Studies - IN
Mohammedanism

YALE UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY

1964

BY THE SAME AUTHOR

Woman's Influence in the East
AS SHOWN
H. THE NOBLE LIVES OF
PAST QUEENS AND PRINCESSES OF INDIA

An Introduction by Sir LEPEL GRIFFIN, K.C.S.I.
PRICE 6s.

OPINIONS OP THE PEESS
This work deserves all recognition and encouragement. — The Times.
The tales here told will come as a revelation to the multitude. The
author does full justice to his interesting subject. — The Asiatic
Quarterly Review.
Mr. Pool's book is entertaining and instructive, and the ladies of
India and Great Britain ought to be grateful to him for it. — The Man
chester Examiner and Times.
Mr. Pool has treated his subject with competent skill, and his work
will be to riiany a pleasant glimpse of the active charm of woman
hood in the East. — The Daily Chronicle.
Delightful Oriental Tales, with all the glamour of the Arabian
Nights Entertainments. — The Star.
These romantic and stirring narratives are presented to English
readers in the direct and simple style that is essential to good story
telling. — The Newcastle Daily Chronicle.
Most interesting and attractive reading. — The Glasgow Herald.
Beautiful and instructive stories. — The Gentlewoman.
Mr. Pool's preface is in excellent taste, and in his book he has
many things to tell us highly interesting and new. — The British
Weekly.
ELLIOT STOCK, 62, PATERNOSTER ROW

STUDIES

MOHAMMEDANISM

THE SACRED MOSQUE AT MECCA

I. THE GATE OF PEACE. 2. THE WALL OF HATIM. 3. BUILDING OVER THE WELL ZAMZAM. 4 AND 5. MOVEABLE STEPS
BELONGING TO THE KAABA— THE CENTRAL BUILDING. 6. PRAYING STATION OF THE SHAFl'S. 7. PULPIT (MIMBAR).
8. PRAYING STATION OF THE HANAFl's. 9. PRAYING STATION OF THE MALAKl's. IO PRAYING STATION OF THE
HANBALl'S. II. FRONT OF THE HAMIDIJAH. 12. THE FORTRESS JIVAD.

STUDIES

MOHAMMEDANISM

Historical and Doctrinal

WITH A CHAPTER ON ISLAM IN ENGLAND

JOHN J. POOL
Ml
(Late of Calcutta)

AUTHOR OF
WOMAN'S INFLUENCE IN THE EAST
AND
A LIFE OF HER MAJESTY THE QUEEN-EMPRESS FOR INDIAN READERS

ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY
14 PARLIAMENT STREET S-W
1892
All rights reserved

f3 THIS VOLUME
^ rs respectfully dedicated to
Islam in England
AND TO ALL
Seekers after Truth

CONTENTS

PAGE
PREFACE .  xiii

CHAPTER I.
The Founder of the System  i
CHAPTER II.
The Koran  ii
CHAPTER III.
Mosques  20
CHAPTER IV.
Women  30
CHAPTER V.
The Four Perfect Women  42
CHAPTER VI.
Commanders of the Faithful  51
CHAPTER VH.
Parables  65
CHAPTER VIII.
Miracles  75

x CONTENTS
CHAPTER IX.
Passion Play 

PAGK 86

CHAPTER X.
Legends and Superstitions ...... 97
CHAPTER XI.
Omiades of Damascus  105
CHAPTER XII.
Peculiar Beliefs  "3
CHAPTER XIII.
Abbasides of Bagdad  122
CHAPTER XIV.
Ramadan or Lent  13'
CHAPTER XV.
The Moors in 6pain  140
CHAPTER XVI.
Pilgrimages  149
CHAPTER XVII.
Fatimites of Egypt  160
CHAPTER XVIII.
Manners and Customs  170
CHAPTER XIX.
Ottoman Turks  179
CHAPTER XX.
Paradise  190

CONTENTS xi
CHAPTER XXI. PAGE
Hell  200
CHAPTER XXII.
Capture of Constantinople  211
CHAPTER XXIII.
Proverbs  222
CHAPTER XXIV.
Shias of Persia . . . .1  232
CHAPTER XXV.
Recreations and Amusements  242
CHAPTER XXVI.
The Afghans  251
CHAPTER XXVII.
Dervishes  263
CHAPTER XXVIII.
Moghuls of India  272
CHAPTER XXIX.
Forbidden or Questionable Things . . . .281
CHAPTER XXX.
The Crusades  292
CHAPTER XXXI.
Fakirs  304
CHAPTER XXXII.
Barbary Corsairs  315

xii CONTENTS
CHAPTER XXXIII. PAGE
Literature  325
CHAPTER XXXIV.
Architecture  334
CHAPTER XXXV.
Administration of Justice  . 345
CHAPTER XXXVI.
Holy Days or Festivals  355
CHAPTER XXXVII.
Fanaticism  364
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
Grand Viziers  374
CHAPTER XXXIX.
Slavery and the Slave Trade  385
CHAPTER XL.
Islam in England  394.
CHAPTER XLI.
Contrasted with Christianity  403
INDEX  4I6

PREFACE

Interest in the comparative study of Religions is
becoming in Western lands more and more prominently
a sign of the times, not only among students in our theo
logical colleges, but among thoughtful laymen everywhere.
The time has gone by when the religions of the East can
be put on one side as myths and delusions not worthy
even for a moment to be compared with the Christian
religion. Now that the religious books of the East have all been
translated into European languages, and the religious
beliefs and practices of Eastern people have been carefully
examined and recorded by competent scholars, it has
become clear that the comparative study of religions, and
especially of Christianity with other religions, is a necessity
of the age in which we live.
The present work deals exclusively with Mohammedan
ism, and is an attempt to provide a popular text-book on
the wide field of Mussulman faith, practice, and history,
and to show wherein the religion of Mohammed falls
below the religion of Christ.
Strange to say, Mohammedanism has established itself
in England of late years. The leader of this remarkable
movement is a Liverpool solicitor named Quilliam, who
in 1884 was converted to Mohammedanism while on a
visit to Morocco. ' Soon after his return to his native city

xiv PREFACE
he began to teach the doctrines of Islamism privately and
publicly, but for a long time without success.
However, at length a select few joined the new enthu
siast, and Islam in England became an accomplished
fact. Mr. Quilliam, in an article contributed to the ReUgious
Review of Reviews, says : " When four converts were made
a small mission-room was taken, and meetings were held
on Fridays for the faithful and on Sundays for strangers.
It was hard work. Frequently we got no audience but
ourselves, and oftener still the ragamuffins of the neigh
bourhood broke our windows with stones and pelted us
with mud, garbage, or even more obnoxious kinds of filth,,
as we either entered or came out of the room ; whilst
amongst their friends and relations the converts had to
endure ridicule, and in some instances petty persecution.
We consoled ourselves with those passages of the Koran
which tell us that 'God loveth those who persevere
patiently.' "
The little band of four has increased to fifty, and their
leader is very sanguine that greater triumphs are in store
for Islam in England.
Mr. Quilliam naively remarks — " Why should there be
any astonishment at such a condition of things having
come to pass ? Surely it is quite as justifiable for Moslems
to endeavour to promulgate their faith in England as it is
for Christians to mission India, China, and Africa, to make
converts to Christianity. From the Cape of Good Hope
to Tangiers, from Cape Spartel to China, the Moslem
heart is beating with anxiety at this development of Islam.
Five times a day, from millions of true believers' lips, from
the monarch on the throne down to the poorest ryot in
India, rises the solemn supplication to Almighty God —

PREFACE xv
' Allah, most Merciful and Great, bless Thy work in
England."' '
Now what shall we who are Christians say to these
things ? We cannot assume an attitude of indifference
with Mohammedanism at our very doors. Rather let us
be stirred up to the comparative study of our own and
the Moslem faith, so that we may be able to give intelli
gent reasons for the hope that is in us.
I have dedicated this volume to Islam in England and
to all Seekers after Truth ; and I most earnestly trust that
the perusal of its pages may be instrumental in deepening
the general faith of Christians in Christianity, and, per
chance, in leading some of the members of the Moslem
Institute at Liverpool back to the faith of their fathers.
John J. Pool.
Reims,, 15th June, 1892.

STUDIES

IN

MOHAMMEDANISM CHAPTER I
the founder of the system
Mohammed {Lit. "The Praised One") was born in
Arabia, at the famous city of Mecca, a.d. 570. His
father's name was Abdullah, and his mother's Amina. His
family, by birth, was one of the highest in the land, but his
father was poor, though some of his uncles were rich and
powerful. Mohammed was never to know the blessing of a father's
love and care, for Abdullah shortly after his marriage started
on a trading expedition to Gaza, in Palestine, and on the
return journey was taken ill at Medina, about 250 miles
from Mecca, and died there before his wife or any of his
friends could visit him.
It was shortly after this event that Mohammed was born,
and tradition says that as soon as he came into the world
he exclaimed, "Allah is Great ! There is no God but Allah,
and I am his Prophet ! " Many other marvellous things
are reported to have happened at the same time in honour
of the advent of this Arabian Prophet, but I pass them by
to deal with more trustworthy matters. B

2 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
It was the custom among ladies of high birth in Mecca
to put out their little children to nurse, and Amina decided
that her boy should be no exception to the rule, though the
expense might be difficult to meet, as her husband had left
behind him no' richer legacy than four camels, a flock of
goats, and a slave-girl. Mohammed therefore was com
mitted to the care of a foster-mother named Halima, who
took him away to her home in the mountains of Taif, where
in the fresh, pure air the baby boy would have ample
opportunity to develop his body and grow strong. For five
years he remained in the hills, and then returned home to
gladden his mother's heart. The joy was short-lived, how-,
ever, for in the following year, on a visit to Medina, where
her husband was buried, the poor widow was taken ill, and,
as she was returning home, died by the wayside, leaving her
little boy to the care of the faithful slave-girl. This girl,
took Mohammed back to Mecca, and conducted him to the
home of his aged grandfather, who, for the next two years,
cared for the little orphan with great kindness and fond
ness. Then the old man died, and Mohammed was passed
on at the age of eight to his uncle Abu Talib, a chief of
wealth, ability, and infiuence. One cannot but think with
compassionate interest of the youth who, in his earliest
years, was thus bereaved. Mohammed knew practically
nothing of either a father or a mother's care, and was in
debted for his upbringing to the kindness of strangers or
friends. In consequence of all this linsettledness and
moving about, Mohammed's education suffered in respect
to reading and writing, and these grave defects were not
remedied in his new home, though he was treated with con
sideration and kindness, having a seat at his uncle's table,
being taught the use of arms, and allowed to accompany
Abu Talib wherever he went.
Thus the days of childhood and youth passed, and
Mohammed grew up into handsome manhood, and was
withal of a grave and serious deportment, as, indeed,
might have been expected from such a sombre childhood.

THE FOUNDER OF THE SYSTEM 3
And the seriousness of his character was deepened by the
occupation in which we find he was engaged at the age of
twenty, viz., that of tending sheep, like Moses and David
of old. Thinking of this occupation in after days, when he
was a prophet and a prince, Mohammed is reported to
have greatly rejoiced, and said that "there never was a
prophet who was not once a shepherd." When he was
twenty-five an important event happened to him. He
was chosen by a wealthy widow lady named Kadija to
take supreme charge of a caravan, which she was preparing
to send with merchandise into Syria. Mohammed knew
the route, as some years before he had travelled over
it with his uncle in one of his trading expeditions. The
new occupation gained for Mohammed the title of "the
Camel Driver," and he was also called, on account of
his steady conduct and fair dealing, "the faithful," "the
trusty." For the greater part of a year Mohammed was
away on this* trading expedition, and then he returned
eminently successful, having disposed of everything to the
very best advantage, and added considerably to the wealth
of the lady in whose service he was engaged. And his
reward exceeded all expectations.
The fact was, Kadija had fallen in love with her hand
some camel-driver, and negotiated, through her sister, a
match with him; and before that eventful year closed
Mohammed was married, and at the head of a household
of his own. Kadija was a widow, who had already been
twice married. Her former husbands had been rich men,
who had left their all to her, and she had since added
greatly to her income, so that when she was married to
Mohammed, she was one of the wealthiest ladies of the land.
She was forty years of age, while her husband was but twenty-
five, yet the marriage proved a very happy one.. Kadija was
a beautiful woman, and as good as she was beautiful, and
the heart of her husband could safely trust in her. Moham
med at this time is described as being a little over the medium
height, and of a commanding presence. Mr. Gilman in his
b 2

4 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
very readable book on " The Saracens," writes thus of
Mohammed : — " Hjs wide chest and broad shoulders were
surmounted by a long ahd finely moulded neck, and a
massive head, from which looked out a frank, oval face,
marked by a prominent aquiline nose, large, restless, and
piercing black eyes, over which long, heavy lashes drooped,
and a bushy beard fell upon his breast." Such was the
striking appearance of Mohammed at the time of his mar
riage; and this event made, of course, a remarkable change
in his outward circumstances. In a moment he had been
raised from comparative poverty to great wealth, and from
a position of comparative insignificance to one of very con
siderable importance and. infiuence. Years of domestic
happiness followed, during which there were born to
Mohammed two sons and four daughters. The sons died
very young, and only one of the daughters attained to any
fame. Fatima was the name of this daughter, and she
lived to become the mother of sons, the tragic story of
whose life has given to the Mohammedan world a Passion
Play, which, when it is enacted, moves the hearts of the
stoical children of the East to their very depths. In a later
chapter an account will be given of this play.
For some years Mohammed continued to travel to
distant places with caravans of merchandise, but gradually
such expeditions were given up, and. the whole energies of
the thoughtful man were turned into a channel which was
to make him a name famous throughout the world. From
his youthful days Mohammed had taken a deep interest
in religious questions. His father's faith and the faith of
the people of Mecca and the surrounding cities was a belief in
gods many and lords many. The people were idolaters, and
had in Mecca a famous temple, and a, famous idol, about '
which the exigencies of our story require that I should now
say something. The idol was a pure white stone, which the
people of Arabia say fell from Heaven when Adam fell from
Paradise. This sacred stone the people, certainly long
before the time of Christ, embedded in the walls of a

THE FOUNDER OF THE SYSTEM 5
building which they called the Kaaba or Cube, around
which a temple was built, and there for generations the
people of Mecca worshipped, with the firm faith that the
gods would be pleased with them, and would bless them, if
they rendered due homage to the pure white stone which
had come down from heaven. The stone still exists, and
is regarded as sacred, though it is not now worshipped. A
Mohammedan Mosque surrounds the Kaaba (see Frontis
piece), and every year the Faithful from all parts of the
world go on pilgrimage to see it, and to touch it. It is now
reddish-brown, some say even black, because, according to
the Mohammedans, it has wept so much for the sins of
the world. The real reason for the change of colour, of
course, is because it has been handled and kissed by tens of
thousands, yea, millions, of devotees during hundreds of
years. Abu Talib, Mohammed's uncle, was guardian of
this sacred stone, and took an important part in the temple
worship. Thus Mohammed was well acquainted with the
religion of his own land. And in addition, through his
travels in Syria and Palestine, he had become acquainted,
though imperfectly, with the Jewish and the Christian
religions. For some years Mohammed had been dissatis
fied with the religion of his fathers, with its idolatries, and
gradually the hope and ambition had taken possession of
his soul that he might be able to lead his people on a path
of reform, and make them better citizens of this world,
and give them a brighter hope with regard to the next.
The more Mohammed thought about this possibility the
more he withdrew himself from the cares of business life,
and at length he retired for a time altogether from public
view, and made his home in a cave on the side of a moun
tain called Hera, to. the north of Mecca. There he gave
himself up to fasting, meditation, and prayer, accompanied
by his faithful wife Kadija, who sometimes was in great fear
fbr the life of her husband, as his intense meditation
brought on ecstasies and trances, in which, he would lose
all consciousness, and lie upon the ground as one dead.

6 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
Thus for weary months, even for years, the strife .went on
in the mind of Mohammed, and the life of the husband and
wife was passed now in their home at Mecca, and now in
the cave at Hera. But all things, pleasant or painful, have
an end, and in the year 610 of our era, and in the fortieth
year of the life of Mohammed, the strain on his mind was
relaxed, for he had, according to his own telling, a revela
tion from Heaven, which assured him that there was but
one God, Almighty, All-merciful, who claimed the adoration
of all hearts.
This revelation was given one night while Mohammed
was sleeping on the hills along which he had been wander
ing and meditating all the day. At midnight a voice came
from the sky, calling " Mohammed, I am Gabriel ! " Then
an angel held before the astonished eyes of the dreaming
man a broad piece of silk covered with written characters
addressed to Mohammed, exhorting him to preach a new
gospel to his countrymen. The command ran —
" Cry ! in the name of Allah !
In the name of Allah who hath created man !
O arise and preach
And magnify Allah ! "
And Mohammed accepted the mission.
From that time Mohammed declared himself to be the
Prophet of God, and his one cry to his countrymen was
that they would give up idolatry and worship Allah. Think
of what this new departure meant ! Mohammed against a
nation ! He who, perhaps, could not write his, name was
deliberately setting himself up as a teacher on the weightiest
matters concerning the life of man ; and he who had
no clan or followers to support him was opposing, himself
to tens of thousands who were men of war, and who were
devotedly attached to the religion of their forefathers.
There were 365 idols in Mecca, in addition to the sacred
stone ; and a large revenue was realized by the people of
the city through the tax which was imposed on the strangers
who came up each year to worship in the Temple or Kaaba.

THE FOUNDER OF THE SYSTEM 7
Thus vested interests, as well as tradition, were against
Mohammed ; and as we think of his fixed determination to
preach to his countrymen of Allah, and Allah alone, we are
struck with the sublime faith of this Arabian Prophet, who,
strong in his belief, could boldly face contumely and scorn
and anger and hate in his endeavour to turn his countrymen
away from idolatry to, the worship of God.
And what success had this brave enthusiast ? At first,
and for a long time, scarcely any at all. His wife was his
first convert. It is touching to think of the wifely devotion
of this noble woman. In good report and ill report she
clung to the man she loved. Others might call him
dreamer and madman ; but she knew him to be sensible
and kind, and she believed in him— believed in him with a
faith that nothing could shake — and she encouraged him to
hold fast to his new views, and preach them boldly to all
who would listen. And as further and fuller , revelations
were given to her husband by the Angel Gabriel, this good
wife began to practise the rites and ceremonies of prayer,
fasting, and almsgiving, which afterwards 'became the
peculiar characteristics of Islamism, or, as Western people
generally call it, of Mohammedanism. In a future chapter
the Koran or Mohammedan Scriptures and the religious
teaching of the Prophet will be dealt with. It must suffice
at present to say that the new religion of Mohammed, the
one he wanted his countrymen to accept, may be summed
up, as the historian Gibbon put it — Faith in Allah, and then
the hope that " prayer " would carry the true believer
half-way to God, that " fasting " would bring him to the
door of His palace, and that "alms" would gain him
admittance. For some time the Prophet's wife was his only
follower. Then his nephew, Ali, a son of Abu Talib, cast
in his lot with him. Then Zeyd, who had once been a
slave, and whom Mohammed had freed, and adopted as a
son, became a member of the new religious community.
Then Abd-el-Kaba, a prominent citizen, a man of zeal and
enthusiasm, went over to the Prophet ; and thus the little

8 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
company grew, but oh, so slowly, that it seemed as if the
new faith would never become a living and mighty power.
For nine years the Prophet preached, but the people only
smiled or mocked. And then, to add to . Mohammed's
distress, his wife, the faithful Kadija, died. That was in
the year a.d. 619.- It was a terrible blow to the Prophet,
for in losing his wife he not only lost one dearly loved, but
his wealth also. Her property went into other hands. To
do Mohammed justice, however, it should be recorded that
he thought little of the lost money — he was never at any
period of his history an avaricious man — -but he thought
much of his lost wife, and mourned for her at the time as
one who could not be comforted. There is a proverb that
says, "Troubles seldom come singly." It was so with
Mohammed. His wife was dead — his money was lost— -
and then his uncle died. It verily seemed as if Mohammed
was not only forsaken of the gods, as his fellow-countrymen
declared, but forsaken by Allah Himself. Dark, indeed,
were those days, but the Prophet never lost his faith. At
length, however, a glimmer of light was seen on the horizon
of his life. The light came in the form of persecution.
The people of Mecca passed from smiles and scorn of the
new doctrines to persecution of its few followers. And
persecution was all that the new faith needed to give it
impetus. It is a fact all the world over that " the blood
of the martyrs is the seed of the Church." As soon as the
people of Mecca began to persecute Mohammed and his
disciples, Islamism began to spread. Now, instead of con
verts going over singly, they went in companies, and ere
long the Prophet had a devoted band of, say, three hun
dred souls. Persecution, however, raged so fierce that
Mohammed urged his followers to " emigrate," and many
of them went to Abyssinia to wait for brighter days. A
few, however, would not be separated from the Prophet,
and remained to sustain him as best they could.
And now a most extraordinary event occurred. How
true it is that "a prophet is not without honour, save in

THE FOUNDER OF THE SYSTEM 9
his own country and among his own kindred." A little
party of seven devout men from the city of Medina came
up to Mecca to take part- in the yearly worship of the sacred
stone. To these men the Prophet spoke of Allah, and
denounced idolatry. The words found a resting-place in
the hearts of the pilgrims, and they returned to their own
city full of news about a great prophet whom they had met,
and who had urged them to worship God alone. The
people of Medina generally were as much impressed by the
new teaching as the seven citizens who had brought the
tidings. Months passed by and gradually nearly all the
inhabitants of the town except the Jews became converts
to the faith of Mohammed, though they had never seen his
face. At the end of a year the citizens met in solemn
council, and decided to send seventy of their leading men
to Mecca to see if the great Prophet could be persuaded to
forsake the city of his fathers, and become the ruler and
prophet of the city of Medina.
Few more extraordinary things than this have happened,
I think, in the history of the human race. And Mohammed
readily embraced the invitation, and in a.d. 622, in the
month of June, there occurred what is known as " the flight
from Mecca." The word was given by the Prophet to de
part, and his followers cast the dust of their native city off
their feet, and made their way, though not without difficulty
and danger, to Medina. From that Hejira, or Flight, the
Mohammedans count their era, just as Christian people
count from the time of Christ. In Medina Mohammed
was joined by his adherents, who had been in exile in
Abyssinia, and at length Mohammedanism found a local
habitation and a name. A new life opened out for the
Prophet — a life of the highest earthly power and dignity —
his word being law, and his influence greater than that of
a king : for he was Prince and Prophet in one. He had
only to exclaim " Thus saith Allah " to silence all opposi
tion to his will with the people, who looked up to him with
the greatest reverence and trust.

io STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
The fame of Mohammed now quickly spread in the land.
The sword was brought into play, and the' people of neigh
bouring towns who were not convinced by the Prophet's
spiritual reasoning were soon brought to subjection by his
temporal power. Thus city after city gave in allegiance to
the new faith, and at length Mecca herself had to confess
her weakness, and submit to the rule and the religion of
him whom she had cast forth only a short time before with
every sign of hate and scorn. What a reversal of fortunes !
And what seems to me the most wonderful feature of the
remarkable event is that these changes became binding and
lasting. Mohammed lived to see the terror of his arms
carried to far distant lands, and his creed firmly established
over wide regions of country and over millions of people.
Truth verily is stranger than fiction !
The latter years of this extraordinary man were not as
noble as the earlier. He fell into polygamous ways ; and
also became a persecutor in his turn. His wives and con
cubines numbered, some say, eighteen ; and he in various
other ways showed that prosperity had spoiled him. He
became fierce and cruel and bloodthirsty — a man to be
feared rather than loved. And yet many loved him even
unto the end. He lived to the age of sixty-two, and died,
it is said, in great agony, with his head on the lap of his
young and favourite wife, Ayesha. His last words were,
" O Allah, succour me in the agonies of death ! Gabriel
come close to thy servant ! O Allah, grant pardon — yes,
pardon — and eternity in Paradise ! "
Thus died one of the most wonderful men the world has
ever seen. From obscurity and poverty, he rose to be
Prophet, Priest, and King, and founded a religious faith
which endures to this day, and which has 210 millions of
adherents.

CHAPTER II
THE KORAN
The word Koran is derived from the Arabic verb
" karaa" to read, and thus signified " the reading," or more
properly, " that which ought to be read." It is the chief
name by which the followers of Mohammed describe their
Scriptures. Other names are used, such as Al Forkan the
Division, Al Majeed the Exalted, Al Azeez the Mighty,
and Al Kitab the Book. I shall keep, however, to the
term Al Koran, as the one in general use in the East, and
the only one well known in the West.
Al Koran, or " the reading," is held by the Mohammedans
to be a sacred book, and they affirm that it was revealed
to Mohammed portion by portion by the Angel Gabriel.
The orthodox belief is that God Himself composed the
book, that it was kept from all eternity near the throne of
God on a vast table called " the preserved table," and that
it was revealed in the fulness of time to Mohammed for the
salvation of all believers. The truth, of course, is that the
Koran was the work of Mohammed himself, that he derived
his material partly from the Jews, partly from the Christians,
partly from the Arabs, and partly from his own thoughts,
aspirations, and convictions. It is essentially a very human
work. Yet I would not deny to Mohammed a certain
Divine inspiration, for I believe that all truth, wherever it
is found, — and there" is much truth in the Koran, — comes
from . God. It is very probable that the Prophet thought
out his revelations privately, and then dictated them to one

12 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
or two of his intimate friends. Some say that a Jew and a
Christian from the first aided Mohammed with material.
It may be so, but I think on all hands it will be acknow
ledged that the composition of the Koran is entirely the
Prophet's own work. The language is choice, at times
eloquent, and always powerful.
The Koran is not a series of books like the Christian
Scriptures, but is one book, with a series of divisions of
unequal length, which are called Suras, i.e., portions or
chapters. There are 114 in all, some very short and some
very long.
The Mohammedans make a great point of numbering
the words and even the 'letters of their Suras. The Koran
contains 77,639 words, and 323,015 letters. If we compare
these figures with our Bible, which has 773,746 words and
3,566,480 letters, we see that the Mohammedan Scriptures
are in bulk about one-tenth the size of the Christian. It
is interesting to notice that every Sura of the Koran has a
title. The first is headed "The Preface," the second
"The Cow," the fourth "Women," the sixth "Cattle," the
fourteenth " Abraham," the sixteenth "The Bee." Other
titles are "The Poets," "The Spider," "The Cave," "The
Night Journey," "The Hypocrites," "The Slanderer,"
"The Elephant," "The Pen," "Man," "Smoke," "The
Daybreak," and so on. Every Sura also, save one, the
ninth, commences with the words, " In the name of the
Most Merciful God." Mohammed evidently wished to
impress most deeply on the minds of his disciples the
Divine origin of the Koran. From the beginning to the
end of this remarkable book everything is declared to be in
the name of the Most High.
As it exists to-day, it is believed to be due to the pious
zeal of Abu Bekr, Mohammed's immediate successor.
When the Prophet died the sacred writings were not ^n
book form, but were scattered about in fragments, some
with one person and some with another ; some written on
palm leaves, some on scraps of parchment, some on

THE KORAN 13
shoulder-blades of mutton, and some on stones and other
materials. The work of Abu Bekr was to gather these
fragments together and make one book of them, and in
doing so he arranged them very much at haphazard, so
that there is little or no connection between the subject-
matter of one Sura and that of another. . Probably
Mohammed himself had no intention of arranging for any
continuity of thought in his revelations. He wrote both at
Mecca and at Medina, as circumstances seemed to call for
a revelation, either to make known an attribute of God, or
to announce some judgment on his enemies, or to settle
some dispute amongst his adherents, or to encourage and
strengthen the Faithful. Thus we, find in the Koran a
strange medley pf things temporal and things spiritual; of
thirtgs high and things low; of things wise and things foolish;
of things good and things evil; and yet withal the book has
a decided aim, and has given to the world a new religion.
As might be expected, all Mohammedans hold the
Koran in the deepest, the profoundest reverence. " They
never touch it without previous purification ; they never,
if they can help it, allow it to pass into the hands of an
infidel ; they never hold it below their girdles ; they swear
by it ; they take it with them to the wars, and consult it for
omens on all important occasions ; and when they can, they
have it splendidly bound and adorned with gold and
precious stones."
As regards matters of faith, the Mohammedan is called
upon in the Koran to believe in God, in angels, in the
Scriptures, in prophets, in a future life, and in predestination
tp good and evil.
1. Belief in God stands at the head of this list. In the
second Sura it is written — " God, there is no God but He,
the living, the self-subsistent. Slumber takes Him not nor
sleep. His is what is in the heavens, and what is in the
earth. Who is it that intercedes with Him save by His
permission ? He knows what is before them, and what
behind them, and they comprehend not aught of His

14 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
knowledge but what He pleases. His throne extends over
the heavens and the earth, and it tires Him not to guard
them both, for He is high and grand."
Mohammedans say that the Koran gives God ninety-nine
names, such as God the Great, the Powerful, the' Eternal,
the Wise, the True, the Bountiful, the Merciful, the Gracious,
and the Judge of all.
2. To belief in God the Koran adds belief in angels
and in genii. These are said to have been created of fire,
and some are represented as good spirits and some as bad
spirits. 3. Belief in the Scriptures is another article of faith.
Here I would quote the words of Sale. He writes : " The
Mohammedans are taught by the Koran that God in divers
ages of the world gave revelations of His will in writing to
several prophets, and every word of which it is absolutely
necessary for a good Moslem to believe. The number of
these sacred books is 104, of which ten were given to
Adam, fifty to Seth, thirty to Enoch, ten to Abraham, the
other four being the Pentateuch, the Psalms, the Gospels,
and the Koran, which were successively delivered to
Moses, David, Jesus, and Mohammed. All these divine
books, except the last four, are entirely lost, and their
contents unknown. And these three, the Pentateuch,
the Psalms, and the Gospels, have undergone so many
alterations and corruptions that though there may possibly
be some part of the true Word of God therein, yet no
credit is to be given to the present copies in the hands
of the Jews and Christians." Thus practically the Koran
limits the faith of Believers to the writings of Mohammed.
4. Similarly, while another article of the creed is " Belief
in Prophets," such as Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses,
Jesus, and Mohammed, it is declared that the last is the
highest and most illustrious of all. As Mohammedans
put it, holding up one finger to emphasize the statement,
" There is no God but God, and Mohammed is the Prophet
of God."

THE KORAN 15
5. With reference to belief in a future life, the Koran
teaches that there will be a Resurrection, a Judgment
Day, a Paradise for the good, and a Hell for the
wicked. In the twenty-second Sura it is written, "Many are
worthy of chastisement. They who believe not shall have
. garments of fire fitted unto them, boiling water shall be
poured on their heads, their intestines shall be dissolved
thereby, and also their skins; and they shall be beaten
with maces of iron. So often as they shall endeavour to
get out of Hell because of the anguish of their torments,
they shall be dragged back into the same, and their tor
mentors shall say unto them, 'Taste ye the pain of
burning;' "
In contrast with the woes of • Hell, let us place the joys
of Heaven. The Koran says, " Paradise is promised to
the pious, and therein are rivers of incorruptible water, and
rivers of milk, the taste whereof changeth not, and rivers of
wine pleasant unto those who drink, and rivers of clarified
honey, and therein shall they have plenty of all kinds of
fruits, and pardon from their Lord. Moreover they shall
receive beauteous damsels as wives, having fine black eyes,
and complexions like rubies and pearls. The reward of
good shall be good."
6. Predestination is a prominent article of the Moham
medan creed. The Koran teaches that life and death are
in the hands of God, and that nothing happens either good
or bad but as God wills, and that consequently men should
not immoderately grieve for the happiness which escapes
them on earth, Or immoderately be glad in the joy that
comes to them.
Mohammed found this doctrine of predestination a great
help in inciting his warriors to fight for the faith he had
delivered to them, for if they were victorious they were
assured they would be rewarded in this world, and if they
were defeated and slain they would be rewarded in the next
world. Thus did the Prophet fill the hearts of his followers

16 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
with great hopes, and with a passionate fanaticism that
knew neither danger nor fear.
Passing from matters of faith, let us glance at matters of
law. , The Koran gives to Mohammedans not only a system
of theology, but a system of jurisprudence. Church and
State are regarded as one and indivisible. According to
the Arab proverb, " Religion and country are twins."
i. Certain laws are laid down with regard to inheritance.
These are, generally speaking, much more favourable to
men than to women ; but otherwise they seem good and
just. 2. In dealing with meats and drinks, the Koran forbids
the iise of the flesh of swine as food, and prohibits the
drinking of wine and all other intoxicating liquors ; for
according to Mohammed the evil properties of the latter
exceed the good properties.
3. Games of chance are also denounced; chess, how
ever, being permitted, as it requires skill.
4. Faithfulness is enjoined in the performance of business
contracts. A rigid adherence to truth is demanded when
in a court of justice; but nothing is said in the Koran
about truthfulness in general.
5. Usury and debt are deprecated, and a true believer is
urged to show mercy to those who owe him anything, and
find it hard or impossible to pay.
6. In cases of theft the law is stern and even cruel. In
the fifth Sura it is written : " If a man or woman steal, cut
off their hands in retribution for that which they have
committed. This is an exemplary punishment appointed
by God, and God is mighty and wise."
7. As regards punishment for personal assault, the law
runs : " We have commanded them that they should give
eye for eye, nose for nose, ear for ear, and tooth for tooth,
and that wounds should also be punished by retaliation."
8. Manslaughter is met with a heavy penalty, and the
law for murder is as follows : — " Whoso killeth a believer

THE KORAN 17
designedly his reward shall be hell : he shall remain there
for ever, and God shall be angry with him and curse
him." 9. The laws with regard to marriage and divorce I place
last because they are the worst. A Mohammedan may, if
he likes, have four wives, and he can divorce any or all of
them for the most trifling offence. The Koran has little
that is good to say of woman. Sad in consequence is the
condition of womankind in Mohammedan countries, as
will be made plain in a later chapter.
There are also matters of religious practice, for a good
Mussulman is expected to demonstrate his religion by
certain outward and visible signs,- such as prayer, alms
giving, fasting, and pilgrimages.
1. The Koran is very emphatic as to the duty of praying
to God five times a day. Prayer is called " the Pillar of
Religion and the Key of Paradise." In another Sura I
find these words, " There can be no good in any religion
wherein is no prayer." And again it is written, " Pray, and
pray with patience."
Then certain definite rules and regulations are given with
regard to times of prayer, ablutions before prayer, and
attitudes during prayer.
2. In almsgiving liberality is enjoined. The faithful
must never forget the needy, but must succour those who
are in want. In the second Sura these words occur, " If ye
make your alms to appear it is well, but if ye conceal them
and give them to the poor, this will be better for you, and
will atone for your sins."
3. Fasting Mohammed called " a fourth part of faith,"
and said of it that it was " the gate of Religion," and that
" the odour of the mouth of him who fasteth is more grate
ful to God than that of musk."
Certain seasons of the year are set apart for fasting, the
chief of which is the month Ramadan, the ninth month of
the Mohammedan year. During the whole of this month,
from sunrise to sunset, a complete fast is enjoined from
c

18 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
meats and drinks. When the sun goes down, however,
the Faithful are allowed to partake of whatever they choose.
4. Pilgrimages are incumbent upon- every Mohammedan
who can afford the expense, or who is not otherwise in
capacitated. ' One pilgrimage, at least, ought to be made
to the sacred city of Mecca, the birthplace of the Prophet,
and the possessor of " the stone which came down 'from
heaven." The person who makes this Haj, or pilgrimage,
is held in great honour, and is thenceforward called by the
title of Hajji.
Having now summarized the teaching of the Koran
with respect to matters of faith, law, and religious prac
tice, I would conclude this chapter by a few general
remarks. The Koran does not contain from beginning to end an
account of a single miracle performed by Mohammed.
The miracles mentioned, and they are few, are taken chiefly
from Jewish or Christian sources. When spoken to about
miracles, the Prophet invariably answered that Allah had
granted him no power to work them.
The Koran contains much with which we are familiar
through reading our own Scriptures. The lives of some of
the Patriarchs and Prophets are given, though the stories
associated with them are altered in some particulars, and
are not improved by the alterations. We scarcely recognize
Abraham, Joseph, or Moses when we read their lives as
told by Mohammed.
", Our Lord Jesus Christ is spoken of in the Koran as truly
human, and the Christian belief in his Divinity is forcibly
denounced as idolatry.
The Koran indulges in fierce language against un
believers or infidels, and advocates the power of the sword
for their conversion. The Faithful are exhorted to fight
against their enemies, and to kill them wherever they
find them.
The Koran is not without its beautiful truths beautifully
expressed/ He who searches for good in its pages will find

THE KORAN 19
good. Take the following short sentences as illustrations
of the very best that the Koran can give us : —
" Trust in God, for God loveth those who trust in Him."
" God loveth the beneficent."
" Fear God, and know that ye must meet Him."
" Be ye perfect in knowledge and works."
" Behave yourselves patiently in adversity."
" Paradise is for those who bridle their anger."
" Persevere out of a sincere heart to please the Lord."
" Whoso resigneth himself unto God, being a worker of
righteousness, taketh hold on a strong handle."
"Oh, true believers, when ye discourse privately to
gether, discourse not of wickedness and enmity and dis
obedience towards the Apostle, but discourse of justice
and piety, and fear God, before whom ye shall o'ne day be
assembled." " Whoso is preserved from the covetousness of his own
soul, he shall prosper."
" Oppress not the orphan, neither repulse the beggar, but
declare the goodness of the Lord."
" Woe unto every slanderer and backbiter."
" Woe unto those who are negligent at prayer, and play
the hypocrite."
" Do gpod, for God loveth those that do good."
" Be patient, and try to excel in patience, and be con
stant-minded and fear God, that ye may be happy."
Notwithstanding the foregoing true and beautiful sayings,
however, the Koran, taken as a whole, repels, for there is a
cold, stern, hard spirit about it.
The Bible, compared with the Koran, is as light to dark
ness; and one decided outcome pf my study of the Moham
medan Scriptures is to increase my love and reverence for
the Christian Scriptures, which are incomparably more
beautiful and instructive, and more precious both in what
they tell us of the life that now is and of that which is to
come.'

c 2

CHAPTER III
MOSQUES
The term mosque is derived through the Italian
"moschea," from the Arabic "masjid," which signifies "a
place of prayer."
The first mosque was erected at Medina during the life
time of Mohammed, and that building has been the model
for all mosques in every part of the Mohammedan world
since. The site for the first mosque was chosen iri a
somewhat remarkable way. It was on the occasion of
the Prophet's public entrance into the city as its ruler in
both temporal and spiritual things.
On a certain Friday in the month of July, a.d. 622,
Mohammed, with his nephew, AH, and his son-in-law, Abu
Bekr, and a host of followers on horseback and foot,
appeared at the gates of Medina. The Prophet had come
from Mecca, which would have none of his teaching, and
where the people had sought to take his life. The gates of
Medina were at once opened to receive the illustrious
visitor, and from tens of thousands of the inhabitants there
went forth a glad shout of welcome.
And as Mohammed passed through the streets on his
favourite camel, from one and another came the cry,
" Alight here, O Prophet ! here is abundance ! here is
room ! here is protection ! " Every one was anxious to
have the honour of receiving under his roof the Prophet of
God. But the far-seeing man declined each invitation,
saying courteously, " Let the camel go free ; she will show
the place at which Allah wills that I shall alight."

MOSQUES 21
Slowly the procession moved on, until at length, in the
eastern part of the city, the camel halted, and sat down in
a large courtyard containing a number of date-trees.
" This is the spot," shouted Mohammed. " Here I alight !
Here I dwell ! And here shall a house be built where
prayer may be offered to Allah ! "
And so it was. Refusing to accept the ground as a gift,
the Prophet paid the full value for it, and then, with the
aid of his friends, he set about erecting a mosque, which
he called Al Haram, or " the Sacred."
Trees were cut down, walls of earth and brick were built,
the trunks of the trees were Used to support a roof which
was framed of their branches and thatched with their
leaves. The mosque thus erected was very primitive in
structure, but it was commodious, and answered the purpose
for which Mohammed designed it.
There he gathered his followers together by thousands ;
there he instructed them in the new religion ; there he led
them in their devotions to God, and taught them what to
say and what to do in the services of their House of
Prayer. Subsequent mosques, I have said, were imitations of the
sacred building at Medina. Yet in time, though the
original shape was almost invariably kept, there were
improvements added, particularly ,in the way of mina.ets,
or towers.
At the present day, wherever you go, you can dis
tinguish at a glance a .Mohammedan mosque from a
heathen temple or a Christian church, by its square shape,
its central dome, and its two or more minarets, which give
it a picturesque and pleasing appearance.
Of course, mosques differ very greatly in size and in
material, according to the population and the wealth of the
people. I have seen in India mosques that would not
hold a hundred people, and which were made of common
bricks and mud, with whitewashed walls ; and I have seen
in the same country, and also in Egypt and Syria, buildings

22 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
that would hold 15,000 people, and which were made of
beautiful marble, some of them interlaid with precious
stones. Let us approach a mosque with thoughts of entering it.
It is only of very recent years that Christians have been
allowed to step over the threshold of Mohammedan places
of worship. And even now, as a rule, our presence is
regarded as an intrusion, and evil glances are directed
towards us.
I was made somewhat unpleasantly aware of this in the
great Mosque of Mohammed Ali at Cairo, where an official
followed me about wherever I went, and seemed to be
watching keenly for me to do something that would justify
him in showing me the door.
Again in the Great Mosque at Damascus it was my lot
to enter the building with others while the Mohammedans
were at prayer. I . stood at one side to watch them in
their devotions, but my presence was felt to be a constraint,
and I was warned by the angry glances cast at me by the
worshippers that it would be well to withdraw, which I
accordingly did.
Mohammedan fanaticism is a passion which it is unsafe
to arouse. Whatever mosque a Christian may enter, he
should, as a matter of prudence as well as of good taste
and feeling, walk therein with circumspection, and be
constantly on his guard against hurting the amour-
propre of those to whom the building belongs, who are
extremely sensitive to feel and quick to resent what they
consider to be a slight or disrespect or insult.
As you approach a mosque you will notice that the
building is surrounded probably by a high stone wall.
The entrance-gate is always on the latch, and there are no
locks, bars, or bolts. A mosque is meant for the worship
of God, and it would be regarded by the Mohammedans as
a very sad thing indeed if one of the Faithful, rich or poor,
were unable, night or day, to obtain admittance.
Passing through the gateway, the visitor finds himself as.

MOSQUES 23
a rule in a large courtyard, in the centre of which is a tank
or reservoir, and at the extreme end of which stands the
House of Prayer.
Very often in warm climates the courtyard is used for
worship, the people not entering the mosque at all. In
India this is quite common. It seems to be considered
sufficient that the mosque is there, and the courtyard is
supposed to partake of the sanctity of the s,acred building.
Custom in this matter varies, and I have watched Moham
medans at their devotions both inside and outside their
places of worship.
After walking round the courtyard, which contains
nothing but the tank already mentioned, we enter the
mosque. In many places a fee has to be paid for this
privilege, and in all places it is incumbent upon the visitor
to take o'ff his shoes or boots, or draw over them certain
large felt slippers which are kept for the purpose. As a rule
the boots or shoes have to be taken off.
You will notice at once on entering that the House of
Prayer is kept scrupulously-clean and neat. Seats are con
spicuous by their absence. A Mohammedan would not
know how to use them, and they would be in the way in
his form of worship. The floor is of stone or of marble,
usually bare, though sometimes covered with matting.
We look at the walls, and find that they are perfectly
bare, beyond perhaps a sentence or two from the Koran, -for
not even the slightest ornament is allowed on them.
There is a pulpit, a plain wooden one, and a desk on
which rests a copy of the Scriptures; and these are
absolutely the only articles of furniture that the majority of
mosques contain.
What about windows? Generally speaking there are
none. Most mosques are lighted by a great doorway,
which reaches almost to the roof. In many cases the
front of the mosque is entirely open to the light, but in a
few cases, as in the Mosque of Omar, at Jerusalem, there
are windows.

24 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
That magnificent and famous mosque contains fifty-six
stained glass windows of great brilliancy and beauty ; buti
all the same, the interior is so gloomy and dark that care
has to be exercised in moving about therein.
But the Mosque of Omar is not used for worship, as the
greater part of the building is filled up with an immense
rock, which is said to be the very rock on which Abraham
sought to offer up his son Isaac as a sacrifice. At Jerusa
lem the Faithful offer their prayers in the courtyard ; and
there also the great pulpit is placed, from which, on special
occasions, sermons are preached.
Another point should be specially noticed in the interior
of a Mohammedan mosque. The wall of the building
facing the entrance will be seen to have a niche in it.
That niche is an indication that iri that directiqn lies
Mecca, the sacred city of the Mohammedans. All
worshippers when engaged in their devotions must turn
their faces towards Mecca ; and the niche in the wall is an
indication to theiri of the right direction, and a constant
reminder also of their religious duty.
There was a time, in the early days of Mohammed's
teaching, when he exhorted his disciples to follow the
example of the Jews, and turn their faces towards Jerusa
lem. . But the Jews offended the Prophet, and he decided
no longer to conform to their custom, but to institute for
Mohammedans a new " kiblah " or place towards which to
look when praying ; and the new kiblah was, of course,
Mecca. To give the new practice special importance, and to
make the matter binding on his followers, Mohammed
declared that the Angel Gabriel had appeared. to him in a
vision of the night, and given him special instructions.
These instructions are embodied in the Koran, and are,
I find, as follows : —
"The foolish man will say. What hath turned them front
their kiblah towards which they formerly prayed ? Say :
Unto God belongeth the East and the West ; He directeth

MOSQUES 25
whom -He pleaseth in the right way. Thus have we placed
you, O Arabians, an intermediate nation, that ye may be
witnesses against the rest of mankind. . . . Every sect
hath a certain tract of heaven to which they turn them
selves in prayer. . . . We have seen thee turn about thy
face towards heaven with uncertainty, but we will cause
thee to turn thyself towards a kiblah that will please thee.
Turn thou thy face towards the holy temple of Mecca ;
wherever ye be, turn your faces towards that place."
When the above revelation had been made known to
Mohammed, he called his followers together into the
mosque at Medina, and in the midst of public worship
acquainted them with the instructions of Gabriel ; and then
asking them to look at him, the Prophet with great
solemnity prostrated his body twice towards Jerusalem,
and then, turning deliberately round, he faced Mecca, and
said, " Jerusalem is behind us ; Mecca is in front of us.
Mecca is henceforth our kiblah ! " And from that day till
this Mohammedans in their devotions have turned their
faces towards Mecca.
Almost any day when you enter a mosque you will find
a few worshippers therein; but, like Christians and like
Jews, Mohammedans have one special day in the week set
apart for public worship. The Prophet in the Koran calls
it " The Day of the Assembly."
In order probably to be different from others, Mohammed
fixed upon Friday. Some say, however, that Friday was
chosen because on that day God finished the work of
creation. Still, others say that the choice ofthe day was
decided by the remembrance of the fact that it was on a
Friday that Mohammed publicly entered Medina, and
decided to build the first mosque. Whatever the reason
for it, it remains true that throughout the Mohammedan
world Friday is the day which is set apart as the " Day of
the Assembly."
This sacred day is not very strictly kept, however. It is
not allowed to interfere very much with business pursuits.

26 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
As a rule, Mohammedans on their Sunday make a point
of bathing and changing their apparel. They also consider
it a meritorious thing to be more liberal in almsgiving on
Sunday. They usually, moreover, spend a little more time
over their prayers.
It is not absolutely incumbent upon Mohammedans to
visit the mosque on Friday or on any other day, but they
are exhorted so to do by their spiritual guides, who instance
the example of .Mohammed himself, and a good Moham
medan usually complies with such request, and conforms to
the generally recognized custom.
Let us now make our way to a mosque on a Friday, and
see of what character the worship is.
The call to prayers on Friday, as on other days, is by
the human voice. An official called a Muezzin ascends one
of the tall minarets of a mosque, and calls out in a loud,
clear, distinct voice an invitation to the Faithful to worship
God either in their homes or in the mosque, or wherever
they may be at the moment.
There are five times in the day for prayer. " Glorify
God," says the Koran, " when the evening overtaketh you,
and when you rise in the morning, at sunset, after sunset,
and when you rest at noon."
I remember well one day resting at noon on the banks
of the Sea of Galilee, near the town of Tiberias. As I
rested I heard the sound of a convent bell, which was
sweet and pleasant. And it was immediately followed by
a very different sound — viz., the call of a human voice
from the minaret of a mosque which was. close at hand.
And I preferred the Mohammedan voice to the Christian
bell. Many a time had I heard a similar call in India, but
never before had its impressiveness particularly arrested my
attention. As the clear, sonorous notes fell upon my ear
I listened with interest and delight.
And this was what the Muezzin was saying, " God is
great ! God is great ! God is great ! I bear witness there
is no God but God ! I bear witness that Mohammed is

MOSQUES 27
the Apostle of God ! Come to prayers ! Come to salva
tion ! God is great ! Prayers are better than sleep ! "
It is a grand sight to witness, say, ten thousand Moham
medans assembled for worship in a mosque, and this I was
privileged to see once in the Great Mosque at Delhi, in
Northern India. I stood at the entrance to the courtyard,
and watched the worshippers go in.
The first thing a Mohammedan does is to take off his
shoes as a sign of respect, just as Christians take off their
hats. The shoes are carried in the left hand, sole to sole.
The worshipper also is very careful to put the right foot first
over the threshold as he enters. Then he makes his way
to the tank, in the centre of the courtyard, and performs
the necessary ablutions.
The Koran says, "O true believers, when ye prepare
yourselves to pray, rub your heads and hands unto the
elbows, and your feet up to the ankles." Where water
cannot be got, sand may be used as a substitute ; and fail
ing sand, fine dust. On no account must these ablutions
be omitted, as, according to Mohammed, " The practice of
religion is founded on cleanliness, which is one-half of the
faith and the key of prayer."
After ablutions, the worshippers all meet together and
arrange themselves in rows, standing, of course, and with
their faces turned towards Mecca. A religious official,
called an Imam,. then leads the assembly in their prayers.
It will be noticed by the attentive onlooker that all the
worshippers are plainly attired. It is altogether against
the creed of the Mohammedans for any to address them
selves to God in sumptuous apparel. The rich, when they
enter a mosque, lay aside their costly habits and ornaments,
lest they should seem proud and arrogant.
Verily amongst the Mohammedans the rich and the
poor meet together in public worship, and it would be
difficult to distinguish the one from the other. In prayer
all are held to be equal, and no places are reserved for any.
There is a great deal of formality in a Mohammedan

28 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
service. Look at those worshippers as they stand in rows
in their hundreds and thousands: At a given signal they
hold themselves very erect, with hands lifted up, the palms
being held out towards heaven ; while the eyes are supposed
to be turned with expressions of adoration and praise to
God. For a few moments that attitude lasts ; then at another
signal the worshippers prostrate themselves to the very
ground in willing subjection to the power of the Almighty.
Their foreheads must touch the floor. Then at another signal
the whole assembly assumes once more the erect posture.
These genuflections are gone slowly through, at least
three times, often five times ; and always with the greatest
reverence and solemnity. Usually a signal is also given to
sit or to kneel ; and then certain prayers are recited, some
times aloud, sometimes with a mere movement of the lips.
I find that it is not much that Mohammedans say during
prayers. Most of the time is taken up with genuflections,
which may or may not have a ' meaning for those who
indulge in them.
One explanation of these movements is, that man, as
head of the creation, should praise the Creator on behalf
of all — standing like a tree, stooping like quadrupeds,.
prostrate like reptiles, and sitting like mountains and hills.
The words of prayer are usually such as these, taken
from the Koran : " God is great," " God is merciful," " I
fly for refuge unto the Lord of men, the King of men, the
God of men, that He may deliver me from the mischief of
the whisperer who whispereth evil suggestions -into the
breasts of men," " This present life is no other than a toy
and a plaything ; but the future mansions of Paradise are
life indeed," " God is He who seeth and heareth," " God
is great ; God is good ! "
Then, very often prayers end with an ascription of praise
to God, which is held in great reverence by Mohammedans ;
and corresponds somewhat to our " Lord's Prayer." It is
. very beautiful, and is as follows : —

MOSQUES 29
" Praise be to God, the Lord of all creatures, the Most
Merciful, the King of the Day of Judgment. Thee do we
worship, and of Thee do we beg assistance. Direct us in
the right way, in the way of those to whom Thou hast been
gracious, not of those against whom Thou art incensed,
nor of those who go astray."
When prayers are over, sometimes on a Friday in a
Mohammedan mosque, a sermon will be preached. If so,
some passage of the Koran is taken and expounded, and
applied to the needs of the people.
Moreover, the Christian doctrine of the Trinity is a
fruitful topic for discourse, the preacher often waxing
eloquent over the idolatry of the followers of Christ. A
favourite text is : " They say, God hath begotten children :
God forbid ! "
Preaching is not greatly practised in mosques. Moham:
medan worship is chiefly prayer, and it is apt to degenerate
into attention to the mere forms arid ceremonies.
I have endeavoured to be strictly impartial and fair in
my description of mosques or Mohammedan places of
worship. There is something attractive about them.
Their simplicity is charming. Whenever I have been in
them I have felt that they were truly houses of prayer.
But taking them altogether in connection with their
worship, I think that no Christian would hesitate a moment
in saying that Christian churches, with their singing of
hymns, their reading of God's Word, their prayers, and
their sermons, are infinitely to be preferred to Mohammedan
mosques.

CHAPTER IV
WOMEN
"Women" is the title of the fpurtji Sura of the Koran,
and therein is to be found a great deal of information as to
the position which females occupy in the Mohammedan
world. The opening words of the chapter are : " O men, fear
your Lord, who hath ereated you out of one jnan, and out of
him created his wife, and from these twain hath multiplied
many men and women ; and fear God, by whom ye beseech
one another ; and respect women, who have borne you, for
God is watching over you." " Respect women ! " is the
best of counsel to give to men. Happy the people who
listen to it ; and blessed the country where such a precept
is put into practice ! The interpretation of such a word as
*' respect " differs, however1, in different lands. I am afraid
amongst Mohammedans that the term does not mean very
much ; at any rate, it does not keep them from treating
their women as an inferior creation tb men, and of
exercising over them a despotic power. Mohammedan
women labour under many disabilities and hardships
of which Christian women, happily, have little or no
experience. It is a significant fact that in Mohammedan countries
the birth of a girl is counted a matter of sorrow, while the
birth of a boy is a matter for unbounded thankfulness and
joy. " Few girls and many boys " is the universal motto,
for more honour is said to be attached to a house where
there are many sons. So woman, at the outset, is at a

WOMEN 31
discount. There is no discharge of artillery or musketry
when a little girl is born, as is the case when a boy is born.
On the fourth - day after the daughter's birth there is no
gathering of friends to rejoice with the parents, as in the
case of a son. And when the little girl's birthday comes
round each year, there is no party to commemorate the
day, as is the case with a boy. No ! a girl is a girl — a
source of anxiety, care, and sorrow — and parents and
friends alike treat her appearance on the scene as an
occasion, at the very least, for regret. This, surely, is a
bad beginning in the carrying out of the Prophet's aphorism,
" Respect women."
Nor does the passing of time improve matters. In the
household economy the girl is taken little notice of, while
the boy is ever to the front. If the parents decide to
educate their children at all, it is their son that is put to
school, while their daughter's education is almost entirely
neglected. It is a startling fact that out of 9,000,000
. Mohammedan females in the Bengal Presidency, only 9,000
can read and write. The want of education in general
amongst Mohammedans is a crying evil, but that women
in particular should be so sadly neglected is a shame and a
disgrace. Another wrong also under which women suffer in
Mohammedan countries is that of early marriage. It is
true that in Eastern lands girls become women sooner than
in Western lands ; but, all the same, the age of ten or even
under is altogether too early to commence the duties,
responsibilities, and trials of married life. In this matter
Mohammed himself set a very bad example. His third
wife, whose name was Ayesha, was a mere child of seven
years when the Prophet espoused her, and she was only
nine when he married her, and took her away from her
father's 'house. It is said that the little girl had her play
things in her hands when the Prophet called for her ; and
doubtless she carried them with her to her new home.
Mohammedans, when expostulated with about early

32 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
marriages, have the example of their Prophet to pbint to.
Yet I think some of the more thoughtful amongst them
regret the general custom, because it is injurious to the
manhood and womanhood of the community. It should
be borne in mind also in connection with Mohammedan
early marriages, that the young people have no choice in
the matter, but do what is arranged for them by their
parents. As with Christians, so with Mohammedans, there are
certain marriages which are forbidden, owing chiefly to
close relationship. The law runs : " Marry not women
whom your fathers have had to wife, fbr this is an evil
thing. Ye are forbidden to marry your mothers, and your
daughters, and your sisters, and your aunts both on the
father's and mother's side ; and your brother's daughters,
and your sister's daughters, and your foster-mothers, and
your foster-sisters, and your wives' mothers, and your
daughters-in-law ; and ye are also forbidden to take to wife
two sisters ; for God is gracious and merciful."
The Mohammedan law is, unfortunately, generous as to
the number of wives a true believer may possess. This is
another wrong under which Mohammedan women suffer.
The words of the Koran are : " Take in marriage of such
women as please you, two, or three, or four, and not more.
But if ye fear that ye cannot act equitably towards so
many, marry one only, or the slaves which ye shall have
acquired. This will be easier, that ye swerve not from
righteousness." I believe that many Mohammedans, con
strained by poverty or right feeling, content themselves
with one wife, but there are millions of men who take the
Prophet at his word, and have two, or three, or four wives.
And hence springs a fearful amount of discord and misery.
The first wife of a Mohammedan is, as a rule, the only one
who receives the honour of a public marriage display. The
first wife is also always considered the head of the female
establishment, and takes precedence in all matters where
dignity is to be observed. Except amongst the poor, each

WOMEN 33
wife has a separate room. When the several wives meet,
all the rest pay to the first wife that deference which
superiority exacts from inferiors.
The son of the first wife, if she be so fortunate as to
have one, becomes the undisputed heir, and is allowed a
little latitude in lording it over his brothers by other
mothers. When these points are kept in mind, it is easy
to see that a plurality of wives is not likely to add to the
peace or comfort of a household. Yet polygamy has a
firm hold on the Mohammedan world, and will have as long
as the verbal inspiration of the Koran is maintained as an
article of Mohammedan faith. The argument is that what
ever the Koran permits cannot be wrong, or even unwise.
Experience goes for nothing, for is it not written " Take
in marriage of such women as please you, two, or three, or
four." For refractory wives Mohammed has arranged certain
punishments. In the 4th sura of the Koran, at the 33rd
verse, these words occur: "Men shall have pre-eminence
above women, because of those advantages wherein God
hath caused the one to excel the other, and for that which
• they expend of their substance in maintaining their wives.
The honest women are obedient and careful in the absence
of their husbands. But those whose perverseness ye shall
be apprehensive of, rebuke, and remove them into separate
apartments and chastise them." What power to put legally
into the hands of a husband ! The fault of the poor
wife may have been trivial, and may have been provoked
by the words or actions of another wife, and for that
fault she is at the mercy of her husband. He can take
her apart and chastise her, and though the chastisement
may be altogether, beyond her deserts, the suffering
creature has no redress. In defence of his conduct
the husband can point to the words of the Koran, and
say, " The mouth of the Lord hath spoken it."
By the Mohammedan law a man is allowed a divorce
from his wife for very slender reasons ; but the wife, before
D

34 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
she can obtain a divorce, has to establish the fact of
absolute neglect or very serious cruelty.
If a wife be unfaithful, and it can be proved, death is the
penalty. Failing proof, a man can obtain a divorce, if he
be willing to swear four times that he believes his wife to
have been unfaithful, and then be prepared to imprecate
God's vengeance on his head should he be swearing falsely.
This latitude in the matter of divorce is very greatly taken
advantage of by some Mohammedans. Stobart, comment
ing on this subject in his book, " Islam, and its Founder,"
says : " Some Mohammedans make a habit of continually
changing their wives. We read of young men who have
had twenty and thirty wives, a new one every three months ;
and thus it comes about that women are liable to be in
definitely transferred from one man to another, obliged to
accept a husband and a horne wherever they can find one,
or in case of destitution, to which divorce may have driven
them, to resort to other more degrading means of living."
Thus while keeping the strict letter of the law, and possess
ing only one or certainly not more than four wives, un
scrupulous characters may yet by divorce obtain in a lifetime
as many wives as they please.
In another way also a Mohammedan may really have
more than four wives, and yet keep within the law. This
is by means of living with concubines, which the Koran
expressly permits. In that sura which allows four wives,
the words are added, " or the slaves which ye shall have
acquired." Then, in the 70th sura, it is revealed that it is
no sin to live with slaves. The very words are: "The
slaves which their right hands possess, as to them they shall
be blameless." At the present day, as in days past, in
multitudes of Mohammedan homes, slaves are found ; and
as Muir says, in his " Life of Mahomet," " so long as
this unlimited permission of living with their female slaves
continues, it cannot be expected that there will be any
hearty attempt to put a stop to slavery in Mohammedan
countries." Thus the Koran, in this matter.of slavery, is

WOMEN 35
the enemy of mankind. And women, as usual, are the
greatest sufferers.
It is interesting to notice that Mohammed, who, as he
said, was commissioned by God to limit the number of
legal wives which True Believers might possess to four,
himself had sixteen, if not eighteen. About two months
after the death of Kadija, his first wife, the Prophet
married a widow named Sawda, for whom, it is said, he
had little affection. Soon after, he married Ayesha, the
little girl already referred to. Ayesha became his favourite
wife, and played an important part in the Prophet's life,
and in the after-history of Mohammedanism. Haphsa,
the daughter of Omar, a brave warrior, was the fourth wife
of Mohammed. Om-Salma was the fifth; and the sixth
was the divorced wife of his adopted son, Zeyd. Thus the
Prophet added wife to wife until the number reached four
times the limit he had himself fixed by command of God.
Such inconsistency was, of course, noticed by his enemies,
and made much of ; and even his devoted followers were
perplexed at the behaviour of the Prophet. Mohammed,
however, was equal even to such an occasion, and got over
the difficulty and trouble -by a special revelation which per
mitted him privileges which others could not possess.
The words are to be found in the 33rd sura of the Koran,
and are as follows : — "O Prophet, we have allowed thee thy
wives, unto whom thou hast given their dower, and also
the slaves which thy right hand possesseth of the booty
which God hath granted thee ; and the daughters of thy
uncle, and the daughters of thy aunts, both on thy father's
side and on» thy mother's side ; and any other believing
woman if she give herself unto the Prophet in case the
Prophet desireth her to wife. This is a peculiar privilege
granted unto thee above the rest ofthe true believers." This
revelation settled the matter. All grumbling ceased. The
Prophet was allowed to be a law unto himself.
The wives of Mohammed received the honourable title
of Mothers of the Faithful. This was a spiritual designa-
d 2

36 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
tion, as by none of them did the Prophet have any children,
save by the first, Kadija. The only child that was born
to him after his .first wife died was a boy, the offspring of a
Coptic slave-girl, named Mary. This little lad, who was
the idol of his father's heart, died, however, at the age of
fifteen months. His death was a great blow to the Prophet,
for he had fondly hoped through the son of his old age to
have transmitted his name to posterity. Mohammed, is
said to have borne this great trouble with the patient
resignation of a man of faith.
Another peculiarity of the treatment of Mohammedan
women is that which may be characterized as seclusion.
The liberty of action which Christian women, especially
Englishwomen, enjoy is a thing denied to their Moham
medan sisters. In India, seclusion is carried to an extreme.
There Mohammedan women are scarcely ever permitted to
go abroad, and when they do so they must be very carefully
veiled. This strict seclusion is due, I believe, to an edict
of the great Tamerlane, who, in 1398, entered Hindustan
as a conqueror. He issued a proclamation to his followers to
the effect that "as they were now in a strange land of idolatry,
and amongst a strange people, the females of their families
should be strictly concealed from view."
While Tamerlane is to blame for the strict seclusion of
Mohammedan women, Mohammed is to blame that they
are secluded at all. A strange story is told as to the first
introduction of the custom. It is said by the Moham
medans themselves that one day the Prophet entered
suddenly the house of his adopted son, Zeyd, and beheld
there the handsome wife of the latter, whose beauty so
captivated Mohammed's fancy that nothing would satisfy
him but to have her for a wife.
When Zeyd heard of this he did not become indignant,
but, remembering all the kindness the Prophet had shown
him, he expressed his gratitude by divorcing his wife, and
handing her over at once to Mohammed.
The Prophet received her with joy, and when the sense

WOMEN 37
of propriety of the people of Medina was scandalized by
this union, Mohammed met it by a revelation, which gave
him Divine sanction for the step he had taken.
In the 33rd sura of the Koran it is written : " When Zeyd
had determined the matter concerning his wife, and had
resolved to divorce her, we joined her in marriage unto
thee. No crime is to be charged on the Prophet as to
what God hath allowed him." And thereat the people
were satisfied.
This episode, however, set Mohammed- thinking about
the seclusion of women, and as he would not have fallen in
love with his adopted son's wife if he had not seen her face,
he made a law with. regard to his own wives — that whoever
should have occasion to speak to them, should address
them " from behind a curtain."
Very soon this regulation was followed by another to the
effect " That all females belonging.to the Faithful should be
compelled to wear a close veil over their face and figure
whenever they went abroad." Thus the practice of seclusion
was started. The very frailty of the Prophet himself was
the occasion of the bringing in of a custom which has
restricted the freedom, hindered the education, and limited
the natural enjoyments of Mohammedan women.
It must not be thought, however, that Zenana life is
altogether gloomy. The ladies therein have their daily
employments, and occasional amusements, which help to
cheer them on their way. Mohammedan women, it should
be borne in mind, are not debarred from the society of
their own sex. They are very fond of company, and
arrange as often as possible for social reunions. On the
occasions of births and marriages especially the monotony
of life is broken for them, and they are provided with food
for thought, and with topics of conversation for many a
long day.
In her book on the " Mussulmans of India," Mrs. Meer
Hassan Ali, an English lady, who married a Mohammedan,
says : " At first I pitied the apparent monotony of the lives

38 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
Of Mussulman ladies, but this feeling has worn away by
intimacy with the people who are thus precluded from
mixing generally with the world. They are happy in their
confinement : and never having felt the sweets of liberty,
they would not know how to use the boon if it were granted
to them. As the bird from the nest immured in a cage is
both cheerful and contented, so are these females."
Mrs. Meer Hassan Ali may be right,' but all the same
there is something wrong about the system that thus makes
a prison- of a home.
Mohammedan women, like all other Women of the East,
are excessively given to love bf finery. And in this matter •
they are indulged by their husbands. The wealth of a
family may, as a rule, be judged by a single glance at the
principal lady of the house, who does honour to the estab
lishment by a wonderful display of jewellery. Sterling metal
is generally employed for the chains of gold and silver
which encircle the neck or waist, for the bangles or bracelets
which glitter on the arms and ankles, for the nut or ring
which, in the case of married ladies, is inserted in the
nostril ; for the innumerable rings which are put on fingers,
thumbs, and toes, and for the ornaments which grace the
hair. This love of finery in some wealthy families is carried
to such an extreme, that ladies dress even their female slaves
superbly; and on occasions of marriage ceremonies or
scenes of festivity, proudly exhibit their attendants in their
handsome attire with the idea of adding to their own conse
quence by the rich display.
I find that Mohammed issued one or two stern warnings
against the Eastern love of ornaments and show. The
Prophet was a plain man, and wished his followers to live
in a simple way also. Once when his wives asked for more
liberal allowances to be expended on sumptuous clothes
and jewellery, that they might support with increasing
dignity their exalted position as Mothers of the Faithful,
Mohammed got very angry with them, and threatened
them with serious punishments, and finally asked them to

WOMEN 39
choose between contentment and divorce. The Prophet
declared that he had received a Divine command on the
matter, which he proceeded to lay before his discontented
womenfolk. It is to be found in the 33rd sura of the
Koran, and runs : " O Prophet, say unto thy wives, if ye
seek this present life and the pomp thereof, come, I will
make a handsome provision for you, and I will dismiss you
with an honourable dismission : but if ye seek God and
His Apostle, and the life to come, verily God hath pre
pared for such of you as work righteousness a great
reward." It is recorded that these words brought
the Mothers of the Faithful to instant submission, and
Mohammed had no further trouble in his household on the
score of finery. But Mohammedans generally do not
follow the Prophet in this one particular. His rules and
regulations on dress are quietly but firmly put on one side,
and Mohammedan ladies, with the exception of widows,
clothe themselves as grandly as they please, and are
encouraged therein by their lovers and husbands. Con
sidering the few interests these ladies have in their secluded
lives, and bearing in mind that they are not encouraged to
cultivate their intellects by reading and study, we cannot
very strongly denounce their passionate love of finery, which
undoubtedly gives them occupation, and affords them con
siderable pleasure.
Passing to more serious things, it is generally affirmed
that Mohammedan women are dutiful daughters, obedient
wives, affectionate mothers, and devoted servants of God
and of the Prophet. As far as they are taught, they are
zealous in performing their religious duties. The pity is
that in Mohammedan communities so little is done to
assist women in the formation of a religious character.
They are not much encouraged to cultivate the habit of
prayer, and they are scarcely ever to be seen in attendance
on the worship of God in mosques. I believe that women
are absolutely excluded from the majority of Mohammedan
places of worship, and are frowned upon if they venture to

4- STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
appear in others, at any rate while men are there, for the
men-folk declare that "the presence of a woman in a
mosque is not conducive to devotion to God." During
the years I was in India, and in my travels in other
Mohammedan countries, though I entered hundreds of
mosques, I never once saw a woman at public prayers.
How different from our Christian custom ! With us the
two sexes meet in the House of God on a footing* of
equality, and we should regard our churches poor indeed
if, for any cause, the refining and elevating influences
which women exert there were withdrawn.
The conclusion I have come to, after a close study of the
Mohammedan laws with regard to women, and after con
sidering what I have seen and heard of their lives, is that
the lot of our Eastern sisters is a hard one,, as far as this
world is concerned. And what about the next world ?
What hope does Mohammedanism hold out to women in
the life that lies beyond the grave ?
There is a pathetic story told of an old woman who
came to Mohammed on one occasion, and told him that
she had heard that he had promised untold joys in
Paradise to all believing men. " Cannot something be
done for us women also ? " was the cry of the supplicant.
" Will not the Prophet intercede with God that I may be
admitted into Paradise ? " > And what did Mohammed
answer? He gruffly responded, "No old woman will
enter that glorious abode ! " But, then, seeing the anguish
of the almost broken-hearted creature, he was moved to
compassion, and added, gently, "God will make thee
young again ! " Perhaps that interview set the Prophet
thinking about the subject, and led to the insertion in the
Koran of just two or three saving clauses, which assert the
doctrine that women as well as men may enter into the
joys ofthe redeemed of the Lord. In the 14th sura I find
these words, " Whoso doeth evil shall be rewarded for it,
and shall not find any patron or helper beside God ; but
whoso doeth good works, whether male or female, and is a

WOMEN 41
true believer, will be admitted into Paradise, and will not
in the least be unjustly dealt with." Then, in the 16th
sura, these words occur : " Whoso worketh righteousness,
whether male or female, and is a true believer, we will raise
to a happy life, and we will give them their reward accord
ing to the utmost merit of their actions." There the
revelation stops — advisedly, Gibbon says. Beautiful,
" heavenly wives " without number are promised to
believing men, but no " heavenly husbands " are promised
to believing women. Nor is it said they will ever see
again their earthly husbands.
The Mohammedan Paradise is without doubt primarily
for men. To admit women at all was a kind of after
thought, and must be regarded in the light of a special
favour. Yet it is something that women are admitted.
And doubtless the hope of something better farther on — of
rest and peace and joy " within the veil " — alleviates a
little the oppression and pain of this present life to multi
tudes of God's creatures who have the misfortune to be
born Mohammedan women.

CHAPTER V
THE FOUR PERFECT WOMEN
Studies in Mohammedanism would be incomplete
which did not deal with the subject of the Four Perfect
Women of the Faith.. It is a remarkable fact that the
religion which speaks of women in general in anything but
complimentary terms, bestows unmeasured praise upon
four ladies. The Prophet is reported to have said, " That
among men there had been many perfect ; but not more
than four of the other sex have attained perfection — to wit,
Asiyah, Mary, Kadija, and Fatima."
i. Asiyah, according to Mohammed, was the wife of the
Pharaoh of the Exodus. This lady was of an enlightened
spirit, and when she saw the wonders of Moses in Egypt,
she forsook the faith of her fathers, and adopted that of
Moses and of Abraham. For her change of faith she was
persecuted by her husband, who sought to force her to a
recantation. Failing, however, in that, he resolved to slay
her, and by -slow means, so as to make her suffer terrible
agonies. He commanded that she ^should be thrown on
the ground, and that her hands and feet should be fastened
to stakes. Next, a large millstone was placed upon her
breast, so that it was absolutely impossible for her to move.
Then, with uncovered face, she was left exposed to the
scorching rays of the Eastern sun.
Mohammed says that though persecuted and forsaken of
mankind, the noble lady was remembered by God, who
sent His angels to shade her with their wings, and to give
her strength to be faithful even unto death. In the 66th
sura of. the Koran the last words of Asiyah are recorded.

THE FOUR PERFECT WOMEN 43
They are, " Lord, build me a house with Thee in Paradise ;
rescue me from Pharaoh and his doings, and deliver me
from the unjust people." That prayer, we are told, was
heard, and the martyred Queen was released from her
anguish, and was taken by the angels into Heaven, where
she ever liveth as an example of suffering affliction and of
patience. Asiyah was the first perfect woman.
2. The second, Mary, was the mother of Jesus. Of her
wonderful things are related, the most marvellous thing
being that she was absolutely without sin. The Moham
medans have a tradition that every person who comes into
the world is touched at birth by the pevil, and thereupon
cries out. When Mary was born, however, God interposed
a veil between her and the Evil One, so that the touch of
the latter did not reach her ; and, as a consequence, she
did not cry, and afterwards throughout her life committed
no folly or sin.
It is interesting to notice here that some scholars think
that in all probability the Roman Catholic Church took its
doctrine of the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary
from the Mohammedans. Soon after her birth, Mary, it is
said, was given into the charge of Zacharias, the father of
John the Baptist, and by him she was placed in the inner
chamber of the Temple at Jerusalem, where she remained
during the years of childhood and youth. As a conse
quence of those early Temple associations, Mary grew up
learned in the Scriptures, and became eminently pious, so
that she was worthy of that great honour which was con
ferred upon her of becoming the mother of Jesus, the very
soul of God. In the 66th sura of the Koran it is written,
" Into Mary we breathed of our Spirit ; she believed in the
words of her Lord, and was a devout and obedient person."
And, again, in the 3rd sura it is written, " O Mary, verily
God hath chosen thee, and hath purified thee, arid thou
shalt bear the Word, and His name shall be Christ Jesus.
. . God hath chosen thee above all the women of the
world."

44 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
3. The third perfect woman of the Mohammedan Faith
was the first wife of the Prophet, the beautiful and faithful
Kadija, who in good report and ill report was the devoted
helpmeet of him whom she sincerely and fondly loved.
Of Kadija, and with good reason, Mohammed declared
that she was " a Princess amongst women." Well would
it have been for Mohammedanism if this lady had been
spared to the Prophet until the close of his life ! While
she lived Mohammed was a true man, earnestly trying by
fair means tp win his countrymen over from idolatry to
faith in God alone. During Kadija's lifetime also he
seemed perfectly content with one helpmeet. But when
she died he became a changed character. Force took the
place of moral suasion in the propagation of the Faith; and .
then began that declension of soul which allowed Moham
med to take unto himself wives many, and which permitted
him to turn his divine inspiration to the lowest and basest
account, to satisfy his selfish aims and unnatural desires.
Mohammedanism has nothing but good to say of
Kadija, and the Prophet was never weary of singing
her praises and holding her up before the Faithful as a
model wife and mother. It is related that Ayesha, Moham
med's girl-wife, a spoiled beauty, was jealous of the dead
Kadija, and spoke disparagingly of her to her husband on
one occasion, but only on one, for she was ever afterwards
in fear of the Prophet's anger. Ayesha had said, " O my
husband, was not Kadija, thy first wife, old, and has not
God given thee a better in her place ? " " No ! by Allah ! "
was the indignant reply. " No ! Kadija believed in me
whea men despised me : she relieved my wants when I
was poor and persecuted by the world ! No ! by Allah !
there can never be a better ! She was one of the four
perfect women of the world ! "
Thus warmly did Mohammed defend the memory of the
dear one dead. And thus was the occasion given him to
exalt her to whom he owed so much. And in so doing he
bore a noble testimony.

THE FOUR PERFECT WOMEN 45
4. We come now to Fatima. She was the favourite
daughter of Mohammed, born to him in the early days of
his happy married life, when he was only known to his
countrymen as the " Camel Driver." Fatima is considered
by the Mohammedan world as the greatest of the illustrious
four. The Prophet himself drew no comparisons between
them. This lady was married to Ali, a nephew of Moham
med, and one of1 his earliest and most trusted followers.
Two children were the issue of the marriage, named Hasan
and Hosein, whom the Prophet dearly loved. Fatima, as
daughter, wife, and mother, seems to have won great praise.
From all accounts she was truly a model character. She
was renowned for her wisdom, her holiness, her religious
¦zeal, her domestic virtues, the meekness of her behaviour,
and her unselfishness, which constantly found expression
in generous gifts to the poor and needy. With regard to
her deeds of extraordinary charity, innumerable tales are
told, of which the shortest and the best, I think, is the
following : — It happened that Hasan and Hosein fell ill,
and one day when the Prophet called to see them, he sug
gested to the sorrowing parents, Ali and Fatima, that they
should, as was customary on such occasions, make a vow
to God for the recovery of their children. They willingly
assented, declaring in case the little ones got well they
would perform a strict fast of three days in gratitude for
the goodness of God. Shortly after the boys recovered,
and then the parents, along with their one maidservant,
Fidda, began their fast. From morning till night of the
first day not a morsel of bread or a drop of water crossed
their lips. When the sun went down, however, it was
permitted to partake of refreshment. For the three days
Fatima had provided herself with three measures of barley
and it was arranged that one measure each evening should
be made into cakes and eaten. On no account would they
seek other or better food. The first evening arrived, the
cakes were prepared, and the family, having attended to
their devotions, assembled round the homely meal with

46 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
thankful hearts and contented spirits. They were just
about to partake of the cakes and break their fast, when a
voice of distress caught their ears. It was the cry of an
old man at the door — " Give me, O give me," said the
voice, "for the love of God, something to relieve my
hunger, and to save my famishing family from perishing."
Fatima, glancing at her husband, said, " How can we,
the Prophet's children, refuse that cry ? " In a moment,
gathering together all the cakes, and hurrying to the door
with them, she gave them, with her blessing, to the old
man. Ali, looking on, approved the self-sacrifice, and even
the maidservant heaved never a sigh, though that night
neither she, nor her master and mistress had bite or sup.
The ne"xt day was passed in useful' occupation, and when
evening drew nigh the same humble fare of five barley
cakes was placed on the table, and the little household sat
down to it with appetites made doubly keen by the length
ened abstinence. Again, as they were about to partake of
it, came the cry, " For the love of God ! " Fatima hurried
to the door to see what was the matter, and found there
two orphan children pathetically praying for food. The
sight moved the compassionate mother, whose own children
were so, well off, and who had so mercifully been spared to
her when she had feared to lose them. Returning to her
husband, she said, " It is surely the will of God and of
His Prophet that we should succour the needy ! Let the
little ones have our rneal ! " Ali, struck with the self-
denying zeal of his wife, answered, " As thou wilt, and as
God will ! " Thus for a second night the household went
without food. With feebleness of body, and yet with brave
spirits, they attended to the duties of the morrow, and on
the third evening sat down with glad hearts to partake of
the simple provision that remained. This story was made
public by Fidda, the servant, for Ali and Fatima were so
accustomed to performing such deeds of charity that they
never referred to it. When Mohammed heard of it, he
was filled with joy, and said that all generations would call

THE FOUR PERFECT WOMEN 47
him blessed for being the father of such a noble woman as
Fatima, the wife of Ali. Fatima lived for many years after
that event, and was the admiration of the Faithful, both at
Medina and at Mecca.
The lives of Asiyah, Mary, Kadija, and Fatima, " the
Four Perfect Women;" were placed by the Prophet before
the women of Mohammedanism as examples of what good
women should be. Everywhere the story of the lives of
these excellent ladies has been told and retold. There is
not a single respectable Mohammedan home in which
some mention is not made almost daily of the virtues and
good works of " the faithful four." And the great ambition
of Mohammedan women is to follow in the footsteps of
those perfect ones, that they may also haply be renowned
for their goodness, and receive the favour of God and His
Prophet. It seems to me that the one redeeming feature
in connection with the dark picture of the treatment of
women in Mohammedan countries lies in this doctrine of
" the Four Perfect Women." It places an ideal, a worthy
ideal, before the down-trodden and oppressed. It shows
them how even in the darkness of their secluded lives they
may make their light shine. It raises within their breasts
a glorious ambition. It leads them to feel that a good
woman is the noblest work of God. Mohammed rendered
a great service not only to Mohammedanism, but to
humanity, when he formulated his theory of "the Four
Perfect Women."
There are instances on record in Mohammedan countries
of both rich and poor who have earnestly striven to be like
" the four " in every womanly grace and virtue, and haye in
large measure succeeded. I have heard of one poor,
humble imitator who lived in Turkey, whose devoutness,
holiness of character, and self-denial were mqst marked,
and earned for her great renown. At length this widow
woman, poor in goods but rich in faith, resolved to go on
a pilgrimage to the tomb of her Prophet, and also to
the far-famed tombs of Hasan and Hosein, the sons of

48 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
Fatima. Medina was reached after months of weary
travelling, but the devoted soul felt amply repaid for all her
toils when she was able to bend her knees and kiss the
stone which covered the remains of the Prophet of God.
And then she started off again to the tombs of the martyrs,
Hasan and Hosein. There a heavy fee was required for
permission to enter. At that time one hundred gold
pieces was the amount fixed, though now it is but a trifle.
The old woman was, however, quite prepared to meet the
demand, and went boldly up to the wicket-gate, and
requested to be let in. The custodian of the tombs looked
at her, and judging from her appearance that she was one
of the poorest of the poor, scoffed at her presumption, and
bade her, in a harsh voice, be gone. She gave him a
meek reply, and fumbling in her dress, brought forth the
full price of admission, and laid it down before the
astonished gatekeeper. Now the man supposed that he
had to do with a thief, and calling others to his side, began
to interrogate the poor old woman, intending at the close
to hand her over to the Cadi, or Judge.
But the replies he received to his questions led him to
change his mind. With dignity and some warmth of
feeling the good woman answered him that she was no
thief, but a true servant of God and of the Prophet. " As
to this money," she said, " is it a great thing that I should
freely give one hundred gold pieces out of my poverty for
such an object? Know ye, my brothers, that I have
laboured these thirty years at my spinning-wheel, and have
debarred myself many things, while I have not forgotten
those poorer than myself, that I might at length have
sufficient money to realize the dearest wish of my life — to
visit the tombs of the children of the blessed Fatima.
Here, take at once the fruits of my labour, and let me in,
for every moment's delay is an agony. I wish to pray and
weep over the dust of the martyred ones." Such an appeal
was irresistible. The saintly woman had her heart's desire,
and the story of her love and zeal was that night told

THE FOUR PERFECT WOMEN 49
round many a pilgrim's watch-fire, and has been handed
down the centuries for the encouragement of those who
are like-minded, and as an incentive to all the women of
Islam. The scene changes. Let us go in thought to India. It
is the reign of Shah Jahan, that famous Emperor who
erected so many magnificent buildings to the glory of
Mohammedanism, and that lovely tomb, the Taj Mahal,
at Agra, in memory of his idolized wife, Mumtaz. The
power of Shah Jahan seemed unshakable, and yet his own
son, Aurangzebe, dethroned him, and condemned him to
lifelong imprisonment. Then it was that, though the aged
and unfortunate Emperor had lost a kingdom, he found a
daughter. When all of his courtiers and friends forsook
him and fled, his eldest daughter, the beautiful Jahanara,
clave to him, and vowed that nought but death should part
them. For seven long years the father and daughter were
immured in the strong fortress at Agra, and had nothing to
cheer them but each other's love and the consolations of
their religion.
Their conversation often turned on the Four Perfect
Women of their creed, and the aged monarch loved to
compare the devotion of his own daughter Jahanara with
the devotion of Fatima, the daughter of the Prophet.
"Was there ever," he would exclaim, — "was there ever
truer love than this, which keeps a beautiful woman away
from the pleasures of a Palace that she may share with me
the sorrows of a prison?" At length relief came; the
imprisoned Emperor died, and Jahanara was at liberty to
enter the busy world once more. Her seven years, how
ever, of seclusion and devoted service had weakened her
frame, and ere long she also was laid in her last resting-
place. Her tomb is at Delhi. Miss Gordon Cumming, in her
book "In the Himalayas and on the Indian Plains,"
speaks of having visited the spot. She says, "Here,
beneath the green turf, sleeps Jahanara, the beautiful E

50 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
daughter of Shah Jahan, who voluntarily shared his
captivity, and, after a life of such purity and holiness as
earned her a place among the Mohammedan saints, desired
on her death-bed that she might be buried without pomp
or splendour."
It was my good fortune, also, in the spring of 1888, td
visit that tomb. Many other sepulchres lie around, being
plain, square, marble structures, about six feet long and
two feet high, surrounded by screens of that exquisite
marble trellis-work which is so beautiful a feature of
Mohammedan architecture. The tomb of the faithful
daughter, I noticed, differed from the others in one par
ticular — it was not covered with a slab. And on the plain
headstone was this inscription, " Let no rich canopy cover
my grave. Grass and flowers are the only coverings meet
for the tomb of the poor in spirit, the humblej the transitory
Jahanara, the daughtei of, the Emperor Shah Jahan."
That dying request has been religiously kept. The grass
grows over her grave to this day; and all who look down
upon it are touched, as they think of the simplicity and
beauty of the character of one who, though born to very
high estate, was of such a gentle and humble spirit.
Noble Jahanara ! A bright example of a good Moham
medan woman wast thou ! A worthy successor of Fatima,
and the other perfect three !
I could give additional examples, but enough, I think,
has been, said to show that Mohammedanism, with all its
bad laws with respect to females, with its restrictions of
their liberty, its neglect of their education, and its denial
to them of the public means of grace, can yet produce
women of exalted goodness, of estimable virtues, and of
saintly character.
What might not the women of the East become if only
their lives were passed under the elevating and benignant
sway of the Christian religion, and with the one " Perfect
Man, Christ Jesus," ever before them as their great
Exemplar and present Saviour !

