and the other islands ; Jutland, Sleswick, Holstem, Lauenburg ; with the remote terri
tories of Iceland, Greenland, and the Faroe Islands.
Zealand is a flat, fertUe, and extensive island, separated from Funen by the Great Belt,
and from Sweden by the Sound. Including the capital, and chief seats of trade, it forms the
most important part of the Danish dominions.
Copenhagen, (fig. 233.), (m Danish, Kiobenhafh, or the " merchant port,") the capital
of Denmark, is situated on the east
coast of Zealand, with the island
of Amak oppposite to it, and seve
ral little lakes in its vicinity. Its
walls enclose a circuit of five miles,
a great part of which, however, is
covered with open spaces, and with
the harbour and docks. The houses,
with a few exceptions, are built of
brick, plastered over, and painted
in different colours. The number
of inhabitants is about 115,000;
the houses are lofty, and contain
many families in each. The city
is divided into three parts ; the old town, which contains the greater part of the population ;
the new town, in which are all the finest edifices; and the port, or Christian's Haven. In
the midst of the principal square is the bronze statue of Frederick V., weighing 46,000 lbs.
This square, with the adjoining one called the King's Mark Place, surrounded by the palace
of Charlottenborg, the theatre, the principal hotel, and other stately buildings, forms the
handsomest part of Copenhagen. The cathedral was destroyed during the bombardment by
the English, and is lefl in ruins ; but the Frue Kirke is an elegant Grecian edifice, 215 feet
by 180, with a Doric portico, and for which Thorwaldsen is preparing statues of the apostles
and evangelists. The palace of Rosenborg, though now unoccupied, contains an extraor
dinary display of jewels, precious stones, and porcelain. The collections in science and art
are equal to those of the greatest capitals. The king has a library of 400,000 volumes, with
numerous manuscripts illustrative of the history and literature of the North, as well as those
brought by Niebuhr from the East ; an extensive museum of northem antiquities : a gallery
of pictures, comprising some fine specimens of the greatest masters, and a numerous collec
tion of engravings. The University of Copenhagen, a highly respectable institution, has a
valuable library of about 100,000 volumes, and an excellent collection of northern manu
scripts. The arsenal is said to equal that of Venice in beauty, and to surpass it in extent.
The mint throws off 200 pieces in a minute.
The other towns in Zealand and the islands are of comparatively small magnitude. Ros-
chUd, the ancient capital of Denmark, which contained once thirty convents and thirty
churches, is now remarkable only for its Gothic cathedral, in whose vaults are deposited the
remains of the kings of Denmark. Several of the monuments are fine. Elsinore, with its
castle of Cronborg, is important from its situation on the Sound, which being commanded
by the castle, the govemment is enabled to levy what are called the Sound dues. The pas
sage to Helsinborg, in Sweden, may be made in half an hour. Elsinore, from its favourable
situation and good roadstead, carries on a considerable commerce, and contains, among its
inhabitants, many British, Jews, and even Mahometans. It has a handsome cathedral, with
bome fine tombs. Population 7000. At Cronborg is shown the chamber in which the
unfortunate MatUda was confined. This castle commands a noble view over the sea, the
Vol. I. 40* 3K

Copenhagen.

474

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY

Pabt in.

islands, and the opposite coast of Sweden. The terrace from which these are viewed
recalls to the English reader the first scenes of Hamlet, the tradition of whose story is still
prevalent here. Soroe, in the interior, surrounded by a fine country, has a noble academy ;
and contains the tombs of Eric, Canute, and other princes. Odensee, the capital of Funen,
has a college, and is rather a thriving town, with manufactures of woollen and soap. Nye-
borg, in Funen, and Corsoer in Zealand, derive some importance from their situation on the
passage of the Great Belt; and Middelfarth, in the former island, from the passage of the
Little Belt.
The towns of Jutland are of small interest, and have been little observed, with the excep
tion of those which lie on the high road from Hamburg to Copenhagen. Aalborg, near the
northem extremity, is the seat of one of the four bishoprics ; and, being situated on a narrow
arm of the sea, with a good harbour, carries on some trade. Aarbuus, on the eastem coast,
is the seat of another bishopric ; and, being in the midst of a fertUe country, exports some
grain. Population, 5,000. Colding derives some importance from its vicinity to the passage
of the Little Belt. Wiborg and Ripen are also deserving of mention.
In Sleswick, the city of that name is agreeable, though irregularly built. Its cathedral,
with numerous monuments of ancient dukes, is viewed with interest. Memsborg, on a deep
and winding haaf, or bay, with an excellent harbour, possesses a much greater commercial
importance, while it carries on the communication with the Baltic : it has 15,000 inhabitants.
Tonningen, on the other side, near the mouth of the Eyder, communicates with the coun
tries situated round the German Ocean ; and, by the canal of Holstein, it has now a water
communication with the Baltic.
Holstein, the most southem province of Denmark, ranks as a part of the German empire,
to which it once belonged, and gives to the king of Denmark a vote in the diet Reaching
to the Elbe, and being more in the commercial circle, it has a considerably brisker trade than
the northern or peninsular territory. Altona, a few miles below Hamburg, is a repetition of
that city on a smaller scale ; having 25,000 inhabitants, busUy employed in the commerce
of the Elbe, in ship-building, and in several manufactures. Gluckstadt, about twenty miles
lower, though inferior in extent, is a handsome and regular town, with considerable naval
establishments. Kiel, on the eastem or Baltic coast, has an excellent harbour, and derives
importance from its situation at the extremity of the canal which connects the eastem and
western seas. It contains an university. Lauenburg, a level tract, intersected with several
small lakes, though it rounds the Danish borders, does not possess much importance, either
in itself or its little capital, with 3,000 inhabitants.
Iceland, an appendage of the Danish crown, unimportant in a political view, but interest
ing from its physical and moral aspect, is situated in the Northern Ocean, on the border of
the arctic circle, and at the farthest verge of the civUized world. It is a large island, 220
mUes in length, and 210 in breadth; containing about 40,000 square mUes. Iceland belongs,
by its situation, to tho polar world ; and the mountain chains, from 3000 to 6000 feet high,
with which it is everywhere intersected, give it a stUl more severe and stem character.
Barley is the only grain that can be raised, and this only in patches ; cabbages, and a few
other imported vegetables, may be produced, but by no means in perfection. The dependence
of the inhabitants is chiefly upon the abundance of fish which the surrounding seas afford ; so
that the interior, compiising about half of the island, is a desert of the most dreary character.
The mountain phenomena of Iceland are very striking. According to Glieman, the
jokuls, or hills covered with ice, rise to the following heights : Oerefe, 6240 feet ; Snafell,
4572; FmdfeU, 5368; Hecla, 5210; Eya-
234 ^-^^^^it.. ^^ Oester, 6794. All these mountains
are, at the same time, glaciers capped
with ice which never melts; but tiese
glaciers consist not, like those of Switzer
land, of great masses sloping down from
upper regions of the mountains to the val
leys ; they are the snows of winter melted
and frozen where they fall. Beneath this
mantle of ice and snow burns a perpetual
fire, which in every part of the island
bursts forth in tlie most strange and fear
ful phenomena. Hecla (fig. 234.), with its flaming volcano, is the most celebrated ; but its
eruptions, of which six have occurred in the course of a century, are at present suspended.
There are six other volcanoes, which, in the course of a century, have emitted twenty
eruptions. The Geysers form a phenomena strikingly characteristic of Iceland, and rank with the
most extraordinary that are produced on any part of the globe. They consist of fountains,
which throw up boiling water, spray, and vapour, to a great height into tlie air. The erup
tions are not continuous, but announce their approach by a sound like that of subterraneous

Hecla.

Book I.

DENMARK.

475

Great Geyser.

thunder ; immediately after which, a column of water, accompanied with prodigious volumes
235 of steam, bursts forth, and rushes up to the height of fifty,
sixty, ninety, or even a hundred and fifty feet. The water
soon ceases ; but the spray and vapour continue to play in
the air for several hours, and, when illuminated by the sun,
produce the most brilliant rainbows. The largest stones,
when thrown into the orifice, are instantly propelled to an
amazing height, and remaining often for some minutes
within the influence of the steam, rise and fall in singular
alternation. Stones tiirown into the fountain have the
remarkable effect of acting as a stimulus to the erup
tion, and causing it to burst from a state of tranquillity.
The basin of the Great Geyser (fig. 236.), is of an oval
form, with diameters of flfty-eight and sixty-four feet.
Every spot around the Geysers is covered with varitgi^
ted and beautiful petrifactions. Leaves, grass, rushes,
are converted into white stone, preserving entire every
fibre. The Sulphur Mountains, with their caldrons of boUing
mud, present another phenomenon which the traveller be
holds with the utmost astonishment. These consist chiefly of clay, covered with a crust,
which is hot to the touch, and of sulphur, from almost every part of which, gas and steam
are perpetually escaping. Sometimes a loud noise guides the traveller to a spot where cal
drons of black boUing mud (fig.
^" -^ 236.), largely impregnated with
this mineral substance, are throw
ing up, at short intervals, their
eruptions. That on the Krabla,
observed by Mr. Henderson, had a
diameter equal to that of the Great
Geyser, and rose to the height of
thirty feet The situation of the
spectator here is not only awful, but
even dangerous; standing, as Sir
George Mackenzie observes, " on a
support which feebly sustains him,
over an abyss where fire and brim
stone are in dreadful and incessant
action."
The civil and social state of Iceland presents features no less interesting. It was dis
covered about the year 840, by Nadod, a Danish pirate. After its settlement it became a
little independent republic ; and the arts and literature, driven before the tide of barbarism,
which then overwhelmed the rest of Europe, took refiige in this remote and frozen clime.
Iceland had its divines, its annalists, its poets, and was for some time the most enlightened
country then perhaps existing in the world. Subjected first to Norway, in 1261, and after
wards to Denmark, it lost the spirit and energy of an independent republic. Yet the
diSusion of knowledge, even among the lowest class, which took place during its pros
perous period, still exists in a degree not paralleled in the most enlightened of other
nations. Men who seek, amid the storms of the surrounding ocean, a scanty provision
for their famUies, possess an acquaintance with the classical writings of antiquity, and
a sense of their beauty. The traveller finds the guide whom he has hired able to hold a
conversation with him in Latin, and on his arrival at his miserable place of rest for the night,
is addressed with fluency and elegance in the same language. " The instruction of his chil
dren," says Dr. HoUandj " forms one of the stated occupations of the Icelander ; and whUe
the little hut which he inhabits is almost buried in the snow, and while darkness and deso
lation are spread universally around, the light of an oil-lamp Ulumines the page from which
he reads to his family the lessons of knowledge, religion, and virtue."
The Faroe Islands compose a group in the Northern Ocean, between 61° 15' and 62° 20'
N. lat, to the N.W. of Shetland, which they resemble. The principal are Stromsoe, Osteroe,
Suderoe, and Norderoe, with the smaller islands of Nalsoe, Vagoe, and Sandoe. "Their only
wealth is produced by the rearing of sheep, fishing, and catching the numerous birds which
cluster round the rocks. With the surplus of these articles they supply their deficiency of
grain. Thorsham, on Stromsoe, is the only place that can be called a town.

Caldron of Boilmg Mud.

476 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY Paet HI.
CHAPTER VI.
SWEDEN AND NORWAY.
Sweden and Norway, now united into one kingdom, form an extensive region, stretching
from the utmost verge of the temperate zone far into the frozen range of the arctic circle.
Along the north and west stretch the wide shores of the Frozen Ocean, so far as yet known.
The south-west point of the kingdom borders on the North Sea or German Ocean. The
Baltic and the Gulf of Bothnia enclose it on the south and east; so that it forms an immense
peninsula. The isthmus by which it is joined to Russia is above 200 miles broad, but so
closely barred by mountains and frozen plains, that the kingdom is nearly inaccessible,
except by sea. Sect. I. — General Outline and Aspect.
This kingdom is of vast extent Its length, from the extreme point of Scania to the North
Cape, is 1550 miles. Its breadth, from the extreme points of the provinces of Stockholm
on the east, and Bergen on the west, will little exceed 360 miles. Its area is 297,000 square
miles. Of this large territory, scarcely a half can be considered as belonging to the civi
lized world. The Laplander, who derives his whole subsistence from the rein-deer, can
hardly be included within the pale of civilized society. Even the southem districts have a
rugged and repulsive aspect, when compared to almost any other European state. Forests
of tall and gloomy pine stretch over the plains, or hang on the sides of the mountains ; the
ground for five months in the year is buried under snow ; cultivation appears only in scat>
tered patches, and was long quite insufficient to furnish bread to the inhabitants.
The mountains consist chiefly of the dark and lofty chain of the Dofrines, which were
for ages a barrier between the two separate and hostile states of Sweden and Norway, but
are now included within the united kingdom. It commences near Gottenburg, on a low
scale, and becomes much more elevated in passing through Norway, where some of its pin
nacles exceed 8000 feet. Chains of secondary elevation run through Lapland; but, in
approaching the North Cape, they again rise as high as before, and face the polar seas with
cliffs of prodigious magnitude.
The rivers are numerous, Sweden being a country profiisely watered ; but, as they rise in
the Dofrines, and traverse the divided breadth of the peninsula, they seldom attain any
material length of course. The largest is the Dahl, which crosses Dalecarlia, and falls into
the sea at Geffle, after a course of 260 miles. The most important as to navigation are those
which form the outlet to the lakes, particularly the Gotha, reaching from flie lake Wener
to Gottenburg. The Glomme and the Dramme are pretty considerable rivers, running
from north to south, and down which considerable quantities of timber are floated. Lapland
pours a number of large streams into the head of the Gulf of Bothnia ; but these are
usually chained in ice, and at no time can be subservient to the purposes of agriculture or
navigation. Lakes form the grand depository of the surplus waters of Sweden. The Wener bears
almost the character of an inland sea, and the completion of the canal of Trolhatta, by
enabling its coasts to communicate by the Gotha with Gottenburg, has given them almost
the full advantages of a maritime site. The Wetter, though equal in length, covers not
nearly so great an extent of ground. Maler, or Malar, is a narrow, winding loch, or, more
strictly, a bay, running sixty miles into the interior from Stockholm, to whose environs its
variegated and rocky shores give a beautiful wildness. Small lakes, enclosed between hUls,
are of very frequent occurrence, both in Norway and Sweden.
Sect. H. — Natural Geography.
Subsect. 1. — Geology,
(1.) Geology of Sweden. — I. Primitive rocks. Granite occurs in tlie mountains of
Jamtland, in Herjeadalen, in Lulea Lappmark, in Pitea Lappmark. It occurs also in the
plains, without any covering of other rocks, as in Upland, Westmanland, Sudermanland, and
a part of East and West Gothland. It passes into gneiss and syenite. Gneiss occurs in
many places in Sudermanland, East Gothland, &c., with beds of copper and iron ore. Mica
slate abounds not only in the principal, but also in tlie subordinate chains, and contains the
greater number of the metalliferous beds met with in Sweden. It often alternates with vast
beds of primitive limestone, quartz, &c. In tlie high mountain ridges, the strata of this
rock are generally disposed at an angle of 45° ; while in the subordinate chains they are
vertical. In many places it abounds in garnets, when it is known under the name noorka,
or murkstein, the garnet rock of geologists. Clay slate occurs sparingly : talc slate, in
several quarters, occurs in considerable abundance. Porphyry occurs only in Smaland,
where the basis is a quartzy hornstone (hallefiinta) with embedded crystals of felspar, and
grains of quartz. Primitive limestone occurs generally in the secondary mountain chains,

Book I. SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 477
but seldom in the neighbourhood of the central chains. It is mixed up with hornblende
tremolite, quartz, serpentine, gamet, magnetic ironstone, and mica. It is often metaUiferous,
containing galena, copper, and iron pyrites. Serpentine, with the exception of masses in
some metalliferous beds, seldom occurs pure : it is often mixed with limestone, when it
occurs in primitive limestone. Quartz rock occurs either pure, and in whole mountains, as
in Dahlsland, Smaland, and many other places ; or it alternates with mica slate, as in Dahls-
land, and also in the metalliferous beds of Persberg and Klacka. The limestone of Dane-
mora contains mica slate. It also occurs in veins in granite and mica slate, &c. Porphyri
tic quartz, a granite rock, with embedded grains and crystals of felspar, occurs in Smaland,
Tornea Lappmark, &c. Primitive trap. Of this interesting group of rocks, the following
kinds are met with ; viz. hornblende rock, hornblende with felspar, and hornblende with
mica, II. Transition rocks. Conglomerate and sandstone, which, in some places, are covered
with transition limestone, occur in Jamtland, Tornea Lappmark, Angermanland, Dalecarlia,
Schonen, islands in the Lake Wetter, East and West Gothland, Nerika, Dalamia. Transi
tion porphyry: in the parish ofElfdal, in Dalamia. The basis is of the nature of horn
stone. It rests upon transition sandstone, and is covered by syenite, porphyry, and transition
greenstone. Greywacke slate lies upon sandstone, and is covered by transition limestone.
It sometimes contains coal, and then passes into a kind of shale. It also contains fossil
remains of marine animals. Transition limestone occurs in Gothland, Qilland, Schonen,
East and West Gothland, Nerika, Dalarnia, and Jamtland. In the regular succession, it lies
immediately upon alum slate, but in Gothland directly upon sandstone. It is seldom covered
by other rocks, excepting in West Gothland, where it is covered by clay slate and green
stone. It contains many different petrifactions, as orthoceratites, ammonites, anomites, echi
nites, corallites, and entrochites. Its colour is commonly gray, or bluish gray, and reddish
brown, often varied with veins of a green colour. Transition trap is the youngest rock of
the transition class in Sweden. In Elfdal it rests upon porphyry ; upon transition clay slate
and alum slate in Kennekulle, Billengen, the Hunne and HaUeberge, and others, in West
Gothland. ni. Secondary rocks. The mountain chain around Helsingborg, in Schonen, is composed
of secondary sandstone. It contains beds of slate clay, bituminous shale, and black bitumi
nous coal. This sandstone, which belongs to the black bituminous coal formation, is covered
with other secondary deposits, as limestone, the age of which is not well known. The only
one of these newer secondary deposits, the geognostical history of which has been made
out, is Chalk. This interesting formation occurs at Limhamn, near to Malmo. It encloses
balls of common flint, and, at its lower part, passes into a more solid chalk and secondary
limestone. rv. Tertiary rocks. The tertiary deposits seem to occur in some points of the land not
far distant from the sea-coast ; but they have not been carefully explored.
V. Alluvial rocks. Many tracts more or less deeply covered with gravel, sand, and clay,
occur in Sweden.
Mines. The mines of Sweden have been long celebrated all over the world, and have
been frequently described by travellers. Gold and silver mines. The Adelfors mine, which
formerly yielded thirty or forty marks of gold annually, now furnishes only three or four ;
those of Fahlun, where copper predominates, return annually four marks of gold and fifty
marks of silver. The silver mine of Sahla, which, during the reign of Queen Christina,
yielded annually 20,000 marks of silver, does not at present afford annually more than 2000
or 3000 marks. Copper mines. The most considerable copper mines are those of Fahlun,
which is also known under the name of Kopparberg. The mines of Atwidaberg, in East
Gothland, furnish about a sixth part of all the copper which the Swedes obtain annually from
mines ; those of Fahlun yield more than the half of the copper raised in Sweden. The ore
at Fahlun is copper pyrites, disposed in an immense irregular-shaped mass, in mica slate :
10,200 quintals of copper are yielded by it annually. Iron mines. The greatest iron mines
are those in the province of Upland : of these the most important are those of Skebo, of
CEsterby, not far from Danemora, of Gimo, of Ronaes. Iron is mined as far north as Gell-
vara, which is 200 leagufes to the north of Stockholm. The island of Uto, on the east coast
of Upland, also affords a considerable quantity of iron. The whole mines afford annually
1,800,000 quintals of iron. Cobalt mines. The principal mines of this metal are those of
Tunaberg, near to Nykoping, and at Awed, in East Gothland. These mines afford excel
lent cobalt, but the quantity is not great. Coal mines. Coal mines have been worked for
some time in Scania, two leagues from Helsinborg, and are affording a considerable return.
Sulphur and vitriol. The pyritical minerals of Dylta afford annually 1050 quintals of sul
phur, and those of Fahlun about 100 quintals of the same substance. The vitriolic waters
of Fahlun afford annually about 600 quintals of green vitriol, or sulphate of iron, and a small
quantity of blue vitriol, or sulphate of copper. Alum. The annual produce of alum is
about 42,600 quintals. Quarries. Sweden possesses, besides its regular mines, also valua-
ple quarries of granite, porphyry, and marble. The porphyry quarries of Elfdal are the

47S

MAP OF SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

Fio. 237

Book I

SWEDEN AND NORWAY

479

largest and most celebrated in Europe. Nearly all the fine modem works m porphyry are
in the porphyry of Elfdal.
(2.) Geology of Norway and Lapland. — I. Primitive rocks. These wild but highly
interesting countries are principally composed of primitive and transition rocks ; secondary
rocks occur but rarely, and alluvial deposits are not so abundant as in many other less exten
sive regions. Granite is a rare rock in Norway and Lapland, and may be considered one
of the least abundant rocks in Scandinavia. The granite frequently appears in veins tra
versing the primitive stratified rocks, or running parallel with beds or strata; and sometimes
it can be seen spread over the surface of mica slate, as at Porvig, or irregularly associated
with clay slate and diallage rock, as in the island of Mageroe. Gneiss seems to be by fer
the most frequent and abundant rock in Scandinavia, all the other primitive rocks appearing
to be in some degree subordinate to it. Mica slate rests upon and alternates with the gneiss,
but is far from being so generally distributed as that rock. Clay slate along with the mica
slate is not of frequent occurrence. Quartz rock, various hornblende rocks, and limestone,
occur in beds subordinate to the gneiss and mica slate. Gabbro, or diallage rock, one of the
most beautifiil of the older rocks, occurs in great quantity, connected with clay slate, in the
island of Mageroe, and other parts of Norway.
n. Transition rocks. This class contains, besides greywacke, alum slate, and limestone
(which contains much tremolite), and other rocks well known to mineralogists as members
of this class, the following : — 1. Granite, which sometimes contains hornblende. 2. Syenite,
which contains a beautiful Labradoric variety of common felspar, and numerous crystals of
the gem named zircon. 3. Porphyry, and, associated with it, various trap rocks allied to
basalt and amygdaloid.
HI. Secondary rocks. The great primitive land of Scandinavia continues onward to the
extreme northem point of Norway ; but in this high latitude some new formations make
their appearance among the older. The sandstone quartz of Alton has been known since
the publication of the travels of Von Buch. On the East, towards the Russian dominions,
there is a considerable tract which differs more from the primitive formations than the sand
stone quartz of Alten does. Sandstone and conglomerate extend across the subjacent gneiss
in a horizontal position. These rocks probably belong to the old red sandstone.
rv. Alluvial rocks. Old alluvium occurs on the coast, and in the interior in many of the
valleys, and the new everywhere in greater or less quantity.
Mines. The only silver mines in Norway are those of Kongsberg, situated in mica slate,
which formerly afforded rich retums, but of late have yielded no profit. The gold mine of .
Edswold, and the mines of lead and silver in Jarlsberg, have been but feebly worked. The
->opper mines are principally situated in the northem division of the kingdom. The most
onsiderable, near Raeraas, were discovered in 1644. They have afforded considerable quan-
ities of copper : in 1805, the annual return was 7860 quintals of copper. The other mines
of copper are from 15 to 20 leagues of Drontheim, at Quikne, Lsekken, Selboe, and in the dis
trict of Christiania, at Fredericksgave or Foledal. The principal iron mines are those of Aren-
dal and Krageroe, in southern Norway. The mine of Laurwig, near the town of that name.

References to the Map of Snxden and Norway.

NORTH PAET.

42. AijeploR

84. Osteraund

34. Moe

76. Holden

b Alton

1. Kiberg

43. Hytta
44. Henno

85. Mariaiby
86. Herndal

35. Flatten

77. Frcder ckstad

c Rannens

2. Nisseby

36. Flaa

78. Freder ckshall

1 d Namsen

3. Tana

45. Dolstad

87. Drontheim

37. Hoel

79, Uddevalla

e Torris

4. Lababije

46. Hogholm

88. Leinsvig

38. Kleiven

80. Wenerborg

f Nidelven

5. Hammerferst

47. Tarna

89. Garberg

39. Bergen

81. Lidkoping

ff Reina
n G ommen

6. Altengaard

48. Sorsele

90. Hevne

40. Anrevig

82. Skara

7. Joksby

49. Lomsele.

41. Oddcn

83. Maricstad

i Kar

8. Alsnpahta

50. Arvids

SOUTH PAET.

42. TusEungdal

84. Ragna

] Laga

9. PeiviasliaDta

51. Noraio

1. Sundswall

43. Nore

85. Nykoping

k Morrins

10. Kautokeioo

52. Gumdtrasken

2. Bracks

44. Christiania

86. Norkoping

1 Dahl

11. Kollojaures

53. Lulea

3. Lanss

45. Fryksande

87. Weslerwick

m Ljusne
n Niiurunda
o Indal

1% Finland

54. Pilea

4. Sveg

46.«Narens

88. Linkoping

13. Ofoden

55. Albyn

5. Lindsalls

47. Norrbarko

89. Saby

14. Ankenes

56. Burtrask

6. Hede

48. Tuna

90. Ekcsjo

p Angermana

15. Kurravaara

57. Lofanger

7. Sorrag
8. Tyldat

49. Hedmora

91. Jonkoping

q Umea

16. Ragisvari

.58. Umea

50. Ferneb

92. Hjo

r Windel

17. Soppero

59 Nyby

9. Lessne

51. Lofsta

93. Oreryd

s Pitea

18. Stranvo

60. Jekrosele

0. Opdal

52. Lena

94. Garchem

t Lulea

19. Gellivare

61. Lyeksele

1. Romsdal

.53. Waddo

95. Gottenburg

u Lina

20. Ripas

62, Raska

2. Orskoug

54. Upsal

96. Kelsjoy

T Kalix

21. auickjock

63. Busele

3. Sondelv

55. Stockholm

97. Halmstad

w Tornea

2-1. Ruotivare

64. Ormsjo

4. Stavum

56. Mariafrel

98. Nolleback

X Lainio

23. Saltdalen

65. Gaddedett

5. Forde

57. Enkoping

99. Morlundo

y Muonio

24. Lionea

66. Foldereid

6. Sognedal

58. Westerai

00. MiBterhult

25. Slipfies
28. Sefines
67. Strom
7. Lorn
59. Orebro
01. Wisby
LaJces.
68. Oldorness
8. Ringebo
60. Philipstad
02. Nass
a* Horn
27. Silbniock
28. Rindijaur
69. Honstad
9. Ovam
ei.Carlstad
103. Rutnpekolla
b* Store
70. Holmset
20. Grotle
62. Holmedal
104. Calmar
c* Ave
29. Waimat
71. Uodersuker
21. Engedal
63. Moss
105. Borgbolm
106. CarFscrona
d* Umea
30. Lulea
72. Kallsjon
22. Asbyn
64. Tonsberg
li* Walgomas
31. Oras
7.3. Folinge
23. Hegen
Qh. Ovamen
107. Carlshamm
f * Apunua
32. Sopijenfri
33. Pu la
74. Strom
24. Linadel
66. Ranland
108. Lalbolm
B* Kails
1* Stors
75. Asele
25. Arbra
67. Selsoe
109. Landgcrona
34. Baala Kengis
76. Junsele
26. Soderhamn
68. Egersund
110. Christianstad
* Foemund
77. Amend
27. Hamrange
69. Bakke
111. Borum
* Miosen
[* Maler
36. Upper Tornea
78. Nordmaling
28. Gcfle
70. Christiansund
112. Falslerbo
37. TBmea
79. Parviken
29. Fahlun
71. Langoe
113. Malmo
• HJelmar
m* Wetter
38. Kalix
80. Ressele
30. Mora
72. Valle
39 Ranea
81. Nordingra
31. Malung
73. Mokland
Rivers.
n* Wener
40. Harads
82. Hernosand
32. Dunby
74. Arendal
a Tana
o'*' Bolinea
41. Tvara
83. Fors
33. Grusel
75. Sando
480

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part HI.

affords annually 26,000 quintals of bar-iron and 6000 quintals of cast-iron. The establish
ment of the same kind at Moss affords annually 10,000 quintals of iron in bars and cast
The same annual quantity is afforded by the mines of Beerum, Bolvig, Ulfoss, Eidfoss, Ege-
land, Naes, Dikkemarken Fossum, and Oudalen. Lastly, the mines of Hassel, Froeland,
Lessee, and Mostmarken, furnish fVom 3000 to 5000 quintals of iron annually. "The annual
produce of the iron mines of Norway is estimated by a well-known statistical writer at about
150,000 quintals. The mines of cobalt, which are worked at Modum and Fossum, are
extensive but not deep. In the year 1792 they yielded 2817 quintals of ore. There is a
mine of plumbago and black lead at Engledal. The mines of alum, which are worked in
the mountain of Egeberg, near to Christiania, afford not only a sufficiency for the consump
tion of the Danish states, but also a considerable quantity for exportation. Norway possesses
quarries of granite, marble, millstone, whetstone, slate and clay. Granite is exported to
HoUand ; the marble and other minerals supply the Danish states.
Subsect. 2. — Botany.
The Botany of these countries has been noticed under that of Denmark.
Subsect. 3. — Zoology.
The Zoology of Sweden, the native country of the celebrated Linnaeus, is so well known
to naturalists, by the writings of that great man, that to them the subject is famUiar. Nor
does it present any thing very different in its general character from tliat of Denmark. The
bleak and inhospitable regions of Norway and Lapland, to which nature has denied the rich
and verdant pasturage of Britain, and the consequent abundance of grazing animals, are,
however, the chief metropolis of the Rein-deer, whose diversified qualities are beautifiUly
adapted for supplying such deficiencies.
The Rein-deer (Rangifer Tarandus H Smith) (fig. 238.) forms the sole riches of the
Laplander, and its care is almost his only occu
pation. According to the season, he migrates
to the sea shore, the plains, or the mountains.
The rich often possess 2000 head; and the
poorer seldom less than 100. The adult male,
in a wild state, is even larger than a stag ; but
the domesticated races -are somewhat smaUer :
the sight and scent of these creatures are aston
ishing, and guide them with wonderful precision
through the most dangerous passes and in the
darkest stormy nights of an arctic winter. To
this sagacity the Laplander trusts his life with
confidence ; and accidents rarely happen : they
draw his sledge with such amazing rapidity,
that in twenty-four hours a pair of Rein-deer have been said to perform a joumey of 100
miles. In a wild state they are gregarious ; and, when domesticated, evince an excessive
attachment to each other. During summer they are much tormented by a species of gad-fiy;
but the old account of the glutton falling upon them from a tree, and then devouring them,
is now considered fabulous. During life this useful animal supplies its master with labour and
milk ; and, when dead, every part becomes serviceable, the skin for clothing, and for boots ;
the horns to make utensUs ; the sinews for thread, and the flesh for food : the intestines are
also used ; and the tongue is a well-known article of commerce.
The Birds are not numerous, and, with few exceptions, differ not from those of Denmark
and the other northern kingdoms. The Iceland Falcon (Falco
islandicus) (fig. 239.) rarely wanders to more temperate climes; and
a gigantic Owl {Strix lapponica Lin.) is a peculiar inhabitant of
the dreary solitudes of Lapland : to these we may add two otlier
species ; the large Ural Owl, and the Great Snowy Owl. These
formidable birds prey upon numerous ptarmigans and grouse, great
numbers of which inhabit the confines of the arctic circle. The
Curruca suecica Sw. or Blue-throated Reed Warbler, one of the
most elegant birds of Europe, is not peculiar, as its name would im
ply, to Sweden, being common in France and Switzerland.
The insects of Sweden, during its short summer, are very numer
ous; and many, enumerated by Acerbi, very beautiful; but, in
autumn, nearly the whole country is terribly infested by Musqui-
toes, these tormenting little animals being beyond calculation more
numerous in high northem latitudes tlian in the woods of tropical
America.

The Rera-Deer.

239

Iceland Falcon

Book L SWEDEN AND NORWAY 481
Sect. III. — Historical Geography
The early history of Scandinavia is deeply involved in fable and uncertainty. Ptolemy
and Pliny, flie best informed of ancient geographers, seem to distinguish it from "Great Ger
many," off the coast of which they represent Basilia, or Baltia, as a large is.and, though not
nearly approaching to tlie real dimensions. The Goths were found in early possession of
Sweden, and its southern provinces have been denominated Gothland ; but the question,
whether they were the native possessors, or entered it as conquerors, is one which can
scarcely be now decided. Scandinavia has been called the " storehouse of nations ;" and
" the blue-eyed myriads from the Baltic coast" are supposed to have been among the most
numerous of those who spread war and desolation throughout Europe. Dr. Clarke ridicules
this idea, as inapplicable to a country of unbroken forests, and a slowly advancing popula
tion, making the first essays of agriculture ; yet, though the population could never be great,
the simple and pastoral habits of the people might dispose emigrants to seek subsistence with
the sword in happier climates.
Scandinavia, first, by a series of formidable expeditions, made a figure in history at the end
of the ninth century. Harold Hstrfager, or the Fair-haired, the first of the great sea-kings
of the North, having united the formerly independent districts of Norway under his sway,
undertook triumphant expeditions against Shetland, Orkney, and the Hebrides. For several
centuries the Danes and Norwegians held full possession of those islands ; gave a king to
England, and formed a permanent establishment in Normandy. The defeat of Haco in Scot
land, and of Harold III. in England, during the eleventh century, put an end to this maritime
dominion : and tho northern nations, notwithstanding their immense supply of naval stores,
have never since attained to more than a secondary rank among the maritime powers.
The union of the kingdoms of Scandinavia, in 1388, under Margaret, called the Semiramis
of the North, forms a memorable era. Immediately, however, after the death of that able
princess, the Swedes began to struggle for independence. But their repeated attempts to
establish a separate kingdom were always defeated, till the cruel and tyrannical reign of
Christian H. drove matters to extremity, and brought on a new revolution.
Gustavus Vsisa, in 1520, hoisted again the national standard in the province of Dalecarlia,
and, in three years subsequently, entered Stockholm in triumph. After a long struggle, the
Danes were compelled to recognise the independence of Sweden.
The reign of Gustavus Adolphus formed a glorious era for Sweden. The Protestant reli
gion having been established under Gustavus Vasa, Sweden began to be looked to as its sup
port when assailed by a formidable confederacy. In 1630, Gustavus took the field at the
head of only ten thousand Swedes ; but around this gallant band rallied all the Protestant
powers of Germany. The splendid victory of Breitenfeld humbled the house of Austria, and
re-established the civil and religious liberties of the empire. Even after his fall, in the glori
ous field of Lutzen, his generals continued to wage that desperate war of thirty years, which
was necessary to compel the Catholic league finally to renounce its pretensions. Sweden,
at the peace, obtained Pomerania, and other important possessions in Germany ; and con
tinued, till the end of the seventeenth century, to exercise a powerful influence on the affairs
of Europe.
The victories and reverses of Charles XII. threw a wild and romantic lustre around
Sweden, which terminated, however, in the loss of her station and greatness. Being de
feated at Pultowa, by the Czar Peter, and driven to seek shelter from the Turks at Bender,
he was obliged to purchase peace by the sacrifice of Livonia, and others of his finest provinces.
The influence of Sweden was thenceforth conflned within its own barren limits, and it ranked
with difficulty as a power of the second order. The only remarkable change in the course
of the century was produced by the revolutions of 1772 and 1789, when Gustavus III. suc
ceeded in converting the government into an absolute monarchy, though in other respects
his reign was advantageous to Sweden.
The election of Bemadotte, one of Bonaparte's commanders, to fill the throne, left vacant
through the rash conduct of the legitimate monarch, made a great change in the relations
of Sweden. To conciliate his new subjects, he restored in full plenitude the representative
constitution, which had been reduced to a mere shadow. Having joined the confederacy
against his former master, he received Norway in compensatiop for the loss of Finland, and
had thus a more compact and defensible territory. The Norwegians exclaimed, not without
reason, against this compulsory transference ; yet Denmark had deprived them of their free
constitution, which they now regained, and had in so many respects depressed the country,
with the view of concentrating every thing at Copenhagen, that the connection now termi
nated has been considered the bane of Norway.
Sect. IV. — Political Geography.
The constitution of Sweden is one of the few in Europe, which has always preserved
some portion ot that representative system which had been formed in remote ages. Towards
the close, indeed, of the last century, it was reduced by Gustavus UL to little more than a
Vol. I. 41 8 L

482 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part HI.
form. Bemadotte, however, an elected monarch, without any national claim, was obliged
to court the favour of the nation, and, with that view, to re-establish the rights of its ancient
diet. This is now rather an antique and cumbrous form of legislature, consisting of four
orders ; the nobles, the clergy, the peasants, and the burghers ; who sit and vote in separate
houses. Of these houses, that of the nobles consists of about 1200 members ; the head of each
famUy being, by inheritance, its legal representative. They are divided into three classes : —
herra, counts, barons, &c. ; reddar, knights ; and sivena, or gentlemen who, though without
any title, have received letters patent of nobility. The house of clergy consists of the arch
bishop and all the bishops ; while the rest of the ecclesiastical body is represented by depu
ties. The burghers are chosen by the towns, every freeman who pays taxes having a vote :
they form an independent body, partly, perhaps, because the honour of a seat is not eagerly
contested. The peasants do not exactly correspond to our idea of that term : they consist
of a body of little proprietors, or lairds, who cultivate their own ground, and who are numer
ous in Sweden. Their allowance of a dollar a day is provided by a subscription among
their constituents ; and, in some cases, two or three districts must combine to furnish out one
deputy. The nobles have bestirred themselves much to keep down the attempts made by
this class to rise in society. They have procured regulations, according to which no person
could sit in the house who allowed himself to be called Herr (or Mr.),orwhoworeacoatof
fine cloth. Notwithstanding all their efforts, however, this house, and that of the burghers,
are daUy increasing in strength.
In the division of powers, the royal prerogative is ample. The king appoints to all offices
civil and military, and he is obliged to convoke the diet only once in five years, and to con
tinue its sittings three months; but he may make the meetings more frequent, and longer.
He has also a negative upon the laws proposed by the diet In regard to the diet itself, the
division rests with a majority of the houses ; but if they be two against two, the balance is
struck by the committee of state, a body composed of a certain number of members from
each. No tax can be levied, or loan obtained, without the consent of the diet.
The storthing of Norway, restored by Bemadotte, is possessed of much higher privileges
than the Swedish diet It assembles more frequently, and at its own time, without any con
trol from the king ; and it allows to him only a suspensive veto, obliging him to accept any
project which has been three times presented by the storthing. These rights having been
once granted, Bemadotte, who found them pressing somewhat hard against his prerogative,
has in vain made several attempts to abridge them. A highly republican spirit prevaUs in
Norway, and the influence, and almost existence, of the nobles is nearly aimihUated.
The revenue of Sweden arises from a poll-tax ; the produce of the royal demesnes, duties
on exports and imports, mines and forges, distilled spirits, and some monopolies. The whole
produce is about $5,000,000 a year, exclusive of lands assigned to soldiers and saUors, and
by which these classes, in time of peace, are chiefly supported. The military force, is at
present, — Sweden. Norway. Total.
Infantry  26,221 - - - - 9,642 - - - 35,803
Cavalry  4,580 - - - - 1,070 - - 5,6.50
Artillery - - - - 2,400 - - - - 1,278 - - 3,678
Landwehr - - - - 83,368 - - - - 10,000 - - - 93,368
The troops are raised by conscription : they only receive pay when on actual service ; re
maining, at other times, in the provinces, where they employ themselves in cultivating lands
assigned to them for their support Sect. V. — Productive Industry.
Sweden seems doomed by nature to be a poor country. Her most southern districts are
beyond the limits of that zone, in which alone the finer and more valuable kinds of grain,
and the richer fruits, come to maturity. Her scanty harvest consists solely of rye, bigg, antj
oats, scarcely accounted as food in more favoured climates. Scandinavia is described gene
rally as one unbroken boundless forest, varied only in its aspect by little patches of cultivated
land. Agricultural industry tUl of late had not done much to remedy natural deficiencies. Ac
cording to the valuable statistical details collected by Dr. Thomson, tlie arable land in Swe
den amounts to 1,818,450 English acres, which is only a sixty-second of tlie entire surfece,
or, throwing out the Norrland deserts, a thirty-second. Of tliis, 1,363,000 acres are retumed
as under cultivation. But the average size of a Swedish ferm is only twenty-seven and a
half; the annual average of grain sown on each ferm does not amount to a Winchester
bushel ; and the annual produce of the whole country was only 5,700,000 spanns, or about
71,000 quarters. Hence Sweden was obliged to import grain to a great extent ; and such is
the scarcity, that the peasantry often grind tlie bark or even wood of tlie fir-tree into flour

Book I. SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 483
a nutriment equally scanty and unwholesome. These statements are gfiven in 1812 ; since
which time we find it mentioned that agriculture has made a very rapid progress ; that im
proved processes have been introduced from other countries ; and that, in the most southern
provinces, a great extent of moving (and before entirely barren) sand has been rendered solid,
and covered with plantations and grain. The consequence has been, that in 1827, Sv/edeii even
exported 39,000, and, in 1828, 164,000 tons of grain of every description. Every farm has a tract
of forest of about 1000 acres attached to it, on which cattle are fed : these are reported as
only amounting to 403,000 horses, 1,475,000 cows, and 1,212,000 sheep. The most valua
ble product of land is formed by the vast forests with which nature has covered the whole
OAQ country. The trees over all Scandinavia are
small, and consist chiefly of the birch, the
pine, the spruce and Scotch firs. Wooden in-
closures {fig. 240.) of a peculiar form, are uni
versally employed. The poplar and the willow
are also indigenous. The timberof these trees,
as well as the tar, pitch, and turpentine, drawn
from them, forms the chief objects of Scandi
navian exports. Those on the hUls of Nor
way are in much demand for masts. Accord-
Swedish Mode of Inclosure. ;„g. to ]yj_ Hegelstamm, not more than the
115th part of the surfece of Norway is under cultivation, chiefiy in oats; a space which
might be greatly extended ; yet the annual production is stated at 2,650,000 tons.
The manufactures of Scandinavia are inconsiderable, unless we should class their mines
as such. Even in the common trades the work is lazily and ill performed, and charged at a high
rate, which renders this the most expensive country in Europe for those who live luxuriously.
It is a curious feet that some great merchants in the western towns send their linen to be
washed in London.
The mines of Sweden are peculiarly rich in important products. Its iron, found chiefly
in primitive rocks, is the finest in the world, and is widely diffiised. In 1812, there were
176 mines; 624 smelting-houses ; 764 forges; producing in all 1,293,411 cwt of iron. The
exportation, in 1821, amounted to 340,000 skippund, and in 1824 had risen to 373,000, of which
346,000 were in bars, and 28,000 in ruder forms. There are also some valuable mines in the
southem provinces of Norway. A most extensive deposit of copper occurs in the province
of Dalecarlia, particularly at Fahlun. Gold occurs at Adelfors, in Sweden, to no great
amount ; but the sUver mines of Kongsberg, in Norway, are the richest in Europe. The
metal occurs in masses, of which there was once found one weighing 600 lbs. There are
also lead mines of some importance at Scola, and in other parts of Sweden.
Fishery appears a pursuit peculiarly appropriate to the extensive coasts of Scandinavia.
Yet the Swedes are not much addicted to it, probably because the Baltic during a great part
of the year is frozen. Gottenburg had once a herring fishery, now nearlylost, the shoals
having taken another direction. The Norwegian fishery is considerable, though bearing only
a small proportion to the almost unlimited opportunities afforded by its wide seas, and its
deep and commodious bays. Its chief theatre is far to the north, off the Isles of Loffoden.
The season lasts only for seven or eight weeks in the year, when fishermen crowd thither
from all quarters. Codfish is the chief object : it is cut into pieces, and spread on the rocks
to dry, whence it receives the names of stockfish and clipfish. According to Mr. Brooke, the
number taken in a year was 700,000, which may be worth nearly $600,000 ; they are sent
chiefly to Germany, Spain, and Italy. The roes are also salted and barrelled for exportation ;
also the fish oil to the amount of about 30,000 barrels.
The commerce of Scandinavia is greater than its unimproved agriculture and total want
of manufactures might lead us to suppose. But nature has gifted these bleak regions with
an almost inexhaustible store of timber and iron, two of the prime necessaries of human
life ; the main implements in ship-building and in the constmction of houses, machinery, and
furniture. These articles are indeed also the produce of North America ; and Britain, which
affords the best market, has lately sought to favour her colonies in that quarter by a great
inequality of duties. Yet the superior quality of the Scandinavian commodity always secures
it a sale. The entire exports of Norway are estimated by Dr. Clarke at l,800,000i. sterling ;
but we believe that this is very much beyond the mark. The commerce of Sweden is not
on so great a scale ; her surplus timber being not nearly so ample, though her iron is superior.
She has suffered much injury from the absurd prejudices of the peasantry, who obtained the
prohibition of colonial produce, and of almost all foreign articles of consumption ; and though
these were regularly imported, and in daily use, the trade was greatly fettered by being
carried on only as contraband. In 1828, however, commercial treaties were concluded on a
more liberal footing. Tho total number of merchant vessels belonging to the different
towns of Sweden, in 1829, was 1178, of the burthen of 61,000 tons.

484 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part IH.
Sect. VI. — Civil and Social State.
The population of Sweden, according to the latest census, made in 1825, amounted to
2,771,252 ; of whom 20,499 were nobles ; 13,977 ecclesiastics ; 66,604 citizens ; the remain
der belonged to the class of peasants. Of these, 1,332,970 were males, and 1,438,282
females; 2,489,973 resided in the country, 281,279 in the cities. This was a rise of
186,.562 since 1820.*
The population of Norway, by a census made in November 1826, amounted to 1,060,1.32 ;
of whom 105,021 inhabited cities, 934,414 the country. This was a rise of 164,662 since
1815. The national character of the Swedes is usually painted under fevourable colours. Their
honesty is described as proverbial ; and Dr. Clarke considers the contrast between them and
the Russian people, in this respect, as most striking. Highway robbery, though it has been
known, is exceedingly rare ; and charity boxes, which are often set up on the public roads,
have never been plundered. " The nation," says Mr. James, " has its singularities : there
exists something of a reciprocity between the moral and political constitution of Sweden.
Rigidly ceremonious, they make their stiff and measured courtesies the essentials rather
than the forms of life ; and seem, in a stranger's eye, a. people cold in their nature as the
very snows they dwell upon. Their characteristics, a peissive courage, not unmixed with
indolence ; a pride not free from ignorance ; a disposition that is not Ul-humoured, from hav
ing no humour at all, from indifference, from apathy. But a Swede is never in extremes ;
even these traits are not deeply marked ; and if we review the more favourable side of his
character, we shall find in him an undaunted spirit of perseverance, and an honest love of
freedom, to which the feelings of every one do homage." The same writer mentions a
cold-blooded obduracy, connected, perhaps, with a sanguinary turn of mind, displayed in
those frequent assassinations which have stained the pages of Swedish history. The man
ners of the higher ranks, in consequence, perhaps, of political connexion, have been studi
ously formed on the French model, which does not accord very happily with the somewhat
rude simplicity of the Swedes, who find it easier to imitate the frivolity and dissipation of
that people, than their easy and careless grace. Several habits are enumerated as preva
lent even among the higher classes in Scandinavia, which seem to negative its pretensions
to any high pitch of refinement. Among these are, spitting even on handsome carpets, blow
ing the nose with the fingers, and recording games on the table with chalk.
The religion of Sweden is Lutheran, and the church Episcopal. This country, which
stood long at the head of the great Protestant confederacy, is animated with an ardent zeal
for the reformed religion. The Catholics, till of late, scarcely enjoyed common toleration,
and they are still excluded from the diet and the higher offices of state. The Swedish people
are commended for their regularity in performing the duties of their religion : at the same
time it has been remarked that the dissenters from the established church are much fewer
than in other Protestant countries ; which has been imputed to the want of any pectUiar
fervour upon the subject. The wide extent and thin population of the northem districts
must often render the provision for their religious instruction very defective. The diocese
of Tornea, in Lapland, is 750 miles in circumference ; and, what is more blameable, the
small number of clergy employed are not required to understand the language of tlie natives.
The income of the largest bishopric in Sweden is about $5000 a year.
In science, the Swedes, considering their poverty and remote situation, have made a very
distinguished figure. Gustavus Adolphus favoured the interests of literature with a degree
of ardour not generally known. Of the spoils of places conquered by him, he set a particular
value upon books which he transmitted to Sweden, in order to form the foundation of several
large libraries. The Swedes cultivated with peculiar ardour botany and mineralog}', which
some of their countrymen mainly contributed to raise to the rank of sciences. In botany, the
name of Linnteus is yet without a rival ; and Cronstadt and Bergman were in their day little
inferior, though they now yield to Werner and other great names which have arisen in other
countries. Bergman and Scheele made also large contributions to chemistry, which is still
ably pursued by Ekeberg, Berzelius, and Afzelius. Although history and poetry have been
cultivated, they have not produced any writers whose reputation has spread tiiroughout
Europe, From the limited sphere of tlie Swedish language, few works of science are
written in it, or translated into it: hence the literati of Sweden are particularly well versed
in the languages of foreign nations. One of the subjects in which Sweden may most justly
exult is, the general spread of education among the lower ordi^rs, which seems to equal or
exceed that which Scotland enjoys ; and to this may probably be in a great measure ascribed
their generally meritorious conduct. Norway is not nearly so literary a country as Sweden;
Dr. Clarke even states that there is not in the whole country a single bookseller's shop.
This was in a great measure owing to the jealousy of Denmark, wliicli would not allow an
university to be founded even in Christiania, which used to be a rival to tliat of Copenhagen.
* The only Swedish colony is St. Bartholomew In the W. Indies, with about 9000 inhabitants.— Asi. Ed.

Book L SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 485
Yet Norway can boast of literary names ; Holberg, Pontoppidan, Vahl the botanist, Torfa>us,
and Snorro Sturleson, the old historians. A vein of bold and mde poetry is cultivated with
peculiar ardour ; and Dr. Clarke exhibits a roll of names unknown to Europe, whose claims
to distmction appear to be somewhat justified by a specimen given to us by Mr. Wilson.
Of the learned establishments of Sweden, the most eminent is the university of Upsal,
the chief nurse of all the great men who have distinguished her literary records. This cele
brated seat of northern learning was founded in 1478, by Steno Sture, was enlarged by
Gustavus Vasa and Gustavus Adolphus, but reached its highest eminence in the last century,
when it was adorned by LirmiBus, and all the men of science who have been distinguished
as reflecting glory on Sweden. Since that time its lustre has been somewhat diminished,
though statements on this subject vary considerably. The professors have salaries of about
$500 a year ; and are left thus almost wholly dependent on their students, who live in private
lodgings. They attend what and whom they please ; and their exertions are not stimulated
or tried by any public examinations. The mineralogical collection is one of the most com
plete in Europe ; and the library contains 50,000 volumes. Its most precious treasure is the
Codex Argenteus, a manuscript of the four Gospels, written in silver characters, and sup
posed to date as fkr back as the fourth century. The garden of Linnffius has been neglected
for a larger one lately founded, but which scarcely corresponds to the botanical fame of Upsal.
The royal library at Stockholm is still more extensive. It is particularly rich in manuscripts,
in sagas, and otlier historical works, and in original drawings by the great masters. This
collection is open to the public. The Swedish academy of sciences, founded in 1739, by
learned private individuals, has published above 100 volumes. It is considered one of the
most distinguished in Europe, and the greatest men in other countries have viewed it as an
honour to be enrolled among its members. In the college of mines are preserved copious
specimens, drawn from a country so rich in metallic productions. The cabinet of models,
presenting the various mechanical contrivances employed through the different parts of Swe
den, is also considered very interesting.
The fine arts in Sweden have been cultivated amidst considerable difficulties. The opera
is conducted with splendour and taste ; Lergell, as a sculptor, has been ranked second to
Canova, and even called the Michael Angelo of the North. Breda in portrait, and Fulerantz
in landscape, enjoy reputation.
The habitations of Scandinavia are very simple and uniform. " Having," says Dr. Clarke,
" once figured to the imagination a number of low red houses, of a single story, and each
covered with turf and weeds, a picture is presented of the oppidan scenery of Sweden."
The houses, however, are well finished within, and elegantly furnished ; and by means of
stoves, double windows, and close doors, they are kept comfortably warm, even during the
most rigorous winter. Swedes have even complained that they suffered much more from
cold in London than in their native city.
The dress is described by Dr. Clarke as equally uniform with the habitations. " A skull
cap, fitting close to the crown, edged with a little stiff lace, the hair being drawn as tight
and straight as possible beneath the cap from all parts of the head, as if to start from the
roots ; add to this, a handkerchief thrown over the cap when they go out ; a jacket ; short
petticoat ; stockings of coloured or white woollen ; and high-heeled shoes :" this is the
„., ^_>^^ general costume of the Swedish women. Mr. Wilson thus
¦** •^.«S>»'*^ describes the dress of the representatives of that class of
peasants : — " White worsted stockings, half-boots extend
ing above the calf of the leg, yellow leather small-clothes
with knee-buckles, a short brown coat and waistcoat, and
a plain handkerchief tied round their necks." The an
nexed cut (fig. 241.) may give an idea of the attire and
aspect of the ^Norwegian peasantry. In winter these gar
ments must be reinforced to the utmost ability of the
wearer, as a fence against the excess of the cold. The
peasantry wear a sheepskin cloak, with the wool towards
the body, and close fur caps. Dr. Clarke mentions as a
travelling dress, thick yarn stockings covered by stout lea
ther boots, and over these again boots made of the hides
of rein-deer, with the hair on the outside, and doubly lined
• P t with sheepskin covered with black wool. The people wear,
orwegian ease . besides, fur caps on the head, bearskin pelisses over the
body, besides several flannel waistcoats, and on the hands, gloves of sheepskin covered by
double gloves of fur and wool. Yet these accumulated guards are insufficient to prevent
the feeling of the mostjintense cold, which, in those not duly fenced against it, sometimes
produces death, and frequently a frost-bitten limb.
41*

486

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III

Sect. VII. — Local Geography.
This section naturally divides itself into three subordinate parts : — 1. Sweden ; 2. Norway ;
and 3. Lapland ; which, though accounted partly Swedish and partly Norwegian, has a dis
tinct character of its own. Subsect. 1. — Sweden.
Sweden is formed into three great divisions : Svealand, or Sweden Proper ; Gotaland, or
Gothland ; and Nordland, or Norrland. In the foUowing statistical table, the extent and
arable produce are from materials collected in 1812, since which time cultivation has been
greatly extended ; but the population is from the census of 1825.

Nordland.
Norrbotten 
Vesterbotten . .. .
Vesfer Norrland .
Jamtland 
Sweden.
Stockholm 
Upsala 
Vesteros 
Nykoping 
Orebro 
Carlstadt 
Stora Kapparberg
Gefleborg 
Gothland.
Linkoping 
Calmar 
Jonkoping 
Kronoberg 
Blekinge 
Skaraborg 
Elfsborg 
Gottenborg 
Halmstadt 
Chrislianstadt ¦ -.
Malmohus 
Gothland 
Stockholm city. . .
Total. .

Arable Ground,
TuDnlands.
(1 3-4 acre.)

8,080
10,530
22,780 10,720

52,110

71,41684,364
55,515 54,01146,22382,473
51,547 28,367

473,916

104,061 66,121
53,684 37,695
21,715
143,182 73,808
42,458 43,98389,344
222,609 30,064

928,734

1,454,760

2,151 1,465

915

22 13
27243642
129140

21 34
4048
27 1237
2223 13 4
20

62

5^2694
1,563 945

3,724

4,056 3,548
2,8.523,276
2,774 1.708
1,7922,089

22,096

5,458 3,347
3,005
2,K)7 1,089
4,8044,2092,7832,922 3,0024,033 1,098

39,487

65,309

Operative Farmers.

M,824 23.87036,81220,281

103,787

58.649
48,65749,063 59,791
61,72092,59279,31350,024

499,809

94,194
83,40476.11556,01fl 31,522
89,910
102,715 66,40947,485 79,13195,637 17,560

840,262

1,443,858

GraiD produced
IR Spanns.
(l-20tli busbel.)

37,57050,576
103,509 48,348

245,998

316.987
285,356211,100 K«,006 198,279
377,514240,781 153,996

2,009,017

360,044
2.10,J66 233,346 175.239
139,143425,864334,2®
215,757 167,120
306,027548,334 83,523

3,204,184

5,702,835

Population.

40,624 44,91172,237 39,122

195,894

103,095 81,897
88,618
106,793109.254 163,373129,388 96,736

879,153

182,280
160,720 129,996102:709 85,314
159.614 187,021146,691 85,657
145.3801W,199 38,151

l,62o.6W 79,473

2,771,252

Sweden Proper occupies the centre of the kingdom, and includes the capital, and the
great mining districts. It consists of an immense plain, covered by almost boundless forests,
intermixed with patches of cultivation ; only a few hills of moderate height breaking its
vast uniformity. Three great lakes, like inland seas, the Wener, the Wetter, and the Malar,
form almost a continuous chain across its centre. Besides these, there is an immense num
ber of smaller lakes, especially towards the north, communicating by river channels with
the greater. These lakes do not display the grandeur which belongs to tliose of Switzer
land; but their wide and winding shores, broken with roclfs, and fringed with a profusion of
wood, present many romantic scenes.
The division into provinces, of Sweden Proper, as well as of Gothland, as given in the
preceding table, was made recently by govemment, and is the only one upon which statisti
cal details have been collected. But there is another and earlier division, which remains
still fixed in the Swedish mind; and corresponds, m feet, both to the aspect of nature and to
the peculiarities in the people. These are Sudermanland, the province which contains the
capital, and is situated on the south side of the lake Malar ; Upland, a high territory on the
northem side of that lake ; Westmanland, to the west of Upland ; Nerike, a beautiful little
region, completely enclosed between the three great lalces ; Warmelond, to the north of the
Wener, covered with a multitude of little lakes ; and, lastly, Dalecarlia, called also Dalarne,
or the Plains, a province which, of all others, presents the most striking and peculiar fea
tures. It is, above all, distinguished by the energetic cliaractcr of its peasantry, whose
exertions at one time reared the fallen monarchy, and who continue to form its most power-
fill defence. They still hold as a maxun, that one Dalecarlian is equal to two of any other
bwedes. Their diet is poor in the extreme, consisting in a great measure of bark-bread :
yet their health and vigour do not suffer; and a number of tliem, who were quartered as
troops at Stockholm, were affected with fevers in consequence of the repletion caused by

Book L SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 487
eating wheaten bread. The memory of the great Gustavus Vasa, the founder of the Swe
dish monarchy, is cherished in this province with the utmost warmth ; and many memorials
of him are preserved in different places.
Stockholm (fig. 242.), with which we shall commence our detaUs, is finely situated, at the
junction of the extensive and beau-
^2 _ tiful lake of Malar, or Maler, with
the sea. It stands partly on some
small islands, and two peninsulas,
presenting a view as beautifiil and
diversified as imagination can con
ceive. Innumerable craggy rocks
rise from the water, partly covered
with houses, and partly planted
with wood ; while vessels of all
forms and descriptions are seen passing to and fro. White edifices, consisting of public and
private palaces, churches, and other buildings, rising from an expanse of waters, produce an
effect of incomparable grandeur. When the lake and sea are frozen, they are covered with
sledges of all kinds, and exhibit one of the gayest scenes imaginable. If external appear
ance were alone to be relied on, Stockholm might be deemed the most magnificent city in
the world. This impression is not sustained by any beauty or convenience in the interior.
Except the great square of Norden Malm, the streets, though of very considerable length,
are neither broad nor handsome. There is no foot pavement ; the houses are lofty, all white
washed, and the shops are extremely poor. The different families reside in separate floors
or stories, one above another, the ground-floors being usually occupied as shops. The royal
palace, however, begun by Charles XI., and finished by Gustavus IIL, may vie with any
structure of the kind in Europe. It is in the Grecian style, quadrangular, four stories high,
built of brick only, but faced with stone-coloured cement. Its situation, facing the quay,
and commanding a view of all parts of the city, adds greatly to its beauty. It contains
some fine specimens of sculpture and painting, curiosities connected with Swedish history,
and a range of small apartments embellished by Gustavus III. in a fanciful manner. This
palace, with the finest buildings of the city, stands on one of the islands. The kings of
Sweden have in the country other palaces : that of Drottningholm is a handsome stuccoed
building, roofed with copper, and having side wings ; but the gardens are barbarously laid
out in the old fashion, with trees and hedges clipped into fanciful shapes.
Nykoping is the only tract of Sweden Proper which is south of the lakes. The town of
that name, though small, has an air of magnificence. The houses are of wood painted
yellow. The provinces of Westeros, Orebro, and Carlstadt, along the north side of the lakes, reach
across the kingdom. Enkoping, on a branch of the Malar, is the first town which occurs
westward from Stockholm, but it is not of great consequence. Westeras, on the same lake,
has more commercial importance, as a link between the capital and the northern and western
provinces. There is only one principal street, about two miles in length ; the houses are
only of one story, and often roofed with turf It is the see of the richest bishopric in Swe
den. The cathedral is a simple edifice ; but one of the most elegant in Sweden, adomed
with a very elegant porphyry monument erected to Eric IV., who died by poison in 1677.
Next comes Koping, small and poor ; but celebrated as having been the residence of Scheele.
It lies at the extreme interior point of the Malar. Quitting that lake, and proceeding south
west, we come to Arboga, a beautiful little town on a river which falls into that lake, and
near a canal which connects it with the lake Hjelmar. A steam-packet, established by an
Englishman, now enables it to communicate with the capital. Nearly due west is Orebro,
a more considerable town, and the occasional place of meeting for the Swedish diet. It is
reckoned the fifth town in Sweden, containing about 4000 people,' and the streets are broad
and spacious, though the houses, as elsewhere in Sweden, are low, and of painted wood.
The stadthus, or governor's residence, which includes also the prison, is a huge shapeless
edifice. The church, which forms also the place of meeting for the diet, is an ancient struc
ture, originally Gothic, and built of stone, but patched with brick, and in various styles.
Proceeding westward, we enter Carlstadt, or, as anciently called, Warmeland, a region
entirely of mines, forests, and lakelets, and bounded on the south by the extended shores of
the Wener lake. Carlstadt is situated near the point where this lake receives the Clara, a
considerable river, which traverses these wooded regions, and down which immense quanti
ties of timber are floated ; advantage for this purpose being taken of the floods to which it
is occasionally subject. One company from Gottenburg has saw-mills, at which are annually
cut upwards of 50,000 planks. Carlstadt is a place of from 2000 to 3000 people, presenting
the ordinary aspect of Swedish towns. It collects the vast produce of the mines and
forests of Warmeland, and transmits them across the Wener to Wenersberg, whence
they find their way to Gottenburg. Considerably in the interior is Philipstadt, in the
very heart of the iron mines, by which it is supported.

488

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part HI,

Persbers Mine.

