r "I give ihe/e Both
\jf^ th^faimiiingiif a. College m tfas Colony'

1916
IIIIIHIMI,iHIBm

HISTORY OF THE
STUDY OF THEOLOGY

STUDIES IN THEOLOGY
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By Akthhr Samuel Peake, D.D,
Ceith and its Psychology
By the Rev, William R. Inge, D.D,
Philosophy and Reiigion
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The Theology of the Qospels
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The Text and Canon of the New Testament
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A Critical Introduction to the Old Testament
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Qospel Origins
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History ot the Study of Theology. 2 Vols,
By Charles Augustus Briggs, D.D., D.Litt.

HISTORY OF THE
STUDY OF THEOLOGY
BY
CHARLES AUGUSTUS BRIGGS
¦A 9
D.D,, D,LITT,
Prepared for Publication by his Daughter
EMILIE GRACE BRIGGS, B.D.
VOL. II.

NEW YORK
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
1916

Published tQi6

W^c\S

Allrig'his reserved

CONTENTS PART I
THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY IN THE
MIDDLE AUES
CHAP, PAGE
I, THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY IN THB NINTH AND TENTH
CENTURIES ... , , 1
IL THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY IN THB ELBVEN'EH AND
TWELFTH CENTURIES . , . .17
IIL THE ORIGIN AND GROWTH OF THE UNIVERSITIES IN
THB TWELFTH AND THIRTEENTH CENTURIES . 40
IV, THE DECLINE OF SCHOLASTICISM IN THE FOURTEENTH
AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES . . . .61
PART II
THE MODEEN AGE
1. THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING . . . .82
IL THE REFORMATION ..... 105
III, THB STUDY OF THEOLOGY IN THE SEVENTEENTH AND
EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES .... 143
IV, THB STUDY OF THEOLOGY IN THB NINETEENTH
CENTURY ,..,.. 184
BIBLIOGRAFHT . i ¦ . ¦ . 213
INDBX ....... 219

PART I
THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY IN THE
MIDDLE AGES
CHAPTER I
THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY IN THE NINTH AND
TENTH CENTURIES
1. A palace school loas established by the Franks for the
training of princes and nobles ; when, Charlemagne ap
pointed Alcuin as its superintendent, it rapidly became a
great centre of learning.
The palace school was founded by one of the pre
decessors of Charlemagne for the training of the sons of
princes and nobles. As a court school it moved about
with the monarch from place to place. Charlemagne
himself was trained there,^ He had some knowledge of
Greek as well as Latin, and studied with the grammarian,
Peter of Pisa ; possibly also with Paul the Deacon (f 797),
a Benedictine monk and noted Lombard scholar, who
taught Greek at his court for a time, and afterwards
wrote a history of the Lombards.
The school of the palace was reorganised by Alcuin,
and became celebrated during the eight years of his
superintendence. His classes were frequented by
Charlemagne himself, the members of his family and
1 Vide Maitre, Les Mcoles Spiscopales et monast-iques, pp, 34 seq.

2 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. L
many of his courtiers. The emperor sought a reform
in education, and states this purpose in the introduc
tion to the Book of Homilies, revised at his order by
Paul the Deacon :
' Desirous as we are of improving the condition of the churches,
we impose upon ourselves the task of reviving, with the utmost
zeal, the study of letters, weU-nigh extinguished through the
neglect of our ancestors. We charge aU our subjects, as far as
they may be able, to cultivate the liberal arts, and we set them
the example.'
In the year 787 Charlemagne issued the famous
capitulary addressed to all the bishops and abbots in
his realm :
' During past years we have often received letters from different
monasteries informing us that at their sacred servioes the brethren
offered up prayers on our behalf ; and we have observed that the
thoughts contained in theae letters, though in themselves most
just, were expressed in uncouth language, and while pious devo
tion dictated the sentiments, the unlettered tongue was unable
to express them aright. Hence there haa arisen in our minds
the fear lest, if the skill to write rightly were thus lacking, so
too would the power of rightly comprehending the sacred Scrip
tures be far less than was fitting ; and we aU know that though
verbal errors be dangerous, errors of the understanding are yet
more so. We exhort you, therefore, not only not to neglect the
study of letters, but to apply yourselves thereto with persever
ance and with that humility which is well pleasing to God ; so
that you may be able to penetrate with greater ease and cer
tainty the mysteries of the Holy Scriptures. For as these con
tain images, tropes, and similar figures, it is impossible to doubt
that the reader will arrive far more readUy at the spiritual sense
aooording as he is the better instructed in learning. Therefore,
let there be chosen for this work men who are both able and
wiUing to learn, and also desirous of instructing others ; and
let them apply themselves to the work with a zeal equalling tho
earnestness with whioh we recommend it to them.' ^
Alcuin was the chief assistant of Charlemagne in the
work of educational reform. According to the Monk of
> Vide MuUinger, The Schools o/Oharlet the Oreat, 1877, pp. 98 seq.

DH, I,] THE NINTH AND TENTH CENTURIES 3
St, Gall, ' his teaching bore such fruit among the Gauls
and Franks that they approached the ancient Romans
and Athenians in learning,' ^ But the journeys of the
court Alcuin found irksome, and in 790 he withdrew from
the palace school. In the following years he took an
important part in the theological discussions with the
Adoptionists, Although never advanced beyond the
order of deacons, he was given a seat in the Council of
Frankfort (794), in view of his great reputation for learn
ing ' in the doctrines of the Church.' He took a leading
part in the deliberations of that body, which was com
posed of representative bishops from all parts of the
West, was presided over by papal legates, and took
decisive action against Adoptionism and image worship.
Five years later, at the Council of Aachen, Alcuin had
what he himself calls ' a great disputation ' with a leader
of the Adoptionists, Felix of Urgel, and won from him a
public confession of error. In 796 Alcuin was appointed
abbot of the celebrated monastery of St, Martin at Tours,
and there he laboured until his death. He was a great
teacher rather than a man of leaming, and his Oram-
matica gives his views on education. While chiefly a
grammarian, he made his influence felt all along the range
of scholarship, and wrote text-books on grammar,
rhetoric, arithmetic, astronomy and the other liberal arts,
some of which have been lost. The Monk of St, Gall
declares that his familiarity with the Scriptures ' in their
whole extent ' was beyond that of all the other scholars
of his time. He revised the text of the Vulgate, and
wrote commentaries on various parts of the Bible, in
cluding Genesis, the Psalms, the Song of Songs, John's
Gospel and the Hebrews, He made great use of the
Fathers, and subordinated the literal to the allegorical
sense. His works on theology include contributions to
> Vide Thatcher and M'Neal, Source Book for Mediceval ffistory,
p. 52,

4 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. t
dogmatics, ethics, liturgies, and hagiography. His
treatise on the Trinity ' contains the germs of the later
scholastic theology,' ^ Three hundred of his letters are
extant, and also hymns, epigrams and other forms of
verse. Two years after the retirement of Alcuin from the
school of the palace, the headship was given to Clement
of Ireland, who came to the court of Charlemagne from
an Irish monastery in company with Dungal, another
noted scholar. Clement continued in charge of the
school under the son of Charlemagne, Louis the Pious.
A monk of St, Gall writes in the ninth century :
' Two Scots from Ireland Ughted with British merchants on
the coast of Gaul, men leamed without compare as weU in secular
as in sacred writing, , . , (Charlemagne) enjoined the one named
Clement to abide in Gaul ; to whom he entrusted youths of the
most noble, middle and lowest ranks, in goodly number, . . .
The other he despatched into Italy, and appointed him the
monastery of St, Austin beside the Ticinian city, that there such
as were wiUing to learn might gather unto him.' '
In 804, the year of Alcuin's death, Charlemagne
opened at Osnabriiok a school for training in the Greek
language and literature, which was influential in pro
moting higher education among the clergy.
2. Alcuin revived the monastic school of Tours, and his
great pupil Rabanus Maurus carried his principles and
methods into Germany. The pupils of Rabanus, teaching
in various monasteries in Northern and Western Europe,
greatly enhanced theological education.
Under the care of Alcuin the monastery of Tours
became a great centre of scholarship. To his monks
were distributed ' the honey of the saered writings,' ' the
wine of ancient learning,' and ' the apples of grammatical
subtlety.' * Students flocked to him from all parts, and
1 Vide Hahn, 'Alcuin,' in JVe«i Schaff-He/risog Encyclopedia.
' Poole, History of Medieval Thought, pp. 16 seq.
> Vide MulUnger, Schools qf Charles the Oreat, pp, 112 leq.

OH, I,] THE NINTH AND TENTH CENTURIES 5
the Anglo-Saxons came in such numbers that a native
monk is said to have cried : ' They swarm hither like
bees to their hive,' Alcuin introduced a reform in the
Scriptorium, saying : ' Better than the digging of vines
is the penning of books,' His school became noted for
the clearness of its script, and the Caroline Minuscule
was ' accepted as the standard in the imperial schools,' *
The greatest scholar among the pupils of Alcuin at
Tours was Rabanus Maurus (f 856), Primus Germanice
Prceceptor. He was bom at Mainz in 776, and was
trained in the liberal arts and theology in the monasteries
of Fulda and Tours. He became a favourite of Alcuin,
who gave him the surname of Maurus, the chief assistant
of Benedict, implying thereby that he regarded Rabanus
as his own chief successor, which indeed he became. In
the year that Alcuin died Rabanus retumed to Fulda.
He became its most famous teacher, attracting students
from all parts. Princes and nobles were trained in his
school, as well as monks and clerics, and no applicant was
rejected on the ground of poverty. When the Council
of Aachen (817) closed the doors of the monastic schools
to all save the ohlati, a second school was opened at
Fulda to provide for the ' seculars,' and this example was
followed in other monasteries. Special attention was
given to the training of preachers and teachers, and many
of the students of Fulda were called to positions of power.
In the year 822 Rabanus was chosen abbot. At that
time Fulda was mother-house to sixteen lesser monas
teries. Rabanus added six to the number, so that his
rule extended over twenty-two institutions. He under
took to build up the library at Fulda, and it prospered
greatly imder his care. Like Alcuin, he saw the im
portance of multiplying manuscripts, and twelve monks
were regularly employed in the Scriptorium, After
nearly forty years of service, including a rule of twenty
1 Vide Putnam, Books amd their Makers in the Middle Agei, i. p, 107.

6 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. i.
years as abbot, Rabanus retired from Fulda to compose
his encyclopaedia De Universo, based on the theological
part of Isidore's work. Five years later he was made
archbishop of Mainz. He took a leading part in the
synods held there in 847, 848, and 852, In the con
troversy over predestination he opposed Gotteschalk ; in
the eucharistic controversy he opposed Radbertus. His
writings cover a wide range. From the point of view of
education the most important is his treatise De in
stitutione clericorum, which was based on Augustine's
De doctrina Christiana, Cassiodorus' Institviiones, and
Gregory's Cura Pastoralis. Rabanus follows Alcuin in
recommending the study of dialectic to students of
theology. It is the disciplina disciplinarum. It
teaches how to teach, how to discriminate, how to know
and to make others know, ' It behoves the clergy to
acquaint themselves with this most noble art,' Rabanus
strongly emphasises the importance of the study of the
Scriptures, and like Alcuin makes great use of the
Fathers in their exposition. He wrote commentaries on
many of the books of the Bible and the Apocrypha, and
thus describes the principles of Biblical exegesis :
' If any one would master the Scriptures, he must first of aU
diUgently find out the amount of hiatory, aUegory, anagoge and
trope there may be in the part under consideration. Por there
are four senses to the Scriptures, the historical, the aUegorioal,
the tropological and the anagogical, which we caU the daughters
of Wisdom. Through these Wisdom feeds her chUdren. To those
who are young and beginning to learn she givei the mUk of
hiatory; to those advancing in the faith the bread of allegory;
those who are truly and constantly doing good, so that they
abound therein, she satisfies with the savoury repast of tropology ;
whUe, finaUy, those who despise earthly things and ardently desire
the heavenly she fiUs to the fuU with the wine of anagoge.' *
The writings of Rabanus include works on ethics,
martyrology, Church discipline, chronology and grammar,
' Vide Schaff, History ofthe Christian Church, vol, iv, p, 719,

CH. I.] THE NINTH AND TENTH CENTURIES 7
sermons, letters and verse of various kinds. Some of his
hymns are contained in the Breviary, and to him is
ascribed the great pentecostaJ hymn, Veni Creator
Spiritus. The chief pupil of Rabanus was Walafrid Strabo
(809-849), He studied for a time at the monastery of
Reichenau on Lake Constance, and then for several years
at Fulda. He was subsequently chosen abbot of
Reichenau, which he made a centre of theological scholar
ship. He was the originator of the brief commentaries
on the Scripture known as Glossa Ordinaria. He also
made contributions to liturgies and Christian archseo
logy and biography, and wrote verse, of unusual merit,
including The Vision of Wettin, ' an early precursor of
Dante's Divi-na Commedia.' ^
Another noted scholar of Fulda was Servatus Lupus
(805-862), who studied with Rabanus for six years. He
was trained at the monastery of Ferridres before going
to Fulda, and retumed there to serve flrst as teacher
and then as abbot. He was a literary man as well as a
theologian, and a lover of vrisdom for its ovm sake.
He had a passion for books, and sought them far and
wide, for his own use and for the library of his monastery.
He was prominent in several councils, including those of
Verneuil (843) and Soissons (853), and he corresponded
vvdth most of the great men of his day, one hundred and
thirty of his letters being still extant. His works include
a treatise on predestination, Liber de tribus quaestionibus,
and also several lives of saints.
Among the famous pupils of Rabanus was Rudolph-us,
his successor in the school of Fulda, who was noted as a
preacher and historian. The work of Einhard, Annales
Fuldenses, was continued by him.
The monastery of Corbie, Picardy, was for many
years in charge of the brothers Adalhard and Wala,
1 Vidle Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, i, p. 485,

8 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. l
the cousins of Charlemagne, and Alcuin's pupils in the
palace school. Among the scholars of Corbie was
Paschasius Radbertus (c. 786-865), a man noted for piety
and leaming. He taught in his monastery with great
success, and many of his pupils became famous. In
844 he was made abbot, but seven years later he resigned
his office and devoted the rest of his life to study. He
was active at the Councils of Paris (846) and Quiercy
(849), Great discussion was excited by a treatise of
Radbertus, in which he expressed a gross view of the
Eucharist ; but no dogmatic decision resulted at that
time. His views were opposed by an anonymous
virriting, De corpore et sanguine Domini, usually attributed
to Ratramnus, himself a monk of Corbie ; but by the
Synod of VerceUi (1050) to John Scottus Erigena, who
agreed with it in any case, Radbertus also wrote on
the Virgin Birth and the Christian virtues, on Matthew
and Lamentations, on the lives of Adalhard and Wala,
and lesser works.
3. In the reign of Louis the Pious the line was dra-wn
strictly between the monastic and fhe cathedral schools.
The latter were promoted by the bishops, in their several
dioceses to vie with the monastic and palace schools in

A capitulary of the year 817 decreed that monastic
schools were thereafter to be confined to monks, and that
the secular clergy were to be educated at the episcopal
schools under a scholasticus appointed by the bishops.
These episcopal schools were very ancient, indeed the
most ancient of all the Christian schools ; but in France
they now began to multiply, and became more vigorous
and efficient.
In 822 Louis published a capitulary calling for an
increase in the number and efficiency of the Church
schools, that there inight be a suitable place and properly

CH, I,] THE NINTH AND TENTH CENTURIES 9
qualified teachers for the training of every aspirant to
clerical rank, young or old. The following year he
recalled to the bishops their promise to provide a
sufficient number of such schools. In 824 a council in
Paris urged this duty upon every bishop,^ The most
important cathedral schools of the ninth century were
those at Rheims and Orleans.
Theodulphus, bishop of Orleans (f 821), followed
Alcuin, and nobly supported Charlemagne in the work
of educational reform. About ten years after the
publication of Charlemagne's famous capitulary, Theo
dulphus sent to his clergy one of his own, providing
free schools for ' the children of the faithful in every
town and village,' and recommending study as ' a means
whereby the life of the righteous is nourished, and
ennobled, and the man himself fortified against tempta
tion.' * Under Theodulphus and his helper Wulfin the
school of Orleans flourished. It became specially noted
for the work of transcription, and the manuscripts copied
there were models of skill and accuracy, Theodulphus
himself was a scholar of exceptional attainments,
Charlemagne called upon him for an account of the
ceremonies of baptism, and also for a collection of
sayings from the Fathers in support of the doctrine of
the filioque. His didactic poems were famous, and his
great hymn, Gloria, laus et honor tibi, was sung in France
on Palm Sunday up to the time of the Revolution.
The cathedral school at Rheims was for many years
under the supervision of Hincmar (f 882). He became
archbishop of Rheims in 845, and used his great authority
to advance the cause of leaming, enriching the libraries
of Rheims, and calling upon his clergy to build up the
schools of the diocese.
1 Vide Maitre, Lea Scales Spiscopales et monastiques de I'Occident, 1866,
pp. 24 seq.
> Vide MuUinger, Schools of Charles the Oreat, p. 103.

10 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [ft. l
Lyons and Turin were also important centres of
leaming at this period. Agobard, archbishop of Lyons
(779-840), was probably born in Spain and educated at
Lyons. He was widely influential as a polemic divine,
and wrote against Adoptionism, verbal inspiration,
image worship and popular supei^titions. Of special
interest are his works, De dispensatione ecclesiasticarum
terum, and Comparatio utriusque regiminis ecclesiastici et
politici. Claudius, bishop of Turin (f 832), was bom also in
Spain, and became a pupil of Felix of Urgel, but did not
imbibe Adoptionism from his master, lake Agobard, he
opposed image worship, and other customs tending to
ward superstition. He wrote commentaries on many
of the books of the Bible, chiefly in the form of catenae.
He was suspected of Nestorianism,
4. An effort was made in the second quarter of the ninth
century to organise public schools ofa higher order under the
patronage of the croivn, bvt the plan failed because of -wars.
In 829 an assembly of the bishops at Paris petitioned
the emperor, Louis the Pious, to establish three large
public schools to which seculars and regulars ahke might
resort. These were to be higher or graduate schools.
This proposal was made about three centuries before the
universities of Europe were established. But war and
the division of the empire prevented the carrying out of
the plan.
6. In Italy nine public schools were established in the
chief cities of the North, under the influence of Irish
monks, and of Charlemagne. Two Roman councils
ordained that every bishopric should have its school in
which the Scriptures should be taught.
During the seventh and eighth centuries theological as
well as classical education met with varied fortunes in
Italy, owing to frequent wars and invasions. But in the

CH. I.] THE NINTH AND TENTH CENTURIES H
ninth century there was a revival of leaming. In 823
Lothair i, made a decree establishing central schools in
nine important cities : Pavia, Ivrea, Turin, Cremona,
Florence, Fermo, Verona, Vicenza, and Friuli, The
head of the school at Pavia was an Irishman named
Dungal, probably the same as the companion of Clement
at the court of Charlemagne,^ Doubtless Lothair was
stimulated to the organisation of these schools by the
influence of his grandfather Charlemagne, whose own
teachers had come from the north of Italy,
Provision for episcopal schools was made by a Roman
council under Eugene n, (825), which ordained that
every see should have its bishop's school. This decree
was emphasised by a later council under Leo iv, (850),
which also required the appointment in every diocese of
teachers to interpret the Scriptures.
6. Erigena was made head of the palace school in 845.
He used the dialectic method in the study of theology,
translated into Latin ' Dionysius the Areopagite,' and
made much use of the Greek Fathers.
The older monastic education of Ireland again made
its influence felt in France at the court of Charles the
Bold, grandson of Charlemagne, through Johannes Scottus,
also called Erigena (c, 815-875), Greek was still taught
in the Irish schools, and Erigena was a Greek scholar.
He translated ' Dionysius the Areopagite ' into Latin,
and thus introduced this famous work of Neo-Platonism
to the West. Anastasius, the papal librarian, wondered
how ' this barbarian living on the confines of the world,
who inight have been deemed to be as ignorant of Greek
as he was remote from civilisation, could have proved
capable of comprehending such mysteries and translating
them into another tongue,' * Erigeaa was a student of
» Vide v. 4.
' Vide Sandys, History of Classical Scholarship, p. 492.
VOL. II. B

12 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. t.
Origen and the great Cappadocians, and through him
their infiuence also was revived in the Westem Church,
In exegesis he made use of the allegorical method ; but
in argument he appealed to the reason, using the dialectic
method instead of the traditional citation of authorities
in the Positive Theology, An example of this is his
treatise De di-vina proedestinatione, written against the
high-Augustinian Gotteschalk, Erigena also appealed
to the Greek rather than to the Latin Fathers, These
unfamiliar methods brought him into trouble with the
Latin theologians of his time. His great work is De
divisione -naturae. He claims for theology and philo
sophy a common source — the divine Wisdom.
7. Alfred the Great, of England, encouraged the study of
theology by his patronage and his own translations.
Alfred (f 901) was a studious youth and a scholarly
king. He revived the study of theology in England,
and himself vmdertook the work of translation. He
founded new monasteries at Winchester and Athelney,
and assembled leamed men from all parts to teach in
his schools. He also established a school at his court
for the training of the sons of nobles and officials, after
the model of the school of Charlemagne, He and his
helpers translated Boethius' Consolation of Philosophy,
the Universal History of Orosius, the Ecclesiastical
History of Bede, Gregory's Pastoral Care and Augustine's
Soliloquies. 8. In the middle of the ninth century appeared for the
first time the Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals, which, in con
nection ivith the Donation of Constantine, greatly in
fluenced the development of Carum Law.
They are summarily described by Gieseler :
'These decretals consisted of admonitions, instructions, and
regulations, compUed for the most part from existing ecclesiasti
cal Uterature. But they are of historical importance only in

CH, I,] THE NINTH AND TENTH CENTURIES 13
consequence of the new principles of ecclesiastical law by which,
developing a tendency that had arisen already in the Church
amid the weakness and disunion of worldly power, they were
meant to make the Church independent of the State, and to give
it a self-dependent centre of protection in the Roman see. Ex
altation of the episcopal dignity; numerous definitions for the
purpose of securing the clergy, and in particular the bishops,
against attacks ; limitation of the metropoUtans, who were often
very much dependent upon the civil power ; elevation of the
primates to be the first instruments of the popes ; and in par
ticular, an enlargement of the privileges of the Roman see ; these
form the chief ecclesiastical and legal contents of the Pse-udo-
Isidoriana.' ^
These decretals were issued under a pseudonym to
support the bishops in their confiicts vnth the metro
politans in France, They were used by the popes, and
in canon law, from the time of Nicolaus i, (864) onward
to the Reformation, when they were shovra to be vidth-
out real authority. They originated in eastem France
according to some scholars,^ in westem France according
to others, Miiller ^ suggests Rheims ; Loofs * and Lesne,*
either Rheims or Le Mans ; Febronius, Theiner, and others,
Rome,* There is the same uncertainty as to the date,
Miiller proposes 851-2, Loofs 847-853, Lesne 847-852.
Many give an earlier date. Alexander Natalis, Mabillon
and others assign them to the time of Charlemagne ;
Febronius to 744 ; Theiner to the years 774-785 ; Eich
horn to the eighth century ; ' but these earlier dates are
improbable. The Donation of Constantine was composed in Rome
at a much earlier time, in the middle of the eighth
century. 1 Vide Gieseler, Ecdesiastical History, ii. pp. 110 seq.
' So Gieseler, following Blondel, Ballerinl, Spittler, and Planck,
' Karl Muller, Kirchengeschichte, i. p. 365.
* Loofs, Onmdlinien der Kirchengeschichte, p. 68.
s Lesne, La hiSrarchie (piscopale, provinces, mUropolitai/ns, pri-mais en
Oaule et Germanie, pp. 186 seq.
' Vide Gieseler, ii. p. 114, n. 11,
' Vide Gieseler, Ma.

14 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. i.
9. The tenth century -was a time of destrvxtive invasions
by barbarians. Nevertheless the monastery of Cluny was
founded, and produced many famous scholars. In Germany
scholarship revived under the influence of Bruno. The
greatest theologian of this age was Gerbert, a prodigy of
learning, who also had distinguished pupils.
During the latter half of the ninth and the whole of
the tenth century everything in Europe was in' con
fusion, ovping to the constant struggles with heathen
invaders, who destroyed cities and monasteries, bumed
books, and killed or took captive monks and scholars.
England was overrun by the Danes ; westem France by
the Normans ; Germany, the east and south of France,
and northem Italy by the Hungarians. These laid
waste the monasteries of St. Gall in Switzerland, and of
Fulda in Germany. South and West Italy, Spain, and
southem France were in constant peril from the Saracens,
who sacked Rome in 846, And yet even in this dark
period new institutions of leaming were founded,
especially in France and Germany.
In the year 910 William, Duke of Aquitaine, founded
the monastery of Cluny, in the diocese of Macon, with
Bemo as its first abbot (f 927). Under his successor Odo
(t 941) it became a great seat of leaming, from which as
a centre the influence of reform pervaded the schools at
Metz, Rheims, Liege and Paris, and spread even to other
lands. Odo was trained in the monastery of St, Martin
at Tours, and afterwards studied the Trivium and
Quadrivium in Paris with Remi of Auxerre.
Gerbert (950-1003), a monk of Aurillac, was trained in
that monastery under Raimund, a pupil of Odo at Cluny.
He was sent to Barcelona, Spain, and there devoted him
self to study, especially to mathematics, astronomy, and
music. On his retum to France he taught in the schools
of Tours, Fleury, Sens, and Rheims. In the latter school
he acquired a reputation for extraordinary leaming.

CH. I.] THE NINTH AND TENTH CENTURIES 15
The range of his studies included medicine, which gave
rise to the suspicion that he practised the magic arts.
This did not prevent his rapid advancement in the
Church ; and he became in succession abbot of Bobbio,
archbishop of Rheims, archbishop of Ravenna, and
finally pope (999), under the name of Silvester n,
Gerbert had many distinguished pupils, among whom
may be mentioned Richer of Rheims, the historian
(t 1010), and FuTbert of Chartres,^ the founder of that
famous school. But of all the pupils of Cluny or its
scholars, the most iUustrious was Hildebrand, who, as
Gregory vn,, became the greatest of the mediseval
popes.^ In Germany the cause of leaming was upheld by
Bruno (925-965), son of Henry the Fowler and brother of
Otto the Great, He was educated at Utrecht, and
was entrusted by Otto with the building up of the schola
palatina. In 940 he was made chancellor, in 951
archicapellanus, and two years later archbishop of
Cologne, He is said to have ' restored the long ruined
fabric of the seven liberal arts.' Wherever he went, he
carried with him his library, ' as if it had been the ark of
the Lord,' Poole likens him to Alfred of England, and
ascribes to his influence the fact that ' the clergy of
Germany became marked out from the rest of Christen
dom no less by their education than by its fruit, their
moral excellence.' Poole cites Amulf of Orleans as
saying ' in his famous speech before the Council of St,
Basel, near Rheims (991) : " In Belgica et Germania . . .
summos sacerdotes dei religione admodum prcestantes

\nveniri.

" ' 3

10. During the Middle Ages there was much less in
tellectual activity in the Greek Church than in the Latin.
1 Vide pp. 24 f. 2 Vide pp, 17 f.
» Vide Poole, Medieval Thought, pp. 86 seq.

16 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. i.
In the ninth and tenth centuries the only great im-iters were
Photius and Suidas.
Photius (c. 820-897), patriarch of Constantinople, led
the Greeks in their dispute with the Latin Church over
the filioque. He was a voluminous writer of encyclo
paedic leaming, and is called the greatest scholar of his
time. His chief works on theology are : his Bibliotheca
or Myriobiblon, which describes two hundred and eighty
books in as many chapters ; and his Amphilochia, which
gives answers to three hundred questions, chiefly relating
to the Scriptures. He also wrote a lexicon, comment
aries, a treatise on the Holy Spirit, a polemic against the
Paulicians, letters, poems and other minor works. Many
of his writings are extant in fragments only ; others
have been lost altogether.
Suidas is known only through his lexicon (c. 976), a
work of great learning and permanent value, which has
some of the features of an encyclopaedia.
The only other writers worthy of mention are :
(Ecumenius, the exegete (j 999), Simeon Metaphrastes,
the hagiographer (c, 900), and the minor historians
Nicephorus (t 829) and Theophanes (f c, 817), belonging
to the ConstantinopoUtan school.^ This age, however,
produced some of the greatest hymns of the Greek
Church, 1 Vide pp. SSt

CH. n,] ELEVENTH AND TWELFTH CENTURIES 17

CHAPTER II
THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY IN THE ELEVENTH AND
TWELFTH CENTUEIES
The tenth century had been a time of terrible disaster, of
corruption in morals and disorders of every kind, all
calling for reform. The eleventh century was a time of
revival. The second period of the Middle Ages properly
begins in the midst of this century, when the Hilde-
brandian reforms began.
1. Hilddyrand, a scholar of Cluny, of extraordinary
ability in theology and law, became the great reformer of
the Church of the eleventh century, whose influence has
remained through all the subsequent times.
Hildebrand (c, 1020-1085) was bom in Tuscany, and
received his education in Rome, He entered a Bene
dictine monastery on the Aventine, which was under the
reforming infiuence of Cluny, and ' the home of its abbots
on their pilgrimages to Rome,' ^ It is said that Hilde
brand spent some time at Cluny during his student years.
He became the disciple and assistant of Gregory vi,,
accompanying him on his journeys. On the death of
that pope Hildebrand retired to Cluny, In 1049 he was
called to Rome as companion of Bruno, who was received
there with acclamation as Pope Leo ix, Hildebrand now
became a man of affairs. He had doubtless been trained
in law, though where is not known. He now took up the
1 Schaff, History of ihe Christian Church, v., Pt. i, p. 11,

18 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. l
work of reform begun at the Synod of Sutri (1046), and
carried it on during the pontificates of Leo ix. and his
successors. He himself became pope in 1073, as Gregory
vn. At his election he was declared to be ' a man
eminent in piety and leaming, a lover of equity and
justice, . . . well brought up and educated in the bosom
of this mother church.' * In 1075 he wrote to Hugh of
Cluny, in great distress, mouming the evils that existed
in the Church :
' The Eastem Churoh, faUen from the faith, and attacked from
without by the infidels. In the West, South or North, scarcely
any bishops who have obtained their office regularly, or whose
Ufe and conduct correspond to their caUing, and who are actuated
by the love of Christ instead of worldly ambition. . . . And when
I look to myself, I feel oppressed by such a burden of sin, that no
other hope of salvation is left me but in the mercy of Christ alone.' *
As pope Hildebrand laboured for twelve, as reformer
for six-and-thirty years. He transformed the papacy and
the entire priesthood and hierarchy, after monastic
models. Of ,the three vows of the regulars, enforcing
chastity, obedience and poverty, two were extended by
him to the secular clergy as well. There could be no
more married priests, and the law of obedience of the
seculars must be as strict as that of the regulars,
Gregory thereby accompUshed two great reforms : he
overcame simony and concubinage for a time among the
clergy ; and he emancipated the Church from the
domimon of the state. But he erred in straining the
authority of the pope, so as to extend it beyond faith and
morals into civil and social affairs, which belong to the
state. He even went so far as to depose an emperor, and
to put whole nations under the ban.
2. In the eleventh century there was a great revival in
the Benedictine order ; and many new monasteries were
I Vide Schaff, History ofthe Christian Church, v., Pt. i, p. 25.
* Ep. ii. 49, as quoted by Schaff, ibid. , p, 26,

CH, n,] ELEVENTH AND TWELFTH CENTURIES 19
established, the chief of which was that of Bee, in Normandy,
out of which came Lanfranc and Anselm.
The Benedictine order gave birth in the eleventh
century to several new forms, which perpetuated them
selves in the different countries. The most important of
these were established : (1) at Camaldoli in the Apen
nines (1012), where Romuald of Ravenna founded the
Camaldolites ; (2) at Vallombrosa, near Florence (1038),
where Gualbert founded the VaUombrosans ; (3) at
Grenoble, in France (1084), where Bruno founded the
Carthusian order, which laid great stress on the gathering
and transcribing of books ; (4) at Citeaux, in France
(1098), where Robert Cluniac founded the Cistercians, the
order of St, Bemard,
Bruno (f 1101) was trained at the cathedral school of
Rheims, and taught there as scholasticus for some twenty
years. According to Maitre,^ he lectured on the liberal
arts and theology with such distinction that the whole
of France resounded with the triumph of ' the doctor of
doctors,' and associated his name with those of Lanfranc
and Anselm,
Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153), the great mystic,
built up the Cistercian order, and was one of the most
infiuential teachers and preachers of the Mediseval
Church, He is said by his friend, John of Salisbury, to
have known ' little of secular letters ' ; yet he was ' a man
mighty in work and speech before God, as it is beUeved,
and before men, as is well known.' ^ William of St.
Thierry (f 1149) wrote : ' I tarried vsdth him a few days . . .
and whichever way I tumed my eyes, I marvelled, and
thought I saw a new heaven and a new earth. . . , One could
feel that God was in the place,' ^ Bemard was remark
able for his knowledge of the Scriptures, and was revered

I Vide Maitre, Les Ecoles Episcopates et monastiques, p, 105.
* Vide Poole, History of Medieval Thought, p. 189,
» Vita prima, i, 7 ; -vide Migne, olxxxii.

20 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. i,
in his lifetime as a saint and a prophet. His writings
include dogmatic, mystic, polemic, ascetic and practical
treatises, also many valuable letters, sermons, and hymns.
Calvin says : ' In his i)e consideratione Bernard speaks as
though the very truth itself were speaking.' Luther
deems him ' superior in his sermons to aU the doctors,
even to Augustine.' ^
The monastery of Bee was foimded in Normandy, near
the mouth of the Seine (c. 1034), by St, Herluin, and
became the most famous monastic school of France in
the eleventh century, Lanfranc (c. 1042) and Anselm
(c, 1060) studied there : both ruled as prior, and Anselm
as abbot (1078-1093), These distinguished scholars were
both Lombards, and had studied in Italy before going to
Bee, Lanfranc (f 1089) had studied law as well as the
liberal arts at Pavia, according to the statement of his
early biographer ; * and it is probable that he introduced
the study of law at Bee. It is related of Lanfranc that,
when he visited Alexander ii,, the pope rose to meet
him, saying that he did so ' not because he is archbishop
of Canterbury, but because I was in his school at Bee, and
sat at his feet with his other pupils,' *
Anselm (f 1109) left family and fortune to attach
himself to Lanfranc, whose fame filled the West, He
replaced his master, first at Bee and then at Canterbury ;
and far surpassed him as a theologian. He has been
called a ' second Augustine ' and ' the last of the
fathers.' * His influence was perpetuated by his pupil,
Anselm of Laon, who counted among his hearers all the
leamed scholars of the twelfth century. The greater
number of the pupils of Bee succeeded to positions in
which they were able to exercise a powerful influence
1 Vide Schaff, History ofthe Christian Church, pp. 344 n. 2, 351.
s Milo Crispin, Vita Lanfranci, I. v. ; vide Migne, P.L., c]. 29, 39,
s Vita Lanfranci, ap. Migne, P.L., ol, 19; Maitre, Les Ecoles ipisco-
pales et -monastiques, p. 12i.
* Vide Poole, Medie-ual Thought, p. 104.

CH. n.] ELEVENTH AND TWELFTH CENTCURIES 21
on theological education. In England especially the
scholars of Bee were in demand,^
3, Lanfranc and Anselm became the centres of two great
theological debates, namely, those on the Eucharist and the
Atonement. The eucharistic controversy was a revival of the
milder one of the ninth century, which raged for a while
about Paschasius Radbertus, Ratramnus, and John
Scottus Erigena, but did not then result in a dogmatic
definition. In 1050 Berengar of Tours wrote a letter to
Lanfranc, then prior of Bee, sustaining (as he thought)
Erigena' s views, but really going to the length of heresy
in his conception of the Eucharist as symbolic. He
was condemned vmder the infiuence of Lanfranc, first at
Rome and Vercelli (1050), then at Florence (1055) and
Rome (1059), and finally in two councils held at Rome
(1078-1079), under Gregory vn., when he was compelled
to subscribe a profession of faith defining the church
doctrine of the Eucharist.* The doctrine as defined
was : (a) that the body of Christ is really present in the
Eucharist ; (6) that it is the identical body that was
crucified, rose from the dead, and is enthroned in heaven ;
(c) that the substance of the bread and wine is converted
into the substance of the body of Christ ; {d) that the
Eucharist is a sacrifice, representing the sacrifice of
Christ," Anselm was the greatest theologian of his time. He
made less use of the principle of authority than his
predecessors, even Lanfranc, and made great use of
reason and logic in the discussion of Christian doctrine.
This was especially so in his great works, the Monologium
and the Proslogium, notably in Cur deus homo ?, in
1 Vide Maitre, Les Scales ^iscopales et monastiques, p. 125,
• Vide Denzinger, Enchiridion Symholorwm, et Dejinitionum, p, 106,
' Vide Briggs, Theological Symbolics, pp, 132 seq.

22 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. i.
which he lays the foundation for the doctrine of the
Atonement for all time. But as this did not provoke
serious discussion, it did not occasion a definition by the
Church, His doctrine was that the Incarnation was a
voluntary act of the Son of God ; in order that He might,
by the death of the Cross, satisfy the divine majesty and
merit the divine grace for the sinful world. Sin was an
offence against the divine majesty according to the
feudal conception, and it involved the extreme penalty
of death. The sinner must suffer death or render
adequate satisfaction. Only the Son of God could do
this by rendering infinite satisfaction and earning infinite
merit. The older undogmatic view, still represented by
Bemard, was that the devil had a claim on the sinner,
and his claim was satisfied by the death of Christ on the
Cross,* 4, In the eleventh century the cathedral schools became
prominent, especially those of Laon, Chartres, and Paris.
1, The school of Laon became celebrated through two
brothers, Anselm (f 1117) and Ralph (f 1138), who
attracted students from great distances, from Milan in
the south and from Bremen in the north. Many came
over from England. These men were the teachers of
William of Champeaux, Abelard, Alberic of Rheims,
Gilbert de la Porree, and many other notable scholars.
After the death of Ralph the school lost its importance.
Anselm studied at Bee, and ' laid the foundation of his
reputation ' at Paris, where he taught theology (c, 1076),
He was made scholasticus of the cathedral school at Laon
(c, 1089) ; and he and his brother became ' the two eyes '
of that church,* John of Salisbury calls them the
' most splendid luminaries of Gaul, the glory of Laon,
1 Vide Briggs, Theological Symbolics, pp. 137 seq.
2 Guibert de Nogent, cited by Feret, La Faculti de thiologie dt Paris
au moyen dge, i, p, 26,

CH, n,] ELEVENTH AND TWELFTH CENTURIES 23
whose memory is in pleasantness and blessing.' * Anselm's
theology has been described as ' properly only a simple
and solid exposition of the Holy Scripture, supported by
the authority of the holy fathers, whom he studied all
his life.' Guibert de Nogent says that he ' made more
good Catholics than the heterodox (teachers) of his time
made heretics, " tam sincera est in Scripturarum ac
fidei assertione severitas." ' He was ' the light of all
France and of the Latin Church.' John of Salisbury
caUs him ' doctorum doctorem.' Pope Eugene in,
said : ' God caused him to be born so that the Holy
Scriptures might not perish,' ^ Anselm, indeed, is
especially distinguished in the history of Biblical Exegesis
for his Glossa interlinearis, which continued to be used
all through the Middle Ages. He also wrote special
commentaries on the Song of Songs, Matthew, and
Revelation, Abelard said of Anselm : ' He kindled a
fire, not to give light, but to fill the house with smoke,' '
But Cr^vier's comment is :
' It is hard to restrain one's indignation, at beholding thus
treated a man who, for the forty years during which he taught
theology, was regarded ... as the Ught and the oracle of the Latin
Church ; who was caUed the " doctor of doctors," and in whose
school were trained the great theologians, scholars, and pious
prelates, who gave lustre not only to France, but to England,
Germany, and Italy.' *
The school of Laon, as Poole remarks,^ ' acquired a
peculiar and almost unique name for the steadfast
fidelity with which it maintained and handed on the
pure theological tradition of the Church ' ; and while
this reputation may have been ' apart from the personal
weight of (these) teachers,' it was doubtless the result of
their labours,
1 Vide Poole, Hist, of Medieval Thought, p. 112,
» Cited by Feret, La Faculty de thlologie de Paris, i. pp. 27, 28.
s Abelard, Ep. i. 3 ; vide Poole, Hist, of Medieval Thought, p. 144 ;
Feret, La FacultS de ThSologie de Paris, i. p. 27,
* Cr^vier, Hist, de I'Univ. de Paris, i, pp. 124 seq.
' Poole, Hist, of Medieval Thought, pp. 111 seq.

24 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. 1.
2, The school of Chartres gained its importance from
Fulbert, a pupil of Gerbert, and from Ivo, a pupil of
Lanfranc, Fulbert (f 1028) like Gerbert added medicine
to theology, phUosophy, and the liberal arts ; and
Chartres soon took rank with Rheims as a seat of the
higher leaming. In 1006 Fulbert was made bishop;
but he continued to teach in the school, following what
seems to have been the traditional usage of the see,
whose bishops in the sixth, seventh, eleventh, and
twelfth centuries are known to have presided in the
school,^ Fulbert was still young when he began to teach
at Chartres ; and he presided there as bishop for con
siderably over twenty-one years. In that time multitudes
came under his influence. An English monk of the
following century writes :
' The town of Chartres," even in our time, is fuU of the genius
of Fulbert. It is second to no other in Gaul in the number and
the leaming of its scholars.' *
The bond which united Fulbert to his pupils, and these
to one another, was very strong, Adelmann, scholasticus
of Liege, recalls with pleasure his Ufe as a student ' sub
nostro illo venerabili Socrate,'' He describes himself
to Fulbert as ' vemaculus tuus,' ' alumnus tuus.' ' To
others,' he cries, ' I have shown something of myself,
but to you I have disclosed the whole.' At Fulbert's
death he wrote : ' I was his companion ; I was often by
his side ; I drank with avidity the words of gold, sweet
as honey, that fell from his lips,' HUdegaire, another
pupil, seeking pardon for having given way to anger
in his presence, wrote : ' I implore you not to refuse me
the boon of your counsel and your correction. The
greatest of misfortunes for me would be to be abandoned
1 Vide Clerval, Les Ecoles de Chartres au moyen dge, du V' au XVI'
silcle. pp, 29 seq.
2 Cited by Clerval, ibid., p, 96,
s Vide Maitre, Les Scales episc. et monast., p. 103.

CH, n,] EI^EVENTH AND TWELFTH CENTURIES 25
by you,' The same pupil compares himself to the hart
' panting for the water-brooks ' in his longing for the
teaching of his master, ' more precious than gold or
silver, than life itself,' At Fulbert's death his scholars
wrote in his epitaph :
' He is dead, dear to God and to man, our Father of precious
memory, Fulbert, bishop of this holy see. He was a conspicuous
luminary, given to the world by Gtod, , . , a man most eloquent
and versed in the divine sciences and in the books of the liberal
arts, . . , He has made this church iUustrious with the rays of
his sanctity and his learning, and has wrought great things for
his students.' ^
WiUiam of Malmesbury describes him as ' most
eminent in holiness and philosophy.' Clerval remarks
that he was acquainted vsdth Hebrew, and cites the
Septuagint ; and that ' if he did not know the Greek
fathers, he was famiUar with the Latin.' * In exegesis he
avoided excess in the use of both the allegorical and the
critical methods, basing his interpretation on the
literal and historical sense, and having recourse for that
purpose to the original text. Once possessed of the
literal meaning he passed on to its moral and spiritual
appUcation. His theology, like that of Anselm of Laon,
was Positive Theology. Fulbert also appeals to codes
of canon law and to Charlemagne's Capitularies. He
' cites numerous councils, both ancient and modern,'
Clerval suggests that there was at Chartres some study
of law. Among the pupils of Fulbert was the famous
Berengarius (f 1088), who became scholasticus at Tours
and archdeacon of Angers, and who reintroduced the
eucharistic controversy,'
The school of .Chartres gained new distinction under
Ivo, or St, Ives (f 1116), the most famous teacher of
canon law of his times. He is described as ' a religious
1 Cited by Clerval, Les i'coles de Chartres, pp. 32, 101 leq.
' Vide Clerval, ibid., pp, 36 seq., 130 seq., 141 seq.
> Vide p, 21,

26 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. i.
man and of great learning,' In his youth he had
studied in Paris, and had ' heard master Lanfranc, prior
of Bee, treat of secular and divine letters in that famous
school which he had at Bee' * Anselm was his fellow-
student there. He became himself a teacher in that
school, and then went as abbot to St. Quentin, which
he made illustrious as a centre of leaming. To theology
and the liberal arts he added the study of canon law,
and probably began here his great coUections of Canons
known as the CoUectio tripartita, Decretum, and Panormia.
Ivo had already attained to great fame as a teacher,
when he was made bishop of Chartres (c, 1090), He is
the last bishop of that see who is known to have taught
in the school ; but shortly after his death it rose once
more into prominence, and so remained untfl the middle
of the twelfth century, under the brothers Theodoric and
Bemard, and their pupils Gilbert de la Porree, WUliam of
Conches, and Richard I'Eveque,
Bernard of Chartres (f c. 1130) became chancellor c.
1119, He was caUed by John of SaUsbury perfectissimus
inter Platonicos seculi nostri. He was wont to say :
' We are as dwarfs mounted on the shoulders of giants, so that
we can see more and further than they ; yet not by virtue of
the keenness of our eyesight, nor through the taUness of our
stature, but because we are raised and borne aloft upon that
giant mass,' *
Poole remarks : ' In this reverent dependence on the
ancients lies therefore the main pecuUarity of the school
of Chartres,' He adds : ' It is the choice of reading that
stands out as the salient characteristic of Bernard's
method, and marks it as aiming at a totally different
level of excellence from that which had hitherto been
deemed sufficient,' ' Among his many noted pupUs
1 Vide Poole, History of Medieval Thought, p, 114,
2 John of Salisbury, Metalogicus, iv. 35 ; iii. 4.
s Poole, History of Medieval Thought, pp, 117, 120.

CH, n,] ELEVENTH AND TWELFTH CENTURIES 27
Gilbert de la Porree was the most distinguished, and suc
ceeded him as chancellor in 1126, He was devotedly
attached to Bernard, and wrote to him from Aquitaine
where he ' kept school ' :
' I have one sorrow, only one, which tortures me. It is that
I am constrained to rem pin far from the presence of a teacher so
iUustrious, , . . I would fain be vrith you always, when you
explain the mysteries hidden in the treasures of knowledge, I
would draw with aU my might upon the limpid and inexhaustible
source of your wisdom. Separated in body from your Excel
lence, I am united to you by ardour of desire and by the heart,
which brings near what is far ; and aU that God has given or
wiU give to me, by way of endowment, virtue, knowledge, aU that
I am — after God I owe it to you,' "•
Gilbert was called away to Paris ; and two other pupils
of Bernard carried on his work in the school, William of
Conches and Richard I'Eveque, 'William (f c, 1154)
was ' post Bemardum Carnotensem opulentissimus
grammaticus,' *
' With him, as with Bemard, . . . grammar, dialectic, and
rhetoric . . . are the first things which the phUosopher must
possess: "with them equipped as with arms, we ought to
approach the study of philosophy," flrst as learned in the
sciences of the Quadri-vium, and finaUy in Theology, , , . But
the basis of the whole is grammar : " in omni doctrina gram
matica praecedit." This is the mark of the school of Chartres.' '
Richard V^vique united with William in ' perpetuating
the teaching of Bemard, and thus carried on a sound and
healthy tradition. . . . The general method of the school
was founded on the scheme of education laid dovra by
QuintiUan,' * Clerval says that Chartres was the centre
of a universal renaissance of learning, showing a love for
profane antiquity and a passion for its writers, its poets
and philosophers. Greedy for knowledge, this school
' Vide Clerval, Les Scales de Chartres au mA>yen Age, p. 219.
2 John of Salisbury, Metalogicus, i. 5 ; -vide Clerval, Les Ecoles de
Chartres au moj/m dge, p. 181.
s Poole, History of Medieval Thought, p. 125. ¦" Sandys, i. p. 539.
VOL, II, C

28 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. l
searched for the writings of Aristotle, of Ptolemy, and of
other Greek authors, even among the Arabs of Spain,
and enlarged the circle of culture.^
Other cathedrals had distinguished scholars. Among
these may be mentioned Hildebert (f 1134), bishop of
Le Mans, and later archbishop of Tours, He was noted
for his letters, which were ' studied, and even leamt
by heart, as pattems of epistolary composition ' ; * and
also, still more, as the first Latin writer to compose a
system of doctrine. His Tractatus theologicus is a
Positive Theology, using the Scriptures and the Fathers,
and among the latter especially Augustine. But he
also uses dialectic, and indulges in a great amount of
scholastic speculation.
The work has forty-one chapters and treats of faith and its
objects (Chapters i.-iii,), the Trinity (iv.-vin,), prescience, pre
destination, the wiU and the omnipotence of God (ix,-xi,), the
incarnation and nature of Christ (xu,-xvi.), angels (xvu,-xxu,),
the creation (xxui, -xxv,), human nature, sin and virtue (xxvi,-
xxxix,), the sacraments (xl,), the divine Law (xU,),'
There were other chapters, which have not been pre
served, Hildebert was the first to use the term trans-
substantiatio.*- 3. The cathedral school of Notre Dame at Paris
became, in the twelfth century, the most prominent in
France, under a number of famous teachers, the first of
whom was WilUam of Champeaux. William (f 1121)
studied with the philosopher Manegold, with Anselm of
Laon, and vrith RosceUn, He himself taught at Paris a
crowd of students from all parts, at first in the cathedral
school, and then (c, 1108) in the monastic school of St.
Victor, where his influence was long felt. ' In those
' Clerval, Les Ecoles de Chartres, p. 272. 2 Sandys, i. p. 551.
' Vide Flugge, Qeschichte der theologischen 'Wissenschkften, iii. pp.
387 se^.
* Vide Harnack, Dogmengeschichte, p, 303 {Orundriss der theolo
gischen Wissenscha/ten).

CH, n,] ELEVENTH AND TWELFTH CENTURIES 29
days,' as Poole says, ' the school followed the teacher,
not the teacher the school,' ^ William taught rhetoric
and dialectic as well as theology ; and came into con
ffict with his pupU Abelard as an advocate of Realism.
But as a theologian his method was that known as
Positive Theology, the Theology of the Fathers, He
retained the friendship of St, Bernard, and was even,
according to Fisher, 'in some sense (his) guide,' ^ In
1113 WilUam was called from Paris to become bishop of
Chalons, After his departure from the cathedral school
students still continued to fiock there, and it attained
new celebrity under the pupils of WilUam,'
6. The brilliant Ab&lard taught a multitude of students,
attracted by his new method of speculative inquiry, with
which he enriched Positive Theology.
Abilard (1079-1142) was for a time a pupil of RosceUn
of Compiegne ; then, after visiting other schools, he went
to Paris to study with WilUam of Champeaux, He came
into conflict with this teacher, and overpowered him by
a skilful use of dialectic, vdnning for hiraself a great
reputation, VThen William retired to the monastery of
St, Victor, Abelard sought his class-room there ; but the
old conffict was soon renewed. In the meanwhile
Abelard also had acquired a great body of foUowers,
who went about with him from place to place, ' to
CorbeU, to Melun, to Provins, to Saint Denis, and into
Brittany,' * At the time that William left Paris for
Chalons, Abelard went to Laon to study theology with
Anselm ; but, professing to find that famous teacher
' a barren fig-tree,' he began a rival course of lectures —
a breach of order which led to his expulsion, Retuming
to Paris he took WUliam's place at the head of the
1 Poole, History of Medieval Thought, p. 109.
* Fisher, History of Christian Doctrine, p. 226.
» Vide pp. 31 ff.
« Maitre, Les j^coles Ipisc. et monast., p. 145,

¦M HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. L
cathedral school. Some years later he entered the
monastery of St. Denis, and students flocked to him
there also. During his several residences in Paris he
greatly increased the renown of that seat of leaming,
especially when he taught in the school attached to the
collegiate church of St. Genevieve. Abelard's methods
were speculative and critical. His aim was to seek the
truth by inquiry, and not from authority. ' By doubt
ing we are led to inquire ; by inquiry we perceive the
truth.' ^ He exposed himself to suspicions of heresy by
the boldness of his speculation, his independence of
authority, his contests with aU other teachers, and his
open-minded balancing of opinions over against one
another. He took an intermediate position between
the Nominalism of RosceUn and the ReaUsm of WilUam,
which is known as ConceptuaUsm, and is nearer the
position of Aristotle,
' Universalia ante rem is the watchword of the Realists ;
Universalia in re of the Conceptualists ; Universalia post rem of
the Nominalists.' *
As the NominaUsm of RosceUn had brought him into
a dilemma between Unitarianism and Tritheism, and
caused him to be charged with the latter, so the Con
ceptuaUsm of Abelard led him in the direction of Sabel-
Uanism. His treatise De unitate et trinitate divina
brought him into trouble. Otto of Freising represents
that he was charged with having ' effaced the dis
crimination of the Three Persons, which the Church
held to be not mere names, but distinct things with
separate properties.' ' AU of his teachers were against
him, having been aUenated by his audacious and un
generous criticisms, by his vanity and overbearing
maimers. A council was called at Soissons (1121), and
1 Abelard, Ste et non, proe. 17 ; -eide Migne, P. Z., olxiviii,
2 Fleming, Vocabulary of Philosophy, ed. Calderwood, 1887*, p. 284,
' Poole, History of Medieval Thought, p, 152,

CH. n.] ELEVENTH AND TWELFTH CENTURIES 31
he was condemned ; but the general opinion was that
he had been treated unfairly.
A more formidable attack was made upon him by
St. Bernard. He had composed an Introduction to
Theology, understanding by theology the doctrine of
God and the Trinity, which alone he discusses. This
Introduction is usually regarded as the first attempt to
construct a .philosophical system of doctrine. The
method of Abelard was more objectionable to the tra
ditionalists than his results. Because of his method
they suspected and misrepresented his results, St,
Bemard, with his immense popularity and eloquence, was
a formidable opponent ; and Abelard was once more
condemned in 1141 by the Council of Sens, He took
refuge vrith Peter the Venerable at Cluny, and there in
the following year he died. It is said that at Cluny he
' read constantly, prayed often, gladly kept silence,' ^
According to Peter's verdict he was ' ever to be named
with honour ; the servant of Christ, and verily Christ's
philosopher.' * Hiswritings include, besides those already
named, his famous Sic et non, a work on Ethics called
Scito te ipsum, a commentary on Romans, Theologia
Christiana, Hexameron, a treatise on Dialectics, and an
autobiography, Historia calamitatum.
6, The cathedral school of Paris continued to flourish
under the care of distinguished teachers, the most important
of whom were Gilbert de la Porrie, Robert Pulleyn, and
Peter the Lombard.
1, Gilbert (c, 1070-1154) was bom at Poitiers, and
studied in the episcopal school there, and afterwards
at Chartres, Paris, and Laon, Otto of Freising, his
pupil, writes :
' From his youth Gilbert placed himself under the discipUne
of great teachers, relying more upon their authority than upon
1 Vide article ' Abilard,' in New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia.
2 Vide Poole, History of Medieval Thought, p, 16ti. .