CHAPTER VI
COMMANDERS OF THE FAITHFUL
The Princes who in succession to Mohammed are
supposed to have exercised during the last 1,200 years
supreme temporal and spiritual authority amongst the
Mohammedans have been described by various names,
which practically mean the same thing, viz., successor or
ruler. Out of the names Caliphs, Imams, and Commanders
of the Faithful, I have chosen the last as the preferable
title. It is, of course, impossible, if it were desirable, to
give in this volume a history of all the Commanders of the
Faithful, but it will be wise just to glance at this subject,
and deal with the early successors of Mohammed, for in
the first twenty years after the Prophet's death there
occurred a great schism in the ranks of the Faithful, which
remains to this day, and which seems likely to be per
petuated as long as Islamism exists. The schism arose
out of the choice of the first three Commanders of the
Faithful. When Mohammed, the Prophet of Allah, was gathered
to his fathers, as already related, there was great sadness in
Medina. The people generally were loth to accept the
tidings, hpping against hope, and saying one to another,
through their tears, "How can he be dead, our witness,
our intercessor, our mediator with God ? " Even some of
the leaders of the people, the dead man's most intimate
friends, were so carried away by their grief and fanaticism
that they joined in the general cry that Mohammed was
not really taken from them. It is recorded that the warrior
E 2

52 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
Omar ascended the great pulpit, and proclaimed with a
loud voice, "Let the Faithful know that the Prophet is not
dead f No, no, he is not dead ! He has but gone, like
Moses, to talk with Allah ! We shall see him among us
agairi in a little while ! " There was, however, one sorrow
ful, but calm spirit in Medina who was not deceived.
Abu Bekr, on hearing the tumult in the city, hastened to
the house of mourning, placed his hand upon the cold
cheeks and quiet heart, and then, knowing the worst, made
his way to the very centre of the grief-stricken and excited
crowd, and exclaimed, " O Moslems, is it Mohammed or
the God of Mohammed you worship ? If ye would adore
the Prophet, know that he is dead ! If ye would adore
Allah, know that He is alive for evermore ! Be not
deceived, O Moslems ! Listen to this word of the holy
Koran, which says, 'Mohammed is but a man with a
mission;' and this other word, which says, 'Verily, O
Mohammed, thou shalt die, and they shall die ! ' "
Thus was the tumult stilled ; and the people, convinced
that the Prophet was, indeed, dead, resolved, ere they
buried him, to choose his successor. But whom to choose
was a grave and difficult question. Unfortunately, Moham
med had not specially designated any one to take office
after him. Indeed, so far as I can gather, the subject had
never been raised in the lifetime of the Prophet. Of the
great Princes of the Faith, there were, at least, four who
were head and shoulders above their fellows, and with one
of these practically the Commandership lay.
i. Ali was the nearest of kin to the dead man, for he
was his nephew, and had married, also, his favourite
daughter, Fatima, one of the "perfect women." This
Prince was a man of mild and forbearing character, wise in
counsel, and bold on the field of battle. Mohammed
had given him the surname of " the Lion of God." One
great fault, however, Ali had, and. that was indecision of
character. 2. Abu Bekr was another strong claimant for the vacant

COMMANDERS OF THE FAITHFUL 53
leadership. He had been Mohammed's companion in the
Flight from Mecca, and from that day had received the
title of " the Other of the Two," a name of which he was
exceedingly proud. Mohammed had also "called- him
Al-Siddik, The Truthful, because his word could always be
relied upon. Abu Bekr, it should be noted also, was the
father of Ayesha, the favourite wife of the Prophet.
3. The redoubtable Omar was another mighty Prince.
He had been a man of war from his youth up, and Moham
med had spoken of him as his " right hand." Undoubtedly
Islamism owed much of its success in arms to the courage
and daring of Omar. As we shall see directly, he was also
as humble as he was brave.
4. The fourth claimant was Othman, who had married
in succession two of Mohammed's daughters. He Was a
man of great wealth and influence. With regard to this
chief, the Prophet had once said, " Each thing has its
mate, and each man his associate ; my companion in
Paradise is Othman."
When the people had such choice of worthy men to
succeed Mohammed in the leadership, it is easy to under
stand that there was much difference of opinion and warm
debate, which, though for the moment reverence for the
Prophet might suppress, would eventually lead to trouble
and schism. Many felt very strongly that Ali had the
prior claim, while others thought and said differently.
Some then suggested that Ali should take the Governorship
of Mecca and the region round about, and that one of the
other three Princes should be appointed Governor of.
Medina, with its adjoining territories. This summary
division of the Empire was deprecated, however, by the
majority, and at length the protracted debate was brought
to a close by Omar rising and walking up to the aged
Abu Bekr, and declaring, as he seized his hand, " Here is
the successor of the Prophet." On the morrow, in the
great Mosque, Omar again proclaimed that he gave in his
allegiance to Abu Bekr. " The Apostle of Allah," he said,

54 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
" has been taken from us, but the Koran remains. Allah
gave the Book as a guide to the Prophet, and it will guide
us in. the right way. To-day Allah has placed at our head
•the best man amongst us. Come, then, take with me the
hand of Abu Bekr, and solemnly swear obedience to him !"
The people, moved by the nobility of Omar, who thus put
his own claims on one side in favour of the one whom he
styled " the best man amongst us," responded heartily to
the call, and pressed forward to take the oath of allegiance.
Thus was the first Commander of the Faithful chosen.
The choice made was a good one. Of the new leader,
Gilman, in his book on the Saracens, says : " The form of
Abu Bekr was spare, and he stooped. ' His face was thin,
and his countenance gave the impression of a man of
resolution and wisdom ; but his expression was mild, truly
representing his disposition, though on account of the firm
ness of his .faith in the Prophet he had become one of his
most resolute and unyielding disciples. His handsome
features were smooth and fair, and his thin beard and hair,
though naturally white, were, in accordance with an Oriental
custom, dyed red." All the experience, wisdom, courage,
and faith of the Commander of the Faithful were needed
in the struggle which now lay before the followers of
Mohammed. When the news of the Prophet's death
reached the provinces, there was as great astonishment as
in Mecca and Medina, but not any grief. Mohammed,
outside the circle of his relatives and fellow-citizens, was
more feared than loved, and so immediately it was known
that he was dead, the tribes whom he had subjugated by
the power of the sword had dreams and hopes of recovered
liberty. Soon all Arabia was ripe for insurrection, and the
question which passed from city to city and from district to
district was, " Can Islam be shaken off ? " Abu Bekr, the
mild but the forcible, answered " No ! " Without delay,
after the remains of the Prophet had been reverently and
lovingly buried, the new commander divided the entire
territory of Arabia into eleven sections, and sent an army

COMMANDERS OF THE FAITHFUL 55
into each section, with instructions to summon the tribes
to allegiance. The troops carried all before them, and ere
the year a.d. 633 closed the world knew that though
Mohammed the Prophet of Islam was dead, Moham
medanism still lived, and gave promise of becoming one of
the mighty powers of the world. The next year saw the
arms of the Commander of the Faithful carried as far as
Chaldea and Babylonia, and in September, a.d. 634, a
great battle was fought with the Romans for the possession
of Upper Syria, and the Mohammedans gained the victory.
When the glorious tidings of success reached Medina,
however, Abu Bekr was no more. At a good old age,
though after only two years of sovereignty, he fell asleep.
Ere Abu Bekr died he called around him some of . the
great princes of the State, and prepared to nominate a
successor. Ali was again passed over, though his friends
strenuously pressed his claims. The choice fell on Omar.
" But," said the latter, who, though brave, was of a lowly
spirit, " I have no occasion for the place ! " The dying
man replied, solemnly, " That may be ; but the place has
•occasion for thee ! A strong man is needed, and thou art
the man. Take the leadership ! Only temper thy natural
severity with moderation ! " And Omar took it. Ali,
upon this second disappointment, retired into private life ;
but, with true nobility of character, did nothing to cause
dissension or trouble in the State. Omar, feeling strong
sympathy for his rival, sought to comfort him for the loss
of empire by the most flattering marks of confidence and
esteem. The new Commander of the Faithful was a man
of simple tastes, like his predecessor, and like the Prophet.
Gilman says of him : " Humble as the most lowly, he was
accustomed to sit on the steps of the Mosque at Medina,
eating his barley-bread and dates, and he often slept on its
porch or in a tree, while wielding a sceptre that the most
powerful nations of his time felt and feared."
During Omar's reign Mohammedanism went forth con
quering and to conquer. The distant kingdoms pf Persia

56 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
and Egypt were added to the growing kingdom. Meso
potamia and Palestine bowed the knee to the successor of
the Prophet. Such strong cities as Damascus, Antioch,
Alexandria, and Jerusalem fell, after desperate fighting,
before the might of Islam. It seemed, indeed, as if ere long
the whole world would become subject to the Commander of
the Faithful, that stern, but humble man, who never stirred^
out of the city of Medina. In one conquest, that of
Palestine, we, as Christians, take special interest, and of
this I will therefore give just a few particulars.
In the spring of a.d. 636 the armies of Omar converged
towards Jerusalem, after having taken possession of other
parts of the country. The sacred city was then a Roman
possession, and was for a time defended by a Roman army.
The inhabitants were chiefly Christians, and were under the
rule of a patriarch of the Greek Church. The Roman
troops, fearing the power of the Moslems, quietly withdrew
one night, and left the city to its fate. Still, the Patriarch
held out, until it seemed folly to do so any longer, when he
asked terms of peace from the invaders. In the negotiations
that then ensued, he stipulated that the Commander of the
Faithful should come in person to receive the capitulation,
as there was a tradition that the keys of the city should
only be given up to a King having but three letters in his
name, and that of the successor of the Prophet comprised
no more in the Arabic tongue — Omr. Omar, when he
heard of the strange request, acquiesced in it, and without
delay made arrangements to start for Jerusalem. He . was
the first Commander of the Faithful to journey beyond the
limits of Arabia. It might have been expected that this
ruler, who was more powerful than the King of Persia or
the Emperor of the Romans, or, indeed, any other
monarch of his times, would have made the long journey
from Medina in great state. But no ! Having the reality
of power, he cared nothing about its form.
The day Omar left Medina on his notable journey " he
was clad in the plainest of clothes, and rode a strong camel,

COMMANDERS OF THE FAITHFUL 57
over the back of which rough saddlebags were thrown, con
taining parched grain in one pouch and dates and dried
fruit in the other. Before him hung a skin for water, and
behind a platter of wood, out of which he and his few com
panions ate together. At night he laid himself down
beneath a tree, or under a tent. In the morning he bowed
towards Mecca, and offered his devotions before proceeding
on his way ; and he stopped as occasion demanded to dis
pense the primitive justice that his subjects called for.
Sometimes he varied the monotony of the journey by dis
mounting and walking, while a slave took his seat upon a
camel." In such simple state the Commander of the
Faithful drew near Jerusalem; and when within a day's
journey some of his generals rode forward to meet him.
These leaders of his armies were a great contrast to Omar,
for their beasts and themselves were decked out in the
richest silks of Damascus. We can imagine their astonish
ment and dismay, when their Master, addressing them
sharply, said, " Is it thus that ye come to meet me ? Have
two years effected such a change? Are ye women or
men ? " Tearing off their rich garments, they showed
underneath their armour, well worn with the strife of many
a battle. At that sight Omar was better pleased, and in a
few genial words expressed his satisfaction with all that had
been done.
The next day Omar entered Jerusalem as a conqueror, (
being escorted through the streets by the Patriarch, in his
gorgeous robes of office. They went on foot, and, as they
moved slowly along, the intelligent Commander of the
Faithful asked questions about this building and that,
being evidently anxious to gather what information he
could of the history of the city which, next to Mecca, was,
perhaps, held in greatest veneration by the followers of
Mohammed. The Patriarch answered him, it is said, with
scant courtesy, for in his heart he loathed the son of the
desert, with his coarse garments, soiled by the long and
weary journey from Medina. 'Omar, however, in the grand

58 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
simplicity of his character, was indifferent as to what the
Patriarch thought about him. When at last the Church of
the Holy Sepulchre was reached, and Omar sat down in
the Patriarch's own throne of State, the latter exclaimed in
the bitterness of his spirit, " Verily, this is the abomination
of desolation, predicted by Daniel the Prophet, standing in
the holy place."
Omar spared the lives of the inhabitants of Jerusalem,
both Christians and Jews. However, as a memorial of the
conquest to subsequent generations, and as a visible proof
of the superiority of Islamism, he asked to be shown the
site of the ancient Jewish Temple, and then ordered that
on that spot should be erected, regardless of expense, a
mosque, to the honour of Mohammed, and to the glory of
Allah. The command was obeyed, and that beautiful
structure was erected which is known as the Mosque of
Omar. Thus, in the land of our Saviour's birth, and in the
very city of his crucifixion, that power was established which
afterwards took the " crescent " as its symbol, and which
has, until this day, hurled defiance at the Cross of Christ.
When matters had been settled in Jerusalem, and the
amount of " tribute " — which Omar declared was " better
than spoil, for it continueth " — had been settled, the Com
mander of the Faithful said good-bye to his generals, and
' set off on the return journey to Medina, where he was
received with demonstrations of delight. From Medina,
with quietness and yet with a strong hand, Omar for twelve
years directed the affairs of his vast Empire, even to the
movements of his armies in the field ; and nothing gave
the grand old man greater pleasure than to hear that
another city or another country had been added to the
kingdom of Allah and of his Prophet.
Omar's death was a violent one. It occurred in
November, a.d. 644. One day a slave who worked for his
master at the carpenter's bench came to see the Com
mander of the Faithful, and complained to him of being
overworked, and badly treated . by the citizen that owned

COMMANDERS OF THE FAITHFUL 59
him. Omar listened attentively, but arriving at the con
clusion that the charges were false, sternly dismissed the
carpenter to his bench. The man retired, vowing to be
revenged. The following day was Friday, " the day of the
Assembly." Omar, as usual, went to lead the- prayers of
the assembly in the great mosque. He opened his mouth
to speak. He had just said "Allah," when the keen
dagger of the offended slave was thrust into his back, and
the Commander of the Faithful fell on the sacred floor,
fatally wounded. The people, in a perfect frenzy of horror
and rage, fell upon the assassin, but with superhuman
strength he threw them off, and rushing about in the
madness of despair he killed some and wounded others,
and finally turning the point of his dagger to his own
breast, fell dead. Omar lingered several days in great
agony, but he was brave to the end. His dying words
were, " Give to my successor this parting bequest, that he
be kind to the men of this city, Medina, which gave a
home to us, and to the Faith. Tell him to make much of
their virtues, and to pass lightly over their faults. Bid him
also treat well the Arab tribes; for verily they are the back
bone of Islam. Moreover, let him faithfully fulfil the
covenants made with the Christians and the Jews! O
Allah ! I have finished my course ! To him that cometh
after me, I leave the kingdom firmly established and at
peace ! " Thus perished one of the greatest Princes the
Mohammedans were ever to know. Omar was truly a
great and a good man, of whom any country and any
Creed might be proud. He was buried by the side of the
Prophet, whom in life he had so warmly loved, and whose
memory he had all along so fondly cherished, and whose
fame, as the Prophet of Allah, he had made to ring
throughout all the world. Omar was the first Commander
of the Faithful to die a violent death. Hundreds of his
successors have shared the same fate. Specially amongst
the Mohammedans is the adage true, "Uneasy lies the
head that wears a crown."

60 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
How often in human life men say, " Peace, peace ; when
there is no peace." Omar's dying words were of peace, and
yet, ere his body was placed in its tomb, yea, even before
the breath had departed from it, there were heard the
smothered cries of party strife, which soon broke out into a
flame. The friends of Ali feilt that now at any rate their
leader should become Commander of the Faithful. But
Othman was aspiring to the .office, and had many adherents
who contended on his behalf. However, the general feeling
was in favour of Ali, and he was offered the throne on
certain conditions, viz., that he would agree to govern in
accordance with the precedents established by Abu Bekr
and Omar. After consultation with his friends, Ali, how
ever, to the surprise of the people, declined, saying that he
could not bring himself to accept a position in which he
would not be a free agent. Thereupon Othman was elected
to the vacant commahdership.
Now commenced days of darkness and sorrow for Islam
at home, though abroad her arms were still conquering
provinces and kingdoms. It was not so much that Ali
stirred up strife, for he was too noble a man for^hat, though
his spirit chafed sorely under his frequent rebuffs and dis
appointments. It was Othman himself who was unable to
keep peace in his vast dominions. Though a brave and
well-meaning man, he was weak and narrow-minded withal.
His relations and friends, by whose aid mainly he had
reached his exalted position, clamoured for positions of
power and influence, and, regardless of their fitness for
such posts, he made them generals of his armies, and
governors of provinces and States. By so doing, of course,
the new Commander of the Faithful raised up a host of
enemies, and ere eighteen months had passed away, Othman,
like Omar, had fallen beneath the assassin's knife.
Othman's death was on this wise. Conspirators from
Egypt and Mesopotamia came up to Medina to seek redress
of real or fancied grievances. The Commander spoke them
plausibly, and they pretended to be satisfied, and withdrew

COMMANDERS OF THE FAITHFUL 61
ostensibly to return to their homes. However, three days
later, while Othman was leading the prayers of the
Faithful, news was brought that the discontented ones had
returned, and this time were in strong force. The factious
bands, unfortunately, were admitted into the city. They
made at once for the Mosque, and insulted Othman in his
pulpit, calling out for his abdication. The poor old man,
unable to still the tumult, retired to his Palace. Later, the
rebels stormed it, and entering the private room of the
Prince, seized him by the beard as he sat with the Koran
open before him, and smote him with their daggers. It
was a dastardly deed ! " Deeply wounded, the Commander
of the Faithful fell, pressing the leaves of the sacred book
to his bosom, and staining them with his ebbing life-blood."
Then anarchy reigned at Medina.
The insurgents, for a successor to the vacant throne,
turned their eyes towards Ali, as, indeed, did most of the
Faithful. But Ali was weary of strife, and sick of the
shedding of blood. When a deputation waited upon him
and requested him to become the new Commander of the
Faithful, he mournfully shook his head, and said, " Once I
desired the office, but now I think the most comfortable
position in life is that farthest removed from power. Elect
whom you will." But the people would not be refused,
and at length Ali, moved by their pathetic entreaties,
consented to go to the great Mosque to receive the oaths
of allegiance. All the factions in the city were represented,
and the leaders promised to be faithful to the new Com
mander. However, this peace was deceptive, and ere long
civil strife was renewed. Eventually, appeal was made to
force of arms, and a battle was fought outside the city, in
which " Ali, the Lion of God," was victorious.
Now, if prompt and energetic measures had been em
ployed, the rebellion might have been stamped out. But
Ali procrastinated. The fact is he was too mild a man for
the stirring times in which he lived. He was too slow in

62 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
resolve, and too undecided in action. At any time he pre
ferred compromise and delay to energy and promptness,
and with fatal results.
Ali had a lieutenant in Egypt of the name of Amr, who
was ambitious, and determined to make capital out of the
troubles at Medina, At Damascus, also, was a lieutenant
named Muawiya, who was like-minded. These two joined
their forces against their Commander, and being men of
ability and action, they made considerable headway. Still,
Ali, the brave, and the skilful in war, would probably have
subdued his rebellious vassals if he had lived to prolong
the struggle. As it was, however, he shared, the fate of his
two predecessors.
In the year a.d. 660, three fanatics met by appointment
in the Mosque at Mecca, to talk over the disturbed affairs of
the kingdom. The result of their deliberations was that
they conceived that they were called by Allah to rid the dis
tracted state of Amr, Muawiya and Ali, and thus give Islam,
as they thought, the chance of a fresh start. It was a mad
scheme, and could only add to the troubles ofthe unhappy
kingdom. . •
One fanatic started for .Egypt, but stabbed the wrong
man; so Amr escaped. The other made for Damascus
and wounded Muawiya, but not vitally. The third reached
Kufa, and with a' poisoned dagger stabbed Ali to the heart.
It was characteristic of the gentle-spirited Ali that his last
words,should be on behalf of his murderer. He forgave him
freely, and asked that he might not be slain. " At any rate,"
he said, " if by way of example he must be> killed, let him
not be tortured." Thus, with a prayer of forgiveness on
his lips, the much sinned-against Commander of the Faith
ful passed into the presence of God.
The death of Ali was an epoch-making event. We come
now to the parting of the ways. Henceforward the' Com
manders of the Faithful ceased to be elected by the votes
of the people of Medina or Mecca. Arabia was no longer

COMMANDERS OF THE FAITHFUL 63
to be the seat of the temporal power. For the future in
Islam might was to take the place of right. And the
spiritual power also underwent a change. The followers of
Ali forced a great schism upon Mohammedanism. Mad
dened by the murder of their leader, and magnifying all
the wrongs he had suffered from the time of the death of
the Prophet, his father-in-law, they made a martyr of him,
and almost worshipped his memory. And the intensity of
their love for Ali was the measure of their hate for all who
had in any way done him wrong. The adherents of the
new sect called themselves Alyites ; but the name they are
known by in history is that of Shias, or Sectaries. They
asserted that the first three Commanders of the Faithful —
Abu Bekr, Omar, and Othman — were usurpers ; and that
Ali was the only lawful leader ; or, as they preferred to call
him Imam, a word that is found in the Koran. From that
time until this the Shias have existed, and have ever looked
to a lineal descendant of Ali as their spiritual head. Those
who do not agree with them are called Sunis or Sonnites,
or Traditionists. This matter may seem to us a little one to-
differ about ; but to Mohammedans it is of vast importance.
The difference between Shias and Sonnites is even more
marked than that between Roman Catholics and Protes
tants. And the unfortunate schism has led to the shedding
of rivers of blood.
Generally speaking, at the present day the Persians are
Shias and the Turks are Sonnites. In India and Afghan
istan many adherents of both sects are to be found. Tak
ing the world as a whole, the Sonnites greatly outnumber
the Shias ; but the latter make up in hate what they lack in
. numbers. The Sonnites look to the Sultan of Turkey as
the Commander of the Faithful. The Shareef of Mecca,
however, who is a descendant of Ali, disputes the honour
with the Sultan. Thus the strife is kept up. It seems to
me a cruel irony of fate that one of the gentlest and most
forgiving of men, — for such was Ali, — should have become,

64 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
through the mad zeal of partisans who profess to be his
followers, the innocent cause of so much bad feeling, strife
and bloodshed.
Commanders of the Faithful — the Faithful themselves —
we all — need to learn that " To err is human, to forgive
divine ; " and that " Greater is he that ruleth his spirit than
he that taketh a city."

CHAPTER VII
parables
Mohammedanism is not great in parables, which is
remarkable, as the people of the East are peculiarly sus
ceptible to them, and Eastern language readily lends itself
to figures of speech.
I have been astonished in reading the Koran to find how
few parables Mohammed composed, and of what a common
place character they are. Christ, it will be remembered,
often addressed his fellow-countrymen in parables, so that
it was said of him, " Without a parable spake He not unto
them." It was different, however, with Mohammed. He
but seldom spake in parables ; and when he did, it was
only half-heartedly. He either did not realize the power
there is in well-told parables for the enforcement of truth,
or he was unable to compose them. I am inclined to
think the latter was the case. The Prophet put the best
face on the poverty of his parabolic resources, however, for
in the 39th sura it is written : " Now have we proposed unto
mankind in this Koran every kind of parable, that they
may be warned, and that they may fear God." And, again,
in the 29th sura it is written: "These similitudes do We
propound unto men, but none understand them except the
wise." May we be numbered amongst the wise !
The first parable to which I would call attention might
be characterized " the parable of a word." It is given in
the 14th sura of the Koran, as follows : — "Dost thou not
see how God putteth forth a similitude representing a
good word as a good tree, whose root is firmly fixed in
F

66 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
the earth, and whose branches reach unto heaven, which
bringeth forth frui,t in all seasons by the will of the
Lord ? And the likeness of an evil word is an evil tree,
which is torn up from the face of the earth, and hath no
stability." Some Mohammedan commentators regard "the good
word" as meaning the Koran, and "the bad word" as
referring to heathen scriptures, which speak of gods many
and lords many. It is every way preferable, however, to
think that Mohammed, by "a good word" meant any
word spoken by man that was kind, truthful, pure, and
helpful. Like a good tree, a good word would strike down
its roots, spread out its branches, and bear abundant and
rich fruit. And, like a bad tree, a bad word would
inevitably lead to Withering and to death. Herein the
Prophet" spoke wisely. The power of a word for good or
for evil is quite incalculable.
In the 1 6th sura of the Koran it is written : " God also
propoundeth as a parable two men, one of them born
dumb, who is unable to do' or understand anything, but is a
burden to his master. Whithersoever he shall send him, he
shall not return with any success. Shall this man, and he
who hath his speech and understanding, and who com
mandeth that which is just, and followeth the right way, be
esteemed equal ? " The dumb man referred to would
appear to have been deaf as well as dumb, for it is said,
" He was unable to do or understand anything." The
point of the parable evidently is, to emphasize the blessings
of speech and hearing. How helpless the deaf and dumb
are ! the Prophet says. How burdensome to others ! Can
such men be regarded as the equals of those who hear and
speak, and who seek to turn their talents to good account ?
' The Koran answers " No ! " and exhorts men who are not
afflicted to praise God for His mercies. But what about
those who are afflicted ? One could have wished that the
parable had expressed a word of sympathy on behalf of
those who suffer under the deprivation of the powers of

PARABLES 67
speech and hearing. For such Mohammedanism has no
amelioration but almsgiving. It is a matter of rejoicing,
however, that Christianity has exerted itself by means of
Deaf and Dumb Asylums to cause, as far as possible, the
deaf to hear and the dumb to speak. Thus those whom
Mohammed regarded as utterly useless and burdensome
are being taught in Christian lands, not only to provide for
their own wants, but to be of service to the community.
Amongst Mohammedans almsgiving seems to be re
garded as the panacea for all the ills that flesh is heir to,
so that it is no surprise to find that there are at least three
parables in the Koran which enforce the duty of generous
charity. These parables are designated respectively, " A
grain of corn," "A, flint covered with earth," and "A
garden on a hill." They appear in the 2nd sura of the
Koran. The first is as follows : — " The similitude of those who
lay out their substance for advancing the religion of God is
as a grain of corn, which produceth seven ears, and in every
ear a hundred grains."
The second reads : — " O true believers, make not your
alms of none effect by reproaching or mischief, as he who
layeth out what he hath to appear unto men to give alms.
The likeness of such an one is a flint covered with earth,
on which a violent rain falleth and leaveth it, hard. They
cannot prosper in anything which they have gained."
The third reads — " Those who lay out their substance
from a desire to please God, or for an establishment for
their souls, may be compared with a garden on a hill, on
which rain falleth, and it bringeth forth its fruits twofold.
And if rain falleth not on it, yet the dew falleth thereon.
God seeth that which ye do."
The first and the third of these parables afford great
support to generosity in almsgiving. The Faithful are
assured by them that Allah will give increase to the open-
handed — that, in fact, " the liberal soul shall be made fat "
— the grain of corn producing a hundred grains ; the
F 2

68 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
garden on a hill well-watered bringing forth fruit abun
dantly. In the second parable sincerity is enforced. What
is given must be given readily, heartily, and with sincere
good-will. If men give alms simply to be seen of men,
and not from love, then, just as a flint covered with earth
when the rain descends is shown to be a flint, so the heart
of such men will be laid bare and shown to be as hard as
a stone. Thus high motives are enjoined in charity. A
Mohammedan writer, Abdul Kadir, has well said, "The
miser who refuses to give in charity, and the man who gives
to make a show of giving, are equally hateful in the sight
of God."
In the 24th sura of the Koran there occurs a curious
parable, which compares God to a lamp in a glass-case. It
runs : —
" God is the Light of heaven and earth, and the simili
tude of His light is as a niche in a wall wherein a lamp is
placed, and the lamp enclosed in a case of glass. The
glass then appears as a shining star. It is lighted with the
oil of a blessed tree, an olive, neither of the East nor of
the West ; it wanteth little but that the oil thereof would
give light although no fire touched it. This is light added
unto light. And God will direct into His light whom He
pleaseth." This parable is a puzzle, and it would take a- very wise
man indeed to unravel it. One is inclined to think that
Mohammed himself must have felt, when he had pro
pounded it, that it was " a dark saying." Various attempts
have been made to explain it, but with poor success. How
ever, two things are clear enough, and are instructive.
The one is that God is Light, and the other that He giveth
light to whom He will. The moral of the parable probably
is that men should continually wait upon God, that they
may be guided and directed in all their ways.
There is a short parable in the nth sura of the Koran
which is intended to show the great difference between
believers and unbelievers. It reads : " The similitude of

PARABLES 69
the two parties is as the blind and the deaf, and as he who
seeth and heareth. Shall they be compared as equal?
Will ye not consider?" The matter is certainly worth con
sidering. I suppose, generally speaking, we agree with
Mohammed that he who can see and hear is to be pre
ferred to him who is blind and deaf. Just so, says the
Prophet, is it with believers and unbelievers ! The former
are to be preferred to the latter. Unbelievers, the parable
hints, are spiritually blind and deaf. Having eyes they
see not, and having ears they hear not, and do not under
stand. The folly of those who fear not God, but who trust in
idols or in themselves, is enforced by a parable called " The
Spider's House." It occurs in the 29th sura of the Koran,
and reads :
" The likeness of those who take other patrons besides
God is as the likeness of the spider, which maketh herself
a house ; but the weakest of all houses surely is the house
of the spider, if men but knew it."
This parable reminds one very forcibly of an eloquent
passage that occurs in the Book of Job. Bildad the Shu-
hite, speaking to the Patriarch, said, " Can the rush grow
up without mire? Can the flag grow without water? Whilst
it is yet in its greenness and not cut down it withereth be
fore any other herb. So are the paths of all that forget
God, and the hypocrite's hope shall perish : whose hope
shall be cut off, and whose trust shall be a spider's web !
He shall lean upon his house, but it shall not stand : he
shall hold it fast, but it shall not endure." Thus the Book
of Job and the Koran agree in stating that to be wicked is
to be weak ; and they both enforce the truth by the same
illustration, viz., a spider's web or house. How frail the airy
fabric is ! With the sweep of his hand a child can destroy it,
though it be woven never so cunningly and skilfully ! Truly,
" the weakest of all houses is the house of the spider, if men
but knew it."
As a further illustration of the folly of sinful men, and as

70 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
a warning in particular to the 'covetous, a parable, entitled
" The Destroyed Garden," is given in the 68th sura of the
Koran. It is as follows : —
" Verily we have tried the Meccans as we formerly tried
the owners of the garden when they swore that they would
gather the fruit in the morning, and added not the excep
tion, if it please God : wherefore destruction from the Lord
encompassed it while they slept, and in the morning it was
like a garden whose fruits had been gathered. And the
men called to one another as they rose in the morning,
saying, ' Go out early to the plantation.' So they went on,
whispering to one another, ' No poor man shall enter the
garden" this day.' When they saw the garden blasted and
destroyed they said, ' We have certainly mistaken our way,'
but when they found that it was their own garden they ex
claimed, 'Verily we are not permitted to reap the fruit
thereof.' Then the worthier of them said, ' Did I not say
unto you, will ye not give praise unto God ?' Thereupon
both cried out, ' Verily we have been unjust doers ! Woe
be unto us ! Verily we have been transgressors ! We earnestly
beseech our Lord to pardon us.' "
This parable is a little confused in thought, but Moham
medan commentators explain it thus : — The garden referred
to was, they say, a certain plantation of date-trees belonging
to a charitable man, who, when he gathered his dates,
always gave public notice to the poor, and informed them
that they might take away such fruit as the knife missed,
such as was a little spoiled by the wind, and such as fell to
the ground from the trees. When the good man died, how
ever, his two sons, the men of the parable, who were now
the owners of the -garden, and whose hearts were filled with
covetousness, resolved that the poor should have nothing.
Acting on this resolution, they arose one morning very
early, and went out of the town to the garden, to gather
their dates before any one was astir. When they arrived,
however, they found to their great surprise and grief that
the plantation had been blasted and destroyed. At first

PARABLES 71
they thought that in the dim light they must have mistaken
their way and got to the wrong place, but as soon as they
could see clearly they convinced themselves that they were
really in their own garden. Then it was revealed to them
that this disaster had come upon them on account of their
covetousness. Seeking to possess all, they lost everything.
The path of wisdom, as well as of righteousness, they were
shown, lay in doing what their father had done, viz., in
sharing their goods with the poor. The men, convinced of
their sin and folly, repented, and prayed to be forgiven,
saying, " Pera'dventure God will give us in exchange a
better garden than this."
This parable, with its commentary, conveys sound teach
ing in a pleasing form. Mohammedanism, as well as
Christianity, evidently teaches that " there is that scattereth
and yet increaseth, and there is that withholdeth more than
is meet, but it tendeth to poverty." I- wonder if Moham
med had ever read the words of Christ, " Take heed and
beware of covetousness, for a man's life consisteth not in
the abundance of the things which he possesseth."
I have been surprised to find that the Koran contains
one parable, and one only, which has been taken from the
Bible, and altered and not improved in the transference.
It is the one called the Ewe Lamb, recorded in the Second
Book of Samuel, which Nathan, the Prophet, related to
convict David of the heinousness of his sin with Bathsheba,
the wife of Uriah the Hittite. Mohammed tells the story as
follows : —
" Hath the tale of the two adversaries come to thy know
ledge ? — how they ascended over the wall and entered the
• presence of David, who was afraid of them ? They said,
' Fear not ! we are two adversaries who have a controversy.
The one of us hath wronged the other, wherefore judge
thou between us with truth, and be not unjust, but direct
us in the even way. This my brother had ninety and nine
sheep, and I had only one ewe lamb, and he said, ' Give
her to me to keep,' and he prevailed against me. David'

72 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
answered, 'Verily he hath wronged thee in demanding
thy ewe as an addition to his own sheep, and many of
those who are concerned in business wrong one another,
except those who believe, and do that which is right, but
how few are they ! ' And David perceived that he had
been tried by this parable, and he asked pardon of his Lord,
and he fell down and bowed himself, and repented. Where
fore We forgave him his fault ; and he shall be admitted to
approach near unto us, and shall have an excellent place of
abode in Paradise."
That is how the Koran tells the story of the fall of David,
and of how his transgression was brought home to him.,
Happy would it be for Mohammedan, Jew, and Christian,
if the parable were remembered throughout life !
There is a short parable in the 16th sura which is worth
considering. It refers to that humble but useful little crea
ture the bee. It is written very quaintly : —
"The Lord spake by inspiration unto the bee, saying,
' Provide thee houses in the mountains, and in the trees, of
those materials wherewith men build hives. Then eat of
every kind of fruit, and walk in the beaten paths of thy Lord.'
There proceedeth from them a liquor of various colour,
wherein is a medicine for man. Verily herein is a sign unto
people who consider."
Just as Solomon said to the Jews, " Go to the ant, thou
sluggard, consider her ways and be wise," so Mohammed
said to the people of Islam, " Go to the bee."
And the lessons to be learnt from the bee, according to
the parable, are industry, skill, and usefulness. The home
which the bee makes for itself is truly a beautiful construc
tion, which no geometrician can excel. And how ceaselessly
the work of filling the hive goes on. And how useful
honey becomes in the service of man !
And man has to imitate the bee in industry and skill.
Like the bee, also, he must spread an atmosphere of sweet
ness all around him, and redeem the time.
In the 1 8th sura of the Koran it is written :

PARABLES 73
" Propound a similitude of this present life. It is like
water which we send down from heaven ; and the herb of
the earth is mixed therewith ; and after it hath been green
and flourishing, in the. morning it becometh dry stubble,
which the winds scatter abroad, and God is able to do all
things. Wealth and children are the ornament of this
present life ; v but good works, which are permanent, are
better in the sight of thy Lord, with respect to the reward,
and better with respect to hope."
Mohammed in this parable wished by the similitude of
water to show that life is a good thing, a precious gift of
Allah, which, however, may become either a blessing or a
curse to humanity, according as it is wisely or foolishly
used. The Prophet wished the Faithful to choose the
better part, that their lives might be " as rivers of water in
a dry place " to others, and bring prosperity and fruitfulness
to themselves both here and hereafter.
Here, strictly speaking, the parables of Mohammed and
the Koran end. Sale, however, in a long and learned
introduction to his translation of the Mohammedan
¦ Scriptures, relates a story which is too good to be omitted ;
and with this I would conclude this chapter on Mohammedan
Parables. It has reference to the righteous judgments of
God. A matter of grave inquiry amongst the followers of Islam
at one time was, whether the body or the soul of man
would be punished for sin. The argument was conducted
thus, with great subtlety.
The soul said, " O Lord, my body I received from Thee,
for Thou didst create me without a hand to lay hold with,
foot to walk with, an eye to see with, or an understanding
to apprehend with, until I entered into this body : therefore
punish my body eternally, but not me."
Then the body, fearing the anger of God, exclaimed,
"O Lord, Thou didst create me like a stock of wood,
having neither hand that I could hold with, nor feet that
I could walk with, till this soul, like a ray of light, entered

74 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
into me, and my tongue began to speak, my eye to, see,
and my foot to walk : therefore punish my soul eternally,
and not me."
The disputants were silenced by the parable of the blind
man and the lame man, which runs : —
"A certain King, having a pleasant garden, in which
were ripe fruits, set two persons to keep it, one of whom
was blind and the other lame, the former not being able to
see the fruit nor the latter to gather it. The lame man,
however, seeing the fruit, persuaded the blind man to take
him up upon his shoulders, and by that means he easily
gathered the fruit, which they divided between them. The
Lord of the garden coming some time after, and inquiring
about his fruit, each began to excuse himself, the blind
man saying that he had no eyes to see with, and the lame
man that he had no feet to approach the trees with. But
the King, ordering the lame man to be set on the back of
the blind, passed sentence on, and punished them both.
" Hear ye this parable. In the same manner God will
deal with the body and the soul. It will be vain of man
on that day to deny his evil actions, since men and angels,
and his own members, yea the very earth itself, will be
ready to bear witness against him."
Thus is the truth enforced that man cannot dissociate
himself from himself. Islamism and Christianity agree in
this : " Be not deceived ; God is not mocked ; for whatso
ever a man soweth that shall he also reap. For he that
soweth to his flesh shall of the flesh reap corruption ; but
he that soweth to the Spirit shall of the Spirit reap life
everlasting."

CHAPTER VIII
MIRACLES
Mohammedanism, like other religions, has its recorded
miracles, but these are of a childish and utterly foolish
character. We have but to compare them with the noblest
of the Jewish miracles, and with the miracles of Christ, to
see how far below Judaism and Christianity Islam is in its
conception of a miracle.
Mohammed's attitude towards this subject was a credit
to him, for he uniformly denied that he possessed the
power to work miracles. When he first claimed to be the
Prophet of Allah his friends and enemies alike urged him
to give proof of his caUing by performing some marvellous
deeds such as the Prophets of old had wrought. But
Mohammed felt that he had no such power, and was honest
enough to say so.
In the 2nd sura of the Koran it is written : " They
who know not the Scriptures say ' Unless God speak unto
us, or thou show us a sign, we will not believe.' So said
they before them. We have already shown abundant
signs. We have sent thee in truth a bearer of good tidings,
and a preacher, and thou shalt not be questioned."
But the people continued to question, urging Mohammed
vehemently to do some mighty work, that they might
believe on him. In the 17th sura some of the words
of these cavillers are recorded. They run : " We will
by no means believe on thee until thou cause a spring of
water to gush forth for us out of the earth, or thou have
a garden of palm-trees and vines, and thou cause rivers to
spring forth from the midst thereof in abundance, or thou

76 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
cause the heaven to fall down upon us, or thou bring God
and the angels to vouch for thee, or thou have a house of
gold, or thou ascend by a ladder to heaven."
These factious demands troubled Mohammed sorely,
and he, at times, fain wished that he had the power to
meet them, but, knowing that he had not, he answered
always in the same strain, " Verily I am a preacher only.
Allah hath not called me to work miracles."
The nearest approach to a miracle that Mohammed
allowed to be associated with his name was an event that
occurred on the famous battlefield of Badr, when the
Prophet and his adherents of Medina, though only 319 in
number, defeated an army of more than 1,000 Meccans.
The event is referred to in the 3rd sura of the Koran,
where it is written : " Ye have already had a miracle shown
you in two armies which attacked each other. One army
fought for God's true religion, but the other for infidelity."
Mohammedan commentators say that the miracle of the
field of Badr consisted in three things. Firstly, Mohammed,
by angelic guidance, took a handful of gravel, and threw
it towards the enemy, saying, "May their faces be con
founded ; " and thereupon the Meccans turned their backs
and fled. Secondly, by the grace of God, the eyes of the
infidels were made to see double, so that they imagined a
host was encamped against them, and consequently were
discouraged at the outset. Thirdly, the Angel Gabriel
appeared on the scene with thousands of attendants, and
really did the fighting, though the little army of the
Faithful seemed to do it. The whole story is ridiculous.
What happened doubtless was that Mohammed threw a
handful of dust in the faces of his foes as emblematic of
what he sought to bring them to, and then led his followers
to the attack with his accustomed bravery, and the day
was carried by enthusiasm, skill, and hard fighting. The
idea of the miracle was probably an after-thought, when
the Prophet came to consider the wonderful fact that 300 ,
men had put 1,000 to flight.

MIRACLES 77
Though Mohammed, according to the Koran, never laid
claim to the power of working miracles, his fanatical and
credulous adherents, in all the generations since his death,
have maintained that he had the power, and that he used
it too. Mohammedans cannot bear the. thought that their
Prophet should be a whit behind any other prophet the
world had seen, so they have invented innumerable
instances of miraculous occurrences in association with his
life. Even at Mohammed's birth, it is said, some very
wonderful things happened, such as a violent earthquake,
shaking the palace of the King of Persia to its very
foundations, and the sacred fire going out, which for a
thousand years had burned incessantly on the altar of
Zoroaster, under watch of the Magi. These and other
remarkable events which happened at that time in all parts
of the world must be regarded, we are told, as signs and
wonders announcing the birth of the last and greatest of all
the Prophets of the Lord.
Gibbon, who, in his description of Mohammedanism,
does not seem to have overlooked a single point of interest,
says : " The votaries of Mohammed are more assured than
himself of his miraculous gifts, and their confidence and
credulity increase as they are farther removed from the
time and place of his spiritual exploits. They believe, or
affirm, that trees went forth to meet him, that he was
saluted by stones, that water gushed out of his fingers, and
that he fed the hungry, cured the sick, and raised the dead :
that a beam groaned to him, that a camel complained to
him, that a shoulder of mutton informed him of its being
poisoned, and that both animate and inanimate nature
were equally subject to the apostle of God."
Arnold, in his book on " Islam and Christianity," also
enumerates some of the Mohammedan miracles, as follows :
" A camel weeps, and is calmed at the touch of Mohammed;
the hair grows upon a boy's head when the Prophet lays
his hand upon it ; a horse is cured from stumbling ; and the
eye of a soldier is healed, and made better than the other."

78 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
Thus the credulous add miracle to miracle, and some
doctors of Islamism have actually computed that at the
least Mohammed wrought 1,000 striking miracles, while of
other not quite such marvellous, and yet very wonderful
deeds, he performed 3,450.
In the 54th sura of the Koran a few words occur around
which a strange story has gathered. The words are : " The
hour of judgment approacheth, and the moon hath been
split in sunder ; but if the unbelievers see a sign, they turn
aside, saying : This is a powerful charm ; and they accuse
thee, O Mohammed, of imposture." Any one would think
that the Prophet was referring to something that would
come to pass on the day of judgment. I believe he was.
But Mohammedans explain the passage another way,
associating it with what they call a truly marvellous miracle.
The story . goes, that one evening when Mohammed was
talking to a group of his fellow-townsmen of Mecca, and
urging them to forsake their idols and worship God only,
that they turned upon him, and demanded a sign from
Heaven in support of his claims. " You shall have a sign,"
the Prophet is reported to have answered. " Do you see
yonder moon ? Well, at my word it shall be cloven in
two ; one part vanishing and the other remaining." The
word was spoken, and, to the surprise of all, it happened as
Mohammed had predicted. But that was not all. The
Prophet spoke again, commanding the moon to come down
from her place in the heavens, which she at once proceeded
to do. Arriving at Mecca, she is said to have made seven
revolutions round the sacred temple of " the pure white
stone," then to have saluted Mohammed in the Arabian
tongue, and finally, after contracting her dimensions, to
have entered at the collar of the Prophet and come out at
his shirt sleeve. After these astonishing tricks, she returned
to her proper station in the sky, saying as she went, that
now perchance men would believe that Mohammed had
power with God, and could prevail.
Turning from the ridiculous moon story, which one

MIRACLES 79
would think was too stupid even for the most vulgar to
believe, let us glance at another so-called miracle which is
of considerable human interest. It is in association with
a cave, and has reference to a stirring incident in the life of
the Prophet. On the eve of that ever-memorable Hejira,
or Flight from Mecca, Mohammed was in great danger of
losing his life. His enemies in the town, having learnt that
he proposed departing to Medina, though for some reason
he delayed to start, met in solemn council to consider what
should be done. With one voice the chiefs of the city
decided that the peace of the community could only be
secured by the death of Mohammed.
It was resolved that a man from each principal family
should be chosen, and that at a given signal the house of
the Prophet should be surrounded, and that every dagger
should be buried in his heart. Mohammed, however, was
warned by some one of his danger — the Faithful say by the
Angel Gabriel — and leaving Ali, his son-in-law, in his place,
he escaped by the back of his house to his faithful adherent,
Abu Bekr, with whom he made for the mountains.
When the conspirators arrived at the house of the Prophet,
they, of course, found only Ali there, who disclaimed all
knowledge of the whereabouts of his leader. Rushing
out, the duped chiefs sought high and low for their prey.
Meanwhile Mohammed and his companion had reached
the mountains ; and there, on a rocky summit, approached
by a rugged and difficult path, they crept through a low
opening that admitted them into a cave called Thor.
In this cave they remained for a few days, as the pursuit
was prompt, and the search in all the neighbourhood
thorough. So great was the strain on the nerves of the
hunted men that the brave Abu Bekr almost gave way to
despair. He is said to have whispered tremblingly in the
ear of the Prophet, " What if our pursuers should find our
cave ? We are but two ! " " Nay ! " was the noble answer,
" Thou dost mistake, Abu ! We are three ! Allah is with
us ! " Thus did Mohammed cheer his fainting follower.

80 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
And that saying of his was perhaps the grandest of his
whole life. Whatever faults Mohammed might have, he
believed implicitly in God, and, according to his faith, it
was done unto him. He was not found by the Meccans,
and eventually he reached Medina, and entered upon that
way of life which led to the highest earthly power and
glory. But the miraculous part of the incident has not been
mentioned. Briefly, it was this. Mohammedans say that
the Prophet's enemies, in their search, arrived at the mouth
of the cave, and that but for the special intervention of
Allah they would have entered, and found Mohammed.
God, it is affirmed, caused several things to happen in a
moment of time, which completely deceived the search
party. A tree grew up in front of the cave, some branches
of which just covered the mouth, and on these branches a
wild pigeon built its nest, and laid two eggs. A spider also
wove a most wonderful web all-over the entrance.
When one of the pursuers said, " Perhaps Mohammed
is hiding in this cave," others, stooping down, remarked,
" Nay, not so ! Look at that spider's web ! And mark
that bird's nest with eggs in it right over the mouth . Nay !
Mohammed is not in the cave ! Why, a mouse could not
have crawled in without breaking the web ; and certainly no
human being, without upsetting the nest ! Come away ! Let
us search elsewhere ! " Thus, by a miracle, was the Pro
phet's life saved.
The other miracles of Islam, besides those associated
with Mohammed, are all of a stupid and frivolous character.
For example, there is the case of Ezra and his ass. This
is referred to in the 2nd sura of the Koran. It is said that
Ezra the Scribe was riding one day on his ass by the ruins
of Jerusalem after the holy city had been destroyed by the
Chaldeans. As the rider went slowly along he fell into a
meditation about the ruined city, and doubted in his mind
whether God could ever raise such a deserted and miserable
place to anything like its old grandeur again.
As a punishment for his doubts, and to show him that

MIRACLES 8 1
all things are possible with God, the Scribe, by a Divine
decree, was deprived of life on the spot. However, his
body was not allowed to crumble to dust. For a hundred
years it remained on the roadside near Jerusalem, and then
all at once by another Divine decree life came into it again,
and Ezra stood upon his feet.
Thinking he had only been asleep for a short time, and
feeling hungry, he stretched out his hand to the basket he
had with him, and partook of some figs and a cruse of
wine. These things, marvellous to relate, had not been
spoiled or corrupted by the passage of time. Having
satisfied his hunger, it occurred to Ezra that before he went
to sleep he had been astride his faithful ass. Where was
she now ?
It was in vain the Scribe looked around. Not a trace of
the animal could be seen. But what was that at his feet ?
The skeleton of an ass it seemed to be ! Then was it
revealed to the astonished man that he had been dead a
hundred years as a punishment for his want of faith in the
power of God, and that the dry bones lying before him
were indeed all that was left of his ass.
But the wonders were not yet over. As Ezra gazed in
sorrow at the skeleton, he was startled to notice that the
dry bones began to move, and lo ! they gathered them
selves together and stood up, and flesh grew over
them, -and they became clothed, and life entered into
the animal, and with- a loud bray it announced in no
uncertain manner that the Scribe had recovered his useful
servant again.
Then, as the Koran puts it, a voice was heard from the
most excellent glory declaring, " Look on thy food, and
thy drink, they are not yet corrupted ; and look on thine
ass." Ezra looked, and considered, and devoutly
answered, "I know now that God is able to do all
things." On the Kaaba or Cube House at Mecca there is fixed
a golden spout, about which a curious story is told by
G

82 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
Mohammedans. Mrs. Meer Hassan Ali in her book on
the " Mussulmans of India," relates it at great length.
I will simply give the outlines of it.
Once upon a time a certain poor man of great sanctity
went on a pilgrimage to Mecca. When he arrived at the
sacred city he was without a coin in his pockets, and to beg
he was ashamed.
Being in a very depressed state of mind on account of
his poverty, the poor fellow thought that he would approach
the Holy Temple and pray to God for assistance. As he
drew near the edifice his eye was caught by the evidences
of its wealth. Everything about it seemed to be made of,
or covered with, the precious metals, or cloths of gold and
silver. One thing in particular attracted his attention, and that
was a water-spout which was composed of solid gold.
Thereupon he reasoned thus with himself: " This is the dry
season of the year, and that water-spout is not needed
"where it is at present ; why should it not deliver me out of
my distress? Further, it is not right that I should be
famishing here while that gold remains there."
But how was the coveted treasure to be gained ? It
would be a sin and a sacrilege to steal it, but how could it
be got without ? The good man had recourse to prayer.
" O God," he said, " I cannot steal, and to beg I am
ashamed. I desire that spout of gold which hangs there to
relieve my necessities. With Thee nothing is impossible.
Command that the spout descend into the skirt of my
garment which I now hold out to receive it." The prayer,
so the story says, was answered, and the poor man walked
away quickly with his prize.
However, in seeking to dispose of the spout for ready
cash, the vendor was accused of theft and taken before the
Cadi. While protesting his poverty and innocence, the
magistrate suggested to him dryly that the two did not go
well together, and advised him to confess that want had
driven him to crime. But the good man held with dignity

MIRACLES 83 '
to his first statement, and explained fully hoW the spout had
come into his possession.
Starting up from the judicial bench, as an idea flashed
through his mind, the Cadi said : " Come with me," and he
led the way to the Holy Temple. The spout was fixed
securely in its old place, and then the judge said to the poor
man, " What has been done once can doubtless be done
again. Call for that spout to come to thee." The man
called, in the name of Allah, and to the consternation of
the Cadi and the assembled thousands of spectators the
mass of gold descended into the arms of the man of prayer
and faith.
" A miracle ! A miracle ! " was the cry that went up
from tens of thousands of voices at that marvellous sight.
The poor man became a saint on the spot, and the people
sought to touch if it might be but the hem of his garment.
The Cadi extolled his virtues also, and in lieu of the
golden spout, which could not he parted with, he bestowed
upon the saint its weight in the current coin of Arabia,
thus raising him from poverty to affluence.
There is a miracle often told by Mohammedans in
association with the life of Omar the second Commander
of the Faithful, which I will next relate. It is said that by
the sternness of his temper, though he was a just man,
Omar raised up many enemies, and that he was often in
danger of assassination, but by miraculous intervention he
was for a long time preserved from all harm, though he fell
at last by the dagger of a fanatic.
The most popular of the miraculous deliverances is one
that runs thus : — A man who had resolved to slay Omar
followed him about for days watching for an opportunity.
At length he thought the chance had come. The Caliph
was alone in a quiet garden meditating on the letters he
had received that day, of events that were happening in
far distant provinces of the Empire, and looking to Allah
for counsel and guidance in his multiform and anxious
duties. g 2

84 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
The assassin was watching the Commander of the Faith
ful, and was about to spring from his hiding-place upon
him, when suddenly a fierce lion appeared on the scene,
and began to walk round and round Omar as if to protect
him from threatened danger.- The Caliph looked up.
The would-be murderer fled. As he fled he threw a rapid
glance back, and saw that the lion was licking the feet of
Omar, and that the latter was patting it affectionately on
the head. Then the lion vanished into space.
The man spread the story far and wide, and it was ever
after believed that a special Providence watched over the
Commander of the Faithful, and that miracles occurred to
protect his life from the hatred of his enemies.
Many other so-called miracles might be recorded, but I
will close this chapter by a reference to only one more. It
is associated with Abraham, the Friend of God, whose
son Ishmael is regarded as the progenitor of the desert
Arabs. The Mohammedans say that tbe mind of Abraham was
often exercised with thoughts of the resurrection of the
dead. It was a subject which he could not thoroughly
grasp or understand. In the 2nd sura of the Koran it is
written : "Abraham said, O Lord, show me how Thou wilt
raise the dead. God said, Dost thou not yet believe ? He
answered yes : but I ask this that my heart may rest at
ease." Thereupon God instructed the Patriarch, so the story
runs, to take four birds — an eagle, a peacock, a raven, and
a dove — and kill them. Abraham did so, pounding the
birds in a mortar, and mingling their flesh and feathers
together. Then he divided the mass into four parts, and
laid the parts on so many mountains, keeping the heads
however in his right hand.
"Now," said the Lord, "call for the birds by name."
The Patriarch called, and immediately the pieces came
flying together, and the birds recovered their first shape, and
when Abraham placed their heads upon their respective

MIRACLES 85
bodies they all signified their gratitude by making the
peculiar noise appropriate to their kind.
It was thereupon made known to Abraham that the
miracle he had seen wrought was just a type or emblem of
things to come in the great day of the Resurrection of all
mankind. By a word God would make the dead to live ;
and in a moment, in the twinkling of an eye, bodies would
assume their old and well-known earthly appearance.
Abraham was satisfied, and so are all faithful Mohamme
dans. As for myself I can only wonder that men can have
any faith in such childish and ridiculous miracles.
It is greatly to be regretted that Mohammedans have
not had the wisdom to accept their Prophet's disclaimer of
all power to work miracles. It is a pity, also, that Mo
hammed himself should have felt it necessary to invent
such puerile stories in connection with the Old Testament
characters he has introduced into the Koran. In the
matter of miracles, as of parables, Mohammedanism cuts a
sorry figure.

CHAPTER IX
PASSION play
In 1890 I attended the Christian Passion Play at Ober-
Ammergau, and as in India I was a spectator of the Moham
medan Passion Play four or five years in succession, I am
in a position to draw comparisons between the two. In
deep human interest, as well as in beauty of conception
and skill of management, the Western play exceeds the
Eastern. Yet the latter is truly impressive, and most
touching in its delineation of the sufferings and sorrows
that are related.
To trace the origin of the Mohammedan Passion Play
we must let our thoughts go back almost to the time of the
Prophet. Already in these studies the names of Ali,
Fatima, and their two sons, Hasan and Hosein, have been
mentioned, and it is with these relatives of Mohammed
rather than with the Prophet himself that the Passion Play
deals. In the chapter on the Commanders of the Faithful the
story is related of the sad death of Ali by the assassin's
knife in the mosque at Kufa, near Bagdad, whither he had
removed the seat of government from Medina. That was
in a.d. 660. Fatima had died some time before, in the
year 633.
At Ali's death Muawiya, of Damascus, assumed the title
of Caliph, or Commander of the Faithful, but the people
of Arabia held aloof frorri him, and chose Hasan as their
leader. This Prince, like his father, however, lacked
decision of character, and allowed the precious days to

PASSION PLAY 87
slip by without making a decided move to win for himself
the full inheritance of the Caliphs. In less than half a
year his following fell away, and he retired into private life
at Medina, where, in a.d. 669, he died of poison adminis
tered to him, some writers say, by his wife, at the instiga
tion of his enemies. >
Hosein was then the only pretender to the throne left,
but Muawiya, feeling that he had nothing to fear from him,
treated him with kindness. In the spring of a.d. 680
Muawiya died, and was buried at Damascus, and his son
Yezid reigned in his stead. -Now came the opportunity of
Hosein to revolt, instigated thereto by the inhabitants of
Kufa. But the rebellion was carried out in the half
hearted manner characteristic of the family of Ali, and was
of course doomed to failure. Hosein was slain by the
spear of a foe under painful and distressing circumstances.
The whole history of the house of Ali was a chequered
one. There is something very pathetic about the fate of
the near relatives of Mohammed — his son-in-law stabbed,
one grandson poisoned, and the other speared. Little
wonder that those who really loved the Prophet and his
children should have given way to a madness of grief which
led to schism, as they thought of the fearful events that had
followed one another so rapidly.
The Mohammedan Passion Play records those events.
This famous play, which is acted every year with astonish
ing enthusiasm in Persia, India, and Afghanistan, is the
striking form in which the Shias perpetuate the story of the
wrongs which their Imams suffered in the early days of the
Faith. The. time of year when the Passion Play is performed
varies according to our Western reckoning of time. The
Mussulman year is lunar. It is during the first ten days of
the first month of their year that the Mohammedans cele
brate the Passion Play or Moharram, as it is called in the
East. The ten days are kept as a sacred and solemn feast.
The Faithful are expected to be specially liberal in alms-

88 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
giving during this season, and to concentrate their thoughts
as much as possible on the tragedies which are com
memorated by the Play or Plays, which take place at least
once, arid in some places twice, on every one of the ten
days. The last day, "Ashura," is considered the most
important of all, for it is kept as the anniversary of the
death of Hosein, whose untimely martyrdom was the
culmination of the woes of the family of the Prophet.
Many Mohammedan families keep the Moharram in the
privacy of their own homes. When that is the case there
is no actual Passion Play performed, but the story of the
Passion is read to the inmates by the head of the house
hold. And to make the recorded events still more solemn,
and the impression still more lasting, Tazias are set up in
the home. The term Tazia signifies " grief," but the thing
itself is a model of the mausoleum which was erected at
Kerbelah, in Arabia, over the remains of Hasan and
Hosein. Tazias are formed of every variety of material,
according to the rank, wealth, and fancy of the family.
Some that I saw in India were made of silver, and
others of bamboo, covered with mica in sheets, and still
others simply of paper. I have heard of their being
made of ivory, ebony, and sandalwood. In addition to
the Tazias that are prepared for the house, which are
usually fixtures, others can be got which are intended for
public processions, and especially for that procession which
takes place on the tenth night of Moharram, when tens of
thousands of people march through the streets, carrying
these models of their martyred Imams' tomb. The Tazias
thus carried are eventually deposited with funereal rites in
the burial-grounds outside the towns or villages.
The Passion Play proper is enacted in large buildings
called in Persia "Tekyas," and in India "Imambaras.
Some of the finest I have seen are in Lucknow. One in
particular is a magnificent edifice, which will hold, pro
bably, over 20,000 people. An Imambara, like a mosque,
is usually a square building with a dome or cupola top.

PASSION PLAY 89
Unlike the mosque, however, an Imambara is superbly
decorated within. The floor is carpeted, the walls are
covered with mirrors, the reading-desk or pulpit is trimmed
with cloth-ofgold or broadcloth of black or green ; hand
some and costly banners are arranged here and there, and
from the ceiling hang beautiful chandeliers, which light up
in the evening the brilliant and impressive scene. A
Mohammedan, when asked on one occasion why mosques
were so plain, and Imambaras so grand, answered,
"Mosques are devoted to the service of God, and con
sequently there should be nothing therein in the way of
ornaments or worldly attractions calculated to draw off the
mind or divert the attention from sacred things;, but
Imambaras are erected for the purpose of doing honour to
the memory of the Imams, and therefore a grand show is
permissible and right." There is a magnificent building
which I saw at Cairo, closely associated with Hosein,
for it is said to contain his head, and is called after him.
In that building, I am told, some very fine representations
of the Passion Play are given. It is in Persia, however,
that the Play is to be witnessed at its best ; and therefore
Matthew Arnold, in his well-known description of it, styles
it " the Persian Passion Play." In some of the Imambaras
of India, however, excellent representations have been
given ; and as regards the events on the closing day, I do
not think it would be possible for any people to surpass
Indian Mussulmans in the magnitude of their gatherings,
or in the impressiveness of their displays.
The stage of the Tekya, or Imambara, is commonly in
the centre of the building. ' There is nothing elaborate
about it, as there is at the Passion Play at Ober-Ammergau.
There is no skilfully-arranged mechanism to aid the acting,
and to make the scenes portrayed appear the more real.
All is open to the gaze of the audience, who advance even
to the steps of the stage, and help the actors up and down.
The performers are men and boys. Women take no part
in the Mohammedan Passion Play other than as spectators.

90 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
Children, some of whom are very young, appear in the
place of women. Count Gobineau, in his long but charm
ing description of the play as performed in Persia, says :
" Nothing is more touching than to see these little things
of three or four years old, dressed in black gauze frocks,
with large sleeves, and having on their heads small, round
black caps, embroidered with silver and gold, kneeling
beside the body of the actor who represents the martyr of
the day, embracing him, and with their little hands covering
themselves with chopped straw for sand, in sign of grief."
The chief director of the Play is called the Oostad, who
answers to the Greek choragus, or, as we would say, the
Master of the Ceremonies. Nothing comes amiss with this
man. He is always on the stage, with the book of the piece
in his hand, ready to give the actors their cue, or, in case of
need, to act himself. Sometimes he will make an audible
commentary on what is passing, and ask the compassion
and the tears of the audience on behalf of the martyrs. At
other times he busies himself with dressing the actors, or
encouraging the children to speak out, and do their best
with the parts assigned to them. All this by-play goes' on
in full view of the audience, but does not seem to interfere
in the least with the general enjoyment. The fact is there
is such an intense feeling of earnestness in the minds of
both actors and spectators that they have no thought for
anything but the tragedies enacted. Stanley Lane Poole,
in his " Studies in a Mosque," speaking of the earnestness
of the actors in Persia, says : " Nowhere else on earth can
we see such passion of grief, such grandeur of selfless sym
pathy, as here, where the people forget the passing of time,
and the changing bf place, and taking the rude platform for
the real scene of the martyrdom, and the actors for those
they represent, furiously stone the soldiers of Yezid, and
drive them from the stage ; and the murderer-actor so loses^
himself in his part that he thinks he sees the real Hosein in
the man before him, and actually beheads him before all
eyes."

PASSION PLAY 91
As the Play takes ten days to enact, it will easily be
seen that it is impossible in this chapter to give a com
plete account of it. Besides, it varies greatly in different
countries and in different towns, so that no one descrip
tion would give a perfectly accurate idea of it. I shall
therefore content myself with just glancing at a few of
the more important points. The introductory act is some
times, strange to say, a scene taken from the Jewish Scrip
tures. Joseph and his brethren appear on the stage, and
the old Bible story is portrayed at great length. There is
the consultation of the brothers as to what they shall do
with "this .dreamer and babbler," the resolution to throw
him into a disused pit or well, the taking him out again to
sell him to the Midianitish merchants, the producing of the
blood-stained coat before the eyes of the sorrowful father ;
and then Jacob is depicted as left alone with his grief, re
fusing to be comforted by either sons or daughters. But
lo, the Angel Gabriel visits him, and draws near to comfort
the sorrowful old man ! And the method that the heavenly
visitor adopts to administer consolation is that which has
been used in like circumstances all the world over. Gabriel
declares that what has happened to Jacob is just what
happens to others, and that there is no household without
its bereavements and sorrows. " Yea," says the comforter,
" I foresee in the future a much more distressing case even
than thine, O Jacob, a case that will make heaven and earth
to weep." The Patriarch doubts it, and in the bitterness
of his spirit moans, " Was there ever sorrow like unto my
sorrow!" Gabriel thereupon causes some ministering
angels suddenly to appear, and orders them to perform
a Passion Play before Jacob, to convince him of the fact
that the future has in store a tragedy which will surpass all
others in painful and sad details.
Thus the Mohammedan Play is skilfully introduced. It
has now really commenced. And the next act takes us to
Medina, the city of the Prophet, and we are asked to enter
the house of Mohammed's son-in-law, and look upon the

92 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
Holy Family, viz., Ali, Fatima, and their children, Hasan
and Hosein. It is morning, and Fatima is seated with the
little Hosein on her knees, dressing him. She combs his
hair, talking to him meanwhile in cooing accents, which
mothers only can adopt. Suddenly the comb is caught in
a knot, and as it goes through it a hair comes out, and the
little fellow starts. Fatima is distressed at having given her
son even a moment's trouble, and looks at him tenderly,
and soothes him fondly. While she is so doing, an angel
appears before her, and reproves her weakness, saying, " A
hair falls from the child's head, and you weep. What would
you do if you knew the destiny that awaits him, the countless
wounds with which that body shall one day be pierced, the
agony that shall rend your soul?" Shortly after Fatima
and Ali go out to visit their father Mohammed, and leave
the children, Hasan and Hosein, to play in the garden.
Some little friends join the young people, and all goes
merrily. They amuse themselves with digging holes in the
ground, and building mounds. Hosein, in particular,
throws himself with great enthusiasm into the occupation ;
so much so indeed that by the time Fatima and Ali return,
he has scooped out a big hole that has all the appearance
of a grave. The mother, looking at it, has a foreboding of
trouble. In the afternoon the parents go out again, and
the children resume their play ; but ere long they are in
terrupted in it by some big, fierce boys, who begin to pelt
them with stones. A companion shields Hosein as well as
he can ; but both are struck on the temples, and fall to the
ground senseless. Then the tormentors turn and flee.
And who are they? The audience in the Imambara at
once perceive, with a shudder, that they are the future
murderers of the Imams.
With the illness of little Hosein the second or third act
ends ; and on another evening, and in another act, attention
is drawn to certain noble deeds in the life of his brother
Hasan. The time is many years later. Mohammed is
dead. Ali and Fatima are gone also. It is a period of

PASSION PLA Y 93
national turmoil and anxiety. Hasan has renounced his
claim to the Commandership of the Faithful, which has
been usurped by Muawiya, and lives in dignified seclusion
at Medina. There the people almost worship him for his
many noble traits of character, and call him Hasan the
Good. Two instances of his greatness of soul we will now
consider: —
i. Behold that actor representing Hasan as seated at
table in his own house. It is the time of the evening meal.
A slave waits upon him with a hot, savoury dish, and in a
careless moment upsets it right over the Prince. The slave
drops on his knees in terror, and cries out to his master in
words taken from the Koran, " Paradise is for those who
bridle their anger." Hasan, who has taken the mishap
in good part, answers quietly, " I am not angry." The
slave proceeds, — •" and for those who forgive men." " I
forgive thee," answers Hasan. But the slave finishes
the quotation, — " for God loveth the beneficent." " Thou
sayest truly," exclaims Hasan ; " and since it is so, I
give thee thy liberty, and four hundred pieces of
silver." 2. The scene changes. Behold Hasan lying on his death
bed. The spectators in the Imambara still their very breath
to hear the words of the departing saint. His brother
Hosein bends over him, and says, "O my brother, and
thou art about to leave me alone ! Cruel the foe that gave
poison to thee, the most gentle of all mankind ! But I will
find him out and punish him as he deserves, and avenge
thy death ! " The pathos of the incident is that neither
brother suspects that it was Hosein's wife, a tool in the
hands of their enemies, who had done the sinful deed !
When he hears the vow to avenge his death, the dying man
raises himself up, however, and, speaking earnestly, in feeble
tones, utters these memorable words : " Beloved brother, let
my murderer alone. He and I will meet some day before
the throne of God. It is for us to bear no malice, but to
forgive." Then the spirit of Hasan the Good wings its

94 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
flight to Paradise. And sobs are heard in every corner of
the Imambara.
Another act takes the story of the Passion Play rapidly
on. The men of Kufa, when Muawiya was dead and Yezid
on the Throne, are represented as sending, messengers to
Hosein at Medina, urging him to come to them, and
set up the standard of the Commander of the Faithful.
Against the advice of his best friends, who knew the fickle
ness of the Kufians, Hosein assented and set out on the
rash expedition, accompanied by his wives, his brothers,
and his children, with only forty horsemen and a few foot-
soldiers as an escort. News of the rebellion reached Yezid
at Damascus, who post-haste sent troops to strengthen the
garrison at Kufa, and a little army of four thousand to inter.
cept the march of Hosein. When the latter was within
twenty-five miles of his destination he was stopped, and as
there was no possibility of retreat, he had to choose be
tween surrender and death in battle. The attitude of Yezid
towards the unfortunate Prince may be judged from the
contents of the letter which he sent to . the Governor of
Kufa, the General of his Arabian armies. Yezid wrote :
" If Hosein and his followers submit, and take the oath of
allegiance, treat them kindly ; if they refuse, slay them, ride
over them, trample them under the feet of your horses."
Thus was Hosein brought face to face with death ; and in
succeeding acts we shall see how bravely he met it.
A most touching act is that which is styled " The Family
of the Tent." Hosein, when he saw that he must either
surrender or fight, called his relatives and few soldiers
together, and said to them : " These troops seek no life but
mine ; hasten ye to a place of safety, and leave me to my
fate." But not a soul would leave him, for they loved him
better than life. " Nay," they answered, " we will die with
thee." With tears streaming down his cheeks, Hosein
thanked them, saying, " May Allah recompense you ! "
Then the gallant chief prepared himself and his people for
the coming struggle. Bringing all their tents together, he

PASSION PLA Y 95
caused a trench to be dug around them, which was filled
with logs and brushwood. " At any rate," he said, "if die
we must, we will die like heroes." The morning of the
ioth day of Moharram daWned, and saw a determined
band of less than a hundred souls, resolved to defend
themselves against four thousand. But ere the strife could
begin Hosein mounted a camel, and riding out before the
army of his foes, addressed the Kufians who were there,
reminding them of the invitations they had sent him, and
of the promises they had made, and calling upon them
now, even at the eleventh hour, to join his standard.
Overawed by the other troops, the Kufians as a body gave
no response, but thirty of their number could not resist the
appeal of Hosein, and sprang to his side and returned with
him to the Family of the Tent.
Thereupon the battle commenced, and from the begin
ning to the end it was, of course, nothing but a slaughter.
Prodigies of valour were shown on that famous field of
Kerbelah ; but ere the sun went down scarce a soldier of
Hosein's remained alive. Let Gibbon tell the rest, for
no one has told it better : " Alone, weary, and wounded,
Hosein seated himself at the door of his tent. As he
tasted a drop of water he was pierced in the mouth with a
dart ; and his son and nephew, two beautiful youths, were
killed in his arms. He lifted his hands to heaven ; they
were full of blood ; and he uttered a funeral prayer for the
living and the dead. In a transport of despair his sister
issued from the tent, and adjured the General of the
Kufians that he would not suffer Hosein to be murdered
before his eyes. A tear trickled down the venerable beard
of the General, and the boldest of his soldiers fell back on
every side as the dying hero threw himself among them.
The remorseless Shamar, a name detested by the faithful,
reproached their cowardice ; and the grandson of Moham
med was slain with three-and-thirty' strokes of lances and
swords." Thus perished Hosein, in the flower of his days
— a noble but unfortunate prince, whom Mohammedans

96 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
regard as a martyr, and who is the central figure of their
famous Passion Play.
The closing act of the Play moves every spectator to a
paroxysm of grief. The body* of Hosein is represented as
being trampled on and mutilated. When the head is
struck off, a thrill of horror passes through the audience.-
The bloody trophy is held aloft, and then carried away to
the castle of Kufa, and the inhuman Governor is depicted
as striking it on the mouth with a cane, while an aged
Mussulman standing by exclaims, " Alas ! on those lips I
have seen the lips of the Apostle of God."
Here the sad story ends; the Passion Play is over. It
has been one long-drawn-out scene of tragedy and emotion,
peculiarly Oriental. And the main characters are not
unworthy of the grief that their sufferings have called forth.
Ali and his sons, Hasan and Hosein, were truly noble men
— men of righteousness — men /of a brave, a humble, and a
forgiving spirit. Their lives deserved to be commemorated
in a Passion Play ; for there was a peculiar pathos about
them, and they were not spent selfishly or in vain. As
Matthew Arnold very beautifully says, in " Essays in
Criticism," " It is a long way from Kerbelah to Calvary ;
but the sufferers of Kerbelah hold aloft to the eyes of
millions the lesson so loved by the Sufferer of Calvary,
' Learn of Me, for I am meek and lowly in heart, and ye
shall find rest unto your souls.' "

CHAPTER X
LEGENDS and superstitions
In all Mohammedan countries there is gross ignorance
amongst the masses of the people, and consequently there
is to be found a very general belief in the marvellous.
Legends and superstitions abound, and many a chapter
might be filled with chronicling them. I shall content
myself, however, with giving a short account of some of the
most noted.
Mohammed, it should be mentioned, by .prohibitory
laws, at the commencement of his public career, discoun
tenanced certain superstitious practices, such as divining
by arrows, and letting cattle loose in honour of the gods.
It is questionable, however, whether those laws of the
Prophet did not spring rather from his hatred of idolatry
than from any disbelief in occult powers. Judging from
certain passages in the Koran, and from a story which the
faithful themselves tell of Mohammed, I atn inclined to
think that he was almost, if not quite, as superstitious as
any of his followers.
The story is as follows : — Mohammed, it is said, by the
severity of his treatment of the Jews round about Medina,
incurred their hatred. Those persecuted people, unable to
reach the Prophet by force of arms, had recourse to a
famous necromancer amongst them, who was urged to
compass the death of Mohammed by mystic enchantments.
The task was set about in a peculiar fashion. The first
thing the magician did was to make a small waxen image
H

98 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
of Mohammed, which was counted by all who saw it a
good likeness. Round this image he wound certain hairs,
which had been procured from the Prophet's beard, and
then pierced it with eleven needles. Now taking a bow
string, he tied a certain number of knots in it, and blew
upon each knot the breath of the mouth. By means of
this bowstring the wonderful image was let down a well,
and left there, the opening being covered with a large
stone. "Now," said the necromancer, "notice what will
happen to the Prophet ! "
And we may be sure that the vengeful Jews did notice
with intense eagerness the appearance of Mohammed, who,
it is said, in a day or two showed signs of illness. The
'spell worked marvellously, for the needles that had been
stuck into the waxen image were letting out the life-blood
of the Prophet. Day by. day he wasted away, and his
followers began to despair. The physicians could not tell
what was the matter, and no remedies tried seemed to be
of any use. At length, when hope was at its lowest ebb,
the angel Gabriel interfered, and revealed to the Prophet
in a vision of the night that he was the victim of a magician
amongst his enemies the Jews. The next day Ali dis
covered the image in the well, and Mohammedy weak as he
was, was carried to it, and repeated over it the following
words, which are given in the 103rd sura of the Koran : — :
" I fly for refuge unto the Lord of the daybreak, that he
may deliver me from the mischief of those things which
he hath created, arid from the mischief of the night when
it cometh on, and from the mischief of women blowing on
knots, and from the mischief of the envious when he
envieth." It is recorded that as these words fell from the
Prophet's lips, the needles fell from the waxen image, and
the knots loosened themselves from the bowstring, and
thereupon Mohammed began to revive, and ere long was
quite well again. This strange story is very generally
believed amongst Mohammedans ; and to-day, as in days
past, the words of the Koran are written out and worn as

LEGENDS AND SUPERSTITIONS 99
an amulet, or committed to memory and repeated as a
charm in case of need.
The most wonderful, and the most popular, of all the
legends connected with Mohammed is the one that tells of
a certain visit that the angel Gabriel paid him, and of a
famous ride he took on the heavenly steed, the Burak.
One night, so the story goes, Mohammed was mysteriously
awakened but of his sleep. " One stood before him with a
face as white as snow; his forehead was serene and
unruffled; hair of radiant beauty, plaited finely, hung in
graceful curls about his shoulders ; dazzling brightness made
the many hues of his great wings illuminate the precious
stones with which his robes were strewed ; and gracious
perfumes from ten thousand scent-bags filled the air with
fragrance." This visitor was Gabriel, who bade Mohammed
stand up upon his feet, and then mount a new kind of steed
called the Burak, a name that signifies lightning. The
Burak is represented as having the body of a horse, the
face of a man, and the wings of a bird. The Prophet, not
daring to disobey; got astride the wonderful beast, and
found himself rising gently into the upper air, and
passing like lightning towards the north. The destina
tion of the little party was Jerusalem. On the way
two stoppages were made. The first was at Sinai, to
permit Mohammed to pray on the spot where God once
communed with Moses ; the second was at Bethlehem,
to permit of prayer also where Jesus the son of Mary was
born. As the Burak and its riders rose into the air from the hill
of Bethlehem, the Prophet heard a voice crying, " O
Mohammed, tarry a moment, I pray, that I may speak
with thee ; thou art he to whom of all created beings I am
most devoted." But Mohammed tarried not. Soon
another voice was heard exclaiming, " Stop ! " But with
like result. Then a damsel of the most marvellous beauty
appeared in front of the Prophet, and with bewitching
smiles and charming voice sought to stay his onward
h 2

ioo STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
career. But Mohammed was as adamant. And when
Gabriel saw that his companion was not to be moved from
the path of duty, he congratulated him, saying : " The first
appeal came from a Jew ; if thou hadst listened to it, all
thy people would have become followers of Moses. The
second came from a Christian ; if thou hadst hearkened to
it, thy people would have become followers of Christ. The
third was from the world ; if thou hadst yielded, thy people
would have won earth, but have lost heaven. Verily, thou
hast done well ! " As Gabriel finished speaking, lo, they
were at Jerusalem, and the Burak descended into the
courtyard of the Temple. There she was fastened to a
ring, and the Angel and the Prophet entered the sacred
edifice, and the latter spent, as it seemed to him, much
time in prayer.
But the adventures of that wonderful night were not
over. They had, indeed, only just begun. The legend
goes on to tell how that, • as Mohammed prayed in the
Temple, it was revealed to him that he might, if he would,
ascend into the heavens, and behold things that no other
man had seen, and lived to relate. Mohammed gladly and
eagerly assented. A ladder of light afforded him the
means. In a moment he found himself, with Gabriel- at
his side, standing without the silver walls of the first
heaven. A voice bade them enter, and as they did so a
venerable form approached and did reverence to Moham
med. It was old Father Adam, who spoke of the Prophet
as the greatest among the sons of men. Mohammed was
shown all the glories of the place, and he noticed particu
larly that the city was lighted by means of stars that were
suspended by chains of gold. Then he rose higher, and
with Gabriel entered the second heaven. There the
Patriarch Noah stepped forward to greet him, and hailed
him as the greatest and last ofthe Prophets. Rising still
higher, Mohammed entered the third heaven, where he
was welcomed by Joseph. In this place he saw the Angel
of Death writing in a book the names of all who were born,

LEGENDS AND SUPERSTITIONS 101
and blotting out the names of those who had lived their
allotted years.
To heaven after heaven the Prophet ascended, meeting
respectively Aaron, Moses, and Abraham, until the seventh
heaven was reached. There Gabriel said that he himself
must stop, as no angel was permitted to approach nearer to
God ; but Mohammed might go on into the very presence
of his Maker. Alone, with his heart full of awe and
reverence, the Prophet proceeded up the ladder of light,
through vast spaces, until he reached the throne of Allah.
What exactly passed at that interview between God and
His Prophet no mortal knows, the Faithful say; but
Mohammed returned to this earth a holier and a wiser
man, and embodied afterwards in the Koran many of the
sublime truths that had been revealed to him by the
mouth of God. So runs the legend.
Mohammedans are very superstitious about lost rings.
They say that to lose a ring is an omen of evil, and that it
portends in the near future other losses of property,
influence, or relatives. No time and efforts are spared to
recover, if possible, the lost article, so that disaster may
be averted. In support of this superstition an incident is
related in connection with a ring that once belonged to
Mohammed. The ring in question was that famous one
that the Prophet in the zenith of his temporal and spiritual
power caused to be engraved with the words, " Mohammed,
the Apostle of Allah." At the death of the Prophet this
signet ring passed to Abu Bekr, the first Commander of the
Faithful. From him it descended to Omar, and became
the recognized symbol of the royal power. At Omar's
death the unfortunate Othman wore it. It was while it
was in the possession of Othman that something happened
to it that roused the superstitious fears of the Faithful. .One
day while the Prince was superintending the deepening of a
well just outside the city of Medina, he had occasion to
point to a particular stone, and as his finger was out
stretched, the famous ring dropped off and disappeared.

io2 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
Instant search was made for it in the mud, the sand, the
water, and the well itself, but all in vain. Large rewards
were offered to induce the workmen to look most diligently
for the missing relic, and the search was continued for
many a day. Never more, however, was the ring seen !
It had been lost beyond recovery ! The event caused a
profound sensation in Medina, and in the region round
about. Othman was saddened by the loss. The people
spoke of it as a fearful omen, portending great disasters to
the State. And ere long those doleful prophecies were ful
filled, for Othman was cruelly murdered in his palace, and
anarchy reigned throughout the kingdom. The loss of the
signet ring of Mohammed was contemporaneous with the
loss of the sovereignty to the cities of Mecca and Medina.
Thus the coincidence was certainly a remarkable one, and
it has served, and does serve the people of Islam well as
an illustration, to justify them in their superstitious belief
that it is nothing less than a calamity to lose a ring.
A belief in witchcraft is universal in Mohammedan com
munities. I have heard and read many a story, of the cruel
treatment of poor women who have been suspected of
" the power of the evil eye." Here is an example : — A
party of well-dressed, respectable people, when passing
along a road in the suburbs of an Eastern city, met a white-
haired woman, bent double with age. ¦ Almpst immedi
ately a cry of distress arose from a man of the party, who
was carrying a child in his arms, " Seize her ! seize her ! ""
he shouted ; " she has bewitched me ! " The old woman
was seized and beaten by the other members of the party.
It availed nothing that the poor body asserted her inno
cence. " Do you not see that our friend is in pain ? You
have cast an evil eye upon him ! " the enraged people
exclaimed ; and the beating was resumed.
At length some one suggested that perhaps a cure might
be wrought if the possessed man pulled a few hairs from the
head of the old woman. It was regarded as a happy
thought ! , Without a pang of remorse, or a feeling of pity
for the aged one, the man stepped forward, and grasping

LEGENDS AND' SUPERSTITIONS 103
roughly the white hairs, dragged out a handful, and then
went quickly on his way, to all appearance completely
cured. It was a heartless and shameful deed. But super
stition, when it takes the form of belief in witchcraft, is
ever cruel. Many such deeds are done in the East.
Another superstition that enthrals many minds is that
of lucky and unlucky days. Friday, "the day of the
Assembly," is counted the most lucky day in the week.
Works of any importance are generally commenced on this
day, whether it be building a house, planting a garden,
writing a book, negotiating a marriage, making a garment,
or going a journey. Truly amongst Mohammedans the
old adage, "The better the day, the better the deed,"
is firmly believed and acted upon ! Birthdays are usually
regarded as " lucky days," and so are days which have been
marked in the past by some striking and fortunate event.
But, on the other hand, the days of the anniversary of their
Imam's martyrdom, and days which have been marked in
the past by some special disaster, either "national or per
sonal, are looked upon as " unlucky days." From time
immemorial this superstition of lucky and unlucky days
has prevailed in the East. Sale, in the " Preliminary
Discourse " to his translation of the Koran, relates a story
of the past which is worth repeating, both for its own sake
and because it forcibly reminds us of the power that can
alone free Islam from the enslavement of superstition.
A certain Arab chief, it appears, in a fit of madness
brought on by indulging too freely in intoxicating drinks,
caused one day two of his dearest friends to be buried alive.
Grieving over their death afterwards, he erected a monu
ment to their memory, and set apart two days of the year
in remembrance of their untimely death. One of these
days was called "the lucky" and the other "the unlucky,"
and the chief vowed that whoever met him on that unlucky
day should be slain, and his blood sprinkled on the monu
ment of his dead friends ; but whoever met him on the
lucky day should be greeted with gracious words and sent
away with magnificent gifts. It chanced on an unlucky

104 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM '
day that the chief met a former acquaintance, who had
shown him great kindness in an hour of need. To kill this
man at once was more than the chief could do ; but to let
him off altogether would be to annul his vow. As a com
promise, therefore, he dismissed the prisoner with many
presents to his home, on the condition that he returned at
the end of twelve months to meet his doom. The unfor
tunate man agreed; and one of the chiefs own escort
proffered to stand as surety. The twelve months quickly
passed. Mid-day arrived, but not the condemned man.'
The chief, angry with this apparent failure to keep a solemn
promise, ordered the surety to prepare himself for death.
Those who were by urged their leader to patience, however,
saying that the day had not yet expired. That was true !
And ere the sun went down the man appeared.
The chief, greatly pleased at the nobility of character of
his former acquaintance in keeping his promise, com
plimented him, and asked him who had taught him such
fidelity. The unexpected answer was : " Christ ! I am a
Christian !" The chief inquired further concerning this
matter, and at length came to the conclusion that a religion
that could fill a man with such courage and nobility of soul
was a religion to be desired. Thus was the will of the
Arab conquered, and the episode ended by the prince
becoming a convert to Christianity, by releasing his prisoner,
by giving up his barbarous vow, and by renouncing all
faith in lucky and unlucky days.
Arid what is needed everywhere in the East is the light
of the Gospel of Christ. Superstitions die hard ; but they
cannot live where pure Christianity abides. As the truth
as it is in Jesus spreads, the power of superstition wanes.
Christ is the light of the world, and his light chases away
every form of darkness from the lives of men. When all
Mohammedans come, like the Arab chief, to appreciate
Christianity, and to learn of Christ, then may we hope to
see the end of the thousand and one superstitions which
now rule the lives and debase the manhood and woman
hood of the people of the East !