The most remarkable are those of Persberg (fig. 243.), a few miles to the east-
, ward. They are thirteen in number, dug
•**"  '"  "^¦^ into a mountain entirely composed of veins
and beds of iron ore. Dr. Clarke, after
having, in the couise of ten years' travel,
inspected many of the principal works of
this kind in different countries, declares, that
he had never beheld any thing equal to this
for grandeur of effect, and for the tremen
dously striking circumstances under which
human labour is here performed. In the
wide* and open abyss suddenly appeared a
vast prospect of yawning caverns and prodi
gious machinery. Immense buckets, sus
pended by rattling chains, were passing up
and down ; ladders were scaling all the in
ward precipices; upon which the work
people, reduced by their distance to pigmies,
were ascending and descending. The clank
ing of chains, the groaning of the pumps,
the hallooing of the miners, the creaking
of the blocl^ and wheels, the trampling of
horses, the beating of the hammers, and the
loud and frequent subterraneous thunder
from the blasting of the rocks by gunpowder,
in the midst of all this scene of excavation and vapour, produced an effect that no stranger
could witness unmoved.
Dalecarlia, or Dalarne, extends to the north-east of Warmeland. It is covered with an
extraordinary profusion of mosses and fungi, so that it is termed by Dr. Clarke the supreme
court of the cryptogamia. We have already remarked the peculiar character of the people,
who preserve entire the dress, habits, and the daring energy of the ancient Swedes. The
most important branch of productive industry consists in the mines, particularly the great
copper mine at Fahlun (fig. 244.). It is immediately adjoining to the town, and consists of
an enormous conical mass with the top
downwards. The bottom of the cone, be
ing the top of the mine, was the first
worked; and the galleries being made
through it without due precaution, the
whole fell in, producing an immense open
crater which still remains. Regular stair
cases of easy descent traverse this im
mense crater or basin, from its outer lip
to the lowermost point, whence arise vast
volumes of smoke and vapour, giving it
the appearance, on a greater scale, of the
Neapolitan Solfetra. It is divided into no
less than 1200 shares or sections, among
which the ore is divided immediately on
being brought up, and it is then smelted
on a small scale by the different indivi
duals. The ore is not rich. In 1600, this
mine is said to have yielded 8.000,000
pounds of copper ; in 1650, 5,500,000 ; but
at present only 1,120,000 pounds. The workmen have now reached the bottom, or the sur
face of the cone, and are still working through the ground, in tlie fond hope of coming to the
top of another cone, reaching downwards. Unless this chimera should be realised, the mine,
it is said, will, in a few years, cease to be productive. Fahlun is a regularly built but old-
fashioned and dirty town, subsisting solely by tlie mine. It lias two churches, one covered
with copper, but this has not a handsome appearance, the colour of that metal being converted
into a whitish green soon after exposure to the weather. Near Fahlun is the house where
Gastavus Vasa lay concealed, the proprietor of which has studied to preserve in its pristine
state this asylum of the Swedish king. His chamber, bed, and clothes are still shoviTi; his
shirt of worsted mail fitted similar to those made by the Circassians, and his other weapons.
Sala, wliich is properly in Westmanland, may be mentioned here as another mining town
on a smaller scale, neat, regular, but ill-paved. Tlie only important mine is one of galena,
which yields 2000 marks of silver, and 32,000 pounds weight of lead. There is also a cop-

Book L SVi^EDEN AND NORWAY. 489
per mine, which produces little; and one of iron, which is not considered worth the expense
of working.
Upland, coinciding nearly with the modern Upsala, is an interesting province, extending
from a part of the lake to the river Dal. It is fiat, but diversified with numerous little round
knolls, which, with the sma.ll lakes, and the numerous fine forests, render it picturesque. It
contains Upsala, the seat of the great northem university, and Danemora, the most valuable
of the iron mines.
Upsala, or Upsal (fig. 245.), is the place in Sweden most venerable for its antiquity. It
was long the residence of the kings,
and has always been the chief seat
of religion and learning. Even in
pagan times it was the residence of
the highpriest of Odin ; and in 1026,
Everinus, a bishop from England,
was placed there, for the purpose of
converting the natives to Christiani
ty. The cathedral is the largest and
finest ecclesiastical monument in
Sweden, a country not eminent for
such structures. The exterior is in
deed only of brick, and there is an
injudicious mixture of the Gothic
¦'''"'' with the Doric towers. But the in
terior is very striking, adorned with a double row of fourteen fluted columns, a magnificent
altar, and above all by many monuments of the kings and heroes of Sweden. Particular
notice is attracted by that of Gustavus Vasa, and the three Stures, successively regents of
the kingdom, who, in that station, earned the title of fathers of their country. The shirt of
mail of Margaret, the Semiramis of the North, is also kept as a warlike relic. Upsala con
tains also a palace founded by Gustavus Vasa, now half burnt down. It is at present sup
ported solely by the university, of which an account has already been given. It is destitute
of all trade or industry. It is therefore small, but very regular and neat, having a large
square in the centre, where all the streets converge.
The mine of Danemora is situated near the small town of Osterby. Swedish iron is the
best in the world, and the iron of Danemora is the best in Sweden. Dr. Thomson was told
at Sheffield, that cast steel could not be made with any other. Danemora was first wrought
as a sUver mine, but this was soon exhausted. The iron then began to be wrought, and soon
established the high character it now holds. The great opening is fifty fathoms deep, and
the mine has been wrought thirty fathoms lower down. The ore is blasted with gunpowder.
At short intervals are heard tremendous explosions, like the discharge of the heaviest artil
lery, which are echoed through the caverns, and shake the earth like a volcano, v/hile
volumes of smoke burst forth after each crash. From the mouth of the cavern enormous
masses of iron are raised up by machinery. The mine belongs to a number of private indi
viduals, who have erected a steam-engine at an expense of 36,000 rix-dollars. "The produce
is estimated at 4000 tons. There are twenty-seven other mines in the province of Upsala.
Gothland, or Gotaland, the southem division of the kingdom, forms a large peninsula, with
a wide circuit of shores. It enjoys a considerably milder climate, and is the only part of the
kingdom where wheat is raised in any considerable quantity. It is here also that the recent
improvements in agriculture have been chiefly observable. There is thus more land in cul
tivation, and trees wUl not grow in the immediate vicinity of the coasts ; so that Gothland is
not so thoroughly covered with wood, as the provinces to the north of the lakes. If we
except the capital, this division contains almost all the sea-ports and naval arsenals ; and
consequently engrosses nearly all the foreign commerce of the kingdom.
The modern and official divisions of Gothland have been exhibited in the statistical table.
The ancient divisions are into Eastem and Westem Gothland, divided from each other by
the long line of the lake Wetter ; Smaland, an extensive but barren tract, to the south of
that lake ; and Scania, or Schonen, the southem peninsular extremity of Sweden, a better
peopled, and better cultivated district than any other in the kingdom.
Eastem Gothland comprises chiefly the modem provmces of Nykoping and Linkoping.
The town of Nykoping is agreeably situated at the extremity of a small bay of the Baltic,
and though small has an air of magnificence ; but it carries on little or no trade. It is now
much outstripped by Norkoping, the largest of all the kopings (i. e. markets), and the fourth
town in Sweden. Norkoping lies upon the large river Motala, vvhich communicates between
the lake Wetter and the Baltic, and which is here broken into numerous rocky channels.
The chief branch of industry consists in the manufacture of broadcloth, which is produced so
fine as to sell at twenty-seven shillings per ell, of one yard and three quarters broad. The
breed of sheep in the neighbourhood has been considerably improved by the introduction of
merinos. The town is regularly buUt, of neat wooden houses. Linkoping is another pro-
Vol. L 3 M

490 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. ' Part IIL
vincial capital, handsomer in its aspect, though much smaller, than Norkoping. The
cathedral, rebuUt four hundred years ago, is one of the finest ecclesiastical stmctures in the
kingdom, and near it is a very handsome theatre.
The district of Smaland has for its chief town Jonkoping, situated at the extremity of the
Wetter, and commanding grand and beautiful views over that immense lake, which has here
a wide border of low but finely wooded rocks. The town has been entirely rebuilt since
1790, when it was burnt to the ground. Though built chiefly of wood, like other Swedish
towns, it contains many good and commodious houses, the residence of wealthy inhabitants,
who have been attracted by the amenity of the site. A high court of appeal for this part of
Sweden is established here. About ten miles distant is Tuberg, a long round-backed hUl,
composed wholly of one unbroken mass of flne magnetic ironstone. It presents such a
colossal mass as in Hausmaim's opinion 'must continue to afford a source of riches to the
remotest posterity. The upper bed, 370 feet thick, has been wrought for 250 years. It is
merely blasted with gunpowder, when the fragments fall to the bottom, and are conveyed to
neighbouring fiimaces. The ore is not very rich, the proportion of pure iron varying from
21 to 32 per cent. ; but it is very tractable, and free from any hurtful ingredients. The hUl,
though only 400 feet high, commands an almost boundless view over the vast wooded flats
of Smaland. This district contains also a considerable quantity of bog iron ore of inferior
quality, and some copper mines.
The sea-coast of Smaland, consisting of the modem provinces of Calmar and Bleking, is
of a naked and unpromising aspect, but contains some havens of importance. Calmar is
noted in Swedish history as a strong fortress, and still more because in one of the apartments
of its castle was signed the celebrated treaty which united the three crowns of the north on
the head of Margaret. Carlscrona is the chief naval arsenal and one of the largest towns in
Sweden. It is built on three small islands connected with each other and with the coast by
long wooden bridges, whUe other islands serve for the erection of works for the defence of
the harbour. These are square batteries of stone, well mounted with ordnance, which appear
formidable enough, though probably not capable of coping with a ship of the line. Separate
establishments exist for the large vessels, and for the flotUla ; but one of the most remarkable
features consists of the covered docks, partly excavated out of the vast masses of solid rock.
The want of tides in the Baltic is supplied by sluices, which open into the port, and are
emptied again at pleasure. Carlshamn is a smaller town, romantically situated, like a cluster
of nests, on the tops of cliffs. During war it enjoyed a considerable proportion of the neutral
trade, which it has since lost. Chrislianstadt is a fortress of considerable celebrity, the cap
ture of which formed the first military achievement of Gustavus Adolphus. Some fragments
of the fortifications remain, and the approach to them is defended by an extensive swamp
which surrounds the place.
Scania begins here, a flat and fertile peninsula, forming the most southem part of Sweden.
There are numerous German residents in Scania, supposed to have sought refuge there
during the Protestant persecution in Germany ; and some Scotch farmers have also sought to
introduce an improved system of agriculture. In the centre of Scania is Lund, the seat of
the second university in Sweden, containing 30,000 volumes, a good observatory and botanical
garden, and a noble cathedral in the Norman style of architecture. Mahno, formerly one of
the Hanseatic towns, is the chief seat of trade. Helsenving and Ystadt neat little ports, are
the chief places of embarkation for Denmark and Germany. All these towns command
magnificent views of the Sound, enlivened by the crowds of shipping that are continually
passing. Having tumed the southem point of Sweden, we come to the coast of West Gothland,
situated on that great gulf of the German Ocean called the Cattegat. Being the part of the
kingdom nearest to the great states of Europe, it carries on a prtncipEil part of the commerce
of Sweden. Laholm and Halmstadt are ports of some consideration, in the gloomy and
heathy province of Halland, but almost the whole of the western commerce of Sweden centres
at Gottenburg.
Gottenburg is built in the interior of a bay set round with rugged and naked rocks, and
the whole country round is sterile and desolate. It is supported by its situation at the mouth
of the Gotha, the broadest and most navigable of the rivers of Sweden, which by means of
the canal of Trolhatta affords a full communication with the great interior lake of Wener,
and the opportunity of bringing down those immense stores of wood and iron produced around
its shores. The prosperity of Gottenburg was also greatly promoted by the PVench anti-
commercial system, under which this port remained one of tlie few channels by which British
goods could force their way into the Continent. It is a very handsome city, buUt entirely of
stone, the use of wood having been prohibited since the last great conflagration, the second
which had occurred in the course of ten years. A magnificent church, lately built is con
structed, in a great measure, of stone imported fi-om Scotland. The principal street, which
is long and wide, has a canal running through it ; the otiiers strike off from it at right
angles. The principal merchants are Scotch, who live in a style of great magnificence.
West Gothland presents stUl some other striking features. Among these rank foremost

Boor I.

SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

491

the cataracts and canal of Trolhatta. Above the former the river is a mile broad ; but being
confined between two lofty rocks, it pours down its waters with prodigious force. The de
scent, however, is only a hundred feet in the course of two miles, making thus a rapid rather
than a fell ; the water rushing along with inconceivable rapidity, boiling up, and covered
with foam. The noise is prodigious, and clouds of vapour are thrown up. These cataracts
opposed a complete obstruction to the navigation of the Gotha, which the kings of Sweden
expended immense sums in endeavouring to overcome ; but their works were too imperfect
to resist the impetuosity of the current At length, in 1793, the enterprise was taken up
by a company of private merchants, who in seven years brought it to a happy completion.
The canal is twenty-four feet wide, and eight feet deep. It extends only two miles ; but
being cut through a granite rock, sometimes to the depth of one hundred and fifty feet, it
proved a work of very great labour. Wenerborg, at the junction of the Gotha with the
Wener, is the channel by which the products of the interior are brought down the river ;
yet it does not derive from this trade much prosperity or importance. Uddevalla and Stron-
stadt, are small sea-ports, with some trade and fishery, but they have suffered since the
herrmgs deserted the coast. Skara and Fahlkoping are places of some consequence in the
interior of West Gothland.
Norrland forms a third division, which, if considered as including Lapland (and it is so
considered politically), would be much more extensive than all the rest of the kingdom put
together. It is, however, our intention to reserve for a particular section the vast and
peculiar region known under the name of Lapland. Norrland, in a restricted sense, com
prises the four provinces named in the table, but is better known under the divisions of
Jamtland, Angermanland, Medelpad, and Helsingland. Jamtland, where it borders on
Norway, includes some of the highest mountains, several of them rising to 6000 or 7000
feet. The rest of Norrland is flat, and the climate moist and variable, like that of Jamt
land, but colder. Wheat scarcely ripens beyond Sundswall ; near to the northern border,
barley and rye ripen with difficulty. Almost the only fruits are cherries and gooseberries.
The land under cultivation did not, in 1812, exceed 52,000 acres, which is, in proportion to
the whole, only as 1 to 915. Yet the people are industrious ; and Von Buch observed a greater
air of prosperity here than in the rest of the kingdom. The woods which cover almost the
whole country, are infested by numerous herds of wolves. Of the entire population, amounting
to 159,100, only 6318 live in the towns, which of course must be very unimportant. Sunds-
waU and Hemosand are, however, sea-ports of some little consequence, as is Umea ; but this
last properly belongs to Lapland. Subsect. 2. — Norway.
This extensive portion of the Swedish monarchy, recently, by compulsion, but in all like
lihood permanently, united, comprises a very long line of maritime territory, facing the
boundless expanse of the Northern Ocean. Throughout its whole length, in an oblique
line parallel to the sea, runs the chain of the Dofrines, presenting many bold and lofty
summits covered with perpetual snow. Sneehatta, the highest, is 8100 feet These moun
tains throw out numerous chains, sloping downwards to the sea, which form romantic valleys
and deep and winding bays. Norway produces some corn, not nearly sufficient, however,
for its own consumption ; but exports large quantities of timber and fish, receiving, in return,
those commodities of which it stands most in need.
The southern Norwegian provinces of Aggerhuus, Christiania, and Christiansund, include
a considerably greater proportion of level territory than the others. They have tlie great
range of mountains to the north and west, and are not separated from Sweden by these
natural barriers. Through these provinces flow southward into the bay of Christiania the
Drammen and the Glommen, the two greatest rivers of the North, and bring with them an
immense quantity of timber, which
246 is cut into deals, and exported to all
parts of Europe. The export of iron
is also considerable.
Christiania, (fig. 246.), capital
of all this district, with a population
of 20,581, now ranks as the capital
of the whole kingdom. It is situated
at the head of a long interior bay or
fiord, and enjoys a situation which
Von Buch considers as altogether
wonderful. The bay, its islands,
the crowds of sails spread among
them, with the view of majestic hills
rising over hills in the distance, appeared to him equalled only on the lake of Geneva, which,
however, has not the vessels and islands. Christiania is chiefly supported by the trade in
deals ; and those cut in its saw-mUls are considered, by the traders in this article, to be

Christiania.

492

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part HI.

247

superior to all others. Some of its merchants, particularly the Ankers, mamtain the state
of princes, and are considered equal in wealth and liberal views to any in Europe. Chris
tiania comes more into contact than Bergen with the more advanced countries of Europe,
and has adopted almost exclusively the improvements which distinguish them. The buildings
are regular, and mostly of stone ; so that in the course of 200 years, while other Scandina
vian towns have been repeatedly reduced to ashes, Christiania has suffered only slight injury
fi'om fire. Since the union with Sweden, it has received an university, with two professors,
who have moderate incomes, cliiefiy derived from grain.
There are other havens of some importance in this southern tract of Norway. On the
western coast of Christiania fiord, the two, Bragenses and Stromsoe, unite in formmg what
is called Drammen, at the mouth of the important river of that name. Tonsberg, at the
bottom of the same side, is a town of some ancient celebrity, but now a good deal decayed.
On the eastern side of the same bay is Moss, watered by a stream, turning twenty saw-mUls,
by which an immense quantity of deals are prepared for exportation. Frederickshall, an
ancient and still important frontier town, is beautifully situated in an interior bay, winding
among mountains. Near it is the strong
fortress of Frederiekstadt, the scene of the
death of Charles XH. The pass of the
Swinsund (fig. 247.), on the immediate
frontier, presents one of the most romantic
and picturesque scenes in Scandinavia.
Christiansund, the most southem province
of Norway, has a capital of the same name,
the fourth town in the kingdom, which,
from its situation on the Skagerrack, is
visited for shelter and suppUes by nume
rous vessels entering and leaving the
Baltic. The interior from Christiania,
Swinsund Perry. though it includes Hedemarken, and other
large pastoral valleys, and though its communications are facilitated by the large lake of
Miosen, does not contain a single town. That of Hammer attests its former magnificence,
by the remains of a palace, and of several churches now restored. The whole of this terri
tory is hemmed in on the west and north by the gigantic ranges of the Doverfield and
Fillefield, which separate it from Drontheim and Bergen.
The province of Bergen is rude, rocky, and mountainous, consisting of the slope down
wards to the sea of the highest part
248 ^..-^ — p:,^ of the Dofrine range. The town of
Bergen, (fig. 248.), at the head of a
long interior bay, was formerly ac
counted the capital, and contains a
population of 18,511. Its commerce,
which is considerable, is founded on
the exportation, less of the produce
of the country behind it, than of the
northem fishery at Daffoden, of which
the produce is brought to Bergen by
numerous barks. Its merchants had
long the monopoly of this, and stUl
retain much the greatest share. They are chiefly Dutch, and send a vessel weekly to
Amsterdam for a supply of the garden stuf& which their own soil does not yield. Bergen
is built of large masses of wooden houses, amid rocks, and has suffered severely by fire.
The province of Drontheim, to the north of Bergen and Christiania, and separated from
them by vast mountains, cor-
2^9 j^ responds m latitude with the
Swedish Jamtland. The capital
(fig. 249.), of tlie same name,
is situated on the shore of a
winding fiord, but subsists less
by foreign commerce than by
the internal communication be
tween numerous valleys and
districts to which it forms a cen
tral point of union. Of these
valleys, that of tlie Guldal is the
most extensive and beautiful,
and singularly celebrated in Swedish story and tradition. Here, it is boasted, dwelt the
mighty Haco, the noble and wise Olaf Tryggvason. The society of Drontheim is always

Bergen.

Book I.

SWEDEN AND NORWAY.

493

held forth as representing under the happiest light, the genuine Norwegian character ; its
warmth of kindness, and generous hospitality. Dr. Clarke praises chiefly its truly Norwe
gian simplicity ; but Von Buch considers it as marked by more refined taste, more graceful
and attractive manners, than the society of Christiania. In no district of Norway is there
said to be such a feeling of patriotism and public spirit. Drontheim is built wholly of wood,
and has in consequence been seven times burnt to the ground ; yet the houses are handsome,
and ornamented with taste. There is a spacious palace, built wholly of this material, and
partaking its imperfection. Drontheim also contains the remains of a cathedral, the largest
edifice in the country, and to which the whole population of the North came once in pil
grimage. The environs are very beautiful, with numerous country-seats, and lofty snow-
crowned hUls in the distance. Christiansund is also a small sea-port and fishing town in
this province.
Beyond Drontheim commences Norrland, a district rather than a province, the name
being vaguely applied to all the north of Scandinavia. Relatively to Norway, it is marked
by an increasing intensity of cold ; the mountains, even at 3000 feet high, being capped with
perpetual snow, and vast table-plains or fields remaining covered with it during the whole
summer. Grain, even of the coarsest descriptions, ripens only in a few favoured spots. The
spruce fir gradually disappears, and shelter is necessary to allow the Scotch fir and the
birch to spring up. The climate, however, is somewhat milder than that of regions under
the same latitude on the Baltic ; so that, whUe the ports of Stockholm and Carlscrona are
shut during several months of the year, those of Norrland remain continually open. Yet
in this dreary region occurs a busy scene of human action and existence. The numerous
islands, and the deep bays between them and the land, afford spots to which shoals of fish
come from the farthest depths of the North Sea to deposit their spawn. During the whole
year, the herring affords a regular occupation to the Norrlemd boatman ; but from February
to AprU, the shoals, migrating from thence, and from all the surrounding coasts, crowd to
the Loffoden Islands, the central seat of the northern fishery. These islands form a chain
parallel to the land, emd separated by narrow channels tiirough which the tides of the
Northern Ocean rush with tremendous rapidity. The sea flows as in the most rapid rivers, and
the name of stream is employed : — Malstrom, the famous whirlpool, Grimstrom, Sundstrom,
which, when the tide is high, produce the effect of a mighty cataract. Waves are seen
struggling against waves, towering aloft, or wheeling about in whirlpools ; the dashing and
roaring of which are heard many mUes out at sea. The produce of the fishery, which has
been rendered much more abundant by the introduction of large nets instead of hooks, is
conveyed to Bergen in a great number of little barks. The Danish government endeavoured
to form at Stromsoe a commercial depot for the produce of Norrland ; but in this bleak situa
tion it has not flourished. The Russians come with numerous vessels from Archangel,
bringing meal and provisions, which they give in exchange for the fish caught.
StTBSECT. 3. — Lapland.
The vast region of Lapland is divided from the rest of Scandinavia by a line drawn across
it nearly coinciding with the Polar Circle, so as to render it almost entirely an arctic region.
It consists partly of great chains of mountains, some of which are 4000 feet high, while
other extensive tracts are level. Through these roll the Tornea, the Lulea, the Pitea, and
other rivers of long course, and navigable for the few boats which have any occasion to pass
along them. The Laplanders are a peculiar race,
short, stout, brown, with black hair, pointed chin,
and eyes rendered weak by exposure to the smoke
and snow. They are divided into the mountain
or wandering Laplanders, and those who dwell in
what are called villages ; but Kautokeino, which
forms a sort of Lapland capital, when visited by
Acerbi, was found to contain not mo^e than four
families and a priest. The swift-footed rein-deer,
which they train to draw them in sledges over the
snow, form their riches; the flesh and milk of
these animals compose their food, and the skins
their furniture. The tents of the Laplanders
(fig. 250.) are formed by six beams of wood
meeting nearly at top, covered with cloth, a flap
of which, left between two of the beams, serves
as the door. The floor is spread with rein-deer
skins, having the hair upwards, and which thus
serve for either lying or sitting, the tent being too
low to stand in, except in one place. A stone
frame is made in the middle, for the fire ; and there is a hole at the top, to which the smoke
Vol. L 42

250

Mountain Laplander's Tent.

494

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part HL

Laplanders Travelling.

must find its way ; but this it does not effect tUl it has thickly impregnated the whole
tent with its fiimes; which, however, are valued as affording a protection in winter against
the cold, and in summer against the swarms of muequitoes with which, during a period of
short and extreme heat, the air is infested. The herds of rein-deer vary from 300 to up
wards of 1000, according to the wealth of the possessor. AU day they wander over
the hills, and in the evening are driven, not without some occasional resistance, into an en
closed park, where they are mUked. Each yields only about a tea-cupful of milk ; but rich,
aromatic, and of exquisite taste. Linnseus mentions nineteen farms in which milk is pre
pared for food ; but cleanliness does not preside over their cookery ; and the use of the hand,
without knife or fork, to carry every thing to the mouth, and of the tongue to lick the dishes,
prevents an European from joining these meals with any relish. The Laplanders travel
from place to place, and move
"51 .it their families, usually at the be
¦^ -~ ~-^ ^\ as i.jfedSBK/f/ics!'.^——- &in"™& of winter and summer,
^^^5"'-^^^^Sc-'1ti^^^^^^^^^^^^Swl^~^ in sledges made in the form of a
boat, and drawn by rein-deer
(fig. 251.). These animals are
tamed and trained with con
siderable difficulty, and they are
sometimes restive ; but in gene
ral, they bound over hill and
dale with surprising celerity.
The natives have also a species
of snow-shoe ; not a broad flat board, like that of America, but somewhat in the form of a
skate, with which they glide rapidly along the surface of deep snow, and even up and down
„_2 itfcfctf ^^ steep sides of the hUls (Jig. 252.).
^ Tfca^sK^ Their dress is carefiilly contrived for
the purposes of warmth. The under
part, or shirt, is composed of sheep's
sldn with the wool inwards ; whUe tie
exterior coat is formed by the skin of
the rein-deer, or some other animal,
having the fiir outwards. They add
fur gloves, and a woollen pointed red
cap (fig. 253.).
The entire population of Lapland,
spread over a surface of 150 mUes square,
is stated by Dr. Thomson not to exceed
60,000, or one inhabitant to every three
square miles. Even this scanty mea
sure is supported only on the sea-
coasts by a supply of fish. The parish
of Kautokeino, in the interior, extending 200 railes in length and 96 in breadth, was re
ported to Acerbi as containing not more than ninety femilies, of whom twelve only are
fixed. The Laplanders are a harmless race, among whom great crimes are unknown. Only
one murder has been heard of in twenty years ; and the absence of theft is proved by that
of bars, bolts, and other safeguards. They do not show that open hospitality and warmth

Laplander descending a Snow-Flake.

253

254

Laplander with Magto Drum.

Mountain Laplander.

of heart, for which rude nations are so often celebrated. They are cold, shy, mistrustful,
and difficult to treat with, at least unless tobacco or brandy be brought in as mediators. They
were formerly very superstitious ; and the Lapland witches Were famous for their empire
over the winds, which they enclosed in bags, and sold to tlie marmer. The magic drum

Book L HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 495
(fig. 254.) and the enchanted chain (Jig. 255.) are stUl m occasional use. Yet the Laplanders
have been converted to Christianity, and are attentive to its duties, coming
%^ often from vast distances to attend divine service, though the instructions are
conveyed to them only through the broken medium of an interpreter.
The sea-coast of Lapland presents a continuation of the same bold and rocky
features which distinguish that of Norway. Here, too, the fishery is carried on
with activity. It is chiefly in the hands of a Finnish race, called Quans, who
have pusheii across Lapland, and exert an activity unknown to the natives of
that region. The Russians from Archangel, also, not only bring their meal to
exchange for fish, but carry on the fishery themselves to a great extent. In
July and August they cover with their small three-masted vessels all the fiords
and sounds, and throw out lines that are sometimes two miles long, and contain
600 or 700 hooks ; so that their vessels are filled with the utmost rapidity. The
govemment has founded, on the large island of Qualoe, the town of Hammerfest,
the most northern in the world, and destined as a rival to Archangel ; but the
settlement has never taken root in this ungenial cliihate, and continues also,
with one exception, to be the smallest that exists. On the other side of the
North Cape, on the extreme frontier, the fort of Wardhuus, defended by twenty
men, forms the only barrier to prevent the Russians from taking possession of
the whole country. Mageroe, the most northeriy of the islands, consists of
steep rocks rising perpendicularly from the sea, and ascended as if by stairs. In
a rocky recess stands Kielvig, with four or five families, on a level spot, barely
Magic Chain, affording a site for the houses, and exposed to the perpetual war of the elements.
The tempests here rage with such fury, that it is often impossible to leave the house without
danger of being blown into the sea. At the northern point of this island is formed by the
North Cape the grand boundary of the European continent, facing the depths of the Polar
Ocean. It consists of an enormous mass of naked rock, parted by the action of the waves
into pyramidal cUffs, down which large fragments are continually felling.

CHAPTER VIL
HOLLAND AND BELGIUM.
The Netherlands, comprising now the two kingdoms of Holland and Belgium, form a
maritime territory, which, situated almost in the centre between the north and the south of
Europe, and penetrated by the Rhine and its tributaries, possesses great natural advantages
for industry and commerce. It has, accordingly, from a very early period of modern history,
ranked as one of the most prosperous and flourishing parts of Europe. The union of the
Batavian and Belgic Netherlands into one kingdom, though in fact only a renewal of that
which subsisted at a former period, was suddenly terminated, in 1830, by a revolution of the
Belgians. The separate existence, however, of Holland and Belgium being yet recent, and
the statistical information respecting them having for a number of years been collected with
reference always to the entire Netherlands, they will be still treated most advantageously
in combination. It may be sufficient to observe, that, since the revolution of 1830, Belgium
has been erected into a separate monarchy, through the mediation of the five great powers
of Europe ; and the crown, with their consent, has been conferred on prince Leopold, formerly
of Saxe-Coburg. Sect. I. — General Outline and Aspect.
Holland and Belgium may be regarded as a large corner or segment cut off from France
and Germany, which form round it a species of irregular arc. Arbitrary lines, drawn con
formably to treaties, mark all except its maritune boundaries ; for, though several of the
greatest rivers of Europe cross its territory, none of them have any limitary character. The
maritime boundary, which, like the inland, extends from north-east to south-west, is the
North Sea, or German Ocean, which is formed here into a species of large gulf by the oppo
site coast of part of the English Channel. Holland is also penetrated by the deep inlet of
the Zuyder Zee. The whole territory extends between 49° 30' and 53° 34' N. lat, and
2° 30' and 7° 12' E. long. ; making about 280 mUes in length, and 220 miles in breadth.
The entire extent, according to the best calculations, amounts to 24,870 square miles, or
15,900,000 English acres.
In respect to surface, this country includes the lowest portion of the great low land of
'the European continent The northern parts, composing the new kingdom of Holland, are
mostly below the level to which the bordering sea rises during high tides or swells. Hence
originated an imminent danger of inundation, till the Dutch constructed those mighty dikes,
by which the sea is excluded, and which form so extraordinary a monument of their industry.
Holland is humorously described by Butler as a country that draws fifty feet of water."
The Belgic provinces are also flat, but not lower than the surface of the sea, nor much exposed

496

MAP OF HOLLAND AND BELGIUM.

Fig. 256.

4 liongitudfl East

tnm Greenwich 6

Book I.

HOLLAND AND BELGIUM.

497

to rivgr inundation. In tlie south-eastern district of Liege and Namur, branches of the
Rhenish mountains render the surface irregular, and sometimes hilly, particularly in the
tract forming part of the ancient forest of Ardennes.
Several rivers, which rank among tlie greatest in Europe, and are derived from distant
sources, pass through this territory; and, separating into numerous channel?, form broad
estuaries at their entrance into the ocean. They all unite in the channel of the majestic
Rhme ; yet by a singular fortune, this great name is not retained by the main branch of tho
river, which, in turning to the westward, receives the name of Waal, and afterwards that
of its important tributary the M.aese, under which designation it flows into the sea below
Rotterdam. The Yssel, another considerable branch, runs northward into the Zuyder Zee ;
whUe the name of Rhine is retained by another, comparatively a rivulet, which passes
through the provinces of Gueldres and Utrecht. The Maese or Meuse is the only great
river which has the larger part of its course through the Netherlands, traversing the interior
of Belgium from south to north. Its main tributaries, the Sambre on the west, and the
Roer on the east, have only a portion of their course through Belgium. The Scheldt has
not nearly so long a course ; but this river, and its tributaries, the Lys, the Dyle, the Dender,
and the Neethe, water the most improved districts, and visit the greatest cities of Belgium.
When united under their main branch, they form a broad navigable channel, opening into
an estuary, which affords to Antwerp the means of carrying on an extensive maritime com
merce.

References to the Map of Holland and Belgiunu

HOLLAND. 1. Friesland.
1. Paasens
S. Buitenpost
3. Dubkum
4. Leuwarden
5. St. Jacob
6. Franeker
7. Harlingen
8. Kornwurt
9. Biilsward
10. WTorkum
ll. Hindelopen
12. Stavoren
13. Sloten
14. Kuinder
15. Tcrkappel
16. firouw
17. School
18. NoordwGlde
19. Beester Zwang
SO. Dookerboek
n. Oroningen.
21. Marum
2-2. Grypskerke
23. Zollkamp
24. Uskert
25. Tjoppersum
26. Deirzyl
27. Winschoten
28. Fort Bourtange
29. Ter Apel
30. Ter Maarsch
31. Eolhom
33. Groniogen ni. Drenthe.
33. Roon
34. Gasteren
35. Assen
36. Smilde
37. Dieverburs
38. Weaterborg
39. Odoorn
40. Sehoonebeek
41. Koevorden
42. Ruinen
43. Meppei
IV. Overyssel.
44. Steenwyfc
45. Blockzyl
46. Vollenhoven
47. Swarlesluis
48. Kainpen
49. Hattem
50. Zwoll
51 . Genemuiden
52. Ommen
53. Hardenberg
54. Den Ham
55. Almelo
5R. Ootmarsum
57. Oldenzaal
58. Enacbede
59. Delden
60. Haaxbergen
61. Goor
62. Ryggen
63. Holten
Vol. I.

64, Wesepe
65. Heyno
76. Deventer
v. Guelderland.
66. Elburg
67. Posthuis
68. Harder wyk
69. LeQvenum
70. Nykerk
72. Barneveld
73. Koolvyk
74. Apeldoom
75. Vaascn
77. Zutplien
78. Lochem
79. Bnrkulo
80. Rucrlo
Sl.Bretlevort83. Heerenberg
83. Deurichem
84. Doeehurg
85. De Woest Hoef
86. Arnheitn
87. Huisaen
88. Her veld
89. Wageoingen
90. Thiel
91. KuilenburgVI. Utrecht.
92. Wyk
93. Venendaal
94. IsEelsteio
95. Montfoort
96. Utrecht
97. Nleuwersluis
98. Naarden
71. Amerafoort
VII. J^orVi Hol
land.
99. Amsterdam
100. De Koog
101. Monnikendam
102. Purmerend
103. Edam
104. Hoom
la^. Enkhuisen
106. Medenblick
107. Kolhorn
108. The Heider
109. Calandsoog
110. Petten
111. Broek
112. Alkmaar
113. Egmondaan Zee
114. Beverwyk
115. Zandvoort
116. Haarlem
Vni. South Bol-
latui.
117. Lisse
118. Leimuden
119. Fjeyden
120. The Hague
121. Gravezande
122. Wilsveen
123. Goada

124. Schoonhoven
125. LBedam
126. Gorcum
127. Rotterdam
128. Charloi
129. Stryen
i:iQ. Helvoetsluys
131. Goeree
IX. Zealand.
1.T2. Zinrikzee
133. Goea
134. Veere
135. Middleburg
136. Sluys
337. Biervliet
138. Axel
139. Hulst
140. Tholcn
141. Steenbergen
JX.JVorth Brabant.
142. Bergen op Zoom
143. Rnzendaal
144. Williamstad
145. Breda
146. Chaam
147. Tiiburg
148. Geertruidenberg
149. Heusdon
150. Bommel
151.FortSt.AndrieB
152. Grave
153. Vechel
154. BoJB le Due
155. Houvel
156. Reuael
1.57. Luiks Gestel
158. Eerzel
159. Leende
ICO. Aaten
lei.Helmont
162. Wanroy
163. Verlingbeck
X. Limbmg.
164. Velten
165. Pelerwerth
166. Venio
167. Helden
168. Meyel
169. Weert
170. Ruremonde
171. Weesen
172. Oirebeeck
173. Roilduc
174. Maeatricht
175. Gulpen
XI. Luxemburg.
176. Wiea Wam-
pach
177. Clervaux
178. Vianden
179. Eachdorf
180. MarteJange
181. NiderPaUen
182. Luxemburg
183. Eech
184. Prisange
185. Coaach

186. N. An wen
187. Morech
388. Ettelbmck
189. Diekirch
390. Echtenach
191. Grcvenma- cherea
BELGIUM.1. Antwerp.
1. Arendonck
2. Turnhout
3. Minderhout
4. Gorinir
5. Ooet Malle
6. Sant Vliet
7. Fort Lillo
8. Fort St. Philip
9. Antwerp
10. Bergenhout
11. Berchem
12. Boom
13. Mechlin
14. Lier
15. Vosdoncken
16. Herenthala
17. Gestel
18. Lommel IL Limhurg,
19. Helck Teren
20. Peer
21. Hamont
22. Maaeyck
23. Asch
24. Reckem
25. Hasselt
26. Bilsen
27. Tongrea
28. Manahoven
IIT. South Brabant.
29. Tirlemont
30. Incourt
31. MouBtier
32. Nivelles
33. LaBelle Alliance
34. Halle
35. Waterloo
36. Brusaels
37. Vianden
38. Louvain
39. Haerlen
40. Diest
41. Aerachot
42. Eel use
43, Donderzeel
44. Asclie

42*

East Maitders.
A I ost
NinoveGrammont
Parieke OudenardeLeeuwerghemDencnockDei use
GhentWeteren
Caleken

56. Hamme
57. Burcht Town
and Fnrt
58. Tete de Flandres
59. Duel
60. Envelde
61. St. Laurena
V. West Manders.
62. Cuooke
63. Blankenburg
64. Bruges
65. Ostend
66. Nieuport
67. Tho rout
68. Dixmuide
69. Loo
70. Rouetbrugge
71. Pnperinghe
72. Warneton
73. Ypres
74. Menin
75. Couriray
76. Rouaselaeie
77. Thiclt
VL Hainault.
78. Pottes
79. Depret
80. Temp Leuve
81. Tournay
82. Fontenoy
83. Peru vela
84. Q,uivratn
85. Sara
86. Mona
87. Lens
88. Ath
89. Enghien
90. Roeulx
91. Go9Belies
92. Charleroi
93. Merbes le
Chateau
94. Beaumont
95. RauEse
96. Chimay
VIL JVamur.
97. Marienbourg
98. PhUipville
99. L?gny
100. Thil Baudian
301. Grau.x
102. Namur
303. Gembloux
104. Eghezee
105. Andenncs
106. Nattore
107. Peasoulx
108. Dinant
109. Jambeline
110. Beau Raing
111. Gedinne
VUL lAege.
112. St. Hubert
313. Beauaainte
114. Marche
115. Marcour^

116. Grand Menil
117. Tahogne
118. Mieraij
319. Huy
320. Neuville
121. Omal
32-2. Landcn
323. Flemallo
124. Liege
32o. Vise
32fi. Liniburg
327. Hf^ron
128. BauCayfl
129. Spa
330. S.'lvflstre
131. Douflame
132. Stavplt.t
333, 'i'hecsion
134. Vieil Salm
IX. Luxemburg
335. Traillea
336. Uastogne
337. Neuville
138. ChaudeBo- logno
139. Arlun
140. Virton
141. Belle Fontaine
142. Pcrensart
143. Bouillon
144. Orchimont
145. Anloy
146. Rpcogne
147. Neuf Chateau
Rivers.
a Schuyten
b Hoorn
c Kuinder
d Reest
e Dinkel
f Vecht
I fer
i Chipbeech
i Berkel
k Rhine
I Waal
m Meuse
n Great Aa
o Domiiiel
p Merk
q Scheldt
r Ypeilee
s Lys
t Senno
a Haine
V Sambre
wDyle
X Dermer
y Little Lethea
z Great Lefhes
a* Ourt
b* Our
c* Sure
d* Semoy
e* Lesee
f * Alselte
g* Moaella

3N

498 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part HI.
The only considerable lake in Holland is Haerlem-Meer, a wide shallow expanse ; which,
however, was of great service to the Dutch during their grand struggle for independence,
by giving them the means of laying the surrounding country under water. There are several
smaller lakes of the same character in Friesland.
Sect. II. — Natural Geography.
Subsect. 1. — Geology.
The higher parts of this country are composed of strata of transition slates and quartzes
more or less inclining to sandstone, generally directed from N. E. to S. W., and traversed
by numerous veins of quartz. These slates are clay slate, whet slate or hone, drawing slate
or black chalk. Resting upon the transition rocks occur various secondary deposits. The
first formation is the old red sandstone, upon which rests the mountain limestone. Asso
ciated with these rocks are various slate clays, and beds of anthracite or glance coal. Mines
of brown iron ore, or hydrate of iron, and of red iron ore, or oxide of iron, occur among
these rocks. A great field of the coal formation, resting upon this mountain limestone,
extends from Aix-la-Chapelle to Douay. The coal formation in this tract of country forms
a series of irregular basins, of which the most considerable are those of Liege and Charleroi,
which are separated from each other by a small ridge of lunestone. The chief rocks of^
these coal-basins are sandstone, slate, clay ironstone, and coal. The most important coal
mines are those in the neighbourhood of Mons and Charleroi ; but the mines of Liege are
remarkable on account of the difficulties the miners meet with in their workings ; the number
of beds of coal being reckoned as high as eighty-three by M. Dumont. From Aix-la-Cha
pelle by Maestricht and Brussels, the country is composed of chalk, with occasional displays
of green sand, gault and Shanklin sand, rising from under it.
The tritonian or lower tertiary rocks form in the Netherlands a very considerable basin,
in which is situated the city of Brussels. It is composed principally of sands, ferriferous
sandstones, white sandstones, flint, limestone, and clayey marl. These tertiary deposits are
observed more or less deeply covered with diluvium ; and at the mouths of the Scheldt,
Meuse, and Rhine, there are vast deposits of river alluvium, which alluvium forms also the
islands of Zealand, and the greater part of Holland.
Subsect. 2. — Botany.
The Botany of this country is noticed under that of Germany.
Subsect. 3. — Zoology.
The Native Zoology offers nothing peculiar. The Dutch horses (fig. 257.) are only valu-
257 -— y^ able for draught: those of Friesland, Berg, and the
" country of Juliers, are the best ; but their feet are gene
rally large, they eat much, and have little endurance.
This race appears to have been derived from Den
mark, and to have produced the Holstein, which was
the parent of the old unimproved English breeds of
horses. The Flemish sheep are of a breed common to
Prance and the Netherlands, being in general horn
less, high on the legs, and derived from an intermix
ture with the Barbary long-legged sheep. The Dutch
oxen are of an immense size, sometimes weighing 2000
Dnteh Horse. pounds.
Sect. III. — Historical Geography.
The Netherlands formed, in ancient times, the principal part of Gallia Belgica. The
BelgEB were the rudest, tlie bravest, and the fiercest of the three nations of Gaul. A despe
rate struggle was maintained before they yielded to the genius of Cfesar, and the superior
discipline of the Roman armies. At length the country witliin the Rhine was reduced to
the condition of a Roman province ; but the Batavi the ancient Hollanders, united them
selves to Rome rather as allies than subjects.
During the middle ages the Netherlands passed through a series of vicissitudes. So early
as the era of Charlemagne, they had acquired distinction in the pursuits of industry ; and
some of their fabrics were sent by that monarch to the caliph Haroun Alraschid, as speci
mens of the arts and industry of Europe. Whi?n the empire of Charlemagne fell to pieces,
these states were divided into a number of separate principalities, all successively united, by
marriage contract or inheritances, under the sway of the house of Burgundy. It was at this
time that the Flemish provinces rose to tlie highest pitch of manufacturing and commercial
prosperity. They received all the raw materials of France and England, countries then
rude and agricultural, and returned them in a manufactured state. Ghent .alone is said to
have employed 40,000 looms ; though this is most probably much exaggerated. Bruges first,

Book I. HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 499
and tlien Antwerp, formed tlie grand dep6t for the commerce of the northern and middle
states of Europe.
The house of Austria, by the intermarriage of Maximilian I. and Mary, the heiress of
Burgundy, succeeded to the rich dowry of the Seventeen Provinces. They form.ed one of
the chief sources of the power of Charles V., who transmitted them, with Spain and his
Italian dominions, to his son Philip II.
The Reformation was early introduced into the Netherlands, and had a most powerful
influence upon their destiny. Being suited to the sober and thinking habits of a manufac
turing population, it was soon embraced by a majority of the people, who were thus placed
in direct collision witli the fierce and gloomy bigotry of Philip II. The Inquisition being
introduced, in its most unrelenting severity, with a view to the suppression of the new doc
trine, drove the people into open rebellion ; and a contest of fifty years' duration arose, the
most fierce, bloody, and important in its consequences, of all those to which differences of
religion have given rise. The duke of Alva, who boasted that, during his government in
the Low Countries, 18,000 persons had perished on the scaffold, was, however, unable to
subdue the independent spirit and determined enmity to Spanish dominion which he had been
instrumental in kindling. The more moderate conduct of his successors, and, above all, of
Ale.Yinder Farnese, succeeded in re-establishing the Spanish sway over the Belgic provinces
which wore not defended by any natural barriers. Even the Dutch were reduced to the
disastrous necessity of opening their dikes, and allowing a great part of their territory to be
inundated. Their courage and perseverance, however, the great talent of the first two
princes of the house of Orange, and the aid aflbrded by Elizabetli, enabled them finally to
achieve their independence. The union of Utrecht, when they constituted themselves
into an independent state, by the title of the Seven United Provinces, was concluded
in 1597.
From this period the destiny of the United Provinces, called more commonly by the name
of Holland, the chief province among' them, was entirely different from that of Belgium.
They speedily attracted many of the manufactures, and 3,11 the commerce, which had raised
the Flemish cities to prosperity. The Dutch conquered from Portugal, at that time under
the dominion of Spain, the finest of her possessions in the East Indies ; obtained a temporary
footing in Brazil; and rendered Amsterdam the centre of a flourishing trade with India:
they carried on the fisheries, especially those of herrings, upon an unprecedented scale ; and
became the first maritime people in the world. The commercial greatness of Holland pre
sents so remarkable a phenomenon, that we cannot forbear availing ourselves of somo part
of that luminous illustration of it, which has been aflbrded by the researches of Mr. M'Cul-
loch. That able writer observes : —
" Between the years 1651 and 1672, when the territories of the republic were invaded by
the French, the commerce of Holland seems to have reached its greatest height. De Witt
estimates its increase from the treaty with Spain, concluded at Munster in 1643, to 1669, at
fully a half He adds, that, during the war with Holland, Spain lost the greatest part of
her naval power ; that since the peace, the Dutch had obtained most of the trade tc that
country, which had been previously carried on by the Hanseatic merchants and the English ;
that almost all the coasting trade of Spain was carried on by Dutch shipping ; that Spain
had even been forced to hire Dutch ships to sail to her American possessions ; and that so
gi'eat was the exportation of goods from Holland to Spain, that all the merchandise brought
from the Spanish West Indies was not sufficient to make returns for them.
"At this period, indeed, the Dutch engrossed, not by means of any artificial monopoly, but
by the greater number of their ships, antl their superiqr skill and economy in all that regarded
navigation, almost the whole carrying trade of Europe. The value of the goods exported
from France in Dutch bottoms, towards the middle of the seventeenth century, exceeded
40,000,000 livTes ; and the commerce of England with the Low Countries was, for a very
long period, almost entirely carried on in them.
" The -business of marine insurance was largely and successfully prosecuted at Amster
dam ; and the ordinances published in 1.551, 1563, and 1570, contain the most judicious regu
lations for the settlement of such disputes as might arise in conducting this difficult but
highly usefiil business. It is singular, however, notwithstanding the sagacity of the Dutch,
and their desire to strengthen industrious habits, that they should have prohibited insurance
upon lives. It was reserved for England to show the advantages that might be derived from
this beautifiil application of the science of probabilities.
" In 1690, Sir William Petty estimated the shipping of Europe at about 2,000,000 tons,
which he supposed to be distributed as follows : — viz. England, 500,000 ; France, 100,000 ;
Hamburg, Denmark, Sweden, and Dantzic, 250,000; Spain, Portugal, and Italy, 250,000;
that of the Seven United Provinces amounting, according to him, to 900,000 tons, or to nearly
one half of the whole tonnage of Europe ! No great dependence can, of course, be placed
upon these estimates; but the probability is, that, had they been more accurate, the
preponderance in favour of Holland would have been greater than it appears to be; for
the official returns to the circulars addressed in 1701 by the commissioners of customs

500 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III.
to the officers at the different ports, show that the whole mercantile navy of England
amounted at that period to only 261,222 tons, carrying 27,196 men. {Macpherson's An
nals of Commerce, anno 1701.)
" It may, therefore, be fairly concluded, that, during the seventeenth century the foreign
commerce and navigation of Holland was greater than that of all Europe besides ; and yet
the country which was the seat of this vast commerce had no native produce to export, nor
even a piece of timber fit for ship-building. All had been the fruit of industry, economy,
and a fortunate combination of circumstances.
"Holland owed this vast commerce to a variety of causes: partly to her peculiar situa
tion, the industry and economy of her inhabitants, the comparatively liberal and enlightened
system of civil as well as of commercial policy adopted by the republic; and partly also to
the wars and disturbances that prevailed in most European countries in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries, and prevented them from emulating the successful career of the
Dutch. " Many dissertations have been written to account for the decline of the commerce of
Holland. But, if we mistake not, its leading causes may be classed under two prominent
heads, viz. first, the natural growth of commerce and navigation in other countries ; and
second, the weight of taxation at home. During the period when the republic rose to great
eminence as a commercial state, England, Prance, and Spain, distracted by civil and reli
gious dissensions, or engrossed wholly by schemes of foreign conquest, were unable to apply
their energies to the cultivation of commerce, or to withstand the competition of so indus
trious a people as the Dutch. They, therefore, were under the necessity of allowing the
greater part of their foreign, and even of their coasting trade, to be carried on in Dutch
bottoms, and under the superintendence of Dutch factors. But after the accession of Louis
XIV. and the ascendency of Cromwell had put an end to internal commotions in Prance and
England, the energies of these two great nations began to be directed to pursuits of which
the Dutch had hitherto enjoyed almost a monopoly. It was not to be supposed that, when
tranquillity and a regular system of govemment had been established in Prance and Eng
land, their active and enterprising inhabitants would submit to see one of their most valu
able branches of industry in the hands of foreigners. The Dutch ceased to be the carriers
of Europe, without any fault of their own. Their performance of that fiinction necessarily
terminated as soon as other nations became possessed of a mercantile marine, and were able
to do for themselves what had previously been done for them hy their neighbours.
" Whatever, therefore, might have been the condition of Holland in other respects, the
natural advance of rival nations must inevitably have stripped her of a large portion of the
commerce she once possessed. But the progress of decline seems to have been considerably
accelerated, or rather, perhaps, the efforts to arrest it were rendered ineffectual, by the
extremely heavy taxation to which she was subjected, occasioned by the unavoidable expenses
incurred in the revolutionary struggle with Spain, and the subsequent wars with Prance
and England. The necessities of the state led to the imposition of taxes on corn, on flour
when it was ground at the mill, and on bread when it came from the oven ; on butter, and
fish, and fruit ; on income and legacies ; the sale of houses ; and, in short, almost every
article either of necessity or convenience. Sir William Temple mentions that in his time
— and taxes were greatly increased afterwards — one fish sauce was in common use, which
directly paid no fewer than thirty different duties of excise ; and it was a common saying at
Amsterdam, that every dish of fish brought to the table was paid for once to the fisherman,
and six times to the state.
" In consequence principally of the oppressiveness of taxation, but partly, too, of the
excessive accumulation of capital that had taken place while the Dutch engrossed the carry
ing trade of Europe, profits in Holland were reduced towards the middle of the seventeenth
century, and have ever since continued extremely low. This circumstance would of itself
have sapped the foundations of her commercial greatness. Her capitalists, who could hardly
expect to clear more than two or three per cent, of net profit by any sort of undertaking
carried on at home, were tempted to vest their capital in other countries, and to speculate
in loans to foreign governments. There are the best reasons for tlimking that the Dutch
were, until very lately, the largest creditors of any nation in Europe. It is impossible,
indeed, to form any accurate estimate of what the sums owing them by foreigners previously
to the late French war, or at present, may amount to ; but tliere can be no doubt that at the
former period the amount was immense, and that it is still very considerable. M. Demeunier
{Dictionnaire de rEcommiie Politique, tome iii. p. 720.) states the amount of capital lent
by the Dutch to foreign governments, exclusive of the large sums lent to France during the
American war, at seventy-three millions sterling. According to the author of the Richesse
de la Hollande (ii. p. 292.), the sums lent to Prance and England only, previously to 1778,
amounted to 1,500,000 livres tournois, or sixty miUions sterling. And besides these, vast
sums were lent to privato individuals in foreign counti'ies, both regularly as loans at interest,
and in the shape of goods advanced at long credits. So great was the difficulty of finding
an advantageous investment for money in Holland, that Sir William Temple mentions, that

Book I. HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 501
the payment of any part of the national debt was looked upon by the creditors as an evil of
the first magnitude. ' They receive it,' says he, ' with tears, not knowing how to dispose of
it to interest with such safety and ease.'
" Among the subordinate causes which contributed to the decline of Dutch commerce, or
which have, at all events, prevented its growtli, we may reckon the circumstance of the
commerce witli India having been subjected to the trammels of monopoly. De Witt
expresses his firm conviction, that the abolition of the East India Company would have
added very greatly to the trade with the East ; and no doubt can now remain in the mind
of any one that such would have been the case. The interference of the administration in
regulating the mode in whicli some of the most important branches of industry should be
carried on, seems also to have been exceedingly injurious. Every proceeding with respect
to the herring fishery, for example, was regulated by the orders of government, carried into
effect under the inspection of officers appointed for that purpose. Some of these regulations
were exceedingly vexatious. The period when the fishery might begin was fixed at five
minutes past twelve o'clock of the night of the 24th of June ! and the master and pilot of
every vessel leaving Holland for the fishery were obliged to make oath that they would
respect the regulation. The species of salt to be made use of in curing different sorts of
herrings was also fixed by law ; and there were endless regulations with respect to the size
of the barrels, the number and thicloiess of the staves of which they were to be made ;
the gutting and packing of the herring ; the branding of the barrels, &c. &c. (Histoire des
Peches, <SfC. dans les Mers du Nord, tom. i. chap. 24.) These regulations were intended
to secure to the Hollanders that superiority which they had early attained in the fishery, and
to prevent the reputation of their herrings from being injured by the bad faith of individuals.
But their real effect was precisely the reverse of this. By tying up the fishers to a system
of routine, they prevented them from making any improvements ; while the facility of coun
terfeiting the public marks opened a much wider door to fraud, than would have been opened
had government wisely declined interfering in the matter.
" In despite, however, of the East India monopoly, and the regulations now described, the
commercial policy of Holland has been more liberal than that of any other nation. And in
consequence, a country not more extensive than Wales, and naturally not more fertile, con
quered indeed, in a. great measure from the sea, has accumulated a population of upwards
of two millions ; has maintained wars of unexampled duration with the most powerful mon
archies ; and, besides laying out immense sums in works of utility and ornament at home,
has been enabled to lend hundreds of millions to foreigners."
The French revolution produced a movement so great, and with which Holland was in
such close contact, that it acted powerfully upon her political destinies. The revolutionary
armies, after having defeated those of all the allied powers on the plains of Belgium, advanc
ed into Holland ; where, meeting with support from a powerful internal party, they had no
difficulty in subverting the dynasty of the house of Orange. In its stead was formed the
Batavian republic, virtually united to, and ruled by, the republican govemment of Prance.
A vigorous attempt, made in 1799, by Britain and Russia, to re-establish the old order of
things, was baffled ; and no sooner had Napoleon been made emperor of Prance, than he
bestowed Holland, formed into a kingdom, on his brother Louis. This prince, of a mild
and amiable temper, was disposed to promote the welfare of the Dutch ; but he was allowed
only to act as viceroy to his brother, and was obliged to assist in forwarding those measures
by which Napoleon, in the vain hope of ruining Britain, endeavoured hermetically to seal all
the ports of the Continent against foreign commerce. This system was most distressing to
all countries subjected to it ; but to Holland it was peculiarly ruinous : that maritime com
merce on which her whole greatness had rested, received a blow from which, perhaps, it will
never recover.
The kingdom of the Netherlands grew out of the measures adopted by that great coalition
which, after a long series of triumphs, totally overthrow the colossal fabric that had been
raised by the genius of Napoleon and the bravery of the French. After its fall, Austria
might have advanced a claim to the Netherlands, so long a portion of her extended dominion.
Being, however, so remote, and so much detached from her other territories, it was likely
to prove a dependency inconvenient and difficult to defend. She therefore consented to
accept indemnification in another quarter, and to allow Belgium, with Holland, to be formed
into a representative kingdom, under tbe house of Orange ; believing it might serve as a
barrier against any future encroachment of Prance. The kingdom of the Netherlands, thus
formed, was divided into two distinct parts, Holland and Belgium ; but the latter, diflering
in religion, language, and manners, was always discontented at tbis union, and considered
itself as a subject state. Inspired by the example of Prance in 1830, the people rose in
arms, and, after a short but desperate struggle, succeeded, with the ultimate consent of the
great powers, in forming themselves into a separate kingdom, under the name of Belgium.
It comprises the provinces of South Brabant, East and West Flanders, Antwerp, Hainault,
Namur, Liege, the greater part of Limburg, and a small part of Luxemburg. Holland,

502

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY

Part UL

besides the ten United Provinces, has nearly all Luxemburg, and a email part of Limburg,
containing, however, Maestricht, its largest town.
Sect. IV. — Political Geography.
A limited monarchy was the constitution established for the new kingdom of the Nether
lands, and continued, with some modifications in Belgium, in both the parts into which it has
been separated.
The legislative power in Holland is vested in the States-General ; a popular assembly,
modified, however, somewhat differently from those either of Britain or France. Each pro
vince, as under the ancient Dutch system, has an assembly of its own, which regulates local
affairs, and has even the power of imposing local taxes. It cannot, however, injure com
merce by imposing heavier duties on the produce of other provinces than its own. The
members of these provincial assemblies are chosen by electoral colleges formed in every
great town ; not by public meeting, or open election ; but by the police officers going from
house to house, and collecting billets signed and sealed. The members of the second
chamber of the States-General are chosen for three years, one-third of the number being
annually renewed. The upper chamber does not consist of hereditary nobles, but of a
council of from forty to sixty, named by the king for life. [The Belgian chambers are both
elective ; the Senate or upper house being chosen for the term of eight, and the Represent
ative chamber for that of four years. — Am. Ed.]
The revenue of the kingdom of the Netherlands amounted to about $35,000,000, raised
by the usual expedients of land-tax, excise, customs, stamps, post-office, and by a tax on
patents. These are required to be taken out by all persons exercising trades or professions ;
and partake of the character of an income tax, inasmuch as their magnitude is determined
by the extent of the sales made by the parties during the preceding year.

Produce of the prmcipal branches of the Revenue of the Netherlands.
in Florins.

Principal branches of the ExpendituTB of the Netherlands.
In Florins.

Direct Taxes ---.--.--¦
Snmps, Registration, &c. - - ¦
Import and Export ---.--
Duties and Excise --.----.
Warranty on Gold and Silver •
Posts 
Lottery of the Netherlands - - ¦
Lottery cf BrusseLi 
High lloads ..-.--..-..

22,127,999 131,786
1,066,308 448,952
1,475,0471,546,080

31,121,666 188,903
1,984,476 584,448
1,029,567
1,108,823

King's Household - - . . .
Great Offices of State - - ¦
Foreign AHairs - - - . .
Justice ---.---.--.
Interior and Waterstaat* .

EducationFinancesNavy - •
Army - -

Arts, Commerce, and Colonies -

2,600,000 1,468,635 937.833
3.394.SII
7,245,910 1,264,2611JJ25,I76
3,i*l,736
23.314,342 6,554.531
27,128j74

2,100,000 1,065,430

2,191,0496,159,249 1,327,3111,631,413 73,019r
38,707,562 6,582,642
18,444,535

The total average annual produce of the revenue, during this period, was 88,044,152
florins. The article flnances means chiefly the interest of the public debt. This amoimted, in
1826, to upwards of four per cent, on a capital of 832,334,500 florins. The debt was
almost wholly contracted by the Dutch, principally during their protracted and glorious
struggle for independence, and partly during the period that Holland was connected with
France. The total annual average expenditure, during the above-mentioned years, vras 98,106,820
florins. [It has been settled that Holland should assume six-thirteenths of the Netherlandish debt,
and Belgium the remaining seven ; but the latter has not hitherto paid any part of the
interest. The expenditure of the Dutch kingdom in 1833 was 49,385,849 florins, exclusive
of 44,000,000 for extraordinaries on account of the war establishments. The former sum
includes the interest on the whole debt, amounting to 21,621,484 florins.
The expenditure of Belgium was 73,000,000 francs, comprising no charges on the debt;
but nearly three-fifths of this sum was absorbed by the military, which it has been necessary
to keep on the war establishment. — Am. Ed.]
The military force of the kingdom of the Netherlands was in a somewhat large propor
tion to its resources. This was supposed to be rendered necessary by tlie proximity of so
great a power as France, whose attack, or at least whose dictation, there might be room to
apprehend. The array, before the late changes, amounted to about 62,000 men. The
Belgic provinces, having been long the principal theatre of hostility between France and
Austria, were guarded by a line of strong fortresses. These had been allowed to fall some
what into decay ; but the allies, having brought their contest with France to a triumphant
conclusion, determined to strengthen them as a barrier against the future encroachments of
that power ; and the large contributions levied upon her were, in a great measure, employed
in restoring the fortresses to their original condition. Several" of these, however, by
an agreement made between tlii^ French and English governments, have been recently
dismantled. Both powers have kept up large forces smce the revolution ; but will soon re-

* The expenses of canala, dfkes, anti navigation in general.
t The charges for education are now included under the head of " interior."

Book 1.

HOLLAND AND BELGIUM.

503

duce them to a regular peace establishment, of which it is impossible at present to give any
account. In naval affeirs, Holland, no longer the maritime rival but the close ally of Britain, made
only faint attempts to raise her navy from the low state to which it was reduced by the
disasters of the revolutionary war.
[It consists, at present, of six ships of the line, sixteen large class and seven small class
frigates, thirty corvettes and brigs, four steam vessels, and about eighty armed barks, of five
guns, for the defence of the__interior waters. — Am. Ed.]
The foreign possessions of Holland, after being entirely wrested fi-om her during the war,
were, with the exception of Ceylon, the Cape of Good Hope, Demerara, and Berbice, restored
in 1814. In the Bast Indies, she possesses the Moluccas, the extensive and fertile island of
Java, witli settlements on Sumatra, Celebes, and Borneo ; and some factories on the coast
of Malabar and Coromandel. In Africa, she retains El Mina, and other factories on the Gold
Coast. Her West India colonies are not, and never were, very considerable, unless as com
mercial depots. Both the navy and the colonial possessions, in the separation of the two
kingdoms, remain with Holland. Sect. V. — Productive Industry.
There is no country, perhaps, which in proportion to its extent and original resources,
produces so great an amount of valuable and useful commodities as Holland and Belgium.
The agriculture of the Belgic provinces, though, contrary to the usual course, it was founded
upon their manufactures and commerce, being exempted from the vicissitudes which befell
them, continues to form the most ample source of wealth. The whole territory of Flanders
is cultivated like a garden. A great proportion consisted originally of harsh, barren sands,
producing nothing but heath and fir ; yet by the application of manure these were gradually
reclaimed, and brought into their present state of high fertility. The culture of artificial
grasses, and especially of clover, is the characteristic process of Flemish husbandry, which
it has taught to the rest of Europe. The care of the Flemish farmers in collecting manure
was early conspicuous, and as naturally grew out of the use of artificial grasses, and conse
quent stall-feeding. The use of liquid manure, collected in large reservoirs, is common to
this country with China, and not known in any other part of Europe, except, perhaps,
Norway. Turf ashes, especially those imported from Holland, are in high estimation,
and are said to produce an almost magical effect on the vegetation of clover. In general,
the Flemish agriculture is conducted on a careful, economical, antique practice ; the farmers
not having adopted many modern improvements in the arrangements of husbandry, such aa
the crossing of the breeds of cattle, and the use of machinery, which have been adopted in
England with such happy effect. But this system of agriculture, after supplying the most
dense population in Europe with the standard productions of the soil, yields several articles,
such as madder, rape, clover, and mustard-seeds, hops, &c., for exportation.
The objects of culture in the Dutch provinces, in consequence of their humid climate,
and of the demand for animal food for the great cities, are almost entirely connected with
pasturage. Holland is as it were one great m.eadow, intersected by canals, and traversed
by rows and groups of trees. The cattle are stalled in the winter, and fed on hay, turnips,
&c. ; but in summer they are kept constantly grazing in the open air. The produce
of the dairy has been brought to such a state of improvement as to be an object of export
ation ; Dutch butter enjoys a high reputation, and the cheese is in good repute over all Europe.
Horticulture, which elsewhere is only a recreation, has in the Netherlands attained such
importance, as to become a national object. Besides amply supplying its own markets with
culinary vegetables, Holland exports them in large quantities to Norway, and other districts,
where the growth is prevented by the rigorous climate. Ornapiental gardening has been
cultivated with peculiar ardour, especially in its floral department. When the tulipo-mania
reigned in Holland, it was carried to such an excess, that lots of 120 tulip-roots sold, in 1637,
for 100,000 florins ; and particular specimens have brought from 8,000 to 10,000. In point
of fact, however, these roots formed a kind of imaginary currency, or medium for a sys
tematised species of gambling. They were never actually transferred from one individual
to another ; but were a sort of stock whose whole value was derived from caprice. The
government at length put down this species of gambling, and the prices of tulips fell to their
natural level. — Carefiil enquiries carried on by the government of the Netherlands are con
sidered as having proved that the agricultural capital of the whole country amounted to
10,395,000,000 francs. The following estimate was made of the growth and produce : —

Hectares. Value in Francs.
Wheat  350,000  154,000,000
Kye  700,000  168,000,000
Buckwheat  200,000  32,000,000
Barley  280,000  84,000,000
Pulse  110,000  48.000000
Potatoes   131,000  41,000,000
Oats  300,000  : 84,000,000

Hectares. Value in Francs.
Orchards  54,000  3,000,000
Vegetables  92,000  55,000,000
Hemp and flax  210,000  126,000,000
Madfier  30,000  21,000,000
Cattle and animals   150,000,000

966,000,000

504

DESCRIPTF^ GEOGRAPHY

Part IH,

Manufacturmg industry is the branch in which the Belgic provinces formerly most
excelled, and in which their decay has been most conspicuous. Three centuries ago, the
linens and woollens of Ghent, Louvain, Brussels, and Mechlin, clothed the higher ranks in
all the surrounding countries. Since that time, the fabrics of Prance and England, have
attained such an astonishing superiority, and are at once so cheap, and so well adapted to
the taste of the age, that the Low Country manufacturers can with difliculty maintain their
ground even in internal consumption. In cottons, especially, they are quite unable to with
stand British competition. There are still, however, some fine linen fabrics, laces, lawns,
cambrics, in which the manufacturers of Mechlin, Brussels, &c. continue unrivalled, anti
which, though so much superseded by muslin and Nottingham lace, still enjoy a certain
demand throughout Europe. The fine laces have been sold for seventy or eighty Napoleons
a yard. The Flemish breweries are also very extensive.
The manufacturing industry of Holland is not on so great a scale as her commerce. The
pottery ware of Delft has lost most of its ancient reputation, and even in Holland is super
seded by the earthenware of England. The spirit called gin, geneva, or hoUands, is pro
duced at Schiedam, Amsterdam, and other towns, of an excellence which is universally
acknowledged. The refining of sugar, and the manufacture of snuff, are continued on a
great scale, chiefly in Amsterdam and Rotterdam, and the making of tobacco-pipes at Gouda
is said to employ 5000 persons. Silk, leather, and woollens, are still manufactured, though
not to such an extent as formerly, nor much with a view to exportation. The general value
of Dutch and Belgian manufactures has been estimated as follows : — Iron, 46,000,000 francs ;
copper, 5,000,000; woollens, 80,000,000; luiens, 95,000,000; lace, 25,000,000; cottons.
50,000,000; refined sugar, 14,000,000; salt, 10,000,000; spirits, 40,000,000; beer, 110,000,000
tobacco, 28,000,000 ; oil, 30,000,000 ; soap, 10,000,000 ; leather, 28,000,000 ; earthenware
4,000,000 ; bricks, 6,000,000 ; books, 15,000,000 ; bleachmg, 10,000,000 ; dyeing, 10,000,000
paper, 8,000,000 : in all, 675,000,000 francs.
The commerce of the Netherlands has declined, both absolutely and relatively, but in a
less remarkable degree. The causes have appeared in the historical survey. The total sus
pension of all maritime intercourse with other countries during the subjection of Holland to
Prance, and the conquest of the Dutch colonies by England, rendered it necessary, as it
were, to begin every thing afresh at the restoration of peace in 1815. But the large capi
tals in the hands of the Dutch merchants, their commodious situation in the centre of the
most improved states of Europe, the recovery of some of the most valuable of their foreign
possessions, and the considerable surplus of native commodities which their country affords
for exportation, secured for them, as soon as the ports were open, a considerable trade. Since
the peace, it has been continually increasing ; and, previously to the late revolution, was
more equally distributed than before among the Belgic as well as the Dutch ports. HoUand
exports, of its own produce, butter, cheese, geneva, tobaccopipes ; of the produce of its
fishery, herrings, stockfish, whalebone, whale oil ; from its foreign possessions, coffee, sugar,
rum, cotton wool, cloves, nutmegs, mace, pepper; with linens, wool, and various articles
from Germany and the Baltic. Belgium exports madder, vegetable oils, lace, lawn, and fine
linen. There are no official returns of imports and exports published ; but a very able writer in
the Foreign Quarterly Review, to whose researches we have been much indebted, has
given from original sources the following account of the importation of tlie principal articles
of merchandise into the Netherland ports during the year 1827 : —

Coffee, bales 
Ditto, tons 
Stig-ar, chests 
Ditto, mats 
Ditto, .tons 
Tobacco of America, tons.
Rice, bales 
"Ditto, tons 
Cotton, bales 
Indigo, chests 
Ditto, seroons 
Tea, quarter chests 
Skins, pieces 
Pepper, bales 
Vl^heat, lasts 
Rye, ditto 
Barley, ditto 
Potash of Russia, puds*. ..
I.inseedOil ofdo. do 
Tallow of ditto do 
Hemp of ditto do....

Amsterdam.

lll,^^ 2,603
12,160 2,927
18,653
15,205 1,980
8,412
12,092 OS
128
15,124 9,271 31
12,494 7,835 878
50,583 1,246
9,410
19,110

97,397 1,079
7,5088,145 3,8-29
13,03413,892 5,301
19,907 476 88
9,iH7
34,501 5,247 1,602
5,130 1,412
24,791 835
4,555

Antwerp. Middleburg

376,102 3,539
56,3.">6
50.9.39 4,023 1,331
16,35914,93522.856 1,3.32 611
1,467
215,044 21,847 26 96
106,920 1,191
8,372

2,678 117

79
2,609

152
4,200

* A Russian weight of 36 lbs.