32 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. l
his own genius. These masters were, first, HUary of Poitiers,
then Bemard of Chartres, finaUy the two brothers Anselm and
Ralph of Laon, With them he acquired not Uttle, but great
leaming, remaining under their control a long time, bringing his
manners and his conduct into harmony with his knowledge.' ^
At Paris he studied with William of Champeaux and
also with Abelard. He was recalled to Chartres by
Bemard, whom he served for a time as assistant and
finally succeeded as chancellor. Some years later he
went to teach in Paris, and then in Poitiers, where he was
made bishop (1142), His chief contributions to theology
are (1) commentaries on the Bible in the form of glosses,
an elaboration of the Glossa interlinearis of his master
Anselm of Laon ; (2) De Trinitate, a work attributed
then to Boethius, but really a coUection of several
writings on the subject by different persons at different
periods. This treatise brought Gilbert into trouble.
His tendency was towards Tritheism, although he denied
it. Thus Realism had its perUs in discussing the doctrine
of the Trinity, as well as Nominalism and ConceptuaUsm.
GUbert was attacked by Bemard of Clairvaux in a
council held at Paris, 1147. No agreement was reached,
and the council, adjourning to Rheims in the foUovring
year, became hopelessly divided, so that Gilbert escaped
condemnation. It is remarkable that he seems to have
retained the respect of his bitterest opponents. One of
these is forced to acknowledge that ' though few were
for the doctrine, very many were for the man, and did
all they could to excuse and extenuate even opinions
which they did not hold,' Otto of Freising, GUbert's
pupil, denies that there is any resemblance between his
trial and that of Abelard,
'The case was not the same, nor the matter kindred. For
GUbert had from youth submitted himself to the teaching of
great men, and trusted in their weight rather than in his own
powers,' 1 Vide Clerval, Les Ecoles de Chartres, pp. 163 seq.

CH, n,] ELEVENTH AND TWELFTH CENTURIES 33
John of Salisbury remarks :
' It is certain that a good many things are now handled by
scholars in pubUc which, when (Gilbert) put them forward, were
reckoned as profane novelties, , , , GUbert was a man of the
clearest inteUect, and of the widest reading ; he had spent sOme
sixty years in study and the exercise of Uterature, and was so
ripe in Uberal culture as to be surpassed by no one, rather it was
beUeved that in aU things he exceUed aU men,' ^
His work De sex principiis, ' a supplement to tho
Categories of Aristotle, was accepted through the Middle
Ages as second only in authority to the works of the
founder of logic' * An unknown writer of the time of
Gilbert declares :
' He was a master most celebrated, intrepid, learned, and
superior to aU the other masters. He was a logician, theologian,
moraUst, dialectician. Of the seven arts he lacked only astro
nomy, , . , He might himseU be caUed, and with reason, another
Boethius,' *
2, Robert Pulleyn (f c. 1150), an Englishman, taught
both at Paris and at Oxford, He was finally made a
cardinal, and died in Rome, He wrote Sententiarum
theologicarum libri VIII. A pupil of both William of
Champeaux and Abelard, he unites Speculative and
Positive Theology, but with special weight upon the
latter, 3. The most important of these three scholars was
Peter the Lombard, the Magister Sententiarum (f c, 1160).
He was born at Novara, Italy, early in the twelfth
century, and was bishop of Paris at his death. He
studied at Bologna and Rheims, and finaUy went to
Paris, where he studied in the school of St, Victor and
taught theology in the school of Notre Dame, He was
not the first writer of Sentences. Several before him had
' For these citations vide Poole, Medieval Thought, pp. 184 seq.
« Poole, ibid., Tp. 132.
» Clerval, Les Ecoles de Chartres, p, 168.

34 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. l
written systems of doctrine under that title, as we have
seen. There has been preserved a work of this Mnd by
an unknovrai Bandinus, which so closely resembles the
Lombard's work that some kind of dependence seems
probable. But Peter's Sentences have been those on
which aU the Scholastics build. The work of Peter is
entitled Sententiarum libri IV.
The first book discusses chiefly the Trinity, in forty-eight dis
tinctions ; the second the creation, in forty-four distinctions ; tho
third the incarnation, faith and morals, in forty distinctions ; the
fourth the sacraments, in forty-two distinctions, and the Last
Things, in eight distinctions.
This system has the merit of simpUcity and of thorough
ness. The theology is essentiaUy Augustinian, although
the Scriptures and the Fathers are used with freedom
and sMU, after the manner of Positive Theology, The
method is AristoteUan, and in so far dialectical and
phUosophical, The combination of the dialectic method
with Positive Theology is so sound, that the orthodoxy
of these Sentences as weU as their exceUence is almost
unimpeachable. They became at once, and remained
for generations, the compendium, the student's text
book of doctrine. Peter was also distinguished for his
contributions to Exegetical Theology. He took the
Glossa interlinearis of Anselm as a basis, and put them
in a new form, known as the Magna glossatura. He also
vsTote commentaries on the Psalms, Job, and the Epistles
of Paul.
The most distinguished pupU of the Lombard was
Peter of Poitiers, who carried on his work as teacher in
Paris for forty years, succeeding Peter Comestor in
the cathedral school, and dying as chanceUor at the
beginning of the thirteenth century. His lectures, pub
lished in part as Sententiarum libri V., were based upon
the Sentences of his master, and this did much to give
them the currency they, attained.

CH, n,] ELEVENTH AND TWELFTH CENTURIES 35
7. The monastic school of St. Victor in Paris became an
important centre of mystic theology under the three great
mystic theologians, Hugh, Richard, and 'Walter.
The collegiate church of St, Genevieve was reorganised
in 1147, and the chapter of seculars became a body of
Canons Regular. The change was disastrous to the
school, which soon declined in importance. But the
monastic school of St, Victor rose to eminence through
several distinguished teachers, in hostility to the teachers
of the cathedral school. The chief of these were, in their
order, Hugh, Richard, and Walter, all mystic theo
logians, 1, Hugh (c. 1097-1141) was born in Saxony, and was
trained first at Hamersleben, and then in Paris, at St,
Victor's, He was especially distinguished in exegesis,
and wrote an Introduction to the Scriptures entitled
De scripturis et scriptoribus sacris proenotationes. He
recognises only twenty-two books as belonging to the
canon of the Old Testament, excluding the Apocrypha,
He also wrote commentaries on the Pentateuch, Judges,
Ruth, Kings, Psalms, Lamentations, and Joel, and
sermons on Ecclesiastes and Obadiah. He was a
positive theologian as well as a mystic, and vsrrote many
dogmatic treatises, a comprehensive system of doctrine
entitled Summa sententiarum, and De sacramentis fidei,
also an encyclopaedic work called Eruditio didascalica, and
a commentary on Dionysius the Areopagite. He was
opposed to the dialectic method. He defines the three
grades of speculative mysticism as cogitatio, meditatio,
and contemplatio.
2, Richard (f 1173) was a Scot, a pupil and friend
of Hugh. Dante describes him as ' in contemplation
more than man,' ^ His works include six books on the
Trinity, a discussion of the Incarnation, and comment
aries on the Song of Songs, Ezekiel, and Revelation, as
1 Dante, Paradiso, i. 132,

36 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. i.
well as various mystic writings. He used the dialectic
and allegorical methods, the latter to excess,
3, Walter (-f c. 1180) succeeded Richard as prior of
the monastery of St, Victor, He vrrote a polemic work :
Contra manifestos et damnatas etiam in conciliis haereses,
quas sophistae Abcelardus, Lombardus, Petrus Pictavinus
et Gilbertus Porretanus libris sententiarum suarum
acuunt, limant, roborant. He names these four theo
logians, ' the four labyrinths of France,' all possessed
by the spirit of Aristotle.
8, John of Salisbury was a broad-minded scholar.
After frequenting the various great schools of learning, he
became himself an able teacher in Canterbury and Chartres.
John (c, 1115-1180) was bom at Salisbury, and studied
' in all the schools with all the great masters,' of France
and Italy as well as England,^ He tells of going about
from teacher to teacher in France, very much as students
do now in German universities, John left England to
study in Paris c, 1136. He went first to study logic with
Abelard on Mount St, Genevieve, and took lessons in dia
lectic for two years with Alberic of Rheims and Robert of
Melun at the same place. Afterwards he went for three
years to Chartres, where he had for professors WUliam
of Conches, Richard I'Eveque, Pierre HeUe, and others.
Then he became a teacher as well as pupil, Aristotle
he studied under the guidance of an Englishman known
as Adam du Petit Pont, who subsequently became bishop
of St, Asaph. Having retumed to Paris, he studied logic
and theology with Gilbert de la Porree, and theology
alone with his successors Robert Pulleyn and Simon of
Poissy. In this manner the studies of John extended
over twelve years. He gives vivid descriptions of his
various teachers, Abelard he calls ' the Peripatetic of
Palais ... an illustrious teacher and admired of all men.
1 Clerval, Les Ecoles de Chartres, p. 276,

CH. n.] ELEVENTH AND TWELFTH CENTURIES 37
At his feet I acquired the first rudiments of the dia
lectical art, and snatched according to the scant
measure of my vrits whatever passed his lips with entire
greediness of mind.' Of Alberic and Robert of Melun
John says : ' The one was in questions subtle and large,
the other in responses lucid, short, and agreeable. . . . They
were both men of sharp intellect, and in study uncon
querable.' Of the three years spent with ' the Gram
marian of Conches ' John says, ' I shall never regret that
time,' Richard I'Eveque he describes as ' a man whose
training was deficient in almost nothing, who had more
heart even than speech, more knowledge than sMU,
more truth than vanity, more virtue than show,' Adam
he deems ' a man of exceeding sharp vrits, and, whatever
others may think, of much leaming. , . . He used to say
that he would have few hearers or none, if he propounded
dialectic with that simplicity of terms and easiness of
sentences with which it ought to be taught,' Master
Gilbert was ' too quicMy removed,' Robert Pulleyn
' Ufe and knowledge alike recommend,' Simon of Poissy
proved ' a trusty lecturer, but dull in disputation,'
John concludes :
/ ' It seemed pleasant to me to revisit my old compamons on the
Mount, whom I had left, and whom dialectic stUl detained, to
confer with them touching old matters of debate ; that we might
by mutual comparison measure together our several progress, I
found them as before, and where they were before ; nor did they
appear to have reached the goal in unraveUing the old questions,
nor had they added one jot of a proposition. The aims that
once inspired them, inspired them stiU : they had progressed in
one point only ; they had unlearned moderation ; they knew
not modesty; in such wise that one might despair of their
recovery.' }
John became an important man of affairs as well as
a great scholar. He was attached to the archbishop's
court at Canterbury under Theobald, Thomas h Becket,
' For John of Salisbury vide Poole, Medieval Thought, pp. 203 seq.

38 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. l
and Richard, He was constantly engaged in diplomatic
missions, and crossed the Alps ten times. He was the
most broad-minded scholar of Ms age, and ' for tMrty
years the central figure of English learning.' The last
four years of Ms life he was bishop of Chartres. His
principal work was entitled Policraticus, and is ' to some
extent an encyclopaedia of the cultivated thought of the
middle of the twelfth century.' ^ In Ms Metalogicus he
teUs us about scholars, their methods, and the state of
learning. According to Sandys,
He ' stands out as the most learned man of his time. He
gives an analysis of the whole series of Aristotle's treatises on
Logic, His Metalogicus is, in fact, the first work of the Middle
Ages in which the whole of the Organon is turned to account, and
Aristotle's own criticisms on Plato's doctrine of Ideas appUed
to the scholastic controversy on universals.' ^
John also wrote Historia pontiflcalis, letters of great
importance for the ecclesiastical Mstory of the time,
and commentaries on St. Paul. The Lateran CouncU of
1179, wMch decreed that every cathedral should have
its teacher of theology, was attended by John.'
9. In this period the Eastern Church produ/xd few
theologians of distinction. The chief seats of learning were
Constantinople, Thessalonica, and Mount Athos.
In the eleventh century the only writers of importance
were the exegetes, Theophylact, archbishop of Achrida,
Bulgaria (f 1007), and Euthymius Zigabenus, a monk of
Constantinople (f 1118), like the Westem commenta
tors they were compilers, and reproduced the exposi
tions of the Fathers, Their exegesis is cMefiy that of
Chrysostom, Theodoret, and the Antiochan school.
In the twelfth century there appeared several canonists
and polemic writers, Eustathius, archbishop of Thessa-
> Sandys, i. pp. 537 seq. ; Poole, Medieval Thought, p. 218,
8 Sandys, i. pp. 539 seq.
» Vide clerval, Les y^coles de Chartres, p. 276,

CH. n.l ELEVENTH AND TWELFTH CENTURIES 39
lomca (t 1193), a zealous opponent of formalism, became
famous both as a reformer and as a commentator
on Homer. Nicholas of Methone (f before 1166) pro
duced important polemic works, Theodore Balsamon of
Constantinople (f 1203) wrote commentaries on the
Nomocanon and Syntagma, erroneously ascribed to
Photius, and a series of Answers and one of Dissertations
on canon law, all of great value, Johannes Zonaras
wrote works of importance on Church Mstory and law,
dating apparently from the first half of the twelfth
century. Valuable work was done all through the
Middle Ages in the Eastem monasteries, where the works
of the Fathers were diligently studied, copied, and
annotated. Mount Athos and Studium were the cMef
centres of tMs activity.

40 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. i.

CHAPTER III
THE OEIGIN AND GBOWTH OF THE UNIVERSITIES IN
THE TWELFTH AND THIRTEENTH CENTUEIES
The study of theology, wMch had so greatly revived in
the eleventh century, increased in pubUc interest in the
twelfth and attained its Mghest development in the
tMrteenth century, especially in the imiversities, and
through the great scholastics, who were attached cMefly
to the new mendicant orders,
1. At the beginning of the twelfth century there was a
great revival in the study of law, both ci-vil law and canon
law, favoured especially by the establishment of the Uni
versity of Bologna under the famous teacher Irnerius.
The twelfth century witnessed a great revival in the
study of law, due doubtless to the conflict between the
popes and the emperors, wMch Hildebrand had carried
on with so much vigour, and wMch was to continue
through the entire Middle Age. Both sides needed
trained lawyers to maintain their cause.
The study of law had been carried on from the most
ancient times in the great ItaUan centres, especiaUy at
Rome. WTien the Lombards estabUshed themselves in
the north and Pavia became their cMef seat of leaming,
it also became a school of law. So Ravenna, the seat
of the exarchate, had become from the seventh century
a centre for the study of law. But for the most part tMs
branch of learmng was studied under private teachers,

CH. m.] THE EARLY UNIVERSITIES 41
and the teacMng and practice were closely connected
under leading lawyers, both civil and ecclesiastical.
In the eleventh century both Lombard and Roman law
were certainly taught in the school of Pavia. But
Ravenna seems to have been the cMef law school in the
last half of the eleventh century.^
Bologna, wMch had long been famous as a school of
grammar and rhetoric, began in the twelfth century to
be a legal centre. The origin of the law school at Bologna
is involved in some obscurity. It first comes into
prominence with Irnerius (1100-1130), a teacher of
Roman civil law. He had been preceded by Pepo,
who lectured on the ' Old Digest,' The whole of the
Digest was probably first discussed by Irnerius, The
great increase of students of law brought about the
separation of these students from all others. All the
students began to orgamse themselves into guilds for
self-protection, defence and mutual assistance, dividing
themselves into four nations ; and so the schools of
Bologna became a umversity of students, an organisation
of students, electing their own officers. The teachers
also orgamsed themselves for mutual protection into a
guild, and thus the University of Bologna originated.
The canon law was developing alongside of the civil
law. The Pseudo-Isidorian Decretals had given it a
great impulse in the ninth century ; and, on the basis
of these, other compUations of papal decrees were made.
In the eleventh century the cMef were : the Decretum
of Burchard of Worms (1012-1023), the CoUectio canonum
of Anselm of Lucca (f 1086), the Liber canonum of
Cardinal Deusdedit (f 1086- 1087) . In the first part of the
twelfth century the Panormia of Ivo of Chartres (t c.
1116), and the Decretum, probably by the same author,
were the most complete collections. They were the
basis of the Decretum of Gratian, wMch became the great
1 Vide Bashdall, Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages, i. p. 107,

42 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. I.
text-book for canon law, the basis for aU mediaeval
canonists. The proper title of Gratian's compUation is :
Concordantia discordantium Canonum. It was probably
published in 1142,^ Gratian was a Camaldulensian
monk and a teacher of canon law at Bologna. Roland
BandinelU, a cotemporary of Gratian, a teacher of
theology at Bologna and afterwards Pope Alexander in.,
also wrote a Summa of canon law, wMch has been
preserved. As Rashdall says :
' Bologna was absorbed with the questions about Investiture,
about the relations of Papacy and Empire, Church and State,
FeudaUsm and civic Uberty, whUe the schools of France were
distracted by questions about the Unity of InteUect, about
Transubstantiation, about the reaUty of Universals,' *
In the tMrteenth century the canon law developed
still further in five books of Decretals, published by
Gregory ix., to wMch Liber Sextus was added by Boniface
vin. The Corpus juris canonici was completed by add
ing the Clementines of Clement v,, published in 1317,
and the Extravagants, extending down to the time of
Sixtus IV, ' The Decretum (of Gratian) was a text
book : the Decretals were a Code.' Rashdall says :
' At aU periods of the Middle Age it was the Canonists who
fiUed the most important sees in Christendom. ... It was
chiefly through the Canon Law that the Civil Law transformed
the jurisprudence of nearly the whole of continental Europe.' *
2, The University of Paris grew out of the cathedral
school, owing to the great increase of professors and students
in the middle of the twelfth century, but waa not fully
organised until the thirteenth century.
The chancellor of the cathedral of Paris had the sole
authority to license teachers. As the teachers grew in
1 Schulte, Geschichte der Qudlen und Literatur des Canonischen Rechts,
i, p. 48 ; Bashdall, i. p. 132,
2 Bashdall, i, pp, 139 seq. > Ibid., 1, pp, 142 seq.

CH, m,] THE EARLY UNIVERSITIES 43
number, there was not room for them all in the cathedral
precincts ; therefore some were licensed to teach on the
little bridge connecting the cathedral isle with the main
land to the south, and also on the mainland, the students
residing wherever they could. The teachers graduaUy
came together in a guUd or association, somewhere about
the middle of the twelfth century (1150-1170),i After
a teacher was licensed by the chancellor he was imtiated
into the association of masters. There arose an in
evitable confiict of jurisdiction between the chancellor
and the association of teachers ; and out of tMs confiict,
early in the tMrteenth century, the organisation of the
umversity was bom. Apparently tMs confiict arose
after the death of the great teacher, Peter of Poitiers
(t 1205), when he was succeeded by weaker men. The
teachers appealed to the pope against the chancellor,
and the pope graduaUy defined the relative jurisdiction
of each party.
The situation in Paris was complicated by the rise and
suppression of a dangerous heresy. At the beginning of
this century the Arabian version of Aristotle made its
appearance in the schools of Paris in a roundabout way,
tMough the Arabs, Moors and Jews ; and, indeed, in
the pantheistic form of Avicenna (f 1037) and Averroes
(f c. 1198). TMs originated an outbreak of speculation
in Paris, under the lead of Simon de Tournai, Almaric of
Bena (f 1205-1207), and David de Dinant (f after 1215).
In 1209 a synod of Paris began to suppress their foUowers
by a bloody persecution. Some were bumed at the
stake, others imprisoned, and the works of Aristotle
upon natural philosophy and Ms commentaries were
proMbited by the council, TMs intellectual movement
was cotemporary with the outbreak of the Albigenses
in the south of France, who were also suppressed by
the most severe measures, 1 Bashdall, i, p, 294,
VOL, IL D

44 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. i.
In 1215 Cardinal Robert de Cour9on made for the
umversity a code of statutes, a sort of constitution ; but
the association of teachers was allowed to make statutes
(such as we call by-laws) witMn a Umited sphere. These
statutes contained a proMbition of the physical and
metaphysical works of Aristotle. Gregory ix, renewed
tMs proMbition in 1231, with the reservation : ' untU
they shall have been examined and purged from all
heresy,' ^ TMs reservation was due to the influence of
the more correct and pure translations of Aristotle
directly from the Greek, wMch began to make their way,
especially in Italy, immediately after the conquest of
Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, The difference
between the real Aristotle and Ms Arabian interpreters
now gradually became evident. In the meantime
(c. 1219-1221) the masters of arts were orgamsed into
four nations, as were the students at Bologna, Over
each of the nations a proctor presided, and over the whole
body a rector. These officials are clearly discriminated
for the first time in a document of the year 1245, The
four faculties of Arts, Theology, Law, and Medicine were
distinguished, and aU in operation ; but the most im
portant in Paris were those of Arts and Theology, The
four faculties are recogmsed in the earliest corporai,te
act of the umversity, a deed of 1221,^ The chanceUor
of the cathedral was virtually the head of the theological
faculty, although not Mmself a member of the faculty.
The headsMp of the whole umversity was in the rector
of the faculty of arts. By a bull of Pope Gregory ix,.
Parens scientiarum, the umversity received, in 1231, a
charter of privilege, caUed by Demfie its Magna Charta.^
3, The University of Oxford originated in the latter part
of the twelfth century, probably through students and
1 Rashdall, i. p. 358, » Ibid., p. 324.
' Ibid., p. 339,

CH. m.] THE EARLY UNIVERSITIES 45
professors from Paris ; the University of Cambridge soon
after, by a migration from Oxford.
The EngUsh umversities of Oxford and Cambridge had
an obscure origin. They did not develop from cathedral
schools, for the cathedral of Lincoln was about 120 miles
distant from Oxford ; and the cathedral of Ely, though
not far from Cambridge, seems to have had nothing to
do vrith the origin of that umversity. There is no
sufficient evidence that either umversity originated from
monastic schools. Rather, like the umversity of
Bologna, those of Oxford and Cambridge most pro
bably originated from private schools. Oxford had
become a commercial and political centre in the eleventh
century. There were students in Oxford early in the
twelfth century. Theobaldus Stampensis had sixty to
one hundred clerks under his instruction there, prior to
1117. Robert Pulleyn taught theology there in 1133,
Giraldus, the Welshman, tells how, in 1184-1185, he read
Ms Topography of Ireland to students and doctors of the
different faculties, Walter Map, archdeacon of Oxford,
was then one of the masters, Richard of Devizes, the
chromcler, writing in 1192, says that the city could
scarcely feed her clerks, so great was their number,^
It is supposed that the orgarasation of the university
was due to the recall of English scholars from Paris,
and elsewhere on the continent, by Henry II,, in 1167
or 1168,^ The head of Oxford Umversity was a rector,
chosen by the masters of the schools, and Mmself a
master. Later he became subordinate as chancellor to
the bishop of Lincoln.
Cambridge Umversity seems to have originated from
a migration tMther of students from Oxford, due to a
conffict between tovwi and govra, in 1209,
There were two nations at Oxford with their proctors,
1 Eichard of Devizes, vide English Historical Society, 1838, pp. 61 seq.
« Vide EashdaU, ii. pp. 330 seq.

46 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. l
the northem and the southem ; but, in 1274, these
were amalgamated. In 1254 a buU of Innocent iv.
confirmed Oxford in its ' immumties and ancient
customs,' The oldest coUeges were : (1) University,
founded by WilUam of Durham (designed 1249, begun
1280) ; (2) Merton, founded by Walter de Merton,
(designed c, 1263, begun in 1264-1265) ; (3) Balliol,
founded by Sir John de BalUol (designed 1260, begim
1266), As Rashdall says :
' The great work of the universities was the consecration of
learning : and it is not easy to exaggerate the importance of
that work upon the moral, inteUectual and reUgious progreaa of
Europe.' ^
4. Early in the thirteenth century a vndespread revival
of religion gave birth to the mendicant orders. The
Franciscan order was founded at Assisi in 1210, the
Dominican at Toulouse in 1215. These were followed by
other lesser orders. All of these fumished scholars and
teachers to the universities.
Dominic (f 1221), the founder of the Dominican order,
was bom in CastUe, and trained in theology and philo
sophy at Palencia, Under the infiuence of Ms bishop,
Diego de Azevedo, he undertook to lead a crusade
against heresy by a body of preachers trained for the
service, and spending their Uves in imitation of the
apostles. His first foUowers he sent to Toulouse for
training in theology. The Domimcans were essentiaUy
preachers and teachers ; and they estabUshed them
selves in the great cities and seats of education : at
Bologna and Paris, in 1217 ; and in Oxford, c, 1221, at
the Church of St, Edward in the Jewry, where they
opened the school in wMch Robert Bacon taught theo
logy. The rule of the order required eight years of study
in theology after the close of the novitiate. In the
> Vide EashdaU, ii, p. 893,

CH. m,] THE EARLY UNIVERSITIES 47
latter part of the century each province of the order had
its own studium generale ; and Domimcans ffiled the
chairs of theology at Bologna, Padua, Vienna, Cologne,
Prague, Oxford, and Salamanca,^
Among the scholars trained by the Domimcans may
be mentioned Nicolaus de Gorran, preacher and exegete
(c, 1210-1295), whose work outlived Ms reputation. His
commentaries cover a great part of the Bible, including
the Gospels, Epistles, and Revelation, He also wrote
Distinctions, a collection of ' sentences or thoughts from
the Holy Books, arranged in alphabetical order,' of wMch
a number of copies stiU exist. His sermons also have
been printed in several editions. According to Feret,
Ms commentaries on the Catholic Epistles appeared in
Paris, in an edition of the year 1543, under the name of
Thomas Aquinas.^
The Franciscans were less intellectual, and rather
mystic ; but they also established themselves in the
great centres at Oxford and Cambridge c. 1224, and at
Paris in 1230, Their founder, St. Francis of Assisi
(t 1226), had also as Ms ideal the exact imitation of
Christ in a life of apostolic service ; but he emphasised
the practical side of that mimstry, and its condition,
voluntary poverty. ' When once these orders had been
founded,' as Sandys says, ' all the great schoolmen were
either Franciscans or Domimcans.' ¦ The first Fran
ciscan to open a school at Oxford was Agnellus of Pisa.
He it was who introduced into the Franciscan school
Robert Greathead, the first great teacher of Oxford.
Adam Marsh (t 1258), the friend of Greathead, was the
first Franciscan to lecture there. Roger Bacon calls
these scholars ' majores clerici de mundo.' *
1 Ftrfe Griitzmacher, 'Dominic,' in New Schaf-Herzog Encyclopedia.
s Feret, La Faculte de thlologie de Paris, ii. pp. 511 seq.
• Sandys, i. p. 573,
* Bacon, Op. tert. (Op, ined,), p, 75; cited by Bashdall, u. p. 255^
». 3,

48 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt, l
The CarmeUtes settled at Oxford in 1256, the
Augustimans two years later, and lesser orders soon
followed. 5, Several other important universities were established
in the thirteenth century, including those at Naples, Rome,
Toulouse, Padua, Salamanca, and Lisbon.
The university of Naples was founded in 1224, and was
designed to be the centre of all departments of learmng
for the kingdom. But the school of Salerno had long
been a fons medicinae, and the attempt to establish a
medical faculty at Naples failed. In 1231 the right
of examination in the department of medicine was
Umited to the doctors of Salerno, In 1253 an effort
was made to transfer all the faculties from Naples to
Salemo, and to umte them with the old school of
medicine in that place ; but tMs experiment also failed ;
and in 1258 the three faculties retumed to Naples, and
the faculty of medicine remained alone at Salerno,
Eight years later, however, Naples recovered its faculty
of medicine. Innocent rv, established in Rome (1244-
1245) a umversity for theology and law. In Padua a
umversity was organised in 1222, and re-estabUshed in
1260 by a migration from Bologna, with all the faculties
save theology, wMch was added in 1363. A number of
colleges sprang up around it in the fourteenth century,
and it eventually became the great umversity of Vemce.
In France a university was founded at Toulouse by
Pope Gregory ix,, after the model of Paris (c. 1229).
In Spain umversities were established at Salamanca in
1230, and Valladolid in the middle of the century. In
Portugal a umversity was recogmsed as already founded
in Lisbon by papal bull, as early as 1290, but was trans
ferred to Coimbra (c, 1308), and after several migrations
between the towns, finally settled there in 1537.^
1 Vide Bashdall, ii, pp, 101 seq.

CH, m,] THE EARLY UNIVERSITIES 49
A number of colleges grew up about the university of
Paris in the tMrteenth century. There were ten mon
astic coUeges, founded between 1209 and 1269, including
those of the Trinitarians, Dominicans, Franciscans,
Bemardines, Augustimans, CarmeUtes, and those ' de
Sainte Catherine, des Premontres, de Saint-Denys, de
Cluny,' Six years of study were required for the regulars
and seven for the seculars, before the Baccalaurdat,
Eight years of study in theology were prescribed for the
doctor's degree. For three years students devoted
themselves to the study of the Scriptures as Biblici, for
one to the Sentences of the Lombard as Sententiarii, for
four they prepared as candidates for licence. The
candidate had to be present at the ' public acts ' of the
faculty, to speak, discuss theses, sustain arguments and
preach,^ The theological course was extended in the
following century, by the reform of 1366, over a period of
sixteen years,^ The Baccalarius Formatus was required
to give lectures on the Bible, ' The Secular's lectures on
the Bible were merely delivered " in course " — because
they were required by the faciUty as a condition of pro
ceeding to the Mgher degrees, . ..The "ordinary" lectures
on the Bible were delivered by " religious " Bachelors,
Each of the mendicant orders in Paris . . . was required to
supply a fresh lecturer {Biblicus ordinarius) every year.' *
So there was no such neglect of Biblical study in favour
of the scholastic theology as has been claimed. In
fact, there has been a greater emphasis on systematic
theology since the Reformation than before. The
difference between theological study then and now is
less in subject-matter than in method and emphasis.
Then the emphasis was on the Mgher exegesis — the use
of the Bible as a means of umon and comrnimion with
God ; but there was a neglect of the Mstorico-critical
1 Vide Feret, ii, pp, 41 seq. ^ Vide EashdaU, i, p, 463.
' Ibid. , i. pp, 465 seq.

60 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. i.
in favour of the aUegorical method. Now the neglect
is of the spiritual in Biblical study. The. diff erence as
to the subject-matter of study, then and now, is cMefiy
in that gained by the inductive method, especiaUy in the
realm of natural science. Outside of tMs realm there is
not much new material.
Of the secular coUeges founded at Paris before the
close of the tMrteenth century, eight may be mentioned,
i.e. those of Constantinople, St. Honore, St. Nicolas du
Louvre, St. Victor, Tresorier, Harcourt, Cholets, and
above aU the CoUege de Sorbonne (1257-1258), founded
by Robert de Sorbonne and ricMy endowed, with pro
vision for aU expenses. For admission the study of
phUosophy was reqmred as weU as the Uberal arts.
According to Rashdall, the Sorbonne
'was a college for men who had already taken the degree of
Master of Arts and were desirous of entering upon the long and
laborious career which led to the theological doctorate, , . .
OriginaUy . . . the " Sorbonne " was nothing more than a
coUege of theologians, . . .• In the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries, however, the title came to be popularly appUed to the
whole theological faculty of Paris, . , . Membership of the
Sorbonne . . . became an honorary distinction whioh was usu
aUy sought by most of the theological doctors of the umversity.
, , . The HaU or Schools of the Sorbonne beoame the scene of
disputations and other pubUc acts of the theological faculty,
especiaUy of its meetings to discuss and pronounce judgment
upon heresies or theological novelties. . . . According to Richer,
aU doctors of theology in his time styled themselves Doctors of
the Sorbonne.' ^
The course of study embraced ten years, but by the close
of the seventh the student must have shown some abiUty
as teacher or preacher to be retained.*
6, Robert Greathead, Alexander of Hales, arid Vincent
of Beauvais begin a series of great doctors of the Church.
1. Robert Greathead (Grosseteste, c. 1175-1253), bishop
» Bashdall, i. pp. 488 seq. ' Feret, ii. pp, 11 seq.

CH, m,] THE EARLY UNIVERSITIES 51
of Lincoln, was a great teacher and author, an ethical
and practical theologian, who made much use of the
Scriptures, He was trained in Oxford and Paris ; and
Ms education is said to have been ' built on the founda
tion of the liberal arts and on an abundant knowledge
of literature,' ^ Matthew of Paris caUs Mm ' vir in
Latino et Graeco peritissimus ' ; * Gower, ' the grete
clere Grossteste,' * He dominated English thought for
two centuries, and was ranked by WycUf vrith Augustine
and above Aristotle,
Greathead vsrote an encyclopaedic work entitled
Compendium scientiarum, classifying all departments of
knowledge ; also Dicta theologica, and many other works.
He gave, in Stevenson's words, ' a powerful impulse to
almost every department of intellectual activity, revived
the study of neglected languages, and grasped the central
idea of the umty of knowledge,' * He wrote comment
aries on Dionysius the Areopagite and John of Damascus,
Aristotle and BoetMus, He had studied Hebrew, and
in Ms work, De cessatione legalium, he sought to convert
the Jews, He was a great preacher, and a devoted
student of the Scriptures, In a letter to the regents of
Oxford he wrote :
' Let the foundation-stones be weU laid ; on them the whole
building rests. The morning is the best time for study, and the
good old Paris custom should be observed of reserving those
early hours for the lectures on Scripture, giving the later part
of the day to other subjects.'
In 1235 Greathead was made bishop of Lincoln, and
began a work of reformation among the monks and the
clergy that brought Mm into conflict with both king and
pope. At Ms death the umversity of Oxford certified
Rome of his ' splendid leaming and that he most admir-
1 Giraldus Cambrensis, cited by Sandys, i, p. 675.
« Hist. Angl., u. 467.
* Conf. Am., it. 234 ; vide Sandys, i. p. 578,
* Stevenson, Robert Grosseteste, p. 337 ; vide Sandys, i, p, 578,

52 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. i
ably governed Oxford, in Ms degree 6f doctor of holy
theology.' ^ Associated with Greathead was Adam
Marsh.^ These were the teachers of Roger Bacon and
many other distinguished scholars.'
2. Alexander of Hales, GloucestersMre (f 1245), was
' the first of the Schoolmen who was famiUar with the
whole range of Aristotle's pMlosophy, and with Ms
Arabic commentators, and who employed the same in
the service of theology.' ' He was caUed doctor irrefrag-
abilis and theologorum monarcha. He went to Paris, to
study and teach, and there became a Franciscan, His
principal work is Ms Summa universae theologice, com
pleted by Ms pupils some years after Ms death.
The pupil and successor of Alexander at Paris was John
of Rochelle (c, 1200-1253), whose cMef work was De anima.
The establishment of the mendicant orders in Paris
soon brought about a conffict of jurisdiction in the
umversity. The friars were unwilling to take part in the
great secession of the members of the umversity from
Paris in 1229, but took advantage of the situation in
their own interests, and started an independent theologi
cal school, Roland of Cremona and John of St. Giles
taught in the Domimcan convent, the latter changing
from a secular into a regular, Alexander of Hales con
tinued in the Franciscan convent the lectures he had
begun as a secular, TMs increased the friction. Finally
an appeal of the friars to Rome resulted in a papal bull
(1255) authorising the chanceUor to grant licences with
out the consent of the masters. TMs brought the con
ffict of jurisdiction to a crisis. It became clear that the
friars wished to have all the privileges of the umversity
without yielding to its authority. There was a long
struggle, in wMch the pope continued to take the part
of the friars, untU the pontificate of Urban iv, (1261), a
1 Vide Draua, Christian Schools and Scholars, pp. 484 seq.
> Vide p. 47, » Vide Sandys, i, p. 574,

CH. m.] THE EARLY UNIVERSITIES 53
Parisian canonist, who thoroughly understood the whole
situation and succeeded in restoring peace.
3. One of the earliest and most leamed of the
Domimcans was Vincent of Beauvais (f 1264), He was
tutor to the sons of Louis ix,, and wrote De institutione
filiorum regiorum sive nobilium. He was the author of
the greatest encyclopaedia of the Middle Ages, Speculum
mundi, written in four parts : Naturale, Doctrinale,
Historiale and Morale, the last completed long after Ms
death (c, 1310-1320). His numerous works included
Tractatus de gratia Dei and De sancto Johanne evangelista.
7. The three great scholars of the thirteenth century were
Albert the Great, Bonave-ntura and Thomas Aquinas, who
gave shape to the Scholastic Theology which has dominated
the Western Church until the present day.
1. Albert von Bollstddt, Albertus Magnus (1193-1280),
was born at Lauingen, not far from Augsburg, was
educated at Padua, and became a Domimcan, He
taught in convent schools in Germany, and lectured in
Paris (c, 1245) and Cologne (c, 1248), He was made
provincial of the Domimcans at Cologne (1254) and
bishop of Ratisbon six years later ; but in 1262 he re
signed and returned to Cologne, He is knovsm as the
Doctor universalis. Albert's principal theological work
is Ms Summa theologice. He followed the method of the
Lombard's Sentences, and wrote a commentary on these
in three volumes. He was the first scholastic to use the
entire Aristotelian pMldsophy in systematic arrange
ment in the interest of the dogmatic system of the
Church,* His work is rich in detail in the discussion of
all kinds of subtle questions. He taught the Aristotelian
ReaUsm, and made the important distinction of the
universale ante rem in the Divine Mind (Neo-Platonic
and Augustiman), the universale in re in the Aristotelian
1 Vide Ueberweg, Qeschichte der Philosophie (ed, Heinze), ii, p. 287.

54 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. l
sense, and the universale post rem in the human mind.
TMs was a comprehension of ReaUsm and ConceptuaUsm.
Albert was also the author of commentaries on the
Psalms, Lamentations, Darnel, Baruch, the Minor
Prophets, the Four Grospels and the Apocalypse, sermons,
and a commentary on Dionysius the Areopagite.
As Schaff has said :
' He traversed the whole area of the physical sciences. No one
for centuries had been such a student of nature. . , . Hia know
ledge is often at fault, but sometimes his statements are propheMo
of modem discovery.'
His great Study of Created Things is * an attempt, whose
boldness has never been exceeded, to explain the great
phenomena of the visible miiverse,' *
2. Bonaventura, the Doctor seraphicus (1221-1274), was
bom in Tuscany, became a Franciscan (c. 1238), and
studied in Paris imder Alexander of Hales and John of
Rochelle. He succeeded John of Parma as teacher in
Paris in 1247, and as general of the Franciscan order ten
years later. He was chosen cardinal-bishop of Albano
in 1273, and died at the CouncU of Lyons, where he spoke
in favour of imion vrith the Greeks. Bonaventura wrote
in defence of Ms order De paupertate Christi and Deter-
minationes questionum circa regulam Francisci ; and has
been caUed its second founder. His principal works on
theology are Ms commentary on the Sentences of the
Lombard, and Ms Breviloquium and Centiloquium. He
uses especiaUy Augustine, Anselm, and Hugh and
Richard of St. Victor, in their combination of the mystic
and dialectic methods. Bonaventura is more practical
and less speculative than Albert. like the other great
mystics he sought umon and commumon with God in
serapMc vision. The difference between these mystics
and the great dogmatic theologians was cMefly one of
emphasis. The mystic uses the religious imagination :
1 Schaff, History ofthe Christian Church, v., i. pp. 655 seq.

CH, m,] THE EARLY UNIVERSITIES 55
the dogmatist, the reasomng powers. The one is
absorbed in mystic, the other in logical contemplation.
Mystic contemplation may attach itself to external
things, but does not depend on such tMngs, Gerson
preferred Bonaventura to all the other doctors, ' be
cause in Ms teacMng he is solid and sure, pious and
just ' ; because he abstains, so far as he can, from all
curiosity, and knows how to avoid secular, dialectical, or
physical matters Mddon under theological forms ; be
cause in worMng to enlighten the spirit Ms aim is by
means of that light ' to bring piety to birth in the
heart,' * Bonaventura wrote commentaries on Luke,
John, the Psalms, and Ecclesiastes, He uses the method
called Collationes, or Collativa expositio, a selection of
important passages of the Bible for exposition, and the
use of a large number of others to iUustrate and con
firm these. He also wrote Postilla seu expositio in
Canticum canticorum, and many mystical and practical
works, including Itinerarium mentis in Deum, and
Meditations on the Life of Jesus, also hymns still in use.
According to Sixtus v. ' notMng more fruitful for the
Church of God ' had appeared than the theology of
Bonaventura.* 3. Thomas Aquinas, the Doctor angelicus (c. 1225-1274),
was of noble birth, and was educated at Monte Cassino
and the umversity of Naples. He became a Dominican
in 1243, and was sent to Cologne, where he studied under
Albert the Great, He followed Ms master to Paris, and
some years later back again to Cologne, ' TMs long
association of Thomas with the great polyMstor' is
called by Seeberg ' the most important influence in Ms
development ; it made Mm a comprehensive scholar and
won Mm permanently for the AristoteUan method,' ^
1 Gerson, Opera, ed. Du Pin, i, 21 ; Feret, La FacvXti de theologie de
Paris, ii. p. SOO,
! Encyclical, ed, Peltier, i, p, viu ; cited by Schaff, v., i. p. 680, n. 4,
s Seeberg, ' Thomas Aquinas,' in New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia.

56 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. i.
Albert is reported as saying of Thomas : ' He wiU give
forth in teacMng such a roar as will resound through the
whole world,' * Thomas taught Mmself at Cologne,
Paris, Bologna, Rome, Naples, and elsewhere. He is
the greatest and most comprehensive of the scholastics,
and the standard theologian of the Roman Catholic
Church, The papal encyclical of 1879 praises Mm as
' inter scholasticos doctores ommum princeps et magister
. , . veritatis, imice amator, divina humanaque scientia
praedives,' * Aquinas sought the reumon of the Greek
and Latin Churches, and died on Ms way to the Council
of Lyons, He is the author of many dogmatic works,
including : a Commentary on the Sentences of the
Lombard, Quaestiones disputatce, Quaestiones quod-
libetales XII., Compendium theologiae, Summa theologice,
and an Exposition of the Creed. WMle he builds on the
Lombard and Albert, he is independent in judgment, and
more comprehensive and able in Ms scholarsMp. It is
said that in Ms Summa he considers over three thousand
articles and fifteen thousand arguments or difficulties.'
Among Ms apologetic works the most important are :
Summa de veritate catholicce fidei contra Gentiles, Contra
errores Grcecorum, and De unitate intellectus contra
Averrhoistas. Thomas is also the author of many com
mentaries on Job, the Psalms, Song of Songs, Isaiah,
Jeremiah, Matthew, John, the Pauline Epistles, and also
of Catenae on the Gospels. He uses for these comment
aries various terms : Continua expositio, Continua glossa,
Aurea glossa, and Catena. He is said to cite more than
eighty Greek and Latin Fathers. He also wrote many
works on philosophy, including tMrteen commentaries on
Aristotle. He is called by Sandys ' on the. question of
" umversals "... a Realist in the moderate Aristotelian
sense,' * He conceives of theology and pMlosophy as
> FirfeSchaff,v,,i. p. 663, n. 1, 2 r«e Schaff, v., i. p. 662, %. L
» Vide Flugge, Theol. Wiss., ili. p, 621. < Sandys, i. p. 583.

CH, m,] THE EARLY UNIVERSITIES 57
searcMng for the truth by different methods. 'Non
eodem ordine^ utraque doctrina procedit.' * ' In his
consideration of etMcs,' according to Schaff, ' he rises
far above the other mediaeval writers, and marks an
epoch in the treatment of the subject. He devotes to it
. . . one tMrd of Ms entire system of theology,' ^ Three
of Ms hymns are in the Roman Breviary,
Among the other celebrated doctors of tMs century
three more call for special mention,
4, Roger Bacon., Doctor mirabilis (1214-1294), was a
Franciscan, who studied at Oxford and Paris, and taught
in both umversities. His teachers at Oxford, Robert
Greathead, Adam Marsh and Thomas Wallensis, were all
said to have been pupils of Edmund Rich of Canterbury
(f 1240), of whom it was said, ' (studebat) discere, quasi
semper victurus ; vivere, quasi eras moriturus.'^ Bacon
was a student of the same temper. He became famous,
especially for Ms studies in natural science ; but produced
important works in pMlosophy and theology also. His
principal work on theology, viritten shortly before Ms
death, was a Compendium studii theologici in five books
(1292), He found fault with the scholastic method of
instruction, and, in Ms Compendium studii philosophiae, he
criticised at the same time Aristotle and the great
scholastics, Alexander of Hales, Albert the Great, and
Thomas Aquinas, His Opus majus treats of the relations
of theology with science and pMlosophy, and the study
of the natural sciences. It has been recognised as ' at
once the Encyclopaedia and the Organon of the thirteenth
century,' His Opus minus abbreviates the former work.
His Opus tertium reproduces both works in the aphoristic
form. Bacon writes :
' Ignorance of the truths set forth by the ancients is due to the
little care that is spent on the study of the ancient languages,
1 Vide Schaff, V,, i. p. 667, n. 5. " Vide Schaff, ibid., p, 672,
3 Vide Sandys, i. p. 589.

58 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. i.
It is vain to object that some of the Fathers neglected that study
and misunderstood its advantages. Worthy as they are of
respect in many ways, they cannot serve as our models in every
thing. ... It is impossible to obtain a perfect knowledge of the
Scriptures without knowing Hebrew and Greek, or of philosophy
without knowing Arabic as weU. . . . There are not five men in
Latin Christendom who are acquainted with the Hebrew, Greek
and Arabic grammar, . . . There are many among the Latins
who can speak Greek, Arabic, and Hebrew; very few who
understand the grammar of these languages, or know how to
teach them. . . . The scientific works of Aristotle, Avicenna,
Seneca, Cicero, and other ancients cannot be had except at a
great cost ; their principal works have not been translated into
Latin. . . . Slowly has any portion of the phUosophy of Aristotle
come into use among the Latins.' '^
' In urging the study of Greek as weU as Hebrew, he
adds :
" We are the heirs of the scholars of the past, and (even in our
own interests) are bound to maintain the traditions of leaming,
on pain of being charged with infinite foUy." ' '
Bacon Mmself wrote Hebrew and Greek grammars.^
His Epistola de laude Scripturae sacrae emphasises the
study of the Sacred Writings in the original languages.
Bacon was suspected of magical arts and heresy, and was
imprisoned in a monastery for ten years, but was tem
porarily released by Clement iv,, to whom he sent Ms
three encyclopaedic works. He was imprisoned again
in the time of Nicolaus in. (c. 1278), and was not finally
liberated untU Nicolaus rv., Ms former accuser, had
become pope, when infiuential friends interposed on Ms
behalf,^ 5, Richard Middleton, Doctor solidus (fc, 1300), was
also a Franciscan. He lectured both at Paris and at
> Bacon, Opus majus, 18, 44 ; Opus tertium, 33, 55 ; Compendium
studii theologice, lv. ; cited by Sandys, i. pp. 590 seq.
2 Bacon, Compendium, studii philosophias, 434 seq. ; vide Sandys, i
p, 594.
3 Vide edition of Nolan and Hirsch, London, 1902.
* Vide preface to Opus majus, ed. Bridges, Oxford, 1897.

CH, m.] THE EARLY UNIVERSITIES 59
Oxford. His principal works are Quaestiones super IV.
libros Sententiarum, and Quodlibeta. He was one of the
best commentators of the Lombard, and follows him
strictly. He was also a sMlful interpreter of Scripture
and was versed in canon law. His vsrritings include
commentaries on the Pauline Epistles and the Gospels,
De distinctione decreti, and other lesser works. He was
held in great esteem, and was described as fundatissimus
and copiosus. A scholar of the fifteenth century calls
Mm ' doctor profundus et magnae autoritatis in scolis,'
Martigne classes Mm with Alexander of Hales, Bona
ventura, and Duns Scotus as one of the four great teachers
of the Franciscan order, and cites the Life of a Franciscan,
a bishop of Toulouse, whose great-nephew was taught by
Richard, in wMch he is described as ' doctor of the
umversity of Paris, and one of the most learned theo
logians of the century.' *
6, Mgidius de Columna, Doctor fundatissimus (f 1316),
a Roman, was a pupil of Thomas Aquinas, and an
Augustiman monk. He studied and taught at Paris for
many years, was made general of Ms order, 1292-1295,
and archbishop of Bourges, 1296, He spent years in
the papal court at Rome and Avignon, and is supposed
to have written the bull Unam sanctam. His works
include commentaries on the Sentences, on Romans and
the Song of Songs ; also a treatise, De potestate ecclesi
astica. 8. In this period the Syrian Church produced a scholar
of lasting importance, Gregory, Bar-Hebrceus, physician,
theologian and philosopher.
Bar-Hebrceus (1226-1286) is described by Wright as
' one of the most leamed and versatile men that Syria
ever produced,' * He ' cultivated nearly every branch of
1 Vide Feret, La Faculti de thiolngie de Paris, li, pp. 879 seq.
2 Wright, Syriac Literature, pp. 265 seq.
VOL. II, E

60 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. i
science that was in vogue in Ms time,' and wrote com-
pendiums on many of them. His Sapientia sapien-
tiarum is an encyclopaedia, comprising ' the whole
AristoteUan discipline.' He wrote commentaries on
Hippocrates and Galen, grammatical works that are
' now well known and appreciated by Orientalists,' and
verse that is still admired. His most important con
tribution to theology is The Storehouse of Secrets, ' a
critical and doctrinal commentary on the text of the
Scriptures of the Old and New Testaments, based on the
PesMtta, but taMng note of the various readings of the
Hebrew text, the Septuagint, and other Greek versions,
the later Syriac translations, and even the Armeman
and Coptic, besides noting differences of reading between
the Nestorians and Jacobites,' His lesser works on
theology include an anaphora, a confession of faith, and
a Nomocanon of great authority in the Jacobite Church,
His Mstorical works are now of special importance. The
Universal History, extending to 1286, has been brought
by other writers down to the year 1496.

OH. IV.] FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES 61

CHAPTER IV
THE DECLINE OF SCHOLASTICISM IN THE FOUB-
TEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTUEIES
At the beginmng of the century there were several great
scholastics ; but they divided Scholasticism into different
schools, and really gave the impulse to the decay that
followed, by their criticism of the great scholastics of the
previous century.
1. Duns Scotus introduced the Scotist school of Scholas
ticism, characterised by criticism of traditional theories,
and emphasis upon the will, di-vine and human.
John Duns Scotus, Doctor subtilis (c, 1267-1308), was a
native of England. He became a Franciscan, studied
in Merton College, Oxford, and took Ms degrees of
bachelor and doctor in Paris. He taught successfully in
Oxford and Paris, and finally in Cologne,, where he died
at the age of about forty. His great work is Opus
Oxoniense, a commentary on the Sentences oi the Lombard,
abridged in Reportata Parisiensia. He also wrote com
mentaries on Aristotle's De anima, and Refutations,
and Ms treatises on physics, metaphysics, and meteoro
logies. His Visitings include also : Grammatica specula-
tiva ; Disputationes subtilissimoe ; Conclusiones meta
physicae ; Quaestiones quodlibetales, and other works,^
He is the most hair-splitting of ecclesiastics, and raised
a multitude of new questions ; and in Ms discussion of
1 (^^a, 12 vols., Lyons, 1639 ; 26 vols., Paris, 1891-1895.

62 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. l
the older ones questioned not a few of the traditional
answers. As Seeberg says :
' Characterising God as WiU, and finding the essence of man'a
nature also in his WUl, he naturaUy emphasises the individual
and his freedom in his view of humanity. Thus by his sharp
criticism of traditional theories and by his bold creation of new
terms and combinations, he set forces at work in the domain of
theology which did much to prepare the way for the stiU more
thoroughgoing criticism of the Reformers.' ^
2, William of Occam began as a Scotist, but subse
quently made a new departure by the revi-val of Nominalism,
which continued to influence theological education until
after the Reformation.
William of Occam (c, 1280-1349) was bom at Occam,
in Surrey, England, He studied at Oxford and Paris,
and became a Franciscan in early life. He taught at
Paris for some years, and was made a provincial of Ms
order (1322). A rigid advocate of poverty, the original
principle of St. Francis, he was imprisoned and finaUy
excommumcated for supporting Michael of Cesena in Ms
attempts to reform the order. Occam began as a pupU of
Duns Scotus, but subsequently made a new departure by
Ms revival of Nominalism in a better form, wMch con
tinued to influence theology untU after the Reformation,
and some schools even till the present day. Occam was
known as the Doctor singularis et invincibilis. His
writings include : (1) important pMlosopMcal works,
the cMef of wMch are an Expositio aurea, wMeh gives
' in the form of commentaries on Aristotle and Porphyry,
Occam's logic, epistemology and metaphysic,' * and
Summa logices ; (2) theological works : Quaestiones et
decisiones in IV libros sententiarum, Centiloquium
theologicum, Quodlibeta VII, De corpore Christi, De
sacramento altaris, De prcedestinatione et futuris con-
1 Seeberg, 'Duns Scotus,' in Ne-w Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia.
2 Seeberg, ' Occam,' in New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia.

CH.IV.] FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES 63
tingentibus ; (3) many practical works : in advocacy of
poverty, the cMef of which was O'pus nonaginta dierum ;
and in defence of the German emperor, Louis of Bavaria,
against the intrusion of the pope, John xxn,, into the
domain of civil affairs, Seeberg says of Occam :
' His historical importance rests on three achievements in
particular : he carried the banner of nominaUsm to victory in
the phUosophy of his age ; he encouraged the critical spirit in
regard to traditional dogma, and taught men how to use it as a
counterpoise to ecclesiastical positivism ; and he struck out a
new Une of thought as to the relations of temporal and spiritual
authority of Church and State,'
He is said to have been ' the pioneer of modern
epistemology.' ^ Luther called Mm ' my dear master,'
and declared : ' I am of the Occamist faction,' Sandys
foUows Mullinger in the opimon :
' His chief service to philosophy is that " he brought again to
Ught . . . the true value of the inductive method, aa auxiUary
to the deductive." ' *
Several other nominalists of the period may be
mentioned : 1. Durand of Saint PourQain (Porciano),
Doctor resolutissimus (t 1334), studied in the Domimcan
convent at Clermont, and then at Paris, where he became
a teacher, and a doctor (c, 1312), He was made Master
of the Sacred Palace at Avignon, and in 1326 bishop of
Meaux, His principal work is a Commentarius in IV
libros sententiarum Lombardi. Durand is usually classed
as a nominalist ; but he was rather a critic, and inde
pendent in Ms judgment, mediating between Thomas
Aquinas and Occam. He stated many opimons, wMch,
if not heretical, tended that way ; but as they were
tentative and subject to the authority of the Church,
he escaped condemnation. He taught a Mnd of impana-
tion or consubstantiation, in his doctrine of the Eucharist.
I Seeberg, 'Occam,' in New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia.
« Sandys, i. p. 601.