CHAPTER XI
OMIADES OF DAMASCUS
Damascus is said to be the oldest city of the world. Be
that as it may, it can certainly lay claim' to being one of the
most beautiful.
I shall never forget the day that, crossing Mount Hermon,
from Csesarsea Philippi, I caught my first view of the
famous city. It was in the month of May, and nature all
around was at her loveliest. Our little party stood on
the brow of a hill, and looked over a perfect sea of
foliage, which, miles in depth and leagues in circuit, girdles
Damascus, and saw in the distance high walls, massive
towers, white buildings, and innumerable minarets of mosques
glittering in the rays of an Eastern sun. As we gazed at the
lovely vision, we could appreciate the favourite saying of
the people of Damascus, who in poetical language describe
their city as " a pearl set in emeralds." We could under
stand also the feelings of Mohammed, the prophet of Islam,
who when he was but a camel-driver is said to have gazed
with rapture upon the fair city, which he refused to enter,
exclaiming, " Man can have but one Paradise, and I seek
mine above."
At the time Mohammed uttered those striking words he
little thought that the city of Damascus would ever become
the capital of an empire that would be called after his own
name. Apd yet so it happened. On the death of Ali, the
fourth Commander oft he Faithful, in a.d. 660, Muawiya,
who usurped the sovereignty, as related in an earlier chapter,
moved the seat pf government from Arabia to Syria, thus

106 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
making Damascus the most important city in the Moham
medan Empire. And it retained that high position for
about ioo years, under the rule of Caliphs who are known
in history as the Omiades of Damascus. The term Omiades
was taken from Omia, the father of Muawiya. Omia had
been a Prince of note, and a firm adherent of the Prophet,
and as the name had come to be regarded as a famous and
honourable one, it was adopted by the new dynasty as the
family patronymic.
So far in the story of Mohammedanism we have seen
that the Commanders of the Faithful were elected by the
voice of the people ; but when Muawiya took forcible pos
session of the sovereignty great changes occurred in Islam.
He held the government by the power of the sword ; and
by force and bribery he succeeded in upsetting established
custom, and so arranging matters that the throne should
become hereditary in his family. We have seen how, at the
death of Muawiya and the accession of Yezid, his son,
Hosein, the grandson of Mohammed, sought to overthrow
the Omiades' rule, but in vain. The attempt ended in the
tragedy of the Moharram, and every competitor was removed
out of the way. But though the Omiades thus obtained
and kept, for a long period of time, the Commandership of
the Faithful, by might rather than by right, their rule was, on
the whole, good for Mohammedanism. The Princes of the
Royal House were, generally speaking, men of ability and
character; and victory followed their arms in all the struggles
in which they engaged. The glory of the Omiades reached
its highest point in the reign of Walid, a.d. 705. This
ruler was a man of elegant tastes, and delighted to adorn
the capital of his kingdom with costly and beautiful build
ings. Damascus was never so lovely as when Walid reigned
there in all his glory.
Walid, while loved by his Moslem, was, however, hated
by his Christian subjects. There were many Christians in
Damascus, for the city, during the rule of the Romans, had
been an important centre of the Christian faith.

OMIADES OF DAMASCUS 107
Even when the Mohammedans, under the Caliph Omar,
had conquered Damascus, Christians were allowed to dwell
in the city, and by a special arrangement their great cathe
dral, the Church of St. John the Baptist, was preserved to
them for worship. The arrangement was that the building
should be divided by a partition into two parts, and that
one should be used by the followers of Christ, and the
other by the followers of Mohammed. This remarkable
settlement of a difficult question could not be expected to
be a permanent one, however. The wonder is that it lasted
as long as it did. For seventy years the adherents of the
two great religions worshipped under the same roof ; but in
the reign of Walid the Mohammedans resolved to be sole
masters. When, by order of the Caliph, the whole building
was demanded, the Christians showed their treaty-rights,'
but they were only laughed at ; and one morning Walid,
with a company of soldiers, entered the sacred edifice and
gave the order that every Christian priest should be turned
out, and that every image of Christ, the Virgin Mary, the
Apostles, and saints— of which there were many in the great
building — should be destroyed.
Standing on the high altar, the Caliph himself directed
the work of spoliation, and urged on his followers to make
a speedy and thorough end of every vestige of Christian
worship. Close by Walid, as he stood on the altar, was a
figure of- Christ. One of the fanatical but superstitious
soldiers, noticing the proximity of the image, called out in
a loud voice, " Prince of the Faithful, I tremble for your
safety. The power of that image near which you stand
may be exerted against you." '' Fear not for me," replied
the stern, proud Moslem ; " for the first spot on which I
shall lay my battle-axe will be that image's head." Even as
he spoke he lifted his weapon, which descended with
resistless force on the figure of Christ, and dashed it to
pieces. A cry of horror rose from the Christians, who,
from a distance, were looking on ; but such expressions of
sorrow were drowned in the glad shouts of victory which

108 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
the Mohammedans raised when they saw that their Caliph's
arm was more powerful than the image of the Christ.
Thus the Christians of Damascus lost their ancient church ;
and from that date we may count the rapid decline of
Christianity in Syria. Walid reigned ten years, and during
that time not only strengthened his empire at home, but
increased it abroad. It was Musa, one of his most famous
generals, that conquered for him the kingdom of Spain,
and established the Moslem power in Europe. This great
conquest is just mentioned now, in its legitimate place in
the order of time, but it .will be dealt with more fully in a
subsequent chapter on the Moors in Spain. When Walid
died, in the year 715, the Mohammedan rule in the East
extended beyond the Oxus almost to the borders of China,
and in the West beyond the Pillars of Hercules to the con
fines of France.
In the reign of Omar the Second, the successor of Walid,
the Moslem arms received their first great check. The
new Caliph ordered an advance on Constantinople, the
capital of the Greek Empire, and that city would probably
have fallen, so determined was the onset made upon it, if
the Mohammedans had not been demoralized and dis
persed by that terrible and mysterious weapon of war
called " Greek Fire." Edwin A. Freeman, in his " Outlines
'of History," speaking of the disaster, says : " This defeat of
the Saracens is really one of the greatest events in the
world's history, for if Constantinople had been taken by
the Mohammedans before the nations of Western Europe
had at all grown up, it would seem as if the Christian
religion and European civilization must have been swept
away from the earth."
Excluded from -the eastern entrance of Europe by the
defeat at Constantinople, the Mohammedans sought to
push their way by the western entrance, which was open to
them through the conquest of Spain. But they had
reached the limits of their power. The Divine command
had been issued, " Thus far shalt thou go, and no further."

OMIADES OF DAMASCUS 109
When, in the reign of the Caliph Hisham, the Moslems
crossed the Pyrenees, it seemed at first as if they would carry
everything before them ; but in the year 732, they received
such a defeat that they never again turned their thoughts to
the conquest of France.
This result was due to the genius of one man, who is
known in history by the significant name of Charles Martel,
or Charles the Hammer. This chief was the Mayor of the
Palace in the Frankish monarchy, and in the hour of
Supreme danger to the State, was called to the front.
When his countrymen clamoured to be led against the
Moslems, Charles gave them this weighty advice : " If you
follow my counsel you will not interrupt their march, nor
precipitate your attack. They are like a torrent, which it
is dangerous to stem in its career. The thirst of riches and
the consciousness of success redouble their valour, and
valour is of more avail than arms or numbers. Be patient
till they have loaded themselves with the incumbrance of
wealth. The possession of wealth will divide their counsels,
and assure your victory." And so it came to pass. When
the Mohammedans had ravaged many parts of the country,
and were laden with booty, the Mayor of the Palace, join
ing his forces with those of the Duke of Aquitaine,
attacked them near Tours, and, after a terrible struggle,
defeated them, with a very great slaughter. Charles that
day wrought prodigies of valour with his own right arm,
and so powerful were the blows that he rained upon the
heads of the Moslems, that they were spoken of, as the
blows of a sledge hammer, and thus did he earn for himself
the name of Martel. The bodies of 300,000 Saracens are
said to have been left on the field of battle; and the
Christians also had to mourn the loss of a host of valiant
men. Still, that battle at Tours was a famous victory for
the Franks. It gave Europe rest from the attacks of the
followers of the Prophet in the West, as the victory at Con
stantinople had given her rest, at any rate for a season, in
the East.

no STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
These disasters abroad were followed by the War_ of the
Colours at home, and the power of the Omiades of
Damascus began to totter to its fall. The fact is, the
Omiades were popular nowhere out of Syria. The
Arabians, who secretly were adherents, either of the
descendants of Ali, the son-in-law of Mohammed, or of the
descendants of Abbas, the uncle of Mohammed, had for
years been nursing rebellion, and when they heard of the
disasters in Europe they thought the time was ripe for
revolt. The Alyites chose as the badge of their party a
" green " flag, the Omiades had always used a " white "
flag, and the Abbasides adopted a " black " flag. Thus
were there three factions in the State seeking supreme
power. Two of these factions, the green and the black,
united their strength, to be revenged on the common
enemy, the Omiades, who, for a century or so, had usurped
the throne of the Commander of the Faithful. The whole
Mohammedan world was, of course, convulsed by this
struggle, which at length ended in the complete overthrow
of the dynasty of the white flag.
The last of the Omiades was Mervan, a well-meaning
and brave Prince. To this Caliph came one day a letter
from the Governor of Korassan, which opened his eyes to
the abyss on which he stood. He found that his kingdom
was undermined on every side. The Governor wrote : " I
see some sparks scintillating under the ashes, and from
them a great fire may be kindled ; let us hasten to extin
guish these sparks if you wish to avoid the conflagration J
why must I ask if the children of Omia are awake, or if a
leaden sleep shuts their eyes?" The hour of doom had
come, however, and nothing could turn it back. Mervan
sent orders for the rigorous treatment of all traitors, and
started in person to assist the Governor of Korassan.
But this move on the part of the Commander of the
Faithful was the signal for insurrection to break out in
every part of his dominions. And soon the news
reached him that Abu Abbas had been proclaimed

OMIADES OF DAMASCUS in
Caliph by the black faction in the city of Merv, the capital
of Korassan.
Mervan, excited by the tidings, pushed on with the
greater vigour, and at length joined issue with his rival on
the banks ofthe river Zab, in January, 750. This spot was
about thirty miles south-east of ancient Nineveh, and was
close by Arbela, a place already made famous by the defeat
of Darius, of Persia, by Alexander the Great. Here, after
a struggle of two days' duration, Mervan was utterly
defeated, and the sceptre of the Moslems fell from the
grasp of the Omiades. The Caliph fled, and at Harran
found his wife and children, and with them he went to
Kinnesrin, and thence to Eriiesa, and on and on in wild
flight to Damascus. But the gates of the beautiful city
were closed against the unfortunate man, and he turned away
with a broken heart, and once more resumed his flight, not
caring much whither he went. He reached Egypt before
he was overtaken, but there he was captured by his foes,
and slain without mercy. Thus perished Mervan, the last
of the famous line of Princes which for 100 years had,
from Damascus, ruled the Mohammedan world with a
strong hand.
The sun of the Omiades went down in darkness. Abbas,
the new Commander of the Faithful, was a man of cruel
deeds. Almost his first act when he reached Damascus
was a perfidious one. He invited all the Omiades in the
city to a banquet as his guests, and in the middle of the
feast called in his guards, and massacred those who had
confided in his word. The bodies of the murdered men
were thrown under the table, the feast was continued, and
the Abbasides made merry over the overthrow of their
enemies, whose death made the settlement of Abu Abbas
on the throne of the Caliphs a comparatively easy affair.
And with the Omiades fell also Damascus from her proud
position of the Queen of Cities. The dynasty of the
Abbasides founded a new capital city on the banks of the
Tigris, and the Mohammedan power was thenceforth for

112 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
centuries centred at Bagdad. In a later chapter we shall
glance at the meridian splendour of the Moslem faith and
rule by Bagdad's shrines. Meanwhile we cannot but think
with regret of the eclipse of the power, the influence, and
the grandeur of Damascus. What vicissitudes of fortune
the oldest city in the world has experienced ! It has been
possessed in turn by Heathen, Jewish, Christian, and
Mohammedan rulers. In the Middle Ages it was torn
again and again from the grasp of the Moslem's, but only to
return to them again ; and at the present day it is essentially
a Mohammedan city. The Pashalic of Damascus is now
an important one, and the city has regained something of
its former greatness, but it will never again under Moslem
rule be fully what it was in the time of the Omiades, either
in beauty, grandeur, or power. The century of Omiadian
rule was altogether a glorious one for Damascus, and for
Mohammedanism.

CHAPTER XII
PECULIAR BELIEFS
There are many peculiar beliefs held by Mohammedans,
which we need to consider if we would clearly understand
and estimate fairly the Faith of the followers of the
Prophet. With regard to the creation of mankind, the strangest
stories are told. It is said that God, having resolved to
create man, sent an angel to bring seven handfuls of earth
of different colours, which, being brought and examined
and declared suitable, was taken to Arabia, and there first
kneaded by the angels, and afterwards fashioned by God
Himself into a human form. This form was then left for
forty days to dry in the sun. While; it was drying the
angels are represented as visiting it, and passing their
remarks about its appearance and wondering what God
intended to do with it. Amongst the rest came Iblis or
Satan, who immediately he saw it took a violent dislike to it,
and kicked it with his foot till it rang. At the end of the
appointed time God returned to the clay image, and
breathed into it the breath of life and endued it with an
intelligent soul, and carried it away to a place neither in
heaven nor on earth, called Paradise. And there Eve was
taken from Adam's side.
The enmity that Satan had shown to the senseless clay
was continued and deepened when the creation was com
pleted and man was made a living soul. And this enmity,
it is declared, was the chief cause of the fall of Satan from
i

114 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
heaven. It angered God that Satan should so proudly hold
himself aloof from man, or when he came near him express
nothing but ill-will and hatred towards him. ' Matters were
brought to a crisis, the Koran tells us, by an edict from
God, that all the angels should worship the new creation.
Let me give the passage just as it stands in the 7 th sura.
It runs : " We created you, and afterwards formed you,
and then said unto the angels, Worship Adam, and they all
worshipped him except Iblis. God said unto him, What
hindered thee from worshipping Adam, since I had com
manded thee ? He answered, I am more excellent than
he ; thou hast created me of fire, and hast created him of
clay. God said, Get thee down therefore from Paradise,
for it is not fit that thou behave thyself proudly therein :
get thee hence, thou shalt be one of the contemptible."
Then was Satan driven forth, and he became a wanderer in
space and the ruler of the powers of darkness.
The fall of man, according to Mohammedan belief, quickly ,
followed the fall of Satan. Indeed, as the Devil was leav
ing Paradise he is said to have hurled a defiant threat in
the very face of God. He shouted : " Because Thou hast
depraved me, I will lie in wait for men in Thy strait way :
then will I come upon them from before and from behind,
and from their right hand and from their left ; and Thou
shalt not find the greater part of them thankful." The
story of man's fall is probably taken from the Jewish
Scriptures. The Koran tells of the forbidden fruit just as
the Bible does, only with greater brevity and less poetic
force. The passage is worth quoting for the sake of com
parison. It is as follows :¦ — " O Adam, dwell thou and thy
wife in Paradise, and eat of the fruit thereof wherever ye
will ; but approach not this tree, lest ye become of the
number of the unjust. And Satan suggested to them
both that he would discover unto them their nakedness
which was hidden from them; and he said, Your Lord
hath not forbidden you this tree for any other reason
but lest ye should become angels, or lest ye become

PECULIAR BELIEFS 115
immortal. And he sware unto them, saying, Verily,
I am one of those who counsel you aright. And he caused
them to fall through deceit." After the fall God banished
man from Paradise, and condemned him to live upon the
earth and to die there.
When our first parents began their life on this earth, they
found other creations, for God had peopled the world with
all manner of things which were to be subject to man. In
such creations, and in all creations, Mohammedans say the
little word " Be " played an important part. The teaching
on this point is most quaint. In the 36th sura of the
Koran it is written : " The Lord is the wise Creator : His
command when He willeth a thing is only that He. saith
unto it, Be, and it is." This striking and famous passage
has led to all manner of controversies and divisions
amongst the Faithful. " Be, and it is," the Arabic for
which is " Kun fayakuna," is the watchword of the
orthodox party. Their argument is that God created the
world, and all that therein is, by means of the word " Be."
" But," say others, " unless Be was from all eternity, then
one created thing must have created another ; ' and if Be
was from all eternity, then there are two Eternals, God and
Be." One would think that such an argument would
close the controversy. But no ! The orthodox have
always an answer ready. " Granted," is the reply, " that
there are two Eternals, God and Be, it does not neces
sarily follow that there are two Gods, for Be can do
nothing until it receives the command to do." So the
discussion is continued with considerable subtlety ; and
Mohammedans take the greatest delight in it, though we
all probably think that it is a case of " much ado about
nothing." The story of Cain and Abel, as told by Mohammedans,
is most curious. It is said that the brothers had each a
twin sister, and that God ordered Cain to marry Abel's
twin, and Abel to marry Cain's. Abel agreed, but Cain
refused, because his own twin sister was the handsomer of
1 2

116 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
the two. Father Adam being appealed to to settle the
dispute, instructed the brothers to make each an offering
unto the Lord, and that the acception or rejection of the
respective offerings might be taken as conclusive of the will
of God. Cain's offering was a sheaf of the very worst of
his corn ; but Abel's was a fat lamb of the best of his
flock. And Abel's offering was accepted, and Cain's
rejected. Thereat Cain was exceeding angry, and pur
posed in his heart to slay his brother. But not knowing
how to accomplish this resolve, he invoked the aid of Satan,
who promptly appeared, and showed him how to proceed.
Satan, Mohammedans say, took a bird, and laying its head
on a stone, smote it with another stone ; and lo ! to the
delight of Cain, it was killed. And that very night
he did the same thing with his brother Abel as he lay
asleep in the field. But when the awful deed had been
committed, Cain repented him, and taking up the body of
his brother, carried it about on his shoulders, weeping as
he went. Then God, taking pity upon him, sent a raven,
which, killed another raven, and buried it by digging a pit
with its claws and beak. This was done in the sight of
Cain, who, quick to perceive the lesson, put his brother's
body on the ground, and at once digging a grave for it,
buried it out of his sight. Mohammedans affirm that in
the Judgment Cain's punishment will be equal to half the
punishment of all the rest of mankind.
Another peculiar belief is that in Genii. In the 55th
sura of the Koran these words occur : " God created man
of dried clay, like an earthen vessel ; but he created the
Genii of fire clear from smoke." And in many other places
in the Koran the Genii are referred to. Mohammed be
lieved implicitly in their existence ; and so do the Faithful
to the present day. Mohammedans say that the Genii
inhabited the world for many ages before man was created,
that they fell into sin, and were driven by command of God
into a remote part of the earth, whence, however, they came
out at times when called by the power of man. The Genii

PECULIAR BELIEFS 117
are said to be something like angels,, only of a grosser
fabric. They are believed to eat and drink, and to have
offspring, and to die like human beings. Of all men who
have ever lived, Solomon, King of the Jews, is said to have
possessed the greatest control over the Genii. He could
make them do just what he chose. If he wished to go on
a journey, for instance, he was wont tQ spread on the
ground a carpet of green silk, and sitting on it, give the word
of command to the Genii, who would transport him in a
moment of time to the place he desired to be at. The
Temple of Solomon is believed by Mohammedans to have
been the work of Genii.
The Prophet refers to this in the Koran, and states that
Solomon died ere the Temple was completed, but that the
building went on all the same, for the Genii did not know
the King was dead. I remember, when in Jerusalem, a
place was pointed out to me as the spot where the King
died, and the following strange story was told me in con
nection with it. My guide said : " Before the Temple was
completed Solomon, perceiving that his end drew nigh,
begged of God that his death might be concealed from the
Genii, who were busily engaged in the wonderful enterprise.
God, recognizing the wisdom of the request, so ordered it
that the King died in the court-yard of the Temple as he
stood at his prayers, leaning on his staff, which supported
his body in that position a full year. The Genii, supposing
him to be alive and watching them, continued their work
with energy, and at length completed the magnificent edifice.
Thereupon a worm, which had found its way into the staff
of Solomon, ate it through, and the corpse fell to the
ground, and discovered the King's death." Mohammedans
delight in such tales, and constantly introduce Genii into
their literature. One can but wonder at such credulous
beliefs !
Another belief, called the doctrine of the Two Watchers,
is not without its attractiveness, and is certainly ingenious.
The statement is that every human being from birth is

n8 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
attended by two angels, one resting on the right shoulder
and the other on the left. The business ofthe two watchers
is to register in a book every action of man, so that at the
last day a man's good and evil deeds may be found fully
recorded and be used as evidence for or against him. It
seems, however, that the angel who sits on the right
shoulder, rioting good actions, is more powerful than the one
who sits on the left shoulder, and that he is always inclined
to exercise his power on the side of mercy. Directly a
man does something good, the good angel writes it down,
not once merely, but ten times. And if the man does
anything evil, the same angel stays the hand of the other
angel who is about to record it, saying, "Forbear! Do
not set it down for seven days : peradventure the offence
will be repented of!" I like the doctrine of the Two
Watchers, and fain wish that all the peculiar beliefs of the
Mohammedans had as much sense and good feeling in them.
I would mention next a most gloomy belief. It is con
nected with the action of two other angels, who are called
Munkar and Nakir. These angels are represented as being
black as ink, and of a frightful appearance in other
ways. Their mission is to examine the dead. Directly a
corpse is laid in' the grave, Munkar and Nakir appear before
the terrified person, and tell him to sit up. Mohammedans
do not enclose the dead in coffins, nor do they usually fill
in, but only cover, the grave, so that if a corpse can sit up
it has room to do so. The questions put by the examiner's
are : " Who is thy God ? Who is thy Prophet ? What is
thy faith ? Which is thy book ? Where is thy Kiblah ?
Who is thy leader?" If the dead man answers satis
factorily, his body is suffered to rest in peace, and he is
refreshed, until the Resurrection, by a breeze from Paradise.
If he does not answer satisfactorily, terrible is the treatment
that he receives. The angels at once seize hold of him,
and beat him on the temples with iron maces till he roars
out with anguish so loud that he is heard in the lowest hell.
Then earth is thrown on the corpse, and ninety-nine

PECULIAR BELIEFS 119
dragons are let loose upon it, and they are commissioned
to gnaw it and sting it, day and night, without ceasing,
until the day of Judgment, when still more terrible tor
ments await it. This is altogether a horrible doctrine, and
shows Mohammedanism in a bad light.
The teaching of Islam with regard to the Resurrection
is replete with peculiarities. The immediate signs of the
Resurrection will be three blasts of a great trumpet. The
first is called the " Blast of Consternation," at the hearing
of which all creatures in heaven and earth will be struck
with terror. The heavens will melt, the sun be darkened,
the stars will disappear, the sea will dry ,up, and everything
on earth will fall into chaos and ruin. Then will be heard
the " Blast of Death," at which everything with life in
heaven and earth will die, in a moment, in the twinkling of
an eye, with the exception of God, and those beings created
before the world. Forty years later the third blast will be
blown, which is called the " Blast of Resurrection." At
the sound thereof all souls will come to life, and fill the
space between heaven and earth, whence, at the Divine
command, they will wing their flight to their respective
bodies, which the opening earth will suffer to arise.
Then cometh the Judgment, at which both Genii, men,
and animals must appear. The length of the Day of
Judgment is variously estimated by Mohammedan com
mentators, some saying that it will last 1,000 years ;* while
others affirm that it cannot be expected to come to an end
under 50,000 years. At the Judgment, the Faithful say,
God will appear in the clouds, surrounded by angels, and,
being seated upon the Great, White Throne, He will declare
the time has come for all flesh to answer for the deeds
done in the body, whether good or evil. An Intercessor
will be called for, who, it seems, will be Mohammed.
Adam, Noah, Abraham, and Jesus will in turn be asked,
but all will refuse, saying that Mohammed is the most
worthy to fill the honourable post. Then the Books will
be opened, and the Recording Angels will give an account

120 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
of the following items : — Time, how spent ; wealth, how
acquired and used ; the body, how treated ; knowledge and
learning, how employed. To show how exact justice will
be, Mohammedans state that the Angel Gabriel will
produce a pair of scales, of size so vast that one of the
scales will completely cover Paradise, and the other com
pletely cover Hell. In these scales the good and bad
actions of all created beings will be weighed in turn, and
judgment given accordingly. It is generally thought that
animals, after being judged, will be permitted to punish
each other at once for the wrongs they may have done each
other, and that then every one of them will be blotted out
of existence. Some say that the Genii will share the same
fate. As for mankind, however, they are reserved for
future bliss or woe. Those who turn the scale on the
right side are allotted to Paradise, with all its marvellous
joys; and those who turn it on the left are doomed to
Hell, with all its awful torments.
The Judgment being over, and the assembly dissolved,
Mohammedans teach that then the righteous will turn their
faces at once towards Paradise, while the unrighteous will
march towards Hell. All, however, must pass over a
wonderful bridge called "The Bridge of Sirat," which is
placed over the mouth of Hell. This bridge is said to be
finer than a hair, and sharper than the edge of a sword.
And on either side of it briars and thorns are placed.
" Nothing, however, will be an impediment to the good,
for they shall pass with wonderful ease and swiftness, like
lightning or wind, Mohammed and his Moslems leading
the way ; whereas the wicked, what with the slipperiness
and extreme narrowness of the path, the entangling of the
thorns, and the extinction of the light which directed the
former to Paradise, will soon miss their footing, and fall
down headlong into the bottomless pit, which is gaping
beneath them."
Such are some of the Peculiar Beliefs of the followers of
Islam. They are a strange mixture of wisdom, and folly,

PECULIAR BELIEFS 121
of truth and error. It is a mystery that Moslems of
intelligence can be content with such teaching. It is said
that many are not, and that at the present day there is, in
all Mohammedan countries, amongst the educated classes,
a growing desire to throw overboard the musty traditions
of the Fathers. However, the common people of Islam
have to be reckoned with, for ' they are the majority, and
they cling with fanatical earnestness to everything that the
Prophet once taught, or that received, even in the remotest
way, his approval or sanction.

CHAPTER XIII
ABBASIDES OF BAGDAD
Bagdad, the name of a province and a city in the south
west of Asiatic Turkey, is one of the most famous names
in the history of Mohammedanism. It was at Bagdad, on
the banks of the Tigris, that the Abbasides, or descendants
of Abbas, the uncle of Mohammed, fixed the seat of
government, when they had dethroned the Omiades of
Damascus, in the year 750.
Damascus, as the capital of the late dynasty, notwith
standing its admirable situation and marvellous beauty,
was considered unworthy of the line of Abbas, relatives of
the Prophet. With the new dynasty, it was resolved to
begin altogether a new era. So, in the year 762, the
Caliph Mansur, the second of the Abbasides, erected
Bagdad, or the " City of Peace." And in this new capital,
which the genius of the architect and the skill of the painter
and gilder combined to make one of the most magnificent
in the world, the powerful house of Abbas reigned for some
centuries as successors of the- Prophet of Allah. And
Bagdad is almost as well known to the people of the West
as to the people of the East, for it was the scene of many
of those romantic tales described in that fascinating book
called " The Arabian Nights' Entertainment."
Though Bagdad was called the City of Peace, it was not
because at the time it was built there was peace in the
Mohammedan Empire. It was meant as a prophecy of the
future rather than as a statement of the then existent state
of things. In fact, when Bagdad was built, there was strife

ABBASIDES OF BAGDAD 123
in almost every province ; and peace was not secured until
the power of the Caliphate was divided. It happened
thus : — From the massacre of the Omiades at Damascus,
by Abbas, as related in a previous chapter, one intended
victim, named Abd-er-Rahman, somehow managed to
escape. This Prince, after marvellous adventures, reached
Egypt, and for a time lived amongst the wandering Berbers
of the Desert, whose respect and esteem he won by his
noble origin, princely appearance, and manly virtues. And
from Egypt Abd-er-Rahman eventually made his way to
Spain, and after a while, in that country he won the
allegiance of the Moors from the Caliph of Bagdad, and
founded, at Cordova, the Royal house of the Omiades of
Spain, which endured for 250 years. Thus was Spain, in
the eighth century, lost to the Successor of the Prophet :
and the Mohammedan world was divided into two great
sections. In fact, from this time there were two Caliphs
or Commanders of the Faithful, one ruling at Cordova, and
the other at Bagdad.
But this disunion of the Empire was a source of strength
rather than of weakness. Spain was too far away from the
banks of the Tigris to be governed from thence with
comfort. The loss of the kingdom of the West allowed
the Caliph of the East to concentrate his powers, and the
result was great gain. Mohammedanism, indeed, was
never so strong as in the eighth and ninth centuries, when
it was worthily represented both at Cordova and at Bagdad.
The meridian splendour of the Eastern Empire was reached
during the reign of Harun-al-Rashid, or Aaron the Just.
His name is familiar to us as the hero of the Arabian
Nights. He it was who went about disguised in his own
city in search of adventures ; he it was who did the many
wonderful things which now astonish and delight child
hood ; and he it was who used the whirling scimitar in such
a marvellous way to rescue friends and to punish foes,
Harun was truly a great Prince ; noted for his skill in war,
his wisdom in council, his encouragement of learning, and

124 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
his righteousness as judge. Far and wide he was known
as Harun the Great, the magnificent, and the just; the
only blot on his fair fame being his treatment of his great
Ministers, the Barmecides, whom he destroyed root and
branch, suspecting them, rightly or wrongly, of treason to
the throne.
But though Harun raised so high the name of Moslem,
and made the followers of Mohammed to be feared on
every hand, it was during his reign that the most insulting
letter a Caliph ever received came from the Greeks of Con
stantinople, the inveterate foes of Islam. Irene, the Queen
of the Greeks, had for a few years, for the sake of peace,
paid tribute to the Moslems ; but when Nicephorus usurped
her power, he decided that such payments should cease,
so he sent the following extraordinary letter to the Caliph : —
" From Nicephorus, King of the Greeks, to Harun,
King of the Arabs : — The Queen considered you as a rook,
and herself as a pawn; she submitted to pay tribute to
you, though she ought to have exacted twice as much from
you. A man speaks to you now, therefore send back the
tribute you have received, otherwise the sword shall be
umpire between us."
The Ambassadors who bore this message to the Caliph
threw at the foot of his throne a bundle of swords to
emphasize the threat of their Sovereign ; but Harun only
smiled at their zeal, and bade them return to the Emperor.
And he sent this stinging message back with them: —
" In the name of Allah, most merciful ! Harun-al-Rashid,
Commander of the Faithful, to Nicephorus, the Roman
Dog ! I have read thy letter, O thou son of an unbelieving
mother ! Thou shalt not hear, but behold, my reply ! "
Thus did the Moslem render to the Greek scorn for scorn,
and railing for railing. And in the war that followed
Harun earned the name of the Victorious, for he utterly
defeated the powerful armies of Nicephorus, and forced
that proud monarch to make an ignominious peace, in
which he agreed to pay tribute twice as often as Irene had

ABBASIDES OF BAGDAD 125
done before him. Thus ended for the time being the war
between Moslem and Greek; and thus did Harun-al-
Rashid show that he had some right to be considered the
most powerful monarch of his time.
But peace abroad was followed by strife at home. In
deed, for some years, the Alyites, or descendants of Ali,
who had assisted the Abbasides to dethrone the Omiades,
had been plotting against the Caliphs, and causing trouble
in the land. Matters came to a head at the death of
Harun. The latter left two sons, who quarrelled over the
vacant throne, and though Mamun, the younger brother,
eventually proved the stronger and became Caliph, yet the
Royal power had been so weakened by the fratricidal strife
that the Alyites lifted their heads, and in the year 814
made a bold snatch at the Commandership of the Faithful.
At first this rebellion seemed as if it would prosper, but at
the end of ten months its leader died, or fell by poison,
and the country had rest. But in less than two years the
Alyites again gave serious trouble to the State, and the
dazed Caliph, scarcely knowing what to do, resolved, by a
bold and self-denying stroke, to bring, if possible, per
manent peace to the distracted kingdom. His idea was to
surrender completely to the descendants of Ali. Gilman,
in his book on the Saracens, describes the decision thus :
"Mamun called to him at Merv in 817 one of the great-
grandsons of Ali, Ali ben Musa el Rida, a man well known
for his learning, piety, and good life, to whom he gave his
daughter in marriage ; he then promised him the throne
after his death ; coined money in his name ; exchanged the
black garments of the tribe of Abbas for the green which
marked the descendants of the Prophet, and sent out
letters commanding that the same change of colours should
be made by all the civil and military officers of the
kingdom." By a strange freak of fortune, it thus seemed
as if the children of Ali and Fatima would, when they least
expected it, secure the supreme power in Islam, which was
rightly theirs.

126 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
It was not to be, however. Mamun had reckoned with
out his people. When the inhabitants of Bagdad heard of
the treaty their Caliph had made with the Alyites, they
repudiated it with indignation, and so great was their wrath
that they actually deposed Mamun, and chose in his stead
Ibrahim, the son of a former ruler. When Mamuri, who
was still at Merv, was informed of events at Bagdad, he
saw that he had made a mistake in leaguing, himself with
the Alyites, and at the eleventh hour he broke the alliance,
and, with true Oriental baseness, caused Ali ben' Musa to
be poisoned, ordered other eminent personages to be made
away with, and marched straight for the capital, to call the
inhabitants to account for their disloyalty. Such daring
and energetic measures had the desired result. The
people saw that Mamun was not to be trifled withj and
they quickly made their peace with him. Continuing in
the same stern course, the Caliph ere long put down every
foe, and obtained for the State that internal rest of which
it stood sorely in need. The Alyites were suppressed, and
the Abbasides were once more successful and all-powerful.
Mamun reigned over Islam for many years, and added
even to the prosperity and glory of the previous Caliph.
One writer says : " Mamun was not so accomplished a
general as his father, but he continued and increased the
enlightened cultivation of letters that Harun had begun,
and his reign has been compared to the times of the De'
Medici in Italy, and of Louis XIV. in France. Mamun
was succeeded by his brother Motasim, who was nicknamed
the Octave, because he reigned eight years and eight
months, and left behind him eight sons, eight daughters,
eighty thousand slaves, eight million dinars, and eighty
million dirhems. Motasim's period of rule was chiefly
taken up in waging war with the Greeks ; and it is notorious
for the capture of Armorium, the most populous and the
richest city in the Greek Empire. Theophilus was at the
time reigning at Constantinople. This Emperor hated the
Mohammedans with a deadly hatred, and in 836 he threw

ABBASIDES OF BAGDAD 127
a large army upon the borders of Syria, and carried his
arms far and wide, giving no quarter, and devastating a
region almost up to the limits of Mesopotamia. He even
made use of ferocious wild beasts to help him in desolating
the countries of the Moslems. But in these mad acts the
Emperor overreached himself. When Motasim heard of
them, he resolved on a swift and terrible revenge. He put
himself at the head of an army of 200,000 men, and
, advanced upon Armorium. Each soldier was Supplied with
a buckler, with the word " Armorium " stamped on it, as
an evidence of the terrible determination with which the
expedition set out. Arrived in ' front of the city, after
months of journeying and fighting, the Moslems laid siege
to it, and eventually took it. It was full of people and full
of spoil. The former the enraged conquerors massacred
without mercy, and the latter they carried off to enrich
their own city on the Tigris. Armorium is said to have
been stripped bare, to have been left utterly desolate, and
afforded a terrible proof of the power and enmity of the
Moslems. It is said that the massacre at Armorium has
few if any parallels in Saracenic history.
With Motasim, the eighth Caliph of Bagdad, the glory
of the Abbasides culminated. Elements of weakness now
entered into the life of the nation, and gradually under
mined the Empire. For instance, under the Caliphate of
Motawakkel, in 842, stringent laws were passed against all
Christians and Jews living in Mohammedan countries. So
far the adherents of these two great religious sects had
been tolerated by the Abbasides, and treated with some
show of justice. Henceforward, however, they were to be
treated harshly, and so were forced into an attitude of
enmity. Of Motawakkel. it is written : " He persecuted
the Jews and the Christians, ordering that they should
never ride on horses, but only on asses and mules, and that
without stirrups ; that their dwellings should be marked by
figures of dogs and monkeys ; and their persons always
known by yellow dresses. He refused them the right to

128 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
enter the baths frequented by Moslems, or to occupy any
office of public service. They were restricted in regard to
their schools and places of worship ; their taxes were
doubled ; and the very indications of their graves were
obliterated." Thus was begun in the Mohammedan Empire that
system of the persecution of subject races, especially
Christian, which has continued till this day, and which has
ever been one of the serious errors of Moslem Princes,
and the occasion of the loss to them of many a fair pro
vince and country. The Abbasides of Bagdad were the
first to reap the fruits of such an iniquitous system.
Another element of weakness in the sovereignty of the
Abbasides was the establishment of a system of Guards in
the Royal city and palace. In their wars with the people
of Turkestan the Caliphs made many prisoners, and these
they formed gradually into a body-guard. The idea there
by was to strengthen the personal influence of the Com
manders of the Faithful, and for a time doubtless that
object was gained ; but eventually the Guards saw that they
were indispensable, and realizing their power, they used it
despotically. For three centuries or more the actual rulers
of Bagdad and the Mohammedan Empire in the East were
the Turkish Guards, some 50,000 strong ; and history has
nothing good to say of them. They were bloodthirsty and
cruel, and would commit any deed of darkness to maintain
their hold over the Caliphs. If a Commander of the
Faithful, more independent or braver than the rest, ventured
to oppose the will, of the Guards, his doom was dethrone
ment or death. Gibbon, writing of these things, says :
" As often as the Turks were influenced by fear or rage or
avarice, the Caliphs were dragged by the feet, exposed
naked to the scorching sun, beaten with iron clubs, and
compelled to purchase by the abdication of their dignity a
short reprieve of inevitable fate."
The Guards chose one of their own number to represent
them, and this leader was called the Prince of Princes ; for

ABBASIDES OF BAGDAD 129
the Caliphs, acting under compulsion, legally placed all the
temporal power of the State in his hands, only reserving
for themselves the spiritual power. As Gilman says :
" The Prince of Princes usurped an authority not unlike
that possessed in Rome by the Praetorian Guards, in
France by the Maires du Palais, and in Constantinople for
five hundred years by the terrible Janizaries." With the'
death of the Caliph Radi, in the tenth century, the rule of
the Commanders of the Faithful practically came to an
end, though the dynasty of the Abbasides nominally
governed in Bagdad until the thirteenth century. After
Radi, "never more did a Caliph write poems that were
collected into a volume ; no longer did a Caliph politely
harangue the Faithful of a Friday in the mosque ; nor did
another hold train and table after the olden style of magni
ficence ; no other one disposed the armies and the finances
after his own will ; nor ever held familiar companionship
with his friends ; for all power was henceforth lodged in the
hands of the Prince of Princes, and of those who gave
that officer his supremacy."
It would be dreary work to trace in detail the fall of
Bagdad, and with it the house of Abbas. For years the
Turkish Guards, who, though cruel, were brave and gallant
soldiers, upheld the power of the State against foreign foes,
both Greek and Barbarian. There came a time, however,
when the Guards quarrelled amongst themselves, and then
the streets of Bagdad ran with rivers of blood ; and the
whole Caliphate felt that the day of doom was not far
distant. Yet it lingered. However, in the year 1258 the
end came. ' The Tartars, under their Prince Hulaku, the
grandson of that scourge of the East, Jenghis Khan, swept
like a torrent upon the distracted Empire, and there was no
power to withstand them for more than a brief space.
Mustasim was Caliph, and he made a brave stand for his
kingdom, but it was in vain. After keeping the besieging
army at bay for two months, Bagdad opened her gates to
the foe, who swarmed in like locusts to devour all they
K

130 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
could find. The savage Tartar Prince at once ordered
Mustasim to be put to death, and along with him, it is said,
sixteen hundred thousand inhabitants of the captured city.
Thus fell Bagdad, the most famous of Eastern cities, and
thus miserably perished the last of the Caliphs of the
dynasty of the Abbasides,, which had endured for full five
centuries ! How the Tartars were won over to the faith of
Islam, and what dynasties rose on the ruin of the Abba
sides, will be shown in subsequent chapters. The fall of
Bagdad did not mean the death of Islamism. It simply
meant another change of capital, and the onward march of
Mohammedanism to greater and still greater victories, both
in the East and in the West.
Bagdad was rebuilt in course of time, and is at the
present day an insignificant city of 60,000 inhabitants. It
has from the outside an extremely picturesque appearance ;
but within, it is flnean-looking, dirty, and poverty-stricken.
What a contrast the present city must present to the city
that the Tartars destroyed, to the city of Harun-al-Rashid,
to the city of the Arabian Nights ! And yet Bagdad in its
poverty, dirt, and meanness will ever be dear to lovers of
•the old and the romantic ; for its very name is fascinating,
and the sight of it leads all who gaze upon it and enter
within its walls to say with the poet —
So I wander and wander along
And for ever before me gleams
The shining city of song
In the beautiful land of dreams.

CHAPTER XIV
RAMADAN OR LENT
Mohammedans, like many Christians, have one period of
the year which they set aside specially for fasting and
prayer. This Lent season is called by the Moslems
Ramadan. The term Ramadan has exercised the ingenuity of many
writers as to its meaning. It is evidently derived from the
Arabic ramadh, which signifies to burn. But what con
nection has burning with fasting ? The generally accepted
explanation of the meaning and use of the term is that the
first institution of the ceremony of fasting in Arabia
occurred during one of the hottest months of the year, and
so the " fasting month " was called and known ever after
wards by the name of the " hot month." Ramadan is the
ninth month of the Moslem year, but as the months are
variable; owing to the fact that they are lunar, sometimes
this particular month is in the summer and sometimes it is
in the winter. All the same, it is '¦' the fast month ; " and
to speak .of Ramadan is now equivalent to speaking of
" fasting," though, as I have said, the meaning of the term
is something entirely different, viz., " burning."
What, it may be asked, are the motives of Mohammedans
for enduring a month of fasting ? One of our poets has
said — The poor man fasts because he wanteth meat ;
The sick man fasts because he cannot eat.
The miser fasts, with greedy mind to spare ;
The glutton fasts to eat a greater share,
The hypocrite, he fasts to seem more holy ;
The righteous man, to punish sinful folly.
K 2

132 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
I think that in the case of Moslems of the present day
the chief reasons for fasting are that it is the custom so to
do, and that therein they are obeying the commands of
their Prophet, who taught that the due performance of
certain rigid vows of fasting would be an acceptable service
from man to God. Mohammed went as far as to affirm
that Fasting is a fourth part of Faith, and that without fast
ing it is impossible to please God. He called it also " the
gate of religion," and declared that "the odour of the
mouth of him who fasteth is more grateful to God than
that of musk." Doubtless devout Moslems believe these
things. And while I would say, generally speaking, that
" custom " accounts for the practice being kept up so
widely, yet in particular cases there can be no doubt that it
is the desire to do God service that prompts to the per
formance of the act.
The words of the Koran with reference to the duty of
fasting occur in the 2nd sura. They are : " O, true
believers, a fast is ordained you that ye may fear God. A
certain number of days shall ye fast. And those who can
keep it and do not must redeem their neglect by maintain
ing a poor man. And he who voluntarily dealeth better
with a poor man than he is obliged, this shall be better for
him. But if ye fast it will be better for you, if ye knew it.
The month Ramadan shall ye fast, in which the Koran was
sent down from heaven, a direction unto men, and declara
tions of direction, and the distinction between good and
evil. Therefore fast the same month."
It may be asked, " Where did Mohammed get his idea
of fasting ? " And the answer, I think, must be " From
the Jews." Muir, in his " Life of Mahomet," conjectures
that fasting was not observed by the followers of the
Prophet at the very beginning of his ministry; probably
not until after the settlement at Medina. " Two or three
months after his arrival in Medina Mahomet observed
the Jews, on the tenth day of their seventh month,
keeping the great fast of the Atonement, and he readily

RAMADAN OR LENT 133
adopted it for his own people. Prior to this, fasting does
not appear to have been a prescribed ordinance of Islam.
It was established at a period when the great object of
Mahomet was to symbolize with the Jews in all their rules
and ceremonies." However, in course of time, as has
been already intimated in these studies, Mohammed
quarrelled with the Jews. Thereupon he altered the date
of fasting, as he had altered the Kiblah towards which the
Faithful should turn in worship. The fast of the Jewish
Atonement ceased for Islam, and in its place was put the
fast of Ramadan. And although the new ordinance was
professedly similar in principle to that of the Jews, yet in
duration and in the mode of its observance it was entirely
different. The, fast of Ramadan, according to Mohammedan
divines, is threefold in its character : —
1. The restraining of the appetite.
2. The abstaining of all the members of the body from
sin. 3. The withdrawal of the heart from worldly cares, and
of the thoughts from everything besides God.
The first rule is so rigidly carried out that during fasting
hours nothing whatever is allowed to pass the lips in the
way of food, whether fluid or solid. The fast moreover is
considered null and void if perfumes are inhaled, or a pipe is
smoked, or a bath is taken, or the spittle is consciously
swallowed. There are some good Mussulmans' so exceed
ingly good that they are observed even to open their
mouths with fear and trembling lest peradventure they
should permit the air to enter too freely. It can easily be
seen therefore that the month Ramadan, though such a
holy month, is not characterized as either pleasant or
happy. It is a month of trial, of discipline, and of con-'
siderable privation.
The Moslem fast is at least thirty days in duration —
from one new moon to another. Many of the Faithful
extend the time to forty days, in imitation of the Prophet

134 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
and his family. The prohibitions already mentioned, at
any fate those with regard to food and drink, it must be
understood, apply only tb the day, not to the night. The
Koran says that the fast ends with the setting of the sun,
and that then believers may partake of that which God has
ordained for them, "until ye can plainly distinguish a
white thread from a black thread by the daybreak." The
duration of the fast then, by the day, is practically from the
rising of the sun to the going down thereof. The quaint
idea of discerning the black thread from the white was
taken by Mohammed from the Jews, for the latter determine
the time when they shall begin the religious duties of the
day by their ability to discern the blue threads frorn the
white threads in the fringes of their garments.
The severity of the Mohammedan fast can only beiinder-
stood by those who have experienced it, or who have
watched the subjects of it very closely. When I was a
householder in Calcutta I had opportunities of testing the
reality of the fasting and seeing the effects of it, for I
had two or three Moslem servants. I always dreaded the
season of Ramadan coming round, for the sake of the
domestics themselves and for the general discomfort of the
house. It was a time of great upset in every way, for
though the pangs of hunger and thirst were generally
bravely borne, yet the individuals who underwent the fast
were weakened in body, distracted in mind, and altogether
out of trim for the tasks of the day. How longingly the
evening was looked forward to, when the ordeal would be
over and the fast might be broken ! I have noticed with
much sympathy the servants go up to the -roof of the house
to watch feverishly for the departure of the last rays of the
setting sun, or to hear the voice of the crier from the
minaret of the neighbouring mosque declare that the day
was past and over. I have little hesitation in saying that
the fast of Ramadan, though borne with an appearance of
stoical patience, is in reality to the multitude not only a
severe strain on the flesh, but a weariness and an injury to

RAMADAN OR LENT 135
the spirit. Generally speaking,! should call the institution
a curse rather than a blessing.
Yet doubtless to some fasting is a savour of life unto life,'
but such are people of a choice spirit. Mrs. Meer Hassan
Ali, a writer whom I have frequently quoted, mentions in
her book on the " Mussulmans of India " the case of her
father-in-law, Meer Hadjee Shah. This gentleman was over
seventy years of age when Mrs. Hassan Ali first made his
acquaintance, and yet, she says, he never failed as the season
of Ramadan came round to undergo the severity of that
ordinance day by day during the full period of thirty days.
He declared that it was to him a season of great gain, and
that he ever looked forward to it with delight. His daughter-
in-law says of him : " It was even a source of uneasiness to
my venerable friend when, two years prior to his decease, his
medical advisers, aided by the solicitude of his family,
urged and persuaded him to discontinue the duty, which
by reason of his great age was considered dangerous to
health, and perhaps to life.
Meer Hadjee Shah seems to have been an exceptionally
fine character, and some of his remarks on " fasting " are
well worthy of our consideration. He declared that the
great secret of a fast, to be beneficial, was to employ time
well, and thus both body and soul would be benefited.
He also asserted that if the temper were soured, either by
abstinence or by the petty ills of life, the good effects of a
fast would go with the ruffled spirit, and that the person thus
disturbed had much better break his fast since it ceased to
be of any value in the sight of God. This wise old Mussul
man was constantly telling his younger friends that the
institution of Ramadan had for its objects the humbling of
the pride of man and the subjection of the spirit of man to
the spirit of God. " Therefore," he said, " be watchful and
prayerful and zealous in the observance of the fast." It is
refreshing, amidst the dry ceremonialism of the creed of
Islam, to meet with such a devout and spiritual character
as Meer Hadjee Shah ! Peace be to his memory !

136 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
The laws of Ramadan are as binding ori women as on
men, and it is said that women, as a rule, observe the fast
days with zealous rigidness. And where in the Zenanas the
females are not fortunate enough to possess a knowledge of
books, or a husband or father disposed to read to them, the
hours pass very heavily on their hands. I remember a poor
old woman, the servant of a neighbour, who was in but
feeble health, yet on no account would she be excused the
performance of the fast. Ere the month had expired she
was in a pitiable plight, but she persevered with a brave spirit
even to the end, saying that if the Prophet had not meant
women to undertake the task he would have said so, and
that she was sure God would give her strength to go through
with it. The faith a*nd patience of the dear old soul were
very commendable, but I could not help wishing that such
virtues had been shown in a more righteous cause.
One of the greatest curses of the East is the free use of
opium by both men and women, and there is a real and
close connection between fasting and the spread of the
opium mania. I do not know whether the opponents of
the opium trade have sufficiently considered the influence
that the month Ramadan has over the use of the drug. It
seems it is permissible during the thirty or forty days of
fasting for Mohammedans to partake of medicine, if there
be need ; and tens of thousands take advantage of this rule
to relieve somewhat the sufferings of the days, especially
towards the close of the fast. Now opium undoubtedly has
medicinal properties, so that I have not been surprised to
find that multitudes have had recourse to this drug to
appease somewhat the cravings of hunger and to impart
support to the failing strength. The Rev. J. Ewen, in his
racy little book on " India : Sketches and Stories of Native
Life," speaking incidentally of Ramadan, says : " Few are
exempted, while many who might be prefer to endure the
torture for the sake of the accruing merit. Among these
must be included the great majority of women. I well
remember one I had occasion to see frequently during the

RAMADAN OR LENT 137
fast ; she could hardly stand, she was so exhausted and
emaciated by disease, yet when I ventured to suggest that,
under the circumstances, she ought to resume her ordinary
mode of life, she replied, ' There will be no need to do that.
I take opium freely, and if you will give me liquid medicine
I shall be able to dilute it, and thus refresh myself several
times during the day.' " And that one case of flying to
opium to alleviate the pains of fasting is just typical of what
is being done by tens of thousands in Eastern lands ;
and the craving for the poison grows upon the poor victims.
The Fast of Ramadan has much to answer for in the way of
inducements to evil, and yet, in the foolishness of man's
judgment, the institution was designed to produce good.
The fact of the matter is, a month of fasting is a wrong to
Nature, and the people who endure it are bound to suffer
for it sooner or later.
Some few persons are exempted from the claims of
Ramadan, e.g., those who are very ill, the aged, women giving
nourishment to children, and very young people. A certain
latitude is allowed also in the case of travellers, which,
however, is seldom taken advantage of. Most of these
exceptions are only temporary, however. When the people
are able they are expected to make up for lost time. In
the 2nd sura of the Koran it is .written : " In the month
Ramadan a certain number of days shall ye fast ; but he
among you who shall be sick, or on a journey, shall fast an
' equal number of other days." And farther on in the same
• sura this command is repeated, in slightly different words,
thus making the rule doubly binding. Only children are
really exempted from the requirements of Ramadan ; and
even in their case some Moslem parents are so foolish as to
go beyond both the letter and spirit of the law, and actually
exhort the little ones to imitate their elders. A very sad
instance of such stupidity I heard of lately, which resulted
in the death of two promising children, who were unable to
stand the ordeal. Too late the parents saw their folly, and
their only consolation in their bereavement was that the

138 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
boy and girl had died in what is called "the path of duty,"
or " the road of God."
At sunset every evening, as has been said, the fast of the
day ends. Then the Faithful are allowed to partake of
What refreshment they choose. After so many hours of
abstinence it is dangerous to health to take a full meal at
once, so that there has sprung up a custom called " Break
ing the fast," which is usually the taking of a cooling
draught. In India this draught is composed of the seeds
of lettuce, cucumber, and melon, with coriander, all well
pounded together and diluted with cold water. When
strained through a muslin and flavoured with syrup of pome
granate, oranges, &c, this concoction is very pleasant. It
is drunk eagerly by the famished people. Aged folk and
the delicate prefer the juice of spinach only, or a little
boiling water to sip. Some people choose a cup of tea,
and others declare that the best thing possible with which to
break the fast is simply a good pinch of salt. All feel
that something light must be taken as a preparation for
more substantial things to follow. In the majority of
cases I fear the hours of night are given up to feasting. It
is a case of turning night into day, and of eating and
drinking to satiety. One writer well acquainted with the
inrier life of Mohammedans says that " at night they make
up for their previous self-denial by an unbridled indul
gence in the pleasures of the palate, and spend the hours
that should be given to sleep in feasting, music, and merry
making." And then, as a grand finale to the fasting, when the
thirty or forty days are completed, there occurs an Eade,
or festival. This is called the Goat Festival. The people
turn out in their thousands in gay apparel, and march to
the mosques to render praise and thanks to Allah for all
His mercies. I can well conceive that the worshippers are
in earnest, for all, even the most saintly, must be heartily
glad that Ramadan, with all its trials, is over. Goats are
carried in the procession — a goat for each little party or

RAMADAN OR LENT 139.
group — and these animals are sacrificed as an atonement
to God for sin, the people who offer them saying : " Its
blood for our blood, its flesh for our flesh, its bones for our
bones." In the streets, at the mosques, and in their houses
the excited people keep "holy day." They seem to be
beside themselves with joy. They give themselves up with
perfect abandon to merriment and good living, and act as
if the feast would last for ever.
But, prolong the festival as they will, it ends at length ;
and the joy of a few days cannot make up for the depriva
tions of a month. No ! Ramadan leaves its sad after
effects in the way of weakened constitutions, unstrung
nerves, uncertain tempers, and altogether a very depressed
condition indeed of body, soul, and spirit. Ramadan,
instead of being a means of grace to Mohammedan com
munities, is nothing less than an undermining of the
general health, morals, and happiness !

CHAPTER XV
THE MOORS IN SPAIN
The story of the Moors in Spain is a romance from
the beginning to the end ; and it is a story that reflects
great honour on Mohammedans. Spain is the one country
on the face of the earth in which Moslem rule has been
really beneficial to the people of the land. The Moors
¦made Spain prosperous; they made her a great nation;
they made her the home in the Middle Ages of science,
art, and civilization. And all this was done without
injustice to the Christian inhabitants. Indeed, while
Mohammedans held supreme sway in Spain, Christians,
Jews, and Moslems lived together in arnity, and combined
their talents and energies to the one common end of
exalting their country in the eyes of the whole world.
The conquest of Spain, which took place in the year
711, while the Omiades were Caliphs at Damascus, was a
comparatively easy affair. The country was in the posses
sion of the Visigoths, or West Goths, who had ruled the
land for two hundred years, but had not been able to
consolidate their power. They were nominally Christians,
but were without the virtues thereof; and one writer,
speaking of them, says : " The vices of the Goths rivalled
if they did not exceed the polished wickedness of the
pagans." The last of the Gothic Princes was Roderick,
around whose memory there has gathered a halo of
romance, of which he was totally unworthy. He was the
son of a Duke of Cordova, and in a.d. 708 he revolted

THE MOORS IN SPAIN 141
against his Sovereign, Witica, whom he dethroned and
banished, and whose Government he seized.
The ill-gotten kingdom was only retained two years,
however, for the Mohammedans of North Africa, to whom
has been given the name of Moors, then crossed the
Straits of Gibraltar, at the invitation of some of the
disaffected noblemen of Spain, and tried their strength
with the Goths.. The Battle of Xeres decided the struggle
in favour of the Moors, though they were only 12,000 in
number, while the Goths were 80,000 strong. The fact is,
the invaders were bold and hardy men, inured to war, and
led by a hero called Tarik; but the Spaniards were a
crowd, of ill-treated slaves, officered by treacherous noble
men, at whose head was a recreant King. The battle
lasted a week, and prodigies of valour are recorded on
both sides ; but at length the army of Roderick was
utterly defeated, and the remnant of it left the field in wild
flight. One of fhe numerous ballads recording the event gives a
graphic picture of the ill-fated King looking in dismay upon
his scattered army : —
He climbed into a hill top, the highest he could see,
Thence all about of that wide rout his last look took he ;
He saw his royal banners where they lay drenched and torn ;
He heard the cry of victory, the Arab's shout of scorn.
He looked for the brave captains that led the hosts of Spain,
But all were fled except the dead, and who could count the slain ?
Where'er his eye could wander, all bloody was the plain,
And while thus he said, the tears he shed ran down his cheeks like
rain ;
Last night I was the King of Spain — to-day no King am I ;
Last night fair castles held my train — to-night where shall I lie ?
Last night a hundred pages did serve me on the knee,
To-night not one I call my own — not one pertains to me.
Thus was Roderick defeated, and Spain conquered.
One battle decided the fate of the kingdom. What became
of the King remains a mystery to this day. His horse and

142 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
sandals were found on the banks of the river Gaudalete,
and it is supposed he was drowned therein ; but no man
knoweth. Tarik, the Moor, from whose name, the word Gibraltar
(Gebel Tarik = Rock of Tarik) is derived, followed up his
first success vigorously, capturing city after city, including
Cordova and Toledo the capital, until the whole land was
at the feet of the invaders. The pacification of the country
was effected by Musa, another great Arab leader, the
superior of Tarik, who joined his subordinate in the sum
mer of a.d. 712, with 18,000 men. In little more than
twelve months Spain was completely incorporated with the
Mohammedan Empire, and there was peace in the land.
Then Tarik and Musa, between whom there was much
jealousy, were both recalled by the Caliph Walid to Damas
cus, to receive their reward. The Commander of the
Faithful died, however, before Musa, who was proceeding
slowly with a train of 30,000 captives, and immense quanti
ties of booty, could reach the capital of the Empire.
The Moors, not content with the possession of the fine
country of Spain, cast covetous eyes towards France.
Indeed, Musa, ere his recall, had conceived a magnificent
scheme, which, had it been carried out, would have given
quite a different complexion to subsequent European history.
This scheme was nothing less than to " make his way back
to Damascus by the way of Constantinople, thus possessing
himself of Europe from the west to the east, surrounding
the Mediterranean with a connected series of Moslem
allies, and ranging the entire ancient world under the
standard of the Prophet." And probably this bold design
would have been successfully carried out if the plans of the
gallant General had not been upset by the order of the
Caliph to resign his command. Subsequent Governors of
Spain were without the military genius of Musa, or his
lieutenant, Tarik; and the numerous campaigns which
were undertaken against France with indifferent success
were ended at last by an overwhelming defeat near Tours in

THE MOORS IN SPAIN .143
732. From that " Blow of the Hammer," as has been
•related in a previous chapter, dates the cessation of the
Mohammedan invasion of Western Europe.
As a rule, in Moslem countries, when there are no
foreign wars to keep the active, intriguing spirits busy,
there are dissensions at • home. It was so in Spain. It
has to be borne in mind that the Moors were a mixed race,
though of one creed, and the different parties and factions
amongst them were constantly at strife. Yet the country
prospered. Religious toleration was granted to Christians
and Jews; trade was encouraged; waste lands were
reclaimed; the laws were justly administered; and the
outlook generally was very bright. It was felt that if only
all the jarring factions could be united under one strong
ruler, immeasurable possibilities lay before a larid like
Spain, so richly endowed by nature.
And in a.d. 755 the strong ruler appeared, in the person
of Abd-er-Rahman. And who was he? He was an
Omiadis of Damascus, almost the sole survivor of that
horrible massacre by the Abbasides which took place in
Syria when the Caliphate of Damascus was overthrown.
Abd-er-Rahman was but twenty years of age when he fled
for his life. He is said to have been blind of one eye,
but he had the advantage of a noble stature, and great
physical energy and courage. His mental powers were
considerable, and though almost penniless, he was full of
hope and ambition. Seeing that there was no chance for
him to recover the lost possessions of the Omiades in the
East, he resolved to turn his eyes to the West, and see if
he could not detach the province of, Spain from the
Caliphate, and found there a new monarchy in his own
person. It was a bold scheme to undertake, with no
following at his back; but his princely name, and the
dissensions in Spain held forth just a prospect of success.
The landing of Abd-er-Rahman on the shores of Spain
in 755 was as romantic an episode as the arrival of the
Young Pretender in Scotland in 1 745, only it had a more

144 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
prosperbus ending. The news of the arrival of the Prince
spread like wildfire throughout the country, and many of
the old adherents of the Royal family flocked to the
standard of the Omiades. Others admiring the bold bid
of the young hero for power, rallied to his side. ¦ And with
a mere handful of soldiers Abd-er-Rahman gallantly
attacked the forces of the Governor of Spain, and routed
them. By degrees he captured city after city, until the
capital, Cordova, was in his hands, and then he announced
himself as King of the whole land. The Caliph of Bagdad
sent an army against his rebellious vassals, but it met the
fate of previous armies ; and at length Spain was acknow
ledged to be lost to the Commander of the Faithful. It
was the first country ruled by Mohammedans to cut itself
adrift from the parent authority.
Abd-er-Rahman, who took the title of Sultan or Caliph
of Cordova, was a great king, and he established a powerful
dynasty in Spain, which endured for nearly three centuries.
The land prospered marvellously under him and his
successors, and Spain had never reason to rue the day that
she threw off the authority of the Abbasides, in favour of
the Omiades.
The chief city in Spain was now Cordova, and the
Sultans did all in their power, and with success^ to make it
the rival of Bagdad. Abd-er-Rahman early in his reign
began to beautify the city, and in addition to erecting
magnificent buildings, he planted the streets with trees.
He is said to have imported a date-tree from Syria, to
remind him of his old home. It was planted in a garden
which he laid out in imitation of the one in which he used
to play when a child in Damascus. Other Sultans con
tinued the work of adorning the Royal city, until in the
tenth century it was considered everywhere as a metropolis
to be proud of. One writer says: — "Except, perhaps,.
Byzantium, no city of Europe could compare with Cordova,
in the beauty of her buildings, the luxury and refinement
of her life, and the learning and accomplishments of her

THE MOORS IN SPAIN 145
inhabitants." This city was delightfully placed on the
banks of the Guadalquivir. It was ten miles in length and
five in breadth. It contained " more than fifty thousand
houses of the aristocracy and official classes, more than a
hundred thousand dwellings for the common people, seven
hundred Mosques, and nine hundred public baths." Truly
Cordova must have been a delightful place in the heyday
of Moorish rule; and we can quite understand an Arab
writer speaking of the city in the following grandiloquent
strain : — " Cordova is the pride of Andalusia. To her
belong all the beauty and the ornaments that delight the
eye or dazzle the sight. Her long line of Sultans forms
her crown of glory ; her necklace is strung with the pearls
which her poets have gathered from the ocean of language ;
her dress is of the banners of learning well knit together by
her men of science ; and the masters of every art and
industry are the hem of her garments."
Beautiful as Cordova was in palaces and gardens, she
had, as has been hinted, still greater claims to renown.
The city was the abode of all that was best in the world of
science and letters. Stanley Lane-Poole, in his charming
book on the " Moors in Spain," says : " The mind was as
lovely as the body. Her professors and teachers made
her tne centre of European' culture ; students would come
from all parts to study under her favourite doctors. . .
Astronomy, geography, chemistry, natural history, all were
studied with ardour at Cordova ; and as for the graces of
literature, there never was a time in Europe when poetry
became so much the speech of everybody as when the
Moor, ruled Spain." In the Arts also Spain was pre
eminent. Her architects were renowned for the majesty''
of- their conceptions, and her workpeople for the skill with
which they executed even the finest work. , Silk-weaving
was a cherished industry. Pottery was carried to great
perfection. Ivory-carving was much in vogue. Chasing
in bronze was exquisitely done. The delicacy of open
filigree-work was marvellous. Moorish jewellery was not
L

146 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
to be surpassed anywhere. And every one has heard of
the famous sword-blades of Toledo and the chain-armour
of Seville. In arts, sciences, and civilization generally,
Spain, under the rule ofthe Moors, was facile princeps.
If any one is tempted to envy the greatness of the
Sultans of Cordova, it would be well for him to study
almost the last words of the most prosperous, the wealthiest,
and the most renowned of the many Moslem Monarchs
that sat on the Throne of Spain. This was Abd-er-Rahman
the Third, who began to reign at the age of twenty-one,
and who lived to be an old man of seventy. His descrip
tion of life was practically that of Solomon, that "all is
vanity." One writer, speaking of this great Sultan, says :
" Never was Cordova so rich and prosperous as under his
rule ; never was Spain so well cultivated, so teeming with
the gifts of nature brought to perfection by the skill and
industry of man ; never was the State so triumphant over
disorder, or the power of the law more widely felt and
respected. Ambassadors came to pay him court from the
Emperor of Constantinople, from the Kings of France, of
Germany,, of Italy. His power, wisdom, and opulence
were a by-word over Europe and Africa, and had even
reached to the farthest limits of the Moslem Empire in
Asia." And yet the Sultan of whom all these gracious
things are spoken, has left it on record that " all is vanity."
After his death, in the year 961, a paper was found in his
private desk, on which were written these remarkable words :
" I have now reigned above fifty years in victory or peace,
beloved by my subjects, dreaded by my enemies, and
respected by my allies. Riches and honours, power and
v pleasure, have waited on my call; nor does any earthly
blessing appear to have been wanting to my felicity. In
this situation I have diligently numbered the days of pure
and genuine happiness which have fallen to my lot. They
amount to fourteen ! O man ! place not thy confidence
in this present world ! "
The Moors were not fated to maintain their mighty

THE MOORS IN SPAIN 147
kingdom of Spain many more centuries. Christians in
the outlying provinces of the kingdom, such as Leon,
Castille, and Navarre, slowly but surely gathered power>
and when they had the wisdom to unite their forces, they
in time became the rivals of the Sultans of Cordova. For
three hundred years or more a desultory war was kept up
by the Moslems and Christians, in ' which the former
usually were the victors ; but in the eleventh century the
tide began to turn, and it steadily set in in favour of the
Christians. Rodrigo Diez of Bivar, commonly called the
Cid or "Champion," did much to weaken the Moorish
power. He was the idol of the Christians for his bravery,
dash, and success in hand-to-hand conflicts with the foe.
Even the Moslems described him as " a miracle of God."
The experiences through which this famous chief passed
in love and war would fill a volume. I merely mention his
name, and hint at his exploits here, because the story of.
his lffe is for ever linked with that of the Moors.
Between the years 1238 and 1260 the provinces of
Valentia, Cordova, Seville, and Murcia were lost to the
Moslems, and their rule was thenceforward, until the end,
restricted to the town and province of Granada. Granada
seems to have been almost as beautiful a city as Cordova,
and for some time it had been gradually taking the place of
the latter as the home of the arts and sciences. No city in
Spain is more favoured than Granada, in site or climate,
for a capital city, and it was a metropolis that the Moors
dearly loved. In Granada the Sultans had built the
famous Alhambra, or "Red Palace," the ruins of which
to-day are the admiration of artists, and are regarded as
one of the wonders of the world. At Granada the Moors
made their last stand. And their strength- even in the
period of their decline may be judged from the fact that for
two hundred years they held their own against their
numerous and determined foes. When, however, Fer
dinand of Arragon married Isabella of Castille, and the two
Christian kingdoms were thus united, the Moorish power
L 2

148 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
was doomed. It then became a question of only a few
years. The last King of Granada was called Boabdil, a Prince
who was a strange union of strength and weakness, of
cowardice and courage. On the 25th November, 1491,
he surrendered his capital, and with it his kingdom, to
their Catholic Majesties of Arragon and Castille, who had
invested Granada for months, and made the fair city suffer
the rigours of a prolonged siege. Boabdil and his
followers were allowed to depart in peace. Historians
describe the unfortunate monarch as taking a farewell look
at his lost kingdom from the brow of a neighbouring hill.
And as he gazed at the beautiful land stretched out before
him, and as he looked upon the towers of the Alhambra,
the chief ornament of the city, which had been so long the
pride and glory of Spain, he is said to have exclaimed,
" Allahu Akbar! " " God is most great ! " Then he burst
into tears, and wept as one who would not be comforted.
. The mother of Boabdil stood by — Ayesha, a woman of a
stern spirit. The only words she addressed to her sorrowful
son were, " You may well weep like a woman for what you
could not defend like a man ! " The spot where Boabdil
took his last, sad farewell of his fair kingdom is called to
this day " the last sigh of the Moor."

CHAPTER XVI
PILGRIMAGES
Amongst the religious duties binding upon Moham
medans, that of going on pilgrimage to certain sacred
places, and especially to Mecca, the birthplace of the
Prophet, is one of the most prominent. Tradition says
that Mohammed once declared that a Moslem who died
without performing " the great pilgrimage " might as well
die a Jew or a Christian.
In the 3rd sura of the Koran the law is very plain on
the matter. It is written, " Verily, the first house appointed
unto men to worship was that which is in Mecca : blessed :
and a direction to all creatures. And it is a duty towards
God, incumbent on those who are able, to go thither, to
visit this house." Ability thus involves responsibility.
The phrase " those who are able " has, however, given rise
to much difference of opinion. Sale sums up the rival
theories thus : — " According to an exposition of the phrase
attributed to Mohammed, that person is supposed to be
able to perform the pilgrimage who can supply himself with
provisions for the journey and a beast to ride upon. Al
Shafa'i has decided that those who have^ money,, if they
cannot go themselves, must have some other to go in their
room. Malik Ibn Anas thinks that he is to be reckoned
" able " who is strong and healthy, and can bear the fatigue
of the journey on foot, if he has no beast to ride, and can
also earn his living by the way. But Abu Hanifah is of
opinion that both money sufficient and health of body are
requisite to make the pilgrimage a duty."

150 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
There is great need of some binding rule on the matter,
for the present uncertainty leads in many instances to
serious results. A commander of a steamer plying
between Bombay and Jeddah during the pilgrim season, in
a letter to the Times of India some time ago, wrote:
" Many pilgrims leave India with a passage-ticket obtained
by begging, a few dirty rags, and perhaps two days' food.
What becomes of these people? Why, they starve to
death. That many pilgrims die every year through starva
tion is a well-known fact. And, again, there are amongst
the pilgrims the very old and weak — people who are hardly
able to come on board. Why should these people be
allowed to undertake a voyage for which they are totally
unfit ? Eventually the end of these old people is painful
in the extreme." This plain-spoken sea-captain then goes
on to suggest that the Indian Government, at any rate,
which has control over a large contingent of pilgrims to
Mecca, might insist upon a money guarantee before giving
out passports. He states that the French and Dutch
Governments, in the countries where they have control
over Mohammedans, are very particular to insist upon
every pilgrim having in his possession a sum of money
which is considered sufficient to take him to Mecca and
see him back home again. The Indian Government,
however, refuses to adopt any method so drastic, and con
tents itself with merely advising, in a paper of official rules,
every pilgrim to have with him, say, not less than ^30.
Unhappily, very few pilgrims from India, or elsewhere,
count the cost before starting. A blind faith leads them
on, and they imagine they will be miraculously helped in
the journey which they call " the road of God."
Ages before the time of Mohammed, Mecca was a sacred
city, and had its sacred temple, which contained "the pure
white stone which came down from heaven." And from
all parts of Arabia the" tribes met in "the Mother of
Cities " to worship at certain seasons of the year. It was
of course after the Prophet had conquered Mecca, and

PILGRIMAGES 151
made it the centre of the new faith, that Mohammedan
pilgrimages commenced. The idols of the city were
destroyed, but the temple was converted into a mosque,
and the sacred stone was commanded for the future to be
"honoured," but not "worshipped.' It is thought that
the Prophet would have liked to have put a stop to
pilgrimages altogether, regarding them as heathenish, but
the general feeling in favour of their continuance was too
strong for him, and so he made a virtue of necessity. The
probability is that the financial aspect of the question
weighed heavily with all parties concerned. The people of
Mecca, in fact, lived on what gains they made by taxing,
and trading with, pilgrims. To have abolished such a
profitable source pf income would have caused great dis
content, and increased the personal enmity to the Prophet,
which was already deep enough, amongst the Meccans ;
but to countenance the old system, and make pilgrimages
part of the faith of Islam, would be a politic move which
would go a long way towards reconciling the people of
Mecca to Mohammed's conquest of their city, and his
rule over them. Thus the matter presents itself to
many students of Mohammedanism, and, I think, with
justice. 1 Mecca is the chief place of pilgrimage. This famous
city is about 65 miles east of Jeddah, a port on the Red
Sea, and lies in a narrow, barren valley, surrounded by
bare hills and sandy plains, simply watered by a brook.
At the present time Mecca has a settled population of about
40,000; but in seasons of pilgrimage this is more than
quadrupled. The principal building of the city— indeed,
the only fine building — is the great mosque where the
pilgrims worship, a structure that will hold, it is said, about
35,000 people. The townsfolk are reputed lively, polished,
and frivolous, and " spend their time in nothing else but
either to tell or to hear some new thing." And to-day, as
in days past, they are absolutely dependent upon pilgrims,
whom by one means or another they contrive to drain of

152 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
their pecuniary resources ere permitting them to depart on
their homeward way.
2. Medina is also visited by many of the Faithful, as it
contains, or is supposed to contain, the body of the
Prophet ; and the bodies of three of the early Commanders
of the Faithful. Medina is about 270 miles north of
Mecca, and about 140 miles from the nearest port on the
Red Sea. It is a difficult place to reach, and the journey
thereto wearies the pilgrim ; but it is a meritorious act to
visit it ; and the devotee who includes Medina in his tour
feels well repaid for his pains by a sight of the tomb of the
Prophet, and by the after-praise of all who hear of his deed.
3. Kerbelah, in Turkish Arabia, is also a place of pil
grimage, owing to the fact that there lie buried Hasan and
Hosein, the unfortunate grand-children' of Mohammed.
The pilgrims to Kerbelah are chiefly of the Shia sect. The
Sunis are in possession of Mecca ; and as they tax Shia
pilgrims more heavily than those of their own particular
creed, the Shias often take their revenge by declining to
go to Mecca, and by contenting themselves with worship
ping at Kerbelah.
4. Damascus, as the home of Mohammedanism under
the Omiades for a century, is also visited by a vast number
of pilgrims.
5. Jerusalem, also, is not overlooked. Indeed, perhaps
next to Mecca, no place is a greater favourite with pilgrims
generally than the Holy City of the Jews. The Mosque of
Omar is the great attraction ; and the spot is shown therein,
where Mohammed prayed that night, just before he made
his famous journey to heaven, as related in the chapter
entitled " Legends and Superstitions."
Pilgrims can be divided into three classes. One class
may be described as professional beggars. The giving of
alms in charity is part of the faith of Islam ; and certain
lazy fellows take advantage of this custom, and go on
pilgrimage avowedly ,to see the sacred places ; but really to
impose upon their more devout companions. Another

PILGRIMAGES 153
class may be described as merchants in a small way.
Those from India are called Box-Wallahs.
Almost any trifling article may be obtained from these
vendors, who go on pilgrimage to get gain, and not so much
spiritual gain as temporal. I have been told that a pretty
brisk trade is carried on by the way, as the wants of the
pilgrims, though few, are constant. The third class com
prises the Hajees, or pilgrims proper, who are journeying
to the sacred places out of zeal for their religion, however
mistaken that zeal may be. This class constitutes, of
course, the bulk ofthe pilgrims.
Certain qualifications are considered necessary in the
case of true pilgrims, or the pilgrimage will be of none
effect. The more thoughtful Mohammedans subject them
selves to the following tests. It would be well if all
pilgrims were equally solicitous on such matters, but I fear
they are not. The tests are : —
1. A true pilgrim must be a sincere believer in God, and
in Mohammed as the Prophet of God.
2. He must consistently conform to all the regulations of
the Koran with respect to faith, law, and practice.
3. He must be free from the world ; that is, all his
debts must • be paid, and his family and dependents pro
vided for, during the period of his absence from home.
4. He must freely forgive his enemies ; and if he has
given any one cause of offence, he must confess his fault
and seek reconciliation.
5. Finally, he must repent of every evil thought, word,
and deed, against his fellow-men or against God.
Thus prepared, the pilgrim feels that he may start upon
his journey, be it short or long, with a clear conscience and
a contented spirit, believing that a Divine Providence will
watch over him, and bring him back to his country and
home again in peace.
While the duty of pilgrimage is as binding upon women
as upon men, yet, as a matter of fact, but few women go on
pilgrimage. And the reason is not far to seek. It is not

154 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
that they shrink from -the length of the o.urney or the
hardships of the way. Such things count for little with
women of any religion when duty calls them. But there
is something from which Eastern women greatly shrink,
and that is to be seen by the public. With the poorer
classes this does not so much matter, for they do not
keep up seclusion or Zenana customs. But with the
middle and higher classes, the rules of the Zenana are a
formidable barrier in the way of pilgrimage. It would
never do to be seen of men even while on " the road of
God," so that the desired enterprise has to be given up.
But what cannot be done in person may be managed by
proxy, and, as a rule, it will be found that female pil
grims are of the lower classes of the people, and that
their expenses are borne by the rich who feel constrained
to stay at home.
While Mecca is the great goal of the pilgrims, yet that
goal is reached by different routes. Devotees are on their
way from all parts of the world — from China, India, Afghan
istan, the Malay Peninsula, Egypt, Central Africa, the
Cape, Syria, Turkey, Persia, Mongolia, and various places
of Central Asia. Truly, a motley gatherings — different races,
speaking different languages ! These people, however,
will form themselves, as they draw near to Arabia, into
groups, parties, and caravans. Cairo is the meeting-place
for Africa ; Jeddah for India ; and Damascus for Turkey
and Western Asia generally. There are probably one or
two other converging points about which I have not heard ;
but the three mentioned are the most famous ; and from
these celebrated places every year great caravans start on
the pilgrimage to the sacred city of the Mohammedan
faith. I would dwell for a moment on the Indian pilgrims,
about whom Messrs. Thos. Cook and Son, the tourist
agents, have supplied me with much interesting and im
portant information. In 1886 the Government of India
appointed this world-famed firm " Pilgrim Agents " for the

PILGRIMAGES 155
whole of India, and the arrangement has worked admirably.
It may seem, on the face of it, a strange anomaly that a
Christian firrn should be so prominent in helping Moham
medans on their pilgrim way to Mecca ; but the action is
certainly a humane one. Indian pilgrims have from time
immemorial either taken the long and trying land journey
via Persia, or the shorter but even more trying sea journey
from Bombay to the port of Jeddah, on the Arabian coast.
And they have been the victims of lodging-house keepers
and crimps at Bombay ere they get on board ship ; and
even when on the latter they have too often suffered terribly
from over-crowding and defective sanitary arrangements.
At the Jeddah port also pilgrims have always had to put up
with much bad treatment from boatmen and local agents
on shore.
Most of these evils have been altogether removed, and
the rest greatly ameliorated, ¦ by the appointment of Thos.
Cook and Son as " Pilgrim Agents." In a letter which I
received from them lately, in answer to certain inquiries
which I made, they say : " So far as the boatmen at
Jeddah are concerned, we have succeeded in a great
measure in putting a stop to their ill-treatment of the
pilgrims ; but as the territory is Turkish, it is a very
difficult matter to get any further. If the pilgrims would
report any case of cheating or fleecing to the British
Consul, they would always obtain the best assistance and
advice ; but, unfortunately for themselves, they do not wish
to make any complaints during the Haj ; and a great many
of them think that the greater the hardship they may have
to submit to, the more efficacious their pilgrimage."
On the general success of their special agency, Messrs.
Thos. Cook and Son remark : " We think we may say that
there can be no doubt that our arrangements have had a
good result in protecting pilgrims ; and the fact that the
Government of India asked us to continue the arrangement
after the expiration of the term first agreed upon between
us shows that they are satisfied with the results."