Book 1, HOLLAND AND BELGIUM, 505
The herring fishery, which once formed so ample a source of Dutch wealth, (though in
this respect its importance htis been greatly exaggerated,) was almost annihilated during the
war ; and the ground having since been occupied by neighbours and rivals, Holland has been
able to recover only a small portion. Instead of 1500 herring busses, in 1818 she sent out
only 200. Not more than sixty ships go annually to the whale* and cod fisheries; and,
during the late war, the English undertook the task of supplying their own markets with
fresh fish ; in which busmess, however, the Dutch stUl employ about 6000 boats.
For other commercial particulars, M. de Cloet states, that on an average of twenty years,
between 1775 and 1795, the number of vessels entered inwards in all the Dutch ports was
4140, and outwards the same ; making a total of 8280 a year. The entries inwards, in
1822, for Amsterdam, Rotterdam, and Antwerp, were 4051 ; which, adding 500 for Har
lingen and Dort, becomes 4551. The number outwards for the same three ports was 4045,
which we may, with a similar addition, call 4545 ; making a total of 9096 ships. In 1827,
the number entered inwards was 5203, outwards 4548, making 9751 altogether. Taking
the average number, however, at 10,000 (instead of 9751), so as to cover the triffing trade
of Ostend and Nieuport, and valuing each cargo, with M. de Cloet, at 40,000 francs, a sum
moderate enough, the amount of the trade by sea will be 400,000,000 francs. The trade by
land with France and Germany, which, hi 1814, was estimated at 152,000,000 francs, may
now be taken at 160,000,000 ; so that, if the calculations be at all correct, the annual value
of the foreign commerce of the Netherlands is altogether about 560,000,000 francs.
Mines. The south-eastern provinces in the neighbourhood of Mons, Charleroi, and Liege,
are said to contain 350 mines of coal, employing 20,000 men ; but this number, we should
think, must be a good deal exaggerated. Turf is the fuel chiefly used, especially in Hol
land. There are also in the southem district ironworks, supposed by Mr. Jacob to yield
about 1000 tons. Clay suited fM the manufacture of porcelain is found in Holland, and
there are stone quarries in the south.
Canals form one of the most remarkable features in the economical arrangements of Hol
land, and a leading source of her prosperity. From the structure of the country, these are
formed with peculiar facility, and it is everywhere intersected with them ; every town,
every village, being connected by canals of greater or less dimensions. They run through
the streets of the cities, enabling vessels to Toad and unload under the eye of the merchant.
When frozen, they serve as highways, on which the Dutch females, heavily laden, convey
themselves along on skates with surprising rapidity. In general, from the flatness of the
country, and the abundance of water, canals may be made without much exertion of art or
skill. There is an exception, however, in the canal of Pannerden, constructed with the
view of draining off' the superfluous water of the Rhine, by which a great extent of ground
was converted into a marsh. It is two miles long, and 200 feet below the level of the sea,
the waters being received into three different sets of sluicJes. It is considered a master
piece, and completely answered its object. Another, on a most magnificent scale, connect
ing Amsterdam with the Heider, was commenced in 1819, and finished in 1825, at an
expense of 10,000,000 florins. It is 50 miles long, 125 feet wide at the surface, 36 feet
wide at the bottom, and 21 feet deep. It is calculated to admit ships of war of 46 guns, and
merchantmen of 1000 tons burden. It was constructed to avoid the troublesome navigation
to and from Amsterdam through the Zuyder Zee, and the necessity of lightening large ves
sels before crossing the Pampus.
The canals in Belgium are spacious and commodious, connecting all the great cities,
though not nearly in equal number, nor uniting every village, as in Holland.
Sect. VI. — Civil and Social State.
The population of the kingdom of the Netherlands, though not comparable, as to absolute
amount, with that of any of the great states, is superior to them all in one highly important
particular, that the country contains a greater density of population on the same surface
than any other in Europe, or perhaps in the world. This, in the Belgic provinces at least,
is the more remarkable, as they are inhabited, not by a manufacturing population, drawing
subsistence from agricultural countries, but by a population subsisting exclusively on the
produce of the land itself The census of 1816 gave a total population of 5,491,945 :
2,476,159 for the northem provinces ; 3,249,841 for those of Belgium ; and 225,945 for the
duchy of Luxemburg. This gives an aggregate average density of about 212 to the square
mUe ; but the rate rises much higher in certain provinces. Throughout Belgium the pro
portion is 296 to the square mile ; in the province of East Flanders, however, it is as high
as 560. In the United Netherlands the average density is only 180 per square mile ; and in
Luxemburg, which has much of a German character, it is as low as 66. The census of
1825 gives a population of 6,013,-578 ; and some further augmentation has taken place since.f
* fin 1827, only one ship sailed to the whale-fishery from Holland, which in 1680 had out 260 shios mannpd h„
14,000 sailors, engaged in that branch of industry,— Am. Ed.J '^ manned By
trrhe population of the two kingdoms in 1833, was 6,536,000, of which 3,791,000 belonged to Beliriiim »t.,i
2,745,000 to Holland.— Am. Ed.J • ^ neigium, ana
Vol. L 43 3 O

.506

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Paht IU.

The following details with respect to the population of the Netherlands are extracted from
the publications of M. Quetclet, one of the ablest stafjistical writers of the Continent : —

Table of the Movement of the Population in

Holland and Belgiu

mfor Ten Years.

ProviD(»i

FopulatioD.

Birllu.

Death,.

Marriages.

rivorcw.

ISIS.

1826.

Zealand 

111,108264,097294,087 375,257
388,505 107,947 176,554147,229135,642 46,459
287,613 358,185 164,400
213,597488,595 441,649615,689
516,324291,565

129,329
284,363 326,617393,916
438,202 117,405
202,530 160,937156,045 53,368
321,246331,101 189,393
292,610546,190495,455 687,267
563,826 323,678

55,33190,862
100,863 145,744165,741 41,038 65,565 51,951
51,673 16,723
101,781113,623 58,690 92,242
183,198 169,181
218,830 191,139101,471

42,436 59,818
69,507
121.725143,850 29,928 38,219 37,47930,539 9,858
70,54982,698 34,13458,695
118,289 119,109
162,834141,310 70,623

10,64519,337
20,380 34,789
34,942 8,982
15,32711,62911,492 3,954
22,960 24,387 12,69218,74039,.69136,423
43,120 37,882
23,075

2713 1
209 148 30
46 13 37 35
24 8 1
27 5
06 2

Guelderland 

North Brabant 

North Holland 

South Holland 

Utrecht 

Namur 
Luxemburg 
Hainault 
South Brabant 
East Flanders 
West Flanders 
Antwerp 
5,424,502
6,013,478
2,015,646
1,421,600
430,247
605
The births and marriages in the Netherlands are proportionally more numerous, while the
deaths are about equal to those of Prance, and exceed those of Great Britain in the ratio
of three to two. I'he account stands thus : —
Netherlandb France. Great Britain,
100 births to 2,807 inhabitants  3,168  3,534
100 deaths  3,981  4,000  5,7S0
100 marriages  13,150  13,490  13,333
There has been a very material increase in the healthiness of the people of the Nether
lands, and particularly of Holland, during the last thirty or forty years.
The provision for the support of the poor of the Netherlands is pretty ample, and it is
applied with great economy and skill ; forming, indeed, an important branch of the public
administration. The following table, compiled from authentic sources, by M. Quetelet,
cannot fail of being interesting : —
Charitable Institutions of the Netherlands
Nature of IiBtihitioa
Number of
ItutihitioDB.
Individuals relieved.
Eipenses
of Reljet
Eipense for
eachlDdlTidnal.
Administrations for relieving the Poor at home
Commissions for distributing Food, &c 
5,129 36 4
724 1
1
285 34 8
2
4
745,652 22,056 1,448
41,172 2,277 166
147,296 6,169
2,698
8,563 239
Florins.
5,448,740 82,424 13,493
4,091,157 110,942 23,290
247,176
406,704229,587
363,629 41,994
Florins. 7.31
3.739.32
99.37
48.73
149.30 1.67
65.9288.37
41.33
175.70
Societies of Beneficence for the Colonies.. ..
Establishments for the Deaf and Dumb 
Totals 
6,228 124 50
977,616
11,049.036 4.208,068 2,771,608
Average 11.30
Averagel53.93
Savings Banks 
18,035
The national character of the Dutch has been long moulded into the form natural to a
highly commercial people ; solid, steady, quiet, laborious, eagerly intent on the accumulation of
wealth, which they seek rather by economy, steadiness, and perseverance, than by speculation.
They carry the virtue of cleanliness to an extreme. Outward decorum of manners, at least,
is better observed than among the neighbouring continental nations. Yet the spiel houses
in the great towns, where the most respectable citizens used to mingle witli persons entirely
destitute of character, presented in this respect a strange anomaly. But at present these
can hardly be said to exist; and are frequented only by tlie very dregs of tlie populace. A
traveller in Holland will rarely meet with a drunken person ; or witli a man, woman, or
child, in rags. Every class of people seems comfortable, tlie result of their great frugality
and unwearied industry. Were a young sturdy beggar discovered teasmg passengers for
* In West Flanders, for the daughters of soldiers Invalided or kilkd in servire
Book I. HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 507
alms, he would instantly be sent to the workhouse; where, if he refused to perform his allot
ted task, he would be compelled to save himself from drowning by working at the pump !
Holland is, and always has been, a country of short credit. Bankruptcy is rare. Notwith
standing the invasion of the French m 1795, and the consequent interruption to all sorts of
business, the bankruptcies were not comparatively so numerous as in England in ordinary
years. The Belgic provinces, long subjected to a foreign yoke, and in constant intercourse
with foreigners, seem to have lost in a great measure tjie original Flemish character, and to
present no very distinctive features.
It is not very easy, from the differences of their judicial organization, to compare the state
of crime in different countries. In this respect, however, the Netherlands vi'ould have
nothing to fear from a comparison with France and England. In Holland, the police is ex
cellent, and robberies very rare.
The prevailing religion of Holland is Calvinism, while that of Belgium is almost exclu
sively Catholic ; a difference which contributed not a little to that rooted dislike entertained
by the inhabitants of the latter to those of the former. The Dutch have the honour of
being the first people who established a system of unrestrained toleration. Even popery,
notwithstanding the grounds which the nation had to dread and hate it, was allowed to be
professed with the utmost freedom. The govemment allows salaries, of a greater or less
amount, to the clergy of every persuasion, only making those of the Presbyterian ministers
higher than the others. The latter retain, besides, the old parish churches, and the exclusive
privilege of using bells. They amount to about 1600, and are all paid and appointed by
government, which, however, respects the wishes of the leading parishioners. Their salaries
are very moderate ; 3000 florins in the great cities ; 800 to 1000, with house and glebe, in
the country. They are divided into moderate and high Calvinistic parties ; the former, which
are said to be the most numerous, having the command of the university of Utrecht, while
that of Leyden is attached to the opposite interest. There are about 300 or 400 Catholic
congregations, in general very small. The Armenians or Remonstrants, who originated in
Holland, have only about forty or fifty ministers ; but their tenets are preached in many of
the presbyterian churches. The Anabaptists, called here Mennonists, have about 100 con
gregations, composed of many opulent and respectable members. The Lutherans have fifi;y
or sixty churches ; and the French Protestants about thirty. [By the budget of 1833,
1,330,000 florins were voted for the support of the Protestant worship, and 400,000 for the
Catholic. — Am. Ed.]
In Belgium, the Catholic clergy have shown a very rooted spirit of intolerance, with the
bishop of Ghent at their head, and vehemently objected to the indulgent treatment of the
other sects. The bishop was imprisoned for two years by Napoleon, on account of his
obstinacy in this particular. The great possessions of the church, however, have been for
feited, and the clergy receive very moderate salaries from government. The monasteries
have been rooted out, and generally also the nunneries, though that of Ghent still retains
all its pomp. [There is an archbishop of Mechlin with a salary of 21,000 francs, and the
five bishops have each 14,700 francs a year. These, with 64 vicars general and canons,
246 curates, and 4,288 inferior officers, form the body of the Catholic clergy. There are
only about 5000 Protestants in Belgium, with 19 ministers, clerks, &c., who are paid by
government. — Am. Ed.]
Learning in the Netherlands no longer boasts such names as Erasmus, Grotius, and Boer-
haave ; but the institutions for its diffusion continue to be very ample. Holland retains its
two famous universities of Leyden and Utrecht. The former, which, under Boerhaave, had
once the reputation of the first medical school in Europe, is still highly respectable. The
professors, who are twenty-one in number, receive salaries of 3000 florins, independent of
fees; and this being a better income than any of the ecclesiastical livings, the university
draws from the church its most learned members. The medical education, however, can
not be completed unless at Amsterdam, which affords the advantage of hospitals and other
accommodations peculiar to a large city. The university of Utrecht is not so considerable
as that of Leyden ; and that of Groningen is still inferior. In 1833, the number of students
was, in Leyden 684 ; in Utrecht 476 ; in Groningen, 284.
The universities of Belgium, of which the most celebrated were Ghent and Louvain, were
partially stripped of their ample endowments, first by Joseph II., and then by the French,
who in their room substituted lyceums, which are now continued nearly on the same footing,
under the name of colleges. Only the languages, and some general branches, are taught ;
education for professional purposes being received in separate appropriate seminaries. Ghent
and Brussels have the highest reputation ; but the salary of professors in the former does not
exceed 1500 francs. The three universities of Louvain, Liege, and Ghent have lately
been restored ; and in 1827 the first was attended by 678 students ; the second by 506 ; and
the third by 404 students. Besides athenseums, which are only colleges on a smaller scale,
Holland has primary schools in every village, by which the benefits of education are com
municated to the lowest ranks. Belgium is at present very deficient in institutions for

508

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Pakt IH.

popular education.* But at an average of the Netherlands, the proportion of children at
school to the entire population, in 1827, was as high as 1 to 9.5 ; a proportion not exceeded
in any European country, with the exception, perhaps, of Prussia.
The fine arts were cultivated with zeal and success in both parts of the Netherlands.
Wealthy merchants liberally patronised the arts of design; and the gentry and landholders
being induced by the constant wars, of which the Low Countries were the theatre, to live
much in towns, acquired more refined tastes than could have been formed in a country resi
dence. Antwerp, during its prosperity, became, in some measure, a Belgic Athens. Yet
the Flemish and Dutch painters never attained that grandeur of design, and that pure and
classic taste, which were formed in Italy, by the study of the antique, and the refined taste
of its nobles. The Flemish school, under its great masters Rubens and Vandyke, displayed,
however, may excellences in a degree not inferior to any other in modern times ; splendour
of colouring, grandeur of composition, and force of expression. The Dutch school has been
eminently successful in a lower sphere. Under Rembrandt and his disciples, subjects of
common life and vulgar humour were treated with a native force, which, being aided by
brilliant effects of light and shade, have rendered this school exceedingly popular, though it
has failed in all attempts at high and heroic delineation. The landscape painters have
seldom employed their pencils upon the grand scenery delineated by Claude and Poussin ;
but Berghem, Cuyp, Ruysdael, Hobbima, Vandevelde, and others, have represented, iu the
most natural and pleasing colours, the pastoral scenery of their country ; its meadows, its
woods, and the banks of its seas and rivers.
Amusement is far from being a primary object with the Dutch. They have most of the
diversions of the neighbouring nations, though they do not follow them with much ardour.
A great portion of their time is passed in smokmg ; the Dutchman having seldom the pipe
out of his mouth. The rivers and canals passing through the streets, afford the opportunity
of fishing from the windovvs. The great Flemish kermes, or fairs, though no longer sub
servient to commerce, exist still as festivals, at which there is a great display of humour
and character, such as we find happily illustrated in the works of the Flemish painters.
There seems nothing peculiar in the Dutch style of cookery. The peasantry both of Holland
and Flanders have their peculiar local costume ; as the huge breeches of the men, and the
short jacket of the females; but the higher classes dress in the French or German style.
Sect. VII. — Local Geography.
The following, according to recent official statements, are the extent and population of
Belgium and Holland, respectively :

BELGIUM.

Provinces.

Extent tn
Hectares.

Population in
Dec. 1827.

Principal Tomu.

South Brabant.
Antwerp 
East Flanders .
West Flanders
Hainault 
Namur 

328,000283,000
282,000 316,000
372,000
347,625288,000460,000

499,728338,294708,705
¦ 575,807567,300 194,845
347.625 328,234

Brussels  72,800 Louvain  18,580
Antwerp  65,000 Mechlin  16,000
Ghent  81,941 St. Nicholas. . . . 10,980
Bruges  36 000 Ostend  10 500 Yores  15 150

Mons  18,400
Namur  15 100 Verviera  10 070 Sna  3 000

LiSge  45,300
Tongres  4,000

Limburg 

2,676,000

3,560,538

HOLLAND.

Holland, South
Holland, North
Zealand 
Utrecht 
North Brabant
Guelderland . ..
Drentlie 
Friesland 
Overyssel 
Groniiieen ....
Limburg, )
part of. .. . 1
Luxemburg. . . .

287,000245,000 158,000
133,000
501,000 509,000320,000
203,000 328,000204,000 uncei
650,000

453,818 391,586 133,932122,213
332.551293,306 50,915
200,332 165,9.16 153,982
tain. 298,655

Amsterdam.. 201,000 Haarlem  18,453 Zaandam  9,016

Middleburg.. 20.800 Flushing  6,380'
Utrecht  34,087 Amersfoort  9.395
Bois le Due . . 13,340 Breda  13,0Q0 Bergen-op-Zoom
Nimeguen... 12,780 Arnheim  10,050
Assen  1,100
Leuwarden . . 18,380
Deventer  9,530
Groningen... 28,851
Maestricht . . . 21,000
Luxemburg . . 10,250

3,654,000
2,670,000

2,606,000 3,500,538

6,330,000

6,166,354

* [Tn 1832 there vi^erc 5,229 primary Bchoola in Belgium, with 370,996 pupils, beside 1,318 in the Athenaums, and
1,788 in the universities. Annual expenau, 743,200 fk-ancs.— Ak. £d.J

Book I.

HOLLAND AND BELGIUM.

509

Subsect. 1. — Belgium.
South Brabant, which nearly coincides with what was formerly the Austrian part of that
large province, forms a rich plain in the heeirt of Belgium, and is the seat of the finest manu
factures carried on in that country.
Brussels (fig. 358.) is the capita] of Belgium. Considered as such, it is small, yet it is
one of the gayest and most elegant cities of Europe. Its situation is fine, in a valley watered
qgg by the Senne and the canal to
Antwerp. The Allee Verte, con
sisting of three rows of trees bor
dering the canal, makes a beauti
fiil approach. The market-place
and the park are the two great
ornaments of Brussels. The former
is of great extent, and surrounded
by the town hall, one of the most
elegant Gothic structures in Eu
rope, adorned with a tower, 348
feet high, and by the old halls of
the different corporations. The park forms an extensive range of pleasure ground, inter
spersed with rows of lofty trees, and pleasing lavnis, ornamented with fountains and statues ;
and it is surrounded by all the most spacious and sumptuous edifices. The church and chapel
of St. Gudule are also distinguished for the elegance of their ornaments. Brussels has an
academy of painting, attended by 400 or 500 students ; and in the palace there is a library
of 12,000 volumes, and a small but valuable collection of paintings. It was on the plains of
Brabant, near the little villages of Quatre Bras, St. Jean, La Belle Alliance, and Waterloo
a few leagues firom Brussels, that the fate of Europe was decided in 1815.
Another ancient and important city is Malines, or Mechlin (now in the province of Ant
werp), still retaining traces of the prosperity derived firom the lace bearing its name, which
is considered the strongest, though not the finest, made in the Netherlands. Another branch
of industry consists in the making of excellent brown beer. The houses are ancient, and
very spacious, often constructed in a curious and grotesque manner, and most nicely white
washed. The tower of the cathedral is highly finished, and rises to the height of 348 feet.
The other churches contain memy of the masterpieces of Rubens and Vandyke. Louvain is
equally fallen fi-om the period when its extensive cloth manufactures and its university, one
of the first ui Europe, gave it a population of 150,000. It is a large ill-built town, whose
bulky walls, seven miles in circumference, are now falling to decay. Its Catholic university,
an attendance on which was once required as a qualification for holding any ofiice under the
Austrian government, perished in the Prench revolution, and was replaced by what could
only be called a lyceum ; but the ancient institution has since been restored. The town hall,
enriched by numerous carved figures, and the collegiate church, whose spire, before its fall,
at the beginning of the seventeenth century, rose to the height of 500 feet, are the chief
ornaments of Louvain.
Antwerp (fig. 359.), formerly the port of Brabant, has now a province, to which it gives
its name. This territory is situated along the Lower Scheldt, and is covered to a great
extent with pleasure-grounds and
359 ^ houses, erected by the rich mer
chants during the period when
Antwerp was in its glory. That
city, down to the close of the fif
teenth century, was almost with
out a rival among the commercial
states of Europe. In the great
struggle which then arose, Ant
werp embraced with ardour the
reformed cause, in support of
which it suffered the most dread
fiil calamities. In 1576 it was
sacked by the Spaniards ; and being afterwards wrested firom them, surrendered on favour
able terms, after being besieged for more than a year, to the Prince of Parma. Subjected
to the bigoted and tyrannic sway of Spain, and oppressed by the active rivalry of Holland, it
lost all its commerce, and presented the mere shadow of its former greatness. Its renewed
prosperity dates firom its occupation by the French. Bonaparte made it one of his grand
naval arsenals, and erected immense works, in the vain hope of creating a fleet which might
rival that of Great Britain. Since the peace, Antwerp, having been placed on an equal
footing with the ports of Holland, has availed itself of the advantages of its situation, and
regained a considerable commerce. Having a ready navigation into the interior, and com-
43*

Antwerp.

510 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paet EL
municating by canals with the priacipal seats of manufacture, it is destined by nature to be
the chief emporium of Belgium. In 1828 there entered its port 955 vessels. Antwerp is
still a noble city, containing numerous stately buildings, both privite and public, which
include some of the finest specimens of Gothic architecture existing. The cathedral, which
occupied 100 years in building, is celebrated over Europe. It is 500 feet long, 230 wide,
.and 360 high. The spire is 466 feet high, of extreme beauty, and fi-om its summit is obtained
a magnificent view of the windings of the Scheldt, with the distant towers of Ghent, Malines,
and Breda. The interior is adorned with the greatest masterpieces of Rubens and Vandyke,
which, after being carried off to Paris, have been again restored. Numerous fine specimens
of the Flemish school are found in the other churches, as well as in private mansions. Ant
werp has always been the centre of Flemish art ; the birth-place of Rubens, Vandyke, Jor-
daens, Teniers, and all its greatest masters. Zealous patronage is still bestowed upon the
art ; an academy is supported, at which 400 or 500 students are almost gratuitously taught ;
annual prizes are given, and crowns placed on the heads of the successful candidates. This
encouragement has called forth some respectable talents, though none, as yet, to rival the
fame of the old masters.
East Flanders is chiefly an inland district, and is the part of Belgium in which culture has
been carried to the highest perfection. It displays an aspect of uniform luxuriant fertility,
resulting altogether from the application of art and capital. Even in journeying along the
road, the traveller finds the wheels of his carriage sinking in the sand, while beyond the
hedge on each side, the soil consists of the richest black mould. The most fertile district is
called the Waes, or St. Nicholas.
Ghent, even in its fallen state, is still one of the noblest of the old cities of Europe. That
vast circuit of walls which, according to the boast of Charles V., could contain all Paris
within them, may still be traced. It is built on twenty-seven islands, most of them bordered
by magnificent quays, and connected by three hundred bridges. The streets, with a few
exceptions, are spacious and handsome, and there are many fine old churches : but tbe great
cathedral does not display the architectural grandeur of that of Antwerp, though the interior
is rich in the extreme, adorned with numerous pillars of white marble. This and the other
churches, as well as the academy, contain numerous paintings by the old Flemish masters.
Ghent, though it can no longer send its 40,000 weavers into the field, is still one of the most
manufacturing cities of Belgium. Prior to the revolution, its staple was sorted lace ; but
since the gi-eat improvements in the cotton manufacture, several large fabrics have been
established at Ghent. The society is good, this being a favourite residence of the old
Flemish nobles, and now frequented by a considerable number of English families.
The other towns in East Flanders are Dendermonde, a small but strong place, which has
stood repeated sieges ; Alost, on the eastem fi-ontier ; St. Nicholas and Tokerem, two large
villages, of more than 11,000 inhabitants each, in tlie centre of the AVaes, flourishing by
means of corn-markets and of some considerable manufactures. Sas-van-Ghent is the centre
of the sluices on the canal to the Scheldt, by which the whole country can be laid under
water. Hulst is a strongly fortified little town.
West Flanders is a continuation of the same richly cultivated plain which has now been
described ; yet, being partly mixed with sand and marsh, and ,exposed to the blighting influ
ence of fogs and sea breezes, it does not display altogether the luxuriant aspect of the Pays
de Waes. It has no place comparable to Ghent, yet it comprises an extraordinary number
of ancient cities, which still retain a portion of their former prosperity.
Bruges, formerly the residence of the counts of Flanders, and one of the factories of the
Hanseatic league, was the greatest commercial city in the Low Countries, and perhaps in
the north of Europe, till it was first surpassed by Antwerp, and then, from the same causes,
shared its fall. Its situation in the midst of so fertile a country, and its communications by
spacious canals with the sea and with the interior, still secure to it a considerable trade.
Bruges has the character of an old town, the streets being narrow, and the houses lofty.
The town hall is its most conspicuous edifice, and it is adorned also with many noble churches,
containing some of the finest works of the great Flemish painters. The uivention of paint
ing in oil has been ascribed to this city.
Ostend is an ancient town, early celebrated for its fortifications. The siege by Spinola,
which began in 1601, and lasted two years, was one of the most memorable in modern his
tory ; and upon its issue the destiny of the Low Countries was considered to depend. But
though it ultimately fell, the exhaustion of the Spanish army, and tlie time which had been
afforded to Holland for collecting her energies, prevented its capture from having tlie ruinous
effects anticipated. Under Austrian sway, Ostend, which has one of the few good harbours
in Flanders, became the chief theatre of the limited trade of the Belgic provinces. Napo
leon restored its fortifications, which were still fiirther strengthened by tlie allies. It has
not now above a third of its former population, but still carries on a brisk intercourse with
England, and has almost the appearance of an English town. In 1828, 574 vessels entered
its port.
Other large fortified places, celebrated ui the military annals of Europe, are found in West

Book I. HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 511
Flanders. Courtray, Ypres, and Menin have the usual character of Flemish towns. They
are large, rather well built, witli handsome churches and town halls ; fallen from their
ancient prosperity, yet retaining considerable manufactures of linen and beer ; and having, in
the long course of the Low Country wars, been repeatedly taken and retaken. Courtray is
noted for the very fine fiax grown in its neighbourhood. Oudenarde, the scene of one of
Marlborough's victories, Dixmuide, and Furnes, present the same characters on a smaller
scale. Nieuport is rather a noted fishmg and trading town, surrounded by sluices, by means
of which the country can be inundated.
Hainault, to the east of Flanders and the south of Brabant, presents a long range of mili
tary frontier to the once hostile border of France. It is watered by the upper courses of the
Scheldt and the Sambre ; and, instead of presentmg the same dead level with Flanders, is
varied by gentle undulations, still highly cultivated, yet not witli tlie same extreme care or
ample expenditure. In this province are rich mines of coal, a mineral not found in any
other part of the Low Countries ; and though Hainault never formed any of the great seats
of manuiacture, it is by no means deficient in this branch of industry.
Mons, Tournay, and Charleroi are the chief towns of Hainault. The description given
of the secondary cities of Flanders may apply to them. Mons, called once Hannonia, is very
ancient ; it is well built, but appears often almost buried under the smoke of the steam-
engines employed in working the neighbouring coalmines. It has a very extensive found
ling hospital. Tournay, a fine large, old city, with a handsome cathedral, has stood many
sieges. Charleroi, besides its military reputation, has that of making very fine nails, with
which it supplies all Belgium. In front of Mons is Gemappe, and eight miles east of Char
leroi is Fleurus, both celebrated for signal victories gained by the French during the revolu
tionary war. The large and strong cities of Conde and Valenciennes are now annexed to
France. Namur, to the east of Hainault, presents a striking variety from the tame and flat surface
which covers the greater part of the Low Countries. Consisting of the valley of the Meuse,
which traverses the whole province from north to south, it contains numerous rugged emi
nences, which give to it a varied and picturesque character. The banks of the river, from
Namur to Liege, overhung by wooded rocks, and opening into deep valleys, abound in the
most romantic scenes.
- Among the cities, Namur is one of the most ancient in the Low Countries, its origin being
traced to the time of the ancient Germans. It lies in a beautifiil valley bordered by high
mountains, at the confluence of the Sambre and Meuse. The castle, on a high rock, was
formerly considered almost impregnable, and stood many sieges, till Joseph II. dismantled,
and the French afterwards almost demolished it. The cathedral and the Jesuits' church
are fine edifices, and, unlike the other churches of the Low Countries, of Grecian architec
ture. Namur has in its neighbourhood extensive iron mines, which employ many of the
inhabitants ; the manufactures of the city consist in working up this metal into fire-arms,
cutlery, &c. Ascending the Meuse towards the PVench frontier, we come to the small forti
fied towns of Dinant and Charlemont.
The provinces of Liege and Limburg, which are much intermingled with each other,
form the eastem frontier of Belgium. They run from north to south along the Meuse, front
ing Germany, and are, indeed, half German. On the banks of the Meuse, and in some par
ticular districts, the territory is broken and rocky ; but most of it consists of an extended
and highly cultivated plain. The eastem district is distinguished by the peculiar richness
of its pastures, which produce butter and cheese of great value. Its manufactures, also,
especially those of fine woollens, are very flourishing.
Of the cities in these two provinces, Liege, once the seat of a sovereign bishop, is ancient
and large, but upon the whole ill buUt and gloomy ; and though some of its buildings are
large, they do not display the taste conspicuous in other Belgic cities. The church of St.
Paul is, however, admired, as was that of St. LamBert, till it was destroyed during the revo
lution. Liege has a manufacture of fine woollen cloths, which sell at a high price. The
town of Limburg, now included in Liege, has lost much of its population and industry; and
a great part of its precincts is in ruins. Spa, situated amid romantic rocks, is one of the
most celebrated watering places in Europe. The resort, though much duninished, is stUl
considerable, and composed of persons of distinguished rank. The inhabitants work the
beechwood, which grows in the neighbourhood, into a variety of toys, for which they find a
ready sale among the visiters. St. Tron and Tongres are ancient towns, the former having
a celebrated Benedictine abbey. Eupen, like Verviers, has flourishing manufactures of cloth.
Herve is the chief market for the Limburg cheese, which goes by its name. Stavelot is
noted for its leather. StTBSECT. 2. — Holland.
The province of Holland is of paramount importance, including all the great cities and
principal scats of commerce ; so that its name was most usually given to the whole republic.
It forms a long narrow strip, almost evervwhere enclosed and penetrated by water ; on one

512

DESCRIPTFVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part HL

360

Bide it is washed by the North Sea ; on the other, by the Zuyder Zee; in its centre it has
.he large lake called Haarlem-Meer ; while the Rhine and the Lech intersect its numerous
channels. The whole country is so low, that it is habitable only by means of enormous
dikes, which exclude the sea : when these give way, the waters rush in, and inundate the
whole territory. The country forms, in fact, one vast well-watered meadow scarcely any
where subjected to the plough, though extensive gardens are cultivated, both for use and
ornament. But the chief products are cattle, butter, and cheese, for the supply of the popu
lation of the cities, and for export.
Amsterdam {fig. 360.), the capital of the province and kingdom of Holland, is situated at
the point of confluence of the river Amstel with the Y, an arm of the Zuyder Zee. It was
a considerable town in the
fourteenth century ; but it was
not until the sixteenth cen-
'ury, when the persecutions
of the Spaniards in Belgium
proved fatal to the trade and
navigation of Antwerp and the
southem provinces, that Am
sterdam attained to the dis
tinction which she enjoyed
till about the middle of the last
Amsterdam. ccutury, of bemg the first
commercial city of Europe. It is but justice, however, to state that her extraordinary pro
gress depended as much, or more, on the liberal and enlightened policy of her rulers, as on
external events. Every individual, whatever might be his country or his religion, was
received with open arms at Amsterdam ; and acquired, by means of a trifling payment, the
right of citizenship, and the enjoyment of all the privileges of a native. All the public insti
tutions were calculated to promote commerce ; and at a time when trade and industry in
other countries were oppressed by prohibitions, ui Holland they were comparatively free.
When most prosperous, Amsterdam is supposed to have contained about 240,000 inhabitants ;
but at present the population is not supposed to exceed 200,000. Being built in a marsh, the
foundations of the city are laid on piles ; and it is a common complaint that a house costs
as much below as above ground. The three principal streets are parallel to each other, and
are not easily to be matched for length, breadth, and the magnificence of the houses ; many
of which, though antique, are splendid, and are kept in the best possible repair. The city
is intersected by an immense number of canals, communicating by draw-bridges, and having
sluices for the purpose of regulating the level of the water : these canals are for the most
part bordered by fine trees. The expenses incurred in keeping the- sluices in order, and in
clearing the canals and port of mud, are very heavy. The matchless industry and perse
verance of this wonderful people, are in nothing so signally displayed as in their works and
contrivances for conquering the difficulties incident to their situation, and making the waters,
which threaten to overwhelm them, con
tribute to their comfort. The stadt-
house (fig. 361.), now the royal palace,
is tbe finest building in the city ; and is,
indeed, one of the noblest anywhere to
be met with : it is of large dimensions,
and is adorned with pUlars, and with
sculptures emblematical of commerce
and navigation. Above 13,000 piles
are said to have been employed in form
ing its foundation. The harbour is in
convenient, large ships being obliged to
lighten before they can pass the Pam
pus or bar at the mouth of the Y, and the navigation of the Zuyder Zee is also difficult. To
remedy these inconveniences, the large canal to the Heldor, already alluded to, has been
constructed. The trade of Amsterdam has increased considerably within the last few years ;
and about 2200 ships now annually clear out for foreign countries. None of thd water from
the canals is made use of for culinary purposes ; the town being supplied with fresh water,
conveyed in carts from the Vecht, about five or six miles distant ; but most of the houses
have cisterns, where the rain-water is collected. There is a national museum of pictures,
winch contains many fine specimens of the Dutch school. The various prisons and houses
of correction and industry at Amsterdam are said to be managed on more approved princi
ples tlian similar institutions in most parts of Europe. The police is excellent ; crimes rare ;
and no beggars to be seen in the streets. The inhabitants seem vigorous and healthy ; but
the mortality, though materially diminished within the last thirty or forty years, is still greater

Book I.

HOLLAND AND BELGIUM.

513

than in most European cities ; a consequence, probably, of the humidity of the clunate, and
of the etfluvia arising, in summer, from the canals.
Rotterdam (fig. 362.), the second city in Holland, is more conveniently situated for com
merce than Amsterdam, having a readier access to the sea ; and the Maese on which it is
situated, being so very deep as to admit vessels of the largest draught of water to lie close

Rotterdam.

Statue of Erasmus.

to the quays. Its commerce is rapidly increasing. Its principal exports are geneva and
madder ; and it carries on the business of sugar-refining on a large scale. It has all the
characteristics of a Dutch town; being neat, clean, uniform; the houses high, and built of
very small bricks. The canals inter-
"^ —- secting it are numerous, deep, and,
unless in a few of the most crowded
streets, connected by draw-bridges.
' Rotterdam boasts of being the birth
place of Erasmus; to perpetuate
whose memory, she has erected a
handsome statue (fig. 363.).
The Hague (fig. 364.), though
ranking only as a village, is, in fact,
one of the handsomest cities in Eu
rope. The streets and squares are well built, bordered with fine walks and avenues of trees.
Neither the old nor the new palace can boast of any splendid architecture ; but the former
is large, and contains some valuable collections. An avenue of two miles leads to the neat
fishing town of Scheveling, whence the dealers are daily seen bringing their commodities

365

Leyden.

in little carts drawn by large dogs.
Leyden (fig. 365.) is a fine old city,
situated in the heart of the Rhine-
land, where this ancient bed of the
river is cut into an infinity of canals,
which render this the richest mea
dow land of Holland. The beer,
the butter, and the bread of this dis
trict are held in the highest estima
tion. Leyden, during the war with
Spain, was the most important city
in Holland, and on the f vent of its
siege the fate of that country was
supposed to depend. The Spaniards,
by a lengthened and strict blockade,
reduced it to the last extremity ; while the Dutch could muster no force adequate to its
relief It was then that they formed the magnanimous resolution of breaking down their
dikes, and admitting the ocean. It was some time before the fiill effect was produced ; but
at length, impelled by a violent wuid, the sea rushed in, overwhelmed all the works of the
besiegers, and forced them to a precipitate flight. The little fleet of boats which had been
prepared for the relief of Leyden, immediately sailed over the newly formed expanse, and
triumphantly entered the city. The Prince of Orange offered to Leyden the option of two
benefits,— an immunity from taxes for a certain period, or the foundation of a university in
the city. The citizens crowned their former glory hy choosing the latter alternative, and
a university was accordingly founded, which speedily became one of the most eminent schools
in Europe ; and, though much injured by the numerous rivals which have since sprung up,
it continues to maintain a high reputation, particularly as a classical school. Leyden is still'
a handsome and flourishing town ; carries on the woollen manufacture with success, though
on a diminished scale ; and is a great market for butter and cheese. Haarlem {fig!zOQ ) is
another city of ancient importance. In the great struggle for independence, it stood a
Vol. I. 3 p

614

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Pakt HI.

266

memorable siege of seven months ; when it surrendered upon honourable terms, which were
basely violated by the Duke of Alva. Haarlem is still spacious and flourishing, and excels
peculiarly in the bleaching of linen and cambric, which it performs for all the neighbouring
provinces. The matchless
and brilliant whiteness of the
Haarlem linens has been im
puted to a peculiar quality in
the water, but is more pro
bably the result of the ex
treme skill of the inhabitants,
acquired by long practice.
Flowers are principally raised
for sale in the vicinity of Haar
lem. Delft, an ancient gloomy
nniuieiu. towu, was formerly celebrated
for the manufacture of the ware which bears its name ; but this, as already observed, has
been almost entirely supplanted by English earthenware. Dort or Dordrecht, enclosed by
branches of the Maese, was the ancient capital of Holland, while the main commerce of that
country continued to centre in this its most natural quarter. It still retains very considera
ble traces of this early importance. The town-hall and great church are magnificent stmc
tures. There is a considerable trade in goods coming down the Rhine, particularly floats of
timber, so large that one of them has been valued at 350,000 florins. Gouda is a large
flourishing village, in a rich country, and carries on an extensive manufactory of tobacco-
pipes. It is celebrated for the excellence of its cheese.
North Holland forms a considerable peninsulei, almost entirely encircled by the Zuyder
Zee and the North Sea, and bordered by sand-hills of some elevation ; but the interior is
covered with rich pastures, on which are fed large herds of cattle. The ancient and not
ungraceful costumes (fig. 267.) of the Dutch peasantry are preserved with greater exact
ness in this sequestered part of Holland,

267

Peasantry io Holland.

than in any other; and the fishery, for
which their situation is peculiarly adapted,
is carried on with great activity. Alk
maar is an agreeable town, with a great
traffic in butter and cheese, and a manu
facture of nets. The most important
places in North Holland are the Heider
and the Texel, two grand naval stations :
the one a strong fort, commanding the
entrance of the Zuyder Zee ; the other an
island opposite, in which the Dutch fleets
used to rendezvous, from the fecUity it

afforded for their getting to sea. Along the coast of the Zuyder Zee are the considerable
towns of Hoom and Enkhuisen, and the smaller ones of Edam and Purmerend.
Zealand is a region more completely enclosed by, and sunk below, the level of the water,
than any other part of the United Provinces. It consists of nine islands, formed and envi
roned by branches of the Maese and the Scheldt, as, passing from the state of rivers into friths,
they unite with the ocean. The mariner, in approaching, sees only pomts of the spires
peeping above the immense dikes which defend them from inundation. The soil is moist
and rich, peculiarly adapted to the cultivation of madder. The damp air, however, and the
exhalations from the waters, render these islands unhealthy, and even fetal to foreigners, as
was dreadfiiUy experienced by the British troops while quartered at Walcheren ; but the
natives do not experience the same pernicious effects. Middleburg is a considerable city,
with a town-hall and several churches, which afford fine specimens of Gothic architecture.
Flushhig is an eminent naval station, and has a considerable trade and fishery. The island
of Schowen has Zierikzee, the ancient capital of the counts of Zealand ; and Soutii Beve-
land has Goes, or Tergoes, with a considerable trade in salt.
Utrecht, a more inland province than Holland, forms a continuation of the same tract of
flat meadow land, interspersed with gardens and country residences. Utrecht, tlie capital,
is a remarkably agreeable city, and being a little elevated, the view from its ramparts and the
top of its cathedral over the vast plains and broad waters of Holland is extensive and de
lightful. The Romans called it Ulpii Trajectum, as commanding an important passage over
the' Rhine; and in the middle ages it was lield by the warlike bishops of Utrecht. In this
city was concluded the treaty of confederation, in 1597, by wliich the United Provinces
were constituted, and also the celebrated treaty of 1715, which terminated tlie long war of
the Spanish succession. Amerstbort, pleasantly situated on the Ems, and noted as the
birth-place of Barneveldt, has considerable fabrics of dimity and bombazeen, and extensive

Book L HOLLAND AND BELGIUM. 515
bleaching grounds. Naarden, a small town, forms the key of all the water communications
of Holland.
North Brabant, comprismg that which was the Dutch part of the province, is a flat, sandy,
marshy tract, not distinguished by either the natural fertility or manufacturing industry so
conspicuous in the rest of Holland and Belgium. Forming, however, tlie barrier by which
the Dutch maintained their independence, it contains several of the strongest fortresses in
Europe, which have ind6>ed the reputation of being almost impregnable. Breda is one of
the most conspicuous. After Prince Maurice of Nassau took it by surprise, in 1590, its
fortifications were greatly extended, and the surrounding country, being mtersected by
rivers and marshes, can be laid under water. It is an agreeable city, commanding fi-om the
ramparts a fine view, and both its church and its town-hall are admired Gothic edifices.
Bois le Due, or Herzogenbosch, on the Domrael, so named from an old hunting-wood of the
Dukes of Brabant, is a large town, and equally strong. It is so intersected by canals, that
eighty bridges are required to cross them; in winter the place is entirely surrounded by
water, and can be approached only in boats. Bergen-op-Zoom, farther to the west, is similar
as to strength, and was esteemed the masterpiece of the celebrated Cohorn. The disastrous
. attack made upon it by the British in the last war is well remembered.
The outer provinces of Guelderland, Friesland, Overyssel, Drenthe, and Groningen,
which lie between the Zuyder Zee and the Ems, are rather appendages than integral portions
of Holland, and form by their situation part of the great level plain of northern Germany.
The country is similar to Holland, however, in its aspect and the general state of cultiva
tion, though a somewhat greater proportion of the land is employed in the raising of grain.
Friesland, has a very fine breed of horses and horned cattle ; and the linen manufacture
flourishes to a considerable extent. In these provinces, particularly in Guelderland and
Overyssel, there is a large extent of sandy and marshy ground, which is not forced into cul
tivation with the same minute care, as in the central provinces. Much benefit, however, is
expected from the pauper colonies lately established there.
The towns of this region are pretty numerous and considerable, though none are of the
first class. Nimeguen, in Guelderland, is ancient, strong, and handsome, commanding a
noble view over the Rhine. Zutphen is an old imperial city, dreadfully pillaged in 1572 by
the Duke of Alva. It has a magnificent church ; and the fens around it have been so com
pletely drained, as to render the air no longer unwholesome. Arnheim is a large and beau
tiful town, at the foot of the hills of Veluwe, and forming a great thoroughfare into Ger
many. Deventer, in Overyssel, is an ancient member of the Hanseatic league, and has a
venerable cathedral. Zwoll, on the Yssel, is strong, large, and well built. Assen, though
capital of the new province of Drenthe, is only a village. In Friesland, Leuwarden, on
the Ee, is a large and populous town, in a country surrounded and intersected with canals,
which enable it to communicate with the sea, and to carry on a considerable trade. Cam-
pen, an ancient Hanse town, has lost its importance, the harbour being now choked up.
Harlmgen, Franeker, Dokkum, Bolsward, are ports on the Zuyder Zee, and manufacturing
places of some importance. Groningen, capital of the provinces of the same name, is the
most important of all the towns east of the Zuyder Zee. It is well buOt, and adorned with
noble edifices ; and its university was once distinguished among Dutch seminaries. Large
vessels can ascend the Hunse from the Zuyder Zee.
Luxemburg, an extensive province, though political revolutions attached it to the Nether
lands, and now to Holland, forms part of Germany, entitling the king to a vote in the Ger
manic diet. Its character is every way in decided contrast to the rest of Holland and Bel
gium. Instead of a dead, rich flat, traversed by navigable streams and canals, Luxemburg
presents almost throughout high mountains and woods, forming scenes of savage grandeur,
similar, though on a smaller scale, to those of Switzerland. The country is destitute of
water communications, is imperfectly cultivated, and does not contain a population of more
than sixty-six to the square mile. Its breeds of cattle and sheep are of small size ; but, as
usual in mountain pastures, of delicate flavour. The horses are active and hardy ; and the
tract which borders on the Moselle produces valuable wine.
The cities and towns are by no means on the same scale as those in the rest of the king
dom. LuxShiburg, the capital, situated on two rocks, whose steep sides form a glacis, while
the river Else, at their feet, serves as a wet ditch, is one of the strongest fortresses in
Europe. The horse and cattle markets are considerable. Theux has in its neighbourhood
mines of a beautiful black marble. Maestricht, the principal town of Limburg, has, along
with all the part of that province east of the Meuse, been assigned to Holland. It is large,
handsome, and well fortified. Ruremonde and Venlo, also neat tovras of some strength, are
included in the same district.

516

MAP OP FRANCE— WEST paet.

Fig. 269.

Eagluh Milei

«¦ ^¦^^hWi^kM'\'-!''\\M[M^r I i5rN
4^ ^'o-ntains^I? ""'%

fiLonsituUo Weat 4 from Greeuwich ¦

1 LoDgitude £ut

FiQ. 269.

MAP OF FRANCE— EAST part.

517

Vol. L

4 Longihiflff East 6 from Greenwich 6
44

518

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

PaktIII.

CHAPTER Vni.
FRANCE.

France is a gfreat and powerfiil king-dom, placed, as it were, in the centre of the civi
lized world, and for several centuries distinguished by the conspicuous part which it has
acted on the theatre of Europe. Its population, military power, central situation, vast re
sources, and active industry, render it peculiarly deserving of an attentive survey.

References to tlie Map of France. — West Part

NORTH PART.
Prnvince of
ARTOIS.
Department of
1. Strait of Calais.
(Pas de Calais.)
1. CalaiP
2. Boulogne
3. Sfimer
4. Montreuil Province of
PICARDY.
Department of
II. Summe.
5. Cressy
6. Rue
7. St. Vallery
8. Abbeville
9. Airaines
Province of the
I. OF FRANCE.
Departments.
III. Oise
IV. Seine and Oise.
10. Grandvillers
Jl. St. Clair
12. Meulan
13. Rainbouillet
14. Hoiidan
15. Mantes Prnvince of
NORMANDY. Departments.
V. Lower Seine
Vf. Eure
VII. Orne
VIU. Ca,Vado3
IX. The Channel.
(La Manche.)
16. Vernon
17. Andeleya
18. Gournay
19. Neufchatel
20. Blangie
21. Eq
22. Dieppe
23. St. Valery
24. Fecamp
25. Havre de Grace
26. Bnlbec
27. Yveiot
28. Rouen
29. Elbffiuf
30. Louviers
3). Brionne
32. Pont Aodemer
33. Ponti'Eveque
34. Lisieux
35. Caen
36. Bayeux
37. Isigny
38. St. Lo
39. Carentan
40. Valognes
41. Bartleur
42. Cherbourg
43. Les Pieux
44. Barneville
45. Creance
46. Coutancea
47. Granville
48. Villedieu
49. Vire
50. Thorieny
51. St. Germain
52. Pontd'Ouilly
53. Fa I also
."54. Argontan
55. Gaco
56. Orbec
57. Bern ay
58. Rugles
59. lOvreux
60. Ivry
61. VerneiiU

62. L'Aigle
63. Moriogne
64. Belesme
65. Alencon
06. Domfront
67. Tinchebray
68. Mortain
69. Avranches
70. PontorsoQ Province of
BRETAGNE. Departments.
X. Ille and Vi-
laine
XI. North Coast
Xll. Finisterre
XUl. Morbihan
XIV. Lower Loire
71. Antrain
72. St. Malo
73. Dinan
74. St. Brieux
75. Guingamp
76. Paimpol
77. Lannion
78. Belle lie
79. Morlais
80. Lannilis
81. Brest
82. Landerneau
83. Chateaulin
84. Andiprne
85. Q.uimper
86. Ouimperle
87. Gourin
88. Carhaix
89. Rostrenen
90. Uzel
91. Ijoudeac
92. Broons
93. Montfort
94. Hede
95. Rennes
96. Sr.Aubin
97. Fougeres
98. Vitre
99. La Guerche
100. Chateaubriant
101. Cervin
102. Carentoire
103. Redon
104. Maletroit
105. Ploermel
106. Band
107. Pontivy
108. HennPDon
109. L'Orient
110. Vannes
in. Roche-Bernard
1]2. Nozay
113. Ancenis
114. Nantes
115. Savenay
116. Guerrande
117. PaimbtEuf
118. Bourgneuf
119. ClisBon
Province of
ANJOU.
Department of
XV. Mayenne and
Loire.
120. Bcaupreau
121. Chollot
122. Chalonne
123. Vihiei-s
124. Saumur
125. Bauge
126. Aneers
127. Ingrande
128. Scgre
Province of
MAINE AND
PERCHE.

Departments.
XVI. Mayenne
XVIl. Sarthe.
129. Craon
130. Chateau Goo-
tier
13L Sable
i;i2. La Fleche
133. Chateau de
l.-oir
134. St. Calais
135. Le Mans
136. Vaiges
137. Laval
138. Jovigne
139. Mayenno
140. Ebron
141. Prez en Pail
142. Frenay
143. Ma mere
144. La Ferte Ber
nard
145. Mootmirail
Province of
ORLEANAIS. Departments.
XVIIl. Eure and
Loir
XTX. Loiret
XX. Loir and Cher,
146. Brou
147. Nogent le Ro-
irou
148. Alliers
149. Dreux
150. Maintenon
151. Chartres
152. Bonneval
\^3 Toury
154. Arlenay
155. Chateaudun
156. Mondoubleau
1.57. Vendomo
158. Blois
1.59. Melun
IfK). Orleans
161. Cosson
162. Chambord
103. Romorantin
164. St.Aignan
165. Chaumont
Province of
TOURAINE.
Department of
XXI. Indre and
Loire.
166. Chateau Reg-
nault
167. Tours
168. Savigne
169. Langeaia
170. Chinon
171. La Haye
172. Montbazon
173. Loches
174. Beaulieu
Province of
HERRI.
Department of
XXIl. Indre.
175. Chatillon sur
Indre
176. Levroux
177. Valencay
178. Valan
179. Chateauroux
180. La Chatro
IBl. Argenton
182. St. Bcnoit
183. Lc Blanc
Province of
POITOU.
Dcpnrtmmts.
XXUr Vienne
XXIV. Two Sovrea

XXV. Vendee.
184. La Roche
Posay
ia5, Chatelleraull
186. Loudun
187. Moncontout
188. Thouars
189. BreSBure
190. Chatillon sur
Sevre
191. Pouzange
192. Montaiiju
193. Beauvoir
194. Sf. Gilles sur
Vie
195. Sables d'Olonne
196. Talmont
197. Bourbon-Ven dee
198. Lucon
199. Fontenay
200- Chataigneraye
201. Parihenay
202. Vivonne
203. Poitiers
204. St. Savin
20.'). Montmorillon
2(l6. L'Isle Jourdain
207. Civray
208. Meile
209. Niort
210. Mauze
211. Sauze
SOUTH PARI.
Province of
SATNTONGE
AND AUNIS.
Department of
L Luvifer Charente.
1. Marans
2. La Rochelle
3. Rochefort
I. St. Jean d'An-
gely
5. Sainles
6. Marennes
7. Roy an
8. Pons
0, Jnnzac
10. Miiambeau
11. Monlieu Province of
ANGOUMOIS. Department of
11. Charente
12. Aubeterre
13. Barbczieux
14. Cognac
15. Angouleme
16. La Rochefou
cauld
17. Mansle
18. Ruffec
19. Confolens Provinces of
MARCHE AND
LIMOUSIN.
Departments.
lit. Upper Vienna
IV. Coriezo
V. Creuse.
20. Belinc
21. Le Dorat
22. Souterraine
23. Gueret
24. Bourganouf
25. Eymontiora
26. St. Leonard
27, Limoges
28. St. Junien
29. R.iciiecbouart
30. Clinlus
ai.St.Yrieix32. Pierre Buffiore

33. Uzerche
34. Treignac
3.5. Tulle
36. Turcnne
37. Donzenac Province of
GUIENNE.
Departments.
VI. Lot
VII. Tarn and Ga
ronne
VIII. Lot and Ga
ronne
IX. Dordogne
X. Bordeaux
38. Thiviers
39. Nontron
40. Braniome
41. Perieueux
42. Mareuil
43. Riberac
44. Mucidan
45. Libourne
46. Coutras
47. Blaye
48. Bourg
49. Medoc
50. Lesparre
5i. Capielnau 
52. Lfi Tete de Buch 122. Bagneres
53. Le^Barp 323. Sarrancolin

101. Aire
102. MontdeMarsan
103. Sl Sever
104. Monfort
ia5. Dax
106. St. Vincent
107. Peyrehorade
108. St. Esprit
109. Bayonne
110. St. Jean Pied de
Port
111. Mauleon
112. Oleron
113. Navarreios
114. Orthes
1 15. Garlin
1)6. Pau
117, Arudi
118. Nai
Province of
BEARN AND
FOIX.
Departments.
XrV. Upper Pyre
nees
XV. Arriege
119. Tarbes
120. Argellez
12L Luz

54. C as I res
55. Bordeaux
56. Creon
57. La Reolle
58. Marmande
59. Castillonez
60. Bergerac
6 1 . La Llnde
62. Miremont
03. Sarlat
64. Dom me
65. Calus
66. Gourd on
67. Martel
68. St. Cere
69. Fieeac
70. Concots
71. St. Antonin
72. Cahiifs
73. Caussade
74. Moniauban
75. Verdun
76. Caslelsarasin
77. Moissac
78. Moncuq
79. Fumel
80. Viileneuve- d'Agen
81. Agen
82. Nerac
83. (^aslel-Geloux
84. Bazas
85. Capticux Province of
GASCONY.
Departments.
XI. Landes
XII. Lower Py
renees
XUl. Gers.
86. Sore
87. Murat
88. Mimizan
89. La Bouliere
90. RnquLfotl.
91. Kauze
92. Condom
93. Loclouro
94. Fltnirance
95. Islo on Jourdam
90. Loniboz
97. Audi
98. Mirando
99. Vic Ferenzac
100. Nogaro

124. Bagneres da
Luchon
125. St.Girons
126.''l"araseon 127. Ax
128. Foix
129. Pamiers
Province of
LANGUEDOC. Departments.
XVI. Upper Ga-

130. Caslelnaudary
ISI.Villefranche 132. Lavaur
133. St. Sulpice
134. Grenade
135. Toulouse
136. St. Lys
137. Muret
138. Rieus
139. Cazerea
140. SuGaudens
141. St. Beat
Rivers.
a Seine
b Dives
c Oure
d Vire
e Oust
f Vilaine
g Loire
n Mayenne
i Sarthe
i Loire
K Beauvron
1 LeCher
m Indrc
n Creuse
o Vionne
p Charente
q Droone
r Isle
B Dordogne
t Vezere
u Lot
V Garonne
w Aveyron
X Tam
y Adour
z Gave de Fau

Book I.

FRANCE.

519

Sect. I. — General Outline and Aspect
France is bounded on the Nortii by the Channel, which separates it from England, and

NORTH PART.
Province ot
FLANDERS.Department of
I. The North.
1. Maubeuge
2. Avesnes
3. Landrecy
4. Le Cateau
5. Cambrai
6. Valenciennes
7. Douay
8. St. Amand
9. Lille •
10. Hazcbrouck
11. Cassel
12. Dunkirk
13. Gravelines. Province of
ARTOIS.
Department of the
II. Strait of Calaia.
14. Ard res '
15. St. Omer
36. Aire
17. Fauquemberg
38. Hesdio
39. St. Pol
20. Bethune
21. Arras
22. Bapaume. Province of
PICARDY.
Department of
in. Somme.
S3. Doulens
34. Amiens
25. Peronne
26. Roye
27. Montdidier
28. Poix. Province of
THE ISLE OF
FRANCE.
Departments.
IV. Oise
V. Seine
VI. Seine and Oise
VII. Seine and
Marne
Vin. Aisne.
29. Breteuil
30. Beauvais
31. Clermont
32. Noyon
33. Compiegne
34. Crespy
35. Senhs
36. Meru
37. Pofltoiga
38. St. Denia
39. Luzarches
40. Dammartin
41. Meaux
42. Coulommier
43. Marolles
44. Paris
45. Sceaux
46. Versailles
47. Corbeil
48. Etampea
49. Melun
50. Fontainebleau
51. Nemours
52. Montereau Fault
Yonoe
53. Rosoy
54, Proving
55. Chateatt Thiery
56. La Ferte Milon
57. Villers Coterela
58. Soissons
59. Laon
60. La Pere
61. St. auentin
62. Guise
63. Sissonne
64. Vervins. Province of
CHAMPAGNE, Departments.
IX. Ardenncd
X. Marne
XI. Aube
XII. Upper Marne
65. Rocroy
66. Charieville
67. Mezieres
68. Sedan
69. Grand Pre

70. Vouziers
71. Attigny
72. Ret hoi
Ti. Asfeld
74. Rheims
75. Courtagnon
76. Valmy
77. St. Menehoud
78. Chalons
79. Epernay
80. Dorraans
81. Mootmirail
82. Sezanne
83. Venus

References to the Map of France. — East Part.

XX. Duuba
XXL Jura.
153. Lure
154. Luxeuil
155. Jussey
156. Vesoul
157. Champlitte
158. Dampierre
159. Gray
160. Gy
161. Baume
162. Montbeliard
163. St.Hypolite
o~* -tT'. — -Kit 164. LeRuBsey
84. Vitry sur Marne ^gg. Paseavant
83. St. Remy jye. Ornans
86. Ramaru igy. Besancon
g- Arcissur Aube jes. Quingey
fi« M.™n. 169. Dole

88. Marsilly
89. Nogent sur
Seine
90. Troyea
91. Chaource
92. Bar sur Seine
93. Clairvaux
94. Bar sur Aube
95. Montierender
96. Vassy
97. Joinville
99. Chaumont
99. Auberivo
100. Langrea
101. Fay le Billot
103. Bourbonne les
Bains
103. Bourmont.
Province of
LORRAINE. Departments.
XIII. Vosges
XIV. Mcurthe
XV. Meuse
XVI. Moselle.
104. Signevillc
105. Plombieres
106. Epinal
107. Remiremont
108. Gerardmer
109. St. Die
110. Rcmhervillor
111. Mirecourt
112. Neufchalcau
113. Gondrccourt
114. Bar le Duo
115. Vaucouleurs
116, Commercy
117. Toulon
118. Nancy
119. Lunoville
120. Raon
121. Sarrebourg

170. Poligny
171. Salins
172. Rochejean
173. Neuve
174. Clairevaux =-- ^ .,t- ,
175. LonsleSaulnier 250, St. Pierre Io

42. Riom
43. Thiers.
Province of
LYONNAIS. Departments. VI. Loire
VII. Rhone.
44. L'Hopital
45. pQcuniere
46. Roanne
47. Aigueperso
48. Thizy
49. Villefranche
50. Lyons
51. Iseron
52. Montbrison
53. St.Rambert
 ^„, 54. St. Elienne
247. Chateau Chinon 55. St. Chamond
248. Moulins en Gil- 56, Brignais.
bert
249. Decize

233. Sanccvre
2.34. Vierzon
235. Bourgea
2;i6. Chateauneuf
237. Chateau Meil-
lant
2:iS. St. Amand
239. Blet
240. Sancergues.
Province of
NIVERNAIS.Department of
XXVIII. Nievre.
241. Nevera
242. La Charlto
243. Cosne
244. Ctamecy
245. Champlemi
246. Corbigny

176. Dortan
177. St. Claude.

Moutier.

Province of
BOURBONNAIS, Department of
XXIX. AUier.
251. Bourbon-I'Ar- chambault
252. Moulins
253. Donjon
2.54. Varennea
255. 1-aPalisso

Province of
BURGUNDY. Departments.
XXII. Ain
XXIII. Saone and
Loire
XXTV. Cote d'Or
XXV. Yonne.
178, Nantua ^- - - 
179. Fortdel'Ecluso 256. Casset
180. Seyssel 257. Gan_nat
18L Belley
182. Poncin
183. Mount Luel
184. Trevoux
185. Chalamont
186. Bourg
187. Macon
188. Port de Vaux
189. Cluny
190. Somor en Bri-
onnois
191. Charolles
192. Bourbon-Lancy 4. Auzanco
193. M.St. Vincent 5. Aubusson
194. Tournus

258. St. Pourcain
259. Herisson
260. Mont Lucon,
SOUTH PART.
Province of
MARCHE.
Department of
X. Creuse.
1, Boussac
2. Jarnage
3. Chambon

195. Romenay
196. Louhans
197. Chalonne
198. Chalons
199. Nolay
200. MonlceniB
201. Antun
202. Saulieu

122. Chateau Salins 203. Arnay le Due

123. No men y
124. Gorze
125. Frenea
126. St. Mihiel
127. Vaubecourt
128. Verdun
129. Varennes
130. Rfitain
131. Montmedy
132. Longwy
133. Bricy
134. Melz
135. Thionville
136. St. Avoid
137. Sarrcguemines
138. Bitche.
Province of
ALSACE.
Departmente.

140. Haguenau
141. Bouquenon
142. Saverno
143. Strasburg
144. Molsheim
145, Schelstat
146. Sf. Marie aux
Mines
147. Col mar
348. NeufBrisach
149. Mulhausen
130. Altkirch
151 . Chann
152, Giromagny.
Province of
FRANCHE- COMTE.
Departments. _„^ . , .
XIX. tfpper Saone 232, Aubigny

204. Beaune
205. Nuits
206. Dijon
207. Is sur Til
208. Semur
209. Avalon
210. Coulange leb
Vinces
211. Auxerre
212. Vermanton
213, Ravieres
214. Montbard
215. Baigneux
2J6. Chatillon sur
Seine
217. Tonnerre
218. St. Florentin
219. Joigny __ 
220. Villcneuvel'Ar- 24. Ville Cental,
Prnvince of
AUVERGNE. Departments. IV. Cental
V. Dome,
25, Mount Salvy
26. Maurs
27. Aurillac

6. Fellelin
7. Courtine. Province of
LIMOUSIN.
Department of
II. Correze.
8. Ussel
9. Bort
10. Egletons. Province of
GUIENNE.
Department of
III. Aveyron.
11. Fieeac
12. Livignac
13. Villefrnnche
34. Sf. Sernin
15. St. Afrique
36. Si. Rome
17. Milhau
18. Rodez
19. Severac
20. St.Geniez
21. Guiolle
22. Entraigues
23. Espalion

XVII. Lower Rhine ^, a^,^r^*»"^
XVIIL Upper Rhine ^ f^^ ^^^ y^^^,
139. Weissemburg 223. St. Julien.

Province of
ORLEANAIS. Department of
XXVI. Loiret.
224. Courtenay
2-25. Chatillon
226, Monlargis
227. Boyne
228. Pithiviera
229. Combreux
230. Sully
231. Gien.
Province of
BERRI.
Department of
XXVII. Cher.

Province of
DAUPHINY.
Departments of
VIII. Isere
IX. Upper Alps
X, Drome.
57. Vienne
58. Peage
59. Cote St. Andre
60. Bourgoin
61, Cremien
62. La Tour du Pin
63. Voiron
64 St. Barraux
65. Grenoble
66. Marcel lin
67. La Mure
68. Bourgd'Oysans
69. Briancon
70. Montdauphin
71. St. Bonnet
72. Die
73. Beaufort
74. St. JeandeRoi
75. Isere
76. St. Vallier
77. Valence
78. Crest
79. Montelimart
80. Nions
81. Largu
82. Argencon
83. Gap
84, Eraorun,Province of
PROVENCE. Departments.
XI. Vaucluse
XII. Lower Alpa
XITL Var
XIV. Mouths of the
Rhone.
85. Barcelonnette
86. Cojmara
87, Digne
88. Sisteron
89. Forcalquier
90. Sault
91. Vaison
92. Orange
93. Carpentras
94. Avignon
95. Orgon
96. Cavaillon
97. Lambese
98. Apt
99. Manosque
100. Les Mees
101. Riex
102. Castellane
103. Entrevaux
104. St. Auban
10.5. Vence
106. Antibea
107. Grasse

18. Chaudes Aiguea 108. Draguignan

29. St. Flour
30. Massiac
31. Murat
32. Mauriac
33. Seignea
34. Bosite
35. IsBoiro
36, Ambert
¦37. Billom
38. Clermont
39. Rochefort
40. Pont Gibaud
41 Montaigu

109. Freius
110. St.Tropez
311. Le Luc
112. Hieres
113. Britmolle
114. St.Maximi
115. Toulon
116. La Ciotat
117. Marseilles
118. Aix
119. Martigues
120. Salon
121. Aries

Province of
LANGUEDOC. Departments.
XVTGard
XVI. Ardeche
XVII. Upper Loire
XVIII. Lozere
XIX. Herault
XX. Tarn
XXL Aude.
122. Aigues-mortes
123. Sommierea
124. Nismes
125. Uzcs
126. Pont St. Esprit
127, Barjae
128. Alais
129. Genoilhac
130. Viltefort
13J. L'Argenticre
132. Viviers
133. Aubenas
134. Privas
135. Tournon
136. Anoonay
137. St. Agreve
138. Yssingeaux
139, Sr. Julien de
Chap
140, Le Puy
141. Brioud
142. Langeac
143, Chelyd'Ap
144. Jovols
145. Langogne
146. Marvejols
147. Mende
148. Canourgue
149. Florae
150. Meyrueia
15l.Le Visan
152. Anduze
153. Ganges
1.54. Montpelier
155. Balaruc
156. Pezenas
157. Lodeve
158. Bedarrieux
1.59. La Caune
160. Alby
161. Castres
162. Puis Laurena
163. Mazamet
164. St. Pons
165. Beziers
166, Narbonne
367. Cannes
368. Carcassonne
169. St. Papoul
370. Fanjeaux
171. Alet
172. Rodome
173. auillan
174. La Grasse
Province of
ROUSSILLON Department of
XXII. Eastern Py
renees.
175. Rivesaltes
176. Prades
177. Mt. Louis
178. Prats de Molo
179. Ceret
180. Perpignan. Rivers.
a Rhine
b Moselle
c Mease
d Aisne
e Escaut or Scheldt
f Somme
g Oise
h Marne
i Seine
j Aube
k Serain
1 Yonne
m Loire
n AUier
o Le Cher
p lioi
q Tarn
r Aude
s Rhone
t Durance
u Isere
V Ain
w Saone
X Oignon
y Doub3
z Loue.

