M^M

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THE EXPEDITION

THE SURVEY

THE RIVERS EUPHRATES AND TIGRIS.

VOLUME THE SECOND.

LOHDOS : PRINTED BY W. OIOWES AND BOSS, STAMFOKD-STKEET.

c
THE

EXPEDITION

SURVEY OF THE RIYEES
EUPHRATES AND TIGRIS,
CARRIED ON
BY ORDER OF THE BRITISH GOVERNMENT,
In the Years 1835, 1836, and 1837 ;
PRECEDED BY GEOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL NOTICES OF THE REGIONS SITUATED
BETWEEN THE RIVERS NILE AND INDUS.
IN FOUK VOLUMES.
WITH FOURTEEN MAPS AND CHARTS, AND EMBELLISHED WITH NINETY-SEVEN PLATES,
BESIDES NUMEROUS WOOD-COTS.
BT
LIEUT.-COLONEL CHESNEY, K.A., F.RS. F.RG.S.
COLONEL IN ASIA;
COMMANDER OF THE EXPEDITION.
VOLUME THE SECOND.

LONDON :
LONGMAN, BROWN, GREEN, AND LONGMANS.
1850.

CONTENTS TO VOL. IL

CHAPTER I.
[Page 1 to 28.]
Seat of Paradise and its four Rivers. — State of the World before the Deluge. — Supposed
residence of Noah. — Description of the first Babylonia. — Construction of the Ark. —
First Settlements in Armenia. — State of Antediluvian Knowledge. — Primeval
Astronomy, and its preservation among the Kirghis Kazaks. — Cycles of the Ancients.
— Traditional History. — Records preserved in Armenia. — Shem proceeds to Shinar  -
Japhet and Ham continue in Armenia. — Noah's precepts. — First Human Immolation
by Lamech. — Arkite Worship. — Antediluvian Idolatry or Sabaism. — Ham's Sin and
Curse.— Trifling change caused by the Deluge. — Noah's Allotment. — Japhet occupies
the northern extremity of Asia and Europe. — Shem occupies Babylonia, Syria, &c. —
Ham removes from Asia Minor to Byblus. — Possessions of Cush. — Ham's Idolatry in
Syria. — Canaan and Mizraim's Territories. — The Emim, Amalekites, Philistines,
Thamudites, Himyarites, and other Tribes in Syria, Arabia, and Egypt. — The Cushites
invade Babylonia and expel the people of Shem. — Rise of Nimrud's Kingdom, and
establishment of Ham's Religion. — Construction and object of the Tower of Babel. —
Spread of Mankind in consequence.

CHAP TEE II.
[Page 29 to 60.]
THE DISPERSION.
SPREAD OF MANKIND EASTWARD, NORTHWARD, AND WESTWARD, FROM
BABYLONIA.
Limits of the Territories about to be occupied. — Directions taken Eastward and Westward.
— Noah's Family commingle in Armenia. — The Shemitic People reoccupy Babylonia.
— The mixed Tribes of this Territory called Chaldeans. — Spread of the Cushites from
Babylonia to Media, Persia, and Central Asia. — Phut, the supposed Leader of the
Mongols. — Georgian and Tibetan character. — Similarity of Eastern and Western
Architecture. — Western origin of the Chinese. — Spread of the Cushites Northward
and again Westward, along the Taurus. — Second commixture of the Sons of Japhet
and Ham. — Descent of the Chasdim into Babylonia. — The Cushite Dominions centre .
in Babylonia. — Spread of the Sons of Togormah, Gomer, and other Descendants of
Japhet. — Nimriid's Death. — Ninus or Belus II. invades Armenia. — Ha'ik and his
Descendants govern Armenia. — Tombs of Noah and his Wife. — Ha'ikanians and
Togormeans. — Aramai's changes the name of Gihon to Araxes. — War of Aram with
the Medians. — Derivations of the name of Armenia. — Settlements of Togormah. —

VI CONTENTS.
Meshed and Askenaz. — Northern spread of the Sons of Japhet. — Ham's Posterity in
Syria and Arabia.— The 'Adites and other. lost Tribes of Arabia.— Traditional
Account of the Curse of Ham and his Descendants in Africa. — Cusha-dwipa, within
and without. — Sanc'ha-dwi'pa.— Axumitic or Amharic character. — Countries of
Habache or Ethiopia, Nubia, &c, first occupied, next Egypt.— Architecture carried
into Greece.— The Chaldean Kingdom of U'r.— Kahtan and his followers occupy
Arabia.— Possession of Jerah and Uzal.— The Cushites pass into Africa.— Chaldeans,
their Language used in Mesopotamia. —Derivation of the name of Chaldean. — The
Chaldean Tribes.— The Chaldean Nation and Priests.— Chaldean Philosophy, &c.

CHAPTER III.
[Page 61 to 86.]
STATE, OF ARABIA FROM THE DEPARTURE OF ABRAHAM TO THE DEATH OF JOB.
Abraham quits U'r of the Chaldees. — The Patriarch proceeds from Haran to Damascus,
Palestine, and Egypt. — Settlement of Abraham and Lot. — Invasion and Discomfiture
of the Assyrian Kings. — March of the latter through the Desert. — Destruction of
Sodom from natural and supernatural causes. — The Alliance of Lot's Daughters with
the people ofthe country, originates the Moabites and Ammonites. — Birth of Ishmael
and Isaac. — Expulsion of the former. — Territory of Ishmael's Descendants. — The
Sons of Keturah and the Midianites.— State of Egypt from the time of Abraham to
that of Joseph. — Historical interest of Egypt. — Invasion of the Hyk-sos, part coming
through Abyssinia. — Their Dominion in Egypt, and Period of their Expulsion. — The
Sons of Esau occupy Mount Seir — Mingled People of Arabia. — Amalekites, Edomites,
Saracens, &e. — The Horites. Eliphaz the Temanite. — Position of the land of Uz. —
Period of Job's Trial. — The Localities about O'rfah correspond with the circumstances
in the book of Job.— State of Knowledge in Arabia in the time of Job. — The Tobba'i
of Yemen. — Expedition of the Himyarites into Central Asia. — Samarcand founded. —
Language and written Character of the Himyarites. — Inscriptions found in Yemen,
also at Hisn Ghorab, Nakb-el-Hajar, &c, and others near San'a. — Ard-es-Saba, or
Land of Saba\ — Himyari Inscription found near 'Aden. — Traces of that People in
distant Countries. — The Hebrew Language, its Cognates and written Character.

CHAPTER IV.
[Page 87 to 110.]
GLANCE AT THE PHOENICIAN, EGYPTIAN, JEWISH, AND ARABIAN HISTORIES
FROM B.C. 1623 TO B.C. 1322.
Successive Colonies proceed from Arabia into Egypt.— Commerce of the Egyptians main
tained principally by Land.— The Sepulchres furnish a Pictorial History of the
Country.— Cotton, Linen, Porcelain, and other Manufactures. — Alphabetical Writing
in use antecedently to the construction of the Pyramids.— Costumes of the various
People. — Rich Hangings and Carpets manufactured. — Dyeing in use ; also Metals
Chariots, and Household Utensils. — System of Cultivation pictorially represented.—
Use of the Himyaritic character by the Arabs in the time of Joseph.— Agricultural
Products, and Caravan Trade to distant Countries.— Products and Caravan Trade of
the Phoenicians. — Position of their Territory. — Settlements of the Phoenicians pre
viously to the coming ofthe Shepherds.— Commencement of Sea Navigation and rise
of Tyre.— Colonies planted in the Mediterranean and Atlantic, &c— Rapid rise of
the Egyptians after the expulsion of the Shepherds.— The Egyptians become jealous

CONTENTS. Vll
of the Hebrews.— Forced Servitude of the latter.— Commencement of their flight from
the Land of Goshen.— Pursued by Pharaoh.— Passage of the Red Sea, near Suez.—
Advanced State of the'Edomites and Midianites. — Jethro visits Moses. — Arab Polity
made the basis of Moses' Government.— Moses conducts the People to Mount Sinai. 
Promulgation of the Moral Law.— Guided by Hobab, the Israelites advance to Kadesh-
Barnea, and the southern borders of Canaan.— Retreat from thence after being defeated
by the Amalekites. — Destruction of Korah and his Companions. — Journey to Ezion
Geber and Mount Hor ; and eventually to the foot of Mount Pisgah.— Limited extent
of the country traversed during the Exodus.— Passage of the Jordan.— Some of the
ancient Inhabitants are driven into Egypt, others settle in Armenia.— War between
Armenia and Assyria. — Progress of the Egyptian Kingdom.— Sesostris and his Con
quests.

CHAPTER V.
[Page 111 to 143.]
OUTLINE OF EGYPTIAN AND JEWISH HISTORY, FROM THEIR SETTLEMENTS IN
PHOENICIA AND PALESTINE, IN 1584 B.C., TO THE DESTRUCTION OF THE
ASSYRIANS UNDER SENNACHERIB, ABOUT 709 B.C.
Egyptian Religion and Philosophy carried into Greece. — The Shepherds settle in Phoe
nicia, and the Hebrews in Palestine. — Colonies proceed from Phoenicia and Egypt to
Greece. — Origin of the Argonautic Voyage. — The Fleet returns from Colchis to
Byzantium, plunders Troy, and proceeds to Spain. — Some of the Argonauts return to
Greece by sea, others by land, with the booty acquired. — Lydia and Assyria. — Ninus
succeeds to the Throne of the latter Kingdom  He conquers Bactria, and marries
Semiramis. — This Queen becomes a great conqueror, and founds the City of Shemi-
ramgerd. — Inscriptions regarding Semiramis found near Lake Van. — Ninus succeeds
and organizes the Kingdom. — Period of the Trojan War. — Memnon serves at the
siege with an Armenian contingent. — Establishment of the Hebrew Kingdom. —
David succeeds Saul, and is acknowledged by the Twelve Tribes. — He makes Jeru
salem the capital, and establishes his dominion over Judea, Syria, and a part of
Mesopotamia. — Accession of Solomon. — The Court and Regal Establishments of this
Monarch. — Cost of the great Temple at Jerusalem. — Solomon erects another Temple
for his Egyptian Queen, and constructs Tadmor and the other Store Cities. — Inquiry
concerning the position of Ophir. — Visit of the Queen of the South, or Abyssinia. —
Her Posterity by Solomon reign. — Saba' and Sheba synonymous. — The Himyarites
and Sahseans of Africa the same people. — Early Land Trade, and difficulties attending
Ship Caravans or Mercantile Fleets, — Products of the Countries on the Mozambique.
— Distance, and Time required for a Voyage to this Coast  The other, or Eastern
Voyage, was probably founded on a previous Caravan Trade to India. — Sanscrit
Names of the Merchandize. — Aurea Chersonesus supposed to be Ophir. — Distance,
and Time required for a Coasting Voyage to the Straits of Malacca — Trade by
Barter. — The Tyrians employed by Solomon. — The Tyrian Hercules, and early
Colonies of Tyre. — Establishment of Carthage, and various Settlements made by this
commercial kingdom in Spain and elsewhere. — Accession of Rehoboam, and separation
of the Ten Tribes. — Shishak invades Judea. — Consolidation of the Armenian King
dom. — Invasion of Zerahthe Ethiopian. — The Kings of Assyria, according toCtesias.
— Invasion of Judea by Pul. — Tiglath Pileser carries the Jews captive into Assyria. —
Nabonassar, and Works of Semiramis at Babylon. — Second Captivity of the Jews, by
Shalmaneser, and interchange of the Ten Tribes with the Assyrians. — Sennacherib
succeeds Shalmaneser ; subjects the Babylonians, and invades Judea. — Siege of Jeru
salem and destruction of the Assyrians. — Sennacherib flies to Nineveh ; is assassinated
by Adrammelech and Sharezer, his sons. — Profane Accounts of the Discomfiture of
the Invaders.