156 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
As has been intimated, when pilgrims from India reach
Jeddah, and enter Arabian territory, and actually tread the
road to the Sacred City, no outside aid can help them, and
the Turkish Government gives itself no trouble in the
matter. Pilgrims on every route and of every nationality
suffer dreadfully from the imperfect means of conveyance,
from the bad roads, from the difficulty at times of obtain
ing food, from robbers and armed gangs of marauders, and
from the most terrible enemy of all, the cholera or plague,
which is constantly breaking out amongst them. In the
year 1890 the cholera was very bad, and it is estimated that
in three weeks, when it was at its height, there were no
fewer than from 25,000 to 30,000 deaths. However, not
withstanding all drawbacks and hindrances, the people, by
the different routes, plod on their weary way along " the
road of God," and the majority at length reach the sacred
territory or confines of Mecca.
The month called Dhu'l Hijjah, the last nionth of the
Mohammedan year, is the great month of the pilgrimage.
The caravans usually arrive in the vicinity of Mecca some
time in advance. When within, say, ten miles of the city,
a halt is called. The pilgrims are about to tread on holy
ground, and they must make the necessary preparations.
On the sacred territory it is not lawful to attack an
enemy, or to hunt game, or even to cut a branch from
a tree. Sale says that some of the Faithful are so par
ticular about not taking life that " they will not kill even a
louse or flea if they find them on their bodies." A special
garment is now put on, called " the Ihram," which consists
of two woollen wrappers, one of which is fastened round
the body, and the other is thrown over the shoulders. This
must be worn until all the rites of the pilgrimage are over.
It seems, also, that the head must be left bare, the hair
being shaved off, that the nails must be trimmed, and that
the feet must be shod with a peculiar kind of slipper,
which "covers neither the heel nor the instep." With
regard to. the beard, which every good Mussulman is always

PILGRIMAGES 157
supposed to wear, it is a sine qua non when he goes on
pilgrimage ; it is, indeed, a badge of the Faith, none being
admitted at the " Holy House " who has not this passport
on his chin.
Properly habited, the pilgrims now -push on their way,
and enter Mecca, the goal of their journeyings, at last.
We can imagine the satisfaction and joy of all, and
especially of those who have come from the ends of the
world, and have scarcely dared to hope for such a happy
conclusion to their travels. The appearance of Mecca is
rather mean, the roads are very dusty, and the crowds jostle
each other somewhat rudely ; but no one cares. It is
Mecca ! The feet of the pilgrims stand within the gates of
the far-famed city, and there is no room in their hearts, for
the time being, for anything but thanksgiving and praise.
There is usually a great rush for lodgings, which are not
easy to obtain, as the Meccans drive a hard bargain. But
all are settled down after a while, and their thoughts are
turned to the due observance of the necessary rites of
pilgrimage. The ceremonies which are prescribed for the Faithful in
Mecca in the month of Dhu'l Hijjah are many and elaborate.
Let me briefly enumerate them.
1. The first thing to be done is to compass the Kaaba,
or Holy House, seven times, beginning at the corner where
" the 'sacred white stone " is placed. At each turn the
stone must be gravely kissed by the worshippers, to show
their reverence for it.
2. Another important thing is to have a view of a foot
print of Abraham, which is kept locked up in an iron chest.
The' Koran, referring to this precious relic of the past,
exhorts the Faithful to pray over it.
3. The well Zam-Zam must also be visited. It is within
the Temple grounds, a little to the east of the sacred stone.
Mohammedans say that this well is the very spring from
which water gushed out for the relief of Ishmael when
Hagar, his mother, wandered with him in the desert.

158 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
To drink of the water of Zam-Zam is considered a panacea
for most of the ills of life ; and bottles of the precious fluid
are carried by returning pilgrims to every part of the
Mohammedan dominions.
4. The next ceremony is partly to run and partly to walk
seven times between Mounts Safa and Marwa, two slightly
elevated spots in the vicinity of the Temple. Idols used
to be worshipped by the Arabians on these eminences, but
now there is nothing to be done but to ascend and descend
with what gravity the Faithful' can muster for the occasion.
5. Then a visit must be paid to another mountain, not
far from Mecca, called Arafat, which is sacred to the
memory of our first parents, Adam and Eve. Pilgrims,
when on this famous mountain, should, says the Koran,
" Ask pardon of God, for God is gracious and merciful."
6. The ceremonies draw to an end in the valley of Mina,
near Arafat. In this valley there are three pillars, at which
all pilgrims must throw seven stones, in imitation of Father
Abraham, who, meeting the devil in that place, and being
disturbed by him in his devotions, drove him away with
stones. 7. On the tenth day of Dhu'l Hijjah sacrifices are offered
to God " The victims must be either sheep, goats, kine,
or camels ; males if of either of the two former kinds, and
females if of either of the latter, and of a fit age."
8. The sacrifices being over, the pilgrims shave their
heads and cut their nails, which have not been touched
since the sacred territory was first entered.
9. These little matters having been attended to, and the
hair and trimmings of the nails having been most solemnly
buried in the valley of Mina, the pilgrimage is regarded as
satisfactorily completed, and the people may now either
visit other sacred spots, such as Medina or Jerusalem, or
return at once to their homes. Probably the majority
choose to go home ; and thenceforth amongst their kindred,
friends, and neighbours they are known by the honourable
title of Hajees, or pilgrims.

PILGRIMAGES 159
No sensible person can regard the pilgrimage to Mecca,
with its silly and ridiculous rites, which are relics of
idolatry, other than as an imposition upon the good faith
of Mohammedans. And in time, doubtless, notwithstand
ing the injunctions of the Koran, the custom will be
abolished, for there can be little doubt that the pilgrims,
who go with joy arjd gladness, return with very different
feelings. The pilgrimage is said to be a general disappoint
ment ; and one cannot wonder at it when one thinks of the
terrible hardships that are endured on the way to the Holy
City, and of the poor return that the pilgrims receive for
their pains. The whole thing is a mockery of religion, and
no doubt earnest and devout Moslems feel it to be such. I
have been told that of late years there has been a great falling
off in the number of pilgrims. There was a time when a
quarter of a million or more wended their way every year
to the Mother of Cities; but now the number is under
100,000, and of these over 1 1,000 are from India. The surest
evidence of the decline is shown, I think, in the fact that
the settled population of Mecca has fallen more than one-
half during the last two or three decades of years. The
zeal for going on pilgrimage has evidently considerably
abated, and as knowledge increases in Eastern lands there
can be little doubt that the custom, in its present form, at
any rate, will fall into disuse. And the sooner the better !

CHAPTER XVII
fatimites Of egypt
The title of this chapter refers to the most glorious period
of Moslem rule in Egypt, between the years 953 and 1171;
but ere touching on that period I would call attention to
the original subjugation of Egypt by the followers of the
Prophet, which occurred in the seventh century, in the reign
of the Caliph Omar.
At the disruption of the Roman Empire, Egypt, the
country of the Pharaohs, was left in the possession of the
Greeks of Constantinople, and it was from the latter that
Amr, a Moslem General, took it, after a struggle of one or
two years' duration. Amr had borne a glorious part in the
conquest of Syria, and especially in the capture^ of Jerusalem.
He was a man of considerable mental ability, of determined
courage, and of wonderful success in war. When in Medina
on one occasion, Omar had asked to survey the sword
which had cut down so many Christian warriors, and when
Amr unsheathed a short, ordinary scymetar, the Caliph
expressed surprise. The warrior smiled, and said, " A
sword in itself counts for little ; without the arm of its
master, my sword is neither sharper nor more weighty than
the sword of Pharezdak the Poet."
This was the man who in a.d. 638 marched towards, the
borders of Egypt, resolved to conquer the land for Islam.
After a thirty days' siege he took possession of Pelusium,
the key of the country, and then marched forward to the
ruins of Heliopolis and the neighbourhood of the modern

FATIMITES OF EGYPT 161
Cairo. Memphis, the ancient capital, was soon after taken,
and the forces of Amr being strengthened by the people of
the land — the Copts — who hated their Greek rulers, by
degrees drove the latter to the sea-coasts, and the war
centred itself at Alexandria, which the Greeks had made
their capital. Alexandria stood a siege of fourteen months ;
and but for the desperate valour of Amr and his Moslems,
and the neglect of the Emperor of Constantinople to supply
the besieged with provisions and munitions of war, the city
would not have been taken at all, for it was a strong fortress,
and was open to the sea. Amr lost 23,000 men in the
prolonged struggle ; but at length, on a Friday, in the year
640, he had the proud satisfaction of seeing the standard of
Mohammed planted on the walls of the second city of the
Greek Empire.
The victorious General sent off an express messenger to
Medina to the Commander of the Faithful with the news.
" I have taken," he wrote, " the great city of the West. It
is impossible for me to enumerate the variety of its riches
and beauty; and I shall content myself with observing that it
contains four thousand palaces, four thousand baths, four
hundred theatres or places of amusement, twelve thousand
shops for the sale of vegetable food, and forty thousand
tributary Jews. The town has been subdued by force of
arms, without treaty or capitulation, and my soldiers are
impatient to seize the fruits of their victory." The idea of
pillage thus suggested was firmly rejected, however, by the
Caliph, who, in reply, directed Amr to reserve the wealth
and revenue of Alexandria for the public service and the
propagation of the Faith.
Thus was Egypt conquered by the Mohammedans, and
added to the dominions of the successor of the Prophet.
And the new conquest was found to be even a richer prey
than had been anticipated. The fertility of Egyp. at once
began to supply the dearth of Arabia, and " the string of
camels laden with corn and provisions covered, almost with
out an interval, the long road from Memphis to Medina." m

162 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
The Caliph Omar, pleased with these presents, and with his
curiosity aroused by the news that reached him, requested
Amr to write him a description of the conquered country,
which the gallant warrior proceeded to do in his usual
graphic and forcible style. As a Moslem description of the
singular land of Egypt, it is well worth recording. It runs
as follows : —
" O Commander of the Faithful, Egypt is a compound of
black earth and green plants, between a pulverized moun
tain and a red sand. The distance from Syene to the sea is
a month's journey for a horseman. Along the valley descends
a river, on which the blessing of the Most High reposes
both in the evening and morning, and which rises and
falls with the revolutions of the sun and moon. When the
annual dispensation of Providence unlocks the springs and
fountains that nourish the earth, the Nile rolls .his swelling
and sounding waters through the realm of Egypt ; and the
villagers communicate with each other in their painted
barks. The retreat of the inundation deposits a fertilizing
mud for the reception of seeds; the crowds of husbandmen
who blacken the land may be compared to a swarm, of in
dustrious ants ; and their native indolence is quickened by
the lash of the taskmaster, and the promise of the flowers
and fruits of a plentiful increase. Their hope is seldom
deceived ; but the riches they extract from the wheat, the
barley, the rice, the vegetables, the fruit-trees, and the cattle
are unequally shared between those who labour and those
who possess. According to the vicissitudes of the seasons,
the face of the country is adorned with a. silver wave, a
verdant emerald, and the deep yellow of a golden harvest."
I do not know that Amr's description could be much
improved, as far as it goes ; and, in its pleasant and painful
particulars, it holds good of Egypt at the present day as in
days past.
Egypt, once conquered by the Moslems, has ever since
remained a Mohammedan State, and, as a general rule, has
been a dependent province. For many generations after

FATIMITES OF EGYPT 163
Amr's time the country was under the control of the
Commanders of the Faithful. When the Omiades of
Damascus usurped the sovereignty of the Empire, Egypt
quietly acquiesced in the change,' and gave no trouble ;
and even when the Abbasides, a hundred years later,
dethroned the Omiades, and set up the Caliphate at Bagdad,
Egypt still remained a dutiful daughter of the successor of
the Prophet. And in her dependent position she prospered,
though the greater part of the wealth of the country found
its way into the coffers of the Commander of the Faithful;
So matters went on for centuries — indeed, until the tenth
century, when, however, a great change occurred, which
ushered in a period of unexampled power and glory for
Egypt as an independent Moslem kingdom.
In the chapter on the "Abbasides of Bagdad," the Alyites
were referred to, who were constantly causing trouble in the
Empire, and seeking to put a Prince on the throne of the
Commander of the Faithful ; but all such efforts invariably
ended in failure. At length the Alyites, or, as they are also
called, the Fatimites, from Fatima, the wife of Ali, accepted
the inevitable, and instead of trying to dethrone the Caliph
of Bagdad, they resolved, if possible, to follow the example
of Spain, and detach a province from the Empire, and found
an additional Caliphate. Egypt was the province fixed
upon ; and in the reign of Moktader, a boy-Caliph, a.d.
909, the attempt was made. Moktader was a weak Prince,
entirely under the control of his eunuchs and his wivesi
Gilman, in his book on the Saracens, says — " Moktader was
incapable of maintaining order in his kingdom, or even of
controlling his own palace ; and though he remained -long
on the throne, the record of his reign is crowded with
accounts of the falling away from loyalty of cities and
provinces, and the revolts of bold chiefs who made him
tremble, in moments when he thought at all on the affairs
of State." The attempt of the Fatimites on Egypt was not
altogether successful, however, in the reign of Moktader.
Only parts of Africa were taken possession of. But still a
m 2

164 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
foothold was gained, and gradually the insurgents extended
their power, until, in the year 969; they conquered the
whole country, and the setting up of the new dynasty ofthe
Fatimites was an accomplished fact.
Moez, who claimed direct descent from Fatima, the
daughter of Mohammed, through Ismail, a grandson of
Fatima, was the first Sultan or Caliph of the new Royal
house of Egypt. He was a brave and skilful Prince, and
all the power of the Abbasides of Bagdad was unable to
dethrone him, or even to persuade him to render tribute.
Moez took up the position of an independent Prince, and
declared, himself the equal, if npt the superior, by virtue of
his descent, of the ruler of Bagdad.
In the tenth century we see, then, the remarkable spectacle
of three great Mohammedan powers ruling at the same time,
and all claiming to be Commanders of the Faithful. We
find the Abbasides at Bagdad, the Omiades in Spain, and
the Fatimites in Egypt. The three flags — the black, white,
and green— representing the three great factions of Islam,
were, for the first and last' time in the history of Moham
medanism, fluttering in the breeze at one and the same
time, as representative of reigning powers. And this state
bf things lasted for fully two centuries. And of the three
Caliphates, that of Egypt was not the least powerful.
Sultan Moez was a remarkable man, and ere he died he
added to his dominions Palestine and Northern Syria, even
to and beyond Damascus. The Fatimites, in fact, just
about divided the possessions of the Caliphate of Bagdad
into two parts, and they retained perhaps the more
fruitful. The genuineness of the descent of the Fatimites of Egypt
from the Prophet has been often called in question, but
it was a matter about which the Princes themselves
troubled little. The brave and impetuous Moez, when
straitly questioned regarding the matter on one occasion,
silenced his questioner effectually by drawing his scymetar
and saying : " See, this is my pedigree ; and these," casting

FATIMITES OF EGYPT 165
a handful of gold to his soldiers, " and these gallant fellows
are my kindred and my children."
The new dynasty founded Cairo on the right bank of
the Nile, and near the point of the Delta, and made the
city the capital of Egypt, and such it has remained ever
since. And a very beautiful capital Cairo is. The city
occupies about five square miles, and at the present day
has some fine broad streets, some magnificent mosques
and palaces, and a number of well and richly-supplied
bazaars. My first view of Cairo was early one April morning
about four years ago. It was from a railway train. I had
been travelling all the night in an over-crowded carriage
from Suez, and was feeling in anything but a cheerful
frame of mind. However, the sight which presented itself
on a sudden turn of the line, as we drew near our destina
tion, was so splendid that every trace of languor was
thrown off, and I had eyes, ears, and feelings for nothing
but the grand vision. Cairo, with its great fortresses, its
lofty minarets,, its splendid mansions, its beautifully laid-
out gardens, and its background of the Nile, the mighty
Pyramids, the mysterious Sphinx, and the far-reaching
desert, was a sight such as my eyes had never before seen,
though accustomed to the splendours of the East.
The situation of Cairo is unique, and though there are
more beautiful capital cities in the world, there are few,
if any, that make such a deep and lasting impression on
the mind of the traveller. Cairo, in the time of her
real greatness, in the days when the Fatimites ruled, must
have been a capital to be proud of. And not only was
the city famous for her unique situation and grandeur, but
she earned renown in the East, as Cordova did in the West,
for her encouragement of learning. Gibbon says:. "The
Royal library of the Fatimites consisted of one hundred
thousand manuscripts, elegantly transcribed and splendidly
bound, which were lent, without jealousy or avarice, to the
students of Cairo."

166 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
The Fatimite rule in Egypt has gained a somewhat
unenviable notoriety, through the vagaries of a prince
called Hakem, the third of the Royal line. This Caliph's
whole soul was given up to theological questions, and he
had no time or thought for anything else, except to seek to
enforce his views upon others. He was troubled — cursed,
we might say — with "religious mania." At first Hakem
posed as the most zealous of Fatimite Shias, and actually
caused twelve hundred copies of the Koran to be transcribed
in letters of gold. But wearying of the position of Defender
of the Faith, he went to the other extreme, and questioned
almost every religious practice that the Prophet had ever
instituted. Finally, the Royal madman essayed to introduce
a new religion of his own, which he fondly, but vainly, hoped
would supersede that of Mohammed. However, though
Hakem did not succeed in upsetting the creed of Islam,
he did succeed in establishing a new religion, which has
existed until the present day, and seems likely to endure
for generations to come. I refer to the Druse religion.
The Druses inhabit a district in the North of Syria,
where they have maintained for eight hundred years a
distinct religious and political independence and nationality.
The Druses of Mount Lebanon are well known in history.
" They are industrious, brave, and . hospitable. Their
staple article of commerce is silk. Their population
exceeds 200,000, and it is said that, in case of need, their
Emir can assemble, in a very short time, 30,000 men armed
with muskets." Their faith and doctrines are a wonderful
mixture of the teachings of the Jewish Pentateuch, the
Christian Gospels, and the Mohammedan Koran.
But the most extraordinary feature of their creed is the
belief in Hakem, the Fatimite ruler of Egypt, as not only a
Prophet, and the original creator of their Faith, but as an
Incarnation — the tenth and the last Incarnation — of the
Most High God. An able article in " Chambers's Ency
clopaedia " on the Druses puts the history of the origin of
this singular faith in a nut-shell. I would quote one

FATIMITES OF EGYPT 167
paragraph : " Hakem Bimar Allah, Caliph of Egypt, and a
Nero in cruelty, was the author of the Druse system of
religion. He affirmed that he was the representative of
God, and having enlisted his confessor Darazi in his cause,
he prepared to propound his doctrine. In the 407th year
of the Hejira, or a.d. 1029, the divine nature of Hakem,
or rather the incarnation of the spirit of God in him, was
publicly announced at Cairo. The revelation, however,
was unfavourably received by the mob. Hakem's con
fessor, Darazi, narrowly escaped the fate of a martyr to the
impostures of his master. Retiring, however, to the
fastnesses of the Lebanon, he there began to inculcate the
principles of the new faith ; and although he never acquired
any mastery over the sympathies of the mountaineers, he
at least left his name to them, for there can be little doubt
that the name Druses is derived from that of Darazi."
Thus a Fatimite Prince of Egypt, who was a madman and
a tyrant, founded a new religion. Verily fact is stranger
than fiction !
After the death of Hakem, from about the year 1076,
Egypt knew no peace ; for she was being constantly invaded,
either by the rising Turkish power, to which reference will
be made in a later chapter, or by the Franks from Europe,
who began to think and dream of conquering the land of
Christ from the followers of Mohammed-. The Fatimites
now gradually declined in power and influence. The first
possessions to be torn from their grasp were the fair
provinces of Syria. These were seized by the Turks, who
made a bold dash at Egypt, but failed in the latter enter
prise. The Turks, in turn, lost Palestine, for a time ; for the
Franks stepped in, and founded a Christian kingdom at
Jerusalem. But such changes only made matters worse for
the Fatimites, who were sorely pressed, on every side, by
land and sea. Still, for a season, they bravely held on ;
though their power was tottering to its fall.
At length, in n 71, the end came. Amalric, the
Christian King of Jerusalem, resolved to attempt the

i68 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
conquest of Egypt. Gathering together a large army, he
set forth on his daring enterprise, which, however, was not
fated to prosper. The proximity of the Franks, whose
prowess was well known, filled the Fatimites with fear ; and,
in their despair, they sent off to the Turks of Damascus,
asking succour from them as brethren. The Turkish
Prince Noureddin, the uncle of Saladin, who became so
famous in history, was delighted at the request, and
promptly responded to it. The troops that he sent
reached Cairo just in time to save the city, for the
Christians were at the gates. " Amalric prudently declined
a contest with the Turks in the midst of a hostile country,
and retired into Palestine, with the shame and reproach that
always adhere to unsuccessful injustice." The Turkish
Generals entered Cairo in triumph, and, once in, it was
impossible to get them out. They saw the feebleness of the
Fatimites, and they resolved to usurp their power. The
revolution was a bloodless one. A word sufficed to effect
the stupendous change, so low had the Caliphs of Cairo
fallen. The reign of the Fatimites was over ! The lease
of power of the Shias was ended ! The Alyites had to
succumb to the might of their foes !
The new-comers were Sunis, and adherents of the
Abbasides, and they gloried in their triumph. Gibbon
says — " By the command of Noureddin, and the sentence
of the doctors, the holy names of Abu Bekr, Omar, and
Othman were solemnly restored ; the Caliph Mosthadi, of
Bagdad, was acknowledged in the public prayers as Com
mander of the Faithful ; and the green livery of the sons
of Ali was exchanged for the black colour of the Abbasides.
The last of his race, Sultan Adhed, who survived only ten
days, expired in happy ignorance of his fate, and his
treasures secured the loyalty of the soldiers, and silenced
the murmurs of the sectaries."
Thus fell the Fatimites of Egypt, and with them, or, at
any rate, with the fall of the Mamelukes, who succeeded
them, ended the position of Egypt as a great and in-

FATIMITES OF EGYPT 169
dependent power. The changes in the history of Egypt
since the twelfth century have been varied and remarkable ;
but, through all, the country has remained Mohammedan,
being tributary first to the Abbasides, and afterwards to the
Ottoman Turks. To-day the Khedive of Egypt is more or
less subject to the Sultan of Constantinople; and he is^lso,
in some measure, under the control of England. And the
arrangement is working well. It is all, I suppose, pre
liminary to the granting of absolute freedom and complete
independence to the Egyptian Government. It is hoped,
in the not very distant future, that Egypt will become once
more a strong nation, and even surpass in power and glory
the palmiest days of her Moslem history, under the brilliant
but unfortunate dynasty of the Fatimites.

CHAPTER XVIII
MANNERS AND CUSTOMS
Already in this series of studies some of the manners
and customs of Mohammedans have been referred to ;
and others will be mentioned incidentally in later chapters.
Consequently there is no call now to attempt to cover the
whole ground. I shall, therefore, confine myself to a
notice of certain matters which, unless dealt with in a
special chapter like this, would be omitted altogether.
Amongst the better-class Mohammedans the mother very
rarely nourishes her own infant. Mohammed, it will be
remembered, was put out to nurse, and the custom prevails
still amongst the wealthy. More often, 'however, a nurse is
brought to the house, and is given entire charge of the
child for two years or so. And when once a nurse is
engaged in a family, she, as a rule, becomes a member of
that house to the end of her days, unless she chooses to
quit herself. Sometimes, when a nurse is not obtainable,
an infant will be reared on goat's milk rather than that the
mother should be obliged to fatigue herself with motherly
duties. On the fortieth day after the child's birth the little
one is submitted to the hands of the barber, who shaves
the head, as commanded by the law. The mother dresses
in her most costly attire, and makes the baby look as smart
as possible, and then visitors arrive to present their con
gratulations and to offer gifts. The gift need not be a
costly one, but it would be deemed an evil omen nQt to
bestow something. The birthday of each son in a family
is regularly kept as a day of annual rejoicing, to which

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 171
friends and neighbours are invited. " Dinner is provided
liberally for the guests, and the poor are not neglected.
whose prayers and blessings are coveted by the parents, for
their offspring's benefit ; and they believe the blessings of
the poor are certain mediations at the throne of mercy,
which cannot fail to produce benefits on the person in
whose favour they are invoked." The birthday is called, in
India, the Sal-girrah, from " sal," a year, and " girrah," to tie
a knot. As the boy's anniversary comes round, the mother
ties a knot on a string kept for the purpose. The girl's
years are numbered by a silver loop being added to the
neck-ring which she wears'. These are the usual methods
of registering the ages of Mohammedan children.
From- their very earliest years Moslem boys and girls are
exhorted to show great respect and reverence for their
parents. Mohammed taught expressly that children should
cultivate love, honour, and humility towards their mothers
no less than towards their fathers. He said, beautifully,
"The son gains Paradise at the feet of the mother."
Parents entertain for their son the most tender regard, and
as soon as possible the father makes him both his com
panion and his friend ; yet the most familiar endearments
do not lessen the feeling of reverence a good son entertains
for his sire. Common as smoking is in the East, a son
can rarely be persuaded by an indulgent father or mother
to smoke a hooka or nargileh in their presence, and that
not because he is afraid of their displeasure, but from
feelings of real, genuine respect. In these things I con
sider that Mohammedans are to be admired. From what
I have seen of their lives, I believe ,that they earnestly
strive to carry out the teaching of the Kofan, which says,
" The Lord hath commanded that ye show kindness unto
your parents, whether the one of them or both of them
attain to old age with thee. Wherefore speak respectfully
unto them, and submit to behave humbly towards them,
out of tender affection, and say, O Lord, have mercy on
them both, as they nursed me when I was little."

172 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
As we have already seen in the chapter on " Women,"
Mohammedans seek to get their offspring married as early
in life as possible. Girls are considered to have passed
their prime when over sixteen years of age; even the
poorest peasant would object to a wife of eighteen: The
majority are married between the ages of eight and twelve.
The task of fixing upon a desirable match for their sons
and daughters is a source of constant anxiety to Moslem
parents, and they know no rest till they have satisfactorily
accomplished their purpose. Often before commencing
negotiations, even when desirable parties have been dis
covered, the father will consult an omen, to make sure that
Providence is guiding them in their choice. This singular
custom is carried out as follows : — Several slips of paper
are cut up, and on half of the number are written the
words "to be," and on the other half the words "not to
be." Armed with these, after they have been mixed
together, the head of the household sallies forth to his
evening devotions at the mosque. At the portion of the
service when he bows down his head to God, he beseeches
the Almighty to instruct and guide him for the best interest
of his child. The prayer concluded, the parent seats him
self with solemn gravity on the prayer-carpet, under which
he has placed the slips of paper, and with his right hand
proceeds to draw out slip after slip. If the omen be
favourable, the papers first drawn will bear the words " to
be," but if unfavourable the words "not to be." The
result is at once made known to the anxious mother, who,
in a state of great excitement, has been awaiting the
decision at home. If the answer of that " wisdom which
cannot err" is all that the parents could wish, no delay
occurs in opening negotiations with the chosen parties, and
in course of time the match is made.
Marriage ceremonies amongst Indian Moslems occupy
three full days, and entail much expense, as well as a great
deal of trouble. The work does not matter so much, as it
is all in the way of enjoyment, but the expense sometimes

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 173
hampers the parents through life in their circumstances.
Everywhere in the East marriage customs financially need
to be reformed, but so far reformers have met with little or
no success. Unfortunately the feeling in favour of a grand
display, even if useless, is so deeply embedded in the
breasts of Mohammedans that if it be found impossible to
meet properly the pecuniary demands of a marriage-
ceremony the girl very often has to live out her days in
single blessedness, which is considered a great disgrace.
No licenses are required in the case of Mohammedans, nor
is any registry kept of marriages in strictly Mohammedan
countries. And any person who is acquainted with the
Koran may read the marriage-service, but usually a pro
fessed Moolah, or Moulvi, a so-called priest, is engaged to
do it. The day being fixed, the elders, male and female,
of the two families, invite their several r'elatiyes, friends,
and acquaintances, to be present to observe the ceremony,
and to rejoice with them over the auspicious event. The
invitations are written in the Persian character on red
paper. Strange to say, a purdah, or screen, separates the
bride and bridegroom while the service is being conducted,
and they are not permitted to see each other until they are
lawfully married. The priest calls on the young lady by
name to answer a somewhat superfluous question) viz., " Is
it by your own consent that this marriage takes place ? "
The answer always is, "It is by my own consent."
Indeed, what other answer dare a Moslem bride make ?
A portion of that sura of the Koran entitled " Women " is
then read, and the law of marriage, as laid down by
Mohammed, is briefly explained. It is the young man's
turn next to answer a question. He is asked to name the
sum he proposes as his wife's dowry. The bridegroom
mentions the amount. Everybody being satisfied, the
priest declares the parties to be man and wife, and prays
that the young couple may receive the blessing of Allah
both in time and eternity. The taking home of the bride
is the grand finish to the three days' rejoicings. A long

174 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
procession accompanies the happy pair through the streets,
and the guests make a perpetual din of noisy music until
the bridegroom's house is reached. I have watched many
such gay processions with great interest.
At weddings, and on many other occasions in their lives,
Mohammedans are expected to give something to the
poor. Alms-giving is, indeed, one of the binding customs
of Islamism. Good Moslems never allow the voice to pass
unheeded which applies " In the name of God," or " For
the love of God." As one writer says : " They are per
suaded that alms-giving propitiates Heaven, consequently
this belief is the inducing medium for clothing the naked,
feeding the hungry, supporting the weak, consoling the
afflicted, protecting the fatherless, sheltering the homeless,
and rendering the ear and the heart alive to the distresses
of the poor in all situations." What is bestowed in charity
is called Zakat, or God's portion. Alms may be given
of five things — of cattle, of money, of corn, of fruits, and
of wares sold. Of each of these a certain portion, equal to
2| per cent., is to be set aside for the poor. Mohammed
instituted the custom, and ever since it has been kept up
in every part of the Mohammedan world. The Koran
says, "Alms are to be distributed to the poor and the
needy, and to those who are employed in collecting and
distributing, the same, and unto those whose hearts are
reconciled, and for the redemption of captives, and unto
those who are in debt and insolvent, and for the advance
ment of God's religion, and unto the traveller." Alms
giving is carried to the extreme by Moslems, and
undoubtedly encourages mendicity and pauperism. The
indolent impose upon good nature, and from what I can
gather, the bestowers of charity do not trouble themselves
to find out deserving cases. The merit to the giver is the
same whether the recipient is a deserving or an undeserving
object. The general rule, I fancy, is " First come, first
served, and no questions asked." Such a custom, in the
long run, leads to more harm than it does good.

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 175
The practice of giving complimentary presents is
universal amongst Mohammedans, as indeed, amongst
other Eastern races. It is a custom that has sprung from
selfish motives, for there is always an ulterior design in the
apparently generous gift. Nuzzer is the name for such an
offering, and it usually takes the form of a present of money.
It is an inferior that makes the gift to some one that ranks
above him in society, e.g., a subject to a Prince, a soldier to
an officer, a servant to his master. Mrs. Meer Hassan Ali,
in her book on the " Mussulmans of India," gives from her
own personal experience an excellent illustration of the
custom. This English lady, who married a Mohammedan,
says, " When we arrived in India, an old servant of my
husband's family was sent to meet us at Patna to escort
us to Lucknow. On entering, the budgerow, or boat,
he presented fourteen rupees to me, which were laid
on#a folded handkerchief. I did not then understand
what was intended, and looked to my husband for an
explanation. He told me to accept the Nuzzer ; and
when I still hesitated, remarking that it seemed more
than a man in his situation could afford to give
away, my husband smilingly silenced my scruples by
observing : ' You will learn in good time that these
offerings are made to do you honour, together with the
certain anticipation of greater benefits in return. This
servant tenders this Nuzzer to you, and it may be all the
money he possesses, but he feels assured that it will be
more than doubly repaid to him in the value of a khillut or
present he expects from your hands to-day. He would
have behaved, in his estimation, disrespectfully in appear
ing before you without a Nuzzer, and had you declined
accepting it, he would have thought that you were either
displeased with him, or did not approve of his coming.' "
This Nuzzer custom must be a great nuisance at times, for
the advantage is all on one side.
Who has not heard, when travelling in the East, the
Mohammedan expression, " Shookur Allah ? " It means

176 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
"All thanks to God." Hearing this saying so frequently,
one would think that Moslems were a most grateful people :
and grateful they may be to God, and possibly to their
fellow-creatures also for benefits conferred ; but to the
latter, strange to say, they never express any thanks. In
fact, the phrase, " Thank you," has no equivalent in most
Eastern languages. A Mohammedan will, on receipt of a
favour, probably make a bow, and say " Salaam " — " Peace
be with you ; " but he will not say, " Thank you," or " I am
very much obliged." The Moslem thanks God for every
thing, and man for nothing. At every turn it is " Shookur
Allah ; " and while one says nothing against, but really
admires, such a sentiment, one cannot help wishing that,
more widely over the earth's surface, the good old English
custom of saying " Thank you " prevailed.
The practice of dyeing the hair is very common among
Mohammedans as they advance in life. The favourite
colour is a dull, brick red. This dye is prepared from the
plant " Lawsonia inermis." It is used in every grade of
society, and by both sexes. Doubtless, by means of this
red dye, a Moslem may preserve for many years a deceptive
appearance of juvenility, but the natural colour would be
infinitely more becoming. Hair-dyes, moreover, are not
always to be depended upon.
I have heard of a Princess in Southern India Who, as
age crept on apace, and her hair turned grey, cast about
her for a dye that would bring back the raven tresses of
youth. At length she thought she had obtained one. It
was highly recommended by her friends ; in short, it was
guaranteed to produce the desired effect. The cautious
Princess, however, resolved to try the new dye on a
favourite white Persian cat before she applied it to her own
hair. It was well that she did so, for the unfortunate cat,
after a few applications of the mixture, became a wonder
among the animal creation — it turned a beautiful pea-
green. Generally speaking, Mohammedans treat animals with

MANNERS AND CUSTOMS 177
kindness. They are rather partial to cats, because they say
Mohammed was very fond of them. The Prophet is
reported to have taken a favourite pussy with him where-
ever he went, and to have put himself to no little incon
venience at times to minister to its comfort. At Damascus
there is a retreat or refuge for cats, where thousands are
kept at the expense of the charitable. If asked as to
the origin of the custom, the Damascenes will reply that
the "Retreat" is kept open in memory of the Prophet's
attachment to members of the feline race.
The story goes that Mohammed, when he once visited
Damascus, though there is no proof that he ever did
visit that famous city, had a cat with him, which slept in
the sleeve of his garment, and which he carefully fed with
his own hand. On one occasion, when he wanted to
remove his garment, and saw that his little friend was
asleep, he cut off the sleeve so that its slumbers would
not be disturbed. Ever since the Faithful in Damascus
and elsewhere have paid an almost superstitious regard to
cats. Dogs have not been quite so fortunate. Indeed,
with the exception of those which are trained for the chase,
these animals are very generally despised and neglected.
Dogs, dirty and mangy, are found about Moslem towns
and villages, but not in the houses of the people.
"Beware of dogs," Mohammedans say, and there is an
Eastern proverb which affirms that "when a dog comes
into the house all the good spirits fly away." Goats, asses,
kine, horses, and, above all, camels are greatly valued, and
are well looked after by the Faithful. I think Mohamme
dans will compare very favourably with Christians in their
treatment of the animal creation.
A common custom amongst Mohammedans is that
which is called Zikr, or the repetition of the names of
God in many different ways. The Koran says, "God
hath most excellent names, therefore call on Him by the
same." Hughes, in his " Notes on Mohammedanism,"
remarks that "the most common form of Zikr is a recital of
N

178 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
the ninety-nine names of God, for Mohammed promised
those of his followers who recited them a sure entrance
into Paradise." A Moslem rosary contains ninety-nine
beads, and as each name of God is' mentioned a bead is
reverently touched. Vendors of rosaries are to be found
outside mosques and in the bazaars of the East, and an ex
cellent trade is carried on in these peculiar aids to worship.
Moslems do not bury their dead in the vicinity of a
mosque, for the sacred edifice, they say, would thus be
polluted. They carry the departed to cemeteries quite out
side the town. About six hours after death the body is
taken away from the house, for interment. Before it is
committed to the grave it is reverently wrapped in a wind
ing-sheet of white calico, on which has been written par
ticular chapters from the Koran. The truly religious
generally prepare their own winding-sheet, keeping it
always ready, and occasionally bringing it out to add
another verse or chapter as a new train of thought occurs.
The dead body being prepared, it is taken up with great
gentleness, and laid in the grave on the side, with the face
turned towards Mecca. The officiating priest then steps
solemnly into the grave beside the corpse, and with a loud
voice repeats the Moslem creed. Then addressing the
dead manj he says : " O son of Adam, when the two
angels come to question thee, answer them, ' God, greatest
in glory, is my only Lord ; Mohammed my Prophet ; Islam
my faith ; the Koran my bopk ; and the Holy House at
Mecca my Kiblah.' " The priest then quits the grave,
retires forty paces, turns round, and approaches once more.
Now standing on the edge of the grave, he concludes the
ceremonies by offering the following short prayer : — " O
great and glorious God, we . beseech Thee with humility,
make the earth comfortable to this Thy servant's side, and
raise his soul to Thee, and with Thee may he find eternal
mercy and forgiveness." And all the people say, " Amen."

CHAPTER XIX
OTTOMAN TURKS
When, in the thirteenth century, Bagdad fell, and the
dynasty of the Abbasides perished, Mohammedanism, as a
temporal power in the East, was at a low ebb. In the West
also the outlook was very dark, for Spain was gradually
passing into the hands of the Christians.
The next century, however, saw a great turn in the tide
of affairs, and Islamism more than recovered her former
greatness, though under different conditions. In the West,
Spain was lost ; but, as we shall see, the Greek Empire was
won. In the East, no one Mohammedan dynasty ever
again obtained complete and sole, power over the whole of
Islam, like the Omiades of Damascus,- or the Abbasides of
Bagdad ; but from the wreck of one great Caliphate there
arose similar mighty Moslem kingdoms in Persia, Afghan
istan, India, and Turkey. So far, therefore, from suffering
by the ruin of Bagdad's shrines, Mohammedanism really
gained thereby in dignity, numbers, and influence. In this
chapter, I purpose dealing with the history of that Moham
medan power which was the first to form itself into a
distinct nationality after the fall of the Abbasides. I refer
to the Ottoman Turks. The stories of the Shias of Persia,
of the Afghans, and of the Moghuls of India will follow in
due course.
The founder of the dynasty of the Othmanlis, or Otto
man Turks, which has existed till this day, was Othman,
born a.d. 1258 to Ertoghrul, the prince of a wandering
N 2

180 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
tribe of warriors from Turkestan, which had become con
verted to the faith of Islam. Ertoghrul established himself
with his followers in Bithynia, on the borders of the Greek
Empire, and sought to form his tribe into a nation. At
his death, in 1 2'88, all his possessions passed into the hands
of his son Othman, who carried out most successfully the
policy his father had inaugurated, and even dreamt of turn
ing the nation into an empire. Othman is described as a
man of strong physique, with arms reaching below his
knees, of dark and prominent features, of stern aspect, and
of heroic courage. He was called by his contemporaries
" Black Othman " — not in anyway as a reflection on his
person or character, but as a compliment ; for, in the East,
black is a colour of honour, and indicates strength of soul,
as well as bodily vigour and energy.
Othman, whose small principality was contiguous tp the
territory of the Greeks of Constantinople, early in his reign
set himself to harass the enemies of his faith, and to seek
to win from the Christians additional land and towns. In
most of these border expeditions the fierce chief was
successful ; for small parties of the somewhat effeminate
Greeks were- unable to stand against the rude shock of
Othman and his comrades, who rushed madly into battle,
impelled by the- desire of fame, and sustained by that
heroic bravery, which is the heritage ofthe Turk. In 1316
Othman resolved to make a great stride forward by seizing,
if possible, the important city of Brusa, well within the
Greek territory. Finding the city too strong to be taken
by assault, he erected two forts over against it, and laid
siege to it, determined to subdue it. For ten weary years
the siege was continued ; but in 1326 Brusa capitulated,
and Orkan, the son of Othman, planted the Ottoman flag
triumphantly on its walls. These exploits made a deep im_
pression on the Greeks, who now first began to fear for the
safety of their Empire, which, for centuries, had withstood
the might of Barbarians and Moslems. It looked as if it
were reserved, as indeed it was, for the comparatively

OTTOMAN TURKS 181
insignificant tribe of the Ottoman Turks to succeed where
others had failed. Stanley Lane-Poole, referring to the
warlike deeds of Othman, says, " Othman's flying cavalry
ravaged the country as far as the Bosphorus and Black Sea ;
the Emperor, standing On the towers of his palace at Con
stantinople, could see the flames of the burning villages
across the Bosphorus ; the vessels of the Turk harried the
coast ; the whole country trembled before his unwearied
and ubiquitous onslaught."
But death put a stop to Othman's career of conquest.
Soon after the capture of Brusa he sickened and died at
the age of seventy, after a reign of twenty-six years. His
last wish was to be buried in the captured city, which was
now the capital of the little kingdom. Thither the body of
the great man was reverently borne, and there, for genera
tions, did his sepulchre stand, even long after his descend
ants had conquered Constantinople, and possessed the
empire of which their first chief had but dreamed. The
thirty-fourth lineal descendant of Othman in the male line
now lives and reigns as Sultan of Turkey. It is a remark
able fact, and as one writer has said, " There is no such
example of the continuous authority of a single family in
the history of Europe."
Orkan, the son of Othman, carried on vigorously the
war against the Greeks, wresting from them Nicomedia,
Pergamon, and other important cities; and in 1329 he
defeated the Emperor Andronicus at Pelecanon. Then
overtures were made for peace, which both sides gladly
accepted. The Turks were allowed to keep their newly-
acquired possessions, and their kingdom now comprised the
whole of the north-west corner of Asia Minor, with the
command of the eastern shore of the Bosphorus. In two
generations all this had been accomplished — the small
tribe had become a great nation. Peace, however, was
needed to consolidate the Turkish power. Immediately
Orkan had the opportunity and the time, he set himself to
work to organize the State and the army. He also assumed

182 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
the insignia of Royalty, and issued money in his own name
as an independent Prince. From end to end of his com
pact territory he went, establishing courts of justice, en
couraging agriculture ahd trade, and seeking to unite his
somewhat heterogeneous subjects in the bonds of a common
interest in local and national prosperity. Thus, with skill,
foresight, and earnest labour, during twenty years of peace,
were the foundations of the Ottoman power solidly laid.
About this time the Turkish Princes formed that famous
body of troops called the Janizaries, - which for centuries
constituted the flower of the Ottoman armies, and by whose
aid the most famous Moslem victories were won. And
who were the Janizaries? Strange to say, they were
Christians, who were forcibly converted to Mohammedan
ism. Out of the families of the Christians conquered in
the campaign against the Greeks, Orkan chose a thousand
of the finest boys, and formed them into a Royal Body
guard. " Every year for three .centuries a thousand
Christian children were thus devoted to the service of the
Ottoman power ; and when there were not enough prisoners
captured during the year, the number was made up from
the Christian subjects ofthe Sultan ; but, after 1648, the chil
dren of the soldiers themselves were drawn upon to recruit
the force." When Orkan had chosen the first thousand,
he led the boys before a saintly Dervish, and asked him to
bless them and give them a name. The holy man, flinging
the sleeve of his robe over the head of the leading youth,
said, " Let them be called Janizaries (new soldiers), and
may God the Lord make their arms strong, their swords
keen, their arrows deadly, and give them the victory."
The discipline of the new troops was severe, but their
emoluments were great, and they were generally sure ofthe
Royal favour, which, however, they in time greatly abused.
Sir E. Creasy, in his " History of the Ottoman Turks,"
says of the Janizaries, " Cut off from all ties of country,
kith, and kin, but with high pay and privileges, with ample
opportunities for military advancement, and for the gratifi-

OTTOMAN TURKS 183
cation of the violent and sensual, and the sordid passions
of their animal natures, amid the customary atrocities of
successful warfare, this military brotherhood grew up to be
the strongest and fiercest instrument of imperial ambition
which remorseless fanaticism, prompted by the most subtle
statecraft, ever devised upon earth." I might here mention
the after-fate of the Janizaries. Formed into a body of
troops in 1330, they, for five hundred years, were a mighty
power in the Turkish dominions, but eventually they so
horribly abused their powers by assassinations and
atrocities of every kind, that at the beginning of this
century, in 1826, Sultan Mohammed resolved on their
destruction. By one stratagem or another, he got their
officers to desert them, and then he attacked them with
other troops. Seven thousand of the ill-fated Janizaries
perished by the sword, 8,000 were burnt to death in their
barracks, which caught fire, and 20,000 were banished. A
Royal proclamation then declared the force for ever dis
solved. Thus does the Grand Turk sometimes execute
summary justice on evil-doers !
The yearly drain of the Christians by the Mohammedans
to recruit the corps of the Janizaries during the early years
of the existence of the force greatly incensed all the
Christian States on the confines of the Ottoman kingdom,
and led to numerous wars ; but in almost every case the
Turks were the victors, and they gradually increased their
borders, and crossing the Hellespont, carried their arms into
Europe, even advancing as far as the Danube. In 1394
the Pope declared a crusade against the Ottomans. Many
nations responded, and some great battles were fought with
the Serbians, the Bulgarians, the Franks, and the
Hungarians, who rallied to the support of the Greeks ; but
at Kosoro and Nicopolis, Sultan Bayezid, the great-grand
son of Othman, defeated ,the allied Powers utterly. At
Nicopolis the slaughter of Christians was frightful, tens of
thousands perishing on the field of battle, and multitudes
being afterwards slain in cold blood. Thus did the

184 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
Turks achieve conquest upon conquest, and the goal of
their ambition, Constantinople, seemed to be at last within
their reach. Indeed, Bayezid was so carried away with his
marvellous successes, that he boasted when once he reigned
in the city of the Greeks, he would push on farther, and
stable his charger at the altar of St. Peter's at Rome.
But the victorious and ambitious Turk, even while he
was laying siege to Constantinople, was suddenly checked
in his successful career, and that by an unexpected foe.
"Just at the moment when the Sultan seemed to have
attained the pinnacle of his ambition, when his authority
was unquestionably obeyed over the greater part of the
Byzantine Empire in Europe and Asia, when the Christian
States were regarding Bayezid with terror as the scourge of
the world, another and a greater scourge came to quell him,
and at one stroke all the vast fabric of empire was shattered
to the ground. This terrible conqueror was Timur the
Tartar, or, as we call him, Tamerlane." Timur was a Turk
also, only of another tribe than the Ottomans. He was
born at Samarkand in 1333, consequently he was an old
man when, in 1401, he turned his arms against Bayezid.
Though born only a petty chieftain, Timur, by his remark
able genius for war, quickly forced his way to the front
rank of Eastern conquerors, subduing the vast country
north of the Oxus, carrying his victorious arms into India,
and becoming ruler of Persia and Syria to the borders of
Egypt. This marvellous Mohammedan power of mush
room growth resolved to try conclusions with the Ottoman
power, which had proved itself no mean adversary. It
seems strange that Moslem should thus seek to destroy
Moslem, but Timur's ambition, even in old age, could
brook no rival. It is wonderful to think of an old man of
seventy leading forth his armies to such an enterprise as
the conquest of the dominions of the Ottomans, just when
the latter were flushed with their victories over the Greeks,
and were seeking to establish themselves on the throne of
the Caesars. And the Tartar won in the struggle with the

OTTOMAN TURKS 185
Turk. Bayezid withdrew his troops from the siege of
Constantinople, and hurried to join issue with Timur. The
outcome of the furious battle that was fought was irre
trievable disaster to the Turkish Prince. On the field of
Angora, a.d. 1402, the Ottoman forces were cut to pieces,
and Bayezid, with one of his sons, was taken prisoner. It
has been said that the unfortunate monarch was confined
in an iron cage by his fierce Tartar captor, but that story is
now denied, though it is generally acknowledged that
Bayezid was kept a very close prisoner, and was carried
about in the train of his conqueror in a barred litter. The
hapless prisoner, after eight months of such indignities,
died of a broken heart. " Seldom has the world seen so
complete, so terrible a catastrophe as the fall of Bayezid
from the summit of power to the shame of a chained
captive." Two years later, in 1405, Timur the Tartar, "the Wrath
of God," passed away, and his vast dominions became the
prey of his generals. Now was the chance for the Ottoman
Turks to recover their independency, which, after various
vicissitudes of fortune, they succeeded in doing. We
cannot trace this Restoration in detail, but it was effected
mainly by Mohammed the First, a son of the late unfor
tunate prince. The new monarch was a man of uncom
mon gifts — indeed, just the ruler for such an emergency.
The Greeks described him as ".persevering as a camel ; "
his friends spoke of him as " filled with wisdom ; " and
amongst friends and foes alike he was known, on account
of the refinement and humanity of his character, as
" Mohammed the Gentleman." In twelve years this prince
reorganized his shattered kingdom, and at his death, in
1 42 1, the Restoration was completed, and the Turkish
power was almost as formidable as ever. An ominous step
was now taken. The Ottoman capital was moved from
Brusa, in Asia, to Adrianople, in Europe. Evidently the
next move was to be Constantinople.
The inroad of the Tartars had only delayed the fall of

1 86 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
the Greek Empire for half a century, not saved it altogether.
The Turks, under Murad the Second, a noble prince, who
reigned thirty years, resumed their career of conquest in
the West. That career was continued by his ,son,
Mohammed the Second, an able, but violent and treacher
ous, ruler, who also reigned thirty years. It was by this
prince that Constantinople was captured. It is a story that
deserves a chapter to itself. We cannot linger over it now.
The strong city stood a long siege, and was nobly defended
by the last of her Christian Emperors; but all valbur
availed nothing against the might pf the Ottoman arms ;
and the 29th May, 1453, saw the standard of Mohammed
floating from the towers of the then grandest Christian city
of the world. And ever since, Constantinople, which
stands on the finest site in Europe, has been in the
possession of the Turk, and has been the great seat of the
Mohammedan power.
The Turkish Sultans were now ranked amongst the most
powerful rulers of the earth. All Europe began to fear
their strength, and to dread their onward march. For a
while, however, after the fall of Constantinople, the West
remained comparatively unmolested ; for the Sultans had
their thoughts turned towards the East, and, as soon as
possible, marched to the conquest of the Moslem kingdoms
of Syria and Egypt. They even tried, though vainly, to
possess Persia, aspiring to universal dominion. Syria and
Egypt, after a long struggle, succumbed to the Ottomans.
In 1 51 7 the Mameluke rulers of Cairo were defeated by
Selim the Grim, and their kingdoms added to the Turkish
dominions, which now, both in the East and West, had
grown enormously. It seemed like a return to the early
days of Mohammedanism, when the Caliphs ruled in all
their glory. And the glory of the Ottomans even surpassed
that of the Omiades, the Fatimites, or the Abbasides.
In 15 18 the actual title of Caliph, or Commander of the
Faithful, was assumed by the Sultans of Constantinople ;
for Selim acquired the right to it from no less a personage

OTTOMAN TURKS 187
than a genuine descendant of the rulers of Bagdad, who
was living in obscurity at Cairo. This degenerate
Abbaside, for a consideration, made over to the Ottoman
ruler the spiritual authority he still affected to exercise, and
with it the symbols of his office, the standard and cloak of
the Prophet. Stanley Lane-Poole says : " Selim now
became not only the visible chief of the Mohammedan
Stite throughout the wide dominions subdued to his sway,
but also the revered head of the religion of Islam, whereso
ever it was practised in its orthodox form. The heretical
Shias of Persia might reject his claim ; but in India, in all
parts of Asia and Africa, where the traditional Caliphate
was recognized, the Ottoman Sultan henceforth was the
supreme head of the Church, the successor to the spiritual
prestige of the long line of the Caliphs. How far this title
now commands the homage of the orthodox Moslem world
is a matter of dispute ; but there can be no doubt that it
has always added, and still adds, a real and important
authority to the acts and proclamations of the Ottoman
Sultans."- The Turks reached the pinnacle of their greatness in the
sixteenth century, during the long reign of Suleyman the
Magnificent. By land and sea the Moslem arms were
everywhere triumphant. A large slice of Eastern Europe,
including Moldavia, Bulgaria, Serbia, Bosnia, Hungary,
Greece, and innumerable other States passed under the
sway of the Ottomans. What a change time and valour
had wrought ! The line of Princes which, under Othman,
counted only a few hundred spears, could now march to
war with a force of 500,000 veteran troops. And the
territory which they possessed, once so circumscribed that
it could have been crossed in a few hours' ride, was now so
extended that it was difficult to estimate its length and
breadth. As Sir E. Creasy says : " An empire of more
than forty thousand square miles, embracing many of the
richest and most beautiful regions of the world, had been
acquired by the descendants of Ertoghrul, the father of

188 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
Othman, in three centuries from the time when their fore
father wandered a homeless adventurer at the head of less
than 500 fighting-men."
It is a strange and remarkable story of human prosperity
and greatness. And in the arts of peace, as well as in
the trade of war, the Ottomans excelled in the reign
of Suleyman. That enlightened Prince encouraged the
aspirations of the learned, founded schools and colleges,
and sought amongst both high and low to elevate the tone
of general society. He rigorously punished evil-doers, and
especially officers and Pashas who were proved guilty of
corruption and partiality. His great object was to see
even-handed justice administered throughout the length
and breadth of his vast dominions.
But the palmy days of Ottoman rule were of short
duration. The death of Suleyman the Magnificent was
the climax. From the seventeenth century the Turkish
power has been gradually decaying. Under the walls of
Vienna, in 1682, the Moslems received a check which saved
Western Europe from all further alarm from the advancing
tide of Mohammedan invasion. And little by little, since
then, the Turks have been driven back, and their possessions
stripped from them. As the Russian Empire has increased,
that of the Ottoman has decreased. It is a singular thing
that all Mohammedan kingdoms, no matter how strongly
built up, soon, comparatively speaking, crumble to their
fall. What they lack is that righteousness which exalteth
a nation. The Ottoman dynasty is most surely going the
way of the Omiades, the Fatimites, the Abbasides, and the
Moors. It is only a question of a little time. Even now the
Turkish Empire is designated "the Sick Man." And the
sickness is unto death ! The injustice, the oppression, the
cruelties, the vices of the modern Turk have turned
Christendom against him, as well as undermined his con
stitution. No one will shed a tear when the end comes i

OTTOMAN TURKS 189
It is sad that it should be so, but so it is ! " There are
some who believe in a great Mohammedan revival, with
the Sultan-Caliph at the head ; a second epoch of Saracen
prowess, and a return to the good days when Turks were
simple, sober, honest men, who - fought like lions. There
is plenty of stuff in the people still ; but where are their
leaders? Till Carlyle's great man comes — the hero who
can lead a nation back to paths of valour and righteous
ness. — to dream of the regeneration of Turkey is but a
bootless speculation."

CHAPTER XX
PARADISE
The Koran has a great deal to say about Paradise, and
there can be no doubt that the teaching of Mohammed
with respect to the marvellous joys of that blessed abode
influenced public opinion greatly in his favour in the early
days of the Faith. The Prophet not only promised in this
present life rich rewards to those who followed his standard,
but spoke of untold favours in store for true believers in
the life hereafter. And the joys he spoke of, as we shall
see, were of that character that they appealed strongly to
the selfish passions of humanity, and thus drew over many
eager converts to Islamism.
Though Mohammedans speak so much about Paradise,
they are by no means agreed amongst themselves as to
certain particulars with regard to it The time of its
creation, for instance, is a moot point. The Mutazilites
and other sectaries assert that Paradise at present has no
existence, but will be created in a moment of time by God
after the great day of the Resurrection. The orthodox,
however, maintain that the blessed abode of the Faithful
was created even before the world, and was, indeed, the
very place from which Adam and Eve by transgression fell.
Then, as to the location of Paradise, various opinions are
held ; but all are agreed that it is not anywhere on this
earth, nor under the earth. Nor must Paradise be confused
with heaven, or the heavens, through whifch Mohammed
passed when he made his famous night-journey up the
ladder of light into the very presence of Allah. The

PARADISE 191
general belief is that Paradise is above the heavens, and
next under the throne of God.
This wonderful abode of the Faithful is said to be of
such a size that no human standards of measurement can
even approximately give any idea of it, so that the task is
not essayed. It is believed to be surrounded by high
walls, in which are placed eight beautiful gates, through
which all seeking admittance must pass. So involved and
contradictory, however, are Moslem ideas about everything
connected with Paradise, that tradition says that another
entrance has been found — even at Jerusalem. The story
was told me on the spot. It seems that Mohammed, when
on earth, delivered a prophecy that one of his followers
should, while alive, enter Paradise.
And in the reign of Omar, the prophecy, we are assured,
was fulfilled. It happened thus : A certain devout man,
named Hayian, went up to the Mosque of Omar, in Jeru
salem, to worship, and also to draw water from a well in the
outer cqurts. While engaged in the latter task his bucket fell
splash into the well. The man let himself down in the
usual way to recover his utensil, but, to his surprise, when
he got to the bottom, he saw a door standing partly open.
Impelled by curiosity he pushed through it, and then found
himself in a beautiful garden. Therein he wandered about
for some time, eating of its delicious fruits, listening to the
music of its fountains, and being charmed with the air of
serenity and peace which everywhere prevailed. Reluctantly,
remembering his daily duties, he withdrew from the happy
place, but not before he had plucked a leaf to preserve as a
memento of the visit, and as a token that there really, was
such a garden. Unfortunately, the next day, wheri he
wished to repeat his delightful experience, he could not
find the door. Nor has it been found since. Yet the leaf,
which never withered, remained to testify to the veracity of
the saintly explorer. And the well, to this day, is called
the " Well of the Leaf," and as I stood beside it, I was
gravely assured by a reverend Moulvi that, somewhere near

192 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
our feet, there was, most certainly, an entrance to Paradise ;
for the garden in which Hayian had wandered was none
other than the garden of the Lord, prepared for Mohammed
and the Faithful.
When, after the Judgment, as related in a previous
chapter, the righteous have safely crossed the Bridge of
Siraat, which is finer than a hair, and sharper than the edge
of a sword, they immediately wing their flight towards
Paradise. And, even before they are admitted to that glad
abode, their pleasures begin: The first delectation is to
refresh themselves at a pond, called the "Pond of the
Prophet." This reservoir of water is said to be an exact
square, of a month's journey in compass ; and nowhere on
earth is there such a refreshing drink to be obtained. " The
Pond is supplied by two pipes from one of the rivers of
Paradise, being whiter than milk or silver, and more
odoriferous than musk ; with as many cups set round it as
there are stars in the firmament ; of which water whoever
drinks will thirst no more for ever." Wonderfully invigorated
by their rest and refreshment at the " Pond ofthe Prophet,"
the Faithful push on their way, and in due time reach the
gates of Paradise. There two fountains are placed, and in
one the righteous must bathe, that every outward trace of
uncleanness may be removed from their persons ; and of
the other they must drink, that inwardly, also, they may be
purified, and made meet for the land into which nothing
unholy may pass. And so delightful are the experiences
of these initiatory duties that they are regarded not in the
light of tasks, but as joys—a foretaste of the good things in
store., '¦ • .
_b -
Immediately the Faithful reach Paradise, the gates fly
open to admit them, and a voice, loud and sweet, bids
them welcome. Thereupon two angels step forward — two
for each person — and give to the individual upon whom
they have to wait presents sent by God. »One gift is a
beautiful robe, called "the garment of Paradise," with
which the angels invest their charge. The other is a ring

PARADISE 193
of surpassing value, with certain inscriptions engraved upon
it, telling of the different felicities that await him. In ad
dition to angelic attendants, each person has also a number
of beautiful youths, whose duties are to _un errands, to
fetch and carry, and to acquaint the heavenly wives of the
new-comer with the fact of the arrival of their lord. The
total number of servants of every kind that the very
meanest of the Faithful shall have in Paradise is estimated
to be not less than eighty thousand. Thus there is really
nothing that a man need do for his own personal comfort
in the way of labour, for Allah, in His bountiful goodness,
has placed at his disposal even a superfluity of able and
willing attendants.
Very soon after the righteous have entered Paradise they
will receive an invitation from the Almighty to sup with
Him at His table. It is fabled that " the whole earth will
then be as one loaf of bread, which God will reach to them
with His hand, holding it like a cake ; and that for meat
will be provided the ox Balam, and the fish Nun, the lobes
of whose livers will suffice for all." Many favours will be
shown the Faithful at this feast, and then they will be
dismissed to the mansions prepared for them, where,
throughout eternity, they will enjoy such bliss as was never
dreamt of in the wildest fancy of human imagination. While
all will be perfectly satisfied, there will be, however, diversity
of enjoyment ; for " one star differeth from another in
glory.'' Dr. James Cameron Lees, in his St. Giles' Lecture
on " Mohammedism," says that Paradise consists of eight
divisions. There is " the garden of eternity, the abode of
peace, the abode of rest, the Garden of Eden, the garden
of refuge, the garden of delight, the garden of the Most
High, and the garden of Paradise." The garden or abode
in which a believer shall dwell will depend upon his deserts.
The highest, in which the most eminent degree of bliss will
be experienced, is reserved for Mohammed and the Prophets;
the next for the Doctors and Teachers of the Law ; and the
next for the Martyrs. About the rest it does not so much
o

194 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
matter, for they differ little in the degree or variety of their
enjoyments. When we come to ihquire as to the character
of the supreme joys of Paradise, we are told that Mohammed
is reported to have said that " that believer will be in the
greatest honour with God who shall behold the Divine face
morning and evening, which sight will give such exquisite
delight that in respect thereof all other pleasures of Paradise
will be forgotten and lightly, esteemed."
In -the chapter on " Women" it was stated, it may be
remembered, that, contrary to the general belief, the Koran
speaks expressly of the admittance of women into Paradise.
In the 2nd sura it is written, " The Lord says, I will not
suffer the work of him among you who worketh to be lost,
whether he be male or female," and in the 43rd sura, after
some remarks about the Day of Judgment, these words
occur : " O My servants, there shall no fear come on you
this day ; neither shall ye be grieved, who have believed in
our signs, and have become Moslems ; enter ye into Paradise,
ye and your wives, with great joy." Nothing, however, is
told us in the Koran as to the section of Paradise that
women will occupy. Some Mohammedans think that wives
will be reunited to their husbands ; but others say that
women will have a garden all. to themselves. It will not be
a large place, however, as not many women are esteemed
worthy of admittance into Paradise. Yet those who do
obtain an entrance will be well treated. " Dishes of gold
will be carried round unto them, and cups without handles ;
and therein shall they enjoy whatever their souls shall
desire, and whatever their eyes shall delight in."
The inhabitants of Paradise, whether male or female,
will enjoy,, it appears, a perpetual youth. Their features
will be the same as when they lived on earth, only cast in
a larger mould, for they will be as big as Adam and Eve.
And what size do Mohammedans make out our first parents
to have been ? Of Adam it is said, " He was as tall as a
high palm-tree," and of Eve, that " When her head lay on
one hill near Mecca, her knees rested on two others in the

PARADISE 195
plain about two musket-shots away." The inhabitants of
Paradise will not be less than sixty cubits in height. If the
Faithful die in childhood or old age, it matters not ; for when
they appear in the Better Land they will be in their prime
and vigour, that is about thirty years of age, which age they
will never exceed. And to this age and stature their
children, if they shall desire any, shall immediately attain,
according to that saying of the Prophet — " If any of the
Faithful in Paradise wish for offspring, such shall be born
and grow up within the space of an hour." With respect to
the clothing of the Blest, it has .been revealed that they
will have in rich abundance the finest silks and brocades,
chiefly of green, which will burst fbrth from the trees and
fruits of Paradise. They will be given also innumerable
bracelets and anklets of gold and silver, and on their heads
will be placed crowns set with pearls of incomparable lustre.
Indeed, in the matter of clothing, the Faithful can, if they
please, set off their fine persons in the gayest, richest, and
most attractive attire.
Mohammed, in his conception and description of
Patadise, has evidently sought to please all the senses of
man. A great deal is made of the sense of taste. Three
hundred dishes will be set before each believer at every
meal, containing each a different kind of food, the last
morsel of which will be as grateful as the first. Strange to
say, wine will be provided. Wine, of course, is forbidden
to the Mussulman in this life ; but it will be freely aUowed
him in the life to come. Once a believer enters Paradise,
he can drink as much as he likes of every kind of liquor ;
and he will find as many kinds of beverages served up in
vessels of gold, as he does viands served up in dishes of
gold. But the wines of Paradise, it is significantly said,
though delicious to the palate, will not inebriate. A certain
tree, called Tuba, or the Tree of Happiness, is chiefly
instrumental in supplying the pleasures of the taste of the
blest. Sale, speaking of this remarkable tree, says ; " Con
cerning this tree, Mohammedans fable that it stands in the
o 2

196 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
palace of the Prophet, though a branch of it will reach to
the house of every true believer ; that it will be laden with
pomegranates, grapes, dates, and other fruits of surpassing
bigness, and of tastes unknown to mortals. So that if a
man desire to eat of any particular kind of fruit, it will
immediately be presented to him ; or if he choose flesh,
birds ready dressed will be set' before him according to
his wish. They add that the boughs of this tree will
spontaneously bend down to the hand of the person who
would gather of its fruits ; and that the tree is so large
that a person mounted on the fleetest horse would not be
able to gallop from one end of its shade to the other in a
hundred years."
The sense of hearing is not overlooked. Every effort
will be made by the minstrels and singers of Paradise to
charm the Faithful through the pleasures of .the ear. In
this respect I do not think that Mohammedans, at any
rate, while on earth," are difficult to please; for, as will
appear in a later chapter on " Recreations," Moslem music,
at the best, is very poor. In Paradise the Angel Israfil has
the most melodious voice of all God's creatures, and it is
his special mission to minister to the happiness of the
righteous, by constantly giving them songs of surpassing
beauty. Certain female singers, " the daughters of
Paradise," form a choir, and assist Israfil in his delightful
entertainments. Sale says : " Even the trees themselves
will celebrate the divine praises with a harmony exceeding
whatever mortals have heard ; to which will be joined the
sound of the bells hanging on the trees,.which will be put
in motion by the wind proceeding from the throne of God,
as often as the blessed wish for music ; yea, the very
clashing of the trees, whose fruits are pearls and emeralds,
will surpass human imagination, so that the pleasures
of this sense will not be the least of the enjoyments of
Paradise." We come now to speak of the Houris, or black-eyed
girls of Paradise, so famous in the Mohammedan system,

PARADISE

197

and which other creeds, perhaps, have too strongly insisted
upon as being the distinguishing feature of the Moslem
Paradise. The following are the -principal references to
Houris in the Koran. In the 52nd sura it is written :
"The pious shall dwell amidst gardens and pleasures,
delighting themselves in what their Lord shall have given
them. And it shall be said unto them, Eat and drink with
easy digestion, and we will espouse them unto virgins
having large black eyes." Again, in the 25th sura, it is
written : " The pious shall be lodged in a place of security
among gardens and fountains : they shall be clothed in fine
silk and satin, and they shall sit facing one another. Thus
shall it be : and we will espouse them to fair damsels having
large black eyes." Once more, in the 56th sura, it is
written : " The companions of the right hand, how happy
shall the companions of the right hand be ! They shall
dwell in gardens of delight, reposing on couches adorned
with gold and precious stones, under an extended shade,
near a flowing river, and amidst fruits in abundance.
Verily, we have created the damsels of Paradise by a peculiar
creation, and we have made them beloved by their
husbands, of equal age with them, for the delight of the
companions of the right hand." Each believer has
seventy-two of these " Houris " of resplendent beauty to
wife, and he is allowed a mansion and a garden all to
himself, where he may keep his treasures. It is just
carrying out in Paradise, only on a larger scale, the hateful
Zenana system, so generally practised by the Faithful on
earth. *
The delights of Paradise, as I have described them, are
very sensuous, at any rate as far as the words go. Of late
years a few of the more refined and spiritual-minded
amongst Moslems have revolted at such teaching, and
would fain believe, and have striven to show, that it is a
mistake always to take the literal meaning of the Koran ;
and that the passages referring to Paradise should be
regarded as metaphorical or allegorical. Some European

198 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
scholars have supported, ably and strongly, the new move
ment, which, however, does not appear to make much
progress, as the common sense of the Mohammedan world
rebels against it. Moslems, as a body, accept, and desire
to cling to, the literal meaning of the words of the Koran.
They know themselves, and they know their Prophet ;
and I have heard some boldly aver that "Paradise, without
its sensuous delights, would not be worth entering. Gibbon,
who thoroughly studied Mohammedanism, holds to the
literal interpretation, and speaks of those " modest apologists
who are driven to the poor excuse of figures and allegories."
Sale, also, who had years of familiar companionship with
Moslems of every school and sect, maintains that the literal
theory is so evident from the whole tenor of the Koran,
" that, although some Mohammedans, whose understandings
are too refined to admit such gross conceptions, look on
their Prophet's descriptions as parabolical, and are willing
to receive them in an allegorical or spiritual acceptation ;
yet the general and orthodox doctrine is, that the whole is
to be strictly believed, in the obvious and literal accepta
tion." I do not see, however much we may desire to do
it, that we can give Mohammed credit for only, or even
chiefly, holding and preaching spiritual views of believers'
joys in the mansions of the blest. His own earthly life of
sensuous enjoyment stands as a witness against him that
can never be put on one side.
What, it may be asked, are the conditions of admittance
into the Mohammedan Paradise? Undoubtedly, first of
all, acceptance of this creed : " There is no God but God,
and Mohammed is the Apostle of God." Then it is
necessary to attend to all matters of faith, law, and practice,
as laid down in the Koran. The doctrine of works is
clearly taught in that passage which says that " the angels
shall say unto the righteous whom they cause to die, Peace
be unto you, enter ye into Paradise as a reward for that
which ye have wrought." Yet salvation, after all, depends
more upon the grace of God than the works of man, if we

PARADISE 199
can give credit to a touching story of the last hours of the
great Prophet. Tradition, well supported, says that, as
Mohammed lay dying, with his head on the lap of his
favourite wife, Ayesha, the sorrowful woman addressed to
him this question : " O Prophet, does no one enter Para
dise except by the mercy of Allah ? " " No one ! " was the
answer. "But you, O Prophet," pleaded Ayesha, "will
you not enter Paradise except by the compassion of Allah ? "
Mohammed, placing his hand upon his head, said
solemnly, thrice : " I shall not enter except Allah cover
me with His mercy ! " The last prayer of all devout
Moslems is like the Prophet's — a petition for pardon, and
for admittance into Paradise, that they may have the
companionship, and participate in the enjoyments, of the
Blessed on high.

CHAPTER XXI
HELL
The term Hell is one that is seldom used now amongst
Christians, for of late years it has fallen greatly into dis
favour. Doubtless future, as well as present, punishment
for sin is regarded as certain, but Christians are not as
ready to-day to speak of " the damnation of hell " as they
were fifty years ago. However, amongst Mohammedans
little, if anything, is known of such theological changes of
thought. Hell is a word that Moslems do not shrink from
using, nor do they mince matters with respect to the tor
ments that are in store for unbelievers. Eastern language
lends itself only too readily to vituperative expressions ; and
Eastern people, I am afraid, only too eagerly employ the
coarsest and strongest expressions of the Koran to convey
their bitter feelings towards their adversaries and the
enemies of their Faith. Indeed, judging from some things
I have heard and read, it would appear that Mohammedans
think that their Hell, dreadful as it is, is altogether too
good a place for those who are destined to dwell there
throughout all eternity.
There is no difficulty in locating the abode of the lost ;
for the Mussulman belief is that it adjoins the abode of the
saved — indeed, that there is only a thin, middle wall or
partition between Paradise and Hell. And this space
between the two abodes, it appears, is inhabited. It is
called Al Urf, or " the place that parts." Some Moham
medans regard it as a kind of limbo for patriarchs
and prophets, martyrs and saints, where they may bide

HELL 201
after death until the judgment and their admission into
Paradise. Others regard ¦ Al Urf as the abode to which
those go whose good and evil works are so equal that they
exactly counterpoise each other, and therefore deserve
neither reward nor punishment. While others, again, say
that " the place that parts " is the future state of all those
who have here disobeyed their parents, more especially in
going to war without their leave, and have fallen in battle.
Such, for their disobedience, are excluded from Paradise,
but are not relegated to Hell. In Al Urf they must
remain, knowing neither joy nor sorrow, neither anguish
nor bliss. There are not, however, many people in this
intermediate state ; for the great bulk of human beings are
either in Paradise or Hell. Al Urf, in fact, is so small a
place that the people therein can hold converse either with
the saved or the lost ; and even the voices of the inmates
of Paradise and Hell can be heard right across the gulf.
And who, it may now be asked, dwell in Hell ? The
answer is definite — " There are seven distinct classes, who
will be confined in seven separate rooms or places of
torment." i. The first room, in which the lightest punishments
will be inflicted, will be the abode of wicked Moham
medans. This place will be the smallest of all the apart
ments of Hell, for the majority of the Moslems will go
straight to Paradise after the judgment. Moreover, nearly
all the inmates of this first room, it is affirmed, are women.
The Prophet is reported to have remarked, on one occasion,
that Allah had granted him a look into the future, and that
he had seen, from a view of Paradise, that the majority of
the inhabitants thereof were men who had been poor on
earth, and that the greater number of the wretches confined
in Hell were women, both rich and poor. However, there
is hope for all wicked Mohammedans, for the teaching of
the Koran is, that after enduring a course of punishment
proportionate to their crimes, they will eventually be
released, and granted admittance to one of the least

202 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
blissful abodes of Paradise. The time of the sojourn in
Hell will not be less than nine hundred years, and not
more than seven thousand. "As to the manner of their
delivery," writes Sale, " they shall be distinguished by the
marks' of prostration on those parts of their bodies with
which they used to touch the ground in prayer, and over
which the fires of Hell will have no power ; and, being
known by this characteristic, they will be relieved by the
mercy of God, at the intercession of Mohammed and the
blessed; and, thereupon, those whose bodies have contracted
any sootiness or filth from the flames and smoke of Hell
will be immersed in one of the rivers of Paradise called the
River of Life, which will wash them whiter than pearls."
2. The second room of Hell, which is placed underneath
the first; will be inhabited by Jews — and not merely Jews
who have wrought evil, but all Jews. No Jew, according
to Moslem belief, will ever enter Paradise, unless, of course,
he renounces, while on earth, the religion of his fathers, and
becomes a convert to Islamism.
Mohammed, in the Koran, has much to say about Jews ;
for he was well acquainted with those who dwelt in Arabia,
and at first hoped to win them over to his views of
religion. Failing in that, however, he took a violent dis
like to them, and made it part of his deliberate policy to
treat them with harshness when he had the power.
It is related that when, on one occasion, a Jewish
woman in Medina composed some . couplets in which
Mohammed was denounced as a false Prophet, the poor
body paid the penalty of her rashness by death. " In the
dead of night, surrounded by her little ones, this woman
was stricken by the dagger of an assassin, who was, the next
¦day, applauded by Mohammed in the Mosque for his
hideous crime."
" The People of the Book," as the Prophet called the
Jews, were difficult to suppress, however ; and after a time
Mohammed declared open warfare against them, and sought
to exterminate them. Mention is made of one town in

HELL 203
Arabia near Medina entirely in the hands of a Jewish tribe,
called the Kuraizah. Mohammed laid siege to this town ; and
when, after a long defence, the inhabitants surrendered, the
Prophet had the men executed by the hundred with the most
heartless barbarities, and the women and children he caused
to be sold into slavery in exchange for horses and harness.
The Koran speaks exultingly of those savage operations
against the Jews ; and Mohammed, not content with
destroying all that he could in this world, doomed the
whole Jewish race to perdition in the next world.
In the 58th sura it is written of. the People of the Book :
" God hath prepared for them a grievous punishment, for it
is evil which they do. They have taken their oaths for a
cloak, and they have turned men aside from the way of
God : wherefore a shameful punishment awaiteth them ;
neither their wealth nor their children shall avail them at
all against God. These shall be the inhabitants of Hell-
fire. They shall abide therein for ever."
3. The third room in Hell, which is placed under the
second, and is a degree hotter, will be inhabited by Chris
tians. Mohammed spoke with respect of Jesus, as a
Prophet of God, but he strongly denounced all Christians
who believed that Christ was " God manifest in the flesh."
In the 5th sura of the Koran it is written': " They are
infidels who say, Verily, God is Christ, the son of Mary.
Say unto them, And who could obtain anything from God
to the contrary, if He pleased to destroy Christ, the son of
Mary, and his mother, and all those who are on earth ?
For unto God belongeth the Kingdom of Heaven and
earth, and whatsoever is contained between them : He
createth what He pleaseth, and God is Almighty. The
Jews and the Christians say, We are the children of God
and His beloved. .Answer, Why, therefore, doth He
punish you for your sins ? " As in the case of the Jews,
the Prophet's animosity against Christians seemed to grow
deeper as he grew older. He was glad of the support of
Christian tribes in the hour of his weakness, but when he

204 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
had the power, he began to persecute them because they
would not accept his teaching as superseding that of Christ.
Moslems were exhorted to have no friendship with Chris
tians, who were likened to idolaters.
The Koran says : " O true believers, take not the Jews
or Christians for your friends : they are friends the one to
the other : but whosp among you taketh them for his
friends, he is surely one of them. Verily, God directeth
not unjust people." Mohammedans very often, as a term
of reproach or offence, call Christians "Nazarenes,"
" Infidels," and also " Christian dogs." The doom of the
Christians is nothing short of eternal woe in Hell. The
attitude which the Moslem takes up towards the Christian
is well expressed in the saying of a Turkish general, who,
on the borders of Egypt, was on one occasion skilfully
effecting the withdrawal of his troops from a dangerous
position. As the Turks defiled before their adversaries,
and their leader closed the rear with a vigilant eye, and a
battle-axe in his hand, a Christian presumed to ask if he
were not afraid of an attack. The brave, though fanatical,
reply was, " It is, doubtless, in your power to begin the
attack, but rest assured that not one of my soldiers will go
to Paradise till he has sent an infidel to Hell." No matter
how holy the life of a Christian may be, there is, according
to Moslem teaching, no escape for him from the damnation
of Hell ; for the Koran, which cannot lie, says, " Whosoever
followeth any other religion than Islam, it shall not be
accepted of him, and in the next life he shall be of those
who perish."
4. The fourth abode of Hell will be inhabited by the
people called Sabians. At the time of Mohammed the
Sabians had some political power in Arabia, but now they
have none. In fact, very few Sabians exist at the present
day. There is a small colony of them near Harran, in
Mesopotamia ; and travellers who meet them generally
speak of them as Christians of St. John the Baptist, whose
disciples, indeed, they profess to be, "using a kind of

HELL 205
baptism, which is the greatest mark they bear to Christi
anity." Sale, speaking of the Sabians, says : " They pay
an adoration to the stars, or the angels and intelligences
which they suppose reside in the stars, and govern the
world under the Supreme Deity. They offer many sacri
fices, but eat no part of them, burning them all. They
have a great respect for the temple of Mecca, and the
Pyramids of Egypt, fancying these last to be the sepul
chres of Seth, and of Enoch and Sabi, his two sons, whom
they look on as the first progenitors of their religion.
Besides the Book of Psalms, the only true Scripture they
read, they have other books which they esteem equally
sacred, particularly one in the Chaldean tongue, which
they call the Book of Seth, and which is full of moral dis
courses. This sect say that they took the name of Sabian
from the above-mentioned Sabi, though it seems rather to
be derived from Saba, the host of heaven, which they
worship." The Arabs were greatly influenced in religious
matters by the Sabians, who lived amongst them, and, for
a while, Mohammed tolerated the sect ; but eventually he
persecuted its adherents, and condemned them to be
punished both in this world and the next.
5. Now we come to the Magians, who are doomed to an
eternity of punishment in the fifth abode, or apartment, of
the. Moslem Hell. By the Magians Mohammed meant,
probably, not merely the Magi, or wise men, who were the
priests of the ancient Persian religion, but all the followers
of that religion, commonly called, not Magians, but Zoroas-
trians, Fire Worshippers, or, more recently, Parsees. Is
lamism is now the religion of Persia, and the Magians, or
Parsees, driven from their own land by the Mohammedans
in the seventh century, took refuge in India, where they
have remained ever since. There are to-day, probably,
about 90,000 Parsees in the Indian Empire. At one time
the Magians were a mfghty nation, and their spiritual
leaders, the Magi, were famous for their learning, wisdom,
and occult powers, as diviners, augurs, and astrologers.