520 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paet IE.
by part of the frontier of the Netherlands. On the east it is bounded by Germany, from
which it is divided by the Rhine, and by Switzerland and Italy, which lie on the other side
of the mighty barrier of the Alps. Its southern lunits are the Mediterranean and the broad
isthmus filled hy the Pyrenees, on the other side of which extends the Spanish peninsula.
On tlie west is the Atlantic, and more especially that vast gulf called the Bay of Biscay.
The southern extremity, on the line of the Pyrenees, falls in 42° 30' N. lat. the northern
beyond Dunkirk in 51° 10', making in length eight and a half degrees of latitude. The
breadth may be from 8° 20' B. long., to 4° 40' W. long, making thu-teen degrees of longi
tude. This will give dimensions nearly square of 595 miles from north to south, and 550
from, east to west. The superficial extent is about 205,000 English square miles, or somewhat
above 130,000,000 acres.
The surface of this very extensive territory is in general level, although it borders, and
is encroached upon by the greatest mountain ranges of Europe. The Alps cover the full
half of its eastern frontier, and their branches extending into Dauphiny and Provence, render
them very rugged and romantic regions. The Pyrenees, which rank second among the
chains of the Continent, range along the southem border, and cover with their branches
Roussillon and Gascony. On the east, where France reaches to the Rhine, are the Vosges
and other chains of moderate height, parallel to that river. The only range exclusively French,
is that of Auvergne, in the centre of the kingdom, which not only includes all that province
where it rises to the height of 5000 or 6000 feet, but stretches by a wmdmg luie along the
left hank of the AUier to Languedoc, parallel to the coast of the Mediterranean, where it is
called the Cevennes. But by far the greater part of France, including the whole north and
the whole west, is one widely extended plain, which yields in very high perfbction all the
fruits and products of the temperate zone.
The rivers of France, though not of the first magnitude, are noble and commodious.
Traversing almost every part of the kingdom, they afford ample means of internal navigation ;
and the broad plains which border on them yield the most luxuriant harvests. The Loire,
which is the principal, rises in the south, on the borders of Provence, and flows for some tune
nearly north, parallel to the course of the Rhone and the Saone, though in an opposite direc
tion. Near Nevers it receives the AUier, which in a parallel and nearly equal stream has
hitherto accompanied it ; it now gradually bends round into a westerly course, which it fol
lows through the plains of Orleanais and Touraine, the garden of France, till after a course
of 700 miles, it falls into the sea a little below the great commercial city of Nantes. The
Rhone is not at first a French river : it rises in the heart of Switzerland, amid the eternal
snows and glaciers of the Grimsel and the Shreckhorn, and rolls its earliest course beneath
the mighty mountain walls of St. Gothard, Monte Rossi, and the Simplon. It now expands
into the Leman lake, from whence it emerges near Geneva, where it soon enters Fi^ce,
and rolls direct towards Lyons. At that great city, it receives the Saone, bringing down an
ample stream from the Vosges, swelled by that of the Doubs from the Jura. The Rhone,
now following the direction of its tributary, turns directly south, and, after a rapid course
through Dauphiny and Provence, enters the Mediterranean by several mouths. In tiiis course,
the Alps transmit it to the Isere, and the classical stream of the Durance : its entire length
may be 500 miles. The Seine, though of inferior magnitude, claims distinction as flowing
by the metropolis : it rises on the frontier of Burgundy, and runs almost due north till it
receives the parallel and nearly equal Aube, when their united waters flow west and north
west. Before reaching Paris, it receives from the south the Yonne, and from the north,
almost under the walls of the capital, its greatest tributary, the Marne. At Paris it is navi
gable for vessels of considerable burden. Beyond Paris, the Seine makes some extensive
windings, and is augmented from the north by the waters of tlie Oise bringing those of the
Aisne. It then passes the fine and flourishing city of Rouen, and, spreading into an estuary,
joins the English Channel at the ancient port of Havre. The Garonne has a course of still
less extent, though its broad navigable stream, flowing through a magnificent plain, the most
productive in valuable wine of any in France, gives it a high commercial importance. It
rises near the eastern Pyrenees, and flows northward to Toulouse, where it assumes a steady
north-west course, during which, swelled from the nortii by the Aveyron, the Lot, and the
Dordogne, and passing the great haven of Bordeaux, it becomes an estuary, capable of re
ceiving the largest vessels. The Rhine is to France only a limitary river for somewhat
above 100 miles ; but its great tributaries, the Moselle and the Meuse, rise and have most
of their early course within its territory. The important Belgic river, the Scheldt, also rises
within the French territory.
France has no lakes, which, in a general view, seem worthy of mention.
Sect. II. — Natural Geography.
Subsect. 1. — Geology.
Primitive and transition districts. In France tliere are six districts where the older
ocks, or those of the primitive and transition classes, prevail : viz. Western Normandy, with

Book L FRANCE. 521
Britany and Anjou; the northem side of the Pyrenees; the departments of the Lower Alps,
Upper Alps, and part of the Isere ; Central France, or the table-land of Prance ; central
part of the Vosges ; and the Ardennes.
(1.) Western Normandy, Britany, and Anjou. In this region the rocks are partly Nep
tunian, partly Plutonian: the Neptunian strata are gneiss, mica slate, clay slate, grey
wacke, quartz rock, and limestone ; the Plutonian rocks are granite, syenite, greenstone,
and porphyry.
(2.) Northern side of the Pyrenees. On the French side of the Pyrenees the central
rocks are of primitive formation, and consist of mica slate, clay slate, limestone, or marble ;
reposing upon these, and forming the great body of the range, are rocks of the transition
class ; viz. clay slate, greywacke, and transition limestone.
(3.) Departments of the Lower and Upper Alps, and part of Isere. In this mountainous
region there are magnificent displays of many of the more interesting formations of the
primitive and transition classes.
(4.) Central table-land or plateau of France. The centre of France is occupied by a
vast table-land or plateau of old rocks, in general granite, which forms the mountains of
Burgundy, the Limousin, Aveyron, Ardeche, and the Cevennes. It is more than eighty
leagues in breadth from the heights of Lunoges ; but in proceeding towards the south, it gra
dually thins off, and terminates in a point which connects it with the Montague Noire.
This latter group of old rocks forms a kind of peninsula, which is separated from the
PjTenees, by a longitudinal basin of secondary and tertiary formations. The acclivities of
this central granitic table-land, and some of its hollows, are covered more or less densely
with newer rocks of various descriptions. Besides these, there occurs on its eastern part a
splendid display of volcanic rocks. The primitive and transition rocks of this table-land are
the following ; viz. granite, porphyry, talc slate, serpentine, gneiss, clay slate, greywacke,
and limestone.
(5.) Central part of the Vosges. The oldest rocks in this range of mountains, and which
are said to belong to the transition class, are the following : granite, syenite, hornblende
rocks, greenstone, red quartziferous porphyry, augitic porphyry, dolomite, diallage rock,
serpentine, talc slate, clay slate, greywacke, with anthracite, granular and compact marble
or limestone.
(6.) Ardennes. That part of this range of mountains included within the limits of France,
which belongs to the older part of the geognostical series, is composed of various clay slates,
with greywacke, all of which seem to belong to the transition class.
Secondary districts. The lower and flatter parts of France which extend from the primi
tive and transition districts, are composed of secondary and tertiary deposits, more or less
covered with alluvial matters ; and in some quarters intermingled with volcanic rocks. The
secondary formations are arranged in the same order, and exhibit similar relations with
those already described in our account of Britain. The mountain limestone and coal forma
tions form, when contrasted with their abundance in Britain, but a small portion of the sur
face of France ; while the new red sandstones, with the series of the Jura limestone, in
cluding the oolites, form great tracts of country. Chalk, or uppermost rock of the secondary
series, occurs in vast abundance, forming two basins, the one the northern, extending in
length from the northem extremity of Artois to the southern limit of Touraine, and in breadth
from Havre de Grace to near Bar le Due. The northern side of the southern basin extends
from Rochefort to Cahors, and the southern side ranges along the northern face of the
Pjrrenees. Tertiary districts. Prance is remarkable on account of the great extent of its tertiary
deposits ; of these the following may be considered as the principal ones : — 1. That of which
Paris forms the central point; which extends towards the north as high as Laon, and south
ward to Blois ; while it stretches across from Pontoise on the west to Epernay on the east.
2. The great southem deposit, which extends from the south side of the river Gironde to the
south hank of the river Adour. 3. The south-eastern deposit, which covers part of the De
partments of Herault, Gard, Mouths of the Rhone, Var, and Vaucluse. 4. The deposit in
the valley of the river AUier, and that in the upper part of the course of the Loire. 5. The
great deposit in the course of the Rhine and Saone, extending from about Valence to Dijon.
6. I'he tract along the Rhine, extending from Basle to the neighbourhood of Carlsrhue.
Volcanic districts. True volcanic rocks occur in France only in the great central table
land or plateau ; in the Departments of Loire, Upper Loire, Cantal, and Puy de Dome. The
volcanic rocks are basalt and basalt tuffa ; trachyte with its tuffa ; and lava, with its tuffas,
scoriae, &c. The newest of these rocks are the lavas ; while the basalt and trachytes appear
of more ancient date, although still not very old, as we find them breaking through rocks
of the tertiary class.
Alluvial districts. Alluvia of every description occur in France. Diluvium or the old
alluvium forms extensive tracts in many quarters of the kingdom, where it contains remains
of extant species of animals, of which the most characteristic are those belonging to the
order pachyderma, as the elephant, rhinoceros, &c. Diluvium is also found in caves alorw
Vol. L 44* 3 Q '"

¦^^2 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pabt IH.
with bones of extinct animals, particularly of the carnivorous genera ; and rents and fissures
in strata are sometimes filled up with a diluvium also containing remains of extinct animals,
of which the most characteristic are the small herhivora. Bone caves and bone breccia
occur at St. Antonin and St. Julien near Montpelier ; at Billargues, Vendargues, and Peze-
nas-Herault ; at Anduze and St. Hippolyte, in Gard ; at Aix, in the department of the
Mouths of the Rhone ; at Villefranche and Lauraguais, in the Upper Garonne ; and at Per
pignan, in the Eastern Pyrenees. This diluvium is covered, to a greater or less depth, with
the various well-known kinds of modern alluvium and of vegetable soils.
Mines and Quarries.
Coal mines. Coal of various descriptions, as glance, bituminous, and brown coal, are
mined in the following departments in France, affording aimually but a small return for so
vast a country : — AUier, Aveyron, Mouths of the Rhone, Calvados, Gard, Herault, Isere,
Upper Loire, Lower Loire, Mayenne and Loire, Moselle, Nievre, North, Pas de Calais, Puy
de D6me, Upper Rhine, Lower Rhiue, Lower Saone, and Tarn.
irom mines. Iron mines, some of them of considerable importance, occur in the following
departments: — Ardennes, Charente, Cher, Cote d'Or, Dordogne, Doubs, Eure, Eure and
Loir, Forets, Indre, Indre and Loire Isere, Jura, Lower Loire, Upper Mame, Moselle,
Nievre, North, Ome, Upper Rhine, Lower Rhine, Upper Saone, Sa6ne and Loire, and Vosges.
Mines of silver and lead. The principal lead mines and silver mines are the following : —
Milieu of Quintals of I^ead Marcs of Silver
Finisterre  Foullauen  about 8,000  1200
Ditto  Iluelgoet  3,000  ICOO
LozSre  -, . Villefort  IS.OHO  1500
Isere  Vieane  1,500  —
Copper mines. These are situated in the following departments : — Upper Alps, Rhone,
Rhine and Moselle.
Mines of manganese. This metal is mined at Romaneche and St. Micaud, in the depar^
ment of the Sadne and Loire ; at Suquet in Dordogne ; in the mountain of Tholey in Mo
selle ; at Laveline, near Saint Dier, in the Vosges ; and at Saint Jean de Gardonenque in
the Cevennes.
Mines of antimony. Antimony occurs in the provinces of Charente, Upper Loire, La
Vendee, Cantal, AUier, Gard, and Puy de Dome.
Mines of vitriol and alum. The principal mines of sulphate of iron or vitriol are those
of Saint Julien de Valgargue, near Alais, which furnishes annually 30,000 quintals ; and
that of Becquet and of Goincourt, near Beauvais, which in some years afiords 15,000 quin
tals ; that of Ural, in the department of Aisne, and of Gersdorf, in the department of Lower
Rhine. There are celebrated manufactories of alum at Montpelier, and at Javelle near
Paris. Some considerable beds of rock-salt have been discovered at Vic, in the department
of Meurthe. One of these is upwards of fourteen yards thick, and another has not as yet
been cut through. Although cobalt, arsenic, nickel, and tin also occur in France, no consi
derable mines of those minerals have been established.
Quarries. The most extensive quarries are those of marble, building-stone, slate, gyp
sum, millstone, and fluit. Different kinds of marble are raised at Givet, Brabancon, Mons,
Namur, Boulogne sur Mer, Caen, Troyes, Montbar, Cosne, Tournus, Narbonne, Aix, Mar
seilles, Tarb, and in many valleys in the Pyrenees. There are quarries of excellent building-
stone in the departments of La Manche, Calvados, Moselle, Cote d'Or, Yonne, Oise, Seine,
Loire, Dordogne, and in many departments in the south. Vast slate quarries are worked in
the departments of La Manche, Meuse, Ardennes, Maine and Loire, and at the foot of the
Pyrenees. In many other places, and particularly in Champagne, &c., there are quarries
and pits of clay for brick and tile-making. The gypsum of the neighbourhood of Paris, the
chalk of the departments "of Marne and Seine, the talc named chalk of Brian gon, tlie mill
stone or buhr-stone of Ferte sous Jouarre, are objects of considerable commercial importance.
The departments of Yonne, Cher, and Lower Charente, supply all France and different
foreign nations with gun-flints. Among the clays met witli in France, that of Forges les
Eaux, was formerly in great repute in Holland for the manufacture of pipes ; the clay or
earth of Belboeuf, near Rouen, is considered an excellent material in the purifying of sugar;
and the potters' clay of the vicinity of Beauvais and Montereau, and the porcelain earth or
kao-lin of Saint Yrieix, near Limoges, are highly esteemed.
Subsect. 2. — Botany.
Having devoted already so great a portion of our space to preliminary remarks upon vege
table geography on its more extended scale, and to that of Great Britain in particular, we
must content ourselves with a more limited account of tlie plants of other countries, other
wise we should greatly overstep the bounds prescribed to us by the nature of the present
work. FoUowing the plan here adopted for the arrangement of the different countries,
France comes next under our notice ; and a more interesting field for the geographical bota
nist does not exist in Europe ; not only because of its extent and vast variety of surfece, the

Book I. FRANCE. 523
great height of its mountains, and its geological structure ; but because, by the labours of
its naturalists, especially Lamarck and De Candolle, the vegetable productions of France
have been better explored than those of almost any other country ui the world. All that we
can do here, however, is to notice in general those that are the niost interesting, from their
utility, their beauty, or some circumstances connected with their history ; or as showing how
vegetable forms or groups are situated, in regard to their distribution, upon the surface of
the earth.
France, extending, as it does, from lat. 42° 30' to 51° N., or nearly to the latitude of
Loudon, and from 9° east longitude, to 5° west, is bounded by the Mediterranean, and the
great chain of the Pyrenees on the south ; by the Atlantic on the west ; by the British
Channel and the Netherlands on the north ; and on the east by Savoy, Switzerland, and Ger
many, which form, for its entire length, a vast mountain harrier. Such an alpine region
cannot feil to exert a manifest influence on the vegetation of a country ; not only because
of its own peculiar productions, depending in part on their elevation, and in part on their
soil and geological structure, but by their exposure even at the same elevation, on two oppo
site sides ; that of the south wiU be found to exhibit very different vegetable forms from that
of the north ; and such mountains often exercise a more powerful influence in limiting the
surrounding vegetation, than even seas and rivers.
Lamarck and De Candolle, in a very interesting Botanical Map which accompanies their
Flore Franqaise, 3d edit., have divided France into five regions : —
(1.) The region of maritime plants, which of course extends everywhere along the coast,
from Ostend to Bayonne on the north and west, and from Perpignan to Oueille on the Medi
terranean ; together with the Salines of Dieuze and Chateau Salins near Nancy, and those
of Durkheim and Frankensthal near Mayence in the interior. Thus we find that a vegeta
tion similar to that of the sea-shore exists in the interior, whenever that interior yields
a sufficient quantity of marine salt. All the maritime plants of the north of France, accord
ing to M. de Candolle (and they have the greatest affinity with those of England), are
equally found in the south; but the reverse does not hold good; for a very large proportion
of the French Mediterranean plants of the sea-shore grow very sparingly, if at all, upon the
shores of the Ocean, principally indeed on the coast of Gascony, and reach no higher than
the mouth of the Loire, or at most to the middle of Britany.
(2.) The region of mountain and alpine plants. When the French, by their conquests,
included the Pyrenees, the Alps, and Savoy within the range of the floras of their own
country, this region constituted the very richest of any flora in Europe; for it included a
country, not only of considerable extent, but mountains, and in very southern latitudes, many
of whose crests rise greatly beyond the line of perpetual snow. As France is now limited,
the mountains of the Vosges near Strasburg, and of the Cevennes, and those of Auvergne,
whose origin is volcanic, exhibit its most alpine scenery: among the latter, the Puyde Sasi,
one of the Monts d'Or,rises to an elevation of 6300 feet above the level of the sea. The
Plomb du Cantal is estimated at 6200, and the Puy de D6me at 5000 feet. If the summits
of the Pyrenees and of the Jura be considered as forming the natural barrier of France, as
constituting her line of separation from the adjacent territories, she will still possess an
exceedingly rich alpine flora in the northern side of the former and the western side of the
latter mountains. But the line of demarcation of this region is nevertheless not so distinctly
marked as in the preceding region. The valleys exposed to the sun often participate in the
vegetation of the southern provinces, while the cooler valleys exhibit a growth which has
more in common with the vast plain in the north and centre of France. However, it is
undeniable that these same districts do contain a very considerable number of plants which
are peculiar to them, and found on almost all the more elevated mountains of France ; for
whatever differences the chain of the Vosges and the Jura may present from those of Au
vergne, the Cevennes, and the Pyrenees in the south, it is allowed that the aspect of their
vegetation offers considerable traits of similarity, and that the greater part of the mountain
plants are alike found on the different chains.
(3.) A third region, and a very important and interesting one, is that of the Mediterranean
plants : this, of course, is bounded on the south by the Mediterranean Sea, and stretches
inland till you come to the foot of the mountains, or following the course of the Rhone,
extending north as far as Montelimart on that river ; or it may be said to occupy or constitute
the great basin of the mouth of the Rhone.
(4.) A vast region is occupied by the plains, whose vegetation is very uniform. This
comprises more than one-half of France, and especially all the plain country situated to the
north of the chains of mountains. Many of these plants are found in other regions already
indicated; but it wants the species which are peculiar to each of those respectively.
(5.) and lastly — M M. Lamarck and De Candolle indicate an intermediate region, which
includes plants partaking of the nature of the plains of the north and the provinces of the
south. 'This occupies a large portion of the south-west of France, and some districts up the
valley of the Rhone between Montelimart and Lyons.
The map just aUuded to has these different regions represented in different coloturs, and

524

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part HI.

is attended with this advantage, that, by the slightest inspection, a general idea is conveyed
of the prevailing nature of vegetation in any given district. We see that the plants of the
southern provinces resemble more those of the north as you advance by the west side of
France than by the east ; that the floras of Mans on the border of Normandy, and of Nantes
upon the Loire, in lat. A7" and 48°, scarcely differ from those of Dax and Agen, between lat.
43° and 44° ; whilst on the east side of France, the productions of Dijon and Strasburg vary
considerably from those of Montpelier and Aix, situated at nearly similar relative distances
from each other. All this is accounted for on the principles we have already laid down,
namely, that the stations of plants are mainly influenced by temperature ; and that the mean
temperature of a place is greatly determined by distance from the equator, and elevation
above the level of the sea. According to M. de Candolle, an altitude of 460 feet above the
level of the sea affects the temperature nearly to the same extent as a degree of latitude
nearer to the north in the eastern hemisphere.
By comparing the western provinces of France with the eastem, we see that the surface
of the former is but little raised above the level of the sea ; for, even at a considerable
distance from the coast, the hills scarcely exceed 300 feet ; whilst, on the other hand, upon
the western side, in the midst of a mountainous region, the plain has generally an elevation
of from 1300 to 1600 feet. This height dimuiishes, it is true, on the Belgian frontier; but
there the temperature is sensibly affected by the second cause adduced, namely, the distance
from the equator. Thus, there is nothing but what is conformable to physical laws, in the
southern plants having a greater resemblance to those of the north upon the west, than on
the east side of France.
But even where the mean temperature is the same, the distribution of plants between
these two parts of France may yet be very diflerent, on account of the diflerent degrees of
temperature at particular seasons of the year. We have already stated that, the latitudes
being the same, maritime countries enjoy a more equal temperature than districts removed
from the sea ; in other words, that the summers are less warm, the winters less cold : thus,
the provinces of the west of France, which are all maritime, experience this degree of uni
formity ; which cannot take place in the east, being far from the sea, and in the vicinity of
the mountains.
Plants now, in what concerns climate, may be divided into two classes : those which
suffer from a severe winter cold, but which, during summer, do not require an excess of
heat ; and those which can endure great severity of cold in winter, but, during summer,
require a great proportion of heat. In the first class, M. de Candolle places all those trees
which, without being resinous, preserve their leaves, and consequently their sap, through the
winter; in fact, the greater proportion of the trees of the south being found, whether
indigenous or naturalised, towards the north in the maritime provinces; such as the Live
Oak, the Cork Tree, the Kermes Oak, the Strawberry Tree (Arbutus), the Bay, the Fig,

271

270

The OHve.

Tho Vino.

the PhiUyrea, &c. On the other hand, in the second class, that is to say, among such as
can brave a great degree of cold, and do so because the movement of the sap is interrupted

Book I.

FRANCE.

525

272

by the fall of the foliage, is the Vine, &c., and those that avoid cold because the plants, or
at least their stems, are annual, such as Maize. It may be readily supposed that the indi
viduals belonging to the second class will flourish better, and become more easily naturalised
on the east tlian on tlie west coast of France.
Let us apply this law to a peculiarity in regard to the cultivation of those most precious
vegetable productions of France, namely, the Olive (fig. 270.), the Maize, and the Vine
(Jig. 271.). Mr. Arthur Young, during his travels in France, paid great attention to agri
culture and the mode of cultivation adopted there, and published a map of the country, in
which he represented, by three nearly parallel lines, the northern limits of the three plants
just alluded to, the Olive, the Maize, and the Vine. It excited the surprise of many, that
the lines should ascend most to the north on the east side of the country, or, in other words,
that the plants in question should grow farther north in the eastern than in the western
districts ; directly the reverse of what takes place in regard to the aboriginal native produc
tions of the soil. This apparent contradiction is reconciled by the twofold comparison of the
physical nature of the east and west of France, and of the character of the plants cultivated,
as compared witli the wild species.
The nature of the cultivated productions in question forms a striking feature, which can
not fail to arrest the attention of a traveller while journeying through the districts thus
appropriated, and forcibly to exhibit their agricultural riches. In the extreme south of
France, between a line drawn from Narbonne, in lat. 43° N. and in the meridian of Paris,
to a little below Grenoble, he will find the plains, parched and dry as they naturally are,
rendered still more melancholy by the lurid green of the olive-groves. Between that line
and another drawn from the mouth of the Garonne rather below 46°, to near Strasburg, in
the north-west, he will observe, together with the vine, which is by no means wanting in
all the southern provinces, fields where the gigantic maize (fig. 272.) takes the place of
what we usually term bread-corn ; again, between it and a
line extending from the mouth of the Loire to the Rhine,
passing at about an equal distance between the Meuse and
the Moselle, he will find, intermingled with vineyards,
fertile fields of com, wheat (fig. 273.), oats, and barley ;
whilst, north of that line, there exists a most perfect simi
larity in agriculture with that which prevails throughout
the greater part of England. Fruit trees of all the kinds
that are grown in Britain, here attain a much greater degree
of perfection than in that country, because of the increased
heat of the summers.
Thus, in what concerns a great portion of the territory
of France, its vegetable productions much resemble those
of the southern parts of Great Britain.
It is not, perhaps, generally known that that most useful
root, the Potato, was cultivated in almost every part of
Europe before its value was appreciated, and its culture
became general, near the capital of France. To England
is due the credit of first growing it upon a large scale.
Upon the Continent it was introduced between the years
1714 and 1724 into Swabia, Alsace, and the Palatinate ;
and in 1730 to the vicinity of Berne. In 1774, potatoes
were known on the mountains of the Cevennes, where they
now constitute a main portion of the food of the people : but
it is principally to the famous M. Parmentier that France
. owes the general use of potatoes. The following anecdote
may give some idea of the assiduity with which this philanthropic individual laboured to
generalise their culture : it is well attested that he farmed some spots of ground in the
vicmity of Paris for this sole purpose, though the prejudice against potatoes was then so
strong, that few of the poor persons to whom he offered the roots would accept of them.
However, M. Parmentier soon suspected that people occasionaUy stole his potatoes to eat
them : he was vvell pleased at this, and continued to plant what he hoped would be purloined,
rightly concluding that the experience of the thieves would contribute to diminish the
established prejudice. After much trouble and many years, he had succeeded in propagating
potatoes in several situations, when the dreadful scarcity, the consequence and effect of the
revolutionary disturbances, suddenly rendered their cultivation universal; and now they
form so constant an article of food, that the common people generally believe them to be
aboriginal natives of the country.
The mountains of France exhibit the British alpine plants, with many others that are
pecuhar to themselves, and which they possess in common with the higher Alps of Switzer
land, Savoy, Gennany, and the Pyrenees.
Of the intermediate region, as De Candolle terms it, a great portion lying in the south-

The Maize.

526

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Pakt III.

west of France, embraces a country called the Landes, where the shepherd-peasantry
whether walking, or at rest during the day, live upon stilts (xcangues, in the language of

Wheat. Oals, and Barley.
the country) : this custom gives them the opportunity of viewing the land around in search
of their sheep, for a great extent, of wading through the numerous shallow lakes of water ;
and by these means it is said they can tra
verse triple the space of ground they could
do by the ordinary mode of walking ; when
they stop, they support themselves by a long
stick behind. In this same district a vast
extent of flat land near the ocean, and ex
tending from Bayonne in the south to the
T6te de Buch in the north, and for a dis
tance of from four to twelve leagues inland,
is occupied by forests of Pine (Pinus mari-
tima) (fig. 274.) : these are called Pigna-
das, and they give a remarkable feature to
the Landes, in conjunction with the habits
of the people and their dress, the latter
consisting entirely of sheep-skins with the
hair outwards, little different in outward
appearance from the flocks which it is the
great object of their lives to tend. The
resinous substances of the pine are extract
ed in immense quantities ; in doing which,
one man takes care of 3000 trees. The
country being so dry, these pignadas are
liable to alarming conflagrations; one of
them that took place in 1803, continued
burning for two months. The mode adopt
ed for extinguishing them is remarkable :
when one part of the forest is in flames, it
is customary to set fire to another spot, at
a greater or less distance, according to the
magnitude of the evil ; a current of air
soon takes place between the burning
masses, which drives the conflagration
from both sides on the intermediate trees ;
these are shortly consumed, the fire dies
out for want of fuel, and the rest of the forest is preserved.
But the Mediterranean region, which we have already mentioned, and whose vegetation
partakes of what is found to characterize the whole shores of that vast inland sea, has many
plants so dififerent from those of the rest of France, that it would be unpardonable did we not
particularise some of them.
Almost everywhere in this region, the soU is described as consisting of the secondary
limestone of the Jura, extending to the very brink of the sea, forming arid coasts, often
utterly destitute of vegetation, or clothed with Wild Olives and the Aleppo Pine (Pinus

Tlie Pino.

Book I.

FRANCE.

527

halepensis), with Evergreen Oak, Pistachin-Nut, Myrtles, and numerous species of Cistus.
Here, too, is found one species of Palm, the Chamsrops humilis (Palmetto or Dwarf Palm) ;
but it grows principally in the environs of Nice. At the opposite extremity of the Medi
terranean region, namely, about Roussillon and Provence, and there only in the hotter parts,
are seen the Indian Fig {Cactus Tuna), and the American Aloe (Agave americana) : the intro
duction of these is due to the Spaniards, who brought them to Europe from the New World.
Schouw regards the Mediterranean shores in general as the kingdom of the Caryophyllese
and Labiatte ; this latter femily especially abounds in the south of France, and particularly
the genera Phlomis, Teucrium, Thymus, Lavandula, and others, remarkable for their aro
matic qualities. In the same places, and always on very stony ground, the elegant Coria
monspeliensis excels the heaths of Britain in beauty. The mulberry is cultivated through
out this territory ; and among other useful fruits, the Fig, the Jujube, the Pomegranate, the
Date, and the Pistachio, all arrive at great perfection. The Orange can scarcely be said to
be cultivated without shelter in any part of France. It is grown, however, and somewhat
extensively, at the Isles d'Hieres, and in the vicinity of Nice, that happy climate which is
probably unequalled by any part of Europe. Corn, which is but a secondary article of cul
ture, ripens at a very early period ; so much so that it is not unfrequent to carry barley which
has been reaped on the coast into the mountains, where the seed is sown, and a second crop
is produced the same year. Many plants may be here enumerated which this country pos
sesses in common with Greece and Italy, and even the Spanish peninsula, and which seem
to accompany the Olive. Mirbel has drawn up the foUowing list of woody kinds, which
inhabit these provinces : — Pinus Pinaster, and Pinea, Juniperus phoenicea and Oxycedrus,
Quercus Ilex, Suber and coccifera, Celtis australis, Ficus Carica, Osyris alba, Laurus nobilis,
Fraxinus Ornus, PhiUyrea latifolia and angustifolia, Jasminum fructicans, Vitex Agnus-
castus, Nerium Oleander, Diospyros Lotos, Styrax officinale. Arbutus Unedo, Viburnum
Tinus, Tamarix gallica and africana, Myrtus communis, Punica Granatum, Philadelphus
coronarius, Cratffigus Azarolus, Mespilus pyracantha, Ceratonia siliqua, Cercis Siliquastrum,
Rhus Cotinus and Coriaria; Pistacia Lentiscus, Terebinthus, and vera; Rhamnus Alater-
nus, oleoides, and infectoria ; Zizyphus vulgaris, Paliurus australis, Capparis spinosa, Melia
Azcdarach, Acer monspessulanum, &c.
Hitherto the attention of naturalists in the study of vegetable geography has been direct
ed to those plants that grow upon the surface of the earth : Humboldt alone, in his Carte
Geographique des Plantes, has indicated the station of some subterranean Fungi, and in a
27,5 general way has marked the ocean as
the habitat of Ulvae and Fuci (fig.
275.). It remained for M. d'Orbigny
tc describe to a certain extent at least,
the Zones and Bands inhabited by the
marine Algse (Sea- Weeds). This he
accomplished upon the coasts in the
Gulf of Gascony, and particularly on
the shores of La Vendee and the Lower
Charente, partly by diving to consider
able depths in the sea, and partly by
means of drag-nets fixed to graduated
cords ; and the results of his observa
tions are given in the Memoires du
Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, vol. vi.
With extracts from this, as we shall
scarcely have again the opportunity of
touching on this beautiful and interest
ing tribe of plants, we shall conclude
this sketch, already too much extended, of the vegetable geography of France. Maritime
plants, says M. d'Orbigny, grow in the most opposite temperatures : every country, every
latitude, and every situation possessuig some which are peculiar to itself. Still, climate
and temperature appear almost alike to many of these productions, which are found by
voyagers in every different ocean, ^hile others require particular spots and climes : some
few preferring the mouths of rivers, and the brackish waters of salt marshes, where the
bitterness of the sea is modified by the admixture of fresh water, and in such situations
attaining to an enormous size, as Ulva lactuca var. altissima, while to the greater number
of these plants, fresh water proves absolutely destructive.
As for those kinds which grow indifferently everywhere in the sea, they seem to be
increased without any attachment to solid bodies, as Fucus natans, &c. Banks of great
extent formed by this plant, are often found within the tropics of such dimensions as to
retard the progress of navigation. Some individuals among these groups may frequently be
seen which bear the appearance of having been originally fixed to rocks, their flattened,
disc-like stem yet retaining a portion of such substance. There seems to be ground for the
supposition that, though these sea-weeds are capable of living and growing in the water.

UlvjE and Fa

528 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY Part IH.
unattached to any soil, yet that they must primarily spring from some solid body, as no young
plants of this kind are ever found between the tropics.
Some of the Algse prefer the southern sides of rocks, others affect an eastern, western, or
northern exposure ; but they change their position according to the difference of latitude :
those which are found on the southern side in cold climates, being generally seen on the
northern in the warm or temperate regions. Certain species live near the surface, and close
to the sea-beach : others, at various degrees of depths : the first would seem to enjoy the
regular exposure to light and heat which they experience during the turnings of the tide ;
the second, on the contrary, shun the influences of the atmosphere ; and, growing and fructi
fying in depths where the light can scarcely ever penetrate, they bear, without receiving
any injury, both the enormous column of water which constantly presses upon them, and the
severe cold which exists in those regions. There are even parasitical AlgtB, which grow
indifferently upon all the others, and some which only affect peculiar species.
Many sea-weeds prefer such spots as are exposed to the fury of the waves and the action
of the currents, where they are perpetually floating in an agitated medium : others dwell
in the hollows of rocks, or in marine gulfs, where the water is generally calm. The lapse
of a few days puts a period to the existence of some kinds, whilst the tempests of successive
winters fail to destroy others. The general aspect is apt to change in several individuals,
so that, were it not for more stable characters, derivable from their fructification, texture, &c.
they might be mistaken for novel species.
A number of the more delicate marine plants are quickly destroyed by a removal from
their native place of growth ; but the greater proportion, being coriaceous, and insoluble in
salt water, live for a length of time in different situations ; and it is not uncommon to find,
upon our own shores, the Algm of the most distant regions, which have traversed the ocean,
and yet remain unchanged in their general appearance. We must thence necessarily infer that
it is not all the Algw that are found in any country that may be said to belong to that country.
The proportions of marine plants are as variable as those of terrestrial ones. Some are
barely discoverable with the highest magnifiers ; while others rise from the various depths
of the mighty ocean, and, forming at its surface an angle of greater or less acuteness accord
ing to the force and velocity of the currents and the tides, then suffer their long summits to
float on the waves, and receive the benign influences of atmospheric light and heat. During
the great equinoctial floods, the sea often forsakes, periodically, certain rocks, which are
only uncovered at such times. If, during that interval, the sun shines forth, or the north
wind blows, many of the minute and delicate Algce, thus exposed, dry up and die ; whUe
others, though equally circumstanced, revive immediately upon the return of the genial fluid.
A certain proportion of marine plants are natives of the French seas, whUe we must refer
the accession of many species to the force of the winds, waves, and currents, especially to
that which generally goes under the name of Cfulf Stream, and is called by the French the
Mexican Current. Almost all the northem AlgtE grow in the Gulf of Gascony. It is not
so with those from the Mediterranean and Southern Ocean ; a very small number of them
are there seen in a living state, and their almost northern limit never exceeds the mouth of
the Loire, or at farthest the rock of Morbihan. Independently of the influence of tem
perature, this circumstance may be attributed in a measure to the current, which, generally
setting in on these shores from north to south, brings the seeds and plants themselves of
northern seas to these rocks, while those of southern growth are wafted by the same current
to Africa and the Atlantic.
But few are the kinds of sea-weed which prefer any peculiar spot, or show a predilection
for one substance above another whereon to fix. Deriving no nutriment from their roots or
points of attachment, they need nothing farther than a temporary support; thus, they cling
indiscriminately to any solid marine body, equally to granitic and calcareous rocks, to floating
or sunken pieces of wood, to the bones of terrestrial or marine anunals, to shells, polypi, &c.
Notwithstanding that many highly respectable naturalists have averred that the growth
of these plants proceeds with most vigour on such and such substances, on some or other
peculiar rock, in the vicinity of rivers, or in the open sea ; it has been fiilly ascertained, by
a great number of observations, that marine weeds do grow with equal vigour, though
planted upon rocks or substances of very different natures; and that, if we except some few
Ulva;, which affect brackish water, those which vegetate in situations where fresh water
mingles with the salt, are generally bleached, produce little or no fructification, have a thin
and weak texture, and contain but little soda. The qualities requisite for the different uses
of which I shall treat hereafter, are only found united in such sea-weeds as grow in pure
sea-water, where they have found a spot which is sufficiently tenacious to fix them in that
zone of habitation which they prefer.
Some kinds certainly prefer sand or mud ; but tlien their roots become elongated, and
strike deep, till they meet with some stone or shell or other body which may serve tliem as
a point of attachment, and offer the requisite degree of resistance.
If the nature of the bottom appears indifferent, in a gi-eat measure to maritime plants ; it
is not BO with the level which tliey select in the ocean, or with the distance of their bkth-
place from the surface. Every species of maritime vegetable appears to affect, to as great

Book L FRANCE. 529
an extent as tlie terrestrial kinds, certain zones or regions of different depths in the sea ;
places where the superincumbent weight of water, and the relative proportion of light and
caloric are adapted to its peculiar organs. Those individuals which are found towards the
centre of their proper zone contain all the elements requisite for their perfect developement,
and generally show an active state of vegetation ; they are vigorous, they fructify at the
season suitable to their degree of immersion, whUe those which grow at the extreme limit,
or out of the bounds, of this same zone, prove languishing, fructify imperfectly, are always
covered with marine animals which destroy tliem, and live but a short time in comparison
with their well-situated congeners. The seeds which escape from these plants would appear,
by their various specific weights, to gain an equilibrium equivalent to the column of water
which they displace, or, in other words, to fioat in that peculiar zone which the future Alga:
would prefer to inhabit. Those which become developed either above or below it, are ine
vitably driven from their spot of nature or of election, by the agitation in the waves at the
vicinity of the coasts.
Lower down tlian a hundred feet from tlie surface of the sea, (taking a medium between
tlie high and low tides,) it is rare to find living sea- weeds in the Gulf of Gascony, and even
tliese are attached to portions of rock severed from more elevated rocks, and before long
tliey inevitably perish.
It may be observed that the lower we investigate the sea, the fewer will the number of
plants appear, and the more numerous the polypi. For instance, below forty feet from the
surface of the water, but very few Ulvm are found ; beyond sixty feet, no living Ceramium ;
and after having descended to the depth of a hundred feet, not a Fucus is to be seen, and
the vegetable kingdom wholly ends.
1st Zone, extending from one foot above the medium height of the sea to twenty feet
below, is inhabited by Ulva compressa var. ^ ; U. intestinalis, ventricosa, Lactuca var. a ;
Fucus pygmaeus, amphibius, &c.
2d Zone, from five feet below the medium height to thirty feet : — Ulva articulata, Nostoc,
buUata, fistulosa, Lactuca var. S, umbilicalis, lanceolata, purpurea, Linza, contorta, serrata,
dichotoriia, crispa, pavonia, atomaria C!) ; Fucus vesiculosus, spiralis, ceranoides, serratus,
canaliculatus, ciespitosus, laceratus, hybridus, longissimus, pinnatifidus, viridis, arbuscula,
fastigiatus, tenuissimus (]), confervoides ; Ceramium spongiosum, rupestre, Mertensii, peni-
cUlatum, fiicoides, nodulosum, gracile, linum ; Zostera marina and mediterranea ; Diatoma
rigidum, flocculosum, &c.
3d Zone, from fifteen to thirty-five feet below the medium surface. Ulva ocellata, pal-
mata, lingulata,polypodioides, caulescens ; Fucus longifructus, lumbricalis, bifurcatus, ericoides,
barbatus, abrotanifolius, vermicularis, norvegicus, obtusus, asparagoides, Wigghii, verrucosus,
helminthocortos ; Ceramium simplicifolium, casuarina, cancellatum, coccineum, incurvum,
elongatum, polymorphum, forcipatum, filum, capillare, glomeratum, elegans, &c.
4th Zone, from twenty to forty feet below the medium surface : — Ulva Phyllitis, saccha-
rina, digitata, bulbosa, ciliata, edulis; Fucus nodosus, uvarius, furcatus, ciliatus, alatus,
plocamium, plumosus, comeus, gigartinus, aculeatus, plicatus ; Ceramium verticillatum,
equisetifolium, sericeum, scoparium, &c.
5th Zone, from thirty to sixty feet : — Fucus siliquosus var, a, purpurascens, ligulatus,
pistillatus ; Ceramium coccineum, aegagropilum, &c.
6th Zone, from forty to a hundred feet : — The flattened Fuci ; F. sUiquosus var. /3, loreus,
sanguineus, fibrosus, coronopifolius, &c., and Ulva tomentosa, which is, in fact, a polypus.
Subsect. 3. — Zoology.
The zoology of France assimilates less to that of central than of southern Europe. Not
withstanding the narrowness of its separation from Great Britain, it possesses many animals
unknown as natives, or even as visiters, of that island. With regard to quadrupeds, this
circumstance is not surprising ; for any channel of the sea, however narrow, forms an insur
mountable obstacle to the wanderings or migration of purely terrestrial species: while
others, of a semiaquatic nature are too small and feeble to effect the passage. These con
siderations, however, are insufficient to explain the lunited
2'0 ^ __^ range of the smaller birds, hitherto found only upon the
" '~^ Continent. The distribution of insects is dependent, in a
great degree, upon that of plants ; and the numbers of both
common in France, but unknown in Britain, are nearly
proportionate ; on the calculation that has been made of
six species of insects to one of plants.
Among the wild quadmpeds of France is the wolf (fig.
276.), which is still not uncommon in the wooded and
mountainous districts: when pressed by hunger, it de-
^ - . ^ -,», scends to the farms, and even attacks the inhabitants.
The mif *^"^~^ The beaver is said still to exist in the southern parts ,
and probably the wUd boar may not be wholly extirpated
Vol. I. 45 3 R

530

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part HI.

from tbe existing forests. Bears were once common, while three or four of the smaller quad
rupeds appear peculiar to France.
Several interesting and beautiful birds, unknown or but rarely met with in Britain, are
here not uncommon; such as the wood-chat (fig. 277.), shrike {Lanius rufus T.) the gross-
beak or hawfinch, the blue-throated warbler, and several others of the same family. In
short, from the connection of this country with the central and southem kingdoms of Europe,
the ornithologist might probably discover in France more than three-fourths of all the conti
nental birds. The marine productions of those provinces bordering
on the Channel, as may be expected, do not offer any
marked difference from those of the British coasts ; but
on the warm shores of Nice and Marseilles the natu
ralist meets with numerous productions, indicative of
the rich stores of the Mediterranean Sea. The ento
mology of these southem provinces, in like manner,
presents us with many of those more striking insects,
which properly belong to the fauna of Italy. The beau
tiful Papilio Podalirius (Jig. 278.) so rare in England
that its existence there is still doubted, is here a common
insect. France has long stood foremost in promoting and illustrating the study of nature ;
and a society comprising some of her most able zoologists is at this moment engaged in
publishing a Fauna Gallica. An able and indefatigable naturalist, M. Risso, has particu-
cularly illustrated the fishes and Crustacea of Nice. It was near this place that one of the

The Wood-Chat.

278

279

Mitra Zonata.

Papilio Podalirius.

rarest and most beautiful shells of Europe, the Mitra zonata (fig. 279.) was fished up by
the anchor of a vessel ; only one specimen is known to exist in collections.
Among the domestic animals, the French horses are not very excellent ; yet those used
in the public stages are strong, active, and compactly made ; nor have thefr masters copied
the ridiculous and barbarous custom of disfiguring these animals, by cutting off their tails
or ears. The stallions of England are much prized, and have been judiciously used to im
prove the native breeds.
The oxen are of two races ; the one called bmufs de haul cru are of a middle or small
size, with a fierce look, thick hide, and coarse hair ; they are principally bred in tlie moun
tainous provinoes of Gascony, Auvergne, &c. The others are called bceufs de nature, and
are larger, with a mild aspect, thin hide, and soft hair : they fatten easUy, and belong to the
plains. The native breeds of sheep, not in themselves good, have been of late sedulously and
successfully improved. The Flemish breed, common both to France and the Netherlands,
is generally hornless, with long legs, and is derived from an intermixture with those of
Barbary. The Solognot are mostly without horns, and the wool is curled only at tlie ends.
The Berichonne are likewise hornless, but are known by their long neck : the face is covered
with wool; that on the body being fine, white, close, short, and curled. The Roussillonne
is derived from the merino race ; and has very fine wool, the filaments of tlie piles being
twisted spirally. Lastly, the Ardennoise is horned, and bears a very fine fleece : tliis breed
likewise extends over part of the Netherlands. (Ham. Smith.)
A large and elegant variety of the Domestic Cat is very common in some pai-ts of France;
it is nearly double the size of the common cat, and is bearded much in tlie same manner as
the lynx. Sect. III. — Historical Geography.
Tho Gauls, the ancient inhabitants of France, and the chief among the Celtic nations,
were an active, powerfiil, and ambitious people. Their emigrant hordes repeatedly crossed
..he Alps, possessed the whole north of Italy, once sacked the imperial city, and even pene-
trated into Greece and Asia Minor. Both Switzerland and Belgium were then included aa
part of Gaul. The people, though still barbarous, had made some steps toward civUisation.

Book L FRANCE. 531
The nobles and Dmids enjoyed high power and influence, and had reduced the body of the
nation almost to a state of vassalage. They combated with obstinacy, and made a long
resistance to the progress of the Roman arms ; but being opposed to Csesar, the greatest
of the Roman captains, after a war of twenty years, they were entirely and permanently
subjected. "The conversion of Gaul into a Roman province, though it humbled the chiefs and quelled
the martial spirit of tlie people, was attended with many beneficial changes. Peace was
established ; cultivation and industry promoted ; Roman and even Greek literature intro
duced ; and the people finaUy converted to the Christian faith.
The irruption of the Teutonic tribes, on the decline of the Roman empire, was early felt
in Gaul, where the Goths, the Heruli, the Burgundians, and the confederacy called the
Franks, overwhelmed and ravaged the whole kingdom, and drove the Celtic population and
language into its remote and mountainous comers. From amid a chaos of convulsions, the
vigorous hand of Clovis established the undisputed supremacy of the Franks, and founded the
monarchy of France.
The reign of Charlemagne, son and successor to Pepin, who from mayor of the palace had
occupied the throne, formed the most brUliant period in French history. That eminent and
powerfiil prince not only placed on his head the iron crown of Lombardy, but reduced to his
dominion, after a, long and obstinate resistance, the intractable tribes of Germany, who had
defied the utmost efforts of the Roman eagle. He penetrated also into Spain ; but the fierce
encounter of the Saracens, and the disastrous adventure of Roncesvalles on his return, com
pletely stopped his career in that direction. Charlemagne, though himself illiterate, made
some efforts to rekindle the declining light of science and letters in Europe.
The contests among the successors of Charlemagne were attended with the most violent
and bloody convulsions, and with continual changes in the position of the three great king
doms which composed his empire. At length it fell entirely to pieces. Germany retained
the title of empire, and the claim to the dominion of Italy ; and in France the Carlovingian
d3masty, or that of Charlemagne, having become extinct under Louis Outremer, the throne
was seized by the Capets, the most powerful among the noble French families.
Hugh Capet, having in 987 assumed the title of king, the real power attached to which
had already been exercised by his fether, Hugh the Great, founded the present dynasty. The
administration, however, was long marked by a strong feudal character, and a high spirit of
independence among the great nobles, of whom the counts of Provence and Britany, and the
dukes of Burgundy, ranked altogether as separate and often hostile princes. The feudal age
of France was also marked by chivalric and eventful wars with England, which long held
several of the finest provinces, and whose king, Henry V., was crowned at Paris ; but from
that seemingly approaching downfall, the monarchy, through the romantic exploits of the
Maid of Orleans, suddenly revived, and became mo'e mighty than before.
The establishment of monarchical power in its plenitude was chiefiy effected by the pro
found and insidious policy of Louis XL, favoured by the circumstances of the age. All
France was united under the sway of the kings, who were thus enabled to form great armies,
which, under Charles VIII. and Louis XII,, overran nearly the whole of Italy. But it was
under the gay and enterprising reign of Francis I. that its energies were fully developed.
It then, however, came into collision with the house of Austria, whose extensive possessions
in Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, and Italy, wielded by a powerful hand, secured to it
during this period a decided, though not overwhelming, ascendant.
The civil wars arising out of the persecution of the Protestants agitated France for a very
long time, and produced scenes of the most bloody and calamitous description. They lasted
for a hundred j'ears ; for the popular reign of Henry IV. could scarcely be considered as more
than a truce. At length Richelieu, by the reduction of Rochelle, terminated the long strug
gle of the Protestants for religious liberty, which in France alone, of all the countries where
it was maintained upon a great scale, had this fatal issue. At the same time, this daring
and despotic minister finally crushed the power and pretensions of the nobles, and formed
France into a simple monarchy.
The reign of Louis XIV., during which a single hand wielded all the energies called
forth during the prior struggles, exhibited France more powerful thaa she had been since
Charlemagne. 'The house of Austria, now divided into the German and Spanish branches,
of which the latter had become weak and inert, was humbled by repeated blows, which at
length almost threatened her existence. Franco seemed advancing in the career of univer
sal monarchy, when the interposition of England and the victories of Meirlborough tumed
the tide of success, and rendered the last days of Louis humiliating and disastrous. The
final issue, however, by which a Bourbon was placed on the throne of Spain, and the conse
quent famfly alliance, gave to France an increased weight, especially in the maritime con
cerns of Europe.
The French revolution was an event attended with awfiil and mighty vicissitudes, so fresh
in the memory of the world, that it would be quite superfluous to attempt to enumerate them.
After tearing up France by the roots, and holding all Europe in chains ; after exhibiting

532 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part HI
during twenty years the vicissitudes of republicanism, total anarchy, and pure despotism; at
length, by a mighty re-action, it terminated nearly at the point from which it commenced.
France, however, obtained checks on the arbitrary power of her monarchs, which, notwith
standing their opposition, she rendered more and more effective. At length Charles X.,
having rashly attempted to break through all the limits placed on his authority, was driven
from his throne, which was filled by Louis-Philippe, head of the collateral line of Orleans,
under the title of King of the French.
Sect. IV. — Political Geography.
The political constitution of France, prior to the Revolution, was almost purely despotic.
The privileges of the nobles consisted nearly altogether in unjust exemptions from taxation,
and in corvees, or iniquitous and oppressive claims upon the labour of the peasantry. The
only very salutary limit to the royal authority consisted in the parliaments, hereditary bodies,
by whom the laws were very fairly and honourably administered ; and the parliament of
Paris had even the important privilege of registering every new tax before it could become
legal. The exorbitant powers vested in the sovereign being however inconsistent with the
growth of national intelligence and the augmented force of the tiers etat, a collision took
place, the most terrible on record, which ended in the temporary subversion of the throne.
When the Bourbons were restored by foreign victories, they felt, and were warned, that
France could no longer be governed by the former absolute system ; and they bestowed by
charter a representative government formed on the admired model of England. The nobles
and parliaments, however, had been entirely swept away in the late convulsions, and left no
hereditary aristocracy out of which an upper house could be composed. A Chamber of Peers
was formed, by the royal appointment, of a body of individuals, many distinguished rather
by talents and influence than by birth ; and in the number were included some of the most
distinguished of Napoleon's generals. Pensions were assigned to support the dignity of the
Peers, which was at first hereditary, but by a recent enactment is to continue only for life.
The Chamber of Deputies, corresponding to the House of Commons, is chosen by electors
united in certain bodies called electoral colleges. These include all persons paying a certain
amount of direct taxes ; which limits the right of voting to the middling class, and to an entire
number throughout France scarcely exceeding 130,000. The number of Deputies is 430.
The functions of the French chambers are high. Their annual vote grants all the supplies of
the year, and the expenditure of the preceding one is submitted to their rigorous examina
tion. No taxes can be imposed, or loans contracted for, without their concurrence. Their
debates are regularly made public, and an arrangement is enacted by law for the convenience
of the reporters. Yet the chambers want some of the functions of a British parliament
They cannot fix the amount of the army, unless by limiting the funds to be employed in its
maintenance ; nor can they call in question the engagements held by govemment with
foreign powers, unless by withholding the funds necessary to fulfil them. The liberty of
the press was professedly granted by the charter ; but there has been much fluctuation in its
exercise ; it was even repeatedly made subject to a censorship : even since the last great
change, its freedom has not been established on as ample a basis as in Britain.
The administration of justice in France, which, before the Revolution, was still more com
plicated than in England, has been simplified in a very remarkable degree. The National
Assembly early applied themselves to form a new series of codes, which might supersede
those va,st and voluminous records in which the law was formerly contained. They pro
jected five codes, respectively referring to civil law, civil procedure, commerce, criminal
law, and penal infliction. These were completed under Bonaparte, who gave to the whole
the name of Code Napoleon : it is comprised in a moderate volume, sold for a few francs.
AU the fincient parliaments and seigniorial authorities being swept away, a new system of
jurisdiclion has been formed. Of the judicial authorities, the lowest class are the juges de
paix, wlio amount to nearly 3000. 'They have salaries of 800 to 1000 francs, and decide
finally on all cases where the question at issue does not exceed fifty francs. Immediately
above them are the tribunals de premiere instance, before whom all questions and charges
come in the first instance, and who judge finally respecting any property not exceeding 1000
francs. There are 360 of these courts, and the judges are supposed little short of 3000.
To them are attached the tribunal of correctional police, which has cognizance of all minor
offences. Above these rank the cours royales, sometimes called co!(7-s d'appel, because an
appeal lies to them from the inferior courts. They are twenty-seven in number, attached
to the chief cities in the kingdom. They consist, in populous towns, of twenty, thirty, and
in Paris of fifty members; who, in that case, are divided into several chambers. Attached
to them are the cours d'assise, or, as we would call them, jury courts, to which all criminal
cases of importance are referred by the cours royales. A French jury consists of twelve,
and a simple majority decides. From the decisions of the cours royales an appeal lies to the
court of cassation, the highest tribunal, which also exercises a general jurisdiction over the
other judicial bodies. All the judges are appointed by the crown, but hold tlieir offices for
life.

Book I.

FRANCE.

533

[The following tables from official documents contain important data illustrative not less
of the moral history of mankind, than of the state of society in France.
I, statement of the Number of Persons charged with Criminal Offences before the Courts of Assize, in each year,
ft-om 1838 to 1832.

Crimes against tlie Person.
Against the State and Public Officers .
Murder and Manslaughter 
Parricide 
Infanticide 
Cutting and Wounding 
Assaults upon Women 
" Children 
Perjury and Subornation of Perjury .
Bigamy 
Other Crimes 

Totals .

Crimes against Property.
Coining 
Forgery of Commercial Papers . .
Other Forgeries 
Robbery and Theft in Churches . .
" " on Highways .
" '* by Domestics ,
Other kinds of Robbery 
Fradulent Bankruptcy 
Incendiarism 
Other Crimes 

Totals 
General Totals.

178520 15
99
531 167 157 73

29 99
323 47
188
966
3,592 8996
123

1830.

178
528 14
91
456 184139 79 11
64

78
102332 67
185
1,2153,245 9588
175

5,552

7,396

365469 4
109309 136107 71 7
52

4890
281 47
135
1,0163,280 84
138177

5,582 5,296

6,962

618605 15
86
340 115 103 72 2
54

105 73
301 35
123
939
3,481 67
122314

5,560

1,088 641 23 88
342 131
111 104

81 88
327 38
168
958
3,352 70
169342

5,593

7,606 8,237

n. statement showing the Degree

of Instruction of Persons charged with Crimes before the Courts of Assize, in

each year

from 1828 to 1832.

Year.
Unable to read or write.
Able to read or write imperfectly.
Crimes against
Feraons.
Crimes against
Property.
Total
Accused.
Acquitted.
Convicted.
Crimes against
Pereons.
Crimes against
Property.
Total
Accused.
Acquitted.
Convicted.
1828
1,009
3,157
4,166
1,539
2,627
505
1,353
1,858
715
1,143
1829
1,063
3,460
4,523
1,696
2,827
496
1,451
1,947
787
1,160
1830
990
3,329
4,319
1,654
2,665
465
1,361
1,826
766
1,060
1831
1,144
3,456
4,600
1,948
2,652
568
1,479
2,047
1,000
1,047
1832
1,333
3,416
4,749
1,883
2,866
850
1,606
2,450
1,162
1,294
Total in
Five years.
5,539
16,818
22,357
8,720
13,637
2,884
7,350
10,134
4,430
5,704
Able to rea£
and write well
Received a deg
Tee of Instruction beyond me
re reading a]
od writing.
1828
215
565
780
342
438
30
82
118
77
41
1829
185
544
729
32.1
404
46
124
170
89
81
1830
174
514
688
330
358
37
92
129
82
47
1831
234
533
767
426
341
98
92
190
132
58
1832
292
583
775
373
402
169
88
257
162
95
Total in
Five years.
1,100
2,639
3,739
1,796
1,943
386
478
864
542
322
Am. Ed.J
Financial system. During the period of the Revolution, France shook off the heavy
burden of debt which had been a main instrument in bringing on that catastrophe. Yet the
amount of taxes had not exceeded 550,000,000 livres, and the nation was crushed rather by
the arbitrary and injudicious modes of levying the imposts, than by their actual amount.
Napoleon, to support his continual wars, laid on large additional taxes, chiefly in the form of
land assessment, and contracted, a debt of 3,000,000,000 francs. This was augmented by the.
events of 1815, and the occupation of the French territory by the allied armies at the expense
of France. The debt is now expressed in the form of rentes or annuities, which in the
budget of 1830 amounted to 249,496,000 livres : this, with other funds for which govern
ment were responsible, was considered as representing a capital of 4,988,738,000 francs.
The statement of receipt and expenditure for the year 1830 is as follows : —
EXPENDITDEE. Francs.
Civil List  27,666,666
Chamber of Peers  799,999
Chamber of Deputies  600,000
Legion of Honour  3,655,209
Sinking Fund  41,665,050
Debt  276,356,668
RECEIPT. Francs.
Direct TaMS, chiefly on Land  290.265,819
Registration Stamps, and Domains  187,235,038
Custom-houses and Salt  154,331,103
Liquors, Sundry Duties, Tobacco and Gun
powder  193,081,582
Post Office  33,469,030
Falls of Timber  24,060,697
Salt-works  1,200,000
Gaming-houses  4,338,888
RoyalLottery  10,042,799
Coinage  141,381
Sundry proceeds  11,585,418
Extraordinary resources  48,402,241
Deductions on Receipts  25,900,000
983,944,066
45*
Justice  19,566,020
Foreign Affairs  8,778,000
Religion and Public Instruction  38,961,500
Interior  126,122,™
War  233,363,817
Marine  38,527,474
Finance  32,877,167
Administration of Revenue  129,072,351
Repayments  46,300,808
1,084,288.445
534

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part HI

The army of France is no longer that vast and terrible mass, which for so many years
hold the whole of continental Europe in thrall. The events of 1815 having proved too
clearly the attachment of the old troops to their former master, they were nearly all dis
banded, and their place supplied by fresh conscription. The government has the power of
levying 60,000 men in the year. By a regulation, breathmg still the republican spirit, one-
third of the officers must be raised from the ranks. The army in the year 1832 was on a
very formidable footing. It amounted in all, including 19,036 officers, and 3794 children of
soldiers, to 411,816 men. Of these, the infantry consisted of 9505 ofiicers and 264,141 men;
the cavalry of 2805 officers and 51,335 men ; the artiUery of 1190 officers and 32,594 men,
besides gendarmerie, engineers, &c.
The French navy, which, in 1791, amounted to seventy-four sail of the line and sixty-two
frigates, lost half during the war ; and those which remained, having never ventured for
many years to stir out of port, lost all their experience and efficiency. At present, it consists
of 55 ships of the line, 66 frigates, 30 corvettes, 103 smaller vessels, 17 steam-vessels,
numerous armed transports, &c. The French navy is now in a high state of efficiency, and
is rapidly increasing. Sect. V. — Productive Industry.
France, with regard to internal economy, is one of the richest and most flourishing coun
tries in the world. In point of industry she ranks third after Britain and the Netherlands ,
while she possesses a greater extent and more natural advantages than either of those great
seats of commerce and manufacture.
Agriculture is the most flourishing branch, yet is not in so advanced a state as in Great
Britain. It has gained greatly by the French revolution, in consequence of the abolition of
feudal rights, corvees, and tithes. The great possessions of the nobility were then broken
up, and during the grand emigration, the farmers, or neighbouring little proprietors and
capitalists, were able to purchase at a very cheap rate portions of the forfeited domains. It
has become a rage in France for every one to possess a little spot of land ; and the division
of a man's property among his children, which tlje law enforces, tends to split it perpetually
more and more into minute portions. Travellers have even observed tliree or four pro
prietors obliged to join in keeping a common plough. In vineyards and other garden cul
tures, where nice care and diligence are chiefly requisite, this minute partition seems
advantageous. Chaptal even calculates, that a small vineyard cultivated by the proprietor's
own hand will yield double the quantity of that which is leased out by a large proprietor.
But in corn lands, where a considerable capital, good machinery, strong and well-fed cattle
are necessary, the cultivation is thus kept down to a much lower standard than it would
otherwise reach. The little occupants, also, are by no means prompt in discovering any
improved processes, or in adopting those discovered elsewhere. Artificial grasses, and the
rotation of crops which they facilitate, are by no means generally diffused; and an old
vicious circle, of wheat, oats, and fallow, is still very generally adhered to. In-short, aU
operations on a great scale, and requiring a considerable outlay, are deficient in France.
M. Dupin, in a discourse on the effects of public instruction, in the introduction to his normal
course of lectures on geometry, has drawn a striking contrast between northem and southern
France. Although the former produces neither the olive, the vine, nor any of the finer
fruits, yet it pays of taxes 127,630,000 francs on a surface of 18,690,000 hectares; while the
south pay^only 125,410,000 firancs upon 34,840,000 hectares. Even in the south, the dis
tricts least favoured by nature are both the most enlightened and the most industrious ; the
high Alps, the high Pyrenees, and the departments immediately adjoining to them.
Grain, notwithstanding the imperfection in its cultivation, is produced with such diligence
as to yield enough in ordinary years to supply the extensive population of France with food.
The only exception is in part of its southern coast, which, when permitted, draws a supply
from Odessa. France is not distinguished for any very superior quality of grain, nor is it an
exporting country. It seems to have attended less than most other countries of Europe to
the culture of potatoes, which are still planted only in gardens, along borders, or in tracts
unfit for grain. Maize is mixed with wheat in the southern departments. Chaptal has
given the following statement, calculated on an average of twelve years, fi-om 1800 to 1812,
of the entire products of this branch of French agriculture: —

Hectolitres.
Wheat  51,500,200
Rye  30,2510,161
Maize  6,303,316
Buckwheat  8,409,473

Hectolitres.
Barley  13,570,003
Potatoes  19,800,741
Oats  32,060,587
160,946,081

A more recent estimate, in a memoir read to the Society of Statistics in 1830, makes the
average produce of the years 1825 to 1828 amount to 60,553,000 hectolitres of wheat ;
114,733,000 of other grains; 46,238,000 of potatoes and chestnuts.
Wine ranks next in importance to grain, and forms a most valuable part of Prench
industry. The wines of France, though not so strong as tliose of more southern climates,

Book I. FRANCE. 535
are generally accounted the most delicate in the world. Those of Burgundy and Champagne
are wiUiout a rival, if we except a few rare specimens of Tokay. The wines of the Garonne
do not rank quite so high ; but, from their light, safe, and agreeable qualities, are drunk more
fre'.ly, and exported on a loi-ger scale. The finest and strongest of these wines are cultivated
chiefly to supply the consumption of Britain and the other northern nations. The interior
consumption of France consists chiefly of the light wines, drunk at table, nearly as our beer.
Two elaborate attempts have been made to estimate the produce of the French vineyards ;
one by Chaptal, in his " General Treatise on French Industry," and the other in the report
of a committee of the Chamber of Peers, presented in 1824 by the Due de DodeauvUle.
They differ pretty considerably. Chaptal supposes that 1,631,000 hectares are employed in
producing wine to tlie average annual amount of 35,500,000 hectolitres. The table, how
ever, given by the duke, of the produce of each department does not exceed 31,630,000
hectolitres. The difference as to value is still more remarkable. Chaptal, after leaving out
a sixtli, as made into brandy, estimates the remainder at 678,000,000 francs : he supposes
that there are 800,000 worth each 200 francs ; 1,600,000 worth 50 ; gradually descending
till he comes to 10,500,000 worth only 7-j francs. DodeauvUle does not bring the amount
to more than 480,000,000. The highest average value he assigns to the wines of any
department is to those of the Oise (champagne), 36 francs ; those of the Marne, Yonne, and
Cote d'Or (burgundy), 26 to 24 ; of the Gironde, and Lot, and Garonne (claret), 19 to 21 ;
the rest from 17 to 9. His estimate, however, seems too low ; since M. Dupin (Forces Pro-
ductives, dfc. de la France) calculates the value, according to the tax paid to government,
at 543,155,078 fl-ancs. The brandy into which one-sixth of the above produce is made, is,
like the wine, the finest in the world, and a grand staple of French trade. Chaptal estimatgs
the value distilled at 40,000,000 francs. M. Dupin states the quantity at 469,817 hectolitres;
that of other spirits at 90,000. He calculates also 8,868,218 hectolitres of cider, and 2,965,022
hectolitres of strong beer.
Live stock does not form the most approved part of French husbandry. Chaptal considers
that the animals are too few, whether for culture, for use, or for the production of manure ;
and also that the measures taken to improve the breed have been very partial and defective.
The number of horses, including mules, in 1827, was 2,550,000. Of these it was reckoned
that 300,000 were employed in riding, posting, the artillery, &c. The stock requires to be
kept up by an importation, which in 1809 to 1812 was valued at 3,541,000 francs annually,
but according to M. Senac had risen, in 1822 to 1825, to 7,500,000. In return, there is an
extensive breeding of mules on the Pyrenean frontier, and they are exported to Spain to the
value of 1,400,000 francs. France had in 1812, 214,000 bulls, 1,701,000 oxen, 3,909,000
cows, 856,000 heifers. The importation at that time amounted to only 2,360,000 francs, but
in 1825 it was 7,680,000. The exportation is, however, considerable. Sheep are a species
of stock very considerable in amount, particularly in the departments bordering on the Alps
and Pyrenees, in those which compose the mountain district of Auvergne, and on the pastoral
banks of the Eure and the Cher. The number of sheep in 1812 was 766,310 merinos,
3,578,000 mixed, and 30,843,000 native or unimproved. The first introduction of merinos
was in consequence of the treaty of Basle, which stipulated that 4000 of these highly prized
animals should pass into France. An experience of thirty years has shown that the breed
might be preserved and extended in full perfection ; but the above statement will show that
the diffusion of it is, as yet, very partial. Pure merinos are valued at thirty francs, mixed
at twelve francs, and native sheep at only five francs. The number of swine in France is
estimated by Balbi, in 1826, at 4,000,000. The ass is considered by M. Senac to be, from
the poverty of his owners, in an almost hopeless state of degradation ; and the fowls, the
bees, and the pigeons to demand a thoroughly improved system of rearing. Chaptal has
not attempted to estimate the winged species, but has guessed their entire value at about
51,000,000 francs.
Among the materials of manufacture, tlie most important is sUk, which was at first intro
duced near Tours, but was soon found to be well suited only to the most southern districts.
The amount, according to Chaptal, is about 11,400,000 lbs., and the value 15,440,000 francs;
but this is only about two-fifths of the quantity consumed in the manufactures, so that a large
importation is necessary from Lombardy. Hemp and flax are cultivated universally, but
always on a small scale, every farmer having his little patch for domestic use. It is diffi
cult to estimate these ; but Chaptal guesses the value of hemp at 80,000,000 francs, and flax
at 20,000,000 francs. Vegetable oils are prorluced to the supposed extent of 1,300,000 quin
tals, worth about 75,000,000 francs ; yet so great is the quantity consumed in domestic
use, and in the different manufactures, that they are imported to the value of nearly twenty-
five millions.
There are certain tropical and colonial productions which it was the eager wish of Napo
leon that France should cultivate, in order that she might be independent of commerce.
One of his favourite projects was the culture of the beet-root, for the extraction of sugar,
an article of consumption with which Europeans can least dispense. The admission of colo
nial and foreign sugars, under reasonable duties, after the overthrow of the continental sys-

536 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part HI.
tem, gave a severe check to this spurious branch of industry. To prevent its decline, heavy
additional duties were laid on colonial and foreign sugars in 1816 and 1822 ; and, in conse
quence of this encouragement, the production of beet-root sugar has been rapidly increasing
during the last five years, and is now supposed to amount to about 8000 tons, or 8,960,000 lbs.
The art has been a good deal improved ; and it is supposed by many that it will, at no dis
tant period, be so much ameliorated that the beet-growers will be able to withstand the
competition of the West India planters under the same duties : but any such expectation
seems to us to be quite visionary. The entire consumption of sugar in France amounts, at
present, inclusive of that from the beet-root, to about 72,000 tons a year ; being not much
more than a third part of the consumption of Great Britain and Ireland, which amounts to
about 190,000 tons. Tobacco, after the removal of the regie or royal monopoly, rose to
50,000,000 lbs. ; but since the restoration of the regie in 1812, it has fallen to 5,000,000.
Wood is an important article, especially in a country which is nearly destitute of any
other fuel. Chaptal estimated the woodlands at 7,072,000 hectares (about 17,500,000 acres);
but according "to a more recent memorial in 1824, by M. Herbin de Halle, sub-administrator
of the forests, it is only 6,521,000 hectares (about 16,000,000 acres). Of this, 1,122,000
hectares belong to the state, 1,896,000 to the communes, 65,969 to the crown, 192,000 to
princes of the royal family, and 3,243,000 to private individuals. Woods thus occupy a little
more than an eighth part of the soil. The greatest proportion exists in the departments
bordering on the Alps and the Pyrenees, and along the Rhine, the Moselle, the Sa6ne, the
Marne, and other eastern rivers. Chaptal estimates the value of the annual cuttings at
about 141,000,000 francs ; but if this be reduced according to M. de Halle's estimate, it will
^ive only 130,000,000. Fruit trees are also of importance, especially chestnuts, cultivated
on a large scale in several provinces, and valued by Chaptal at about 10,000,000 fhincs.
He estimates the fruit growing open in orchards at 22,500,000 francs, and that on walls, or
in rows as single trees, at 68,750,000. He is afraid that this last will be thought too low ;
we should rather apprehend an opposite error in this instance, as well as in that of reckoning
the herbs which grow in 328,000 hectares of garden ground, at 200,000,000 francs.
On the whole, Chaptal calculates that in the 52,000,000 hectares of which Prance con
sists, twenty-three are arable ; ten woods, vines, fruit-trees ; seven pasturage ; the rest
waters, roads, buildings, waste. He makes the annual average produce of an acre 28 francs.
By this and other estimates, the annual territorial produce comes to about 1,.500,000,000
francs. The entire agricultural capital he estimates at 37,500,000,000 francs. M. Dupin,
in 1827, reckons the territorial revenue at 1,626,000,000 francs.
The manufactures of France, though they do not present the immense results of those of
England, are considerably more productive than those of almost any other nation. Colbert,
the celebrated minister of Louis XIV., finding this branch in a very depressed state, com
pared with its prosperous condition in some neighbouring countries, bestowed on it almost
an exclusive attention. Chaptal calculates, that. during the Revolution it made stiU greater
progress than agriculture. He regards as almost miraculous the advance made in the cotton
and other fabrics. The miracle, however, was wrought solely by the rigid exclusion of
British goods ; and amid all the boasted proofs of French ingenuity, he is obliged to confess,
that when, as minister of the interior, he sought eagerly the means of introducing new
manufactures, he could find no effectual expedient, except that of alluring English manu
facturers into France, and of copying their processes. However, these prohibitions, which
have been continued to a great extent under the royal system, have in fiict forced a number
of manufactures which could not otherwise have withstood British competition.
SUk has been long one of the most prominent objects of French manufacture. Even the
revocation of the edict of Nantes, though it drove many of the most industrious citizens out
of the kingdom, left that branch of industry still very flourishing. It suffered more from the
dreadful calamities which befell Lyons, its chief seat, during the height of the revolutionary
mania. The 15,000 establishments that existed in 1788 for the manufacture of silk, were
reduced in 1800 to 3500 ; but amounted, in 1831, to about 1.5,000, employing above 21,000
workmen. It is chiefly in cloths that this city excels all others, both as to the brilliancy of
the dyes, and the richness and beauty of the stuffs. Nismes excels in taffetas, mixed silk
and cotton stuffs, gauzes, and crapes ; Tours in ftirniture stuffs ; Avig-nnn in satins, levan-
tines, &.C. The Cevennes are famous for bonnets, while almost all the silk ribands are fabri
cated in the department of the Loire. The entire value of the manufacture is estimated at
125,000,000 francs, of which 30,000,000 is exported.
The woollen manufacture is stUl more extensive and valuable than that of silk. The
woollens of France are either very coarse or very fino ; the former are established chiefly in
the hilly tracts of the southern border, where the sheep yield abundance of coarse wool, and
the shepherds spend the leisure of winter in working it up into serges, fi-iezes, and similar
stuffs. On the other hand, at Sedan, Louviers, AbbevUle, are manufactured finer cloths
than any of those of Britain, thougli the latter produces a much larger quantity of good and sub
stantial cloth. Although France produces 84,000,000 lbs. of wool, she yet imports to the
value of 12,000,000 or 14,000,000 of francs : Chaptal estimates tlie whole unmanufiictured

Book I. FRANCE. 53"
wool at 93,000,000 francs, and the finished work at 238,000,000, of which the exports
amount to about 25,000,000.
The making of linen is as widely scattered as the culture of hemp and flax. The coarse
cloths are chiefly fabricated by the peasantry, each out of the produce of his own little patch
of land. There are, however, large manufactures of plain useful cloth in Normandy and
Dauphine, the latter from hemp ; and great quantities of sailcloth are made in the maritime
countries. In the departments along the Belgic border there are extensive fabrics of lawns,
cambrics, and lace ; which last, though not of equal reputation with that of Brussels and
Mechlin, forms yet an important object of trade. We may reckon the raw material of hemp
at 37,000,000 fi-ancs ; the finished manufacture at neaily 110,500,000 ; flax, raw material,
20,000,000, the finished fabric, 75,000,000. The exportation is about 37,500,000, almost
wholly of the finest kinds of the manufacture.
The cotton manufacture was established in Prance during the continental system ; and
has been propped up since the restoration of the Bourbons by the prohibition of importation
from abroad. In 1810 the imports of raw cotton amounted to above 25,000,000 lbs., and
during the next ten years they were more than doubled. But the high price of machinery
in France, the scarcity of coal, and the want of skill on the part of the workmen, seem to
oppose almost insuperable obstacles to the fiirther progress of the manufacture. It is at pre
sent in a very depressed state, and the foUowing account shows that it has been nearly sta
tionary during the last ten years : —
Imports of Cotton Wool into France. lbs.