Vlll CONTENTS.
CHAPTEE VI.
[Page 144 to 168.]
FROM THE DEATH OF SENNACHERIB, ABOUT 709 B.C., TO THE FALL OF
babylon, 538 or 536 b.c.
Hezekiah's Treasures. — Babylon and Nineveh united. — Ecbatana taken. — March to Cilicia.
— Chinilidanus and the Scythian Invasion. — Cyaxares. — Nabopolasar and Nineveh. —
Saracus destroys himself. — Nabopolasar governs Nineveh. — Pharaoh Necho's Fleets
and invasion of Babylonia, Carchemish, &c. — Nebuchadnezzar as the General of his
father invades Palestine and Egypt. — Ezekiel carried captive. — The Army returns by
two routes to Babylonia. —Nebuchadnezzar mediates between the Lydians and Medes.
— March to Jerusalem. — Plunder of the Temple. — Nebuchadnezzar adorns Babylon. —
Rebellion of Zedekiah. — Jeremiah's prophecy. — Nebuchadnezzar besieges Jerusalem,
and carries Captives to Babylon. — Judea laid waste. — Tyre besieged and taken. — Nebu
chadnezzar attacks Egypt and carries Spoils to the Temple of Belus. — Commerce,
Canals, and Works of Nebuchadnezzar. — Nebuchadnezzar's Prophecy. — He loses his
reason. — He resumes the throne. — His Death and Character. — Evil-Merodach succeeds
and is Assassinated. — Neriglessor succeeds. — His War with Cyrus. — An Embassy
comes from India to Babylon. — Depravity of the Babylonians. — Belshazzar ascends
the throne of Babylon. — His mother, Nitocris, prepares for a siege. — Advance of
Cyrus. — The river Gyndes drained by means of numerous Channels. — Babylon
beleagured. — The stratagem of diverting the River. — Assault of Babylon. — Babylonia
added to Assyria.

CHAPTER VII.
[Page 169 to 200.]
GLANCE AT THE HISTORY OF THE MEDO-PERSIAN EMPIRE UNDER DARIUS THE
MEDE, CYRUS, CAMBYSES, DARIUS HYSTASPES, XERXES, ARTAXERXES, AND
DARIUS NOTHUS, FROM 536 B.C. TO 404 B.C.
Cyrus the Great visits Persia. — His Accession and Forces.— Daniel's authority. — Prepa
rations for Building the Temple at Jerusalem. — Cyrus' Decree. — The Medes and
Persians become one Nation. — Cambyses succeeds. — Invasion of Egypt and Ethiopia. 
His Death. — Smerdis usurps the Throne. — His Death. — Stratagem and Accession of
Darius Hystaspes. — Rebellion in Susiana and Babylonia. — Darius marches to quell the
latter. — Revolt and Capture of Babylon, according to Herodotus. — A Revolt in the
Upper Provinces recalls Darius.— His authority is established. — Organization of
the Empire. — Posts established. — Use of Firmans. — The Temple at Jerusalem Rebuilt.
— Voyage of Scylax. — Invasions of Scythia and Greece. — Zerd-husht, or Zoroaster, and
the Religion of the Magi. — Invasion of Greece. — Battle of Marathon. — Fresh Arma
ments of Darius. — His Death. — Character. — Xerxes' Succession. — Invasion of Greece.
— Contingents. — March. — Bridge over the Hellespont. — Thrace. — Thermopylae. 
Salamis. — Retreat into Asia. — Battles of Plataja and Mycale. — Death of Xerxes. 
His Character. — Artaxerxes Longimanus, or Ahasuerus, succeeds. — Esther.  The
Jews.— Reception of Themistocles at the Court of Assyria.— Double Victory of the
Greeks on the Coast of Pamphylia.— Peace between tbe Greeks and the Assyrians. 
Xerxes Murdered.— Sogdianus and Darius Nothus,

CONTENTS. ix
CHAPTER VIII.
[Page 201 to 250.]
THE REIGN OF ARTAXERXES, SON OF DARIUS NOTHUS ; INVASION OF CYRUS, AND
march of the ten thousand greeks from babylonia. from 404 to
360 b.c.
Nature of Eastern Governments.— Cyrus appointed Satrap of Lesser Asia.— Origin of his
Rebellion.— His Government and Armaments.— Cyrus advances through Asia Minor.
— His March from Myriandrus to the Rivers Chalus, the Daradax, and Euphrates. —
Advance from Thapsacus to the River Araxes and Towns of Corsote and Carmandae.
— March from the Pilas towards Babylon.— Battle of Cunaxa, and Death of Cyrus. —
Commencement of the Retreat.— The Greeks reach the Median Wall, and cross the
River Tigris.— March to Opis, Larissa, Mespila, and Jebel Judi.— Advance through
Kurdistan to the Rivers Ceutrites and Teleboas. — Passage of the Rivers Euphrates,
Phasis, and Harpasus. — Advance to Gymnias and Mount Theches. — March to Trebi-
zonde and Cerasunt — The Mossynoeci, Chalybes, and Tibarenians. — City of Cotyora.
— Voyage to Harmene, and thence along the Coast of Paphlagonia to Heraclea. —
Separation and Defeat of the Greeks. — The Greeks reunite and Defeat the Troops of
Pharnabazus. — The Greeks join Seuthes, and take service under the Lacedaemonians.
Xenophon resigns the Command.— State of Greece and Asia at the close of the King's
Reign. — Character and Death of Artaxerxes.

CHAPTER IX.
[Page 251 to 296.]
OUTLINE OF THE MARCHES AND CONQUESTS OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT TO HIS
ENTRANCE INTO BABYLON.
Resources of Macedonia, and her Constitution. — Philip's Accession and Wars. — Battle of
Chseronea. — Assassination of the King and succession of Alexander. — Appointed
Leader of the Greek Confederacy. — Civil and Military state of Macedonia. — Alex
ander's Campaigns on the Danube and against the Illyrians. — Preparations and Inva
sion of Asia. — Situation of Persia under Darius Codomanus. — Government and weak
ness of the Satrapies when invaded. — Alexander crosses the Hellespont, trusting to
success for his resources. — Battle of the Granicus. — Advance to Sardis and Ephesus
into Caria. — Winter there. — The Married Soldiers visit Greece. — Telmessus and other
cities of Lycia taken. — Alexander passes Mount Climax, and marches to Celaense and
Gordium. — Asia Minor submits. — Cilicia, Campestris, and Rugged Cilicia invaded. —
Approach of Darius.- — Battle of the Issus. — Visit to the Captives. — Darius' baggage,
&c, taken at Damascus. — Invasion of Phoenicia. — Capture of Tyre and Gaza. — Sub
jection of Egypt. — Visit to the Oasis of Ammon. — Settlement of the Government of
Egypt— March to Thapsacus and through Mesopotamia. — Passage of the Tigris. —
Preparations of Darius. — Battle of Arbela. — March to Babylon and Restoration of the
celebrated Temple.

CHAPTER X.
[Page 297 to 338.]
CAMPAIGNS OF ALEXANDEE IN SOUTHERN, NORTHERN, AND EASTERN PERSIA, ALSO
IN BACTRIANA, SOGDIANA, AND EASTWARD OF THE RIVER INDUS.
March to Susa, the Persian Gates, and Persepolis. — Advance to Ecbatana. — Treasure
found in those Cities. — Advance to the Caspian Gates. — Pursuit and Death of Darius.

CONTENTS.
— Invasion of Hyrcania.— Campaigns in Khorasan and Drangiana.— Alexandria ad
Caucasum built.— Invasion of Bactria.— Passage of the Oxus.— March to Maracanda
and the Jaxartes.— Siege of Cyropolis.— Activity of Spitamenes.— Warlike People
north of the Paropamisus.— Capture ofthe Fort of Oxyartes— Alexander's Marriage
to Roxana.— Expedition into Margiana.— Hill Fort of the Parsetaca: taken.— Winter
at Zariaspa, and Death of Clitus— Return across the Paropamisus, and March to the
Indus.— Siege of Aornas. — Visit to Nysa. — Alexander passes the Indus and defeats
Porus. — Sakala taken.— The Army refuses to cross the River Hyphasis.

CHAPTER XI.
[Page 339 to 378.]
MARCH OF ALEXANDER FROM THE INDUS TO SUSA AND BABYLON ; AND VOYAGE
OF NEARCHUS TO THE FORMER CITY.
Preparations for the return of the Army and Fleet. — Projected Trade with India as the
basis of the intended Commerce. — Alexander abandons his purposed Conquests in
Eastern India. — Descent of the Indus and despatch of Forces under Craterus and
Hephsestion. — Alexander crosses the Desert. — The Difficulties of the March. — He
reaches Kirman. — Slow descent of Nearchus. — Halt at KarSehee. — Advance to the
River Arabius, and along the coast of the Oritae. — Voyage to Cape 'Arabah, the Town
of Mosarna, and the extremity of the Coast of the Ichthyophagi. — The Fleet reaches
Cape Jask and Harmozia. — Nearchus meets Alexander. — Voyage continued to Diri-
dotus or Teredon. — Ascent of the Pasitigris to Agines and Susa. — Ancient and modern
Distances of the Voyage.— Games and Sacrifices at Susa. — Asiatics and Europeans to
be united by Marriages and other means. — Discontent of the Army. — The general
employment of Asiatic Mercenaries. — Former project of Commerce. — Geography of
the Kanin and Kerkhah. — Alexander ascends the Tigris to Opis. — Bunds and Dikes. —
Mutiny at Opis. — Alexander goes to Susa. — Advance across the Zagros into Media. —
Visit to the Nissean plains. — March against the Cosscei and to Babylon. — Alexander's
preparations. — Reinforcements of vessels and troops. — His gigantic projects, and
Death. — Digression on the Course, Risings, Flooding, &c, ofthe Indus.

CHAPTER XII.
[Page 379 to 400.]
THE SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER, FROM 323 B.C. TO 246 B.C.
State of the Empire at the time of Alexander's Death. — Threatened Hostilities. — Arrange
ments for the Succession. — The various Governors retain their situations. — Roxana
puts Statira and her Sister to Death. — Eumenes enters Cappadocia. — Death of Per-
diccas. — Defeat and Blockade of Eumenes. — Invasion of Phoenicia, and March towards
Babylonia. — The Army of Eumenes escapes from an Inundation, and enters Susiana.
— Eurydice and Philip put to Death by Olympias. — Campaigns in Susiana.— March
through the Cosssean Mountains. — Campaign in Media. — Drawn Battle, and Death of
Eumenes. — Antigonus settles the minor Governments. — Combinations against, and
Preparations of Antigonus.— Antigonus marches into Asia Minor. — Demetrius Defeated
near Gaza. — The Nabatheans, and Expeditions of Antigonus against Petra.  Roxana
and her son Alexander murdered by Cassander. — Barsine, Hercules, and Olympias
put to Death. — Antigonus and the other successors of Alexander assume regal titles. 
Expeditions of Antigonus and Demetrius : they proceed against Egypt, and are re-

CONTENTS. XI
pulsed.— Demetrius besieges Rhodes, and fails in repeated Attacks.— Sieges of Fortresses
in ancient and modern times. — Seleucus extends his Empire into India. — His Treaty
with Sandrocottus, and March into Asia Minor.— Forces assembled under Seleucus and
Antigonus near Ipsus.— Result ofthe Battle.— Subdivision of Alexander's Empire into
four great Kingdoms.— Demetrius is taken, and dies in Captivity.— Death and Cha
racter of Seleucus.— Accession of Ptolemy Philadelphus. — Prosperity of Egypt under
this Monarch.