64 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. i.
2, Franciscus de Mayronis, Doctor illuminatus (fc.
1325-1327), one of the principal pupUs of Duns Scotus,
taught theology in Paris early in the fourteenth century.
His works include : Commentaria in IV libros sententi
arum, printed at Vemce ^ in the sixteenth century in
many editions (1504 +) ; Expositio in VIII libros
Physicorum Aristotelis (Vemce, 1490, 1517) ; Passus
super universalia et praedicamenta Aristotelis (Vemce
1517, Boulogne 1479) ; commentaries on Anselm, Diony
sius the Areopagite, and Genesis ; De divinorum nominum
explanatione, works on etMcs, sermons, and many other
writings. 3. Petrus Aureolus, a Franciscan and Doctor fcecundus
(t 1322), taught at Paris, became provincial of Aquitaine,
and finaUy archbishop of Aix. He also began as a
foUower of Duns Scotus. His works include : Com-
m,entarius in IV libros sententiarum (Rome, 1596-1605),
Tractatus de conceptione Mariae Virginis, Tractatus de
paupertate, Breviarium Bibliorum, Quodlibeta, Postilla
super Job, Isaiam prophetam,a,nd numerous other writings.
Feret remarks : ' To judge by the printing of many of
Ms works, and above aU by the large number of editions
of the Breviarium Bibliorum, the tMnker in Pierre Auriol
was esteemed no less by the foUowing generations than
by Ms cotemporaries,' *
4. John Buridan (f after 1350), rector of the umversity
of Paris, was a pupU of Occam, and ' one of the best
known of the supporters of (Ms) revived nominalism.' '
He wrote a text-book on logic, and commentaries on
various works of Aristotle, including Ms Ethics. Buridan
is cMefly important in theology for Ms researches on the
freedom of the wUl.
5. Robert Holcot (f 1349), an English Domimcan,
taught theology at Oxford. He also is classed among
' Also Conjlatus, Basle, 1489, Lyons, 1579,
' Feret, ui, p. 355, s Sandys, i, p, 608,

OH. IV.] FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES 65
the nominalists, but he was rather an intermediate man.
He wrote commentaries on the Minor Prophets and
Proverbs, and also on the Sentences.
6. The last great nominalist was Gabriel Bid (f 1495).
He was bom at Speyer, studied at Heidelberg, became a
preacher at Mainz, and professor of theology and pMlo
sophy at the new imiversity of Tiibingen (founded in
1477), He too was a foUower of Occam, and Ms cMef
work is Epitome et collectorium ex Occamo super IV libros
sententiarum, 1495, He also wrote very influential
practical works : Lectura super canonem missce, 1488 ;
Expositio canonis missce, 1499 ; and Sermones, 1499. Late
in life he joined the Brethren of the Common Life.
3. Raymond LuUy was a Franciscan of another type,
whose special service was the revi-val of the study of the
Oriental languages and of comparative religion, connected
with missionary effort.
Raymond LuUy (c, 1232-1315) was bom on the island
of Majorca ; and Ms life-work was from the Balearic
Isles as a centre, although he taught in Paris, MontpelUer,
and elsewhere, and journeyed to Rome and other parts
in the interest of Ms missions to the Moslems and the
study of the languages of the East. He became a
Franciscan in early life, and devoted himself to the study
of physics, natural pMlosophy, and the Oriental languages.
He wrote against Averroes' phUosophy. His most
important work is entitled Ars magna. TMs won Mm
the title of Doctor illuminatus, and ' seemed to offer an
easy road to the co-ordination of all sciences in one master
science,' * Raymond greatly promoted the study of the
languages of the East ; and through his influence mis
sionary colleges and professorsMps of Oriental languages
were established at Avignon, Paris, Bologna, Oxford,
and Salamanca. He was one of the earliest writers on
I Zockler, 'Lully,' in New Schaff-Hernog Encyclopedia.

66 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. l
Comparative Theology. He wrote : Liber de quinque
sapientibus, a dialogue of disputation between a Roman,
a Greek, a Nestorian, a Jacobite, and a Saracen ; also
lAber de gentili et tribus sapientibus, a discussion between
a Pagan pMlosopher, a Jew, a Christian, and a Saracen,
The former may be regarded as Comparative Theology,
the latter as Comparative Religion, Raymond also
wrote a number of practical and devotional works,^ and
still has a reputation among Ms countrymen as a poet.
4. The most influential Thomists of the period were
Hervcevs Natalis and Thomas Bradwardine.
The Domimcan order continued to perpetuate the
teacMngs of Thomas Aquinas. 1. Her vaus Natalis
(t 1323) studied at Paris, and taught there as doctor of
theology. He was one of the most noted scholars of Ms
time. He became a provincial of the Domimcans in
1309, and general of the order mne years later. He
wrote : In IV Petri Lombardi sententiarum volumina
(Vemce 1505, Paris 1647), Quodlibeta (Vemce 1486, 1513),
De intentionibus (Paris, 1489, 1544), and many other
works. Seeberg calls Mm ' a moderate Thomist, (who)
distinguished Mmself by Ms opposition to the views of
Duns Scotus.' *
2. Thomas Bradwardine (1290-1349) was both student
and teacher at Oxford, and became archbishop of
Canterbury, 1348. He was a Thoroist, and especially
an Augustiman ; and was called Doctor profundus. His
great work was De causa Dei contra Pelagium (ed.
Savile, 1618).
Two other Domimcans deserve special mention :
3, Johannes Capreolus (1380-1444) became a doctor of
theology in Paris, where he explained the Sentences. He
' Works, Mainz, 1721-1748, in ten volumes, ed. Salzinger (vol, vii, and
vui. not published) ; earlier edition, 1617, incomplete.
' Seeberg, ' Hervseus Brito,' in New Schaf-Herzog Encyclopedia.

CH. IV.] FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES 67
was called to Toulouse to preside over the studium
generale of the Domimcans there. He wrote a com
mentary on the four books of Sentences, and Defensiones
theologice divi Thomce (Vemce 1483-1484, 1514 -j-), wMch
gained Mm the surname of ' the Prince of Thomists.'
4. Juan de Torquemada (Turrecremata) was bom at
VaUadoUd and died at Rome (1388-1468). He became
a Domimcan at sixteen, studied in the monastery of
St, Jacques at Paris, and was licensed in theology, 1424,
Returning to Spain, he was made prior in the convents
flrst of VaUadoUd and then of Toledo. He became
Master of the Sacred Palace of Eugene rv., in 1431, and
an ardent defender of the papacy at the Council of Basle.
Torquemada wrote many treatises upon the Church and
the papacy after the teacMng of Thomas Aquinas, and
also upon the sacraments against the Hussites. He
was made cardinal in 1439, and was active at the Council
of Florence, having a hand in the composition of the
decree of reumon. His vsnritings cover a vride range,
including works on the Scriptures, dogma, canon law,
the sacraments, and practical Christiamty. He was
caUed ' the honour of Ms nation and of Ms order,' ' a
luminary and a pillar ' for ' the Church umversal.' *
5. There was a great revival of mysticism in the four
teenth century in Eckhart, Tauler, Suso, and Ruysbrceck.
1. Meister Eckhart (c. 1260-1329) was a Domimcan
mystic. He studied at Erfurt and Cologne, and became
prior at Erfurt and provincial of Thuringia, He went
to Paris to study and lecture, and there took Ms degrees
(1300-1303), He was made provincial of Saxony, and
then vicar-general for Bohemia. In 1311 he was ap
pointed to teach in Paris, and some years later he appears
as teacher at Cologne. The mysticism of Eckhart was
1 Scriptores ordinis Pradicatorum, i, p, 837 ; cited by Feret, La
Faculti de thlologie de Paris, iv, p. 336.

68 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. l
extreme and tended towards pantheism. He said and
wrote many tMngs that led to Ms condemnation by the
archbishop of Cologne and finaUy by the pope, to whom
he appealed. Twenty-six propositions were condemned
as Errores Ekardi.^ He is said to have submitted before
Ms death. He was vrilUng to admit the etemity of the
world. The Christian may be converted into God just
as the bread of the Eucharist is converted into the body
of Christ. Whatever God gives to His only-begotten Son
in human nature, all that He may give to the Christian.
Whatever is proper to the divine nature, that is also
proper to the just man. External acts do not make us
good, but only interior acts, ' Si homo commisisset mille
peccata mortalia, si talis homo esset recte dispositus, non
deberd velle se ea non commisisse.' ^
There are in such statements as these pantheism and
antinomianism, the forerunners of simUar tendencies
in modem times. Eckhart combined scholasticism with
a mysticism run wild. The earlier mystics had been
Franciscans, They were comparatively sober, and
attached the mystic element to the scholastic theology.
The later Domimcan mystics tended towards heresy.
Protestants ignore the heretical tendencies of these men,
and regard them as ' preparing the way for the Re
formation.' Eckhart was called by Hegel ' the father of
German pMlosophy ' ; by Cruel, ' the boldest and most
profound tMnker the German pulpit has ever had,'
According to Pfleiderer Ms spirit is ' the spirit of the
Reformation, the spirit of Luther.' *
2. John Tauler (c. 1300-1361) was a Domimcan of
Strasburg. He is known to have come under the in
fluence of the mystics Johann Stemgasser and Nicholas
of Strasburg, possibly also of Eckhart and Suso. Little
1 Denzinger, Enchiridion Symbolorum, pp. 141 teq.
• Ibid., pp. 501 seq.
» Vide Schaff, v., ii. pp. 243, 248, 256,

CH, IV,] FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES 69
is known about Ms life, and of the works ascribed to
Mm only the Sermons, and a part of these, are certainly
genuine. These have passed through many editions, the
first being that of Leipzig, 1498, Tauler was more
practical than Eckhart, but no less pantheistic and
antinomian in Ms tendency. Yet Ms sermons have been
great favourites with Christians of the mystic type,
Beza called Mm a visionary ; but Luther and Melan
chthon praised Mm,^
3. Henry Suso (1300-1366), ' the Swiss mystic,' was
bom on Lake Constance, became a Dominican at tMrteen
years, and studied at Strasburg and at Cologne, The
greater part of Ms life was spent in the monasteries of Ms
order at Constance and Ulm, In his twenty-eighth year
he came under the influence of Eckhart, Suso and Ms
writings were condemned as heretical also by a councU
of unknown date, but what he taught is not clear. The
Book of Truth is a defence of Eckhart ; The Book of
Eternal Wisdom ' became one of the favourite books of
meditation of the Middle Ages.' * Schaff quotes Demfle
as calling it ' the consummate fruit of German
mysticism,' * Suso was beatifled by Pope Gregory xvi,
4, John Ruysbrceck (f 1381) was prior of the regular
canons at Grondal, near Brussels, He was called Doctor
ecstaticus. His works were written in Dutch, but trans
lated into Latin by his pupils Jordaens and Groote.
They include mystical, etMcal, and monastic treatises,
and a short exposition of the Athanasian Creed. Ruys
brceck shows the influence of Eckhart, and was visited
by Tauler, His pupU Groote founded the Brethren of
the Common Life,
The greatest works produced by the mystics of tMs
age are of uncertain authorsMp, 5. The Imitation of
1 Vide Schaff, v., ii. p. 261.
« Cohrs, 'Suso,' in New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia.
» Schaff, V,, ii, p. 266.

70 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. l
Christ has been attributed to Gerson, but is now generally
supposed to be the work of Thomas d Kempis (f 1471),
to whom are ascribed other popular works, including
meditations on the life of the Saviour and on the incarna
tion, Thomas was educated at the famous school at
Deventer conducted by the Brethren of the Common
Life, and is called a follower of Groote, Whatever may
be thought of its authorsMp, De imitatione Christi takes
rank vrith the Confessions of St. A-ugustine as a devotional
book of the umversal Church,^
6, The unknown author of the Theologia Germanica has
been called ' one of the Reformers before the Reforma
tion,' Luther published tMs work in two editions
(1516, 1518), the title of the second being : Ein Deutsch
Theologia. He called it a ' noble little book,' in wMch
he had found Ms God ' in the German tongue ' as he had
not ' found Him in the Latin and Hebrew tongues.' * It
contains, however, pantheistic elements.
6. The Eastern Church had also its great mystics at
this period, chief among whom were Nicolas Cabasilas and
Simeon of Thessalonica.
1. Nicolas Cabasilas, archbishop of Thessalomca
(f c. 1371), was a cotemporary of Tauler ; and as Adeney
says, the two ' agree in their vital principles.' * The great
work of Cabasilas is Concerning the Life of Christ, in
seven books. His writings include ' a mystical exposi
tion of the Liturgy' and a pMlosopMcal work against
scepticism. 2. Simeon (f c, 1428), also archbishop of Thessalomca,
was an influential writer and ' one of the cMef mystagogic
theologians of the later Greek Church.' * His most
important works were : The Faith, the Rites, and the
J Vide Sch.aff, ' Kempis,' in New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia.
* Schaff, History ofthe Christian Church, v., ii. pp. 242, 293 seq.
* Adeney, The Greek and Eastem Churches, p. 282.
* Meyer, ' Simeon,' in Ne-io Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia.

CH.IV.] FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES 71
Mysteries of the Church, described by Adeney as ' a store
house of ecclesiastical archaeology ' ; ^ and a dialogue
Against All Heresies. He also wrote expositions of the
Nicene Creed, and other treatises.
7. The chief reforming movement in ihe fourteenth
century was that of Wyclif.
John Wyclif (c. 1325-1384) was born in YorksMre and
educated at Oxford, where he became a scholar of
Balliol, and then master (c, 1360), He was interested in
mathematics and natural science, as well as in pMlosophy
and theology. He became a doctor of theology not later
than 1372, and then gave lectures on theology. About
two years later he was made rector of Lutterworth,
LeicestersMre, a living wMch he held until Ms death,
WycUf revived the study of the Scriptures, and sought a
reformation of the Church, especially on the religious and
ecclesiastical side. He was sustained and protected by
John of Lancaster, His principal writing was his Summa
theologiae, wMch is strongly polemic in character. Like
Bradwardine he was an Augustinian, He was, indeed, a
realistic pMlosopher ; but based Mmself cMefly on the
Scriptures, and so received the title of Doctor evangelicus.
With the help of Ms associates he translated the Latin
Bible into English, assigning to Mmself the New Testa
ment, and to his friend, Nicholas of Hereford, the Old
Testament, The whole was revised in 1388 by John
Purvey. Wyclif wrote :
' Christen men and women, olde and young, shulden study
fast in the New Testament, and no simple man of wit shulde be
aferde unmeasurably to study in the text of holy Writ. Pride
and covetise of clerks is cause of their blyndness and heresie and
priveth them fro verie understonding of holy Writ. The New
Testament is of ful autorite and open to understonding of simple
men, as to the pjTits that ben most needful to salvation.' *
1 Adeney, The Greek and Eastern Ckmches, p. 282.
2 Cited by Schaff, v., ii. pp. 341 seq.

72 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt, i.
Wyclif opposed the abuse of the allegorical method of
exegesis, and exalted the authority of the Scriptures
above the authority of the Church. He made an aU-
important statement, wMch became the Puritan watch
word in later times : ' The Holy Spirit teaches us the sense
of Scripture as Christ opened the Scriptures to His
apostles.' ^
Wyclif estabUshed an order of poor preacMng priests,
who went about Uke the earUer Domimcans preacMng
to the people. These and their foUowers were called
Lollards, and were speedily declared heretical. The re
forming energies of Wyclif were at first directed against
abuses of an ecclesiastical and economic Mnd ; but Ms
activities, like Ms writings, covered a wide range. The
latter included : De civili dominio, De officio regis, De
incarcerandis fidelibus, as weU as sermons, polemic
treatises, and the famous Trialogus, Dialogus, and Opus
evangelicum. According to Ms disciple Thorpe, ' from
Mm one could leam in truth what the Church of Christ
is, and how it should be ruled and led.' *
8. The reforming spirit was transferred from England
to Bohemia through John Huss, who adopted essentially
the teaching of Wydif.
John Huss (1369-1415) was a native of Bohemia, and
studied at the umversity of Prague, where he took
Ms degrees. He was ordained priest in 1400, became
dean of the pMlosopMcal faculty a year later, and rector
of the umversity in 1402. A contest over the rival
popes brought about a secession of the Gterman professors
and students in 1409. They removed to Leipzig, where
a new umversity was established, Huss adopted the
views of Wyclif, and Ms teacMng spread with great
rapidity all over Bohemia until the mass of the
1 Vide Briggs, St-ady of Holy Scriptwre, p, 455.
2 Cited by Loserth, ' Wyclif,' in New Schaff-Hermog Encyclopedia.

CH, IV,] FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES 73
Bohemians had become Hussites, The archbishop
appealed to the pope, and Huss and Ms adherents were
put under the ban, A civil war ensued, wMch lasted
for a long time, even after the condemnation of Huss,
He was summoned to the CouncU of Constance, and
bumed at the stake as a heretic ; but he died pro
testing Ms innocence, saying : ' In the truth of the
Gospel wMch I have written, taught, and preached, will
I die to-day with gladness,' His writings are for the
most part polemic. In Ms sermons he often reproduces
Wyclif, In pastoral activity he was ' unsurpassed.' ^
The friend and follower of Huss, Jerome of Prague,
was not long in sharing Ms fate. Jerome (f 1416)
studied in Prague, Oxford, Paris, Cologne, and Heidelberg.
At Oxford he came under the infiuence of Wyclif, and
carried back with Mm to Bohemia two of Wyclif 's writ
ings, the Trialogus and the Dialogus. He supported
Huss in Ms attempts at reformation and in spreading the
teacMngs of Wyclif, and remained true to both these
masters until after the death of Huss. Then for a time
Ms courage gave way ; but at the close of a winter's
imprisonment he defended both them and Mmself with
great spirit before the Council. Bracciolim describes
Ms bearing with great admiration, crying : ' He stood
there fearless and unterrified, not alone despising death,
but seeMng it, so that you would have said he was another
Cato. ... I praise not that wMch he advanced, if any
thing contrary to the institutions of the Church ; but I
admire Ms leaming, Ms eloquence, Ms persuasiveness of
speech, Ms adroitness in reply. . . . Not Mutius Mmself
suffered his arm to bum with such Mgh courage as did
this man Ms whole body. Nor did Socrates drink the
poison so willingly as he accepted the fiames.' ^
He suffered on the very spot where Huss was bumed,
1 Vide Loserth, ' Huss,' in New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia.
2 Cited by Schaff, v., ii. pp. 390 seq.

74 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. l
9. The study of the Scriptures waa greatly promoted by
Nicolaus de Iryra, Ludolph of Saxony and others.
1. Nicolaus de Lyra (c. 1270-1340) was bom at Lyre,
France, and died at Paris. He was a Franciscan, and in
1325 was made a provincial of Ms order. He studied the
Oriental languages as weU as theology, and taught at the
Sorbonne for many years. He spent Ms life in the study
and exposition of the Scriptures, and tMrty-eight years
in writing Ms commentaries. He also wrote a com
mentary on the Lombard's Sentences, Quodlibeta, and
three books against the Jews, His PostiUae are written
in fifty books of runmng commentary on the whole Bible,
including the Apocrypha ; also tMrty-five books of
moralia. There are tMee prologues : (1) a eulogy of
Scripture ; (2) a study of method ; (3) of the mystical
meamng, Lyra mentions the four senses of Scripture,
and then says :
' AU of them presuppose the literal sense as the foundation.
As a buUding, decUning from the foundation, is likely to faU ;
so the mystic exposition, which deviates from the Uteral sense,
must be reckoned unbecoming and unsuitable.'
And yet he adds :
' I protest, I intend to say nothing either in the way of asser
tion or determination, except in relation to such things as have
been clearly settled by Holy Scripture on the authority of the
Church. AU besides must be taken as spoken scholastioaUy and
by way of exercise ; for whieh reason, I submit aU I have said,
and aim to say, to the correction of our holy mother the Church.' ^
It is astomshing that Lyra accomplished so much wMle
worMng witMn such limits. However, it is only in the
field of the spiritual and practical interpretation of
Scripture that the Church has ever claimed infallibiUty.
It is certain that piety and communion with God are
absolutely essential to an understanding of His Word.
1 Nicolaus de Lyra, PostiUce perpetual, proL u, ; vide Briggs, Sl-udy of
Soly Scripture, p, 454,

CH, IV,] FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES 75
To know the Bible it is necessary to know God and His
Christ, The supreme interpreter of the Scriptures is
the Holy Spirit, Lyra regarded the Church as more
completely under the influence of the Spirit than any of
its individual members. He therefore submitted all
questions of faith and morals to the decision of the
Church ; and, in so doing, was not disloyal to that funda
mental principle, upon wMch the greatest leaders of the
Church in all ages have acted, however defective their
apprehension of it may have been,* He exerted a health
ful, reviving influence on Biblical study, and is certainly
the cMef exegete of the Middle Ages, There is truth in
the saying : ' H Lyra had not piped, Luther would not
have danced,' * By Lyra and WycUf the seeds of a new
exegesis were planted, wMch burst forth into fruitful
life at the Reformation,'
2, Next to Lyra may be mentioned the Carthusian,
Ludolph of Saxony, who flourished c, 1330, and wrote a
life of Jesus Christ, wMch became influential and so
remained until after the Reformation, It was not an
historical study, but was useful for etMcal purposes.
Ludolph also wrote scholia on the Psalms,
Among the other exegetes of the time may be men
tioned : 3, Peter Berchorius (f 1362), a French Domim
can, who wrote Opus reductorii moralis super tota biblia,
in tMrty-four books. He urged tropology, or moral
exposition, 4, Peter Herentalius (t 1436), a native of Flanders,
wrote Catenae on the Psalms and the Gospels, taking as
Ms model the Glossa continua of Thomas Aqmnas on the
Gospels. 5, Alphonsus Tostatus (f 1455), lecturer at Salamanca,
bishop of Avila, and lord Mgh chancellor of Castile, was
1 Vide Briggs, St-udy of Holy Scripture, pp. 484 seq., 660 seq.
2 Si Lyra non lyrasset, Lutherus non saltasset.
' Vide Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, p, 455,
VOL, II. F

76 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. l
one of the most leamed men of his time. He wrote a
commentary on the greater part of the Bible, published
at Vemce 1728, in twenty-seven volumes folio, wMch
is diffuse and dry, but leamed. His Introduction to
the Biblical writings, prefixed to the commentary on
Matthew, is of little value.
Laurentius Valla (f 1457) retumed to the grammatico-
Mstorical method of exegesis. As a humamst he belongs
rather to the Modem Age.*
6. Bernardine of Siena (f 1444), a Franciscan, and the
first Vicar-general of the Observantists, was noted for
Ms preacMng, and was called by Pius n. a second Paul.
In addition to sermons he wrote a commentary on the
Apocalypse. 7. Au,gustine of Rome wrote commentaries on the
Epistles of Paul, the Catholic Epistles, and the
Apocalypse. 8, Paulus Burgensis, bishop of Burges (f 1435), is
described by Fliigge * as a converted Jew who showed
many traces of Jewish leaming. He wrote Additiones
ad Nicolai Lyrae postillas in sacram Scripturam.
9, John Lattebur, a Franciscan of England, wrote
Moralia super Threnos Jeremiae, and commentaries on
Jeremiah, the Psalms, and the Acts,
10. Many universities were founded in the latter part
of the fourteenth, the fifteenth, and the early sixteenth
centuries, the most important of which were in Germany
and after the model of Paris.
In Germany were founded the umversities of Prague
(1348), Vienna (1365), Heidelberg (1386), Cologne (1388),
Erfurt (1379-1392), Wiirzburg (1402-1582), Leipzig (1409),
Rostock (1419), Trives (1454-1473), Greifswald (1456),
1 Vide pp. 87 f,
2 Flugge, Versuch emer Geschichte der theologischen 'Wi»sen,sehaften, iii,
p, 272,

CH. IV.] FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES 77
Freiburg (1457), Ingolstadt (1459-1472), Maim (1477),
Tiibingen (1477), Wittenberg (1502), and Frankfurt (1506).
In Italy were opened the umversities of Perugia (1308) ;
Pisa (1343), subsequently the university of the Floren
tine govemment; Pavia (1361), wMch served for the
MUanese ; Ferrara (1391), and Turin (1405),
France estabUshed those of Avignon (1303), Cahors
(1332), Grenoble (1339), and Orange (1365), in the four
teenth century, and eight others in the fifteenth century.
In the Low Countries the umversity of Louvain was
established in 1425.
In Switzerland was opened the umversity of Basel,
1459. In Poland and Hungary were founded those of Cracow
(1364-1397), Funfkirchen (1367), and Ofen Pest (Buda
pest, 1476-1477),
In Spain a large number were founded, including those
at Lerida (c, 1300), Perpignan (1349), Huesca (1359),
Barcelona (1450), Saragossa (1474), Palma (1483),
Sigilenza (c, 1489), Alcala (1499), and Valencia (1500),
In Sweden a university was opened at Upsala (1477).
In Denmark one was established at Copenhagen (1478).
In Scotland tMee were founded : one at St. Andrews
(1411-1413) ; one at Glasgow (1450) ; and one at
Aberdeen (1494).
The greater umversities had for the most part the
four faculties : those of arts, in wMch instruction was
based on Aristotle ; medicine, in wMch the cMef text
books were the works of Hippocrates, Galen, and
Avicenna ; law, the study of wMch was based on civil
and ecclesiastical canons, coUected in the Corpus juris
canonici ; and theology, ha,sed on the Lombard's Sentences.
According to RashdaU,
' There were ... in every university town, as in other im
portant places, grammar schools proper. . . . In many cases . . .
the university acquired jurisdiction over these schools. This

78 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. l
was the case in most German universities. In others they re
mained under the ecclesiastical inspection to which they had
been subject before the rise of the university corporations. . . .
The old ecclesiastical schools, in connection with cathedrals or
other important churches, were not destroyed by the growth
of the universities, and other schools of the same kind were founded
from time to time. ... In districts remote from universities
there were ecclesiastical schools of a higher type. ... In some
countries the bulk of the inferior clergy must have received their
education in such schools.' "¦
Rogers says :
' I am convinced that [grammar schools] were attached to
every monastery, and that the extraordinary number of founda
tion schools estabUshed just after the Reformation of 1547 was
not a new zeal for a new learning, but a fresh and very inadequate
supply of that which had been so suddenly and disastrously
extinguished.' '
11. The confiicts between the rival popes involved all
Europe in political and ecclesiastical confusion. The
University of Paris, under the lead of the great mystics,
D'Ailly and Gerson, led in an attempt at reform through
oecumenical councils ; but they simply succeeded in
strengthening the papacy, after the schism ivas healed.
The great scMsm in the papacy, wMch began in 1378
between Urban vi, and Clement vn,, the former at Rome,
the latter at Avignon, France, involved the whole of
Europe in civil and ecclesiastical war, to the serious
injury of religious and theological education. Various
attempts to heal the scMsm were made from time to
time ; untU at last the cMef civU govemments, under
the lead of the umversity of Paris, determined to bring
it to an end. Three successive reforming Coimcils were
held : those of Pisa (1409), Constance (1414-1418), and
Basel (1431-1443). These reforming Councils were ably
and conservatively conducted ; but they could not
1 Rashdall, ii. pp. 597, 601.
« Eogers, Six Centuries of Work and Wages, i, p, 165 ; vide BashdaU,
ii, p, 600, ». 2,

CH. IV,] FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES 79
succeed, because of the unwillingness of the papacy to be
reformed, or to submit to the Councils, and because of
the rivalry of the civil govemments. The Council of
Pisa deposed both of the rival popes, and elected a
tMrd ; but as neither of the rivals would yield, the result
of tMs action was that three popes were in the field.
The Council of Constance succeeded better in tMs regard,
John xxm, was deposed ; Gregory xn, resigned volun
tarily ; and Benedict xm, could be disregarded, as he
was recognised only in Pemscola, a small town of
Valencia, Spain. A new pope was elected (1417), under
the name of Martin v. ; and apparently the scMsm was
healed. TMs Council, however, disgraced itself by
violating the safe-conduct of John Huss, and buming
Mm at the stake. The new pope failed to carry out the
reforms proposed by the Council ; and so, after Ms death,
the Council of Basel was summoned to deal vrith Ms
successor, Eugene iv. The Council suspended Mm in
1438, deposed Mm in 1439, and elected as pope Ama-
deus of Savoy under the name of Felix v. As Eugene
would not submit, two rival popes were in the field.
After Ms death the cardinals elected Nicolas v. (1447-
1455), an exceedingly able, vrise, and iremc pope, who
soon persuaded Felix to resign, the Council to dissolve,
and all Europe to umte under Ms jurisdiction. TMs
reunion was celebrated by a Jubilee at Rome in 1450,
wMch closes the period of the Middle Ages, leaving the
papacy at the height of its supremacy over the world.
The most infiuential men in connection with the
CouncU of Pisa were Petrus de Alliaco, bishop of Cambrai,
and Ms pupil John Gerson, chancellor of the Umversity
of Paris,
1, Petrus de Alliaco (Pierre D'AiUy, 1350-1420) was a
student of theology at the umversity of Paris (1372), and
lectured on the Sentences of the Lombard from 1375
onward. In 1380 he was made doctor of theology and

80 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. l
professor, four years later Director of the CoUege of
Navarre, and in 1389 chancellor of the umversity.
Among Ms pupUs were Gerson and Nicolaus Clemanges.
He became bishop of Puy in 1395, of Cambrai in 1397,
and cardinal in 1411. He wrote on many subjects, in
cluding : commentaries on the Song of Songs, and the
Penitential Psalms ; Quaestiones super IV libros sententi-
irum, wMch were nominalistic ; De reformatione ecclesiae,
and De potestate ecclesiae. He was especially prominent
at the Council of Constance, where he maintained the
supreme authority of oecumemcal councils. He also
urged the cause of umon in the papacy and the reforma
tion of the Church. Yet he took an active part against
heresy in the condemnation of John Huss. D'AiUy dis-
tingm'shed between the Bible and tradition, between
pope and council ; and as a nominalist was critical of
Scholasticism, and especiaUy of the exaggeration and
abuse of dialectic, wMch had degenerated into mere
sopMstry. At the Council of Constance he ' urged the
appointment of " institutores Rhetoricae et Unguarum
Graecae et Latinae." ' ^
2. John Gerson (1363-1429) studied at Paris with
Pierre D'AiUy for seven years, and succeeded Mm as
professor of theology and chancellor of the imiversity.
He was called Doctor christianissimus. He sought to
enrich scholasticism with mysticism, and wrote mystical
and practical works, and commentaries on the Song of
Songs, the Pemtential Psalms, and the Lord's Prayer,
with mystical, allegorical, and moral interpretations.
He also wrote Monotessaron, a harmony of the Gospels,
and Propositiones de sensu literati sacrce Scripturae et
de causis errantium, in wMch he states the principles of
catholic hermeneutics over against the Uteralism of
heretics. He wrote against the vain curiosity of the
degenerate Scholasticism in matters of faith, and made
1 EashdaU, i. p, 541, n. 1 ; citing Von der Hardt, I, iv, u, 427,

CH,iv,] FOURTEENTH AND FIFTEENTH CENTURIES 81
the profound statement that ' those who prefer the
new works, conduct themselves after the manner of
boys who eat the new and bitter fruits rather than the
mature, digestible and healtMul.' ^ In Ms tract De modis
uniendi ac reformandi Ecclesiam in concilio universali
he takes a general view of the Church as consisting of all
those who believe in Christ, ' be they Greeks or Latins or
Barbarians,' ^ TMs larger Church he distinguishes from
the particular Roman Catholic Church, Other works of
importance were De reformatione theologiae, De unitate
ecclesiastica, De auferibilitate papae ab ecclesia. Trlthe
mius at the close of the century called Gerson ' theolo
gorum sui temporis longe princeps,' ^
1 Gerson, Opera, i. col. 119 seq. * Gerson, Opero, 11, col, 161 seq.
* Cited by Schaff, v., ii, p, 218.

PART II
THE MODERN AGE
CHAPTER I
THE EEVIVAL OF LEAENINQ
1. There was a preliminary revival of classical scholar
ship in the late fourteenth and early fifteenth centuries,
which tended to the corruption of life and manners in the
direction of heathenism, and to the undermining of Christian
life and education.
We have seen that the university of Paris grew out of
the cathedral school, and that the other early um
versities of Northem Europe for the most part grew out
of the migration of students and masters from Paris and
Bologna, or the daughters of these umversities. The
inevitable result of the growth of the universities was the
decline of the older cathedral schools ; for the best
teachers and the most energetic scholars resorted to the
universities by preference.
The establishment of the mendicant orders, the loca
tion of their chief seats at the universities, and their
active, energetic life, replacing the older contemplative
Ufe of the Benedictines, drew the most vigorous of the
young men to the new orders. The Benedictines de
clined in infiuence as the Franciscans, Dominicans,
Augustimans and other friars increased in reputation.
And so the monastic schools lost their importance, as
82

CH. I.] THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING 83
the mendicant orders estabUshed their schools in con
nection with the imiversities. Accordingly the imi
versities became the great seats of theological as well as
of pMlosopMcal and grammatical education ; and the
cathedral and monastic schools were either discontinued,
or reduced to small importance as mere grammar schools,
or schools of piety, from wMch the best students went to
the imiversities. The study of theology was practically
given over toithe mendicant orders, and especiaUy to the
Domimcans and the Franciscans, whose contests agitated
the umversities and the Church until the Reformation.
The study of theology at the umversities was cMefly
a study of the Sentences of the Lombard, elaborated by
the great scholastics, Thomas, Bonaventura, Duns Scotus
and Occam, with their numerous disciples. The dogmas
of Christiamty were elaborated by the AristoteUan logic,
and in accordance with the Aristotelian categories, into
the most refined and hair-splitting defimtions and specu
lations. The dogmas of Christiamty became abstract
dogmas, of little practical interest or importance, mere
intellectual balloons, or castles in the air. The in
evitable result was a barren and dead orthodoxy. The
study of the Bible had been thrust into the background.
It had become a preliminary study, leading up to the
dogmatic system. The allegorical sense gave the dog
matic theologian whatever he wanted for Ms purpose.
The great teachers of Paris, especially Gerson and
Clemanges, recognised and strove to overcome these
evils. The latter says :
' I am astonished that the theologians of our time read so care
lessly the pages of the divine Testaments, enfeebling their spirits
by the research for sterUe subtilties, and, to use the term of the
Apostle, " doting about questionings and disputes of words," ^
that which is proper for sophists, but not for theologians. The
Apostle indicates here the procedure of those men who leave the
1 1 Tim. vi, 4,

84 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt, n,
vigorous and fertUe tree of the Holy Scriptures, and seek their
nourishment in doctrine in desert and sterile plaoes,/i'lt is there
that they anguish, in other terms, that they suffer of fasting, die
of hunger, because they find no fruit ; or it they encounter it,
that fruit is Uke the apples of Sodom, which are beautiful and
bright in appearance, but whioh at the touch resolve themselves
into dust and smoke. Yes, at flrst sophisms appear beautifiU,
ingenious, penetrating, keen ; but, if you tear away the envelope
of words to get at the fruit, it is nothing but smoke, because aU
is empty within,' ^
The most practical study of theology at the um
versities was that of canon law; for this study
involved the practice of law in the law-courts, and
gave those skiUed in it the highest places in Church
and State.
Paris was the great school of Theology, Bologna the
great school of Law, so recogmsed by the pope and the
bishops for centuries. The Scholastic Theology and the
Canon Law played into the hands of the pope and the
curia. There gradually arose, as we have seen, various move
ments for reform, cMefly on the practical side of the re
ligious life or of religious institution, and through the
revival of mystic theology ; but all of these movements
faUed for the time, though not without some good results.
So far as theological education is concerned, they accom
plished notMng of importance. The reforming move
ments did not go deep enough ; and they did not propose
any thorough-going principle of reform, or find for it a
sufficiently authoritative basis.
In the meanwhile divine Providence was preparing the
way for the great Reformation in an extraordinary way
and an unexpected manner, such as is usual with God,
by the revival of classical scholarship and a I'etum to
Greek and Roman antiquity. TMs was brought about
1 Cldmanges, De studio theologica ; vide D'Aohery, Spicilegi-um, i. 476 ;
Feret, La FacuUl de thlologie de Paris, iv, 19,

CH, I,] THE REVIVAL OP LEARNING 85
in several ways, all of wMch conspired to the common
end. It is generally recogmsed at present that the revival of
classical scholarsMp was led by two great Uterary men :
Petrarch (1304-1374) and Boccaccio (1313-1375), These
were especiaUy interested in the literature of Rome and
Greece. Petrarch has been caUed the ' first modern man.' ^
' In a new age he was the first to recogmse the supreme
importance of the old classical literature ' ; he ' prepared
the soU of Italy for the reception of Greek culture,' but
he regarded ' the study of the classics as the handmaid
of Christiamty.' ^ Boccaccio was ' the first of modem men
to study [classical] Greek in Italy, and indeed in
Europe.' ' He learned Ms Greek from the pupils of the
Calabrian monk Barlaam. Florence became the centre
of a classical scholarsMp, wMch did not at first connect
itself with the umversities, but orgamsed itself in associa
tions or academies entirely apart from umversities or
orgamsed schools* The new leaming was at first
acquired by private study, from private teachers, as in
ancient times. The students of classical antiquity were
known as Humanists. TMs classical revival at the be
ginmng had notMng to do with theology ; its tendency
was rather away from theology. Indeed for a long time
it was demoralising to Christian theology, and really a
revival of heathemsm.
In the latter part of the fifteenth century there arose at Florence
a reformer who ' represents a reUgious reaction against the pagan
tendencies of some of the Humanists,' and who wrote a tract
' describing aU leaming as dangerous unless Umited to a chosen
few.' * Savonarola (1452-1498) was a mystic of a difierent type
from those of Paris, He was a preacher of repentance, and
exposed from the pulpit the abuses existing among clergy and
laity. He says of himself : ' I preach the regeneration of the
Church, taking the Scriptures as my sole guide.' He complains :
1 Eenan, Averroes, p. 328 (ed. 1882).
" Sandys, ii. pp. 4 seq. ' Ibid., p. 15. * Ibid., p. 88.

86 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. n.
' In the mansions of the great prelates there is no concern save
for poetry and the oratorical art.' ' The theologians of our time
... do not know a shred of the Bible ; yea, they do not even
know the names of its books,' ^ Savonarola claimed the gift
of prophecy, and predicted ruin for the impenitent. Even his
enemies saw in him a resemblance to John the Baptist, In his
denunciations he spared neither Rome nor the papacy. When
his own city, which had protected him, was threatened with the
interdict, he prepared an appeal from the pope to an oecumenical
councU, His enemies, by chaUenging him to an ordeal of fire,
succeeded in destroying his influence with the people ; and they
tortured him into a retraction. But Uke Jerome of Prague, he
overcame his physical weakness and faced death with unflinching
courage. At his deposition, when the officiating prelate declared :
' Separo te ab ecclesia miUtante et triumphante,' Savonarola
cried : ' MiUtante, non triumphante : hoc enim tuum non est,'
The Meditations, which he wrote in the intervals of torture, were
translated and circulated in Germany, Spain, France, and
England, as weU as Italy. Luther published them with warm
commendation. 2. The Council of Florence (1439), in the interest of the
reunion of the Eastern Churches with the Western, brought a
large number of Orientals to Italy, and resulted in a revived
interest in the study of Theology, especially of Comparative
or Irenic Theology.
The Council held at Ferrara in 1438, and removed to
Florence in 1439, brought a large number of Greeks and
Orientals to Italy in the interest of the reumon of the
East and the West. Among them came a considerable
number of leamed men, who established themselves per
manently in Italy. These scholars brought with them
the Greek language and Greek Uterature. Students of
theology learned to know the Greek Bible and the
Greek Fathers ; students of pMlosophy read Plato and
Aristotle in the original. The Latin Church became
once more acquainted with the Greek and Oriental
Churches,^ ' Vide Schaff, vol. v. part ii. pp. 688 seq.
' Vide Briggs, Theological Symbolics, pp. 142, 154,

CH, I.] THE REVIVAL OP LEARNING 87
Of these Eastern scholars the chief were :
(1) Bessarion (c, 1395-1472), archbishop of Nicasa, who for
his services in behalf of reunion was made cardinal, and so spent
his last years in Italy. He surrounded himseU vrith numbers of
Greek scholars, and became a great patron of classical learning,
(2) Another of these leamed Greeks was Theodore of Oam
(1400-1475), the first professor of Greek at Ferrara, who also
taught philosophy in Rome, He wrote a Greek grammar,
which was used as a text-book in Paris, Cambridge and Germany,
Among his pupils was the great German Humamst, Rudolphus
Agricola, (3) Argyropulos of Constantinople (1416-1486) taught fitrst at
Padua, then at Florence, and finaUy in Rome, where he became
the instructor of the famous German, ReuohUn, concerning whom
he exclaimed : ' Lo ! Greece through our exUe has flown across
the Alps,' ^ He became noted for his translations of Aristotle,
(4) Qemistos Plethon of Constantinople (c, 1356-1450) was one
of the champions of the Greek Church at the CouncU of Florence,
He taught the Platonic phUosophy in Florence, and renewed the
struggle between Plato and Aristotle,
The Greeks in Italy were divided between these two
pMlosophers, and a great controversy arose as to their
relative merits. The result was an increasing attention
to Plato among the Humamsts, and an increasing desire
to get rid of the dominant Aristotelian Scholasticism,
The study of the classics carried vrith it the study of
Christian antiquity and the rise of Mstoric investigation,
Th.e most important scholar in tMs regard was
Laurentius Valla (1407-1457),
Valla became the father of historical criticism. He was
trained in Humanistic studies, and, whUe professor of rhetoric at
the university of Pavia, wrote Qucestiones dialecticce and De
elegantiis latini sermonis, works characterised by Wagenmann as
' Humanism's open declaration of war ' against the logic and the
Latin of the Schools. ^ The treatise on Latin passed through
fifty-nine editions in the years 1471-1536, ' In his treatise on
Dialectic he denounces the mediseval AristoteUans, Avicenna
1 Vide Sandys, ii. p. 64.
2 Wagenmann, 'Laurentius Valla,' in Herzog's Meal-EncyklopadiefUr
protestantische Theologie -und Kirche.

88 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt, n,
and AverroSs, and attacks the phUosophers of his time for their
behef in the infaUibiUty of Aristotle,' ^ The phUosophers,
theologians and jurists aU rose up in arms, and VaUa left Pavia,
Some years later he entered the service of the Humanist, Alfonzo,
king of Aragon and SicUy (c, 1435). During this period of his
life he investigated the sources of Canon Law, and proved that
the so-caUed Donation of Constantine was a pseudonjmious work
of much later date. He also produced a CoUatio Nam Testa
menti, first pubUshed by Erasmus (1506), who praises the 're
markable sagacity ' with which VaUa has ' examined the whole
New Testament,' and considers him 'unrivaUed both in the
sharpness of his inteUigence and the tenacity of his memory,' ^
About the year 1445 VaUa opened a school of Greek and Latin
Uterature in Naples, and attracted a multitude of students. Two
or three years later Pope Nicholas v, made him scriptor apos
tolicus. In 1450 he became also professor of rhetoric in Rome,
and under Calixtus m, (1465) papal secretary. In addition to
numerous translations from the Greek, his works include the
famous Elegantice and Declamatio, and several influential
treatises on Ethics. Luther declares that ' the Uke of (VaUa)
neither Italy nor the whole Churoh produced in many centuries.' *
' Laurencius VaUa ist der best waU, den ich mein lebtag gesehn
Oder erfaren hab. De Ubero arbitrio bene disputat.' * Erasmus
wrote : ' Where is the man whose heart is so narrowed by jealousy
as not to have the highest praise for VaUa, a man who with so
much energy, zeal and labour refuted the stupidities of the Bar
barians, saved haU-buried letters from extinction, restored Italy
to her ancient splendour of eloquence, and forced even the
learned to express themselves henceforth with more circum
spection ? ' To strike at VaUa is to wound ' aU men of letters.'
He is ' eloquent above aU others,' and ' has been rightly caUed
" The Marrow of Persuasion." ' »
3. The capture of Constantinople by the Turks in 1453
drove large numbers of learned Greeks into exile in Italy, and
other parts of the West, where they greatly increased the
knowledge of Greek literature, both classical and theo
logical. Students of classical antiquity resorted to Italy from
1 Sandys, ii. p. 67. ' ^ Erasmus, .BRp. 21, 18a
• Benrath, 'VaUa,' in Neu> Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia.
* Preger, Tischreden Luthers, 237, ^ Erasmus, Epp. 26, 27.

CH. I.] THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING 89
all over Europe to acquire the new learmng, and they
carried it back with them to their native lands. Thus
Humanism spread rapidly as a new inteUectual force
tMoughout the West.
Erasmus expressed the conviction of many when he
said :
' Latin erudition, however ample, is crippled and imperfect
without Greek. We have in Latin at best some smaU streams
and turbid pools, whUe they have the clearest springs and rivers
flowing with gold. I see it is the merest madness to touch with
the Uttle finger that principal part of theology which treats of
the divine mysteries, without being furnished with the apparatus
of Greek.' ' They have neither sense nor shame who presume
to write upon the Sacred Books, or indeed upon any of the books
of the ancients, without being tolerably furnished in both Utera-
tures.' ^
Among the exiles from Constantinople came also
leamed men from among the Jews and the Oriental
Churches, who introduced the study of Oriental languages,
especially Hebrew. The Hebrew Bible, the Talmud and
the Jevrish commentators began to be studied by
Christian scholars.
4. The spread of the new learning was greatly aided by
the invention of printing at Mainz in 1440.
Printing was introduced into Italy by two of the work
men of Fust the inventor, who set up a press at Subiaco
in 1465, and then at Rome in 1467. The great printing
press of Italy, however, was the Aldine at Vemce, estab
lished in 1494, and sustained by the ' New Academy ' of
Hellemsts wMch was founded in 1500 by Aldus Manutius.
TMs society proposed to print each month an edition of
at least 1000 copies of some good author.
' By the year 1500 about 6000 books had been produced in
Italy, of which about 300 belong to Florence and Bologna, more
than 600 to Milan, more than 900 to Rome, and 2835 to Venice.' ^
1 Erasmus, Epp. 143, 182, * Sandys, ii, p, 97,

90 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt, n.
Erasmus testifies to the liberality of the Italians, and
especially of Aldus, in matters of literature ; saying :
' When I, a HoUander, was pubUshing in Italy my work on
Proverbs, aU the learned who were within reach, came forward to
supply me with the authors, not yet printed, that they thought
likely to be of use to me, Aldus had nothing in his treasures
which he did not place at my service, , , . I was assisted by
some whom I knew neither personaUy nor by name.' ^
5. Humanism found an early entrance into the Nether
lands by attaching itself to the mystic tendency of the
Brethren of the Common Life.
Gerhard Groote (1340-1384) and Florenti-us Rade-wyns
(1350-1400) founded the Brotherhood of the Common
Life, wMch established schools for moral and religious
education in the Netherlands and in Northem Germany.
The instruction given was based upon the study of the
Latin language, TMs led to a revival of the study of the
Latin classics in these schools.
Nicolaus Cusanus and John Wessel were trained in
them, and both added Greek and Hebrew to their Latin,
and gathered ancient manuscripts,
Nicolaus ofCusa (1401-1464) was trained in Law, Mathematics
and Astronomy, as weU as Theology and PhUosophy. He be
longed to the Mystics who sought the reformation of the Churoh,
and wrote De concordantia catholica. Like Gerson he subordinated
the pope to the oecumenical council. In his work, De docta
ignorantia, he criticised the scholastic method.
John Wessel (1420-1489) was noted for breadth of interest and
a spirit of inquiry, that won for him the name magister contra-
diciionum. Rudolphus Agricola and John ReuchUn studied
with him before going to Italy to enlarge their knowledge of
Greek. 6. Erasmus summed up in himself all that was best in
Humanism, and by his editions of the Greek Testament and
of the Fathers gave a basis of authority. Biblical and
Patristic, for the reformation of the Church.
> Erasmus, Adagia ; vide Nichols, Epistles of Erasm-us, i. pp. 437 seq.

CH. I.] THE REVIVAL OP LEARNING 91
The most distinguished of the pupils of the Brethren
of the Common Life was Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466-
1536). He received his primary education among the
Brethren at Deventer and Bois-le-Duc, and in 1487
entered the Augustiman monastery near Gouda, where he
remained a close student for ten years. The bishop of
Cambrai then sent him to Paris, where he studied and
taught in the university. He devoted special attention
to Greek, and wrote :
' My Greek studies are almost too much for my courage ; while
I have not the means of purchasing books, or the help of a
teacher,' Again he says : ' I have been applying my whole
mind to the study of Greek ; and as soon as I receive any money,
I shaU first buy Greek authors, and afterwards some clothes.'
He complains of ' a great penury of books ; leisure none ; health
infirm ; ' yet declares : ' My whole soul is bent on acquiring the
most perfect learning, and hence I have a supreme disregard for
learning of a trivial kind,'
' I am determined that it is better to learn late than to be
without the knowledge which it is of the utmost importance to
possess,' ' I began to look at Hebrew, but frightened by the
strangeness of the idiom, and in consideration of my age and of
the insufiiciency of the human mind to master a multitude of
subjects, I gave it up,'
In his enthusiasm he declares :
' If there is any fresh Greek to be bought, I had rather pawn
my ooat than not get it ; especiaUy if it is something Christian,
as the Psalms in Greek or the Gospels,' ^
Erasmus traveUed about from university to umversity
in France, England, Italy, the Netherlands and Switzer
land, in the interests of higher scholarsMp ; and became
the greatest scholar of Ms age. He paid several visits to
England, and the EngUsh Humanists, Colet and Sir
Thomas More, became Ms devoted friends. Both the
great umversities ' sought to have ' him, and he ' spent
several months at Cambridge teaching Greek and
' Erasmus, Epp. 112, 113, 139, 143, 156, 180.
VOL, II, Q

92 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. n.
Divimty.' * The latter part of Ms life was passed cMefly
in Basel, and most of his works appeared from the
famous press of Froben. Erasmus sought and obtained
release from Ms monastic vows, and came into, conflict
vrith the monks in the interests of leaming. He ardently
espoused the cause of classic scholarsMp and of the study
of the Fathers, as over against mediaeval scholarsMp and
the ignorance of the reUgious orders of Ms time. His
editions of the Greek Testament, and of many of the
Fathers, laid a basis for sound scholarsMp. He says
Mmself :
' Many are induced to study the Sacred Writings, who would
otherwise never have read them, as they themselves admit ; and
a great many have begun to study Greek ; indeed, that is going
on everjrwhere.' *
He regarded Mmself as called to do ' the humblest part
of the work ' to be done for theology, and says :
' I wanted to construct a road for other persons of higher aims,
so that they might be less impeded by pools and stumbUng blocks
in carrying home those fair and glorious treasures.' '
The works of Erasmus include editions or translations
of many of the greatest authors of the Christian and
classical world. Of Ms original works the best known
are Ms famous satire Morice encomium, the Colloquies,
letters, treatises on education, and on the Greek and
Latin languages, the Enchiridion militis christiani and
its compamon Institutio principis christiani, and
Ecclesiastes, wMch emphasises the prophetic function of
the Christian mimstry.
There are countless testimonies from his cotemporaries to the
unique place held by Erasmus. ReuohUn writes from Germany :
' You alone bring us back some image of the ancient eloquence ;
the rest of us are a mob,' More writes from England concerning
his Utopia : ' I want to know whether Tunstall approves, and
Busleiden, and your ChanceUor , . . but your vote alone wiU
1 Erasmus, Ep. 290, » Ibid., 400. » Ibid., 522.

CH. I.] THE REVIVAL OP LEARNING 93
be abundantly sufficient for my judgment. We two are to my
mind a multitude, as I think I could Uve happUy with you in any
soUtude.' Henry of Glarus cries : ' It was a great thing to have
leamed moraUty from Socrates . . , but I have received much
more from you. Besides innumerable other benefits, the chief
is this : that you have taught me to know Christ, and not to
know Him only, but to imitate, to reverence and to love Him.' ^
Watson writes : ' You are celebrated everywhere in Italy,
especiaUy among the learned of the highest note. , , . Your
fame is spread throughout aU the Christian world. . . . Wherever
you are, you so Uve as to seem present everywhere in Christendom,
and wiU continue to Uve by the immortaUty of your fame and the
noble monuments you will leave behind you. By your correc
tion of the New Testament accompanied by your notes, you have
thrown a marveUous Ught on Christ, and deserved weU of aU His
zealous foUowers,' * But Erasmus says : ' For myself I think
nothing settled, unless I have the approval of Christ, On whose
single vote aU our felicity depends,' * ' Hue discuntur discipUnse,
hue philosophia, hue eloquentia, ut Christum intelligamus, ut
Christi gloriam oelebremus. Hic est totius eruditionis et elo-
quentise scopus.' *
Erasmus worked for a reform of the Church, especially
on the side of leaming and morals ; and he, like most of
the Humamsts, flnaUy opposed Luther and the other
Reformers, in the interests of leaming and the imity of
the Church. His dread of a conflict in the Church may
be gathered from the fervour of his appeal against
national strife for those ' who glory in the name of
Christ, of a Master who taught and exMbited notMng but
gentleness, who are members of one body, and are one
flesh, quickened by the same Spirit, fed by the same
sacraments, attached to the same Head, caUed to the
same immortality, hoping for that highest commumon,
that as Christ and the Father are one, so we may be one
with Him.' ^
1 Vide Nichols, Epistles of Erasmus, ii, pp, 276, 386, 426 seq.
» Vide Nichols, ibid., ii. pp. 334 seq. ' Erasmus, Ep. 184.
< Erasmus, Ciceronianus ; -vide Woodward, Desiderius Erasmus con
cerning the Aim and Method of Education, p, 59.
» Erasmus, Ep. 281.