1822  61,758,300
1823  50,953,500
1824  75,333,200
1825  61,371600
1826  : .... 96,052,200

1827  87,185,100
1828  61,839,600
1829  :  72,669,000
1830  84,825.600
1831  65,517,900

[In 1834, it agam rose to 279,674 bales, or about 73,250,000 lbs. ; and in 1835, to 314,350
bales, or about 94,000,000 lbs.— Am. En.]
Of the secondary objects of manufacture, that of leather is perhaps the most extensive,
though not peculiarly French. It is supposed that in France the annual product amounts to
857,000 cow-hides ; 110,000 horse-hides, and 2,032,000 calf-skins. There are 31,000 shoe
makers in Paris, who make upwards of eight millions of pairs of shoes yearly, not only for
the city itself, but the provinces, and even foreign countries. Chaptal reckons the whole
produce of tanning, currying, shoemaking, and all processes connected with leather, at
143,000,000 francs. Hard' soap was formerly supplied by MarseUles to ail France and the
colonies, but its produce of 225,000 quintals is now reduced by a third ; owing partly to the
reduction of the colonial demand, and partly to the more general diffusion of the manufacture.
It is thought stUl to amount to 30,000,000 francs. Starch, including hair-powder, may amoimt
to 18,000,000 pounds. There are sundry little matters of jewellery, trinkets, fiirniture, per
fumery, scented waters, volatile salts, which elsewhere are only petty trades, but which taste
and fashion in France raise to the dignity of manufactures, the whole produce of which is
reckoned at upwards of 100,(M)0,000 francs. Crystal, glass, and pottery are branches in
which the French have recently made great progress; and, from being dependent on
foreigners for these articles, are now able to export them. The first two branches are esti
mated at 21,000,000 ; porcelain made at Sevres and other places, at 5,000,000 ; pottery in
imitation of English, a little more; coarse pottery for the lower ranks, 15,000,000.
Mineral kingdom. France yields in abundance the most solid and useful of all metals,
iron. There are about 400 forges in the kingdom, chiefly in the Pyrenean and Alpine de
partments, and along the heads of the Marne, the Moselle, and the Saone.
The produce which M. Chaptal reckoned only 81,000,000 kilogrammes, had, according to
M. Dupm, risen in 1825 to 161,000,000 (about 161,000 tons), the value of which would be
about 75,000,000 francs. Chaptal supposed the workmanship bestowed even on the smaller
quantity produced in his time sufficient to raise the value to 200,000,000 francs. Nearly all
the copper and lead employed in Prance is imported from abroad. Salt is extracted on the
southern coast from sea-water evaporated by the heat of the sun, and in the north from
brine-springs artificially evaporated. During the period when salt, relieved from the old
oppressive monopoly, was left entirely free, its production and use rose to the extraordinary
height of upwards of 20 millions of quintals. Since the re-establishment of the tax, it has
fallen to not quite two millions ; upon which there is paid a duty of 45,000,000 francs. This
astonishing diminution seems chiefly owing to the disuse of it in agriculture ; a circumstance
however very injurious to that branch of industry. Other mineral products, with their sup
posed value, are, alum, 2,500,000 ; saltpetre, 3,000,000 ; nitric acid, 6,000,000 ; muriatic
acid, 250,000.
The total value of the products of the mines and manufactures of Prance is estimated at
2,000,000,000 francs. The particulars are about 450 mUlions of home raw materials ; 225
miUions of foreign raw materials ; 900 millions of workmanship ; 225 millions of general ex-
VoL. L 3S

538

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III

pense, as implements, repairs, lighting, interest of fixed capital ; 200 millions for the profit
of the manufacturer.
The commerce of France, while all the other branches of industry were thus advancing,
has perceptibly declined. It was reduced, indeed, to a state of temporary annihilation by
the violent policy of Napoleon, who absolutely lined the coast with troops, that not a single
vessel might enter. Thus all the commercial ties of France were broken, every channel
closed by which she was accustomed to exchange her commodities with those of foreign
countries. Indeed, the anti-commercial spirit seems to have become rooted in the mind of
the nation ; and when we find even the enlightened mind of Chaptal extolling the prohibi
tory system, and considering every thing as a source of loss to France which she imports
from abroad, there can appear little prospect of any amendment. That writer considers the
year 1789 as the most flourishing period of French commerce ; when the exports amounted
to 18,200,OOOZ. sterling, and the imports to 26,500,000?. This extraordinary excess of
imports, a result, according to old ideas, considered so disastrous, he explains by observing,
that the imports include ten miUions from the colonies, while the exports thither were only
four, and also two millions and a half in gold and silver. Whether this explanation be sound
or otherwise, we have no idea that there could be any permanent or extensive difference be
tween the two branches. Chaptal has, with grief, declined to give any record of the feeble
efforts at revival made by the French commerce. Since the appearance of Chaptal's work,
however, it has considerably improved. In 1827, the import traide was carried out by 33.5()
vessels, under the French flag, tonnage 353,000, value of cargoes 230,140,000 francs ; and
by 4439 foreign vessels, tonnage 474,000, value of cargoes 136,041,000 francs. There were,
besides, imported by land, goods to the value of 199,621,000 francs ; making the imports in
all, 565,802,000 francs.
In the same year the export trade was carried on by 3522 French vessels, tonnage
346,000, value of cargoes 235,120,000 francs ; and 4141 foreign vessels, tonnage also
346,000, value of cargoes 167,728,000 francs. The exports by land amounted to 156,767,000
francs ; making in all, 559,615,000 francs.
The following was the value of the leading articles of import and export : —

IMPORTS. Francs,
Rawhides  8,700,000
Wools  11,140,000
feathers  1,580,000
Silks  32,270,000
Tallow  2,500,000
Fruits to plant  1,220,000
Tobacco  7,650,000
Vegetable juices  2,270,000
Oils, not for food  21,430,000
Medicines  2,130,000
Wood  17,000,000
.  , ornamental  2,900,000
Hemp  4,210,000
Flax  56,000
Cotton  51,910,000
Gems  8,200,000
Sulphur  1,290,000
Coal  8,08(1,000
Castiron  1,170,000
Copper  9,110,000
Tin  2,130,000
Potash  3,420,000
Indigo  14,880,000
Horses  3,360,000
Sheep  6,400,000
Horned cattle  ,  2,520,000
Butter  1,960,000
Eggs  3,830,000
Grain  7,150,000
Cheese  3,140,000
Fruits  16,200,000
Sugar  36,000,000
Coffee  10,000,000
Straw-hats  4,550,000
Linen, or hemp stuffs,  15.880,000
Mercery  2,170,000

EXPORTS. Francs.
Dye stuffs  8,300,000
Gems  2,120,006
Horses  1,290,000
Mules  4,840,000
Sheep  1,420,000
Horned cattle  2,520,000
Refined sugar  4,550,000
Wine, ordinary  41,510,000
 , liqueurs  5,720,000
Brandies  22,970.000
Straw-hats  2,090,000
Porcelain  3,680,000
Glass  2,600,000
¦ French books  3,140,000
Paper  3,960,000
Perfumery  5,390,000
Cloths, wool  '.  26,920,000
 , silk  90,860,000
 , ribands  24.380,000
 , cotton  46,020,000
 , linen  17,370,000
Cambric and lawn  16,580,000
PlaquiS  3,170,000
Clock and watch-work  4.340,000
Tabletterie  3,790,000
Mercery  •  6,880,000
Modes  2,.'500,no0
Made clothes  6,480,000
Parisian articles  5,690,000

Mercantile navy. In 1827, the mercantUe navy of Prance consisted of 14,530 vessels,
of the burden of 700,000 tons. Of these there belonged to —

Ships.
Bordeaux  431 .
Marseilles  711 ,
Havre  359 ,

TOIM.
.77,000 .65,000 .62,000

Ships.
Nantes  537 .
Rouen  254.
Dunkirk  329.

Tons.
.56,000 .28,000
.17,500

The interior commerce must be very extensive, though it is difficult to estimate its amount,
as, notwithstanding considerable advantages for navigation, the bulk of it is carried on by
land. Ihe old medium affairs has been not only preserved, but greatiy extended. M Bottin
upon documents fiimished by the minister of the interior, calculates that there are 26 314

Book L FRANCE. 539
fairs in Prance. Some of these are held on the frontier of a province or kingdom, others
round a great cathedral or noted place of pilgrimage ; some at the foot of high mountains on
the melting of the snows, which have kept the inhabitants imprisoned for several months.
Sometimes they open with burlesque representations, as processions of giants, of flying
dragons, or monstrous fishes. The fair of Longchamps, held in spring at Paris, those of
Beaucaire in Languedoc, and of Guibray in Normandy, are the most extensive.
The canals of France were long entirely undertaken by the government, which carried
on these works with some spirit. The earliest was the Canal of Briare, to unite the Seine
and the Loire. It is about 38 mUes long, 4 feet deep, has 40 locks, and cost 1,000,000
francs. The canal of Languedoc is on a much greater scale, and~was considered in its day
a stupendous undertaking. It was intended to unite the Mediterranean with the Atlantic,
and is 170 mUes long, 6| feet deep, with 100 locks. The cost was 32,000,000 francs, which
would have been, at least, doubled had the work been executed in the present day. It was
considered the largest canal in Europe, tUl it was eclipsed by the Caledonian, which is three
times as deep, and admits ships of war ; whereas the canal of Languedoc has afforded a
mere inland navigation, along which pass 1900 vessels of 100 to 120 tons ; but it has not,
for the most common merchant-vessels, superseded the necessity of going round by the
Straits of Gibraltar. The Canal of the Centre, joining the Saone and the Loire by a line
of 70 mUes, was completed in 1793, at an expense of 10,000,000 francs ; but only 5 feet
deep. The Canal of Picardy, from the Oise towards Lille, remarkable for its long tunnel
near St. Quintin, was completed in 1810, at an expense of 10,800,000 francs. StiU, France,
in this grand national improvement, remained far behind England, which, by M. Dupin's es
timate, made a few years ago, had more than four and a half times as much canalization in
proportion to its surface. Very recently, however, France has displayed an extraordinary
activity in planning, and a considerable diligence in executing, designs of this nature. This
too has been displayed not by government only, but by private associations, asking only aid
and advances from the state. Independent of the finished works above stated, twelve great
new canals are in progress. These are, — 1. The Canal Monsieur, joining the Rhine and
the Rhone by the Saone and the Doubs ; length 180 miles. 2, Of Burgundy, joining the
Sadne to the Loire by the Yonne, 145 miles. 3. Of Angouleme, making the Somme navi
gable to Amiens. 4. A lateral canal along the Loire, to avoid the difficulties of its naviga
tion, from Dijon to Briare, 120 mUes. .5. From Nantes to Brest, with a view of provisioning
the ports of Britany, 220 miles. 6. Of Ille et Ranee, joining Nantes to Brest and St. Malo.
7. Of Nivemais, joining the Yonne to the Loire. 8. Of the Duke of Berri, joining the Cher
to the Upper Loire. 9. Ardennes. 10. Blanet. 11. Aries. 12. Oise. Several canals, on
a still more magnificent scale, have been recently contemplated, and what the French call
the studies of them are even far advanced ; but no part of the works has yet been com
menced. Doubts are even entertained if they will repay the immense expense required for
their completion. The principal of these are, — 1. A maritime canal from Paris to the sea,
avoiding the circuitous navigation of the Seine, and admitting ships of large burden to that
capital. The estimate is 150,000,000 francs, and 1,500,000 francs for a harbour at Paris.
2. A canal from Paris to Strasburg ; which would become, as it were, the French Grand
Trunk, and might easily be extended to the Danube. The length would exceed 300 miles.
1. The Pyrenean Canal, from Toulouse to Bayonne, forming a more direct communication
from sea to sea than at present. Length, 210 miles.
The roads of France, at least the high roads, have been chiefly supported by government.
They are broader, more spacious, more direct, and on the whole of grander aspect, than the
English roads ; but they have not been kept in such good condition for travelling. Roads
have been made and repaired rather for political and military purposes, from solicitation and
favour, than for objects of real utility. 'The system seems to have been, to neglect them aa
long as possible, till the clamour of the district became irresistible, and then to give them a
thorough repair ; to which Dupin justly prefers the system of keeping roads constantly in a
good state by small repairs as the necessity arises. The Prench roads, however, have been
greatly improved since 1810, and the maintenance of a great proportion of them has been
undertaken by the departments ; so that they are now divided into royal and departmental.
The royal roads, in 1828, extended 8631 leagues, and there was expended on them
199,000,000 francs ; but this was chiefly on repairing and extendmg different parts of them.
It was thus divided : — Francs.
To maintain 4205 leagues, cost  9,349,000
Torepair 3166 ditto  61,051,000
Tocomplete 814 ditto  43,403,000
Toopen 446 ditto  34,964,000
Works of art  50,696,600
199,463,000
The departmental roads, in 1828, extended 7704 leagues, of which 6040 had been
opened, and to complete the remaining 1664 would require an expenditure of 112,000,000
francs.

540 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part m.
There are several rail-roads in France, but of no great extent ; the principal are that of
Andrezieux and Roanne, 50 miles in length ; that of St. Etienne and the Loire, 15 mUes ;
and that of St. Etienne and Lyons, 45 miles.
Of the bridges of Prance several are handsome, as those over the Loire at Orleans,
Tours, and Nantes ; over the Seine at Paris, Neuilly, and Rouen ; over the Rhone and
Sadne at Lyons ; and over the Garonne at Bordeaux. Bridges of suspension have been con
structed at Paris in front of the H6tel des Invalides, and over the Rhone, between Tain and
Tournon. These operations have been entirely in the hands of goveritment.
Sect. VI. — Civil and Social State.
The population of France, which in 1780, by the enquiries of Necker, appeared to be
24,800,000, was found by the census of 1791 to amount to 26,363,000 ; by that of 1817, to
upwards of 29,000,000 ; and by that of 1820-21, to 30,616,000, including Corsica and the
army. According to the royal ordonnance of March 1.5th, 1827, it amounted to 31,851,545.
There were in that year 965,634 births ; of which 898,329 were legitimate, and 67,305 Ule-
gitimate. The births consisted of 498,187 boys, and 467,447 girls. The marriages were
229,613, the deaths 772,428. At an average the proportion of male births in France to female
births is as 16 to 15 ; the marriages are to the population as 1 to 133 ; the births are to the
marriages nearly as 4 to 1 ; and to the population as 1 to 31,53 ; the deaths are to the popu
lation as 1 to 39.4. The extraordinary improvement since 1780 in the condition of the people
is obvious from the fact that at the last-mentioned period the deaths were to the whole popu
lation as 1 to 30.2 : so that while, in 1780, one individual died annuaUy out of every 30
individuals, in 1832 one only died out of about 39.*
The French national character has very marked features, and has been the object of
mingled admiration and contempt to the neighbouring nations. In the eyes of Frenchmen,
especially of the old school, la belle France is the centre of all that is refined and polished
in human existence, and whatever lies beyond its sphere is marked with a deep taint of bar
barism ; while their rougher neighbours brand them as artificial, effeminate, and fentastic.
The art of living in society seems certainly carried to greater perfection than in any other
country ; and the manners are characterised by a peculiar gaiety, amenity, and courtesy.
The polish of the higher ranks seems to have descended even to the lowest circles. " The
man who breaks stones upon the road takes off his hat to the woman that leads her cow in a
string ; the tinker and the shoeblack whip off their hats to each other." A certain openness
and kindness of disposition is certainly evinced in the custom of whole families, with married
sons and daughters, continuing to dwell under the paternal roof The Frenchman lives as
it were in public : his house, for a part of the day, is open to a large circle of acquaintance.
He enjoys society without expense and ceremony. He resorts habitually to the theatre,
spectacles, and scenes of public amusement. In more serious points of view, the French
possess estimable qualities. Intoxication is a vice confined to the lowest ranks ; and swear
ing is repelled at least as a mark of barbarism. The French are ingenious, acute, active, and
intelligent. If they have not what can strictly be called patriotism, they have at least a
very strong national feeling. To exalt the glory and promote the infiuence of France, is the
prevailing impulse which actuates the mind of almost every Frenchman. It is, however,
alleged^ that there is a want of that sterling principle, that openness and integrity, which
forms the boast of the English character. Dissimulation and insincerity seem widely dif
fused through the intercourse of the higher circles. The honesty of the lower classes is,
however, remarkable ; and the system of higgling in shops, is a consequence of the contracted
state of commerce^ The deportment of the female sex, however embellished by tournure,
and the graces, does not accord with our ideas of social and domestic propriety. The young
ladies are strictly watched, and held in almost monastic seclusion ; but tbe era of marriage
is the signal, if not of positive irregularity, at least of a system of regular flirtation, which
we cannot reconcile to the conjugal and matronly character. It is probable, however, that
the impression of the general dissoluteness of French manners has been chiefly derived
from the opulent circles of the capital ; whUe, as a late writer has observed, Paris and the
provinces form entirely separate worlds. Among the peasantry, and even among tiie trading
class in the cities, there appears to be much that is respectable and amiable. The great
activity and prominent station of the female sex are everywhere conspicuous: they are seen
managing the shops, carrying on great manufactories, and joining in the hardest toils of the
loom and the field. It is not at all uncommon upon a farm to see the master sowing, his
wife guiding the plough, and a fine girl filling the dung-cart. Such avocations divest the
fair sex in the provinces of any great portion of beauty. Indeed, the gay hilarity of the
French character does not seem quite so universal as is generally supposed. Travellers in
the south, from Arthur Young to those of later date, complain rather of a singular gravity
and taciturnity. Mr. Matthews remarks in his " Diary of an Invalid," that a very con-
f* The population in 1833 was 32,500,000,— Am. Ed.J

Book L FRANCE. 541
siderable change of manners has taken place since the Revolution. All the distinctions of
rank have been cut down like tiie old trees of the forest, and the new generation, like the
coppice, are all on a level. " You will seek in vain," he says, " fbr that high-bred polish of
manners, which has been so much boasted as peculiar to the haut-ton of France. A re
publican spirit prevails, and shows itself in an independent roughness of manner, savouring
of sans-culottism."
The Roman Catholic has been the ruling religion in Prance, ever since the fatal issue of
the long struggle for religious liberty. Previously to the Revolution, however, a general
scepticism pervaded all the well-informed classes, both as to the Catholic tenets, and as to
religion in general. This was doubtless one great cause both of the Revolution and of many
of the fatal and disastrous aspects which it assumed. A furious anti-religious fanaticism
reigned ; all form of public worship was suspended, and even prohibited ; the churches were
rifled and defaced in a barbarous manner. At this time the vast domains of the church, by
which so many dignitaries and so many convents were supported in splendour, were voted
the property of the nation, and sold at a low price to supply its necessities. Napoleon had
the merit of re-establishing religious worship, and on a very liberal footing ; an allowance
being made for the support of the Protestant clergy, proportioned to the number who still
hold that feith, and who amoimt to about 1,500,000. As all the former funds however had
disappeared, the establishment is supported out of the public revenue, and is frugal, and even
scanty, both as to numbers and salary. In 1831, there were four cardinals, ten archbishops,
and sixty-six bishops. After the intermediate classes of vicars and canons come the cures,
or parish priests, amounting to 3000, with incomes of 1000 or 1500 francs ; but the chief
labour devolves upon 23,000 desservans, or acting curates, who starve upon 400 or 600
francs a year with the addition of only some small fees. The whole church expenditure, in
1823, amounted to 1,575,000 livres, but in 1832 was reduced by a third ; and the church
has been in a somewhat unsettled state. The Bourbons were supposed to aim at restoring
it to all its former power, splendour, and privilege ; a course viewed with extreme jealousy
by the republican party. The high church party endeavoured to remedy the deficiency of
the establishment by sending sotmd missionaries who were listened to by the people with
enthusiastic delight. The author of " Four Years in France" mentions one who in depart
ing from a city had his cassock torn off his back, and cut into pieces to be distributed as
relics. The liberals deride them as ignorant fanatics ; but some travellers who cannot be
charged with superstition, report them as displaying a good deal of natural eloquence, and
that their doctrines appeared really very edifying, since many persons who had been guilty
of thefts, even at remote periods, were induced by them to come forward and make confession
and restitution.
The hitellectual character of the French has been brilliant, and since the age of Louis
XTV. has had a powerful infiuence, in matters of taste, on the general literature of Europe :
that prince, ambitious of glory in every form, extended a munificent patronage to letters and
arts. The French Academy, though its endowments were not very splendid, and though
intrigue often influenced its admissions, gave a fixed and high place in society to men of
letters ; who, amid all the frivolity of French character, were received even among the highest
ranks with a distinction not accorded to them ui any other modern country. The aim of
Louis to make the French a sort of universal language was in a great measure successful ;
it became the established dialect at all the courts, and the chief medium by which the different
nations communicated with each other. The departments in which the writers of that age
exceUed, were chiefly pulpit eloquence, poetry of a light and satirical character, and the
drama in a somewhat fettered and artificial form. The writers of the following age took a
bolder and more varied flight, and sought to turn the opinion of mankind into new channels
upon all subjects. The wit and varied talent of Voltaire, the eloquence of Buffon and Rousseau,
the comprehensive views of Montesquieu, and the science of D'Alembert, gave a new turn
to the ideas of the thinking world throughout Europe. These writers, with their successors
of the same school, had a powerful influence in bringing on this revolution, in the ruins of
which several of them were buried. Learning was for some time almost extinguished in
France ; but as soon as the revolutionary frenzy abated, the National Assembly constituted
a new body called the National Institute, round which, under the changed appellations of
Imperial and Royal, all the highest names in science have since continued to rally. The
French during this period did not shine in poetry or general literature ; but in mathematics,
physics, and chemistry, the labours of Lavoisier, Laplace, Lalande, Chaptal, and a number
of others, have, notwithstanding the powerfiil rivalry on the other side of the Channel, raised
them perhaps to the very first place. Recently France has produced some very eminent
historians, and popular poets of a peculiar character ; there has been also a remarkable exten
sion of the habits of reading. The periodical sheets printed were in 1814 only 45,000 ; in
1826, they were 144,000. The most solid and useful branches also are those which have
most increased, as appears from the following table, formed by M. Dupin : —
Vol. L 46

542

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Pari HI.

Theology 
Lftgisiative 
Sciences 
Philosophy 
Political Economy.

No. of Sheets printed.

1814.

4,974,000 1,374,000
3,546,000 753,000
1,034,000

1826.

23,268,000 18,605,00012,160,000 3,032,000
2,097,000

Military Suhjects 
Fine Arts 
Belles Lettres 
History, Travels, &c 
Varieties, Almanacs, fee.

Ko. of Sheets printed.

1814.

441,000773,000
13,352,00016,228,000 3,t00,000

1826.

1,445,000 1,999,000
27,704,00046,545,000 7,699,000

The literary and scientific coUections of Paris are the most splendid in Europe : the royal
library contains 800,000 pn.ited volumes, 100,000 manuscripts, 5000 volumes of engravings,
and 1,000,000 historical documents. There are sixteen other libraries in Paris, contaming
800,000 volumes. The Museum of Natural History and the Jardin des Plantes are equally
copious in their respective departments. All these are opened to the public in the most
liberal manner. The provincial collections are also respectable, though they do not equal
those of the minor princes of Germany ; and France is, on the whole, less rich in this species
of treasure.
Among the establishments for public education in France, the universities, which are
twenty-six in number, hold the first rank. That of Paris is perhaps the most celebrated in
Europe, and was, even in the dark ages, the grand theatre of those dialectic combats, which
then usurped the honours of science. Though destroyed during the fury of the Revolution,
it has been re-established on a great scale, and with a larger appointment, of professors than
any other in Europe ; it attracts students from every part of the kingdom, as none of the
rest enjoy equal repute, and indeed bear at present only the name of academies. The Lycees,
now called royal colleges, are an institution of Napoleon ; the expense of board and educa
tion is from 350 to 750 francs a year ; but they enjoy a very unwarrantable monopoly of the
right to teach Latin; they were attended, in 1825, by 10,000 pupUs. Primary schools
intended for the general instruction of the people amounted in 1825 to 22,900, and were
attended by 116,000 scholars. Lancasterian schools have since been introduced, and
amounted in 1820 to 800, attended by 80,000 scholars. M. Dupin remarks striking local
differences in this respect. In the north, 13,000,000 of inhabitants send to school 740,000
children ; whUe in the south, 18,000,000 send only 375,000 : even in the south, the propor
tion is largest in the districts least favoured by nature, the Upper Alps and the Upper
Pyrenees ; while in Touraine, emphatically called the garden of France, it is only one in
229. All these establishments are under the patronage and control of the government, which
grants annually about 5,000,000 francs for their support.*
The fine arts were zealously promoted by the regent duke of Orleans, and by Louis XIV..;
and though they never reached the splendour of the Italian or even of the Flemish schools,
yet they could boast several masters of the first class ; the Poussins and Claude Lorraine,
having fixed their residence and even found their scenery in Italy, became half Italian. Le
Brun and Le Sueur were the chief artists decidedly French : of whom the former enjoyed
the favour of the king, and the chief direction of the great works ; but the latter has been
pronounced by posterity to be his superior. After this the French school sunk greatly, and
was employed in delineating only the artificial forms of court society ; but within the last
thirty years a new school has sprung up, in which David, Gerard, Guerin, Girodet, and their
followers have sought, not without success, to imitate the highest classical models. The
French school has produced a series of very eminent engravers ; and the names of Desnoyers,
Bervie, and Massard still support its reputation, though it no longer surpasses, or perhaps
equals, those of England and Italy. The French galleries of art have passed through
many vicissitudes : before the revolution they were certainly the first out of Italy. During
that convulsion, all the collections of the princes and nobles were put up to sale ; the entire
Orleans collection was carried to England ; the Crozat went to Russia ; various minor col
lections shared the same fate. When the French, however, over-ran Italy and the Nether
lands, they were seized with the desire of enriching Paris with treasures of art, and carried
off whatever could be removed from among the masterpieces of the Flemish and Italian
masters, and of ancient sculpture. Thus was assembled in the Louvre a display of all that
is most briUiant in art, such as nothing before existing in the world could have rivalled. But

*[It appears from official documents, that in 1833 the number of children between the ages of two and six
years, was 2,744,524, of whom about 250,000 attended infant schools ; of those between si.K and fifteen years, there
were 4.987,201, of which 2,449,725 attended the primary schools ; and of persons above fifteen, there were 22,966,170,
of whom 14,3.'i.l,s.'>l) could neither read nor write ; — so that there were nearly 19,400,000 persons above the age of
two years, who received no instruction at all. The same papers give the following statements of the schools
existing, and of the number required to educate the whole population : —
Infant Schools  1,000 actual number. 40,000 required number.
Primarydo  30,467 " 54,284 "
Female Working do  ],000 " 20,000 "
Adult do  S,361 " 54,840 "
Totals  34,K8 169,124 Am. Ed.]

Book I. FRANCE. 543
a dire reverse awaited the nation. The aUied armies who conquered at Waterloo, and thence
advanced to occupy Paris, determined to exact fiill restitution of all this brUliant booty. The
Venus, Apollo, and Transfiguration were sent off for Rome ; the Descent from the Cross for
Antwerp ; and numberless other masterpieces were restored to their ancient possessors. The
unseemly gaps thus left were filled up by native productions and others taken from the
palaces ; and the gallery presents a coup d'ceil almost as brUliant as ever ; the intrinsic value,
however, is vastly diminished ; though since the purchase of the Borghese collection it still
comprises some of the finest specimens of ancient sculpture.
The houses in Prance under the former regime presented a great variety ; for while the
mansions of tlie nobles displayed a profuse splendour and luxury, and might be characterised
as palaces, those of the body of the people, compared with the English, were very deficient
in neatness and comfort ; the rooms being dark, the passages straggling, the floors of stone,
the doors and windows by no means well finished. The palaces, however, can no longer
be maintained as such by their impoverished owners ; and all the fine old ch&teaus throughout
France are converted into barracks, prisons, or manufactories. On the other hand, the habita
tions of the peasantry, as well as their general condition, appear to be sensibly improved.
Amusement used to form as it were the life of a Frenchman, and was sought for in every
various and possible shape ; but since the Revolution a very great change has taken place in
this respect. Paris still claims to be, as it were, the centre of gaiety to the civilized world.
The Parisians go from home in search of amusement much more than their neighbours ; almost
all their leisure is spent in places of public resort, which are open on terms that render them
accessible to all classes. Dancing is an exercise peculiarly French, in which, as to agility,
and perhaps grace, they excel most nations. Much of their time is also spent in the open
air ; and the extensive ranges of gardens in Paris are provided with every recreation suited
to the tastes of its citizens. Although many improprieties doubtless mingle with these enter
tainments, especially in Paris, there is less of intoxication, turbulence, or quarrelling, than
in the amusements of the lower orders in England : so far, even as concerns the public places,
there are fewer open violations of decorum.
Dress is a particular in which the French long claimed, and were aUowed to give the law
to the rest of Europe. Paris has been for ages the grand magasin des modes. In that
capital seems to have originated the system which is termed fashion, and which consists in
the continual change, according to a prescribed model, of the form and construction of every
part of the human attire. Such light and constant changes, however, while they indicate
Ein inordinate attention to the object, seem as inconsistent with the formation of a pure and
elegant taste, as the immutable costumes of our ancestors and of the Easti The empire of
Paris seems considerably shaken by the extinction of its brilliant societies, and its long separa
tion by war from the other countries ; hut its influence remains still very considerable in this
department. In the preparation of food, the French equally boast of a refinement and recherche supe
rior to that of the other European nations. Instead of plain joints presented in their natural
form, PVench cookery delights in what are called made dishes, stews, fricassees, and ragouts,
which retain few traces of the original material. On the merits of this system various opin
ions have been entertained ; but at present the fashion of this cookery out of France is on
the decluie, and the time seems past when it was considered a matter of state that the tables
of the great should be covered with French dishes.
Sect. VII. — Local Geography.
The local divisions of France, prior to the Revolution, were provinces, thirty-two in num
ber, most of which had formed independent states, and even little kingdoms, when they were
merged into the mass of the French monarchy. The National Assembly, however, super
seded this division by one much more minute, into departments ; which has been retained by
the Bourbons, and is the basis of all administrative operations. It is indeed very convenient,
being foundeii upon natural divisions of rivers and mountains: all the departments are toler
ably equal as to magnitude, and each has its seat of administration nearly in the centre. All
the exclusive privileges and restraints upon internal communication, which were attached
to the arrangement into provinces, have been happily removed. Yet these divisions must
still be kept in view, not only because they are necessary for the understanding of history,
but because they remain rooted in the mind of the nation, and often mark striking differences
of race, of manners, and even of language. It would not consist with our limits, or be
interesting to readers out of France, to enter into a detailed description of each department;
but the following tables will exhibit a very comprehensive view of their respective statis
tical detaUs. The first exhibits the departments in their relation to the ancient provinces,
their extent according to the report of the commission of the Cadastre, their population
according to the census of 1827, and their chief cities and towns. The square French league
may be reduced to the square English mile by multiplying by 8, or more closely, 7.84.
The following table exhibits both the provinces and the departments as nearly as possible in
their relation to each other, with their extent in square leagues, and the population of the capi
tal and principal towns according to the estunate formed by the French government in 1827 ¦

544

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Pakt III.

Provinces and Departmenta.

Norrt .

Flanders. Artois  Pas de Calais .
Picardy.

283

Normandy •

(i

Somme 
Lower Seine.
CalvadOB 
Manche 
Orne 
Eure 

!ine .

Isle of
France ..

Champagne

Lorraine -

Alsace .

Britany. .

Maine and
Perche- ¦

Populalion.

Seine and Oise
Oise 
Seine and Marne
Aisne 
Marne 
Ardennes ....
Aube 
Upper Marne
Meuse 
Moselle 
Meurthe 
Vosges 
Upper Rhine. .. ¦
Lower Rhine . ¦¦
Ille and Vilaine.
Cotfis du Nord. ¦¦
Finisterre 
Morbihan 
Lower Loire. . . .
Mayenne 
Sarthe 
Anjou  ' Maine and Loire
Touraine . ¦ Indre and Loire .
Loiret 
Eure and Loire -
Loir and Cher. ..
Indre 
Cher 
Ni6vre 
Yonne 
Cote d'Or 
Saone and Loire

395 300
281 304283 293 24
277 297 301375256 306315 305339282252 194
310 321375 350360

Orl6anais Berri 
Nivernais .

¦¦1

Burgundy.

Franche comte

-...\

Ain 
Upper Saone.
Doubs 
Jura 

Poitou .

Marche, Li
mousin . .
Aunis,Sain tonge, An
goumois
Auvergne

Vendee 
Two Sevres. ..
Vienne 
Creuze 
Upper Vienne.
Correze 

-\

Lyonnais.

Dauphiny.

Guienne . • .

Bourbonnais

Gaacony and Beam

Charente 
Lower Charente
Puy (le Dome . . .
Cantal 
Rhone 

962,648648,969 526,282
688,295 500,956611,206
434,379 421,865
1,013,373 440,871385,124 318,209489,500325,045281,624241,762 244.823 306,339400,155403,038 379,839
408,741535,407553,453 581,684502,851427,454457,090 354,i:l8
440,519 458,674290,160 304,228
277,782230,606237,628 248,589271,277 342,116370,943

Lille  69,860

Cities and Towns, with their Population in 1827.

Douay  19,880 Valenciennes.
Dunkirk . . . 24,517 Cambrai . .
oni^i , Boulogne... 19,314 Calais 
Anas  22,173 j gt. Omer ... 19,019
Amiens  42,032 Abbeville .... 19,520 St. ttuentin .
Rouen  90,000 Havre  21,049 Dieppe 
Caen  38,161 Bayeux  10,000 Falaise 
St. Lo  8,509 Cherbourg  17,006 Coutances . . .
Alencon  14,071 Argentan  6,044
Evreilx  9,729 Louviers  9,242
Paris  890,531 Sceaux  1,529 St. DSnis 
Versailles  29,791 Etampes  7,867
Beauvais  12,865 CompiSgne . . . 7,302
Melun  7,199 Fontainebleau 7400 Means 
Laon  7,354 St. auentin . . 17,061 Soissons 
Chalons  12,419 Kheims  34,862 Epernay 
Mezieres  4,159 Sedan  12,608 Eocroy 
Troyes  25,567
Chaumont. . . . 6,027 Langrea  7,180
Bar le Due . ¦ . 12,520  Verdun 
Metz  4,270 Thionville ... 5,821
Nancy  29,122 Luneville  12,378 Toul
Epinal ... "' ^'
Colmar. . .
Strasburg Rennes. ..
St. Brieux

19,84117,031 8,854
12,351 17,07710,303 9,032

5,731

7,8367,483
5,080 3,500

7,951 St. Die  7,339
1,549 Bikfort  4,803
49,708 Saverne ....... 4,99» Weissemburg.
29,377 St. Malo  9,f-:j8
9,903 Dinant  7,175
duimper  10,032 Brest  26,0.55 Morlaix 
Vannes  11,289 L'Orient  15,310
Nantes  71,739
Laval  15,840 Mayenne  9,799
LeMans  19,477
Angers  29,978 Saumur  '. . 10,314
Tours  20,920 Cherson  4,406
Orleans  40,340 Mon targis  6,053
Chartres  13,703 Dreux  6,247
Blois  11,337 Vendome .... 6,805
Chateauroux . 10,010 Issoudun  11,223
Bourges  19,500
Nevers  15,782
Auxerre  12,348 Sens  8,685

7,5076,1469,761

Dijon .
515,776 Macon .

Loire 
Isesre 
Upper Alps
Drome 
Dordogne . .
Gironde. .. .
Lot and Garonne
Lot 
Aveyron 
Tarn and Ga- J
ronne  \
Allier 
Landes 
Gers 
Upper Pyrenees
Lower Pyrenees

341,628327,641254,312 310,382 322,826
288,260 267,670252,932 276,351
284,882 353,053 424,147

Bourg-en- Bresse . .
Vesoul 
Besancon

566,573
262,013 416,575

525,984 125,329

Lons le Saulnier 7,864
Bourbon-Vendee 3,129

23,845 Semur  4,220
10,965 Autun  9,936 Chalona
8,424 5,252 Gray  7,203
28,795 Pontarlier.... 4,549

7,493

9,241

Fontenay )
le Comte )
Niort  15,799
Poitiers  21 ,562 Chatelleraull .
Gueret  3,448
Limoges  25,612
Tulle  8,479
Angouleme... 15,306 Cognac  3,017
Rochelle  11,073 Saintes  10,300 Rochefort .

Clermont  30,010 Riom  12,736 Thiers .
Aurillac  9,576 St. Flour  6,640
( Lyons,with j ^¦jns7S Trevoux  2,452
) suburbs ( '
Montbrison .. 5.156 St. Etienne. .. 30,615
Grenoble . . . 22,149 Vienne  13,780
Gap  7,015 Embrun  2,300
285^79]^ Valence  10,283 Montelimar . . 7,589
464,074 Pirigueux  8,588 Bergerac  8,412
538,151 Bordeaux  93,549
,336 886 Agen  11,971 Villeneuve . . . 9,495 .
280,515 Cahors  12,413
Rhodez  7,747 Villefranche.. 9,521

12,909
11,613

Foix  ArriSge  287
Roussillon . Eastern Pyrenees 205
' Upper Garonne . 3,39
Aude  300
Tarn  200
Herault  SIS
Gard  303
Lozfire  257
Upper Loire .... 250
ArdCche  277
Lower Alps  275
Months of tho
Rhone 
Var 
VaucluBO 
Corsica . . . . ' Corsica ..... .

Languedoc.

Provence .

350,014241,586285,302205,309 307,601
222,059 412,469

Montauban . . 26,406 Moissac  10,115
Moulins  14.52.")
Mont de Marsan 3,088 Dax  5,045
Auch  10,844
Tarbes  8,712 Eagnercs  7,037
Bayonne . . . 13,-19S Orthes .
Oleron  6,423

Pau  11,761
247,932 Foix  4,9.58
15I,.372 Perpignan  15,357
407,010 Toulouse  .W.liin
205,991 Carcassonne.- 17,775 Narbonne  10,097
337,605 Alby  10,993 Castres  15,663
339,560 Montpelier . . . 35,842 Riv.iers  16,515 Sodeu
347,.5.W Nisunes  39,008 Alais  10,252
i:W,77H,Mende  5,445
073 Le Piiven Velay 14,998

321^,419 15;l.O03

3] 1 ,095
2;v.i,04s 185,079

Privas  4,109 Argenticre . .. 2,797
Digne  3,955 Sisteron  3,920
Marseilles.... 115,943 Aix  23,132 Aries 
Toulon  30,171 Draguignan . . 8,016 Grasse 
Avignon  31,180 Orange  8,864 Carpentraa . -
Ajaccio  7,658 Bastia  9,527 

6,834

9,842

19,86812,716 9,758

Book 1.

FRANCE.

545

Th-^ following statistical table exhibits a comparative view of the state of culture and pro
duction m the different departments of France. The amounts of grain, cattle and wool are
furnished by Chaptal. The wine is drawn from the report presented lo the peers by the Due
de Dodeauvilie, and tiie forests from the memorial of the sub-administrator, M. Herbin de
Halle, The entire annual amount of land revenue is derived from an estimate of the aver
age produce of the arpent in each department, founded upon the Cadastre or general survey
of tlie kingdom. It is furnished by Chaptal : — t. j

Departments.

Ain 
Aisne 
AUier 
Alps, Upper -
—— Lower
Ardecbc - - -

Arrive 
Aube  - -
Aude 
Aveyron 
Eoucbes du Rhone -
Calvados .--.--.
Cantal 
Charente - - - - -
Lower ¦ ¦

Cher -
Correze ------
Corsica 
Cote d'Or 
Cotes du Nord - -
Creuze 
Dordogne 
Doubs  - -
Drome •••-.-
Eure 
JGure and Loir ¦ -
Finisterre - . . - -
Gard 
Garonne, Upper -
Gera 
Gironde --.---
Herault 
He and Vilaine • -
Indre- .----•-
Indre and JUtire • -
Isere --  -
Jura -.-.....
Landes 
Loir and C&er - ¦
Loire --------
Loire, Upper - - -
- Lower - - -
Loiret -.-----
Lot 
Lot and Garonne •
Lozere -------
Maine and Loire •
Manche 
Mzme --..--.
 Upper • - -
MayeoDe -----
Meurthe  ¦
Meuse ---.---
Morbihan -----
Moselle 
Nievre -.--.-.
Nord 
Oise 
Orne 
Fas de Calais • - -
Puy de Dome - - . ¦
Pyrenees, Lower - ¦
 Upper - -
£astem

Rhine, Lower
¦ Upper - - .
Rhone --------
Saone, Upper - - - ¦
Saone and Loire - -
Sarthe 
Seine - - - 
 Lower - - - -
Seine and Mame - -
Seine and Oise - - -
Sevres, Two - - - -
Somme ----.--
Tam 
Tam and Garonne -
Var - 
Vaucluse 
Vendee -------
Vienne- -.--•--
 Upper - - - -
Vosgea  - -
Tonne 

374,000
1,422,200 282,000 180,000185,000108,000
663,000 162,000
469,000
1,290,000 312,000387,000
1,152,000 62,000
291,000 709,000 40,000
104,000 104,000
904,000
416,000 9,000
650,000
265,000 552,000
1,398,0001,532,000 262,000
351,000
1,197,0001,0(1,000 415,000504,000619,000
457,000737,000737,000439,000256,000534,000 157,000
220,000597,000 612,000
600,000885,000 57,000
810,000977,0007SO,000
535,000480,000
1,100,000 709,000511,000 850,000
294,000
1,536,000
1,217,000 649,000
2,019,000 625,000305,000 122,000120,000
6ffi,000
500,000 160,000
693,000800,000
48^000 83,000
1,491,000
1,361,0001,326.000 329,000 882 000
840,000
720,000438,000279,000563,000517,000 76,000
507,000 401,000

Rye.

498,000
1,040,000 746,000 166,000105,000
394,000 458,000 189,000
631,000 183,000
433,000 13,000

578,000
241,000 34,000
260,000 630,000 14,000
511,000
523,000855,000
365,000 138,000
223,000
621,000 162,000
479,000 134,000 47,000
115,000
333,000 67,000
450,000265,000 315,000
1,(B5,000 117,000
254,000279,000 33,000
630,000267,000
227,000 159,0002iy,ooo 35,000
1,125,000 122,000
1,118,000 124,000
330,000 71,00032.000
590 000
310,000
231,000501,000756,000 152,000
307,000
1,022,000 17,000
88,000
120,000155,000109,000
217,000 194,000
597,000
377,000 79,000
189,000
244,000 335,000
373,000
1,367,000 650,000844,000 13,000
130,000
379,000
297,000 565,000 168,000
439,000

148,000
666,000
1,721,000 13,000
766,000 39,000 2,000
224,000 147,000 30,000
278,000 120,000
249,000 125,000
962,000
1,211 000
1,501,000 185,000
2,046,000 120,000 24,000 22,000
42,00030,000
277,000
202,000

gram in es,
a 1-6 Ih Iba,
each,

93.00084,000
111,000 25,000 11,000
64,00080,000
64,000 45,00039,00071,000 2,000
99,000
103,000 70,00067,00042,00086,000
104,000163,000 95,000
120,000
104,000 10,000
43,00056,000
200,000 6,000
76,00081,000
89,000 7,000
164,000102,000 63,000
113,000 113,000 58,000
69,00072,00050,000
133,000 72,000
54,00058,000
33,000
161,000
150,000 63,00081,000
129,000 75,000

444,000 75,00076,000
115,000 46,00073,000
638,000375,000
243,000210,000 142,000 16,000
569,000 29,000
108,000 88,000
853,000 40,00031,000 16,000
144,000184,000
864,000685,000
446,000
1 1,094,000 453,000
264,000 500,000
230,000
1,178,000
1,147,000
1,497,000 136,000 69,000 82,C00
66,000
651,000 35,000
297,000421,000 178,000 63,00»
300,000 189,000 84,000
243,000 264,000 60,000
60,000
1,039,000 728,000 28,00023,000
309,000 72,000
766,000 94,000
1,181,000 106,000
613,000 57,000

174,000 76,00099,000
172,000 74,000
101,000146,000
104,000 102,000 49.000 15,000
107,000 49,00044,00093,000
113.000108,000 12,000
60,000
78,000
1 17,0fi0
63,000 85,00050,000
39,000 11,000 4,000
104.000 42,000

6B,000
1,107,000 147,000
338,000 556,000
384,000 657 000
222,000 168,000
1,442,000 taoooo695,000
304,000 425,000
256,000211,000 835,000
213,000 104,000
240,000 136,000
331,000462,000 53,000 ,
963,000
413,000917,000 46,000
703 OOO
550,000 190,000
438,000900,000 88,000
816,000226 000
269,000 84,000
236,000664,000 144,000
339,000259,000533,000482,000 125,000
721,000317,000390,000
336,000 159,000
172,000 136,000 68,000
165,000 97,000
744,000932,000452,0006ffi,000
846,000
486,000
348,000 648,000 86,000
182,000 93,000
121,000 76,000
193,000 68,000
640,000
1,196,000
1,082,000 390,000 778,000
634,000351,n00573,000
438,000226,000361,000
232,000 45,000
174,000

HertoH- trcff,
2Q 1-2 gal.
lOQB each.

373,000 291,000
2S8,000 101,000 99,000
77,000
55,000
117,000
572,000 601,000
291,0006S0,ffli0 4,000
1,826,000
1,791,000 333,000

520,000

427,000 139,000
251,000 55,000
1,094,0001,041,000 467,000
1,094,000
2,565,000 1,713.000 2,000
262,000665,0CK) 153,000
308,000419,009647,000276,000 88,000
710,000
693,000
240,000 401,000 14,000
493,(X)0422,000 509,000

260,000 33,000

310,000 159,000
278,000 70,000
464,000
347,000458,000 78,000
408,000148,000

557,000 849,000
264,000 600
433,000 264,000
693,000306,000336,000
435,000 21,000
101,000
907,000

Average
FrlciiB In
fraucil.

Land
Revenue.

64,000
103,000106,000 74,000 60,000
28,000
150,000 55.000
77,000
66,000 45,000
54,00032,00030,000
22,000 38,000
150,000 13,000
55,0f0
228,000 18,000
39,000
67,000
113,000 92,00097,000
44,000 12,000
81,000
50,000 11,000
90,000
70,000 20 00
102,000 73,000
133,000138,000 126,000 66,000
36,000
23,000s^ooo95,000
26,000 26,000
21,00043,000 16,000
Ji'OOO223,000 26,000
218,000 180,000 18,000
132,000182,000 57,000 68,000
59,00046,000
55,000
112,000 68,000
49,000
156,000159,000
150,000
131 000
58,000 4,000
84,000
73.009 74,000
39,000 55,000
42,000 11,000
118,000 57,000 19,000
57 000
22.000
216,000 158,000

10,062,000
27,441,000 8,^38,000
3,604,0004,664,000
11,767,00012,203,000
11,618,00013,685,00017.263,000
12,462,00017.263,000
43,637,000 10,022 000
17,323,000
26,258,000 9,330,0009,572,000
27.396,000 19,3t3,000 6,929,000
14,431,00014,464,000
20,749,00027,486,000 15,912,00013,666,000
18,213,000 18,035,000
10,556,000
18,130,0001 1 ,660,000
18,431,000 6,433,000
16,176,000
32,334,00023,474,000 15.285 000
16,337,000
11,269,00016,750,000
15,959,000 8,743.0007.936,000
17,689,000 6,578,000
32,426,000
37,650,000 8,991,000
12,626,000
19,414,00013,151,00010,393,000
16,631,000
21,776,000 10,269,000
32,645,00026,984,00020.758,00036.117,00021,665,000 14,729,000 9,831,000
8,587.000
16.142,000 9.720,000
I0,tEI.O0O19,137,000
23,784,000 18,770,000
6i.00I,000
34,290,00027.388,000
32,242,000
'12,741,000 28,047 000
12,343.000
10,84=5,000
21.823.000 10 972,000
10,f 63,000
8,630,0008,677,000
7,P02,COO
26,444,000

The Isle of France, now divided into several departments, claims priority of notice as con
taining the capital. It is not, strictly speaking, an island; but being situated near the junc
tion of the Oise, the Mame, the Aisne, and the Seine, is intersected by very numerous river
channels. It is in general level, fertile, and highly cultivated ; and beneath the surface are
quarries of gypsum so copious, that the substajica is commonly designated " plaster of Paris,"
Vol. I. 46* 3T

546

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY

Pakt IIL

Paris, the capital of France, has also made pretensions to be considered as the general
capital of the civilized world. London can, in fact, alone dispute its claim, being more
extensive, more wealthy, and the seat of a much more extended commerce ; yet the central
situation of Paris, the peculiar attractions rendering it the crowded resort of strangers, and
its brilliant and polished society, especially under the old monarchy, gave to this city a gayer
aspect, and rendered it a more conspicuous object in the eyes of Europe. Paris is not only
less populous than London, but in proportion to its population it covers less ground. It forma
on both banks of the Seine an ellipse of about four miles in length and three in breadth.
The principal streets are long, narrow, bordered by high houses, which, like those of Edin
burgh, are each occupied by several families. The streets of shops are further encumbered
by the exhibition of the merchandise in front of the doors, a practice only tolerated in the
most obscure districts of British cities. Paris thus presents generally a more gloomy and
Confused aspect than London ; nor has it any structure which can match the grandeur of St.
Paul's, or perhaps the beauty of Westminster Abbey ; yet some of its quarters contain long
ranges of superb and stately edifices, which London cannot rival. The palaces of Paris, in
particular, far excel those of the rival metropolis. The most distinguished is the Louvre,
finished with the utmost splendour in the style that distinguished the age of Louis XIV. Its
fi'ont, .525 feet long, is a model of symmetry, the effect of which is only injured by the want
of space before it. The Louvre is not now occupied as a palace, but as a grand depot of the
objects of taste and art. The gallery, which is more than a quarter of a mile long, and the
walls of which are entirely crowded with paintings that are still fine, forms a magnificent
coup d'oeil. The hall of statues is still adorned with some of the finest specimens of ancient
sculpture. The Tuileries, which is
the present royal residence, was be
gun at an earlier period than the
Louvre, and carried on at successive
times ; whence it exhibits varied and
sometimes discordant features, but is
on the whole a noble and venerable
edifice, surrounded with fine gar
dens and avenues. The palace of the
Luxembourg (fig. 280.), on the south
of Paris, and the Palais Bourbon on
the west, are edifices of great taste
and beauty. The former, now strip
ped of the femous series of paintings
by Rubens, which has been transferred to the Louvre gallery, affords in one part a place of
assembly for the Chamber of Peers, and in another apartments for the exhibition of paintings
by livmg artists; while the Palais Bourbon is in part occupied by the Chamber of Deputies.

The Luxembourg.

S£Mi«,,

281 . ^.^ The Palais Royal (fig. 281.) is no longer
exclusively a palace, but is in part leased
out to sundry persons, for purposes partly
of business, but much more of pleasure :
it is filled with shops, coffee-houses, tav
erns, gaming-tables, and every form of
gaiety and dissipation which can find ac-
PalaiB Royal. ceptance in such a city. Notre Dame, the
, J • I ancient cathedral of Paris, is somewhat
heavy and ntiassiye, but the interior is richly decorated. The modern church of St. Gene
vieve, called during the Revolution the Pantheon, was highly extolled during its erection,
as destined to eclipse both St. Peter's and St. Paul's ; and such was the expectation enter-
tamed m France, till, the scaffolding being removed and the front thrown open, its inferi
ority became apparent: however, it is
still an edifice of a high class (fig. 282.)
St. Sulpice is also a modern structure.
Paris has no fine streets, nor any of those
ample squares which are so great an or
nament of London. It boasts, however,
of its places, which, witiiout having the
regular form or dimensions of a square,
command admiration by the ranges of
noble buildings that surround them. In
particular, the Place Louis Quinze,
standing in a centra] situation among the
palaces, presents one of the most bril-
This capital possesses also great advantages Id

282

Church of St. Gonovievo.
liant points of view to be found in any city.

Book I.

FRANCE.

547

the wide ornamented open spaces which lie in the very heart of the city. The Boulevards,
the ancient rampart of Paris, when it was circumscribed within a much narrower compass,
are now converted into a walk adorned with rows of trees, and filled with numerous exhi
bitors and venders of every thing that can conduce to public amusement. The gardens of
the Tuileries, and the embellished spot called the Champs Elysees, are also open to the
public. The statistics of Paris have been carefully illustrated in a series of interesting works by
the Count de Chabrol. The population, in 1821, amounted to 713,966, but has now risen to
890,431. The births, in the three years ended 1821, averaged 24,700 ; the deaths 22,680 ;
leaving thus 2000 as the armual excess of births. A third of all the births were illegiti
mate, and of these only a third were acknowledged by the parents. The still-born children
were averaged 1365. The average of marriages in the three years was about 6000. In
the three years 732 died of small-pox, and only one child out of twenty-five was vaccinated.
The violent deaths averaged 350, half of whom were married persons, and the most com
mon cause was domestic chagrin. Drowning was the most frequent mode : 170 persons
were drowned annually by accident. The consumption of Paris consisted, in 1823, of
76,689 oxen ; 8142 cows ; 74,759 calves ; 361,946 sheep. The taxes paid in Paris amount
to 110,000,000 francs. House-rent amounts to 80,000,000 francs. The number of houses,
in 1821, was 27,000, with an average of thirty-four doors and windows in each. The loans
made on pledges by the charitable establishment called the Mont de Piete amount to
19,500,000 francs, upon 1,000,000 articles, of which 14,500,000 are redeemed. There are
fourteen hospitals for the sick, and eight hospices for the infirm. The former received
annually 42,500, of whom about 40,000 went out cured ; the latter 18,500. The annual
expense is about 7,000,000 francs. There is besides an office of charity in each of the
twelve arrondissemens, the aids of which are administered by " sisters of charity," who
divide the poor among themselves, make regular lists of them, and pay frequent visits.
They make an annual collection in their district, the produce of which is transmitted to the
office. The annual distributions made by the offices of charity amount to 1,250,000 francs
in money; 747,000 quartern loaves; 270,000 lbs. meat; 19,000 ells of cloth, &c. The
manufactures of Paris are considerable. The principal are of works in gold and silver,
which employ 7000 or 8000 workmen, and yield a value, according to M. Dupin, above
125,000,000 francs. There are manufactured also, by 2000 worlfmen, 80,000 gold and 40,000
silver watches, with 15,000 clocks, which may be worth 19,000,000 francs. Sugar refinery
is also supposed to produce 20,000,000 lbs., worth 32,000,000 francs. Eighty printing-offices
employ 600 presses and 3000 workmen, and use annually 280,000 reams of paper ; supposed
value 8,750,000 francs. Of the various articles above enumerated, there are exported to the
value of nearly 50,000,000 francs. Paris is visited by 12,000 or 13,000 boats, of which 1000
are from the lower Seine, and the rest from the upper. Twenty are steam-boats. The city
has 1000 boats of its own.
The environs of Paris are not covered with those numerous villas and country residences
which have been constructed to gratify the rural taste of the citizens of London. Immedi
ately beyond the gates they present a flat open corn country. They are chiefly marked by
the royal palaces ; superb fabrics, the works of successive kings, and on which millions have
been expended. The most elaborate and most splendid is Versailles (fig. 283.). It waa
283
Chateau at Vergaillea.
begun by Louis XHI. who found it little more than a village ; but its chief ornaments are
due to Louis XIV., who, during twelve years, expended immense sums in surrounding it
with every kind of magnificence. The front is highly elegant, built of polished stone, and
approached by three great avenues. The interior consists of spacious apartments embel
lished in the most costly manner, and many parts of them, and of the staircases, are covered
with frescoes executed by eminent French painters. The interior and the gardens are filled
with crowds of statues, partly antique and partly the work of French sculptors. Water
was at first deficient ; but it has been conveyed in such abundance as to be lavished in fan
ciful and fantastic forms,— fountains, jets d'eau, cascades, with which Versailles is more pro
fusely embellished than any other royal residence. The two palaces, called the Great and
Little Trianon, are in the vicinity, and are celebrated, particularly the last, for gardens laid
out in, the English style. The long residence of the court at Versailles assembled round it
a splendid city formed by the courtiers and great nobles, who considered it necessary to have

548

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part HI.

at least a mansion there. Since the tragic scenes of October, 1789, the palace has never
been inhabited; though the Bourbons, after their return, placed it in repair. Hence the
city has declined in population, and the late mansions of the nobles are in a great measure
occupied by English residents. St. Cloud, four or five miles distant from Paris, is particu-
'arly admired fbr its gardens and extensive woods, an excursion to which forms a popular
amusement, especially on festival days. It was the favourite residence of Napoleon, whose
court was thence called the cabinet of St. Cloud. Fontainebleau is the hunting-seat of the
monarchy, being surrounded by a forest of nearly 30,000 acres. The palace, built by suc
cessive monarchs, from Francis I. to Louis XV., is chiefiy noted for its long and numerous
galleries. Among the few towns in this country, Meaux is distinguished not only by the
beautiful choir of its cathedral, but by having been the see of the celebrated Bossuet, whose
tomb it contains. Melun is a considerable, but ill-built and gloomy, old town.
The northern departments, comprising the provinces of French Flanders, Picardy, and
Normandy, compose together an extensive plain, the richest, most flourishing, and most
highly cultivated in the kingdom. The farms, though of various size, are generally larger
than in the rest of France ; the improved English processes are gaining ground, and the
introduction of artificial grasses has in a great measure supplanted the routine of wheat,
oats, and fallow. This region is also the chief seat of manufactures. These provinces have
produced many men of distinguished talent, and knowledge is very generally diffused in
them. The Flemings retain their national character, distinct from that of the French ;
heavy, phlegmatic, industrious, addicted to pretty close drinking and long rustic festivals.
The Norman still partakes the adventurous spirit of his forefathers ; he loves expeditions
and journeys, readily engages in any enterprise, and eagerly pursues it.
The cities throughout all this part of France are large and flourishing. Those of French
Flanders, or the Nord, rank among the strongest fortresses iu Europe, and are the bulwarks
of the monarchy. Lille perhaps holds among these the very first place, being considered
the master-piece of Vauban. It was reduced by Marlborough only after a long blockade,
and is considered in any other way almost impregnable. It is also well and regularly buUt,
and the Rue Royale is a very splendid street. Lille has also a very considerable variety
both of manufacturing and commercial industry, with institutions both for literature and the
arts. Douay is an ancient and strong town on the Scarpe, and enjoys some celebrity as a
seat of rather antiquated and scholastic learning. Its university consists of three colleges,
now united, one of which is called the English college, and is resorted to from all the three
kingdoms as a place of Catholic education. Cambrai is a very ancient and celebrated city,
the capital of the Nervii in Caesar's time, and afterwards of the kingdom of the Franks.
Here was concluded, in 1597, the league of Cambrai, which caused the downfall of Venice ;
and it was the scene of other important diplomatic transactions ; but perhaps the name is
best known from its having formed the archiepiscopal see of Fenelon. It ranks still as a
fortress of the first class, and was one of those held
by the army of occupation, after the peace of Paris,
in 1815. Valenciennes is another ancient bulwark
of the kingdom, which yielded to the allies in 1793,
after a long siege ; but they did not derive any advan
tage from their success. It has some fine manufec
tures of lace, gauze, and cambric.
In Picardy and the part of the Isle of France bor-
'^w«B CYiMimuitiBai iBSi during on it, there are several large and flourishing
^^"vSJl*.- rt^^flHISil wf cities. Amiens has long been celebrated for its manu-
B f^-K^ ' 'n^fflillllil+rTHffl f^^cture of coarse woollens, as serges, plush, velvets
-'fS'^,! fflMOTHMwMTlil for furniture, and carpets; also coarse linens. Here
was concluded the peace of 1801, between Britain
and France. Its cathedral (fig. 284.) js one of the
most spacious and most highly ornamented in FVance
or in Europe. Abbeville is celebrated as one of the
few seats of the manufacture of very fine woollen
cloth, which surpasses even the English ; it deals most
extensively in sailcloth, sheeting, and otlier coarse
fabrics from hemp and flax. St. Quentin, the scene
of the great victory of Philip II., enjoys a more hum
ble and useful distinction as one of the most thriving
manufacturing places of France. Its manufectures
consist in lawns, cambrics, and still more of late in the spinning and weaving of cotton ; all
wliich employ in the town and neighbourhood upwards of 50,000 persons. The citizens ot
St. Quentin display an enterprise and an activity in pushing every new and promising branch
of industry, which are not usual in France. A canal is here cut from the Oise to that of
Douay, remarkable for its extensive tunnels. Laon is an ancient town, with a stately cathe-
Soissons is distinguished in French history, and its bishop had, second to that of

Amiens Cathedral.

dral.

Book I.

FRANCE.

549

Calais Harbour.