CHAPTER XIII.
[Page 401 to 446.]
GLANCE AT THE PARTHIAN AND ROMAN WARS, FROM 222 B.C. TO A.D. 631.
Seleucus Callinicus invades Parthia. — His Death. — Parthia becomes independent. — Antio-
chus the Great succeeds. — Suppression ofthe Rebellions in Media and Persia  Ptolemy
Philopater gains Palestine and Coelo-Syria, and visits Jerusalem. — Increase of the
Roman power in Asia. — Demetrius Nicator invades Parthia, and is taken prisoner. —
Extension of the Parthian Dominions. — Judicious Polity of Mithridates. — Antiochus
Sidetes invades Parthia, and is killed in battle. — Pacorus, King of Parthia, seeks the
friendship of the Romans. — Campaign of Lucullus in Armenia. — Pontus becomes a
Roman province. — Crassus invades Parthia. — Surena takes the Field. — Fate of the
Roman army. — Surena's Triumph at Ctesiphon. — Surena's Death. — Circuitous march
of Antony into Media, — Siege of the Capital. — Retreat from Praaspa to the Araxes. —
Augustus proclaimed Emperor. — Preparations of MYms Gallus. — March ofthe Roman
Army into Arabia Felix. — Return of the Expedition to Egypt. — Siege of Jotapata by
the Romans. — State of Jerusalem. — Siege and Capture of the City.— Massacre of the
Inhabitants. — Trajan's Accession. — Invasion of Assyria, and descent of the River
Euphrates. — The Nahr-Malka opened for the passage of his Fleet. — Capture of Ctesi
phon, and descent to the Persian Gulf. — Return of Trajan. — Siege of Atra. — Severus
descends the Euphrates. — Passage of the Nahr-Malkfi, and Capture of Ctesiphon. —
Second and third Siege of Atra. — Retreat of Severus. — Wars of Sapor, and Capture
of Valerian. — Invasion of the Roman Provinces in Europe by the Goths, &c. — Rise of
Odenatus, Prince of Palmyra. — He makes War on Sapor.— Death of Odenatus. —
Zenobia seizes some of the Roman Provinces. — Her contests with Aurelian. — Siege
and Fall of Palmyra: — Galerius Defeats the Persians. — Wars of Sapor II. and Con-
stantius. — Remarkable Siege of Nisibis. — Rise of Julian. — His preparations for War.
— Descent of the River Euphrates with a Fleet and Army to Anatho. — Fearful Hur
ricane encountered when approaching this City. — Descent of the River continued. —
Siege and Capture of Perisaboras, &c. — Julian crosses Mesopotamia to Ctesiphon. —
Retreat and Death of Julian. — Jovian succeeds and effects a Retreat with the Roman
Army. — Belisarius is Defeated by the Persians. — Chosroes invades Syria, and Cap
tures Antioch. — Chosroes is routed by Justinian. — Second Invasion of the Roman
Territories, and total Defeat of Chosroes. — Rebellion of Varanes put down by
Chosroes. — Decline of the Persian power.

CHAPTER XIV.
[Page 447 to 470.]
GLANCE AT ARABIAN HISTORY DURING THE REIGN OF THE EARLIER ZHALIPHS,
FROM A.D. 40 TO 1097.
Early connection of Arabia with other Countries. — Central situation and geographical
position of this Territory. — Flood of El Arim. — Foundation of the kingdoms of Ghas-
san and Hirah. — Conquests of the Tobbli. — Invasion and Conquest of Yemen by the

Xll CONTENTS.
Abyssinians.— State of Religion amongst the Arabs up to the time of Miihammed. —
War of the Elephant.— Subjection of Yemen by the Persians.— The plans of Mii
hammed favoured by circumstances.— Early life of the Prophet, and commencement
of his Ministry.— Attractive Doctrines of the new Religion. — Accession of Abu Bekr
and 'Omar.— Character of the latter Prince.— The Dress, Arms, &c, of the Arabs,
adapted for difficult enterprises. — Conquests of 'Omar. — Accession of 'Othman. — The
Berbers : commencement of the Moorish dynasty in Africa. — Ayeshah commences a
Civil War against 'Ah'.— Invasion of Spain by the Moors.— Arab Conquests in the
Mediterranean and elsewhere. — Fiscal arrangements of 'Omar ben 'Abd-el-'Aziz. —
The Moors penetrate into France. — Commencement of the reign of the Abassides. —
Baghdad occupied.— Rise of Harun-el-Rashid.— State of the Khaliphat during his
reign. — Intercourse cultivated between Arabia and Europe. — Temporary division of
his Territory.— Accession of Mamiin.— He encourages Philosophy and Literature.—
Assemblies of Learned Men at the court of Baghdad. — Cultivation of the Persian,
Indian, and Greek Languages encouraged. — Style of refreshments at the Khaliph's
palace. — His liberality.— Revenue of the principal Court Physician. — Mu'tasem's
accession and contests with Justinian. — His encouragement of Architecture. — Military
and Civil organization. — Extensive privileges of Muslims. — Formation of regular
Troops in Arabia. — Discontent in consequence at Baghdad.— Construction of the city
of Sammarrah. — A cartel established for the exchange of Muslim prisoners, &c. —
Wars with the Greek Empire. — Recitals of the Rawi to the Khaliph at night.— Muta-
wakkel builds a great palace. — Learned Men in the time of Mutawakkel. — Subdivision
of power in Arabia. — Origin of the Huns and Turkish Tribes. — Conquests of Mahmud
Ghizni and the Afghans. — Rise and progress of the Seljukian dynasties.

CHAPTER XV.
[Page 471 to 504.]
PRINCIPAL EVENTS CONNECTED WITH WESTERN ASIA FROM THE TWELFTH TO
THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
State of the Seljukian rulers in the Eleventh Century. — Peter the Hermit visits Jerusalem,
and urges a Crusade. — The state of Europe favourable to such an enterprise. — Pro
gress of the first Crusaders through Europe and Lesser Asia. — Favourable disposition
of the Fatimites. — Capture of Antioch. — Divided state of the Muslims. — Capture o
Jerusalem, and Massacre of the People. —The Khaliph Nur-ed-dfn, and his General
Salah-ed-din.— Change in Salah-ed-din's character. — Termination of the Fatimite
dynasty of Egypt. — Death of Nur-ed-dih, and rise of Salah-ed-din. — Campaign in
Palestine. — Defeat, and return to Egypt.— Salih-ed-din's Campaign in Mesopotamia,
Syria, and Yemen.— Frank and Egyptian Fleets in the Red Sea.— Capture of Aleppo,
Sinjar, Nisibih, Damascus, &c. — Defeat of the Crusaders at Hatti'n. — SaUh-ed-dm
takes Jerusalem. — Tyre is retained by the Crusaders. — The Franks being reinforced
besiege 'Akka. — Salah-ed-dih encloses the besiegers.— Progress of the Siege.— Obsti
nate defence of the Muslim Garrison. — SaMh-ed-dm marches towards Kdniyeh.— The
Franks are reinforced from Europe- — 'Akka is closely pressed,— The Kings of France
and England arrive to assist in the Siege. — Fresh efforts of Saldh-ed-di'n to relieve
'Akkd.— Several Battles are fought. — The Fortress capitulates.— The Crusaders march
against 'Askulan. — Defeat of Sahth-ed-din. — Treaty of Peace with Richard Coeur de
Lion. — Death, and Character of Salah-ed-din. — The Franks are joined by a Fifth
Armament from Europe.— They are repulsed in Egypt. — Frederic II. arrives, and
makes a Treaty. — Louis IX. is defeated near Mansourah. — Battle between the Tem
plars and Hospitalliers. — Louis IX. lands in Africa, and dies near Tunis.  The
Franks are driven out of Palestine. — Separation of the Shi'ah and Sunnie Creeds. 
Limits, &c, of Mongolia. — Rise of Genghis Khan.^- Origin of the name. — Consolida-

CONTENTS. Xlll
tion of his Kingdom. — Invasion of China.— Subjection of Kharism, Khorasan, Persia,
&c— Extent of his territories. — Part of Russia is subjected.— Kiptshak becomes a
Russian Province.— The Persian successes of Genghis Khan.— Origin, and titles of
Tamerlane.— Turkistan subjected.— Fresh Conquests meditated by Tamerlane.— Kho-
rasan and Southern Russia subdued.— Campaign in Siberia, and against Toktamish. —
Ta'imur subjects Southern Persia, Baghdad, Mesopotamia, Armenia, &c. — Tai'mur's
Campaigns in India, Anaddli, Syria, &c— Capture of Baghdad.— Defeat of Bajazet—
Death of Tai'mur. — Tai'mur and Alexander compared. — Tai'muYs Successors, and
subdivision of his Territories. — Persia, and the Sophi Dynasty. — Nadir Sh&h and his
Successors. — The Seljukians of Rum, and rise of the 'Osmanli Turks. — Sultan Murad
reigns at Adrianople, and conquers most of European Turkey. — Career, and death of
Bajazet, and temporary Restoration of the Seljukides. — Success of Sultan Mur£d II. —
Capture of Constantinople, and first use of Gunpowder. — Sultan Suleiman extends his
Conquests in Europe, transports a Fleet to the Red Sea, and sails to India. — Organi
zation of his Empire. — Yemen, Georgia, Cyprus, and Daghestan are added to the
Turkish Territories. — Extent of the latter in the time of Muhammed III. — Turkey
comes into warlike Collision with European Powers. — Treaties of Belgrade and
Kuchuk Kainarji. — The French invade Egypt and Syria. — War of Russia and Eng
land against the Porte, in 1806. — Accession and Reforms of Sultan Mahmiid|II. —
Effects of these changes. — Rebellion in Greece. — Battle of Navarino. — Russian War
of 1828 and 1829. — Loss of Territory, and present Limits of Turkey.

CHAPTER XVI.
[Page 505 to 537.]
INTERCOURSE BETWEEN EUROPE AND ASIA.
Settlement of the Indo-Chinese and Egyptian races. — The similarity of the Monuments of
Art denotes a common origin of the People. — First settlement in Bactria. — Spread of
Religion and Knowledge from thence to Hindustan, to China, the Indian Archipelago,
and America. — Resemblance of the People of the latter country to those of Central
Asia. — The Syro-Arabian race, and extent of their Territory. — The Scythian people
and their early Conquests. — Character, Government, &c, of the ancient Scythians. —
Their settlement in Mesopotamia, and on the borders of Egypt. — Affinity of the
European and Asiatic Languages. — Inroads of the Kimmerians, the Scythians, and
Franks, into Europe. — Connexion of the Scandinavians and Normans with the East.—
Settlements in Europe previous to the Irruption of the Black Sea. — Settlement of the
Celts in different parts of Europe. — The Scandinavian worship handed down from
Asia. — Colonies from Spain and Barbary settle in Ireland. — Central Asia connected
with Greece through Asia Minor. — Relations of the latter country with Persia. —
Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus derived their knowledge in part from Asia. — The
Grecian Sages seek instruction in Asia.— Democritus. — Philosophy and Astronomy
first cultivated in Asia. — Orpheus the supposed founder of the Greek religion. —
Thales studied in Phoenicia and Egypt. — Pherecydes tbe Tutor of Pythagoras. — Solon
visits Egypt and Lydia. — Ctesias. — Hecateus. — Hellanicus, the cotemporary of Hero
dotus, writes a history of Persia and Babylon. — Pythagoras visits the Egyptians, the
Chaldeans, Persians, and Scythians, and returns to Greece. — Plato visits Egypt,
acquires Eastern learning, and makes Philosophy attractive. — Aristotle derived his
knowledge from the East. — Plato's philosophy was founded upon that of the Persians
and Indians. — Democritus is instructed by the Magi and Chaldeans, and travels to
India and Ethiopia. — Antiquity of the Magian and Indian tenets. — The Greeks
improve upon Eastern Literature. — Herodotus and his Acquirements. — Isocrates and
his Pupils.— Astronomy, Mechanics, Geometry, Mineralogy, Botany, and Medicine,
derived from the East.— Hippocrates. — Galen, — Intercourse with the East, by Mer-

XIV CONTENTS.
chants and Travellers. — Journey of Marco Polo. — Genoese Commerce. — Travels of
Jenkinson and others. — Queen Elizabeth encourages Commerce with Babylon, &c. —
Travels of Benjamin of Tudela and others. — The Author visits Asia, and descends the
Euphrates in 1830 — The French Republic attempts to open a Commerce through
Egypt. — Plans of Napoleon. — Proposed Expedition to the mouth of the Orontes, and
his subsequent plan of combined operations against India.