94 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. n.
7. The Humanists of France were more of the Italian
type. Their chief theologian CUmanges combined mystic
with humanistic studies.
The earliest French Humamst was Jean de Montreuil
(1354-1418), who had, however, no position as a teacher.
Nicolas de CUmanges (c. 1367-1437), Ms friend, was the
first great Humamst of France. He was educated in
the umversity of Paris, at the college of Navarre, by
Pierre D'AiUy and Gerson ; and taught rhetoric there.
In 1393 he became rector of the umversity, and, four years
later, papal secretary under Benedict xm. But in 1408
he retired to a Cistercian cloister, and gave Mmself to
Biblical study, wMch he felt had been neglected. In Ms
work De studio theologico he exalts the parish priest
above the student, yet recommends the study of theology
and especially of the Scriptures. He felt the infiuence of
the ItaUan Humamsts. In 1425 he retumed to Paris
to teach rhetoric and theology in the college of Navarre,
Clemanges was infiuential in the calling of the Council of
Constance, but disappointed and displeased with its final
action as to the papacy. Like Ms masters, D'AiUy and
Gerson, he was opposed to the sopMstry of the time.
These three great mystics were sound in their mysticism,
and emphasised direct commumon with God and the
Christian life. Like Erasmus they worked for reform as
middle men, and accomplished more than is recogmsed.
All three have been neglected by both Protestants and
Catholics — ^by the latter because, in the tMee reforming
councils which they dominated, they exalted the
authority of the oecumemcal council above that of the
pope. Among the writings of Clemanges may be men
tioned the tracts, De ruina ecclesice, De corrupto ecclesice
statu, De fructu rerum adversarum, and Ms letters to
D'AiUy, Gerson and others.
The first scholar officially appointed to teach classical Greek
in Paris was Gregorio Tifemas (f 1466). He was followed in 1476

CH. I,] THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING 96
by Hermon-ymus, the ' somewhat incompetent ' instructor of
ReuohUn, Erasmus and Budaeus, Aleander was introduced
there by Erasmus (1608), and became rector of the university in
1612, librarian of the Vatican in 1517, and finally a cardinal.
The greatest French Humanist was Bvdceus (1467-1640), who
won from Italy the supremacy in classical scholarship. Calvin
calls him : ' primum rei literarise decus et columen.' His influ
ence secured the establishment of the Corporation of the Royal
Readers (1530), which developed into the College de France.
Sandys regards this foundation as ' perhaps his most important,
certainly his most permanent, service to the cause of scholarship.'^
Faber Stapulensis, Jacques Lefevre d'ifitaples (tl536). Human
ist, philosopher, and theologian, was influential as a teacher in
Paris, He is praised by Sir Thomas More ' as the restorer of true
Dialectic and true PhUosophy, especiaUy that founded upon
Aristotle,' and by Erasmus for his work on the New Testament,'
He pubUslted Psdteri-i.iu quintuplex (1609), French versions of the
New Testament (1523), ^nd the Psalter (1526), and finally one
of the entire Bible (1630), which served as a basis for the better
known version of Olevitan (1535), Stapulensis also produced
commentaries on the Scriptures and on Aristotle, and Latin
translations of the Fathers and the Mystics, In the preface to
his commentary on St. Paul's Epistles, he maintained the author
ity of the Scriptures and urged a reform of the Churoh.
8. Humanism made its way into Germany and German
universities. The earliest representatives were Mneas
Syl-vius and Regiomontanus. The chief German Humanist,
however, was Reuchlin, who laid the foundation for the
study of the Old Testament in Hebrew.
1. Jbneas Sylvius de Piccolomini (1405-1464) ' re
presented Italian Humanism in Vienna (1442-1455),' and
won 'the gratitude of Germany for the teaching and
the example which had led that land to admire the
studies of Humamsm,' » As Pope Pius n. (1458) he
collected many valuable manuscripts and encouraged
all the arts.
2. Regiomontanus (1436-1476), archbishop of Ratisbon,
1 Sandys, ii. pp. 172 seq.
s Vide Nichols, Epistles of Erasmus, ii, pp, 224 327,
> Vide Sandys, ii, p, 251.

96 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. n.
was a friend of Bessarion, and taught and translated both
Greek and Latin works.
We may quote the summary statement of Sandys aa
to the different classes of Humamsts in Germany :
' The Humanists of Germany may be divided into three suc
cessive schools distinguished from one another in their relation
to the Church. (1) The Earlier or Scholastic Humanists, who
were loyal supporters of the Church, whUe they were eager for a
revival of classical leaming, and a new system of education.
They are represented by the three great teachers of North Ger
many, RudoUus Agricola, RudoU von Langen, and Alexander
Hegius ; also by WimpfeUng, the restorer of education in South
Germany ; by Trithemius, one of the founders of the Rhenish
Society of Literature ; and by Eck, the famous opponent of
Luther. They worked for the Revival of Learning in aU branches
of knowledge, whUe they hoped that the new leaming would
remain subservient to the old theology. (2) The Intermediate
or Rational Humanists, who took a rational view of Christianity
and its creed, whUe they protested against the old scholasticism,
and against the external abuses of the Churoh, " They either did
not support Luther, or soon deserted him, being conscious that
his movement would lead to the destruction of aU true culture,"
Their leaders were Reuchlin and Erasmus, and Conrad Muth,
the Canon of Gotha. " Their party and its true work of culture
were shipwrecked by the tempest of the Reformation." (3) The
Later or Protestant Humanists, who were ready to " protest "
against everything — ^young men of great talent, but of less leam
ing, whose love of liberty sometimes lapsed into Ucence. Their
leading spirit was Ulrich von Hutten. In course of time, some
of them beoame Rational Humanists ; others, supporters of
Luther. " WhUe Erasmus, ReuchUn and Muth viewed Luther's
propaganda with distrust," these younger Humanists " flocked
to the new standard of protest and revolt, and so doing brought
culture into disgrace and shipwrecked the Revival of Learmng
in Germany." " The revolt of Luther caused the Church to
reject Humanism, and was the deathblow of the Erasmian
Reformation." ' '
TMs last statement, however, is rather extreme and
unfair to the Reformers, who counted on their side one
1 Sandys, ii, pp, 258 seq., citing Pearson, The Ethic of Free Thought,
pp, 166 seq.

cn, I,] THE REVIVAL OP LEARNING 97
of the greatest of the Humamsts, Melanchthon, the
' Preceptor of Germany,' Camerarius, John Sturm, and
many others,
3. Rudolphus Agricola (1444-1485) was trained at
Deventer, Erfurt, Louvain, Cologne, Pavia, and Ferrara ;
and taught at Heidelberg. He leamed Greek of Theo
dorus Gaza, and in Ms last years studied Hebrew. He
is said to have been to Germany what Petrarch was to
Italy, and was caUed by his cotemporaries ' a second
VirgU,' 1
4, Hegius (1433-1498) ' made the school of Deventer
the great educational centre of North Germany.' *
In Ms time ' the number of scholars rivalled those of a
umversity, amounting, it is said, at one time to 2200.' ^
Erasmus writes of Agricola as ' the preceptor of my
schoolmaster, Alexander Hegius, Mmself no degenerate
disciple of such a master,' *
5. Jacob Wimpheling (1450-1528) studied at ScMett-
stadt, Freiburg, Erfurt, and finally at Heidelberg, where
he afterwards (1498) became a professor and lectured on
Jerome, At Strasburg and other cities he founded
societies of literature. Through these as well as through
Ms text-books and treatises on education he became
widely infiuential in promoting liberal learmng and
improved methods of instruction. His numerous writings
include works on theology, and he laboured for the
Church as well as for the school, Erasmus caUs Mm
' the cMef man of letters in Ms country, and the Mgh
priest of every Humamty,' *
6, Johannes Trithemius (1462-1516), abbot of Spon-
heim, transformed Ms monastery into a centre of learning
and gathered a great library there. He was a student of
Hebrew and Greek, and of the natural sciences ; but
1 Vide Pearson, The Ethic of Free Thought, p. 173.
> Sandys, ii. p, 255, ^ Nichols, Epist. Erasm., i. p, 17.
* Erasmus, F^. 22, » lbid., 298,

98 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. n.
exalted theology above them all, and urged theologians
to study the Scriptures.
7. Reuchlin (1455-1522) was trained in law, pMlo
sophy, and ' the three languages,' and studied at
ScMettstadt, Freiburg, Paris, Basel, Orleans, Poitiers,
Florence, and Rome. Greek he leamed of native
Greeks ; Hebrew of John Wessel and Jevrish Rabbis.
He published a Greek grammar, and a Latin lexicon that
passed tMough many editions. He laid the foundation
for Hebrew scholarsMp among Christians by pubUsMng
the first Hebrew grammar and lexicon, combined in the
work De rudimentis hebraicis (1506),^ Twelve years
later he brought out a treatise De accentibus et ortho-
graphia linguce hebraicae. He also studied Rabbimcal
literature, and wrote on the cabala. There was a stiff
battle in Germany between the Humamsts and the
Obscurantists about ReucMin and the study of the
Hebrew language and the Jewish Talmud. Erasmus
wrote to Raphael, the cardinal of St, George :
' I do most eamestly beseech and adjure you for the sake of
good letters . . . that that distinguished man. Doctor John
Reuchlin, may enjoy your protection and goodwiU, ... He is
one to whom aU Germany is indebted, having been the first to
arotise in that country a love of Greek and Hebrew Uterature.' *
To ReuchUn Erasmus wrote :
' When I read your apology, composed with so much spirit and
eloquence, and such an exuberance of leaming, I seemed to
myself to be Ustening not to a culprit making his defence, but to
a conqueror celebrating his triumph.' *
Fisher, bishop of Rochester, says of ReuchUn :
' He appears to me to hold the palm over aU Uving authors,
whose works I have read, in the treatment of abstruse questions
of Theology and of Philosophy.' *
1 Vide Briggs, Study of Holy Script-wre, pp. 140 seq.
s Erasmus, Ep. 319. > Ibid., 294.
* Vide Nichols, Epistles of Erasmus, U. p, 292,

CH, I,] THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING 99
8, Mutianus, Conrad Muth of Erfurt (c, 1471-1526), a
schoolmate of Erasmus at Deventer, was the cMef of
the group of Humanists which produced the Epistolae
obscurorum -virorum, a series of satires wMch threw their
opponents into confusion and contempt. The first
volume was mainly composed by Johann Jager {Crotus
Rubeanus), the second by Ulrich von Hutten (1488-1523),
' the stormy petrel ' of the German Reformation,^
Cologne was the cMef seat of the opponents of Humanism,
Erfurt of its friends.
9, Johann von Staupitz (f 1524), the first dean of the
theological faculty at Wittenberg, became vicar-general
of the German Augustimans, and the teacher of Luther
and Ms counsellor in the early stages of Ms reform.
He was a man vrithout stain and above reproach, a
saint in the estimation of Protestant and Catholic alike,
an apostle of love and good works. He ranks with
Erasmus and Sir Thomas More among those iremc
spirits that sought a reform of the Church from within.^
Luther was strongly infiuenced by Ms practical mysticism
and calls Mm Ms ' reverend father in Christ,' ' per quem
primum coepit Evangelii lux de tenebris splendescere in
cordibus nostris.' ^ His cMef mystic works are Von
der Nachfolgung des willigen Sterbens Christi, Von der
Liebe Gottes, and Von dem heiligen rechten christlichen
Glauben. 9. Humanism in England was represented chiefly by
Linacre, Sir Thomas More, and Colet.
Sandys says that ' Modern EngUsh scholarsMp begins
with Linacre and Ms two friends, WUliam Grocyn and
WiUiam Latimer,' * These introduced the humanistic
classic study into the British universities,
* Lindsay, History ofthe Eeformation in Germany, p, 76,
' Vide Briggs, Church Unity, p. 420.
« Vide Schaff, vol. vi. p. 119, n. 1.
< Sandys, ii, p. 228,

100 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. n.
1. Thomas Linacre (c. 1460-1524) was a nephew and
pupil of WilUam SeUing, the first English Humamst to
study. Greek. Linacre studied at Oxford, and became
FeUow of All Souls (1484), A year or two later he went
to Italy, studied with Humamsts in Rome, Florence,
and Vemce, and graduated in medicine at Padua (1492),
Returmng to England he gave lectures on, Aristotle's
Meteorologica, wMch were attended by Sir Thomas More,
either at Oxford or London, In 1509 he was appointed
physician to King Henry vm,, and mne years later he
founded the College of Physicians, In addition to Ms
scientific treatises and translations he wrote De emen
data structura latini sermonis, which was reprinted on
the continent with a letter of recommendation by
Melanchthon. 2. John Colet (c. 1467-1519) studied at Oxford, and
then for three years in Italy, where he learned the rudi
ments of Greek. Returmng to Oxford he introduced
there the study of Plato, and gave lectures on the New
Testament ' like one inspired.' ^ Among Ms hearers
were aU the doctors of Oxford.^ At tMs time Erasmus
visited Oxford, and became Ms intimate friend. In
1504 Colet was made dean of St, Paul's, London, where he
introduced expository preacMng, and founded a great
school. According to Erasmus, Colet umted ' the Mghest
learmng with admirable piety,' and ' exerted a great and
general influence,' England had not ' another more
pious, or one who more truly knew Christ.' WTien he
died, Erasmus exclaimed : ' What a man England has
lost, and I — what a friend ! ' ' Colet's tract, A Right
Fruitful Admonition concerning the Order of a Good
Christian Man's Life, was first published in 1534, and
afterwards incorporated in a book of Daily Devotions.
1 Vide Plummer, English Church History, 1B09-1B7B, p. 29.
s Vide Erasmus, Epp. 108, 290,
8 Vide Schaff, v,, part ii, p. 662,

CH, I,] THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING 101
3. Thomas More (1478-1535) studied at Oxford, and
then went to London for the study and practice of law.
He became the most able and learned jurist of Ms time ;
but was also interested in theology, and lectured in
London on Augustine's City of God. In 1529 More
succeeded Wolsey as Lord Chancellor, Five years later
he was sent to the Tower, and in 1535 was beheaded,
Erasmus writes of yielding to the infiuence of
' Thomas More, whose eloquence is such that he could persuade
even an enemy to do whatever he pleased, whUe my own affection
for the man is so great, that if he bade me dance a hornpipe, I
should do at once just as he bade me, ... I do not think, unless
the vehemence of my love leads me astray, that Nature ever
formed a mind more present, ready, sharp-sighted, and subtle,
or, in a word, more absolutely furnished with every kind of
faculty than his. Add to this a power of expression equal to his
inteUect, a singular cheerfulness of character and an abundance
of wit, but only of the candid sort ; and you miss nothing that
should be found in a perfect advocate.' >•
More maintained the rights of the crown of England
over against papal encroachment, and the rights of the
pope as the supreme head of the Church over against the
royal ecclesiastical supremacy. He died a martyr to
the great cause of the separation of the jurisdictions of
Church and State. More's great work is Ms Utopia, in
wMch he embodies Ms ideas of reform. Among Ms
writings are controversial tracts against Luther and
Tyndale. 4. John Fisher, bishop of Rochester (f 1535), was
trained at the umversity of Cambridge, and served there
as master, vice-chancellor, professor of divinity and
chancellor. He took part in the estabUshment of Christ's
CoUege and St. John's, and was president of Queens'
CoUege for a time, Erasmus caUs Mm ' that great
cMeftain of Uterature and piety,' ^ Fisher admired
ReucMin and Erasmus, but wrote against Luther and
1 Erasmus, Ep. 191, ' Vide Erasmus, Ep. 446,

102 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt, n,
(Ecolampadius. As an opponent of the royal supremacy
he shared the fate of More.
The English Humamsts, like the Continental, desired
a peaceable reform by education, not a revolution. They
were in general accord with Erasmus, who wrote of them :
' I have found in England ... so much leaming and culture,
and that of no common kind, but recondite, exact and ancient,
Latin and Greek, that I now hardly want to go to Italy, except
to see it. When I Usten to my friend Colet, I can fancy I am
listening to Plato himseU. Who can faU to admire Grocyn, with
aU his encyclopaedic erudition ? Can anything be more acute,
more profound, more refined, than the judgment of Linacre 7
Has nature ever moulded anything gentler, pleasanter or happier,
than the mind of Thomas More ? ' ^
These men wished a reform tMough a study of the
original Scriptures and the Fathers,
Among the Humamsts of England who sought to
promote theological education were also :
5. Cardinal Wolsey (f 1530), founder of Christ Church (CoUege),
Oxford ; 6, Warham, archbishop of Canterbury (t 1532), whom
Erasmus praised as ' the patron of aU the learned ' ; ^ and 7.
Bichard Fox, of Winchester (t 1528), founder of Corpus Christi
CoUege, Oxford, and of the flrst Greek lectureship in an EngUsh
university.* Sir Thomas More saw no reason to prefer the uni
versities of Paris and Louvain to those of Oxford and Cambridge,*
Erasmus wrote in 1516 : ' About thirty years ago nothing was
taught at Cambridge but Alexander, the Parva Logicalia, as they
are caUed, those old " dictates " of Aristotle, and questions from
Scotus, In process of time Good Letters were introduced ; the
study of Mathematics was added, and a new or at least a renovated
Aristotle, Then came some acquaintance with Greek, and with
many authors, whose very names were unknown to the best
scholars of a former time. Now I ask, what has been the result
to the University ? It has become so flourishing, that it may vie
with the first schools of the age, and possesses men, compared with
whom those old teachers appear mere shadows of theologians.' •
1 Vide Sandys, ii. p. 229. 2 Erasmus, Ep. 242.
> Vide Briggs, Tiieological Symbolics, pp. 159 seq.
* Vide Nichols, Epistles of Erasmus, ii, p. 224,
* Era.smus, Ep. 441,

CH, I,] THE REVIVAL OP LEARNING 103
10. The Humanists gradually succeeded in transforming
the greater part of the universities and schools of Europe
early in the sixteenth century. The study of the Greek and
Latin classics, of the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures, and of
the Greek and Latin Fathers, was gradually introduced,
and the Scholastic Theology was pushed into the background.
TMs transformation took place in Italy and Spain, no
less than in Germany and England ; and was permanent
in its results. The Humamst reformation was inter
rupted, and the Humamsts were divided into hostile
camps, by the outbreak of the revolutionary Reformation,
led by Luther and Zwingli, TMs was a reformation of
religion, wMch pushed the reformation of scholarsMp
into the background. Its immediate effects were
disastrous to scholarsMp, especially in Northem Europe,
Insurrections and civil wars spread rapidly over Europe,
and continued to work miscMef for more than a century.
But there was a permanent gain to theological scholarsMp
in spite of all. The Holy Scriptures were studied in the
original languages by aU the great scholars of the time,
and Biblical texts were published by Protestants,
Catholics and Jews.
In Spain the Complutensian Polyglot was pubUshed by Cardinal
Ximenes (1514-1617). In Italy the Octaplum Psalterium was
issued at Genoa by Bishop Justinianus in 1516, the Aldine text
of the Septuagint at Venice in 1618. Erasmus pubUshed his
Greek Testament at Basel in five editions (1616-1636). From
the second edition (1519) Luther made his translation, Stephens
pubUshed three editions in Paris (1546-1660), and one in Geneva
(1661), The Hebrew Bible was printed at Soncino, Lombardy,
in 1488, and at Naples in 1491-1493, Another edition was
printed at Brescia in 1494, which Luther used in making his
version. The same text appeared in Bomberg's Rabbinical
Bible (1516-1517), edited by FeUx Pratensis. A second Rab
binical Bible was pubUshed by Bomberg in 1524-1625, carefuUy
revised after the Massora by Jacob ben Chayim.^ The Mishna
1 Vide Briggs, Study of Holy Scriptwre, pp, 186 seq., 206 seq.

104 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. n.
was pubUshed at Naples in 1492, the Babylonian Talmud at
Venice by Bomberg (in twelve volumes foUo, 1520), the Jerusalem
Talmud "at Venice by Bomberg (1522-1523). The Christian
Fathers were also pubUshed in original editions, as weU as the
heathen classics in Greek and Latin, by the great presses at Venice,
Basel, Paris, Geneva and elsewhere.
The whole world, Jew and Christian, Catholic and Pro
testant, had Hebrew and Christian antiquity opened
to them as never before.

CH. n.] THE REFORMATION 105

CHAPTER II
THE REFORMATION
Thb New Learmng made its way gradually into the
midst of the umversities and schools of Europe, not with
out severe conflicts vrith the Old Learmng. The
Humanists, early in the sixteenth century, divided on the
deeper question of religious reform. The most of the
Humamsts remained Catholics, with Erasmus and
ReucMin, Sir Thomas More and Fisher, John Eck, and
the Italian and Spamsh Humamsts in a body. Few of
them followed Melanchthon and Calvin into the Pro
testant camp. The Humamsts wished a reform by
scholarsMp, and especially by a retum to CMistian
antiquity, the study of the Scriptures and the Fathers in
the original languages. The Protestants, under the lead
of Luther and Zwingli, were more concerned to bring
about a religious reform and do away with the abuses of
religion. The Humanists in the main were unwilling
to sacrifice Christian scholarsMp in the confusion and
storms of a reUgious revolution.
1. The revival of the study of Theology was due in the
main in the Protestant world to Melanchthon and John
Cal-vin, and among Catholics to John Eck and Ignatius
Loyola. The originai hostiUty of the New Learmng to the Old
had to be overcome, and a more comprehensive plan
devised for the healthful and harmomous combination of
the two. TMs was in a measure accomplished by

106 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. n.
Melanchthon, Calvin, and their ' associates among
Protestants, and among Catholics especially by John
Eck, Ignatius and the Jesuit Order. Calvin and
Ignatius had the same teachers in the umversity of Paris,
and both alike saw the defects of the university educa
tion. Both alike orgamsed colleges for the better train
ing of the Christian mimstry.
2. Luther introduced new life and spirit into theological
education in Northern Germany. Melanchthon gave it
form and organisation.
1. Martin Luther (1483-1546) was trained in law at
the university of Erfurt, entered the Augustiman Order
in 1505, and two years later became a priest. In 1508
he was appointed professor of pMlosophy at the newly
established umversity of Wittenberg, where he continued
Ms studies in theology, and took Ms bachelor's and
doctor's degrees. About the year 1513 he tumed to
lecturing on the Bible, He became intensely hostile to
the Aristotelian phUosophy and to Scholasticism, and
built Ms theology on the Scriptures and on St, Augustine,
He gave to Wittenberg a Biblical rather than a human
istic character, and a mystic rather than a dogmatic
spirit. The master of the German Reformation was
a professor of theology, and began Ms work by train
ing students in the exegesis of the Psalter and the Pauline
Epistles, These writings, expounded in the lecture-
room at Wittenberg, became the pillars of the Re
formation, ' Hsec scripta sio iUustravit, ut post longam et obscuram
noctem nova doctrinae lux oriri videretur,' ^
Luther entirely reformed theological instruction by
introducing new principles and new methods. The
concrete was substituted for the abstract, the intuitive
method for the analytical. Luther taught the Bible in
1 Melanchthon, Vita Lutheri, p, 12 ; vide Gieseler, iv, p. 18, n. 6.

CH. n.] THE REFORMATION 107
place of the Lombard and Thomas Aquinas. He fol
lowed the Apostles and Prophets in preference to the
Fathers and the Schoolmen,* Above aU ' he recaUed the
minds of men to the Son of God.' ^ He said :
' AU right holy books agree in this, that they altogether preach
and urge Christ. This also is the trae touchstone to test aU
books, . . . since every scripture shows Christ.' ^
Luther insisted that the Scripture should be its own in
terpreter, and urged the one literal sense against the
fourfold sense, yet claimed that faith was absolutely
essential to the exegete.
' Every word should be aUowed to stand in its natural meaning,
and that should not be abandoned unless faith forces us to it.'
' It is the attribute o£ Holy Scripture that it interprets itseU by
passages and plaoes whioh belong together, and can only be
understood by the rule of faith.' *
ZwingU said :
' Luther . . . has searched out the meaning of Scripture with
greater earnestness than any one on earth has done for a thouisand
years. . . . What I have read of his writings (so far as concerns
dogma, doctrine, opinions, and the sense of Scripture, for I have
nothing to do with his quarrels) is generaUy so weU fortified and
grounded in the' Word of God, that it ia not possible for any
creature to refute them.' '
Ambrose Blaurer declared in 1523 :
' Luther, . . . above aU other men, has so restricted his under
standing, according to the exhortation of Paul, and foroed it
into subjection to the word of Christ, that he seldom decides by
his own opinion, but by comparing and explaining Scripture
with Scripture, which is the highest art in commenting.' "
' Vide Briggs, in A Symposiac on Martin Luther by the Professors of
the Union Theological Seminary in New Tork, 1883, pp, 9 seq.
2 Melanchthon, Vita Lutheri, p. 12.
s Walch, xiv. 149 ; vide Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, pp. 652 seq.
* Walch, iii. 2042 ; xix. 1601 ; Briggs, Study of Holy Script-wre, p. 456,
o Zwingli, Uslegung des X VIII. Art. , 1523 ; inde Gieseler, iv. p. 83,
.... 39.
* Blaurer, in Fiissli's Beytrdge zw Beformationsgeschichie, iv, 195;
vide Gieseler, iv. pp. 73 seq. , n. 119.
VOL, II, H

108 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. n.
Melanchthon testifies to Ms extraordinary power as a
teacher :
' One man is an interpreter ; another a logician ; and stiU
another an orator, affluent and beautiful in speech ; but Luther
is aU in aU. , . . Whatever he writes, whatever he utters, pierces
to the soul, fixes itseU like arrows in the heart.' ^
But the cMef merit of Luther as a teacher was Ms un
fiinching fidelity to truth. The truth of God swayed
Mm with irresistible power. At the Diet of Worms
(1521) he cried : ' My conscience is bound in the Word of
God : I cannot and vrill not recant anytMng, , . . Here
I stand. I cannot do otherwise. God help me.' *
He wrote to Melanchthon in 1530 :
' To your great anxiety, by which you are made weak, I am
a cordial foe ; for the cause is not ours. ... So far as the pubUc
cause is concemed, I am weU content and satisfied ; for I know
that it is right and true, and, what is more, it is the cause of
Christ and God HimseU. For that reason, I am merely a spec
tator. If we f aU, Christ wUl likewise f aU ; and if He f aU, I would
rather faU with Christ than stand with the emperor.' '
Luther first appeared as a reformer in the pubUcation of
mnety-five Theses against the sale of indulgences (1517),
He claimed that he was upholding the Scriptures and the
teacMng of the Church ; but in the heat of controversy
he came into confUct vrith the common teaching and
practice of the Church as expressed in the writings of
great theologians and in papal decrees. He challenged
the Scholastic Theology and the authority of the pope,
holding that only a general council could finaUy deter
mine articles of faith. But in a controversy with Eck
at Leipzig (1519) he was forced by inevitable logic to
justify Huss in some matters,. and so to deny the infallible
authority of councUs as well as of popes.* In the foUow-
1 Vide Painter, Luther on Education, p. 108.
* Vide Kidd, Docum,ents lUustratiiie of ihe Continental Reformation,
p. 85 ; Briggs, Theological Symbolics, pp, 262 seq. , 271 seq.
• Vide Kirn, ' Melanchthon,' in New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia,
* Vide Briggs, Theological Symbolics, pp, 162 seq., 165 seq.

CH. n.] THE REFORMATION 109
ing year he pubUshed Ms tracts : To the Christian
Nobility of the German Nation, The Babylonian Captivity
of the Church, and The Liberty of a Christian Man. In
these he appealed to the Scriptures over against pope
and council. Two years later he began to print in parts
translations of the Bible in Gferman.i TMs work was
completed in 1534, but he continued to revise it for the
rest of Ms life. He secured the help of Melanchthon,
Cruciger, Bugenhagen, Justus Jonas, and AurogaUus.*
The translation was based upon the original Hebrew
and Greek texts, compared with the Vulgate and the older
German versions. Luther's Bible has been the Bible
of the German people from that day to tMs. Widely
scattered in cheap editions, it greatly helped the progress
of the Reformation. Luther also produced numerous
commentaries, postilloe and expository sermons, which
were of great influence. The Kirchenpostille Luther
caUs ' the very best book that I ever made.' * The
commentaries on Genesis, the Psalms, and Galatians
were of special value. In addition to Ms dogmatic and
polemic writings and Ms numerous letters, Luther
published works of fundamental importance for symbolics
and liturgies. His catecMsms were given symboUcal
authority by the Formula of Concord, as ' the Bible of the
laity.' * The smaller catecMsm is an abridgment of the
larger, and is based on the Decalogue, the Apostles'
Creed, the Lord's Prayer and the Sacraments. In the
preface to the Larger CatecMsm Luther writes :
' I read and recite word by word, in the morning and when I
have leisure, the Ten Commandments, the Articles of the Creed,
the Lord's Prayer, the Psalms, etc. . . . and I must remain and
do cheerfuUy remain a chUd and pupU of the catechism.'
1 Vide Briggs, Theological Symbolics, p. 168 ; Study of Holy Scripture,
pp. 216 seq.
2 Vide Schaff, History of Christian Church, vi. pp. 346 seq.
' Walch, XX, 1112 ; vide Gieseler, iv, pp, 554 seq., n. 12.
* Vide Briggs, Theological Symbolics, pp. 11 seq.

110 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt, n.
Lohe remarks of the smaller work : ' No other catecMsm
in the world can be made a prayer of but tMs,' Leopold
von Ranke cried :
' Happy he whose soul was nourished by it, he who clings to
it ! He possesses . . . under a thin sheU the kernel of the
Truth, which is suflScient for the wisest of the wise.' ^
Luther's hymns are also household treasures among
the German people. Luther came into conflict with
Erasmus on the freedom of the will, and vrith ZwingU
on the Eucharist, He aUenated the greater number of
the Humamsts, and destroyed the imity of the Reforma
tion by insisting that it should go in Ms way and in no
other. He lacked the faculty of mee discrimination, and
did injury to some of the cherished institutions and weU-
established doctrines of Christiamty. But the Church
was in bondage to a vast system of legaUsm, and it was
Luther who spoke the master word that set men free.
He had passed tMough an experience almost identical
vrith that of St. Paul, and so was enabled to imderstand
Mm better than any one since Augustine. It was the
merit of Luther that he set forth the teacMng of the
Apostle Paul as the great transforming power of the age.*
Like the Baptist, 'monstravit agnum Dei, qui tuUt
peccata nostra,' ^
2, Philip Melanchthon (1497-1560) was educated in
humamstic studies at the Latin school of Pforzheim
and at the umversities of Heidelberg and Tiibingen. He
was strongly influenced by ReucMin, Ms great-uncle,
and later by Erasmus, and so became a thorough
Humanist. (Ecolampadius recommended Mm to the
latter as ' a person plainly worthy of Erasmus' love,
who may Mmself become a second Erasmus.' * Melan-
1 Von Banke, Deutsche Geschichte im Zeitalter der Reformation (1852'),
ii, p. 357 ; -vide Schaff, Creeds of Christendom, i. pp. 250 seq.
* Vide Briggs, Theological Symbolics, pp. 156 seq., 167 seq., 170 seq.
• Melanchthon, Vita Lutheri, p. 12 ; vide Gieseler, iv. p. 18, n. 6.
* Vide Nichols, il, p, 636,

CH. n.] THE REFORMATION 111
chthon began Ms career by teacMng the classics at Tubin-
gen,'and then went to Wittenberg as professor of Greek.
At Wittenberg he represented the humamstic culture,
wMch he combined with the more Biblical methods of
Luther. His inaugural address, De corrigendis adoles-
centicB studiis, excited extraordinary interest, and Ms
lecture-room was tMonged with students. In 1533 he
reformed and reorgamsed the methods of the umversity,
and tMs reform fumished the model for most of the
Protestant umversities of Germany. There were three
professors of theology, the first of whom lectured on the
New Testament, and the second on the Old Testament,
whUe the tMrd gave a more practical exposition of the
Bible. Hebrew, Greek, and etMcs were taught in the
pMlosopMcal faculty. The Sentences of the Lombard
and the old compendium of dogmatic were done away
with. Melanchthon devoted Mmself for a time cMefly
to the pMlosopMcal faculty, in strictly humamstic
studies ; but such interest was aroused by Ms lectures
on the Greek Testament, that he was transferred to the
theological faculty.
Matthesius relates that he came to Wittenberg at the age of
twenty-five (in 1529), and there heard Melanchthon lecture on
the Epistle to the Romans, and on Rhetoric, Dialectic and
Ethics ; also Luther on Isaiah ; Jonas on the Psalms ; B-ugen-
hagen on Corinthians ; Aurogallus on Hebrew grammar ; Frank
of Weimar on Greek, etc.^
Melanchthon became the great theologian of the
Lutheran type of the Reformation. He rejected the
Scholastic Theology ; and, foUovring the method of the
Positive Theology, based Ms teacMng on the Scriptures,
especially on the Epistle to the Romans, He was more
comprehensive in Ms scholarsMp than Luther, and more
iremc in Ms disposition, ^ Luther contrasts Mmself with
J Vide Paulsen, Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts, i. p. 221,
> Vide Briggs, Theological Symbolics, pp. 168 seq., 203 seq.

112 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt, n.
Ms frielid in the preface which he wrote to Melanchthon's
Commentary on Colossians, saying :
' I am rough, boisterous, stormy, and altogether warUke, I
am bom to fight against innumerable monsters and devils, I
must remove stumps and stones, out away thistles and thorns,
and clear the wild forests ; but Master PhiUppus comes along
softly and gently, sowing and watering with joy, according to
the gifts which God has abundantly bestowed upon him,' ^
After the death of Luther, Melanchthon developed
stiU more in the iremc and humanistic direction toward
wMch he was naturally inclined, but he became involved
in the Interimistic and Adiaphoristic Controversies, and
was charged with yielding too much in the interests of
peace. The Augsburg Confession, the Apology for that
Confession, and the so-called Variata were all the work
of Melanchthon, He also prepared other symbols in
whole or in part,^ His Loci communes rerum theologi
carum, published in many editions (1521-1559), grew out
of a course of lectures on the Romans. Luther called
it, ' liber in-victus, non solum immortalitate, sed ef canone
ecclesiastico dignus.' * It became the standard system of
theology of the Lutheran Reformation. Domer classes
it with Luther's three great tracts of the year 1520,
saying : ' To the reformation proclaimed in these writings
and to no other did the German people subscribe,' *
Melanchthon's commentaries were also of great value,
especiaUy those on the Romans and Colossians. His
numerous writings include important works on the
sacraments, worsMp, and govemment of the Church,
on etMcs, homiletics, catechetics, and pedagogics, as
weU as on dogma, pMlosophy, and pMlology. He
perpetuated the influence of ReucMin, Wimpheling and
1 Vide Schaff, vi. p. 193.
2 Vide Briggs, Theological Symbolics, pp. 176 seq., 184, 189 seq., 193
354 seq.
8 Vide Herrlinger, ' Melanchthon,' in Herzog's Real-Encyklop&die,
1881'. * Dorner, Qeschichte der protestantischen Theologie, p, 93,

CH. n.] THE REFORMATION 113
Agricola ; and he was the first Protestant to write on
the proper method of studying theology, and the first
to ' attempt a Mstory of dogma,' ' It may safely be
said that by Ms influence every department of theology
was advanced,' ^
The most of the German universities became Protes
tant : Wittenberg, Erfurt, Leipzig, Frankfort, Greifswald,
Rostock, in the north ; and Tubingen and Heidelberg, in
the south ; also Copenhagen in Denmark, and Upsala in
Sweden, Upon aU of these the influence of Melanchthon
was strong. New universities were orgamsed under the
same influence at Marburg (1527), Konigsberg (1544),
Jena (1556-1558), Helmstddt (1576). The most of the
umversities, however, declined after the Reformation,
with the exception of Wittenberg and Marburg in the
north, and Tiibingen and Heidelberg in the south.
Among the scholars of Wittenberg were : 3. Justus Jonas (f 1655),
who caUed Erasmus his ' father in Christ,' and was entrusted by
Luther and Melanchthon with the translation of their works from
German into Latin, or the reverse ; 4. Johann Bugenhagen
(t 1668), who was influenced by Erasmus to study the Scriptures,
helped Luther in his Biblical translation, pubUshed notable
commentaries, and, as superintendent of the reform in Denmark,
reorganised the University of Copenhagen ; 5. Matthias Flaci-us
Illyricus (f 1576), leader in the Interimistic, Adiaphoristic and
Synergistic controversies, author of works of great value to
Church historians and BibUcal exegetes, among them the
famous Magdeburg Centuries, whioh originated with him; 6,
Martin Chemnitz (f 1586), a leader in the preparation of several
of the minor Protestant symbols and in the Adiaphoristic and
Eucharistic controversies, and noted for his polemic against
Rome, especially his Examen Concilii Tridentini.
The University of Marburg had among its first professors of
theology : 7, Franqois Lambert {-f 1630), a Franciscan of Avignon
who oame under the influence of both ZwingU and Luther, took
a leading part in the Reformation in Hesse, especiaUy in the
Homberg Sjmod, and pubUshed practical commentaries and
dogmatic and polemic treatises ; 8. Andreas Hyperius (t 1564),
I Kirn, 'Melanchthon,' in Ne-ic Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia.

114 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt, n.
' the spiritual head of the Hessian Church ' and ' the father of
Practical Theology,' ^ who wrote works of great importance, De
ratione studii theologici, De methodo in conscribenda historia
ecclesiastica consilium, De formandis co-ncionibus sacris, and
valuable commentaries.
The University of Konigsberg numbered among its professors :
9. A-ndreas Osiander ("f 1552), Hebrew scholar, controversiaUst,
and leader of the Reformation in Niiremberg, whose works include
a Latin version of the Bible, a Harmony of the Gospels, and various
polemic treatises. He is to be distinguished from his son Lucas
{-\ 1604), also preacher, teacher, controversiaUst, and the author
of important BibUcal, historical and doctrinal works.
Among the theologians of Heidelberg were : 10. John Brenz
("j" 1670), the leading reformer of the Duchy of Wiirtemberg,
active in many of the reUgious controversies of the time and in
the reform of the University of Tiibingen (1537), author of the
Confessio Wirtembergica, the Churoh Order of 1563-1669, and of
several catechisms of great usefulness ; also an exegete of whom
Luther said : ' No one of the theologians of our time so explains
and discourses of the Holy Scriptures as does Brentius ; in such
a way that I often wonder at his mind, and doubt my own
capacity. I beUeve that no one of us could do what he has
done in explanation of the Gtospel of John.' * 11. Zacharias
Ursinus (f 1583), an associate of Melanchthon at Wittenberg, and
teacher in the Collegium Sapientiae at Heidelberg, who helped to
prepare the HeideAerg Catechism, and wrote on the Augsburg
Confession and the Formula of Concord ; 12. Caspar Ole-vian-us
(t 1587), trained in theology at Gteneva, whose chief work was
done at Heidelberg, in the preparation of the Heidelberg Cate
chism, in teaching, preaching and church organisation.
At the University of Leipzig valuable work was done in pre
paration for a sounder exegesis of the Greek Testament by the
Greek scholar : 13. Camerarius (t 1574), a disciple of Melan
chthon. The leading spirit in the University of Rostock in his day was :
14. Chytrceus (t 1600), another pupU of Melanchthon and ' the
last of the fathers of the Lutheran Church.' He was a mediating
theologian, and an encyclopaedic scholar, and produced Regulce
studiorum, De studio theologice recte inchoando (1562, 1572), and
other works of great influence in the fields of dogmatics, cate
chetics, Church history and BibUcal exegesis,
 ,  ,  . 
1 Achelis, ' Hyperius,' in New Schaf-Herzog Encyclopedia.
s Walch, xxii, 2290 ; vide Gieseler, iv. p. 555, n. 14.

CH, n,] THE REFORMATION 115
The University of Tiibingen trained such scholars as : 15, Jacob
Andreoe (f 1590), who helped to prepare the Swabian-Saxon
Concordia, the Torgau Book, and the Formula of Concord, and
wrote De instauratione studii theologici, De studio sacrarum
literarum, and numerous other works ; 16, Piscator (f 1626),
author of a German version of the Bible, Latin commentaries on
both Testaments, and an Anhang des 'herbonischen biblischen
Wercks, ' noted for its wealth of archaeological, historical, and
theological material,' ^
In the University of Copenhagen the Danish theologian : 17,
Niels Hemmingsen (t 1600), a devoted pupU of Melanchthon,
taught for thirty-seven years (1642-1579), He pubUshed valu
able works in Exegetical, Doctrinal and Practical Theology,
including the Way of Life (1570, English, 1576), in whioh the
material is arranged on the principle of the Law and the Gospel,^
3. The University of Basel perpetuated the influence of
Erasm-us, but went over to the Zwinglian type of the Re
formation under the chief reformer (Ecolampadius.
1. (Ecolampadius (Johann Heussgen, 1482-1531) was
trained at Heilbronn. then studied law at Bologna, and
at last pMlosophy and theology at Heidelberg, where
he was greatly influenced by Thomas Aquinas and the
Scholastic Mystics, especially Richard of St, Victor and
Gerson, He spent some years in tutoring and preacMng,
and then went to Tiibingen, where he met Melanchthon.
In 1514 he returned to Heidelberg, and the following
year was called to preach at Basel. There he entered
into fellowsMp with Erasmus, and helped Mm in the
publisMng of Ms Greek Testament. In 1516 he began
to lecture on the New Testament in the umversity, and
two years later he assisted Erasmus in Ms second edition
of the Greek text. The group of scholars to which both
belonged is thus described by Erasmus :
' I seem to be Uving in some charming sanctuary of the Muses,
where a multitude of learned persons, and learned in no common
fashion, appears a thing of course. No one is ignorant of Latin ;
1 E. P, Karl Muller, ' Piscator,' in Ne-w Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia.
2 Vide Briggs, Theological Symbolics, pp. 8 seq.

116 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. n.
none of Greek ; most of them know Hebrew. This one excels
in the study of History, that one is deeply versed in Theology ;
one is skiUed in Mathematics, another is a student of Antiquity,
and another is learned in the Law. Certainly up to this time it
has never been my good fortune to Uve in such an accomplished
society. But not to dweU upon that, what a sincere friendship
prevails among them aU, what cheerfulness, what concord !
You would swear they had only one mind among them.' ^
In 1520 the mystic tendencies of (Ecolampadius led
him to retire to a monastery ; but after two years he left,
and became the chaplam of Franz von Sickingen. A few
months later he accepted a call to Basel, where he spent
the remainder of Ms life. He became a leader of the
Reformation in Basel, though not its originator. After a
long conflict the reforming party triumphed (1529), and
Simon Grynceus (f 1541) and Sebastian Munster were
added to the faculty of the umversity. The lectures of
(Ecolampadius in the umversity were cMefly upon the
Scriptures, and Ms commentaries are among the most
valuable of the time. His writings include sermons,
exegetical and polemical treatises, letters and transla
tions from the Fathers. He stood in close relations with
Zwingli, and aided Bucer in his efforts for peace. At the
conference of Marburg (1529) he showed a conciliatory
spirit, and in the foUovring years he continued to work
for umon. In 1534 he drew up with the help of Myconius
the first Confession of Basel, wMch is simple and mode
rate in statement,*
The successor of (Ecolampadi-us at Basel was : 2, Oswald My
conius (t 1552), an associate of ZwingU, who helped to prepare
both the First Confession of Basel and the First Helvetic Con
fession, Among the theologians trained at Basel may be mentioned :
3, Urbanus Rhegius (f 1541), a foUower of Eck, who came under
the influence of Erasmus and ZwingU, and took his doctor's
degree at Basel, He became a leader of the Reformation in
1 Erasmus, Ep. 366.
8 Vide Brings, Theological Symbolics, p. 185,

CH, n,] THE REFORMATION 117
Liineburg and Hannover, and published numerous doctrinal and
polemical works, many of which were translated into EngUsh ;
4, Johannes a Lasco (t 1560), author of the Emden Catechism
and the Confessio Londinensis, a friend of Erasmus and other
leading Humanists, who was charged with the superintendence of
aU the churches in East Friesland (c, 1642), of aU the congrega
tions of foreign Protestants in London (1550), and of aU the
Reformed churches in Little Poland (c, 1567),
4. Zwingli began a revival of the study of Theology in
Ziirich ; and his influence was carried on by Bullinger,
who organised both common and theological education, and
laid the basis for the subsequent university.
1. Huldreich Zwingli (1484-1531) was educated at
Bem and Vienna, and finally at Basel, where Thomas
Wyttenbach (f 1526), professor of theology, taught Mm
' to seek remission of sins in the death of Christ alone.' ^
He began his work as pastor at Glarus in 1506 ; and some
years later, under the infiuence of Erasmus, he under
took the study of the Greek Testament, that he might
' draw the doctrine of Christ from the original.' * In
1516 he removed to Einsiedeln, where he began to pro
claim the mediatorial work of Christ and the authority
of the Scriptures. Three years later he was called to the
Great Minster at Ziirich, where he remained until his
death. In Ziirich he studied Hebrew with a pupil of
ReucMin, and began a series of expository sermons by
wMch he covered the entire New Testament, save for the
Apocalypse, in four years. These sermons produced a
profound impression. In 1523 he published sixty-seven
Theses, exalting Christ as the only Saviour, and Holy
Scripture as the only infallible authority. These articles
are more comprehensive and dogmatic than those of
Luther. They may be regarded as the basis of the Swiss
Reformation. Zvringli defended them in a series of dis
putations. He began his work of reform independently
> Vide Schaff, vn, pp, 23 seq. » Vide Gieseler, iv. p. 78, n. 17.

118 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. n.
of Luther, and from a different point of view. He waa
stirred against idolatry rather than against the abuse of
indulgences. But, like Luther, he appealed to the
Scriptures.* In 1525 Zwingli introduced in Ziirich the
study of the Bible in Hebrew, Greek and Latin, forming
a Mnd of theological school. It seems to have been to
some extent a revival of the ancient cathedral school.
Under the name of the Carolinum it developed into a
famous institution. Mycomus declared that, if Zwingli
had lived to bring Ms plan to complete fulfilment, this
school would have had no equal.* BuUinger, Mycomus,
Pellican, Bibliander and other noted scholars took part
in the building up of the institution. Zwingli sent a con
fession of faith to the Diet of Augsburg (1530), and an
Exposition of the Christian Faith to Francis i, (1531). He
wrote a Commentarius de vera et falsa religione, wMch is
said to be ' the first systematic exposition of the Re
formed faith ' ; ' also treatises on Divine Providence and
CJhristian education, polemical, exegetical, liturgical, and
poUtical works, sermons and letters.
2. Henry Bullinger (1504-1575) was educated at
Emmerich by the BretMen of the Common Life, and
then at the umversity of Cologne. Influenced by a study
of the Fathers and the Scriptures, as well as by the
writings of Luther and Melanchthon, he became a
Protestant in 1522. The following year he began to
teach at the Cistercian monastery in Kappel, near
Ziirich, and there remained for six years, teacMng the
classics and the Bible. He became a close friend and
supporter of Zvringli, and after Ms death the leader of
the German Swiss Protestants. BulUnger raised the
schools of Ziirich to a Mgh standard of excellence, and
did much to promote theological scholarsMp. Peter
1 Vide Briggs, Theological Symbolics, pp. 169 seq.
' Vide Christoffel, Huldreich Zwingli, in ieiere u-nd ausgewSMlt
Schriften der VtUer und Begrunder der rtformirten Kirche, 1. p. 97.
» Vide Schaff, vii. p, 63.

CH. n.] THE REFORMATION 119
Martyr, PelUcan and Bibliander were caUed to teach in
the Carolinum. Protestant refugees from France, Italy,
England, and Germany came to Bullinger for refuge.
Like Bucer he worked on behalf of Church Umty, and
Beza called Mm ' the common shepherd of aU Christian
Churches,' ^ He was one of the authors of the First
Helvetic Confession (1536), and joined with Calvin in the
production of the Consensus Tigurinus (1549), wMch
umted the French and German Swiss on a common plat
form. The Second Helvetic Confession (1566) he wrote
as Ms own confession of faith, in expectation of death
(1562) : it became the bond of umty of aU the Reformed
Churches.2 His writings consist of Latin commentaries
on the whole New Testament save the Apocalypse ;
sermons on several of the Prophets and on the Apoca
lypse ; treatises De providentia, De gratia Dei justificante,
De Scripturae sanctae auctoritate et certitudine, and other
dogmatic works ; Sermonum decades quinque, on the
Decalogue, the Apostles' Creed and the sacraments,
MgMy valued in England and HoUand ; Mstorical works,
and letters of great importance for the Mstory of the
Reformation ; and a book of Church Order, prepared
with the help of Leo Judae, wMch remained in use for
three centuries.
Among the scholars that assisted ZwingU and BuUinger the
most important was : 3. Leo Judce (1482-1542). He was trained
at Schlettstadt, and was a feUow-student of ZwingU at Basel.
He began as a student of medicine ; but, influenced by Wytten
bach' s lectures on Romans, he joined ZwingU in the study of
theology. He succeeded his friend at Einsiedeln, and afterwards
became his coUeague and helper at Ziirich (1523). He prepared
several catechisms, and became famous for his work as a trans
lator, especiaUy for his Latin version of the Old Testaraent. He
taught Hebrew in the Carolinum, and was the chief of the group
of scholars which produced the Ziirich Bible (1625-1529). What
1 Vide Schaff, vii, p. 207,
' Vide Briggs, Theological Symbolics, pp, 185, 193, 196 seq.

120 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. n.
Melanchthon was to Luther, that Leo was to ZwingU ; and he
helped Bullinger to carry on the great Reformer's work.
Prominent among the reformers of Ziirich were the BibUcal
scholars : 4, Pellican (f 1666), a disciple of ReuchUn, and former
associate of (Ecolampadius at Basel, who taught Hebrew and
Greek at Ziirich for over thirty years, and pubUshed Commen
taria Bibliorum ; 5, Bibliander (f 1564), ' homo grammaticus,' a
pupU of PelUcan, Capito, (Ecolampadius and Myconius, and
ZwingU's successor as professor of theology, regarded by Hot
tinger as the father of Exegetical Theology in Switzerland,"^
Ziirich became the refuge of several disciples of the Spanish
mystic, J-uan de Valdes (f 1541), who produced a profound im
pression by his tract, Del Beneficio di Christo, and in his Alfabeto
christiano summed up Christian perfection in holy love. One of
the most noted of his many foUowers was: 6. Pietro Martire
Vermigli (1500-1562), prior of the Augustinians at Lucca, who
sought to reform theological study in his monastery, and pub
Ushed a tract on the Twelve Articles of the Christian Faith.
CaUed to account by his Order, he retired to Strasburg, and there
became professor of Hebrew (1543-1547). Cranmer invited him
to England, and he was made professor of Divinity at Oxford
(1549). Foroed to leave England by Mary's accession, he finaUy
settled at Ziirich (1566), where he taught Hebrew in the Carol
inum. His principal writings are commentaries. Loci communes,
and doctrinal, tracts. Among his disciples at Lucca was Zandhi
(t 1590), who taught Hebrew at Strasburg (1553) and theology
at Heidelberg (1568), and wrote on the nature of God, His works
and His law.
7. Bernardino Occhino (1487-1564), a native of Siena and
member of the new order of Capuchins, became the most popular
preacher of Italy after Savonarola. He was strongly influenced
by Juan de Vald6s and Peter Martyr, and was suspected of
heresy. Taking refuge in Geneva (1542), he pubUshed many
volumes of sermons and a commentary on Romans. Calvin
praised him for ' eminent leaming and exemplary Ufe,' ' In
1547 he was caUed to England by Cranmer, and for some years
worked in London as an evangeUst (1547-1564), On the acces
sion of Mary he removed to Ziirich, where he came under the
influence of Loeli-us Socinus. In 1661-1563 he pubUshed works
whioh excited doubts of his orthodoxy, and led to his expulsion.
Driven from place to place, he died in Moravia the foUowing year.
1 Vide Egli, ' Bibliander,' in New Schaff-Henog Encyclopedia.
» Vide Schaff, vii. p. 646.

CH. n.] THE REFORMATION 121
Mention may also be made of : 8. Hospinian (1547-1626), who
was head of the Carolinum for nearly twenty years, and produced
numerous polemical and historical works, especiaUy in the fleld
of Christian Institutions.
5. John Sturm organised the gymnasium of Strasburg
in 1538, and Martin Bucer organised the theological
seminary there in 1544.
John Sturm and Martin Bucer were jointly responsible
for the orgamsation of education at Strasburg.
1. Sturm (1507-1589) studied in the famous school of
liege and the umversity of Louvain, and began Ms
teacMng at Paris, TMough the influence of Bucer's
writings he became a Protestant, He is cMefly respon
sible for the orgamsation of the gymnasium of Strasburg
(1538), wMch he conducted for over forty years as the
pubUc school of the city. According to Ms plan the
study was carried on for ten years in as many classes.
It was in preparation for the Mgher studies of the
learned professions, law, medicine, and theology, and
was humanistic throughout, Sturm's aims found
expression in the phrase : Sapiens atque eloquens pietas ;
Ms ideas and methods in the treatise : De literarum
ludis recte aperiendis. His school had at one time more
than a thousand pupils assembled from all parts. Among
the teachers of theology were Bucer, Calvin, Capito,
Hedio, Peter Martyr, and Fagius, Sturm was called
upon to organise other schools on the model of that at
Strasburg, His writings were numerous, including
polemical tracts and letters of value, as well as works on
pedagogy, rhetoric, etc.
Among the pupils of Sturm at Paris was the celebrated Human
ist and phUosopher, Petrus Ramus (t 1572), noted for his criticism
of the AristoteUan phUosophy and logic, who pubUshed Com-
mentariorum de religione Christiana libri IV.
2, Martin Bucer (1491-1551) was trained at Schlett
stadt, joined the Domimcan Order, and continued Ms

122 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. n.
education among the Humamsts at Heidelberg. He
left the monastery in 1520, and served as pastor at
LandstuM, Wissenburg, and finally at Strasburg (1523),
where he umted with ZeU, Capito, and Hedio in the
reformation of the city. He orgamsed evangeUcal
worsMp, Church govemment, and the teacMng of
theology. Between the years 1524 and 1544 he pubUshed
no less than three catecMsms, and in 1530 prepared the
Tetrapolitan Confession for the Diet of Augsburg. He
also helped Sturm in Ms school, and subsequently, in
1544, orgamsed a seminary for traimng in theology.
Bucer was the cMef mediatmg theologian on the Re
formed side. He was infiuenced by both Luther and
ZwingU ; but took an independent position, and in Ms
tum influenced both Calvin and Melanchthon. It was
Bucer who, with the help of Melanchthon, composed the
Consultation of Hermann of Cologne, wMch CJranmer
used in the preparation of the Book of Common Prayer.*
Bucer was called by Cranmer to England, and settled
at Cambridge in 1650, only to die the following year.
His remarkable literary activity bore frait in the fields
of Biblical Exegesis, Dogmatics, SjmiboUcs, Apologetics,
Polemics, Iremcs, liturgies. Church Order, Pastoral
Theology, and the History of CouncUs and Conferences.
As an exegete he deserves special mention. Grynaeus
wrote to Mm in 1533 : ' Palmam tibi in sacris literis
inter Germanos concedo.' '
3. Capito (Wolfgang Koepfel, 1478-1541) was educated at
Pforzheim and Ingolstadt, and finaUy at Freiburg, where he
studied medicine, law and theology. He became professor and
preacher at Basel (1515), and there, under the influence of Eras
mus and other Humanists, took up the study of the Scriptures.
Erasmus describes him as ' a man who, besides other accompHsh
ments, is pre-eminently skUled in three tongues, Greek, Latin,
and Hebrew, and finaUy is a person of so much integrity and piety,
1 Vide Briggs, Theological Symbolics, pp. 174 seq., 180 seq., 184 seq., 191.
2 Vide Gieseler, iv. p. 556, n. 15.