Rheims, the right of cro\^ming the king of France. It does not now present any striking
features. Beauvais is thriving and industrious.
The ports of Picardy and French Flanders are also very deserving of notice. Dunkirk,
being the only one which opens into the North Sea, was always considered of great import
ance. Louis XIV. having definitively obtained this place in 1662, made it one of the
strongest harbours in Europe. It soon became so annoying to British trade, that advantage
was taken of the triumphs of the war of succession, to require, at the treaty of Utrecht, its
entire demolition. By canals and other means, the French contrived always to replace it in
an effective state ; but by successive treaties, the demolition of the fortifications on the side
of the sea was again and again stipulated, till the circumstances of the peace of 1783 obliged
England to cease from exacting it. From that time Dunkirk became the main centre of the
privateering system. It has also a considerable share of fishery and of the Baltic trade. A
memorable era in its history was its siege by the British in 1793. They were compelled
abruptly to raise it, and this formed the commencement of a long series of reverses sustained
by the allied arms. Dunkirk has a good harbour m the centre of the city, entered by a
canal of a mile and a half; it is rather well built, but for want of springs the inhabitants are
obliged to use rain-water. The neighbouring territory is low and marshy, only preserved
from the inundation of the sea by a ridge of downs, and only cultivated by means of numer
ous draining canals. Calais is well known as the point of communication with England,
which so long held it as the key of France, even after her aims at the entire conquest of
that monarchy had ceased. At present,
it is chiefly supported by the packet
intercourse, its indifferent harbour (Jig.
285.) unfitting it for any commerce on
a great scale. Calais is in a very flat
country, intersected by canals, by which
it might be even inundated. Boulogne
has more maritime importance ; though
its port, choked with sand, will no longer
receive vessels of any size, unless at
high tide. It has lo.st altogether the
forced consequence given to it by the
construction of the grand flotilla, des
tined to subdue the British empire, but
now abandoned to rot. Its proximity, however, to the coast has rendered it a great resort
of English families, who inhabit it to the amount of several thousands. The fishery of
herring, mackerel, &c. varies in value from 1,000,000 to 2,000,000 francs.
The cities of Normandy are larger and more important than those already described.
Rouen is one of the noblest in France. Its manu
factures are, perhaps, the most enterprising and indus
trious in the kingdom, and from their vicinity to Eng
land have had peculiar facilities in borrowing her pro
cesses. The main staple is cotton-spinning and weav
ing, which aje supposed to occupy two-thirds of the
55,000 workmen, and so to constitute the same pro
portion of the two millions sterling of manufactured
goods annually produced. The cathedral (fig. 286.),
commenced by William the Conqueror, was considered
one of the finest specimens of ecclesiastical architec
ture in France, till the late disaster, which overthrew
a great part of it. The streets are excessively narrow
and dirty, though those adjoining to the Seine are
agreeable. That river was long crossed only by a
pontoon, composed of nineteen large barges, strongly
moored together by iron chains ; but as this had many
_ ^ ,.  ^ inconveniences, a handsome stone bridge has been
1^ - ---a- . "^Aiiiik^^^S lately substituted. At ElbcEuf, near Rouen, is a manu-
k] W^^^C^IB factory of fine cloth, almost equal to that of Louviers.
^ ^^^^^WPPf Caen is a very ancient city, of great historical name.
Q i^auieumi ^^ favourite residence of William the Conqueror, and
noueu i^aioeura.. ^^ frequent head-quarters of the English armies. It
is BtiU a, considerable place, rather unusually well built for a French town, containing a
handsome castle, the only remaining part of its fortifications, and some fine old churches
Its manufectures are numerous, but none of them very eminent, except that of lace, which
gives employment to about 20,000 females in this place and the neighbourhood. It is of
some eminence as a seat of literature, gave birth to Malherbe and Huet, and has a university
of considerable reputation, which, though suppressed durmg the Revolution, has been restored

550 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pakt UI.
in full lustre. Havre, at the mouth of the Seine, is the port of Paris, and one of the most
active seats of French commerce. The custom duties, in 1824, amounted to somewhat above
a million sterling, and its trade has since been greatly augmented. The chief fabric of the
town and neighbourhood is that of printed cottons. It is a gloomy town, the streets narrow,
and the houses ofl;en built of a framework of wood filled up with mortar. Dieppe, St. Valery,
Fecamp, and Honfleur are very active stations for fishing ; which is not, however, carried on
with the same energy and adventure as before the Revolution. The immense efforts made
to render Cherbourg a naval station of the first rank, have proved nearly abortive. The
French government, after the peace of 1783, began to erect a series of cones, with the view
of breaking the force of the waves ; but these were overwhelmed, and retain no vestige of
their original form : they lie under water, a shapeless ruin, which Bonaparte in vain attempted
to make the foundation of a regular breakwater. After two millions had been spent in this
undertaking, he employed other five millions in forming an interior basin and a wet dock;
but all these mighty works remain unfinished.
Britany forms a peninsula distinguished by many marked features from the rest of France :
its rude surface, composed in a great measure of forests, marshes, and heaths, enabled it not
only to preserve a large portion of its original Celtic population, but to give shelter to fugi
tives from Britain, whence it received its name. After being long a separate duchy, it was
united to France by the marriage of its heiress with Louis XII. It retained, however, down
to the era of the Revolution, its feudal states, which assembled every two years. The Bas
Breton is a Celtic dialect. The people are very numerous and very poor. The country is
divided into small properties or farms, seldom exceeding twelve acres, cultivated by the
manual labour of the occupants, according to antiquated and unskilfiil processes, to which
they adhere with the most fixed determination. The peasantry reside in small huts, gloomy,
dark, and damp ; they are strongly attached to their homes; ignorant and superstitious, but
at the same time frank, brave, hospitable, constant in their friendships, and faithful to their
word. They are stubborn and hardy, and those on the coast make bold sailors.
Of the cities of Britany, Rennes, the ancient capital of the Rhedones, is the first in dignity,
and was the place of meeting for. the states, the discontinuance of which has diminished its
importance. It is still rather a fine and handsome city, having been regularly rebuilt since
a great fire in 1720 ; and its cathedral of St. Peter is adorned with lofty towers. There is
a library of 30,000 volumes, a fine botanic garden, a museum of natural history, and extensive
collections in the fine arts. It carries on some trade by the river Vilaine, which admits
barges of considerable size. Vannes, the ancient capital of the Veneti, is a much smaller
and poorer town, though its vicinity to the sea gives it some commerce and fishery. Morlaix
and Quimper are rather good towns in the western departments : but the finest city in
Britany is undoubtedly Nantes, which seems almost to belong to the rich provinces on the
Loire ; it is situated on a hUl above that river, twenty-seven miles from its mouth, and has
the advantage of delightfiil walks and environs. Its situation, at the mouth of the greatest
river in France, is very favourable to commerce, which was carried on to a vast extent, tiU
ruined by the disastrous influence of Napoleon's continental system ; but Nantes is begin
ning again to rear its head. The West India trade and the cod fishery ivere the most
extensive branches. Much ship-building is carried on for the merchant service, and vessels
of 1000 tons are occasionally built. Its manufactures are various, and were formerly exten
sive, especially sugar refinery, cotton, woollen, and linen cloths, and earthenware. It is
connected with the opposite side of the river by a noble bridge, which, uniting- five different
islands, extends in its entire length more than two miles. In its construction Nantes exhibits
the usual faults of old cities; the most agreeable parts are the suburbs, and the islands are
thickly planted with trees and houses.
Brest, on the western coast of Britany, is the chief naval station of France on the ocean,
as Toulon is on the Mediterranean. It was selected for this purpose in 1631 by Cardinal
Richelieu, in consideration of its harbour, which is secure from every wind, and of a spacious
roadstead, affording anchorage to 500 ships of war. From Brest issued the fleet which was
totally defeated, in 1792, by Lord Howe ; and during tlie whole of the subsequent war
between England and France, this port, with the navy which it contamed, was held in
almost constant blockade. The works of Brest are very strong, and tlie attempt made in
1694 to carry them by storm, was repulsed with considerable disaster. The town, though
modern, having been built in haste, and with a sole view to utility, is crowded and dirty ; but
within the last half-century there has been built a handsome suburb, called La Recouvrance.
Brest, besides its naval importance, carries on a considerable fishery.
There are other maritime stations of considerable magnitude in Britany. L'Orient has
been made a dep6t for naval stores, and strongly fortified ; it derived much importance from
being the almost exclusive seat of the commerce of the East India Company ; but since that
trade has been nearly annihilated, this port has greatly declined. St. Malo contains a race
of bold and hardy mariners, actively employed in the Newfoundland and other fisheries ; and
who, in time of war, exercised briskly the trade of privateering. Morlaix carries on a con-

Book L FRANCE. 551
siderable trade with tlie north of Europe. Quimper, though ranking above Brest, as capital
of the department of Finisterre, is now only an old town of little importance.
The provinces on the Loire, in its course from east to west, comprehending Orleanais,
Touraine, Anjou, to which may be added those of Maine and Perche, adjoining on the
nortli, ai-e die most central and perhaps the richest in the kingdom. A great part, indeed,
especially of Anjou and Maine, is covered with those wide wastes, overgrown with brush
wood and heath, which occupy so much of the French soil. But the banks of the Loire
around Orleans are generally considered the garden of France ; they consist of unbounded
plains, tiirough which the magnificent Loire winds its stately course, and which are
variegated with rich meadows, vineyards, gardens, and forests. On this theatre were acted
many of tlie greatest events in the history of the monarchy, particularly its rise from
the apparent perd of total subjection, through the inspiring infiuence of Joan the Maid of
Orleans. The cities of this region are celebrated and magnificent. Orleans, in former times,
ranked almost as a second capital : though it exhibits the usual characters of antiquity, it is
a superb and beautifiil city. A very fine stone bridge of nine arches opens to the rue royale,
spacious and handsome, which extends to the fine square in the centre ; here is placed a
statue of Joan, the sculpture of which is not altogether so elegant as might be desired. The
cathedral is a very fine edifice, the choir of which was raised by Henry IV. From its steeple
is an almost unbounded view over the magnificent plain of the Loire. Situated in the centre
of France, and dividmg as it were the Lower from the Upper Loire, Orleans enjoys a great
transit trade. Blois is almost equal to Orleans in historical celebrity ; its ancient edifices,
placed on a hill above the Loire, have a most commanding appearance. The castle, on a
rock overhanging the river, is an immense and lofty pile, full of windows of ali shapes and
sizes, balconies, galleries, buttresses, and " a strange incongruous assemblage of buildings
destined for ornament in peace and defence in war." All the parts are little ; but the whole
is so vast as to be almost sublime. In this edifice the states-general once assembled. The
glory of Blois has now entirely passed away: its streets are narrow, gloomy, and dismally
dirty. Tours, equally ancient, is now much more flourishing ; its plain is pre-eminent, even
among the other districts on the banks of the Loire. The s3k manufacture, first introduced
here, has been in a great measure transferred to Lyons, but it still employs 7000 or 8000
persons. Happily for the beauty of the city, a great part of it was consumed 50 years ago,
and occasion was taken to build a new street, running its whole length, of fine hewn stone,
broad, and on an elegant design; it is, perhaps, the finest in France. It is connected
with a bridge of 14 arches, which till of late was considered equally unrivalled ; and also
with a fine promenade bordered with trees. The metropolitan church was almost entirely
demolished during the revolutionaiy excesses; only two of its lofty spires remain. The
beauty and abundance of the country around Tours have attracted such numbers of English
residents, that Mrs. Carey was asked on the road what great convulsion was agitating Eng
land, that her people were flying from it in such crowds. Saumur, once highly flourishing
and industrious, lost two-thirds of its population by the revocation of the edict of Nantes.
Angers is a large, old, steep, ill-built town, but has a considerable trade ; its monuments
have been dreadfiiUy shattered during the Revolution. Le Mans, capital of Maine, on the
Sarthe, is very old, but large and clean, with a spacious market-place and some considerable
manufactures. The provmces between the Loire and the Garoime, Poitou, Berri, Limousin, and the
Marche, are of diversified and somewhat peculiar aspect : they present none of those bound
less plains which characterise France north of the Loire ; they are everywhere traversed by
valleys and ridges of hUls, never rising into mountains, but giving to the country a broken and
variegated aspect. This, according to the nature of the soil, is sometimes rude and dreary,
sometimes gay and smiling. Mr. Young ranks the Limousin as the most beautiful district
in all France, such is the variety of hills, daWs, streams and woods which compose its
landscape. Mrs. Carey describes Marche, beyond Argenton, as singularly pastoral; the
hills covered with sheep, goats, kids, and lambs, the last of which at evening come down
bleating, and are received into the houses. Poitou, a. part of which is so fatally celebrated
under its new name of La Vendee, is a rough country, a great part of which is covered
with a forest called the Bocage. All these districts are more productive of cattle than of
grain, though they are cultivated by a simple peasantry with hardihood and vigour, but quite
in the antique style, and with a strong antipathy to all modern improvements. In Poitou,
the proprietors, being small, and residing much on their estates, excited feudal feelings and
attachments, that were extinct in the rest of France ; hence the formidable war which they
waged single-handed in defence of the ancient regime.
The cities in this range of provinces, though ancient, are neither large, nor distinguished
by much industry. Poitiers is of high antiquity, and presents some interesting Roman re
mains; in modern times it is distinguished by the signal victory gained here by the Black
Prince. The city is of great extent, but comprises many empty spaces and gardens. Limoges
is an ill-buUt town, with many houses of timber, roofed with tiles, and projecting eaves, but

552

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part IIL

there are several handsome squares and fountains, and the public walks command a beautiful
view of the Vienne flowing down a charming valley. Its cathedral, said to have been built
by the English during their temporary possession of this part of France, suffered much during
the revolution, and has only one tower left standing. Bourges, the' ancient Biturgiee, is very
ill-built, but adorned with a fine cathedral, and distinguished for its university, and as the
birth-place of Bourdaloue, and of the Jesuit, Father d'Orleans. Chateauroux is gloomy, but
has a large woollen manufacture.
The two departments of the Charente, watered by the fine river of that name, form a
region different in character from those now described ; level, and extremely fertile, though
in some parts marshy and unhealthful. A great part of the produce of its rich vineyards is
at Cognac converted into brandy, which bears an unrivalled reputation, though, probably,
the name is applied with a fraudulent latitude to inferior liquors. The yellow tinge so
generally given to brandy is the consequence of a local custom at Cognac. Saintes is
ancient even as a French city. An ample theatre, an aqueduct, and a triumphal arch of
white marble, attest its ancient importance as a Roman city ; and the cathedral is said to
belong to the age of Charlemagne. But the most conspicuous features of the Charente are
Rochelle and Rochefort. The former is renowned as the grand and last bulwark of the
Protestant cause ; and its reduction, effected by the almost incredible efforts of Cardinal
Richelieu, fixed the downfall of civil and religious liberty in France. Though no longer a
haven of the first magnitude, its colonial trade, prior at least to the late war, was very con
siderable. The town is handsome, with broad streets, many of the houses buUt on arcades,
with shops beneath as in Chester. Rochefort has little trade, but is one of the principal
French naval stations. It has a secure harbour, with very safe and extensive docks.
Being one of the few towns in France that are not much more than a century and a half
old, it is built on a regular plan, with broad open streets. Angouleme, in the interior,
stands on a rock in the centre of a charming valley, through which winds the silver
stream of the Charente. It is a clean well-built town, having a cathedral with five cupolas,
and displaying other marks of historical importance. There is a large manufacture of
paper. Guienne is a most important province, which for several ages formed an appanage of the
English crown. It consists of a magnificent and highly cultivated plain, watered by the
Garonne, whose broad stream here resembles an arm of the sea, and by its ample tributaries,
the Tarn, the Lot, and the Dordogne. It is distinguished by various rich productions, but
more especially by the wines bearing the name of claret, which, though not quite so rich and
highly flavoured as some, are so light and agreeable that a greater quantity is drunk at the
tables of the opulent, than of any other. M. Frank, in a late work published at Bordeaux,
estimates the entire produce of claret at 250,000 tuns. The wines of the farms Laflitte and
Ch^teau-Margaux are the most esteemed ; but much is sold under these names which has
no title to them.
Bordeaux (fig. 287.), near the mouth of the Garonne, is one of the grandest emporia in
France, and, indeed, in Europe.

Situated at the mouth of the
Garonne, which here allows the
largest vessels to ascend to its
port, it exports all the valuable
produce of this great southem
plain, of which the wines are
said to amount to 100,000, and
brandy to 20,000 pipes annually.
It is engaged also in colonial
trade, and in the cod and whale
fislieries. Recent travellers re
mark a (jreater display of wealth
and prosperity in this than in
any other of the French com
mercial cities. Every thing is
on a grand scale, and buildings are in progress which, when finished, will leave it without a
rival in France. The theatre, designed after that of Milan, is considered a model of archi
tectural beauty. Many of the ecclesiastical structures were founded by tlie English. A
very republican spirit is said to prevail at Bordeaux.
The other towns of Guienne are not of tlie first magnitude. Montauban embraced with
ardour the Protestant cause, and had a distinguished university, which was suppressed, when
the place was taken in 1629, by Louis XIII., and tho fortifications razed. This seminary,
however, was restored by Napoleon in 1810. Montauban is well-built, of painted brick,
with wide and clean streets ; and an elevated walk, which commands a most extensive view,
reaching to the Pyrenees. Agen is a very ^dirty ill-built town, but famous for the plums
raised in its vicinity. Cahors has some thriving manufactures, and its vicinity produces the

Bordeaux.

Book I. FRANCE. 553
vin de Grave, which is held in high estimation. Rhodez, on the Aveyron, is a gloomy old
town, but the seat of a distinguished bishopric.
Gascony is a large province, extending to the Pyrenees, and consisting chiefly of a wide
level surface, of peculiar character, called the landes. These are plains of sand, in some
places loose and blowing, but mostly covered with pine trees, sometimes affording pasturage
for sheep, and more rarely detached tracts fit for cultivation. The Gascons, long an inde
pendent people under their dukes, are a peculiar race, fiery, ardent, impetuous, and prover
bially addicted to boasting ; hence the term gasconade. Bayonne, though not very large, is
one of the strongest and prettiest towns in France. Situated at the broad mouth of the
Adour, it has a considerable traffic in exporting the timber of the Pyrenees and the Landes,
and sends also vessels to the cod and whale fisheries. Mont de Marsan, tlie capital of the
Landes, is but a small and poor place.
The Pyrenean departments comprehend some interesting features ; Beam, the little ori
ginal principality of Henry IV., which he governed with paternal kindness ; and Roussillon,
which underwent several revolutions, alternately belonging to Prance and to Spain, before
it was finally annexed to the former. Young gives a delightful view of the state of this
mountain district. It is divided into a number of small properties, which are well enclosed,
well cultivated, each comfortable cottage being surrounded by its garden well stocked with
fruit trees ; the inhabitants snugly dressed, like Highlanders, in red caps. The subdivision
of property, though great, seems not to have gone so far as to lead to misery. Pau is a con
siderable town, in a romantic situation, and celebrated as the birth-place of Henry IV.,
whose cradle is still shown in the ancient palace, now converted into a prison. It makes a
good deal of linen, and is noted for its excellent hams, which are exported from Bayonne.
Tarbes, capital of the upper Pyrenees, and Bagneres, with its mineral hot springs, a place
of crowded and feshionable resort, are delightfully situated, affording an approach to the fine
valleys of the highest Pyrenees. The slopes of the neighbouring mountains are richly cul
tivated, and often well enclosed. Roussillon is Spanish as to language and customs ; but the
magnificent roads effected in defiance of natural obstacles, and the thriving industry of the
people, mark the influence of a more active and enlightened government. The extensive
fortifications of Perpignan render it a barrier of the kingdom. It is gloomy and ill-built,
but has some manufactures.
Languedoc, the ancient Gallia Narbonensis, and afterwards the domain of the counts ot
Toulouse, is the pride of France in regard to climate, soil, and scenery. The air along its
coasts is generally considered the most salubrious in Europe. The plains of Languedoc are
celebrated ; yet they are encroached upon not only by the Pyrenees on the east, but by the
Cevennes, which form their constant northern boundary, and in many places reduce them to
a breadth of a few miles. But on the line from Beziers by Montpelier to Nismes, the plain
is of much greater breadth, and displays a luxuriant fertility scarcely rivalled in any other
part even of this happy region. Every thing flourishes here, even what is most strictly
denied to other provinces ; not only grain and the vine, but the silk-worm and the olive.
The cities of Languedoc are not of the very first magnitude ; but they are handsome and
finely situated ; and they present some interesting Roman monuments. Toulouse covers a
great extent of ground, but it has suffered in consequence of the discontinuance of its par
liament, which was one of the most important in France. The cathedral is very large, but
not very beautiful ; and many of the churches were destroyed during the Revolution. There
is an university attended by 1500 students, and two large libraries open to the public.
Castres is a well-buUt, industrious, large town, the birth-place of Rapin and Madame Dacier.
Carcassonne still retains some of the bastions and towers of the castle on its hill ; but this
ancient quarter is almost deserted in favour of the neat pleasant town built beneath. Beziers
is ugly and dirty, but has a handsome cathedral, and is important from its site on the canal
of Languedoc. Narbonne, though celebrated as a Roman capital, presents few monuments
of that people; these are said to' have been takefi down at the building of the walls. Mont
pelier enjoys an unrivalled fame fbr its mild and salubrious air ; but late travellers have
declared themselves unable to discover on what that renown is founded. It is subject to
alternations of heat and cold ; cloth pelisses must be worn the whole winter, and fires can
not be discontinued till May. It is, however, an agreeable residence ; the public walk com
mands a view over the Mediterranean and the surrounding country, scarcely equalled in
Europe ; there is a flourishing medical school, with good practitioners, and a library of 40,000
volumes. Montpelier is not uniformly well-built ; but it presents a noble Roman aqueduct,
a fine cathedral, and other public buildings. Nismes is one of the greatest and most flour
ishing cities in the south of France. The silk manufacture, as already noticed, flourishes
there to a great extent. More than half the inhabitants are Protestant, who, as may be well
remembered, were, on the restoration of the Bourbons, exposed to violent outrages on the
part of their Catholic fellow-citizens ; but these disorders were disavowed by the French
court, and have ceased. The city is ill-built, ill-paved, ill laid out ; but there is a fine bou
levard bordered with trees ; and it is particularly illustrious for the magnificence of its Ro
man ihonuments. The amphitheatre is nearly entire, and, though rather smaller than that
Vol. I. 47 3 U

554

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Paet III.

Pont du Gard.

of Verona, from its massive grandeur, and the enormous stones of which it is constructed,
suggests the idea of an imperishable fabric. But the edifice called the Maison carree, sup
posed to have been a temple of Augustus, is that which has excited the admiration of all
travellers, from its extreme elegance
and gracefiil proportions, which ren
der it almost a perfect model of
architectural beauty. It remains
after so many ages quite entire, " as
if savage and saint had been alike
awed by its superlative beauty."
Near Nismes is the Pont du Gard
(fig. 288.), an ancient bridge, or
rather aqueduct, forming one of the
most remarkable monuments now
extant of Roman grandeur.
Provence is one of the most celebrated and interesting of the French provinces, first, as
the earliest seat of wealth, civilisation, and poetry ; next, as containing the ecclesiastical
capital, Avignon, near which is Vaucluse, the favourite residence of Petrarch ; lastly, as
including Toulon and Marseilles, the greatest naval and the greatest commercial city in the
kingdom. The classic stream of the Durance, though it crosses the whole region from its
alpine boundary to the Rhone, and too often overflows its banks, does not preserve the exten
sive tracts covered with rude calcareous hills from the evils of aridity. Although, there
fore, the products of this province are various, and many of them fine, it does not yield com
sufficient for its own consumption, nor can it boast of extensive manufactures, but depends
chiefly upon commerce.
The cities of Provence rank, in all respects, among the greatest and most interesting of
ihe kingdom. Aix is not the largest, but is reckoned the capital, and was formerly the seat
of the parliaments of Provence. Its name is contracted from that of Aquas Sextiae, given to
it by the Romans from the copious warm baths, in whose vicinity numerous medals and
inscriptions have been discovered. It is pleasant, airy, well built, in a fine plain encircled
by lofty mountains. The cours is very beautifiil, formed by two rows of trees, ^vith hot
fountains bubbling up, at which women are seen washing clothes. Greater celebrity attaches
to the name of Avignon, for some time an ecclesiastical capital, and still more illustrious by
association with the names of Laura and Petrarch. It is finely situated on the Rhone, with
many handsome houses ; but the streets are crowded and ill-paved. In the centre rises an
insulated rock, separated by the river from a range of hUls on the other side, and in which
are the remains of the palace of the popes, now converted into barracks and prisons. The
cathedral had accumulated immense wealth in silver and other offerings, of all which it was
rifled at the Revolution ; an event more fatal to Avignon than to any other city, except
Lyons. Avignon is surrounded by a wall built only for fiscal purposes, and the Rhone is
crossed by a handsome bridge built by St. Benezet in the twelfth century from the produce
of alms, and which yields 50,000 francs of annual toll. It would be profane for a traveller
to leave Avignon without visiting
289 the, tomb of Laura in the church
of the Franciscans, and making an
excursion to the beautiful fountain
of Vaucluse (Jig. 289.), the scene
of inspiration to Petrarch. Aries
was, in early times, one of tlie most
important cities in the south of
France ; under the- Romans it was
the seat of the prsetorian prefect ;
in the nintli century it was tlie
Fountain of Vaucluse. capital of a separate kingdom, and
afterwards the seat of an archbi
shop, and of thirteen successive councils. It is still a large city, and presents the vestiges
of a Roman amphitheatre (of which the interior area is now built upon), once capable of
containing 30,000 persons. Tarascon is still a flourishing place, above which rises the
ancient castle of the counts of Provence, now converted into a prison. On the opposite
bank of the Rhone is Beaucaire, distinguished for its great annual fair, at which are still
sold goods of various descriptions to the value of about 7,500,000 francs. Digne and Car-
pentras are of some importance as capitals of districts.
Marseilles and Toulon, the two great southern havens, form now the most important fea
tures of Provence. The commercial fame of Moi'seilles dates fi-om early antiquity, when
it was a Greelf colony, and carried on almost all tlie commerce of Gaul. In modern times
it has been the chief centre of the trade to the Levant ; and tiiough its prosperity suffered
a total eclipse under the regime of Napoleon, it has since regained much of its former

Book I.

FRANCE.

555

290

splendour. The harbour is spacious and secure, but it is somewhat narrow at the entrance,
and shallow. It is bordered by extensive quays of hewn stone, with spacioiis warehouses ;
and is filled with all the shipping peculiar to the Mediterranean, among which are galleys,
and beautiful pleasure-boats with silk awnings ; it is crowded with all the nations of that
sea, Greeks, Turks, Jews, Spaniards, Italians, and loaded with the produce of Asia and Afi-ica.
It is compared by a late writer to Liverpool : the districts round the port are a nucleus ot
trade and dirt ; but in the exterior, the streets are handsome, airy, and well built. Among
other fine public buildings is the lidtel de ville, with its magnificent marble staircase. The
cours is formed by two rows of fine trees bordered by handsome houses, and the central
walk is crowded like a fair. The neighbouring plain is finely cultivated, but is bounded by
bold and rugged mountains that rise above the range of vegetation. Toulon, though not a
seat of commerce, is the chief naval station of France on the Mediterranean. It has two
ports, the old and the new : the latter alone receives ships of war, and is bordered by most
extensive arsenals, in which 5000 men are constantly employed. This port can contain 200
sail of the line ; and without is a very spacious and well-sheltered roadstead. It is defended
by two strong forts, which, however, were occupied in 1793 by the British, who, at tlie end
of the year, were obliged to evacuate the place. This was the first occasion on which Bona
parte's military talents became conspicuous. Toulon is a clean, pleasant town, refreshed by
streams of water, running through the streets. The adjacent country is wild and romantic,
and interspersed with some cultivated valleys.
Dauphiny is a region completely alpine, the two depart
ments of the Upper and Lower Alps occupying the greater
part of its surface. The mountains are chiefly calcareous,
and broken into the most picturesque, peculiar, and ro
mantic forms. Young even considers the scenery of Dau
phiny, particularly along the Isere, as surpassing that of
any other part of the Alps. In one of the most awful re
cesses of these rocks and wilds, at a distance from all the
smiling scenes of earth, St. Bruno erected the monastery
of the Chartreuse (fig. 290.), of which Gray has drawn
so sublime and imposing a picture. There are other scenes
emphatically termed the wonders of Dauphiny; as the
burning fountain, the grottoes of Sassenage, &c. Although
this part of the kingdom cannot be considered as productive,
yet great numbers of cattle and sheep are reared on its
high slopes by a simple race of men resembling the mountaineers of Switzerland ; and even
the sUk-worm is bred in its lower valleys.
The cities do not require very particular notice. Grenoble is a considerable place, not ill
built, with a library of 60,000 volumes, and some other literary establishments. It took a
conspicuous part in promoting the commencement of the Revolution, and was also the first
town that opened its gates to Napoleon on his return from Elba. Gap is a pretty large but
poor old town, in a deep hollow, amid barren mountains. Vienne is a Roman city, and
presents a temple, with several other interesting remains of that people. It has also a fine
modern cathedral with a very lofty spire. Valence has a military school, at which Bonaparte
was educated. Near Tain is produced the celebrated wine called Hermitage.
The Lyonnais is a small territory, penetrated by branches of the Alps, in some places
rough and stony, in others finely diversified with hill and dale. Its chief interest, however,
centres in the great city which is its capital.
gn- Lyons (fig. 291.) is generally con-
, .i >_^ — sidered as the second city in France,
and as foremost in regard to com
merce and industry. It is on the
whole a noble city. The quays along
the Rhone are superb ; the hotel de
ville is held to be second only to
that of Amsterdam; the cathedral is
highly ornamented in the florid
Gothic style ; and the squares, espe
cially the Pla.ce de Bellecour, with
its fountains and statues, are nowhere surpassed. On the other hand, the old streets are
narrow, bordered by lofty and gloomy walls, and divided by a muddy stream. To turn into
them from the quays has been compared to entering subterraneous passages, watered by the
sluices of Cocytus. Lyons suffered dreadfully under the sway of the jacobins, who made it a
chief theatre of those atrocities that rendered them the horror of mankind. To say nothing
of the massacres perpetrated under the appellation of fusillades and noyades, they studiously
broke in pieces all the manufacturing machinery, while with barbarous hands they defaced
all the omaments of the city, filled up the fountains, broke the statues in pieces, and

Grande Chartreuse.

Lyons.

556

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Paet HL

demolished the whole of the cathedral except the walls. Her citizens have made diligent
efforts to restore her prosperity, and not without success ; still the want of capital and the
stagnation of trade are serious obstructions, and cause the evils of poverty among a large
population to be severely felt. The Lyonnese have the propensities usually observed in
manufacturing places : they dislike the Bourbons, and the sight of an Englishman is worm
wood to them.
Auvergne, to the west of the Lyonnais, is the only mountainous and pastoral tract which
France has peculiarly its own. It consists of a continuous range of mountains which have
evidently been in a state of volcanic action, the cotmtry being covered with lava, and the
houses built of it. From an elevated and extensive plain rises the great Puy de Ddme,
nearly 5000 feet high, with about sixty attendant mountains, called in the country the
giantess and her children. The country is diversified with many rugged and precipitous rocks,
having castles and even towns built on them. Yet Auvergne is not a barren country. The
Puys are mostly covered with herbage, and have large level plains. The natives are labo
rious, and rear large herds of cattle, which are almost wild ; they are even said to beat off
the wolf, the low of the animal attacked summoning all the rest to its assistance ; but, in
return, they cannot be milked unless the calf be on the other side. The people are homely,
and very republican ; they form themselves into a number of societies, of which the princi
ple is a common table, attended however by the men only. In winter they take up their
abode under the same roof with the cattle which occupy each end, and by their heat save
fuel which is scarce. Clermont is a considerable town, perched on the top of a hill, and
built of lava. It is extremely dirty, and Mr. Young compares several of its streets to chan
nels cut in a dunghill ; however, the mountain breezes purify the air. The cathedral, which
was fine, was nearly destroyed during the Revolution. In the surrounding country are many
curious caverns, petrifying wells, warm springs, cascades, &c. Aurillac also, Riom, and
Thiers are elevated towns, com
manding striking views of the rocks
and cones of this remarkable chain.
Towards Puy en Velay, which na
turally belongs to Auvergne, the
rocks become stUl more steep and
romantic; and among the castles seat
ed in them, Mr. Young especially
distinguishes that of Polignac (Jig.
292.), the form and site of which
appears to him so striking, as to
Castle of Pohgnac. cause all the feudal ages, by a sort
of magic influence, to rise before the mind. St. Michael's church, in the centre of the town
of Puy itself, stands on the top of a very striking, almost precipitous rock, of tower-like form.
Burgundy and Champagne, with the small adjoining provinces of Bourbonnais and Niver
nais, form a vast plain extending north of the provinces last described. Burgundy, however,
is traversed by branches from the Vosges, forming hUly tracts of moderate elevation. This
is the great country of wine, producing the finest in France, and, with very few exceptions,
in the whole world. The surface of the wine-district is chiefly red sandstone rock, with
very little soil. The vineyards are cultivated by small proprietors, who do not usually hold
more than twenty or thirty arpents. It costs 500 francs to
plant an arpent in vines, and 30 annually to keep it in repair.
Three years elapse before it yields any wine, and six before
it yields good wine. Common vineyards sell at 1500 francs
an acre; and there are some that sell so high as 10,000.
The precariousness of the crop, however, and the want of
capital, render this branch of industry a poor employment ;
and the cultivators of Burgundy are the least flouridiing of
any in France. Few new vineyards are now laid down ;
though the capital invested in the old ones is a suflicient
reason for keeping them up.
Of the chief towns, the first in dignity is Rheims, a no
ble and ancient city, the ecclesiastical capital of PVance,
where the kings were crowned and anointed. The catiie
dral (fig. 293.) has been considered tlie most splendid spe
cimen of Gothic architecture existing, though some of its
ornaments are not in tlie purest taste. The Hdtel de VUle
is also fine ; and the streets, unlike what is usual in old
towns, are broad, straight, and well built. Rheims is still
the chief mart of tliat fevourite wine called champagne,
and fi-om thence the connoisseurs of Paris take care to pro
cure their suppliss. Troyes, once celebrated for its great

Cathedral at Hhei^na.

Book 1.

FRANCE.

557

feirs, and noted as having given its name to the Troy weight, ranks as capital of Champagne,
and is still a large and flourishing town on the Seine. Chcilons sur Marne is also considera
ble, and, by a seemingly capricious choice,. is the capital of the department of the Marne,
instead of Rheims. Mezieres and Sedan are strong frontier towns ; the latter celebrated for
its manufacture of fine woollen cloth, as well as for one of arms. Rocroy is only distin
guished for the signal victory of 1643, which first established the superiority of the
French arms. In Burgundy, Dijon (fig. 294.), with its numerous and lofty spires, presents
a noble appearance to the approaching traveller ; but it has lost much of its ancient impor-

Autuo Cathedral.

Dijon.
tance. Its churches, now too numerous for tlie place in its reduced state, were dreadfully
defaced and mutUated during the Revolution : one has been converted into a market for fish,
another into one for corn. The streets, however, are wide and clean. Dijon has a distin
guished university, and can boast of giving birth to Bossuet, Buffon, and Crebillon. Autun
attracts notice by a temple and other remains, which indicate its importance as a Roman
city, also by a fine modern cathedral (fig. 295.) Auxerre still flourishes by the excellent
295 i wine produced in its neighbourhood, and is adom
ed with a cathedral and several lofty spires.
Ch&lons sur Saone is a good country town. Sens,
the see of an archbishop, and formerly the seat
of several councils, presents still some noble
monuments in decay. Moulins, capital of the
rich plain of the Bourbonnais, though not hand
some, is busy and cheerfiil, having a considerable
trafiic upon the Seine. Nevers, in Nivemais, is
finely situated on the Loire, but is an ill-buUt and
dirty town.
The provinces of Lorraine, Franche-comte, and Alsace are less an integral part of France
than a series of appendages obtained by conquest chiefly during the reign of Louis XIV.
They remain still in many points connected with Germany. They are watered by the
Meuse and the Moselle, tributaries of the Rhine ; they are traversed by the chain of the
Vosges, connected with the Swiss Alps and the Black Forest ; their surface is rude and
irregular ; their wines, have the same agreeable acid quality as the Rhenish. Even yet
Alsace, both as to language and manners, is altogether German.
The cities are, — Nancy, capital of the dukes of Lorraine, a race of gallant and accom
plished princes. It is said to be the most elegant city in France, especially the new town,
buUt in the sixteenth century. The gates appear almost like triumphal arches ; the public
buildings are numerous ; the place royale and the adjoining area are superb. The place is
lighted in the English manner. Metz is a larger town, and now more important, being one
of the strongest of the French fortresses. It "is nearly enclosed by the Moselle and the
Seille, and entered by successive drawbridges. The usual complement of its garrison is
10,000 men. Metz is celebrated for its long and triumphant defence under the Duke of
Guise against the army of Charles V. It is still a flourishing town, with numerous manu
fectures, and contains a library of 60,000 volumes. Luneville was for some time the resi
dence of Stanislaus, the ex-king of Poland, who considerably embellished it ; and it was the
scene of Bonaparte's first triumphant treaty in 1801. It is now rather a poor place, having
few manufactures. Another strong fortress is Verdun, a name familiar to English ears, as the
scene of the detention of their cotintrymen in 1803. It is well situated on the Meuse. Salins
flourishes by means of the salt extracted from the brine-springs, which are found also in
other parts of this territory. Besan9on, in Franche-comte, was a city of the German empire
tUl the treaty of Westphalia, when it was ceded to the Spaniards, from whom it was wrested
by Louis XTV. It is a large and industrious place, particularly distinguished by a manufac
ture of clocks and watches, introduced towards the end of the last century, and employing
about 1800 persons. It has also valuable scientific and literary establishments. Dole is
likewise a very ancient town, once the capital of Franche-comte. Vesoul and Lons le Saul-

558

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part IIL

296

nier are pretty good towns, and capitals of departments. In approaching Switzerland, tlie
country becomes elevated, and the towns occupy picturesque sites. Ornans lies in a deep
dell, skirted by green rocky hills, like Matlock. Pontarlier stands on a height having a strong
castle which guards the passage into Switzerland. Nantua is placed in a nook between two
enormous mountains. On crossing the Vosges appears
the rich and fruitful plain of Alsace, more highly cul
tivated than any other part of the kingdom except
French Flanders. Here Colmar, Haguenau, Saverne,
Weisemberg, are agreeably situated and rather thriving
towns. But by far the most important place in this
part of France is Strasburg (fig. 296.). It was early
celebrated as an imperial city, enjoying extensive
privileges, and enriched by the navigation of the
Rhine. Its prosperity was stUl ferther promoted in
consequence of the zeal with which, along with the '
rest of Alsace, it embraced the reformed doctrines.
Strasburg and Alsace suffered a severe misfortune, by
being, in 1689, subjected to France by Louis XIV.
Yet the city retained privileges beyond any other in
France, and continued to be distinguished both by
wealth and intelligence. Its schools were considered
second only to those of Paris, tiU the Revolution, when
they were severely injured, and have not yet been fully
restored. Strasburg, however, has still valuable institutions, both literary and economical,
and is one of the greatest and most flourishing cities of France. Its ancient unportance is
attested by its cathedral or minster, one of the most splendid existing monuments of the
Gothic. Its tower, 470 feet high, is said to be the most elevated stmcture in the world, with
the exception of the Great Pyramid of Egypt.

ft h)' - '
Straeburs,

CHAPTER IX.

SPAIN.

Spain forms the principal part of a very extensive peninsula ; the most southem, and also
the most western, portion of Europe. It is only connected by an isthmus about a hundred
tniles broad, traversed by the Pyrenees, a chain holding the second rank among the moun
tains of Europe. Spain is thus almost insulated from the rest of the continent.
Sect. I. — General Outline and Aspect.
The boundaries of the Peninsula in general are, on the north, the Bay of Biscay , on the
west, the Atlantic ; but this coast for more than half its extent is occupied by Portugal,
whose interior frontier forms to that extent the western boundary of Spain. The most south
ern point near Gibraltar is only separated by a narrow strait from the opposite shore of Africa.
Eastward from this strait is the Mediterranean, along which the coast wmds in a nortli-
easterly direction, gradually receding from Africa, and facing at a great interval the western
coast of Italy. From its termination, the Pyrenees stretch across to the Bay of Biscay, and
form the lofty limit between Spain and France.
The extent of Spain, north and south, is, from Tarifa Point in the straits, in 36° N. lati
tude, to Cape Ortegal in Galicia, 43° 46' ; about 540 English miles. From east to west, the
extreme points of the peninsula are Cape Creus, in Catalonia, 3° 17' E. longitude, and Cape
La Roca, 9° 30' W. longitude ; implying twelve and three quarters degrees, which, in this
latitude, amounts to about 560 miles. Thus the Peninsula forms almost a square ; allowance
being made for the irregularity of its outline ; and, the entu'e extent of Portugal being taken
off, Spain is reckoned to contain 183,600 square mUes.
The surface of Spain is strikingly irregular. It is traversed by long and lofty ranges of
mountains, having plains of vast extent between tliem and tlie sea. These mountains may
be considered as part of the great range which crosses Europe from the Black Sea to the
Atlantic. The Pyrenees common to France and Spain, form a long continuous line of lofty
summits, the most central and elevated,* of which is Mont Perdu near the source of the
Cinc&, which the accurate measurements have fixed at upwards of 11,160 feet. Towards
the sea, on both sides, the mountains sink mto a more moderate elevation, and the barrier
between the two kingdoms is less formidable. This great chain shoots lower branches into
* ["The hiffhest point of the Pyrenees is now known to be La Maladotta, 11,424 feet in height. The liighest peak
of tbe Sierra Nevudu, called tho Con-o do Mulhacon, ia still more elevated, being 11,660 feet above the
6ea.— Am. Ed.]

Boor L ^ SPAIN. 559
Catalonia and Navarre, presenting also some striking insulated peaks, among which that of
Montserrat is the most conspicuous. From the western extremity of the Pyrenees, a. great
chain, which has been called the Iberian, reaches almost due south, forming the boundary
of the fine plains of Aragon and Valencia. All the other ranges run fl-om east to west. The
Cantabrian is nearly a continuation of the Pyrenees : it stretches across the whole north of
Spain, covering the provinces of Asturias and Galicia, and leaving only a narrow and rugged
plain along the sea-coast. Pai-allel to this, on the opposite side of a vast plain through which
the Duero flows, is another transverse range, bearing in its highest points the names of
Guadarrama and Somosierra, and enclosing with its rugged and romantic cliffs the elevated
palaces of San Ildefonso and the Escurial. On the opposite side of the Tagus and of the
plain of Madrid is another parallel chain, the Sierra of Toledo. It borders the wide elevated
plain of La Mancha ; on the southern boundary of which is the more celebrated chain of
Sierra Blorena, the lofty barrier of the rich plains of Andalusia. Beyond these rises another
longitudinal chain, of a peculiarly bold and lofty character, called the Sierra Nevada, from
the snow which perpetually covers many of its summits ; between which and the Mediter
ranean only a narrow though beautiful plain intervenes. These long and lofty ranges, as
observed already, are separated by very extended plains, which, in the interior, are of great
elevation, and even Madrid is 21'70 feet above the sea : the plains along the Mediterranean,
and almost on a level with it, display a profljse fertility, and abound in all the choicest fruits
of a southern climate.
The rivers of Spain form as important and celebrated a feature as its mountains. The
Tagus and the Duero, rising in the Iberian chain, on the frontiers of Aragon, roll along the
two grand central plains, receiving numerous though not very large tributaries from the
motmtains by which they are bordered. Unfortunately for Spain, they terminate in the
somewhat hostile realm of Portugal, and are scarcely navigable above its fi-ontier ; so that
the commercial benefits arising from them are of little importance. The Guadiana belongs
to La Mancha, and on its approach to Portugal forms the boundary of the two kingdoms ;
but the high tract through which it flows is only distinguished for its rich pastures, and does
not render its port of Ayamonte a place of any importance. Beyond the Sierra Morena, the
Guadalquivir waters the plain of Andalusia, and has on its banks the noble cities of Cordova
and Seville ; while Cadiz, not far fi-om its mouth, forms the chief emporium of Spain.
Though its navigation is now much impeded, and practicable for large vessels only to Seville,
it is the only river in Spain of much commercial importance. The Ebro, which derives
from its position a greater historical celebrity than any otlier, rising in the Cantabrian moun
tains, nearly crosses the breadth of north-eastern Spain, and separates Catalonia and Ara
gon from the extensive regions of the interior. Its banks at present afford few materials for
trade, except a large quantity of timber. The Guadalaviar and Xucar in Valencia, and the
Mino in Galicia, are also rivers of some magnitude.
The mountains of Spain enclose no lakes, their waters finding a ready issue along the
vast plains on which they border. Sect. II. — Natural Geography.
Subsect. 1. — Geology.
The principal mountain chains in Spain differ not only in their external aspect, but also
in their internal composition : they appear more as different individuals than as members of
a single system. They have this in common with one another, that their nucleus consists,
in whole or in part, of primitive and transition rocks ; but not only the species, but also the
relations of these, vary in the different chains. A great body of granite, which seldom
reaches the highest points of the cotmtry, and contains subordinate beds of gneiss and other
primitive rocks, ranges through the Pyrenees properly so called. It is surrounded by a pre
dominating mass of crystalline slate and of transition rocks, among which the most abundant
are clay slate and limestone. On the contrary, on the v/estern continuation, in the Biscayan
mountairis, the older rocks are not widely distributed, and appear first in Galicia, at the
western extremity of the northern mountain chain, where, according to Humboldt, granite,
accompanied by crystalline slates, appears again, and in great extent. The principal mass
of the mountain chain which separates Old from New Castile is composed of gneiss and
granite. In the chain of mountains extending between the Tagus and the Guadiana, accord
ing to Link, the principa:l rock is granite. The long ridge of the Sierra Morena contains
principally transition rocks ; granite breaks out on its southern foot towards the Guadalquivir.
This rock, so frequent in the Iberian peninsula, appears to be wanting in the highest southern
chain. The middle mountain ridges consist of mica slate, abounding in garnets, which, in
the ridges lying before them, passes into less crystalline mica slate, chlorite slate, and clay
slate, which sometimes enclose beds, at times of vast magnitude, of compact limestone,
marble, dolomite, and serpentine. On the south coast, newer transition slate and greywacke
slate, with beds of flinty slate, lie here and there on the older slate. The basis or funda
mental part of the rock of Gibraltar is of these rocks.

o

>
Ow >

Oo>

fc Longitude 4 Weet of 3 Greenwich i ^^^1

1 Longitude 2 East of 3 Greenwicli 4

Book I.

SPAIN

561

The structure of the chains of mountains corresponds in general with their chief direction.
Not only the alternation of the different rocks, but also the direction of the strata, are con
formable with the direction of the chains : hence, in the greater part of Spain, the principal
direction of the slaty rocks is from S.W. to N.E., or W.S.W. to E.N.E. But the inclina
tion of the strata varies. In the Pyrenees, properly so called, the dip of the strata is con
formable with the two acclivities of the range. In the Somosierra and Guadarrama ranges,
the principal mass "of gneiss dips S.E. towards the granite lying before it. In the Sierra
Morena, the predominating dip of the slaty strata is towards the N.W., so that they appear
to rest on the granite which breaks from under tbem. In the Sierra Nevada, the dip of the
strata is conformable with the two acclivities of the chain. It is worthy of remark how the
curvature of the south coast of Spain obeys the direction of the strata, and how the formation
of the far-projecting southern point of the land also stands in connection with the direction
of the strata. At the foot of the rock of Gibraltar, the slaty strata run nearly north and
south with a rapid dip towards the east. The Gut of Gibraltar is therefore nearly at right
angles to the direction of the strata. The rocky wall between the Mediterranean and
Atlantic Seas, by this direction of the strata, must have opposed the strongest resistance to
the currents. "The primitive and transition rocks, in very different places, are rich in ores.
The present mines are confined principally to the south-west and south-east parts of Spain.
The mighty lead-glance veins of Linares occur in granite ; the colossal deposit of lead-
glance in the Sierra de Gador, which afforded, in the year 1828, 600,000 cwt. of lead, is
distributed in masses (putzen), in a limestone which may be referred to the oldest transition
rocks, and the rich mercury mines of Almaden are contained in clay slate. The secondary
rocks also assist in forming the principal Spanish mountain chains, but in a different manner.
They ascend to a great height on the Spanish side of the Pyrenees ; even some of the
highest summits are of secondary rocks. The western continuation of the Pyrenean chain
consists, in the Biscayan provinces, principally of secondary rocks ; and it is probable that
the lofty limestone mountain ridges which separate Asturias from Leon are a continuation
of the Biscayan secondary formation. On both sides of Somosierra the primitive rocks are

NORTH PAET.
Oalicia.
1. CHmarinas
2. Corunna
3. Betaozos
4. Fenol
5. Mera
6. Lugo
7. La Gesta
8. Santiago
9. Vieo
10. Tuy
ll.Ribadavia 13. Ababides
13. Orense
14. La Eua.
Asturias.
15. Illano
16. Oviedo
17. GijoD
18. Rivadacella
19. Lanes. Leon.
20. Aguilar de Cam
pos
21. Herrera
22. Saldana
S3. Almanza
24. Leon
S5. Astorga
26. San Justo
27. La Mezquita
28. Corvijal
29. M^yorga
30. Anusco
31. Paiencia
32. "Villaconancia
33. Valladolid
34. Tordesillas
35. Toro
36. Zamora
37. Fuentelsanca
38. Salamanca
39. Matilla
40. Ciudad Rodrigo
41. Cespedosa
42. Penaranda
43. Medina del
Campo.
Old Castile.
44. Arevalo
45. Bonilla
46. Espinar
47. Segovia
48. Pedraza
49. Cuella
50. Lerma
51 . Presnillo
52. Barrona
53. Almazan
54. Soria
55. Arnedo
Vol.. L

56. Lngrono
57. Najera
58. Friaa
59. Biipviesca
60. Rurana
61. P.ilenzuela
61* Alleg
62. Vargas
61, Siniander
64. Orduna. Biscay.
65. Bilboa
66. Deba
67. Tol-sa
68. S^ Sebastian
69. Vitloria. J^avarre.
70. Pampeluna
71. Tudela. .dragon.
72. Verdun
73. Jaca
74. Ainsa
75. Huesca
76. Saragossa
77. Garincna
78. Calatayud
79. l.uco
80. Montalban
8). Teruel
82. SarrioD
83. Txar
84. Pina Catalonia.
85. Lerida
86. Balaguer
87. Orgagna
88. Ur^'e^
89. Figueraa
90. Cardona
91. Gerona
92. Barcelona
93. Tarragona
94. (.^ervera
95. Fapital
96. Plix
97. Torlosa
SOUTH PART.
Estremadura.
1. La Cliva
2. Piacentia
3. Galistea
4. Cnria
5. Alcantara
6. Ca ceres
7. VA Tersorero
8. Badajna
9. Oliva
]0. Xerez
n. Llerena
13. Majacella

References to the Map of Spain and Port.ugal.

Vi. Merida
14. Acadera
15. Truxillo
16. Alnoaraz.
JVfw Castile.
17. Giiudalupe
18. Azutan
19. Oriipesa
20. Tnlaveradela Rt-yna
21. Toledo
2'i. Cuyocna
23. Kl Prado
24. Mostdles
25. Madrid
26. El Escurial
27. Et Pardo
28. Guadalaxara
29. Aranjuez
30. La Moia de Bel
mont
31. Secadon
32. Canavara
33. Vnltabladodel Rio
34. Hinoiosa
35. Frias
36. Cuenca
37. La Parra
38. Ynifsta
39. Requena F'alencia.
40. Tuejar
41. Ademuz
42. Forcali
43. Mnrella
44. Zurita
45. Peniscnla
46. Ft de Sal
47. Oropesa
48. Almedixar
49. Murviedro
50. Valencia
51. Alcira
52. Ft^ljpe
53 Dcnia
54. Xizana
55. Alicante Murcia.
56. Rafat
57. CnrthaEcna
58. Almazarron
59. Totana
60. Murcia
61. Cyhegin
62. Hellin
63. Velannera
64. Chinchilla
65. Ayna
66. Chiclana

La Mancha.
67. S. Lorenza
68. Almaero
69. Ciudad Real
70. Madridcjoa
71. MnlaKon
72. Lehornia
..Andalusia.
73. Demacar
74. Andojur
75. Linares
76. Raeza
77. Hiicacar
78. Abiox
79. Oullar
80 .Tndar
81. Monasterio
82. Jaen
83. Montilla
84- Bujalance
85. Cordova
86. Ossuna
87. Carmona
88. Ecija
89. Aracena
yO. Axiareollar
91. Almendro
92. Ayamonte
93. Hueiva
94. Seville
95. S. Lucar
96. Rcita
97. (^adiz
98. Xf^rez
99. TariFa
100. Gibraltar. Granada.
101. Guocin
102. Marbella
103. Ronda
104. Antf-quera
lOr.. Malaen
306. Vfilez Malaga
107. La Herradura
108. Mntril
109. Granada
110. Acra
ni. Almeria
112. Piirchena
113. Mujacar.
PORTUGAL.
L Entre Douro e
Minho.
1. Viana
2. Braga
3. Amarante
4. Oporto.
n. Tras OS Mantes, i Durango
5. iJazabranca j Aragon
6. Braganza k Gallego
7. Miranda de Vita 1 Cinca

a. Aldea
9. Mirandella. IIL Bcira.
10. Almeida
11. Lamego
12. Alf^arcal
13. Villanova
14. Feira
15. Avoiro
16. Coimbra
17. VisGu
18. Trancoso
19. Guarda
20. Salvniierra
21. Casiello Bianco
22. Snrdoal
23. Abrontes.
IV. Estremadura.
24. A ruga
25. Porta
26. Iieiria
27. Santarem
28. Ohidos
29. Villafranca
30. BeuRvenle
31. Cintra
:-I2. Lisbon
33. Almada
34. Setubal or St.
Ubea
35- Alcacerdo.
V. Alemtejo.
36. P'irlalegre
37. Elvas
38. Olivencat
39. Povoa
40. Sfirpa
41. Beja
42. Ourique
43. Mplidea
44. S. Andre
45. Villa Nova
46. Serdao.
VI. Algarve.
47. Seyja
48. Lagos
49. A Ibn feira
50. Castro Marino.

Ririprs of Spain.
a Tnmbre
b Ulla
c Minho
d Sil
e Navia
f Nalon
g Besaya
h Ebr(

t OliveDC^i is within tbe Spanish limits.

m Rihagorzano
n Spgre
o Muga
p Ter
q Llnbregat
r Fran col i
B Mariin
t Xiloea
u Douro
V Arlanza
w Arlanzon
X Pisuerga
y Carrioo
z E<>la
a* Orviego
b* TorracB
c* Coa
d* Zrzpre
e* Tagua
f* Alberche
g* Eresran
h* Hcnarea
i* Ttetar
i* Guadiana
:* Odiel
1* Tinio
m* Guadalquivir
?* Jandula
0* Guadalimar
p* Guadix
q* Giguela
r* Xucar
s* Cobriel
t* Guadalaviar
u* Segora
V* liorca _
w* Guadajoz
X* Genii
y* Guadiaro.
Rivers of Portugal
a Luna
b Trimaga
c Saliar
d Vouga
e IVlondego
e* Tagus
f Coa
B Zezore
n Loura
i Saldo
j Guadiana. BALEARIC ISLANDS. Imca.
1. Ivica Majorca.
2. Pa I ma
3. Seller
4. St. Lorenzo.
Minorca.
5. Ma hon
6. Ciudadela.
3V

562 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part HI.
skirted by those of the secondary class ; but they are far from the middle and higher parts
of the mountain chain. When we follow the road from Madrid to Andalusia, we meet with
secondary rocks near the transition clay slate of the passes of the Sierra Morena ; but we
must descend very low on the south side before we meet with similar rocks. The high
mountains of Jaen are formed of secondary rocks. In the northern vorgebirge of the Sierra
Nevada, between Granada and Guadiz, there are secondary deposits, which are not, how
ever, so considerable and extensive as to reach to the high ridges. Also in the vicinity of
Malaga new secondary rocks lie on the foot of older mountain masses ; and the ridges of
secondary rocks extend from the hills of Ronda towards the southem extremity of Spain.
The wonderful isolated rock of Gibraltar is also principally composed of new secondary rock.
The distribution of the rock is not confined to the immediate vicinity of the higher moun
tain chains, but it extends from the one to the other, rises or falls in the intermediate spaces,
and forms in this way the widely extended high table-land.
The most important of the Spanish secondary rocks are the following ; viz., variegated
sandstone and marl, gryphite limestone, and the white limestone or Jura limestone. The
first of these exhibits the same relations as in Britain, where it is known under the name of
new red sandstone and red marl. The shell limestone, which, in Germany, is enclosed
between Werner's variegated sandstone and the younger marl formations, is wanting in
Spain, as is also the case in England. The sandstone and marl is rich in gypsum and masses
of rock salt. At Vallecas, near Madrid, and in some other places, there rests upon it, in
single beds, that rare deposit consisting of meerschaum, with nests of siliceous minerals. It
is to this formation, which occurs widely spread over the high table-lands of Old and New
Castile, that these countries owe the reddish-brown colour of their soil, and the tiresome
uniformity of their surface. The lias formation is widely distributed in the northem pro
vinces of Spain. It appears to reach a considerable height on the Spanish side of the Pyrenees.
In the Biscayan provinces it exhibits the same characters as the gryphite limestone of the
Weser, and is so widely distributed that nearly all the older rocks are covered by it. Here
it is remarkably prolific in an excellent iron ore. The immense mass of sparry iron ore, con
verted by decomposition into browm and red iron ores of Soramorostro, near Bilboa, and which
probably forms the ironstone hills mentioned by Pliny in the 34th book of his Natural His
tory, belongs to this formation. Probably also the vast beds of coal in the Asturias are sub
ordinate to it. The white Jura limestone, which is one of the most widely distributed for
mations, is also of great geognostical importance in Spain. It forms, in most places, the
immediate cover of the variegated sandstone and marl, and occurs in the north, and also in
the south of Spain, in single ridges and great mountain masses. This formation is exhibited
in its most characteristic forms in the narrow pass of Pancorbo in Old Castile, in the lacerated
mountains of Jaen, and the isolated rocky wall of Gibraltar. Wherever it occurs, its presence
is announced by the yellowish-brown colour of the soil with which it is covered.
Some members also of the chalk formation occur in Spain. The sandstone of the rocky
ridge of the southern coast, between Cadiz and Gibraltar, and the limestone in the district
of Los Barios, bring to our recollection the rocks of tlie Saxon Switzerland. The first
agrees with the German quader-sandstein, the latter with the Saxon planer limestone, an
equivalent for impure chalk.
Tertiary deposits occur in diflerent parts of Spain. In the south, particularly near the
sea-coast, there is a deposit, filled with marine organic remains, in which calcareous sand
and pebbles occur, partly in a loose mass, and partly more or less firmly compacted by means
of calcareous cement. Judging fi'om the included peti'ifactions, among which are beds of
oyster-shells, this deposit, on which Cadiz stands, and which, in some places, rises into hil
locks and low hills, belongs to the upper tertiary sea-water formation. Probably the ter
tiary deposit mentioned by Brongniart as occurring in the neighboudiood of Barcelona
belongs to the same deposit. That fresh-water limestone occurs in Spain has been sufficiently
proved by the observations of Baron Ferussac. The deposit very much resembles that so
generally distjibuted in Germany, and is found in diflerent parts of Spain, both in the inte
rior and on the coast, and at different heights. The calcareous breccia, generally with a
terruginous basis, which occurs principally in the south-west, where it is widely distributed,
belongs to the latest of the antediluvian deposits. It not only incrusts limestone rocks of
diflerent formations more or less thickly, but also fills up rents and fissures in them : thus it
abounds among the calcareous rocks of Gibraltar, where it sometimes contains bones of quad
rupeds no longer met with there. The formation of the breccia is ascribed to a catastrophe
which affected diiferent parts of the coast of the Mediterranean sea. As Professor Haus-
mann, to whom we owe the preceding details, had not an opportunity of travelling in Mur
cia, he was not able to confirm or reject the accounts of Spanish geologists, who maintain
that it contains true volcanic rocks. The occurrence of other rocks, which are conjectured
to have come from below, has been noticed in but few places. Characteristic basalt occurs
in Catalonia. The porphyritic and basaltic-looking rocks extending fi'om Cabo de Gata, and
from Avila, on the north side of the Guadarrama range, are still problematical. Hypersthene
rock has been found by Professor Garcia in the vicinity of Salinas de Poza, in Old Castile,

Book I. SPAIN. 563
in contact with Jura limestone. Professor Hausmann found, in the mountains of Jaen, near
to variegated marl containing masses of gypsum, rocljs of greenstone. Col. Silver lop
describes tertiary deposits in Granada.
It may not be improper, from Professor Hausmann, to point out the influence of soil and
climate on the other departments of nature, as also on the peculiarities and occupations of
man. A glance at the whole nature of Spain discovers a threefold principal difference.
The northern zone, which extends to the Ebro, differs entirely in its characters from the
middle zone ; and this again is completely different from the southern zone, which is bounded
on the north by the Sierra Morena, and a part of the Ostrandes. Tho northern zone, which
mcludes Galicia, Asturias, the Biscayan provinces, Navarre, the northern part of Aragon,
and Catalonia, is a widely extended mountainous and hilly country. The snow-fields and
glaciers of the Pyrenees on the one side ; and on the other the north and north-west winds,
have a marked influence in lowering the temperature of the atmosphere, and in increasing
the supply of water. The increased humidity is favourable for vegetation, which, on the
whole, very much resembles that of the south of France ; and the variety of rocks contain
ing lime, clay, and sand, and also their frequent alternations, operate beneficially on the soil.
The soil everywhere invites to cultivation, and the Catalonians and Biscayans are active
cultivators of the ground. The middle part of Spain, to which belongs Old and New Castile,
a part of Aragon, Leon, and Estremadura, is not so favourably circumstanced. In general,
we rarely meet with either beauty or variety of aspect. The extensive and lofty table-lands,
destitute of trees, are dull and tiresome ; their uniform and monotonous surface, formed by
vast deposits of horizontally disposed secondary strata, is swept across by the wind, and burnt
up by the sun's rays. Whichever way the eye turns, it meets with scarcely any thing but
wretchedly cultivated cornfields and desert heaths of cistus. Seldom, in general, more in
the southern than in the northern districts, plantations of olive-trees afford a meagre shelter,
and vary the scenery, although in an inconsiderable degree. Nothing, certainly, has so
great an irifluence on these properties of nature, with which many of the peculiarities and
modes of life of man harmonise, than the high situation of the widely extended table-lands,
and the uniformity of the rock which forms the support of the soil. It is owing principally
to the horizontal stratification, and the v/ant of water, that the great Spanish table-lands are
so widely extended, and so little intersected by deep valleys. The rivers, in most cases,
carry but little water in comparison with the magnitude of the land, and the number of con
siderable mountain chains ; and it is further surprising how insignificant the waters of most
of the Spanish mountam groups are, even when the qualities of the rocks favour the forma
tion of springs. The causes of this great deficiency of water are principally the great dry
ness of the atmosphere, the inconsiderable cover of snow on the mountains, and its short
contmuance ; the absence of forests, and the want of great moors on the heights, and the
comparatively inconsiderable breadth of the mountain ranges. The southern and south-,
western part of Spain, which comprehends Andalusia, with Granada and Murcia, is very
diflerent firom that just described. On the opposite side of the Sierra Morena the whole
land has a more southern and foreign aspect, a breathing of that African nature, which an-
"°if"*^*'r^u*^^^^ "°' °"'^ ^^ ^'^^ ^"'¦''^ °^ P'^"*-^' ^"* ^'^° ^y ^^^ animal world, and man him
self. The great diflerence of climate is produced by the southern situation, the exposure of
the acclivity on the south and south-west to the African winds, and the strong reflection of
the solar rays fi-om the lofty, naked mountain walls. The mountam ranges are more closely
aggregated, the valleys more deeply cut : there is no room for very extensive table-lands
and the more limited ones that occur, as those of Granada, are more amply supplied with
water than those m the middle of Spain. Along with this arrangement, there is greater
difference among the rocks, and also of their position. The south of Spain, therefore, pos
sesses not only a much higher temperature, one fit for the orange and the palm, but also a
more varied and a more favourable soil for cultivation. But these relations would have acted
more beneficially if the air had been more humid, and moisture had been everywhere more
abundant, ihe deficiency of moisture is the principal cause not only of the striking mea-
greness of phenogamous vegetation, on most of the mountain acclivities, but also of the
remarkable paucity of lichens and mosses on the mountains on the coast; and in connection
with this IS the fact, that the weathering of the rocks, and the reformmg of the originalsur^
face of the mountams, assume there a somewhat diflerent course fironfwhat is observed in
places which are moister, and provided with a more powerful vegetation.
ScBSECT. 2. — Botany.
" oil ! Christ ! it is a goodly sight to see
What Heaven hath done for this delicious land I
What fruits of fragrance blush on every tree 1
What goodly prospects o'er the hills expand !
(But man would mar them with an impious hand).
"European Spain," says M. de Humboldt "situated in latitudes under which Palm trees
(Phmnix dactylifera and Chammrops humihs) grow upon the plams, presents the maiestic
spectacle of a cham of mountains, the tops of which shoot up into the region of everiasting

664 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Pabt HI.
snow. By a levelling survey executed with the greatest care, it has been ascertained that
in the Sierra Nevada of Granada, the Pico de Veleta rises about 11,38.5 English feet, and
the Mulhacen 11,660 English feet, above the level of the ocean. None of the mountams
of the Pyrenees are of so great a height; for Mont Perdu, the loftiest of the Spanish Pyre
nees is only 11,168 feet, and the highest of the French Pyrenees only 1722 fathoms. The
peak of Mulhacen, in the Sierra Ne'/ada of Granada, wants only 76 fathoms of being as
high as the Peak of Teneriflfe. Yet even this summit, if situated in the same latitude as
the town of Mexico, would not be perpetually covered with snow : for the never-melting
snows begin under the equator at 2460 fathoms ; under the twentieth degree of latitude at
2350 fathoms ; under the forty-fifth, at 1300 fathoms ; and under the sixty-second, at 900
tathoms." Thus circumstanced in regard to climate, and the elevation of its mountains, how greatly
is it to be regretted that no country in Europe has been so little investigated in regard to its
botanical productions ! Enough, however, is known for our purpose, which may be collected
from the different travels in, and accounts of, Spain and Portugal, and from the Recherches
sur la Distribution Geographique des Vegetaux Phanerogames dans VAncien Monde,
already alluded to, by M. de Mirbel. This author considers the whole of this peninsula,
with the exception of the northern part of Spain, which forms the shores of the Gulf of
Gascony, and which belongs td the temperate zone, as entering into the transition zone. If,
therefore, its vegetation has any affinity with that of France, it is only where its mountainous
parts, especially the Pyrenees, resemble the mountains of France, and its warm districts are
like the extreme south of France. In East Valencia and Murcia, in the south of Andalusia
and the Algarves, in Western Alemtejo and South Estremadura, the rich and varied vege
tation calls to mind the fertile plains of Syria. In Andalusia, fi-osts are unknown, and the
snow, if it ever falls, melts the moment it touches the soil : so that it is not surprising that,
in the cultivated parts, the Spaniards, long famous for their voyages, should have introduced
many vegetables fi'om remote parts of the world ; thus giving a perfectly tropical appear
ance to the country.
The Erythrina Corallodendron, or Coral tree, with its brilliant scarlet blossoms, the
Schinus Molle, with its gracefully pinnated foliage, and the Phytolacca dioica, are intro
duced, with many other plants, from South America. Even the bananas are common to the
south of the Guadalquivir; as are also the Cayenne Pepper; and, in gardens, the Convolvu
lus Batatas, or Sweet Potato. Everywhere about the rural habitations of the Spanish pea
santry, the Date, the Orange (fig. 298.), the Lemon, the Olive, the Pomegranate, the Fig

298

The Orange. The Fig

(fig. 299.), and the Mulberry, flourish nearly as well as in the native soil. Link notices the
trees growing about Lisbon ; " they are chiefly," he says, " Olive and Orange trees, Cypress,
Judas trees : Elms and Poplars appear too. But of Oaks, Beeches, and Lime, there are
none, and very few Willows ; so that one may instantly perceive how different is tlie char
acter of a Lisbon view from that of Germany." The Orange is the most striking of these :
for there are many plantations in quintas, where they form compact groves, and also scat
tered in open spots. These trees require much artificial watering, and they are propagated
by seed, and afterwards by grafting upon those seedling ti'ees. In December and January
the fruit begins to turn yellow ; and at tho end of January and in February, before they are
ripe and sweet, they are gathered for exportation. Towards the end of March and April,
the oranges are very good, but they are not in perfection till early in May. In July and
August, they are scarce, and over-ripe. At the end of April and May, the new flowers ap
pear, the fi-agrance of which extends far and wide, and at this time the quantity of glittering
fruit embosomed amid the dark foliage, " lilie golden lamps in a green night," relieved stiU

Book I.

SPAIN.