CHAPTER XVII.
[Page 538 to 566.]
LITERATURE AND SCIENCE OF THE EAST.
State of Oriental Literature considered at four different periods. — Asiatic Civilization
during the first period. — Thales and other Sages acquire Knowledge in the East. —
Intercourse between Asia and Europe.— Second Period : Literary intercourse com
menced by Alexander the Great. — Library and School of Alexandria. — The people of
the East were prepared for Christianity. — Influence of the change of Religion upon
Literature. — Spread of Learning and Civilization from Alexandria. — Rome becomes
the centre of the Christian world. — Third period : Rise of the Arab nation. — The
Arabs resort to literature as an occupation, and become the medium of modern
Civilization. — Study of the Koran, and practical use of Astronomy, Geometry,
Grammar, and Jurisprudence. — Learned men employed at Baghdad. — History,
Novels, and learned works.— Music and Literature cultivated by the Arabs in the
eighth century. — Bede's knowledge of Eastern Countries, and use of Arabic names,
&c. — The Benedictine Monks. — Their friendly relations with the Arabs. — The Monks
spread a knowledge of the East. — The modern Sciences cultivated at Baghdad. —
Pursuits of Al Mamun. — Rare Works collected. — Sanscrit and other Works translated.
— Cultivation of Astronomy. — The Abbot of St. Gallen. — Arabic Manuscripts
collected and preserved in Europe. — The Moors introduce Arabic Learning into
Europe. — Rhymes of Olfrid. — European Versification like the Arabic— Provencale
Poetry, and Rhymes of Boethius. — Lyric and romantic Poetry. — The Italians adopt
the Arabic Poetry. — Mathematical Sciences studied in Spain. — First use of Indian
Notation. — Arabic studied in the schools in France and Spain. — Spread of Arabic
Learning in Europe. — Learned Arabs of the Eleventh and Twelfth Centuries. —
Progress of Oriental studies in Africa.— Gerhard of Cremona translates the Almagest
and other works. — Raymond, Archbishop of Toledo, encourages Oriental studies. —
Abii-1-Senna and other works translated.-^First translation of the Koran. — Hermannus
translates Aristotle's works. — Constantinus introduces Arabic medicine into Italy. 
Travels and Acquirements of Constantinus. — Adelard of Bath, and his translation of
Euclid, &c. — Astronomical Tables prepared. — Adelard's Treatise on the Astrolabe. —
Arabic Seminaries in France and Spain. — Samuel, a Jew of Fez. — Translation of El
Battani's works.— Roger of Hereford. — Daniel Morley. — The Emperor Frederic II.
encourages Eastern Learning.— His Circular to the Colleges, &c.^-Michael Scot and
his Translations. — Alphonso encourages the study of Astronomy. — Fourth period:
Superiority of Western Literature over that of Eastern Countries.

CHAPTER XVIII.
[Page 567 to 603.]
ANCIENT AND MODERN COMMERCE.
Proposed Notice.— Ancient Commerce of India.— Trade overcomes the difficulties caused
by Wars, &c— Various branches of ancient Commerce.— Trade of Egypt and the
Ishmaelites.— Commerce of Arabia with Tyre.— Routes from Tyre to Palmyra and

CONTENTS. XV
Babylon.— Route to Central Asia.— Trade of the Hindu's, eastward and westward.—
Trade with Asia in the time of Pliny.— Routes to Eastern China and India, through
Balkh, &c— Commerce on the Southern Shores ofthe Euxine.— Limited extent ofthe
Greek Commerce by Sea.— Commerce of the Rhodians, Phrygians, Milesians, and
Carians.— Greek Colonies in Asia Minor.— Limits of their Voyages.— Commerce of
the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, and Gauls with Britain. — Nature of this Trade.—
Early Trade of the Hindu's, and Merchandise in demand. — Trade from the Persian
Gulf, Fars, &c, to China.— The earliest Navigation was probably that of the Persian
Gulf.— Early Navigation of the Persians, the Arabs, and Hindu's.— Commerce in the
time of Nebuchadnezzar.— The black Jews settle in Malabar.— Arab Vessels in the
time of Nearchus. — Commerce encouraged by Alexander's successors. — Route from
Egypt to India. — Discovery of the Trade Winds. — Direct voyages made to India, in
the time of Augustus, from the Southern Coast of Arabia. — Miibammed enjoins Trade
as a religious duty. — Mercantile cities of the Arabs. — Extensive range and intercom
munication of their Commerce. — Mekkah becomes one of the centres of Trade. — Pros
perity of the Arabs in the time of the Abassides. — Effects of Luxury. — Mutawakkel
establishes Trading Factories. — Learned Men accompany the Caravans. — Precious
Stones and other valuable Commodities are exchanged throughout the Arabian Empire.
— Furs, &c, brought from the Northern Regions across the Caspian and Black Seas,
and European goods sent into Khorasan. — Trade in Silk, Pearls, Carpets, rich Cloths,
&c, partly by barter, partly by coin. — Exports of Glass, Carpets, Cloth, &c. — Swords
were not sent abroad. — Costly stuffs, Cloths, and other fabrics. — Embroidered stuffs
representing Historical and Geographical subjects. — Commerce from Basrah to India,
China, and Africa. — Change of system in Trading with China. — A Hindu Physician
sent by land to Hariin-el-Rashid. — Eastern Commerce carried on by Jews, through
the Red Sea, &c — Route through Aleppo to India, and through Barbary to Baghdad.
— Arabian Trade chiefly confined to Eastern Countries. — Trade by a circuitous route
between Constantinople and India. — Venice becomes a trading Port. — Rise of Com
merce in England. — Merchants settle in Constantinople. — Rapid progress of Venetian
Trade. — Genoa becomes a mercantile Republic. — Trade of this Port with India through
the Black Sea. — Colonies established on the Shores of the Euxine. — Trade of the
Genoese with Europeans. — England shares indirectly in Eastern Commerce. — A
Company called the Merchant Adventurers established in England. — Scale of Duties
fixed for foreign Trade. — Exports from England to Flanders, &c. — The Venetian
Trade opened with India through the Red Sea. — Bruges becomes a mercantile Depot.
— Prosperity of Commerce in France. — Discovery of the Western Coast of Africa. —
Discovery of America.— Rise of Antwerp. — Trade drawn to Lisbon. — Various routes
to India. — The River Euphrates becomes the principal line. — Voyages of Rauwolf,
Balbi, and Newberrie. — Patent of Queen Elizabeth for Trade by this Route. — Appli
cation of the Merchants for a Loan. — Voyages of Fitch and Newberrie along the
Euphrates. — Queen Elizabeth keeps a fleet of Boats on the Euphrates. — Consequent
cheapness of Goods from India. — Establishment of the East India Company. — Colonial
Trade of England, and its advantages. — Increase of Exports and Imports during Five
Centuries. — The Turkey or Levant Companies of England and France. — State of the
Trade of the Levant, of Egypt, Syria, Asia Minor, Persia, and Mesopotamia. — Trade
of the Arabian and Persian Gulfs. — Partial and proposed Navigation of the Euphrates.
— Facilities and advantages of opening the River Euphrates. — Openings for commercial
enterprise on the Rivers of Mesopotamia.

CHAPTER XIX.
[Page 604 to 632.]
ARCHITECTURE, SCULPTURE, ETC., OF l'RAN, SYRIA, AND ARABIA.
Ruins in Babylonia. — Kiln-burnt and Sun-dried Bricks. — Construction of the Pyramids.

XVI

CONTENTS.

—Cement and Layers of Reeds.— Some Pyramids of Brick, others of Stone. —
Pyramids of Mexico, &c— Excavations in Assyria and elsewhere. — Great Fire
Temple near Ispahan. — Singular Sepulchral Excavations. — Ancient Causeways and
Roads.— Canals.— Bunds.— Dikes.— Tunnels.— Arches.— Ancient Mines.— Rocks re
moved by Fire.— Phoenician and Assyrian remains. — Tomb of Cyrus. — Ancient
Writing, Sculpture, and Painting.— Ruins of Persepolis.— Floating and Stationary
-Cements, &c.

CHAPT.EE XX.
[Page 633 to 662.]
BOATS AND HYDRAULIC WORKS OF THE EAST.
Logs, Rafts, and inflated Skins.— Boats of Branches and Wicker-work, covered with
Bitumen.— The Boats of Hit, and their Construction.— Dimensions, &c, of Noah's
Ark.— Round Boats of Mesopotamia.— Canoes of Reeds and of Timber. — Wooden
Boats of Hit and 'A'nah. — Ferry-boats, and mode of using them. — Sea-going Boats. —
Persian and Arab Boats. — Trankeys and Bagalas. — Early use of the Compass.—
Chinese Vessels and Boats. — Subaqueous Walls. — Water-baskets. — Water-levers. —
Bullock-rollers. — Water-wheels. — Persian Wheels. — Kami's or Kahreezes. — Souterazi.
— Cisterns. — Reservoirs, Tanks, and Cisterns in Syria, India, &c.

LIST OF PLATES.

No. of
Plate. 39. Mount Ararat
30. Birs Nimriid
31. Ruins of Nineveh
34. Great Mosque and interior of Ur'fah
41. Tyre 
40. Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb
Cl. Ruins of Babylon
50. Ruins of Beles
2. Ferry on the Aras
Sardis ....
Gaza .....
Island of Nearchus
Ruins of Siis
Cedars of Lebanon .
47. Tadmor or Palmyra
83. Membij ....
38. Acre 
27. Elath or Eziongeber
45. Port of Dhahab (Gold), on the Red Sea
48. Persepolis .....

49.
36. 10.
32.46.

Frontispiece.
To face page 25
3977
,, 93
127163
,, 213
,, 229
,, 265
,, 281
,, 350
,, 356
,, 389
,, 42* 433
,, 480
,, 569
,, 585
,, 620

It has been necessary to alter the order of succession of a few of the Plates j but they
will easily be found by reference to the above pages.

EXPEDITION

EUPHRATES AND TIGRIS.

CHAPTEE I.
Seat of Paradise and its four Rivers. — State of the World before the Deluge
— Supposed residence of Noah. — Description of the first Babylonia. —
Construction of the Ark. — First Settlements in Armenia. — State of Ante
diluvian Knowledge. — Primeval Astronomy, and its preservation among
the Kirghis Kazaks. — Cycles of the Ancients. — Traditional History.—
Records preserved in Armenia. — Shem proceeds to Shinar. — Japhet and
Ham continue in Armenia. — Noah's precepts. — First Human Immolation
by Lamech. — Arkite "Worship. — Antediluvian Idolatry or Sabaism. —
Ham's Sin and Curse. — Trifling change caused by the Deluge. — Noah's
Allotment. — Japhet occupies the northern extremity of Asia and Europe.
— Shem occupies Babylonia, Syria, &c. — Ham removes from Asia Minor
to Byblus. — Possessions of Cush. — Ham's Idolatry in Syria. — Canaan and
Mizraim's Territories. — The Emim, Amalekites, Philistines, Thamudites,
Himyarites, and other Tribes in Syria, Arabia, and Egypt. — The Cushites
invade Babylonia and expel the people of Shem. — Rise of Nimrud's King
dom, and establishment of Ham's Religion. — Construction and object of
the Tower of Babel. — Spread of Mankind in consequence.
The preceding: volume contains an account of the four great The first
- YolumB
rivers of Western Asia, also of the countries which they fer- descriptive.
tilize, together with a general description of the territory
stretching eastward and westward of those streams, as far as
the banks of the Indus in the former, and those of the Nile in
the latter direction.
Several circumstances, in addition to those briefly enume
rated in the Twelfth Chapter, appear to connect that part of
the world which contains the rivers in question with the ter-
VOL. II. b

EDEN AND ITS FOUR RIVERS.

[chap.

Eden repre
sented by
ancient Armenia.

Its sub
divisions.

ritory of Eden, with which also ancient Armenia, the post
diluvian seat of mankind, appears to be identified. According
to the limits already traced,1 the country whither Adam was
driven to tabernacle on the eastern side of the garden of Eden 2
seems to be the mountainous district near Sinjar, which may
be said to overlook the plain of Shinar, from whence Cain
went forth subsequently to dwell in the land more eastward, in
which he built the city of Enoch, and became a husbandman.
It is scarcely necessary to remind the reader that one section
of the Tauric chain forms the water-shed of this part of
Western Asia, and that from its bosom, probably issuing from
a basin or mass of waters,3 flow the rivers Araxes and Halys
on the northern, and the Tigris and Euphrates on the southern,
slopes of these mountains.
It is manifest, from the comprehensive language of Moses,4
that to our first parents there had been allotted an extensive
territory, whose subdivisions, namely, Cush, Havflah, and
Ashur, were watered by four great rivers. It has been seen
that one of these had changed its name from Gihon to Araxes,
while the scriptural names of the third [the Hiddekel, Dekel, or
Dijlath (going before Assyria)] and fourth rivers, as well as the
country which they enclose_ [Mesopotamia (Aramnaharaim)],
having been happily preserved, the southern portions of the
primeval settlement are thus unquestionably identified.
It has been seen that in the tract within the river Araxes,
there are numerous traces of the ancient people of Cush : and
again, in that which is within the Halys are found the gold,
pearls, and other productions of the land of Havflah.5
On reference to the index-map, it may be observed that the
presumed locality of Paradise and the postdiluvian seat of
1 See the index-map, and vol. I. from p. 267-277.
2 Gen., chap. III., verse 24. Bellamy's translation.
3 See above, vol. I., note at page 268.
4 Gen., chap. II.
5 At page 415 of the Chronicon Paschale, the Moschi and the Macrones
as Cushites, and the river of the Ethiopians, are mentioned in connexion
with one part of Armenia, and in another part of this kingdom the Gym-
nosophystce are amongst the people of Havllah. For other particulars con
cerning the latter tract, and also that of Cush, see above, p. 273-277.