OH, n,] THE REFORMATION 123
that I have never seen anything more stainless.' * Capito pub
lished a Psalterium hebraicum (1516), and a Hebrew grammar in
several editions (1516, 1518, 1525), translations of Hosea and of
Chrysostom, two catechisms (1527, 1529), Von der Kirchen-
lieblicher vereinigung (1533), and above aU the Berliner S-ynodua
(1532), He became with Bucer a leader of the reform in Stras
burg, and assisted him in preparing the TetrapoUtan Confession
(1630), 4, Caspar Hedio (1494-1552) was trained at Pforzheim,
Freiburg and Basel, and beoame one of the leading reformers
at Strasburg (1523), He was also active in building up the
schools there, and taught theology in the higher school. He
has been caUed the first Protestant Churoh historian, and his
works include translations of Eusebius, Rufinus, Sozomen, etc,
and a chronicle extending from the beginning of the world to
the year 1543,
The successor of Capito at Strasburg was: 5. Paul-us Fagius
(t 1549), one of his students, and a pupil of Elias Le-vita, the great
Jewish scholar, who, together with Jacob ben Chayim, exerted
a strong influence upon the Protestant reformers in their study
of the Old Testament,^ Fagius was caUed to England and
appointed professor of Hebrew at Cambridge (1549), but died
soon afterwards. His writings are on the Hebrew language and
Old Testament exegesis.
Among the students of Hebrew at Strasburg in the time of
Capito and Bucer was : 6. Mvscul-us (Muesshn, -f 1563), a mediat
ing theologian and worthy to stand with BuUinger, (Ecolam
padius and Melanchthon by the side of Luther, ZwingU and
Calvin, as one of the great exegetes of the Reformation,' In
addition to his valuable commentaries Musculus pubUshed trans
lations of the Greek Fathers, Loci communes, a catechism, and
doctrinal tracts. He preached for some years at .^ugsburg, but
was driven from there by the Interim (1548), and became pro
fessor of theology at Bem,
6. John Eck at the University of Ingolstadt reformed
the study of Theology by a combination of Positive Theology
ivith Humanistic studies and the traditional Catholic
Theology. John Eck (1486-1543) was educated at Heidelberg,
1 Nichols, Epistles of Erasmus, ii. p. 328.
a Vide Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, pp. 140 seq., 219 seq.
> Vide Briggs, ibid., pp. 224, 457,
VOL, II, X

124 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt, n.
Tiibingen, Cologne, and Freiburg, at wMch last
umversity he became a successful teacher. He was
caUed to a theological chair at Ligolstadt in 1510 ; and
by Ms infiuence there, wMch continued until Ms death,
he made it the great CathoUc umversity of Germany,
He was no less a Humamst than Melanchthon, and no
less a Biblical scholar than Luther, having been trained
in Greek and Hebrew as well. He differed from them
in maintaining the traditional Roman Catholic Faith
and Institutions, wMch he defended with such great
abiUty that he was regarded as the cMef champion of
Rome on all occasions. His Enchiridion went tMough
forty-six editions between 1525 and 1576, and is as
truly Positive Theology, based on the Bible, as any of
the writings of Luther or Melanchthon. He also issued
(1537) a (Jerman translation of the Bible over against
that of Luther.*^
Among the peacemakers on the side of Rome at the time of
the Reformation may be mentioned : 1. John (hopper (f 1559),
a foUower of Erasmus and supporter of Hermann of Cologne
in his flrst efforts at reform. (Jropper took part in several con
ferences on behalf of Church Unity, and drew up the canons of the
reforming councU held at Cologne in 1536.^ But he differed from
the Protestants irreoonoUably on matters concerning the Churoh,
and became the opponent of Hermann after the appearance of
his Reforming Constitution. Gropper's chief works are his
Enchiridion (1538), and Institutio catholica (1565), in which he
makes use of the Positive Theology. 2. Oeorge Cassander
(t 1566), the greatest of aU the CathoUc peacemakers, in his De
officio pii ac pvblicae iranquilUtatis, etc. (1561), and his Consultatio
(1664), considers the differences between CathoUcs and Pro
testants in an irenic spirit and makes useful proposals for recon
ciUation,' 3. Oeorge Witzel (¦}• 1673), a pupU of Erasmus, in
his Methodus concordice ecclesiasticce (1537) urged reforms in
doctrinal statements and ecclesiastical usages, and in his Via
' Vide Greving, Eck alsjunger Gelehrier, 1906.
* Canones provincialis concilii Coloniensis, 1538 ; vide Briggs, Theo
logical Symbolics, p, 184.
> Vide Briggs, Church Unity, p. 421,

CH, n,l THE REFORMATION 125
regia (1564) proposed the laying aside of scholastic dogmatism
and a return to the simpUcity of doctrine and usage of the early
Church.1 7. The Universities of Louvain and of Alcala combined
Humanistic studies with a reformed Scholasticism.
The University of Alcala, Spain, was established c. 1500
by Cardinal Ximenes, who orgamsed several colleges
for humamstic studies, Latin, Greek and Hebrew, and
for the study of theology. The theological degrees were
given the precedence of all the others. There were six
professorsMps of theology proper, six of C!hurch Law,
and four of Greek and Hebrew, Biblical studies were
emphasised by those who gave the first great Polyglot,
the Complutensian, called after the ancient Complutum,
where the first college was established. Some of the
greatest scholars of Spain took part in tMs work, among
them Alphonso de Zamora, also Demetrius Ducas of Crete,
The University of Louvain was founded in Brabant
c. 1425 with all the faculties save that of theology,
wMch was added in 1431, Louvain was given in charge
of the Domimcans and became the great seat of the
Thomist Theology, Humanistic studies were introduced
c, 1517 by the estabUshment of the Collegium Trilingue
after the model of that of Alcala, for the study of Latin,
Greek, and Hebrew. These two reformed universities,
combimng Humamsm with the Scholasticism of Thomas
Aquinas, were cMefly responsible for the newer
Scholasticism of the sixteenth century, wMch put aside
the corrupt and hair-splitting Scholasticism of the
fifteenth century and reverted to the pure Scholasticism
of Thomas. The study of theology tMoughout the
Roman CathoUc world was greatly influenced by tMs,
1, Ximenes (t 1517) rose to the highest positions in the Church,
as archbishop of Toledo, primate of Spain, cardinal, and in-
1 Vide Briggs, Theological Symbolics, pp. 20 seq.

126 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. n.
quisitor-general. He reformed the clergy, regular and secular,
reorganised and strengthened the universities, issued the Com^
pluiensian Polyglot, and revived the study of the Scholastic
Theology of Thomas Aquinas.
2. Francisco Vittoria (f 1546) was influenced by Ximenes,
and became the father of the newer Scholasticism. His pupils,
Melchior Cano and Dominico Soto, exerted immense influence in
the reformation of theology, especiaUy in the CouncU of Trent.
3. Melchior Cano (t 1560), of the Universities of AlcalA and
Salamanca, a Domimcan, and a bitter opponent of the Jesuits,
maintained in his Loci theologici the fundamental importance of
the Positive over against the Scholastic Theology."^
4. Dominico Soto (f 1660) was noted both as a BibUcal exegete
and as dogmatic theologian.
5, Thomas de Vio Cajetanus (t 1534), ItaUan Dominican and
cardinal, who conferred with Luther as papal delegate (1618),
was one of the foremost scholastic theologians of the age, and the
author of a notable commentary on Thomas Aquinas. But he
also reaUsed the importance of BibUcal study, and prepared a
Uteral translation of the Bible, and commentaries on most of its
books. Among the Biblical scholars of the time were the Dominicans :
6. Sanies Pagninus of Lucca (-j- 1541), whose studies in the
Hebrew language bore fruit in several important works, including
a Latin version of the Hebrew Bible and Isagogoe ad sacras
Iitteras liber I. ; 7. Sixtus of Siena (f 1560), whase Bibliotheca
sancta contains valuable material for Biblical criticism and the
history of exegesis ; ^ 8. the cardinal, Sadoleto (f 1547), a member
of the Oratory of Divine Love, and one of the ablest men in
Rome ; ' and 9. Masius (t 1573), counciUor of the Duke of Cleves,
and coUaborator with Arias Montan-us and others in the prepara
tion of the Antwerp Polyglot.*
8. John Calvin in his organisation of the Academy of
Geneva made it the centre and norm of theological education
for all the Churches of the Reformed type.
The Academy of Geneva was based on those of Stras
burg and Lausanne. The Academy at Lausanne was
orgamsed by Mathurin Cordier in 1545. It was preceded
1 Vide Heinrici, Theologische Encyklop'ddie, pp. 271, 349.
2 Vide Heinrici, ibid., p. 80.
• Vide Briggs, Theological Symbolics, p. 161.
* Vide Briggs, Stttdy of Holy Scripture, pp. 222, 250,

CH. n.] THE REFORMATION 127
by a school of religion, founded by the citizens of Bem
in 1537, in which Viret taught the Greek Testament.
The Academy of Lausanne was the first academy of the
Reformed Church using the French language, and to it
large numbers of Frenchmen resorted. In 1558 there
were as many as seven hundred students, Hebrew was
taught there by Merlin, theology by Rebit, the Hellemst,
Greek (after 1549) by Beza. But the institution was
soon eclipsed by the Academy of Geneva, founded by
Calvin in 1559.
1. Mathurin Cordier (1479-1564) was one of the chief Human
ist teachers of France. Ubicunque docebit Maturinus Corderi-us,
florebunt bonce litterce. He had been the instructor of Calvin
at Paris, and was always esteemed by him as a great teacher and
his own adviser in aU matters of education, Calvin dedicated
his Commentary on Thessalonians to Cordier, saying : ' Your
principles have been to me of such help that I regard myseU as
indebted to you for my subsequent progress. And I have
wished to bear witness to posterity ; so that, it they should
attach any value to my writings, they may recognise that these
proceed in part from you,'
In 1567 Cordier resigned from the headship of the academy
in Lausanne on account of his age, but two years later was caUed
to Geneva to assist in the founding of the Geneva Academy,
There he finished his famous Colloquies, which were pubUshed in
the year of his death,
2, William Farel (t 1565), a pupU of Stapulensis at Paris,
and an associate of (Ecolampadius at Basel, became a leader of
the Reformation, at first in Geneva (1632), and then in Neu-
ohatel. It was Farel who secured for Geneva the services of
Calvin. 3. Pierre Viret (f 1571), the reformer of Lausanne, having
worked in Geneva as Farel's assistant and afterwards at Neu-
chatel, settled as pastor and teacher in Lausanne for twenty-two
years. In 1559 he went to Geneva as preacher, and spent his
last years in service as an evangeUst at Nimes, Lyons and else
where, and as teacher of theology in the Academies of Nimes
(1561) and Orthez (1566), He virrote many useful works on the
Scriptures and Christian Doctrine and Institutions, the most
important being an Instruction chrestienne en la doctrine de la
oy et de I'evangile.

128 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. n.
4, John Calvin (1509-1564) was born at Noyon, in
Picardy, and went to Paris to study for the priesthood
(1523), He was trained in the classics under Cordier at
the College de la Marche, and then was transferred to
the CoUege de Montaigu, wMch Loyola entered before
Calvin left. In 1528 he tumed Ms attention to legal
studies, and went to Orleans, and in the foUovring year
to Bourges, In 1531 he returned to Paris to study
theology. There the Humamst became a Protestant.
In 1534 he was compeUed to fiee from Paris, and, after
some months of wandering, retired to Basel, where he
remained for over a year. At Basel he studied Hebrew
with Cfrynceus, and completed and published Ms
Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536), the most
important product of the Positive Theology of the
sixteenth century. Like the other reformers, Calvin
discarded the Scholastic Theology, and tumed to the
Scriptures as alone possessed of divine authority, and
to the Creeds of the ancient Church as vaUd summaries
of the doctrines of Scripture. He sought Ms material
in the Bible, and Ms structural principle, not in the
Aristotelian pMlosophy, but in the Apostles' Greed,
whose order he followed strictly, only maMng a fourfold
instead of the traditional twelvefold division. That
same year Calvin went to Geneva, and there took part
in the work of reform ; but in 1538 he was forced to
retire. He then went to Strasburg, where for three years
he preached to the French refugees and taught in the
academy. In 1541 he was recalled to Geneva, and at
once became the cMef reformer, not only of Geneva,
but also of Switzerland, and of the Reformed branch of
Protestantism in all other countries, Calvin was distin
guished especially as a teacher, and by Ms practical execu
tive abiUty, His cMef merit as a reformer was in the
field, not of doctrine, but of institution : in Ms orgam
sation of the Clhurch on a presbyterial basis, in Ms pre-

CH, n,] THE REFORMATION 129
paration of a normal liturgy for the Reformed Churches,
and in Ms establishment of a thorough theological
education,^ He greatly valued religious education, but
was obliged to devote himself at first to more essential
tMngs, wMle the educational part of the reform was
carried on at Lausanne. But in 1559 the Geneva Academ y
was founded, and Beza was called from Lausanne to aid
in the work.
There were two departments : the Schola privata, consisting
of seven classes, a preparatory school in the Classics, Dialectic
and Rhetoric ; and the Schola publica, in which theologians
taught. Courses were given in Theology, Hebre-w, Oreek, and
BibUcal Exegesis, as weU as in Physics, Mathematics, Dialectic
and Rhetoric. Theology was taught by Calvin, or by Beza, A
sermon was given every day, special prayers once a week : a
conference was held weekly, so also a discussion on theological
questions, making the total number of hours thirty a week, five
eaoh day. At the time of Calvin's death (1664) the number of
students in his academy had reached 1500.
The school of Calvin educated the ministry for French
Switzerland and Protestant France, and many of the
fathers of Scottish and English Presbyteriamsm were
trained there. Among Calvin's ovsoi students were John
Knox, Fran9ois du Jon, Lambert Daneau, and many
other notable theologians.
Calvin was influential also as a practical and an iremc
theologian. By friendly correspondence with BuUinger
and other Zvringlians he brought the German and French
Swiss into harmony and umfied the Reformed Churches
throughout Europe, He kept in touch with the leaders
of the Church of England on the one hand, and with the
Waldensians and Bohemian BretMen on the other.
He always retained the respect of Luther and the friend-
sMp of Melanchthon,
In Ms Augustimamsm Calvin was more moderate and
cautious than Luther, and he is not responsible for the
} Vide Briggs, Theological Symbolics, pp, 183 seq.

130 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. n,
Mgher and more polemic Augustimamsm of Ms scholastic
successors, Beza, rather than Calvin, is the real father
of scholastic Calvimsm,* In the Eucharistic contro
versy Calvin as well as Bucer took an intermediate
position, wMch was adopted by aU the Reformed
Churches and the Church of England,* He was associated
with Bullinger in the preparation of the Ziirich Con
sensus (1549), and composed the GaUican Confession
(1559) with the help of Ms pupil Cihandieu. He also
drew up the Consensus Genevensis, and published tMee
catecMsms (1537, 1542, 1545) . His works on the worsMp
and govemment of the diurch were of fundamental
importance. He also produced many polemic and
apologetic treatises, and an extraordinary number of
letters and sermons. He was the greatest exegete of
the Reformation, and remarkable for Ms insistence upon
the activity of the Holy Spirit in connection with the
Scriptures. He declared :
' As (3od alone is a suf&oient witness of HimseU in His own
Word, so also the Word wiU never gain credit in the hearts of
men tiU it be confirmed by the intemal testimony of the Spirit.
It is necessary, therefore, that the same Spirit, who spake by
the mouths of the prophets, should penetrate into our hearts
to convince us that they faithfuUy deUvered the oracles which
were divinely entrusted to them.' ^
Arminius (f 1609) wrote of Calvin : ' Next to the study of the
Scriptures, which I earnestly inculcate, I exhort my pupils to
peruse Calvin's Commentaries. ... I afSrm that he excels
beyond comparison in the interpretation of Scripture, and that
his commentaries ought to be more highly valued than aU that is
handed down to us by the Ubrary of the Fathers ; so that I
acknowledge him to have possessed above most others, or rather
above aU other men, what may be caUed an eminent spirit of
prophecy,' Hooker (f 1600) declared that Calvin held among
the preachers of the Reformed Churches the same place that the
Master of Sentences held in the Churoh of Rome ; and Bishop
1 Vide Briggs, Theological Symbolics, pp. 183 seq., 209, 282 seq.
' Firfe Briggs, Church Unity, p. 269,
3 Calvin, Institutes, i. 7 ; vide Briggs, St-ady of Holy Scripture, p, 142.

CH, n,] THE REFORMATION 131
HaU reckoned him ' among the best interpreters of Scripture
since the Apostles left the earth.'
Many since his time have cried with ScaUger (t 1609) : Solus
inter theologos Cal-oinus.^
5. Theodore Beza (1519-1605) succeeded Calvin at
Geneva, and was in some respects a more dominating
personality. He also was a Frenchman, son of the royal
govemor of V6zelay, Burgundy. He was educated in
the classics at Paris, Orleans, and Bourges ; and then
retumed to Orleans for the study of law (1535-1539).
He practised law in Paris for a short time, but was
more interested in humamstic studies. In 1548 he
went to Geneva, where he was warmly received by Calvin,
The following year he became professor of Greek at the
Academy of Lausanne, where he remained till 1558,
when he became professor of Greek at Geneva, After
the death of Calvin in 1564 he became Ms successor
and the great leader of the Reformation in the French
Cantons, and indeed in France and all over the Reformed
world. As CJhoisy says : ' The Protestant youth for
nearly forty years thronged Ms lecture-room to hear Ms
theological lectures, in wMch he expounded the purest
Calvimstic orthodoxy.' * Beza's influence upon the
Churches of Great Britain and Holland was very great.
His editions of the Greek Testament (1565-1604), en
riched by a study of two early texts, the Codex Bezae
and the Codex Claromontanus, took the place of those of
Erasmus and Stephens. His numerous writings include
important Biblical, doctrinal, and Mstorical works, and a
treatise De theologo sive de ratione studii theologici (1556), \
9. Theological study was promoted in Great Britain by *
Tyndale, Cranmer, Knox, and their fellow-reformers.
Among the scholars of Cambridge to welcome Erasmus'
Greek Testament was : 1. William Tyndale, a pupil of
1 For these and many other trihutes, vide Schaff, vii. pp. 272 seq.
2 Choisy, ' Beza,' in New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia.

132 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. il
Colet (1484-1536). He devoted Mmself to the study
of the Scriptures in their original tongues, and to their
translation into the vernacular. Prevented from pub
lisMng Ms work in England, he laboured for over ten
years on the Continent, and produced English versions
of the New Testament (1524-1526), and of the Pentateuch
(1530), Jonah (1531), Joshua, Judges, Ruth, and the
Books of Samuel, Kings and 1 Chromcles, These trans
lations were all made on the basis of the original Greek
and Hebrew texts, John Rogers (f 1555), a friend of
Tyndale, incorporated these versions in the Bible
wMch he pubUshed in 1537 under the name of Matthew's
Bible, using for the remaimng books the version of
Miles Coverdale (f 1568), ' out of Douche and Latyn '
(1535), Tyndale virote commentaries on 1 John and
Matthew v,-vii,, a celebrated Prologue to Jonah, one
to the New Testament, afterwards printed as A Pathway
into the Holy Scripture, and tracts, including the
Practyse of Prelates and the Obedience ofa Christian Man.
Tyndale carried on the movement begun by Wyclif,
wMch emphasised the most f ar-reacMng of the principles
of the Reformation, the Word of Ood as a means of grace.
The British Reformation from the beginmng laid stress
upon tMs principle, and in the British churches it received
its fullest statement and development,^ Tyndale died
a martyr, praying, ' Lord, open the King of England's
eyes,' That very year (1536) a Proclamation for Uni
formity in Religion informed ' the loving subjects ' of
Henry vm, that he was pleased that they should have
the Scriptures in English, and ' read the same in con
venient places and times,' Injunctions further directed
that ' a Bible of the largest volume in English ' be placed
in every church,^
1 Vide Briggs, American Presbyterianism, pp. 28 seq. ; St-udy of Holy
Script-ure, p. 653.
8 Vide Proctor and Frere, The Book of Cnmmon Prayer, pp. 29 seq.

CH, n,] THE REFORMATION 133
2. Thomas Cranmer (1489-1556) was trained at
Cambridge, and undertook a systematic study of the
Bible. As archbishop of Canterbury (1533) he conducted
various projects of reform, including the publication of
the Scriptures in several English versions, that of
catecMsms and articles of faith, and a revision of the
worsMp, order and govemment of the Church,^ The
Reformation was advanced by C!ranmer in the English
umversities. On Edward's accession (1547) he sent to
the continent and secured the help of such teachers as
Bucer, Fagius, Vermigli, Occhino, and John a Lasco.
Bucer and Fagius were made professors at Cambridge,
VermigU at Oxford; OccMno and a Lasco became
influential in London. In 1549 a reform of the um
versities was undertaken by royal commission. (Jranmer
conducted the reform of the Church in a gradual and
conservative way, yet he followed Rogers, Ridley, and
Latimer to the stake, atomng by a bearing of singular
heroism for the retractions wMch Ms enemies had
impelled Mm to make.
Among the theological scholars of England may also be men
tioned : 3. Matthew Parker (f 1675), the father of the episcopate
of the AngUcan Church, who took a leading part in the revision
of the Articles of Religion and the preparation of the Bishops'
Bible, and enriched the Umversity of Cambridge with a priceless
coUection of ancient manuscripts ; 4, John Foxe (")¦ 1587), the
friend of T3Tidale and Latimer, and author of the celebrated Book
of Martyrs (Latin, 1669 ; English, 1563) ; 6. Bichard Hooker
(t 1600), whose La-ivs of Ecclesiastical Polity made him the chief
AngUcan authority on the Churoh,
6, Patrick Hamilton (c, 1503-1628), the ' first apostle ' of the
Reformation in Scotland, studied at the universities of Paris,
Louvain, St, Andrews and Marburg, and was influenced by both
Erasmus and Tyndale, Returning to Sootiand in 1527, he
began his short career as a preacher of reform, ' on fire with zeal
to confess the name of Christ.' ^ The substance of his teaching
1 Vide Briggs, Theological Symbolics, p. 191.
* Exegeseos Francisci Lamberti in Joannis Apocalypsim lib. vii. ; vide
Lorimer, Precursors of Knox, pp. 167, 240,

134 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. n.
is preserved in Patrick's Places, which extol faith, and contrast
the Law and the Gospel : ' The Law showeth us our sin ; the
Gospel showeth us remedy for it.' ^ HamUton had ' a great
foUowing,' and was caUed to give account of his teaching in a
conference at St. Andrews. For some weeks he held in his own
defence ' pubUc disputations and private interviews,' and so
became ' the teacher of many of the present and future teachers
of the country,' ^ including the faculty and students of the uni
versity, as weU as many of the clergy, ecclesiastical lawyers, and
members of reUgious orders. His martyrdom in 1528 roused
much excitement. In the words of John BJiox : ' Then within
St, Andrews, yea, almost within the whole realm, there was none
found who began not to inquire. Wherefore was Master Patrick
HamUton burnt ? And when his articles were rehearsed, question
was holden if such articles were necessary to be beUeved under
the pain of damnation. And so within short space many began
to caU in doubt that whioh before they held for a certain verity,' *
7, John Knox (c, 1514-1572) was educated at Had
dington and the Umversity of Glasgow, He became a
priest, but engaged for a time in private teacMng, His
conversion to Protestantism he owed cMefly to George
Wishart, a pupil of Calvm, whose martyrdom (1546) he
would gladly have shared. But Wishart refused Ms
consent, saying : ' Nay, retum to your bairns. One
is sufficient for a sacriflce,' The foUovring year Knox
was taken prisoner, and forced to serve in the French
galleys. On Ms release in 1549 he began to preach
in England ; but the death of Edward vi, drove Mm to
the Continent, TaMng refuge in Geneva, he studied
with Calvin, and after a short pastorate in Frankfort,
settled in Gfeneva as pastor of the English congregation.
In 1559 he retumed to Scotland, and became the
triumphant leader of the Reformation in that country.
He was the cMef of the six divines who drew up the
Scottish Confession and the first Book of Discipline. His
1 Lorimer, Precursors of Knox, pp. 110, 112.
' Lorimer, ibid., pp. 134 seq.
> Knox, History of the Reformation, i, p. 36 ; vide lionmei, Prec-ursor*
qfKnox, p. 156.

CH, n.] THE REFORMATION 135
writings include a History of the Reformation. At Ms
death he was moumed as ' the lycht of Scotland, the
comfort of the Kirke witMn the same, the mirrour of
Godliness and patrone and exemple to aU trew numsteris ' ;
and as one who ' never feared the face of man.' *
10. Ignatius and his associates organised the Jesuit
system of education, which has predominated in the
Roman Catholic Church until the present time.
1. Ignatius of Loyola (c, 1491-1556), a Spamsh officer,
wounded in an engagement at Pampeluna in 1521, was
called to a religious life. He undertook severe religious
discipline, and in 1524 began a long course of study at
Barcelona, Alcala, Salamanca, and finally at Paris
(1528-1535), He won as Ms associates, Faber, Xavier,
Lainez, and others ; and founded the Order of the Fathers
of Jesus, organised by mutual vows in 1534, and by
papal bull in 1540, The cMef aim of the order was
missions to the heathen and to heretics. The methods
were : pastoral care, preacMng, and religious education.
To give traimng in these was their main purpose. The
colleges wMch they established, wherever they could
get a foothold, became the cMef seats of theological
education for two centuries,
2, Peter Faber (f 1546) began his work in Western Germany at
Speyer, Mainz and elsewhere, removed subsequently to Cologne
(1543-1544), and with the help of his companions won the lower
Rhine and Westphalia back to the Roman Church.
3. Peter Canisius (t 1597) erttered the Jesuit order under the
influence of Faber. He laboured at Cologne, Ingolstadt, Vienna,
DiUingen, Prague, and other towns, teaching, preaching and
buUding up Collegia. He and his associates won Bavaria,
Austria and Bohemia back from Protestantism. His Catechisms
were widely influential. The Summa doctrince christianos per
qucBStiones tradita (1556) ' remained for about two centuries the
principal catechism of the Roman Catholio Church,' ^
1 Vide Lee, ' Knox,' in New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia.
' Cohrs, ' Catechisms,' iu New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia.

136 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt, n.
The Jesuits estabUshed in Rome the Collegium Roma
num (c. 1550) and the Collegium Germanicum (1552),
wMch became the great theological institutions of the
Roman Church, and so remained for centuries.
The founders of the Jesuit Order in their Ratio Studiorum com
bined the old learning with the new in more harmonious propor
tions and in better adjustments than did Melanchthon, Calvin,
Ximenes or Eck, from whom, however, they leamed much.
The Scholastic Theology was reformed by falling back from the
later corrupt, hair-spUtting Scholasticism to the Scholastic
Theology of Thomas Aquinas ; and on him was buUt a newer
and, for a time, a sounder Scholastic Theology than the Church
had known for centuries. At the same time there was a great
revival of BibUcal and Patristic studies, and, indeed, in the original
languages, WhUe the Jesuit theologians carried this reforma
tion through to success, it must be said that they buUt upon the
reformed Scholasticism and BibUcal study that had already
begun in AIcalA under Ximenes' influence, at Louvain and at
Ingolstadt.^ The Jesuits also imited the theoretical and the practical in
theology as these had never been united before ; and while,
for two centuries, they trained the best scholars of Europe, they
also trained the best preachers, pastors, teachers and mission
aries. They buUt on the ancient method of three gradations of
study. The original constitution of the Jesuit Order distinguishes
the three grades : the grammatico-rhetorical, the philosophical,
and the theological ; and sums up the whole as : ' Litterae Humani-
ores diversarum linguarum, Logica, naturalis ac moralis Philo
sophia, Metaphysica et Theologia, tam quae Scholastica quam quas
Positiva dicitur, et sacra Scriptura.' *
The training prescribed in the German coUege at Rome, as
reorganised in 1573, was a course of ten years in phUosophy and
theology. The grammatical and rhetorical schooUng was pre
supposed. Students were not received, unless properly quaUfied
and speciaUy recommended for real abUity, and who were at
least twenty years of age. They were placed for six months on
probation, and then were required to take the vow for the minis
terial Ufe, or else retire from the ooUege. The course of study
extended over ten years, three for philosophy and the higher
1 Vide pp. 125 f,
2 Cap. v. ; vide Paulsen, Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts, i,
p, 381.

CH, n.] THE REFORMATION 137
sciences, four for Scholastic Theology, and three for Moral
Theology, Almost all the great Catholio scholars of Germany
were trained here for many generations. The training given for
those who were to advance in the Jesuit Order was much more
severe and prolonged, A novice, who entered the order at the
age of sixteen or eighteen, must spend two years in quiet reUgious
life before the first vow was taken and the Scholasticus began his
career as a scholar. If he had had the required training in
grammar and rhetoric, he might enter at once upon a three years'
course of logic, physios and metaphysics ; if not, he was obhged
to take the preparatory studies, first. He was then required to
serve for some years as a tutor in the studies already acquired.
He might be required to remain in this position aU his Ufe. If
he was deemed quaUfied to go on into the study of theology, he
entered upon a four years' course, after the completion of which
he must be a tutor in theology for two years more, or else take
special training as preacher and pastor. The Jesuits in all their
instruction, from the rhetorical schools upward, laid great stress
upon practical discipUne in writing and in speaking, both by
declamation and by debate. Their students were made, there
fore, ready, graceful speakers, easy and powerful writers, and also
adroit and attractive members of society. They were discipUned
by frequent confessions, in which not only mortal sins, but the
most secret and delicate sins and motions to sin, and aU the cir
cumstances of the inner life, were exposed to the confessor ; so
that they had practical as well as theoretical training in the whole
range of moral theology and casuistry. It is not surprising that
such discipUne in scholarship and in its practical use made them
the most adroit and able scholars of Europe in the late sixteenth
and the seventeenth centuries.
The entire reforming infiuence of the Roman Church
gathered about the Jesuits. Ignatius had as Ms ad
visers and strong helpers not only all the popes bf Ms
generation, but also the most able of the cardinals and
the most capable scholars.
Among the theologians in the Jesuit Order may be mentioned :
4. Maldonat-us of the University of Salamanca (t 1583), who
taught at Paris, Bourges and Rome with extraordinary success,
and wrote commentaries on the Prophets and the Gospels ; 5.
Toletus (t 1596), the first cardinal of the order, eminent as an
exegete, and one of the foremost in a long series of celebrated

138 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OP I'HEOLOGY [pt. n.
casuists ; and 6. Vasquez (tl604), one of the chief Boman CathoUc
divines of the sixteenth century,^ the author of notable works in
Moral and Polemic Theology.
11. The Council of Trent advised the organisation of
diocesan seminaries for the religio-us training of students,
especially for the priesthood. Under the influence of
Borromeo, Pole and others, these were established with
great success, and were called Tridentine Seminaries.
Two cardinals may be mentioned especially in con
nection with tMs work, namely : Reginald Pole (1500-
1558) of England, and Carlo Borromeo (1538-1584) of
MUan. These were in hearty sympathy with the edu
cational reforms of Ignatius and Ms associates ; between
them the plan of the theological seminary was devised,
and was ordered by the Council of Trent in 1563.
The popes and the bishops now vied with one another
in the estabUshment of diocesan seminaries for the
traimng of the clergy. These were given into the hands
of the J'esuits cMefiy ; but the other orders, old as weU
as new, ralUed about the plan. The older monastic
schools revived ; and the friars and newer orders also,
on their part, shared in a measure in tMs educational
reform. The result was the forcing back of Protestant
ism all along the Une. It was not so much reUgious
persecution and the force of arms that stayed the pro
gress of Protestantism in the latter half of the sixteenth
century, and reconquered for Rome in that period, and
still more in the seventeenth century, so large a part of
the original strongholds of Protestantism. Persecution
does not usuaUy succeed ; and, in fact, the Protestants
were as zealous persecutors as the Roman Catholics,
and even more prompt than the Catholics for religious
warfare. It was a superior religious education, not only
of scholars, but of priests, secular as well as regular, that
I 'Vide Briggs, Church Unity, p, 280,

CH, n.] THE REFORMATION 139
gave the Roman Catholics a succession of victories for
more than a century.
Mention has already been made of the work of Faber and his
associates at Mainz, Cologne, and the whole lower Rhine and
WestphaUa ; and that of Canisius and his associates in Southem ¦
Germany, Austria, and Bohemia, In Poland the work of Hosius
(t 1579), begun in his coUege at Braunsberg (1565-1668), won
back Poland from Protestantism, and for a while imperUled the
Reformation in Sweden, In the north of Italy and in Switzer
land Carlo Borromeo (t 1584) estabUshed seminaries and schools,
and even Sunday-schools, for children and adults, and destroyed
Protestantism therpby in Northern Italy and several of the
Cantons of Switzerland, The Protestantism of the Engadine
was at one time weU-nigh overthrown, Frangois de Sales ("f 1622),
bishop of Geneva,"- worked powerfuUy in Savoy and French
Switzerland ; and even Gteneva was in grave peril from the
CathoUo reaction.
The battle in France was a longer one. The CathoUc Church
in France was long under the control of the GaUican spirit, which
was nationaUstio in character, and reaUy put the Church under
the domination of the king rather than the pope, and kept the
clergy in constant trouble by the conflict of the two jurisdictions.
The University of Paris insisted upon its own historic privUeges
as the dictator of theology, and resisted the Jesuits and the
Tridentine Seminaries with aU their influences. This undoubtedly
hampered the CathoUo reform in France. It was not untU
Louis XIV. came under the influence of the Jesuits, and gave his
authority and great power to the estabUshment of diocesan
seminaries, that the inteUectual strength of the CathoUo reaction
began to teU upon the French Protestants, Undoubtedly the
Revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1686), and the severe perse
cution that foUowed, had much to do with the overthrow of
Protestantism in France ; but not so much as the Tridentine
Seminaries, and a better educated Catholio clergy, and CathoUo
scholars, who succeeded by their superior theological ability
in persuading multitudes of Protestants to return to the Mother
Church, It is easy to attribute such oases to fear and seU-
interest ; but in a multitude of instances such motives do not
reaUy explain the situation. The Jesuits in the seventeenth
century had the potent help of the new foundation of the
Oratorians (1675), the institution of St. Vincent de Paul (1631),
1 Vide p, 151.
VOL, II. K

140 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. n.
and the Sulpioians (1642), the great educators of modem
France. It may be interesting here to note the rules of Cardinal Allen
for the Seminary at Douai, in which priests were trained for the
EngUsh mission. These rules of the year 1580 make the study
of the Bible of fundamental importance, and reqmre Greek and
Hebrew that the students may understand the Scriptures in
the original texts. Church History was to be studied privately ;
also important patristic works, especiaUy Bede's, ' that it may
be seen that the ancient Faith was Cathohc' The Summa of
Thomas was to be taught by lecture and disputation. The
doctrine of the CouncU of Trent and the Roman Catechism were
to be studied privately. Morals and caises of conscience were to
be discussed pubUoly. Great stress was laid upon practical
studies, including Catechetics, liturgies and Pastoral Theology.
Four pubhc exercises were required eaoh week for driU in pubUc
speaking, comprising one practical and two doctrinal sermons,
and one disputation on controverted questions of theology.^
There was no such driU in any Protestant school of theological
education, 12. The Greek Church was compelled to consider the
questions raised by the Reformation of the Western Church.
Her position was defined by her theologians in three symbols.
An abortive attempt at reform, led by Cyril Lucar, was
productive in the field of theological scholarship.
At the Reformation both Romamsts and Protestants
strove to win the support of the Greek Church, wMch
eventuaUy defined its position in three- symbols : (1)
The Answer of Jeremiah, (2) The Confession of Mogilas,
and (3) The Confession of Dositheus. A movement
toward reform was led by Cyril Lucar, a theologian of
European reputation, who sought to introduce into the
Greek Church certain of the characteristic doctrines of
Calvimsm.* 1. Jeremiah, patriarch of Constantinople (f 1596), wrote in
1576 an answer to communications from the Lutheran theo-
1 Vide Siehengartner, Schriften und Einrichiu-ngen zur Bildung der
Odstlichen, pp, 119 seq.
^ Vide Briggs, Theological Symbolics, pp. 200 seq.

CH. u.] THE REFORMATION 141
logians Andrece and Crusi-us, which was approved by the Synod
of Jerasalem in 1672. AU of the distinctive doctrines of the
Protestant Reformation were rejected with the exception of the
institutional matters of communion in both kinds and the
maniage of priests.
2, Petrus Mogilas (f 1647), metropoUtan of Kieff, and father
of Russian orthodoxy, was trained in the University of Paris,
and chosen by CyrU Lucar as exarch of his see. MogUas pub
Ushed editions of the Fathers and several Service Books, and is
an example of the great learning to be found among Russian
ecclesiastics.^ His Confession of Faith, written in the form of
a Catechism, was revised and adopted by a provincial synod at
Kieff (1640), and again by a synod of Greeks and Russians at
Jassy (l643), under the influence of Meletius Syriga, metropolitan
of Nice, and was signed by the four eastern patriarchs. It thus
became the symbol of the entire Russo-Greek Churoh. It
defines the faith of the Greek Church against Protestantism on
the one hand and Romanism on the other, and is especially
directed against CyrU Lucar.
3. Dositheus, patriarch of Jerusalem (1699-1707), is called by
Meyer ' one of the most important figures of the modern Greek
Church,' His great work on the history of the patriarchs of
Jerusalem (1715) is ' the Greek counterpart to the Annals of
Baronius and the Magdeburg Centuries,' ^ The Confession of
Dositheus was adopted by the Synod of Jerusalem (1672), and
afterwards signed by sixty-eight bishops of the Greek and Russian
Churches, It is less complete and more polemic than the Con
fession of Mogilas, but the doctrinal position is the same,
4, Cyril Lucar (1572-1638). ' the one briUiant star of his age ' '
in the East, was born in Crete, and studied at Alexandria, Venice
and Padua, He came under the influence of Maximos Mar-
gunios, an earnest advocate of the reunion of the Greek and
Roman Churches, and of several of the Protestant theologians.
In 1602 he was made patriarch of Alexandria, and, though
banished five times, was as often recaUed, FinaUy he was chosen
patriarch of Constantinople (1620), and this position gave great
importance to the pubUcation of his Confession of Faith (Latin,
1629 ; Greek, 1633), It was condemned, however, by several
provincial s3Tiods, According to Cyril, ' The authority of Holy
Scripture is far greater than that of the Church ; for it is a
1 Vide Adeney, The Greek and Eastern Churches, pp. 411 seq.
' Meyer, 'Dositheus,' in Ne-io Schaff-Herzog Encyclipedia.
s Adeney, Greek and Eastern Churches, p. 320.

142 HISTORY OP THE STUDY' OF THEOLOGY [pt. n.
different thing to be taught by the Holy Spirit from being taught
by man. Man may through ignorance err and deceive, and be
deceived. But the Holy Spirit neither deceiveth, nor is deceived,
nor is subject to error, but is infaUible.' ^ CyrU undertook the
translation of the Bible into the vemaoular. It was he who
presented to Charles i, of England the great Codex Alexandrinus.
Through his recommendation the brilUant Metrophanes Crito-
pulus received his training at Oxford, Among Cyril's numerous
foUowers were Karyophylles, the noted Calvinist, Konopios,
translator of Calvin's Institutes, and Kalliupolites, translator of
the Scriptures, Cornelius Haga, Dutch ambassador to the
Porte, declared in 1632 that there was no one among the many
metropoUtans then at Constantinople who was not prepared to
sacrifice ' his person, his Ufe and his goods for the defence of the
patriarch and his (confession,' ^ Yet the bitter enmity of the
Jesuits finaUy secured his death by order of the sultan on a
false charge of treason,
1 Vide Adeney, Greek amd Eastern Ch-wrches, p. 318,
> Vide Gieseler, v, p, 134, n, 34,

OH,m,] SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 143

CHAPTER III
THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY IN THE SEVENTEENTH
AND EIGHTEENTH CENTUEIES
In the Roman Catholic Church the Reformation was,
to a great extent, a reform of education and a revival
of theology. But in the Protestant world there was a
serious decline in theological education, although there
were revivals here and there, especially among the
Calixtines of Germany and the Puritans of England,
The successors of the Reformers reverted to the scholastic
pMlosophy of Aristotle ; and Protestant Scholasticism
became as barren, hopeless, and irreformable as the
Mediseval, There was the same incessant strife of schools
and parties over merely theoretic questions of theology,
TMs is the period of the Formula of Concord (1576), the
Synod of Dort (1619), and the Ziirich Consensus (1549),
and of the ecclesiasticism of Laud (f 1645), but also of
the retreat of Protestantism all along the line.
The universities of Germany sank so low that their situation
seemed hopeless,'^ Even Leibnitz (f 1716), the greatest scholar
of his time, did not think of the revival of leaming in con
nection with universities, but through the association of scholars
apart from universities. He thought travel and intercourse
with learned men and men of affairs of much more importance
than a university education ; and so they were in his day,
English historians do not give adequate consideration to the peril
I Vide Paulsen, Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts auf den deutschen
Schulen und Universitdten, 18962, j. pp. 495 seq., 5ll seq. ; German
Universities, p, 55 ; Dollinger, Universities Past and Present, pp. 11
seq., 14,

144 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt, n.
of Protestantism in the sixteenth, and especiaUy in the second
half of the seventeenth century, from a theological point of view.
The people of England reaUsed it, as shown by the Guy Fawkes
scare ; and ' no popery ' was branded into the very blood of the
EngUsh people, and is there to-day. The clergy, Anglican and
Nonconformist alike, reaUsed it at the time ; and, notwithstand
ing thc bitter conflicts in which they were engaged, they combined
to save themselves from the greater evil of Rome by the British
Revolution. I know of no more desperate Uterary battle, none
more severe, comprehensive, and thorough, than that waged
from 1687 to 1689 between CathoUc and Protestant writers in
England. If James n. had been an abler man and a wiser poU
tician, it is quite possible that he might have become the Louis
XIV. of England, and EngUsh Protestantism might have shared
the fate of the French, Now it was the priests trained in the
EngUsh Catholio seminary at Douai, France (transferred for a
time to Rheims), at the EngUsh Seminary in Rome, and those in
Spain and Portugal, that carried on this theological battle against
the best scholars of the Church of England and the Noncon
formists ; and from the scholar's point of view it cannot be said
that the Protestant scholars had always the best of the argument.
It was the sturdy Protestantism of Sweden that saved Protestant
ism in Northern Germany, and the sturdy Protestantism of
HoUand and Scotland that saved England, and that by success
in war rather than by superiority in theological scholarship.
In the tMrd quarter of the seventeenth century the
Counter-Reformation was triumphant. In the last
quarter of the century Protestantism orgamsed a more
sturdy and effectual resistance. In the eighteenth century
Protestantism began to gain ground, and continued to
do so all through the century. TMs was due to several
influences, but, from the point of view of theological
study, largely to the decline in efficiency of Roman
Catholic education. The Jesuit Order had become
wealthy and haughty, self-seeMng and possessed of the
evil spirits of domination and falsehood. TMs made
them hated by the secular clergy and the regulars of the
other orders. Their strife for wealth and political power
made them a peril in civil politics, and gradually pro
duced the umversal feeUng that they were a political

CH. m.] SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 145
menace. TMs brought about the banishment of the
order from many countries, and at last its temporary
aboUtion by the pope (1773). The woridly spirit of the
order suppressed the religious and the inteUectual spirit ;
and the ability of its members in theological scholarsMp
became weakened. Furthermore, the Jesuits refused to
adapt themselves to the spirit of the age, and persisted
in their ultra-conservative adherence to the older
methods. Their Scholastic Theology had become per
verted into a newer Scholasticism that was worse in
some respects, especiaUy on the etMcal side, than the
corrupt Scholasticism that preceded the Reformation.
The society thought more of maMng successful men of
the world than of maMng pious priests and scholarly
teachers. The Ratio Studiorum (1599) was still followed
in the Jesuit schools, but in a pedantic, mechanical,
traditional way. Ignatius had introduced the new
leaming of Ms age, and harmomsed it with the old ;
but the Jesuits of the eighteenth century were hostile
to the new learmng of their times. The order refused
the science and pMlosophy and Mstory wMch char
acterised the new leaming of the eighteenth century.
They insisted upon the absolute authority of the
AristoteUan PMlosophy and of the Scholastic Theology,
and would allow no deviation from it.
In 1730-1731 the General Congregation of the Order decided
against the aUowance of Uberty of opinion in philosophy, which
had been requested by several provinces of the order, and resolved :
(1) Nothing is in contradiction with the Aristotelian philo
sophy, and aU the phenomena of nature must be explained in
accordance therewith.
(2) The phUosophy of Aristotle must remain, according to the
constitution and rules of the order, not only for logic and meta
physics, but also for physics, where the peripatetic doctrine of the
nature and constitution of natural bodies must be maintained.^
1 Pachtler, Ratio Studiorum, i, 104; vide Paulsen, Geschichte dea
gelehrten Unterrichts, ii. pp. 103 seq.

146 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt, n.
The Jesuit schools were thus made antagonistic to the new
leaming of the eighteenth century — that is, to natural science
and the inductive methods of study, to the modern philosophy
of Descartes, Looke and Leibnitz, as the Obscurants of C!ologne
had been opposed to the new learning of the sixteenth century.
They also held fast to the supremacy of the Latin language in
education, and resisted the growth of modern national Uterature.
In other words, the Jesuits of the eighteenth century were formal
ists and pedants ; they retained the form of the rules of Ignatius
and the other founders of the order, but they had altogether
lost their spirit.
Thus inevitably theological education declined all over
the Roman CathoUc world, as it advanced through the
Protestant world.
The eighteenth century was a bad century for reU
gion everywhere. The reaction against the Scholastic
Theology of Protestants and CathoUcs aUke was so bitter,
and the determination to get rid of its intolerable
dogmatism so thorough, that Deism, Pantheism, Atheism
and Rationalism took the place of the Christian religion
to a considerable portion of the leamed world. The
inevitable result was the French Revolution, with all
its serious consequences for education as weU as for
religion. It was Pietism wMch saved German and
Dutch Protestantism, and Methodism that saved
Anglo-Saxon Protestantism from the utter ruin into
wMch Scholasticism and Ecclesiasticism had brought the
Protestant Churches.
1. France was the centre of theological learning for the
Roman Catholic Church during the greater part of the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries ; and the Jesuits,
Benedictines, and Oratorians produced the greatest number
of eminent theologians.
The Jesuits became noted especially for their work in
the departments of Moral Theology and Canon Law,
Among the celebrated casuists of the order may be mentioned :
(1) Sawihez (f 1610), (2) Suarez (f 1617), and (3) Cardinal de Lugo

CH, m,] SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 147
(¦f 1660) ; among the canonists, (4) Labbeus (f 1667), whose col
lection of conciliar decrees was completed by Cossart ; and (5)
Harduin (f 1729), author of the Conciliorum collectio regiamaxima.
The BibUcal scholars of the order included the popular exegete
(6) CorneUus a Lapide (Van den Steen, f 1637), whose commen
taries cover almost the whole Bible ; and (7) Menochius (f 1656),
whose work, according to Kihn,^ is too Uttle known. Pre-eminent
among the Jesuits of his day was (8) the cardinal, Robert Bellar
mine (f 1621), BibUcal exegete, dogmatic theologian, and author
of a catechism printed in many languages and many editions,
of an epoch-making work, De scriptoribus ecclesiasticis, and of
the famous Disputationes de controversiis Christians fidei. (9)
Petavius (t 1652) also brought honour to the order by his work
as BibUcal scholar, Churoh historian and dogmatic theologian.
He greatly promoted the study of ecclesiastical Chronology, and
won the title of ' Father of the History of Dogma,' The most
notable work of the Society in the department of Church History
was done by (10) Sirmond (f 1651), in his editions of Churoh
Writers; (11) Maimbourg ("f 1686), in his histories of schisms
irom the Roman Church, both Greek and Protestant ; and
(12) Jan Bolland ("f 1666), with whom began the pubUcation of
the Acta Sanctorum, continued under his name to the present
time,^ Among the scholars trained by the Jesuits may be mentioned :
(1) Valesius (f 1676), noted for his editions of the early CJhurch
historians ; (2) Du Cange {-jf 1688), who made valuable contribu
tions to the study of the Middle Ages, and published Olossaria
ad scriptores medice et infimoe cetatis, both Greek and Latin ; (3)
Baluze (f 1718), who carried on the work of Labb6 and Cossart,
and published Capiiularia Regum Francorum, and other important
historical works ; (4) Huetius (f 1721), editor of Origen's Com
mentaries ; (5) Febronius (Von Hontheim, t 1790), author of the
famous treatise De statu ecclesice et legitima potestate Romani
Pontificis ; (6) Gerbert (t 1793), celebrated for his Monumenta
veteris liturgiae Alemannicce and his works on sacred music.
The Benedictine Order rendered invaluable service to
Historical Theology, especially tMough the labours of
1 Vide Kihn, EncyktopOdie der Theologie, p. 253.
3 The ' BoUandist? ' are still far from the end of their great enterprise,
although they have gone through the calendar as far as November. A
new edition of their work has appeared in sixty-six volumes (Brussels,
186i:-]911).

148 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt, n.
the Congregatio Sancti Mauri, wMch numbered over one
hundred and eighty cloisters, and had its centre in Paris,
at the Abbey Saint Germain des Pres.
The most distinguished of the scholars of Saint Maur were :
(1) D'Achery (Dacherius, f 1685), noted for his Spicilegium vete
rum aliquot scriptorum ; (2) Mabillon (f 1707), lis coUaborator
and successor as historian of the order, a pioneer in the prepara
tion of those editions of the Fathers and Church Writers for
which his Congregation became famous, and author of works of
exceptional importance in the departments of Churoh History
and Liturgies, of an epoch-making work, De re diplomatica (1681),
by which was laid the foundation for Ecclesiastical Diplomatics,'^
and of a treatise in defence of the study of theology in monas
teries ; (3) Ruinart (-f 1709), celebrated for his Acta sincera
primorum martyrum ; (4) Martianay {-\ 1717), who published an
edition of Jerome ; (6) Ru.cbus (De la Rue, f 1736), editor of
Origen's works ; (6) Edmond Martene (t 1739), a pupU of D'Aohery
and MabUlon, coUaborator in several of the great enterprises of
his Congregation, and author of monumental works, including a
coUection of ancient ecclesiastical rites and the famous Veterum
scriptorum el monumentorum collectio amplissima ; (7) Mont-
fa-ucon (t 1741), editor of Origen's Hexapla, and of the works of
Chrysostom and Athanasius, whose many valuable contributions
to theology include a coUection of the Greek Fathers and Church
Writers ; (8) Pr-udentius Maranus (•]• 1762), noted for his critical
editions of the Fathers, and for works on the divinity of Christ.
This Congregation also undertook the revision and continuation
of the Oallia Christiana, and pubUshed the celebrated Histoire
litteraire de la France, L'Art de verifier les dates des fails historiques,
and Le Nourry's Apparatus ad bibliothecam maximam patrum
veterum. Among the Churoh Historians of the Benedictine
Order should be mentioned : (9) the abbot, Cla-ude Fleury
(•f 1723), whose Histoire ecclesiastique (in twenty volumes) became
' almost a classic among the French, and supplanted aU other
works of the kind ' ; ^ and (10) Remy Ceillier (t 1761), famous for
his Histoire ginirale des auteurs sacris et ecclesiastiques. The
Benedictines oould also boast of possessing in (11) Augustin
Calmet (f 1767) the most notable BibUcal exegete of the Roman
CathoUo Church in the eighteenth century.
1 Vide Sohmitz-Kallenberg, ' Die Lehre von den Papsturkunden," in
Grundriss der Geschichts-wissenschaft, i. p. 174,
2 Gieseler, v. p, 240,

en. m.] SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 149
The original Congregatio Oratorii was founded by
Philip of Neri (1564).
Among its first members was (1) Ccesar Baronius (f 1607),
afterwards cardinal, who published over against the Magdeburg
Centuries his Annales ecclesiastici,^ enriched by the use of hither
to unknown documents from the Vatican archives and papal
library, but criticised by Protestants as compiled sine ullo j-udioio.'
The Congregation founded at Paris by Pierre de Birulle (1611),
under the same name, produced such scholars as (2) Jean Morin
(Morinus, t 1656), BibUcal scholar, and author of the celebrated
Conmienlarius de sacris ecclesice ordinationibus ; i^) Thomassin
(¦j" 1695), who wrote the Ancienne et nouvelle discipline de Veglise,
and other important works ; (4) Richard Simon (f 1712), who
appUed historical criticism in a systematic manner to the study
of the books of the Old Testament,' and also vreote on the Greek
and Oriental Churches ; (5) Renaudot (f 1720), who prepared a
coUection of Oriental Uturgies, and a history of the Patriarchs
of Alexandria ; (6) Houbigant (•)¦ 1783), whose Biblia Hebraica
ofiered a new recension of the text ; and (7) Massillon (f 1742),
celebrated for the eloquence of his sermons. Sacred musio was
cultivated by this Congregation to a remarkable degree, and in
the Oratory at Paris originated the first musical Oratorio.*
Theological scholarsMp was not confined to these
tMee orders. The Dominicans could boast of
(1) Goar (t 1663), author of the Euchologium Orcecorum (1646,
1730) ; (2) Combefis (f 1679), the Patristic scholar ; and (3)
Natalis Alexander (-\ 1724), provincial of his order, who made
important contributions to Dogmatics, Ethics and Churoh
History. Among the doctors and teachers of the Sorbonne,
Paris, were :
(1) Richer (Richerius, -f 1631), the celebrated canonist and
defender of the Uberties of the GaUican Churoh ; (2) Jean de
Launoi (f 1678), an historical critic in the field of Hagiology ;
(3) Cotelier (t 1686), the Patristic scholar ; (4) Bossuet (f 1704),
the most learned, eloquent and influential bishop of France in
1 Vide p. 113.
2 So Scaliger, quoted by Heinrici, Theologische Encyklopadie, p, 190
5 Vide Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, pp. 274 seq.
* Vide Gieseler, v. p. 119, n. 5,

150 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. u.
his day, chief composer of the famous Four Propositions of the
GalUoan Churoh (1682), and author of the Histoire des variations
des eglises protestantes and of many other important works ;
(6) Du Pin (t 1719), the founder of Patrology as an independent
theological discipUne, whose many valuable works include a
Mithode pour ii-udier la theologie.
The Jansenists also had their notable scholars ;
(1) Cornelius Jansen (f 1638), professor of theology at Louvain,
and eventuaUy bishop of Ypres, was distinguished as a BibUcal
exegete. His A-ug-ustinus, the fniit of twenty-two years of toU,
pubUshed posthumously (1640), excited bitter opposition from the
Jesuits, and gave rise to the Jansenist Controversy. (2) Blaise
Pascat (f 1662), a man of exceptional learning, in whom the scien
tific and the mystic tendencies were strangely combined, is now
known chiefly for his Pensies, which rank as a religious classic,
and for his Lettres provinciales (1656), which were universaUy
read in their day, and exposed the errors of the Jesuits as teachers
of morals in a ' masterpiece of satire.' (3) Le Nain de Tillemoni
(t 1698) is celebrated for his Mimoires pour servir dt I'histoire
ecclisiastique des six premiers siicles. (4) Amauld (t 1694) and
(5) Nicole (t 1695), remarkable for their apologetic and polemic
writings over against the Jesuits and the Reformed Churches.
(6) Paschasi-us Quesnel (f 1719), priest of the Oratoire at Paris,
was driven from France as a Jansenist. He prepared a French
translation of the New Testament, accompanied by Rijlexions
morales, which was strongly approved by De NoaiUes, archbishop
of Paris, and other leaders of the French Church, but was con
demned by the papal buU Unigenitus in one hundred and one
propositions. Italy also had theologians of distinction, especially in
the eighteenth century, among whom may be mentioned :
(1) Leo Attatius (f 1669), ' the most celebrated of all the so-
caUed Latinising Greeks ' ; ^ (2) Muratori (-\ 1750), who gave his
name to the Muratorian Canon, and pubUshed many other
hitherto unknown or inaccessible works, including Liturgia
Romana vetus ; (3) Mansi (f 1769), archbishop of Lucca, whose
great coUection of conciUar decrees is now appearing in a new
and enlarged edition ; (4) Ugolino (c. 1750), author of Thesaurus
antiquitatum sacrarum; (5-7) three celebrated members of the
famUy Assemani : Giuseppe Simone (f 1768), editor of the works of
1 Gieseler, v. p. 249.