565

%»»,•>

300

f

more by the snowy blossoms, presents an object which continually excites new admiration,
though it is one of daily occurrence. One single tree frequently bears 1500 oranges, and
examples are not wanting of their bearing 2000, and sometimes, though rarely, 2500. In
the provinces, they sell for half a farthing apiece. Figs are exported largely firom the city
of Faro; they are the most important produce of the Algarve, and are brought down by the
country people to the merchants in immense quantities. They are thrown in heaps in a
building prepared for the purpose, where a syrup flows fi'om them, which is used to advan
tage in making brandy. They are then spread to dry in the sun, ui an open situation, where
they are left for a few days, in proportion to the heat of the weather ; after which they arc
packed into small baskets made of the leaves of the Fan Palm, and exported. " Greece and
the Algarves," M. Link observes, " are the only countries where caprification is practised ;
for in the latter country are some varieties of Pigs, and those very excellent, that fall to the
ground immature, unless punctured by gnats." Two ideas prevail respecting the effect of
this operation ; the general ophiion being, that the little insect, on entering the Fig, (which
is known by botanists to be a fleshy receptacle, including many, and often only barren
flowers,) carries with it, from other figs that it has visited, and from which it comes loaded,
the farina necessary for fertilisation : while others maintain, and among them M. Link, that
the puncture caused by the insect gives a fresh stimulus and a new movement to the sap or
juices of the firuit, thereby not only preventing the fall of the fruit, but rendering it sweeter
and better flavoured ; and it is certain that many of our common fruits, when pierced by in
sects, acquire the sweetest flavour. The ancients perfected the fig:s in the Archipelago by
means of an insect, a species of Cynips (C Ficus). In Algarve, besides the cultivated kind,
another wild sort is grown ; in which the insects abound. These trees are recalled Fijos de
tora ; and branches of them are, at the proper season, broken off, and suspended over those
intended to be fertilised, when the little animals come forth, alight upon the fruits, puncture
them, and aid their ripening. '
Formidable fences are made of the Cactus Tuna (fig. 300.), and the Agave americana,
or American aloe. The former is often mixed with the Pome-
gi-anate, but of itself it constitutes a hedge almost impervious to
cattle. In Portuguese it is called, on account of its prickles,
Fijo do inferno : the flowers are yellow and the fi-uit esculent;
the latter is by no means unpalatable, and is regularly sold in
Lisbon. Of the Agave americana we have already spoken, and
shall, therefore, simply mention here, that its leaves undergo a
process by which a valuable thread is extracted, known in Por
tugal by the name of Filo da pita. The largest and most per-
^j& .,^, I feet leaves are cut off, laid upon a board, and scraped with a
^j ¦' 'f square iron bar, which is held in both hands, until all the juices
» jf'r-* and pulp are pressed out; the nerves only remaining, when
these are found easily separable into threads. Where pasturage
is scarce, as in Algarve, the cattle eat the foliage of this plant,
if cut into thin transverse slices.
In La Mancha grows the Esparto grele (Stipa tenacissima),
of v.'hich cords are made, and the foliage is sent in large quan
tities into Portugal for this purpose. To prevent the careless
destruction of these valuable plants, penalties are inflicted on
any person who ventures to gather them before the month
of May, when they are in perfection.
The Carob tree (fig. 301.) Link reckons the most beautiful of European trees. It attains
a considerable height, forming, with its large evergreen pinnated
foliage, a head of consid&rablf, dimensions, and yielding a welcome
shade. Among the foliage hang down the numerous long pods,
which, when ripe, are used as fodder for cattle, especially the
mules, and as meat for swine, though inferior to the acorns of the
Evergreen Oak. Before the expulsion of the Moors, the Sugar
Cane was cultivated to a considerable extent, and lately it has been
re-introduced, at San Lucar, into a garden " d'acclimation," to
gether with Coffee, Indigo, and Gum Arabic. A vast extent of
^.^ , country is covered by the Chamserops humilis {Dwarf Palm or
/ I A^^L PO'^rnetto), growing in waste places. This vegetation, in part ex-
/ ..^^mA otic, follows the coasts of the Spanish peninsula, to the east and to
the west. It is diffiised in all its luxury in the delicious territory
of Valencia, where the agriculture of the Moors is still held in
respect. With the species already named, are here cultivated the
Aloe perfoliata. Yucca aloifolia. Cassia tomentosa, Melia Azcda
rach, many kinds of Mimosa, Annona, &c. In the environs of
AHcant, the Date harvest is very abundant. This Palm there grows in large plantations)
Vol. L 48

Cactus Tuna.

Carob Tree.

566

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part llL

and often attains the height of 120 feet. It reaches along the entire coast, to the 40th de
gree, and perhaps higher. The Agave abounds in the environs of Tarragona, in the 41st
degree ; and the Olive continues to the shore of France.
In general, the vegetation of the east of the Peninsula differs little from that of the other
shores of the Mediterranean. The coasts of the Ocean, on the west, are less hot, according
to M. Bory de St. Vincent, than corresponding latitudes on the east sides ; so that the south
ern vegetation does not extend so far to the north. Be this as it may, the Date, the Lemon,
the Orange, abound in Algarve and Alemtejo. The Orange grows plentifully in the envi
rons of Oporto, in 41° ; and the Olive extends to 42°. A great number of American plants,
the seeds having been probably brought in ballast, are mingled, and, as it were, confounded,
with indigenous species. Upon the whole, however, the vegetation may be considered as
having more in common with that of the Atlantic than with the coasts of the Mediterra
nean. Link thus pictures the climate of Portugal, and its effects upon vegetation : — " A
heat, equal to 96° of Fahrenheit, is not uncommon in this country ; and, from comparative
observations, it appears that the climate is warmer here than in Brazil, though the heat does
not continue near so long. From Midsummer-day to the middle of September, rain is ex
tremely uncommon, and even in the beginning of that month very scanty ; the drought often
continues much longer. Immediately after the first rains, follow the autumnal flowers, the
Meadow Saffron (Colchica, two species but little known) ; Saffron (Crocus salivus) ; the
Autumnal Snowdrop {Leucojum autumnale) ; the sweet-smelling Ranunculus buUatus, and
many others. These appear in the higher lands around Cintra, where the rains are earlier
than in the low parts near Lisbon. Immediately after the autumnal flowers, come the
spring plants, owing to which the interval between spring and autumn is scarcely percep
tible. In October the young grass springs up, and the new leaves shoot out, rendering it
the pleasantest month of the year. In November and December fall heavy rains, with fre
quent storms. Days of perpetual silent rain are very rare, for in general it comes down in
torrents. The brooks round Lisbon, which it was a little while before easy to step over, and
which wholly disappear in summer, now rush like torrents down the hills. This swelling
of the streams renders travelling difficult at that season, and would retard the operations of
war as much in winter as the drought in summer. In January, cold, clear weather often
prevails, but becomes milder in February, which is generally a very pleasant month."
The most common vegetables of the plains of Spain are the Cork tree (fig. 302.), the
Hex, and Kermes Oak (fig. 303.), the Bay tree, the Myrtle, the PhUyrea media and angus-
302 .^ .^r^ 303

Kermes Oak.
Corlt Tree.
tifolia, Juniperus Sabina, Celtis australis, Pistacia Terebinthus and Lentiscus ; Rhamnus Ala-
ternus, and many other species of this genus ; Viburnum Tinus, Osyris alba, Paliurus aus
tralis, the Strawberry tree, the common and shrubby Jessamines, the Caper plant, and a great
number of Cisti (fig. 304.) with other shrubs, whose foliage is of an evergreen and coriace
ous nature. Immense plains are clothed with Lygeum Spartum, and the running streams
are bordered with Bupleurum spinosum and Nerium Oleander.
But it has been justly remarked, that no country in Europe presents a more sorrowful
aspect than the interior of the Peninsula. " No man, perhaps, saving a botanist," says Link,
" could travel with any pleasure in the barren tracts of Old Castile ; but this pursuit can
render travelling both instructive and interesting, even in these apparently sterile wastes.
Where forests have existed there, they have yielded to tlie stroke of the axe ; and tlie naked
soil remains witliout any culture. Vast chains of mountains spread out in all directions, and
between them are extended the Parameras, more or less elevated plains, frequently as naked
as the steppes of Siberia." M. Bory estimates at from 1800 to 2000 feet the elevation of the
Paramera which divides the sources of the Douro and the Ebro. In tlie valleys formed by
these rivers and their tributary streams, a vegetation of great beauty is found, partalving of

Book T.

SPAIN.

567

tliat in tJie more temperate climates of the north. Here are seen small fields of Maize, and
even of Rye and Barley, more rarely of Wheat, surrounded by lofty Oaks, Chestnuts, and
Poplars, every tree supporting a Vine, which spreads over it and not unfi'equently reaches
to the very summit of the highest Oaks.

304

Cistus.

Chestnut.
The great mass of the forests which have escaped destruction are mostly formed of Ever-
jffreen Oaks ; among which, besides the other species already enumerated, are found the
Quercus Ballota, segilopifolia, faginea, prasina, crenata, rotundifolia, humilis, &c. The latter
does not exceed six inches in height. In the valleys and on the mountams also, grow Tilia
europgea (^platyphyllos ?), Fagus syl i^atica, Castanea vesca (fig: 305.), Taxus baccata, Pinus
sylvestris, Fraxinus, Ornus, &c. The commonest forest tree on the plains of the temperate
zone, namely the Oak {Quercus Robur), inhabits the southem slope of the Pyrenees. It is
said that this tree occurs also in some parts of the Peninsula,
The vegetation which prevails on the lofly mountains in the interior of Spain is almost
wholly unknown to us. M. Ramond has made some interesting observations on that of the
Pic du Midi, one of the highest of the Pjn-enees ; and has compared the plants of its most
elevated summit, estimated at about 10,000 feet, with that of Melville Island, as described
by Mr. R. Brown. The similarity is very striking.

SUMMIT OF THE PIC DU MIDI
Cryptogamia.
Fungi  0
Lichens  51
HepaticcE  1
Mosses  6
Ferns  4
— 62
PhiBnogamous.
(JyperaceEB  3
Crrasses  7
Junci  0
PnlygoneEB  1
Plantagines  1
I'lumbagines  1
LysimachiEE  4
Pedicularinaj  3
LabiatBE  1
Scrophul ar in EB  1
Boragineae  1
GentianeEE   2
Campanulaceae  1
CichoraceEe  3
Corymbiferffi  10
Rubiaceje  2
Papaveraceffi  1
Cruciferaa  6
Caryophylleffi  6
FicoideEe  4
Saxifrageae  4
RosaceEE  4
Leguminosa  4
AmentaceEB  1

133

MELVILLE ISLAND.
Cryptogamia.
Fungi  2
Lichens  15
HepaticEB  2
Mosses  30
Ferns  0
— 49
Phcenogamous.
Cyperacere  4
Grasses  14
Junci  2
Polygoneas  2

Scrophul arin EG.
EriceEE 

CampanulaceiE,. Cichoraceee 
CorymbiferiE . . .

Ranunculaceje  5
PapaveraceEB  1
Cruci ferag  9
CaryophylleEB  5
Saxifrageffi  10
RosaceEE  4
LeguminosEB  2
Amentacese  1

-67
lie

568

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part IIL

Earopean Bee-Eater.

Of these, eight of the Melville Islands lichens and one of its mosses are found on the sum
mit of the Pic du Midi ; five others of the lichens, and one of its two hepaticce, and six of its
mosses, grow on the crags of the peak, or in its immediate vicinity.
Subsect. 3. — Zoology.
The native zoology has been so little investigated, that nothing beyond a meagre list could
be furnished of indigenous animals. In the mountains of Asturias the Ibex is not uncommon,
and the Alpine Squirrel (Sciurus alpinus) is only found in the Pyrenees.- In the southern
parts, bordering on the African shore, a few species of warblers have recently been found,
which are as yet unknown to the rest of Europe. The European Bee-eater (fig. 306.) fre-
306 quents the vicinity of Gibraltar in large flocks during
the season of migration.
Among the domesticated animals, the horse and sheep
of Spain deserve particular notice, as having been long
celebrated throughout Europe. The best horses are
generally about four feet six or eight inches high ; they
have all the fire, docility, grace, and action of the
beautiful Arabians of Barbary (generally called Barbs),
and there can be no doubt of these noble animals having
been introduced by the Moors, and crossed with the
native breed : those of Andalusia, Granada, and Estre
madura are the most distinguished. At Xeres are found
two perfectly distinct races ; the one, which possesses the fine qualities above mentioned, is
still preserved in all its purity at the Chartreux. The other race is larger, stronger, less
elegant, and used for common purposes. Latterly but little care has been bestowed in keep
ing up the more noble breed, so that fine horses are not so common in Spain as formerly.
The mule, in so mountainous a country, is particularly usefiil, and, with the ass, is prin
cipally used for conveying goods in the interior ; the breeds of the latter are very fine, and
are hardly excelled by those of Egypt. Spain is stdl famous for its merino race of sheep
(fig. 307.). The flocks are kept constantly travelling during the greater part of the sum
mer, but are carefully pent up in winter. This race, subdivided into breeds, is extended
over the greater part of Spain ; but those of Cavage, and
Negrate, are the best. A third breed, the Souan, appears
more hardy, and passes the winter in Estremadura, Anda
lusia, and New Castile : these three constitute the Transhu-
mante, or travelling race, to distinguish them from the
Estantes, or those of a somewhat inferior breed, who do not
migrate. The best fleeces are those which appear almost
black on their surface, caused by the dust adhering to the
peculiar greasy pile ; for it is invariably found that such
fleeces are of the purest white beneath. The merinos, dis
persed by George III. over England, have incalculably im
proved the native races. By great care and expense on the part of the native graziers, this
valuable race has likewise been introduced in the distant regions of Australia with equal
success. There is a very large breed of oxen in the country round Salamanca ; but the
cattle of Spain have been much neglected ; the mountaineers deriving all their milk and
butter from goats. The spaniel appears to he a breed of dogs originating from this country;
and the Spanish pointer is considered to have a greater acuteness of scent than that of
Britain. Sect. III. — Historical Geography.
The earliest inhabitants of Spain, like those of Gaul and Britain, were of the Celtic race,
and from the river Ebro (Iberus) were called Celtiberi. The whole country was by the
Greeks called Iberia, and sometimes, from its western position, Hesperia. The people, like
those of the rest of Europe, were divided into a number of small tribes, hardy and warlike,
who often showed a peculiar attachment to national independence, and obstinacy in its
defence. The Carthaginians were the first civilised people who occupied Spain, which, for several
centuries, was considered as theirs. They founded colonies on the most advantageous points,
worked its rich silver mines, and easily allured many of its brave but poor inhabitants into
their mercenary armies ; they were far, however, from having thoroughly subdued the Pen
insula, the people of which, on the rise of the Roman power, endeavoured by its alliance to
emancipate themselves from the Puiiic yoke. Tho siege and fall of Saguntum seemed to
have extinguished these hopes, and to have secured the ascendency of Carthage ; but the
events which marked tlie close of tlie second Punic war completely humbled that proud
republic, and put an end to its dominion over Spain.
The Romans, by the capture of Numantia in b. c. 134, established their supremacy over
Spain, undisputed by any other nation ; but the complete subjugation of its inhabitants was
a long and arduous task, to which the utmost exertions of Ca3sar and his lieutenants were

Merino Sheep.

Book L SPAIN. 569
not fully adequate. Spain, however, was at length reduced to a province, divided by Augus
tus into three parts : — Tarraconensis, the north and east ; Bcetica, the south ; and Lusitania,
Portugal. The Spaniards even became civilised and peaceable subjects; so that when
Rome, sinking under its own weight, was unable to defend them, they could not resume
their early independence, but fell a prey to the Vandals, Goths, and other barbarous hordes
that poured in from the north of Europe.
The Goths, in tliis terrible struggle, finally prevailed ; and in 418 a Gothic dynasty waa
fully established over Spain. These barbarous invaders appear here, as elsewhere, to have
expelled or extirpated the native people, whose features and language are recognised only
in some of the higher mountain districts. After a sway of three centuries, the Goths were
destined to yield to a new people, coming from a remote quarter.
The Arabs, rendered invincible by fanaticism, had over-run all the north of Africa, and
established a powerfiil kingdom in Fez. The vengeance of Count Julian invited them over,
and opened the way for them ; their immense host covered the plains of Andalusia ; Roderick,
the Gothic king, was totally defeated. The invaders then over-ran the whole kingdom, with
the exception of some mountain recesses, in which a remnant of the Gothic chiefs found
shelter ; they even passed the Pyrenees, and seemed about to over-run all western Europe.
But Charles Martel met them on the plains of Aquitaine ; and, after a dreadful battle of three
days, they were signally overthrown, and never again attempted to pass the Spanish frontier.
Meantime Don Pelayo, and other chiefs of the Gothic race, again raised the national standard
in the mountains of the Asturias : then commenced a contest of 700 years, distinguished by
numerous heroic achievements and memorable events, which gave to the Spanish character
that romantic and adventurous cast which it has never wholly lost. The Arabs or Moors
still retained the flnest provinces, and the courts of Cordova and Granada were the most
splendid and polished in Europe. The Spaniards, however, under a succession of able chiefs
and particularly of their great hero the Cid, gained ground : new kingdoms were successivelj
founded ; which all merging into those of Castile and Aragon, comprehended the whole or
Spain, except the extreme southern kingdom of Granada.*
Spain was again formed into one great kingdom by the union of the crowns of Castile and
Aragon, under Ferdinand and Isabella, in 1474, and by the final overthrow and expulsion of
the Moors. From this period commences the most brilliant era of her annals. The dis
covery of America, the conquest of the golden regions of Mexico and Peru, and of other
dominions so extensive as to make it a plausible boast that the sun never set on them, threw
an almost unrivalled lustre around the Spanish crown. Under Charles V. and Philip IL,
Spain continued the most powerful kuigdom, and her armies the most formidable, of any in
Europe. The throne derived even an addition of apparent lustre from the subversion of the
popular part of the govemment, and the conversion of a body of grandees, once the proudest
in Europe, to the condition of humble vassals.
The decline of Spain, though its causes had begun to operate, did not become perceptible
till after the death of Philip II. A gloomy indolence and degrading superstition now marked
her councils ; her armies were vanquished by the French under Conde and Turenne ; she
lost her place and rank in Europe. The trade with her vast colonies, fettered by absurd
restrictions, became profitable only to the industrious nations which supplied its materials.
The war of the succession drew notice towards this country, and called forth some displays
of national energy ; but the Bourbon dynasty, which it placed on the throne, soon relapsed
into the characteristic indolence, and Spain became little more than a dependency of France.
We know not whether to designate as an era, the train of remarkable events which have
*TIie Arabs in Spain, like the Saxons in England, established a lasting memorial of tlieir dominion by engraft
ing their own language on that of the country which they subdued. Of this, the topography of the Peninsula
exhibits innumerable instances. The names of rivers, mountains, towns, and places, were either totally or par
tially changed, by the victorious invaders ; and afler the expulsion of their descendants, those names were per
petuated, though with alterations in some instances as arbitrary as those which were made in the ancient
topography of the country: thus, the Roman station. Pax Mugusta, was transformed hy the Arabs into Batalio,
and afterwards by the Spaniards into Badajoz ; Cmsar Augusta, by an abbreviation less violent, became Saragossa';
and Eraerita Augusti was contracted into Merida.
The Arabic term Medina (city) survives in two eminent instances among the titles of the Spanish nobility:
Medina Selim (the city of Selim) is recognised in the dultedora of Medina-Celi ; and the colony probably called New
Sidon, is that of Medina- Sidonia. From the generic term guad, a river, and velet or veled. a landed estate or district
many names may be explained which at first view appear capricious and arbitrary : — ¦ *
Ex. Guad-al-aviar  Tlie white river.
Guad-al-quivir,  The great river.
Guad-al"higiara, now Guadalaxara,  The river of rocks.
Velci and Veled are often conjoined with proper names, Velei Malaga. Veled Vlid. now Valladolid : thus, Navairre
and Leon, their confines never having been occupied by the Arabs, were called by them Veled Arroum. the land
of the Ramans. Oezira was applied indifferently to an island or a peninsula ; hence Algeiira. Aldea means what
is comprehended under the English term a farm. It is of common occurrence in itineraries, as Aldea del Rio
Aldea Oallega, Aldeas de Fonsso. From cantara. a bridge, we account for the emphatic name Alc&ntara. CalUnto
a castle, enters more or less prominently into the composition of various names; as CalCat Ayat, tiie castle of
Ayat, is now Calatayud; Caldat Rabah, the castle of Rabah, is now Calatrava ; Al CalCat. simply the castle is
now Alealk. Alcazar, a word of frequent occurrence in Spanish topography, is a fortified house or small castle ¦
Almeria is an observatory. See Description of Spain, by Gerif Alhedris, in the translation of Don Jos6 Antonio
C'ond6, whose History of the Domination of the Arabs in Spain is esteemed one of the most masterly works thai
have appeared in the present age.
Vol. L 48* 3VV

570 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part HI.
occurred between 1808 and 1822. The Spaniards excited the admiration and astonishment
of Europe by their daring defiance of the power beneath which the greatest sovereigns had
been reduced to the rank of vassals. Their subsequent exploits did not altogether corre
spond to this beginning. Still, their resistance, considered as that of a people, was, on the
whole, obstinate and glorious ; it even appeared that there had been formed a body attached
to popular government, and eager to redress the political grievances under which Spain
laboured. Ultunately, however, the eagerness with which the majority of the nation acqui
esced in the system of absolute power, re-established by foreign interference, tarnished its
honour, and reduced it again to that imbecile and degraded state ui which it had existed for
several centuries. Sect. IV. — Political Geography.
The constitution of Spam, ever since the downfall of her liberties under Charles V., has
been the most despotic of any in Europe, except Russia and Turkey. The Cortes, that
powerful assembly, whose privileges were greater than those of any other European repre
sentative body, have since that period been rarely assembled, and then only partially, on
occasions of mere form. The only two bodies which possess any influence, are the council
of state and the council of Castile ; but as these are entirely under the appointment and
direction of the monarch, they form little more of a check upon absolute power, than the
Turkish divan.
Two attempts to restore a representative form of govemment have lately been made,
under circumstances which must be familiar to our readers. Unluckily, the leadmg or liberal
party were hurried, on this occasion, into an opposite extreme ; adopting the system of uni
versal suffrage, forming themselves into one house, and allowing only a temporary veto to
the monarch. This system, which excluded the nobles and clergy, the most wealthy and
influential bodies, was from the first decidedly unpopular ; and Ferdinand found it easy, first
without, and afterwards with, foreign aid, to subvert it, and to re-establish in fiill plenitude
the despotic sway exercised by his predecessors,
[The Cortes were convoked anew in 1834, with some modifications of their ancient orga
nization. The body now consists of two houses ; that of proceres or peers, composed in part
of hereditary members, in part of members named by the king for life, and the procuradores
or deputies, elected by colleges of electors, who are chosen by the principal citizens. The
Cortes have extensive legislative powers, but their existence and authority have emanated from
the royal will. — Am. Ed.]
The grandees and other privileged orders in Spain are distinguished for their pride beyond
any others in Europe. Even Charles V. was baflled in his attempt to retrench the right
of wearing the hat in the royal presence. The Spanish nobles impair their fortunes less by
extravagance than those of the same rank elsewhere ; and as they intermarry only with each
other, the number of titles or hats, as they are called, continually accumulates upon single
heads. The dukes of Medina-Celi, of Alba, of Infantado, of San Estevan, of Ossuna, and
some others, hold possessions truly immense, covering whole provinces. They are adminis
tered, indeed, in the worst possible manner, being kept in their own hands, managed by
tribes of factors or intendants, of whom some nobles keep 300 ; so that it is truly astonishing
that they should sometimes yield $25,000 or $40,000 a year. As these grandees, however,
live not on their estates, but in the cities, in secluded pomp, they have lost all their feudal
influence, and the ties which united them with the greater body of the people. The hidalgos,
claiming nobility by descent from the members of great families, are much more numerous,
and form, in some provinces, a large proportion of the inhabitants. They are often reduced
to great poverty ; in which they display that union of pride and indolence which has been
supposed characteristic of the Spaniard. Mr. White mentions a species of illustrious birth
quite peculiar to this country, consisting in a pure Christian descent, without any mixture
of Jewish or Moorish blood, which last is supposed to produce so deep a stain, that no time
can efface it. The clergy, moreover, exercise a paramount influence over the minds par
ticularly of the lower orders, and have been the main-spring in all the movements, good or
bad, which for a long time past have taken place in the Peninsula.
The revenue of Spain, though levied with little regard to the comfort and well-being of
the subject, has never risen to any great amount. Yet she is the only power which ever
derived any from her colonies ; as the quinta, or royal fifth of the mines of Mexico and Peru,
after every deduction, brought home considerable treasure ; but this source of wealth is now
withdrawn. The other taxes were the most ruinous to industry and trade ever contrived
by any govemment. The alcavala, or impost upon each transference of commodities from
one hand to another, seems expressly destined to impose fetters upon commerce ; while the
royal monopolies of salt, lead, powder, tobacco, and other articles in general use, have the
usual pernicious effects. Combined with those prohibitory clauses, by whicli Spain endea
voured without success to prevent her industrious neighbours from supplying the wants of
her American colonies, they gave rise to a vast contraband, carried on in almost open defiance
of government. Hence the taxation of Spain, though highly oppressive to the nation, yields

Book L SPAIN. 571
very little to the crown; being in a great measure absorbed by the support of the individuals
employed in its collection, who are said to amount to 16,650. Although, therefore, the entire
sum taken from tlie people has been suspected not to fall short of 12,000,000Z. sterling, the
receipt by government in 1828 did not exceed 5,980,000/. The expenditure in that year
was for the army, 2,650,000/. ; navy, 400,000/. ; marine, 1,445,000/. : justice, 145,000/. ; state,
108,000/. ; royal household, 505,000/. At tlie same time, Spain is burdened with a debt of
160,000,000/. sterling, of which the revenue would be wholly inadequate to defray the inte
rest, had not more than half consisted of the royal vales, which do not bear any. Under the
constitutional govemment a considerable addition of debt was incurred, which, however,
Ferduiand VII. cleared off by reftising to aclcnowledge it; while he hunself ineffectually
attempted to raise a loan to any amount.
The navy, at the commencement of the late war, was at least respectable, and a formi
dable auxiliary to France. The fatal days of St. Vincent and Trafalgar, and the fruitless
expeditions to South America, reduced it to a feeble state. In 1826 it consisted of ten ships
of the line, sixteen frigates, and thirty smaller vessels.
The army of Spain, which under Charles V. and Philip was the bravest and most formi
dable in Europe, has for a century and a half enabled her to rank very low among military
nations. It is, however, at present the best organised part of her establishment. According
to the author of " A Year in Spain," it consists of 25,000 royal guards, and 55,000 troops
of the line and provincial militia, which, being commanded by experienced officers, formed
during a period of protracted warfare, possess a considerable degree of efficiency ; and their
discontent being an object of dread, every effort is made to pay them regularly. The royalist
volunteers, amounting to about 300,000 men, formed a band of armed fanatics almost entirely
under the command of the priests and monks, and seeking in their favour to lord it both over
king and people. Sect. V. — Productive Industry.
In respect to industry and wealth, Spain, which had every opportunity within and without
of becoming the foremost nation of Europe, is, in fact, the poorest and the most uncultivated.
The insecurity of property, and the multiplied restraints imposed by an unenlightened govern
ment, appear to be the main causes which have paralyzed all branches of industry. The
furious bigotry of its monarchs, in particular, led to the most suicidal acts against the public
weal. At the commencement of the fifteenth century, the country contained a numerous
population of Jews and Moors, who formed its most industrious and wealthy inhabitants, and
rendered it the most flourishing kingdom in Europe. The Jews, unless in the alternative of
feigned conversion, were expelled from the kingdom by Ferdinand and Isabella, the Moors
by Philip III. Although it appears to be upon exaggerated estimates that Spain has ever
been supposed to have previously contaiaed 20,000,000 of people, yet it cannot be doubted
that the emigration of mercantile communities, with their capital and machinery, must have
struck deeply at the root of the national prosperity.
Spanish agriculture, it must be confessed, has some obstacles to struggle against. The
territory, as we have had occasion to observe, is traversed in every direction by chains of
rugged, and often barren, mountains. Yet these elevated provinces being the seats of com
parative liberty and industry, are on the whole the best cultivated and the most populous.
The great extent and continuity of these chains certainly present serious difficulties to the
transport of grain. When government were bringing a supply from Old Castile to the capital,
it was found that 30,000 beasts ot burden were necessary to carry 2000 quarters. Another
great impediment to effective agriculture consists in the habit, partly oriental, partly formed
during a long internal warfare, which leads the farmers to crowd into towns, and thus live
often at many miles' distance from the fields which they cultivate. In many cases they
merely pitch their tents during seed-time and harvest, and at other seasons pay only occa
sional visits. They are also very poor, destitute of capital, and oppressed by the burden of
tithes and other exactions.
The grain produced in Spain is of admirable quality ; the wheat of Andalusia bearing
a price of ten or fifteen per cent, higher than that of any foreign wheat brought to the mar
kets of Cadiz. But a deplorable defect appears, when it is stated that Spain, a country
purely agricultural, does not grow com for her own use, but makes a regular importation.
This, however, according to Bourgoing, amounts only to 2,000,000 fanegas or 400,000 quar
ters ; a small proportion of the entire consumption, which may be estimated at 12,000,000
of quarters. The a,griculture of Spain, however, produces three valuable articles ; wool, wine,
and barilla.
The wool of the merino is of almost unrivalled fineness, though dearly purchased by the
system upon which it is produced. Vast flocks, amounting to 20,000, 30,000, or even 60,000,
belong to the grandees, convents, and dignitaries of Spain. After being pastured, during
summer, on the sides of the mountains of Leon and Old Castile, they descend, in winter,
chiefly to the plains of Estremadura. According to the rules of the powerful society of the
mesta, composed of the above high members, they must pass freely, and be allowed, on pay-

573 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part m.
ment of a very inadequate rent, to pasture upon all the unenclosed lands, which form the
bulk of those in Spain. The entire number of sheep in all these wandering flocks is reckoned
at 5,000,000 ; and there are a great number which remain stationary, and enjoy privileges
nearly similar. The annual shearing takes place on a great scale, and with much celebra
tion ; and the wool is carefully sorted into three kinds, according to the part of the body
from which.it is taken.
The wines of Spain are produced on the flne plains of the southern provinces. The
most important is the Xeres or sherry, which has come into such genera] use with the
English nation. Mr. Jacob reckons that 40,000 pipes are produced in the plain of Xeres ;
of which 15,000 are exported, almost the whole to England. Around Malaga is made
wine still more valued, though not in such quantity ; which, when white, is called moun
tain, when red, tent (tinto). The northem and central provinces yield wine only of
inferior value.
Barilla, the finest known species of ashes, and highly useful in glass-making, bleaching,
and other processes, is procured by burning various species of saline and aromatic plants
in the provinces of Murcia and Valencia, and is one of the few articles which other nations
can nowhere else procure of equally good quality. Silk and oil, in the Mediterranean pro
vinces, are only limited by the want of culture or demand.
The manufactures of Spain have been of little importance since the expulsion of the
Moors. That industrious people introduced the silk manufacture ; a branch entirely suited
to a country where the material is produced in the greatest perfection ; but it is now gene
rally decayed, unless in Valencia, where it was supposed lately to employ 3000 people.
The blades of Toledo were once famous over Europe, and the city has stUl a royal manu
factory of swords, though of little importance. The Spanish govemment has devoted rather
an extraordinary attention to manufactures, but unfortunately seeks to promote them by the
king becoming himself the producer. He has established a great factory of broadcloth at
Guadalaxara, which, having fine materials at hand, is rather thriving. Yet Spain does not
supply herself with fine cloth. Other royal works are those of porcelain, at San Ildefonso ;
paper, in Segovia ; cards and tapestry at Madrid : all rather for show than use.
Commerce, for which Spain seemed to have monopolised the most extensive materials,
has long been in a state at least as low and depressed as any other branch. It has suffered
severely, indeed, from the immense importance attached to it by the government, which
actually crushed it to pieces in the attempt to prevent any portion from escaping. To ab
sorb within their own circle the entire treasures of Mexico and Peru, was the first policy
of the Spanish sovereigns. The gold and silver of those regions were to be brought exclu
sively to Spain, never to be taken out of it, and only the produce and manufactures of that
country to be sent in exchange. By a sad fatality, the commerce of the colonies was car
ried on almost entirely by French and English merchants ; nearly all the goods exported
thither were foreign ; and Spain, of all her neighbours, was the most destitute of the wealth
accruing from this trade. These colonies, with the exception of Cuba and the Philippines,
are now gone, and with them the greatness of Cadiz, which, by the absurd monopoly granted
to her, became one of the principal emporia of Europe. The trade of Spain consists now
in the export of wines, fruits, brandies, wool, silk raw and manufactured, lead, quicksilver,
barilla, and a few other articles, which, according to a very imperfect document, issued by
the Spanish government, amounted in 1826 to about 1,584,000/. Of this, 241,000/. was
stated to be to the colonies. Her imports consist of sugar, cocoa, salt fish, spices, wood,
rice, butter and cheese, hides, cotton wool, and almost every species of manufectured com
modity. They are stated for the same year at about 3,267,000/., of which 724,000/. was
from the colonies.
Internal communication is a particular in which Spain actually labours under natural dis
advantages, from the obstructed navigation of its rivers, and its long and steep chains of
mountains. These obstacles the government has endeavoured to surmount by vast but ill-
executed projects of improvement. They had conceived the plan of a grand canal, which,
passing through Asturias, Old Castile, and Aragon, might join the Mediterranean vsdth the
Bay of Biscay. Of this mighty undertaking, only two small portions exist ; the canal of
Aragon, running parallel to the Ebro from Saragossa, and that of Old Castile along the
Pisuerga and Carrion by Placencia ; but as neither of them makes any approach to the sea,
their benefit is very limited. The main roads maintained by government between Madrid
and the other great cities are good, and the mails well conducted ; but most of the other
Gflmmunications are mere tracks wom by the feet of mules, which are chiefly employed in
the conveyance of goods. Sect. VT. — Civil and Social State.
The population of Spain, according to a census made in 1798, amounted to 10,351,000.
It was generally understood, however, that the jealousy of the people, and all the obstaclea
usually encountered in such undertakings, operated to a peculiar extent in diminishing the

Book I. SPAIN. 673
amount. The census, in 1787-8, gave only 10,268,000, of which 188,600 were church
men ; and among these, 61,000 were monks, and 32,500 nuns. There were 480,000 hi
dalgos; 34,000 merchants; 40,000 manufacturers; 271,000 artisans; 907,000 peasants;
960,000 day-labourers ; 280,000 domestic male servants. A census was undertaken in 1826,
which was not fully completed, but carried so far as to prove that the number of inhabitants
must be considerably greater than the above : it is estimated by Minano at 13,732,000 ; by
Hassel at 13,953,000.
The national character of the Spaniard is marked by striking features. The genume
Spaniard is grave, proud, adventurous, romantic, honourable, and generous. It has been
insinuated that this is the Spaniard of the sixteenth century, of whom the Spaniard of the
present day is only, as it were, the shadow. But though die higher ranks have certauily
lost the original stamp, and become frivolous and dissipated, the body of the people, and
especially the peasantry, form a very fine race. Even among the former, the late troubles
brought forward signal displays of heroism, though, as too often happens in such cases,
equally base examples of treachery. In the virtue and wisdom of the best Spaniards, there
is apt to be something speculative and theoretical, not applicable to the practical purposes
of life ; a want of the wisdom of action. In prosperous circumstances they readily give
way to supineness and false confidence ; but in sudden and overwhelming vicissitudes,
which sink the spirit of others, their latent energies are roused, and they display unexpected
and surprising resources. Although assassination, which was once the reproach of Spain,
is greatly diminished, yet a promptitude to fight and to shed blood, characteristic of all na
tions imperfectly civilized, is stiU prevalent. It is accompanied with a readiness to rise in
tumultuary insurrections, and an unwillingness to submit to the restraints of discipline.
The jealousy which was wont to dwell so deep and dark in the mind of the Spanish hus
band, has been superseded by a general laxity of morals. The custom is said to prevail, that
every married lady should have a cortejo or gallant, corresponding to the Italian cicisbeo ;
and though the usage may not be so decidedly criminal as it appears to strangers, it is cer
tainly inconsistent with those habits and feelings which form the felicity of the matrimonial
state. In this singular relation, fixed rules are observed, and a certain fidelity is exacted ;
the jealousy of the husband is assumed by the cortejo ; and the lady who changes, at least
with any frequency, this object of attachment, loses caste in the eyes of the public.
The religious state of Spain need only be mentioned to suggest the dark and gloomy fea
tures by which it is marked. That bigotry and superstition which the Romish faith con
tracted during ages of darkness, and which in all other countries is so much abated, retains
nearly its full force in Spain. The Inquisition, that frightfiil tribunal, the disgrace of modem
Europe, which here held its central seat, kept alive its fires against all who exercised their
reason on a subject connected with the national faith. The order of Jesuits, who have been
called the militia of the Romish church, originated also in this country. The Inquisition
perished in the late struggle ; yet a numerous body still call aloud for its re-establishment ;
and the most liberal rulers, whom the revolution raised to power, durst not attempt any ap
proach to toleration, or to trench upon the " Catholic religion one and indivisible." This
spirit of bigotry and superstition is deeply diffused through the nation, who, if they no longer
demand that heretics shall be committed to the flames, never doubt at least of the fiiture
tortures to which they are destined. All the childish and absurd customs which marked its
prevalence during the dark ages, are preserved nearly unaltered ; the processions and ex
hibitions, in which the events of sacred history are represented, often in a familiar and ludi
crous manner ; the endless festivals, which impoverish the nation, and favour its natural
indolence ; and the zeal of multitudes, who are induced by mistaken piety to withdraw
themselves from their families and the world. Mr. Blanco White has given a striking
account of the artifices by which the young female is led to make the irrevocable sacrifice ;
the respect and importance attached to her during the period of noviciate ; the ceremonies,
which resemble those of marriage, even the name of bride being given to her ; and the dis
grace attached to a retractation. Yet it appears evident, from the same author, that this
profession is often deeply sincere ; that it aids in producing that strong moral feeling which
prevails throughout the nation; that many are even tormented by minute conscientious
Bcmples ; and that, with such persons, absolution, founded on false pretensions to penitence,
is considered as aggravating the guilt. At the same time, there is a combination of deep
devotion and dissolute conduct, which not only rapidly succeed each other, but actually co
exist, in a manner never seen in any Protestant society. It may be observed, that amid this
thick darkness which covers the nation, a body of men has lately arisen, of active and en
quiring minds, who have discerned the errors of the national creed, and have passed to the
opposite extreme. They are comparatively few in number, however ; and, as already ob
served, even in their greatest triumph, although they considerably reduced the conventual
establishments of Spain, they never durst attempt to introduce the toleration of any form of
worship different from the Catholic.
Spanish literature, during the era of the national glory, supported itself at least on a

574 DESCRIPTLVTE GEOGRAPHY. Part m.
level with that of any other nation in Europe. Spain had, as it were, a literature to itself,
scarcely any of the productions of which, if we except the inimitable satire of Cervantes,
became familiar to the rest of Europe. During the middle age, she was rich in chivalric
romance, the taste for which, however, was banished by the appearance of Don Quixote, a
change which some lament, as having led to the decline of the national spirit. The poetry
of Spain, roused by so many vicissitudes of internal revolution and transmarine triumph,
took a somewhat lofty flight. The Araucana of Ercilla, celebrating her conquests in the
New World, is named together, though not on a level, with the best modern epics. Gar-
cilasso de la Vega, Villegas, Mendoza, and others, chiefly officers in the army of Charles V.,
introduced a style formed on the Italian model ; and, having the advantage of a noble and
sonorous language, worked up their verses to the highest polish. But it is in the drama,
that the Spaniards have been chiefly distinguished. Lope de Vega and Calderon, indeed,
construct their plots with an entire disregard of the unities, filled with extravagant incidents,
and strained and artificial sentiments. But they display an inexhaustible fertility of inven
tion, and often strong traits of character ; so that, though they never could be transferred
entire to any other stage, they furnished useful hints both to the French and English dra
matists. Mariana's History of Spain ranks among classical productions ; while Herrera and
Solis, though of inferior merit, have produced valuable histories of the Spanish transactions
in the New World. To Don Antonio de Solis, the Spaniards are willing to ascribe that in
imitable satire on human character and manners, Gil Bias, which must, they say, have been
written by a Spaniard and a courtier. As such, he might rejoice that it had amply fulfilled
his intentions without compromising his security, and could very well afford to dispense with
the feme which redounded to its reputed author, Le Sage. These writers belong to the
classic age of Spain, which nearly expired with the seventeenth century ; but of late, the
intellectual spirit which has spread so actively throughout Europe, has penetrated ijito
Spain, and made vigorous struggles against the night of ignorance and prejudice in which
that country was involved. Campomanes, Ustariz, Jovellanos, and Arguelles, have endea
voured to trace the causes which have paralysed Spanish industry, and to discover the means
of reviving it ; Feyjoo has done much to rouse a spirit of reflection ; Yriarte, Isla, and Me-
lendez Valdez, have produced agreeable miscellaneous writings ; and Moratin has adopted a
more regular dreima, formed on the French model. There are extensive public libraries ;
one, the royal library in Madrid, consisting of 130,000 volumes, with valuable manuscripts,
and a rich collection of medals ; and others in the great provincial towns ; but the preva
lence of monkish legends, and the prohibition of many of the most important standard works,
greatly limit their value. The universities are numerous, and that of Salamanca once per
haps the most celebrated in Europe ; but education being conducted upon obsolete and scho
lastic principles, and impregnated with the national bigotry, they have long ceased to attract
students from any place out of Spain. Some of the younger members were supposed to
have embraced novel ideas in regard to religion and govemment ; whence they have become
objects of jealousy to the government, which will probably be little anxious to rescue them
from that decay into which they were thrown by the events of the revolution.
The fine arts, especially painting, could boast in Spain of a dis
tinguished school, marked by features strikingly national and
original. It is characterised by depth, force, great truth of nature,
and a warm expression of devotional feeling. MurUlo, Ribeira
(self-named Spagnoletto), and Velasquez, are those alone whose
works are diffused throughout Europe ; but by tiiose who have
visited Spain, Cano, Juanes, Ribalta, and Morales are mentioned
in terms of equal praise. The Escurial and other royal palaces
are likewise adorned by some of the finest pieces of Raphael,
Titian, and Rubens. This taste seems to have declined with
that of literature ; and Townshend observed that the nobles set
little value on the magnificent collections with which their
palaces were adorned. Of late the efforts to revive painting
have been considerable, but without producing any artists of much
celebrity. The Spaniards are fond of music, but delight rather
The Guitar. j^^ detached airs for the serenade and ball, than in that higher
class in which the Italians and Germans excel. The guitar (fig. 308.) as an accompaniment
for song, and the castanets for the national dance, are characteristic Spanish instruments.
The Spaniards have favourite and peculiar diversions. They are most passionately
attached to the bull-fight: a large space is enclosed, sometimes the great square of the city,
around which the people sit as in an amphitheatre. The bull, being introduced, is first
attacked by the picadores, or horsemen armed with spears ; a desperate conflict ensues ; the
horse is frequently killed or overturned with his rider, when persons on foot run in, and
distract the animal, by holding up different kinds of coloured stuffs. He is next attacked by
banderilleros, ot footmen armed with arrows ; and not only their skUl, but tlieir dexterity in

Book T.

SPAIN.

575

escape, are tlie subjects of admiration : at last, when the animal is completely covered with
gag wouuds, tlic mtitador or slayer appears, and closes
the scene. Tumultuous applause or hissing from the
populace accompanies every part of this savage per
formance, according to the respective merits of the
bull or his assailants. The comparative excellence
of diflerent matadores becomes often a party question,
and the subject of keenly agitated discussion in the
circles of Madrid. Wounds frequently, and death
sometimes, are the result to the actors in this exhi
bition, for whose benefit a priest with holy water is
in regular attendance. Not less is the fondness for
the dance, particularly under its national forms of
tire fandango (fig. 309.), the bolero, and the guan-
acho, performed with the Castanet in the hands ; and
The Fandango. |.}jg j^q former especially consisting chiefly in move
ments expressive of passion, but so little consonant to the rules of decorum, that the indul •
gence shown to these amusements by the church cannot but be regarded as a matter of sur
prise. The dress of the Spaniards is antique, and varies much according to the diflerent provinces ;
that of the ladies consists chiefly of a petticoat and a large mantilla or veil, covering the
upper part of the person. The grandees, and the opulent in general, display a profusion of
jewels ; the dress of the men is slight, and closely fitted to the body, with the exception of
a loose cloak thrown over the whole. The minister, Squillace, under Charles III., having
conceived that these cloaks, by concealing the person, served as a cover to deeds of violence,
stationed persons at the corners of the streets, who seized the passengers, and forcibly cut
down this part of their dress to the legal dimensions ; but this measure raised so violent and
general a clamour, that the king was forced to appease it by the sacrifice of the minister
who had attempted such an obnoxious curtailment.
Both in eating and drinking the Spaniards are temperate ; the only noted national dish is
the olla podrida, in which various meats, vegetables, and herbs are mixed together in a
manner which even foreigners admit to be palatable. The pleasures of society are chiefly
sought at tertulias or evening parties, where only slight refreshment is presented ; but
refrescos or dinner parties are given on a large scale upon very special occasions.
Sect. VII. — Local Geography.
Of the divisions of Spain, the most prominent is into kingdoms or principalities, each of
which, at some period of its eventful history, enjoyed an independent existence, though they
are now merged into one monarchy. More recently the country has been split into a number
of smaller departments or jurisdictions ; but the original distinction into kingdoms, being
founded upon natural limits, and maintained by feelings and impressions derived from former
independence, is still the most interesting. The kingdoms are New Castile, Estremadura,
Old Castile, Leon, Galicia, Asturias, Biscay, Navarre, Catalonia, Aragon, Valencia, Murcia,
Granada, and Andalusia.
The following table exhibits the divisions and subdivisions of Spain, with the extent and
population of each, according to Hassel : —

/"Madrid 
Toledo 
New Castile -{ Guadalaxara .
I Cuenca 
[La Mancha . .
Estremadura 
t Burgos 
) Soria .

Old Castile

i Segovia
' Avila . . .

Leon .

f Leon
1 Paiencia . . .
1 Toro 
1 Valladolid .
J^amora. ...
[Salamanca.

Square
Leases.

110
734 163
945631
llfID C43341
290 21.5 493145 165
271 133
471

Population.

298,000485,000 153,000
362,000257,000556,000 612,000
267,000 221,000 153,000311,000 153,000 126,000
243,000 93,000
273,000

Asturias 
Galicia 
Catalonia 
Navarre  C Biscay 
Biscay  < Guipiiscoa .
i Alava 
Aragon 
Valencia 
Murcia 
Granada  C Seville 
Andalusia ...<Jaen 
( Cordova . . .

Square
Leases.

3082 1330
1003 205 106 52
902
12,322 643
659805 752268 348

FopnlatioD.

565,000
,585,000,116,000 288,000 145.000136,000 93,000
856,000
,255,000 493,000
,097,000 970,000277,000 325,000

With New Castile, the central and metropolitan province, we commence our survey : it
consists chiefly of an extensive plain enclosed between two of the long parallel mountain
ranges, the Sierra de Guadarrama and the Sierra de Toledo. Along this plain, and parallel
to both ranges, the Tagus flows in a deep rocky bed. Beyond the Sierra de Toledo, the
district of La Mancha, which we include also in New Castile, extends to a third paralle
mountain range, the Sierra Morena, dividing if from Andalusia and the southern provinces.

576 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY Part IH.
The plain of Castile Proper is elevated and naked ; and being thus exposed to the sun's
direct rays, presents a bare and parched appearance. It includes, however, fertile valleys,
producing wine, oil, grain, and fruits of various kinds ; but the inhabitants are extremely
deficient in every species of industry.
Madrid (fig. 310.), the capital of Castile, and of " all the Spains," stands on several low
hills on the immense Castilian plain, which on the north appears bounded by the high distant
range of the Guadarrama, but on every other side has no visible termination. A small rivulet,
the Manzanares, flows past the city, and falls into the Tagus. Madrid is a superb but some-
310

what gloomy capital ; the houses are high, well built of good stone, not defaced by smoke ;
the streets are well paved, and have broad footpaths. The main street of Alcala, long,
spacious, and bordered on each side by a row of princely houses, attracts particular admira
tion. The Prado, a wide public walk, bordered by trees, and connected with gardens all open
to the public, is equally conducive to ornament and pleasure. There are many public foun
tains, supplied with pure, light, and salubrious water, filtered through beds of gravel and
sand, from a distance of seven or eight leagues. The gates built by Charles III. are uncom
monly beautiful, particularly that of Alcala ; but in a miserable wall which might be battered
down by a three-pounder in half an hour. The royal palace, built by Philip V., is a spacious
and magnificent structure, though the taste displayed in it is a subject of controversy. It
contains numerous fine paintings, which do not equal, however, those of the Escurial. The
Retire, with its fine gardens, was defaced by the French, who made it a military post ; an
extensive and costly menagerie is now forming within its precincts. The museum of sta
tuary and painting, a new and elegant building, has recently been enriched with some of the
finest pictures fi-om the royal palaces. The cabinet of natural history, supported by the
government, is also a handsome structure, and its contents valuable. The environs of Madrid
are not remarkable for beauty ; they are much broken into hills and hollows ; so that, of the
200 villages situated in them, only three or four can be seen at once. Population, 201,000.
Toledo, even in its present decay, excites an interest equal or superior to Madrid. Once
the proud capital of Spain, it has a commanding site on a lofty rock, almost insulated by the
Tagus. A position so strong rendered it a grand national bulwark during the long ages of
internal warfare, but occasioned its desertion during peace, when it was felt as extremely
inconvenient, the streets being so steep that a carriage can scarcely drive safely through
them. Its manufactures of wool and silk, which are said once to have employed nearly
40,000 men, have disappeared ; and government has in vain attempted to revive that of
swords, of which those formerly manufactured at Toledo were valued above all others. Its
population of 200,000 has been reduced to 25,000 ; and it presents a mere mass of neirrow,
deserted, winding, and dirty streets. Toledo, however, still exhibits two grand monuments ;
the Alcazar or palace, and the cathedral. The former is a noble and extensive pile, in a
pure style of architecture, and the granite columns of the Corinthian order which adorn the
inner court are particularly admired. The grand staircase and spacious gallery, no longer
crowded with guards and courtiers, are now dirty, deserted, and silent. The edifice, though
neglected and decaying, still wears a stately and imposing aspect ; " and its handsome front,
immense quadrangle, and elegant colonnade, declare it to have been tlie pride and ornament
of a happier period." The cathedral is also one of the grandest edifices in the Peninsula,
It was originally a mosque, built in a grand style ; but its simplicity has been much impaired
by tasteless additions, and by the profusion of gilding, relics, and statues, with which its
interior has been filled. It retained its wealth and splendour, however, till the late war,
when its treasures became the prey of tho invader, and its six hundred ecclesiastics were
dispersed, leaving only a few to perform the sacred functions.
Two other considerable towns in New Castile are Guadalaxara, to the east of Madrid,
where the government has established a manufacture of fine cloth on a great scale ; it is of
course an ill-conducted and unprofitable concern ; yet it supports the population of 12,000

Book I. SPAIN. 677
or 14,000 in a degree of comfort not usual in Spanish towns : and further east, CuonQa, the
capital of a mountain district of the same name, interposed between Valencia and the
plain of Castile. It is a small ancient city, distinguished by a cathedral and some other
monuments. La Mancha, sometimes reckoned a separate province, is the most southern part of Castile,
from which it is separated by the Sierra de Toledo. It is an immense table-plain, inter
sected by diiferent ridges of low hills and rocks, without a tree except a few dwarf evei-
green oaks ; or an enclosure, except mud walls round the villages. All this vast tract of
open country is cultivated, and produces corn or vines : its wine, especially that of Val de
Peiias, enjoys a high repute. Its name, however, is chiefiy familiar to the public as having
given an appellation to the celebrated hero of Cervantes. The names of Don Quixote and
Sancho Panza are familiar to the district ; and the dress of the peasantry presents still an
exact model of that of the doughty squire. There are a number of large villages ; and Ciu
dad Real, the capital, is well built in a fine plam, though it has lost much of its former pros
perity. Almagro and Ocana are also pretty considerable towns.
Estremadura forms a continuation to the west of the same plain as New Castile, traversed
like it by the Tagus, and bounded by the same ranges of mountains. It is a fine, wide,
wild province, diversified by rugged mountains, deep valleys, and almost boundless plains.
The depopulation generally complained of in Spain seems more remarkable here than in any
other province ; and vast tracts may be passed without seeing a human habitation. This
seems chiefly owing to the pernicious laws of the Mesta, which assign it almost entirely for
the occupation of the merino flocks, when they descend from the mountains of Leon. Estre
madura, therefore, forms a vast pastoral district ; only a small proportion of its surface being
necessary to furnish grain for its scattered population. Yet the Romans made it one of the
chief seats of their dominion ; and no part of the Peninsula exhibits more striking works
and monuments of that great people. The Estremenos also retain much of the antique
Spanish aspect and character ; and no province, during the late crisis, made more striking dis
plays of patriotic energy.
The cities are no longer considerable. Badajos, the capital, a strange corruption of the
Roman name Pax Augusta, is a considerable and strong tovm, but much shattered by the
successive sieges it sustained in the late war from Soult and Wellington. Merida, the
ancient capital of Lusitania, excites more interest, from the striking remains which it pre
sents of Roman magnificence. The amphitheatre, baths, a lofty triumphal arch, three votive
altars, and a handsome stone bridge, are all magnificent monuments, and in wonderful pre
servation. Truxillo, an old city, of small extent, was the birth-place of Pizarro, whose
splendid mansion is still to be seen, adorned with barbarous trophies of his conquest. Alma-
raz is distinguished chiefly by the very noble modem bridge adjoining to it. Talavera de
la Rejma, once splendid but now decayed, has acquired recent lustre from being the theatre
of one of the greatest battles fought during the peninsular war. In the extensive plain
north of the Tagus are the two pleasant little cities of Coria and Placencia ; the latter of
which was the scene of the singular monastic retirement of Charles V. In the mountains
separating this part of the province from Leon is a rocky region, of the most savage and
desolate character, called Batuecas.
Old Castile is situated on the opposite side of the chain of mountains which forms the
northem boundary of New Castile. It presents a high variegated table-land, separated on
the north by the Cantabrian chain from Asturias. Some parts are rugged ; but it is, upon
the whole, a fertile well-watered region, traversed by the Duero in its early course.
There are many tracts of rich pasturage, and others equally fitted for the growth of corn.
It is, however, one of the provinces in which the marks of decay are most striking. The
capitals are neglected and ruinous ; large portions are left uncultivated ; and of the fine
manufactures of cloth from the merino wool, only a remnant is now supported by the aid of
govemment. Castilian pride and indolence have fixed here their old and central seat : the
hidalgos belonging to Old Castile amount to 146,000, a much larger proportion than in any
other province.
Burgos, the once magnificent capital of the kings of Castile, and the highest in rank of
any city in the kingdom, is dwindled into a poor place, not containing above 10,000 inhabit
ants. Amid its gloomy and decayed streets, however, towers the cathedral, one of the finest
specimens of Gothic architecture existing in Europe, and the form of which bears a con
siderable resemblance to that of York minster. The strong ancient castle, which had fallen
into decay, was so far re-established by the French, that it successfully stood a long siege
from the Duke of Wellington.
Of the other tovims of Old Castile, Segovia presents some interesting monuments of
Roman and Moorish grandeur. Its aqueduct {fig. 311.), of 159 arches, nearly half a mile
long, and in one place 94 feet high, is a stupendous Roman work, ranked by Swmbnrne
above the Pont du Gard. The Alcazar, or royal castle, was erected by the Moors on a
rock overlooking a wide range of country. After it came into the possession of the Chris-
VoL. L 49 3X

578

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part IIL

A(]ueduct of Segovia.

tians, it was employed as a state prison, and is now a military school. Five centuries ago,
Segovia had very extensive manufactures of fine cloth; but these, notwithstanding the
honour of having the king for a part
ner, have dwindled to a very small
amount. Population 15,000. Avila,
capital of a small province of the
same name, is a city of ancient dis
tinction ; and its massy walls, its
towers, its Alcazar, and the dome of
the old cathedral, render it imposing
at a distance ; but it is in a state of
wretched desertion. The attempt to
establish manufactures of cloth and
cotton has not been successful. Soria,
near the site of the ancient Numantia,
on the right bank of the Duero, near
its source, is a tolerable country town, capital of one of the smaller provinces into which
Old Castile has been subdivided.
The palaces of the Escurial (fig. 312.) and San Ildefonso are striking objects in Old Cas
tile. The "royal monastery" of the
^"¦^ Escurial was founded by Philip H. on a
plan entirely congenial to his gloomy
mind. It unites the characters of a
palace and a convent ; and has the form
of a gridiron, the instrument of the
martyrdom of St. Lorenzo, to whom it
is dedicated. Attached to it is the Pan
theon, a classic and somewhat profane
structure, in which, however, are in
terred all the crowned kings and queens
of Spain since Charles V. The wealth
'^^'^''"^' of the Spanish monarchs has been con
tinually employed in adding new ornaments to this favourite residence, which is considered
by the nation as the eighth wonder of the world ; and large volumes have been filled with
descriptions of it. The church and the great altar have scarcely a rival for magnificence
and grandeur of effect. The library is not extensive, but contains manuscripts, especially
Arabic, that are of great value. The collection of paintings, it is probable, yields only to
that which covers the walls of the Vatican. Besides select productions of MuriUo and
other masters of the Spanish school, it contains several of the greatest works of Raphael,
Titian, and others of the first Italian masters. The environs are wild and naked in the
extreme, without shelter from the cold blasts of winter, or the intense heats of summer.
On the opposite declivity of the same mountains, looking towards the north, San Ildefonso,
without any pretensions to equal magnificence, is finely surrounded by woods, gardens, and
beautiful jets d'eau. Aranjuez stands in quite a different situation, on the lowest plain of
Castile, at the junction of the Tagus and the Xarama. It is chiefly admired for its mag
nificent woods and gardens ; the former earned in long and spacious avenues, the latter con
taining in profusion the finest native and exotic plants.
Leon forms a continuation of the plain of Old Castile, along the lower course of the
Duero, and bounded by the same ranges of mountains. For several centuries it was the
seat of a kingdom, comprising the chief Christian power in Spain, until it was united to that
of Castile. It is almost entirely within the domain of the mesta, and thus devoted princi
pally to pasturage. The consequent depopulation has been very great; insomuch that,
according to Townshend, the bishopric of Salamanca, which once contained 748 townships,
is now reduced to 333. The vast extent of open plain which forms the centre of this pro
vince has been found highly favourable to an invader who possessed superior cavalry ; such
as the Moors once, and more latterly the French.
The cities of Leon are almost solely interesting from the traces which they present of
ancient grandeur. Leon itself, by its highly ornamented cathedral, its nine convents, and
its ancient palace, testifies the remote period when it was tlie seat of royalty ; but a hetero
geneous assemblage of dirty streets filled with beggars, splendid churches, and half-ruined
family mansions, are all that it now presents. Salamanca, by its university, has acquired a
much greater fame. This seminary, one of the first in Europe, was founded in 1200, and
extended during the same century by Alfonso the Wise, celebrated for the progress which
astronomy made under his auspices. From the medical knowledge of Avicenna, Averroes,
and other Arabian sages, it derived a character superior to those of the other monkish univer
sities during the middle ages. Salamanca, however, remained stationary in the fourteenth
century; and, while sound science was spreading through the rest of Europe, continued to

Book L SPAIN. 579
occupy its students with dogmatic theology, and with the worship of Aristotle and Aquinas.
Its students, once reckoned at 16,000, have been reduced to less than 2000. Salamanca is
crowded with sacred edifices, to enrich which, all the four corners of the world have been
made to contribute ; and on days of high festival the display of silver and precious stones
was altogether dazzling. The cathedral and principal square are very magnificent, but the
streets are narrow and gloomy. Captain Sherer, in 1813, found Salamanca quite a deserted
city ; only a few of the old professors and youthful students still lingered in the colleges, or
paced the spacious aisles of the elegant cathedral. Of the latter, some, as appears from
Mr. White, notwithstanding the antiquated course of instruction, had adopted modern ana
liberal ideas, and in the late crisis obeyed the call of their country and of liberty. The
Prench having made Salamanca a military position, a great part of the place was levelled
or battered down ; and subsequent events have not been favourable to its restoration. We
must not, however, dismiss Salamanca without noticing the new lustre it has derived from
giving name to one of the most splendid of Wellington's victories.
Valladolid has a gTeat name in history. Charles V. made it his capital, and it continued
to be the residence of the Spanish court until Philip IV. removed it to Madrid. In these
splendid days Valladolid was supposed, perhaps with some exaggeration, to contain 200,000
inhabitants, now reduced to a tenth of that number. Yet it covers a very large space of
ground ; and the numberless spires, domes, and turrets of its sacred edifices give it still the
appearance of a large metropolis. Its university is attended by 2000 students, and taught
by forty-two professors and fifty doctors. After a very marked period of decay, Valladolid
experienced lately a considerable revival. Its environs are particularly healthy and
agreeable. Several other large decayed towns attest the former grandeur of Leon. Zamora and Toro,
both on the Duero, are capitals of two of the small provinces. Benavente is distinguished
by its castle, which has been described as one of the grandest monuments of the age of
chivalry ; and Tordesillas was a royal residence in the reign of Charles V. Astorga, once
capital of the Asturias, and one of the bulwarks of the Peninsula, has lost its strength and
magnitude. Paiencia is also a small capital, pleasantly situated on the Carrion, having a
little inland trade. Ciudad Rodrigo is a national barrier on the Portuguese frontier, still
kept up as a strong fortress, which sustained successive sieges during the peninsular war.
Galicia, separated by its mountain boundary from Leon, forms the north-western comer
of the Peninsula. It is entirely a highland and alpine region, broken into rugged rocks and
narrow passes, though with valleys of great fertility and of peculiar beauty interspersed.
The Gcallegos are industrious ; and the country is better peopled than many of the more
favoured regions of the Peninsula. They are hardy and enterprising, and often leave this
barren territory to seek employment in the cities of Spain and Portugal, where, like the
Scottish highlanders, they act chiefly as porters and servants. The shores and ports of Ga
licia are celebrated in naval history, forming as it were the outer coasts of Europe, beaten
by the waves of a tempestuous ocean, and where fleets from the distant quarters of the
globe often made their first appearance in Europe, and met with hostile fleets on the watch
for them.
The interior towns of Galicia have for their capital, St. Jago de Compostella, the most
celebrated shrine of the Peninsula, supposed to contain the body of St. James, its patron.
In the chapel dedicated to him is his statue, two feet high, of pure gold, illuminated eveiy
night by 2000 wax tapers. Twenty-two other chapels have been enriched by the offerings
of pilgrims from every part of the Peninsula, whose numbers have diminished. Lugo pre
sents the poor remains of an ancient city surrounded by a wall and towers, once of great
strength, but now mouldering into ruin. Orense, a little city, -formerly celebrated for its hot
springs, and Tuy, a strongly situated fortress, are on the Portuguese frontier.
Of the seaports of Galicia, Vigo had the greatest reputation, several great naval actions
having been fought near it ; particularly that of 1702, when the whole fleet of Spanish
galleons was sunk or taken by the English. It has one of the finest harbours in Spain ;
which, however, since Ferrol became the chief naval station, is only employed for a limited
coasting trade. Corunna on the Groyne is now the most trading place in the province, and
packets sail from it to England and America. It is a steep, dirty, but well-paved town, of
no strength, being commanded by the neighbouring heights. Population 23,000. Ferrol,
since 1752, has been made the chief naval station of Spain. Its harbour, besides being one
of the safest and most spacious in Europe, has the advantage of being accessible only by a
narrow winding passage which can be rendered almost impassable by a chain of forts. A
considerable city has been formed, and very extensive docks and arsenals built ; but since
the extinction of the Spanish navy, these have of course fallen into considerable neglect.
Population 13,000.
The Asturias form a long narrow strip between the Bay of Biscay and the Cantabrian
mountains, which extend along its whole length. It is celebrated in history as the sacred
retreat in which the hero Pelayo raised again the national standard, after it seemed for ever
trampled under foot by the Saracen invaders. Since the fourteenth century the Asturias

580 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part IIL
have given the title of prince to the heirs of the Spanish throne. The province is approached
only hy narrow ravines and passes, through which torrents dash, and which are overhung by
steep cliffs and luxuriant woods. There are, however, a number of valleys, and the whole
plain of Oviedo is distinguished both for fruitfhlness and beauty. Instead of wine, a good
deal of tolerable cider is made and exported : amber, jet, and coal abound, but the last
strongly impregnated with sulphur. The Asturians are brave and proud, boasting that their
country was never conquered, even by the Romans; and more than a third part of the popu
lation is composed of hidalgos.
Oviedo, the only large town, has more magnificence than its situation might lead us to
expect: the cathedral in particular, long the only shrine secure from the rage of the invader,
afforded an asylum to many pious treasures scattered through the Peninsula. These, how
ever, consist chiefly of relics, valuable only to devout and believing eyes. Among them are
the rod of Moses, the mantle of Elias, the olive-branch borne aloft in entering Jerusalem ;
thorns from the sacred crown ; the milk of the blessed Virgin, &c. Oviedo is still a con
siderable town, with a rich bishopric, and many religious houses, of which the principal is a
convent of Benedictine nuns. Population 10,000. Gijon, though with a costly and not very
complete harbour, carries on all the little trade of the province. Avila and SantUlana are
large villages, giving their name to districts. Santander and Santona are sea-ports of some
little consequence, in the district of Montana, on the borders of Biscay.
Biscay is a small, high, rugged province, on the westem slope of the Pyrenees. Streams
descending from its numerous heights, combine in forming the channel of the Upper Ebro.
The Basques are a peculiar race, preserving the only remnant which revolutions have left
in the Peninsula, of Celtic language and aspect. Under the name of Cantabria, this region
presented a barrier even to Roman conquest ; and though the Saracens penetrated through
it into the plains of France, it is still boasted that they never could reach the mountains of
High Cantabria. The Basques, amid the general slavery of Spain, have still preserved
some portion of their original rights. They have a cortes of their own ; and the taxes, levied
by provincial authority, are presented to the sovereign in the form of a free gift. Every
native Biscayan is an hidalgo or noble, scarcely owning a superiority of birth in the proudest
Castilian. With all this they are excessively industrious ; the mountain declivities are cul
tivated as high as the plough can reach ; and while the finest plains of Castile are nearly a
desert, Biscay's rude vales are covered with a numerous population.
The cities in such a district cannot be large : yet Bilboa, the capital, situated on the
Ybaizabal, which admits large vessels up to the town, is one of the most coinmercial places
in Spain, with 15,000 inhabitants. Most of the merino wool from the plains of Castile is
brought hither for exportation. Biscay Proper contains also Orduna, a neat little city, and
numerous villages. Guipuscoa is another district, lying more to the east, and in closer con
tact with France. Its capital is St. Sebastian, an indifferent port, but a neat, tolerably large
city, and so strongly fortified as to be considered one of the four keys of the kingdom; the
others being Pamplona, Barcelona, and Figueras. Fontarabia, close to the frontier, has a
great name in history, but little else is now left. The small village of Irun stands on the
immediate bank of the Bidassoa, whose broad clear stream, descending from the Pyrenees,
forms the boundary between two rival and long hostile nations. More in the interior, and
on a lower level, is the district of Alava, having for its capital Vittoria, a somewhat well-
built modern town, and celebrated as the theatre of the complete victory there gained by the
Duke of Wellington over the French army under Joseph Bonaparte, which was tlience
finally expelled from the Peninsula.
Navarre is a small province or kingdom, lying immediately beneath the highest and
steepest Pyrenees. Eight very difficult passes penetrate through them into France, but
scarcely any one passable for the artillery and train of an army. The principal is that of
St. Jean Pied de Port ; on the French side of which is Roncesvalles, or Roncevaux, cele
brated in history, and still more in romance, for the disaster which there befell Charlemagne
and his knights. For many centuries it formed a separate little kingdom connected with
France, until Ferdinand the Catholic succeeded in annexing to Spain all the part south of
the Pyrenees. Navarre retains, however, privileges and customs peculiar to itself, and its
gov,ernor bears the title of viceroy. The population is active, hardy, and brave. The bands
of guerrillas under Mina proved the most formidable irregular force with which the French
had to contend in the Peninsula. Pamplona, or Pampeluna, the capital, the foundation of
which is ascribed to Pompey, is one of the chief bulwarks of the Peninsula, and one of the
strongest fortresses in Europe. It was reduced by the Duke of Wellington, and by the
French, in their last invasion, after a long blockade. There are also Tudela and Calahorra,
little towns on the' Ebro. Pampeluna has 10,000 inhabitants.
Aragon, south from Navarre, is an extensive province, extending along the greater part
of the course of the Ebro ; whence it reaches on one side to the Pyrenees, and on the other
to the chains which shut in the Castiles and Valencia. A great part of it is rugged and
barren ; though other tracts in tlie certtral plains, and along the rivers, are very susceptible
of culture. Aragop, during the middle ages, was a powerful kingdom, comprising Catalonia