CHAP. I.J SUBJECTS PROPOSED FOR THIS VOLUME. 3
mankind comprised extensive countries. The former was sur- wateredby
rounded and fertilized by four great rivers, which flowed Abounded
towards the cardinal points, while four inland seas were situ- by four seas-
ated near its borders, namely, the Mediterranean westward, the
Euxine towards the north, the Caspian on the east, and the
Persian Gulf towards the south.1
As the extensive region spreading from hence to the Nile,
and again to the Indus in the opposite direction, was the
theatre of the most important events in the history of the
world, it has been thought proper, before entering upon an
account of the British expedition to the two principal rivers
within the limits of this territory, to offer some brief notices of
those events. The leading circumstances connected with the
spread of the human race will be also stated, and it is hoped
that some light may be thrown upon scriptural history, by
means of the positive and descriptive geography collected for
this work. The changes to which the political states of the
countries were successively subjected by the incursions of
Sesostris and Cyrus — the movements of the multitudinous
armies of Xerxes, the conquests of Alexander, and the wars of
his successors — will also be described, and there will be added a
brief notice of the influence which the eastern campaigns of
this mighty conqueror had upon the progress of commerce and
civilization in Europe.
With reference to the catastrophe which destroyed the old Traces ofthe
world, not only are its effects to be traced on the earth in a
striking manner, but the fact is acknowledged by the inhabit
ants of almost every land, as a circumstance known by tra
dition from their ancestors, whether savage or refined : and
this event, the most awful ever recorded, is invariably attri
buted to the same cause.
Ovid relates that previously to the Deluge violence reigned f^^J/^e
as far as the earth extended, and all men seemed to have old world.
entered into, a compact to be wicked.3 Another writer, who
enters more fully into the subject, says that there was in these
times a great resort of people of various nations, who inhabited
Chaldea, and lived in a lawless manner, like the beasts of the
1 See above, vol. I., pp. 269, 270. 2 Met., lib. I., p. 24.
b2

APOSTASY OF THE OLD WORLD.

[CHAP. I.

Union ofthe field.1 From these passages, as well as from the book of
Cainites and ~ n . ... ,. , i ,
(jenesis, we learn that every imagination ot man s heart was

Sethites.

population.

only evil continually.8 With respect to the expressions, " Sons
of God, and daughters of men," 3 it appears that the descend
ants of Seth, who for a long period had maintained the1 worship
of the. true God, represent the former ; and that the nomad
and fallen race of the Cainites, whom they joined probably in
Babylonia, were the latter.4 This decided falling off com
menced amongst the Sethites about a.m. 1073,5 but an addi
tional period of 583 years elapsed before the fallen race had
become men of renown,6 or mighty men and giants, not in
stature but in apostasy, as the original, Nephilim, has been
translated by Bishop Home. This was just before the Deluge,
when it is supposed mankind became sufficiently numerous to
Antediluvian people the coast of Phoenicia, Arabia Felix, the valley of the
Nile, part of Central Asia, Assyria, and Syria. In the last
country we are told that the names of Genus and Genea,7 and
those of their descendants, were conferred upon the mountains
which they occupied, as Casius, Lebanon, and Brathu.8 Very
little has reached us concerning the countries just mentioned
at this remote period, but with respect to Babylonia and the
adjoining territory we are better informed. Noah's separation
from the sons of Seth, to avoid their wickedness, is expressly
stated by the Jewish historian;9 and that he continued in a
great measure to live apart, is probable from the circumstance
of his maintaining his righteousness ; it may also be inferred
that his distance from Babylonia was not very great, from his
1 From Alexander Polyhistor : see the Cosmogony and Deluge. Ancient
Fragments by Isaac Preston Cory, Esq., p. 22. "W. Pickering, London, 1832.
2 Gen. chap. VI., v. 5. * jbi(1_; v< 2.
4 Compare Bibliotheque Orientale, d'Herbelot, Art. Aulad, with the
Chronology and Antiquity of the most Ancient Nations of the World, by J.
Jackson, vol. I., p. 203.
5 Ibid., vol. I., p. 60. « Gen., chap. VI., v. 4.
7 These individuals are supposed to represent Cain and his wife ; the former
name having been derived from Cain by successive transformations which may
be easily traced. Whittaker's Univers. Hist., vol. I., p. 47.
» From the Cosmogony of Sanchoniatho, Ancient Fragments by Isaac
Preston Cory, Esq., pp. 5, 6. W. Pickering, London, 1839.
9 Jos. Ant., lib. I., c. iii. s. 1.

CHAP. I.J NOAH'S PREPARATIONS FOR THE DELUGE. 5
preaching faith and repentance to the inhabitants of that and Noah's
the adjoining region.1 In the districts about Sinjar, the seatpreac mg'
of the Sethites, bordering on Paradise,2 Noah might have found
the requisite materials for building the Ark, namely, bitumen
and Gopher wood,3 so that this vast structure might have been
prepared in the course of a short time by his family alone.
Berossus, in his Babylonian Antiquities, states that Babylonia
is a country situated between the Tigris and Euphrates, pro- Products of
ducing abundantly wheat, barley, ocrus, and sesame; the lakes ^p0*™1'1,
produced the roots called gongae, which are fit for food, and
in point of nutriment similar to barley ; also that there were
palm-trees, apples, and a variety of fruits, likewise fish and
birds, both those of flight and those which frequent the lakes :
he adds, that the country bordering upon Arabia was without
water and barren, but the parts lying on the other side,4 that is
Susiana and the Cosscean or Cordyean mountains, were fertile.
Berossus further states that Oannes, or Xisuthrus (Noah)5,
appeared on the shores of the Erythrean sea,6 bordering upon
Babylonia, where he was enjoined to write a history of the
beginning, procedure, and conclusion of all things, and deposit
it in Babylonia, at Sippara, the city of the Sun ;7 it is added
that he was also ordered to build a vessel, and take with him Noah's
into it his children and his friends, and everything necessary to™"'""0'""
sustain life, together with the different animals, both birds and
quadrupeds, and then to trust himself fearlessly to the deep.8
Jos. Ant., lib. I., c. iii., sec. 1 .
8 Georgius Cedrenus, p. 17. Bekker, Bonn, 1838.
8 Other timber, but more particularly the pine, the cedar, and cypress
contend for this honour ; all three are found in this part of the country, but
the similarity of Gopher to the Hebrew Goupher and the Arabic Kafiir give
a preference to the last, the Cupressus sempervirens, which may be said to
be almost indigenous to the districts near Babylon.
* Ancient Fragments by Isaac Preston Cory, Esq., pp. 21, 22. W. Pick
ering, London, 1832.
5 Eusebius, Canon. Chronici. in the Greek. Fol., Amst. 1658, pp. 6, 8.
8 The Persian Gulf was thus called. Vincent's Commerce of the Ancients,
&c, vol. IL, p. 4.
7 2 Kings, c. XVII. 24. 31 v.
8 Ancient Fragments by I. P. Cory, Esq., pp. 26, 27, compared with Gen.
chap. VI., VII.

THE FLOOD COVERS THE EARTH.

[CHAP. I.

Stability of
the ark.

Swelling of
the waters.

Noah is said to have obeyed the Divine admonition ; but the
vessel which he constructed is described as having been five
stadia in length, by two stadia in breadth, whereas the dimen
sions given by Moses are much less.1
In a subsequent part of this work it will be seen2 that this
floating habitation might have been prepared in Upper Meso
potamia, even by a single family, without any serious difficulty :
the decks with the firm walls and roofs braced with cross beams,3
ih addition to those dividing and supporting the necessary com
partments, would give sufficient stability, particularly as the
structure was to be floated without being launched ; and the
coating of pitch within as Well as without, perfected the work.
The Mohammedan writers tell us, that during the progress
of his operations, Noah was tauntingly charged with having
become a carpenter ; ahd that he was constantly reviled for his
useless labour in preparing a vessel, where it could not by any
possibility be conveyed to the water.4 But his task being
accomplished, the increase of the waters commenced, according
to the Babylonian records quoted by Berossus,5 on the 15th of
the Chaldean month,6 Jiar or Jar, the second from the vernal
equinox ; and the swelling floods having raised the Ark fifteen
cubits above the culminating point of Mount Ararat, the
triumph of faith was complete, when the patriarch of the old,
and the progenitor of the new world, sailed upon what has been
happily called a shoreless ocean,7 which covered the remains of
the animal and human inhabitants of the former world.8 From
the accounts handed down by the Chaldean writers, it appears
1 Gen., chap. VI., v. 15.
2 See Chapter on the Arts and Sciences of Fran at the end of the volume.
3 Jos. Ant., lib. I., c. iii., s. 2.
4 Bibliotheque Orientale, Noah ; also p. 9 French translation of Muhammed
Tabari's Chronicles, translated by M. Dubeux.
5 Cory's Ane. Fragments, p. 33.
6 Apud Syncel., pp. 30, 38.
7 The Just ones toiled on the sea, which had no land. From the Eleoy of
Aeddon : see Mythology and Rites of the British Druids, by Edward Davies,
p. 495. J. Booth, London. 1809.
8 Bishop Burnet, in his Theory of the Earth, states that there were
10,737,413,240 souls ; but the number of antediluvians have been computed
at 519,755,813,889.

CHAP. I.] NOAH'S DESCENT IN ARMENIA. 7
that, when the flood had been some time upon the earth, and Decrease of
was again abated, Xisuthrus sent out birds from the vessel,
which, not finding any food, nor any place whereupon they
might rest their feet, returned to him again.1 After an interval
of some days, he sent them forth a second time, and they now
returned with their feet tinged with mud. He then made a
trial with these birds for the third time, when they returned to
him no more ; from this he judged, that the surface of the
earth had appeared above the waters.2 He now made an open
ing in the vessel, and upon looking out, found that it was
stranded upon the side of some mountain: he immediately
quitted it with his wife, his daughter, and the pilot.
Having paid his adoration to the earth, and constructed an Noah's altar
altar, he offered sacrifices to the gods ;3 and disappeared, after
admonishing his family to pay due regard to religion, and
return to Babylonia, in order that they might search for the
writings deposited in Sippara, also called Pantibibla,4 which
they were to make known to all mankind : he informed them
that the place where they were was the land of Armenia.5 It in Armenia.
was pretended that some part of the vessel remained till recent
times in the Corcyrsean mountains of Armenia, where the
people of the country used to scrape off the bitumen, with
which it was outwardly coated, and make use of it as an
alexipharmic and amulet. The story related by Berossus is
given nearly in the same words by other profane writers,
particularly Abydenus and Apollodorus,6 and it agrees with
that given by Moses. Indeed, the express mention of a coating
of bitumen by the ancient authors, and the place of descent
being generally fixed in Armenia, are remarkable circum
stances. We find in this part of the country the mountain
Baris, or Barit, i. e., of the ark or ship ;7 also Masis and
1 Cory, pp. 27, 28. W. Pickering, 1832.
2 Cory's Ancient Fragments, p. 28; Gen. chap. VIII., v. 11, 12.
3 And Noah builded an altar unto the Lord, Gen. chap. III., v. 20.
4 Probably from the Chaldee Sephar, a book, or record.
5 Cory's Ane. Fragments, pp. 28, 29.
6 Ibid., p. 30-35.
7 Valpy 's edition of Stephanus' Thesaurus, p. 322 ; Jos. Ant., lib. I., cap. iii.
s. 6 ; and Bryant's Mythology, vol. II. p. 357.

STATE OF KNOWLEDGE IN THE OLD WORLD. [CHAP. I.

Mountain of
the ark.

Place of
descent.

Progress of
knowledge

in the old
world.