_o6 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
The terms magic- and magicians are derived from the name
Magi, only now the ideas associated with the words are not
learning or wisdom, but sleight-of-hand and the perform
ance of conjuring-tricks. Mohammedanism owes much to
Magianism, for Mohammed, there can be no doubt,
borrowed from the Persian religion many of his beliefs
with regard to God and Satan, Paradise and Hell, and
future rewards and punishments. Yet the ungrateful
Prophet assigns all the Magians to an abode, the fifth
department of Hell, from which they can never escape,
and in which they will have to endure innumerable and
awful torments.
6. The sixth abode of Hell will be filled with idolaters,
against whom Mohammed was constantly hurling fierce
invectives.' The people of Arabia, generally, before the
advent of the Prophet, were idolaters. Indeed Mohammed
himself, in his early years, worshipped idols in the famous
temple at Mecca. But when the Prophet grasped the
truth that. " There is no God but God," he was a deter
mined opponent of idolatry. <•
At the capture of Mecca he is said to have ordered at
once the ignominious destruction of the '360 idols in the
sacred Kaaba ; and after the House of God had been puri
fied, he made a law that no unbeliever or idolater should
be permitted thenceforward to set foot within the territory
of the Holy City.
Moreover, everywhere in his dominions the Prophet
sought to destroy idolatry root and branch, declaring that
he would brook no compromise with " the accursed thing."
For example, the leaders of a strong city called Taif, fearing
destruction at the hands of Mohammed, came to him and
offered to embrace the Moslem faith on certain conditions.
The principal condition was that they might be allowed to
worship their idols three years longer, so that they might
get used to the idea of relinquishing them.
Mohammed, however, would not listen to this, but said
sternly, "No !" The trembling leaders then asked : "May

HELL 201
we not have a month's time in which to prepare the minds
of the people ? " " No ! " was the reply ; " Allah cannot
be served by those who bow to idols." Then said the
deputation, " May our people, at least, be absolved from the
oft-repeated daily prayers ? " The only answer they got
was : " There is no true religion without prayer."
The surrender of the city was made, and Mohammed,
to ensure the carrying out of his wishes, sent a messenger
to destroy the famous idol of stone in the great temple of
Taif. " It was left in fragments on the earth, surrounded
by weeping women, lamenting the fall of their hopes."
The portion of idolaters here, according to Mohammed
anism, is the sword, and hereafter there is reserved for them
fearful torments in Hell. The Koran says : " Verily, God '
will not pardon the giving him a companion. The recep
tacle of these shall be Hell : they shall find no refuge from
it." And again : " Verily, look ye, O men, and the idols
which ye worship besides God shall be cast as fuel into
Hell-fire : ye shall go down into the same,, and remain
therein for ever : in that place shall ye groan from anguish."
Indeed, so strong was Mohammed's feeling against
idolatry, and so clear his teaching on the matter, that
a Mussulman is not allowed to pray even for a lpst rela
tion, if that relation happened to be an idolater. The
instruction on this point occurs in the 9th sura of the
Koran, where it is written : " It is not allowed unto the
Prophet, nor those who are true believers, that they pray
for idolaters, although they be of kin, after it is become
known that they are inhabitants of Hell."
A pathetic story is told of Mohammed himself in this
connection, when he visited his mother's tomb in March,
a.d. 630. It was when he was on his way back to Medina
after the capture of Mecca. Amina, his mother, it may be
remembered, died on the roadside between the two cities,
when the Prophet was a little child, and she was buried
where she fell. As Mohammed stood and looked at her
grave, tears came into his eyes, and he longed to kneel

208 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
down and pray for the peace of his mother's soul ; but the
fact that she was an idolater forbade it. There was no
hope for her, any more than for the rest of idolaters.
' Heavily did the Prophet sigh, and bitterly did he weep, say
ing through his tears, " I asked leave of God to visit my
mother's tomb, and He granted it to me ; but when I asked
leave to pray for her, it was denied me!" No ! for
idolaters there is, in the next world, no hope of mercy !
7. We come now to the seventh and last division of
Hell. And in this Bottomless pit are confined hypocrites
of every clime and nation, of every language and creed.
Above every other sin Mohammed placed hypocrisy, and
his most awful warnings and threatenings are addressed to
those who wear only the mask of religion — who approach
Allah with their lips, while their hearts are far from Him.
Of hypocrites, the Koran says, "Verily, God hath cursed
them, and hath prepared for them a fierce fire, wherein.
they shall remain for ever. They shall find no patron or
defender. On the day wherein their faces shall be rolled
in Hell-fire they shall say, O that we had obeyed God, and
had obeyed His Apostle ! "
Ere closing this chapter something ought to be said
about the nature or character of the sufferings endured by
the seven classes of the Lost in the Moslem Hell. It is a
painful and unpleasant topic, and I shall make it as short
as possible. Let it be borne in mind that those who will be
the most lightly punished of all will be shod with shoes of
fire, the fervour of which will cause their skulls to boil like
a cauldron. Fire, however, is not the only agent employed
to torment the damned. High winds, cold as well as hot,
will at times rush and howl through the caverns of Hell,
and the cold winds will be so intense that they will freeze
the very marrow in the bones of the lost. Then other and
still more dreadful means will be adopted to cause pain and
horror and despair. A few quotations from the Koran will
give a clear idea of what Mohammedans hold is in store for
the wicked. In the 23rd sura it is written, "Fire shall

HELL 209
scorch their faces, and they shall writhe their mouths
therein for anguish." In the 56th sura these words occur,
" And the companions of the left hand, how miserable shall
the companions of the left hand be ! They shall dwell
amidst burning winds and scalding water, under the shade
of a black smoke, neither cold nor agreeable."
Then, in the 88th sura it is written, " Labouring and
toiling, they shall be cast into scorching fire, to be broiled ;
they shall be given to drink of a boiling fountain ; they
shall have no food but of dry thorns and thistles." And
again, in the 44th sura, these dreadful words are recorded :
" Verily, the fruit of the tree of Az Zaqqum shall be the
food of the impious. ; as the dregs of oil shall it boil within
the bodies of the damned, like the boiling of the hottest
water. And it shall be said to the tormentors, Take him,
and drag him into the midst of Hell, and pour on his head
the torture of boiling water, saying, Taste this ; verily, this
is your punishment."
And these dreadful torments go on for ever and for ever,
save, as already said, in the case of wicked Mohammedans,
who will eventually be freed and enter Paradise. As
Gibbon puts it, " The Prophet has judiciously promised
that all his disciples, whatever may be their sins, will be
saved by their own faith and his intercession from eternal
damnation." Jews, however, and Christians, Sabians,
Magians, and idolaters, will remain from everlasting to
everlasting in the place which has been prepared for them.
The Koran says that the abodes of the lost are guarded by
nineteen fierce spirits or angels, and that past these there is
no possibility of escape. The suffering ones may call out
for pity, but no pity shall be shown them ; they may pray
vehemently to be blotted out of existence, to be annihilated,
but God will answer them, " Ye shall remain her6 for ever :
speak not unto me to deliver you ! "
Can anything more awful be imagined than the teaching
of Islam with regard to Hell ? To all but a favoured few
there is no hope of happiness in a future life ! Moham-
p

210 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
medanism is an utterly selfish religion ! The doctrines of
the Koran with regard to the torments of Hell are devilish !
That any thoughtful person can prefer Islamism to Chris
tianity is to me a mystery ! Give me the religion whose
Sacred Book says : " Now is Christ risen from the dead
and become the first fruits of them that slept. For since
by man came death, by man came also the resurrection of
the dead. For as in Adam all die, even so in Christ shall
all be made alive." And again : "As by the offence of
one judgment came upon all men to condemnation : even
so by the righteousness of one the free gift came upon all
men unto justification of life ! "

CHAPTER XXII
CAPTURE OF CONSTANTINOPLE
It was in the year of our Lord 330 — just 240 years before
Mohammed was born — that Constantinople became an
important city. Before that date it was known as
Byzantium ; but when Constantine the Great made it the
capital of the Roman Empire it was re-named Constan
tinople. Henceforth it was the residence of the Roman
Emperors ; and at the division of the Empire it was retained
as the residence and chief city of the Greek Emperors.
And such it remained until its surrender to the Moham
medans in 1453, when it became the capital of the Otto
man Turks, and the great centre of the Mohammedan
faith. The capture of Constantinople forms an epoch in
the history of Islamism.
Constantinople, by reason of its commanding position on
the borders of Europe and Asia, has always attracted a great
deal of attention ; and the city has also been so favoured
by the glories of nature, and so beautified by the genius of
men, that it has been ever regarded as one of the most
charming and desirable capitals of the world.
Stanley Lane-Poole, speaking of this famous city, says :
" Constantinople stands on the finest site in Europe. St.
Petersburg, with its noble river, Stockholm, on its many
islands, Venice, the bride of the sea, cannot rival the
ancient city of the Eastern Cassars. To see Rome and die
is mere gratuitous suicide, when the other Rome, the
beautiful city of Constantine, remains to be visited. There
is hardly a scene in the world so replete with natural
p 2

212 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
beauty, so rich in storied recollections, as that enclosed
betwixt the Bosphorus and, —
' The dark blue water
That swiftly glides and gently swells,
Between the winding Dardanelles ! ' "
Even from the earliest days of Mohammedanism covetous
eyes had been directed towards the beautiful and mighty
city of the Caesars. Tradition says that Mohammed himself
had dreams of possessing it, and though nothing came of
them, he prophesied that in future years Constantinople
would be the home of his religion. And as an incentive
to his followers to attempt the task, the Prophet promised
plenary, indulgence of all sins to all who should be counted
in the first army to take the capital of the Greeks.
It was about the year 670 or 672 that the earliest Moslem
effort was made to capture Constantinople. It was in the
reign of Muawiya, the first ruler of the Omiades of Damascus.
That great Prince prepared a formidable army, officered by
veterans, and sent the host forth with this war-cry : " Plant the
banner of Islam on the walls of the capital of the Caesars ! "
Hosein, the unfortunate grandson of Mohammed, was one
of the leaders in this holy war against the Christians.
However, the enterprise failed, though vigorously pushed
both by land and sea. For six or seven years the strife
was carried on, and then Muawiya was glad to make peace
with the Greeks by promising to pay a heavy yearly tribute.
Only a remnant of the great army that had gone forth re
turned to Damascus. They who had drawn the sword had
perished by the sword ! Forty years later, in the summer
of 716, another attempt was made on Constantinople by
the Caliph Soloman, but again the Moslems were defeated,
and the humbled Prince took his failure so much to heart
that his sorrow carried him to his grave. About a.d. 730
Caliph Hisham sent forth an army on the same holy
warfare, but with no better success. Thus, again and again,
under the Omiades, and later also, under the Abbasides,
did the Mohammedans seek to capture Constantinople; but

CAPTURE OF CONSTANTINOPLE 213
through one cause or another all their efforts were in vain.
Yet they never lost heart, for they trusted implicitly in the
words of the Prophet, who had declared that the city of
the Greeks would one day be inhabited by the people of
the true Faith. Another consideration that reconciled the
Moslems to their repeated failures was the belief that all
who died in the wars with Christians undoubtedly obtained
a great reward hereafter, according to the saying of the
Koran : " As to those who fight in the defence of God's
true religion, God will not suffer their works to perish ;
He will guide them, and will dispose their heart aright, and
He will lead them into Paradise, of which He had told
them." For nearly 800 years the efforts to win Constantinople
were continued, and at length they were crowned with
success. And when we think about it we cannot but be
struck with the faith and patience of the Mohammedans.
The Omiades passed away ; the Abbasides perished ; the
Fatimites rose and fell ; the Moors entered and were about
to be driven from Spain : all these things happened during
the centuries the Moslems were seeking to win the capital
of the Greeks ! Defeat daunted not the courage of the
followers of the" Prophet ; disaster weakened not their
determined resolve; the passage of time did not change
their steadfast belief in their destiny ! And in the fifteenth
century what was begun in the seventh was realized ! All
things come to the nation that waits ! Under the Ottoman
Turks the standard of the Prophet of God was erected on
the walls of Constantinople, and the Cross went down
before the Crescent.
Two great names are linked with this important event,
viz., Mahomet, the Ottoman Prince, and Constantine, the
Greek Emperor.
Mahomet, usually called Mahommed the Second, was a
devout Mussulman from his earliest years, and is said to
have carried his zeal or fanaticism for the Faith so far as to
have always made a rule of purifying his hands and face

214 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
even after any converse with a Christian. Under the tuition
of skilful masters, this Prince advanced with early and rapid
progress in the paths of knowledge ; and besides his own
language, it is affirmed that he could speak or understand
Arabic, Persian, Chaldean, Hebrew, Latin, and Greek.
Much of his time was spent with cultivated men, and
, devoted to the making of verse, and the general study of
literature. His liberality towards poets, colleges, and
private foundations, led to the bestowal upon him of the
title of " Father of good works." Great as he was in the
walks of peace, Mahomet is said to have been even greater
in the art of war, being a military genius of a high order ;
and his almost invariable success earned for him the name
of the "Conqueror."
Constantine, his great adversary, was also a scholar and a
warrior. Gibbon speaks very highly of the Emperor,
calling him " The first of the Greeks in spirit as in rank,"
And certainly a memorable letter which he sent to Mahomet
when the latter declared war against him shows his character
in a fine light. He wrote with the courage of a soldier and
the resignation of a Christian, as follows : — " Since neither
oaths, nor treaty, nor submission can secure peace, pursue
your impious warfare. My trust is in God alone. If it
should please Him to mollify your heart, I shall rejoice in
the happy change. If He delivers the city into your
hands, I. submit without a murmur to His holy will.
But until the Judge of the earth shall pronounce between
us, it is my duty to live and die in the defence of my
people." The task to which Mahomet was committed when he
resolved to lay siege to Constantinople, and to win it at all
costs, was a herculean one, for the city was surrounded by
great walls, supported by strong towers, and had a population
of more than a hundred thousand souls. A strong fleet
also defended the approaches to the city by the sea, and
thus kept open the way for succours that might come from
allied Christian States. The Turkish Sultan knew these

CAPTURE OF CONSTANTINOPLE 215
things, and did not make light of them, and was full of
anxiety as to the issue of the struggle. It is related that
one sleepless night he started from his bed, and commanded
the instant attendance of his Grand Vizier, and when the
Jatter responded in fear and trembling, not knowing what
was in store for him as the result of such an untimely call,
the Prince greeted him with this startling cry, "I must
have Constantinople ! " The Vizier answered, " The same
God who hath already given thee so ¦ much, will not deny
thee the remnant, this capital ; for His providence and thy
power assure thy success ; and be sure myself, with the rest
of thy faithful slaves, will sacrifice, if necessary, our lives
and fortunes in the struggle." Whereupon the Sultan
spoke again, saying, "Seest thou this pillow? All the
night, in my agitation, I have pulled it on one side and the
other. I have risen from my bed ; again have I laid down ;
yet sleep has not visited these weary eyes. Beware of the
gold and silver of the Infidels. In arms we are superior ;
and with the aid of God and the prayers of the Prophet,
we shall speedily become masters of Constantinople."
And what was the feeling within the walls ? The Greek
Emperor, when he saw that the die was cast, set himself
like a hero to the work of defence. One of his first
efforts was to find out exactly how many of the people of
the city could be depended upon to fight to the last. He
caused inquiry to be made from street to street and from
house to house, and, to his dismay, he discovered that he
was dealing with a degenerate race, and that out of a
population of 100,000 he could only obtain 4,970 willing
to live or die with him in the defence of their city and of
their homes. Fortunately the number was added to by
2,000 veteran soldiers, under the command of John
Justiniani, a noble Genoese, who entered Constantinople in
search of service. The besieging army is said, at the lowest
calculation, to have numbered 250,000. Think of the
scanty garrison of barely 7,000 men defending an extensive
city against such a mighty host ! And yet so strong were

216 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
the defences of Constantinople, and so brave were the few
' gallant Christians, that the apparently unequal struggle was
maintained day after day and week after week ! ¦
' To add to the troubles of the besieged, religious strife
broke out in the city. The Greeks had sought, in their.
deadly peril, the aid of their neighbours, and had even sent
to Rome, beseeching the Pope to declare a crusade against
the followers of " the false Prophet." This request pro
vided an opening for the expression of religious jealousy
and ill-feeling. The Latin Church and the Greek Church
had always been at strife one with the other, and the
Pope had been trying for many years to bend the Greeks
to his will. Constantine knew this ; and when he sent for
temporal aid to Rome he hinted at spiritual obedience in
payment ; and the Vatican eagerly caught at the offer, and
despatched, at once, Cardinal Isidore and other priests, with,
however, only a small retinue of soldiers. The Emperor
received the envoy with respect, and subscribed to an act
of union which gave to the Latin Cardinal in the churches
of Constantinople a place by the side of the Greek
Patriarch. This measure on the part of the Emperor,
however, instead of promoting union, led to strife. Gibbon
says : " No sooner had the Church pf St. Sophia been
polluted by the Latin mass than it was deserted as a Jewish
synagogue or a heathen temple by the Greek clergy and
people, and a vast and gloomy silence prevailed in that
venerable dome, which had so often smoked with a cloud
of incense, blazed with innumerable lights, and resounded
with the voice of prayer and thanksgiving. The Latins
were the most odious of heretics and infidels; and the first
Minister of the Empire, the great Duke Lucas Notoras,
was heard to declare that he had rather behold in Con
stantinople the turban of Mahomet than the Pope's tiara or
a Cardinal's hat." Thus quarrelled the Latins and the
Greeks within the walls, while the common foe of both was
thundering at the gates ! It was a miserable sight, and,
moreover, it was a dreadful source of weakness, for it

CAPTURE OF CONSTANTINOPLE 217
deprived the brave Constantine of the affection and sup
port of many of his subjects, and served as an excuse for
native cowardice.
Mahometj meanwhile, was pushing the siege hard. He is
said, by the help of a Dane or Hungarian, to have pro
duced a piece of brass ordnance of stupendous magnitude.
" A measure of twelve palms is assigned to the bore : and
the stone bullet weighed alone six hundred pounds." With
this great cannon, and with one hundred and thirty smaller
guns, the Sultan hammered away at the walls of Con
stantinople. He sought also to fill the ditch that sur
rounded the city ; but what the Turks did in the daytime
was undone by the Christians during the night. And in all
his mining also he was undermined and countermined. So
brave was the defence, and so great were the losses of the
besieged, that, at one time, the Moslems were on the point
of giving up the enterprise in despair.
A retreat was meditated, and only the genius of
Mahomet prevented it. He resolved on the execution of
a plan which involved great skill and labour, but which, if
thoroughly carried out, promised immediate success. This
scheme was nothing less than to transport the Moslem fleet
overland to a point higher up the harbour than that at
which the Greek fleet was stationed, or which, owing to the
size of its vessels, it could reach. Then the city could be
attacked simultaneously by land and sea. Absolute secrecy
was necessary, but Mahomet was a master in that craft.
This remarkable man never told any one his plans until he
wanted them executed. On one occasion, when asked
what were his arrangements for a certain campaign, he
answered dryly and sternly, " If even a hair of my beard
knew them, I would pluck it out, and cast it from me."
The distance to be traversed by the vessels was about ten
miles, and the ground was uneven and overspread with
thickets; but the skill of the Sultan triumphed over all
difficulties. " The way was covered with a broad platform
of strong and solid planks ; and to render them slippery

218 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
and smooth, they were anointed with the fat of sheep and
oxen. Four score light galleys and brigantines of fifty and
thirty oars were disembarked on the Bosphorus shore,
arranged successively on rollers, and drawn forwards by the
power of men and pulleys. Two guides or pilots were
stationed at the helm and the prow of each vessel ; the sails
were unfurled to the winds, and the labour was cheered by
song and acclamation. In the course of a single night this
Turkish fleet painfully climbed the hill, steered over the
plain, and was launched from the declivity into the shallow
waters of the harbour," almost under the walls of the city.
Now the end drew nigh. The evening of the 28th
May was fixed upon by the Moslem Prince for the grand,
and, as he rightly anticipated, the final assault. Mahomet
exhorted his followers to prepare for the struggle by purify
ing their minds with prayer, and their bodies with seven
ablutions. He instructed also a band of saintly dervishes
to visit the tents, and remind the soldiers that immortal
youth, with untold joys in Paradise, would be the portion
of all who fell in the coming fight. Moreover, promises of
earthly rewards were not overlooked, for the Sultan had it
proclaimed : " The city and the buildings are mine, but I
resign to your valour the captives and the spoil, the treasures
of gold and beauty ; be rich and be happy ! " Fired with
such promises, and with fanatical zeal, the Moslems rushed
upon the doomed city like tigers hungering for their prey.
It was in vain that Constantine and his few devoted
adherents, filled with the courage of despair, fought like
heroes !' The Turks swarmed over the walls. They hewed
and hacked like madmen ! And as the Christians were
only one to fifty, there could be but one end to the struggle,
viz., destruction.
The Greek Emperor was seen everywhere in the thick of
the fight, seeking death, and yet, for a long time, not finding
it. In the agony of his despair, not wishing to fall into
the hands of his enemies, he mournfully exclaimed, " Can
not there be found a Christian to cut off my head ? " but

CAPTURE OF CONSTANTINOPLE 219.
no one answered him. Then he threw on one side his
purple robes, and mixed as a stranger in the melee, and at
length he met his death by an unknown hand, and his body
was buried under a mountain of the slain. Then the
struggle was over ! The Greeks fled ! The Moslems.
flocked into the streets! And soon the entire city was,
at the feet of the conquerors. Thousands of the in
habitants were massacred, but the majority were spared,
made prisoners, and afterwards sold into slavery. We
cannot linger over the details. It is enough to say that
the morning of the 29th May, 1453, rose on the victory
of the Moslems and the utter ruin of the Greeks.
At the eighth hour of the day the Sultan, who was re
ceived with acclamations, entered Constantinople in
triumph. He was attended by his viziers, bashaws, and
guards. As he passed slowly along the broad thoroughfare
on his way to the church of St. Sophia, he gazed with
satisfaction and wonder on the strange, though splendid,
appearance of the domes and palaces,, so dissimilar from
the style of Oriental architecture. " In the hippodrome his
eye was attracted by the twisted column of the three
serpents ; and, as a trial of his strength, he shattered with
his iron mace or battle-axe the underjaw of one of those
monsters, which, in the eyes of the Turks, were the idols or
talismans of the city."
St. Sophia, a massive and beautiful building, was the chief
place of worship of the Greeks, and that building Mahomet
determined to dedicate to what he conceived to be a better
and nobler worship. Gibbon, writing about the remarkable
event, says : " At the principal door of St. Sophia, Mahomet
alighted from his horse, and entered the dome : and such
was his jealous regard for the monument of his glory, that
on observing a zealous Mussulman in the act of breaking
the marble pavement, he admonished him, with his scimitar,
that if the spoil and captives were granted to the soldiers,
the public and private buildings had been reserved for the^
Prince. By his command the metropolis of the Eastern

220 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
Church was transformed into a mosque : the rich and port
able instruments of superstition were removed : the crosses
were thrown down : and the walls which were covered with
images and mosaics were washed and purified, and restored
to a state of naked simplicity. On the same day, or the
ensuing Friday, the muezzin or crier ascended the most
lofty turret and proclaimed the ezan or public invitation in
the name of God and His Prophet : the Imam preached :
and Mahomet the Second proclaimed the namaz of prayer
and thanksgiving on the grea!t altar where the Christian
mysteries had so lately been celebrated before the last of
the Caesars."
Thus Constantinople passed from the hands of Christians
into the hands of Mohammedans, and became the seat of
the Caliphs or Successors of the Prophet. And, from the
fifteenth century until now, Moslems, in all parts of the
world, have been justly proud of the chief city of their Faith.
Visitors to the beautiful city, if they have sufficient
influence, may enter a jealously-guarded building, and
therein see the sacred relics of the Prophet of God, the
possession of which give the Sultan of Constantinople his
unique position as the supreme head of Islamism. These
relics are simply the mantle of Mohammed, which he once
threw over the shoulders of an Arab poet as a reward for
an ode; and the banner of Mohammed, that Holy
Oriflamme with which he first led his followers to war and
to victory. So long as these remain in the possession pf
the Ottoman Turks it is believed that Constantinople will
remain in the hands of the Faithful.
Who can tell, however ? Perhaps, before many more
years have elapsed, the world will see another great siege of
Constantinople, in which the aggressors will be Christians,
and the defenders Moslems. The Ottoman power has
fallen so low that it is now generally recognized that " the
Turk will mount guard over the Bosphorus, and sit in the
seat of the Caesars only so long as Europe requires him
there. Another power is quite ready to take his place,

CAPTURE OF CONSTANTINOPLE 221
and, even in England, the impossibility of permitting a
Tsar to reign at Constantinople is no longer quite an
undisputed axiom."
There are some who think that the death-knell of Turkish
dominion has already been sounded. Anyway, it seems a
certainty that the next capture of Constantinople, whenever
it may happen, will reverse the story of the fifteenth century,
and that, once more, the Greek worship will be celebrated
in the Church or Mosque of St. Sophia, and the Cross
replace the Crescent on all the churches of the famous and
beautiful city of Constantine.

CHAPTER XXIII
PROVERBS
The East is the natural home of Proverbs, and Moham
medan countries have produced many sensible and
instructive ones. A study of some of these cannbt but
be interesting, and will moreover throw much light upon
Moslem religious beliefs, habits of thought, and customs of
society. How shall we define a Proverb ? It is about the most
difficult task a student could set. himself ! We all, doubtless,
know a Proverb when we meet with one ; but how to define
a Proverb is an altogether different thing. One of the
most popular definitions is that given by Howell, who
maintained that a sentence, to lay claim to be called a
Proverb, must have " sense, shortness, and salt."
Bacon has left it on record ' that Proverbs are " the
genius, wit, and spirit of a nation." Earl Russell wrote :
" A Proverb is the wisdom of many and the wit of one."
Cervantes said : " Proverbs are short sentences drawn from
long experience." Aristotle held them to be " Remnants
which, on account of their shortness and correctness, have
been saved out of the wreck and ruins of ancient philo
sophy." Thus we might go on repeating definitions, all
true, and yet no single one expressing all that we feel a
Proverb is to us and to others. Dr. Johnson's definition is
as good as any. He said : " Proverbs are short sentences
frequently repeated by the people."/ At any rate we are
sure of this, that no proverbial saying, however sensible,
true, and clever it may be, will live unless it gain the ear

PROVERBS 223
of the common people of a country, and become a house
hold word.
Trench tells us that the famous James Howell, who, in
the seventeenth century, did such good work in collecting
stray Proverbs into volume form, also composed five
hundred Proverbs of his own. But who to-day knows
anything about them ? No ! Proverbs cannot be made to
order. If the people take them up, they will live ; if not,
they will die. It has been well said : —
The people's voice, the voice of God we call ;
And what are Proverbs but the people's voice?
Coined first, and current made by common choice !
Then sure they must have weight and truth withal.
Suppose we begin with a few Arabic Proverbs. There
is certainly wisdom in this one : " Alms are the salt of
riches." Perhaps some people would question the
enduring truth of the following, that "one sword keeps
another in its scabbard." We all agree, however, in owning
that "war has its vicissitudes," and that "forward lies
honour." There is much shrewdness in the saying : " If I
am master, and you are master, who will drive the asses ? "
also in that other assertion that " a scalded dog fears even
cold water ; " and again in that saying : " The ass knows
well in whose face he brays." It may be a true, but" it is
rather a sad, view of life to say that " the world is a carcase,
and they who gather round it are dogs." There is some
thing more cheerful in the proverb about the lucky man,
which asserts : " Throw him into the Nile, and he will
come up with a fish in his mouth." And there is a pleasant
ring in the saying that " Thou wilt catch more flies with a
spoonful of honey than with a cask of vinegar." It is good
advice also to counsel : " Hold the skirts of thy mantle
extended when heaven is raining gold," which means,
make the most and the best of spiritual advantages. We
receive a needed warning by the proverb which assures us
that " who chatters to you will chatter of you." There is
something, however, very grim and terrible in the saying :

224 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
"There are no fans in hell." We would sooner hear about
Paradise, and of this more blessed abode the Arabs say :
" Paradise is for those who bridle their anger." There is
¦something, moreover, for us to think about in the true
saying : " Every day in thy life is a leaf in thy history."
It is not a far cry from Arabia to Persia, and in the
latter country there are to be found many choice Moham
medan proverbs. There is that familiar one, which is so
sensible that some people think it must needs be English,
viz., "Speech is silvern; silence is golden." There is
some point also in the saying, "Be not all sugar, or the
world will gulp thee down." And there is a depth of
meaning worth fathoming in the assertion that " Of four
things, every man has more than he knows — of sins, of
debts, of years, and of foes." Speaking of friends and foes,
the Persians remark,. "The whole world is too narrow for
two foes; but a needle's eye is wide enough for two
friends." In the following, the bad results of evil com
panionship are hinted at : " He that takes the raven for a
guide shall light upon carrion." Again, it is said, " Who
lies down with dogs will rise up with fleas." And referring
to dogs, it is asserted that " If you bury a dog's tail for
years, it will still remain crooked," which is as much as to
say that evil propensities are difficult to eradicate.
It is also a common saying : " A bad tree, bad fruit ! "
The covetous are assured that " Two water-melons are not
held in one hand." And the faint-hearted are told that
"Cowardice saves no man from his fate." For, the
encouragement of the persecuted, it is affirmed that
" Stones and sticks are flung only at fruit-bearing trees."
To an army or a community sorely bereaved, the solace is
given : " Captains die ; God lives." But the grandest
Persian proverb is probably that which announces that
" A stone fit for the wall is not left in the way." Trench,
commenting on the foregoing, says something to this
effect — that if a man looks well to himself, and makes
himself fit for noble duties, and a useful position in life,

PRO VERBS 225
his time will come, though for a while, like a stone on the
wayside, he may appear to be overlooked, neglected, and
passed by. At last he will be picked up ; sooner or later
the builders will be glad of him ; the wall will need the
man to fill the place, and he will be found !
Many of the Turkish proverbs, as might be expected, are
warlike. For instance, there is that one which asserts that
"There is no argument like the sword." Another says,
with sad truth : " No place is secret in the day of battle."
Flattery is aptly hit off in the proverb : " He who has need
of a dog calls him Sir Dog." And there is considerable
insight into human nature displayed in the saying : " When
once thy cart is overturned, every one will show thee the
way." The liberties that some favoured domestics take
with their master's property is rebuked by the proverb :
" The King eats an apple ; his servants cut down the tree."
That familiar saying " Curses, like chickens, always ' come
home to roost," is Turkish. The Turks say also, of
unsatisfied covetousness : " Nothing but a handful of dust
will fill the eye of a man." I suppose there is sound sense
in the advice, though on the face of it it seems harsh, to
the effect : " Feed thy horse as a friend, and mount him as
an enemy." It was a suspicious nature, however, that
coined this phrase: "Keep the dogs near when thou
suppest with the wolf." Experience of life's hardships
must have suggested the saying : " It is ill sport between
the cotton and the fire." There is much good sense in the
reminder that " It is not with saying honey, honey, that
sweetness comes into the mouth." And we cannot but
admire the profound wisdom of this assertion — that " He
is the true sage who learns from all the world."
When we turn to India, we meet with perhaps the finest
collection of Eastern proverbs. Doubtless it is hard in all
cases to distinguish between Hindoo and Mohammedan
proverbs, but the following are certainly in everyday use
amongst the Mussulmans of India. How essentially Indian is
this assertion : " Every one rakes the embers to his own cake."
Q

226 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
It speaks of that selfishness which is so often manifested
amongst the servant classes, when a number of them are
gathered round a common fire to prepare their evening
meal. Then, again, how expressive is the saying, " Don't
hang your troubles on my neck." It shows us the duty of
self-help. The readiness of some people to lean unduly
upon others, and to follow, whether for good or evil, the
lead of others, is Well shown by the proverb, " The thread
follows the path of the needle." There is .the teaching bf
experience in the advice, " In merchandise consider well ;
in agriculture not at all." Also in the saying, "A living
sheep is better than a dead cow." And I have been much
struck with the thoughtfulness of this short sentence, " A
crowd is not company." Women, of course, in the East
have been made the butt of proverbs. It is said, " Should
a woman scold, the earth will shake ; " again, " Better a
night in the jungle, than a day in a palace with a jealous
wife ; " and again, " Fear an angry woman more than an
angry man." I can only recall one favourable proverb
about women, but it hits all round. It is, "May her
enemies stumble over her hair," meaning, "May she
flourish so, may her hair, the outward sign of this pros1
perity, grow so rich and long, may it so sweep the ground
that her detractors and persecutors may be entangled by it
and fall." Of a thoughtless man the Mohammedans of
India will say, " His eyes are in the nape of his neck." To
a man who speaks bitter things, they will remark, " The
tongue is not steel, but it cuts." And to all men
this sensible advice is 'given : "Of thy word unspoken thou
art master; thy spoken Word is master of thee." That
is a noble proverb ! And so is this one, which beautifully
exhorts to forgiveness of injuries, and to overcoming evil
with good : " The sandal-tree perfumes the axe that fells it."
Leaving now the grouping of proverbs, let us deal with
three or four single proverbs, and show their derivation or
¦special application. For example, there is a proverb of
Mohammed that. well illustrates the connection between

PRO VERBS 227
faith and works. The teaching of the Prophet on
" predestination " was so strong that some of his followers
imagined that the decrees of God absolved mankind from
all effort, for do what they would the result would be the
same. Mohammed, however, by a proverb, sought to win
his disciples from their foolish belief. It is related that one
evening when out with an army, after a weary march
through the desert, just after the command was given to
pitch the tents for the night, the Prophet overheard one of
his people say : " I will loose my camel, and commit it to
God ! " The idea was that the Lord would take every care
of the beast until morning. Such folly deeply grieved
Mohammed, and he called the offender into his presence,
and administered to him a sound rebuke, which ended
with this advice : "Friend, tie thy camel, and commit it to
God." Thus did the Prophet teach that the providence of
God does not do away with the responsibility of man.
Whatever is our part to do should be done, and then we
may with comfort leave the issue in higher hands.
" Friend, tie thy camel, and commit it to God ! "
In India there is a well-known proverb to express that
nothing is certain in this world. The saying, which had a
tragic origin, is this : " Delhi is still far off," or, as an
Englishman would say, " There is many a slip between the
cup and the lip." The phrase, " Delhi is still far off" was
first used "by a Mohammedan saint named Nizam-uddin,
and it was directed against his king, Tughlaq Shah, who
reigned in Delhi at the beginning of the fourteenth cen
tury. The latter had somehow offended the holy man,
who resolved on a terrible revenge. When .the monarch
was away from his capital, on an expedition against the
people of Bengal, the saint conspired with the heir-
apparent against the life of Tughlaq Shah. The scheme,
which was kept secret, was arranged thus : The young
Prince, by the advice of the Saint, caused a temporary
wooden palace to be erected about six miles from Delhi,
on the road along which the King would be sure to travel
Q 2

228 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
on his return home. The building was put up in such a
way that if certain ropes were pulled the whole fabric would
collapse and kill the inmates. Tidings of seditions at
Delhi reached Tughlaq Shah in Bengal, and he was
specially incensed at the news of certain predictions of
Nizam-uddin that he would never see Delhi again. " Let
me but have that holy man in my power," the King said,
" and he will feel the weight of my anger." At once the
monarch marched for his capital, and ere long the inhabi
tants heard that their Sultan was approaching in haste and
wrath. Friends of the Saint, not in the guilty secret of the
wooden palace, urged him, as the chief offender, to flee ere
the incensed King arrived. To all such well-meant im
portunities the " holy man " had but one answer : " Delhi
is still far off." Tughlaq Shah, to his great surprise, was
met on the road by the Prince, his son, who humbled
himself before him, and expressed great joy at his return.
And to show his deep interest in his father's comfort, the
heir-apparent told his sire that he had caused a temporary
wooden palace to be erected for him, where he might stay
a little while and take rest before marching in triumph into
the city. The pleased King, suspecting no treachery,
gladly assented. And that night the building fell, and
buried, the unfortunate monarch in its ruins ! It is a
typical story of Moslem perfidy and filial ingratitude !
Such events have only been too common in the history of
Mohammedan rulers, and of them in particular, while of
mankind in general, the saying is felt to be true that
nothing is certain, that " Delhi is still far off."
Asiatics are all too often " time-servers," and are par
ticularly gifted in the disagreeable art of flattery; More
over, they are well aware of their failing, and have many
proverbs which aptly satirize their racial weakness. The
best'known and most popular of these proverbs is a Persian
one, which says, "When the monkey reigns, dance before
him." There is a story told of Mahmud of Ghazni, one
of the most renowned of Eastern conquerors, which is a

PROVERBS 229
case in point. Mahmud was a man of gigantic frame, and
could wield a mace or hurl a spear with the strongest and
skilfulest in his army, but as regards his .features, nature
had formed them so plain that they approached ugliness.
The Sultan often referred to his lack of good looks, and
in tones of great regret. On one occasion it is recorded
that he said to his Vizier : " I have re-polished my glass,
and having looked in it steadfastly, I see so many faults in
my face that I can easily overlook those of others. The
face of a King should brighten the eyes of all beholders,
whilst mine, alas ! appears the picture of misfortune." But
the obsequious courtier was equal to the occasion, and
replied, in a cheerful tone : " Let not your Majesty be
troubled. It is not one in ten thousand who sees your
countenance, but your virtues are diffused over all ! " This
was a neat speech, and was none the less acceptable,
doubtless, because it skilfully blended falsehood with truth.
It was true that few saw the face of the King, but as for all
knowing his virtues, that was a stretch of imagination, for,
from what I can learn, the Sultan's moral character was no
more attractive than his face. It suited the Vizier's pur
pose, however, to flatter his Sovereign, and it must be con
fessed that he did it handsomely. If necessary, such men
can aver that black is white, and that they see the sun at
midnight. And amongst both high and low in Mohammedan
countries " time-servers " are common, and the practice of
fulsome flattery prevails. Thus very often there is occasion
for this sarcastic proverb, in the way of reproof : " Yes !
yes ! when the monkey reigns, dance before him ! "
There is a very striking Arabic proverb quoted by thought
ful Mussulmans that is worth recording. It is, "Purchase
the next world with this, so shalt thou win both." Some
trace the first use of this proverb back to Omar, the second
Commander of the Faithful. Certainly that famous Caliph
seemed to act upon it, for though he had great riches, he
did not set his heart upon them, and rebuked those who
did. He ever cared more for character than for wealth,

230 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
and was constantly exhorting the leaders of his armies and .
the faithful generally to seek first the kingdom of God and
His righteousness, assuring them that other things would
be added unto them.
During the wars which were waged in Omar's time
against the Persians, the Arabs gathered great booty, and
were in danger, so the Caliph thought, of being spoiled with
their riches. One of his Generals, out of the wealth gained
in those wars, built the town of Kufa, and erected therein
a sumptuous residence for himself after the style of the
White Palace of the Khosru, or. ancient Royal house of
Persia. When Omar heard of this extravagance he sent- off
a messenger at express speed with a letter addressed to his
General, and instructions to deliver it to him, after the
grand palace had been burnt to the ground. The messenger
rode into Kufa, and, with the assistance of his escort, piled
up a quantity of wood against the doomed mansion, and
deliberately set fire to it. When the astonished General, in
a rage, demanded what' these things iheant,. the messenger
quietly handed him the Caliph's letter, which ran thus : " I
am told thou hast built a lofty palace like to that of the
Khosrus, and decorated it with a door taken from the latter,
with a view to have guards and chamberlains stationed
about, it, to keep off those who may come in quest of
justice or assistance, as was the practice of the Khosru
before thee. In so doing thou hast departed from the ways
of the Prophet, on whom be benedictions, and hast fallen
.into the ways of the Persian monarchs. Know that the
Khosru have passed from their palaces to the tomb, while
the Prophet, from his lowly habitation on earth, has been
elevated to the highest heaven. I have sent my messenger
to burn thy palace. In this life two ordinary houses are
sufficient for thee : one to dwell in, the other to contain
the treasure of the Moslems. !j>ee thou to it ! Purchase
the next world with this ; so shalt thou win both ! "
The Caliph Omar was a fine character, a worthy suc
cessor, of the Prophet. And Christians as well as Moslems

PROVERBS 231
might wisely lay to heart his ever-memorable saying,
" Purchase the next world with this, so shalt thou win both;"
that is, " Live not selfishly ; do not accumulate wealth for
the sake of accumulating it ; spend freely over good works ;
think more of what you can do than of what you can get ;
apd in so doing it will be found that you will obtain manifold
more in this present time, and in the world to come life
everlasting." Verily, one of the noblest of Mohammedan
proverbs is here ! — " Purchase the next world with this, so
shalt thou win both ! "

CHAPTER XXIV
SHIAS OF PERSIA
Persia or, as its inhabitants call it, Iran, an Independent
Kingdom of Western Asia, is 700 miles in length, and 900
in breadth, comprising an area of 648,ooo-miles, but with a
population of about five millions only.
Persia of to-day is nothing compared with Persia of the
past. There was a time in her history, hundreds of years
before the birth of Mohammed, when she was the most
powerful kingdom of Asia, and indeed of the whole world.
During the reigns of Cyrus, Darius, and Xerxes, Persia was
the foremost of the nations of the earth, and the land was
then densely inhabited with a hardy, valiant, and prosperous
people. And even down to 636 a.d., when the Moham
medans conquered the country, the kingdom of the Persians
was one that other nations feared, respected, and envied.
The dynasty that ruled the land when the Moslems cast
covetous eyes towards it was called the Sassanidae, and for
• 300 years the Princes of that famous Royal house had
reigned with wisdom and vigour, at least the equals if not
the superiors of the Emperors of Constantinople, with
whom they were perpetually at war.
The first mention of Persia in connection with Moham
medanism is contained in an historical letter which
Mohammed himself sent to Shah Khosru the Second,
exhorting him, as he valued his soul, to abjure the religion
of his fathers — Magianism or Zoroastrianism — and embrace
Islamism, the religion of all true believers. This extra-

SHIAS OF PERSIA 233
ordinary letter reached Khosru just after he had returned
to Persia from a victorious foray into the domains of the
Greeks, in which foray he had captured Jerusalem, and
carried off in triumph the so-called Holy Cross of the
Christians. It was certainly a very inopportune moment
for Mohammed's letter to arrive ! Who was Mohammed
that the victorious Khosru should obey his voice !
When the Prophet's envoy reached the Persian capital,
and begged or demanded an audience, it was grudgingly
granted ; and when the letter was produced the Shah of
Shahs sent for his interpreter to read it. The epistle began
as follows : — " In the name of the Most Merciful God !
Mohammed, son of Abdallah, and Apostle of God ! to
Khosru, King of Persia." But that was all that was ever
publicly read. The arrangement of the words had incensed
the monarch. "What!" cried Khosru, starting up in
haughty indignation ; " doe£ one, who is my slave, dare to
put his name first in writing to me ?" Thereupon he seized
the letter, and tore it in pieces, utterly regardless of the
remaining contents. He then wrote to his viceroy in
Yemen, on the borders of Arabia, to this effect : "I am
told there is in Medina a madman, who pretends to be a
prophet. Restore him to his senses ; or, if you cannot,
bring me his head." The Viceroy, however, knew that all
efforts against Mohammed in his own land would be futile,
so he did nothing ; and the Prophet, when he heard of the
treatment his letter had received at the hands of the King
of Persia, was deeply incensed, and uttered the following -
prophecy : — " As Khosru has torn my letter in pieces, even
so shall Allah rend his empire in pieces."
Though Mohammed designed to avenge himself by
undertaking a war against the Persians, yet through the
pressure of other events he was not able to do so, but he
left the resolve as a legacy to his followers. And in the
reign of Omar, the second successor of the Prophet, the
daring enterprise was begun.
It was entered upon, however, with great caution, for Omar

234 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
knew that the conquest of Persia was even a more difficult
task than that of Egypt, which had cost many precious lives.
The first move of the crafty Caliph was to send an Embassy
to the court ofthe Shah, whose name was Yezdigird. The
haughty Khosru was dead, but the Arabs soon found that
his successor was just as proud, though not quite as powerful.
When the Embassy reached the magnificent city of
Madayn, the chief members of it were ushered through the
sumptuous halls and saloons of the great White Palace,
which was crowded with guards and attendants, into the
presence of the august Monarch, whom they found seated
on a silver throne with his princes and nobles around him.
What a contrast the Arabs presented, dressed in their
simple attire, to the Persians, who were decked out in silks
with embroidery and jewels, as was the custom in that
Eastern Court of pomp and luxury ! Yet the plain Moslems
bore themselves with dignity, and feared not to deliver the
message of the Caliph.
Some of the details of that famous interview are very
interesting, as they throw light upon the then existing state
of things in Persia, and also upon the habits and customs
of the Arabs in the early days of the Mohammedan Faith.
The spokesman of the Embassy is represented as setting
before the Persian monarch the alternatives of tribute or
war, whereupon Yezdigird answered in indignation : " You
Arabs have hitherto been known to us by report as
wanderers of the desert ; your food dates, and sometimes
lizards and serpents ; your drink, brackish water ; your
garments, coarse hair-cloth. Some of you who by chance
have wandered into our realms have found sweet water,
savoury food, and soft raiment. They have carried back
word of the same to their brethren in the desert, and now
you come in swarms to rob us of our goods, and our very
land. You are like a starving fox, to whom the husband
man afforded shelter in his vineyard, and who in return
brought a troop of his brethren to devour his grapes.
Receive from my generosity ^whatever your wants require ;

SHIAS OF PERSIA 235
load your camels with corn and dates, and depart in peace
to your native land ; but if you tarry in Persia, beware the
fate of the fox who was slain by the husbandman."
The Arabs replied with great gravity and decorum : " O
King, all thou hast said of our forefathers is most true.
The green lizard of the desert was their food; brackish
water was their drink ; their garments were of hair-cloth,
and they buried their infant daughters to restrain the
increase of their tribes. But all this was in the days of
ignorance. Our parents knew not good from evil. They
were guilty and they suffered. But Allah, in His mercy,
sent our nation the Sacred Koran, and the Prophet
Mohammed. Allah has caused us to be wise and valiant,
and has commanded us to war with infidels, until all men
shall be converted to the true Faith. It is in the name of
Allah we come now, and all we demand of thee, O King,
and of thy people, is to acknowledge that there is no God
but God, and that Mohammed is His Apostle. Pay the
customary tribute in proof of thy faith, and we shall
depart in peace ! Refuse, and we shall declare a Holy
war, and Persia shall be subjected by the sword."
Never before had the Shah of Shahs heard such bold
language, but he bridled his wrath as best he could, saying
to the Embassy : " Were it not unworthy of a Prince to put
Ambassadors to death, you should be executed by my
guards. Away ! away ! ye robbers of the lands of others !
Take with ye a portion of the. soil ye crave ! "
Thereupon sacks of earth were bound upon the backs of
the Arabs, and they were ordered to return to their master,
and tell him that the King of Persia sent a present to sym
bolize the doom — earth to earth — that awaited all who
should venture upon the mad enterprise of the invasion of
the Shah's dominions.
The Arabs carried away the soil as directed, but when in
the presence of their Commander, Saad Wakkas, they with
ready wit represented it as being an omen for good. " As
surely, O Saad," they exclaimed, "as we deliver to thee

236 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
these sacks of earth, so surely will Allah deliver the Empire
of Persia into the hands of the Faithful."
In 636 a.d. war was declared, and in the fierce struggle
that followed the Arabs found the Persians foemen worthy
of their steel. Indeed, it almost appeared in the first
encounters as if the Moslems would be hopelessly beaten.
The elephants of the Persians were more than the Arabs
had bargained for, and struck terror into the bravest hearts.
Horse and rider turned in dismay from such strange
opponents, and victory inclined to the side of the Persians,
who fought for home and fatherland with the enthusiasm of
a brave and gallant people. But gradually the invaders
showed their superiority over their opponents in endurance,
and as they became accustomed to the huge elephants they
attacked them so fiercely and vigorously, and wounded
them so sorely, that the poor animals, mad with pain,
rushed hither and thither in the ranks of the Persians, and
caused great destruction of life; For months a desultory
warfare was kept up, and though the Arabs were usually
the victors, yet the country was by no means conquered.
At length, however, a great battle was fought, which sealed
the fate of the kingdom. It lasted four days and a night,
and so dreadful was the 'struggle during the last night that
it was ever afterwards spoken of as " the night of delirium."
When the morning dawned a whirlwind of dust hid the
combatants from each other, but it aided the Moslems, as
it blew in the faces of the Persians. Disheartened by the
awful carnage and by the storm, the Persians grew faint-
. hearted, and when the cry was raised that Rustam, their
brave General, had fallen, a panic ensued, and the day was
lost. It is said that 30,000 Persians' fell in that battle, in
637 a.d., on the plains of Kadesia, which practically
decided the fate of the country. The Arabs lost 7,000 of
their bravest warriors. The booty that was taken was
enormous, and amongst other precious things that fell into
the hands of the Arabs was the venerated standard of
Persia, the so-called " Leathern Apron," which was studded

SHIAS OF PERSIA 237
with jewels. There was a prophecy that whenever the day
came that Persia lost her national standard on the field of
battle, the doom of the country, as a free and independent
kingdom, had come.
Shah Yezdigird the last of the royal race of the
Sassanidae, on receipt of the news of the disaster at
Kadesia, sought to rouse the people of the land to renewed
attempts to expel the foreign foe, but his efforts were in
vain. The country was demoralized by the magnitude of
the Arab victory, and the unfortunate King had to leave
his capital to become the prey of his enemies, and flee for
his life.
Taking refuge amongst friends in a distant part of his
dominions, he in a little time, however, was able to gather
together a small army, which rapidly increased in numbers
as he advanced once more to try his fortune with the
Arabs. Defeat followed defeat, and at length the almost
heart-broken Prince had to give up the struggle in despair,
and seek safety in a foreign land. Gilman, in his book on
" The Saracens," says : " Yezdigird, overpowered, deprived
of his kingdom and his fortunes, and deserted by his
followers, finally died, in 651 a.d., a refugee in a miserable
hut beyond the distant Oxus, whither he had fled, taking
his way through Ispahan and Merv."
The conquest of Persia by the Arabs was followed by a
period of prosperity, though the people of the country were
compelled to adopt the religion of their conquerors, those
who refused being slain or banished. Zoroastrianism was
thus practically rooted out, and Islamism reigned supreme.
During the sovereignty of the Omiades of Damascus,
Governors administered the affairs of Persia ; but when the
Abbasides became Caliphs, the Commanders of the Faith
ful themselves ruled the country, and they made Bagdad,
within Persian territory, the capital of the whole Moham
medan Empire
On the fall of the Abbasides, however, in 1258, Persia
became the prey of adventurers and then followed cen-

238 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
turies of disorder. Wild hordes from Tartary overran the
country, and dynasty succeeded dynasty in rapid succes
sion, and it looked as if never again would the fair country
be the home of peace and plenty. Yet, strange to say,
during those ages of misrule and misery, the Persian mind
contrived to find expression in some noble literature, which
lives to this day, and which is greatly admired by students
of Asiatic learning. Referring to these things, Mr. Benja
min, in his very readable book on " Persia," in the " Story
of the Nations " series, says : " Then it was that the great
poet Firdousee composed, in the pure language of Persia,
the noble historical epic, or poetical chronicle, of the
legends of Persia, prepared at the Court of Mahmoud of
Ghuznee. Soon after flourished Nizamee, the poet of the
heart and the passions ; and the lyric poet Hafiz. Then,
too, Omer Khayam composed his celebrated philosophic
verses ; and Djamee sang of the loves of Yusuf and .
Zuleika." These, and other great authors, whose works
Were read throughout the Mohammedan world, and widely
influenced the taste and. style of subsequent Oriental writers,
shed a ray of glory on the otherwise miserable record of
Persian history during many generations.
In the fifteenth century brighter days dawned for the
down-trodden country. And the change was due to re
ligious influences. When the Persians first gave up Zoroas
trianism, the creed of their fathers, and adopted the
Mohammedan faith, it was because they were compelled to
do so ; hut being essentially a reasoning and a religious
- people, they soon saw the superiority of the new faith over
the old, and ere long became Moslems from principle, and
were- reckoned among the most devoted and _ealous
adherents of Islamism. And as time went on they had
to choose between the two great sects which divided the
Mohammedan world — viz., Sunis and Shias, already often
referred to in these studies. They cast in their lot heartily
with the Shias, mainly because Hasan, the grandson of
Mohammed the Prophet, had taken as one of his wives a

SHIAS OF PERSIA

239

Persian lady — no less important a personage, indeed, than
a daughter of Yezdigird, the last of the Persian Kings.
That great lady had been made prisoner when her father
had fled for his life across the Oxus, and she had been
taken to Medina, and there chosen by Hasan to grace his
harem. Through that marriage the Persians felt that they
were brought as a nation very near to the originators of the
Mohammedan Faith ; and so it was but natural, in the
religious divisions and struggles that succeeded the martyr
dom of Hasan and Hosein, that the people of Persia
should declare themselves to be Shias, or followers of Ali
and his unfortunate sons.
We have seen how again and again in the history of
Mohammedanism the Shias — or, as they were also called,
the Alyites and Fatimites — strove to obtain supreme power.
In Egypt they succeeded in establishing themselves for a
time, but they were eventually put down by their enemies,
the Sunis. However, in the fifteenth century the persecuted
sect gathered force in Persia, and, under Ismail, a gallant
chief, took possession of the whole country, and established
an independent kingdom.
It was in 1499 a.d. that Ismail was proclaimed Shah;
and with him a new era began. Persia was no longer an
appanage of a foreign Prince, no longer a country overrun
by greedy adventurers, no longer an oppressed province of
some great empire, but free, strong, and great in herself.
The Ottoman Turks, who have always been of the Suni
creed, sought, in the reign of Selim the Grim, of Constan
tinople, 15 1 4 a.d., to conquer Persia, and to destroy the
power of the Shias ; but the attempt ended in failure. The
so-called heretical sect continued to flourish; and the
deadly hatred of their religious adversaries only served to
make the Persians the more determined to remain true to
their own faith, and with it to preserve the independence of
their country.
The Shias reached the height of their power and glory in
the seventeenth century, under Shah Abbas the Great, who

240 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
was crowned in the year 1586, and died in 1628, at the age
of seventy, after a reign of forty-two years. Mr. Benjamin,
speaking of this prosperous period, says : " Abbas was one
of the greatest sovereigns who ever sat on the throne of
Persia. He was great in war, as shown by his conquests
in every direction, conquests which carried Persia to the
highest pinnacle of renown. He was an able administrator,
improving the revenues, regulating his armies, beautifying
Ispahan, his capital, to a degree that has carried its fame to
all lands ; and constructing good roads, bridges, and inns
all over his dominions. He was a patron of letters, and by
establishing schools of art he did more to cultivate the pro
gress of the arts in Persia than any sovereign of whom we
have any record. To crown all these qualifications that
entitled him to the respect and love of his people to all
time, Shah Abbas the Great was a Prince of wide and
generous views, anxious to promote friendly and com
mercial relations with all nations ; and, unlike every other
sovereign of his time, he was tolerant of' all religions and
beliefs." At the death of Abbas, a weak ruler unfortunately suc
ceeded him, and Persia again suffered from internal strife,
and the country was once more overrun by foreign foes.
Early in the eighteenth century Mahmood, an Afghan
chief, invaded the land with an army of 50,000 men, and
so weak had the empire become, that Ispahan, although it
had a population of 600,000 souls, fell, almost without a
struggle. That magnificent city never recovered from the
blow. The Afghan dynasty was of short duration. It was
destroyed by that soldier of fortune, Nadir Shah, who from
an obscure station in life rose to be the ruler of Persia and
the scourge of the East, carrying the terror of his arms as
far as India. It was Nadir Shah who bore away from
Delhi that famous peacock throne of jewels, the pride of
the Moghul Emperors, valued at not less than three millions
sterling, which is now in the Royal Treasury of Persia.
In 1794 the fortunes of the country once more revived.

SHIAS OF PERSIA 241
Aga Mohammed Khan, a eunuch, the founder of the
present reigning house, called the Khajar dynasty, crushed
every rival, drove out the foreign princes and soldiers, and
established a strong native Government. Teheran was
chosen as the new capital in place of Ispahan. And since
the close of the eighteenth century Persia has maintained
her independence, though it has been threatened many a
time by the progress of the Russian arms in Western Asia.
In 1848 Nesr-ed-deen Shah, the present sovereign, ascended
the throne. He is a prince of decided intelligence and
excellent motives, and it is generally believed that he is
sincerely desirous of improving the administration of his
empire, that his people may be contented and prosperous.
But the Shah occupies a peculiar position, owing to the
situation of his country, which is the seat of the intrigues
between Russia and England. The outlook just now is
not very bright. Yet there are some who think that Persia
will weather every storm, preserve her independence, and
be in the future one of the greatest of the Mohammedan
Powers in the East.
The Persians are still Shias, devoted to the memory of
their Imams, passionately attached to their particular creed,
and the somewhat strong and bitter opponents of the Turks,
who return the ill-feeling with interest. It would seem that
while Mohammedanism remaineth the Faithful will be
divided into two great sects, and I think there can be little
doubt that Persia will continue to be the stronghold of the
much-hated, the much-persecuted Alyites, Fatimites, or
Shias, whose tenacity of life is marvellous, whom, in short,
it seems impossible to root out and destroy !

CHAPTER XXV
RECREATIONS AND AMUSEMENTS
Turning from the graver matters of Mohammedanism,
let us see what manner of people the inhabitants of Moslem
countries are in respect of recreations1 and amusements.
Mohammedan children have few toys, and therein form
a great contrast to Christian children, and also to the
Buddhists of China and Japan. The little people of Islam
are indeed to be pitied, for their parents do not put them
selves to much trouble to make the days of childhood and
youth pass pleasantly. A Turkish father, when spoken to
and expostulated with by an English lady on this matter,
answered, " Our religion forbids children to have toys.
Studies must be directed towards religion and war, and for
that reason they must ride and use the bow and gun, but
nothing else." However, things are not quite as bad as that
surly Turk made out, for Moslem boys are permitted to
play with marbles, and Moslem girls are given a wretched
apology for a doll made of bundles of rags, which they hug
and kiss, and make much of. Children of both sexes,
moreover, in the higher grades of society, have rattles,
trumpets, and drums, which delight their hearts. Still it
remains true that the lads and lasses of Mohammedan
countries are a long way behind their Christian brothers and
sisters in the matter of toys, and, indeed, in all things that
minister to the amusement and enjoyment of childhood's
days. Of course, Moslem habits vary in different countries,
and I think that perhaps the Mussulmans of India are more

RECREATIONS AND AMUSEMENTS 243
fortunate than their co-religionists in other lands, in the
number and variety of their games. In India kite-flying is
a very common amusement, and it is not confined to children
or even to young people, but is indulged in by grave and
reverend seniors. The same is true of the neighbouring
country, Afghanistan. Indeed, both in flying kites and
playing with marbles the old in the East vie with the
young, without a thought crossing their minds that they
are doing anything unbecoming their age or dignity.
Elphinstone, in his - " History of Cabul," says, " Most of
their games seem to us very childish, and can scarcely
be reconciled with their long beards and grave behaviour.
Marbles are played by grown-up men through all the
Afghan country and in Persia." I watched many a time,
when in Calcutta, Mohammedan men and boys flying kites
in the cool of the evening from the flat roofs of their houses,
arid to all appearance they immensely enjoyed the enter
tainment. Often the sport would take the form of a contest.
Say, half a dozen or so of kites, with lines previously rubbed
with paste and covered with pounded glass, would be let
fly at or about the same moment, and the object of the
different owners was to bring the kites together so that the
lines might be rubbed against each other, with the result
that the sharpest, if skilfully handled, -would cut the others,
and the disconnected kites would go tumbling to the ground,
to the great glee of the winner and the little urchins who
were watching the contest from the street below.
Mohammedans, generally speaking, are enthusiastic
pigeon fanciers, and will spend much money and time over
this amusement. The birds are confined in bamboo
sheds or booths on the top of the house, and at early
dawn the master of the house may be seen taking his
station to feed his pets and give them an airing. The more
particular fanciers are not satisfied with the possession of
the ordinary kinds of birds, but seek rare breeds, and every
variety of species, from different parts of the world. The
late' King of Oude, in his Palace at Garden Reach, on the
R 2

244 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
banks ofthe Hooghly, had a wonderful collection of pigeons,
numbering, it is said, at the least, fifty thousand, and some
of them of almost fabulous price. It was a sight to witness
the airing of those birds as they were let loose flock by
flock, and soared up into the heavens, and made their
beautiful evolutions, returning at a given call to their well-
arranged, clean, and attractive-looking dovecotes. I do not
suppose that any person has given more time and attention,
and spent more money over pigeons, than did His Majesty
of Oude. At the death of the King the marvellous
collection was sold. The keeping of pigeons amongst-
Mohammedans, though a pleasant and harmless occupation,
yet not infrequently leads to strife. As one of the Faithful
is flying his flock, it may happen that a pigeon will join a
neighbour's flock, and return home with it, in which case
the strayed bird is considered a lawful prize, unless redeemed
by money or by an exchange of prisoners. While many are
the proofs of good breeding and civility elicited on such occa
sions between Moslem gentlemen, many also are the per-.
petuated quarrels, when such a collision of interest happens
, between people of quick temper and angry passions.
Apart from exercise on horseback, or on an elephant,
and military exercises, of which I shall speak presently,
a Mohammedan has • not much recreation of a physical
character. It is considered plebeian to walk much ; and
such Western games as football, cricket, and tennis are
usually deemed too violent for gentlemen of the East.
However, for the strengthening of the muscles and the
expansion of the chest, recourse has been had to the use
of " moghdhurs," or Indian clubs. These are used in pairs,
each weighing from eight to twenty pounds, and are
brandished in various ways over the head and round the body,
with remarkable ease and rapidity by those with whom the
art has become familiar by long use. There can be no doubt
that it is a capital exercise, and one well suited to an Eastern
climate. Moslem youths give themselves to it with great
avidity. One writer says, "Those who would excel in the use

RECREATIONS AND AMUSEMENTS 245
of the moghdhurs practise every evening regularly, and after
the exercise is finished they have their arms and shoulders
plastered with a moist clay, which they suppose strengthens
the muscles, and prevents them from taking cold after so
violent an effort. The young men, who are solicitous to
wield the sabre with effect and grace, declare the practice
of the moghdhurs to be of the greatest service to them in
their sword exercise ; they go so far as to say that they only
use the sword well who have practised the moghdhur for
several years."
The chief outdoor exercise of Mohammedans is riding,
and, with the exception of the warlike Turks and Afghans,
such exercise is taken very quietly. The swiftness of a
good English hunter would be no recommendation to the
natives of India or Persia, for they like a pace that seldom
exceeds a gentle canter. Considerable pride is taken in the
appearance of a riding-horse, and much pleasure seems to be
derived from the healthy exercise. It is interesting to
notice what Moslems conceive to be the good points of a
horse. For instance, they have a great aversion to docking
a horse's tail, for they consider that just as the glory of a
man is a flowing beard, so the glory of a horse is a long tail.
Then, they consider a horse "unfortunate" if the legs are
not all of a colour, or if the movements are not easy and
agreeable. With such matters we may have some sympathy;
but the practice of colouring horses to improve their appear
ance is surely barbaric. Just imagine a pure white Arab
steed with its legs stained yellow Up to the knees, its mane
and tail also coloured, and its haunches, chest, and neck all
marked with divers stars and crescents ! It is a common
sight in the East in Mohammedan countries.
The atrocious practice of training animals for so-called
sport of the lowest kind is a serious blot upon Moslem
life. Everywhere cock-fighting is in vogue. Gay young
men spend much money in such low contests, and appear
to delight in them. Besides cocks, a small bird called
the " Buttairie," a species of quail, is trained for sport,

246 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
with much care and attention. These poor little birds are
said to be very game ; and once brought to the contest
fight until they die. Tigers and elephants are often .made
to combat for the amusement of spectators on gala-days ;
so also are buffaloes, and even alligators. I have been told
that elephants are sometimes drugged, and actually in
toxicated before they are made to fight, so as to add to the
fun. Camels also are trained for sport. Elphinstone,
speaking of sports in Afghanistan, says : " I have seen
camels matched, and during their rutting season they fight
with great fury. When the battle ends, the spectators had
need to clear the way, for the beaten camel, who runs off at
his utmost speed, is often pursued by the victor to a
distance from the field of battle." Various other animals,
such as stags, leopards, and cheetahs, are also kept for
sport ; and the fiercer the struggles, and the more deadly
the results of the conflicts, the better pleased are the
trainers, betters, and spectators. The whole business from
beginning to end is unworthy of the human race, and the
lesson needs to be taught in Moslem countries as well as
in Christian that "a righteous man is merciful to his
beast." A Mohammedan is nothing unless he is a, fighting man,
as he believes that Allah has called him to propagate
Islamism by might of arms, and that no more glorious
death can be desired than to fall on the field of battle,
according to that saying of the Prophet, " Paradise is under
the shadow of swords." Military exercises, therefore, are
popular amongst all classes of society, and the young are
early trained in the use of the lance, the bow, and the
sword. The Turks excel in such exercises, and even the
less active Mussulmans of India can show surprising agility
in the use of the lance. The Afghans and Persians also
delight in warlike sports, even in time of peace. Elphin
stone says of the Afghans : " It is a common amusement
with the better sort to tilt with their lances in the rest at a
wooden peg, stuck in the ground, which they endeavour to>

RECREATIONS AND AMUSEMENTS 247
knock over or to pick up on the point of their spears.
They moreover practise their carbines , and matchlocks on
horseback ; and all ranks fire at marks, with guns or with
bows and arrows. On such occasions there are often from
ten to twenty of a side, sometimes men of different villages
or different quarters ¦ of the same. They shoot for some
stake ; commonly for a dinner, but never for any large sum
of money." By such popular games not only do Moham
medans obtain a measure of physical exercise, but they
foster the warlike and military spirit which has been in the
past the very breath of their nostrils.
But to turn to a pleasanter subject, I think we should
not overlook a favourite pastime of the women of Islam in
countries where it can be practised. It is that of freeing
captive birds. In India nothing gives a Moslem lady
greater pleasure than a present of cage birds, accompanied
by permission to let them go free if so desired. For
religious and humanitarian reasons, the fair sex of Moham
medan communities delight in giving birds their liberty.
It is considered a meritorious act so to do ; and if any
member of a family is ill, the release of a bird, it is believed,
will incline the favour of Heaven towards the afflicted one.
But not only at periods of sickness, at all times the custom
of releasing birds from their cages is, in the East, a popular
one ; and as the pretty little creatures effect their escape,
the ladies of the zenana clap their hands, and raise their
voices in pleasure and joy. Mrs. Meer Hassan Ali learnt
this pleasant custom from the women of India, and in her
book on the " Mussulmans of India " she says : " I am
annoyed whenever I see birds immured in cages. If they
could be trained to live with us, enjoying the same liberty,
I should gladly court society with these innocent creatures ;
but a bird confined vexes me, my fingers itch to open the
wicket, and give the prisoners liberty. How I have been
delighted in seeing the pretty variegated parrots, minas, and
pigeons fly from the basket when opened in my verandah !
I have sometimes fancied in my evening walk that I could

248 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
recognize the birds again in the gardens and grounds which
had been set at liberty in the morning by my hand."
It is an easy transition from birds to musical entertain
ments. What a singular thing it is that though the Mo
hammedans like to hear music, they do not as individuals
cultivate the gifts either of playing or singing ! The giving
of musical entertainments is left almost entirely to a special
class, who, while valued for the pleasure they bestow, are
looked down upon and despised by all respectable people.
In saying this, I do not refer to those who act in theatrical
performances in a public building, which is quite a new
feature of Mohammedan social life, but to strolling
minstrels, who, wandering about in small companies, are
invited into the homes of the people, to sing in the men's
quarters or to the ladies in the zenana. One would think,
if the young people of Moslem families were»taught to sing
and play, that the monotony of zenana life would be
agreeably broken ; but such studies are absolutely denied
them. It would be considered a disgrace rather than
an accomplishment for a Moslem young lady to be able
to play the sitar (a stringed instrument) or to sing a song,
such things being left to slaves and to professional classes.
In Calcutta, Cairo, and Damascus I have been present at
some of the best Mohammedan musical entertainments, but
I cannot say that I have been impressed favourably by
what I have heard.
And I find that most Europeans are of my opinion.
Bishop Heber, in his "Journal of Travels in India,"
writes thus of an entertainment he witnessed in a certain
native Court : " There was a great deal of Persian singing
and instrumental music, the character of which does not
seem a want of harmony, but dulness and languor. The
airs were sung sotto voce, the instruments, chiefly guitars,
were low-toned, and struck in a monotonous manner, and
the effect intended to be produced seemed rather repose
and luxurious languor than any more ardent or animated
feeling. One man, a native of Lucknow, had a good natural

. RECREATIONS AND AMUSEMENTS 249
voice, and two of the women sang prettily. The tunes had
first parts only."
Many of the female professional musicians of the East
are also Nautch Dancers, the two occupations being often (
combined. Jt should be noted, however, that Nautch
Dancers, who are usually questionable characters, are
excluded, as a rule, from the women's apartments of the
better sort of people, as no respectable Mussulman would
allow them to perform before his wives and daughters.
Those who sing and dance within the pale of zenana life
are called Domenies, and are girls of good behaviour. As
with music, so with dancing : * Mohammedans leave the
pastime altogether to professionals, and are greatly surprised,
and somewhat shocked, with Europeans for what they call
their bad taste in this matter. When witnessing a station
ball in India, Moslem gentlemen many a time have been
heard to say: "Why do these Christians so fatigue them
selves, when they can so well afford to hire dancers for
their amusement ? " A Mohammedan considers himself
disgraced or insulted by the simple question, " Can you
sing, play, or dance ? " Nautch girls, though called dancers,
are rather pantomimists and posture-makers. They are not,
as a rule, handsome, or even pretty ; but they dress well,
and have an attractive appearance. They wear pyjamas, or
trousers, of velvet, silk or muslin, which reach to below the
ankle and trail on the ground, and are often made so loose
that they contain fifteen or twenty yards of stuff. The
upper part of the body is covered with a graceful " sari,"
wrapped many times round the person, and brought over
the head. The colours of such dresses are usually green
and red. Of course, much jewellery is worn, in the way of
earrings, nose-rings, armlets and anklets. The bare feet of
the girls are stained red with " henna," as also are the
palms of their hands ; and the languishing expression of
their dark eyes is heightened by a border of antimony
around the edge of the lids. Thus got up, Nautch girls, as
may be imagined, are a pretty picture to behold ; but as for

250 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
their dancing, it is not, in my opinion, worth looking at.
The dancing simply consists in moving the person back
wards and forwards and from side to side, in throwing the
arms about, and in gently waving the drapery. It is a
picturesque sight for once in a way ; but what pleasure
Mohammedan gentlemen can find in constantly witnessing
such insipid exhibitions, I cannot imagine.
There are various other recreations and amusements
which need hot be lingered over, such as tumbling men and
women, jugglers, snake charmers, bird tamers, and so on.
And the professional story-tellers should not be overlooked.
Mohammedans, and, indeed, all Eastern people, dearly love
a fairy tale, a ghost story, or, an account of wonderful
adventures in love or war. The listeners will sit by the hour
simply entranced as the story-teller at great length, but with
considerable skill, relates his yarn.
Thus the hours of leisure and ease of Moslems are
passed ! In childhood's days they have few pleasures, but
as- they advance in years they obtain both in the zenana and
outside a sufficiency of recreation and amusement.

CHAPTER XXVI
THE AFGHANS
We are accustomed to speak of the people of Afghan
istan as Afghans, but in reality only about half the inhabi
tants own that title, the rest being Tajiks, Afridis, and
Hazarahs, probably the descendants of the original natives
of the soil. The Afghans, however, are the most powerful
and the ruling race, and they have given to the whole
country its well-known name, so that we are justified in a
general sketch like this in calling the people of the land
Afghans. The population of Afghanistan at the present
time is supposed to be about seven millions.
The early history of Afghanistan is involved in obscurity,
and we only feel sure that we are on historical ground when
we reach the thirteenth century, and find the present domi
nant race in the land, to which it is said they emigrated
from a district called Ghor, to the east of Herat. The
Afghans are supposed, in the days of their more tribal
strength, to have become allies of the Prophet Mohammed,
converts to Islamism, and enthusiastic propagandists of the
Moslem faith. In the course of their warlike expeditions
in Western Asia they are believed to have been attracted
by, and finally settled down in, what is now called Afghan
istan, but what was then named Zabulistan or Kabulistan.
The Afghans, strange to say, claim to be Bani Israel, or
Children of Israel, and say that they are descended in a
direct line from King Saul. The physiognomy of the
Afghans, and some of their peculiar traits of character, all
go to support their claim of Jewish origin, and I think that

252 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
a much better case might be made out on their behalf as
the genuine descendants of the Lost Ten Tribes than On
behalf „of the English.
Any way, because of their keenness after shekels, and
their extreme shrewdness in making a bargain, they are
often called " The Jews of the East." For centuries the
Afghans, though brave soldiers and headed by gallant
chiefs, were kept in a dependent position, for they were
placed geographically on the borders of two great empires,
the Persians and the Moghuls of India, who divided
Afghanistan between them, the one Power occupying the
districts round Herat and Kandahar, and the other the
districts round Cabul and Ghazni.
The sympathies of the Afghans inclined more towards
their Indian than their Persian neighbours, partly on
account of race affinities, partly because of trade interests,
but principally because of religious unity, for like the
Moghuls they were Sunis, and consequently hated the
Persians, who were Shias.
When early in the eighteenth century Persia, as related
in a previous chapter, was weakened by bad government
and internal strife, the Afghans thought their time had
come to strike for liberty. Invoking therefore the aid of
the Moghuls, they thrust out the Persian garrisons from
their cities, and being flushed with their comparatively easy
victories, they pushed on to attack the Persians in their
own country.
A chief named Mahmood was the leader of this bold
enterprise, and he had with him an army of 50,000 men.
Such were the daring and courage of the invaders, and
such the feeble condition of the Persian empire, that
Mahmood in 1^22 had but little difficulty in capturing
Ispahan, the capital, and making himself master of the
whole country. Thus at one stroke the dependent Afghans
not only freed themselves from bondage, but completely
turned the tables on their oppressors, and became masters
in their turn. But this sudden rise to power was not fated

THE AFGHANS 253
to endure. A deliverer and an avenger rose for the Persians
in the person of a soldier of fortune named Nadir Kuli.
The Afghans, while masters in Persia, sadly abused their
power, for they slaughtered nearly all the male members of
the dethroned Royal house, and pillaged the capital Ispahan,
and slew tens of thousands of the innocent inhabitants of
the country. For five years such atrocities were endured,
and then the Persians rose in their might under Nadir Kuli,
and defeated their oppressors with a very great slaughter,
and sent the remnant flying back to their own land.
The victorious Nadir now assumed the Persian crown
himself, and was ever afterwards known as Nadir Shah.
And this fierce chief, not content with the punishment he
had already inflicted on the Afghans, resolved to follow
them with fire and sword into their own mountain fastnesses.
In 1737 he took Kandahar after a protracted siege, when
he razed the grand old city to the ground, massacred its
inhabitants, and ploughed up its interior. Then he ad
vanced, to Ghazni and Kabul, which he also conquered.
All Afghanistan trembled at his terrible work, for he granted
no mercy to his foes, but burnt and destroyed everything
that came in his way. Sir Edward Sullivan graphically
puts it, " Plucking the muzzle of curbed license from his
troops, Nadir Shah hounded them on to slaughter, and for
seven months the wild dogs of Persia did flesh their teeth
in every innocent of Afghanistan."
Some of the leaders of the Afghans managed to flee their
country and obtain a refuge at the court of the Great
Moghul at Delhi, but even there the enmity of Nadir Shah
followed them, demanding that the Emperor Mohammed
should put them to death, and when met with a refusal he
was so incensed that in 1738 he crossed the Indus with an
army of 270,000 men, and slaked not his fury until he had
given the magnificent city of the Moghuls to the sack, and
slaughtered all the Afghans he could find therein, and
100,000 of the inhabitants besides. Thus terribly did the
Persians avenge themselves on their foes.

254 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
The fortunes of the Afghans were now at the lowest
ebb, and it seemed as if for generations they might be
ground under the heels of foreign masters. But to their
surprise, and to the astonishment of the whole Eastern
world, the day of their humiliation was to be the day of their
independence. How often the unexpected happens in this
life !
In 1 747 Nadir Shah was assassinated, just as he reached
the borders of Persia laden with untold spoil. His end
had become a necessity to his subjects, for so insatiable
was his thirst for human blood that no one felt safe in his
presence. An Afghan prince, named Ahmed Khan, was the first to
benefit by the .death of the tyrant. By a bold stroke he,
with his following of 10,000 horse, captured one of the
treasure convoys of the Persians when it was near the
ruins of Kandahar, on its way to Ispahan. With the
immense wealth thus fortuitously acquired he bought over
the other chiefs of his native country, and by their
unanimous consent was proclaimed king, the first king of
independent Afghanistan.
This was towards the close of the year 1747. And
Ahmed Shah proved himself worthy from an Eastern
point of view of the high dignity to which by force of
character and good fortune he had attained. In the
second year of his reign he took Kabul, and drove out the
Persians, and thus established his authority in every corner
of the land. He soon became renowned and feared far
and wide, and during his brilliant reign of twenty-six years
he had no equal or rival in Afghanistan or the neighbouring
kingdoms. Dr. Bellew, in his book on the "Races of Afghan
istan," speaking of Ahmed Shah, says : " This great prince
repeatedly replenished his leaky coffers by successive in
vasions of India : he raised the name of his nation to a
high pitch of renown, opened a career for the ambition and
greed of his hungry and luxurious nobles by foreign con-

THE AFGHANS 255
quests, and at his death left an empire extending from the
Sutlej and the Indus on the East to the Persian desert on
the West, and from the Oxus on the North to the Arabian
Sea on the South."
Notwithstanding all these victorious wars and outward
grandeur, the condition of the people of Afghanistan was
very pitiable in the eighteenth century. Only the chiefs
and their more fortunate retainers possessed any wealth.
The poorer people were ground down with enforced
military service and unjust taxation. There were no roads ;
there was no certainty of even-handed justice, no security
for life or property, no encouragement of trade, no patron
age of learning, no proper cultivation of the soil of the
naturally fine country. Indeed, everything that civilized
nations consider essential to the true prosperity and genuine
happiness of a nation was conspicuous by its absence. Even
Mohammedanism, which had raised many Eastern peoples
from a state of heathen degradation, had as yet done little
for the Afghans.
The successors of Ahmed Shah had not the strength of
character of that great chief, and but very little of his
military genius, so that very soon the extensive kingdom
gave signs of falling to pieces. Taimur, the son of Ahmed,
was a perfect contrast to his father. He removed the
capital from Kandahar to Kabul, and gave himself up to a
life of ease and pleasure, utterly neglecting all the affairs of
the State, with the result that province after province was
snatched from the Crown by disaffected chiefs.
Zaman Shah, the next ruler, who ascended the Musnud
in 1 793, had to dispute the succession with a score or so of
brothers, who were all eager to seize supreme power, and,
failing that, to grasp what prizes they could in the way of
towns and villages and slices of country. Zaman was
dethroned by his brother Mahmud after a reign of only a
few years. The eyes of the unfortunate monarch were put
out, and he was banished to Ludhiana, where he became a
pensioner of the British Government.

256 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
The new ruler, by his misgovernment and cruelty, how
ever, soon raised up a host of enemies, and in 1826 he fled
his country after brutally murdering his Prime Minister,
whom he suspected of treachery. Then it was that Dost
Mohammed, the son of the Prime Minister, a native prince,
but not of the Royal line, seized the vacant throne, and
foifnded the dynasty of the Barakzai, the present reigning
house of Afghanistan.
Dost Mohammed, whose rule dates from 1826, was the
first Amir of Afghanistan. The word is of Arabic origin,
and means commander. Originally it was a title given to
provincial Governors under the Caliphs, but subsequently it
was adopted as a name to denote the principal prince of a
small but independent State. It is not as dignified a
title as Shah, and yet it is considered as more honourable
than Prince.
Afghanistan, during the early days of Dost Mohammed's
rule, was divided into three or four petty kingdoms, over
which the Amir was only nominally King. Strictly speak
ing, his Royal authority was limited to Ghazni on one side
of Kabul, his capital, and Jellalabad on the other. The
country thus ruled over was but a fraction of the original
independent Afghanistan, but yet it was a compact and
powerful little kingdom.
It was during the reign of Dost Mohammed that the
English first interfered actively in the affairs of Afghanistan.
The Amir was coquetting with the Russians, who were
supposed to be desirous of conquering India, and who were
seeking to secure the ruler of Afghanistan as an ally. The
Indian Government in 1837 sent their first Resident to
Kabul in the person of Sir Alexander Burnes, and that
official was instructed to seek to counteract the influence of
the Russians over the Amir, and to show the latter that his
best interests lay in an alliance with the English.
Dost Mohammed proving obdurate, the Indian Govern
ment took up the cause of his rival, Shah Shuja, the
brother of the blinded Prince Shah Zaman, who had

THE AFGHANS 257
received hospitality at Ludhiana on his dethronement.
War was declared against the Amir, whose armies were
defeated, and who, seeing the hopelessness of a struggle
against the British power, fled beyond the Hindu Kush.
On the 8th of May, 1839, Shuja was crowned at Kandahar,
and declared, with great pomp and ceremony, the rightful
heir of the Afghan Empire. In August the British entered
Kabul, and there set the Shah on the throne of his
ancestors, and promised to support him against all foes, in
the hope of his proving a loyal ally and effective buffer
against the Persians and Russians. Dost Mohammed
shortly afterwards surrendered himself to the Indian
Government, and was sent as a pensioner of the State to
Calcutta. The hopes of the English that matters had now been
satisfactorily settled in Afghanistan were speedily doomed
to disappointment, and the eyes of the world were opened,
by an awful event, to the native treachery and fanaticism of
the Afghans. Dr. Bellew says : "As a people, they have
always been evilly notorious for their. faithlessness, lawless
ness, treachery, and brutality, so much so that the saying,
' The Afghan is faithless,' has passed into a proverb among
neighbouring peoples ; and, oddly enough, is acknowledged
by themselves to be a true count, not only in their dealings
with the stranger, but among themselves too." All
Mohammedan nations hate the Feringhees, or Christians ;
but the intensity of such religious hate is nowhere so deep
as amongst the Afghans, who are completely carried away
by their zeal or fanaticism, and shrink from no deed of
treachery or darkness against those whom they consider to
be the enemies of their faith. The English have learned
this truth by years of terrible experience. It might have
been expected that Shah Shuja would be grateful to the
British for placing him on the musnud of Afghanistan, but
the fact is that the Prince was totally unworthy of the con
fidence reposed in him ; and as soon as he was settled at
Kabul, he began to intrigue with other chiefs for the
s

258 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
expulsion of the English from the country. In November,
1 84 1, an insurrection broke out, and Sir Alexander
Burnes, the Resident, was the first victim of the uprising.
The Residency was attacked ' by a mob, with shrill
yells and fierce imprecations, and the unfortunate Burnes,
while seeking to escape disguised as a native, was
recognized, and in an instant was literally hacked to pieces
by Afghan knives. The retreat of the British army from
Kabul in January, 1842, on the plighted word of a sanguin
ary enemy, and its destruction in the Kyber Passes, is a
matter of history, over which I cannot now linger. It is
enough to say that every oath, though sworn on the
Koran, was broken. Neither escort nor provisions were
supplied by the Afghan leaders, and the severity of the
season increased the misery of the retreat. "The fanatical
tribes of the, district harassed the flanks and rear of the
army, and slew women and children, as well as men. Out
of a host of 26,000 only one man, Dr. Brydon, escaped to
carry the dismal tidings to General Sale, who still held his
position at Jellalabad."
On the destruction of the British army, dissensions arose
in the Court of the Shah, and the faithless monarch was
brutally murdered by his still more faithless people. Then
anarchy reigned supreme. In September of the same year,
however, the might of the British arms was upheld, for an
avenging army, under Pollock and Nott, occupied the
capital, and, after punishing offenders, dictated terms to the
whole country. Brighter days now came for the Afghans,
for Dost Mohammed, the pensioner of the Indian Govern
ment, was released, and allowed to return to his native land,
where he was received with open arms, and once more
recognized as Amir. By stern, repressive measures, and by
untiring vigilance and labour, he brought order out of
chaos, and at his death in 1868 he left Afghanistan no
longer a country divided amongst a few petty chieftains,
but united under. one strong and stable government.
In addition to military matters, Dost Mohammed took a

THE AFGHANS < 259
deep interest in religion, ahd encouraged the spread of
education in the country, by endowing schools and colleges,
with the result that the Afghans have now a schoolmaster in
every village and camp, who is maintained by a piece of
land allotted to him, and by a small contribution which he
receives from his scholars.
The children of Afghanistan begin their letters when they
are four years, four months, and four days old, as com
manded by the Prophet; but then their studies are imme
diately laid aside and not resumed until the little ones
reach the age of six or seven years, when they really learn
their letters, and are taught to read a little poem, which
points out the beauty of virtue and the evil of vice. After
that the Koran is learnt, and the proper duties of a
Mussulman, and then as a rule the book education of an
Afghan ends. Though the people generally are of the
Suni sect, yet there are many Shias in the land, chiefly
Persians, who hold high offices in the State and Royal
household, and who are tolerated on account of their
usefulness. Besides, the Mohammedan religion expressly
allows the Faithful to dissemble, so that as long as, it is
considered necessary or wise to do so, a Shia will publicly
avow himself a Suni, while secretly he will attend to the
special regulations of his own sect. There is everywhere
in Afghanistan an appearance of great religious devotion
and enthusiasm. Mr. Elphinstone, speaking of this, says :
"From their conversation, one would think the whole
people, from the King to the lowest peasant, were always
occupied in holy reflections ; scarce a sentence is uttered
without some allusion to the Deity, and the slightest
occurrence produces a pious ejaculation. For example,
they never speak of any future event, however certain,
without adding Inshalla, " Please God." They even apply
this phrase to past time; and will answer a question about
their age, " Please God, I am forty-five years old." Many
people have always a rosary hanging round their wrists,
and begin to tell their beads when there is a pause in the
s 2

260 » STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
conversation." Thus the Afghans show themselves to be
strict Mohammedans, and intensely earnest in their devotion
to Allah and his Prophet.
But to pick up the historical thread of our narrative.
The dying injunction of Dost Mohammed to Shere Ali, his
son and successor, was, to keep on good terms with the
British, and hold fast by their alliance ; but on no account,
as he valued his throne, to let an Englishman set foot in
the country. The new ruler was not a popular man, for
he was selfish, wayward, and quarrelsome. "He had fits
of vice and piety alternately, with intervals in which his
best friends dreaded to meet the whims of his temper.
For weeks together he would shut himself up in his harem
with drugs and wines, and then for weeks he would be
employed with the Moulvis, performing prayers, reading
the Koran, and listening' to theological dissertations." In
1869 Shere Ali was accorded a most honourable and
splendid reception by Lord Mayo, the Viceroy of India, at
Umballa, in which he was acknowledged before all the
world as Amir of Afghanistan, and the friend of the
British Government.
This alliance strengthened the power of the Amir at
home, and gradually his kingdom prospered, and his coffers
were filled. As affording some idea of the Royal state of
Shere Ali, it may be noticed that towards the close of his
reign, say in 1877, he had an army of more than 60,000
disciplined infantry, with fully three hundred guns, and
16,000 cavalry. As usual with Afghan chiefs, however, the
Amir turned on the hand that had helped him to power,
and sustained him in it. He received a Russian but
refused a British mission at Kabul, and so strained the
friendship of the Indian Government by overt acts of
malice, that in 1878 war was declared against him, when
the Kyber Pass was once more ehtered by British troops,
and Kabul, after some fighting, was once more occupied by
a British army. The . Amir, with his Russian guests, fled
over the Hindu Kush, and died shortly afterwards in exile.