CH, m,] SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 151
Ephrsem Syras, and author of Bibliotheca Orientalis Clementino-
Vaticana ; his brother, Oittseppe Aloysio (f 1782), who pub
Ushed among other monumental works a Codex liturgicus ecclesice
universae ; and their cousin, Stefano Evodio (f 1784), whose works
include Acta sanctorum martyrum orientalium et occidentalium ;
(8) Alfonso Maria di lAg-uori (t 1787), saint and doctor of the
Church, founder of the Order of Redemptorists (1732), and noted
for his Theologia moralis.
The leading Mystics of the period were :
(1) Frangois de Sales (f 1622), a pupU of the Jesuit Posse-vin,
who has been canonised, and ranks as a dootor of the Church ;
(2) Molinos {\ 1697), a Spanish priest, celebrated at Rome as
preacher and confessor, whose Guida spirituale exerted extra
ordinary influence among both CathoUcs and Protestants, yet
brought condemnation upon him through Jesuit influence ; and
(3) Finelon (f 1715), instructor of princes, who sought to ' recon
cUe Quietism with orthodoxy.' ^
2. The Puritan movement in England was essentially
a Biblical movement. The Puritans urged a more thorough
study of the Scriptures, a catechetical instruction of the
people, and effective preaching. In dogma they used the
doctrine of the Covenant as a structural principle, over
against the Scholastic method.
The reformers were men of great intellectual and
moral vigour. Their doctrines were the expression of
their Christian life and experience. But they were
succeeded by lesser men, who gave their energies to the
construction of systems of dogma. These soon enveloped
the principles of the Reformation in a cloud of speculation
and established a Protestant Scholasticism, Ecclesiasti
cism, and RituaUsm, wMch seemed to earnest men little
better than that which the reformers had cast aside.
Accordingly a second reformation arose in Great Britain
in the form of Puritanism, wMch reaffirmed and sharp
ened the principles of the Reformation and advanced
toward a holy doctrine, a holy discipline, and a holy lif e,^
1 Gieseler, v, p, 174, ^ fride Briggs, Church Unity, pp, 317 seq.

152 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt, n.
Puritanism emphasised the fundamental religious prin
ciple of Protestantism, that the Bible is the cMef medium
of divine authority and grace, and laid down principles
of interpretation, wMch wrought mightUy during the
seventeenth century in Great Britain, and produced
exegetical works that ought to be the pride of the Anglo-
Saxon Churches in all time. The Puritans laid stress
upon practical exegesis, or the appUcation of the
Scriptures to the CMistian life. The great majority of
their vn-itings are upon themes comprehended by the
term Practical Divinity.^
The eminent scholars among the Puritans and the
members of the Westminster Assembly were, for the
"N. most part, trained in the English universities.
Cambridge can boast of : (1) Thomas Cartwright (f 1603), chief
of the EngUsh Puritans, and the father of English Presbyterian
ism, who wrote a Treatise of the Christian Religion (1611, 1616),
in which, Uke VermigU and Hemmingsen, he arranged his material
on the principle of the Law and the Gospel — an example foUowed
by the Puritans generaUy ; (2) 'William Perkins (t 1602), whose
Golden Chaine, an attempt to work out the order of the divine
decrees, stirred up controversy not only in England, but aU over
the Calvinistic world ; (3) William Ames (f 1633), who carried
the principle of the Covenant into HoUand ; (4) Herbert Palmer
(t 1647), whose catechism became the basis of the Westminster
Larger Catechism, and whose Memorials of Godliness and Christi
anity are equal, it not superior, to Jeremy Taylor's Holy Li-ving ;
(5) William Gotige (t 1653), ' the father of the London divines,
and the oracle of his time ' ; (6) Stephen Marshall (f 1655), the
most influential member of the Westminster Assembly in ecclesi
astical affairs ; (7) Edmund Calamy (j- 1666), who with MarshaU
and others prepared the famous Answer of Smectymnuus to the
Humble Remonstrance of Joseph HaU, which Answer became the
platform of the Presbjrterian as the Remonstrance was that of the
Episcopal party ; (8) Anthony T-uckney (•)• 1670), one of the most
active members of the Westminster Assembly ; (9) John Milton
(t 1674), who for twenty years produced chiefly prose works on
behaU of the Puritan cause ; (10) John Lightfoot (f 1675), author
1 Vide Briggs, Theological Symbolics, pp. 260 seq. ; St-udy of Holy
Scripture, pp. 155, 467, 573, 651 seq.

CH. Ill,] SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 153
of HoroB Hebraicae et Talmudicce, and important BibUcal works ;
(11) Matthew Poole (f 1679), the great Presbyterian critic of the
seventeenth century, whose masterpiece, the Synopsis criticorum,
is a monument of Biblical learning.^
The University of Oxford sent forth such scholars as : (1) John
Reynolds (-j- 1607), one of the translators of King James' Version
of the Bible ; (2) Nicholas Byfield (f 1622), whose Principles, or
Pattern of Wholesome Words, is a valuable compend of divinity ;
(3) John Ball (f 1640), one of the fathers of Presbyteriamsm in
England, and the author of treatises on Faith and on the Covenant
of Grace of exceeding value ; (4) Edward Leigh (f 1671), who
ranks among the best BibUcal scholars of the century ; (6)
Edward Reynolds (t 1676), one of the master spirits of the West
minster Assembly ; (6) John Owen (f 1683), the polemic divine,
who gave to Puritan Theology a scholastic type which it did
not possess before ; (7) John Durie (t 1689), the great peace
maker, who tried to raUy the Christians of his time on what he
caUed Practical Theology ; that is, such doctrines of Faith and
Morals as are of practical importance,^
Eminent among the Puritan leaders unconnected vrith
the English umversities were :
(1) Andrew Melville {-\ 1622), a pupU of Ramus and of Beza.
As reformer MelviUe led the battle against prelacy in Scotland ;
as a teacher at Glasgow and St. Andrews he ' led the revolt against
the mediaeval method of studying Aristotle, and created a taste
for Greek letters.' ' His last years were spent in exUe, teaching
theology at the Academy of Sedan.* (2) James Ussher (f 1656),
a pupU of Travers at Trinity CoUege, Dublin, beoame eventually
archbishop of Armagh and primate of Ireland. He drew up
the Irish Articles of Religion, and proposed a Reduction of Episco
pacy unto the Form of Synodical Government received in the
Ancient Church.^ Ussher also wrote Annales Veteris Testamenti,
a monumental work on the Apostles' Creed, notable contributions
1 P^irfe Briggs, articles on 'Cartwright,' 'Perkins,' Palmer,' 'Gouge,'
'Marshall,' 'Calamy,' 'Tuokney,' and ' Poole, in Schaff-Herzog Encyclo
pedia ; St-udy of Holy Scripture, pp. 149, 459, 575 ; American Presby
terianism, pp. 41 seq., 200.
2 Vide Biigg.s, articles on 'Byfield' and 'Ball' in Schaff-Herzog
Encyclopedia ; also those on 'Durie,' ibid. (1st edition), &nA in Presbyterian
Revie-u), 1887, vol. viii. pp. 297 seq. ; St-udy of Holy Scripture, pp. 162,
226 seq. , 462 seq.
3 Sandys, ii. p, 247. * Vide p. 158.
' Vide Briggs, A-merican Presbyterianism, Appendix II, pp. xvii seq.

154 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. n.
to Churoh History, especiaUy in the department of Patristics, and
a Chronology of the Bible stiU in use. (3) Samud Rutherford
(t 1661), the Scottish Covenanter, a graduate of Edinburgh
University, was an able, though bitter, controversialist. (4)
John Bunyan (t 1688), the Baptist preacher and ' immortal
dreamer,' set forth in his Pilgrim's Progress and Holy War the
Puritan conception of human life as a battle with evil, and gave
in this respect the most popular and best exposition of thc ethical
side of Puritanism. (5) Richard Baxter (\ 1691), one of the
greatest of English theologians, acquired exceptional leaming
without a university education. He is now chiefly known as
the author of the Reformed Pastor, A Call to the Unconverted and
the Saints' Everhsling Rest, and is honoured by Churchmen and
Nonconformists alike as one who ' in a stormy and divided ago
advocated unity and comprehension, pointing the way to ever
lasting rest.' ^
The reviving influences of the Puritan movement were
not confmed to the Puritan party.
Among the notable theologians of the period were the Cam^
bridge scholars : (1) Brian Walton ("f 1661), whose Polyglot
Bible was the greatest critical achievement of the seventeenth
century ; (2) John Pearson (f 1686), author of a standard exposi
tion of the Apostles' Creed, of Vindicice epistolarum S. Ignatii,
and of other important critical works ; (3) William Cave (f 1713),
the eminent Patristic scholar ; also the great divines : (4)
Lancelot Andrewes (-\ 1626), now known chiefly through his
Private Devotions ; (5) George Herbert (f 1633), famous, not only
for his sacred verse, but also for his treatise on the Country
Parson ; (6) John Cosin (f 1672), prelate and controversiaUst,
who made a Collection of Pri-vate Devotions in the Practice of the
Ancient Church ; (7) Jeremy Taylor (f 1667), ' the Cihrysostom of
England,' author of A Discourse of the Liberty of Prophesying,
a Rule of Conscience, the Great Exemplar, the Worthy Communi
cant, and Rule and Exercises of Holy Li-ving and of Holy Dying.
Among the theologians of Oxford may be mentioned : (1) the
poet and preacher, John Donne (f 1631); (2) William Chilling
worth (f 1644), who, in his Religion of Protestants, declared the
Bible to be ' that wherein they aU agree, and whioh they aU
subscribe ... as a perfect rule of their faith and actions ; ' *
• Vide Briggs, article on ' Baxter ' in Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia ;
American Presbyterianism, pp. 44 seq. , 63.
2 Vide article on ' Chillingworth ' in Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia.

CH, m,] SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 155
(3) John Hales (f 1666), ' the ever-memorable,' whose Golden
Remains contain letters from the Synod of Dort ; (4) Henry
Hammond (t 1660), who wrote his Paraphrase and Annotations
upon . . . the New Testament in the spirit of Erasmus ; (6)
Edward Pococke (f 1691), Oriental and BibUcal scholar, who
gathered in the East rich spoUs of Arabic Uterature ; (6) John
Mill (-j- 1707), noted for his critical edition of the New Testament ;
(7) Joseph Bingham (f 1723), who wrote on Christian Anti
quities ; and (8) Humphrey Prideaux (f 1724), who connected
the Old and New Testaments vrith the history of the Jews and the
neighbouring nations.
Mention must also be made of the founder of the
Society of Friends, Oeorge Fox ("f 1691), who urged the
following of the Inner Light ; and of the apologist of that
society, Robert Barclay (f 1690), a theologian of excep
tional learmng and ability.
3. In the Netherlands theological scholarship revived
in the newly founded universities, the Arminian movement,
and the Federal School of Theology. Among the Arminians
of Holland, especially the scholars of Leyden, the Humanistic
spirit found expression.
William of Orange founded the University of Leyden
in 1575, with Louis Cappell ^ as the first professor of
theology. Ten years later the University of Franecker
was established, to be followed in the next century by
those of Groningen (1612), Utrecht (1636), and Harderwyk
(1648). The Umversity of Leyden ' became for Holland
what Wittenberg had been to Germany, Geneva to
Switzerland, and Saumur to France.' *
Among the great scholars that taught at Leyden were the
theologians: (1) Junius (Du Jon, 1 1602), a pupU of Calvin;
(2) Scaliger (De la Scala, f 1609), ' the leading philologist of
France,' who laid the foundations for the science of Chronology ;
(3) Drusius (Van den Driesche, -f 1616), BibUcal scholar and
exegete ; (4) Arminius (¦)" 1609), a pupil of Lambertus Dance-as
at Leyden, and of Beza and Grynseus at Geneva and Basel.
1 Vide p, 158. 2 Lindsay, History of the Reformation, ii, p. 264.
VOL. II, L

156 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. n,
Arminius became professor of theology at Leyden in
1603, and soon aroused the opposition of Ms colleague,
Gomarus, by Ms interpretation of the Epistle to the
Romans, He also came into conffict with William
Perkins of Cambridge.^ In the controversy wMch raged
about Mm and Ms followers, Armimus attained such
pre-eminence that Ms name was given to all subsequent
forms of the milder Augustimamsm in the Reformed
Churches,^ Episcopi-us (t 1643), professor at Leyden, and Uyteribogcert
(•f 1644), preacher at the Hague, were prominent among the
Arminians, But the flower of the movement was (5) Hrigo
Groti-us (1683-1645), the greatest scholar of his age, a pupU of
ScaUger and of Uytenbogffirt, and a supporter of Bameveldt in
his efforts to maintain peace in the Church. Grotius revived the
Humanism of Erasmus, and in his Annotations on the Scriptures
laid stress upon the historical interpretation. In this he was
foUowed by the Arminians generaUy, and especiaUy by Clericus
(Le Clero, f 1736). The numerous writings of Grotius include
valuable theological works in the departments of Dogmatics,
Ironies, Polemics, CJhurch History, Liturgies, and Canon Law,
Important service to the study of theology was also rendered
by the Arabic scholar, (6) Erpenius ("f 1624), and his celebrated
pupils, Louis Cappell, the Younger,* and (7) Louis de Dieu
(t 1642) ; by (8) Fosa (t 1649), who beoame unpopular at Leyden
because of his sympathy with the Remonstrants, and gave his
last years to the University of Amsterdam (1632-1649) ; and by
(9) Rivetus, the Huguenot (f 1661), one of the chief Reformed
divines of the Continent,
Among the Anti-Remonstrants may be mentioned : (10)
Jacob Re-vius (f 1658), Hebrew scholar and controversialist ; and
(11) Vdetius (t 1676), professor at Utrecht, whose influence
helped to establish a Protestant traditional orthodoxy in the
Dutch schools.*
The Armiman movement, defeated by Dutch
Scholasticism, passed over into England, and especially
» Vide p. 152.
• Vide Briggs, Theological Symbolics, pp, 211 seq.
• Vide p. 165.
* Vide Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, p. 147.

CH. m,] SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 157
into the AngUcan Church, in the author of the London
Polyglot, in Hammond, Pococke, Whitby, Lowth, and
John Taylor of Norwich (who greatly influenced German
Theology in its reform in the eighteenth century), and
in Wesley took the form of EvangeUcal Armimamsm,
The principle of the Covenant, passing over into
Holland with the English Puritan Ames, gave birth to the
Covenant Theology of Cocceius and Witsi-us.
Ames ^ became professor of theology at Franecker in 1622, and
rector of the university four years later. Among his pupUs was
(12) Cocceius (f 1669), the father of the Federal School in HoUand,
who was called to Franecker in 1636, and to Leyden in 1650.
In addition to his famous Summa doctrina de foedere et testamento
Dei (1648, 1664), he made important contributions to BibUcal
Philology, Theology, and Exegesis, and to the departments of
Dogmatics, Ethics, and Catechetics. Among the pupils of
Cocceius was (13) Vitringa (t 1722), professor at IVanecker,
celebrated for his commentaries, and his works on Sacred History
and Chronology, and on BibUcal and Practical Theology. (14)
Hermann Witsius (f 1708), BibUcal theologian and leader of the
Dutch Federal School, taught at the Universities of Franecker,
Utrecht and Leyden, pubUshed a notable work, De ceconomia
fcederum Dei cum 'hominibus, treatises on the Apostles' Oeed,
the Lord's Prayer, the Christian Faith, the Character of a True
Theologian, and important BibUcal works.
The Covenant Theology of Cocceius and Witsius
influenced German Pietism, but eventually combined
vrith Scholasticism to form a new Scholasticism, especially
in Scotland and America. ^y'
4. The critical principle reasserted itself mightily in
the French School of Saumur, and a freer type of Theology
was there maintained.*
> There were in France, in the seventeenth century, six
Protestant academies, all modeUed after those of Stras
burg and Geneva : namely, Nimes (1561), iremc in
1 Vide p. 152. Ames published his Medulla theologica in 1623
(Engli,sh, 1642).
2 Vide Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, p, 222.

158 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. n.
spirit; Saumur (1593), mildly Calvinistic and progres
sive ; Montauban (1597) and Sedan (c. 1602), both
Scholastic ; Orthez (1566) and Die (c. 1596), both in
significant. The Academies of Saumux, Sedan and
Montauban took an active part in theological contro
versy, and became centres of theological leaming. The
foreign element was always strong, especially in Saumur
and Sedan ; and Italy, Switzerland, HoUand, Germany,
and Scotland contributed to the faculties of the French
Academies as weU as to the student bodies. Scotland
gave ' a Pleiades of distinguished men.' ^
(I.) The Academy of Nimes was originaUy a school of grammar
and logic, civil and canon law, dating from the fourteenth century.
Early in the sixteenth century it was transformed after the model
of the School of the Three Languages * at Paris, and under the
inspiration of the pedagogic principles of Sturm of Strasburg.
In 1561 the Protestant consistory added to it a school of theology
with four professors, one for Hebrew, one for Greek, one for
phUosophy, and one for doctrine. The only famous teacher of
theology in this academy was Pierre Viret.'
(II, ) The Academy of Orthez was founded in 1566 with pro
fessors of theology, Greek, Hebrew, phUosophy, mathematics
and music. Viret taught there in 1571, and Lambert Daneau
in 1583-1593.
(III.) Sedan was organised as a CoUege in 1579 ; the Academy
proper was estabUshed in 1602. Among the famous teachers of
theology at this institution were Louis Cappell (1576-1586), who
oame to Sedan from Leyden ; * Jacques Cappell (1599-1624),
a nephew of Louis ; Daniel TiUnvs (1600-1620), Andrew Mel-uille *
(1611-1620), and Le Blanc de Beaulieu (1644-1675). PhUosophy
was taught here by John Cameron (1602-1604) and by Pierre
Bayle (1675-1681). Other iUustrious names might be added.
Pierre du Moulin (1621-1658), who had taught phUosophy at
Leyden, is said to have ' acquired at Sedan an influence equal to
that which Amyraut enjoyed at Saumur.' '
(IV.) The School of Montauban was founded in 1597. One of
1 Bourohenin, Etude sur les Aeadhnies Protestantes en France au
XVI' et au XVII' Siecle, 1882, p. 402,
2 Le college royal des trois langues,
» Vide p. 127, * Vide p, 155. » Vide p. 153.
• Bourchenin, Les Aeadlmies protestantes en France, pp, 428 seq.

CH, m.] SEVENTEENTH- EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 169
its flrst professors of theology was Daniel Chamier (1612-1621),
John Cameron taught there in 1624-1626, and Jean Claude in
1662-1666. Claude was ' regarded in his day as the soul of the
Reformed party in France.' ^ In theology the school of Mon
tauban mediated between those of Sedan and Saumur,
(V,) Die had a ooUege in 1596, and an academy of theology
c, 1604, Daniel Chamier presided there in 1607-1608 ; and
John Sharp taught theology in 1607-1629,
(VI,) The Academy of Saumur was founded in 1593 by the
great general, Duplessis-Momay, and beoame the most famous
of aU the French academies. There were chairs of theology,
Greek, Hebrew, and phUosophy.
Saumur had several great divines : John Cameron,
Josu6 de la Place, and Amyraut, theologians who taught
mediate imputation and hypothetic umversalism ; and
Ludovicus Cappellus, the greatest Biblical critic of Ms
age. (1) John Cameron of Glasgow (f 1625) taught theology at
Saumur (1618-1622), and impressed his views upon his iUustrious
pupU, Am5rraut. (2) Moise Amyraut (Amyraldus, 1696-1664) was
a teacher at Saumur for thirty-eight years. As early as the year
1634 he created great excitement by the pubUcation of a Traiti
de la pridestination. His important work includes a System of
Christian Morals (in six volumes). (3) Placeus (De La Place,
1596-1655) was also a foUower of Cameron, and taught theology
at Saumur for nearly a quarter of a century. In his Disputatio
de imputatione primi peccati Adami (1655) he asserted the doctrine
of mediate imputation as alone justifiable on moral grounds.^
(4) Louis Cappell, the Younger (CappeUus, 1585-1658), nephew
of the elder Louis and brother of Jacques, taught Hebrew and
theology at Saumur for forty-four years, and beoame the most
eminent Biblical scholar of his day. FaUing back on the views
of, the Jewish scholar, Elias Le-vita (f 1649), and of the Protestant
reformers, CappeUus denied the verbal inspiration of the Mas-
soretic Biblical text, showed that the Hebrew vowel points
were not original, and that there were different readings of the
text, and laid stress upon grammatical and historical exegesis.
He was sustained by the French theologians generaUy, and by
1 Gieseler, v. p. 361.
2 Vide Briggs, Theological Symbolics, pp, 213 seq. ; also Placeus, De
statu hominis lapsi ante gratiam, 1640.

160 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. n.
the body of EngUsh critics. Cocceius first gave his name to the
pubUc as author of the anonymous work. Arcanum punct-uationis
revelatum (1624). This work remained unanswered and wrought
powerfuUy for nearly a quarter of a century, when the younger
Buxtorf undertook to maintain against CappeUus the traditional
Rabbinical position. The three universities of Sedan, Geneva,
and Leyden were roused to such opposition to CappeUus, that
they sought to prevent the pubUcation of his great work, the
Critica sacra. It appeared, however, in 1650, and proved to be
the flrst of a series of corresponding productions.
These great scholars of Saumur taught large bodies
of students from many lands. In England the influ
ence of tMs school was apparent among the Puritans,
especiaUy in Calamy and Baxter, and became known
as Baxterianism, or the New Theology, and so passed
over to America as New School Theology, and m
England and Ireland attached itself to vital reforming
movements.^ But the scholastic theologians of France,
Holland, and Switzerland bitterly opposed the School
of Saumur. These controversies greatly weakened
French Protestantism at a critical period.
Among the IVench theologians trained at Saumur and Sedan
were: (1) Jacques Basnage (f 1723), fourth in a succession of
theologians of that surname, the author of many historical,
dogmatic and polemic works ; and (2) Jacques Abbadie (t 1727),
whose apologetic and ethical treatises were widely known.
In addition to these six academies there were two schools of
Uttle or brief importance, the one at MontpeUier, the other at
Orange. (VII.) MontpeUier Academy was founded in 1696. In
1609 it possessed chairs of theology, Hebrew and Greek ; but
by 1617 it had been absorbed in the school of Nimes. Isaac
Casaubon (f 1614), the great Humanist, whose leaming almost
rivaUed that of Scaliger, came from teaching Greek at Geneva
to help in building up the new school (1696-1599), His chief
contribution to theology was his edition of the Greek Testament,
Daniel Chamier (f 1621) was active in the founding of this
academy ; and Thomas Dempster taught phUosophy there in
1605. 1 Vide Briggs, St-ady of Holy Scripture, pp. 222 seq. ; Theological
Symbolics, pp, 373 seq.

CH, m,] SEVENTEENTH- EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 161
(VIII,) The School of Orange (c, 1573) had also a brief existence,
and Uke those of MontpelUer and OrthcE, took no part in theo
logical controversy. Indeed, the Academy of Orange was not
attached to the French Churches by any administrative link,^
All of the French theological schools were short-lived.
The last was suppressed by Louis xrv, in 1685,
5. In England Francis Bacon became the father of
Inductive Philosophy over against the Aristotelian, and
greatly influenced all subsequent English thought, giving
it an abiding bent towards empirical and experimental
philosophy. TMs pMlosophy in its several forms undermined
British Theology, and produced eventually the Deist
movement. The influence of Bacon (f 1626) and the Inductive
PMlosophy was greatly promoted by the growth of
Natural PMlosophy, or the study of the Science of
Nature by the experimental method, pursued on the
Continent by Copernicus (t 1543), Kepler (f 1630),
Galileo (f 1642), and a host of followers ; and in England
by Napier (f 1617), Harvey (f 1657), and others. These
men built up the Natural Sciences, wMch continuaUy
pressed more and more into the umversities and influ
enced students of theology, who were led thereby to
make more of the realities of nature and of Ufe. With
that came increased attention to the principles of educa
tion and the building up of the science of education,
especially through the labours of Ratichius (1571-1635)
and Comenius (1592-1670). Amos Comemus, bishop of
the Moravians, exerted extraordinary influence tMough
Ms Great Didactic and other educational works. His
principles were :
(1) Omnia e principiis rerum immotis deriventur.
1 Vide Bourohenin, Les Academies protestantes en France, p. 396.

162 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. il
(2) Nihil doceatur per autoritatem nudam, omnia per demon-
strationem sensualem et rationalem.
(3) Nihil methodo analytica sola, synthetica potius omnia.
All these efforts for reform aimed, as Paulsen shows,'
at these tMngs :
(1) The learning, not only of languages, but also of realities
(mathematics, the natural sciences, history, geography).
(2) The learning of languages aright : not the language from
grammar, but the grammar from language.
{3) The study of the modern languages.
(4) Study not by compulsion, but by rational methods : the
use of the inteUigence, rather than the rod.
In the course of the seventeenth century new pMlo
sopMcal theories came into the field to displace the
AristoteUan and Platomc pMlosopMes, in the works of
Hobbes, Descartes, Spinoza, Locke, Leibnitz, and their
associates. Deism arose in England, and sought to
reduce CMistiamty to a religion of nature with the
human reason as the sole authority. In the eighteenth
century the movement was gradually overcome in Great
Britain and driven to the Continent, where it ran riot in
various forms of Rationalism. It should be said, how
ever, that the Scholastic Theology did not recover the
authority it had lost in the umversities of England, but
only in Scotland and among the English Noncon
formists in part, so far as they were influenced by their
traimng in the universities of Holland. The Church of
England since the Reformation has always trained her
clergy in Positive Theology, that is, in the Scriptures
and the Creeds. No great system of theology has
been produced since the Reformation in the Church of
England. (1) Francis Bacon (1561-1629) was trained at Cambridge,
where he ' first fell into the disUke of the philosophy of Aristotie,
1 Vide Paulsen, Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts, 2nd edition, i.
pp. 469, 471 seq.

CH. m,] SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 163
. . . being a phUosophy only strong for disputations and con
tentions, but barren of the production of works for the benefit
of the Ufe of man.' ^ He described the Schoolmen as ' having
sharp and strong wits, and abundance of leisure, and small
variety of reading, but their wits being shut up in the cells of a
few authors (chiefly Aristotle their dictator), . . . and knowing
Uttle history, either of nature or time (they) did, out of no great
quantity of matter and infinite agitation of wit, open out unto us
those laborious webs of learning, whioh are extant in their books,' ^
Bacon's great works include his Novum organum. Advancement
of Leaming, and famous Essays. He also wrote a Confession
of Faith, and devotional works.
(2) John Locke (1632-1704), of Oxford, ' the originator of the
empirical phUosophy of the eighteenth century,' ' and author of
' the famous Essay on the Human Understanding, pubUshed also
Letters on Toleration, the Reasonableness of Christianity, treatises
on Miracles and on Education, and Paraphrases on the great
PauUne Epistles.
Among the opponents of Deism may be mentioned : (3)
Joseph Butler (1692-1752), also an Oxford scholar and bishop
of Durham, famous for his sermons and for his Analogy of Religion,
Natural and Revealed (1736), which has been a universal text-book
of Apologetics.*
6. At Helmstddt the irenical school of Calixtus struggled
with the scholastic spirit, and reverted from the scholastic
method to the historical and Biblical methods.^
The Umversity of Helmstadt allowed its theological
professors exceptional liberty in matters of doctrine.
One of the Helmstadt theologians, (1) George Calixtus
(1586-1656), became the cMef irenic divine of the early
seventeenth century.
The father of CaUxtus, a pupU of Melanchthon, transmitted to
him the theology of that Reformer. Some years of travel in
other countries gave him a personal knowledge of both the
1 Bacon, Ad-uaneem^nt of Learning, ed. Aldis Wright, pref. p. vi. ;
vide Sandys, ii. p. 338.
2 Vide Sandys, ii. p. 339.
3 Vide article on ' Locke,' in New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia.
< Vide Briggs, Whither t p. 217.
» Vide Briggs, St-udy of Holy Scripture, pp, 147, 574; Theological
• --^.pp. 9,21,

164 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. n.
Roman CathoUc and the Reformed Churches. He began to
seek a basis for reunion in the Christian consensus of the first
five centuries. Serving as professor of theology at Helmstadt
for over forty years (1614-1666), he exerted a widespread and
powerful influence as an advocate of Christian Unity. He also
did valuable work as a BibUcal and dogmatic theologian, and
to him is ascribed the founding of the discipUne of Ethics in
theology. The iremc teacMng of CaUxtus excited great opposi
tion in the so-called Syncretistic Controversies.
The University of Helmstddt supported CaUxtus. Among his
defenders was (2) Hermann Conri-ng (f 1681), who ' exceUed in
almost every department of human knowledge ' ^ and pubUshed
several irenic works, (3) Molan-us (f 1722), who worked with
Leibnitz and Spinola for a reunion of Protestants and CathoUcs,
and with Leibnitz and Jablonski for a union of the Lutherans
with the Reformed, was one of the pupUs of CaUxtus. Promi
nent among his opponents was (4) Calamus of Wittenberg (f 1686),
Several of the theologians of Konigsberg were classed as Syn-
cretists, among them (5) Grabe (f 1711), the patristic scholar, who
published an edition of the Septuagint, (6) Johann Gerhard
("I" 1637), regarded by his cotemporaries as the greatest theo
logian of the time, died before the controversy had fairly begun.
His pupUs at Jena, (7) Glassius (t 1656), author of Philologia
sacra, and (8) Musceus{-}[ 1681), a noted dogmatic theologian,
maintained a mediating position, (9) Martin Geier of Leipzig
(t 1680) took no part in the conflict ; but produced, according to
(Jieseler, ' the best commentaries on the books of the Old Testa
ment which appeared during this period,' ^
7. The milder Calvinism and the critical spirit of the
school of Saumur took refuge in Switzerland, and reappeared
in the younger Turretin of Geneva, in Osterwald of Neu-
chdtel, and in Werenfels of Basel.
In 1675 Heidegger of Ziirich, with the co-operation of
Gernler of Basel and Frangois Turretin of Geneva, drew
up the Formula Consensus Helvetica as a definition of
Scholastic Calvinism over against the milder Calvimsm
of the school of Saumur. Under the influence of these
1 Gieseler, T. p. 272. a Ibid., p. 283.

CH. m.] SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 165
great divines the Formula was adopted by several of
the Cantons of Switzerland ; and its doctrines were
maintained by Scholastic Calvinists in other countries,
especiaUy in HoUand and Scotland ; but it had little
influence in Germany or England, and was overtMown
in Switzerland in the next generation, under the leader-
sMp of the younger Turretin,^ The reaction may be
said to have begun even earlier, with Peter Werenfels
(t 1703), Gemler's successor at Basel,^ whose son Samuel
(t 1740) co-operated with Turretin and Osterwald in
the Svriss revolt against Scholasticism,
(1) Heidegger of Ziirich (f 1698) made important contributions
to Dogmatics, Ethics, Church History, BibUcal Theology, Sym-
boUcs, and Christian Institutions. (2) Francois Turretin (Tur-
rettini, f 1687) pubUshed an Institutio theologice ele-ncticce, which
was used as a text-book by Scottish and American Presby
terians tUl towards the close of last century, to the neglect
of the Westminster divines. His son, (3) Jean Alphonse Tur
retin (t 1737), was the chief of those who secured the aboUtion
of the Helvetic Consensus in 1726, He corresponded with
Leibnitz, Frederick i. of Prussia, and Archbishop Wake of Canter
bury, on behaU of Churoh Unity, and published dogmatic, irenic
and exegetical works. (4) Beriedict Pictet (-\ 1724) was a cousin
of the younger Turretin, and Uke him a Uberal and irenic theo
logian. He produced important works on Christian Theology
and Ethics.
Among the other Swiss theologians of the period were : (5)
the Semitic scholar, Johann Heinrich Hottinger of Ziirich ("j" 1667),
and (6) his son, Johann Jacob (f 1735), both of whom did notable
work in Churoh History ; (7) John Buxtorf, father (j" 1629) and
(8) son (t 1664), who were influential in establishing a Protestant
traditional orthodoxy in the Swiss schools, and maintained the
divine origin and authority of the Massoretio vowel points and
accents, yet rendered valuable service by their Hebrew Concord
ance and other philological, BibUcal and historical works ; and
(9) Suicer (f 1684), author of the celebrated Thesaurus ecdesi-
asticus, and other lexicographal works.
1 Vide Briggs, Theological Symbolics, pp, 213 seq. ; Study of Holy
Scripture, p. 225.
2 Vide Dorner, Geschichte der protestantischen Theologie, p. 439, n. 1,

166 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. n.
8. The Cambridge Platonists revived the ethical type of
Theology in England, and strove to give the human reason
its proper place and function in matters of religion.
The Cambridge Platomsts were Puritan in origin and
traimng. Predominantly rational and etMcal, they were
characterised also by the mystic spirit, especially in the
case of Henry More (f 1687). Like the school of Saumur
in France and the school of Calixtus in Germany, tMs
group of Cambridge scholars helped to prepare the way
for a broad, comprehensive Church. ^ The leaders
among them, with the exception of More, all belonged to
the famous Puritan college Emmanuel. The most
notable of these theologians were WMchcote and Cud
worth. (1) Benjamin WMchcote (1609-1683) exerted strong influence
as a teacher, especiaUy through the lectures which he gave at
Trinity CoUege on Sunday afternoons for twenty years. Cud
worth, More and John Smith (f 1652) were among his disciples.
His writings were aU issued posthumously, and include Moral
and Religio-us Aphorisms, sermons, and a remarkable correspond
ence with Anthony Tuokney,'' Whichcote declared : ' God hath
set up two lights to enUghten us in our way : the Ught of reason,
which is the light of His creation ; and the Ught of Scripture,
which is after-revelation from Him, Let us make use of these
two Ughts ; and suffer neither to be put out,' '
(2) Ralph Cudworth (1617-1688), the most celebrated philo
sopher of this school, was Regius Professor of Hebrew. He
wrote on The True Intellectual System of the Universe, on Eternal
and Immutable Morality, and on Free Will.
9. Puritanism eventually gave birth to Pietism in
Reformed and Lutheran Germany, producing the Biblical
school of Bengel and the Moravians.
Pietism was the salvation of Germany and Methodism
of Great Britain. Pietism in Germany owed its origin
to English Puritamsm, wMch gave the impulse to
I Vide Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, pp. 574 seq.
» Vide p. 162,
•" Vide article ou ' Whichcote,' in New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia.

CH. m.] SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 167
HoUand first, and then to the Reformed Churches of
the RMne, until at length it reached Strasburg, and
moved first Spener, then Koelmann, and finaUy Zinzen-
dorf. The Pietism of Germany and HoUand, especiaUy
that of the type of Zinzendorf , in turn greatly influenced
British Methodism.^
(1) Philip Jacob Spener (1635-1705), the father of German
Pietism, studied at Strasburg, Basel, Geneva and Tubingen, and
was influenced by the Puritan piety, especiaUy of Baxter, and by
the French of Jean de Labadie (t 1674), founder of a Quietistic
sect in HoUand. Spener began to preach at Strasburg in 1663,
and three years later was caUed to Frankfort-on-the-Main, where
he orgamsed the Collegia pietatis (1670) to promote the study of
the Bible and the practice of devotion. Similar circles were
formed in other cities, and the interest in Biblical study greatly
increased. Spener worked subsequently in Dresden, and finaUy,
from 1691, in BerUn, exerting great influence, especiaUy through
his writings. The most important of these were the Pia desi-
deria (1675), Oeistliches Priesterthum, Theologische Bedenken,
and the treatise De impedimentis studii theologici. Spener
emphasised the practical in theology. He and his foUowers
were of the mystic type ; and they adopted many of the chief
features of Puritanism, The German Pietists laid stress upon
personal relations to God and experimental piety, in order to the
interpretation of Scripture, This was accompanied among the
best of them with true scholarship. In their study of theology
they discarded the scholastic method in favour of the historical
and BibUcal methods. They did not form a separate denomina
tion, but remain as a party in the Churches of Germany untU the
present day.^ However, they established a theological school
at HaUe with Francke at its head.
(2) Au,gvst Hermann Francke (1663-1727) was one of the
founders of the Collegium philobiblicum (1686), and of the
Collegia biblica (1689), at Leipzig. Through Spener's influence
he was caUed to the new university at HaUe (1692) as professor
of Greek and the Oriental languages, and as pastor to a suburban
churoh. With the co-operation of his coUeagues, Breithaupt
(t 1732) and Anton (f 1730), he made HaUe a great centre of
1 Vide Briggs, St-udy of Holy Scripture, p. 574 ; American Presby
terianism, pp. 238 seq. ; Theological Syrribolics, pp. 244 seq.
2 Vide Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, pp. 466 seq. ; Theological
Syrribolics, pp. 9, 244,

168 HISTORY OF THE SITTDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. n.
Pietism. He founded the famous Orphan Asylum, the Pada-
gogiu^n, and other educational institutions, and made them
training schools in Pedagogy and Pastoral Theology for the
students of Halle. At his death more than 2200 chUdren were
under instruction, and 260 students were receiving practical
training as teachers and pastors in these institutions. The most
important of Franoke's virritings treat of BibUcal Interpretation
and Hermeneutics. The best exegete among the Pietists was
(3) Johann Albert Bengel (f 1762), ' the founder of New Testa
ment criticism in the Lutheran Church,' ^ whose interpretation
is a model of piety and accuracy. To his famous Gnomon Novi
Testamenti he added other valuable Biblical works, and carried
on the work of MUl in a critical text of the New Testament.
Pietism was carried into the Moravian Church by (4) Nicolaus
I/udwig Zinzendorf (1700-1760), a disciple of Francke, trained at
his Padagogium in HaUe. Zinzendorf received the exUes from
Moravia on his estate at Herrnhut (1722), and reorganised them
as the Unitas Fratrum with the Ratio discipli-nce of Bishop
Comenius.^ His writings comprise sermons, hymns, and various
doctrinal and devotional works.
10, The vital religion and ethical principles of Puritan
ism revived in Great Britain and her colonies in the form
of Methodism, under the leadership of Wesley and White-
fleld. Deism was overcome in Great Britain and her colomes
by the vital religion and Christian experience of Method
ism, a genuine development of British Christiamty, yet
strongly influenced by the Pietism of the Continent,
Methodism was, indeed, an Mstorical recompense for
the influence of Puritamsm upon Continental Christian
ity, The fathers of Methodism were Wesley and White-
field, the one an Armiman, the other a (jalvimst. It
was their earnest desire and purpose to orgamse holy
circles vritMn the Church, after the example of German
Pietism ; but intolerance compelled their followers for
the most part to orgamse separate churches in England,
Scotland, Ireland and America. The Church of England
secession was made by Wesley and Wlutefield, and
' Gieseler, v, p, 296, ' Briggs, Theological Symbolics, p. 244.

CH. IU.] SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 169
resolved itself into the Armiman branch of Wesley and
the Calvimstic branch of WMtefield. The secession
from the Church of Scotland was led by the Erskines,
who, after suspension by that Church, orgamsed an
Associate Presbytery (1733). The American secession
was in the New Side Presbyterians. The Congrega
tionalists and the Baptists divided into parties ; but did
not separate, because of their loose orgamsation and the
difficulty of ecclesiastical division. There was, however,
a considerable amount of disfellowsMp and conffict. A
large number of Methodists remained in the older
orgamsations, preferring limitation to separation. Still
greater numbers were infiuenced more or less by the new
movement, and the whole Christian body was enlivened
and refreshed. Scholasticism and Deism were stayed,
and gradually driven back all over the Anglo-Saxon
world. Methodism, like Pietism, emphasised the
Christian religious experience, laying more stress on
vital and spiritual Christiamty, and less on doctrinal
and institutional Christiamty ; although they cannot
be said to have departed from the fundamental doctrines
or Mstoric institutions of Christianity.^ Yet wMle
Pietism succeeded in establisMng its headquarters at
the University of HaUe, Methodism, forced out of the
national Church, had to train its mimsters in theological
colleges and seminaries.
(1) John Wesley (1703-1791) was trained at Oxford University,
and was one of the founders of the famous Holy Club (1729), whose
members won the name of Methodists by ' the exact regularity
of their Uves and studies.' Wesley was strongly influenced by
Thomas £t Kempis, Jeremy Taylor, Luther, and his cotemporary,
the mystic, William Law (f 1761), author of the Serious Call to a
Devout and Holy Life, A Practical Treatise on Christian Perfection,
and other remarkable works. But it was chiefly through the
Moravians that Wesley was guided to the adoption of those
1 Vide Briggs, Theological Symbolics, p. 245.

170 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. n.
principles and methods which have become the characteristic
features of Methodism, In 1739, foUowing the example of
Whitefield, Wesley began the practice of preaching in the open
air, which he continued for upwards of fifty years. In the same
year the first society of Methodists was formed. The writings
of Wesley include a Plain Account of Christian Perfection, Notes
on the New Testament, a Short History of Methodism, sermons,
journals, and doctrinal and practical tracts,
(2) Charles Wesley (1708-1788), brother and coUaborator of
John, has been caUed ' the poet of Methodism,' and is now known
chiefly through his hymns,
(3) George Whitefield (1714-1770) was one of the members of
the Holy Club at Oxford, He became known in Great Britain
and her colonies in America as an evangeUst and field preacher
of wonderful power and success. He laid the foundations of a
famous school at Kingswood, near Bristol ; and wrote The Chris
tian History ; or, A Qeneral Account of the Progress of the Gospel
in England, Wales, Scotland, and America, as weU as sermons and
autobiographical works,
(4) Fletcher of Madeley (De la Pl^chlre, f 1785), the chief
theologian of the Wesleyans, was born on Lake Geneva, but
entered the ministry of the Church of England, and became
associated with John Wesley, He served as pastor at Madeley
for nearly a quarter of a century, and was noted for his power in
preaching and his moderation in controversy. He wrote the
celebrated Checks to Antinomianism and a Portrait of St. Paul,
or the True Model for Christians and Pastors.
Methodism began in America in the Dutch Reformed Church,
under the mimstry of (5) Jacob Frdinghuysen, a native of East
Friesland and disciple of Koelmann, the Dutch Pietist. He
beoame pastor of a church in Raritan, New Jersey (c. 1720), and
laboured in that region for twenty-seven years. Through
Prelinghuysen the Puritan spirit flowed with new vigour. White-
field recognised in him ' a worthy old soldier of Jesus Christ,'
' the Beginner of the great Work, which I trust the Lord is carry
ing on in these parts.' ^ The representative Methodists among
the Presbyterians were the Tennents, father and son. (6) Gilbert
Tennent began his work at New Brunsvrick in 1726. His father,
(7) William (f 1746), opened a Log College at Neshaminy, Penn
sylvania (after 1727), for the training of young men for the
ministry, which proved of immense service to the cause of Christ,
and was Ukened by Whitefield to ' the Schools of the old
1 Vide Briggs, Ainerican Presbyterianism, pp. 239 seq.

CH. m.] SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 171
Prophets,' ^ About the Tennents gathered a strong body of
earnest, devout, and zealous ministers and laymen.
The great Congregational Methodist was Jonathan Edwards,^
the father of modern British and American Theology — ^not so
much in those metaphysical matters to which his name is so
frequently attached, as in those characteristic doctrines of the
Methodist movement, which he so successfuUy formulated and
explained.* 11. The American colonists founded colleges modelled
after those of the British Universities, as residential
colleges, where instruction in Theology was mingled with
general education. The greatest theologians of America
studied and taught in these institutions.
The American colomsts brought with them their
ministers. At first there were more than were needed.
But subsequently mimsters could not be secured from
the mother country in sufficient numbers, and educational
institutions began to be organised.
The first coUege was that of Harvard, founded at Cambridge,
Massachusetts (1636) ; the second, that of William and Mary,
opened at WiUiamsburg, Virginia (1693) ; the third, Yale College,
located at first in Saybrook (1701), but afterwards removed to
New Haven, Connecticut (1718). The Log College of WiUiam
Tennent * was the basis for the College of New Jersey, opened at
Ehzabethtown (1646), removed to Newark (1647), and finally
estabUshed at Princeton (1757), King's College, founded in New
York (Sty by royal charter in 1754, was reorganised as Columbia
after the Revolution (1787), Rhode Island College (opened in
1764) took the name of Brown in 1804, In 1749 the foundations
of the University of Pennsylvania were laid at Philadelphia,
Dartmouth was opened at Hanover, New Hampshire (1770), and
Williams at WiUiamstown, Massachusetts (1793). Cokesbury
College was organised by the Methodists at Abingdon, Maryland,
in 1787, and removed to Baltimore in 1795, but was finaUy
abandoned (1796) because of repeated losses by fire.

1 Vide Briggs, A-merican Presbyterianism, pp, 186 seq., 240, 242,
304 seq. ^ Vide p. 173.
3 Vide Briggs, American Presbyterianism, p, 261,
* Vide p. 170,
VOL, II. M

172 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. n.
The chief purpose of these colleges was to train a
Christian mimstry. Thus Palfrey says, vrith reference
to Harvard :
' The course of study [at Harvard], adopted from the contem
poraneous practice of the EngUsh Universities, consisted of
Latin and Greek (in which some proficiency was required for
admission) ; of logic, arithmetic, geometry, and physics ; and
of Hebrew, Chaldee, Syriac, and divinity, — the forming bf a
learned ministry being a main object of the institution.' ^
Woolsey writes with reference to Yale :
' In general it may be said that the system pursued by the
earlier teachers rested upon logic and theology, and presupposed
that the students would choose the clerical profession, rather than
the offices of civic Ufe, To this cause is to be ascribed the part
which the study of Hebrew played for a considerable period,' *
Fisher also says of Yale :
' Its chief design was to furnish the churches with competent
ministers of the Gospel, For a long time theological studies,
including the Hebrew language, held a prominent place in the
undergraduate course. The President was a teacher of Divinity,
and the first professorship created was in that department,' *
The American colleges produced two great theologians :
Jonathan Dickinson and Jonathan Edwards, who remain
as the best exponents of the theology of the eighteenth
century,* (1) Dickinson (1688-1747), the great representative American
Presbyterian of the Colonial period, was trained at Yale, took
charge of several congregations in Ehzabethtown, New Jersey,
and the neighbourhood, and became the first president of the
CoUege of New Jersey. The charter for that coUege was obtained
through his efiorts, and it was opened at his house. No better
man could have been found to lay the foundation of higher
1 Palfrey, History of Ne-w England, 1860, u. p. 48,
2 Woolsey, An Historical Discourse pronounced before the Graduate*
of Yale College, 1850, p. 67.
3 Vide Fisher, A Discourse, Commemorative of the History of the
Church of Christ in Yale College, 1858, pp. 36 seq.
* Vide Briggs, American P-resbyterianism, pp. 176 seq., 216, 260 seq.,
306.

CH. m,] SEVENTEENTH -EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 173
education for the Presbyterians in America, He was head and
shoulders above his brethren in the ministry in intellectual and
moral endowments, the recognised leader in aU the crises of the
Church, It is due chiefly to him that the Presbyterian Church
in America was not spUt up into fragments, perpetuating the
differences of Presbyterians in the mother countries of Great
Britain, and the several parties in those countries,
(2) Jonathan Edwards (1703-1758) is the greatest divine
America has yet produced. He found no equal in Great Britain
in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. He was at
once recognised as the teacher of the Calvinistic Methodists of
Great Britain, and has become the master spirit in theology to
the Presbyterian and Congregational world of the nineteenth
century, in Scotland as well as in England and America.
Through him the theology of the school of Saumur flrst came
into prominence in America. Edwards studied at Yale, served
as pastor to Congregational churches at Northampton and Stock-
bridge, Massachusetts, and was made president of the CoUege
of New Jersey shortly before his death. Under his ministry
occurred the Greai Awakening, a series of revivals (1734-1735,
1740-1741) which spread through a great part of New England.
The most notable writings of Edwards were his doctrinal sermons,
his dissertations on the Nature of True Virtue, the Freedom of the
WiU, the ReUgious Affections, and Original Sin, and a History of
Redemption. His pupUs included such theologians as Joseph
Bellamy (t 1790), Sam-uel Hopkins (f 1803), and his own son, the
younger Jonathan (f 1801).
In the middle of the eighteenth century there was a
great theological battle about education for the mimstry
in the Presbyterian and Reformed Churches, wMch had
much to do with the division between the Old Side and
the New in the Presbyterian Church. A learned mimstry
and a devout mimstry were put in antithesis in the
struggle. Early in the following century it became
evident that there must be provision for a more thorough
traimng in theology.
12, In the eighteenth century the Nonconformists of
England began to establish public colleges for the training
of their ministry.

174 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. n.
After the Restoration and the Act of Umformity (1662),
the Nonconformists of England, excluded from the
English umversities, could only train their mimsters in
private academies, or send them to the imiversities of
other countries. There were, however, a number of
private academies conducted by eminent men in different
places all through the seventeenth century, where the
principles of Nonconformity were taught, and students
received excellent practical traimng and good discipUne,
/ 1 Some of the best of the students went for Mgher traimng
; ' to the umversities of the Continent.
The Nonconformist academies trained such theologians as :
(1) Matthew Henry (t 1714), a pupU of Thomas Doolittle at
IsUngton, and author of Expositions of the Old and New Testa
ments, in which the BibUcal exegesis of Puritanism attained on
the practical side its highest mark ; ^ (2) Isaac Watts (f 1748),
student at the academy in Stoke Newington, caUed by Mont
gomery ' the inventor of EngUsh hymns ' ; " (3) John Taylor
of Norwich (t 1761), pupil of Thomas Dixon at Whitehaven,
disciple of Samuel Clarke * and the phUosopher Locke ("f 1704),
and author of a Paraphrase on Romans, a Hebrew (Concordance,
The Scriptural Doctrine of Original Sin, and other important
doctrinal works.
After the Revolution of 1688 the Nonconformists
began to plan for the traimng of their mimstry in public
colleges. In the course of the eighteenth century a
number of such colleges were founded, including : *
(1) Homerton College, estabUshed in London (c. 1744) by the
combination of two earUer schools, the Fund Academy (c. 1695)
and the Academy of the King's Head Society (c. 1730). The first
teachers of theology in the Fund Academy included : Thomas
Goodwin (1696), son of the famous Thomas (f 1680), leader of the
Independents in the Westminster Assembly ; Isaac Chauncey
(1701-1712), son of Charles (t 1672), the second president of
1 Vide Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, p. 467.
2 Vide Christlieb, ' Watts,' in Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia, 1st ed.
s Vide p. 176,
< Vide Calendar of the Congregational Colleges qf Enqland and Wales.
1879, pp, 11 seq. » v y ,

CH. m.] SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 175
Harvard CoUege ; and Thomas Ridgley (1712-1734), author of a
Body of Di-vinity.
(2) Coward College, founded by the liberaUty of a London
merchant in 1738, and under the instruction of Philip Doddridge
until his death (t 1751), Doddridge, a pupil of Samuel Clarke
and John Jennings, pubUshed a Family Expositor, or practical
commentary on the Bible, whioh was of great service to the
churches, (3) Highbury College, estabUshed in 1778 by an evangeUcal
society to promote the evangeUcal movement. These three
coUeges were united in 1850 as (4) New College, which became the
chief Congregational seminary of England,
(5) Westem College was founded- at Plymouth by the Congre
gational Fund Board (1752), (6) Rotherham College was estab
Ushed in Yorkshire (1756); (7) the Countess of Huntingdon's
College at Cheshunt (1768) ; and (8) Airedale College at Bradford
(1800). A number of other Congregational colleges were
founded in the mneteenth century, but all were of the
same type. In the older academies the course was
usually a mixed course of theology and pMlosophy,
extending over four years ; in the colleges the course
was one of five years, two in pMlosophy and three in
theology. The Presbyterian (Unitarian) -Board founded Carmarthen
College in 1697 ; the Congregational Fund Board Brecon College
in 1757, after the separation from the Presbyterians. The
Baptists estabUshed similar institutions ; so also the Wesleyans
and other bodies.
All of these schools were of the same type, offering a
preparatory pMlosopMcal course and a theological
course — essentially the same type as the Tridentine
Seminaries, These EngUsh Seminaries exerted upon
the Nonconformists an influence similar to that of the
Tridentine Seminaries upon the Roman CathoUcs.
There was a constant irritation between the men
trained practicaUy in the seminaries and the men
trained theoretically in the umversities. The mimsters
trained in the universities of HoUand were either

176 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. n.
Scholastics, or advocates of the Covenant Theology.
Those trained in the Scottish umversities were either
Scholastics, or men influenced by the Free Thought of
the eighteenth century.
Early in that century the Nonconformists of Britain began to
be agitated by the spirit of inquiry that was already active in
the Church of England in William Whiston (f 1762), Samuel
Clarke (f 1729), and others. Thomas Emlyn (f 1743), a Presby
terian minister of DubUn, was the first to advocate Semi- Arianism.
He was removed from his associate ministry in 1702. Ja-mes
Pierce of Exeter adopted simUar opimons from Clarke and
Whiston (c. 1717), The ministers of Exeter appealed to London
for advice. The London ministers debated the matter for a
long time. In 1719 they divided on the subject of subscription.
The majority were opposed to subscription. The minority
separated and subscribed to the first of the Articles of Religion
of the Churoh of England, and to the fifth and sixth Questions
of the Westminster Shorter Catechism. The Presbyterians were
chiefly non-subscribers ; ^ the Congregationalists chiefly sub
scribers.^ This division resulted in the gradual departure of the
English Presbyterians from the Westminster Faith until the
whole body became Unitarian. The Congregationalists, how
ever, remained orthodox, and to a great extent reactionary.
The same conflict arose in Scotland over the case of John
Simson (-\ 1740), professor of divinity in the University of Glas
gow, who sought to reconcile Christianity with modern thought
within the sphere of historical Christianity, but was regarded as
compromised in an anti-trinitarian direction, and so warned by
the General Assembly in 1717.' His views continued to excite
the Church of Scotland uutU his flnal suspension in 1729.
Steadily but surely the umversities of Scotland, as
weU as those of England, came into the hands of re
presentatives of Free Thought, who were named
Moderates ; and these maintained their supremacy into
the mneteenth century. The Scholastics, who at fi].'st
had succeeded in driving out the men of piety, the
narrow men, as they were called, under the leadersMp
1 Fifty non-subscribers to twenty-six subscribers and nine neutrals.
» Twenty-three subscribers to seven non-subscribers and five neutrals.
• Vide Briggs, Theological Symbolics, p, 243,

CH, m,] SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 177
of the ErsMnes, were at last themselves overcome by
Moderatism, ^

13, The revival of the study of Theology took place
gradually in Germany during the eighteenth century by the
introduction of the new learning, especially as based on the
inductive method and the inductive sciences, and under
the influence of the Universities of Halle and Gottingen.
The older universities resisted the movement so long
as they could. Some of them became extinct ; others
were removed and imited to newer foundations ; others
gradually adopted the new methods. The first modem
umversity was that of Halle, wMch was founded in 1694,
under the same influences as those wMch produced the
Academy of Sciences in Berlin (1700), by the instru
mentality of Leibmtz and Ms associates. The university
of Halle gained its character under the influence of the
two scholars who were its cMef teachers at the beginmng :
Thomasius (f 1728), a jurist, rationalistic in tendency ;
and Francke,^ a theologian and a Pietist, Both were
opposed to the scholastic methods and slavish imitation
of the classic writers wMch generally prevailed, and
they were umted against these tendencies. But they also
represented other opposing tendencies that soon came
into conffict, TMs conffict came to a head in connection
with the pMlosopher, Christian Wolff (| 1754), whose
more pronounced Rationalism brought Mm into trouble.
He was expelled from the Umversity of Halle (1723),
but was called to Marburg, and Ms influence constantly
increased. In 1740 he was recalled to HaUe in triumph,
and the victory finaUy won for freedom of scholarsMp.
Upon that principle the University of Gottingen was
founded in 1734, These two institutions now became
the leading universities of Germany, and so remained
throughout the eighteenth century,
1 Vide p. 167.