Mesezousar, or mountain of the ark.' In the Hebrew, we meet
with Har-Irad, or mountain of descent,2 and Shamanim (moun
tain of the eight), all denoting that the Patriarch first touched
the earth at this place. As a farther commemoration of this
important event, we find at the foot of the mountain in question,
a district and town called Arnohwote, or Noah placed foot,3
also a spot called Akhooree, that is, he (Noah) planted a vine
yard,4 and in the same vicinity was built the city of Nakhchivan,
probably the Aporateeion of Josephus ;5 the place from which
the first colonies emigrated, taking with them the knowledge
that had existed in the former world.
The extent of this knowledge may be fairly presumed to
have been considerable, having been acquired during sixteen
centuries ; unless we suppose that man in his original state,
although possessing in an eminent degree the requisite powers
of body and mind, continued for so long a period without
instruction, or the benefit of experience. This, however, would
be incompatible with his nature, his wants, and his aptitude for
learning and improvement. Indeed we are warranted in
believing that the reverse was the case. A knowledge of the
animal and vegetable world, had, as we know, been imparted
to mankind at the creation;6 and, amongst those nations who
have had the least intercourse with the rest of the world, it may
be seen that a clear stream of knowledge has descended through
succeeding generations. The arts of life evidently belonged
to the earliest state of the old world : the Cainites, for
instance, who were by many years the older of the two sections
of mankind, invented weights and measures,7 and worked in
metals,8 being artists in general.9 They were likewise mu-

1 Tavernier's Travels, book I., ch. ii.
2 Bryant's Mythology, vol. III., p. 5.
3 Derived, according to Moses Choronensis, from the Armenian words
— Ar, placed ; Noh, Noah ; and wote, foot.
4 From the Armenian — Akh, he planted ; and oor, vines. No. VIII
p. 339, of the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society.
4 Or Apobaterion : Antiq., lib. I., c. iii., sec. 5.
6 Gen., chap. I., v. 27 ; chap. IL, v. 19, 20.
7 Jos., lib. I., c. ii. s. 2. » Gen., chap. IV., v. 22.
8 Tubal Cain, translated into English, is brassfounder or artist.

CHAP. I.] ASTRONOMY OF PRIMEVAL AGES. 9
sicians,1 and also acquainted with the more ordinary arts of life.
They were shepherds,2 agriculturists, and architects ; they were »
also skilled in the formation of defensive works ; for they con
structed the fortified city of Hanock or Enoch ; and they were
the first who made the sword.3
A very advanced state of science was no doubt the result of Knowledge
that knowledge which had been imparted by the Creator to Adam.6
Adam, who, it will be remembered, lived during three-fourths
of the whole antediluvian period, to transmit this knowledge to
his descendants. We are therefore warranted in believing that
the progress of the antediluvians must have exceeded any
estimate founded upon the present life of man.
We are informed that Seth's, line persevered in the worship
of the true God, and in the contemplation of His wisdom, also
in the study of the motions of the heavenly bodies, the result
of which, it appears, they engraved on two pillars, one of
stone, the other of brick;4 and it is added, that Enoch was Seth's line
the promoter of new inventions or discoveries, as astrology, astronomy.
or astronomy.5 Even if these circumstances had not been
noticed by Josephus " and other ancient writers, we could not
doubt that some kind of knowledge of the latter science must
have existed almost from the origin of the human race ;
indeed, the concerns of life, even in the very rudest state
of society, would have rendered this indispensable, and the
necessity would be still greater in the agricultural state, in
order to ascertain the duration of the seasons, and regulate the
operations connected with seed-time and harvest, as objects
of this nature could not be accomplished without daily obser
vations: these attentively made, must, in the course of time,
have enabled the ancients to determine the motions of the
heavenly bodies with considerable precision,7 without' any other
assistance than such as was derived from the fields as an horizon,
1 Gen., chap. IV., v. 21. 2 Verse 20.
3 Gen., chap. IV., v. 17. 22 ; Jos., lib. I., c. ii.
'4 Georgius Cedrenus, p. 16. Bekker, Bonn, 1838.
5 Euseb. Praep., lib. IX., c. 17, p. 419.
6 Ant., lib. I., c. ii., sec. 3.
7 Historical Account of Astronomy, by John Narrien, Esq., F.R.A.S. and
F.R.S., pp. 38, 55, &c.

10

REMAINS OF PRIMITIVE ASTRONOMY.

[CHAP.

The Kirghis
Kazaks.

Pastoral
astronomy.

Notions con
cerning cer
tain clusters
of stars.

and the features of the country, as points to mark the heliacal
risings and settings, and the motions of the sun, moon, and
stars. That a certain amount of astronomical knowledge may in
this way be obtained, is proved by that which has descended
from father to son, among the remains of a primitive people of
the present day, who wander with their flocks over the vast
steppes of Central Asia. Constantly living in the open air,
the Kirghis Kazak, under the shade of a rock, a cave, or a
tent, watches the motion of the sun during the day, and the
more interesting spectacle presented by the heavens on a serene
night. Like the earliest Chaldeans and Egyptians, he has no
other means of measuring time than those afforded by the sun,
moon, and stars, distributing his days by the heavens, as a
European does by his watch. Having no other occupation
than his pastoral cares, he studies the celestial arch almost
without being aware that he is doing so, and soon becomes
familiar with its principal phenomena, adding to this know
ledge, like his prototype of Chaldea, a system of astrology, in
accordance with the rude principles of which, he peoples the
heavens with good and evil spirits, who preside over- the days
of the year, and to whose influence he supposes all living beings
to be subject. By such means he professes to be able at plea
sure to intimidate his enemies, or console and encourage his
friends. The names in use for the constellations seem to
denote a common origin with those of the ancient astronomers.
The North Pole, more particularly as a directing point, occu
pies the first place in the heavens, and is called the Iron Stake ;
Venus takes the name of the Shepherd, as rising when the
cattle are brought home, or taken out to pasture ; the Great
Bear they compare to seven wolves following a grey and a
white gelding ; the Pleiades to wild sheep, and when absent,
supposed to be bringing grass for the terrestrial sheep; the
Milky Way is called the road of the birds, emigrating north
and south.1
1 Alexis de Levchine. Description des hordes; &c, des Kirghis^Kazaks,
traduite du Russe par Ferey de Pigny, revue par E. Charriere. Paris, 1840,
p. 386, and some preceding pages.

CHAP. I.J ' WEEKLY AND LUNAR CYCLES. 1 1
It may here be observed, with reference to this subject, that Early know-
a week, or a period of seven days (which coincides with that ^eldy?
of the creation, and also with a phase of the moon), appears
to have been the first step taken by mankind towards the
measurement of time.
Syncellus states that from Adam to the 165th year of
Enoch, years of seven days only were used ; and in the
earliest ages, the weekly period prevailed among the Arabians,
and other oriental nations, as the Assyrians, Egyptians, Indians,
&C.1 To this succeeded the lunar circle of thirty days,2 which lunar> and
continued for many ages to be the established year, without
any longer measure of time. Afterwards, twelve such revo
lutions, each commemorated by the festival of the new moon,3
comprised the longer period- of 360 days. This discovery is annual
ascribed to Enoch, to whom, by God's command, the knowledge peno s'
of the month, the tropics, and the year just mentioned, were
revealed ; 4 and it is evident that the latter period continued in
use, up to the time of Moses, from 150 days being given to
the five months of the deluge.5
The collected fragments of ancient authors6 leave little
doubt that, at a remote period of the world, a knowledge was
obtained of other cycles, as the Saros, Neros, Sossos, &c.7 ; Saros, Neros,
the last was merely a day, and one of the others may have been
1 Compare Scaliger, de Emendat. Temporum, pp. 6, 9, and Pref. p. xlvi. ;
Selden, de Jure Nat. et Gent., lib. III. c. xix ; Syncellus, from Alexander
Polyhistor, p. 33 ; Spectacle de la Nature, t. VIII. p. 53.
2 Diod. Sic, lib. I. p. 5 ; Varro, apud Lactant. Instit., lib. IL, xiii., p. 169 ;
Plin., lib. VII., sec. 48 ; Plutarch in Numa, cap. xviii. ; ex Eudoxo
Proclus. in Tim. p. 31 ; Stobceus, Phys., p. 21 ; Gemin., p. 34; Suidas, in
voce, HXioc, vol. I., p. 1659. (Gaisford, Oxford, 1834.) Syncellus, p. 41.
Edit. Goar. Paris, 1642. Folio.
* It was celebrated by many ancient nations. Spencer, de Leg. Hebr. Ritual,
lib. III., sec. 1, dissert. 4.
4 Jewish Tradition from the book of Enoch. Apud Syncellus, p. 41,
Goar Ed. Paris, 1642. Folio.
5 Compare Genesis, ch. VII., v. 24, with Mr. Richard Allen's Dissertation,
p. 144, et seq. ; also p. 291 of Whiston's Theory of the Earth. London,
1755. 6 Translated from Berossus, Abydenus, Megasthenes, Nicholas Damas-
cenus Eupolemus, and others, by Isaac Preston Cory, Esq. W. Pickering,
London, 1832. 7 Ibid. p. 32.

12

LESSER AND GREATER CYCLES.

[chap.

year.

Traditionalhistory,

the astronomical period of 600 years, at the expiration of which
the sun and moon return to the same positions nearly in the
heavens, which they occupied at its commencement.1 The
JJfrCanicular ancients were a^so acquainted with the cynic or canicular year,
by some called the heliacal, and by others the eniautus, or the
year, being the interval between two heliacal risings of Sirius.
They are supposed also to have discovered what they called
the great year, in which they imagined that the sun, moon,
and all the planets complete their courses, and return to the
same sign ofthe zodiac from which they originally set out.2
That such periods are mentioned by those writers, goes far
to show that they had been previously determined, and handed
down, either by written testimony, or the streams of traditional
history radiating from a common centre, which, although
dimmed by a mixture of error, are found everywhere to pre
serve essential marks of truth ; nor is it difficult to imagine,
and even to follow the links of such a chain. One individual
would have been sufficient to transmit a knowledge of the
events which preceded the flood. Lamech, for instance, (son
of Methuselah,) lived from the time of Adam to that of the
second progenitor of mankind ; from whom again the three
patriarchs, Eber, Isaac, and Levi, would have sufficed to carry
the chain down to Moses himself. Such a link would equally
prevail among the correlatives of this branch in Arabia, where
Yaafar, the great-grandson of Himyar, might have carried
down the traditionary chain from Shem to Jethro (the father-
in-law of Moses). The historian of the early Hebrews only
gives a complete genealogy of the line of Seth, which he con
tinues through that of Shem, whilst he brings down the other
great antediluvian branch only to the daughter of Lamech ; but
if, as will be presently noticed, Naamah was in reality the wife
of Ham, a further account would naturally have been preserved
by some of this race. Sanchoniatho, their historian, gives, like
Moses, and with a certain degree of resemblance in the names,
ten generations from Adam to Ham, whilst the records pre-
1 Josephus, lib., I. c. 3.
2 From Censorinus : see Ancient Fragments, by I. P. Cory, Esq., p. 323.
W. Pickering, London, 1832.

and its pre
servation.

CHAP. I.J FIRST LOCATIONS OF NOAH's SONS. 13
served amongst the sons of his eldest brother (Japhet) are
still more minute, for which, as will be seen, the earliest loca
tions of his descendants in the vicinity of Ararat afforded
peculiar advantages.
Owing to the difficulties of the language, and exaggerated 9entra!
.... . . , . Armenia.
accounts of the dangers in traversing this mountainous region,
Armenia, especially the tract occupied by the Kurds, has seldom
been visited ; and as late as the year 1831 the populous districts
along the right bank of the Euphrates, namely, Gurun, Mala-
tiyah, 'A'in-tab, Sis, and 'Ain-zarbah, which formed part of
Armenia Minor, may be said to have been scarcely known.
The Armenians, as we learn from Moses Choronensis, Antiquity of
Michael Chamish, and others, trace their language, and the language.
line of their kings back to the Deluge, and, the people having
lived almost entirely apart from the rest of the world, within
the deep recesses of the Taurus, it may be presumed that the
former was long preserved among them in its original state.
We are informed by one of the writers just mentioned that
Noah's family remained in Armenia Major some considerable
time subsequent to the Deluge, where they intermarried ; l but
at a later period there was a separation of the families, and the
people may from that time be considered as divided into
separate tribes. Shem, the eldest, by appointment, was the
first to seek another country; and we are told that he pro
ceeded in a north-western direction, to the foot of a lofty
mountain, bounded by an extensive plain, delightfully watered
by a river passing through the middle of the tract. Here he
remained for a short time, when, having given his name
(Shem) to the mountain, and left Taron, one of his youngest
sons, at the town that he had built, which afterwards bore the
name of Tamberan, he proceeded thence towards the south
east, a course which, presuming he quitted the plain of Erz-
Bum, would carry him to the land of Shinar.
Ham, now become the last by inheritance, appears to have Settlements
continued near Mount Ararat, Japhet being already settled
westward of that mountain ; so that the temporary locations of
1 History of Armenia, by Father Michael Chamish, translated from the
original Armenian, by Johannes Avdall, Esq. Calcutta, 1827.