THE AFGHANS 261
Later events can be briefly told. Yakub Khan was
allowed to succeed his father on the throne of Afghanistan,
after agreeing to the English terms of peace, which included
the installation of a permanent British Resident at Kabul.
That was in May, 1879. However, in September of the
same year, the world was startled by another instance of
Afghan perfidy. The troops of the Amir surrounded and
attacked the British Residency, which fell after a gallant
defence, when Sir Louis Cavagnari, his staff, and almost
the whole ofthe Indian Guard, were barbarously murdered.
Within one month of the receipt of the tidings of the sad
event, a fresh British army was at the gates of Kabul, and
Yakub Khan was a prisoner. This brilliant exploit
astonished the Afghans, and struck terror into their hearts.
The Amir was allowed to abdicate his throne, and in 1880
Abdur-Rahman, a grandson of Dost Mohammed, was
proclaimed King in his room. And between the Afghans
and the British all has gone as well as can be expected
since that date ; and Afghanistan has slowly been recovering
from the terrible ravages that were wrought within her
borders by years of strife and bloodshed. Yet the future is
uncertain, for the people most certainly hate the British,
and will lose no favourable opportunity of injuring the
Indian Government.
There are some English writers who say that it has been
abundantly proved in the past that the Afghans cannot
, govern themselves or others, and sadly need a master, and
the question is asked : " Shall it be Russia or England ? "
For my part I would say " Neither ! Let the Afghans fight
out their own quarrels." Though doubtless they are
treacherous and fanatical they are not without their virtues,
for all who know them are ready to admit that they are a
hardy and brave race. A nation is not built up in a day,
and we must remember that as yet the Afghans have not
had much chance of cultivating the arts of peace. Their
country from time immemorial has been overrun by the
Persians, the Moghuls, and the British. If the outside

262 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
world would only let them alone, there might be a chance
for them, for we may be sure that a people who have
through long centuries fought desperately, and not unsuc
cessfully, for their independence have in them the making
of a fine nation.
It is a pity that the Afghans and Persians cannot unite
their forces in temporal things. They are both of the
Mohammedan faith, and if they could only sink their little
differences with regard to Suni and Shia doctrines, and
become one in heart and in aims, they might hold their
own against all their enemies, and become, respectively,,
powerful and enduring Moslem nationalities.

CHAPTER XXVII
dervishes
Dervish is a Persian word, (derived from "der," a door,)
signifying "poor," or a beggar from door to door, and it
corresponds to the Arabic word Fakir. Both the terms,: ,
Dervish and Fakir, are widely used in the East to designate
an order or orders of Moslem mendicants, who resemble in
many respects the monks of Christendom. Fakir is a word
which is usually applied to Indian mendicants, and Dervish
is almost wholly confined to Persian and Turkish
mendicants. In this chapter I shall deal with the latter, -
and leave the former for a subsequent chapter ; and it will
be found, when the two are compared, that there are points
in which Dervishes and Fakirs differ the one from the
other. It would be difficult to say when orders teaching vows of
poverty were first introduced amongst the Mohammedans,
for such teaching is certainly against the views of
Mohammed, who, though a plain man, and of abstemious
habits, yet had no sympathy with the extreme views of
religious fanatics in the matter of earthly discomforts.
The Prophet believed in a wise and temperate use of the
good gifts of God's providence, though he did not always
practise what he preached. His immediate successor,
Abu Bekr, however, was a man who is said to have
delighted in coarse clothing and hard fare. The great
Omar also was like-minded. And it is to the one or the
other of those two early Commanders of the Faithful that
Moslems attribute the origin of religious vows of poverty,
and the commencement of Dervish Orders.

264 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
If we come to inquire more particularly into the nature
of the vows which the Dervishes make, we meet with
various answers. Generally speaking, however, these
fanatics agree to put themselves to as much misery as they
can in this world, in hope of obtaining a richer reward in
the next. Some of them will, for example, only take one
meal a day, and even then eat very sparingly. Others will
fast for days together. Others will wander about the country
half-naked, exposed to all weathers, utterly indifferent to
cold, or heat, or rain. Others, but Fakirs rather than Der
vishes, will inflict upon their bodies horrible torments.
In short, there is an infinite variety in the nature of the
vows taken, some orders of mendicants even living in
monasteries instead of adopting a roving life. But all alike,
if they are genuine Dervishes, will be recognized by their
sacred rosaries, their peculiar garb, their appearance of un
tidiness and uncleanness, and their general air of melan
choly, if not misery. It has often been asked, and I would
repeat the inquiry, " What can be the reason that in all
ages, and in all faiths, the odour of sanctity seems to be
associated with filth ?. How is it that cleanliness and godli
ness are so often set at opposite poles ? "
Among the Dervishes there are said to be thirty-two
orders, which are divided into two classes, the Ba-Shara
and the Be-Shara. The Ba-Shara, or those " with the Law,"
are governed by the principles of Islamism ; but the Be-
Shara, or those " without the Law," are amenable to no
religious creed, being a law unto themselves, though in
name they claim to be Mussulmans. The principal orders
are known by the names of their respective founders, and
are as follows : — The Bestamees, established 874 a.d. ;
the Kadrees, 1165 a.d.; the Rufaiyees, n 82 a.d.; the
Maulawees, 1273 a.d. ; the Nakshibandees, 13 19 a.d. ; the
Bakhtashees, 1357- a.d. ; the Gulshanees, 1533 a.d. ; the
Shamshees, 1601 a.d. ; and the Jamalees, 1750 a.d. I have
given this list for the benefit of those who are curious, and
who like exactitude.

DERVISHES 265
The only two orders in which I am personally interested
are the Kadrees and the Maulawees, and these are better
known by the names of the Howling and the Dancing
Dervishes. It was my privilege to see and hear representa
tives of these famous orders on one occasion in the" Mosque
of Mohammed Ali at Cairo. The occasion was an anni
versary of the death of some great Dervish, and so
important was it considered that the Khedive of Egypt was
present, and it was my good fortune to obtain admittance
the same evening. It was a sight, to be sure ! The great
and magnificent Mosque was filled to overflowing with
thousands of the Faithful, who had eyes and ears for nothing
but the shouts and antics of their Howling and Dancing
compatriots. There might be fifty of the saintly men
present, and they were allotted a clear, square place for
their performances. The Dancing fraternity had peaked
caps on their heads and flowing garments from the waist,
which, as they whirled themselves round in the dance,
assumed the forms of inflated balloons. The Dancers,
with extended arms, capered about, independently of each
other, like madmen, twirling themselves round and round
in a way that was wonderful to behold. After keeping up
the exercise with great vigour for a time, they at length
stopped suddenly, thoroughly dizzy and exhausted.
The Howling Dervishes were a still more extraordinary
set of men. In their case the head was uncovered, but
the hair had been encouraged to grow thick and long, so
that with most of them it reached below the girdle, and in
some instances almost touched the ground. These per
formers stood in a row, and at a given signal began to bend
the body slowly towards the earth, and to straighten them
selves up again. Gradually they increased the speed, while
they gave a jerk to the head, thus throwing their long hair
over their faces, and again over their backs. At the same
time they began to chant in a low, monotonous tone, which,
as they proceeded and got warmed up to their work, be
came a loud noise, and eventually turned into a howl. At

266 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
the time I heard those Howling Dervishes I did not know
what they were saying, but I have since found out that they
were performing what is called Zikr, or the repetition of
certain syllables or phrases in which occurs the name of
God. The syllables they were repeating were these, " La-
il-la-ha " and " Il-lal-la-ho," the interpretation thereof being,
" There is no God but God." The latter syllable was said
with each inhalation of the breath, and the former with
each exhalation, and I have only to repeat them to
myself to recognize the familiar sound at once. If any
reader will practise the exercise for five minutes he will find
that it is most trying to the throat, and weakening to the
frame. Yet those Dervishes in the mosque kept it up with
increasing vigour, and with a perfectly deafening noise, for
the space of half an hour or more. Indeed, I wearied bf
listening to them long before they thought well to stop their
religious performance. The poor fellows, like their brethren
the Dancing Dervishes, must have been dizzy and exhausted.
It was very hard work, and they were very enthusiastic over
it ; but I felt sorry for them, and wished they had a more
worthy cause in which to display their faith and zeal.
Of course, not all Dervishes are given to such violent
exercises in the way of religion. Some orders are quiet
enough, and are of a secluded and meditative turn of mind.
Yet the dancing and howling communities are great favour
ites amongst the devout, and are held in high honour by
all Moslems. It is a matter of history that at least one
King, and a great and famous King too, became either a
Howling or a Dancing Dervish. I refer to Sultan Murad,
of Adrianople, one of the bravest and noblest men that ever
sat on the throne of the Ottoman Turks. An Eastern
writer says of this Prince : " He was just and valiant, of
a great soul, patient in labours, learned, merciful, religious,
charitable, a lover of the studious, and of all who excelled
in any art or science, a great general, and a good Emperor."
Nor is the picture overdrawn.
And yet this renowned Sultan, after twenty years of

DERVISHES 267
Royal state, gladly resigned his throne and kingdom to his
son, Mohammed the Second, and retired to the society of
saints and hermits. Gibbon says : " The Lord of nations
submitted to fast and pray, and turned round in endless
rotation with the fanatics who mistook the giddiness of the
head for the illumination of the spirit."
The influence that Dervishes have exerted in Persia and
Turkey, and in the East generally, over others, even over
the great ones of the earth, is truly astonishing. It has
been due largely to the real or supposed sanctity of their
lives, and to the words of wisdom which the more thought
ful and cultured amongst them have uttered when appealed
to, as they often are, for advice and guidance in the affairs
of life. Let me give a few specimens of their wise sayings.
To a King who through a treacherous deed had brought
trouble upon himself and his kingdom, a plain-spoken
Dervish said : " Whosoever doeth good shall experience
good, but he who committeth evil shall suffer evil." To a
person who was despondent over his plain looks, though
God had richly endowed him with the gift of song, another
Dervish consolingly said : " A sweet voice is better than a
beautiful face." To a meddlesome character who had come
to grief in too readily interfering with the quarrels of others,
a shrewd Dervish remarked : " My son, when you see fight
ing be peaceful, for a peaceful disposition shuts the door of
contention." Another wise Dervish, who was found one
day suffering' distress from poverty, and who at the same
time was diligently mending his worn-out garments, re
marked to a friend who urged him to be up, and begging :
" Nay, friend, I am content with a dry loaf and ragged gar
ments, for it is better to bear the weight of one's necessities
than to suffer the load of obligation from mankind." And
is not the following saying, uttered by a Dervish on a sick
bed, most instructive. Asked what his heart desired, he
replied : " Only this, that it may not desire anything."
There are three short stories told of Dervishes in connec
tion with sleep, which are worth recording. On one occa-

268 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
sion, when a party of travellers stopped their caravan in
the desert to rest for the night, a certain holy man would
not sleep nor let others sleep with comfort, for the loud
cries which he made.
When expostulated with in the morning by a saintly
brother, he remarked, " I heard the nightingale on the
trees, the partridges on the mountain, the frogs in the
water, and the brutes in the desert, uttering their plaintive
notes; and I reflected that it did not become a human
being to be asleep whilst all other creatures were celebrat
ing the praises of God." " Thou fool ! " was the reply,
" thou shouldst have reflected that to disturb man is not to
please God ! "
The second story is that of a Dervish who boasted that
on one occasion he passed a whole night in eating to reple
tion, while at the same time he read through a dozen long
chapters of the Koran. A companion to whom he told the
tale, dryly remarked, " To have eaten half a loaf of dry
bread, and slept, would have been much more meritorious."
The third story is one that the famous poet and Dervish,
Sadi, tells of himself. He says, " I remember even when a
youth I was very religious. I regularly rose in the night,
and was punctual at all my devotions. One evening I had
been sitting in the presence of my father, not having closed
my eyes for hours, with the holy Koran on my lap, while
all around me other members of the community were fast
asleep. Looking towards my beloved parent I said, some
what proudly, ' Not one of these lifteth up his head to
perform his genuflections ; they are so fast asleep that they
seem as dead.' The reply I received I shall never forget.
In a voice of love, yet of sorrowful reproof, the words
were uttered, ' My son, it were better if you also were
asleep, if you have nothing better to do than to point out
the faults of mankind.' "
Dervishes, as a rule, make a great point of teaching to
all the grace of compassion. " Be merciful," they say,
"and you shall obtain mercy." They- inculcate kindness

DERVISHES 269
to animals, to all weak things, and especially to poor
people. It is recorded that on one occasion, when Sadi
was sitting in the great Mosque at Damascus, a certain
King of Arabia, notorious for his cruelty, happened to
enter. The King was on pilgrimage to the tomb of the
Prophet Yahiya, on whom be peace ! After performing
most earnestly his devotions, the great man glanced around,
and saw the learned and saintly Sadi, whom he knew well
by repute.
Advancing towards the Sage, the King made a profound
reverence, and said, "Holy man, thou hast power with
God, and canst prevail. Unite thy prayers with mine, for
I am in dread of a powerful enemy." Sadi promptly
replied, " O King, suffer a word of exhortation. Act
justly, and, like myself, thou wilt fear no man. Show
mercy to the weak peasant in thy country, and thou wilt
have no occasion to dread a strong enemy." What the
King replied' is not recorded ; but it is to be hoped that he
took to heart the sound advice of the faithful Dervish.
Not all Dervishes, however, are like Sadi. There are
not a few rogues and vagabonds in the ranks of the so-
called saints. Altogether, in the Turkish and Persian
dominions, there are said to be at least fifty thousand
persons who have devoted themselves to a life of religious
mendicancy; and of these, probably the majority have
adopted the calling or profession because, generally . speak
ing, it is a quiet, easy, lazy life. It is the few, and not the
many, who actually practise painful austerities. The rest
live in poverty, it is true, and from hand to mouth, yet they
are sure of receiving from the Faithful enough to keep
body and soul together. And the life is considered in
Mohammedan countries a worthy and honourable one.
I might recount many other anecdotes of the Dervishes,
illustrative of their ways of life, and of the influence they
exert in the East, but one more must suffice. It is a noble
story, often told to travellers, and relates to Hassan Ben
Omar, the son of a rich merchant, who by years of riot and

270 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
luxury dissipated the wealth his father had left him. One
day Hassan was seen outside the walls of Bassora, prostrate
on the ground, in the wild Eastern fashion, tearing his
hair, reproaching Allah, blaspheming the Prophet, bemoan
ing his fate, charging his friends with ingratitude, and
loudly calling upon Death to release him from his misery.
His old servants approached and tried to comfort him, but
he drove them away with abuse and blows, and dashed
himself again upon the earth. Suddenly, while he was
moaning and weeping, a voice, pleasant and cheerful,
sounded in his ears, saying, " Listen, Hassan Ben Omar !
Allah intends thee good."
Hassan sat up, and saw before him a venerable Dervish,
who was regarding him with- looks of compassion.
" Begone, old man ! " he cried, " unless thou canst work a
miracle for my relief!" "A miracle, indeed ! " was the
reply. "The Prophet has sent me to serve thee. What
wouldst thou have ? " " Give me my possessions again —
my vineyards, my fields, and my gold ! " shouted the
despairing Hassan. The Dervish quietly answered, " And
what would it avail thee if I were to do this ? ' When they
were thine, thou hadst not the wisdom to keep them ; in
three years thou wouldst be as wretched as now. But
attend, Hassan Ben Omar ! Reform thy life, govern thy
passions, moderate thy desires, hate the wine-cup, labour
for thy bread, eat only when thou art hungry, and sleep
when thou art weary ! Do these things for one year, and
thou shalt be monarch of a mighty kingdom ! "
Having so said, the Dervish" withdrew, and left Hassan
to consider his ways. Deeply impressed by the words of
his saintly visitor, the disappointed man rose from the
ground with new resolves and nobler purposes in life.
Invoking the aid of Allah, he joined a caravan of
merchants, and set out on a long journey without delay.
He began to rise early, and to labour with diligence.
Plain water and a few dates formed his simple meal, and
at night he lay down by the side of the camels, and enjoyed

DERVISHES 271
sweeter repose than he had ever known before. Thus for
a year he lived a frugal, patient, active, blameless life,
following to the letter the exhortations of his friend the
Dervish, and at the end of the appointed months, he
journeyed back to Bassora, and going outside the city walls,
prostrated himself on the earth as aforetime, and prayed
earnestly, saying, " Now, Allah, fulfil thy promise made by
thy servant the Dervish, and give me the kingdom."
Suddenly a voice, the voice of the Saint, was heard, and it
said, " Hassan Ben Omar, thou hast done well ! Behold,
thy kingdom is thyself ! Allah hath taught thee to rule it !
Be wise, and be happy ! " Hassan started up and looked
around, but in vain, for the speaker. No one was near.
It was a mystery. A miracle ! " Behold, thy kingdom is
thyself ! " exclaimed the voice once more. And Hassan,
pondering over the saying, received it as a revelation from
God, and departed with a contented heart. For many
years after that event he lived — busy, prosperous, and
happy — and was known far and wide as Hassan the Good
and the Wise. And to the Holy Dervish, under Allah, he
gave the glory ! To his dying day he was thankful that he
had been taught the truth that " a man's kingdom is him
self!"

CHAPTER XXVIII
MOGHULS OF INDIA
The immense country of India, with its one million and
a half of square miles, and nearly three hundred millions
of inhabitants, has been ruled by many nationalities, and
not the least prosperous and famous period of its history
was when the Mohammedans reigned supreme in the land,
and the Court of the Great Moghul was held either at Agra
or Delhi, the ancient capitals. The term Moghuls is an in
correct form of Monghols, and designates the race or races of
warriors and adventurers, originally from the spacious high
lands between China and the Caspian Sea, who overran the
greater part of Asia, carrying the terror of their arms wherever
they went, and founding mighty empires even in China and
in India, as well as in Western Asia. The Moghul Empire in
India was founded in the first part of the sixteenth century,
but long before that time Mohammedans had made inroads
into the land, and had conquered considerable tracts of
country. As early as 711 a.d., within a hundred years of
the death of Mohammed, an adventurous Arab chief named
Kasim had cast longing eyes towards the rich and fertile
plains of India, and had advanced into Sind, and, after a
brilliant campaign, had settled himself in the Indus valley.
But at Kasim's death the Moslems were driven out. How
ever, again and again on subsequent occasions such attempts
were renewed, and one of the most famous of the leaders of
those predatory armies was the Afghan chief Mahmud of
Ghazni, who made the first of his seventeen raids into India

MOGHULS OF INDIA 273
in _ 00 1 a.d. Mahmud was a brave but ferocious warrior,
and being a most fanatical Mussulman, he was the scourge
and terror of the idol-worshipping peoples of India.
The story of the sack of the ancient city of Somnath, and
of the destruction of the stone idol called Soma, by
Mahmud, is pne that is told by the Hindoos even at this
day. Somnath was situated at the extreme point of the
peninsula of Guzerat, now known as the island of Diu, and
it was regarded by the people of India as the most holy of
all their cities, because there resided the god Soma, whq
was believed to possess the absolute disposal of the souls of
men, and had the regulation of the successive transmigra
tions through which human beings had to pass before they
were deemed worthy to share eternity with Brahma.
A place of such sanctity in the eyes of the Hindoos did
not escape the notice of Mahmud, and he resolved to earn
everlasting renown by capturing it and destroying its famous
idol. The task was a difficult one, however, for Somnath
was a strong city, and stubbornly defended. At length,
after many attacks, the valour of the Moslems triumphed,
and the city was taken and plundered.
The story goes, which Dr. Hunter, however, declares to
be a myth, that the priests of the Temple of Soma offered
a fabulous sum of money to Mahmud if he would spaie
their god from destruction, but the fanatical Prince scoffed
at their lamentations and prayers, and swore by the Koran
that not for ten thousand times the money would he have
his name handed down to posterity as " the sparer of idols."
His true name, he declared, was " the Idol Smasher," and
at the word he brought down his battle-axe with a mighty
blow upon the nose of the graven image. His soldiers
speedily followed such an excellent example, and, amidst
the groans and supplications of an agonized multitude, the
destruction of the idol was completed. Sir Edward Sullivan,
writing of this episode in his " Princes of India," says :
"Now was the true object ofthe relentless zeal of Mahmud
and the costly supplications of the priests exposed. The
T

274 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
image was hollow, and filled with the accumulated treasures
of centuries. All the wealth hitherto acquired by the
Mohammedans was nothing compared with that now yielded
by this prolific god. Piles of diamonds and sapphires, a ruby
weighing upwards of six pou.nds, . thousands of pounds'
weight of pure gold and precious stones were, to the dismay
of the crestfallen priests, brought to light by the triumphant
soldiers. The booty was nine millions sterling."
I think there can be little doubt that as in Mahmud's
case, so in the case of other Moslem Generals who invaded
India from the north, the desire to obtain the wealth of the
land, the report of which had travelled far, was the chief
motive for their warfare, though they spoke very grandly of
zeal for the religion of Allah and his Prophet as spurring them
on to conquest. Muhamed, of the Afghan Princedom of
Ghor, was the first Moslem chief to obtain a permanent
footing in India. One of his Generals, in 1193 a.d.,
conquered for him the city of Delhi, the seat of the strongest
Hindoo power, and at the news Muhamed himself marched
into Hindostan through the Kyber Passes at the head of an
army of 100,000 men, composed of Turks, Persians, and
fierce Afghans. That strong force overran the northern
provinces of India as far as Benares, and in the latter city
alone 50,000 Hindoos were slain, and more than a thousand
heathen temples were pillaged and destroyed. The vic
torious Prince returned to Ghor with immense spoil, leaving
a lieutenant at Delhi to govern India in his name.
At Muhamed's death the Empire he had built up fell to
pieces, but the Indian provinces still remained Moham
medan, for they were retained by the Viceroy* Kutab, who
had himself declared King, and who was thus the first
monarch of an independent Moslem kingdom in Northern
India. Kutab had started life as a Turki slave, and as
most of his successors for two or three generations were of
the same low origin, the dynasty which he founded in 1 206,
and which endured till 1290, was called the "Slave Dynasty."
In 1290 the Slave Dynasty was succeeded by the Kilji

MOGHULS OF INDIA 275
Dynasty, which lasted just thirty years, and was in its turn
followed by the Tughlak Dynasty, which endured for ninety-
four years. It was during the rule of the latter that
Tamerlane, the scourge of the East, swept through the
Afghan passes at the head of the united hordes of Tartary,
and captured and sacked Delhi. That was in 1399. The
Tughlak Dynasty fell in 1414, and was followed by the
Sayyid Dynasty, and the latter in 1450 by the House of
Lodi. Nothing of any special moment happened in those
years, so we need not linger over their history, but push
on to the year 1526, which ushered in the famous Dynasty
of the Moghuls, which for more than two centuries ruled
over the greater part of India with great power and illustrious
splendour. Baber, born in 1482, a descendant of Tamerlane, was
the founder of the Indian Moghul line. Driven from
Samarkand, the city of his fathers, by rebellion, he seized
the kingdom of Kabul in 1504, and having established his
power in Afghanistan, he turned his thoughts towards
India, and pouring a vast army through the mountain
passes, he defeated the last Prince of the House of Lodi on
the Plain of Panipat, in 1526, and entered Delhi in triumph.
His co-religionists in the country acknowledged him as
their Prince, but he was stoutly opposed by the Hindoos,
who thought the time favourable for an attempt to throw
off the Moslem yoke. The might of Baber's arms, however,
prevailed; and when he died at Agra in 1530, he left an
empire which stretched from the river Amur in Central
Asia to the borders of the Gangetic delta in Lower Bengal.
His son, Humayun, succeeded him in India, but lost the
other dominions of the Empire. Then misfortune followed
misfortune, and the Emperor, with his Moghul retainers,
was forced to retire from Hindostan, but only to return
again in 1556, and at that date the Moghul Empire was
firmly established in the land. Humayun, however, only
enjoyed the sweets of recovered power a very short time,
for six months after his return to Delhi he was killed by
t 2

276 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
an accident. It happened thus: One day when he was
descending from the terrace of his library he heard the
crier from the adjoining Mosque calling to prayers. Pausing
according to custom, Humayun repeated the Moslem creed,
and seated himself on the steps until the crier had ceased
his summons, when, rising suddenly, he slipped and fell
heavily down the stairs, and was taken up injured unto
death. The poor king truly deserved the cognomen of
" Unfortunate." Akbar was only fourteen years of age when he succeeded
his father, but he was possessed of wisdom beyond his
years, and had natural abilities of a very high order. And
he had a grand field for the exercise of his talents, for India
was seething with discordant elements which needed a
master-mind to bring unity and strength out of them.
After ten years of constant warfare the young Ernperor was
an Emperor indeed, for he had reduced all the petty
Moslem States to provinces of Delhi, and he had' broken
the power of the Rajput Princes, and brought them into
political dependence to his authority. At twenty-five years
of age Akbar reigned without a rival over the vast Indian
territory first overrun by his ancestor Baber, and had earned
for himself the titles of the "Victorious" and the "Great."
Great in peace as in war, Akbar pursued a policy of con
ciliation towards the Hindoo States, and abolished the poll-
tax which had hitherto been imposed on all non-Mussul
mans. He sought, also, to make wise and just laws for all
his people, irrespective of their race and creed, and gave
the most enlightened encouragement to men of learning of
every sect. Prosperity consequently followed. "Thirty
millions sterling composed the magnificent revenues of this
mighty Prince. Three hundred thousand cavalry, the same
number of infantry, and a thousand elephants constituted
the standing army that curbed the dangerous ambition of
his powerful nobles, and enforced the friendship of foreign
Powers." The reign of Akbar in India may be compared
with the reign of Queen Elizabeth in England for success

MOGHULS OF INDIA 277
in war, for prosperity in peace, for the encouragement of
men of learning, for reverence for religion, and for all that
really makes a nation great. And, strange to say, the two
reigns were contemporaneous, for Akbar ascended the
throne in 1556 and died in 1605, while Queen Elizabeth
reigned from 1558 to 1603.
The next Moghul ruler was Jahangir, who adopted the
boastful title of "Conqueror of the World." Of this
Prince, Dr. Hunter says, in his " Imperial Gazetteer of
India," " His reign of twenty-two years was spent in reducing
the rebellions of his sons, in exalting the influence of his
wife, and in drunken self-indulgence."
The wife referred to was the charming Noor Jahan, who,
though born in great poverty but possessed of extraordinary
beauty, won the love of Jahangir in his early youth, and
retained it till his dying day. For nearly twenty years this
remarkable woman practically ruled the Moghul- Empire,
for her husband complied with her slightest wish as if it
were a divine command. In 161 1 the coin of the realm
was stamped with the Queen's image, or at any rate with
this inscription : " Gold has acquired a hundred degrees
of excellence in receiving the name of Noor Jahan."
It cannot be said that Jahangir personally reflected much
glory on his illustrious house, though during his reign the
Moghul Empire grew stronger and more prosperous. He was
fonder of talking than of doing, and of seeming religious
rather than of being religious, and yet in his folly he is re
ported to have said : " The prophets of all nations were
impostors, and that he himself, should his indolence permit,
could form a better system of religion than any yet imposed
on the world."
In January, 1628, Shah Jahan ascended the Moghul
throne when he was thirty-six years of age. He was a
brave, a wise, and a victorious Prince, and by his private
actions as well as public , deeds added to the already
powerful name of his royal race. " He was just to his
people, blameless in his habits, a good financier, and as

278 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
economical as a magnificent court, splendid public works,
and distant military expeditions could permit."
It was under this Prince that, most of the fine buildings
were erected in Northern India which now form the
grandest memorials of Mohammedan rule in India. In a later
chapter on "Architecture" the reader will find described
some of the beautiful mosques, tombs, and palaces which
are to be seen in Agra and Delhi, and elsewhere in the
East. Like his father, Shah Jahan was blessed with a good wife,
called Mumtaz Zamani, "the most Exalted of the Age."
This lady is said to have united in her mind and person
much of the exquisite beauty and fascination of her aunt,
Noor Jahan. She was the Emperor's guardian angel, and
while she lived he had no other spouse. For more than
twenty years Shah Jahan was that almost imaginary being
of Mohammedan history, the husband of but one wife.
And when the great and noble lady died the Emperor was
inconsolable. Sir Edward Sullivan, referring to this matter,
says : " Shah Jahan was amongst the number of those who
at the end of life are brought to acknowledge that of all
the good gifts that Providence has spread in their path,
the love of woman has been the most delicious, the most
intoxicating, the most durable, and the least deceitful."'
To the memory of his idolized wife the Emperor erected
a tomb, the Taj Mahal at Agra, which is a perfect vision of
loveliness, and which is counted by competent judges as the
most perfect specimen of Saracenic architecture in the
world. The latter days of Shah Jahan were not only clouded by
the death of his wife, but made bitter by the ingratitude of
his numerous sons, who rose in rebellion against him, and
waged war one with another. Aurangzebe proved the most
powerful, and having defeated and murdered his brothers,
he dethroned his father, who, after eight years of secluded
life in the fortress of Agra, died in 1666, in his seventy-
fifth year, almost his last words being : " Fathers have been

MOGHULS OF INDIA 279
dethroned by their sons, but to insult the misfortunes of a
parent was left for Aurangzebe."
The heartless Prince, however, cared nothing for the
reproaches of his sire, but had himself proclaimed Emperor
as early as 1658 with the high-sounding title of the "Con
queror of the Universe." Foreign powers at once re
cognized Aurangzebe as the greatest potentate of the
Eastern world. " The Shah of Persia, the Sheriff of Mecca,
the Emperor of China, and even the Sovereigns of Europe,
sent to congratulate him upon his achievements, and to
solicit his friendship." How true it is that "nothing
succeeds like success ! "
For nearly half a century Aurangzebe ruled India with a
rod of iron, and added to the dominions of the Moghuls in
the south, annexing, after long years of war, the five
Mohammedan kingdoms of the Deccan which had hitherto
preserved their independence under petty chiefs. He had
to do battle also with the rising Hindoo powers, the
Marathas and the Sikhs, and to put down various rebellions
in the Rajput States. Begun in blood, his reign was con
tinued in blood. If power and wealth could bring happi
ness Aurangzebe ought to have been the happiest man on
earth, but he was probably one of the most miserable. His
sins had found him out ! On his death-bed he wrote
mournfully to his son Azim : " I came a stranger into the
world, and a stranger I depart. I know nothing of myself
— what I am, nor for what I am destined ; my life, passed
in power, has left only sorrow behind it. Though I have a
strong reliance on the mercies and bounties of God, yet
regarding my actions fear will not quit me. I die ! I die !
Come what may, I must launch my vessel on the waves !
Farewell ! Farewell ! Farewell ! "
The rest of our story must be briefly told. After
Aurangzebe the Moghuls had no great Emperor. Puppet
followed puppet on the throne, and the Empire, pressed
hard by the Afghans, the Rajputs, the Marathas, the Sikhs,
the French, and the English, rapidly fell to pieces. In less

,280 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
than a hundred years the Moghul power was nothing but a
name, for province after province had been lopped off the
parent tree of Delhi, and even the capital itself was, at the
close of the eighteenth century, possessed by the Marathas,
who allowed a Prince of the Moghul royal line to reign, but
not to rule. In 1804 the English took the place of the
Marathas, and for fifty years Delhi enjoyed almost uninter
rupted tranquillity under the protection of the British, and
the Great Moghuls were pensioners of the East India Com
pany. Then came the Mutiny of 1857, when the ancient
capital revolted, and the Moghul Empire was once more
set up, and a semblance of the past power and glory of the
Imperial House was regained. It was, however, of short
duration, for at the close of that dread year of mutiny
Delhi was recaptured, the Royal Princes were slain, and the
Emperor Mohammed Bahadur, the last of his line, was
tried, found guilty of rebellion »and of the massacre of
certain English people, and transported as a State prisoner
to Rangoon, where he died in 1862. Thus ended the
government of the Moghuls In India, just three hundred
and thirty-two years from the time that the victorious Baber
had set up the Royal House !
But with the fall of the Moghuls only the supreme
temporal power of the Mohammedans ceased in India.
There are still Moslem principalities in the land. More
over, the British have never interfered with the religious
beliefs of the people of India, whether Hindoo, Sikh,
Jain, Parsee, or Mohammedan : so that Islamism still
raises its head, and indeed flourishes numerically. The
census informs us that there are over fifty millions of
Moslems in the Indian Empire. As a matter of fact,
Mohammedanism is stronger in India to-day than in any
other part of the world ; and there are more followers of
the Prophet under the rule of Queen Victoria than there
are under the rule of the Sultan of Constantinople, the
great head of the Mussulman Faith.

CHAPTER XXIX
FORBIDDEN, OR QUESTIONABLE THINGS
In the Mohammedan religion, as in the Jewish and
Christian religions, there are certain rules or laws which
may be characterized as negative precepts. In addition to
the exhortation " Thou shall " there occurs the command
"Thou shalt not."
In previous chapters we have seen that the Moslem creed
says : " Thou shalt not kill ; " " Thou shalt not steal ; "
" Thou shalt not commit adultery ; " ' " Thou shalt not .
perjure thyself," and so on,«but in addition to these grave
offences there are certain other matters which come under
the dictum of Forbidden, or, at any rate, Questionable
Things. Let us begin with Intoxicating Drinks, about which the
Koran speaks very plainly, and altogether in Condemnation.
There was a time in Arabia when the drinking of wines and
various spirits was a common occurrence, and was indulged
in to excess.
But Mohammed set his face as flint against it, and sought
to discourage the drinking habits of his countrymen, by
showing them that intoxication was injurious to themselves
and displeasing to God.
Matters were brought to a climax on one occasion, when
a follower of the Prophet, Abdur-Rahman Ibn Auf by
name, gave an entertainment to which he invited many of
the leaders amongst the Faithful. At that convivial gather
ing so much wine was drunk, that when the hour of even-

282 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
ing prayer arrived; very few of the guests were in a fit state
to attend properly to their devotions.
However they essayed the task, but one of the party in
reciting a passage from the Koran, made a shameful
blunder, being so overcome with the libations he had taken.
When Mohammed heard of the incident he was very in
dignant and spoke sharp words of reproof, and even
inserted a command in the Koran against the free use of
wine, which runs thus : " O true believers, come not to
prayers when ye are drunk, Until ye understand what ye
say." The exhortations and warnings of the Prophet, though
they effected much, did not altogether stay the evil, how
ever, so he resolved at last absolutely to forbid the use of
intoxicating drinks as a beverage. It was not that Moham
med thought wines or spirits were without good properties,
but his conviction was that, as a general rule, the use of such
drinks did much more harm than good.
Take, for example, two or three references in the Koran.
In the 2nd sura it is written : ^ They will ask thee concern
ing wine. Answer : In it there is sin, and also something
of use, but its sinfulness is greater than its use." Then in
the 1 6th sura it is said : " Of the fruits of palm-trees and of
grapes ye obtain an intoxicating liquor and also good
nourishment. Verily, herein is a sign unto people who
-understand." What the Prophet wished to be understood was, that
notwithstanding the acknowledged good properties of
certain drinks, yet men would act wisely in leaving them
alone altogether, for death was in the cup.
And to make his views still clearer, Mohammed wrote in
the 5th sura : " O true believers, surely wine is an abomina
tion of the work of Satan, therefore avoid it, that ye may
prosper. Satan seeketh to sow dissension and hatred
among you by means of wine, and to divert you from re
membering God, and from prayer : will ye not therefore
abstain from it ? Obey God, and obey His Apostle."

FORBIDDEN, OR QUESTIONABLE THINGS 283
And to set the minds of those at ease who had offended
in the past, these words were added : " It is no sin in those
who believe that they have tasted wine before they were
forbidden, if now they fear God and do good works, for
God loveth those who do 'good."
For the most part it may be said of the Faithful that
they have obeyed the command of the Prophet and have
abstained entirely from the use of intoxicating drinks. At
least this may be said of Indian Moslems, who, as a general
rule, are sober men, carrying their aversion to wines and
spirits to the extreme of refusing even in illness to take a
single drop of the forbidden things.
There are exceptions, however. I remember, when in
Delhi, there was pointed out to me, in a Mohammedan
burial-ground, the beautiful marble tomb of Prince Mirza
Jahangir, who was banished for a time by the British
- Government from his native city, on account of his wild
life, and his many attempts to murder his elder brother,
and to excite insurrection.
The dissolute prince eventually killed himself by drinking
cherry-brandy, of which liquor he used to swallow a glass
an hour, limiting himself to that amount in order to protract
the pleasure and delay intoxication.
Other Moghul princes of India were addicted to the
same unlawful practice. It is a matter of history that
Prince Danial, the eldest son of Akbar the Great, died, at
the age of thirty, a drunkard's death. His case was a sad
and remarkable one.
When Akbar knew that his son had undermined his
constitution by too frequent libations, he placed him under
arrest at Berhampore, in Bengal, and gave strict orders
that no drink should be given to him. However, Danial
could not do without his usual beverage, and tried to bribe
his attendants to smuggle some into the palace which was
his prison.
For a time he could find no one to listen to his overtures,
for the displeasure of Akbar was greatly feared. At length,

284 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
however, one servant was won over by the promise of a
large sum of money to gratify the unnatural cravings of the
wretched prince.
Danial had a favourite gun which he had christened the
" Bier," because it had killed so many foes ; and, strange to
say, it was in the barrel of that gun that the brandy was
hidden which was to kill the prince himself. A few
debauches brought on a severe attack of delirium tremens,
from which the poor victim of intemperance had not
strength to rally. In great agony he died.
I am afraid, amongst both high and low in India at the
present day, that the custom of drinking intoxicating
drinks is on the increase, and that intemperance amongst
Moslems is becoming more and more evident.
But what is, after all, a comparatively rare thing in India,
is a common thing in Turkey and Persia. In the latter
countries the Prophet's prohibition against wines and
spirits is now very much a dead letter.
In a book, recently published, of " Travels in Asiatic
Turkey," the author, Henry C. Barkley, says: " Drunkenness
is almost as common among the Turks as it is with us, and
they have apparently got over thinking it a sin and disgrace,
for it is both openly indulged in and openly talked of.
Few of the upper classes abstain, and many make it a rule
to go to bed drunk every night. As far as possible a
Turk does everything in the reverse way to a European, and
in getting drunk he makes no exception. We sit over our
wine after dinner : the Turk before. With us drinking be
fore dinner takes away appetite : but with the Turk it has
the opposite effect, and the more he drinks the more
hungry he gets. If, after eating, the fumes of the wine are
ousing out of his head, he takes a fresh bumper, and then,
in nine cases out of ten, tumbles back where he sits, falls
fast asleep, and is wrapped up by his servants, and left all
night to sleep himself sober. We found drunkenness every
where in Asia Minor."
What a sad testimony ! The spread of the drink mania

FORBIDDEN, OR QUESTIONABLE THINGS 285
is one of the pressing evils of the nineteenth century in
Mohammedan as "well as Christian countries.
Turning from drinking to eating, it should be noted that
certain animals are regarded as unclean, and are forbidden
as food to good Mussulmans. A distinction with regard to
meats has, for ages, prevailed in the East, and I think there
can be little doubt that Mohammed, in making his laws. on
this matter, not only studied the idiosyncrasies of taste of
his own people, but consulted also the Scriptures of the
Jews. In the 5th sura of the Koran it is written : " O true
believers, ye are allowed to eat the brute cattle, other than
what ye are commanded to abstain from." Later in the
same sura, the exceptions are given, and they are as follows :
"Ye are forbidden to eat that which dieth of itself, and
blood, and swine's flesh, and that on which the name of
any god hath been invocated, and that which hath been
strangled or killed by a blow, or by a fall, or by the horns
of another beast, and that which hath been partly eaten
by a wild beast, and that which hath been sacrificed unto
idols." However, in cases of absolute need, where a man may
be in danger of starving, the Mohammedan law allows the
use even of prohibited meats, according to that saying of
the Prophet : " He who is forced by necessity, it shall be
no crime in him if he eat of those things, for God is
gracious and merciful."
Swine's flesh has been mentioned in the foregoing list,
and this is perhaps the most notable of the Forbidden
Things with respect to meat. Moslems have a perfect
horror of pork, and regard with loathing all those who can
bring themselves to eat such unclean food.
And to sprinkle the blood of swine on the walls of a
Mosque is a deadly insult that must be avenged. Many
have been the quarrels and even wars that have been
occasioned in the East by the Hindoos provoking the
Moslems in that particular way.

286 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
It should be borne in mind also that the great Indian
Mutiny was brought to a head by what was supposed to be,
on the part of the British Government, a deliberate dis
regard of the feelings and convictions both of Moham
medans and Hindoos in the matter of forbidden meats.
It happened thus : Towards the close of 1856 the
British authorities determined to replace the old infantry
musket by an improved firearm with a grooved or rifled
bore, and which could not be easily loaded without the
greasing of the cartridge. Early in 1857, when the
manufacture of cartridges -for this new Enfield rifle was
proceeding briskly at Dum-Dum, near Calcutta, a low caste '
Workman asked a soldier of the 2nd Grenadiers, a high
caste Brahmin, for a draught of water from his drinking-
vessel. The soldier declined, whereupon the workman, in
mischievous spite, remarked: "Wait a little, you who
think so much of your caste, the Christians will soon
make high and low on an equality, for cartridges smeared
with beef fat and hog's lard are being made up in the
magazine, which all Sepoys will be compelled to use."
As beef fat was the abomination of the Hindoos, and
hog's lard of the Moslems, we can imagine the consternation
the slanderous speech caused. There was not a word of
truth in it, but it sounded plausible, and the credulous
soldier believed it, and is said to have rushed out of the
Arsenal at Dum-Dum in a perfect agony of shame and
wrath. Like wildfire the news spread amongst the other
soldiers, and was carried by word of mouth and by letter
all over India ; and in a few weeks the country was ablaze
with indignation. It was useless for the English to deny
the statement -. both Moslems and Hindoos were convinced,
or professed to be, of the truth of the report, and openly
declared that the Christians were basely attempting to
undermine their respective creeds.
The Mohammedans especially were loud in their cries of
religious hatred, and clamoured for revenge, which nothing
but the lives of all the hated English in the country, they

FORBIDDEN, OR QUESTIONABLE THINGS 287-
declared, could satisfy. Thus in a wrangle over forbidden
meats arose the awful Sepoy Mutiny which deluged the
fair land of India with the blood of Christians, Hindoos,.
and Mohammedans !
Another forbidden thing, on which Mohammed laid
great stress in his teaching, was usury, or exorbitant
interest, in the business affairs of life. The Prophet
advocated fair trading and honest gains, deprecating all
endeavours to obtain riches by taking advantage of the
pressing needs of our fellow-creatures.
I do not know that any code of laws contains a more
striking denunciation of usurers than the Koran. In the
second sura it is written : " They who devour usury shall
not arise from the dead but as he ariseth whom Satan hath
infected by a touch : this shall happen to them 'because
they say, truly selling is but as usury ; and yet God hath
permitted selling and forbidden usury. He therefore who,
when there cometh an admonition from his Lord, abstaineth
from usury for the future, shall have what is past forgiven
him, and his affair belongeth unto God. But whoso
returneth to uSury they shall be the companions of hell-fire,
for they shall continue therein for ever."
Students of the Bible will call to mind the fact that
usury was forbidden also to the Jews in the laws of Moses ;
but there was this great difference between the Moslems
and the Jews — the latter were allowed to exact usury from
those who were not of their faith, but the former were
forbidden to take it from any man on the face of the earth.
The result has been that, at the present day, there are
no such grasping usurers to be found anywhere as the
Jews, while Moslems have in this matter a clean record
and a good name. It is certainly to the credit of the
followers of the Prophet, that while they are ever ready
to bestow alms, they absolutely refuse to lend money or
goods on usury.
Mohammedanism also entirely repudiates gambling, and
speaks of it as a vice only indulged in by the very wicked.

288 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
In the 5th sura of the Koran it is written: "O, true
believers, surely wine, and lots, and images, and divining
arrows, are an abomination of the work of Satan, therefore
avoid them." Moslem commentators agree that by " lots,"
the Prophet meant all games of chance, such as dice, cards,
and gaming-tables. Sale says that these games "are
reckoned so ill in themselves, that the testimony of him
who plays at them is, by the more rigid, judged to be of no
validity in a court of justice."
Chess is the only game that Mohammedans will play at,
and some even consider this unlawful ; but the less strict
maintain that there can be nothing wrong or sinful in chess,
for it is a game that depends wholly on skill and manage
ment, and not at all on chance. Even in chess, however,
it is stipulated that no one must play for money or any
other thing, and that no betting on results must be indulged
in by on-lookers. " Mohammedans comply with the pro
hibition of gaming much better than they do with that of
wine; for though the common people among the Turks
more frequently, and the Persians more rarely, are addicted
to play, yet the better sort are seldom guilty of it." In
this respect Mohammedans compare very favourably with
Christians, and with the adherents of Buddha and Con
fucius. Strange to say, the simple and refreshing beverage called
coffee is regarded by some Mohammedans as a forbidden
or questionable thing. Sale says that " this drink, which
was first publicly used at Aden in Arabia Felix, about the
middle of the fourteenth century, and thence gradually
introduced into Mecca, Medina, Egypt, Syria, and other
parts of the Levant, has been the occasion of great disputes
and disorders, having been publicly condemned and for
bidden, and again declared lawful and allowed."
Wonderful treatises have been written on this subject,
and many subtle arguments used to show that coffee comes
under the same condemnation as wines and spirits,
" because the fumes of it have some effect on the imagina-

FORBIDDEN, OR QUESTIONABLE THINGS 289
tion." At the present day, all the same, coffee, and very
strong coffee too, is used everywhere in the East in Moslem
countries. And tea also, "the cup that cheers but not
inebriates," is slowly winning its way into Moslem homes.
, Who ever met a Mohammedan who did not smoke ? and
yet I suppose such a curiosity is to be found, for smoking
is another questionable, if not forbidden, thing. It is
asserted that Mohammed had a revelation vouchsafed to
him of what should be in the days to come, and that he
condemned in advance the modern practice of smoking.
The tradition with regard to the Prophet, which, if it were
true, would prove him to have been a Prophet indeed,
runs, that he once said : " That in the latter days there
would be men who would bear the name of Muslims, but
would not really be such, and that they would smoke a
' certain weed which would be called tobacco."
This questionable or forbidden thing, however, is dearly
loved by Mohammedans, and travellers in the East are
always struck with the elaborate arrangements that are
made for the comfort of those who would indulge in the
weed. How picturesque are the pipes, called nergilehs, in
the Turkish dominions, and the hukkas in our great Indian
dependency ! The Egyptians have a saying that " a dish
of Goffee and a pipe of tobacco are a complete entertain
ment ; " and the Persians have a proverb to the effect that,
" Coffee without tobacco is like meat without salt."
Another questionable thing is opium, which, though not
mentioned in the Koran, is regarded by rigid Mussulmans
as unlawful, because it has a tendency to intoxicate and
disturb the understanding even in a more extraordinary
way than wine. Those who partake of this drug very
freely, and, alas ! there are many that do so, are regarded as
men of loose character, and are described by their country
men as debauchees.
There are two approved ways of taking opium — the one
is by eating, or rather swallowing, a number of small pills,
and the other by smoking a certain quantity of the poison
u

290 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
in a semi-fluid form in a pipe of tobacco. And there is a
difference between the opium eater and the opium smoker,
for the former usually indulges in the weakness in the
privacy of his own home, while the other has to frequent
one of the all- too-numerous places of public resort called
opium dens.
The taking pf opium, whether by pill or pipe, is a habit
which, when once formed, it is almost impossible to break
off. I have heard of an old decrepit Moslem addicted to
the vice who said : " It is useless trying to give up the
custom. It cannot be done. I have smoked for over
forty years. During that time it has been my master, and-
I its very humble and obedient slave."
A very small quantity of opium, which costs less than
one halfpenny, is enough to intoxicate a strong man.
Opium, is 'smoked thus : " The pipe commonly used
consists of a straight piece of bamboo, about a foot in
length, to which is attached a round hollow earthenware
ball, pierced by a small hole at the side. In this hole a
little of the semi-fluid is placed by an attendant. The
smoker reclines near a dirty lamp, over the flame of which
he holds the hole, and inhales the smoke by a rapid suc
cession of seemingly painful inspirations. Not the least
sign of smoke is seen till the opium is exhausted. Then
the smoker stops and blows out a huge cloud from mouth
and nostrils. More is quickly applied, and the smoking
repeated till the small amount bought is exhausted.
Intoxication ensues, and the miserable victim drops off
into a heavy sleep, described as a succession of dreams,
weird and foolish, which may or may not be pleasurable."
Just as intoxicating drinks have grown to be the curse
of Western nations, so the intoxicating opium has become
the curse of Eastern nations. Mohammedans are
right in regarding opium as a questionable thing, and
the pity is that they cannot agree in placing upon its
use the ban of religious condemnation. It would be a
great mercy for Moslems if opium eating and smoking

FORBIDDEN, OR QUESTIONABLE THINGS 291
became definitely and strictly " Forbidden things " of their
faith or creed !
There are other matters which come under the heading
of " Forbidden, or Questionable Things," but we need not
linger over them as they are not of present-day interest.
It is enough to say that Mohammed condemned the old
practice of divination by arrows or by any other method ;
and also that he put a stop to that inhuman custom of
burying their daughters alive, which once prevailed amongst
the desert Arabs.
There cannot be a doubt that the Prophet showed wise
statesmanship in many of his laws or rules of conduct, and
Moslems would find it to their highest advantage if they
gave diligent heed to the negative as well as positive
precepts .hat are embodied in their Sacred Scriptures — the
Koran.

u 2

CHAPTER XXX
THE CRUSADES
Our studies in Mohammedanism would be incomplete if
we did not touch, however briefly, on the great subject of
the Crusades, by which, of course, is meant those military
expeditions undertaken by Christian Powers in the eleventh,
twelfth, and thirteenth centuries for the recovery of the
Holy Land from the Mohammedans.
It was in the year 636 a.d. that Jerusalem was besieged
and captured by the armies of Omar, the second Com
mander of the Faithful, and that Palestine passed com
pletely under Moslem rule. To the credit of Omar it has
to be said that he treated the Christians with consideration,
and let them dwell in the land in safety on payment of
tribute. And under the Governments of all the early Caliphs the
followers of Christ in Palestine, and more particularly in
the Holy City, were granted full protection of their life,
property, and even religion. But as the years passed by,
and the country became a province of the Caliphate of
Damascus, and then of the Caliphate of Bagdad, there
arose princes and rulers who ignored the early treaties
made with the Christians, and began to persecute all who
named the name of Christ.
In Jerusalem the Moslems gradually usurped three-
fourths of the city, and confined the Christian Patriarch
with his clergy and people to a small area around the
ancient Church of the Holy Sepulchre.

THE CRUSADES 293
And as each year Christian pilgrims arrived at the Holy
City from all parts of the West, as had been the custom for
centuries, the Mohammedans threw every obstacle they
could in the way of their visits to the sacred sites. Yet
the crowd of pilgrims seemed to increase rather than
decrease, for the persecution they met with from the
Moslems only fanned their religious zeal ; and the more
dangerous the pilgrimage became the more meritorious it
was considered to be.
The object of such pilgrimages was chiefly to visit the
spots hallowed by particular association with Christ, but a
secondary aim was also to find relics. "If a pretended
fragment of the Holy Cross was not to be met with, the
pilgrims could at least bring away an olive branch, a phial
of Jordan water, a garment dipped in the holy stream,
and thereby rendered an invulnerable panoply against
demons ; or sometimes he would content himself with a
handful of earth picked up at Jerusalem, or a rose or a
palm branch cut in the oasis of Jericho. And on his
return home the pilgrim's staff was hung up over the hearth
as a family relic."
Very popular, indeed, such pilgrimages became in the
tenth and eleventh centuries; but the more determined the
Christians of Europe were to keep up their old custom the
more bitter waxed the enmity and opposition of the
Mohammedans of Palestine and the neighbouringxountries.
And the chief cause of offence in the eyes of the Moslems
was the belief of the Christians that in worshipping Christ
they were worshipping God.
Gibbon, touching on this point, says : " Had the
Christian pilgrims been content to revere the tomb of a
prophet, the disciples of Mahomet, instead of blaming,
would have imitated their piety ; but these rigid Unitarians
were scandalized by a worship which represents the birth,
death, and resurrection of a God : the Catholic images
were branded with the name of idols : and the Moslems
smiled with indignation at the miraculous flame which was

294 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
kindled on the eve of Easter in the Church of the Holy
Sepulchre." In -969 a.d. Palestine passed for a time from the
Abbasides of Bagdad to the Fatimites of Egypt. At first
this change seemed beneficial, for the new rulers' were
liberal-minded men. However, early in the eleventh
century the Caliph, known as Hakem the Mad, poured
out the vials of religious fanaticism on Jerusalem, and
the followers of Christ therein suffered terrible persecu
tions, and all pilgrimages to the city were interdicted.
Hakem carried his insensate zeal so far as to order the
destruction of the Church of the Resurrection, which was
demolished to its foundations ; and he even sought, but in
vain, to destroy the natural cave in the rock, which properly
.constitutes the Holy Sepulchre.
When news of these sacrilegious acts reached Europe,
Christian nations were astonished, afflicted, and enraged,
and there were rumours of great armaments being prepared
to avenge the insults to the tomb of Christ, and to the
city which was the cradle of the Christian faith. But the
matter was allowed to drop, though the set time for the
Crusades was brought perceptibly nearer by the persecu
tions and unwise deeds of the Sultan Hakem.
At the death of the Mad Caliph the maxims of religious
toleration once more prevailed, and the Christians of
Jerusalem, aided by their co-religionists of other lands,
rebuilt the Church of the Holy Sepulchre ; and, " after a
short abstinence, Christian pilgrims returned with an
increase of appetite to the spiritual feast."
From 1076 to 1096 Palestine was in the possession of
the Seljuk Turks of. Damascus, and under these new
masters the persecution of Christians was resumed, and
became so bitter that Ufe was a burden to the oppressed.
But in the hour of despair relief came from an unexpected
source. About the year 1095 Jerusalem was visited by a pilgrim-
hermit of the name of Peter, a native of Amiens in France.

THE CRUSADES 295
This good man's sympathy was called out by the distresses
he himself endured, and by the persecutions which he saw
the inhabitants of Jerusalem were subjected to. He is
said to have mingled his tears with those of the Patriarch,
and earnestly inquired if no hope of relief could be enter
tained from the Greeks of Constantinople. When the
Patriarch answered sadly, "No !"'the bold and enthusiastic
hermit exclaimed : " I will rouse the martial nations of
Europe in your cause."
And Peter was as good as his word, for on his return
home he sought at once an interview with the Pope, Urban
the Second, and spoke so feelingly and earnestly of the
sufferings of the Christians in Palestine, that the Pontiff
adopted his views and commissioned him to preach
throughout the West an armed confederation of Christians,,
for the deliverance of the Holy Land from the accursed
sway of the Moslems.
Peter is described as of small stature, and of somewhat
mean, if not contemptible, appearance, but "his eye was
keen and lively, and he possessed that vehemence of
speech which seldom fails to impart the persuasion of the
soul." From city to city, from 'province to province, and
from country to country, the hermit wandered, preaching a
Crusade against the Mohammedans with all the enthusiasm
of his marvellously ardent nature.
Milman says of him : " He rode on a mule with a
crucifix in his hand, his head and feet bare, his dress was a
long robe, girt with a cord, and a hermit's cloak of the
coarsest stuff. He preached in the pulpits, on the roads,
and in the market-places. His eloquence was that which
stirs the heart of the people, for it came from his own
heart. His preaching appealed to every passion — to valour
and shame, to indignation and pity, to the pride of the
warrior, to the compassion of the man, to the religion of
the Christian, to the love ofthe brethren, to the hatred ofthe
unbeliever, to reverence for the Redeemer and the saints, to
the desire of expiating sin, and to the hope of eternal life."

296 ' STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
And the results of Peter the Hermit's appeals were
extraordinary. All France was stirred to its depths by his
preaching, and the princes and people called loudly for
the Pope to give the word for a march towards Jerusalem.
Other countries were also deeply moved, and expressed
their readiness to join in any expedition against the
Moslems. In 1095, at a council at Clermont, the First Crusade was
decided upon, and the Pope himself delivered a stirring
address to a vast audience of clergy and laymen, in which
he spoke rapturously of the merit and glory of the deliver
ance of the Holy Land. As he proceeded, the pent-up
emotions of the crowd burst forth, and cries of Deus
vult, " God wills it," rose simultaneously from the whole
audience. "It is indeed the will of God," replied the
Pope, " and let these words, the inspiration purely of the
Holy Spirit, be adopted as your cry of battle, to animate
the devotion and courage of the champions of Christ —
Deus vult ! "
The recommendation of the Pope was readily and
enthusiastically adopted, and Deus vult became the war cry
of the Crusaders ; and every one, moreover, who took part
in the Holy War wore as a badge on his breast or shoulder
a red sign of the Cross — hence the name Crusade from the
French croisade, and the Latin crux.
Directly it was known that Pope Urban had publicly
sanctioned the enterprise, thousands upon thousands of
enthusiasts from all parts of Europe flocked to the Holy
Banner. That ancient chronicler, William of Malmesbury,
says : " The most distant islands and savage countries were
inspired with the ardent passion. The Welshman left his
hunting, the Scotchman his fellowship with vermin, the
Dane his drinking-party, and the Norwegian his raw
fish." It is estimated, but doubtless with exaggeration,
that in the spring of 1096 not less than six million souls
were in motion towards Palestine.
We cannot linger over the stirring events that took place

THE CRUSADES 297
by the way. The various armies, with one of which
journeyed Peter the Hermit, went by land, via, Constanti
nople. Many of the Crusaders were mere military adven
turers, and others were the very scum of the countries from
which they came, only a remnant being impelled forward
by religious motives and genuine interest in the fate of
Jerusalem and the Holy Land. It is, therefore, not sur
prising to find that the vast host fell to pieces as it moved
forward, and that tens of thousands died from quarrels
amongst themselves, and from strife with the people through
. whose territories they passed.
Thousands also fell in Asia Minor at the siege and
capture of Nice, which was bravely defended by the Sultan
Soliman. Thousands, moreover, perished at the siege of
Antioch, in Syria, which held out against the Christians for
seven months. Thus the ranks of the Crusaders were
thinned, and when they at length reached the Holy Land,
but a remnant, not more than 40,000 men, remained to
wrest Jerusalem from the Moslems. And yet this small
army of desperate warriors sufficed for the enterprise. The
leaders of the Christian forces were Godfrey of Bouillon,
Robert of Normandy, a son of William the Conqueror,
Count Robert of Flanders, Tancred, the favourite hero of
the Crusades, and Count Raymond of Toulouse.
It was on a bright summer morning in the year 1099 that
the Christian forces obtained their first glimpse of Jerusalem,
and, as may be imagined, the emotion was intense, and the
scene sublime.
Tasso, in his " Jerusalem Delivered," thus describes the
feelings of the Crusaders : —
"With holy zeal their swelling breasts abound,
And their winged footsteps scarcely print the ground,
When now the sun ascends th' ethereal way,
And strikes the dusty field with warmer ray.
Behold Jerusalem in prospect lies !
Behold Jerusalem salutes their eyes !
At once a thousand tongues repeat the name,
All hail Jerusalem with loud acclaim.

298 - STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
At first transported with the pleasing sight,
Each Christian bosom glowed with full delight ;
But deep contrition soon their joys opprest,
And holy sorrow saddened every breast.
Scarce dare their eyes, the city walls Burvey,
Where clothed in flesh their dear Redeemer lay ;
Whose sacred earth did once their Lord enclose,
And when triumphant from the grave He rose."
The thought that the Sacred City was in the hands of the
sworn foes of Christianity, and had been for many a century,
was a sore trouble to those zealous Crusaders, and they
pressed the siege with all the enthusiasm of religious passion.-
But the naturally strong place was courageously defended.
The Fatimite Caliphs of Egypt had a trusty lieutenant
named Aladin at the head of the Moslem garrison, which
consisted of at least 40,000 Turks and Arabians, who
fought like heroes. But Moslem valour on this occasion
availed naught against the determined zeal of the Christian,
and "on a Friday, the 15th July, 1099, at three in the after
noon, the day and hour of the Passion, Godfrey of Bouillon
stood victorious on the walls of Jerusalem. His example
was followed on every side, and about 460 years after the
conquest of Omar the Holy City was rescued from the
Moslem yoke."
And now was seen a remarkable display of the fiercest
and most tender passions on the part of the victorious
Crusaders. They fairly wept for joy at the glorious success of their
enterprise, and yet their hearts were' filled with hatred to
wards the discomfited Mohammedans. The city, sad to
say, was given up to pillage, for the Christians in the hour
of their triumph forgot the Christian grace of mercy, and
thought of nothing but revenge, and spared neither age nor
sex. About 70,000 Moslems were put to the sword, and for
three days a promiscuous massacre was indulged in through
out the whole extent of the Holy City.
Even the wretched inhabitants who took refuge in the
Mosque of Omar and claimed the sanctuary of a sacred

THE CRUSADES 299
place, were slain in cold blood. The victors are said to
have boasted that "in the great Mosque whither they
pursued the fugitives they rode up to the knees of their
horses in the blood of Saracens."
Then the fierce mood of the Christians changed — the
lions became as lambs, and they meekly took part in a
thanksgiving service in the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.
"Bareheaded and bare foot, with contrite hearts and- in a
humble posture, they ascended the hill of Calvary, amidst
the loud anthems of the clergy : kissed the stone which
had covered the Saviour of the world ; and bedewed with
tears of joy and penitence the monument of their redemp
tion." Jerusalem, thus conquered by Christians, was retained by
them for more than half a century. Godfrey of Bouillon
was chosen as the first King, and in his short reign of a
single year he added the whole of Palestine to his crown,
and ruled a kingdom as large, but not as thickly populated,
as that once possessed by David, King of Israel, or Solomon
his son.
When in n 00 Godfrey died, his body was interred near
where his Saviour was crucified, and I think one of the
most interesting things that is pointed out to pilgrims to
Jerusalem at the present day is the spot where that noble
Christian hero was buried.
Godfrey was succeeded by the two Baldwins, his brother
and cousin, and they in their turn were succeeded by
Malisenda, the daughter of the second Baldwin. Days of
weakness for the Christian State now set in, of which the
Mohammedans of the neighbouring countries were not slow
to take advantage.
A famous Moslem warrior, named Saladin, was the leader
of the revolt against the Christian power. This prince, the
chief of a Kurdish tribe, was declared ruler of Egypt on
the fall of the Fatimites, and he soon gathered round him
an army of Moslems eager to win back Palestine, and
especially Jerusalem, to the religion of Islam. Saladin is

300 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
described as a brave, a wise, and a chivalrous prince.
Though possessed of enormous wealth he spent little on
himself, but gave with lavish generosity the most costly
gifts to those, who deserved his favour. "The garment of
Saladin was a coarse woollen ; water was his only drink.
Both in faith and practice he was a rigid. Mussulman.
He ever deplored that the defence of religion had not
allowed him to accomplish the pilgrimage to Mecca;
but at the stated hours, five times each day, he devoutly
prayed with his brethren : and his perusal of the Koran
on horseback between approaching, armies may be
quoted as a proof, however ostentatious, of piety and
courage." And perhaps more remarkable still in an Eastern
monarch, it is recorded that " the justice of his divan was
accessible to the meanest suppliant against himself and his
ministers : and it was only for a kingdom that Saladin
would deviate from the rule of equity."
Such was the Moslem Sultan who turned his arms
against the Christian kingdom of Jerusalem. He invaded
Palestine, took town after town, and finally, in October,
1 187, compelled the Holy City to capitulate, after a siege
of fourteen days. Happily, the Christians, though not
strong enough to retain Jerusalem, were able to secure for
themselves terms of capitulation by which the lives of all
the inhabitants were spared.
The terms were these : The Greek and Oriental Chris
tians were permitted to remain, and live under Moslem
rule; but within forty days all the Franks and. Latins
were commanded to depart to the seaports of Syria and
Egypt. Also it was arranged that of those who remained,
ten pieces of gold should be paid for each man, five for
each woman, and one for each child as a ransom, and
if any were not able thus to purchase their freedom, their
doom was to be perpetual slavery.
When the news of these reverses to the Christian arms in
Palestine reached Europe, fresh Crusades were organized,

THE CRUSADES 301
for the enthusiasm of Western nations on behalf of the
Holy Land yet glowed with a fervent heat.
The Second Crusade, however, was practically a failure,
and so was the Third, though it was made famous by the
fact that three great kings took part in it, viz., Frederick I.,
Emperor of Germany, Philippe Auguste, King of France,
and Richard Cceur de Lion, King of England. Richard
performed prodigies of. valour, and earned the respect
and admiration of Saladin and the Moslems. Gibbon
says that "at the distance of sixty years, the memory
of the lion-hearted prince was celebrated in the East by
proverbial sayings amongst the grandsons of the Turks and
Saracens, against whom he had fought ; his tremendous
name was employed even by Syrian mothers to silence
their infants ; and if a horse -suddenly started from the
way, his rider was wont to exclaim, 'Dost thou think
Richard is in that bush ? '"
The Crusaders under, such renowned leadership reached
Bethlehem, and captured it ; but then, instead of advancing
to Jerusalem, they retreated towards Jaffa, partly owing to
dissensions in their -own ranks, and partly to the strength of
the forces of Saladin, which made the siege of the Holy
City seem an almost hopeless enterprise. Yet, if the rest
would have essayed the task, the gallant Richard would
have ventured on the perilous enterprise. Indeed, so
grieved was he of the lion-heart with what he considered
the cowardice of his fellow-Crusaders, that he is said to
have ascended a hill from which Jerusalem could be seen,
but instead of looking at it he covered his face with his
hands, and exclaimed through his tears, " O Lord God, we
are not worthy to behold Thy Holy City, seeing that we
are either unwilling or unable to rescue it from the hands
of Thy enemies."
It was in October, 1 192, that Richard turned his back
on Palestine, and set sail for Europe.
There were in all seven great Crusades, but only the
First Crusade effected anything proportionate to the outlay

302 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
of money and the immense sacrifice of human life. The
last six were merely records of failure upon failure, for the
Moslems held tenaciously to the Holy Land, and if partly
despoiled of it for a time, they soon returned with recruited
forces and revived fanaticism to reconquer it.
It is worthy of notice that Edward the First of England
was the last of the Crusaders, and when he left Palestine,
towards the end of the thirteenth century, the hopes of the
Christians had reached the lowest ebb, and they gradually
lost all their possessions in the East. "In 1291 Acre
capitulated to the Mohammedans, other towns quickly fol
lowed, and the Templars and military knights were glad
to quit the country, and disperse themselves over Europe
in quest of new employment, leaving Palestine in the
undisturbed possession of the Saracens."
And at the present day the Holy Land is in the hands
of the Moslems. Palestine is under Turkish rule, and is
governed by Pashas. Jerusalem is under the Pashalic of
Damascus. It has to be said, however, that there is now little or no
persecution of Christians in the Holy Land, for religious
liberty is granted to the adherents of all creeds. The Jews
have their synagogues, the. Christians their churches, and
the Moslems their mosques. When in Jerusalem, I was
much struck with this fact of religious toleration, and
though I am not an admirer of Turkish rule any
where, I would give credit where it is due. I think it
every way likely, moreover, that as long as the followers of
Mohammed have the wisdom to refrain from persecuting
the followers of Christ, they will be allowed by Western
nations to retain possession of the home of the Christian
faith. Crusades are not a feature of the nineteenth century ;
but though we Christians have now no ambition to organize
military expeditions for the conquest of Palestine, yet the
land is dear to us as a place of pilgrimage, and our feelings
of reverence and enthusiasm for the sacred sites are as

THE CRUSADES 303
deep as ever were the feelings of the most vehement
Crusaders. Yes ! with Shakespeare we can speak with love of
" Those holy fields,
Over whose acres walked those blessed feet
Which fourteen hundred years ago were nailed,
For our advantage, on the bitter cross. "

CHAPTER XXXI
FAKIRS
Fakir is derived from the Arabic word fakhar, which
means " poor," and Fakirs are to India what Dervishes are
to Arabia, Egypt, Persia, and Turkey. Fakirs are an order
of religious mendicants who take upon themselves vows of
poverty which cut them off from the cares of the world,
and enable them, as they think, to give themselves entirely
to contemplation of the Deity.
Whatever was the origin of the Orders of the Dervishes
amongst the Arabians, there can be little doubt that the
Mussulmans of India got their ideas of Fakirism from the
Hindoos. For almost countless ages vows of poverty have been
taken in India, and Orders of religious penitents have been
known to exist in the land. The fact is that the climate of
India, a country of flowers, fruits and sunshine, is conducive
to meditation, and seems to call to seclusion, if not to a
life of idleness. And tens of thousands of the people of
Hindustan have given way to the seductions of the climate,
and have sought in a hermit's cell to pass a life of quiet
and ease.
The Mohammedans, when they conquered India, seem to
have been strangely drawn towards the devotees who dwelt
in the land, and who were known as Saints or Sanyassis.
The intense religious feeling of the Moslems saw in such
hermit life a fitting way to express their zeal for holy
things ; and, with enthusiasm, numbers of them speedily

FAKIRS 305
imitated the example of their Hindoo neighbours, and filled
the country with hermitages.
With the Moslems came in the new name Fakir, which
now prevails in the East to characterize the religious mendi
cants of every sect and creed. To the Mohammedans is
largely due also, I think, the excessive rigour which many
Fakirs have shown in the observance of their vows of
poverty. Abstinence was encouraged to degenerate into
mortification and self-torture, and the belief became general
amongst the Fakirs that the more painful their deeds of
asceticism were, the better pleased God would be with
them. These fanatics took to living in holes, and caves, and
dens of the earth, and under banian-trees in the neighbour
hood of mosques, practising their penances and mortifica
tions, sometimes openly, but usually in the loneliness of
their hidden retreats. The nature of the vows that the
more extreme among the Fakirs take may be understood
if we bear in mind that some have been known to remain
for life in one position, others have been seen dragging
heavy chains or cannon balls, or crawling upon their hands
and knees for years ; others have been found lying upon
iron Spikes for a bed, and others have been known to swing
for months before a slow fire with an Indian sun blazing
overhead. Nor do these horrible torments satisfy the unnatural
Eastern taste for asceticism, for the brotherhood is con
stantly on the look-out for some new method of self-
torture. Elphinstone, in his "History of Cabul," tells
with dry humour a tale of Haji Meean, one of the most
famous Fakirs of Peshwar, who sent a special messenger
to Kabul, begging the English resident to let him know
as a favour what severities were practised by Saints in
Europe. The messenger was a Persian of the Shia sect, and as
the Fakir was a devotee of the Suni persuasion, the servant
was only too delighted with his errand. Elphinstone says :
x

306 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
"Accordingly, when I told him that our clergy performed
no austerities, but thought they recommended themselves
to God by leading a virtuous and religious life, he begged
me not to disappoint the holy man, his master, but to
favour him with a few penances in which he might indulge
his zeal. I then replied that there were other parts of
Europe where the devout exposed themselves to great
sufferings, and I mentioned all I could remember of hair-
shirts and flagellation. The Persian thanked me with a
mischievous smile, and said he was sure the Haji, his
master, would be sensibly obliged to me, and took his
leave, evidently pleased with the amusement he had pro
cured for his employer."
Fakirs may be divided into certain classes, and at the
head I would place those who may with truth be described
as men of saintly character. I have met a few, and I
believe there are many such in India. Their ethical code
consists in love for God and man, and in the observance of
truth, chastity; and inward purity of thought.
Mrs. Meer Hassan 'Ali, in her book on the "Mussul
mans of India," mentions one saintly Fakir called Shah
Jee, who lived at Pelhi. This man, it seems, spent the
principal part of each day in silent prayer and meditation,
when no one ever ventured to intrude within his small
sanctuary, though hundreds would assemble outside the
building to wait for the appearance of the Saint, whose
habit it was to appear publicly for an hour or so, and
speak gracious words to all who would listen. When the
time drew near for this good man to die, it is said that he
foretold the event by twenty days, and speaking to his wife
and children about it, he urged them to be resigned to
the will of God, and not unduly mourn his loss.
As may be supposed, however, the sorrowful family
greatly bemoaned the coming event, for the Fakir had ever
been kind, affectionate, and even indulgent in his domestic
life. To such an extreme did his relatives carry their grief
that the holy man was displeased with them, and gently

FAKIRS 307
upbraided them with their folly, and when they would not
modulate their bewailings, he is said to have remarked :
•" Well, well, my dear wife and children, since you cannot
live without me, I will offer my prayers to the gracious
Giver of all good that He may be pleased to permit you all
to bear me company in death."
But that was not what the sorrowful relations desired, so
they hushed their grief and allowed the old man to die
in peace. The parting words ©f the Saint were : " This
life hath no joys to be compared with those which the
righteous man's hopes lead him to expect in the world
beyond the grave. Farewell ! until we meet again in a
blessed eternity."
Some Fakirs have not only displayed great holiness, but
have shown great wisdom, and have been the revered guides
of princes and monarchs. One of the most famous of
these wise Fakirs was Shah-ood-Dowlah, who lived in the
reign of Shah Jahan, and whose tomb is- worshipped by
the Faithful even at the present day.
This Fakir's fame was great in the land before he met the
Moghul Emperor, and the latter had often- wished to see
the wise man, and converse with him. At length the event
>.ame to pass quite unexpectedly. As the King was seated
one day on the roof of his palace at Agra, with some of
his most eminent courtiers,' one of them suddenly exclaimed :
" See, there, just before us in the open plain, is Shah-ood-
Dowlah, the famous Fakir ! " The monarch ordered that
the Saint should be hailed and invited into the Presence.
The Fakir answered the call readily, and expressed his
willingness- to meet the King. Whereupon a basket was
let down from the roof by a strong rope, and the Saint on
entering it was speedily drawn to the top. Shah Jahan
received the Holy Man most graciously. "Pray be
seated, my friend," he said, leading his visitor to the most
honoured part of the royal carpet.
The Fakir, to the astonishment of the assembled courtiers,
obeyed without a moment's hesitation. Then Shah Jahan
x 2

308 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
remarked : " I have , long desired this happiness, that I
might -'converse with thee, for I have heard much of thy
great virtue and good life from my subjects." The Saint
modestly replied : " They do but flatter me, O King, for
none can tell what passes in my heart when *they view
only my face. I am but a poor and sinful Fakir."
Next the King said : " Thou art reputed wise, Shah-ood-
Dowlah — wise as well as good. Wilt thou answer me a
question?" "Willingly, if I can, O Protector of the
World," was the response. " Then tell me this : How is it
that God hath so enlightened thee, and that thou livest so
near to Him ? "
The Holy Man, smiling, said : " Listen, your Majesty, to
what I have to say. Thou thyself wast desirous of becom
ing known to me, one of the humblest of thy subjects.
The opportunity arrived, and thou didst condescend to let
down a rope to assist me into thy presence. With equal
condescension thou hast seated me by thy side. These
things I could not have won by right; they are all of grace.
J3o it is with God ! Allah draws those whom He will unto
Himself. ' He- sees into the hidden recesses of the human
heart, and knows every working of mortal minds, and He
is all-powerful, so that He can draw to Himself with the
cords of love our heart, and soul, and mind, with infinitely
less effort than thou hast exerted to draw my mortal body
within thy palace. . It is God who in mercy throws the line
to man ; happy that soul who accepts the offered means by
which he may ascend. For my part, I have done nothing
but respond to the calls of Allah, and He has filled me
with His spirit, which some call the spirit of wisdom."
Shah Jahan was delighted with the beautiful answer
of the Fakir, and from that day forward they were firm
friends and true, and the influence of the aged Saint
over the King was ever on the side of justice, truth, and
mercy. The Emperor Akbar, however, was not as fortunate as
Shah Jahan in his relationship with Fakirs, for though he

FAKIRS 309
'received many favours from these holy men, they usually
ended by treating him churlishly. Loneliness, it is known,
does not tend to sweeten the temper, and when austerities
are added to loneliness we cannot wonder that some Fakirs
have developed a very churlish disposition.
History tells us that Akbar the Great, in the early days
of his glorious reign, was greatly troubled because the sons
and daughters born to him all died in infancy. At length
some one suggested for the Royal comfort that perchance
a pilgrimage to the shrine of the holiest Fakir in India, who
resided in Ajmere, might win the favour of Heaven.- It
has always been an article of faith amongst Moslems that
the prayers of Saints ensure the birth of healthy and strong
children. Akbar closed readily with the suggestion, and
set off with his favourite wife on the long journey.
" It was a journey of more than three hundred miles,
and it was necessary to perform it on foot. Yet must the
Begum be shielded from the too curious gaze of chance
passers-by. So long screens of cloth were stretched on
either side of the carpeted road, which was made ready for
the Imperial pilgrims in stages of six miles, at each of
which they halted for the night, and these spots were thence
forward marked by the building of high towers."
On their arrival at Ajmere, however, the most holy Saint
bade them retrace their steps to a place called Sikri, where
lived another Fakir named Sheikh Salim; and it was
intimated that the latter would plead the cause of the
King with Allah. Akbar piously complied with the direc
tions given him, and at length stood in the presence of
Salim, who promised him all that his heart desired.
" Accordingly the Begum took up her abode in a humble
dwelling near the Fakirs, and in due time she became the
mother of the future Emperor Jahangir."
/Let the rest be told in the words of C. F. Gordon Cum-
ming, who refers to the incident in her charming book " In
the Himalayas and on the Indian Plains " : —
"The grateful Akbar took up his abode permanently

310 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
within reach of the counsels of the all-prevailing Saint*
So at Sikri he built a beautiful palace, and all his courtiers,
his Prime Minister, and other great men, likewise built
themselves houses and palaces. They made gardens and
wells, the hill was crowned with a lovely white marble
mosque, and its rocky sides were laid out in terraces. In
the plain below a great artificial lake was formed, twenty
miles in circumference, and the beautiful new city, which
covered a circle of six miles in diameter, was fortified with
strong ramparts and battlements. But, alas ! all the fuss
and. bustle attendant on this busy court life disturbed the
devotions of the hermit, who at last could bear it no longer,
and sending for the Emperor, informed him that one of
them must forthwith depart. Akbar was grieved for the
fate of his fair new city, but his duty was clear. The aged
Saint must be left to pray in peace, so court and courtiers,
great and small, departed straightway to the banks of the
Jumna, and there built that glorious city of Akbarabad, the
modern Agra."
At the present day the deserted city of Fatehpur Sikri is
one of the sights which all visitors to Northern India should
see : and there, in the centre of the great cloistered quad
rangle, stands as beautiful a tomb as ever Eastern taste
devised, which is sacred to the memory of the churlish
Fakir, Sheikh Salim, who gave an Emperor to the world
and ruined a city.
From churlish to vengeful Fakirs is but a step. And I
am afraid there are many such in India. Tales are being
constantly told of the spitefulness and savagery of men who
professedly are holy and saintly. It is a common thing for
Fakirs of the baser sort, when they are refused alms, to
curse those who refuse them, and to imprecate the vengeance
of Heaven upon such. The people of India stand in mortal
dread of many of their most famous saints, and by timely
gifts seek to propitiate them, and thus avert misfortune or
disaster. One of the most remarkable cases of vengeance on record

FAKIRS 311
is that of the Fakir who compassed the capture of Suraj-
ood-Dowlah, the Nabob of Moorshedabad, when he was
fleeing from the English who had defeated his army on the
field of Plassey. Suraj-ood-Dowlah had not only incurred
the enmity of the British by the awful tragedy of the Black
Hole at Calcutta, but he had disgusted many of his own
subjects by his savage manners and cruel deeds. The
Fakirs of Bengal especially were incensed against him
because he had brutally treated one of the fraternity by
cutting off his ears.
When the Nabob in his flight from Moorshedabad to
wards Patna became oppressed one night with hunger, and
landed from his boat opposite Rajmahal, and took shelter
in the hut of a poor Fakir, he little thought that in the
strange irony of fate he had entered the abode of the very
man whom thirteen months before he had maltreated and
spurned from his presence. ¦ Yet so it was ! The Fakir,
who had been brooding over his wrongs, at once recognized
his oppressor notwithstanding his disguise. Then hospitality
and vengeance strove for the mastery in the breast of the
Saint. Mercy and hate struggled hard the one with the
other for power, and hate conquered.
The spirit of the Fakir was simply wild for vengeance,
and though he pretended to receive the fallen Monarch
. hospitably he sent off a friend privately to Moorshedabad
to reveal the fugitive's hiding-place, and before the night
wore out Suraj-ood-Dowlah was a prisoner, and ere miny
more nights had passed the deposed Nabob was numbered
with the dead, stabbed to the heart by the son of Meer
Jaffer, his successor. Thus did a poor Fakir compass his
vengeance on a powerful foe ! And the deed increased the
fear, if not the respect, of the Moslems of India for the
brotherhood of the so-called Saints.
It seems a paradox to speak of wealthy Fakirs, and yet
it is a fact that many of these holy men have amassed con
siderable fortunes by fair means or by foul. And numbers
who do not become wealthy yet gather together a com-

312 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
petency, and are enabled to indulge in all kinds of riotous
living. Clever rogues soon found out that Fakirism might
be made to pay financially. One writer says : " The halo
which from the first surrounded Fakirism, and the ready
worship offered by the people, attracted to its ranks at a
very early date many whose motives were anything but
pure, and who under a garb of humility and mendicity
collected fabulous treasures."
Even in recent years instances have been known of Fakirs
greedily gathering together that wealth which they profess
to despise and renounce. Mrs. Meer Hassan Ali tells a
curious story of a holy brother whom she knew well. When
the last King of Oude but one, she says, was a young man
and not ,on the throne, he met outside the city of Lucknow
a Fakir clothed in rags, who spoke to him and predicted a
great future for him. The Prince, greatly pleased, promised
the holy man, if his predictions came true, that he would
reward him in any way he wished.
Years passed by and the Fakir wandered in foreign
parts, but at length he turned his face once more towards
Lucknow, and found, as he had predicted, that the Prince.
had become King of. Oude. The Saint lost no time in
making himself known to his Majesty, and in claiming his
promised reward. The King was glad to see him, and
granted his request for five cowries daily from every shop
keeper in the city of Lucknow. His Majesty, moreover,
gave him a good house to reside in, and an elephant on
which he might ride to collect his revenue.
Five cowrie shells make only one-seventeenth part of a
pice or half-penny, and yet the Fakir knew what he was
doing when he made his request, for he was aware of the
large population of Lucknow; and it is said that he was for
the rest of his life in receipt of a very handsome daily
allowance from the inhabitants of the capital of Oude.
For many years the strange sight was witnessed every
morning in Lucknow of a Saint riding on an elephant to
gather in his riches,' which he spent every evening in any-

FAKIRS 313
thing but a saintly manner. At the present time there are,
it is estimated, in India over a million Fakirs, tens of
thousands of whom live a roving life in companies, and
the appearance of the roving fraternity is usually disgusting
in the extreme. " Some bedeck themselves with the skins
of serpents, some with human bones, while others array
themselves in the garb of women. Their fearful shrieks,
and the hideous rolling of their eyes, add to the disgust of
their appearance. Imitating madmen, they generally end
by becoming madmen."
Bishop Heber in his Diary mentions meeting mad Fakirs
on more than one occasion. Let me give an interesting
extract. Writing on July 23, 1824, from his boat, in the
vicinity of Dacca, the good Bishop says : " In the course
of our halt this morning a singular and painfully interest
ing character presented - himself in the person of a
Mussulman Fakir, a very elegantly-formed and handsome
young man of good manners, but with insanity strongly
stamped in his eye and forehead. -He was very nearly
naked, had a white handkerchief tied as an ornament round
his left arm, a bright yellow rag hanging loosely over the
other, a little cornelian ornament set in silver round his
neck, a large chaplet of black beads, and a little wooden
cup in his hand. He asked my leave to sit down on the
bank to watch what we were doing, and said it gave his
heart pleasure to see Englishmen, that he himself was a
great traveller, had been in Bombay and Cabul, and wanted
to see all the world, wherein he was bound to wander as
long as it lasted. I offered him alms, but he refused,
saying he never took money — that he had had his meal
that day, and wanted nothing. He sat talking wildly with
the servants a little longer, when I again asked if I could
do anything for him. He jumped up, laughed, and said
' No pice ! ' Then he made a low obeisance, and ran off
singing. His manner and appearance nearly answered to
the idea of the Arab Mejnoun when he ran wild for Leila."
In drawing this description of Fakirs to a close I cannot

314 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
but reflect that they are, as a community, a strange mixture
of wisdom and folly, of goodness and evil. But the evil
preponderates over the good, and the folly over the wisdom.
The Fakirs of India indeed are a standing menace to the
peace and prosperity of the land.
In the past the British Government has had on occasion
to seek to put them down with a strong hand, and such a
course will probably have to be adopted again and again.
What with Hindoo, and Moslem Fakirs, it is estimated that
a force of three millions has to be reckoned with. That
country is to be pitied that has within its borders such a
large army of lazy, good-for-nothing, fanatical people, living
solely on charity, and very often on the fat of the land !
And yet certain Western enthusiasts, who know not what
they say, advise Missionaries going out to labour in the
East to become Christian Fakirs. It cannot be !