178 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt, n.
At Halle the theological professors reverted from the
Scholastic Theology to the Positive Theology. They
devoted themselves to the study of the Scriptures in the
original languages, to the study of the Lutheran sym
bolical books, and to the practice of piety.
Among the theologians of Halle were : (1) Johann Heinrich
Michaelis (t 1738), the Hebrew scholar ; (2) his nephew, coUa
borator and successor at HaUe, Christian Benedict Michaelis
(t 1764) ; (3) Baumgarten, who taught at HaUe from 1730 untU
his death in 1757, and exerted great influence through his works
on Church History and Doctrine ; his disciple (4) Semler (t 1791),
a BibUcal scholar, and the channel through which the historical
method of interpretation made its way into Lutheran Germany.^
Through these theologians HaUe became distinguished for
BibUcal and symboUcal scholarship.
The first great theological teacher of Gottingen was (1) Mos
heim (t 1755), formerly of Helmstadt, a scholar of encyclopsedic
learning and a preacher of great eloquence, who contributed
important works to almost aU the departments of theology, and
made Church History a new discipline. He was followed by
(2) Johann Da-vid Michaelis ("f 1791), son of Christian Benedict,
who produced BibUcal works of great value ; (3) Eichhorn
(t 1827), the father of the Higher Criticism, who carried its
methods into the entire Old Testament with the hand of a master,
and laid the foundation of views that have been maintained ever
since.* These men made Gottingen a great seat of BibUcal and
historical scholarship.
Leipzig also became an important centre of BibUcal study
through the labours of Ernesti (f 1781), the chief of the new era
of BibUcal interpretation in Gtermany. EssentiaUy a philolo
gist rather than a theologian, he began at the foundation of
interpretation, grammatical exegesis, and placed it in such a
position before the world that it has ever since maintained its
fundamental importance.'
In Austria and Southem Germany also the new
methods graduaUy conquered the old in the Catholic
universities, greatly to the mortification of the Jesuits,
who were driven by degrees from one institution after
' Vide Briggs, St-udy of Holy Scripture, p. 470.
» Vide Briggs, ibid., pp. 279 seq. » Vide Briggs, ihid., p. 469.

CH. m.] SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 179
another, and from one country after another, until the
order was suppressed by the pope (1773), and its
influence was reduced to a minimum. So at the close
of the eighteenth century Roman CathoUc and Pro
testant scholars were more at one than they had been
since the Reformation ; ^ and, it may be added, than
they have been since that time. But the enlightened
rulers of Austria and Bavaria, however much they
improved the umversities, did great miscMef by the
destruction of the CathoUc seminaries, or the merging
of the smaller in larger seminaries, thereby destroying
their character and maMng them poor copies of the
umversities. In Protestant Germany, however, and
so it may be said in HoUand and Switzerland, the
development was more normal. The cMef result of the
reformation of the umversities was the deliverance of
theological instruction from bondage to the Church and
to the State, and the establishment of the principle of
freedom of scholarship. , \.
14. The revival of the study of Theology extended all \
along the line of theological scholarship, and resulted in
new theological learning, the opening up of numerous
new fields of theological study, and a zealous and enthusi
astic pursuit of these, in which all countries began to take
part. The gain may be said to have been in these four
particulars :
( 1 ) Freedom of instruction, over against limitation by authority.
(2) The new philosophy of Wolff and Kant, based on Cosmo
logy and Physics, over against Aristotle.
(3) The new Humanism, in place of the imitative study of
the Classics : a critical historical study.
(4) The use of the modem languages in place of Latin.*

' Vide Paulsen, Gesch. des gelehrten Unterrichts, ii. p, 123,
2 Paulsen, ii. p. 145.

180 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. n.
Several new theological disciplines were opened up,
especiaUy at Halle.
I. The discipUne of Theological Encyclopaedia was
first estabUshed by Mursinna ^ of Halle (1764).
II, The foundations for the discipline of Symbolics
were laid by Baumgarten * of Halle (1750) ; and G. J.
Planck^ united Symbolics with Polemics (1796) in a
broader scheme.*
III. In Biblical Study the gain may be given with
more detail :
A. The Text. In England John MiU issued a critical edition
of the New Testament (1707), and was assaUed by unthinking
men, who preferred pious ignorance to a correct text of the New
Testament ; but he was sturdily defended by the great Cam
bridge scholar, Richard Bentley (t 1742), the father of the Higher
Criticism in England. Bishop Lowth (f 1787) caUed the atten
tion of scholars to the necessity of emending the Massoretio text
of the Old Testament, and discerned and set forth the principles
of Hebrew poetry (1763-1778). Kennicott (t 1783) coUated a
large number of Hebrew manuscripts for his monumental work
on the state of the printed Hebrew text of the Old Testament,
with various readings (1753-1780). On the Continent the work
of MiU was continued hy Bengel (1725-1734), Wetstein (1751-1752),
and Griesbach (1785-1793). Lowth's work was carried on in
Germany especiaUy by Michaelis of Gottingen (1770) and by
Koppe (1779-1780).5
B. The Higher Criticism. Astruc, a French physician, dis
covered the several documents of the Pentateuch in 1753. His
work w%3 taken to Germany by Jerusalem (1762). Eichhorn of
Gottingen came independently to the same conclusion in 1779.
The poet Herder (f 1803) first caught the Oriental spirit in his
Geist der hebrdischen Poesie (1782-1783). AU these results were
combined by Eichhorn (1780) in the discipUne of Higher Criticism.*

1 Vide Mursinna, Pri-mce linea encyclopcedue theologicce.
2 Vide Baumgarten, Kurze Begriff der theologischen Streitigkeiten.
3 Vide Planck, Abriss ei-ner historischen und vergleichenden Dar-
stellung der dogmatischen Systems unserer verschiedenen christlichen
Hauptpartheyen. * Vide Briggs, Theological Symbolics, pp. 24 seq.
» Vide Briggs, St-udy of Holy Script-ure, pp. 225 seq.
• Vide Briggs, ibid., pp. 278 seq.

CH, m,] SEVENTEENTH-EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 181
C. Biblical Interpretation. Ernesti of Leipzig applied to the
Bible the principles employed in the interpretation of the ancient
classics (1761), Semler of Halle urged the importance of historical
interpretation (1760-1769), These scholars laid the foundations
of the grammatico-historical school of BibUcal study,"^
D. Biblical History was studied in England by Pridea-ux
(1716-1718), Shuckford (1727-1728), Stackhouse (1732), and
Paley (1790) ; in France by Basnage (1704-1706) and Calmet
(1722); in HoUand by Reland (1704-1708) and Spannheim
{Opera, 1701-1703); m Switzerland by Hess (1768-1788); in
Germany by Waehner (1701-1703), Buddeus (1715-1718), and
especiaUy by Michaelis (1769-1775).'' *
E. Biblical Theology. The foundations of this discipUne were
first laid by Oabler of Jena in 1787, There was, however, pre
paratory work done by Zacharia of Halle, and Gottingen (1771-
1776), on the Pietistic side, Ammon also published works on
BibUcal Theology from the RationaUstic side (1792- 1801 ).3
IV. Church History before Mosheim had been the
handmaid of Polemic Theology. The great polemic
Mstories were the Protestant Magdeburger Centurien,*-
and the reply of the Roman Catholic Baronius in Ms
Annales ecclesiastici,^ continued by Raynaldus, Theiner,
and others. The British Mstorical writers, like Ussher
and Bingham,^ were cMefly interested in antiquities and
institutions, Calixtus had vainly tried to infuse a more
irenic spirit and objective method, Mosheim was the
first to give Church History its position as an indepen
dent, strictly objective, Mstorical discipUne in his Institu
tiones historiae ecclesiasticae (1755), And so there began
a detailed and thorough research into various flelds of
Mstorical investigation, wMch, gradually resulted in the
outlimng of many sub-departments of Church History,
Schrock, a pupil of Mosheim, wrote a very elaborate
Church History in forty-five volumes (1768-1812), in
1 Vide Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, pp. 469 seq.
* Vide Briggs, ibid., pp, 490 seq.
• Vide Briges, ibid., pp. 675 seq.
* 13 vols., 1559-1674. » 12 vols,, 1688-1607,
• Vide pp, 153-155,

182 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. n.
wMch he adopted the division of Church History into
periods, instead of the older division into centuries. It
is valuable for its information as to sources ; but, as
Schaff remarks, ' Nobody ever read it tMou^ except
the author and proof reader.' * The principles of
Mosheim were foUowed by C. W. F. Walch, also of Gottin
gen (t 1784), who estabUshed the discipUne of the History
of Doctrine and other branches of Church History, such
as the History of the Popes, of the Sects, and so on. AU
came into play, and each department was thorougMy
searched by the investigations. The History of Christian
Literature received especial attention from such scholars
as Fabricius (f 1736), J. C. Wolf (f 1739), Pfaff (f 1760),
and J. G. Walch (t 1775).
V. Dogmatics was deUvered from bondage to the
scholastic method of the Aristotelian pMlosophy. The
ancient conffict between Positive Theology and PMlo
sopMcal Theology was renewed. In the Roman Catholic
seminaries and umversities Positive Theology remained
a comprehensive system, including both the Bible and
the Fathers ; but in Protestant umversities Biblical
Theology set forth the Theology of the Bible, and
Symbolical Theology that of the Symbols of the Church.
Over against these in the CathoUc seminaries was the
Scholastic Theology in a more chaste form. In Pro
testant umversities the system of theology was con
structed on the basis of the various systems of pMlosophy
as these arose from time to time : at first the Pietistic
over against the Rational of the school of Wolff ; then
the Kantian, wMch appeared at the close of the period.
VI. Practical Theology. More attention was given to
the scholarly or scientific side of tMs department of
theology ; and it was elaborated in Theological Ency
clopaedia into a number of logically defined, separate
departments, wMch were studied by scholars in purely
> Schaff, Theological Prqpcedeutics, p, 300,

CH, m,] SEVENTEiENTH-EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES 183
scholarly interests ; as, for instance, Catechetics, Liturgies,
Church Law, and the History of Preaching. The older
system of disputation and declamation gradually dis
appeared from the umversities. In place of these there
was established at Gottingen for the first time a Pre-
digerseminar, for practical exercise in preacMng and
teaching.^ 1 The theological Seminar of the university for the purpose of training
in theological investigation belongs to a later time, and began in the
schools of philology and philosophy (iride p, 187),

184 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. n.

CHAPTER IV
THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY IN THE NINETEENTH
CENTURY
The eighteenth century closed vrith the storms of the
French Revolution and the wars of Napoleon, which
continued into the second decade of the mneteenth
century. With these were also associated the Ameri
can Revolution and the estabUshment of the Umted
States of America, The wars of Napoleon wrought
havoc all over Europe, and resulted in the destruction
of a large number of umversities and the establishment
of new ones. The old umversities were regarded as
scholastic, pedantic, and reactionary by the statesmen
of Europe.
Five Protestant umversities either died or were closed
up : those of Erfurt, Helmstddt, Rinteln, Duisburg, and
Altdorf. Two others, those of Wittenberg and Frankfort-
on-the-Oder, were combined with other universities ;
Wittenberg with Halle (1815), and Frankfort with
Breslau (1811).
Ten Catholic institutions perished ; and one, that of
Ingolstadt, was eventually absorbed by the new umver
sity at Munich. Those that perished were : Cologne,
Mayence, Treves, Paderborn, Fulda, Bamberg, DiUingen,
Linz, Salzburg, and Olmiltz ; among them some of the
most famous schools of olden times.
Several new umversities were established : those of

CH. IV.] IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 185
Berlin (1810), Breslau (1811), and Bonn (1818), by
Prussia ; and that of Munich (1826), by Bavaria.
1. The new universities took the lead in the educational
movements of the nineteenth century. But they received
their impulse, not only from the new spirit of the revolu
tionary epoch, but also from the scholars of the older uni
versities, especially those of HaUe, Gottingen, and Konigs
berg. At Halle the new theological leaming was cMefly
practical Biblical scholarsMp ; at Gottingen it bore fruit
in the fields of Church History and BibUcal Criticism.
Konigsberg produced the first in a series of great pMlo
sophers— Zanf, followed hjFichte i't 18U), Hegel (tl831),
Schelling (f 1854), and their associates and successors — •
who undermined and well-mgh destroyed the ancient
pMlosopMcal forms in wMch Christian doctrine had
been framed,^
Imman-ud Kant (1724-1804) was trained at Konigsberg, and
taught philosophy and other subjects there for over forty years
(1755-1796), Among his great works may be mentioned his
Kritik der reinen Vemunfi (1781, 1787), Kritik der praktischen
Yenmnft (1788), Die Religion innerhalb der Grenzen der blossen
Yemunft (1793), and Die Metaphysik der Sitten (1797), Kant
insisted upon a reUgion in accordance with the practical reason —
a reUgion of morality, and upon an ethical interpretation of
Scripture and history. His views produced a profound impres
sion at the close of the eighteenth and the beginning of the
nineteenth century ; and several prominent theologians adopted
his principles, among them: Tieftrunk^ of HaUe (1791-1795);
Ammon^ of Gottingen and Erlangen (1797) ; Staudlin,^ also of
Gottingen (1800) ; and J. W. Schmid^ of Jena (1797). But, as
Gieseler states, ' the philosophy of Kant did not permanently
maintain this influence in theology.' ' It was not his phUo-
1 Vide Briggs, Theological Symbolics, p. 245,
2 Vide Tieftrunk, Censur des christlichen protestantischen Lehrbrgriffs.
8 Vide Aiumon, Eniiourf einer wissenschaftlich-practischen Theologie.
* Vide Staudlin, Dogmatik und Dogmengeschichte,
' Vide J. W. Schmid, Ueber christliche Rdigion.
8 Gieseler, v. p. 323.

186 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt, n.
sophio principles that prevaUed; but his critical method of
investigation, which became characteristic of the age.
2. The University of Berlin became the great theological
centre of Germany ; and a series of great teachers of
Theology and Philosophy, as wdl as of all other branches
of learning, has continued there all through thc century and
until the present time.
Schleiermacher was raised up to be the father of the
modem German evangelical theology. He began to
buUd the structure of modem theology in the true
mystic spirit on the reUgious feeUng, apprehending Jesus
Clirist as Saviour. A series of intellectual giants carried
on his work, such as Neander, Tholuck, Rothe, Muller,
and /. A. Dorner. These led (Jerman Theology back
to the position of the Protestant reformers.^
Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768-1834), the great reformer of
theology at the beginning of the nineteenth century, studied at
HaUe, and in 1793 began to teach and to preach at Berlin. After
more than a decade he went to teach in the University of HaUe,
and in 1806 was made fuU professor there. It was not long,
however, before he returned to BerUn, where he became one of
the first professors in the new university (1810), and dean of
the theological faculty. Schleiermacher combined the critical
method with evangeUcal piety. He reorganised theological
study, the discipUne of Encyclopcedia, the system of theology,
and enriched aU branches of theological leaming. His many
influential writings include : Beden iiber die Religion, Kurze
Darstellung des theologischen St-udiums, and Christlicher Ola-iibe
nach den Orundsdtzen der evangelisehen Kirche.
3. Berlin was sustained by the newer universities of
Bonn and Breslau, and also by those ofthe previous century,
Halle and Gottingen ; and gradually all of the universities
adopted the newer methods of theological study.
These methods were : (1) Theological investigation :
research over the whole field of theology. This was
promoted, not only by the stimulation, through lectures,
1 Vide Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, p. IBS.

CH. IV.] IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 187
of professors who themselves were engaged in research,
but also by the establishment of Seminars for the special
training of the more advanced students.
The earUest Seminar was one in PhUology, estabUshed at
Halle, by F, A. WoU, in 1787. Such a Seminar was opened at
BerUn in 1812 ; one for Natural Science was founded at Bonn
in 1825 ; and an historical Seminar at Konigsberg in 1832, In
the theological Seminar conducted by I, A. Domer at Berlin,
that great scholar is said to have ' developed his highest quaUties
as a teacher of youth,' ^
(2) A comprehensive training, by a large number of
professors (ordinary and extraordinary professors, and
Ucentiates), covering the whole field of theology ; and
in several Mnds of courses (ordinary, private, and most
private). The number of fuU professors in the theological faculty of the
German university at the present time is usuaUy five ; but some
umversities have a larger faculty, and those of BerUn and Bonn
number ten. The number of Ausserordentliche Professoren and
of Privaidozenten varies. The department of theology is usuaUy
divided into 5 sections, embracing the Old and New Testaments,
Church History, Systematic and Practical Theology. The course
may be extended from three to flve or more years, and divided
between several universities. Training for the practical work of
the ministry must be sought at a Predigerseminar, or in serrice as
pastor's assistant.^
4. The revival of the study of Theology was not confined
to Germany, but extended into other countries. It was
generally characterised by the spirit of free theological
investigation, and led to the organisation of a large number
of new theological disciplines, such as Biblical Theology,
Symbolics, Irenics, and Theological Encyclopaedia. Among
Roman Catholics it became a revival of Positive Theology
and of Patristic.
1 Simon, ' Isaac August Dorner,' in Presbyterian Review, October 1887,
vol. viii. p. 687,
2 For further details -vide W. A. Brown, Theological Education, in
Monroe's Cydopedia of Ed-ucation, v, pp. 689 seq.
VOL, 11, N

188 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. n.
Great Britain and America, yes, France, Holland,
Switzerland and the Scandinavian countries, were de
pendent upon German Theology aU through the nine
teenth century. The reason for tMs dependence was
that German scholars ranged over the entire field of
theology with freedom of scholarsMp both to investi
gate and to vmte and teach. But British and American
Theology had its ovm peculiar principles and methods,
and its own work to perform. In the latter part of the
century the tide of thought, which has ebbed and fiowed
between Great Britain and the Continent several times
since the Reformation, began to tum, and to set strongly
in our direction,^
It is impossible to cover the entire field of modem
theological study in a few pages. Only a few of the
most important acMevements of the mneteenth century
can be referred to here.
5. Theological Encyclopaedia, first established as a
theological discipline by Mursinna of Halle,^ was reorgan
ised by Schleiermacher, and further developed by other
scholars. Schleiermacher, in his Kurze Darstellung des theolo
gischen Studiums (181 1, 1830), reorgamsed the discipline
of Theological Encyclopaedia, and gave to it a more
thorough exposition.
He was followed by a large number of scholars, such as :
Rosenkranz (1831); Hagenbach (1833); Harless (1837); Pelt
(1843); Lange (1877); Hofmann (1879) and Rothe (1880)
in posthumous works; Rdbiger (1880); Heinrici (1893),'
Among Roman CathoUc scholars may be mentioned Klee (1832) ;
Staudenmaier (1834, 1840) ; Wirtmiiller (1874) ; and Kihn
(1892), The chief German works now in use are those of
1 Vide Briggs, St-udy of Holy Scripture, p. 158,
2 Vide p. 180.
' August Darner's Grundriss der E-myklopddie der Theologie appeared
in 1901,

CH, IV,] IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 189
Hagenbach and Kihn.''- Less attention has been given to the
subject in other countries, I may refer, however, to the works
of Kienlen (1842), and Martin (1883), for France; those of
Clarisse (1832), Hof stede de Groot and Pareau (1851), and Kuyper
(1894 ; EngUsh, 1898), for HoUand ; those of Hannah- (1875),
Drummond (1884), and Cave (1886, 1896), for Great Britain;
those of M'Cliniock (1873), Crooks and Hurst (on the basis of
Hagenbach, 1884, 1894), and Schaff (1892-1893), for the United
States," 6. There was a great revival of Biblical study in the
latter part of the nineteenth century, and Biblical scholar
ship assumed the importance that it had in the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries.
In the latter part of the eighteenth century and the
first half of the nineteenth century Biblical studies were
neglected. But in the second half of the latter century
there was a great change, and Biblical studies came to
the front.' Important work was done in many depart
ments :
(1) The BibUcal Languages.* The ffeftj-eio language was studied
especiaUy by Gesenius of HaUe and Rodiger of Berlin, Their
work was reproduced by Edward Robinson in the United States
and by Da-vidson in Great Britain, and was carried on in the
New Hebrew Lexicon (1906) by Francis Brcrwn, S. R. Driver, and
C. A. Briggs. The study of Hebrew grammar was greatly
advanced in Germany by Gesenius, Hupfeld and Kautzsch of
HaUe, Bottcher of Dresden, Ewald of Gottingen, Stade of Giessen,
and Konig of Bonn ; in Great Britain, chiefly by Da-vidson and
Driver ; in the United States by Nordheimer, Oreen, and Harper.
The Greek language was studied especiaUy by Winer and
Buttmann for grammar ; and for lexicography by Grimm, whose

• Hagenbach, Encyklopadie und Methodologie der theologischen Wis-
senschaften, 1833, 1884H>.", ed. Kautzsch; 188912, ed. Eeischle; Kihn,
Encyklopadie und Methodologie der Theologie, 1892.
2 In the latter part of the century encyclopaedic works on theology
began to be issued in serial form. Of these the Inter-national Theological
L-Urrary (1891- — ), founded and edited by Dr. Briggs, is an example.
3 Vide Briggs, 'Study of the English Bible,' in Presbyterian Meview, x.
pp. 295 seq.
* Vide Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, pp. 42 leq.

190 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. n.
work was reproduced in the United States by Edward Robinson
of New York, and Thayer of Cambridge, Massachusetts.
(2) The Textual Criticism^ of the Old Testament has been
carried on chiefly in recent times in Germany, through the texts
of Boer and Delitzsch, and, stiU more recently, of Kittel, and by
the work of Hermann Strack of BerUn. In England, Davidson
did important work as a forerunner. But Ginsburg's Massora
is the greatest achievement since the Reformation in that Une,
and his Hebrew Bible has great merit. The Polychrome Bible,
edited by Haupt of Baltimore, and pubUshed in parts, began to
appear in 1894, many scholars on both sides of the Atlantic
taking part in the work. The text of particular books was
studied by WeUhausen, Baethgen, CorniU, S. R. Driver, Kloster-
mann, Beer, and others. In New Testament Criticism there
was a succession of great critics ; in Germany, Scholz (1830-1836),
Lachmann (1831-1850), Tischendorf, Gregory, Gebhardt, Weiss,
and Blass ; in England, Tregelles (1857-1872), Scrivener, West
cott, Hort, Rendd Harris, and others ; in the United States,
Ezra Abbot of Harvard.*
(3) The Biblical Versions have been studied especiaUy in
Grermany by Lagarde (Botticher) of Gfottingen, and Nestle of
Maulbronn ; in Italy by Ceriani of Milan ; in England by Swete
of Cambridge, Wordsivorth, Brooke, M'Lean, and others.
(4) The Higher Criticism,^ estabUshed by Eichhorn of Gottingen
in 1780, has had a long development and a terrific struggle. In
the several stages of progress three hypotheses were unfolded :
/. The Documentary Hypothesis of Eichhorn (over against the
Fragmentary Hypothesis of Geddes, 1792, and Vater, 1805),
adopted among others by Edward Robinson ; //. The Genetic
Hypothesis of De Wette, foUowed by Gesenius, Bleek, Ewald,
Knobel, Hupfeld, and others ; battled with by Hengstenberg,
Havernick and Ked in Germany ; adopted by Samuel Da-vidson,
Dean Stanley, and, in a measure, by Perowne. III. The Develop
ment Hypothesis of Reuss (1833), Vatke, Graf, WeUhausen, Colenso,
Kalisch, and most modern scholars.
The Higher Ciriticism of the New Testament is involved in that
of the Old, but the Old Testament has been the battleground.
1 Briggs, St-udy of Holy Scripture, pp. 226 seq.
2 [The work of Dr. Briggs in this department includes the planning
of the International Critical Cormnentary (1895 — ), its editorship in
conjunction with S, R. Driver and A, Plummer, and his own contributiou
to the series.]
> Vide Briggs, Study of Holy Scripture, pp. 282 seq. ; also Higher
Criticism of the Hexateuch, 1893, 1897.

CH. IV.] IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 191
The conflict resulted in the Bobertson Smith case in Great Britain,
the Briggs case in the United States, the Loisy case in France
and Italy."-
(5) Historical Criticism.^ In this department four hjrpotheses
have been advanced : I. The Mythical Hypothesis of 6. L. Baur
(1820) for the Old Testament, and of Stra-uss (1835) for the New;
overcome by Ullmann, Neander, and others. //. The Legendary
Hypothesis, set forth in Renan's Life of Jesus (1863), rejected by
Keim, Weiss, Beyschlag, Wendt and others. ///. The Develop
ment Hypothesis, appUed by F. C. Baur to the New Testament, by
Vatke to the Old Testament, under the influence of the Hegelian
philosophy ; overcome by Neander, Domer, Lechler, Weiss
and others. IV. The Hypothesis of the School of Ritschl, accord
ing to which CathoUc Christianity is rather Greek and Roman
than Jewish ; and, in the Old Testament, the Persian and Baby
lonian religions dominate the IsraeUtish. ,
(6) Contemporaneous History. The earUest writer in this
department is Schneckenburger of Bern, whose Neutestamentliche
Zeitgeschichie appeared in 1862. He was foUowed by Hausrath
(1868-1874), Schiirer, Holtzmann, Porter, and others, for the New
Testament. This department was not organised for the Old
Testament, although Bertheau paved the way (1842). But a
large amount of preparatory work was done, especiaUy in the
study of the archseology and the history of the other Oriental
nations, by Schroder, George Smith, Lenormant, Robertson Smith,
Francis Brovm, Ebers, Errnan, Baudissin, Baethgen, Tiele,
M'Curdy, and others.
(7) To Biblical Archceology contributions of value were made
by Ewald (1844), SaalschUtz (1855-1856), Keil, Benzinger, Nowack,
and other scholars.
(8) Biblical Geography was greatly advanced in the nineteenth
century. Reland had summed up aU previous knowledge of
Palestine, and laid the foundations of the discipUne in 1714 ;
but the father of modem BibUcal Geography is Edward Robinson,
who made a personal investigation of the greater part of the
Holy Land in two expeditions (1837, 1862), and pubUshed the
results in three monumental volumes (1838-1860), An impor
tant systematic work was written by Carl Ritter (1848-1855).
The work of Robinson was foUowed up by Tobler, De Sauley,
1 [For these and other cases vide Briggs, Study of Holy Script-ure, pp
28() seq. ; for the Briggs case, -aide The Case against Professor Briggs'
1892, 1893 ; The Defence ofProfessor Briggs, 1893.]
2 Vide Briggs, Stud-y of Holy Scripture, pp. 491 sej, ; also Biblical
History, 1890 ; New Light on the Life of Jesus, 1904,

192 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. n.
Sepp, Guerin, Stanley, Tristram, MerriU, Wetzstein, Palmer,
Arnaud, Thomson, and Trunibull. A new impulse was given to
the study of BibUcal Geography by the Palestine Exploration
Societies, estabUshed in England, the United States, and Ger
many, by their journals, maps, and other pubUcations. Valuable
contributions were made towards the close of the century by
Socin, George Adam Smith, Bamsay, and Gautier.
(9) Biblical Chronology was studied by Wieseler (1843), Caspari
(1869), Niebuhr (1896), and others,
(10) Biblical Theology,^ flrst orgamsed as a discipline by
Gabler (1787), had a rich development in Germany, but only a
sUght one outside of Germany. Schmid first gave to this depart
ment its proper place in Theological Encyclopssdia. [The first
to write upon this subject in the United States, so far as known,
was the author,* who pubUshed an Inaugural Address upon
Biblical Theology in 1870.^ At that time] the chief works were
posthumous : those of Schmid (for the New Testament), and of
Oehler (for the 01dTestament),both of the University of Tiibingen.
The most important works of the century pubUshed since that
time are those of Ewald (1871-1876), Kuenen, Riehm and Dill
mann (both posthumous), Smend, Wendt, and Holtzmann, in
Germany ; Toy and Stevens, in America ; Duff and Da-vidson,
in Great Britain.
7. The nineteenth century was characterised by historical
investigation over a very eoctensive field.
The great Mstorians of the mneteenth century were
cMefly Germans :
(1) Neander of BerUn (f 1860) made an epoch in Church History.
His Oeneral History of the Christian Religion and Church * extends
to the CouncU of Basel (1430). It is comprehensive in method,
not only dividing by periods, but in each period dividing again
by departments. This method, whUe advantageous for
1 Vide Briggs, St-udy of Holy Scripture, pp. 669 seq.
2 [Dr. Briggs was also the first in the United States to attempt a
complete course of lectures upon Biblical Theology, and held the first
professorship on the subject from 1890-1904, publishing works on the
theology of both Testaraents : Messianic Prophecii (1886, 1902'), Messiah
ofthe Gospels (1894), Messiah of the Apostles (1895), The Incarnation of
the Lord (1902), The Ethical Teaching of Jesus (1904),]
3 Briggs, 'Biblical Theology,' in A-merican Presbyterian Re-oiew, 1870,
pp. 106 seq., 293 seq. ; Presbyterian Review, 1882, vol. iii. pp. 503 seq.
* Neander, Allgemeine Geschichte der christlichen Religion und Kirche,
1825-1852, 1863-1865"; English, 1847-1862, 1882.

CH, IV,] IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 193
thoroughness of treatment, involves considerable repetition ;
and the unity of the movement of history is lost in details,
(2) Gieseler of Bonn (t 1854), afterwards of Gottingen, used
the same method as that of Neander, His Church History ^
has a brief comprehensive text, and is rich in footnotes, giring
the original sources,
(3) F. C. Baur of Tubingen (tl860) wrote a Church History,*
both critical and phUosophical, under the influence of the
HegeUan phUosophy, and with a profound insight into historical
development. These are the three great Church historians of
the middle of tiie last century.
There were many minor historians at this period, such as the
Protestants, Niedner, Hagenbach and Hase in Germany, Robert
son in England, Chastel in Geneva ; and the Roman CathoUcs,
Moehler and Dollinger, both of whom were the peers of the
Protestant writers of the time.
The chief historians in the latter part of the century were :
(4) Philip Schaff (f 1893), of the school of Neander, who thus
characterised his own work : ' It is written from the Anglo-
German and Anglo-American standpoint, and brings the past in
Uving contact with the present.' ' Schafi's work is irenic, com
prehensive, discursive, boiUng over with suggestions about aU
sorts of things loosely connected with his theme. This is its
chief fault.
(6) Adolf Harnack of BerUn has not written a general Oiurch
History, but deals only with special themes ; and in treating
of these he writes under the domination of the philosophy of
Ritschl His principal work is his History of Christian Doctrine,*
His greatest serrice, however, has been in the field of early
Christian Literature, and his most valuable contribution to
Theology is his history of that Literature.
(6) Karl Miiller of Breslau and Tiibingen produced in his
Church History (1892-1902) a judicious work,
(7) Loofs of HaUe pubUshed invaluable Grundlinien der
Kirchengeschichte (1901),
(8) Fisher of Yale wrote a History of the Christian Church in
' Gieseler, Lehrbuch der Kirchengeschichte, 1824-1857 ; the last part
issued posthumously by Redepenning in 2 vols., 1865-1857; English
translations by Davidson and Hull, revised by H. B. Smith and Stearns,
5 vols., 1857-1880,
2 Baur's History was published in 5 volumes under different titles
(several posthumously); 1853-1863.
8 Schaff, Theological Propcedeutics, p. 303,
« Vide p, 196.

194 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. n.
1888 ; and (9) Hurst published one in two volumes, 1897-1900.
Both produced also several lesser historical works.
(10) Duchesne of Rome is the great Roman CathoUc historian.
His monumental work is now in progress (1905- ; EngUsh,
1909- ). Three volumes have appeared, reaching to the close of
the fifth century. Duchesne has written many monographs,
the chief of which is his Origins of Christian 'Worship (1889),
which has appeared in several editions and has been translated
(English, 1902). Duchesne has many disciples, who, Uke Batiffol
and Tnrmd, have written valuable monographs.
Church History has been divided into a large number
of departments and sub-departments. One may say that
aU tMngs have been put into the frame of Church History.
It is impossible here to do more than mention some of
the departments in wMch important work has been done.
I. The Study of ihe Sources : (1) Diplomatics. The work of
Mabillon (1681) was carried on by Jaffe (1851), Wattenbach,
Ddisle, and others. (2) Christian Archceology, Inscriptions,
Monuments, especiaUy the Catacombs, and Christian Art. The
work of De Rossi on Inscriptions (1861-1888), the Catacombs
(1864-1877), etc., was continued by Garrucci, Marucchi, Wilpert,
and others. Piper published valuable works on Monumental
Theology (1867) and the Mythology of Christian Art (1847-1851).
Many books were printed on Christian Art, including the learned
works of LUbke, Schultze, Kraus, and others, and the popular
works of Mrs, Jameson. Dictionaries of Christian Antiquity
and Archseology were issued by Martigny (1865), Kraus (1880-
1886), Smith and Cheetham ; Manuals on Archseology by Augusti
(1836-1837), Bennett (1888), and others ; and sources were col
lected by Augusti (1817-1831), Binterim (1825-1837), and a
multitude of other scholars.
(3) Geography was studied by Wiltsch (1846), Spru-ner, Grunde-
mann, Werner, and others.
(4) Chronology by Grotefend (1819-1844), Piper (1841), Brink-
meier, Brockmann, Latrie, and others. Chronological Tables
were pubUshed by H. B. Smith (1860), Kra-us and Weingarten.
(5) Statistics were studied by Staudlin (1804), Aug-usti (1837-
1838), Wiltsch, and others,
(6) Christian Literature attracted great attention ; and im
portant work was done (a) for the Patristic Period by Harnack,
Von Gebhardt, Zahn, Lipsi-us, Lightfoot^ Miiller, Kihn, Barden-

CH. IV.] IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 195
hewer, Kri'tger, Robinson, McOiffert, and many other scholars ;
(6) for the Middle Ages by Gass, Krumbacher, Ebert, Denifle,
Ehrle, Poithast, and others ; (c) for the Modem Age by Ersch
(1822), Danz (1843), Winer, Darling, Hurst, Gla, Hurler, and
others,! CoUections of the works of the Fathers, Reformers,
and other famous Christian writers appeared in great numbers,
(7) The History of Church Councils was studied by Hefele,
Hergenrother, Richter, Bright, Haddan, Stubbs, and many others,
Richter, Froude, and others also wrote on special Councils.
(8) 'The Saints and their Uves were studied by the BoUandists
in their great Acta Sanctorum and in the Analecta Bollandiana ;
and also by Le Blant, Pitra, Egli, Baring-Gould, O'Hanlon, New
man, and many more. Piper published an Evangelical Calendar
(1860-1871), which was translated in part by H. M. M'Cracken
as Lives of the Leaders of Our Church Universal (1879). Lives
of special Saints were also written, Uke that of St. Francis by
Paul Sabatier, and that of St. Catherine of Genoa by Baron Von
Hugel. (9) Christian Biography received many valuable contributions,
Nitzsch and Hagenbach edited the Uves of the Fathers of the
Lutheran and Reformed Churches. Brook and others followed
the Ulustrious example of Neal in the preceding century, and
studied the Uves of the Puritans, Smith and Wace pubUshed a
valuable Dictionary of Christian Biography (1877-1887). Many
series of biographies appeared, and numerous important mono
graphs. II. Special Sections of Church History were studied,
such as
{I) The History of Institutions, (a,) Worship. This department
attracted such scholars as Wordsworth, Cabrol, and Duchesne. Col
lections of Liturgies were made by Neale, Hammond, Daniel,
Littledale, Swainson, and others, (b) Govemm,ent. On this sub
ject important works were pubUshed by Richter, Sohm, Von
Schulte, Hergenrother, and others, (c) Canon Law was studied
by Waliher, Von Schulte, Dodd, Fulton, and others. New
editions of the Corpus juris canonici were issued by Richter (1834-
1839) and by Friedberg (1880-1882). (d) The Papacy and its
history were studied by Von Ranke (1834-1839), Nielson, Pastor,
Creighton, and others ; Particular Popes by Law, Roscoe, and
others. Mirbt pubUshed the Sources, and Duchesne prepared an
1 Vide also the works on Theological Encyclopasdia already referred
to (pp. 188 f.),

196 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. n.
edition of the Liber Pontiflcalis. (e) The Monastic Orders received
special attention from Montalembert (1860-1867), Heimb-ucher,
and others.
(2) The History of Doctrines a-nd Dogmas. Neander and Baur
wrote histories of doctrine, and also monographs on the history
of special doctrines. Baur's works on Gnosticism and on the
Trinity are especiaUy noteworthy ; so also are Julius Mailer's
Doctrine of Sin, and above aU, Domer' s History of the Doctrine
of the Person of Christ, the greatest of all monographs of the
kind. Dorner also wrote a History of Protestant Theology (1867).
Harnack's History of Doctrine appeared in major (1886-1890) and
minor (1889) editions ; so also that of Seeberg (1895-1898, and
1901), Loofs pubUshed Leitfaden zum Studium der Dogmen
geschichte (1889, 1906) ; and G. P. Fisher, a History of Christian
Doctrine (1896), The chief Roman CathoUc writer on the
subject is Schwane, whose work was issued in four volumes
(1862-1890), (3) The History of Christian Life a-nd Morals was studied
by Uhlhorn, Brace, and others, and valuable monographs were
pubUshed. III. Pa-rts of Church History, or the History of Par
ticular Churches, or of Special Periods. A large number
of Mstorians devoted their attention to some special
part of Church History. Thus Milman vyrote the
History of Latin Christiamty ; Neale and Stanley, the
History of Eastem Christiamty ; Friedrich, Hauck, and
others, the Church History of Germany ; Reuterdahl, that
of Sweden ; Bright, Stubbs, Hore, Plummer, and others,
that of England ; Hetherington, Cunningham, Stephen,
and others, that of Scotland ; Lanigan and Killen, that
of Ireland, etc, ; Hanbury, Dexter, and others studied
the History of CongregationaUsm ; Hetherington and
Mitchell, that of the Westminster Assembly,* Each
denomination and every important epoch had its own
Mstorians, Several serials were issued, such as the
American Church History Series, the Epochs of Church
1 [To the study of church history Dr. Briggs contributed a volume on
American Presbyterianism, 1885, and numerous articles in the Encyclo
pcedia Britannica, the Presbyterian Revie-w, Magazine of Ame-rican
History, and other periodicals. ]

CH, IV.] IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 197
History, the National Churches, etc. The History of the
Early Church received especial attention from Neander,
Dollinger, Farrar, Pressensi, Lechler, Wordsworth, Blunt,
Bright, Fisher, McOiffert, Duchesne, and many others ;
the Mediseval Period from Hardwick, Moeller, Trench,
Stubbs, Schmidt, and others ; the Reformation from
Merle D'Aubigni, Hagenbach, Hardwick, Hdusser, Fisher,
and others. These are but examples of the numerous
specialists at work in the field of Church History during
the century.
8. There arose in the course of the century a series of
great systematic theologians, who aimed at a complete
system of Theology, built upon Philosophy and Science,
Bible and History, Church and Creed.^
The older divisions of Doctrinal Theology were :
Positive Theology and Scholastic Theology, and Faith
and Morals. These divisions are still retained in the
Roman Catholic Church, In the Protestant Churches,
however, Positive Theology has been resolved into
Biblical Theology and Symbolical Theology. These are
variously classified. If the main purpose is dogma, they
may be classified as Biblical Dogmatics and Symbolical
Dogmatics ; if Mstory, as the History of Doctrine in the
Bible and the History of Symbols. But really both
disciplines have become so comprehensive that we
must classify Biblical Theology with the Biblical Depart
ment, and Symbolics under another head as Comparative
Theology, to be considered later on. The usual Protestant
divisions of Systematic Theology are Apologetics, Dogma
tics, and Ethics. The division wMch I have used is
rather Religion, Faith, and Morals.
1, Under the head of Religion, the umon and com
mumon of man with God, unfolds the Philosophy of
Religion, and the statement and defence of the Christian
I Vide Briggs, Church Unity, pp. 331 seq.

198 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. n.
Religion, or Apologetic proper. The recent study of the
Ethmc ReUgions has greatly extended tMs field, so that
it now includes the study of the origin and Mstory of
every particular reUgion and a Comparative Study of
Rdigion. These departments of Theology are in their
infancy, and must be considered under another head.
The older term of Natural Theology has gone out of use,
and the discipUne is now included under the larger term
of Philosophy of Religion.
2, The Faith of the Church as defined in the Bible is
Biblical Dogmatics ; as defined in the Cireeds is Symbolical
Dogmatics ; as defined by the consent of the Fathers it
is Patristic Dogmatics ; as defined by the Scholastics
it is Scholastic Dogmatics. The division of the Church
into denominations gave rise to a large number of
denominational dogmatics ; those of the Greek (Church,
the Roman CathoUc, the Lutheran, Reformed, Anglican,
Methodist, Presbyterian, etc. But most modem divines
construct their dogmatics on certain pMlosopMcal
principles ; and so we have various speculative systems,
representing difEerent schools of pMlosophy and theology.
The chief Roman CathoUc systems of the century were those
of Perrone, a Jesuit (in nine volumes, 1835-1843) ; Scheeben
(1892) ; Bitot, and Janssen, a Scholastic. The chief Lutheran
systems were those of Hase,^ Schmid, Twesten, Martensen,
Philippi, Thomasius, Luthardt, Kahnis. The chief writers
among the HegeUans were Marheinecke, Strauss, Biedermann,
Pfleiderer; among the Mediators, Muller, Tholuck, Ullmann,
Rothe, I. A. Domer ; among the RitschUans, Ritschl (1870-1874),
Kaftan, and Herrmann. The RitschUans exclude Mystic and
Metaphysic, and make their Werturtheilen the subjective test of
all theology. The Neo-Kantians recognise only the earlier
Luther, not the later one ; and only that in the New Testament
which is commended as of real value. The chief Reformed
systems of the Continent were those of Schweizer (1844-1856),
Heppe, and Ebrard. The AngUcan Church has had practically
none since Ussher, except that of Beveridge (1710-1711, 1828).
» Hase, Hutleras redivivus, 1829, 188312.

CH. IV.] IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 199
The Scottish Presbyterians have had those of HiU,Dick,Chalmers,
and Cunningham ; the American Presbyterians those of Charles
and A. A. Hodge, Shedd, and H. B. Smith. Among the German
Reformed theologians may be mentioned Gerhart ; among the
Wesleyans, Watson, Pope, Raymond, Miley ; among the Ameri
can EpiscopaUans, Buel ; among the Baptists, Strong and Clarke.
3, Christian Ethics, the third division of Dogmatics,
was kept as a separate field in the Roman Catholic Church
from the Middle Ages onward, but has only been culti
vated by Protestants since the last century. It used to
be taught in connection with PMlosopMcal EtMcs under
the head of Moral Philosophy.
Among the chief writers of the century in this department
may be mentioned the Protestants, Neander, Rothe, Oass, Wuttke,
I. A. Domer, Martensen, and Newman Smythe ; and the Roman
CathoUcs, Sailer, Sca-vini, Hirscher, Klee, Lehmkuhl, and Schwane.
9. Comparative Theology has risen above all the differ
ences of religious denominations into that higher unity in
which they all agree, and endeavours to consider their
differences in religion, doctrine, and institution from an
irenic point of -view.^
1. The Science of Rdigion, as we have seen,* has
branched out into a large number of difEerent depart
ments, giving the Mstory of every particular religion,
and a comparative study of them all, TMs field of
study supplies the first part of Comparative Theology,
or Comparative Religion. The older study of the Ethmc
Religions was polemic ; the present is Mstoric and
pragmatic. There is a tendency towards iremc, as
Ulustrated in the work of Charles Cuthbert Hall, George
W. Knox, and others. Each religion has to be studied
by itself , and then the comparison has to be made between
them. If Christiamty is the universal rehgion, then the
1 Vide Briggs, ' Ideal of the Study of Theology ¦ ; Address at Dedication
of the New Buildings of the Union Theological Seminary, New York,
1910, pp. 133 seq.
2 Vide p. 198.

200 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. n.
theologian must recogmse, with (Element of Alexandria,
that the PMlosophy of the Greeks was, in its way, as
truly a preparation for C!hristiamty as the Law of the
Hebrews ; and that the practice of ancient Israel in
taMng up into the Old Covenant reUgion elements of
good, especiaUy from the Babyloman and Persian
religions, and the practice of the ancient C!hurch in
appropriating from the Greek, Roman, and Oriental
religions, is the true and wise course for modem Chris
tiamty to adopt, by enlarging tMs theory and practice,
so as to comprehend all of the religions of the world.
2. The discipline of Symbolics,'^ fijst established by
Planck of Gottingen (1796), has had a long development.
On the basis of the work of Planck, Marheinecke
pubUshed the first Christliche Symbolik (1810), and
Winer Ms useful comparative study (1824). MoMer
then came into the field with Ms Symbolik (1832, 18891°),
wMch fixed the terminology of the discipline. His work
was foUowed by those of F. C. Baur (1834), Nitzsch
(1835), Hase (1862, 1894*), Neander (1863), and others.
Of the writers whose works appeared towards the close
of the century, H. Schmidt (1890), E. F. K. Miiller
(1896), and Kattenbusch (1892) may be mentioned.
Many works were written on special subjects, like those
of Caspari and Kattenbusch on the Apostles' Creed,
and of Plitt (1867-1873) on the Augustana.
CoUections of S3rmbols were made by Schaff ioi aU the Churchea
(1877, 1890=); by memeyer (1840) for the Reformed Church; by
Hase (1827, 18453) and J. T. Miiller (1847-1848, 1890') for the
Lutheran ; by Streitwolf and Klener (1836-1838), and Denzi-nger
(1854, 1911") for the Roman CathoUc ; by Kimmd and Weissen-
bom (1843-1850) for the Greek Church.
Polemics, wMch had been an important theological
discipline in the preceding century, became discredited,
1 [The latest published works of Dr. Briggs are his contributions to
this department. The Fundamental Christian Eaith, 1913, and Theological
Symbolics, 1914.]

CH. IV.] IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 201
and in modem theology has been weU-nigh abandoned.
Irenics is the newest section of Symbolics, yet it has
already an extensive Uterature. It has been most
frmtful on the Continent of Europe, where it originated,^
Irenics is the resultant of aU the previous theological
disciplines, and puts the copestone upon them all. It
studies the concord of CJhristendom, and on that basis
shows the tme rniity of the Church of Christ ; and it
studies the discord, in order, if possible, to dissolve the
differences and reconcUe them in a Mgher umty, and in
all to promote peace and harmony between all religious
bodies,^ 10. The field of Practical Theology haa also greatly
expanded, and many valuable works were produced in
this department before the close of the century.
It is impossible here to do more than give the names
of some of the sub-departments, in wMch important work
was accomplished. (1) In the Department of Religion
may be mentioned Worship, especially Liturgies and
Hymnology, the Sacraments, Pastoral Care and Pastoral
Medicine. (2) The Department of Faith now includes,
with Homiletics and Catechetics, Sunday Schools, Social
Clubs, etc, ; (3) the Department of Morals, Church Govern
ment, Law and Discipline. In the field of Missions
(city, country, and foreign) a great advance has been
made. Among the comprehensive works on this branch of theology
may be mentioned those written by the Protestants : Nitzsch,
Harms, Van Oosterzee, Von Zezschmtz, Achelis, Krauss, and
Vaucher ; and by the Roman CathoUcs : Sailer,, Hinterberger,
and Graf.
1 Vide Briggs, Theological Symbolics, pp. 16 seq. ; 'Symbolics and
Irenics,' in Church Quarterly Review, 1912, vol. Ixxiv., No. 148, pp.
364 seq.
2 [Dr. Briggs worked on the problems of Irenics for nearly thirty years,
and published some of the results of his study in his volume on Church
Unity, 1909.]

202 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. n.
11. The modern universities, like those of the Middle
Ages, train theological scholars, but do not train ministers
for the Church of Christ. The theological seminaries
train ministers, bid make no adequate provision for the
higher studies of Theology.
1. The umversities of Germany have failed to provide
the training necessary to an evangelical mimstry.
The Predigerseminar supplies the need only in part ;
and the service of pastor's assistant (for two years or
more), wMle necessary and valuable, also fails to accom
plish the purpose, because in the umversity the bent of
the student's mind becomes so fixed upon speculative
and merely theoretic theology, that it is difficult for
Mm afterwards to become practical. It is weU known
that the worMng mimstry of Germany has long been
dissatisfied with the theological teacMng of the imiver
sities, and is constantly urging for reform. It is certain
that, if these Protestant clergy had their way, the
teacMng in the umversities would be transformed, and
the HegeUans and the RitschUans aUke would be
banished. But the State stands in the way. The
German umversities of the mneteenth century and the
present one are in exactly the same position as the
umversities of the Middle Ages. Their methods are
excellent for a scientific study of theology, but ineffective
for the traimng of a Christian mimstry.
2. Germany was dependent upon Great Britain for
almost all the practical reforms and religious movements
that arose among her people during the past century.
And yet in the British imiversities also the traimng was
altogether inadequate, so far as theology was concemed.
These great institutions produced notable scholars ;
but they did not supply the training necessary for the
mimstry of the Church. However, comparatively few
of the students, even of those intending to enter the
Christian mimstry in the Anglican Church, attended the

CH, IV.] IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 203
university courses in theology. The Church of England
was obliged to organise Diocesan Seminaries in order
to provide the churches vrith mimsters.* The Non
conformists were excluded from the umversities until
recent years. They were obliged to train their mimsters
in their private colleges ; and yet they have succeeded,
notwithstandmg aU their disadvantages, in winning fully
one half of the EngUsh people to the various branches
of Nonconformity. In Scotland the umversities have
theological faculties, but with only four professors —
a number altogether inadequate to do the work of
modem theology. The Free Church with its three
coUeges, and the Umted Presbyterian with one (now
imited with the others in the reumon of those churches),
have had more professors, longer courses, and a more
thorough appropriation of modem methods and modem
departments of theology ; and they have educated a
ministry wMch, in spite of every disadvantage, has won
nearly half of the Scottish people to their side.
3. The French and Swiss Protestants followed the
methods of the British nonconforming bodies in their
theological seminaries. The umversities of Switzerland
followed the same course as those of other countries. In
France two seminaries were established for Protestants
by Napoleon (1802) : the one at Strasburg for Lutherans,
the other at Geneva for the Reformed. After the re
attachment of Geneva to Switzerland a new faoulty of
theology was established at Montauban (1808-1810) in
connection vrith the academy of Toulouse. The Protes
tant faculty of theology at Strasburg was transferred to
Paris in 1877, and became a mixed faculty, representing
both the Lutheran and the Reformed Churches.
Towards the close of the century (1896) this Seminary became
an organic part of the University of Paris. Two years later
' There are now twenty-nine theological colleges affiliated with tha
Church of England (W. A. Brown, Cyclopedia of Education, v. p. 692),
VOL, II. 0

204 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. u,
one of its professors described it as a ' mixed school . . . holding
a conciUatory attitude toward the parties contending in our
churches,' and as ' holding ground intermediate between the
conservatism of the Montauban Faculty and the rationaUstio
bent of the Geneva Faculty.' "•
In French Switzerland the Free Churches separated
from the State and estabUshed Free Seminaries in
Geneva, Lausanne, and Neuchadd, wMch have since
educated the EvangeUcal clergy for French Switzerland
and France.
Baird, writing in 1880, describes the Pree Church seminariea
as having a preparatory course or courses, covering from one
to three years, foUowed by a three years' course of theology
proper. Hebrew, as weU as Greek and Latin, was studied in the
preparatory course. In Geneva the number of hours per week
in the Free Church Seminary was thirty ; in the State institu
tion, twenty-one. In aU the Seminaries one-third of the time
(8-10 hours weekly) was devoted to BibUcal Exegesis, and
dirided about equally between the two Testaments.^
4. After the disasters of the French Revolution and
the wars of Napoleon, the Roman Church devoted itself
to the revival of theological education. For that
purpose it undertook the restoration of the diocesan
seminary and improvement in the traimng of the priest
hood. To tMs end the Jesuit Order was restored in
1814 ; their college in Rome revived, and put under
their control. TTie CoUege of the Propaganda was
re-established, as also the Roman Seminary and the
College of Noble Ecclesiastics. The Jesuit Order
reassumed its position at the head of theological educa
tion, sustained by the other orders, especially the
Sulpicians in France. The newer leaming was only
moderately employed in the seminaries. These reverted
1 Bonet-Maury, 'The Protestant Faoulty of Theology of the Paris
University,' in New 'World, 1898, vol. vii., No. 25, p. 128,
2 Vide Baird, 'Notes on Theological Education in the Heformed
Churches of France and French Switzerland," in Presbyterian Review,
1880, vol, i, pp, 85 seq, '

CH. IV.] IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 205
to a modified Scholasticism, buUding essentiaUy on
Thomas Aquinas. They have been successful in
reviving in the Roman CathoUc Church theological
learmng as well as a trained priesthood ; but their
general attitude has been reactionary as regards modem
methods. So far as the Catholic umversities are con
cemed, the Catholic Church has patromsed them in
Germany ^ and Austria, and has tried so far as possible
to influence and control professors and students ; but
only in small measure have they succeeded. The Old
Catholics of 1870 and the Modemists of to-day in
Germany have cMefiy gone forth from the umversities.
The Council of the Vatican (1870) urged the importance
of Mgher umversities ; not of the grade of the German
umversities, but of a Mgher order, to wMch the best
scholars of the seminaries might resort for the Mghest
possible theological education. Such institutions were
estabUshed at Rome, in Belgium, and in the capital of
the Umted States. The Catholic Church has long aimed
at one in Ireland ; and would undertake to establish
them in other countries, if it were practicable. TMs
Mghest theological education, for the traimng of special
ists in Canon Law, Scholastic Theology, and Liturgies,
and also to make great preachers and evangeUsts, is in
advance of all theological education in the Protestant
world. Protestants also should establish and build up
graduate schools for the study of the Mghest branches
of theology, both scientific and practical. Otherwise
the future wUl be disastrous to Protestantism. The
present pope (Pius x.) ^ has undertaken to carry out a
long and carefuUy prepared scheme for the reforma
tion of seminaries, especiaUy in Italy. The diocesan
1 Pour of the twenty-one universities of Germany have in their
Theological Faculties Roman Catholics only ; four have both Catholics
and Protestants ; thirteen are wholly Protestant (vide W. A, Brown, in
Monroe's Cyclopedia of Education, v, p, 589),
2 This was written in March 1913.