14 POSTDILUVIAN THEOLOGY AND MORALITY. [CHAP. I.
Noah's three sons were within reach of the moral and religious
instruction of the Patriarch. Therefore it probably was in the
fruitful valleys of Central Armenia that Noah delivered the
Noah's celebrated precepts which were intended to restore the purity
religious Qf ^e j)ivme Law, an(j which have become an interesting
link between the antediluvian and postdiluvian religions : —
1. Not to follow strange worship, or idolatry.
2. Not to blaspheme the name of God.
3. Not to commit murder.
4. Not to commit incest.
5. To abstain from theft and rapine.
6. To appoint just judges and judicatures, &c.
7- Not to eat flesh with the blood of it.1
It will be seen that the first and second refer to man's duty
towards his Creator, the former being manifestly intended to
overcome that idolatrous worship which probably had already
been given to the heavenly bodies instead of their great Creator
himself.
and moral The next four regulated man's duty towards his neighbour,
and the last forbade cruelty to other creatures, though it per
mitted the use of flesh for food as well as for sacrifices. It is
probable that the Cainites had not confined the latter to the
fruits of the earth, or even to animals, for Lamech, the earliest
polygamist, is supposed to have immolated a human being —
his own son : —
" Ye wives of Lamech, hearken to my speech, for I have
slain a man to the wounding of myself, and a stripling to my
own bruising."2
The primeval religion and strict moral code, which were to
be thus restored for the guidance of Noah's posterity, appear
however to have undergone some modifications, one of which
was introduced in order to commemorate the recent catas
trophe, and the signal deliverance of Noah and his family.3
1 Bishop Patrick's Preface to the Book of Job.
2 Gen. IV., v. 23 ; and read p. 201 of Frederick von SchlegePs Philosophy
of Hist., translated by James Brunton Robinson, Esq. Bohn, London, 1847.
3 In a recent work it has been ably shown, that the Arkite worship was
at one time extensively in use throughout the greatest part of the world,

precepts.

CHAP. I.J COMMEMORATION OF THE DELUGE. 15
That Noah's first altar, and well-known sacrifice, should The Arkite
have had a direct reference to the vessel constructed by
Almighty command, and from which he had recently escaped,
seems to be quite natural ; and it is equally probable that the
continued use of this type was expressly enjoined to his
descendants. The ark was the constant symbol used to repre
sent an altar, and this was in the shape of a crescent, probably
from Luban or the Moon, one of the names of Mount Ararat :
it is remarkable that in the ancient stone found near Dundalk,
a ship's hull is plainly represented.1 It is believed that the
Druids were in reality Arkites ;2 also that Stonehenge and
Avebury in Wilts, Manister Grange (near Limerick), the four
teen circles of large stones, in the neighbourhood of Sligo, called
the Giant's Grave, and other similar structures at home and
abroad, are the remains of structures which were sepulchral,
and at the same time connected with a system of religious
worship that once generally prevailed in Great Britain and3
throughout the ancient world ; but probably, like that which is
exemplified in the Chinese temples dedicated to Kwan-Ya'n,
or the Goddess of Mercy and of the Sea,4 more or less mixed
with idolatry.
Doubtless the primeval worship, as renewed by Noah imme- were added to
. . primeval
diately after the Deluge, was free from this taint, which how- worship.
ever must have followed at a later period, since it was
expressly forbidden by the first and second commandments ; 5
dating from the Descent itself. Doctrine of the Deluge, by the Rev. Vernon
Harcourt. See also the Mythology and Rites of the British Druids, pp. 90,
91, 107, 178, 180, 492, 493, 494, 495. J. Booth, London. 1809.
1 Naoi is the Irish word for Ship, and hence Naiads or Shipmen. Har
court 's Doctrine of the Deluge, vol. II. p. 23. ! Ibid, vol. I., p. 75.
3 Arkite rites prevailed in many parts of Britain, and the rites of Bacchus
or Noah were duly celebrated, pp. 184, 131. Davies' Mythology of the
British Druids. Booth, London. 1809.
4 The Sea-God was Oannes, and the Fish-God ofthe Babylonians, Dagon.
Chronological Antiquities, &c, by John Jackson, vol. I., p, 209. London,
1752. 5 Arkite theology embraced some memorials of the history of the Deluge,
too-ether with an idolatrous commemoration of Noah, of his family, and of
his Sacred Ship ; and in many countries the worship ofthe host of heaven has
existed in conjunction therewith. Ibid, to 492.

16 IDOLATRY OF HAM. [CHAP. I.
and it appears elsewhere from Scripture that Sabaism was
liable to judicial punishment in the time of Job.1 But from
the existence of a city (Sipparah) dedicated to the Sun, as
well as from the first of Noah's precepts " forbidding strange
worship," it would appear that this and other kinds of idolatry
must have existed previously.
Sabaism Sanchoniatho attributes Sabaism to Genus and Genea (Cain
and his wife), who stretched forth their hands towards the Sun,
as the only Lord of Heaven, adding that the first men wor
shipped those things on which they themselves lived ;2 it is also
stated by Maimonides, from tradition, that in the time of Enos
the children of Adam began to sin greatly. They built
temples, and made images to represent the heavenly bodies
which they worshipped, saying that God had created the stars
to govern the world and had given them honour by setting
them on high.3 Moreover it is presumed that idolatrous
images of some kind were in use, even in Noah's family; for in
a modern version of the Book of Genesis we read that Ham,
the father of Canaan, exposed the religious symbols of his
father, which he declared to his brethren without ; that is, he
strove to overturn the worship of God ; and for this purpose
he endeavoured to place the unclean things, or idolatrous
images, within the tabernacle of the true worship, as he had
already done in the tabernacles of his -son Canaan.4 It is
added that when Noah had ended his wine-offering (for he
knew that his younger son had offered for himself), he declared
the divine command regarding Ham's posterity.6
is renewed by Now, assuming this to be the more correct reading, it fol
lows that Ham's sin regarded the cherubim, and the religious
ceremonies confided by Noah to Shem, who had been chosen
high priest, to the exclusion of his ambitious brother. The
latter, instead however of submitting, was induced to set up his
own laws, and it is supposed that the previous or antediluvian
idolatry on which they were based was in consequence renewed.
1 Ch. XXXI., v. 26, 27, 28.
! Cory's Ancient Fragments, pp. 5, 6.
3 Vide Hottinger, Smegma Orient., p. 322.
4 Gen., chap. IX., v. 22. Note by Bellamy.
5 Ibid., v. 24. Bellamy's Translation.

CHAP. I.] NOAH'S ALLOTMENT. 17
This, as will be presently seen, appears to have speedily taken
a more settled form in Syria, from whence it was spread over
Greece by the issue of Japhet, whilst it prevailed amongst the
descendants of Shem in Arabia, and likewise in Babylonia,
where it is understood that Seruch (Serug) afterwards intro
duced the use of painting as part of the rites and ceremonies
of idol-worship respecting persons who had been deified.1
In addition to the religious precepts he inculcated, Noah
made such a distribution of the earth as would enable his de
scendants to find space in different directions for their rapidly Trees and
ii i ii n i iiii plants survive
increasing members; and the knowledge of the old world the flood.
which he must have possessed would have enabled him to allot
the most desirable tracts. Neither trees nor plants appear to
have formed a part of what was preserved in the ark, and as
we know that the olive and the vine survived the Deluge, it
may fairly be concluded that the surface of the earth did not
experience any great alteration, a circumstance which is in
some degree established by geological examinations.2
The position of Central Armenia greatly facilitated the im
mediate extension of the postdiluvian people. The opening
between the Black and the Caspian Seas necessarily conducted
one section towards the tracts lying in that direction. The Mankind
Mediterranean Sea conducted another portion towards Arabia sprea
and Africa, whilst the slopes of the Taurus would carry a
third eastward, and a part also westward of Mount Ararat.
The first region called Garbia, or the North, according to
'Abii-1-Faraj, fell to Gomer, Magog, Madai, Javan, Tubal,
Meshech, Tiras,3 and other branches hereafter to be noticed.
This in the sequel comprised Spain, France, and the
countries of the Greeks, Sclavonians, Bulgarians, Turks, and
Armenians; so that it included the whole of Asia north of the into Europe,
Taurus, and probably also the tracts extending through Europe
to the Atlantic.4 To the children of the second son, as the
1 From Epiphanius, see p. 54 of Cory's Ancient Fragments.
2 Researches in Babylonia, Assyria, &c, by W. Francis Ainsworth, F.G.S.,
F.R.G.S., Geologist to the Euphrates Expedition. J. W. Parker, London,
1838. s Gen., chap. X., v. 2.
4 'Abil-l-Faraj, Hist. Dynast., p. 8, compared with Bochart's Phaleg,
chap. XIV., and Mailer's Sammlung Riissischer Geschichte. II. Stuck, p. 3.
C

VOL. II.

18 THE SHEMITIC PEOPLE OCCUPY SYRIA. [CHAP. I.
heir, was allotted what has been denominated the centre of the
earth, namely, Armenia, Shinar, and the rest of Mesopotamia,
with Assyria, Media, and Persia, as far as the Indus, likewise
Asia, Palestine and Arabia. To the sons of Ham, the last by allot
ment, were given Cush and the region about the Persian Gulf,
namely, Susiana, and the principal part of the territory lying
in the second or western direction : Canaan having Palestine,
Palestine, &c. &c. ; Mizraim, Egypt and Lybia.1 But according to 'Abii-1-
Faraj,2 Ham also had Teman or Idumea,3 as well as Ni-
gritia, Egypt, Nubia, Ethiopia, Scindia, and India east and
west of the river Indus. This allotment, though made by
Divine appointment,4 was only partially followed by the sons
of Noah when they quitted the patriarch in Armenia. The
Shem followers of Shem, it is true, occupied, in the first instance, a
SninareS Par* of the countries destined for them, for, having proceeded
from Armenia, accompanied by a portion of the sons of Japhet,
they took, as already mentioned, a south-easterly direction,
and in all probability followed the course of the rivers Eu
phrates and Tigris to the plain country.5 In allusion to this
change, Eusebius states, that the sons of Noah were the first
who descended from the mountains, and having fixed their
habitations in the plains, they persuaded others who, on account
of the recent flood had been afraid to venture, to follow their
example. The plain, it is added, which was thus occupied, is
called Shinar, and God commanded them to send forth colonies
to people the earth.6
and part of Being thus in possession of Mesopotamia as a centre, the
Shemitic people appear to have gradually extended their limits
westward, from the borders of Assyria to those of Syria and
Samaria;7 and we know that their high-priest Melchizedek
was at Salem, when Abraham came into the country, where he
probably had been settled for some time.
But the most powerful, and by far the most numerous, of
these branches, was that of Ham, who appears to have con-
1 Hales' Chron. Hist., vol. I., p. 354. a Hist. Dyn., p. 16.
3 Jeremiah, chap. XLIX., v. 7, 20. 4 Euseb. Chron., p. 10.
5 Euseb. according to Polyhisror, I., c. v., and Jos., lib. I., cap. iv., s. i.
° Hem. 7 'Abu-1-Faraj, Hist. Dyn., p. 16.

Syria.