Book L SPAIN. 581
and Valencia, formmg the half of Christian Spain, then divided between it and Castile.
Even after the union of the crowns under Ferdinand and Isabella, it still enjoyed its consti
tution and its cortes, which exercised higher prerogatives, and kept the power of the kings
under stricter limitations, than any similar assembly in Europe. Of these it was deprived
by the unfortunate issue of the civil war under Charles V., and more completely by the
Bourbon succession, after Aragon had espoused the cause of CJiarles of Austria. The pea
santry of this province are a fine body of men, stout, brave, and honest. Culture and popu
lation are generally in a backward state ; yet the canal of Aragon, conducted parallel to the
course of the Ebro, though it has not yet reached the sea, according to its destination, has
given a considerable impulse to the agriculture of the district through which it is led.
Saragossa, or Zaragoza, the capital of Aragon, is a large and celebrated city, situated
amid a fine plain, on the banks of the Ebro and of the canal of Aragon. From Augustus,
who enlarged and improved it, the city was called Csesar-Augusia, corrupted into Saragossa.
It is not well built, the streets being narrow and crooked ; but there are several open market
places, and some very splendid religious edifices. The principal is that dedicated to the
Virgm, under the title of " Our Lady of the Pillar ;" an object of the most profound venera
tion to the citizens, and enriched by offerings from every part of Spain. The church of St.
Engracia is also filled with relics and gifts ; and each of the forty convents of Saragossa has
its peculiar boast. A stone bridge, and the finest wooden bridge in Europe, are thrown over
the Ebro. The university has 2000 students, but not much literature. Saragossa has earned
an immortal name by her heroic resistance against the unprincipled invasion of Napoleon, in
1808. Without walls, except an old one of earth, which could not resist for an hour an
attack conducted on modem principles ; without army, arms, or artillery, it maintained a long
and finally successful conflict with the French, in their first invasion. Afterwards, when
assailed by an immense and overwhelming force, the flower of the French armies, without
hope of relief, it made a mighty resistance ; and it was only by mining operations, blowing
up successively house after house,' that the French finally became its masters, after having
reduced it to a heap of ruins. Population 43,000.
Aragon has some other small ancient towns, ranking even as cities ; Jaca and Huesca on
the northem frontier among the Pyrenees, both episcopal seats ; Daroca and Calatayud in
the plain bordering on Castile ; the former enclosed with large ruined fortifications, the latter
industrious, and surrounded by a smiling country.
Catalonia, to the east of Aragon, is one of the finest and most extensive provinces of Spain.
It presents a remarkable variety of surfece, from the steep and rugged heights of the higher
Pyrenees, to the elevated valleys of Upper Catalonia, and the luxuriant though not very
extensive plains that border on the Mediterranean. The Catalans redeem to a great extent
the Spanish national character, uniting with its loftiness and energy a spirit and an activity
which are elsewhere wanting. They have been always commercial, industrious, and fond
of liberty. 'After bearing successively the yoke of the Romans, the Goths, and the Sara
cens, Catalonia was long ruled by counts of French descent, whose posterity extended their
sway over Aragon, and finally over the whole Peninsula, in which this principality merged.
The Catalans, however, bore more impatiently than other Spaniards the loss of their privi
leges ; and during the war of the succession, on receiving a pledge for their restitution,
espoused with extraordinary ardour the cause of the Archduke Charles. Even after its
unfortunate issue, when deserted by Britain and all the other powers, they made a last dread
ful struggle, which ended, however, in the loss of all those rights for which they had so
nobly contended. In the last two wars, Catalonia acted a.most conspicuous part ; maintaining
an unremitted resistance to France, notwithstanding the close vicinity of that kingdom, and
in the late constitutional struggle making efforts, both for and against liberty, much greater
than any other province.
Barcelona is, after the capital, the largest city, and at the same time the most industrious
and flourishing, of all Spain, containing 150,000 inhabitants. It is situated about the centre
of the Catalonian coast, and draws its subsistence from a fertile and extensive plain behind.
It is said to have been originally a Carthaginian town, founded by HamUcar Barcas ; but rose
to little distinction under the Romans, who made Tarraco the capital of all eastern Spain.
It was not till ihe twelfth century that Barcelona began to be distinguished for its commer
cial spirit. It suffered severely during successive wars, particularly that of the succession ;
but in the course of the last century, the exertions of its patriotic governor, the Marquis of
Mina, enabled it to retrieve all its losses, and become more prosperous than ever. The port
is artificial, formed by solid and convenient moles, but has a bar at its entrance, which
excludes vessels drawing more than twelve feet of water. It carried on a great and various
traffic ; had woollen, silk, and cotton manufactories, all on a considerable scale ; about a
thousand vessels annually entered its port; and the whole amount of exports was reckoned
by Laborde at 1,750,000/. According to the latest account, however, by the author of " A
Year in Spain," the late disasters and misgovernment have caused a great declension in the
above branches of manufacture ; and instead of the ranges of tall masts assembled within
49*

582

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part III

its mole, there are to be seen only a paltry assemblage of fishing-boats and feluccas. The
ecclesiastical edifices of Barcelona are handsome, particularly the cathedral, though not of
so grand a character as those in some other parts of Spain. The convent of the Dominicans
has a singular series of ornaments, the sentences of five hundred heretics decreed by the
Inquisition, and under each sentence a representation of the sufferer, whom the demons, in
various shapes, are torturing and devouring. The walls of Barcelona are strong, but its
chief dependence is upon the citadel of Montjuich, which commands it, and is considered
almost impregnable, though the Earl of Peterborough took it by surprise. At the close of
the war of the succession, when Barcelona was besieged by the Duke of Berwick, a terrible
and almost frantic resistance was made in the streets, not by troops, but by priests, students,
tradesmen, and even women : the consequences were terrible. Bonaparte, in 1808, obtained
by treachery and threats the cession of this and the other keys of the kingdom ; but in the
late invasion, its resistance against Moiicey was most gallant.
There are several other large, ancient, and strong towns in Catalonia. Tarragona, the
Roman capital of the east of Spain, has fallen into great comparative decay, and has but
12,000 inhabitants. It is situated on a rocky peninsula, and presents many traces of Roman
antiquity, as of the palace of Augustus, the amphitheatre, and an extensive aqueduct. More
recently, the harbour has been improved, and some new streets built ; and in the war of
1808, the fortifications were restored, and the city made a brave defence against Marshal
Suchet, who at length carried it by storm, with circumstances of great cruelty. Tortosa is
also a considerable and ancient city near the mouth of the Ebro, which is there broad and
navigable. It made a distinguished figure during the wars with the Moors, chiefly through
the exploits of its heroines, to commemorate whose valour a military order was instituted by
Raymond Berenger. Its position on the river affords scope for a considerable trade ; and
during the last war its fortifications were restored by the Spaniards. It contains 16,000
inhabitants. Between the two last-mentioned cities has arisen, within the last half century,
Reus, a large, flourishing, industrious town, carrying on various manufactures, particularly
of brandy and leather. Population 25,000. All these are on the coast west of Barcelona.
To the east the chief place is Gerona, a large gloomy town, in a fine situation. It is well
fortified ; and its resistance, protracted for more than half a year, to the unremitted efforts
of Bonaparte's generals, formed one of the most glorious events of the peninsular war.
Rosas, a little tovim, prettily situated in a fine bay, exports cork and other timber. In the
interior, Lerida, distinguished as a Roman station under the name of Ilerda, is a large and
strong town, situated in a most delightful country on the banks of the Segre. A consider
able stand was made here by the patriotic armies during the French invasion. Mequinenza,
at the junction of the Segre with the Ebro, is also an important military post. Cervera, the
seat of a considerable university, and Igualada, are pretty large interior towns, supported by
the produce of the rich vales in which they are situated. But the most striking feature m
all Catalonia is the single, lofty, and precipitous mountam of Montserrat (fig. 313.). It con
sists of a crowd of conical hills piled over
each other, broken into steep walls of white
and variously tinted limestone cliffs, the
interstices of which are filled with ever
green and deciduous trees and plants. The
Benedictine monastery, an ancient and re
markable structure, stands on a cleft at
the top of a high rock, where space is
scarcely left for the edifice, while far be
neath roars the Llobregat Numerous her
mitages pitched on the top of precipices,
or in cavities hewn out of the rock, increase
Montserrat. ^^ singular and romantic appearance of
the scene. This mountain, in the last war, was converted into an almost impregnable mili
tary position. On the highest of all the Catalonian vales, which is extensive, and rich in
grain, stands Urgel, a small episcopal see, and a strong military post, the roads being almost
impassable to artillery.
Valencia, beginning from the border of Catalonia and Aragon, occupies an extensive coast
running from north to south, and is the first of the southern provinces. The plain ranks as
the garden of Spain, and almost of Europe. The fields of corn ; the yellow green of the
mulberry plantations, the pale hue of the olive ; the woods, villages, and convents, thickly
scattered over this great expanse, with numberless slender steeples, present, when united,
an inimitable landscape. The country is finely watered by tlie Xucar, the Guadalaviar, and
other rivers, numerous though not of long course. A great extent of artificial navigation
was formed by the Moors, and is still kept up, though not in a very complete state. The
province yields, in abundance, the usual products, com, wuie, oil, silk; with rice enough to
supply the greater part of Spain, and barilla for exportation. The Valencians are very indus<

Book L SPAIN. 583
trious, and of a gay disposition. Colonies from the south of France, introduced by the first
Christian conqueror, brought with them a portion of the spirit of that nation.
Valencia, at the mouth of the Guadalaviar, is one of the largest and most flourishing tovras
of the kingdom. It is of Roman origin, but its fame dates from the eleventh century, when
it was conquered by the Cid from the Moors, and ruled as a fief by that greatest of the Spanish
heroes. It was the scene, however, of a long-continued contest ; and its final annexation to
Christian Spain did not take place until a century and a half later. The lofty walls and
towers of Valencia are now nearly demolished, and in the war of liberty neither it nor the
province made any very conspicuous figure. The silk manufacture is one of the most exten
sive in Spain, though checked by an absurd prohibition against the exportation of its produce.
In a levy during the late war, exemption was granted to upwards of 3000 silk-weavers, that
the trade might not be interrupted. There are also manufactures of woollens and paper.
The Gran, or port of Valencia, is only an indifferent roadstead, and the commerce not nearly
equal to that of Alicant. The city, though large and rich, is not handsome ; the streets
being narrow and winding, and bordered by high old houses. The churches and convents
are of course numerous, and many of them richly ornamented, but none very prominent in
architectural beauty. They are adorned, however, with numerous pictures by some of the
most eminent Spanish painters, natives of Valencia ; Juanes, Ribalta, and others, whose
works are unknown in this country, but are admired by those who have visited Spain. The
religious festivals of Valencia are celebrated with a childish pomp, in some degree disused
in otlier parts even of this country. On these occasions, all the most memorable events and
most illustrious characters in scripture history are represented either by figures in wicker-
work, or by citizens fantastically attired. The exhibitions of this kind, amounting annually
to a himdred and fifty, give great occasion to idleness and dissipation ; yet tlie attempts to
reduce their number have been hitherto unsuccessful. Population 66,000.
Alicant, situated at the bottom of a bay on the southern frontier, ranks high as an indus
trious and commercial town. Its prosperity is modem, chiefiy owing to the refage which
its lofty castle afforded from the dreadful irruptions of the Barbary corsairs. Even since this
danger ceased, Alicant has continued to be a fortified town ; and none of the invading armies
in the late war were able to obtain possession of it. About 1000 vessels annually enter its
port, and are laden with barilla, raisins, and a small quantity of wine and brandy. The
import from England consists chiefly of salt-flsh, the great article of consumption in Catholic
countries. The herring and other flsheries are carried on with considerable activity on this
coast. They are encouraged by the govemment, but with an absurd limitation to a body of
enrolled fishermen, amounting to about 16,000. Population 25,000.
Among other important towns may be mentioned Elche and Orihuela, large and flourishing
places, in the very flnest part of the plain of Valencia. Segorbe and Liria are pleasant
interior towns towards the frontier of Aragon. San Felipe, under the name of Xativa, made
a distinguished figure in the war of the succession ; when, after being demolished, it was
rebuilt by Philip V. under its present name. Denia and Gandia in the south, and Peniscola
in the north, are sea-ports on a smaller scale. But all these places yield in ancient fame to
Murviedro, occupying the rocky site of the ancient Saguntum, the siege of which formed
the commencement of the career of Hannibal. The long resistance of this powerful and
unfortunate city forms the first of the many remarkable sieges which have distinguished the
Spanish annals, ancient or modern. The Romans restored and made it a great colony, and
the Moors erected a range of fortifications on the summit of the hill ; so that its mountain
site is now covered with ruins of various dates and descriptions. Half-way up the eminence,
the outline of a theatre capable of containing 9000 persons may still be traced ; and a few
ropemakers plying their trade alone break the silence of this august ruin. Murviedro is a
small town still fortified, though the resistance made by it in the last war was not formidable.
Murcia is a small province, partly bounded on the south-east by the coast, which here
changes its direction from southerly to westerly. Its vale is almost without a rival for
beauty and fertility, even in southern Europe. Its natural fruitfulness is greatly aided by
the numerous canals of irrigation which the Moors drew from the river Segura. These
advantages are little improved by the present inhabitants, who are noted as exhibiting, in a
peculiar degree, all the blemishes of the Spanish character ; its pride, its bigotry, and its
laziness. Even the song and the dance do not inspire gaiety in its vales, as in all the rest
of Spain ; almost the whole time of the people being spent in eating, sleeping, and making
cigars. A sullen and vindictive spirit is said to lurk under this outward apathy. Few
Murcians have made a figure in literature, in the arts, or in public life.
The cities of Murcia, if we except its port of Carthagena, do not merit particular notice
The capital, bearing its name, is an irregular, ill-built, ill-paved large town, with 36,000
iiihabitants. The ecclesiastical edifices, however, are very costly, and the front of the
cathedral, according to Mr. Townshend, produces a splendid effect with its sixteen Corinthian
columns of marble, and thirty-two images as large as life. The interior does not possess
equal elegance, but is chiefly distinguished by the proportion of gold, sUver, and jewels, not

584 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Paet HI
to mention the relics, which are accounted by the faithful as of much superior value. Lorca
.3 a large town, built with some elegance, and surrounded by fine promenades. Population
314 40,000. It had extensive fabrics of sUk and
saltpetre, which were reviving, when a sin
gular accident arrested their progress. A
speculative individual had collected all the
waters of the neighbourhood into an immense
reservoir, whence he supplied them to the
cultivators for purposes of irrigation ; but this
receptacle, not being fully secured, burst
at one point, destroyed part of the suburbs
of Lorca, desolated a great extent of country,
'~''^-^*^--'~^^' "^ and reached even Murcia. Totana, a popu-
™''"^°' lous village, is enriched by the copious pro
duction of barilla in its neighbourhood. The castle of Almanza (Jg. 814.), picturesquely
seated on a height, is noted as the spot near which, in 1707, was fought the celebrated battle
which decided the Spanish succession in favour of the house of Bourbon.
Carthagena, situated in Murcia, though scarcely belonging to it, forms one of the few
great Spanish emporia, and contains 37,000 inhabitants. This celebrated capital of ancient
Spain was founded by Asdrabal ; and when captured by Scipio, in the year of Rome 550,
was considered one of the most opulent cities in the world. It was nearly destroyed by the
Vandals, but was restored by Philip II., and has ever since continued to flourish. It enjoys
one of the finest ports in Europe, consisting of a bay sheltered by high mountains from almost
every wind. The staples are the same as at Alicant. The revenue, raised by a small though
impolitic duty on the export of barilla, amounts to 25,000/. The fishery is also considerable.
There are few Murcian residents, and the trade is carried on chiefly by English, French,
and Italian houses. The streets are wide, and the houses agreeable, with terraced roofs,
commanding a view of the sea ; but neither here nor at Alicant are there any structures,
even ecclesiastical, at all worthy of notice.
Andalusia, taken in its most comprehensive sense, is the largest of the Spanish provinces,
and, we may add, the finest and most remarkable, both as to nature and art. The Guadal
quivir, with numerous and large tributaries, waters its whole extent. Its mountains, covered
in many places with perpetual snow, are the loftiest, its valleys the most fruitful, in Spain.
Andalusia, indeed, comprises four celebrated kingdoms; Granada, Seville, Cordova, and
Jaen, and contains great capitals founded by the conquering Moors, which were the seats
of science and splendour, when the greater part of Europe was plunged in rudeness and
barbarism. Granada, which is sometimes called Upper Andalusia, was the central seat of Moorish
power and magnificence. Even amid the general decline of that power in Spain, Granada
was still supported by the multitudes who resorted thither from the subdued provinces. Its
fall, in 1492, was considered the most deadly blow which Islamism ever received ; and in
all the mosques prayers are put up every Friday for its restoration. Granada presents a
wonderful combination of all that is most wild and sublime, with what is most soft and
beautiful in natural scenery. South from the capital rises the Sierra Nevada, covered, as
its name imports, with perpetual snow to a great depth. Mulhacen, the most elevated peak,
is 11,660 feet above the sea; while the line of perpetual snow begins at about 10,000 feet.
The Alpujarras, a lower range, are cultivated with considerable diligence, by descendants
of the Moors, a remnant of whom found refuge here, amid the general proscription of their
race and nation. The Vega or plain of Granada, watered by numerous streams descending
from the high regions, displays nature in her utmost pomp and beauty.
The city of Granada is in the heart of the Vega, beneath the loftiest heights of the Sierra
Nevada. This city still displays ample monuments to attest the period when it was the
great western capital of the Moslem world. Nothing can exceed the beauty of its approach.
" The rich and populous country well supplied with trees, the clear rivulets descending from
the mountains, and artificially contrived to intersect it in every part; the splendid city
extending in a half-moon from the river, on the gradual ascent of a hill ; the streets rising
above each other ; the profusion of turrets and gilded cupolas ; the summit crowned with the
Alhambra ; the background composed of the majestic Sierra Nevada, with its summit covered
with snow ; complete a scene to which no description can do justice." Mr. Jacob, who thus
describes the scene, considers it not too much to have travelled two hundred miles of bad
road to see it. The interior, as in most Spanish and especially Mohammedan cities, does not
correspond to the approach. The streets are narrow, the walls high and gloomy ; many
quarters are now deserted ; and marks of decay and splendid poverty are everywhere visible.
Its population, once comprising 400,000 souls, is now reduced to 80,000. But the eye of

Book I.

SPAIN.

585

the curious traveller is soon attracted towards the Alhambra (fig. 815.), the ancient palace
0-, c and fortress of the kings of Granada. It is
the noblest specimen existing of Moorish
architecture; and nothing perhaps in Eu
rope, out of Italy and Greece, can come into
competition with it. The site is fine, re
sembling that of Windsor, on a hill above
the river. Its exterior structure, however,
is the reverse of beautiful : a huge heap of
ugly buildmgs huddled together, without
the least seeming intention of forming one
habitation ; the walls only gravel and peb
bles daubed over with plaster. On entering
the threshold, however, the visiter seems
transported into a fairy scene. He passes
through a range of apartments ; the baths,
the Court of the Lions ; the Hall of the Abencerrages (fig. 316.) ; the Golden Saloon, or
316

The Alhambra.

Hall of the Abencerrages. Gate of the Sanctaary of the Koran.
Hall of the Ambassadors ; the Gate' of tne Sanctuary of the Koran {fig, 317.) ; the Tower
318

Mosaic Pavement.

Vol. L

3V

586

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Part IIL

of the Two Sisters ; with others, in which the various resources of Oriental pomp are dis
played, along with all that can refresh the eye or the sense in a sultry climate. The courts
are all paved with marble, and surrounded with marble pillars, in a pure and beautifiil taste ;
and the walls and pavement are profusely ornamented with gilded arabesque and mosaic
(fig. 318.), the colours of which, by an art which seems to have been lost with the Moors,
are as brilliant as when they were first laid on, five hundred years ago. Water is made to
spout into the air, or, in smooth sheets bordered with flowers, refreshes the interior of the apart
ments. After the expulsion of the Moors, Charles V. built on part of its site a new palace,
the external architecture of which was much superior ; but it was never finished. The
Generalife is another Moorish palace, in a more elevated and finer situation ; but its interior
splendour, though great, is quite eclipsed by that of its neighbour. The cathedral, though
it must yield to these Moorish structures, is yet of considerable extent and beauty. Granada
is the seat of one of the two high courts of chancery, and of other tribunals of high jurisdic
tion. It retains a certain proportion of its former immense silk manufactures, with some of
woollen and leather ; and a considerable number of persons are employed in extracting the
nitre with which the neighbouring soil is copiously impregnated.
Malaga has in modem times attained a greater importance, and is reckoned the third port
in the kingdom, ranking next to those of Cadiz and Barcelona. The chief foundation of its
trade is the fine wiAe called Malaga or mountain, produced in the numerous hills behind it.
It is raised at very great expense, and only upon the declivities which have an exposure to
the sun. The country produces also very fine raisins and other fruits ; and anchovies, caught
and cured on the coast, have been sold to the annual extent of 20,000 quintals. MalEiga is
the only great Spanish port of which the exports have always exceeded the imports. Malaga
has a very secure though not extensive harbour, formed by artificial moles. It lies in a deep
bay on a little plain overhung by lofty and craggy cliffs, which at a distance appear quite
naked, but on approaching, every crevice is found to be filled with vines. This situation
renders the heat very severe, and has aided in exposing the inhabitants to the destructive
ravages of pestilential fever. The streets are close, narrow, and dirty; but the cathedral is
a very noble pile, and contains paintings by great Spanish masters. Population 52,000.
Other very considerable towns occur in Granada. Five leagues to the east of Malaga is
Velez-Malaga, most delightfully situated in a plain diversified by numerous gentle hills,
clothed to the summit with vines, while the plains below wave with luxuriant harvests of
grain. Farther east are the small ports of Motril and Almeria ; the latter ancient, and cele
brated in the history of the Moors, under whom it was highly prosperous and flourishing.
Near it is the rock of Filabres, 2000 feet high, composed of a single block of white marble ;
and beyond it stretches into the sea the bold and huge promontory of Cabo de Gata. Guadix,
Baza, and Purchena, are considerable interior towns, in the eastern part of this province,
seated in valleys enclosed by the numerous ranges of hUls which intersect it. Santa Fe,
two leagues west of Granada, is remarkably exposed to earthquakes, which have split its
cathedral in two, and laid open the cells of one of the convents; yet the citizens stUl inhabit
and keep it in repair. Alhama is strikingly situated amid a circuit of precipitous rocks,
through which dashes a rapid stream. It is frequented for the salubrity of its air, and for
its medicinal springs and baths. Antequera is very ancient ; filled with Roman and Moorish
monuments, and still large ; the adjacent country is very fertUe, and distinguished for the
variety both of its vegetable and mineral productions. Population 20,000. Ronda, (fig. 319.)
capital of a wide mountain district, is sin
gularly situated on a rock with perpendicu
lar cliffs and broken crags, through a deep
fissure in which tlie river flows, and sur
rounds the city on three sides. It is crossed
by a stupendous bridge 110 feet indietmeter,
and 280 feet in height. Stairs of 350 steps
lead down to the river, and gardens have
been formed on some level projecting points
of the precipice. The mountaineers of
Ronda are an honest, active, hardy race ;
and so healthy as to make it a proverb, that " at Ronda a man is a boy at eighty." The
vicinity of Gibraltar gives them great opportunities for smuggling, which tliey carry on in
large bands, and in open resistance to government, without, however, incurring any impu
tation on their general loyalty.
The kingdom of Seville, west of Granada, is a still finer region, and perhaps superior to
any other in the Peninsula. Its plains are the most productive in wine, oU, and fruits ; the
noble river Guadalquivir conveys its products to tlie sea ; and Seville and Cadiz are, in soma
respects, superior to all other Spanish cities.

Book I.

SPAIN.

587

Seville (fig. 320.) is situated in the midst of a fertUe and delightful plain, and near the
mouth of the Guadalquivir, which for
merly admitted vessels of large size : it
was a great city from the earliest period.
By the Romans it was celebrated under
the appellation of Hispalis : its founda
tion was ascribed to Hercules ; and, with
the neighbouring colony of Italica, it
formed the capital of Bsetica. Under the
Moors it became an independent king
dom ; and if it be true that, on its cap
ture by Ferduiand the Catholic, 400,000
"°""°" Moors marched out at one of its gates,
it must indeed have been an immense city. Notwithstanding the depopulation thus occa
sioned by bigotry and treachery, it soon became more splendid than ever, in consequence ot
becoming the emporium of the wealth which flowed in from the western hemisphere. Its
manufecturing industry was then also very flourishing. By a return made to government in
1601, Seville was said to contain 16,000 sUk looms, giving employment to 130,000 work
men. It frequently received an increase of splendour by becoming a royal residence. Since
the above period, Seville has not only declined with the gradual decline of Spain, but has
suffered by the filling up of the channel of the Guadalquivir, which has rendered it naviga
ble only for small ships, and has transferred to Cadiz the commerce of America. Seville is
now a solemn, inert, gloomy city, with 91,000 inhabitants. Like other Spanish places, par
ticularly those of Moorish origin, its streets are narrow, winding, and dirty ; but it contains
some splendid public edifices. Foremost stands the cathedral, the largest ecclesiastical
structure in the Peninsula, 420 feet long within, and 373 broad ; but the most striking fea
ture is its tower, originally erected by the learned Geber or Guever, and used as an observa
tory, but raised hy the Christians to the height of 850 feet. Many of the convents also are
very splendid, and previous to the late invasion by the French contained numerous works of
the greatest Spanish artists, of whom Seville was the chief nurse. There was, above all, a
splendid collection of the works of MurUlo, the prince of these artists, and a native of
Seville. Of these treasures the city has been in a great measure despoiled by the ravages
of the invader ; Marshal Soult, in particular, had in his collection numerous masterpieces
of MurUlo, by which the convents of Seville were formerly adorned. Seville has still 2500
sUk looms ; and government maintains a cannon foundery and a tobacco manufactory. The
Exchange and the Marine Academy are also handsome edifices.
Cadiz (fig. 321.) is, in an equal degree with Seville, the boast of Spain. In the commer-

821

cial annals of the world no city is of
higher antiquity. Tartessus, occu
pying a site in its vicinity, was one
of the earliest and most flourishing
Phoenician colonies. Afterwards Ga-
deira, or Gades, was recognised by
the Greeks and Romans as one of thS
chief European emporia. In modern
times, when commerce did not form
part of the European system, Cadiz
declined into a secondary rank ; and
the intercourse with America was at first nearly monopolised by Seville. The circumstances
which transferred it from that city to Cadiz took place early in the last century, when the
latter rose to be the chief theatre of Spanish commerce. It enjoyed for some tinie the entire
monopoly of the American trade ; and even when, in 1778, it was thrown open to the whole
kingdom, it had taken such deep root in Cadiz as to frustrate all competition. In 1784, when
the entire imports from America were 12,680,000/. that city, for its share, had 11,280,000/. ;
and of the whole exports, amounting to 4,800,000/., it had 8,600,000/. Notwithstanding
severe shocks, in consequence of political revolutions, and the war with England, it always
revived, and derived a temporary greatness from becoming the capital of the constitutional
government. It received, however, its mortal blow by the separation of the colonies. The
merchants, deprived thus of almost their only employment, have been reduced to the funds
already accumulated, and have in a great measure retired from the confined situation of
Cadiz to the pleasant sites and villages which are scattered round the bay. The city is
situated on a small neck of land, at the point of the long Isle of Leon. It does not boast any
remarkable structures, but the whole is elegantly built in regular squares, and streets with a
square court in the centre and an awning over it. Population 53,000.

588

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

Past HL

Gibraltar.

Gibraltar (fig. 322.), though no longer Spanish, forms also a striking and important fea
ture in this province. This rock is
celebrated from the earliest antiquity as
one of the two " Pillars of Hercules,"
which guarded the entrance into the
Mediterranean; though Mount Calpe,
on the opposite side, is considerably
loftier. In 1704, Sir George Rooke and
Sir Cloudesley Shovel carried this for
tress by a coup de main ; since which
time Spain has vainly attempted to re
gain possession of it. Her grand effort
was towards the close of the American
war, when the fleets of France and Spain rode masters of the sea. A combined attack was
made on the 18th of September, 1782, by the two powers, with fifty sail of the line, 80,000
troops, and ten mighty floating batteries, which were expected to demolish all opposed to
them. They kept up a tremendous fire from ten in the morning till midnight, at which time
smoke and fire were seen rising from the batteries which before next moming were reduced
to ashes, with a dreadful destructioh of the assailants. No subsequent attempt has been
made ; nature, in fact, has rendered Gibraltar almost impregnable. The rock is precipitous
on all sides, and is connected with the continent only by a narrow neck of marshy ground.
The western front alone towards the sea is in any degree accessible ; and this is defended
by batteries cut in the solid rock, and by other works so extensive and so well planned as to
bid defiance to any future effort. Gibraltar has one handsome street, the houses of which
are built in the English style, with trees and flowers skilfully planted in scanty fragments of
soU. The rest of the town is close, crowded, and dirty, inhabited by about 20,000 people,
chiefly Moors and Jews, the latter of whom have sought refuge here in great numbers from
Spanish bigotry, and have four synagogues. The expense of maintaining Gibraltar is con
siderable : but it forms an important naval station, a depot for the commerce of the Mediter
ranean, and a channel for introducing into Spain great quantities of goods, declared contra
band by the jealous policy of that country.
Among other places of some importance is Tarife, the most southern point of Spain, and
even of Europe, and the probable place of the landing of Tarik, with the Saracen army destined
for the conquest of that country. Seated on an almost insulated rock, it is still a fortress of
some strength. Algesiras, on the opposite side of the bay, has grown up as a small rival to
Gibraltar ; its population consists chiefly of smugglers and adventurers. In the interior is
the flourishing and populous town of Xeres, situated in a wide region of vineyards, producing
the wine called Sherry, the consumption of which is so general in this country. Mr. Jacob
supposes the entire produce to be 40,000 pipes, of which 15,000 are exported, one half to
Britain. Ecija, a large town, was famous as a scene of contest between the Christians and
Saracens, and afterwards as the head quarters of a most formidable band of robbers ; but its
walls are now in ruin. Lebrija and Carmona are ancient towns, containing Roman monu
ments of considerable grandeur. The districts to the north and west of the Guadalquivir
are mountainous and rugged ; though Hueiva and Moguer, at the mouth of the Tinto, and
Ayamonte, at the mouth of the Guadiana, derive some importance from their situation, and
carry on a little fishery.
Cordova (fig. 823.), on the upper part of the course of the Guadalquivir, is another king
dom of Andalusia, deriving its
328 chief interest from the celebrated
capital of the same name. Cor-
duba, founded by the Romans, was
not only a provincial capital, but
the seat of an university, which
could boast tlie great names of Se
neca and Lucan. It displayed,
however, a far higher pomp, when,
after the Saracen conquest, it be
came the first capital of the Mo-

Cordova.

hammedan empire in Spain. Under Abdelrahman and Almansor, it is represented as con
taining 1600 mosques, and nearly 1,000,000 people. Admitting a certain exaggeration, its
past greatness is clearly attested by the vast and now almost empty circuit enclosed by its
WO-lls, in a great measure filled with palm trees and gardens, and by the astonishing remEiins
of its mosque. This vast edifice presents nothing very striking in its exterior, which is in a
great measure hid by the surrounding streets. But when the stranger enters any one of its
nineteen gates, he is astonished and bewildered by the endless labyrinth of columns which
stretch before him in every direction (fig. 324.). These columns have almost defied the at
tempts to number them ; by one vnriter they have been estimated at 1400, but are generally

Book I.

SPAIN.

589

324

Interior of Mosque at Cordova.

Stated as exceeding 400, dividing the mosque into nineteen aisles, and producing a perpetual
and surprising change of scene to the visiter. The edifice, however, though it astonishes by its
immensity, does not equal in elegance those erected during
that more refined age when Granada became the capital.
The Christians have converted it into a church, and erected
in the centre a choir of great beauty, but quite out of har
mony with the Saracenic part of the structure. Cordova,
though its days of splendour are long departed, still enjoys
delightful environs, producing a breed of horses the finest in
Spain, of which a splendid stud was lately kept by the go
vernment. There is also some remnant of its once exten
sive manufactures, particularly of that fine species of leather
called from it Cordovan. The population is 57,000.
Jaen ranks as a fourth kingdom, though it cannot enter
into any rivalry with those already described. Its capital, of
the same name, however, though little known, from its de
tached situation, is still a large city, the see of a bishop.
Andujar is a considerable place, with a very ancient castle,
at the entrance of the defiles of the Sierra Morena ; and to
the north of it is Baylen, where the Spaniards gained that
signal victory which caused the surrender of Dupont and his
army. In the upper part of this tract are the settlements of
La Carolina, where an expanse of rude mountain waste has,
by German and other colonists, been converted into a pro
ductive territory.
The Balearic Islands, Majorca, Minorca, and Ivi^a, with the minor ones of Cabrera and
Formentera, form an appendage to Spain of some importance and celebrity. The Balearian
slingers are celebrated in the military annals of antiquity ; but the islands in general fol
lowed tho political fate of Spain. Majorca, the largest, about forty miles in length, and
thirty in breadth, possesses very considerable natural advantages. Several mountain chains,
varying from 1500 to 4500 feet high, penetrate its centre, and defend it both from the excess
of the heat and the violent action of the sea-breezes. Its summits are somewhat arid, but
the intervening valleys are thickly clothed with olive trees ; and corn and the vine grow
luxuriantly, though with imperfect culture, on the plains helow. Oranges and citrons
flourish so abundantly in the northem district, that 20,000 mule-loads of them are exported
to France and Catalonia. M. Cambassedes values the entire produce of the isle, in 1820, at
58,000,000 reals, about $8,000,000. Of this, about 34,000,000 are in grain and pulse,
5,000,000 m od, and 2,500,000 in wine, 1,500,000 in fruits, 3,000,000 in hops, and 2,000,000
in sheep. Palma, the capital of Majorca, is a considerable town, slightly fortified, inhabited
chiefiy by the nobles, who possess the greater part of the isle, and have rarely sufficient
activity or curiosity to visit their estates. In no Spanish city are indolence and superstition
more prevalent. There are thirty convents, some of which enjoy a revenue of $10,000 a
year. Processions and religious festivals, celebrated often with great tumult, form the chief
amusements. In these it is customary to deck up figures of Judas, with tablets containing
the enumeration of his crimes, among which that of being " chief of the liberals" was
lately included ! Population 34,000.
Minorca is a much smaller island, more barren, covered with bare and rocky mountains,
and destitute of any trees at all lofty, the growth being prevented by the violent winds from
the sea. But it is distinguished for one of the finest harbours in Europe, Port Mahon, which
being strongly fortified, has been a subject of eager contest to the maritime nations. Having
been taken by England in the Succession War", it was recovered by the French in 1756,
notwithstanding Byng's attempt to relieve it. After several other vicissitudes, it remained
with Spain. The harbour is extensive, possesses deep water, and is sheltered by hills on
each side from every wind. The town has nothing of a Spanish aspect ; the streets being
broad, the houses small but neat, the people a stirring and active race, who scarcely allow
themselves to be called Spaniards. During the late French war, being protected by the
English navy, they made considerable wealth by privateering. Ciuidadella, though of smaller
extent, is the nominal capital, and the residence of the nobility. Iviga, or Iviza, is a small
isle, of rugged surface, which forms one immense mountain, shooting up into a variety of
summits. The island is thus refreshed by cool breezes and numerous streams, and yields
readUy all the productions of this climate, particularly figs. In the quarter called Las Sa
linas, salt is evaporated by the heat of the sun, and exported to the extent of 15,000 tons.
[Sect. VIII. — Republic of Andorra.
This little republic, with a territory of hardly 200 square mUes, and a population of about
15,000 souls, has been overlooked by the author of this work. It occupies a valley on the
southern side of the Pyrenees, situated between the Maladetta and the Moncal, and lying
Vol,. L 50

590 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part HI
between Poix in France and Urgel in Spain. Beside Andorra, the capital, a town of 2,000
inhabitants, it contains five villages, which export iron and timber. It is governed by a
Syndic, who presides over the councU of the valley, and hy two Viguiers, appointed the one
by the king of France, and the other by the bishop of Urgel.— Am. Ed.]

CHAPTER X.

PORTUGAL.

Portuoal has by political causes alone been separated from Spain. There is no physical
peculiarity by which the two kmgdoms are distinguished. On the contrary, all the grand
natural features of Spain are prolonged into Portugal, and become Portuguese.
Sect. I. — General Outline and Aspect.
The boundaries of Portugal are the Atlantic Ocean on the west throughout its whole
extent, and also on the south ; on the north the Spanish kingdom of Galicia ; and on the
east those of Estremadura and Leon. The greatest dimension is from north to south, or
from 87° to 42° 10' north latitude, and it extends from 6° 15' to 9° 30' west longitude. Its
surface is 38,800 square miles.
The mountains of Port.ugal may be considered as prolongations of those of Spain, chiefly
of the chains of Guadarrama and Toledo, and those in the north of Galicia. Those ranges,
seldom rising to the firSt magnitude, cover almost the whole country, leaving between them
many picturesque and fertUe valleys. There are only two extensive plains, one on the south
of the Tagus, and the other between the Mondego and the Douro.
The rivers of Portugal consist chiefly of the spacious terminations of the greatest streams
af Spain in their progress to the ocean. The Douro forms the great maritime emporium of
Oporto, and the Tagus that of Lisbon. The Guadiana, also, in its lower course, flows
along the eastem frontier of Portugal. The Minho, a much smaller stream, comes down
from Galicia ; and the Mondego, alone, is entirely Portuguese, flowing nearly across the
breadth of the kingdom. Sect. H. — Natural Geography.
Subsect. 1. — Geology.
This kingdom has the same general geognostical structure and composition as Spain. The
mountainous parts of the country are generally of gneiss, mica slate, and otlier Neptunian
primitive strata, occasionally intermingled with Plutonian rocks of granite and porphyry.
Secondary formations of limestone occur in the Sierra d'Estrella, and in the vicinity of Cape
St. Vincent, and all around Lisbon and at Cape St. Vincent the strata are of rocks of the
tertiary class, more or less intermingled with trap rocks.
Mines. It appears that the Carthaginians wrought tin mines in this part of the Penin
sula. It is asserted that there were formerly mines of tin stone in the granitic mountains
of the neighbourhood of Viseu, in the province of Beira, at the place called Burraco de Stanno.
Lead ores were worked in the last century, not far from Mogadouro, on the banks of the
Sabour, in the province of Tras os Monies, and near Longroiva, on the banks of the Rio
Prisco. Near Mogadouro, mines of graphite or plumbago occur. Iron mines also occur in
the same country, near Felguiera and Torre de Moncorvo. They supply the iron forge of
Chapacunha. Two very old establishments of the same kind occur in Portuguese Estre
madura, one in the district of Thoinar, the other in that of Figuero dos Vinlios. They are
supplied by mines of red oxide of iron, situated in the frontier of that province and of the
province of Beira. There is a deposit of cinnabar at Couna. The mountains of the neigh
bourhood of Oporto everywhere present indications of copper and of other ores. In Portu
gal, as in Spain, the sands of rivers were washed for the gold they contam ; and it is said in
this way large quantities of the precious metal were collected. At present there is but one
gold mine in Portugal, at a place called Adissa, in the district of StUbes. Its annual pro
duce is trifling : in the year 1815 it was 41 lbs. of pure gold ; 1816, 18 lbs. ; 1817, 11 lbs. ;
1818, 12 lbs. ; 1819, 13 lbs. ; 1820, 12 lbs. ; and in 1821, 18 lbs. Beds of coal occur at Vialonga,
to the N. N. E. of Oporto ; and there is a mine of coal at Cabo de Buarcos in the province
of Beira. SuESKCT. 2. — Botany.
The botany of Portugal is included under that of Spain.
Subsect. 3. — Zoology.
The zoology cannot be very dififerent from that of Spain ; but no documents have appeared
to Ulustrate either the one or the other. The horses are rather small, and altogetlier infe-

Book 1. PORTUGAL. 591
rior ; but the mules are fine, and nearly equal to those of Spain. Improvement, however,
is neglected ; nor have the indolent Portuguese profited by crossing their sheep from the
merinos of Spain. A long-legged race of swine is common to both kingdoms, and furnishes
e.xcellent hams. Sect. III. — Historical Geography
The Carthaginians and Romans who occupied the Peninsula, did not recognise Portugal
as a distinct country. Their Lusitania included a part of Spain, and did not comprise the
whole of Portugal : Merida, in Estremadura, was its capital. Portugal, like Spain, submitted
successively to the formidable irruptions of the Goths and of the Bloors.
The existence of Portugal as a distinct kingdom dates from the commencement of the
twelfth century. At that time, Henry, duke of Burgundy, having married the daughter of
the duke of Castile, obtained as her dowry the northern part of Portugal, which had been
rescued from the Moors. The capital, at that time, was Porto or Oporto, whence the modem
name of the kingdom appears to be derived. His "feuccessors gained a series of conquests,
and obtained possession of Lisbon and the southern provinces, carrying their conquests to the
frontier of Seville.
The flfteenth century, and the reigns of John and Emanuel, formed the true era of tha
greatness of Portugal, when it outshone all the other kingdoms of Europe. Confined on
the land side within narrow limits, it opened for itself a vast career of maritime discovery
and conquest. Spain, indeed, shared this pursuit ; but her first acquisitions were made by
private individuals, partly foreign, with only faint assistance from the government ; while
the Portuguese expeditions were planned, fitted out, and all the resources for them sup
plied by the govemment. Their fiag, at one time, floated victorious over all the eastern
seas ; while in the west, by the possession of Brazil, they came into some competition with
Spain. A disastrous eclipse of the Portuguese monarchy took place in the sixteenth century, in
consequence of the rash and romantic expedition undertaken by king Sebastian into Morocco,
where he himself and the flower of his troops were cut off. Hereupon Philip II. of Spain,
a powerful and ambitious prince, raised a claim to the succession, which the superiority of
his arms enabled him to secure. Portugal, with all her eastern and westem possessions,
then became an appanage to the crown of Spain. The connection was every way
unfortunate. Not only did she lose her political and civil liberty, but many of her finest
foreign possessions were wrested from her by the Dutch, the spirited and active enemies of
PhUip. The restoration of the monarchy, in 1640, was stUl more sudden than its fall. The deep-
rooted indignation of the people was combined into an extensive conspiracy, which, having
been concealed to the last moment, burst forth at once : the Spaniards were driven out, and
the duke of Braganza raised to the throne, under the title of John IV. Yet Portugal did not
thus achieve any revival of her ancient glory. The new monarch soon re-established absolute
power: a sluggish and indolent character pervaded all the departments of government : its
foreign possessions were lost or neglected ; and Portugal continued a stranger to all the
improvements and energies which raised Britain and France to the first place in the system
of Europe. Yet, during this period, the elevation of the Bourbons to the Spanish throne, led
to a very intimate alliance between England and Portugal, the natural foe of Spain. It was
cemented in 1803, by a commercial treaty, in which Portugal secured an exclusive market
for her wines, while Britain obtained a market for her woollens, and an arrangement by which
the gold of BrazU might find its way into her ports.
The recent convulsions of the Peninsula have been very amply shared by Portugal.
Regardless of the neutrality which she had strictly maintained, Bonaparte, by a most unpro
voked aggression, sent Juiy.c, in 1807, to take possession of Lisbon. The king did not
attempt a vain resistance, but sailed for Brazil, and established his court at Rio de Janeiro.
The British arms, and the glorious achievements of Wellington, drove the French out of this
part of the Peninsula, and finally out of the whole. Afterwards Portugal imitated the example
of Spain in compelling her monarch to grant a representative constitution ; but again, by a
counter-revolution, she re-established an absolute monarchy. More recently, on the death
of the late king, Don Pedro proclaimed the separation of Brazil from Portugal, reserving the
former to himself, but granting to the latter a charter, the observance of which was made the
condition of holding the throne. Sect. IV. — Political Orography.
Portugal, after the downfall of the feudal system, and especially after her subjection to
PhUip n. became one of the most absolute of European governments. The Marquis of Pom-
bal and one or two more enlightened men found their way into the ministry ; but, in general,
measures were as UI conducted as possible, and corruption prevaUed in every department of
the state. The course of justice was equally polluted ; and, no adequate salaries being
allowed to the judges, they were under an almost irresistible temptation to accept bribes.

592 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part III
The pride of the nobles was nearly as great as in Spain, without being accompanied by the
same lofty sentiments. They are divided into two branches, the titulados and the hidalgos,
and have held the peasantry in a subjection little short of slavery.
The army of Portugal, prior to the revolution, though composed nominally of 80,000 men,
was in a most inefficient state, not through want of physical courage or discipline in the
men, but from the incapacity of the officers, and the general defects of the military system.
When the French, however, had been driven out of Portugal, an army of 40,000 men was
levied, and disciplined by British officers, under the superintendence of Lord Beresford ; and
thus prepared, the Portuguese acted, during the eventful war which followed, in a manner
that would not have disgraced any troops in Europe. The anny is still maintained ; and
though the new government wUl not brook British command, yet, under its influence, Por
tuguese officers of merit have been formed.
The navy, which was never considerable, was carried out with the royal family to BrazU,
and has never been restored. Sect. V. — Productive Industry.
The industry and commerce of Portugal, which presented so brilliant an aspect during her
era of prosperity, have sunk lower than those of almost any other European nation.
Agriculture did not, until very lately, experience any of the improvements which have be
come general in the rest of Europe. The plough is composed of three pieces of wood
awkwardly put together, and imperfectly aided by the clumsy machinery of wheels. Though
generally very fertile, this country did not produce a third of the grain necessary for the
supply of its inhabitants. Of late some improvement has taken place, especially by the in
troduction of potatoes ; and the dependence upon foreign supply has been considerably
diminished. The chief object of attention is the vine, which, with the olive and other fruit
trees, is cultivated with the utmost diligence in the valleys and on the sides of the hUls, in
the elevated province of Entre Douro e Minho. Here is produced abundantly the port
wine, which forms the main basis of Portuguese trade, and finds so copious a market in
Britain. The entire produce is estimated at 80,000 pipes. Of white wine Portugal produces
about 60,000 pipes ; but this is of inferior quality, and chiefly consumed at home. Sheep
are bred on the hills, to a pretty large extent ; but not so abundantly as in Spain, neither
is their wool so fine.
The manufactures of Portugal scarcely deserve to be named. Little is known beyond the
working of their wool for domestic use by each family or neighbourhood ; aU their finer
fabrics are imported. According to a late observant traveller, ignorance, or at least an im
perfect knowledge of the commonest arts, is conspicuous among the Portuguese. Their
carpenters are the most awkward and clumsy artisans that can be imagined, spoiling every
thing they attempt; the wood- work even of good houses being finished in a manner that
would scarcely be tolerated in the rudest ages. Their carriages of all kinds, their agricul
tural implements, locks, keys, &c. are ludicrously bad. Working in gold and sUver plate
forms almost the only exception ; cambrics also are well made in some places ; and a few
other local objects might be enumerated.
Of mines and fisheries, the former is not at all cultivated, though great materials for it
are said to exist ; but in tfie absence of trial this may be only conjecture. Fish of the finest
kinds, particularly tunny and sardinias, are caught in considerable quantity for immediate
consumption ; but the salt which the kingdom so abundantly produces is not used for pre
serving them ; and a large import of salted fish is still necessary to meet the wants of a
population so rigidly Catholic.
The commerce, which formed the greatness of Portugal, when her ports interchanged the
products of the East and the West, is now a mere shadow. The loss of her Indian posses
sions, and the separation of Brazil, have reduced her to tlie common routine of export and
import. The staple of the former is port wine, for %\hich tlie market of England was
secured first by favouring duties, and now seemingly by an established predUection. The
wine is raised almost solely for the English market, and all of tlie best quality is bought up
by English merchants residing at Oporto.
Another staple export of Portugal is salt, evaporated by the heat of tlie sun in the bay
of St. Ubes, or Setubal, which seems as if expressly formed for that purpose. It is carried
off chiefly by the English, to he employed in curing fish destined for the Portuguese market :
the annual amount is estimated at 100,000 tons. There is also a considerable surplus of
wool, of which 1,000,000 lbs. weight lia\o been imported into Eurrland in one year ; but as
it is not so fine as that of Spain, the duty imposed by the British landholders has greatly
checked the importation. In return, Portujjiil takes grain, salt-fish, and a variety of manu
factures, chiefly from Britain ; but as her imports cannot much exceed the exports, she can
not afford a very copious market.
The internal rniiimunications of Portugal i-ousist of the se\-oral noble rivers which tra
verse her territory, and which are navigable throu;;Iiout. The intercourse by land is ren
dered very difficult by cliains of mountains extending in the same direction. Nothing has

Book I.

PORTUGAL.

593

been attempted on any important scale, either to improve these advantages, or to amend the
defects ; so that travelling is worse in Portugal than in any other European country.
Sect. VI. — Civil and Social Stale.
The population of Portugal, according to tlie last census, which was taken in 1798, amounts
to 3,683,000 ; calculating at the somewhat high estimate of five to a family. According to
more probable estimates it now amounts to 8,580,000. Upon a surface of 38,800 square
miles, this gives a density of about ninety-one to the square mile, which is remarkable, as
exceeding that of Spain nearly in the proportion of three to two. The exemption from the
mesta, and the high cultivation of the province of Entre Douro e Minho, appear to be the
redeeming circumstances in her case.
No nation, as to character, owes less to the opinion of the world, than the Portuguese.
They are described as indolent, dissembling, cowardly, destitute of public spirit, and at the
same time fierce and deeply revengeful. In Spaur it is said, strip a Spaniard of his virtues,
and he becomes a good Portuguese. From a late minute inspection, however, the peasantry
g2= (fig- 325.) have been pronounced to be a fine peo
ple ; and, on repeated occasions during the late war,
they displayed energies not unworthy of their an
cestors, in an age when their glory resounded
throughout both hemispheres. Almost all, however,
that floats on the surface is base and degenerate.
There cannot be a doubt that this may be greatly
ascribed to priestcraft, to the stupifying influence of a
sluggish and tyrannical government, and to the
general cormption which has pervaded all the
branches of administration.
The established and exclusive religion is the
Catholic, in its extreme and most degrading excess ;
and the body of the people are almost entirely under the thraldom of the priesthood. The
burning of Jews continued till within the last half-century. The physiognomy of a large pro
portion of the people shows their descent from this hated race, whose tenets many, it is pro-

Portuguese Peasantry.

326

Friar and Nun.

bable, still cherish in secret. There are, in Portugal,
about 550 religious houses, of which 150 are nunneries*
(fig. 326.). 'The number of two archbishops and thir
teen bishops is not so disproportionate.
The literature of Portugal, during the period of its
glory, was by no means contemptible. The genius and
fate of Camoens spread his name throughout Europe, and
entitled him to rank among the few modern epic poets.
By the students of Portuguese literature, however, Saa
Miranda and Antonio Ferreyra are reckoned scarcely
second to him ; and Rodriguez Lobo held the nation long
enchanted by the sweetness of his pastorals. At \he
same time Di Barros, Castanheda, and Faria y Sousa,
recorded, in magnificent though somewhat inflated historical narrative, the mighty exploits
of their countrymen in the African and Indian seas. The subjection to Spain gradually
divested Portuguese literature of its manly and energetic character. The muse of history
was sUent ; poetry assumed the form only of the sonnet, and Gongora infected it wholly with
a strain of false and meretricious ornament. The house of Braganza for some time did
little for knowledge ; but in the begiiming of the last century, the Conde de Ericeyra intro
duced the French literature, and founded a royal academy. In the course of the century,
Barros Pereyra, Antonio da Lima, Manuel da Costa, a Brazilian, Correa Garcas, and Paulino
Cabral, a bishop, made not unsuccessful efforts to revive the ancient Portuguese poetry, and
to introduce that of Italy. Portugal has two universities. That of Coimbra, founded at
Lisbon in 1290, was transferred to Coimbra in 1808. It enjoys some celebrity, is divided
into eighteen colleges, and is stUl attended by several hundred students ; but the course of
study is of that obsolete description which prevailed during the middle ages. A smaller
university was founded at Evora in 1578.
For the minor particulars of amusement, dress, food, &c., reference may be made to Spain,
as Portugal has no peculiarities that are more than provincial.
Sect. VII. — Local Geography.
Portugal is divided into the following six provinces, several of which, like those of Spam,
in reference to events in their past history, are sometimes caUed kingdoms : —
* [The religious houses, monasteries, and nunneries, were suppressed in 1834.— Am. Ed.]
Vol. L 50* 3Z

,594 DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY. Part IH.
Provinces. EngMsh Acres. Populalion. Principal Toivm, wilh their Populalion.
Estremadura  5,450,880  836,800  Lisbon, 200,000; Setubal, 15,000 ; Santarem, 8,000.
Alemtejo  5,848,330  380.480  Elvas, 10,000 ; Evora, 9,000
Algarve  1,530,000  127,013  Faro, 8,000 ; Tavira, 9,000.
Beira  4 994 000  1,121,595  Coirnbra, 15,000 ; Lamego, 9,000 ; Viseu, 9,000.
Entre Douro e Minho 1,927 040  907,005  Oporto, 70,000 ; Braga, 14,000 ; Viana, 8,000.
Tras on Monies . . . .3,007,760  318,005  Braganza, 4,000.
Estremadura occupies a great extent of coast, both to the north and south of the Tagus,
without ever penetrating very deep into the interior. It presents a rocky, varied, and pic
turesque surface. It is chiefly important, however, as contauiing Lisbon, the capital.
Lisbon (fig. 327.) is situated near the mouth of the 'Tagus, which may here be almost
007 considered an arm of the sea, since not
only the tide flows up, but the water is
salt, and the swell often tempestuous.
The approach to it presents a more
magnificent spectacle than that of per
haps any other city of Europe. Lisbon
rises direct from the water, crowning
the sides and summits of several hUls ;
which, according to the Portuguese, are
 seven in number, like those of Rome.
The palaces, convents, and churches,
which crown this amphitheatre of buildings ; the dazzling whiteness of the houses ; the
light appearance of the windows and balconies ; the tasteful arrangement of plants, shrubs,
and flowers on their roofs and terraces ; the golden orange groves which adorn the suburbs,
and the stately specimens of Indian or American botany which are scattered through the
scene, produce an effect that cannot be described. The noble harbour, also, crowded with
vessels ; the numerous pilot and fishing-boats, with their large, handsome lateen saUs, as
cending or descending the river ; and, nearer the shore, hundreds of small neat boats, with
white or painted awnings, finely vary the scene. The moment, however, that the stranger
lands, and enters the place, he finds that he has been imposed upon by a brUliant Ulusion ;
and the gay and glittering city is found to resemble a. painted sepulchre. The streets are
narrow and ill paved ; the houses gloomy, with here and there a latticed window ; filth and
nuisances assault him at every turn. Lisbon does, indeed, appear to be the dirtiest and most
noisome city on the face of the earth. In passing through the streets, a stranger encounters
at every turn the most disgusting effluvia. Every species of vermin destined to punish in
dolence and slovenliness, the mosquito, the scolopendra, and a species of red ant, multiply
to an extraordinary degree. Nor is Lisbon found, on inspection, to exhibit that architectural
beauty which it promises on a distant view. It might have been expected, among forty
churches and seventy-five convents, built by a superstitious people, that there would have
been some signal display of this kind ; but this is not found even in the cathedral. The
defect seems partly owing to the mean taste of the Marquis of Pombal, who ordered them
to be all built on a line with the street, to preserve a dull uniformity. Two handsome
squares, however, have been formed, the Commercial and the Roscio, which are connected
by well-built streets ; but the absence of trees, or even shrubs, and the blinding sand that
drifts through them, combine to produce a disagreeable effect. Lisbon derives an awful
interest from the ruins stUl left of the great earthquake of 1755, the most dreadfiil catas
trophe which ever befell a modern European city. Six thousand houses were thrown down,
30,000 inhabitants killed ; and a conflagration kindled which spread a still wider destruction.
The ruins are the more dismal, as they portend simUar disasters, which tlie earth, stUl
heaving from time to time, perpetually threatens. Meantime, Lisbon displays one very grand
feature ; the aqueduct, to the construction of which, though it conveys the water only half a
mile, peculiar obstacles were presented. It is carried in one place through a tunnel, and in
another over a defile 280 feet deep, by arches, which are said to be the highest in the world.
The width of the centre arch is 107 feet. It was built in 1738, by Manuel de Maya; and
is of such solidity that it withstood the shock of the great eartliquake, which only caused the
keystone--to sink a few inches.
The vicinity of Lisbon presents some beautiful sites and palaces. Cuitra is tlie most
striking, consisting of an immense mountain, partly covered with scanty herbage, partly
with broken, huge, and varied piles of rock, elsewhere presenting thick groves of cork, elm,
oak, hazel, and other trees. It includes many lovely and fantastic spots ; but the view from
it is naked and dreary. The town, at the bottom, with its old palace, has notiiing remark
able ; but the sides are covered with delightful vUlas, one of which is notorious for the sig
nature of the unhappy convention of Cintra. Mafra is a royal convent buUt by John V., in
emulation of the Escurial ; but though a stupendous pile, 700 feet square, and containing
numberless suites of iU-fiirnished apartments, it ranks far below its model. Only five mUes
below Lisbon, of which it is considered a suburb, is Belem, the site of a palace and a very

Book 1.

PORTUGAL.

595

magnificent monastery, founded by Emanuel, and in which many of the royal family have
been interred.
There are several other towns of some note in Portuguese Estremadura. St. Ubes or
Setubal lies sixteen miles from Lisbon, on the coast south of the Tagus, on a long interior
hay, the waters of which, evaporated by the hoat of the sun, leave the excellent bay-salt,
one of the national staples. The town is considerable, having been well rebuilt since the
eai-thquake of 1755, when it was almost totally overthrown. The mountain of Ursabida,
here extending into the sea, forms a bold and striking promontory, covered with trees and
various vegetation. Ascending the Tagus, we come to Santarem, a considerable and ancient
town, the Prsesidium Julium of the Romans. It has an academy of history, established in
1747. Here the great French army, under Massena, remained long posted, unable to pene
trate to Lisbon. Abrantes, higher up, is an important military position, situated on a height
whence it commands the passage of the Tagus. Leiria, to the north, is an ancient town, in
a most productive territory, and where a great annual fair is held for the supply of the
peasantry of the neighbouring country round. At Batalha, is a church (fig. 328.), and
monastery, which, united, form the finest structures in all Portugal. It is 541 feet by 416,
and is considered by Mr. Murphy to be one of the noblest existing specimens of the Norman

328

329

Church of Batalha.

Mausoleum of King John.

Gothic. It is constructed entirely of marble, and the front appeared to him almost unri
valled in chaste and delicate ornament. Among the different parts, the mausoleum erected
in honour of King John, is pre-eminently beautiful (fig. 329.). Vimiero is only a vUlage,
but celebrated for the signal victory gained by the British over the army of Junot. Three
miles distant is Torres Vedras, a tolerable old town, but chiefly noted as the centre of the
grand fortified lines formed by Wellington in 1810, which so completely baffled all the ma-
nceuvres by which the French had hoped to reconquer Portugal.
Alemtejo is an extensive province, comprising the greater part of Portugal south of the
Tagus. The interior presents an extensive plain ; but the frontier towards Spain is finely
diversified with hills, wooded mountains, and deep valleys extremely well watered, and very
fertile. It contains some large towns. Evora is situated on an eminence in a fine country,
and is of great antiquity. Its origin has even been dated seven centuries before the Chris
tian era. It is more clearly ascertained that, the Romans made it a municipal town, and
adomed it with some of their finest structures. There is a noble aqueduct, of which the
piers are nine feet broad, and suppoited by buttresses ; also a Temple of Diana built by
Sertorius, in which great elegance is displayed. Elvas, on the Spanish frontier, imme
diately facing Badajos, is the strongest fortress in Portugal, and designed as the barrier of
the kingdom. The works were constructed under the directions of the celebrated Count
Schauraburg-Lippe ; and the fort, bearing his name, is considered a masterpiece of the art.
In this neighbourhood are also Villa Vi^iosa, a pleasant town, and a favourite country resi
dence of the Portuguese monarchs, who have here a handsome hunting-park ; and Porta-
legre, a handsome little town in a delightful country, with a good cathedral. Southward,
in the interior, is Beja, a Roman colony, and subsequently a strong Moorish fortress. After
being nearly demolished, it was rebuilt by Alfonso III., and fortified by King Diniz, and is
still a considerable town.
Algarve forms the extreme south of Portugal ; and is a maritime province, bearing in an
especial sense, the appellation of kingdom, since it long remained independent, and was a
celebrated theatre of war between the Moors and the Christians. It is tolerably fertUe in
wine, fruits, and oil. Faro, the largest town, is also the principal seat of trade, and has a

596

DESCRIPTIVE GEOGRAPHY.

PartIH

330

Coimbra.

regular packet to Gibraltar. Lagos and Silves are also old little towns, the former on the
sea-coast, with some shipping. Cape St. Vincent, the extreme point of Algarve, and the
most south-westerly of the Peninsula, is celebrated for the signal victory gained by the
British fleet over the Spanish, on the 14th of February, 1797.
Beira is a very extensive province or kingdom, filling nearly the whole centre of Portu
gal, between the Tagus and the Douro. Its surface presents considerable variety ; the in
terior part has the usual mountainous character of Portugal, being traversed by the great
chain called the Sierra d'Estrella. On the sea-coast, however, there are plains of consider
able extent. The province produces plenty of wine, oil, and chestnuts, and has extensive
pastures ; but the grain is not sufficient for its consumption.
Coimbra (fig. 330.), the capital, is beautifully situated on the declivity of a hUI, which
rises above the Mondego; but the
streets, as in other old Portuguese
towns, are crowded, dirty, and very
steep. In former times a residence
of the kings of Portugal, it was
strongly fortified, and has stood ob
stinate sieges; but the remains of
its walls and towers are no longer
sufficient to constitute it a fortress.
It has been called the Athens of Por
tugal, from its extensive university,
containing eighteen colleges, with
forty professors, and about eight hun
dred students. Attached to it is a library of nearly 40,000 volumes, including numerous
MSS. ; but the actual value both of these and the printed works does not seem to have been
fully investigated.
Beira has other towns of some importance. Among these is Almeida, the northern barrier
of the kingdom and a fortress of consequence, though not possessing the great strength of
Elvas. It was twice taken in the last war, first by the French under Massena, and then by
the British under Wellington. Castello Branco, on the southern frontier, notwithstanding
its commanding situation, retains little importance. Lamego, near the southem bank of the
Douro, is an ancient city, and the cradle of the Portuguese monarchy. Here, in 1143, the
states-general for the first time met, recognised the fundamental laws, and acknowledged
the sovereignty of Alfonso. Viseu, in the centre of the kingdom, is, like Lamego, an epis
copal see, and has the greatest annual fair in Portugal.
Entre Douro e Minho forms the maritime part of Portugal, north of the Douro. Though
tho smallest, it is considered the most valuable, populous, and productive of all the provinces.
Its peasantry have done much to redeem the reproach of torpor and sluggishness generally
urged against their countrymen. This district is entirely covered \A'ith mountains, partly
rugged and barren, but generally separated by fertUe and well-watered valleys, cultivated
to the utmost possible extent ; and which, besides oil, fruit, and flax, are made to produce
most copiously the wine called port, for which so ample a market exists in England.
Oporto, or Porto (fig. 331.), the ancient capital, and still the second city of the kingdom,
is situated near the mouth of the Douro on the northern bank, though on the southern are
two extensive suburbs, supposed to have constituted the ancient city. The modem town is
331

Oporto.

well buUt, especially when compared with most others in the peninsula. The river affords
a tolerably secure harbour, without any artificial aid, except an elevated nnd walled quay, to
which the ships' cables may be fastened during the floods. These often come down with
such force, that, without such a support, the vessels would be inevitably carried out mto Uie

Book I. PORTUGAL. 597
sea. The chief dependence of Oporto is its trade with England, which remains unimpaired
amid the general duninution of that with America. There are about thirty English houses
regularly settled here, besides a number of merchants who pay frequent visits to the place.
The exportation of port wine, however, on which its trade rests, is generally cramped by
the absurd policy of placing it entirely in the hands of an exclusive company,* who have
adopted the pernicious practice of diluting the produce of the best vineyards with wine of
those of an mferior quality, by which the character of the genuine port grievously suffers.
Braga, farther north, ranks as the capital of the province ; and, though now far outstripped
by Oporto, is of much more ancient fame. Under the Romans it was the metropolis of an
extensive district, and its former greatness is still attested by numerous antiquities. It has
made a distmguished figure ui the ecclesiastical history of Portugal, and is the see of an
archbishop, who is prunate of the kingdom. Braga is a handsome town ; well built, well
paved, the streets spacious and clean. There is some industry, particularly a manufacture
of small beaver hats, which supplies a great part of the kingdom. The adjacent country is
hilly, but populous and pleasant. Valenga is a small town, agreeably situated on the Minho,
which separates it from Galicia.
Tras OS Montes, or the province beyond the mountams, is of great extent, occupymg the
whole interior of Portugal north of the Douro. The Cantabrian chain, after traversing
Asturias and Galicia, throws out branches which not only separate the territory fropi the
rest of Portugal, but cover almost its whole surface. They leave only deep valleys, through
which considerable rivers, too rapid however to be navigable, pour down into the Douro.
It is much inferior to Entre Douro e Minho, both in populousness and cultivation ; yet a con
siderable quantity of the port wine produced grows on the sides of its hUls. The inhabitants
are a race of active, hardy, and brave mountaineers. They rose in great force against the
French, and have since somewhat less happily distinguished themselves by the ardour with
which they fought in the cause of absolute power, and in resistance to every form of consti
tutional government.
The towns are small, and not regularly fortified ; though, from the nature of the country,
they form defensible military positions. Braganza is a city of ancient note, and gave the
title of Duke to the first nobleman in the kingdom, even before he was raised to the throne,
by the appellation of John IV. The kings of Portugal still retain the title of Dukes of
Braganza. Chaves, the Aqus Flavise of the Romans, still exhibits two baths and a magni
ficent bridge constructed by that people. Chaves gives the title of Marquis to a family, one
of whom was the most active opponent of the French during their invasion ; whUe another
has lately been at the head of the anti-constitutional army, of which the head-quarters were
always in Tras os Montes.
* [The Oporto wine company, which enjoyed this monopoly, was abolished in 1834.— Am. Ed.]

END OF THE FIRST VOLUME

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