206 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. n.
seminary is an exceUent institution in a large diocese,
but a very inefficient institution in a small diocese. In
Italy the number of diocesan seminaries was consider
ably over two hundred. CbnsoUdation was necessary,
and is now in course of accompUshment. Furthermore,
there is a reform in theological study, in accordance with
the study in the best French, EngUsh, and American
seminaries. For entrance to the seminary, preparatory study in the lesser
seminaries, in the Gymnasium and Lyceum, is required (essen
tiaUy that of the grammar school and the academy) ; then comes
an introductory year in the seminary for the special study of
PhUosophy. The scheme assigns to the introductory year :
Biblical Greek, the Introduction io Church History, the True Reli
gion, Theodicy, Cosmology, the History of Philosophy, and Natural
Law ; to the four years of theology proper : Greek, Hebrew,
Biblical Introd-uction and Exegesis, Church History, Dogmatics,
Morals, Pastoral Theology, Liturgies, Canon Law, Patristic,
Archceology, Sacred Art, and Sacred Eloq-uence. The study
extends over five years of nine months each, or f orty-flve months,
with seventeen hours of lectures weekly for the first year, and
twenty hours weekly for the other four years ; that is, nearly
double the amount of time required in some of the leading
Protestant institutions. The apportionment of time is also
difierent, the hours being so distributed among the four great
departments, that where three are assigned to Church History,
four are devoted to Exegetical Theology, six to Doctrinal, and
seven to Practical Theology.^
5. The Greek Church in Russia provides for the traimng
of its priests diocesan seminaries, and for the traimng
of teachers and missionaries four theological schools,
located at St. Pdersburg, Moscow, Kief, and Kazan.
Outside of Russia the Greek clergy receive their train
ing under theological faculties in the umversities of
Athens, Bucharest, and Czemowitz, in the seminaries at
Constantinople, Jerusalem, Belgrade, Zara (Dalmatia),
1 Vide Riforma degli Studi nei Seminari in Italia. Lettera e
Programma della S. Congr. de' Vescovi eRegolari (Supplemento agli Ada
Pontificia, Ottobre 1907) ; Roma 1907.

CH. IV.] IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 207
Hermannstadt and Karlovntz, or in smaller seminaries of
a lower grade.^
There are signs of a revival of the study of theology
in the Greek Church, According to Adeney,
' There is a remarkable development of scholarship among the
higher ecclesiastics. Learning was never aUowed to die out in
the leading monastic centres ; but hitherto this has been patristic
leaming without the least recognition of critical scholarship.
Now the criticism of the West is breaking into the mind of the
East, Students from the Greek Church are now to be found in
German universities. The result is that the studies of BerUn,
and Heidelberg, and Strasburg are being transplanted to Con
stantinople and Athens. Already these studies have borne
fruit, and the Greek Church is coming forward with its contri
butions to Historical Theology. [An]other movement . . .
of a more popular character . , . consists of the formation
of societies for BibUcal study. These societies are quite un
ecclesiastical in form, and are chiefly maintained by laymen.
. . . The movement is spreading rapidly. . . . MeanwhUe the
need of schools for the clergy ia being pressed.' *
6. Theological seminaries had their chief development
among Protestants in America.* Early in the mneteenth
century it became evident that there must be more
thorough traimng in theology, and theological seminaries
began to be established after the method of the Roman
Church. The earUest of these was founded by the CongregationaUsts at
Andover in 1808. The Dutch Reformed Church estabUshed its
senunary at New Brunswick, New Jersey, in 1810. The Presby
terians opened one at Princeton (1812). In the years 1816-1819
the Dirinity School at Harvard was estabUshed as a school dis
tinct from the coUege. About the same time the Congregational
Seminary of Bangor, Maine, was founded. The General Theo
logical Seminary was opened by the Protestant EpiscopaUans in
New York City in 1819. In the foUowing year Aubum was
founded by the Presbyterians, and Hamilton (now Colgate) by the
1 Vide W. A. Brown, Cyclopedia of Education, v. p. 689,
' Adeney, The Greek and Eastern Churches, pp. 337 seg.
8 Vide Briggs, ' Theological Education and its Needs,' in The Forum,
1892, vol. xii. pp, 634 seq.

208 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. n.
Baptists. In 1822 the Dirinity School at New Haven was separ
ated from the coUege. Three years later Newton was founded
by the Baptists. In Pennsylvania, the German Reformed
opened a seminary at Lancaster (1825), and the Lutherans at
Gettysburg (1826). Western Seminary was estabUshed by the
Presbyterians at AUegheny in 1827, and Lane at Cincinnati
in 1832. Hartford Seminary was founded in 1834, and Oberlin
in 1835, both by the CongregationaUsts. Union Theological
Seminary was established in New York City in 1836. These
seminaries devoted themselves to the study of theology in a
three years' course, which has never been modified untU the
present day.
Early in the century there was another struggle ^
among the Presbyterians as to mimsterial education,
resulting in the separation of the Cumberland Pres
byterians (1810), who insisted upon having a godly
numstry, and upon accepting godly men as candidates,
even if they could not, under the circumstances of a new
country, be sufficiently educated.
The Methodists and Baptists were from the very
beginmng more intent upon an efficient mimstry than
upon an educated one.
The first Methodist coUege of any permanency after that of
Cokesbury^ was opened at Middletown (1831), The Methodists,
however, trained their ministry at conference seminaries. The
Biblical Institute was organised at Concord, New Hampshire, in
1847 ; but was subsequently removed to Boston (1867), and
attached to the Boston University. The Garrett Biblical Institute
at Evanston, Dlinois (1854), was adopted as the theological
department of North-'Westsm University. Drew was organised
in 1867,
The Baptists and other bodies also gradually organ
ised colleges and seminaries, aU being of the same
general type.
12. The Theological Seminary and the University are
in mutual need of each other. Theology needs all the light
1 Vide p. 173. s Vide p. 171.

CH. IV,] IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 209
that every department of science can give. The University
in all its departments leads up to Theology, and cannot
gain completeness in any of them -without Theology. In
recent years there has been a movement to bring the Theo
logical Seminary into closer relation with the University.
Great advantages arose from the orgamsation of
theological seminaries as separate institutions. Theo
logical education made rapid strides forward. The
mimstry as a class received a Mgher professional educa
tion than they could have had otherwise. Vital piety
was developed, as it could not have been in the um
versities, where the provisions necessary for its develop
ment are not so easily made. The study of theology
in the umversity tends to become merely intellectual and
scholastic. But if there are perils in the study of
theology in the umversities, there are perUs just as
great in the isolation of theologians in the theological
seminaries. The tendency of the seminary is to assume
a special type of doctrine and to manifest a peculiar
type of piety. Both alike are injurious, the one to the
scholar's quest for Truth, the other to the Christian's Ufe
in God. The theological seminary, by shutting itself
off from umversity life, became limited and cramped.
Its students were alienated from their fellow- students
in the other professions, and cut off from the progress
made in the other departments of learmng. But
theology has begun to burst tMough these limitations,
and is reaching out in all directions and demanding the
larger, freer life of the umversity. It has unfolded into
a great number of studies, overlapping and entwined
with those in the other departments of human learmng.
TMs expansion makes it impracticable any longer to
conduct the study of theology apart from the um
versities. On the other hand, aU the departments of
the umversity are so interrelated to theology that they
cannot do their full work without theology. If a way

210 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF THEOLOGY [pt. n.
can be found to combine the advantages of an inde
pendent theological school with the advantages of a
umversity connection, we may hope to enter upon a new
era of theological education, in wMch the hostility be
tween Science and ReUgion, Philosophy and Theology,
will pass away, and Theology itself expand with the
appropriation of fresh material from all departments of
human investigation.*
In recent years seminaries not attached to umversities
have been maMng connections with umversities.
In Great Britain, Mansfidd and Manchester Colleges
have been affiliated with Oxford University, Cheshunt
with Cambridge, King's College, the Highbury School
of Divinity, New College, and Hackney vrith London
University. Other denominational coUeges have been
brought into connection with the umversities of Wales,
Manchester, Leeds and Bristol. The movement is leading
to further experiments in Canada and Australia.^ It
was begun in New York in the Union Theological Seminary
a few years ago (1890), when an arrangement was m^de
with Columbia, into wMch the General Theological
Seminary and New York University subsequently came,
by wMch the students of the seminaries were enabled
to attend courses in the umversities. The Episcopal
Divinity School at Cambridge has entered into friendly
relations with Harvard, and the Philadelphia Divinity
School with the University of Pennsylvania. Andover
Seminary, removing to (Cambridge (1908), has been
affiliated vrith both Harvard University and the Divinity
School. The Baptist Seminary at Chicago has become
the theological department of Chicago University.
1 Vide Briggs, 'Theological Education and its Needs,' In The Forum,
1S92, vol. xii. pp. 638 seq.; 'Ideal of the Study of Theology," in
Dedication of Union Theological Seminary, pp, 121 seq. ; 'The
Scope of Theology,' in American Joumal of Theology, 1897, vol. i.
pp, 3,S seq.
2 Vide W. A. Brown, Cyclopedia of Education, v. pp. 593 seq-

CH. IV.] IN THE NINETEENTH CENTURY 211
13, The field of Theology is now so -vast that it is
impossible to cover it in three years. Graduate schools
are needed, in which the study of Theology may be carried
on to the highest degree of excellence and mth the most
comprehensive thoroughness.
Theological education is very far from its ideal. The
field of study has become so vast that it is no longer
possible for the theological student to acquire an adequate
knowledge of theology in a tMee years' course. Some
of the seminaries are now offering graduate courses.
But the study of theology is still very defective in the
great majority of the theological schools, and is still far
from perfection in those most richly endowed and
manned. Theology, like law and medicine, can no
longer do its work without the graduate school, where
the choicest men may give from two to four additional
years to the more comprehensive and difficult branches
of study.* The age of iremcs has come — an age whose
supreme conception of God is love, whose Mghest
estimation of Christ is love, whose ideal of Christian
perfection is love. The great fields of study that invite
the modem student of theology are Christian Ethics,
Christian Sociology, Christian Eschatology, and Christian
Irenics. Upon these studies of the graduate school of
theology to a great extent depends the future of Chris
tiamty throughout the world.*
14. The study of Theology is the highest, the most
comprehensive, the most difficult, and the most important of
I Union Theological Seminary was the first to establish a graduate
department, with graduate professors and courses leading to a doctorate
of theology. This action, and that which brought the seminary into
connection with the New York universities, were a partial fulfilment of
ideals long cherished and worked for by Dr. Briggs, who gave his last
years as a teacher of theology to building up a graduate school.
2 Vide Brigg.s, The Forum, vol. xii. pp. 638 seq. ; Dedication of tht
N'ew Buildings of the Union Theological Seminary, pp. 120 seq.}
American Journal of Theology, vol. viii, pp, 433 sea.. 450 Stq.

212 HISTORY OP THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY [pt. n.
all studies ; for it is the study of God, and of all things in
their relations to God.
Theology can have no other final aim than God
Himself, commumon with God, knowledge of God, and
the service of God. Upon theology more than upon
any other study the future of humamty depends. It
is a study wMch brings into fellowsMp vrith prophets
and apostles, with all the saints, with Jesus Christ, and
with God the Heavenly Father, It is a study wMch
calls forth all that is best witMn a man — Ms moral and
religious, as well as Ms intellectual powers. It is a
study wMch, in all its parts, may be ammate with love
to God and love to mankind. It is a study wMch
men may share with angels and the spirits of the blessed.
It is a study wMch knows no end. Other studies will
pass away with the decay of the body and departure from
tMs world ; but the study of theology, begun in tMs
world, will go on for ever, richer, fuller, and more glorious,
in any and every world, in any and every dispensation,
in wMch God may place us tMough aU the ages of
eternity.

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BouECHENiN, D. Stude sur les acadimies protestantes en France
au XVI' et au XVII' siecle. 1882.
CoLANi, T. L'id-ucation protestante. 1858.
FiucE, P. DE. Les Protestants d'autrefois. 4 vols. 1897-1902.
JESUIT THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION
Cambilhon, j. Relatio de studiis lesuitarum abstr-usioribus.
1608.
Gretzer, j. Relatio de studiis lesuitarum abstr-usioribus. 1609.
Hughes, T. Loyola and the Educational System of the Jesuits.
1892, 1907.
Ignacio de Loyola. Epistolae et instrudiones, ed. Matriti,
1903 : V. Monumenta Ignatiana, Series l., tom. 1. 1908,
Pachtler, G, M. Ratio studiorum et institutiones scholasticce
Societatis lesu ; v. Monumenta Germanice Pcedagogica.
Vols. U., v., ix., xvi. 1887-1894.
Steinhuber, a. Geschichte des Kollegium Germanikum-Hunga-
rikum in Rom. 2 vols. 1893-1894, 1906.

218 HISTORY OF THE STUDY OP THEOLOGY
ROMAN CATHOLIC SEMINARIES OP THE COUNCIL
OF TRENT
Bellesheim, A. Wilhelm Cardinal AUen und die englischen
Seminare auf dem Festlande. 1885.
Borromeo, C. Pastorum instructiones. 1586, 1701.
Dancoisnb, L. Histoire des etablissements religie-ux britanniques
fondes h Douai avant la ri-mlution francise. 1880.
Gerard, J. Stonyhurst College, Its Life beyond the Seas, 1592-
1794, and on English soil, 1794-1894. 1894.
Hogan, J. B. Clerical St-udies. 1898.
Letou^neau, G. Histoire du Seminaire d' Angers. 3 vols. 1893-
1896.
Theiner, A. II Seminario ecclesiastico. 1834.
Theiner. Geschichte der geistlichen Bildungsanstalten. 1835.
Themistor, G. Die Bildung und Erziehung der Geistlichen nach
katholischen Grundsdtzen. 1884.
Zschokke, H. Die theologischen Studien und AnstaUen der
katholischen Kirche in Oesterreich. 1894.
Zwickbnpfluq, R. Die Bildung der Geistlichen. 4 vols. 1844t.

INDEX TO VOL. II

Abbadie, 160.
Abbot, Ezra, 190.
Abelard, 22, 23, 29 /., 32 /., 36,
Achelis, 114, 201.
Adalhard of Corbie, 7 /.
Adam du Petit Pont, 36 /.
Adebnama of LiSge, 24.
Adeney, 70 /., 141, 142, 207.
.(Egidius de Columna, 69.
Agnellus of Pisa, 47.
Agobard of Lyons, 10.
Agricola, Rudolphus, 87, VO, 96,
97, 113.
Allly, Pierre D', 78 /, 94.
Alberic of Bheims, 22, 36 /.
Albertus Magutis, 53 /,
Alcuin, If., if., 8,9.
Aldus Manutius, 89, 90.
Aleander, 95.
Alexander II, 20.
Alexander III, 42.
Alexander of Hales, 50 /., 54, 57,
59.
Alfonso of Aragon, 88.
Alfred the Great, 12, 15.
Allatius, Leo, ISO.
AUen (Cardinal), 140.
Almaric of Bena, 43.
Amadeus of Savoy (Felix V), 79. ,
Ames, William, 152, 157.
Ammon, O. F., 181, 185.
Amyraut, 158, 159.
Anastasius Bibliothecarius, 11.
Andreae, Jacob, 115, 141, 215 /.
Andrewes, Lajicelot, 154.
Anselm of Canterbury, 19 /., 26,
54, 64.
Anselm of Laon, 20, 22 /., 28, 29,
32, 34.
Anselm of Lucca, 41.
Anton, 167.
Aquinas, Thomas, 47, 53 /., 59,"
63, 66/., 75, 83, 107, 115, 125/.,
136, 140, 205.
Argyropulos of Constantinople,
87,

Aristotle, 28, 30, 33, 36, 38, 43 /.,
Sl, 56/., 61/, 77, 86/, 95, 100,
102, 143, 145, 153, 162 /, 179.
Arminius, 130, 155 /.
Amaud, 192.
Amauld, Antoine, 150.
Amulf of Orleans, 15.
Aschlbach, 215.
Assemani, 150/,
Astruc, 180.
Athanasius, 148.
Augusti, J. C. W., 194.
Augustine of Hippo, 6, 12, 20, 28,
51, 54, 70, 101, 106, 110.
Augustine of Eome, 76.
Auriol, Pierre, 64.
Aurogallus, 109, 111.
AuziSre, 217.
Averroes, 43, 65, 88.
Avicenna, 43, 58, 77, 87.
Bacon, Francis, 161 /.
Bacon, Eobert, 46.
Bacon, Roger, 47, 52, 57 /.
Baer, 190.
Baethgen, 190, 191.
Baird, H. M., 204, 217,
BaU, John, 153.
BaUerml, 13.
BaUiol, John de, 46.
Balsamon, Theodore, 39.
Baluze, 147.
BandlneUl, Roland, 42.
Bandinus, 34.
Barclay, Robert, 155.
Bardenhewer, 194 /.
Bar-Hebr83us, 59 /.
Baring-Gould, 195.
Barlaam, 85.
Bameveldt, 156.
Baronius, Caesar, 141, 149, 181.
Basnage, Jacques, 160, 181.
Batiffol, 194.
Bauch, 215.
Baudissin, 191.
Baumgarten, S. J., 178, 180.

219

220

INDEX TO VOL. II

Baur, F. C, 191, 193, 198, 200.
Baur, G. L., 191.
Baxter, Richard, 154, 160, 167.
Bayle, Pierre, 158.
BeauUeu, Le Blanc de, 158.
Becket, Thomas a, 37.
Bede, 12, 140.
Beer, G., 190.
BeUamy, Joseph, 173.
BeUarmine, 147.
BeUesheim, A., 218.
Benedict of Nursia, 5,
Benedict XIII, 79.
Bengel, J. A., 166 /., 180.
Bennett, C. W., 194.
Benrath, 88.
Bentley, Richard, 180.
Benzinger, 191.
Berchorius, Peter, 75.
Berengar of Tours, 21, 25.
Bemard of Chartres, 26 /., 32.
Bemard of Clairvaux, 19 /., 22,
29, 31 /.
Bernardine of Siena, 76.
Bemo of Cluny, 14.
Bertheau, 191.
BSrule, Pierre de, 149.
Bessarion of Nicaea, 87, 96.
Beveridge, VFiUiam, 198.
Beyschlag, 191.
Beza, 69, 119, 127, 129 /., 131,
153, 155.
BlbUander, 118/.
Biedermann, A. E., 198.
Biel, Gabriel, 65.
Bigg, C, 213.
BUot, 198.
Bingham, Joseph, 155, 181.
Binterim, 194.
Blant, E. Le, 195.
Blass, 190.
Blaurer, Ambrose, 107,
Bleek, 190.
Blondel, 13.
Blunt, J. J., 197.
Boccaccio, 85.
BoSthius, 12, 32, 33, 51,
Bok, A. F., 215.
BoUand, Jan, 147.
Bomberg, 103/.
Bonaventura, S3 /., 59, 83.
Bonet-Maury, 204.
Boniface VIII, 42.
Borgeaud, 217.
Borromeo, Carlo, 138/., 218.
Bossuet, 149 /.

Bottcher, 189.
Bourchenin, 158, 161, 217,
Bourret, 214.
BraccioUni, 73.
Brace, C. L., 196.
Bradwardine, Thomas, 66, 71,
Breithaupt, 167.
Brenz, John, 114.
Brieger, 215.
Briggs, C. A., 189 /, 196, 200 /.
Bright, W., 195/.
Brinkmeier, 194.
Brockmann, 194,
Brodrick, 215.
Brook, B., 195.
Brooke, A. E., 190.
Brown, Francis, 189, 191.
Brown, W. A., 187, 203, 205, 207,
210.
Bnmo of Cologne, 14 /.
Bruno (Leo IX), 17 /. .
Bruno, St., 19.
Brttstlem, 216.
Bucer, Martm, 116, 119, 121 /.,
130, 133.
Budaeus (Budg), WiUiam, 95.
Buddeus, J. F., 181.
Buel, 199.
Bugenhagen, Johann, 109, 111,
113.
BulUnger, Heinrich, 117 /., 123,
129 /. -
Bunyan, John, 154.
Biarchard of Worms, 41.
Buridan, John, 64.
Biisleiden, 92.
Butler, Joseph, 163.
Buttmann, 189.
Buxtorf, John, Senior, 165.
Buxtorf, John, Jimior, 160, 165.
Byfield, Nicholas, 153,
Cabasilas, Nicolas, 70.
Cabrol, 195.
Cajetan, Thomas de Vio, 126.
Calamy, Edmund, 152 /., 160.
CaUxtus III, 88.
Calixtus, George, 163/., 166, 181.
Calmet, A., 148, 181.
Calovius, 164.
Calvin, 20, 95, 105 /, 119 /, 126
/, 134, 136, 142, 155.
Cambilhon, 217.
Camerarius, 97, 114.
Cameron, John, 158, 159.
Cange, Q. Du, 147,

INDEX TO VOL. II

221

Canisius, Peter, 135, 139.
Cano, Melchior, 126.
Capito, Wolfgang, 120, 121 /.
CappeU, Jacques, 158, 159.
CappeU, Louis, Senior, 155, 158,
159.
CappeU, Louis, Junior, 156, 159 /.
Capreolus, Johannes, 66 /.
Cartwright, Thomas, 152 /.
Casaubon, Isaac, 160.
Caspari, C. E., 192.
Caspari, C. P., 200.
Cassander, George, 124.
Cassiodorus, 6.
Cato, 73.
Cave, Alfred, 189.
Cave, WUUam, 154.
CeiUier, Remy, 148.
Ceriani, 190,
Chabot, 213.
Chalmers, Thomas, 199.
Channer, Daniel, 159, 160.
Chandieu, 130.
Charlemagne, 1 /., 8 /., 25.
Charles the Bold, 11.
Charles I of England, 142.
Chastel, 193.
Chauncey, Charles, 174.
Chauncey, Isaac, 174.
Chayim, Jacob ben, 103, 123.
Cheetham, 194.
Chemnitz, Martin, 113.
Chillingworth, WilUam, 154,
Choisy, 131.
ChristUeb, 174.
Christoffel, 118.
Chrysostom, 38, 123, 148,
Chytraeus, 114.
Cicero, 58.
Clarisse, 189.
Clarke, Samuel, 174, 175, 176.
Clarke, W. N., 199.
Claude, Jean, 159.
Claudius of Turin, 10.
ClSmanges, Nicolaus de, 80, 83 /.,
94.
Clement of Alexandria, 200.
Clement of Ireland, 4, 11.
Clement IV, 58.
Clement V, 42.
Clement VII, 78.
Clericus (Le Clere), 156.
Clerval, 24 /, 27 /., 32 /., 36, 38,
214.
Cluniac, Eobert, 19.
Cocceius, 157, 160.

Cohrs, 69, 135.
Colani, 217.
Colenso, 190.
Colet, John, 91, 99 /., 102, 132.
Combefls, 149.
Comenius, Amos, 161, 168.
Conring, Hermann, 164.
Constantine, 12 /., 88.
Cooper-Marsdin, 214.
Copernicus, 161.
Cordier, Mathurin, 120 /.
ComeUus Haga, 142.
ComlU, 190.
Cosin, John, 154.
Cossart, 147.
CoteUer, 149.
Coverdale, MUes, 132.
Cranmer, Thomas, 120, 122, 131 /.
Creighton, 195.
Cr§vier, 23.
Crispin, MUo, 20.
Crooks, 189.
Cruciger, 109.
Cruel, 68.
Crusius, 141.
Cudworth, Ralph, 166.
Cunningham, John, 196.
Cunningham, WilUam, 199.
Cusanus, Nicolatjs, 90.
CyrU Lucar, 140 /.
D'Achery (Dacherius), 84, 148.
Dancoisne, 218.
Daneau, Lambert, 129, 155, 158.
Daniel, H. A., 195.
Dante, 7, 35.
Danz, 195.
Darling, 195.
Davidson, A. B., 189, 192.
Davidson, Samuel, 190.
DeUsle, 194.
DeUtzsch, 190.
Dempster, Thomas, 160.
Demfle, 44, 69, 195, 214.
Denzmger, 21, 68, 200.
Descartes, 146, 162.
Deusdedit (Cardinal), 41.,
Dexter, 196.
Dick, 199.
Dicktnson, Jonathan, 172 /.
Diego de Azevedo, 46.
Dieu, Louis de, 156.
DiUmann, 192.
Dinant, David de, 43.
Dionysius the Areopagite, II, 35,
51, 54, 64,

222

INDEX TO VOL. II

Dixon, Thomas, 174.
Dodd, 195.
Doddridge, PhiUp, 175.
DoUinger, 143, 193, 197,
Dominic, St„ 46.
Donne, John, 154.
DooUttle, Thomas, 174.
Domer, August, 188.
Domer, Isaac A., 112, 165, 186/.,
191, 196, 198, 199,
Dositheus, 140, 141.
Douals, 214.
Drane, 52, 213.
Driver, S. E., 189, 19a
Drummond, J., 189.
Drusius (Van den Driesche), 155.
Ducas, Demetrius, 125.
Duchesne, 194, 195, 197.
Duff, A., 192.
Dimgal, 4, 11.
Duns Scotus, 59, 61 /, 64, 83,
102.
Du Pin, L. E., 150.
Duplessls-Momay, 159.
Durand of Saint Pourcain, 63.
Durie, John, 153.
Duval, 213.
Ebers, 191.
Ebert, 195.
Ebrard, 198.
Eck, John, 96, 105 /., 108, 116,
123 /, 136.
Eckhart, 67 /.
Edward VI, 133 /.
Edwards, Jonathan, 171, 172 /.
EgU, 120, 195.
Ehrle, 195.
Eichhom, 13, 178, 180, 190.
Emhard of Fulda, 7.
Emlyn, Thomas, 176.
Ephraem Syrus, 151.
Bpiscopius, 156.
Erasmus, 88/., 90/., lOS, 110, 113,
115 /., 122, 124, 131, 133, ISS,
156.
Erigena, John Scotus, 8, 11 /., 21.
Erman, 191.
Emesti, 178, 181.
Erpenius, 156.
Ersch, 195.
Erskme, 169, 177.
Eugene II, 11.
Eugene III, 23.
Eugene IV, 67, 79.
Eusebius, 123.

Eustathius of Thessalonica, 38 /.
Euthymius Zigabenus, 38.
Ewald, 189 /.
Faber, Peter, 135, 139.
Faber Stapulensis (LefSvre d'Eta-
ples), 95, 127.
Fabricius, J. A., 182.
Fagius, Paulus, 121, 123, 133.
Farel, WiUiam, 127.
Farrar, P. W., 197.
Fawkes, Guy, 144.
Febromus (Von Hontheim), 13,
147.
Paice, 217.
FeUx V, 79.
FeUx of Urgel, 3, 10.
FSnelon, 151.
Feret, 22 /., 47, 49 /., 55, 59, 64,
67, 84, 215.
Pichte, 185.
Fisher of Rochester, 98, 101, 105.
Fisher, G. P., 29, 172, 193, 196,
197.
Placius, Matthias (lUyricus), 113.
Fleming, 30.
Fletcher of Madeley, 170.
Fleury, Claude, 148.
FlUgge, 28, 56, 76.
Fox, George, 155.
Fox, Richard, 102.
Foxe, John, 133.
Francis of Assisi, 47, 62.
Francke, A. H., 167 /., 177.
Francois de Sales, 139, 151.
Frank of Weimar, 111.
Frederick I of Prussia, 165.
Prelinghuysen, Jacob, 170.
Friedberg, 195.
Friedrich, J., 196.
Froben, 92.
Froude, 195.
Fulbert of Chartres, 15, 24 /.
Fulton, 195.
Gabler, 181, 192.
Galen, 60, 77.
GalUeo, 161.
Garrucci, 194.
Gass, 195, 199,
Gautier, 192.
Gebhardt, 190, 194.
Geddes, 190.
Geier, Martin, 164.
Gerard, J., 218.

INDEX TO VOL, II

223

Gerbert of AurlUac (SUvester II).
14 /., 24.
Gerbert, Martin, 147.
Gerhard, Johann, 164.
Gerhart, E. V., 199.
Gemler of Basel, 164 /.
Gerson, John, 55, 70, 78/., 83, 90,
94, 115.
Gesemus, 189, 190.
Gieseler, 12/., 106/., 109/., 114,
117, 122, 142, 148 /. 159, 164,
168, 185, 193.
GUbert de la PorrSe, 22, 26 /. , 3 1 f
36 /.
Glnsburg, 190.
Giraldus Cambrensis, 45, 51.
Gla, 195.
Glassius, S., 164.
Goar, 149.
Gomarus, 156.
Goodwin, Thomas, 174.
Gorran, Nicolaus de, 47.
Gotteschalk, 6, 12. ;
Gouge, WilUam, 152 /.
Gower, 51.
Grabe, J. E., 164.
Graf, A., 201.
Graf, K. H., 190,
Gratian, 41 /.
Green, W. H., 189.
Gregory the Great, 6, 12.
Gregory AT:, 17.
Gregory IX, 42, 44, 48.
Gregory XII, 79.
Gregory XVI, 69.
Gregory, C. R., 190.
Gretzer, J.; 217.
Greving, 124, 216.
Griesbach, 180,
Grimm, 189.
Grocyn, WiUiam, 99, 102.
Groote, Gerhard, 69 /., 90.
Gropper, John, 124.
Grotefend, 194.
Grotius, Hugo, 156.
Grundemann, 194.
Griltzmacher, 47.
GrynsBUS, Simon, 116, 122, 128,
155.
Gualbert of Vallombrosa, 19.
Guericke, 213,
Gu6rin, 192
Guibert de Nogent, 22, 23.
Haddan, 195.
Hagenbach, 188, 189, 193, 195, 197,

Hahn, 4.
Hales, John, 155,
HaU, C. C, 199.
HaU, Joseph, 131, 152.
HamUton, Patrick, 133 /.
Hammond, C. E., 195.
Hammond, Henry, 155, 157,
Hanbury, 196.
Hannah, J., 189,
Hardt, Von der, 80.
Harduin, 147.
Hardwick, 197.
Harless, 188.
Harms, 201.
Hamack, 28, 193 /., 196.
Harper, W. R., 189.
Harris, Randal, 190.
Harvey, 161.
Hase, 193, 198, 200.
Hauck, 196.
Haupt, P., 190,
Hausrath, 191.
Hiiusser, 197.
Havemick, 190,
Healy, 214.
Hedio, Caspar, 121/.
Hefele, 195.
Hegel, 68, 185.
Hegius, Alexander, 96, 97.
Heidegger of Zurich, 164 /.
Heimbucher, 196.
Heinrici, 126, 149, 188.
HSUe, Pierre, 36.
Hemmingsen, Niels, 115, 152.
Hengstenberg, 190.
Henry II of England, 45.
Henry VIII of England, 100,
132.
Henry the Fowler, 15.
Henry of Glarls, 93.
Henry, Matthew, 174.
Heppe, 198, 216.
Herbert, George, IS4.
Herder, 180.
Herentalius, Peter, 75.
Hergenrother, 195, 213.
Herluin, St., 20.
Hermann of Cologne, 122, 124.
Hermonymus, 95,
Herrlinger, 112,
Herrmann, W., 198.
Hervseus Natalis, 66.
Hess, 181.
Hetherington, 196.
Hilary of Poitiers, 32.
Hildebert of Tours, 28.

224

INDEX TO VOL. II

HUdebrand (Gregory VII), 15,
17 /, 21, 40.
HUdegaire, 24.
HUl, 199.
Hincmar of Rheims, 9.
Hinterberger, 201.
Hippocrates, 60, 77,
Hirscher, 199.
Hobbes, 162.
Hodge, A. A., 199.
Hodge, Charles, 199.
HOfler, 215.
Hofinann, 188.
Hofstede de Groot, 189.
Hogan, 218.
Holcot, Robert, 64 /.
Holtzmann, H. J., 192,
Holtzmann, O., 191.
Hooker, Richard, 130, 133.
Hopkins, Samuel, 173.
Hore, 196.
Hort, 190.
Hosius, 139.
Hospinian, 121.
Hottinger, Johann Heinrich, 120;
165.
Hottinger, Johann Jacob, 165.
Houbigant, 149.
Huber, 215.
Huetius, 147.
Hflgel, F. v., 195.
Hugh of Cluny, 18.
Hugh of St. Victor, 35, 54, 215.
Hughes, T., 217,
Hupfeld, 189, 190.
Hurst, 189, 194, 195.
Hurter, 195.
Huss, John, 72 /., 79 /.
Hyperius, Andreas, 113/.
Ignatius Loyola, 105/., 128, 135/.,
145 /, 217,
Innocent IV, 46, 48.
Irnerius, 40 /.
Isidore of SevlUe, 6.
Ivo of Chartres, 24, 25 /., 41.
Jablonski, 164.
JaSe, 194.
Jager (Crotus Rubeanus), 99.
James II of England, 144.
Jameson, 194.
Jansen, ComeUus, 150.
Janssen, 198.
Jennings, John, 175.
Jeremiah of Constantinople, 140 /.

Jerome, St., 97, 148.
Jerome of Prague, 73, 86.
Jerusalem, 180.
Jesus Christ, 93, 107/., 117, 148,
186.
John of Damascus, 51,
John of Lancaster, 71.
John of Parma, 54.
John of RocheUe, 52, 54.
John of St. GUes, 52.
John of SaUsbury, 19, 22 /., 26 /..
33, 36 /,
John the Baptist, 86, 110.
John XXII, 63.
John XXIII, 79.
Jon, Francois du (Junius) , 129, 155.
Jonas, Justus, 109, 111, 113.
Jordaens, 69.
Judae, Leo, 119/.
Justinianus (Bisbop), 103.
Kaftan, 198.
Kahnis, 198,
KaUsch, 190.
KaUlupoUtes, 142.
KampschiUte, F. W., 215.
Kant, Immanuel, 179, 185.
KaryophyUes, 142.
Kattenbusch, 200.
Kaufmann, G., 214, 215.
Kautzsch, 189.
KeU, 190, 191.
Keim, 191.
Kempis, Thomas i, 70, 169.
Kennicott, 180.
Kepler, 161,
Kidd, 108.
Kienlen, 189.
Kihn, 147, 188 /., 194, 213.
KUlen, 196.
Kimmel, 200.
Kingsley, C, 213.
Kim, 108, 113.
Kittel, 190.
Klee, 188, 199,
Klener, 200.
Klostermann, 190,
Knobel, 190,
Knox, G. W., 199.
Knox, John, 129, 131 /,
Koch, 216.
Koelmann, 167, 170,
Konig, 189.
Konopios, 142.
Koppe, 180.
Kosegarten, 216.

INDEX TO VOL, II

225

Kraus, P. X., 194, 213.
Krauss, A., 201.
Krttger, 195.
Krumbacher, 195,
Kuenen, 192.
Kuyper, 189
Labadie, Jean de, 167,
Labbe, 147.
Lachniann, 190.
Lagarde, P. de (B5ttlcher), 190.
Lainez, 135.
Lambert, Francois, 113.
Lanfranc, 19 /., 21 /., 24, 26,
Lange, J. P., 188.
Langen, Rudolf von, 96.
Lanigan, 196.
Lapide, ComeUus a, 147.
Lasco, Johannes il, 117, 133,
Latimer, Hugh, 133.
Latimer, William, 99.
Latrie, 194,
Lattebur, John, 76.
Launoi, Jean de, 149.
Law, WilUam, 169.
Lechler, 191, 197.
Lee, W., 135.
Lehmkuhl, 199.
Leibnitz, 143, 146, 162, 164/., 177,
Leigh, Edward, 153.
Lenormant, 191.
Leo IV, 11.
Leo IX, 17 /.
Lesne, 13,
Letoumeau, 218.
Levlta, EUas, 123, 159.
Lightfoot, John, 152.
Lightfoot, J. B., 194.
Liguori, Alfonso Maria dl, 151.
Linacre, 99, 100, 102,
Lindsay, 99, 155,
Lipsius, 194.
Littledale, 195.
Locke, John, 146. 162, 163, 174.
Lohe, 110,
Loisy, 191.
Loofs, 13, 193, 196.
Lorimer, 133, 134,
Loserth, 72, 73.
Lothah- I, 11,
Louis of Bavaria, 63.
Louis the Pious, 4, 8 /., 10,
Louis IX, 53.
Louis XIV, 139, 144, 161.
Lowth, Robert, 157, 180.
Lttbke, 194,

Ludolph of Saxony, 74, 75.
Lugo (Cardinal) De, 146 /.
LuUy, Raymond, 65 /,
Lupus, Servatus, 7,
Luthardt, 198.
Luther, Martin, 20, 63, 68 /., 75,
86, 88, 93, 96, 99, 101, 103, 105,
106 /, 117 /., 120, 122 /., 126,
129, 169, 198, 216.
Lyra, Nicolaus de, 74 /.
MabUlon, 13, 148, 194,
M'CUntock, 189.
M'Cracken, 195,
M'Curdy, 191.
M'Glffert, 195, 197,
M'Lean, 190.
Maimbourg, 147.
Maitre, 1, 9, 19 /., 24, 29, 214.
Maldonatus, 137,
Manegold, 28.
Mansi, ISO.
Map, Walter, 45.
Maranus, Prudentius, 148.
Marheinecke, 198, 200.
Marsh,vAdam, 47, 52, 57.
MarshaU, Stephen, 152 /.
MartSne, Edmond, 148.
Martensen, 198, 199.
Martianay, 148.
MartlgnS, 59.
Martigny, 194.
Martm of Tours, 14.
Martin V, 79.
Martin, E., 189,
Marucchi, 194.
Mary of England, 120.
Masius, 126,
MassiUon, 149,
Matter, 214.
Matthesius, 111,
Matthew of Paris, 51,
Maur, St., 5.
Maximos Margunlos, 141.'
Mayronis, Franciscus de, 64.
Meiners, 216.
Melanchthon, 69, 97, 100, 105 /.,
118, 120, 122 /., 129, 136, 163,
216.
Meletius Syriga, 141.
MelviUe, Andrew, 153, 158.
Menochiijs, 147,
Merle D'Aublgng, 197.
Merlin, 127.
MerriU, 192.
Merton, Walter de, 46.

226

INDEX TO VOL. H

Metrophanes Critopulus, 142.
Meyer, P., 70, 141.
Michael of Cesena, 62.
Michaelis, Christian Benedict,
178.
Michaelis, Johann David, 178,
180/
Michaelis, Johann Heinrich, 178.
Michaud, E., 214.
Middleton, Richard, 58 /.
MUey, 199.
MUl, John, 155, 168, 180.
Milman, 196.
MUton, John, 152.
Mirbt, 195.
MitcheU, A, P., 196.
Moehler, J, A., 193, 200.
MoeUer, E. W., 197.
MogUas, Petrus, 140 /,
Molanus, 164.
MoUnos, 151.
Montalembert, 196.
Montanus, Arius, 126.
Montfaucon, 148.
Montgomery, 174.
MontreuU, Jean de, 94.
Moore, G. P., 214.
More, Henry, 166.
More, Thomas, 91 /., 95, 99 /.,
105.
Morin, Jean, 149.
Mosheim, 178, 181, 182.
Moulin, Pierre du, 158.
MUUer, E. P. K., 115, 200.
MiUler, JuUus, 186, 196, 198.
MuUer, J. T., 200.
MtiUer, Karl, 13, 193.
MuUinger, 2, 4, 9, 63, 214, 215.
Miinster, Sebpstlan, 116.
Muratori, 150.
Mursinna, 180, 188.
Musseus, 164.
Musculus (Muesslin), 123. '
Muth, Conrad, 96, 99,
Muther, 216.
Myconius, Oswald, 116, 118, 120.
Napier, 161,
Napoleon, 203, 204,
Natalis, Alexander, 13, 149.
Neal, D., 195.
Neale, J, M., 195, 196.
Neander, 186, 191, 192 /., 196 /,
199/.
Nestle, 190,
Newman, J. H., 195,

Nicephorus, 16.
Nicholas of Hereford, 71.
Nicholas of Methone, 39.
Nicholas of Strasburg, 68.
Nichols, 90, 93, 95, 97/, 102, 110,
123.
Nicolaus I, 13.
Nicolaus III, 58.
Nicolaus IV, 58.
Nicolaus V, 79, 88.
Nicole, Pierre, 150.
Niebuhr, 192.
Niedner, 193.
Nielson, 195.
Niemeyer, 200.
Nitzsch, K. I., 195, 200, 201.
NoaiUes, L. A. De, 150.
Nordheimer, 189.
Nourry, D. N. Le, 148.
Nowack, 191.
Occhino, Bemardino, 120, 133.
Odo of Cluny, 14.
CEcolampadius, 102, 110, 115 /.,
120, 123, 127.
(Ecumenius, 16.
Oehler, 192.
O'Hanlon, 195.
Olevianus, Caspar, 114.
Olevitan, 95.
Oosterzee, J. Van, 201.
Origen, 12, 147, 148.
Orosius, 12.
Osiander, Andreas, 114.
Osiander, Lucas, 114.
Osterwald of Neuchatel, 164 /.
Otto of Freising, 30 /.
Otto the Great, 15.
Owen, John, 153.
Pachtler, 145, 217.
Pagninus, Santes, 126.
Painter, 108, 216.
Paley, 181.
Palfrey, 172.
Palmer, E. H., 192.
Palmer, Herbert, 152 /,
Pareau, 189.
Parker, J., 215.
Parker, Matthew, 133.
Pascal, Blaise, 150.
Pastor, 195.
Paul the Apostle, 83, 110,
Paul the Deacon, 1 /.
Paulsen, 111. 136, 143, 145, 162,
179, 216.

INDEX TO VOL, II

227

Paulus Burgensis, 76.
Pearson, John, 154.
Pearson, K., 96, 97.
PeUican, 118, 119, 120.
Pelt, A. F. L., 188.
Pepo of Bologna, 41.
Perkins, WUUam, 162 /., 156,
Perowne, J. J. 8., 190.
Perrone, G., 198. '
Petavius, 147.
Peter Comestor, 34.
Peter Lombard, 31 /., 36, 49, 53 /.,
56, 59, 61, 74, 77, 79, 83, 107,
130.
Peter of Pisa, 1,
Peter of Poitiers, 34, 36, 43.
Peter the Venerable, 31.
Petrarch, 85, 97.
Pfaff, 182.
Pfleiderer, 68, 198.
PhUip of Neri, 149.
PhUlppi, P. A., 198.
Photius of Constantinople, 16, 39.
Piccolomini, jEneas Sylvius de
(Pius II), 9S.
Pictet, Benedict, 165.
Pierce, James, 176.
Piper, K. W, P., 194, 195.
Piscator, 115.
Pitra, 195,
Pius X, 205.
Placeus (De la Place), 159.
Planck, A., 217.
Planck, G. J., 13, 180, 200.
Plato, 38, 86, 87, 100, 102.
Plethon, Gemlstos, 87.
putt, 200.
Plummer, A., 100, 190, 196.
Pococke, Edward, 155, 157.
Pole, Reginald, 138.
Poole, Matthew, 153.
Poole, R. L., 4, 15, 19/., 23, 26/,
29 /., 33, 37, 215,
Pope, W. B., 199.
Porphyry, 62.
Porta, C, 217,
Porter, 191.
Possevln, 151.
Potthast, 195.
Prantl, 216.
Pratensis, Felix, 103.
Preger, 88.
Pressense, 197.
Prideaux, Humphrey, 155, 181.
Ptolemy, 28.
PuUeyn, Robert, 31 /, 36 /, 45.

Purvey, John, 71.
Putnam, 5.
Quesnel, Paschasius, 150.
QuintiUan, 27.
Rabanus Maurus, 4 /.
Rablger, 188,
Radbertus, Paschasius, 6, 8, 21.
Radewyns, Florentlus, 90.
Ralmimd of AurUlac, 14.
Ralph of Laon, 22 /., 32.
Ramsay, W. M., 192.
Ramus, Petrus, 121, 153.
Ranke, L. von, 110, 195.
Raphael, Cardinal of St. George,
98
RashdaU, 41 /, 77 /, 80, 215.
Ratichius, 161.
Ratramnus of Corbie, 8, 21,
Raymond, M., 199,
Raynaldus, 181.
Rebit, 127.
Regiomontanus, 95 /.
Reland, 181, 191.
Remi of Auxerre, 14.
Renan, 85, 191.
Renaudot, 149.
Reuchlin, John, 87, 90, 92, 95 /.,
98, 101, 105, 110, 112, 117, 120.
Reuss, 190,
Reuterdahl, 196.
Revlus, Jacob, 156.
Reynolds, Edward, 153.
Reynolds, John, 153.
Rhegius, Urbanus, 116 /.
Rich, Edmimd, 57.
Richard l'Ev6que, 26, 27, 36 /.
Richard of Canterbury, 38.
Eichard of Devizes, 45.
Richard of St. Victor, 35 /, 54,
115.
Richer of Rheims, 15.
Richer, E., 50, 149.
Richter, 195.
Ridgley, Thomas, 175.
Ridley, Nicholas, 133.
Riehm, 192.
Ritschl, A., 191, 193, 198.
Ritter, Carl, 191.
Rivetus, Andreas, 156.
Robert de Courgon, 44.
Robert of Lincoln (Grosseteste),
47, 50 /, 57.
Robert of Melun, 36 /.
Eobert, G., 214.

228

INDEX TO VOL. II

Robertson, 193.
Robinson, Edward, 189, 190, 191.
Robmson, J. A., 195.
Rodiger, 189,
Rogers, John, 132, 133.
Rogers, Thorold, 78.
Roland of Cremona, 52.
Romuald of Ravenna, 19.
RosceUn of ComplSgne, 28 /.
Roscoe, 195.
Rosenkranz, 188.
Rossi, G. B. De, 194.
Rothe, 186, 188, 198, 199.
Rtiaeus (De la Rue), 148.
RUckert, O., 217.
Rudolphus of Fulda, 7.
Rufinus, 123.
Ruinart, 148.
Rutherford, Samuel, 154.
Ruysbroeck, John, 67, 69,
SaalschUtz, 191,
Sabatier, Paul, 195.
Sadoleto, 126.
SaUer, 199, 201.
Sanchez, 146.
Sandys, 7, II, 27 /, 38, 47, 51 /,
56 /, 63 /, 85, 87 /, 95 /, 99,
102, 153, 163, 213.
Sauley, F. De, 191.
Savonarola, 85 /., 120.
ScaUger, 131, 149, 155, 156, 160.
Scavlnl, 199.
Schaff, 6, 17 /, 20, 54 /, 68 /,
73, 81, 86, 99/, 109, 112, 117/,
131, 182, 189, 193, 200.
Scheeben, 198.
Schelling, 185.
Schleiermacher, 186, 188,
Schmid, C. P., 192.
Schmid, H., 198.
Schmid, J. W., 185.
Schmidt, C. G. A., 197.
Schmidt, H., 20O.
Schmltz-KaUenberg, 148.
Schneckenburger, 191.
Scholz, 190.
Schrader, 191.
Schrock, 181.
Schuckford, 181.
Schulte, 42, 195.
Schultze, 194.
SchUrer, 191.
Schwane, 196, 199,
Schweizer, 198.
Scrivener, 190,

Seeberg, 55, 62, 63, 66, 196.
Seitz, K., 214.
SeUing, WiUiam, 100.
Semler, 178, 181.
Seneca, 58.
Sepp, 192,
Sharp, John, 159.
Shedd, W. G. T., 199.
Sickingen, Franz von, 116.
Slebengartner, 140, 213.
Simeon Metaphrastes, 16.
Simeon of Thessalonica, 70 /.
Simon of Poissy, 36 /.
Simon de Tournai, 43.
Simon, D. W., 187.
Simon, Richard, 149.
Simson, John, 176.
Sirmond, 147.
Sixtus IV, 42.
Sixtus V, 55.
Sixtus of Siena, 126.
Smend, 192.
Smith, George, 191.
Smith, George Adam, 192.
Smith, H. B., 193, 194, 199.
Smith, John, 166.
Smith, WiUiam, 194 /.
Smith, W. Robertson, 191.
Smythe, Newman, 199.
Socin, 192.
Socinus, LaeUus, 120.
Socrates, 24, 73, 93.
Sohm, 195.
Sorbonne, Robert de, 50,
Soto, Dominico, 126.
Sozomen, 123.
Spannheim, 181,
Specht, 214,
Spener, 167,
SplnOla, 164.
Spinoza, 162.
Spittler, 13,
Spruner, 194.
Stackhouse, 181,
Stade, 189.
Stanley, 190, 192, 196,
Staudenmaier, 188.
Staudlin, 185, 194.
Staupitz, 99.
Steinhuber, 217.
Stephen, W., 196.
Stephens, Robert, 103, 131,
Stemgasser, Johaim, 68.
Stevens, G. B., 192,
Stevenson, 51,
Stocker, 216,

INDEX TO VOL.11

229

Strack, H. L., 190.
Strauss, 191, 198.
Streitwolf, 200.
Strong, A. H., 199.
Stubbs, W., 195, 196, 197.
Sturm, Johu, 97, 121 /.
Suarez, 146.
Suicer, 165,
Suidas, 16.
Suso, Henry, 67 /.
Swainson, 195,
Swete, 190.
Tauler, John, 67 /.
Taylor, Jeremy, 152, 154, 169.
Taylor, John, of Norwich, 157,
174.
Tennent, GUbert, 170 /.
Tennent, WilUam, 170 /.
Thayer, 190.
Theiner, 13, 181, 213, 218,
Themistor, 218.
Theobald of Canterbury, 37.
Theobaldus Stampensis, 45.
Theodore of Gaza, 87, 97.
Theodoret of Cyrrhus, 38.
Theodoric of Chartres, 26.
Theodulphus of Orleans, 9.
Theophanes, 16.
Theophylact of Achrida, 38.
Tholuck, 186, 198.
Thomas WaUensls, 57.
Thomasius, C, 177.
Thomasius, G., 198.
Thomassin, L., 149.
Thomson, W. M., 192.
Thorbecke, 216.
Thorpe, 72.
Tieftrunk, 185.
Tiele, 191.
Tifemas, Gregorio, 94.
TUenus, Daniel, 158.
TiUemont, Le Nain de, 150.
Tischendorf, 190.
Tobler, 191.
Toletus, 137.
Torquemada (Turrecremata), 67.
Tostatus, Alphonsus, 75 /,
Toy, C. H., 192.
Travers, 153.
TregeUes, 190.
Trench, R. C, 197.
Tristram, 192.
Trithemius, 81, 96, 97 /.
TrumbuU, 192.
Tuckney, Anthony, 152 /., 166.

TunstaU, 92.
Turmel, 194.
Turretm, Francois, 164 /
Turretin, Jean Alphonse, 164 /.
Twesten, 198.
Tyndale, 101, 131 /.
Ueberweg, 53,
Ugolino, 150.
Uhlhom, 196,
Ulhnann, 191, 198.
Ulrich von Hutten, 96, 99.
Urban IV, 52.
Urban VI, 78.
Ursinus, Zacharias, 114.
Ussher, James, 153, 181, 198,
Uytenbogaert, 156.
Vacherot, E., 214.
ValdSs, Juan de, 120.
Valesius, 147.
VaUa, Laurentius, 76, 87 /,
Vasquez, 138.
Vater, J. S., 190,
Vatke, W., 190,
VermigU, Pietro Martire, 118 /..
120 /, 133, 152.
Vincent of Beauvais, 50, 53.
Vincent de Paul, 139,
Vu'et, Pierre, 127, 158.
Vischer, W., 216.
Vitringa, 157.
Vittoria, Prancisco, 126,
Voetius, G., 156.
Voss, G. J., 156,
Wace, H., 195.
Waehner, 181.
Wagenmann, 87.
Wake, W. (Archbishop), 165.
Wala of Corbie, 7 /.
Walch, C. W. P., 182.
Walch, J. G., 182.
Walter of St. Victor, 35 /.
Walther, P. C, 195.
Walton, Brian, 154.
Warham of Canterbury, 102.
Watson, Richard, 199.
Wattenbach, 194.
Watts, Isaac, 174.
Weingarten, 194.
Weiss, 190, 191.
Weissenbom, 200.
Weller, Hieronymus, 217,
WeUhausen, 190.
Wendt, 191, 192.

230

INDEX TO VOL. II

Werenfels, Peter of Basel, 165.
Werenfels, Samuel of Basel, 164 /.
Werner, K., 194.
Wesley, Charles, 170.
Wesley, John, 157, 168 /,
Wessel, John, 90, 98,
Westcott, 190.
Wetstein, J. J., 180.
Wette, W, M. L. De, 190.
Wetzstein, J. G., 192.
Whichcote, Benjamin, 166,
Whiston, WUUam, 176.
Whitby, Daniel, 157.
Whitefield, George, 168, 170.
Wieseler, 192.
WUUam of Aquitaine, 14.
WilUam of Champeaux, 22, 28 /.,
32/.
WilUam of Conches, 26 /., 36.
WUUam of Durham, 46.
WilUam of Malmesbury, 25.
WilUam of Occam, 62 /., 83.
WilUam of Orange, 155.
WilUam of St. Thierry, 19.
WUpert, 194,
WUtsch, 194.
WhnpfeUng, Jacob, 96, 97, 112,
Winer, J. G. B., 189, 195, 200.
WirtmUUer, 188.
Wishart, George, 134 /.
Witsius, Hermann, 157.

Witzel, George, 124 /.
Wolf, F. A., 187.
Wolf, J. C„ 182.
Wolff, Christian, 177, 179, 182.
Wolsey, Cardinal, 101, 102.
Woodward, W. A., 93, 217.
Woolsey, T. D., 172.
Wordsworth, Christopher, 197.
Wordsworth, John, 190, 195.
Wright, W., 59.
Wulfln of Orleans, 9. '
Wuttke, 199.
WycUf, 51, 71 /, 75, 132.
Wyttenbach, Thomas, 117, 119,
Xavier, 135.
Ximenes, 103, 125 /., 136.
Zacharia of HaUe, 181.
Zahn, 194.
Zamora, Alphonso de, 125.
Zanchi, 120.
ZeU, M., 122.
Zezschwitz, K. A. G. von, 201.
Zinzendorf, 167, 168.
ZOckler, 65.
Zonaras, Johannes, 39.
Zschokke, 218.
Zwickenpflug, 218.
Z?ringU, 103, 105, 107, 110, 113.
116, 117 /„ 122 /,

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