CHAPTER XXXII
BARBARY CORSAIRS
Barbary is an extensive region of Northern Africa com
prising the countries known as "Barca, Tripoli Proper,
Fezzan, Tunis, Algeria, Morocco, together with the half-
independent province of Sus. It stretches from Egypt to
the Atlantic Ocean, and from the Mediterranean to the
Deserts of Sahara." Geographers tell us that Barbary is
not specially African in its characteristics, but in climate,
flora, fauna, and geographical configuration, belongs to that
great region which forms the basin of the Mediterranean.
However, the people of the land are distinctly Eastern in
their appearance, habits, and customs.
As early as the year 647 Barbary was overrun by the
Arabs, and in less than a century the greater part of the
Native tribes were forcibly converted to the faith of Islam,
and ever since they have remained faithful followers of the
Prophet Mohammed. Arabic is the general language of
commerce and intercourse, and the population at the present
day of the whole country is estimated at about eleven
millions. The history of Barbary from the seventh century to the
seventeenth had nothing in it of special interest for the
world, though the country was the scene of many wars and
dynastic changes, which affected both Egypt and Spain.
However, at the close of the sixteenth century, there oc
curred an event, viz., the expulsion of the Moors from Spain
by Ferdinand and Isabella, which wrought a marvellous

316 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
change in the history of Barbary, and directed towards the
land the eyes of all European nations.
If the Christians of Spain had acted wisely in the 'day of
victory, they would have granted the Moors, who were
skilful artisans and agriculturists, permission to stay in the
country, and have given them freedom of religious worship.
But the intense bigotry of their Catholic Majesties could
not bear the thought of permitting even a single Moslem to
live in Spain, so on the fall of Granada the Mohammedans
who were not slain were ignominiously driven forth to find
a home where best they could. It is stated that no less than
three millions of Moors were banished between the fall of
Granada and the first decade of the seventeenth century.
And many of those exiles sought refuge with their co
religionists on the coasts of Barbary, and there, not being
wanted to till the ground, they determined to " plow the
sea," and to turn their daring and energies towards the
harassment and spoliation of their enemies and persecutors,
the Spaniards. Thus arose the powerful communities of
Moslem pirates at Tunis, Morocco, and especially Algiers,
which came to be designated the Barbary Corsairs, and which
for nearly three centuries were the scourge of Europe.
Mohammedans, as a rule, have a very strong aversion to
the sea. The early Arabs knew nothing of it except by
repute, and from all they heard they regarded it as a terrible
monster which loved to destroy human life. It is related
of the Caliph Omar that on the conquest of Egypt he wrote
from Medina to his General Amr, at Alexandria, requesting
him to give a description of the ocean. Amr wrote briefly
but forcibly, saying : " The sea is a huge beast which silly
folk ride like worms on logs." Thereupon the Caliph,
greatly impressed, and confirmed in his objections to a sea
faring life, issued a decree forbidding all Moslems to
voyage on the great deep without the special sanction of
the Commander of the Faithful.
Subsequent Caliphs, however, revoked that decree, and
the Omiades of Damascus, wise in their generation, directed

BARBARY CORSAIRS 317
their lieutenants on the shores of Egypt and Barbary to
endeavour as far as possible to compete with other nations
on the sea as well as on land. Tunis was the first city
to become a Moslem seaport. There the Arabs formed an
arsenal and dockyard and began to collect a fleet. The
work was carried on, however, very half-heartedly, for the
Mohammedans could not bring themselves for generations
to like the sea, and it became a common saying amongst
them : " Allah has not given us command over the ocean."
The advent of the Moors on the Barbary coast in the
seventeenth century wrought a change, at any rate for a
season, and seemed to promise fair to turn Moslems into
sailors. The new-comers were men of surpassing bravery,
and were filled with a fierce hatred against the Spaniards,
and as the only way to cause the latter to feel the weight of
their hate seemed to be to attack them on the sea, to the
sea, then, they determined to go.
The Moors established their headquarters at Algiers, a
town so far almost unknown, and gathering kindred spirits
around them from the tribes of Barbary, they built little
brigantines, and ere long sallied forth to try their . trength
with their foes, whose big ships offered grand prizes to the
reckless and daring. Stanley Lane-Poole, writing of these
things, says : " What joy more fierce and jubilant than to
run the light brigantine down the beach of Algiers, and
man her for a cruise in Spanish waters. Drawing little
water, a small squadron of brigantines could be pushed up
almost any creek, or lie hidden behind a rock till a galleon
hove in sight. Then oars out, and a quick stroke for a few
minutes, and they are alongside their unsuspecting prey, and
pouring in their first volley. Then a scrambling on board,
a hand-to-hand scuffle, a last desperate resistance on the
poop under the captain's canopy, and the prize is taken,
the prisoners ironed, a jury crew sent on board, and all
return in triumph to Algiers, where they are received with
acclamations." Thus for a time the Moorish pirates carried everything

318 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
i
before them, and grew rich, and their strong places on the
Barbary coast became populous and well garrisoned. At
last, however, the Spaniards roused themselves in earnest,
and Cardinal Ximenes despatched a small fleet to bring the
Corsairs to book. The pirates fought well and bravely, but
their old enemies were too strong for them, and succeeded
in crippling their power, though not in utterly destroying
them. The Algerines were compelled to promise to give
up piracy, and to see that they kept their promise, the
Spaniards built and garrisoned a fort at the entrance to
Algiers to prevent the Moorish brigantines from sallying
forth. The Corsairs were not long silenced, for relief came to
them from an unexpected source. In the Levant there
lived a Turkish sea-captain called Uruj, who afterwards was
named Barbarossa- because of his red beard. This man,
having heard rumours of the successes of the Moorish
pirates, and the rich treasures they had gathered by their
capture of Spanish galleons, resolved that he also would
turn Corsair, and win for himself riches and renown. So
with a crew of bold comrades he left the Levant in search
of adventures.
Barbarossa's vessel was a stout galleon of eighteen banks
of oars, and the first enterprise in which he engaged was
off the Island of Elba against two vessels belonging to
his Holiness Pope Julius the Second, richly laden with
goods from Genoa and bound for Civita Vecchia. These
two galleons represented four times the strength of Barba
rossa's one ship, yet the latter forced them to strike their
colours, and sailed away with them as prizes to Tunis. We
are told that never was such a sight seen there before, and
the name of Barbarossa at once became famous throughout
the East and the West as a most valiant, enterprising, and
successful Commander.
From Tunis the daring Commander sailed for Algiers to
free his co-religionists from the power of the Spaniards.
He had now a force of sixteen galleons and six thousand

BARBARY CORSAIRS 319-
men, and with this army he wrought wonders. The
Spaniards were defeated, Algiers was taken, even the Moors
were subjugated, and Barbarossa captured stronghold after
stronghold both on the coast and inland, until the whole of
what was called Middle Barbary was at his feet, and his
dominions coincided with modern Algeria. Thus was
Barbary retained as the stronghold of pirates, whose depre
dations on the sea were more numerous and disastrous than
ever. ¦ Barbarossa was the very beau idkal of a Corsair, bold,
daring, venturesome, profusely liberal, and never so happy
as when engaged in hand-to-hand contests with the enemies
of his faith. Morgan says of him : " He was highly beloved,
feared, and respected by his soldiers and domestics, and
when dead, was by them all most bitterly regretted and
lamented. He left neither son nor daughter. He resided
in Barbary fourteen years, during which the harm he did to
Christians is inexpressible."
At the death of Barbarossa, in 15 18, his brother, Khyr-
ed-din, a man of equal bravery, and of greater prudence
and statesmanlike intelligence, succeeded him. His posi
tion seemed very insecure, for the Spaniards were pressing
the Corsairs hard, and hoped to destroy their power now
the great Barbarossa was dead. The new ruler proved
himself equal to the emergency, however, by sending an
Ambassador to Selim, the Sultan of Constantinople, begging
his Majesty's favour and protection.
The reply was' gracious. Selim had just conquered
Egypt, and was. glad to add Barbary, if only nominally, to
the Turkish crown. The Corsair was assured ofthe speedy
succour of 2,000 Janissaries, he was appointed Governor-
General of Algeria, and invested with the Turkish insignia
of office, viz., the horse and scimitar and horse-tail banner.
Thus strengthened, Barbarossa the Second was able to
drive off his Spanish assailants, to subdue all internal re
bellion, and to strengthen his garrisons along the coast.
Then, like his brother, he devoted himself to "a life on the

320 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
ocean wave," and spent his days in scouring the seas in
search of prey of every land and nation. " The season for
cruising began in May and lasted till the autumn storms
warned vessels to keep the harbours, or at least to attempt
no distant expeditions. During the summer months the
Algerian galleons infested every part of the Western Mediter
ranean. Nothing was safe from their attacks : not a vessel
ran the gauntlet of the Barbary coast in her passage from
Spain to Italy without many a heart quaking within her.
The Scourge of Christendom had begun, which was to keep
all the nations of Europe in perpetual alarm for three
centuries. The Algerian Corsairs were masters of the sea,
and they made their mastery felt by all who dared to cross
their path."
The success of the Pirates was truly astonishing. Every
thing they took in hand seemed to prosper. " The fleet of
Barbarossa the Second increased month by month, till he
had thirty-six of his own galleons perpetually on the cruise
in the summer season : his prizes were innumerable, 'and
his forces were increased by the fighting men of the seventy
thousand Moriscos whom he rescued in a series of voyages
from servitude in Spain. The waste places of Africa were
peopled with the industrious agriculturists and artisans
whom the Spanish Government knew not how to employ.
The foundries and dockyards of Algiers teemed with busy
workmen. Seven thousand Christian slaves laboured at
the defensive works and the harbour, and every attempt to
rescue them and destroy the pirates \vas repelled with
disastrous loss."
In 1535 Barbarossa was tempted away from Algiers by
the Sultan of Constantinople, who offered the renowned
Corsair the post of High Admiral of the Ottoman Empire.
The Turks were desirous of founding a naval power, and
they rightly judged that no one was so well fitted to foster,
encourage, and strengthen the sea-faring spirit in Moham
medans as the brave Algerian captain, who was called by
friends and foes alike " the Chief of the Sea."

BARBARY CORSAIRS 321
- The withdrawal of Barbarossa was almost the destruction
of Algiers, for the Spaniards, ever on the watch to find an
opportunity to subjugate their inveterate enemies, thought
their hour had come. The Emperor, Charles V., invincible
on land, resolved to add to his triumphs by utterly destroy
ing the nest of pirates who had so long ruled on the sea off
the coasts of Spain. In 1541 an immense flotilla or armada
started for Algiers, and it was expected that the Corsair
city, without the great Corsair in it, would capitulate at the
mere sight of such an overwhelming force.
But the Spaniards reckoned without their host. Though
Barbarossa was gone, he had left behind him gallant sea-
captains, named Dragut, Reis, and Sinan, who had scarcely
ever known defeat, and who were ready to meet any odds.
The odds in this case were enormously heavy, for on
October 19, 1541, "over five hundred sail, manned by
twelve thousand men, and carrying a land force of twenty-
four thousand soldiers, entered the roads of Algiers."
The city, which stands on a rocky promontory, was
strongly built, and was surrounded by a high wall with
many towers, but the garrison consisted only of a force of
eight hundred Turks, and perhaps five thousand Arabs and
Moors, so that, humanly speaking, its fate seemed sealed.
However, the forces of Nature came to the rescue. No
sooner had the Emperor Charles landed his troops than
the rains descended and the winds blew and beat upon his
army, till the wretched soldiers were ready to drop with
exhaustion and misery.
Then the Corsairs sallied forth, and caused immense
destruction amongst the invaders. A lull in the storm
gave the Spaniards hope, but on the 25th a very hurricane
sprang up, and the cause was lost. The flotilla in the bay
was at the mercy of- the winds and waves. "Anchors and
cables were powerless to hold the crowded jostling ships.
One after the other they broke loose and keeled over to the
tempest till their decks were drowned in the seas. Planks
gaped ; broadside to broadside the helpless hulks crashed

322 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
together. Many of the crews threw themselves madly on
shore. In six hours one hundred and fifty ships sank.
The rowers of the galleys, worn out with toiling at the oar,
at last succumbed, and fifteen of the vessels ran on shore,
only to be received by the Berbers of the hills, who ran
their spears through the miserable shipwrecked Sailors as.
soon as they gained the land."
The next day the storm cleared off, but it had done its
work, for the Spanish army was thoroughly demoralized,
and even the determined Charles saw the necessity for
retreat. So the camp was struck, and the dejected army
started on foot for the Bay of Temandefust, where the
remains of the fleet were lying at anchor. The Corsairs
hovered on the flanks of the retreating enemy, and cut
off thousands by the sword. Only a remnant reached
the ships, and when the thoroughly cowed Spaniards
sailed away, it is said that the great Emperor, who
would fain have held Europe in the palm of his hand,
sadly took the crown from off his head, and casting it into
the sea, said : " Go, bauble, let some more fortunate prince
redeem and wear thee."
It was a most famous victory for the Corsairs. So great
were the spoils taken that even the poor people of
Algiers became rich, and so many were the captives that it .
was a common saying, that " a Christian slave was scarcely
a fair barter for an onion." Thus the Barbary Corsairs
waxed stronger and more defiant.
For generations this state of things continued, and even
after the age of the great Corsairs had passed, petty pirates
reigned in Tunis, Tripoli, Morocco, and Algiers, to the
disgrace of Christendom, for certainly in the eighteenth
century any one of the Christian kingdoms could have
burnt out the hornets' nests if there had been a free hand
allowed by the other kingdoms. However, an insane
jealousy of each other kept all from acting, and thus the
pirates were left to carry on their unlawful trade with im
punity. Fridays and Sundays were the favourite days for

BARBARY CORSAIRS 323
the sailing of the Corsair vessels, which set forth to the
sound of guns. " God speed us ! " shouted the crews.
" God send you rich prizes ! " replied the crowds on the
shore. The ships of all nations were attacked, and there were
in the prisons of Algiers thousands of captives — English}
French, Spanish, Dutch, Italian, and Portuguese. SpeakT
ing of the English, Stanley Lane-Poole says : " Four
hundred British ships were taken by the pirates in three or
four years before 1622. Petitions went up to the Houses
of Parliament from the ruined merchants of the great ports
of England. Touching letters arrived from the poor capr
tives, seamen and captains, or plain merchants. In the
fourth decade of the seventeenth century there were three
thousand husbands and fathers and brothers in Algerine
prisons, and it was no wonder that the wives and daughters
thronged the approaches to the House of Commons and
besieged the members with their prayers and sobs."
But little was done, however, until the nineteenth cen
tury, to stop the iniquity, and the United States of America
can claim the honour of striking the first blow, which was
virtually the stroke of doom to the Barbary Corsairs. The
Americans refused to pay tribute to the Rovers, that tribute
which all other nations had basely and meanly paid for
permission for their vessels to pass the coasts of Barbary in
safety. The tribute had never been very efficacious, for
the pirates evaded its terms whenever they pleased. The
Americans, however, declared that whether efficacious or
not they would not pay it, and if the Corsairs attacked any
of their ships they would do it at their peril. And that
the United States meant what they said was made abun
dantly clear when, oh an insult to their flag, they attacked
Tripoli, and in June, 1805, obtained from the Corsairs a
treaty by which American vessels should be for ever free
from the depredations of the Rovers.
The English, shamed by the success of the Americans,
sought to cripple the power of the Algerines, and in 1827
Y 2

324 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
actually bombarded their capital, destroyed their fleet, and
forced them to terms. All slaves were set at liberty, and
good behaviour was promised for the future. By these
reprisals the Dey of Algiers was humbled and weakened,
though only for a time. In a few years the scourge began
again, and it became abundantly evident that nothing but
downright conquest would stop it.
In 1830 the French Government took the Pirates in
hand, and they did their work thoroughly. A fleet sailed
for Algiers, the French landed in strong force, and though
the Corsairs fought game to the last, they were overpowered
and utterly defeated. In July, 1830, the Dey, with his
family and attendants and belongings, sailed for Naples in a
French frigate, and Algiers had seen the last of its Moham
medan rulers.
And with the destruction of the Moslem power at Algiers,
and the substitution of a Christian power in its place, the
reign of the Barbary Corsairs was ended. Tunis now also
is practically under French control. Of the Barbary States
Morocco alone remains purely Mohammedan in its govern
ment. This century has seen a great change for the better
along the African coast. The wonder is that the Christian
States of Europe endured so long the dreadful curse of
piracy at their very doors ! It is marvellous in how many
ways the followers of Mohammed have been the scourge
of Christendom ! Happily on the sea the Moslem
supremacy has been utterly destroyed by the fall of the
Barbary Corsairs.

CHAPTER XXXIII
LITERATURE
Amongst the Mohammedans there has been from the
earliest days considerable literary culture. Even before the
time of Mohammed the Arabs were noted for the composi
tion of simple and natural poetry which celebrated the
feuds of tribes and sang the praises of heroes and fair
women. Some of the works of those early poets have of
late years been translated and published in Europe, and
critics declare that " they are remarkable for their pathos,
soaring conceptions, richness of imagery and phraseology,
free and unconstrained spirit, and the glow of their love and
hate." Mohammedanism, which owes so much to its founder,
owes this also to the Prophet, that he, by his marvellous
work, the Koran, introduced a new style in literature, and
gave an impetus to the study of noble thoughts and sublime
truths. All scholars agree in stating that the Koran is a marvellous
literary production, and I must say from my own diligent
study of it, of late years, that I have been astonished at its
wealth of diction, and the majestic swing of the sentences,
which, apart from the teaching, carry one away with admira-
' tion of the talents of the Prophet. Sale, in his " Prelim
inary Discourse," speaking on this subject, says : " The
Koran is universally allowed to be written with the utmost
elegance and purity of language, in the dialect of the tribe
of Quraish, the most noble and polite of all the Arabians,
but with some mixture, though very rarely, of other dialects.

326 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
It is confessedly the standard of the Arabic tongue." And
there can be no doubt that the noble diction and transcen
dental teaching of the Koran have had untold influence
over subsequent literary efforts in all Moslem countries.
In the days immediately succeeding the demise of the
great Prophet, wars and rumours of wars interfered with
the widespread cultivation of Belles-Lettres, but the desire
to study and compose was strong in many minds, and of
Ali, the son-in-law of Mohammed, we read that he was the
first Caliph to protect and encourage national literature.
This Prince was a scholar himself, and many of his wise
maxims and shrewd proverbs have been preserved and
published in a book called "The Sentences of Ali." It is
a remarkable work, and deserves to be more widely known
and read in the West. Let me give a few quotations, which
are chosen very much at random : —
" Opportunity is swift of flight, slow of return."
" Your victory over your enemy is your forbearance."
" Despair is a freeman, hope is a slave."
" A wise enemy is better than a foolish friend. "
"Thankfulness engenders increase."
" Life is the shadow of a cloud — the dream of a sleeper."
"A man's behaviour is the index of the man : and his discourse is
• the index of his understanding. "
It was only when the Mohammedan world passed under
the rule of the Abbasides of Bagdad, a.d. 750, that litera
ture, arts, and sciences were sedulously fostered and culti
vated on a wide and generous scale, and that, properly
speaking, the Moslem age of learning, which endured for
five hundred years, set in. The Omiades of Damascus
during the previous century had not been unmindful of the
claims of learning, but they had encouraged chiefly the
study and interpretation of the Koran, and confined their
flights of poetic eloquence to religious subjects. With the
Abbasides it was different, however. While not neglecting
the study of the Perspicuous Book, they had regard to other
books, and read widely of the literature of the Latins, the
Syrians, the Persians, and the Greeks.

LITERATURE 327
Writers of power and merit now sprang up on every side,
and Moslems of many lands wrote works dealing with
geography, history, philosophy, medicine, physics, and
mathematics. Learned men were invited from many
countries, and remunerated for their labours with princely
munificence. It is related of the Caliph Al-Mamun, who
reigned from 813 to 833, that he offered to the Greek Emperor
five tons of gold and a perpetual treaty of peace if he would
permit Leo the Philosopher, who afterwards became Bishop
•of Thessalonica, to proceed to Bagdad for a season to give
instruction in the Moslem schools and colleges : and when
the Emperor refused, Mamun declared war against him,
hut did not in the end succeed in gaining possession of the
Philosopher. However, the incident showed the zeal of the
•Caliph for knowledge, from whatever source it might come.
The same Commander of the Faithful once placed a
Christian at the head of a Moslem college in Damascus,
and when expostulated with on the strange act, answered:
" I chose this learned man not as my guide in religious
affairs, but as my teacher in science."
Harun-al-Rashid, the greatest of the Abbaside Caliphs, also
was a patron of learning, as well as being himself a diligent
student and fine scholar. The name of this prince suggests
a reference to that wonderful storehouse of Eastern litera
ture — the " Arabian Nights Entertainment." The Caliph
Harun figures prominently in some of the tales, as also do his
Prime Ministers — the famous but unfortunate Barmecides,
who encouraged men of learning to make their homes at
Bagdad. Few books have been translated into so many lan
guages, or have exerted so great an influence over literature
in all parts of the world, as the " Arabian Nights." When
the tales were written, or by whom, no one knows, though
they are undoubtedly of Saracenic origin. As one writer
has said : " Here are found depicted with much simplicity
.and great effect the scenes of the town-life of the Moslem j
the prowess pf the Arab Knight, his passion for adventure,

328 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
his dexterity, his love and his revenge, the craft of his wives,
the hypocrisy of his priests, and the corruptibility of his
judges, are all dramatically delineated — far more vividly
represented, in fact, than is possible in a book of travels ;
while gilded palaces, charming women, lovely gardens, and
exquisite repasts captivate the senses of the reader and
transport him to the land of wonder and enjoyment. And
besides entertaining the mind with the kaleidoscopic
wonders of a teeming and luxurious fancy, which is their
most obvious merit, they present a treasure store of instruc
tion upon life in general, and Oriental life in particular."
As examples of the poetry or rhyme which prevailed in
the days of the Abbasides, I would quote from three
poets. The first quotation is iri rebuke of Harun-al-
Rashid, who, it is said, was ever fond of going on pilgrimage
to Mecca, but not always of acting as a devout Moslem.
On the occasion of one of his pilgrimages a poet addressed
to him these outspoken words : —
" Religious gems can ne'er adorn
The flimsy robe by pleasure worn ;
Its feeble texture soon would tear,
And give those jewels to the air.
Thrice happy those who seek the abode
Of peace and pleasure in their God ;
Who spurn the world, its joys despise,
And grasp at bliss beyond the skies."
The second quotation is an epigram which was addressed
by a poet to the somewhat cruel Persian General Tahir,
who was ambidextrous and blind of one eye. Tahir was
at the time, the year 812, in Bagdad. A poet, struck with
the General's peculiarities of body and mind, sent to him
the following rather sarcastic message : —
" A pair of right hands and a single dim eye,
Must form not a man, but a monster, they cry ;
Change a hand to an eye, good Tahir, if you can,
And a monster, perhaps, may be changed to a man."

LITERATURE 32.
The third quotation is a short poem composed by the
Caliph Radi, one of the last of the Abbasides. This ruler,
though young, had known much trouble and sorrow, and he
expressed his somewhat morbid sentiments with regard to
human life in the following not unpleasing lines : —
" Mortal joys, however pure,
Soon their turbid source betray ;
Mortal bliss, however sure,
Soon must totter and decay.
Ye who now with footsteps keen
Range through hope's delusive field,
Tell us what the smiling scene
To your ardent grasp can yield.
Other youths have oft before
Dreamed their joys would never fade,
Till themselves were seen no more —
Swept into oblivion's shade.
Who with health and pleasure gay,
E'er his fragile state could know,
Were not age and pain to say —
Man is but the child of woe. "
The Fatimites of Egypt and the Moors of Spain vied
with the Abbasides of Bagdad in the pursuit of learning.
They founded grand colleges, and collected vast libraries
in the interests of education. Gibbon speaks even of a
private professor who refused the invitation of a Sultan of
Bokhara to proceed to his court because the carriage of his
books would have required four hundred camels.
It is estimated that " the royal library of the Fatimites
consisted of one hundred thousand manuscripts elegantly
transcribed and splendidly bound, which were lent without
jealousy or avarice to the students of Cairo." And at
Cordova, in Spain, it is said the Moors had formed a library
of six hundred thousand volumes, forty-four of which were
employed in the mere catalogue.
The monarch in Spain who was most famous for his
encouragement of learning was Hakam the Second, who

330 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
reigned towards the close of the tenth century. This
monarch was called the ¦ bookworm on account of his
insatiable appetite for gathering together vast quantities of
literature. Stanley Lane-Poole, in his work on the " Moors
in Spain," says that " Hakam had agents in all parts of the
East to buy rare manuscripts and bring them back to
Cordova. His representatives were constantly searching
the booksellers' shops at Cairo, Damascus, and Bagdad,
for rare volumes for the Sultan's library. When the book
was not to be bought at any price, he would have it copied,
and sometimes he would even hear of a book which was
only in the author's brain, and would send him a hand
some' present, and beg him to send the first copy to
Cordova." It seems also that Hakam was not merely a collector
but a reader of books, and was accustomed to annotate
them as he proceeded. "So learned was he, that his
marginal notes were greatly prized by scholars of after
times, and the destruction of a great part of his library
by the Berbers was a serious loss to Arab literature."
Spain in the Middle Ages was for some generations the
centre of European culture, and students journeyed thither
from all parts of Europe to study under the Moslem doctors
in all the branches of the arts and science, and especially in
botany, architecture, astronomy, and medicine.
If from Spain we journey in thought to Persia we find
the same interest taken by Mohammedans in the cultivation
of literature. In the eleventh century Mahmud of Ghazni
was famous not only for his exploits as a warrior but for his
true and deep sympathy with authors in their literary efforts.
His capital Was the great rendezvous of scholars from all
parts of Asia, and the sum of ^9,000 sterling was annually
voted from the civil list for the encouragement of poets and
men of letters.
The greatest epic poet of Persia was Firdausi, and his
master work was the composition of a history of the
Persian kings in verse, which labour of love occupied

LITERATURE 331
him during thirty years. This famous " Book of Kings "
contains 60,000 double lines. One writer says of it :
" Without going so far as many critics have gone, we may
fairly rank it among the greatest epics of all nations — the
Iliad, the Mahabharata, the Nibelungen. Truth and
fiction, history and fairy lore, all the most gorgeous imagery
of the East and its quaintest conceits, together with the
homeliest and most touching descriptions of human joy and
sorrow, of valour and of love, the poet has formed into' one
glowing song."
For this wonderful literary effort Mahmud from the
first promised the poet that when it was completed he
would give him a gold dirhem for every line in it. How
ever, when the hour arrived for payment, the Sultan, whose
love for the poet had been undermined by jealous enemies,
only sent 60,000 dirhems of silver instead of gold.
Firdausi was at a public bath when the. messenger arrived
with the money, and so angry was he with the conduct of
the Sultan, that he refused to accept the dirhems for his
own use, but divided them into three portions, and gave
them away, one portion to the messenger, another to the
bath keeper, and the third to a man who had brought him
a glass of sherbet.
Then the poor poet, whose brain was turned with dis
appointment and rage, penned a most bitter satire on his
royal master, which he forwarded to him by a favourite
slave, with the sarcastic message that the King should read
it in an hour of despondency. Mahmud was greatly
incensed, and if Firdausi had not fled to Bagdad and
sought the protection of the Abbasides, it would have
fared ill with him.
As it was, the poet was a proscribed man, and went daily
' in fear of his life, for the hatred of the Sultan followed him
even in exile. At length,, however, after thirteen years of
enmity, the feelings of Mahmud were softened, towards his
illustrious subject, and he repented of the way he had
treated him, and sent a caravan loaded with the costliest
goods to Shedab, where the poet was residing in great

332 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
poverty, entreating forgiveness and .reconciliation. Such
overtures arrived too late, however, for, -sad to say, as the
Sultan's messengers entered one gate of the city, the poet's
bier was carried out to its last resting-place at the other.
Thus lived and died the renowned Moslem, Firdausi, one of
the greatest geniuses of the world, and one of the most
unfortunate. In Persia, more than in any other Mohammedan country,
we find that literature was fostered and encouraged, and
in the twelfth, thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries there
appeared a galaxy of famous authors. Firdausi but led the
way, and after him came Anwari, the satirist,' Nizami, the
founder of the romantic school, and Jami, Attar, and Rumi,
all mystics. The Sufistic or mystic poetry of Persia was
greatly enjoyed by the Faithful, for it represented in glow
ing songs of love and wine the mystery of Divine love,
and the union of the human soul with God.
In 1 29 1 died Sadi of Shiraz, the unrivalled didactic poet
of the East. The catalogue of this author's works com
prises twenty-two different kinds of writings in Persian and
Arabic. " The Gulistan ; or, Rose Garden," is the most
famous. It is a work in prose and verse, consisting of eight
chapters on Kings, Dervishes, Contentment, Taciturnity,
Love and Youth, Decrepitude and Old Age, Education,
and the Duties of Socjety. It is a charming production,
which one never tires of reading, and from which may be
gathered much instruction and edification.
Everywhere in the East Sadi's memory is idolized, and
his own countrymen say of him that he was " the most
eloquent of writers, the wittiest author of either modern or
ancient times, and one of the four monarchs of eloquence
and style."
The last of the superlatively great writers of Persia was
Hafiz, who was born at the beginning of the fourteenth
century, and who lived to its close. His poetry was chiefly
lyrical, and he sang of wine and love, of nightingales and
flowers, and of things beautiful in every form. He
occasionally also wrote in praise of Allah, and of

LITERATURE 333
Mohammed the Prophet. Hafiz was a Dervish, but -there
was no hypocritical devoutness about him. He believed in
enjoying to the full the good things of this world, so far as
was consistent with purity and honour, and in some of his
poems he speaks with withering contempt of professional
piety, of mock humility, and of religious sanctimoniousness.
The lyrics of 'Hafiz were of such exquisite sweetness, that
he received the name of Shakkar-lab, or Sugarlip. This
poet's works have been translated into many languages.
The other Moslem countries, viz., India, Afghanistan,
and Turkey, have not produced writers of such eminence
as those geniuses already mentioned, but, nevertheless,
each has had its " men of light and leading " in the realm
of literature. They have all, however, been greatly
influenced by the master-minds of Persia, so that in
Mohammedan countries generally we find a wonderful
similarity in thought and style. >
As a rule Europeans do not find the study of Moham
medan literature very attractive, for its prose, with but few
exceptions, is bombastic, and its poetry bristles with verbal
tricks and mannerisms that give a forced and unnatural
air to the style. . Then the subject-matter is often trivial,
sometimes foolish, and not seldom inclined to wantonness.
Moslem literature is also very wordy, and a great deal
has to be waded through before much useful information
can be gathered. Still, for my part, I hold that the best of
the literature of the Mohammedans is well worthy of our
serious study, and that the world owes a debt of gratitude
to the followers of the Prophet who, at any rate, in -a
period of mental darkness in Europe, held up the torch of
learning to humanity.
It was an Eastern writer, Abulferaj, who said, and with
his words I would close this chapter : " They are the elect of
God, His best and most useful servants, whose lives are
devoted to the improvement of their rational faculties.
The teachers of wisdom are the true luminaries and
legislators of a world which, without their aid, would sink
into ignorance and barbarism."

CHAPTER XXXIV
ARCHITECTURE
Travellers in Eastern lands cannot but have beheld
with admiration the simplicity and beauty of Moslem
architecture, which is in truth usually the most striking
feature of an Eastern city.
I have used the phrase Moslem architecture advisedly,
for it is a curious fact that architecture is usually moulded
more by a religion than by a country. Whether we travel in
Turkey, Arabia, Egypt, Syria, India, or indeed wherever
Mohammedanism has spread, there we find evidences of
an architecture not so much peculiar to the land as to the
religion of which Mohammed was the Prophet. This
architecture may in one country be called Arabian, in
another Moorish, in another Saracenic, in another Moghul, •
but there is a general style about it which at once leads the
traveller to say : " That is Moslem ! "
The ancient Arabs had no architecture that was peculiarly
their own, and it was only after Mohammed had founded
his religion at Medina and Mecca that there began to
appear in the East a style of architecture that won a place
for itself as like and yet unlike what already existed. It
may therefore be said with truth that Mohammedanism
has made its mark in the world by its architecture as well
as by its creed.
And this architectural growth was, strange to say,
altogether undesigned and unconscious. Neither Moham
med nor his successors the Caliphs deliberately set them-

ARCHITECTURE 335
selves to found a school of religious art, but gradually, as
the years came and went, the Moslem style became notice
able. In the early days of the Faith the most unpretentious.
square or oblong buildings were erected in which to
worship God, and the main object kept in view was size
rather than shape. At Medina, where the first Mosque
was erected by the Prophet himself, there stands now, it is
true, a most beautiful structure, called Al-Haram, the
Sacred, but it is of comparatively recent erection. The old
Mosque was simple even to plainness.
Arthur Gilman, in his book on " The Saracens," referring
to that first architectural essay of Mohammedanism, says :
" One of the first duties of Mohammed was to begin the
erection of a place of worship, and his plans were of the
simplest nature. Trees were cut down at the place where
his camel knelt for him to descend ; walls of earth and
brick were built ; and trunks of palms were used to support
a roof which was framed of their branches and thatched
with their leaves. In this structure, which was of ample
proportions to accommodate a good congregation, the
Prophet was wont to preach, standing on the ground and
supporting himself against one of the palm-trees, until,
after a time, a pulpit was constructed for his use."
As the Moslems grew strong and wealthy, however, they
desired more substantial religious edifices, and in some
measure they copied the ecclesiastical buildings of their
neighbours, the Christians. In the second century of the
Hegira they even sent to Constantinople for Christian
architects to help them in designing their Mosques, the
result being that Moslem places of worship resembled
Greek churches of the plainer type. It was then that the
dome or cupola was introduced, which has since been' a
settled feature of Mosques.
Another feature, which indeed may be said to be strictly
Eastern, is that of minarets. Here originality came in,
and by minarets Moslem places of worship were at a stroke

336 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
differentiated from all other sacred edifices. A minaret is
a tall turret, and the conception of this turret was due to
the custom which the Prophet introduced of calling the
Faithful to prayers by the human voice, rather than by
bells or any other musical instruments.
With Christians, bells doubtless led to the idea of
towers, and with Moslems the call to prayers by the human
voice led to minarets. It was necessary that the Muezzin,
or Crier, should call from an exalted station, so that his
voice might be heard far and wide over the city. And
what more simple than to build him a tall turret on which
to stand while performing his allotted task. Thus with the
Moslems in this matter of minarets, necessity was the
mother of invention.
A minaret contains a staircase, and is divided into
several stories with balconies from which the Muezzin
sends forth his pleasing call, and the structure is crowned
with a spire or ornamental fimal. A minaret may be part
of a Mosque, or it may adjoin a Mosque, and there cannot
be a doubt that it is one of the most beautiful features of
Mohammedan architecture. Perhaps the most perfect
specimens are to be found in Egypt. I remember, when
in Cairo, marvelling greatly at the prodigious height and
wonderful beauty of the elegant minarets that adorn the
Mosques of that charming city.
In Northern India, at Delhi, there is to be seen a variety
of the minaret which is not to be met with elsewhere. I
refer to the famous Kutub Minar, which it was once
my privilege to ascend. It is not exactly a minaret, that
is to say, it is not now, if it ever was, connected with a
Mosque, but it is a lofty turret or tower which is called a
Minar. Until recently it was regarded as the highest
tower in the world, but Mohammedans can no longer
claim pre-eminence in that department of architecture.
High buildings in Western lands are now the fashion, and
the Kutub Minar has to take a second or third place for
height, though it may still perhaps hold its own for beauty.

ARCHITECTURE 337
Sir Edwin Arnold, referring to this grand tower in his
" India Revisited," says : " You arrive at last at the group
of ancient buildings, in the midst of which the Kutub
Minar lifts its lofty beauty to the sky, a pillar of fluted
masonry, two hundred and forty feet high, embellished at
each of its tapering stories with inscriptions in the Tughra
character of Arabic, which is so ornamental. The second
story of the marvellous pillar is completely belted with the
ninety-nine beautiful names of Allah. The three lowest
stories of this pillar of victory are made of warm red sand
stone, the upper ones of white Ulwur marble. Sultan
Altamsh completed it in 1230 a.d. No one can imagine
the effect of this conical column, with its deep-cut flutings
and diminishing cones, soaring, blood-colour and snow-
white, into the blue — twice the height of the Duke of
York's column, and adorned with flowing deep-cut Arab
scripts, with sculptured lamps, bells, and bosses."
Truly the Kutub Minar is a fine memorial of Moslem
architecture in the special and unique line of minarets !
The absence of all pictures, statues, and representations
of living creatures in association with Mohammedan build
ings is very noticeable. Christians have delighted in all
manner of animal figures on the walls of their prominent
buildings, and so have the Hindoos and the Bhuddists, but
with the Mohammedans it has been different. The com
mand of the Prophet that his followers were not to make
unto themselves any graven image has led to exceeding
great plainness on the walls of their mosques and palaces,
and has indeed been an enemy to plastic art amongst the
Moslems. Yet when the Faithful began to take a true interest in
architecture, their architects did what they could to attain
elegance of form and harmony of colour without infringing
the Prophet's commands or offending the religious scruples
of the strictly orthodox, and with what result our great art
critic Ruskin has well shown in his "Stones of Venice."
Let me quote the passage, Mr. Ruskin says : — z

338 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
" It was contrary to the religion of the Arab to introduce
any animal form into his ornament, but although all the
radiance of colour, all the refinements of proportion, and
all the intricacies of geometrical design were open to him,
he could not produce any noble work without an abstrac
tion of the forms of leafage, to be used in his capitals, and
made the ground plan of his chased ornaments. But I
have already noted that colouring is an entirely distinct and
independent art ; and in the ' seven lamps ' we saw that
this art had most power when practised in arrangements of
simple geometrical form : the Arab therefore lay under no
disadvantage in colouring, and he had all the noble
elements of constructive and proportional beauty at his
command : he might not imitate the sea-shell, but he could
build the dome. The imitation of radiance by the varie
gated voussoir, the expression of the sweep of the desert by
the barred red line upon the wall, the starred inshedding of
light through his vaulted roof, and all the endless fantasy of
abstract line, were still in the power of his ardent and
fantastic spirit. Much he achieved, and yet in the effort of
his overtaxed invention, restrained from its proper food, he
made his architecture a glittering vacillation^ of undisci
plined enchantment, and left the lustre of its edifices to
wither like a startling dream, whose beauty we may indeed
feel, and whose instruction we may receive, but must smile
at its inconsistency, and mourn over its evanescence."
The " abstraction of the forms of leafage," mentioned by
Mr. Ruskin, suggests a reference to what is known as
Arabesque, or a peculiar kind of fantastic decoration in
Moslem architecture. Forms of animals not being allowed
hy their creed, the Mohammedans had to fall back upon
the imitation of vegetable productions, varied by geometrical
patterns and inscriptions.
The result, though fantastic, was pleasing. In Cordova
at the present day may be seen some exquisite specimens
of Arabesque panelling, in which are most curiously
and elaborately intertwined the foliage, flowers, fruit,

ARCHITECTURE 339
and tendrils of plants and trees. It was a branch of
architecture iri which the Spanish Moors excelled, and
which they are supposed to have introduced into modern
Europe. Another very marked characteristic of Moslem architec
ture is that of archways. The finest specimens that the
world contains are indeed to be found in Mohammedan
countries. There is the pointed arch, the trefoil, and the
quatrefoil, and these styles, which are now common enough
in Europe, originally came from the Arabs. The earliest
example of the use of the pointed arch in Christian archi
tecture belongs . to the twelfth century ; but Parker, in his
"Glossary of Architecture," maintains that amongst the
Mohammedans it was known as far back as 780 a.d.
Then there is the horseshoe arch to be found to-day in
the Moslem ruins of Spain, and also in the buildings of
Morocco and Algiers. Judging by engravings I have seen
of these arches, I consider them to be extremely beautiful,
and yet, strange to say, it is a style of archway almost
unknown in Christian lands.
What magnificent archways there are in India ! For
example, take the four which admit to the grounds in
which stands, at Secundra, near Agra, the grand tomb of
Akbar, the greatest of the Moghul Emperors. The prin
cipal gateway is built of red granite, and is inlaid with white
marble. Even taken by itself it is worth a visit, and will
repay most diligent study. Then at the entrance to the
famous Taj Mahal, in Agra, there is another beautiful arch
way. But the grandest of all is to be found at Fatehpur
Sikri, about ten miles away.
Fatehpur Sikri is the deserted city in which the aged Saint
Salim lies buried, whose history has already been referred
to in the chapter on Fakirs. Akbar built a chaste white
marble tomb in memory of the Saint, which is to be found
in a quadrangle some five hundred feet square, and sur
rounded by a wall. The entrance to the lovely tomb is
through a colossal gateway, one hundred and- twenty feet in
z 2

340 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
height and the same in breadth. The span of the arch is
forty feet broad by sixty feet high, and it is undoubtedly
the most magnificent archway in the world. As Sleeman,
in his " Rambles," says Of it : " It is an archway under
which ships might sail."
Bishop Heber, also, in his " Journal of Indian Travel,"
speaks rapturously ofthe noble archway, and referring to it in
its choice surroundings, he writes : " The impression which
the whole view produced on me will be appreciated when I
say that there is no quadrangle either in Oxford or Cam
bridge fit to be compared with it, either in size, or majestic
proportions, or beauty of architecture." A very interesting
thing about the famous archway at Fatehpur Sikri is an
inscription which has been found on it, one section of
which has been translated as follows : " Said Jesus,* on
whom be peace ! the world is a bridge, pass over it, but
erect no building thereon : he who hopeth for an hour may
hope for an eternity : the world is but an hour, spend it in
devotion : the rest is unseen. Know that the world is a
glass where the favour has come and is gone : take as thine
own nothing more than what thou lookest upon."
Mohammedan architecture in association with tombs
must not be overlooked, for over the bodies of saints,
princes, and kings some very beautiful buildings have
been erected. Saint Salim's tomb at Fatehpur Sikri is con
sidered a choice specimen of Moslem skill and taste. Miss
C. F. Gordon Cumming, referring to it in her book, " In
the Himalayas and on the Indian Plains," says : " Over the
dust of the Fakir stands as lovely a tomb as ever Eastern
taste devised, a tomb of pure white marble, all inlaid with
mother-of-pearl gleaming with iridescent rainbow hues.
Rich hangings are there, and holy books, and the whole is
enclosed by screens of white marble, latticed and carved
like the finest lace."
[* Other authorities state that the word read Jesus (Christ) is really
Chisthi, the name of the Fakir at Ajmere (see p. 309) who was the
spiritual father of Saint Salim.]

ARCHITECTURE 341
Around innumerable tombs in India I have noticed
exquisite marble trellis-work, and I regard it as one of the
most beautiful features of Mohammedan architecture.
A fine specimen of early Moghul architecture is to be
seen at Delhi in the tomb of Humayun, which is also the
last resting-plaCe of many kings, queens, and princesses.
When the illustrious but unfortunate Humayun died, his
faithful wife, Haji Begum, began the erection of a noble
sepulchre to commemorate the name and fame of her
husband. This tomb, which took sixteen years in building,
was finished by Akbar, the son of Humayun.
It is a large square building with a dome, estimated to be
three-fourths the size of that of St. Paul's, London. The
termination of the dome, is marked by a firmly-moulded
cornice, which gives to it a bold and graceful curve. General
Cunningham says that in the tomb of Humayun we first
see towers attached to the four angles of a main building,
and this innovation in Moslem architecture was gradually
improved upon and developed until it culminated in the
beautiful Minars which are the glory of the Taj Mahal
at Agra.
The Taj Mahal is the queen of tombs. There is nothing
like it indeed in the whole world. It stands in a garden, by
which a river flows, and it is built of pure white marble inlaid
with all manner of precious stones. How to describe this
lovely square structure, with its grand central dome, its lofty
and graceful minarets, its superb archways, and its exquisite
inlaid work, I cannot tell. Fergusson, in his " History of
Indian and Eastern Architecture," remarks : " No building
in India has been so often drawn and photographed as this,
or more frequently described, but with all this it is almost
impossible to convey an idea of it to those who have not
seen it, not only because of its extreme delicacy, and the
beauty of the materials employed in its construction, but
from the complexity of its design."
This tomb was built in memory of Mumtaz Zamani,
the beloved wife of the Emperor Shah Jahan, and it is said

3-42 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
that twenty thousand men were employed upwards of seven
teen years in its construction, and that it cost somewhere
about three millions of English money. The plinth of
the Taj is over one hundred yards each way, and it
lifts its golden pinnacle two hundred and forty-four
feet into the sky. There the lofty structure stands, in
its charming surroundings, a thing of beauty and a joy for
ever !
The Taj Mahal is one of those rare buildings of which
the visitor never speaks disparagingly, for he is never
disappointed in his expectations. Bishop Heber when he
saw the tomb frankly confessed that its beauty exceeded,
rather than fell short of, his dreams. Sir Edwin Arnold, in
his " India Revisited," remarks that it is impossible to judge
the peerless edifice dispassionately, for its loveliness fairly
carries the soul away in an ecstasy of delight. Sleeman, in
his " Rambles and Recollections," says : " I asked my wife
when she had gone over the building what she thought of
it." She answered : 'I cannot tell you what I think, for I
know not how to criticize such a building, but I can tell
you what I feel. I would die to-morrow to have such
another over me.' "
Thus all who have seen this wonderful tomb agree in
regarding it as a masterpiece of human ingenuity and skill.
It has been well said, and by a native of India too : " The
Taj is in architecture what the Venus de Medici is in
'sculpture, or Shakespeare in poetry."
But : turning from tombs to palaces, Mohammedans
haye erected some magnificent buildings in Spain, Egypt,
and India, buildings which, though now chiefly in ruins,
are the wonder of the world. How famous the Moorish
architecture of Granada is ! The Alhambra, or Red Palace,
has been the favourite theme of art students and lovers of
the beautiful for centuries. That ancient palace of the
Moorish kings was begun in 1248 and finished in 1348.
The portions still standing are ranged round two oblong
courts, one called the Court of the Fish-pond, and the

ARCHITECTURE 343
other the Court of the Lions. They consist of porticoes,
pillared halls, cool chambers, small gardens, fountains, and
mosaic pavements. The lightness and elegance of the
columns and arches, and the richness of the ornamentation,
are unsurpassed. Charles the Fifth, as he looked upon
the splendid architectural remains of Granada, said of the
unfortunate Boabdil, the last of the Moors : " Ill-fated was
the man who lost all this ! "
The same might be said of the last of the Moghuls, as
we gaze upon the splendid ruins of palaces in the grand
old city of Delhi which the Moghul princes erected some
three centuries ago. Dr. Hunter, in his " Imperial Gazetteer
of India," says : " The great palace at Delhi, now the fort,
covered a vast parallelogram 1,600 feet by 3,200, with
exquisite and sumptuous buildings in marble and fine stone.
A deeply-recessed portal leads into a vaulted hall rising
two stories, like the nave of a gigantic Gothic cathedral,
375 feet in length, the noblest archway to any existing
palace. The Diwan-i-Khas, or Court of Private Audience,
overlooks the river, a masterpiece of delicate inlaid work
and poetic design."
Nothing in Imperial Rome, Sir Edwin Arnold says, ever
exceeded the magnificence of the Royal Palaces of Delhi.
And even now in its ruins the architectural display of the
famous city of the East will bear comparison with any city
in the world. The proud boast which a Moslem architect
engraved on one of the marble palaces of Delhi remains
true to this day : —
" If on the earth there be a bower of bliss,
That place is this, is this, is this, is this ! "
Thus we fitly bring our survey of Moslem architecture
to a close. The Mohammedans have in the past shown
great skill in all manner of architectural designs, and have
erected some exquisite public buildings. To quote a
famous saying of Bishop Heber : " They designed like
Titans and finished like jewellers."

344 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
It is doubtless true, as Ruskin has said, that the style of
architecture of the Moslems is evanescent, but no one can
deny its beauty, and its general effect wherever it is found
is to brighten all the surroundings, and to delight the eye
of the beholder. For my part, I count Moslem architecture
to be the glory of the East !

CHAPTER XXXV
ADMINISTRATION of justice
Mohammedanism, it has to be borne in mind, is not
only a system of belief, but a rule of practice : it not only
gives to the Faithful a theological creed, but laws of juris
prudence. In a very literal and true sense, Church and
State in Moslem countries are one and indivisible.
The Koran is the great authority, not merely as to what
a man shall believe and what he shall do, but also as to
what punishment in this world, as well as the next, shall
follow unbelief and unworthy deeds. The administration
of justice is, in fact, very much in the hands of the teachers
and preachers of the Sacred Scriptures ; and at the present
day in Constantinople the chief ecclesiastical functionary is
the chief legal officer or magistrate.
At the commencement of Mohammedanism the Prophet
himself was for some time the Judge of the people in the
civil as well as religious affairs of their life ; but,' like the
great Jewish legislator, Moses, he found the task too heavy
for him, and at length appointed a number of officers who
were Readers of the Law, chosen from his most devoted
adherents, to assist him in his labours. Still, he reserved to
himself the right of overruling the decisions of his subordi
nates, thus practically forming in his own person what we
call a Court of Appeal.
The successors of Mohammed also for many generations
exercised the power of Supreme Judge, and seemed to
delight in the work thereby involved. One of the most

346 STUDIES IN, MOHAMMEDANISM
noted of these Caliph-judges was Omar, the Second Com
mander of the Faithful. The probity and justice of this
great prince were proverbial, and he laboured night and
day in the settlement of difficult cases.
It is related of Omar that he was the first judge to put
into use a scourge with twisted thongs for the correction of
minor offences, amongst which he included satire and
scandal. So potently was this new instrument of punish
ment applied that it speedily passed into a proverb through
out the Caliph's dominions : " Omar's twisted scourge is
more to be feared than his sword." The scourge is still
widely used in the East.
Another favourite Mohammedan instrument of punish
ment is the bastinado. This name is derived from the
French baston or baton — a cudgel. The name was given
by Europeans to the Eastern custom of chastising offenders
by administering sharp* blows with a stick, generally upon
the soles of the feet, but sometimes upon the back. The
bastinado is held in great and reverent awe by all Moslems,
who, on account of its efficacy in keeping the people in
order and within the bounds of duty, declare that it came
down from heaven, having been sent by Allah Himself.
The earliest mention of the bastinado I can find was in
the time of Omar, when its use was strongly recommended
by Ali, the son-in-law of Mohammed. Let me give the
incident. One day news reached the Caliph from the seat
of war, which was Damascus, that some of his soldiers,
carried away by the luxuries they found in Syria, were
beginning to indulge in the juice of the grape, like thejr
adversaries the Christians.
General Abu Obeidah, who sent the news, declared that
he was scandalized at the discovery, and sought the advice
of the Commander of the Faithful as to what he should do
to bring the offenders to their senses and stop the evil.
Omar, thus appealed to, called a Council of State, and the
matter was very gravely discussed in Medina as to what
should be done with those wine-bibbers at Damascus.

ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE 347-
Ali at length raised his voice, and said : " Let the Com
mander of the Faithful and all the Council listen to me..
Let him who breaks the Prophet's command and drinks-
wine receive twenty bastinadoes on the soles of his feet. I
have spoken."
The Caliph promptly replied : " Thou hast well spoken,
Ali, the Lion of God, and it shall be as thou hast said."'
Consequently a messenger was sent off post-haste to
Damascus with the royal decision. The General in com
mand thereupon summoned his troops to a public parade,
had the offenders called out of the ranks,, and saw the
sentence carried out with the utmost rigour. Washington
Irving, commenting on this strange incident, says : " Abu
Obeidah, moreover, took the occasion to descant on the
enormity of the offence, and to exhort such as had sinned
in private to come forward like good Moslems, make
public confession, and submit to the bastinado in token
of repentance." It is recorded that many took the advice
of the General, and had their consciences set at ease by
a good drubbing on the feet.
Mohammedan judges pride themselves on being no-
respecters of persons, but as a matter of fact the claim will
not hold good. The general consensus of opinion in the
East, as well as in the West, is that in the administration of
justice the Moslem cadis are freely open to bribes, and
that the influence of wealth goes a very long way with
them in deciding the merits of a case. Very often a poor-
man stands no chance of obtaining redress of grievances.
Indeed the crying iniquity of the Turkish Administration
for many centuries has been the general failure of justice.
With the Turks, as with other Moslems, there has been
too much of — " They should take who have the power,
And they should keep who can. "
Yet, in simple fairness, it must be noted that from
Moslem countries there have come some striking cases of

348 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
impartial judgment which reflect great honour on the
parties concerned.
For example, there is a story told of Omar's rigid deter
mination to execute righteous judgment, no matter at what
cost. The case was as follows : The Commander of the
Faithful was on pilgrimage to Mecca, and had in his train
one Jebalah, who was king of a neighbouring State that
had given in its adhesion to the Caliphate. As Jebalah
was performing the religious ceremony of walking seven
times round the Kaaba, the skirt of his ihram, or pilgrim
scarf, was accidentally trodden on by a poor Arab.
Unfortunately the scarf was dragged off the king's
shoulders, and he thereupon turned fiercely upon the
Arab, and without listening to any explanation, buffeted
him in the face, bruising him sorely, and beating out four
of his teeth.
The ill-treated man at once went into the presence of
Omar and besought justice from the Caliph on his princely
assailant. The Commander of the Faithful called for
Jebalah, and asked him whether the charge was true.
" Perfectly true," was the bold answer ; " this rascal trod on
my scarf and uncovered my back in the sacred house of
God." " But it was an accident ! " remarked Omar, sternly.
" I care not,"- was the defiant answer ; " and had it not been
for my reverence for the Kaaba and for the prohibition to
shed blood within the sacred city, I would have slain
the offender on the spot, instead of merely thrashing
him." These answers greatly displeased Omar, though he had a
friendship for Jebalah and valued his powerful alliance.
The Caliph thought for a moment, and then being de
termined to do right, he said : " Jebalah, thou hast confessed
thy fault, and unless forgiven by thine adversary, thou
must submit to the law of retaliation, and be beaten by him
in return." The surprised prince answered proudly : " I
am a king, and he is but a peasant ! " But Omar rejoined:
"Ye are both Moslems, and in the sight of Allah, who

ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE 349
is no respecter of persons, ye are equal." The utmost that
Jebalah could obtain from the inflexible justice of Omar
was that the execution of the sentence should stand over
until the next day. When the morrow arrived, however,
the king was not to be found, for he had made his escape
during the night, and fled to Constantinople, where he
abjured Mohammedanism and embraced Christianity.
Thus Omar lost a powerful ally, but he preserved his
integrity, and won an enduring name for executing
righteous judgment.
Another very remarkable case of impartiality in the
administration of justice is related of the renowned con
queror, Mahmud of Ghazni, who reigned in the eleventh
century. On one occasion a poor subject appeared before
him and complained bitterly of a certain prince or omrah,
who disturbed the peace of his married life by visiting him
in his home and turning him out into the street for the night.
Having heard the story, Mahmud seemed greatly upset, but
answered : " Suspend your clamours : inform me of the next
visit of the omrah, and in my own person I will come and
punish the offender."
Three days later the visit of the prince was repeated to
the house of the poor man, whereupon the latter went in
all haste for the king, who shortly arrived with the sword of
justice in his hand. He at once ordered the lights to be
put out, and then entering the house he slew the intruder
with one stroke of his sword. Calling for the lights to be
re-kindled, he looked eagerly on the face of the. dead, then
fell on his knees in prayer, and- rising, demanded food,
which, being placed before him, he devoured with the
voraciousness of hunger.
The poor man, astonished at the actions of the king,
ventured to beg an explanation, and the monarch replied :
" I had reason to suspect that none, except one of my own
sons, would have dared to perpetrate such an outrage as
this, and I had the lights extinguished that my justice
might be blind and inexorable. My prayer was a thanks-

350 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
giving when I saw that the guilty man was not a son of
mine. And as for my demand for bread, the truth is, so '
painful has been my anxiety during the past three days that
not a morsel of food has crossed my lips since I saw you
last." That most famous Caliph, Harun-al-Rashid, of Bagdad*
was also a just man. We read in the "Arabian Nights " how,
many a time, he went about his capital in disguise, seeking
adventures, and redressing grievances. History tells us a
story of an interview he had with a poor woman, who
complained that some of his soldiers had pillaged her
house and laid waste her goods. The Caliph desired her
to remember that the Perspicuous Book said that " When
princes go forth to battle, the people through whose fields
they pass must suffer." " True ! " replied the woman, who
showed an intimate acquaintance with the contents of
the Koran, " but it is also written in the same Book that
the habitations of those princes who authorize such
injustice shall be made desolate." This bold and just
reasoning had a powerful effect on the righteous Caliph,
who commerided the poor woman, and ordered immediate
reparation to be made to,her.
Many other stories of a similar character might be told
of Caliphs and Cadis in Moslem countries who prided
themselves on. the purity of their administration of justice.
However, it is to be feared that such noble instances were
the exception and not the rule.
One great weakness of the administration of justice in
Mohammedan countries- is that there is no powerful public
opinion to hold the judges in check, or to support their
decisions. Uprightness in a Cadi is not so often extolled
as cleverness or cunning, and as whatever is done is rarely
questioned, the officers of the law are apt to become
despotic, and they are nearly always erratic. . It is almost-
impossible for the most observant onlooker to tell on
what principle the Cadi decides his cases, whether on that
of law, right, or expediency. A little irrelevant matter

ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE 351
will often change the whole character of a trial, and lead
to condemnation or acquittal according to the fancy of the
judge. And even after a sentence has been passed, it has often
been known to be commuted for the most trifling reason.
Take a case in point. It is recorded that in the time of
Muawiya, the first of the Omiades of Damascus, a notorious
robber and murderer was condemned to death by a Cadi
after a long and careful trial. The shrewd rascal, however,
appealed from the judge to the Caliph, who was a great
lover of poetry, in a copy of verses in which he pleaded
very pitiably that poverty and want had driven him to
crime. Touched by the poetry, Muawiya, though he knew
the robber was a reckless character and deserved to die,
reversed the death-sentence, set the man at liberty, and
gave him a purse of gold, that he might have no plea of
necessity for repeating the crime. Poetry, not justice, carried
the day in that case. Let us hope that the robber sinned
no more.
There is one form of punishment amongst Moham
medans seldom resorted to, which is considered the most
disgraceful and degrading of all punishments. It is that of
depriving a man of his beard. Both by precept and
example Mohammed, the Prophet of God, taught the
Faithful the duty of cultivating a beard, and such importance
did this matter assume, that hair on the chin came to be
considered as one of the necessary passports of admittance
into the Sacred House at Mecca.
It may be conceived, then, that- to be deprived of this
manly appendage was a loss and a disgrace' indeed. A very
prominent instance of such a dreadful punishment occurred
under the short Caliphate of Ali. The enemies of Ali were
many, and amongst the rest was Ayesha, the favourite wife
of the dead Prophet. Though related by marriage to Ali,
she yet hated him, and when Othman, the Governor of
Bassora, one of the most devoted adherents of the Caliph,
fell into the hands of Ayesha's party, the wrathful lady

35 2 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
sought to vent .her anger against Ali on the person of his
faithful follower.
So she called the unfortunate Governor into her presence,
and had him bastinadoed before her eyes, and then she com
manded her attendants to pluck out his beard hair by hair.
His eyebrows were served in the same fashion, and then he
was contemptuously set at liberty. It is related that when
Othman appeared before Ali he was so overcome with the
humiliation of his disgrace that he burst into tears, and
uttered the exceeding bitter cry : " Oh, Commander of the
Faithful, when you sent me to Bassora I had a beard, but
now, alas ! I have not a hair on my chin ! Woe is me ! woe
is me ! "
Generally speaking, the Koran is very stern in its punish
ment of evil-doers, and even for somewhat trivial offences
it commands harsh measures. At first the Faithful rigidly
carried out the extreme sentences of the law, but as the.
centuries passed, by somewhat milder counsels prevailed,
and the judges did not in all cases exact " an eye for an
eye, or a tooth for a tooth." The letter of the law, I
believe, at the present day in legal matters is not considered
so much as the spirit of it.
Sale, in his " Preliminary Discourse," refers to this
change in public feeling. . He remarks : " Notwithstanding
the Koran is by the Mohammedans in general regarded as
the fundamental part of their civil law, and the decisions
of the Sunnat among the Turks, and of the Imams among
those of the Persian sect, are usually followed in judicial
determinations, yet the secular tribunals do not think them
selves bound to observe the same in all cases, but frequently
give judgment against those decisions, which are not always
consonant to equity and reason."
I think it will be found in practice that lawbreakers
amongst Mohammedans are not hardly dealt with in the
legal sentences passed upon them, or in the carrying out of
such sentences, I mean in cases where justice is attempted
at all. Judgment may be uncertain, but the penalties are

ADMINISTRATION OF JUSTICE 353
not usually severe, a good bastinadoing often taking the
place of a long imprisonment, and in some cases of the
death sentence itself. Moslem administration of justice, in
short, seems more cruel than it really is !
For example, take the case of apostasy. It is not often
that a Moslem renounces the faith of his fathers, but for
all who do there is theoretically no hope of mercy in
this world or the next. An apostate must die the death
of a malefactor, if caught and brought to justice. In India
under the English Government, however, the law is a dead
letter. So it is in Turkey, for though the penalty is on
the Statute Book, there has been a tacit understanding
for the last forty years that it shall not be enforced.
There was a time, however, when apostates were shown
little if any mercy. I have read of many a case of the
death sentence being passed on those who had dared to
leave Islamism and embrace Christianity. And even now
the feeling on the matter is very strong, and some fanatical
Moslems would fain see carried out against all faithless
ones the extreme penalty of the law. A wholesome fear of
outside Christian Governments, however, tends to keep
zealots within bounds, and apostates at the present day are
safe so far as their lives are concerned, though they have to
submit to social disabilities and the petty persecutions of
their kindred and neighbours.
In the Turkish dominions there are five orders of Judges
or Doctors of the Law, and with a few words on their
respective duties I shall close this chapter. The Sheykh-ul-
Islam, or Elder of Islam, stands foremost. His power is
very great, as he fills the post of Supreme Judge, which the
Caliph himself used to hold as the successor of the Prophet.
I have been told that no war can be begun, that no peace
can be concluded, that no great public matter of any kind
can be determined until the Sheykh-ul-Islam has been con
sulted and has pronounced the projected undertaking
lawful according to the word of Allah as revealed in the
Sacred Koran. A A

354 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
Immediately under the Sheykh-ul-Islam are the Kazi-ul-
Lasker, or Judges of the Army, whose duty it is to accom
pany the troops to war, and to settle disputes which may
arise amongst the soldiers. One Judge is for Europe, and
the other for Asia. Next comes the Istambol Kadisi, or
judge of Constantinople, then the Magistrates of the two
sacred cities of Mecca and Medina, and then the Judges of
the most important cities of the Empire, such as Damascus,
Jerusalem, and Cairo. AH these belong to the first order
of Doctors of the Law.
"The second order consists of the Moolahs, or Magis
trates of certain other of the more important cities : the third
of a number of officials termed Muftistees, or Inquisitors,
whose duty it is to see that the legacies bequeathed to
mosques and other religious or charitable institutions are
properly administered. The fourth order is that of the Cadis
or ordinary Judges of the less important towns : and the
fifth and lowest, that of the Naibs or Judge-substitutes."
With all these officials justice ought to be properly
administered amongst Moslems !

CHAPTER XXXVI
HOLY DAYS OR FESTIVALS
In all countries, and in connection with all religions,
certain Feast Days or Weeks are kept. With Moslems this
custom has not been as popular as with Christians, Jews,
Hindoos, or Buddhists ; but yet there are a few Holy Days
or Festivals of special importance to which reference might
be made.
Perhaps the . most prominent is the Feast of Sacrifice,
which takes place on the tenth night of Dhu'l Hijjah, which
is the last month of the Moslem year, and also the month
of Pilgrimage. Not only at Mecca, but throughout the
Mohammedan world the Feast is kept with great pomp
and ceremony, and with the sacrifice of millions of animals.
The Moslem name for the Festival is Buckrah Eade, i.e.,
Sacrifice Festival, and it had its origin in the well-known
circumstance of Abraham offering up his son Isaac in
sacrifice to God, only .it should be carefully borne in mind
that Mohammedans substitute Ishinael for Isaac. The
incident is referred to in the 37th chapter of the Koran,
where we read : " Abraham said unto his son, O my son,
verily I saw in a dream that I should offer thee in sacrifice ;
consider, therefore, what thou art of opinion I should do:
He answered : O my father, do what thou art commanded :.
thou shalt find me, if God please, a patient person. And
when they had submitted themselves to the Divine will,
and Abraham had laid his - son prostrate on his face, we
cried unto him, O Abraham, now hast thou verified the
a a 2

356 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
vision. Thus do we reward the righteous. Verily this was
a manifest trial. And we ransomed him with a noble
victim. And we left the following salutation to be bestowed
on him by the latest posterity, viz., Peace be on Abraham."
To commemorate the faith of Abraham, and the deliver
ance of Ishmael, the progenitor of the Arabs from death by
the mercy of God, Mohammed arranged that the Faithful
should keep a feast of sacrifice and thanksgiving on the
tenth night of Dhu'l Hijjah, the day of "the ransom." And
as Ishmael was ransomed by "a noble victim," it was de
creed that wealthy Moslems should, on the anniversary
of the event, sacrifice camels, while the poorer members
of the community should offer up sheep or goats, or lambs,
or kids. It was to be a general feast, and a time of great
rejoicing, and it was to be observed throughout Islam for
ever! v
In some Mohammedan States at the present day
Buckrah Eade is taken advantage of for a grand public
display. Princes with their nobles and a great gathering of
retainers, and sometimes even troops, go in state to the
place of sacrifice, where the moolahs or priests read forms
of prayers prepared for the occasion, and the throats of the
animal victims are cut to the cry of " Peace be on
Abraham, on Ishmael, and on their seed for ever and ever ! "
This rather gruesome task of sacrifice having been per
formed, the people give themselves up to pleasure, and
keep holy day with zeal and energy. ' Ladies dress in their
most costly jewels and apparel to receive or to pay calls.
Gentlemen have their sports, and regale themselves with
the sight of an extra good Nautch dance. Little children
have their games and amusements. The whole Moslem
world seems bent on happiness, so much so that it is now
a proverb in the East, " Every one must be cheerful on
Buckrah Eade."
Nor are the poor or the unfortunate forgotten. Mrs.
Meer Hasan Ali, of Lucknow, who witnessed many a mag-

HOLY DAYS OR FESTIVALS 357
nificent celebration of the Festival in Oude, says that the
most pleasing part of the day's proceedings always was the
consideration that was paid to the indigent. She writes :
" On Buckrah Eade the rich send presents of goats and
sheep to their neighbours and to the poor, so that the
meanest of the people are enabled to offer sacrifice, and
rejoice in the good things of which they partake : new suits
of clothes are also distributed to the dependants of the
family and to the poor. In short, on this day there seems
to be a spirit of benevolence abroad, which fnakes rejoicing
doubly sweet."
Amongst Moslems Buckrah Eade is also called " the
greater Baham." The term Bairam is Turkish, and signifies a
holy day or holiday. There is another feast of almost equal
importance, which is characterized by the distinguishing title
of " the lesser" Bairam." This occurs at the close of the fast of
Ramadan, and is sometimes called " the feast of breaking the
fast." This feast was briefly referred to in the chapter
on " Ramadan, or Lent," but I would now give fuller details.
As may readily be imagined, after forty days of fasting,
faithful Moslems stand in need of something to cheer their
spirits and rouse hope in their hearts. The need has been
met by the appointment of a few days' cessation from
work, when the exhausted people may rest if they choose,
or seek recuperation for the frame in recreation. The
majority do the latter, and give themselves up with perfect
abandon to merry-making, to secure amends, as it were,
for the mortification of the previous month. In Constanti
nople, and other parts of Turkey, "the lesser Bairdm
lasts three days, but in Persia it is continued for five or
six days, and kept with great demonstrations of public joy.
The first day of the breaking of the fast begins with an
early morning breakfast, and in India in innumerable houses
exactly the same kind of food is partaken of. It consists
of plain boiled rice, with sour curd and sugar. As a
dessert dried dates are eaten in remembrance of the
Prophet's family, whose greatest luxury was supposed to be

35 . STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
dates of Arabia. As the day proceeds greater luxuries are
indulged in according to the taste or wealth of the
individual or family.
Processions are also arranged to visit the mosques that
thanks may be publicly given to Allah for preserving His
faithful ones through the month of trial. The processions
then march round the town or village to the accompani
ment of music, and friends greet each other pleasantly,
and everything is done to make the general holiday a most
enjoyable one.' "The ladies' assemblies on this Festival
also are marked by all the amusements and indulgences
they can possibly invent in their secluded state. The
Zenana rings with festive songs and loud music, the happy
meeting of friends, and the distribution of presents to
domestics : all is life and joy, cheerful bustle, and delight."
Thus the season of " the lesser Bairam " passes ; and in
feasting, music, dancing, and other enjoyments, the people
of Islam seek to drown the memory of the previous miser
able Ramadan days of aimless bodily self-denial.
Mohammedans keep New Year's Day as a holiday. In
India it is called "Nau-Roze," and is a festival that is
greatly appreciated by the children and ladies in the Zenana.
One special feature about the day is a colour that is
worn in the garments of the people, from the princes in
their palaces to the meanest ryots in their huts. The
colour varies according to the hour of the day or night
When the Moslem New Year commences. I ought to say
that Mohammedans do not count the hours of the day
as we do. The exact period of commencing the New
Year is the very moment of the sun's entering the sign
Aries, and that moment is calculated by astronomers and
announced by criers to the people. If the moment, say, is
midnight, then the colour to be worn on New Year's Day
would be dark puce ; but if midday, as sometimes happens,
then it would be the brightest crimson. Any intermediate
moment would be met by a given shade of colour applic
able to the time of the day or night.

HOLY DAYS OR FESTIVALS 359
It is a curious custom, and I have not been able to dis
cover a good reason for it. The people, as might be ex
pected, are most pleased when the hour of the commence
ment of the New Year justifies them in wearing a bright
crimson, as gay colours are most in favour in the East, and
indeed seem most suitable to a day of private and public
rejoicing. Another peculiar feature of the Festival of the New Year
is, that when it is known that it will commence by daylight
the ladies in the Zenana have a custom of preparing for it
by placing a fresh rose, which has been plucked from its
stalk, in a basin of water. It is asserted that at the very
moment the sun passes into the sign Aries the rose turns
over of itself. To see this phenomenon is considered very
lucky, and not only augurs a happy day but a happy year
to the fortunate onlooker. Mrs. Meer Hasan Ali tells us in
her " Mussulmans of India " that she often watched Native
ladies bending eagerly over the fresh-cut rose floating in
a basin of water, but, so far as her experience went, the
turning over never occurred.
In truly religious families the New Year is opened by
"prayer and praises," and then after a meal has been par
taken of, the inmates go forth to visit their friends, and the
salutation that passes between all who meet is the pleasant
one, " May the New Year be fortunate ! " The day is then
devoted to sending presents and to amusements. Children
and nurses are specially remembered, and everything is
done to make New Year's Day a red letter day in the lives
of the little ones, which we will all agree is very commendable.
In some Moslem communities the commencement of
Spring time is held as a holiday, and very sensibly so I
think. There is something exhilarating in the sight of
Nature putting on her new garb, and in the merry songs of
the birds. The heart of man responds to the signs of
renewed and renewing life around him, and he would fain
keep " holy day."
In Northern India the Festival is called Bussunt, or

360 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
" Spring Colour." The trees of India, generally speaking,
may be said tp have perpetual foliage, and yet there is a
time of the year when new leaves sprout and young buds
force off the old leaves. When the trees are thus clothed
in their fresh foliage they look lovely. Usually at the first
a yellow tinge is noticeable in the colour, and this is called
Bussunt. In Lucknow, a few years back, it was the custom of the
King to appoint a day for a general holiday, and then
every one wore the spring colour. The elephants, the horses,
the camels, and the bullocks of the people were all orna
mented with the same colour, as trappings, and the towns
and villages consequently presented a gay and festive
appearance. The amusements of the day took the form of
attendance at public banquets, and also at sports, which
the King arranged for the people on a grand scale. Since
the dethronement of the King, however, the Spring Festival
has ceased to be a public affair in Oude, though it is still
kept up privately by some of the princes and by many of
the people.
I am surprised that such a holiday has not appealed
more strongly to the whole of Islam, for no season of the
year can be considered more suitable .for all manner
of rejoicings than Spring. It would seem as if amongst
Moslems no Festival but an ecclesiastical one stood a fair
chance of universal acceptation.
The New Moon is the occasion of a Festival in the family
of every good Mussulman. Mohammedans date the new
moon from the moment it becomes visible, and not as we
do from the moment it changes. The appearance of the new
moon is usually announced in a Moslem city by the noise
of artillery. I have read also that directly " the ruler of
the night " appears many people amongst the Faithful bow
the knee to her, though when questioned about it they say
that they mean the adoration for God as the giver of the
moon, which is such a blessing to mankind.
Amongst devout Moslems there is much preparation in

HOLY DAYS OR FESTIVALS 361
bathing and changing the dress against the evening the
moon is expected to be visible, and when the guns are
heard announcing the event the Sacred Koran is at once
brought and opened at the place where it is written : " The
hour of judgment approacheth, and the moon hath been
split in sunder." A small looking-glass is then placed on
the Perspicuous Book over the words just quoted, and the
Koran is held in such a position that the moon may be first
seen by the person reflected in the glass. Thereupon a
prayer, expressly appointed for the occasion, is repeated, and
that done the members of the family rise and embrace each
other, the younger ones making salaams and reverence to
their superiors and elders. The servants also come for
ward to offer congratulations to the heads of the house,
and to receive good wishes and something more substantial
in return. Then all join in an exclamation to the effect,
" May the new moon bring us good fortune ! "
From this account of the Festival of the New Moon
it will be seen that it is a private festival rather than a
public one, but it is universal all the same, and is entered
into very heartily by both young and old, and the night is
spent in festivity.
Another festival of very general observance in Moslem
countries is that called the Festival of the Full Moon, called
Shab-i-Barat, which occurs in the month of Shaban. Every
full moon is regarded with attention by Moslems, but the
one that is seen in the month Shaban, the eighth of the
Mohammedan year, is of special importance. On that
night the Faithful believe that the fate of all human beings
is fixed in heaven, and that whatever is to be their lot during
the year, whether life, health, and prosperity, or sorrow,
sickness, and death, is assuredly settled by Allah in the
Book of Life and Death. Prayer is consequently offered
on the Festival of the Full Moon for grace to meet the will
of God whatever it may be.
Mrs. Meer Hasan Ali says : " The religious make it a
night of strict devotion : they offer prayers and intercessions

362 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
for themselves and for the souls of their departed friends)
since they imagine that this period of all others is most
favourable to prayer, as they believe the heart is more open
to the throne of mercy, that prayer is more effectual, that
the real penitent suing for pardon on the night of Shab-
i-Barat is certainly heard and his sins forgiven."
The singular custom of "drinking the moon at a
draught," often takes place on the Festival of the Full
Moon. It is a superstitious practice recommended by
certain medical professors in nervous cases, and for palpita
tions of the heart. The way it is managed is as follows : —
" A silver basin being filled with water, is held in such a
situation that the full moon may be reflected in it ; the
person to be benefited by the charm is required to look
steadfastly at the reflected image, then shut his eyes, and
quaff the liquid at one draught." Many cases of cure in
connection with this custom can be vouched for, but one
may be allowed to question the reality of the illness or
attribute the result to imagination or faith.
It must not be thought that the Festival of -the Full
Moon is entirely taken up with prayers and faith-healing.
Time is also devoted to amusements. And perhaps the
most popular element of the occasion is the custom of
private and public firework displays. At all seasons of the
year Mohammedans and Eastern people in general delight
in an exhibition of fireworks, but on the night of Shab-i-
Barat Moslems indulge this pleasure to the full. For one
thing on such an important night, when the issues of joy
or sorrow, life or death, are in question, it is required that
no one should sleep, and to keep the Faithful awake no
happier suggestion could have been made than to let off
fireworks. I have seen sober-looking Moslems, both young and old,
relax their features to a wonderful extent on the occasion
of the Full Moon Festival, and throw themselves into their
favourite pastime with all their heart and soul. How the
children have shouted with delight at every explosion ;

HOLY DAYS OR FESTIVALS 363.
and the " children of- a larger growth " have encouraged
them by example and precept ! Of all the Mohammedan
festivals I question if any one of them is really more en
joyed than this one of the Full Moon, though at its com
mencement it seems to have about it an air of sadness.
As the night wears on the fun increases, and the excitement
reaches fever heat, so that when daylight arrives the general
opinion is that the month of Shaban is the happiest month,
of all the year, and that it augurs well for the future.
Moslems may be said to take their pleasures seriously,,
for, as has been already hinted, their holidays are nearly all
holy days, i.e., connected with religious observances.
Islamism, indeed, enters thoroughly into the social life of
the Faithful, and moulds their leisure as well as their work
day hours. And in one respect the result is eminently
satisfactory and commendable, viz., that on Holy Days or
Festivals, drunkenness and rowdyism are almost unknown,.
while there is plenty of quiet enjoyment.

CHAPTER XXXVII
FANATICISM
Mohammedans have earned for themselves throughout
the world the title of " fanatics," as a consequence of their
wild words and actions in connection with the Faith, once
delivered to them by Mohammed the Prophet. The feeling
amongst Moslems has been and is, that they are the chosen
of Allah, that they are the appointed instruments of God to
bring all men, even by the power of the sword, to the
knowledge of the only true faith. Consequently woe be
to the individuals, communities, or nations, that will not
listen to the call to accept Islamism with all its forms and
ceremonies !
It is true that at the present time the power of Moham
medanism, as a conquering religion, is on the wane ; but
the desire to conquer still remains, and the old feeling of
intolerance and fanaticism is probably everywhere almost
as strong as ever it was.
In my researches into the history of Mohammedanism I
have met with many instances of fanaticism, some of which
I would now mention, as they will help us to understand
what Islamism really is in the intensity of its wild faith and
zeal. Fanaticism in war may well come first. Mohammed,
though in the early days of his career a man of peace,
and an advocate of mild measures in the propagation of
truth, eventually developed into a man of war, and a
stern and enthusiastic propagator of Allah's religion by the
sword. The later books of the Koran teem with passages which

FANATICISM 365
counsel strong measures to be taken with infidels. It is
written : " Fight against those who believe not in God until
they pay tribute by right of subjection, and are reduced
low." And again : " When ye meet the infidels, strike off
their heads, until ye have made a great slaughter among
them." And then it is added : " As for those who fight or
fall in defence of God's true religion, He will not suffer
their deeds to die. Verily, God loveth those who fight for
His religion." " Paradise," it was declared, " is under the
shadow of swords." " The sword," it was asserted, " is a
surer argument than books."
Is it to be wondered at that a people thus taught should
have grown to love war as the very breath of their nostrils,
and to revel in it with a fanaticism that was cruel as the
grave ? Even before the Prophet died his terrible injunc
tions began to bear fruit, and after his death the fighting
spirit raged throughout Arabia, and the Moslems went forth
conquering and to conquer. From the Caliph to the
meanest servant or slave in Islam the fanatical creed was/
accepted, that " the sword was the Key of Heaven and
Hell, that a drop of blood shed in the cause of God, a
night spent in arms, were of more avail than months of
fasting and prayer."
Fanaticism in war showed itself not merely in the deter
mination to overcome an enemy, but in the ardent wish, if
Allah willed it, to die on the field of battle, as thus to be
"martyred "in the cause of God was believed to be the
most certain way of obtaining the highest joys of eternal
life in the world beyond the grave.
Listen, for example, to the words of an Arabian youth,
whom a fond mother and sister vainly sought to persuade
from adopting the profession of arms. His parting speech
to those who loved him was : " Hold me not back, nor
grieve that I leave you ! It is not the delicacies of Syria
or the fading delights of this world that have prompted me
to devote my life in the cause of religion. But I seek the

366 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
favour of God and His Apostle : and I have heard from
one of the companions of the Prophet that the spirits of
the martyrs will be lodged in the crops of green birds, who
shall taste the fruits and drink of the rivers . of Paradise.
Farewell ! We shall meet again among the groves and
fountains which God has provided for His elect."
I have read of another case of a warrior who on the field
of battle fought with reckless fury, raving, as he slashed
right and left with his sword, about the joys of Paradise
promised to all true believers who fell in the wars of the
Faith. "Methinks!" he cried aloud, so as to be heard.
above the din of arms, "Methinks I see the black-eyed
girls looking upon me ; one of whom, should she appear
in this world, all mankind would die for love of. And I.
see in the hand of another a handkerchief of green silk,.
and a cap of precious stones, and she beckons me and
calls out : 'Come hither quickly, for I love thee ! ' " Scarcely
had the fanatic thus spoken when -a javelin pierced his
heart and despatched him to his vaunted elysium. And
these two instances are but types of countless thousands
in Islam whose fanaticism has exceeded all bounds in the
race for martyrdom in a jihad, or holy war.
Besides the joy of fighting for the Faith, and the in
centive of the pleasures of Paradise for the .valiant, the
fanaticism of Mohammedans has been deepened and
strengthened by the doctrine of predestination, as taught
by the Prophet, or at any rate as believed by the Faithful.
The Koran says in one place : " The fate of every man
have we bound about his neck ;" and in another, " No soul.
can die unless by the permission of God, according to
what is written in the book containing the determination
of things."
Mohammed inserted these passages after the temporary
defeat of his followers at Qhod, to inspire them with fresh.
courage. He represented to the Faithful that the time of>
every man's death is decreed and determined by Allah, and
that those who had fallen in the battle could not have

FANATICISM 367
avoided their fate had they stopped at home, so there was
no reason to grieve unduly, or to be, discouraged and dis
heartened. Thus did the Prophet instil into the minds of his soldiers
a belief in Fate, and under this persuasion did Moslems
engage in battle without anxiety or fear, believing that what
would be must be, that no pne could die before his time,
and that no human sagacity or foresight could evade the
hand of death if the moment had been preordained. We
can see how such a doctrine of predestination spurred the'
Faithful on to deeds of recklessness, and made the early
soldiers of the Crescent men tb be dreaded beyond the ,
ordinary run of adversaries, for they were fanatics.
One of the most remarkable of these warrior-fanatics was
Kaled, who was employed by Abu Bekr and Omar in the
wars in Syria. He was a man who added superstition to
his belief in fate, for he was wont to declare that a special
providence watched over him, and that as long as he wore
a certain cap which had been blessed by Moharrimed he-
was invulnerable to all the darts of the enemies of Islam;
And truly it seemed as if he bore a charmed life, for-
though in every battle he rushed into the thickest of the
fight, and was ever surrounded by dangers, he always
marvellously escaped, and in a good old age died in his
bed. The exploits of this fanatic in the siege of Damascus are
almost beyond belief. He rushed "madly at every antag
onist, generally singling out the strongest and the bravest,
and he was always conqueror. On one occasion, after a
desperate struggle with a bold Christian General, which left
him exhausted, a fresh adversary spurred his charger to
attack him. A companion in arms, the gallant Derar,
seeing the exhaustion of Kaled, called out to him: "O
Kaled, repose yourself for a moment, and permit me to
supply your place," but the reply he got was : " Not so,
good Derar ; if I needs must rest, it will be in Paradise.
He that labours to-day will rest to-morrow." At the word

368 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
he sprang upon his foe, and hurled him lifeless to the
ground. Kaled by such deeds earned for himself the title
of "The Sword of God."
But the doctrine of predestination can influence in two
ways : It can make fanatical cowards as well as fanatical
braves. And in these latter days it seems in Moslem coun
tries to be producing a weak ^nd degenerate race. The
belief in fate is as strong as ever, but it now takes the form
of lazy, instead of active, fanaticism, and it is striking at the
root of all enterprise and progress. As one writer has said :
" Many Moslems positively refuse to exert themselves, while
they excuse their natural indolence by declaring : ' Every
thing is determined : what is to be will be : if God intends
that we should become rich we shall become so without
any personal exertion : if He intends that we shall be poor,
poor we shall have to remain, despite our labour. ' " Thus
the doctrine of predestination as held by Mohammedans is
baneful, whether in war or peace, for when exercised in the
sphere of the former it produces a hard and cruel race of
warriors, and when in the sphere of the latter, a race of
weak and helpless citizens.
Fanaticism has shown itself very markedly in the depart
ment of teaching, and especially in the teaching of the
truths of the Koran. The verbal inspiration, of the Scrip
tures has 'ever been part of the orthodox creed of Islamism.
Some of the Faithful at various times have questioned the
doctrine, and have even striven to show that the Koran
contains passages that contradict each other, and therefore
cannot be infallible : but such liberal views are far from
common. In every age Moslems, as a whole, have been most dog
matic in their teaching, and perfectly fanatical in their
enforcement upon others of what they have conceived to
be truth. Take for example the time of the Abbasides of
Bagdad. The author of "Islam under the Caliphs of
Bagdad," says, "Every one who either in act or word
questioned a single syllable of the Koran was regarded as

FANATICISM 369
an infidel, and was in peril of being torn in pieces by the
devout." Then to look at an earlier period. Omar, the second
Commander of the Faithful, delighted in teaching the law,
and would brook no interference from doubters or cavillers.
There is a characteristic story told of him when he was on
his famous journey, from Medina to Jerusalem, when the
latter city was subjected by the Moslem arms. The Caliph
often stopped by the way as he passed through Arabia and
Syria to administer justice and expound the Sacred Koran.
Usually a crowd gathered round him to see and hear the
grand old man. On one occasion he took for his text a
few words from the Koran which assert that those whom
God shall lead in the right way are secure from all harm,
but that those whom He shall lead in the way of error are
doomed to punishment. As Omar enforced these pregnant
lessons a grey-headed man in the audience disturbed the
flow of the preacher's utterance by remarking aloud, "Tush !
God leads no man into error ! " The stern, fanatical Caliph
deigned no direct reply, but turning to his body-guard, he
said : " Strike off that old man's head if he repeats his
words ! " The preacher met with no further opposition.
One of the most fanatical acts on record is associated
with the name of Omar — I refer to the destruction of the
Alexandrian Library. I know that the story has been •
gravely questioned of late years. Gibbon and others have
made light of it, but still the tale was believed for centuries,
and it has not yet been proved, false, and it is certainly just
such a deed as a fanatical Moslem prince like Omar might
have committed.
" The Alexandrian Library was formed by Ptolemy Soter,
and placed in a building called the Bruchion. It was
augmented in successive reigns to 400,000 volumes, and an
additional 300,000 volumes were placed in a temple called
the Serapeon. The Bruchion, with the books it contained,
was burned in the war of Caesar, but the Serapeon was
preserved. Cleopatra, it is said, added to it the library of
B B

370 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
Pergamus, given to her by Marc Antony, consisting of
200,000 volumes. It sustained repeated injuries during
various subsequent revolutions, but was always restored to
its ancient splendour, and numerous additions made to it.
Such was its state at the capture of Alexandria by the
Moslems." The famous library was, in fact, the finest in the
world. The story goes that Amr, the Conqueror of Egypt, and
the leader of the Moslem armies, had his attention drawn
to the Library by the learned Greek known as John the
Grammarian, to whom Amr had granted many favours.
John asked that the books might be given to himself, as the
Moslems would probably have no use for them. The
General was inclined to gratify the wish of the Grammarian,
but his rigid integrity refused to alienate anything without
the permission of the Commander of the Faithful, to whom
he at once wrote. The answer which Omar is generally
believed to have sent was inspired by the ignorance and
zeal of a fanatic. It ran : "If these writings of the
Greeks agree with the blessed Koran, the Book of Allah,
they are useless, and therefore need not be preserved ; if
they disagree, then they are pernicious, and ought to - be
destroyed." Washington Irving, commenting on this extraordinary
' message, says : " Amr, as a man of genius and intelligence,
may have grieved at the order ofthe Caliph, while as a
loyal subject and faithful soldier, he felt bound to obey it."
Consequently the command went forth to seize and to
destroy, and the valuable manuscripts and books were
distributed as fuel among the five thousand baths 'of the
city of Alexandria, and, it is said, so numerous were they,
that it took six months to consume them. Thus perished
by a deed of Moslem fanaticism much of the learning, the
arts, and the genius of antiquity.
Fanaticism in Moslem lands is not confined to men, but
is as strong or stronger amongst women. Notwithstanding
the disabilities and hardships under which wo men. labour in

FANATICISM. 371
Islam, they cleave with blind enthusiasm to the teaching of
the Prophet of God, hugging to their breasts the Book which
has made their degradation an article of faith and binding
throughout the ages.
- And little children too are veritable fanatics. Lane, in
his " Modern Egyptians," tells us that from their earliest
days Moslem boys and' girls are taught to hate " infidels "
with a perfect hatred. It must be remembered that in the
eyes of Mohammedans all are infidels who are not of the
true Faith — that is, Islam. Let me quote a prayer that is
now in use amongst the children of Moslems. Lane
translates it thus : " O God, destroy the infidels and poly-
theists, thine enemies, the enemies of Islam ! O God,
make their offspring orphans, defile their abodes, cause
their feet to slip, and give them and their families, and
their children, and their possessions and their race, and
their wealth, and their land, as booty to the Moslems."
What an awful prayer to put into the mouths of boys and
girls ! Little wonder that the rising generation, like all
preceding generations in Islam, regards the world with eyes
of anger and hate !
A little incident that happened in my own experience
may not be unworthy of notice. I was travelling at the
time in Palestine, and was drawing near the ancient city of
Hebron, once so famous in Jewish history, but now in the
possession of Moslems. The day was hot, and I had ridden
far, and was suffering from thirst. Suddenly I espied by
the wayside a maiden, perchance of seven years of age,
tripping gaily along with a waterpot poised on her head in
Eastern fashion. I hailed her and made signs for a drink
of water. That she understood me perfectly was clear, but
to my surprise she was not prepared to grant my request.
Now, usually in the East, if the traveller can get nothing
else, he can get a drink of water from the people he sees,
for it is considered churlish indeed to refuse such a neces
sary of life.-
However, the heart of the little maiden at Hebron was
b b 2

372 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
closed against all not of her own Faith. And so insulted
and enraged was she that I should have even presumed to
ask anything from her, that she put her hands up to her
head, and in a tempest of indignation dashed the unoffend
ing waterpot to the ground. Then pointing to the spilt
water, she declared, with oaths and curses, so my Dragoman
told me, that she hoped that thus would my blood ere
many days be spilt and sink into the ground. For the time
being the maiden was a little fury, and I was convinced
that the fanaticism of the people of Islam was, even
amongst the juvenile members of society, something to be
carefully watched by travellers, or dangerous results might
follow. The inhabitants of Hebron or, as it is now called,
El-Khalid, are notorious for their fanaticism, and by their
conduct they belie both the ancient and the modern name
of their city, which names, being interpreted, mean, " the
Friend." Sometimes the evil results of the fanaticism of Moham
medans have not been confined to strangers, but have
made themselves felt within their own borders ; as, for
instance, in those sad cases of regicide which have been so
common in Moslem countries. As we have seen in the
course of these Studies, Omar, Othman, and Ali, three of
the Commanders of the Faithful, fell victims to the mad
zeal of some of their own followers, ' who conceived that
they were doing God and Islam service by despatching the
Caliphs with their daggers.
The truth is fanaticism is an uncertain instrument to
use : it is a two-edged tool which it is dangerous to handle.
The leaders of Mohammedanism in all generations have
found that they have not always been able to control the
fierce spirit they haive called up, and they have been taught
by a terrible experience the truth of that saying : " They
that take the sword shall perish by the sword."
I wonder sometimes whether Mohammedans will ever
learn that their best interests lie in realizing the great truth
of the Brotherhood of Humanity. There can be no peace,

FANATICISM 373
no prosperity, and no real happiness in Islam, until the
feelings of cruel religious fanaticism nurtured by the Koran
have been replaced by feelings of brotherly sympathy and
love for all nations and peoples.

CHAPTER XXXVIII
GRAND VIZIERS
Vizier is a word, of questionable origin, but some Arabic
scholars derive it from vezan, to bear or carry, and others
from vesara, he has advised. The position in the East of
a Grand Vizier, which corresponds, to some extent, with
that of a Prime Minister in the West, is an office both of,
"advising" and "bearing," for the Vizier of a Moslem
Ruler has to advise his master in all the great affairs of
State, and practically to bear the load of government, which
is usually a very heavy one.
The first reference to the office of Vizier in the history of
Mohammedanism dates as far back as the time of Moham
med himself, even before the Prophet was generally
accepted as a power in the land. It happened thus : —
At the commencement of his religious career Mohammed
had few followers, not more than fourteen, it is said, but all
the same, he was convinced that he was the Apostle of
Allah, and that some day the world would acknowledge
his claim. In the fourth year of his teaching and preaching
he resolved to assume the prophetic office, so he called
together his little band of disciples, and invited other
guests with them to a banquet, at which he declared his
Divine Mission to teach and to preach concerning Allah.
Then he said with great earnestness, looking keenly
round the assembly : " Friends and Kinsmen, I offer you,
and I alone can offer, the most precious of gifts, the
treasures of this world, and of the world to come. God
has commanded me to call you to His service. Who

GRAND VIZIERS 375
among you will support my burden ? Who amorig you will
be my companion and my Vizier ? "
The guests at first listened, greatly surprised, to the
words of Mohammed, then some laughed, some sneered,
and some mocked, for it seemed so strange for a man with
less than a score of followers to ask for the aid of a Vizier
to assist him in ruling them.
The Prophet was thinking of the future, however, when
tens of thousands would bow reverently at the mention of
his name ; and thus one, at least, of the guests under
stood him, viz., Ali, who afterwards became his son-in-law.
At the time Ali was only a youth, but he was full of
enthusiasm for the cause of his friend, and jumping up, he
declared amidst a scene of wild excitement : " O Prophet, I
am thy man ; whosoever rises against thee I will dash out
his teeth, tear out his eyes, break his legs, and rip up his
body. O Prophet, I will be thy Vizier." It was a strange
speech, coming from a youth, and it throws a weird light
on what was conceived to be the duties of the Prime
Minister of a temporal Prince, or an Apostle of God, in
the East. Truly the early days of Islam were days of gross
ignorance and violent deeds !
It is a most singular thing that after the night of that
banquet nothing more was heard of the office of Vizier in
Mohammedanism for generations. Whether Ali ever really
became Prime Minister to Mohammed we are not told,
nor do we hear of any other person being appointed in his
place. The probability is that the Prophet found it wiser
to have no "second " in place or power, especially as a host
of able and valiant men eventually gathered around his
banner, any one of whom he could depend upon to help
him in the carrying out of his bold plans.
Abu Bekr, Omar, Othman, and Ali himself, the early
successors of the Prophet, do not seem to have favoured
any more than Mohammed the adoption of Grand Viziers,
for they ruled in their own persons, and would brook no
¦close companions in power.

376 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
And when we come to the century of Moslem rule at
Damascus, when the Omiades sat in the seat of the Caliphs;
there is the same silence maintained with regard to the
office of Vizier. Doubtless all the Commanders of the
Faithful had special favourites in whom they reposed con
fidence, and on whom they greatly depended for counsel
and support in the arduous duties, responsibilities, and
cares of their high station, but such favourites were not
called Viziers, nor did they occupy the position which
Viziers afterwards came to hold in Mohammedan councils
of state.
It was not till the year 750 a.d., when the Abbasides
began to reign at Bagdad, that we read of Grand Viziers
worthy of the name. Indeed some students of history say
that Abul Abbas, the first of the Abbasides, originated the
proud title of Vizier, and introduced on to the scene of
Eastern affairs a race of Ministers who have ever since
played a prominent, and on the whole a useful, part in the
life of Moslem States.
In the reign of Harun-al-Rashid, or Aaron the Just, there
appeared a very noted family of Viziers called the Barme
cides, whose career was brilliant yet chequered, and whose
star, went down in darkness. The most prominent of the
Barmecides was Yahya, the Prime Minister and the great
favourite of Harun. Wherever the Caliph went the Vizier
went, whether on the road of duty or pleasure, and the
friendship was a blessing to those who lived
' ' By Bagdad's shrines of fretted gold,
High-walled gardens, green and old."
It was the Grand Vizier who encouraged trade, who regu
lated the internal administration of Government in every
respect, who fortified the frontiers of the State, and made
the provinces prosperous by making them safe.
And a son of Yahya, named Jaafer, governed Syria and
Egypt in the interests of the Caliph, as well as holding
other great and important posts. The Barmecides, father

GRAND VIZIERS 377
and son, and indeed all the numerous members of the
princely family, were patrons of art, letters, and science,
and gathered around them the talent and genius of the
East, which, with the willing approval of Harun-al-Rashid,
they utilized to beautify and enrich Bagdad. Thus power
ful and useful did the Barmecides become ! As has been
grandiloquently said by one of the Moslem chroniclers of
the age : " The family was an ornament to the forehead,
and a crown on the head of the Caliph : they were brilliant
stars, vast oceans, impetuous torrents, beneficent rains, . the
refuge of the afflicted, the comfort of the distressed, and
generosity itself."
Unfortunately, however, Harun became jealous of his
great Ministers, and when he discovered that Yahya had
secretly married a princess of the Royal House he decreed
their ruin. Gilman says : " With the usual Oriental
treachery the different members of the family were taken
and imprisoned for life or slaughtered to the last man. In
this case, as in many others in the Saracen history, no senti
ment of gratitude for all that had been accomplished by
the faithful servants of the Crown was taken into account,
though Harun is said to have shed tears over the fate of
the two children of his sister and Yahya."
Thus miserably perished a noble and brilliant family of
Eastern Viziers, to the lasting disgrace of the Caliph whom
they served so well !
" Fallen was the house of Jaafer : and its name
The high romantic name of Barmecide,
A sound forbidden on its own bright shores,
By the swift Tigris' wave. Stern Harun's wrath,
Sweeping the mighty with their fame away,
Had so passed sentence : but man's chainless heart
Hides that within its depths which never yet
The oppressor's thought could reach."
The sudden and unexpected ruin of the Barmecides
suggests the uncertainty of tenure by which the office of
Grand Vizier was held in Moslem lands. Indeed the post

378 STUDIES IN ' MOHAMMEDANISM
has always been one of surprises, sometimes of sudden
-elevation, and anon of sudden doom. It was so under the
a-ule of the Abbasides of Bagdad, and perhaps still more
markedly so under the Ottoman Turks.
If we pass on to the sixteenth century, and look at the
reign of Selim the Grim, we shall find some striking illustra
tions of the uncertainty of tenure in the high office of Grand
Vizier. For example, on one occasion when Selim had
•called together his Council of State, which consisted of
six or eight Viziers, he asked the chief of them what should
be done with regard to Egypt, the armies of which country
had hovered on the flanks of the Sultan's army on a recent
expedition against Persia.
The Prime Minister advised forbearance, and the over
looking of the fault, seeing that the Egyptians had not
actually struck a blow ; but such counsel was not what
.Selim wanted. The Imperial Secretary, Muhammad, stand
ing by, saw this, and venturing to interpose, remarked
briefly : " War ! war ! " At the word the Sultan smiled
with delight, and then turning towards his Grand Vizier he
dismissed him at once from his post, and ordered the
Secretary to step into his place. The latter, however,.
tremblingly deprecated any such sudden change of offices,
or questionable exaltation, and it was only after the ex
cellent man had been soundly bastinadoed by command of
his master that he consented to accept so dangerous a
dignity as Grand Vizier. It is said, however, that he
worthily filled the office, though he in his turn did not hold
it very long.
Selim was famous for executing his Viziers, and Stanley
Lane-Poole, in his " History of Turkey," tells us that it was
a common form of cursing in the Ottoman dominions for
generations to say " Mayest thou be Selim's Vizier ! "
A very good idea may be obtained of the uncertainty of
tenure of the office of Vizier by bearing this table in mind,
viz., that " From the series of one hundred and fifteen
Viziers in the Turkish dominions, from the time of.Orkhan,

GRAND VIZIERS 379
till the siege of Vienna, the high position may be valued at
three and a half years' purchase."
The greatest of the Ottoman Viziers was Ibrahim, who,
was chosen by that grand monarch Suleyman to be his
companion, friend, and helper in the year 1523. Ibrahim
was the son of a sailor of Parga, and in his boyish days
had the misfortune to be captured by Corsairs. After a
time of hardship with the Rovers of the Sea, he passed
into the hands of a widow at Magnesia as a slave, and
from her he was bought by Suleyman when he was but
heir-apparent and Governor of Magnesia.
The young man showing fine parts, and especially a
wonderful genius for learning, Suleyman treated him with
much kindness, and erriployed him in various offices about
his person. He was then made Grand Falconer, and
finally, on the accession of the Prince to the throne of
Turkey, the favourite was raised to the high position of
Grand Vizier. There is an Eastern proverb which says :
" When God gives office He gives also the ability to fill it,"
and it was so with Ibrahim. It was something wonderful
how this man, who was simply the son of an ordinary
seaman, was able to meet the duties of his exalted office.
He is described as great in peace and war, and everything
seemed to succeed and prosper in his hands.
And the more Suleyman saw of the great genius and fine
character of his Vizier the more he loved him. " Ibrahim
was not only a friend, he was an entertaining and instructive
companion. He read Persian, Greek, and Italian; he
knew how to open unknown worlds to the Sultan's mind,
and Suleyman drank in his Vizier's wisdom with assiduity.
They lived together : their meals were shared in common :
even their beds were in the same room. At length the.
Sultan gave his sister in marriage to the sailor's son, who
was then at the height of his power."
And for thirteen years that friendship lasted, but at
length it was undermined by a jealous and unscrupulous
woman and Ibrahim, the dear friend and peerless Minister,

380 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
was sacrificed by the Sultan in a fit of rage. Bitterly did
Suleyman regret the hasty deed, and, it is said, had no more
ease of mind. What is more certain is, that the State had
thenceforth little peace, and sorely felt the loss of the
brilliant genius and firm rule of Ibrahim.
While most Viziers have been deposed or slain by the
caprice or jealousy of their masters, a few have been known
to sacrifice themselves to save their princes, whom the latter
would fain have kept in office and power. The fate of
Hafiz the Martyr is a case in point This Grand Vizier
was an able minister, and was dearly beloved by his Sultan,
.Murad the Fourth, who was the last of the fighting Sultans
of the Ottoman race. When Murad ascended the throne
he was young in years and experience, and depended
greatly upon the services of his able Vizier. Hafiz, how
ever, was not popular with some factions in the State, which
sought disorder rather than a firm and settled government.
In the ninth year of the Sultan's reign these factions rose
in rebellion, and besieged Murad in his palace. They even
pressed into the Seraglio and called for the heads of the
Viziers, and especially for the head of Hafiz, who, they
declared, had advised the Sultan badly.
The occasion was a critical one, for Murad had no troops
at hand equal to the emergency, and the insurgents laid
before him a choice of evils, either the sacrifice of his
Prime Minister or abdication. The Sultan declared he
would not do the former, and temporized with regard to
the latter, hoping for a favourable turn of events. How
ever, the mutineers insisted upon their request being granted,
and the life even of the Sultan was endarigered. It was at
that moment that the Grand Vizier appeared on the scene,
and entreated his master to leave the settlement of the
matter with him. The brave man was resolved to sacrifice
himself to save his Prince, and said : " Grieve not for me,
I have seen my fate in a dream to-day, and I am not afraid
to die." And before the sorrowing Sultan could stop him
he had stepped forth into the court where his enemies

GRAND VIZIERS 381
were waiting. They sprang upon him, and though he
fought gallantly for his life he fell pierced by seventeen
wounds. The young Prince, powerless to avert the murder, yet
vowed to avenge it, and said aloud to the mutineers : " So
help me, Allah, ye men of blood, who fear not God, nor
are ashamed before God's Prophet, a terrible vengeance
shall overtake you ! " And he kept his word ! When
free to sally forth from his palace Murad gathered around
him what loyal troops he could find, and in every city
of his kingdom he sought the insurgents who had foully
done to death the man he had loved. " The Bosphorus
floated thick with the bodies of the slain, and the death of
Hafiz the Martyr was avenged tenfold."
If we pass from Turkey to Spain, and look at the rule of
the Moors in the latter country, we find that the office of
Vizier there was one that was not, generally speaking, made
much of. The Omiades of Spain, like their brethren of
Damascus, preferred to rule in person rather than by
deputy. However, there were exceptions, and some of the
Sultans of Cordova are known to have had Grand Viziers.
I would refer to one Prime Minister in particular, who in
the tenth century exercised paramount influence in Spain,
and retained it, which is more remarkable still, until his
dying day. This Vizier is known in history by the name of
Almanzor, or " The Victorious by the grace of God," and
he may be said to have been the most able, the most
powerful, and the most fortunate Grand Vizier that the
Moslem world has ever known. Almanzor started life as
an insignificant student at the University of Cordova, and
his career is an interesting example of what talent, daring,
and selfishness can do in a Moslem State where the road
to power has ever been open to all classes of society.
The student ingratiated himself first of all with the
servants of the Royal Palace by becoming a professional
letter-writer to them : by-and-by he gained the notice of
the Grand Chamberlain : and eventually, by his charm of

382 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
manner and skilful flatteries, he obtained the favour of the
ladies pf the Harem, and especially of Amina the Queen-
Mother, who is said to have fallen in love with the brilliant
and handsome young man.
Hisham the Second, a boy of twelve years of age, was
Caliph, but he was entirely under the influe/ice of his
mother, Amina, and he was led by her eventually to choose
Almanzor as his Grand Vizier, and to leave everything in
the favourite's hands. Thus the student rose to the highest
office in the land, and he filled it with astonishing ability.
As a judge he was counted most wise and upright: as a
leader of society he was most popular :¦ and as commander
of the armies of the Faithful he was simply idotized, for
he invariably led his soldiers to victory and to booty.
So completely did both the Caliph and his people trust
the Grand Vizier that almost all the important posts in the
state passed into his hands. "Almanzor became the
virtual ruler of Mohammedan Spain. From his palace in
the suburbs of Cordova he governed the whole kingdom :
letters and proclamations were issued in his name : he was
prayed for from the pulpits, and commemorated on the
coinage : and he even Wore robes of gold tissue, woven
with his name, such as kings only were wont to wear." .
And for nigh twenty years this extraordinary man held the
reins of power, without a rival, beloved at home and feared
abroad, ahd then died quietly in his bed. He is said to
have been a perfect terror to the Christians of neighbouring
states, who time by time waged war with the Moors, for
Almanzor always defeated them with very great slaughter.
The hate of the Christians, and the relief they felt at the
news of the death of this great Moslem Vizier, may -be
gathered from the brief but emphatic entry that has been
found in the manuscript of a Monkish annalist, which
reads : " In 1002 died Almanzor, and was buried in Hell."
For a moment let us direct our thoughts to India. The
great Moghuls had their Viziers, some of whom in the latter
days of the royal Baber line became independent princes

GRAND VIZIERS 383.
and monarchs, breaking off, as opportunity presented
branches of territory, such as Oude and Bengal, from the
parent tree. I would speak, however, of a humbler and
more faithful servant, who lived at the commencement of
the eighteenth century, and who did a graceful act, the
memory of which ought not to be suffered to die.
The incident happened in the year 1739, when Mahomed
Shah was on the throne at Delhi, and Nadir Shah, the
fierce Persian, had captured and was sacking the Imperial
city. The two kings, the conquered and the conqueror,
were one day seated in the beautiful Diwan-i-Khas, or Hall
of Audience, talking over the terms of peace, when coffee
was announced^ The servant, who brought it on a gold
salver, placed it on a table and retired. It was how the
Grand Vizier's duty to hand the beverage to the two
Emperors, but to whom should he offer it first, to his own
prince or to the stranger? It was a point of etiquette
that had never arisen before in his experience, and one
that was fraught with danger, even to his life, if a false step
were made. The eyes of all in the room were fixed upon
the Vizier, but he did not hesitate above a moment, and
then advancing with firm step to the side of his beloved
but unfortunate master, he handed him the gold salver,
saying : " I cannot aspire to the honour of presenting the
cup to the king of kings, your majesty's guest, nor would
your majesty wish that any hand but your own should do
so." Mahomed Shah, greatly pleased with the adroit move of
his Vizier, which honoured himself and did no dishonour to
Nadir Shah, tpok a cup from the salver and presented it to
the latter. Even the terrible Nadir had been charmed
with the incident, and as he accepted the coffee from his
host, he said, with a smile : " Had all your officers known
and done their duty like your Grand Vizier, you had never,
my good friend, have seen me or my soldiers at Delhi !
Cherish, this estimable man for your own sake, and get
around you as many like him as you can ! "

384 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
From what has been related in this chapter, it will be at
once manifest that the post of Grand Vizier is a most
unenviable one to fill. It is no sinecure office, and is
the almost certain road to a violent death. That so many
have failed to fill it with comfort to themselves, or benefit
to the princes or states they have been called to serve, is
not to be wondered at. The examples I have been able to
give of true, useful, and honourable service are therefore
the more precious and the more to be admired.

CHAPTER XXXIX
SLAVERY AND THE SLAVE TRADE
One of the most ancient institutions of the human race
is that of slavery. In every age almost of the world's history
it has been known, and in every land. And wherever it
has prevailed it has been a source of national weakness as
well as individual misery.
Slavery is an outrage against humanity, and in the long
run it is its own avenger in the decay of those nations that
foster it. Hannah More has said :—
" Indignant Nature blushes to behold
Degraded man himself, tracked, bartered, sold,
Of every native privilege bereft,
Yet cursed with every wounded feeling left.
Hard lot ! each brutal suffering to sustain,
Yet keep the sense acute of human pain. "
At the present day Christian nations, generally speaking,
are free from the curse of slavery. It is Heathen and
Mohammedan nations that are the offenders, for slavery
exists in Turkey, Egypt, Persia, Tunis, Morocco, Mada
gascar, China, and Afghanistan, and in a very modified
degree in the Independent Native States of India.
Amongst Moslems this dreadful institution has existed
from time immemorial, and has the sanction of their Sacred
¦ Scriptures, the Koran. When Mohammed became the
Prophet, Priest, and King of Islam, slavery existed amongst
the Arabians, and though he had, at any rate at first, little
c c

386 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
sympathy with the custom, he forbore to denounce it, and
only sought to some extent to mitigate its evils.
Here and there in the Koran references are made to
slavery, and it is stated that captives taken in war are the
lawful property of those who capture them— property that
may be either kept, given away, or sold. Thus the legality
of the possession of slaves by Moslems is placed beyond
all doubt, and the abolition of slavery in Mohammedan
countries is made an almost impossible task, because to do
so would be to abrogate- a large part of the teaching of
the Perspicuous Book. As a matter of fact, no Moslem
state has ever voluntarily abolished slavery, and probably
never will.
There are more women than men slaves in Mohammedan
countries, and the sanction which the Koran gives to the
Faithful to take their women slaves as concubines is one of
the chief reasons why slavery has such a hold on Moslems.
In the 4th sura of the Koran it is written : " Take in
marriage of such women as please you, two, three, or four,
and not more. But if ye fear that ye cannot act equitably
towards so many, marry one only, or the slaves which ye
shall have acquired." This permission to add to the one
wife any number of slave-girls, opened not only the flood
gates of vice to Mohammedans, but forged a chain of iron
about the necks of slaves that has made slavery an endur
ing national institution in Moslem lands.
Muir, in his " Life of Mahomet," says : " As regards
female slaves under the thraldom of Mohammedan masters,
it is difficult to conceive more signal degradation of the
human species ; they are treated as an inferior class of
beings. Equally restricted as if they had entered the
marriage state, they are expressly excluded from any title
to conjugal rights. They are purely at the disposal of
their proprietors." We can conceive, then, how strong are
the reasons which lead Moslems to cling to slavery, for the '
abolition of the custom means very largely the abolition of
Zenanas.

SLAVERY AND THE SLAVE TRADE 387
It has in justice, however, to be said, that, though
Mohammed, in his character of Prophet, sanctioned slavery,
he strongly urged the Faithful to treat their slaves with
consideration and kindness, and make their lot as easy and
comfortable as possible.
In some cases the Prophet even advised his followers
to marry their slaves. In the 4th sura of the Koran we
read : " Whoso among you hath not means sufficient that
he may marry free women who are believers, let him marry
with such of your maidservants, whom your right hands
possess, as are true believers : for God well knoweth your
faith. Ye are the one from the other: therefore marry
them, with the consent of their masters, and give them
their dower according to justice. And when they are
married, if they be guilty of adultery, they shall suffer half
the punishment which is appointed for the free women.
This is allowed unto him among you who feareth to sin by
marrying free women ; but if ye abstain from marrying
slaves, it will be better for you : God is gracious and
merciful." Not content with urging the Faithful to treat their slaves
well, and in some cases to marry them, Mohammed even
declared that it was a meritorious act to free slaves, and
that those who did so would bring down upon themselves
the blessing of Allah. In the 90th sura of the Koran it
is written : "What shall make them to" understand what
the highway of good is ? It is to free captives, or to feed
in the day of famine the orphan who is of kin, or the poor
man who lieth on the ground. Whoso doeth this, and is
one of those who believe, and recommend perseverance
unto each other, and recommend mercy unto each other,
these, shall be companions of the right hand."
Then in the 24th sura the words occur : " Unto such of
your slaves as desire a written instrument allowing them to
redeem themselves on paying a 'certain sum, write one, if
ye know good in them, and give them of the riches of God,
which He hath given you." c c 2

388 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
Doubtless these gracious words and rules of conduct- of
Mohammed with regard to the treatment of slaves have
had some weight with devout Moslems; and if all owners
of slaves only lived up to such exhortations slavery would
not be the dreadful curse it is. The mistake the Prophet
made, however, was to sanction slavery at all ! It is a
custom that it is almost impossible to regulate. The true
cure for the evils of slavery is to abolish the sinful practice
altogether. For many generations- the Faithful obtained their supply
of slaves through the wars they waged. Every prisoner was
a captive, to be redeemed or not at the pleasure of the
victor. As a rule, women captives were never ransomed,'
but retained to swell the ranks of the harem. And this.
method of obtaining slaves by war was the favourite
method all through the centuries of the Damascus and
Bagdad Caliphates, and for. a time even under the Ottoman
rule in Turkey.
The Times of India, a Bombay newspaper, in an admir
able article in 1890 on the Slave Trade, said : " Up to the
beginning of the present century all captives of war taken
from Christian nations were enslaved by the Turks, and a
Turkish campaign in Hungary or Poland was little more
than a gigantic slave raid. Less than 200 years ago 100,000
German and Magyar women and girls were carried off in
a single campaign. And even when the decay of the
Ottoman military power prevented the Turks from invading
Christian countries any more, they still continued raiding
and kidnapping. But the supply of captive women became
less and less, and the markets of Algiers, Tunis, and
Tripoli were closed by the indignation of Europe in 1816."
Moslems will have slaves, however, and when white races
failed them, the Persians and the Turks turned their
attention to dark races, and entered upon the modern
African slave trade, which has assumed such proportions
that the decimation of an entire continent is threatened.
As the 'Times of India has forcibly said: "The closing

SLAVERY AND THE SLAVE TRADE 389
of all the other avenues by which women were formerly
obtained to replace the drain caused by polygamy has
intensified and aggravated the East African slave trade.
It is simply a case of demand and supply, and so long as
the demand exists it will continue to be supplied, no
matter at what risks and hazards short of actual physical
impossibility." The dreadful cruelties practised by the Arab slave
dealers in Africa cry out to Heaven for punishment. That
grand Christian missionary, Dr. Livingstone, was one of the
first to call public attention to the evil. Wherever he went
in his travels he found sad traces of the trade, which
he held to be the sum and substance of all villainy. And
missionaries and travellers of the present day tell the same
tale. The slave-hunts are organized in three regions : in the
interior of Africa, on the borders of the Upper Nile, and
on the coast of the Indian Ocean. Arabs and Turks are
at the head of such expeditions. The plan of operations
is usually to surround a village, and as the inhabitants at
the first sound of alarm rash out, with or without their
spears in their hands, the traders shoot them down as fast
as they can. In a few minutes the struggle is over, and
the men being killed the women and children are gathered
into a group. A dreadful scene then ensues. The older
women are seized and brutally murdered on the spot, while
the younger women and children are tied together with
ropes, some having in addition a pole, forked at the end,
fastened round their necks, and then they are driven away
on their journey to the coast. In the majority of instances
the journey covers an extent of land more than twice the
length of Great Britain, and it is across the dreadful soli
tudes of the desert.
The sufferings of the poor slaves are frightful from
hunger, thirst and weariness. I. rom time to time one ofthe
miserable company falls to rise no more, but her fellow-
captives do not even stop to cover the body with sand.

390 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
"When evening draws on the sad groups have often not
enough physical strength to drag their wearied bodies to the
springs that might slake their parched mouths. Sometimes
the wind- fills the mouth of the well with sand. When
this is the case, some of the poor wretches, not having
sufficient strength to wait until the place is cleared, die, and
their companions are barely able to remove the corpses."
Fearing ambuscades during the march through the
desert, the slave traders often flog their captives to make
them move quickly, and when the lash or the club has no
longer any effect upon the miserable beings, worn out by
fatigue, they are either killed or abandoned Without pity in
the solitude. Sir Samuel Baker tells of a convoy conducted
by Turks in which a woman did not walk quickly enough.
As soon as she was overcome with fatigue she was knocked
down with a blow from a club on the back of the neck,
and all that remained was a body quivering in death.
The Arabs often hang the exhausted ones, and their
route to the coast can sometimes be followed by those
frightful landmarks. As the caravan of slaves nears its
destination, the lot of the captives is generally ameliorated.
The merchants from self-interest show less cruelty, and
arrange for the weak and fatigued to be carried by those
who are stronger and more enduring. But at the best, we
are told, and can well believe, that the sight of a caravan
when near the coast is horrible and sickening. "The
slaves are no longer united, but scattered in groups along
the road, tottering and resembling skeletons, their faces
expressive of nothing but hunger, their eyes dull and
sunken, their cheeks only bone."
It is calculated that 90,000 human beings are carried off
every year in Africa, and sold into slavery. And this figure
represents but a small section of the evils done by slavery
and the slave trade, for it is computed that for one slave
that arrives at the slave market ten are slain in the first
attack on the village, or die by the way. Thus we reach
the awful total of 900,000 souls that are the victims yearly

SLA VERY AND THE SLA VE TRADE 391
of this infamous traffic in human beings, and all to gratify
the selfish and sensual passions of the followers of the
Prophet of Islam. Verily Mohammedans have much to
answer for to God in this matter of slavery and the slave
trade !
I will not linger over the horrors endured by the captives
in the slave dhows as they are being transported along the
Eastern coast of Africa, nor over the degradation and suffer
ings in the slave markets. Probably the happiest part of a
slave's life is in the homes of the people of Islam ; but
from the beginning to the end the whole traffic is an
abomination, and the conscience of the civilized world is
beginning to be touched by the sad tale of Africa's woes ;
and the nations of Christendom are arousing themselves to
battle with this great evil.
The feeling is becoming more general and intense that if
Mohammedans will not root out the trade from the inside
by abolishing the demand, Christians must stop it from the
outside by cutting off the supply. Already in Egypt for a
few years, and latterly in Zanzibar, the action of the English
has been felt, and slavery has been partially crippled.
Sir Evelyn Baring, in a recent report to the English
Government on Slavery in Egypt, states that in 1885 there
were thirty-two slave dealers in Cairo, but the Khedive was
urged to take vigorous measures against them, and now not
a single slave dealer is to be found. A very few slaves, it
is said, may be occasionally smuggled into the country,
and sold privately, but for all practical purposes the slave
trade in Egypt is extinct.
It must be clearly understood, however, that slavery is
not extinct. Egyptian Moslems have slaves in their house
holds ; but every year the number diminishes owing to the
difficulty of obtaining fresh ones. As long as England
retains Egypt and brings pressure to bear on the Egyptian
Government, slavery will be moribund in the Land of the
Pharaohs, but as Sir Evelyn Baring significantly says at the
close of his Report : — " Of the many abuses, now partially

392 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
abolished, which would tend to reappear should the influ
ence at present exerted by the British , Government • in
Egypt be diminished, I know of none whose reappearance
may be predicted with a greater degree of probability than
that now under discussion."
And the same may be said of Zanzibar. Owing to the
influence of the British, the Sultan of Zanzibar has declared
the slave trade to be illegal in his dominions, and has pro
hibited all sale and exchange of slaves. These stringent
laws, however, are very unpopular, and it is found very
difficult to enforce them. News comes from time to time
that dealers manage to evade the law, and that the dread
traffic goes on to some extent still. It is most earnestly to
be hoped that the British Government will continue firm
in its attitude, and strengthen the Sultan to uphold his
decrees. Zanzibar has been so long the stronghold of the
slave-trading communities, that to cripple their power there
is to strike a heavy blow at the traffic.
The Church of Rome is to be congratulated on the atti
tude she has taken up towards the .slave trade, and for the
vigorous aggressive policy she has inaugurated through that
veteran friend of slaves, Cardinal Lavigerie. All the
churches of Christ throughout the world should join in a
Holy Crusade against the common enemy of mankind —
for the slave trade, is truly, nothing less — until the wide
world over slavery is utterly abolished !
The Anti-Slavery Conference held at Brussels in 1890, at
which seventeen of the great Powers of the world were
represented, it is expected will be fruitful in good results.
A general act and declaration was drawn up, which has
since been signed by all the contracting parties, which
declares that " the powers are equally animated by the firm
intention of putting an end to the crimes and devastations
engendered by the traffic in African slaves, protecting
effectively the aboriginal populations of Africa, and insuring
for that vast continent the benefits of peace and civiliza
tion."

SLAVERY AND THE SLAVE TRADE 393
The wish of every feeling heart is that the seventeen
Powers may succeed in their noble but herculean task.
As yet little has been done, and it will doubtless be many
years before much can be done. Some of the signatories
to the " Act and Declaration," it is to be feared, are only
half in earnest. Turkey has signed it, and yet Turkey is
very greatly the cause of the dreadful traffic. It is futile
for the Sultan, who styles himself the Commander of the
Faithful, to issue tirades against fhe slave trade so long as
he keeps one thousand women and girls in his seraglio,
guarded by eunuchs and governed by the rod.
If only Turkey and other Mohammedan nations could
see the evil of their ways in keeping slaves at all,' even
domestic slaves, then the doom of the slave trade would,
indeed, be struck, and Africa would be saved. The
prospect is not hopeful from the Moslem side ; so we
can but look to the vigilance of the Christian Powers to
check, diminish, and cut off the supply. This method,
however, can work but slowly, so that, humanly speaking,
while slavery is now dying, it will probably be a generation
or so before it is dead.

CHAPTER XL
ISLAM IN ENGLAND
Perhaps the last place in the world where we should
expect to find Mohammedanism is England, and yet it is a
fact that this religion has been established in our land of
late years, and, strange to say, by an Englishman.
Mohammedanism can scarcely be said to be a missionary
religion like Christianity, for nowhere in the pages of the
Koran is there such a passage as, " Go ye into all the
world and preach the Gospel to every creature." The
nearest approach to a missionary command is that which
occurs in the 3rd sura, where it is written : " Let there be
people among you who invite to the best religion." This
may be construed into a call for missionaries to go forth to
propagate the Faith of Islam, and it has been so construed,
but not on a large scale, or with any definite system.
It is true we find Mohammedanism established not only
in Arabia, the place of its birth, but in India and China, in
Sumatra and Java, in Egypt, the Soudan, and Central
Africa, and even in Madagascar. But in all these
countries, as has been shown in the earlier chapters of this
work, it was the power of the sword that won an opening
for the Faith rather than' the power of truth as presented
by missionaries.
However, in the case of England, we are met with an
exception to the general rule. Force in these days on the
part of Commanders of the Faithful even could do
nothing against England's might, so that if Mohammedanism

ISLAM IN ENGLAND 395
were to obtain a footing at all in our country, the only
possible way for it was the way of inward conviction of the
superior value of the religion of Allah on the part of
Englishmen. And thus it has actually befallen.
The centre of Mohammedanism in England is Liver
pool, and Mr. William Henry Quilliam, a solicitor of that
city, is the life and soul of the movement. In the year
1884 Mr. Quilliam visited Morocco, and there his attention
was drawn to Mohammedanism. His statement is that he
was first struck with the apparent sincerity of the followers
of Islam, and with the absence in Moslem cities of the
vices so prevalent in large centres of population in Great
Britain. Then he devoted his spare time to the study of
the Koran, and every other work he could procure upon the
subject, pro or con, with the result that he was at last con
vinced that of all the religions of the world Islamism was
the best. Having reached this point, he had the courage of
his convictions, and openly confessed himself a convert to
Mohammedanism, while he formally renounced Christianity.
Returning to Liverpool, the new convert, filled with zeal,
sought to propagate the Faith of Islam amongst his
countrymen by means of conversation, but seems only to
have been laughed at for his pains. Then he tried lectur
ing, and with somewhat more encouraging results, for after
a year or two he could point to four disciples. Thereupon
a Church of Islam was formed in a hall in Mount Vernon
Street, and after five hard up-hill years of work, the number
of the Faithful increased to over thirty, when it was
resolved to move to more comfortable and commodious
premises, and bring the religion of Islam somewhat more
prominently before the people of England by vigorous
meetings, press notices, and various pamphlets and books.
On Christmas morning, 1889, the new premises at
Brougham Hall, Brougham Terrace, West Derby Road,
were opened by a substantial breakfast given to 230 poor
children of the neighbourhood, and the Liverpool Moslem
Institute was founded, of which Mr. W. H. Quilliam was

396 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
made first President. From that date the public services
have been better attended, and outside interest iri the
movement has grown, until the fame of " Islam in
England " has gone to the uttermost parts of the earth. ,
In the autumn of 1891, being in England, I resolved to
visit Liverpool and, investigate thoroughly Mohammedanism
in that city. During the four days of my stay I was the
guest of the President, and was treated with much kind
ness, and shown everything in the Institute,- and told all
about the inner working of the whole movement, with the
clear understanding that I could make public whatever I
pleased. I timed my visit so as to arrive on a Friday, the
" Day of the Assembly," and at once made my way to the
Institute, though doubtful of obtaining admittance, as the
services on that day are for the Faithful only.
It was the hour of Evening Prayer when I reached
Brougham Hall, and the first thing I saw and heard was
the President standing in the balcony of a window, which
did duty for a minaret, giving the Azan or Call to Prayer,
both in Arabic and English. I had not heard the famous
Call since leaving- Egypt in the year 1888, and it sounded
passing strange to me to listen to it in the street of an
English city. As the cry was raised "Allah is Great ! Allah
is Great ! I bear witness there is no God but God ! I bear
witness that Mohammed is the Prophet of God ! Come to
prayers ! Come to salvation ! Allah is Great ! " a crowd
gathered round and listened with considerable curiosity, but
without any remark.
The Liverpool Moslem Institute is a large old-fashioned
house. On the notice board outside I read these words :
There is no God but God, and Mohammed was His Prophet !
CHURCH OF ISLAM. -
Divine Service. Sunday Morning 11 o'clock.
» >• .. Evening 7 ,,
I called the President's attention to the words " Moham
med was His Prophet," and asked whether it was a mistake

' ISLAM IN ENGLAND 397
or not. I was told that " is " would be at once substituted
for " was," as the Faithful believe that Mohammed not only
" was " but " is " the Prophet of God. The word was an
unfortunate painter's error. Inside the Institute are, various
rooms, such as a library, a museum, and a small lecture-
hall, where the members meet for the study of the- Koran,
for instruction in Eastern languages, and for social meet-
- ings of various kinds. Though it was the " Day of the
Assembly," the President courteously showed me through
the rooms, and then took me to see the Pro-Mosque where
Divine Worship is held.
The so-called mosque is just an oblong building in the
rear . of the Institute, erected in what was formerly the
garden of the house. It will hold, probably, about 150
people, and is fitted up very plainly with somewhat uncom
fortable benches, the only ornamentation being several
pairs of Burmese curtains, with here and there an Indian
durie, or prayer-mat, on the floor. At one end of the
building is a small platform with a reading-table, on which
rests a copy of the Koran, while at the other end a portion
is railed off as sacred ground where only the Faithful are
allowed to enter, without shoes on their feet, as they wish
to offer prayer and praise to Allah.
On the following Sunday I was present at two public
services. The morning meeting was very thinly attended,
only nine members being . in their places, and no outsider
save myself. At the evening meeting there was a congrega
tion of fifty-seven, of whom twelve were Lascars from the
ships in the Mersey.
There is, of course, no priesthood in Islam, though in
the East there are readers of the Koran, and doctors of
the law, who are virtually priests, and who usually lead
the Faithful in their devotions. I was told that in Liver
pool the plan is for the Faithful in monthly assembly to
choose certain of the members of the Institute to conduct
the religious meetings for the following four weeks.
The honour is duly shared in turn, and no one receives.

398 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
payment for service thus rendered. This practice of non
payment is founded upon that passage of the Koran which
says : " Whosoever striveth to promote the true religion
striveth for the advantage of his own soul, for God re
quireth not aid from any of His creatures ; " and that other
passage which declares, " I ask not of you any reward for
this my preaching, besides the conversion of him who
shall desire to take the way which leads unto his God."
The morning service consisted simply of a few hymns, a
short prayer, and the reading of a very long and wearisome
sura of the Koran, entitled "The Table, Revealed at
Medina." The opening words of the sura were very good,
viz., " O true believers, perform your contracts  As
sist one another according to justice and piety, but assist
not one another in injustice and malice." Then, however,
the teaching suddenly degenerated, and the Faithful were
told that unbelievers would be turned into apes and swine,
that Jews and Christians would be cursed with a curse and
reserved for hell-fire. Moreover, certain cruel laws were •
enjoined on true believers, such, for example, as : " If a
man or a woman steal, cut off their hands in retribution
for that which they have committed : this is an exemplary
punishment appointed by God." But I forbear further
quotation. I fail to see that the reading of the 5th sura
of the Koran will commend Islam to inquirers after " the
best religion," who may happen to enter the Pro-Mosque
at Liverpool.
The President took' no part in the morning service other
than as a listener, but in the evening he was a prominent
figure, and delivered a vigorous address. Let me give a
general outline of the evening service, which will show my
readers exactly what occurs week by week in the Church
of Islam at Liverpool.
The proceedings opened with a chant — the first sura of
the Koran, "which is : " Praise be to God, the Lord of all
creatures, the most merciful, the King of the Day of
Judgment. Thee do we worship, and of Thee do we beg

ISLAM IN ENGLAND 399
assistance. Direct us in the right way, in the way of those
to whom Thou hast been gracious ; not of those against
whom Thou art ' incensed, nor of those who go astray."
Then a hymn was sung from a very small "Collection
of Hymns for use at the Meetings of the English-speaking
Church of Islam." Strange to say, the first hymn was
"Our God, our help in ages past." Prayer was next offered
by Mr. Quilliam, the President. It was such a prayer as is
heard doubtless every Sunday in a Unitarian Church, with
the exception of the clause in it which asked for the bless
ing of Allah specially to rest upon his gracious majesty the
Sultan of Constantinople, the Head of the Religion of
Islam, and the Commander of the Faithful.
After the prayer the beautiful hymn was sung —
"Take my life, and let it be
Consecrated, Lord, to Thee."
Then followed a lesson from the 27th sura of the Koran,
entitled "The Night Journey." Next came an anthem,
excellently sung by the small choir. And then the Presi
dent stood up to give his usual Sunday evening address or
lecture. The subject was "A Moslem View of Christ."
Mr. Quilliam is a thin, somewhat sharp-featured, delicate-
looking man, of the medium height, with a good voice, a
ready utterance, and a pleasant manner. His delivery is
usually quiet and deliberate, but now and again he waxes
warm and passionately eloquent. His great fault, however,
is his one-sided presentation of truth, even though he knows
that something can be said on the other side. In short,
he is a solicitor — an advocate in the pulpit as well as
before the magistrate's bench.
His text was taken from the 5th sura of the Koran, and
consisted of the words : " They are infidels who say, Verily,
God is Christ, the son of Mary." Then in strong language
but weak logic he proceeded to try lo demonstrate to his
hearers that Christ was not only not Divine, but a very
poor specimen of a perfect man. I made copious notes of

4-0 STUDIES. IN MOHAMMEDANISM
the argument, but I need not reproduce them. The chief
points that the speaker relied upon to prove his case were,
that Jesus often made mistakes, was constantly losing his
temper, was a disobedient son, and was of a revengeful
disposition, as witness the incident , of the cursing of the
barren fig-tree.
When I. expostulated afterwards with the President for
giving us such a caricature of the life of Christ, he smiled,
and said that his method of treatment of the subject was
the right one for a popular audience and for his purposes.
" However," he remarked, " I do not often attack Christ
or Christianity, but content myself with teaching and
enforcing the moral and spiritual truths of Islam." And it
is only fair to say that the subject announced for the
following Sunday was "The Four Perfect Women of Islam."
The service concluded with the hearty singing of one of
the few hymns in the Moslem Hymnal not taken from
Christian sources. Mr. Quilliam himself was the composer
of it, I think. It was a hymn of praise, the last verse' of
which was to this effect : — ¦ ,
" And when the sands of life have run,
And all our time on earth «is done :
We pray Thee, O Thou God of love,
Take us to Thee in heaven above."
After the public meeting a private one for the Faithful,
more especially for the Lascars, was held. While I was
waiting in the lecture-room, and enjoying a chat with a
lady, who before she joined the Moslem Institute was an
ardent Theosophist, my attention was drawn to a crowd of
street-arabs and roughs outside, who were amusing them
selves by throwing stones into the hall of the house, some
of which even went through into the mosque itself. The
little band of the Faithful did not, however, seem to mind
the persecution and disturbance much. I felt, however
that it was a disgrace that such things could be done in an
English city with impunity. Where were the guardians of
the public peace ? Conspicuous by their absence !

ISLAM IN ENGLAND 401
Mr. Quilliam, it appears, visited the Sultan of Constan
tinople by special request in May, 1891. His eldest son,
Robert, a boy of ten years of age, accompanied him, and
to this lad the Sultan took a fancy. The President had a
gracious reception, and returned, of course, to England
more pronounced than ever in his attachment to Islamism;
His son was made a Colonel in the Household Troops and
dignified with the title of Bey. The boy, whether he
thought much of the title or not, was evidently delighted
with the beautiful Arab steed which the Sultan' had given
him, and with the regimentals appertaining to his new
dignity of Colonel. When fifteen years of age, the young
Bey will be expected to take up his quarters in the Turkish
capital, and to cast in his lot for good with his Eastern
co-religionists. Robert Quilliam is a handsome and
gallant boy, and I sincerely wish him a better fate than
to spend his days in the Household Troops of a Moslem
Prince, even though that Prince be the Sultan of Constan
tinople. Mr. Quilliam, senior, is an enthusiast, and seems to me
to be killing himself with work. His law practice alone,
I am told, is enough to keep any ordinary man busy all
the week, yet he is present at various meetings at the
Moslem Institute, Sunday and week-day, and is constantly
writing pamphlets and books for the enlightenment of the
world on this his particular hobby. " Fanatics and Fanati
cism " was the first pamphlet he published. It was origi
nally a temperance lecture, but Mohammed was introduced
into it, and Islamism eulogized, and by means of "Fanatics
and Fanaticism " the President won his first follower.
" The Faith of Islam," a work of forty-nine pages, next
appeared. It is published at sixpence, and has reached a
second edition. I have read it through very carefully, but
do not consider it at all a reliable account of Islamism.
As an example of what I mean, I find on page forty-one the
statement that a great excellency of the Koran is "the total
absence throughout of all impure, immoral, and indecent
D D

402 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
ideas or expressions .... it may be read from beginning
to end without causing a blush to suffuse the cheek of
modesty itself." Now this is entirely misleading, as I said
to the author of the pamphlet when turning his attention to
several passages in the " Perspicuous Book " which are
decidedly conspicuous for filth. Why, in the 5th sura of
the Koran, to go no further, in the chapter which was read
in the Pro-Mosque, as already related, there occurred words
which made me hot with shame and indignation as they
were publicly recited before a mixed audience of ladies and
gentlemen. Take another example of the unreliableness of Mr-
Quilliam's " Faith of Islam." On page forty-four it is
written : " Islam has never interfered with the dogmas of
any faith — never persecuted, riever established an inquisi
tion, never aimed at compulsory proselytism. It offered its
religion but never enforced it, the maxim of the Mussul
mans being the text of the Koran ' Let there be no
violence in religion.' "
Does the worthy President of the Liverpool Moslem
Institute suppose that any student of Eastern history will
accept such wild statements without question ? Why, even
the Koran itself is a witness against him. It is perfectly
true that in the 2nd sura of the Koran it is written : " Let
there be no. violence in religion," but if Mr. Quilliam did
not reason as an advocate he would have acknowledged in
his " Faith of Islam " that Mohammed at a later date
abrogated that peaceful decree, and issued another to the
effect, as we read in the 76th sura : " Let those fight for the
religion of God who barter the present life for the life to
come : whosoever fighteth in the path of God, whether he
be slain or victorious, we will in the end give him a great
reward." Then, was it not Abu Bekr, the first Commander
of the Faithful, who declared : " When a people leaveth
off to fight in the ways of the Lord, the Lord also casteth
off that people." And to this day it is a proverb amongst
the Arabs — " The sword is a surer argument than books."

ISLAM IN ENGLAND 403
However, so blind to the whole teaching of history on
this point is the President of the Liverpool Moslem Insti
tute that he has jiist issued a somewhat bulky volume in
three parts, entitled " The Religion of the Sword," with a
view to prove that the Religion of the Sword is not
Islamism but Judaism or Christianity. The bias of the
writer and the misleading character of his arguments may
be gathered even from a glance at the title-page, where
we find quotations from the New Testament, the Old
Testament, and the Koran respectively. Will it be believed
that the quotation from the New Testament which is given
as the keynote of Christianity is the saying of Jesus : " I
came not to send peace but a sword : I am come to set a
man at variance against his father, and a daughter agains
the mother ! "
What unfairness this is ! How the words of Christ are
wrested from their context, and made to insinuate what
they do not mean ! I do not say for a moment that many
cruel and wicked deeds have not been done by so-called
Christians in the name of Christianity, but I would protest
with the whole force of my nature against the teaching that
the life or the sayings of Christ in the slightest degree
countenance violent deeds. Nay, Christ was essentially
the Prince of Peace, and His Kingdom was not of this
world ! No student of the New Testament of any
nationality can really believe that the above quotation
about " not peace but a sword," accurately represents the
teaching of Christ or the genius of Christianity.
" Islam in England " has its headquarters in Liverpool,
but elsewhere in our country branch societies are to be
found. There are said to be 120 Moslems in London,
but they are Orientals. Then at Manchester there are
forty of the Faithful, but only four of them are English
converts. At Woking there is a mosque in connection with
an Oriental Institute there, which, however, has only one or
two students.
There is some talk of erecting a proper Eastern mosque
d d 2

404 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
with dome and minarets in Liverpool.; and subscriptions
are now being received towards this object. The money
comes in very slowly, however, and chiefly from India.
The Liverpool Institute has at present only fifty-two
members, fourteen of whom are ladies. Now that I have
studied the movement on the spot, I consider that the
world-wide fuss made over it is altogether beyond its
deserts. Apart from the President, I do not think the
Institute contains any mental strength or sign of vigorous
life. In my judgment the movement which Mr. Quilliam has
inaugurated is a forlorn hope. Islam in England may
drag on for some years a feeble existence, but then it will
probably die a sudden death.
Islam, indeed, the world over, is a lost cause ! Christianity
is everywhere in the ascendant. The pale Galilean has
conquered ! Of Christianity, and of Christianity alone, can
it be said, as I saw engraved on an old wall of the
Great Mosque at Damascus, which was once a Christian
church : " Thy Kingdom, O Christ, is an everlasting
Kingdom, and Thy Dominion endureth throughout all
generations."

CHAPTER XLI
CONTRASTED WITH CHRISTIANITY
We come now to our last chapter on Mohammedanism.
Our previous Studies have all been intended to lead up to
this point : What think you of Islamism in comparison
wjth Christianity ? Which is the better religion ? Which
contains the nobler creed ? Which will do most to elevate
and bless humanity ?
It is a remarkable thing that at the present moment there
is a Moslem Mission in Liverpool, started and maintained
by Englishmen, with the direct object of converting us all
to the doctrines of Mohammedanism. The enthusiasts
who sustain this mission firmly believe that they have found
in Islamism a better religion than they had aforetime in
Christianity. It is easy to pooh-pooh such beliefs, and smile at the
vagaries' of our brethren who hold them, but are we sure
that they are wrong ; and if they are, can we give sound
reasons for our difference of opinion, and for our holding
fast to the faith of our fathers ? These are practical and,
important questions. As the result of my Studies in the
faith of Islam, I have no hesitation in saying that, if we
apply the comparative method in dealing with Moham
medanism and Christianity, we shall inevitably arrive at
the conclusion that the religion of Christ is undoubtedly
infinitely superior to the religion of Mohammed in every
respect. Let us see !
Take first the character of .the founders of the two

406 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
religions. What have we to say, without prejudice, of
Mohammed ? Some students of history have spoken very
harshly of him ; and it was the fashion until recently to
style him "the False Prophet." Luther looked upon
Mohammed as . " a devil, and first-born of Satan." Even
the mild and gentle Melancthon considered that " he was
inspired by Satan." Prideaux said of him that " he was a
wilful and intentional deceiver from first to last, who for
the purpose of raising himself to supreme power, invented
the wicked imposture which he palmed with so much
success on the world." Other eminent critics have even
descended to the use of such epithets as " dastardly liar,"
" blasphemer," " vile wretch," and " antichrist." Now,
with all such harsh judgments I have not the least
sympathy. If we desire to be fair at all in our criticism
we must frankly acknowledge that Mohammed was a man
of extraordinary powers and gifts, and we must not judge
him by modern commonplace standards. We must bear in
mind the age in which he lived, and the work he undertook
to do ; and we must not let his opposition to Christianity
prejudice us against him.
For my part, while I do not close my eyes to the weak
nesses, follies, and even sins, of Mohammed, I hold him to
have been for his times a great and a good man. I am
even prepared to say : " Take him all in all, the history of
humanity has seen few more earnest, noble, and sincere
prophets — using the word prophet in the broad, human
sense of one irresistibly impelled by an inner power to
admonish and to teach, and to utter austere and sublime
truths." I hold that Mohammed served his generation
well, and that he was the finest and noblest public character
of his day. But when we have acknowledged to the full
the ability and wisdom of the Prophet, and his amiability,
faithfulness, tender-heartedness, and readiness to forgive,
what was he compared with Christ — not the Christ of our
ardent imagination, but the Christ of history ?
Mohammed, with all his,good points, had some very bad

CONTRASTED WITH CHRISTIANITY 4°7
ones, notably his intense worldly ambition and his licen
tiousness. His life was not an ideally unselfish one, nor
an ideally holy one, and his frequent lapses from the path
of strict virtue sadly marred his usefulness in his own times,
and have injured Islamism for ever by the power of a bad
example. How different from Christ, in whom friends and
enemies alike could find no evil ; who was holy, harmless,
undefiled, separate from sinners, whose whole life was one
of purity, of lowly service, and of self-sacrificing love. If
we may judge religions in any degree by the characters of
their founders, then how vastly superior Christianity is
to Mohammedanism ! As Lord Houghton has beautifully
said : — Mohammed's truth lay in a holy book,
Christ's in a sacred life.
So while the world rolls on from change to change,
And realms of thought expand,
The letter stands without expanse or range,
Stiff as a dead man's hand.
While, as the lifeblood fills the growing form,
The Spirit Christ has shed
Flows through the ripening ages fresh and warm,
More felt than heard or read.
Now let us contrast the two religions in respect to their
Sacred Scriptures, the Koran and the Bible. I have no
wish to depreciate the writings of Mohammed on religious
matters. When we consider that the Koran is the work
of one man, we must acknowledge that it is a unique and
wonderful performance. And the more I have studied it
the more I have found in it to admire. At the first, when
we read the Koran we are apt to weary at its peculiar and
involved phraseology and its senseless repetitions ; and we
may also be somewhat disgusted with its childish stories,
its bitter invectives against unbelievers, and -its licentious
references to the joys of Paradise; but when 'we examine
the book more carefully, and study it more diligently, we

468 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
find in its pages here and there passages calculated to
instruct, to edify, and to ennoble.
Take, for example, such a saying as this : " Man prayeth
for evil as he prayeth for good, for man is hasty." We feel
the truth and force of the statement. Again, how noble is
the advice : " Bridle thine anger, and be ready to forgive
thine enemies, and turn away evil with good." And once
more, how sublime is the passage which says : " There is
no piety in turning your faces towards the east or the west
but he is pious who believeth in God, and the last day, and
the angels, and the Scriptures, and the Prophets ; who for
the love of God dispenseth his wealth .to his kindred, and
to the orphans, and the needy, and the wayfarer, and those
who ask, and for ransoming; who observeth prayer, and
payeth the legal alms, and who is of those who are faithful
to their engagements, and patient under ills and hardships,
and in time of trouble. Such are pious and fear the Lord !".
Truly the Koran is a book that repays close study \
And it may be said to hold a high place amongst the
Sacred Scriptures, of the world; but it is a poor volume
when compared with the Bible — how poor only those know
who have carefully read and diligently compared the two !
There are, for instance, in the Koran no Psalms of David,
with their deep spiritual inspiration and their tender and
sweet devotional utterances ! There is no book of Job,
with its profound thinking, and its grand precepts with
regard to life's joys and sorrows ! There are no Proverbs
of Solomon, with their shrewd insight into human character,
and their wise and practical counsels with regard to human
conduct in every-day affairs ! And there is no Gospel of
Christ, there are no Acts of the Apostles, and Epistles,
breathing the divinest sentiments of the divinest of men,
even the Lord Jesus Christ Himself ! The Koran seems
so meagre, so poor, so paltry, when compared with the
Bible. The Koran is merely one book, and that not of
the noblest kind, though noble, while the Bible is a
veritable storehouse of sacred books, written or compiled

CONTRASTED WITH CHRISTIANITY 409
in all ages of human history, and giving the world's pro
foundest and most spiritual thoughts. And whereas in the
Koran the passages of beauty and grace which tend to
enlightenment, comfort, and edification are few and
difficult to find, in the Bible they abound, and are seen on
every page ! Thus judged by the comparison of Sacred
Scriptures, Christianity is greatly superior to Moham
medanism. But let us take another line of comparison.
Let us judge the two religions by their conception of
the Divine Being called Allah and God respectively. Now,
the glory of Mohammedanism amongst the religions of the
East lies in its teaching with regard to God. Indeed, the
mission of Mohammedanism to this world has been to
declare and. maintain the unity of God. It was a grand
truth that Mohammed saw and seized and taught, that
" there is no God but God." This truth was the power
that enabled Islamism in the early days of her career to
carry all before her.
We must never forget the service that Mohammedanism
has rendered to humanity in keeping the sublime truth of
the Unity of God before the eyes of the heathen world
steeped in idolatry ! Throughout all the ages, since
Islamism first appeared in Arabia until now, never for one
moment have the Faithful ceased to believe or to teach
that "there is no God but God." But what has been the ,
Moslem conception of God ? Infinitely better than the
heathen idea, I am fully prepared to grant ; but it has
fallen far short of the Christian conception. Let me quote
two or three short passages from the Koran. In one place
it is written : " O man of Mecca ! serve your Lord who
hath created you, and those who have been before you :
peradventure ye will fear Him, who hath spread the earth
as a bed for you, and the heaven as a covering, and hath
caused water to descend from heaven, and thereby produced
fruit for your sustenance. Set not up therefore any equals
unto God." Again it is written : " Judgment belongeth
unto God. With Him are the keys of the secret things,

410 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
none knoweth them beside Himself: He knoweth that
which is on the dry land and in the sea ; there falleth no
leaf but He knoweth it : neither is there a single grain in
the dark parts of the earth, neither a green thing, nor a dry
thing, but it is known to God. It is He who causeth you
to sleep by night, and knoweth what ye merit by day.
He also awaketh you therein that the prefixed time of your
lives may be fulfilled : then unto Him shall ye return, and
He shall declare unto you that which ye have wrought."
And once more it is written, in words of stately eloquence :
"God! There is no God but He, the living, the self-
subsisting ; neither slumber nor sleep seizeth Him, to Him
belongeth whatsoever is in Heaven and on earth ! Who is he
that can intercede with Him but through His good pleasure ?
He knoweth that which is past, and that which is to come
unto them, and they shall not comprehend anything of His
knowledge, but so far as He pleaseth ! His throne is ex
tended over Heaven and earth, and the preservation of
both is no burden unto Him ! He is tha high, the mighty! "
In these passages we have the very best that Moham
medanism can give us with regard to the nature and
character of " Allah, the Eternal, the Living one, who never
dieth, the first and the last." But in Mohammedanism we
search in vain for such a passage as this, which is the very
foundation of Christianity, viz., " God is love ; " or as this,
" God so loved the world that He gave His only-begotten
Son, that whosoever believeth in Him should not perish,
but have everlasting life." And as for the dear name of
" Father," as for the faintest notion of the " Fatherhood
of God," it is nowhere to be found in Islamism. Amongst
" the Ninety-nine Beautiful Names of Allah " there is no
place for that of " Father," which expresses so much to
the Christian heart. Dr. J. Cameron Lees, in his St
Giles' lecture on "Mohammedanism," commenting on
this point, says truly : " The God of the Arabian Prophet is
not a God of love, who desires that His children should
become one with Him, and should yield Him their affection.

CONTRASTED WITH CHRISTIANITY 411
He is a God of will and power, withdrawn from the
human world, the highest relation to whom, attainable by
man, is expressed in the well-known name the religion
bears : ' Islam, that is resignation.' "
1 ' One God the Arabian Prophet preached to man,
One God the crescent still
Adores through many a realm of mighty span,
A God of power and will.
"A God that, shrouded in His lonely light,
Rests utterly apart
From all the vast creations of His might,
From nature, man, and art.
"A power that at His pleasure doth create,
To save or to destroy :
And to eternal pain predestinate
As to eternal joy."
But such is not the God of the Christian ! Christianity
gives us a nobler conception of the Divine Being than
Mohammedanism. "The God and Father of Our Lord
Jesus Christ " is a God of tender pity, of manifold com
passion, of parental kindness and love. God does not,
like Allah, empower men to propagate His truth with the
sword, but he sends His children forth into the world
with a Gospel of "peace on earth, good-will towards
men." Therefore do we take Christianity to be the nobler
Faith ; and therefore do we cleave to it with all our heart
and soul, and mind and strength !
I shall not linger over other comparisons that might be
profitably dealt with at some length. It will be sufficient
for my purpose just to mention them briefly.
1. There is ethical teaching. Some people have said,
notably our brethen who have turned Moslems in Liver
pool, that the ethical teaching of Islamism is superior to
Christianity. I require proof^ however, and I cannot find
it in the Koran. The attitude of Mohammedanism to the
drink traffic, it is maintained, is most commendable. I
grant that readily, and I believe it would be a good thing

412 STUDIES IN MOHAMMEDANISM
for Christendom if we could, as a matter of policy, imitate
Moslems in the utter condemnation of the use of intoxi
cating drinks. The gain in mdrality would be greater than
the loss in wealth. But, taking Christianity and Moham
medanism as a whole, in their ethical teaching, I do not
believe that there is anything in the latter to compare with
the noble laws and rules of life inculcated by Christ, say,
in the Sermon on the Mount. It must be borne in mind
that intemperance can be shown in many wayys besides
strong drink. The Moslem creed is lacking in such noble
precepts as " Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall
see God."
2. Then there is the treatment of women. Moham
medanism does not shine in this matter. Nay, nowhere on
earth will you find woman so degraded as in countries
where Islamism reigns supreme ! A Mohammedan regards
woman not as a companion and helpmeet for him, but as a
plaything, a pretty toy, as soulless almost as his turban, his
pipe, and his amber mouth-piece. How blessed is the
contrast when we look at Christianity, and think of Christ,
who reverenced women, who made them His friends, who
chose them as His co-labourers, and who regarded them as
heirs with men of the Kingdom of Heaven !
3. Then, lastly, there is the regenerating power of religion
to be borne in mind. Whether does Christianity or
Mohammedanism tend more to renew the hearts of sinful
men, and raise mankind to higher and nobler things ?
There can be but one answer ! Christianity has proved
itself superior ! It may be said that Mohammedanism has
done much to raise heathen nations from the dust. True !
but not as much as Christianity. As Professor Monier
Williams has said : "There is a finality and want of elas
ticity about Mohammedanism which precludes its expand
ing beyond a certain fixed line of demarcation. Having
once reached this line, it appears to lapse backwards — to
tend towards mental and moral slavery — to contract within
narrower and narrower circles of bigotry and exclusiveness.

CONTRASTED WITH CHRISTIANITY 413
But the Christian's course is ever onwards ; his movements
are free — he is ever tending towards wider reaches of com
prehensiveness, tolerance, and charity. He is ever advanc
ing towards a higher life, towards higher conditions of
being, where he may find infinite scope for the develop
ment of all that is most pure, most noble, and most spiritual
in his nature."
Such are the comparisons that can be made between
Mohammedanism and Christianity, and all most certainly
and fairly are in favour of the latter. Whether we look at
the character of the founders of the two Religions, at the
Sacred Scriptures of the two Faiths, at their conception of
God, at their ethical standards, at their views of social and
family life, or at the relative power of the two Religions to
elevate and save humanity, we arrive inevitably at the same
conclusion. I know Mohammedanism and I know Christianity, and
by their fruits all men may know the two Faiths, and for
my part I say unhesitatingly that Christianity is a thousand
times the nobler ajid better religion. Therefore will I
remain true to Christianity ! And may this sublime Faith
prevail throughout the world ! It shall prevail !
" The moon of Mahomet
Arose, and it shall set,
While blazoned as on Heaven's immortal noon,
The Cross leads generations on."

THE END.

INDEX

INDEX

Abbasides of Bagdad, 122, 326.
Abd-er-Rahman, 123, 143.
Abu Bekr, 52, 54, 263. •
Adam, 113. .
Afghans, The, 251.
Akbar the Great, 276, 339.
Alexandria, Fall of, 161.
Algiers, 324.
Alhambra, The, 147.
Ali, 7, 45> 52, 61, 86, 326, 375.
Allah, 409.
Alyites, 63, 125, 163, 239.
Amina, the mother of the Prophet,
1, 2, 207.
Amusements, 242, 362.
Animals, Treatment of, 176, 247.
Arabian Nights, 327.
Arabic Proverbs, 223.
Architecture, 334.
Arts, The, in Spain, 145.
Ayesha, the favourite wife of the
Prophet, 10, 31, 44, 199.
Bagdad, 122, 130.
Barbarossa, 319.
Barbary Corsairs, 315.
Barmecides, The, 124, 376.
Bastinado, The, 346.
Beliefs, Peculiar, 113.
Bethlehem, 301.
Bridge of Sirat, 120.
Burak, The, 99.
Cain and Abel, 115.
Cairo, 165. v
CaU to Prayers, 26.
Charity, 46, 67, 174.
Charles the Hammer, 109.
Chess; 288.

Christians, Hatred of, 203.
Coffee, 288.
Commanders of the Faithful, 51,
186.
Constantine, 213.
Constantinople, 108, 180, 211.
Cordova, 144, 329.
Crusades, The, 292.
Customs, 170.
Damascus, 105, 112, 152.
" Day of the Assembly," 25, 103.
Dead, Burial ofthe, 178.
Dervishes, 263.
Drinks, Intoxicating, 281.
Druses, The, 166.
Dyeing the hair, 176.
Education, 259:
Egypt, 160.
Faith and Works, 227.
Fakirs, 304.
Fanaticism, 294, 364.
Fasting, 46, 131.
Fatima, the daughter of the Pro
phet, 45.
Fatimites of Egypt, 63, 160, 238,
329-
Fault-finding, Rebuke of, 268.
Festivals, 355.
Flags— Green, Black, and White,
no, 125.
Flattery, 228.
Forbidden Things, 281.
Gambling, 288.
Gibraltar, origin of the name, 142.
E E

4i8

INDEX

Genii, 116, 119.
Granada, 147.
Hafiz the Poet, 332.
Hajees or Pilgrims, 153.
Harun-al-Rashid, 123, 327, 350,
376.
Hasan and Hosein, 45, 88, 93, 95,
152.
Hejira or Flight from Mecca, 9.
Hell, 120, 200.
Holy Days, 355.
 house at Mecca, 4, 82, 149,
1.7-
Houris of Paradise, 197.
Hypocrites, 208.
Idolators, Hatred of, 206, 273.
Imambaras, 88.
India, Proverbs of
Ingratitude, Filial,
Islam in England,

Jahanara the i:
49-
Janizaries, The, ii
Jerusalem, Captu
298, 30b.
Jews, The, 202.
Judgment, The, 1

mghter,5, 292,
tne Pro-

Kadija, the first _••
phet, 3, 8, 44.
Kerbelah, 88, 96, 152.
Kiblah, The, 24, 118.
Koran, The, 11,65,75, 101, 114,
132, 259, 325, 352, 407.
Kuttub Minar at Delhi, 336.
Legends, 97.
Literature, 238, 325, 369.
Lucky Days, 103.
Magians, The, 205.
Mahmud of Ghazni, 330, 349.
Mahomet, the Conqueror of Con
stantinople, 213.
Manners and Customs, 170.
Marriage Laws, 32.
Mary, the Mother of Jesus, 43.
Mecca, 1, 149, 151.
Medina, 1, 9.

Military Exercises, 246.
Miracles, 75.
Muawiya of Damascus, 62, 86, 105.
Moghuls of India, 272.
Mohammed, Life of, 1-10.
 character of, 406.
 wives of, 35.
Moharram or Passion Play, "87.
Moors in Spain, 140, 317, 329.
Mosques, 20, 178, 299, 335.
Music, 196, 248.
Mutiny, Indian, 288.
Nadir Shah, 383.
Nakir and Munkir, 118. ,
Nautch Dancers, 249.
Nile, The, 162, 223.
Omar, 53, 191, 230, 263, 292,
348, 3^9-
Omiades of Damascus, 105, 326.
Opium, 136, 289.
Ottoman Turks, 179.
Othman, 53, 60.
Parables, 65.
Paradise, 40, 105, 113, 126, 171,
190, 366.
Parents, Reverence for, 171.
Parsees, 205.
Passion Play, 86.
Persia, 224, 232, 253.
Peter the Hermit, 295.
Pigeon Fanciers, 243.
Pilgrimages, 149, 293.
Predestination, 227, 368.
Presents, Complimentary, 175.
Pork, a forbidden food, 285.
Questionable Things, 281.
Ramadan or Lent, 131.
Recreations, 242.
Resurrection of the dead, 119.
Richard of England, 301.
Riding, 245.
Sabians, The, 204.
Sadi, the Poet, 332.
Saladin, 300.
Sea, Fear ofthe, 317.
Shias, 63, 238, 259.
Signet ring of Mohammed, 101.

INDEX

419

Slavery, 385.
Solomon, 117.
Sonnites or Sunis, 63.
St. Sophia, 219.
Sports, 245.
Stone, The pure white, 4, 150.
Superstitions, 97, 361.
Taj Mahal, The, 278, 339, 341.
Thanks to God, 176.
Timur the Tartar, 184.
Turks, The, 167, 179, 225.
Two Watchers, The, 117.
Usury, 287.
Viziers, 374.

Wine,1 16, 195, 282.
Witchcraft, 102.
Wives, Number of, 32, 34, 386.
 treatment of, 33.
Women, 30,. 154, 172, 194, 201,
247. 277, 371. 412.
 the Four Perfect, 42.
 seclusion of, 36, 154."
 and Paradise, 40.
Xeres, Battle of, 141.
Yezdegird, King of Persia, 237.
Zeyd, 7, 37.
Zikr or Repetition of the Names of
Allah, 177.
Zoroastrians, 205, 237.

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FOOL (John J.). Studies in Mohammedanism,
Historical and Doctrinal, with a chapter on Islam in
England. (With a Frontispiece and Index), pp.
xvi. + 420. Archibald Constable and Co., Westmin
ster (London). 1892. 8°.

POOL (John J.). Studies in Mohammedanism,
Historical and Doctrinal, with a chapter on Islam in
England. (With a Frontispiece and Index), pp.
xvi. + 420. Archibald Constable and Co., Westmin
ster (London). 1892. 8°.

POOL (John J.). Studies in Mohammedanism,
Historical and Doctrinal, with a chapter on Islam in
England. (With a Frontispiece and Index), pp.
xvi. + 420. Archibald Constable and Co., Westmin
ster (London). 1892. 8°.

POOL (John J.). Studies in Mohammedanism,
Historical and Doctrinal, with a chapter on Islam in
England. (With a Frontispiece and Index), pp.
xvi. + 420. Archibald Constable and Co., Westmin
ster (London). 1892. 8°.

POOL (John J.). Studies in Mohammedanism,
Historical and Doctrinal, with a chapter on Islam in
England. (With a Frontispiece and Index), pp.
xvi. + 420. Archibald Constable and Co., Westmin
ster (London). 1892. 8°.

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