CHAP. I.] EXTENSION OF HAM'S TERRITORY. 19
tinued at no great distance from Mount Ararat ; one of his Ham's
grandsons, Havflah, occupying, it is supposed, part of the AriaMnior.
eastern side of Lesser Asia ; and Ludim, another grandson, a
tract lying to the westward of the river Halys. This branch
appears to have occupied what afterwards became the territory
of Lydia, for we find them subsequently at Smyrna and
Umbria taking the name of their leader, Tyrrhenus the son of
Atys, who had conducted them thither.1 Three of Ham's
sons, namely, Cush, Mizraim, and Phut, appear to have been They reign
born in Peraea,2 a name which was equally applied to the tract in PhcBI110la•
beyond the Jordan, and the country on the other side of the
Euphrates ; but the latter was first occupied after the flood.
Subsequently to the allotment, Ham appears to have proceeded
from Asia Minor3 to the more central position of Byblus,4 in
Phoenicia,5 his sons being viceroys over the different countries
of which they had originally obtained unlawful possession.
Cush or Cutha was king of the territory called Kusdi Nimrud,6 Cu.sh in
or Sinaar, which took the name of Babel after the dispersion.
But or Put, the Chaldaic of Phut7 or Pha,8 was, it is pre
sumed, sovereign of the extensive regions lying eastward of
Babylonia, which from Khous, son of Ham, were called
Kusdi Khorasan.9 At Byblus, Ham appears to have renewed
his idolatrous practices ; and Bishop Cumberland thinks it
more than probable that Niemaus, who is mentioned by San-
choniatho as being one of the wives of Chronus or Ham,
was Naamah, the sister of Tubal Cain, for (he adds) it is not
1 Herod., lib. I., cap. lxxiv. xciv.
2 P. 13 of Ancient Fragments, by Isaac Preston Cory, Esq., W. Pickering,
1832; and Cumberland's Times of First Planting of Nations, p. 174, com
pared with Scaliger, pp. 116, 197.
3 Manes, son of Jupiter, supposed to be Jupiter Hammon, or Ham, founded
the Lydian Monarchy : Cumberland's Sanchoniatho, p. 472.
4 Once Gebel of the Amorites, and now Jubeil on the coast of Phoenicia :
see above, vol. I., p. 453.
' 5 Cumberland's Sanchoniatho, p. 11.
8 St. Martin, Memoires sur l'Armenie, tome IL, pp. 72, 373. Euseb.,
Prsep. Evan., lib. IX; Syncel., Chron. 44. Euseb., Chron. 13.
7 Wise's Fabulous Ages, p. 9,
8 The Bhud ofthe East. Harcourt's Doctrine ofthe Deluge, vol. I., p. 91.
9 St. Martin, Memoires sur l'Armenie, tome II. p. 392, 393.
c2

Cainite wife.

astrology.

20 HAM, OR CHRONUS, DEIFIED. [CHAP. I.
likely that Moses would have noticed this woman only if she
had not been a person of great fame in the world, as well as
the last of Cain's line,1 and therefore the last ofthe " daughters
of men."
Ham's The circumstance itself is of no trifling importance ; for if the
supposition of a Cainite wife be correct, it would, in a great
measure, explain the cause of Ham's apostacy. He had, we
are told, studied the science of astrology before the flood, and,
knowing that he could not introduce his books into the Ark,
Early he engraved his sacrilegious inventions on metals and rocks,
which he found again after the flood, and thus perpetuated the
knowledge he had acquired.2- This seems to be the means by
which idolatry spread among the followers of Ham, who ele
vated their leader to the rank of Patriarch of the Deluge, to
the exclusion of Noah himself.
Worship of the Bel, who is generally called Saturnus,3 was considered as
the primary object of worship; and we are told that, when
there were great droughts, the people of Phoenicia stretched
forth their hands to heaven, and towards the sun, for him they
supposed to be God, calling him Beelsamin. This, in the
Phoenician dialect, signifies Lord of Heaven ;4 and Ham
appears to have added the worship of the moon,5 dedicating
moon, and their city to Baaltis,6 or Ashtaroth, from Astarte,7 one of his
wives, and the Queen of Byblus and Melcander.8 The serpent,
as an emblem of the sun, being also that of time and eternity,
was in some way or other connected with those luminaries in
Phoenicia, and its worship was subsequently adopted by Nimrrid,
and became general amongst the people of Chaldea.9 Ham
1 Bishop Cumberland's Sanchoniatho, p. 108.
2 Cassianus, Collatio VIII. cap. xxi.
3 Euseb., Prsep. Evan. IX. cap. xvii., xviii.
4 "Which is equivalent to Zeus. See Sanchoniatho : Ancient Fragments by
Isaac Preston Cory, Esq., pp. 5, 6. W. Pickering, London, 1832.
5 Bel the Sun, Belthis the Moon : Jackson's Antiquities, &c, vol. III.,
p. 24, note.
6 Mistress, from Ba'al; Sanchoniatho, from Cory's Ancient Fragments,
p. 15 ; and Abydenus, apud Euseb. Prsep., lib. IX;, c. xii., p. 456.
7 Ibid., p. 14. 8 Plutarch, de Iside.
B Compare Cory's Ancient Fragments, p. 17, with Lucian, de Diis Syris ;
Syncel. L, c. iii., p. 49; and Euseb. Prsep., lib. IX., chap. 17.

the serpent.

CHAP. I.] THE CANAANITES AND PHILISTINES. 21
or Chronus, whom the Phoanicians called II, was after his Ham assigned
death deified, and assigned to the planet which bears his name, Saturn? *"' '
Bel, Belus, or Saturnus;1 and in later times the Chaldean
creed became a part of Sabaism, which, according to Sancho
niatho, had been founded by Cain and his sister-wife.2
It appears that Canaan was born at Byblus,3 and, his elder The Canaan-
brother Mizraim having already passed on to govern the region
southward, he received the territory afterwards occupied by
the descendants of his eleven sons, namely, the Hivites, the
Avim,4 Anakim, &c. : this tract took his name, its limits
being Sidon to the north, and Gaza to the south." Adjoining
this tract, to the south-westward, were the Pathrusim and
Casluhim, of whom came the Philistines and Caphthorim,
both from the branch of Mizraim ; and the former were already
a considerable people, under a king of their own, when Abraham
came into the country.6 From the preceding circumstances, it
may safely be inferred that the migration of the children of Ham
took place almost simultaneously with that of Shem ; and the
fact of having made their way from Asia Minor into Syria,
is indicated by the question propounded in the book of the
prophet Amos, " Have I not brought the Philistines from Philistines.
Caphtor, and the Syrians from Kir ?" 7
In addition to the territory occupied by the Canaanites, &c,
at the time that the children of Israel quitted Egypt, other
sections of the giant race of Ham appear to have inhabited the
country westward of the river Jordan and the Dead Sea.
One branch of the Amalekites,8 as well as the Amorites,9
occupied antecedently the tract near the present Wadf El
Ghor, where they were at the period of Abraham's arrival in
the country. In the tracts north-westward of these, at short
1 Cory's Ancient Fragments, p. 17 ; Euseb., Prsep. Evangel., lib. IX.,
chap. 17.
2 Euseb., Prssp. Evang , lib. I., p. 34.
3 Cumberland's Times of the First Planting of Nations, pp. 176, 177.
London, 1724.
4 Deut, chap. IL, v. 23. 5 Gen., chap. X., v. 15-20.
6 Gen., chap. XX., v. 2. 7 Amos, chap. IX., v. 7.
" According to the Arabs, the father of the tribe was Amalek, a son of
Ham. 9 Gen., chap. XIV., v. 7.

22

REMAINS OF THE AMALEKITES.

[chap.

The Emim,
&c.

The Horites
andThamudites.

The
Amalekites.

distances from one another, were the Emim,1 the Zuzim,2 the
Bephaim,3 and the gigantic Zamzummim ;4 the Horims of
Mount Seir being immediately southward of the last.5
As these sections of the line of Ham had been the earliest
occupants of that tract of country which was in possession of
the Ammonites, Moabites, and Horites, during the exodus of
the children of Israel, it is not improbable that some of them,
particularly the first and the last, may have constituted the
lost tribe of Thamud. To this people belonged the exten
sive tract of pasture-land lying between Hijaz and the borders
of Syria, which is known by the general name of El Hadjar :6
they lived in caverns excavated in the mountains, such as those
of Wadi Petra and Wadi El Karf,7 in which they had wells ;8
but it is added9 "they were destroyed by a storm from heaven,"
as a punishment for their obstinacy in not listening to a pro
phet sent from God, expressly to warn them and turn them
from their impiety.10
Towards the interior of Arabia are traces of another portion
of the ancient Amalekites, namely, Imlik, Amalek, or Ama-
leka, whose giant size passed into a proverb to express anything
great.11 The remains of this people, according to the Arabs, are
between Bahrein and Hadramaut, and also again towards San a
and Ta'if ; there are, besides, two sections along the shores of
the Bed Sea, where they dwell under the names of Oba'il and
Laff, who are said to have formed part of the Amalekon ;12 and
the situations indicated are in accordance with the gradual ex
tension of this great tribe to the southward, from the shores of
] Deut., chap. IL, v. 10, 11. 2 Gen., chap. XIV., v. 5.
" Ibid. 4 Deut., chap. II. , v. 20.
5 Gen., chap. XIV., v. 6; Deut., chap. IL, v. 12.
6 Edrisi, ed. Jaubert, tome V. Recueil de Voyages et Memoires, &c, par
la Societe de Geog., Paris, 1836. •
7 Arabic MSS., Nos. 7357 and 7505, in the British Museum, translated by
Aloys Sprenger, M.D.
8 Numerous tanks and cisterns still exist.
8 Arabic MSS. as above.
10 The locality, the warning, and the catastrophe, mentioned by the Arabian
geographer, agree with the destruction of the cities of the plain.
11 Arabic MSS., Nos. 7357 and 7505, in the British Museum, translated by
Aloys Sprenger, M.D. m Ibid.

CHAP. I.] THE HAMITES OCCUPY MESOPOTAMIA, ETC. 23
Palestine. Some of the people occupied intermediate places
between the present cities of Mekkah and Medina,1 also towards
Sana, and others united with the Himyarites at Thifar ;2 the
remainder passed into Assyria.
The 'Adites, another branch of this people, seem either to The 'Adites.
have taken a more southerly course in the outset, or else they
migrated from Yemen towards the country between Bahrein and
Hadramaiit,3 instead of passing into Africa with the bulk of the
Arabian Cushites and the followers of Mizraim. Thus it will
be seen that, during the first migrations, the latter branches,
generally speaking, proceeded to the more distant countries,
such as Yemen, Africa, &c, whilst the sons of Canaan remained
in Syria and Phoenicia.4
We learn, however, from Berossus, that the principal branch Progress of the
of the Hamites had taken quite another direction, and proceeded
from Armenia towards Babylonia by a circuitous route.5 They
followed a northerly course, probably keeping for a time near
the banks of the Gihon or Araxes, till they approached the
neighbourhood of the Caspian Sea where they turned southward
and entered Susiana ; from which fine tract they afterwards
moved westward6 into the plain of Shinar. Having driven a
portion of the sons of Shem from the latter towards Assyria, and
the higher parts of Mesopotamia about O'rfah and Haran, they
erected temples and built cities, so that the country was again intoBabyionia.
inhabited ;' an expression which seems to imply that it had been
occupied at the time of the Flood.
Such is the Phoenician and Chaldean account of this period :
it is derived from tradition, and possibly from some records
which it is supposed had been preserved, such as the pretended
1 Arabic MSS., Nos. 7357 and 7505, in the British Museum, translated by
Aloys Sprenger, M.D.
, 2 Jihan Numa, p. 495.
3 According to Arabic MSS. 7357 and 7505, near the desert of Ahkaf.
4 Where we have Sidon, and Heth, and the Jebusite, and the Amorite, and
the Girgasite, and the Hivite, and the Arkite, and the Sinite, and the Arva-
dite, and the Zemarite, and the Hamathite, Gen., chap. X., v. 15-18.
s Berossus, from the Ancient Fragments, by I. P. Cory, Esq., p. 29.
6 And it came to pass as they journeyed from the east, that they found a
plain in the land of Shinar, and they dwelt there, Genesis, chap. XL, v. 2.
7 Syncel., Chro. 31 ; Euseb., Chro. p. 8.

24

EXTENSION OF NIMRUD S POWER.

[chap.

Ancient
writings.

Nimriid builds or
restores

books of Adam,1 and those of Seth, of Noah, Enoch, and Jasher,2
the contemporary of Moses. These writings are now lost, with
the exception of the two last, one of which is considered to be
apochryphal ;3 but, be this as it may, such a work must at one
time have been extant in some way or other, since we are told
that Enoch, who was the seventh from Adam, also prophesied,
&c.4 Moses naturally derived his information from his own
line, that of Shem ; but doubtless records of some kind had
been preserved in the line of Ham also,5 and it will be recol
lected that Sanchoniatho, like Moses, gives the same number of
generations from Adam to Ham.
We learn that the acquisition of the plains of Dura by the
children of the latter was followed by an increase of ter
ritory, which was at first made gradually by Cush,6 but sub
sequently on a greater scale by his son Nimriid,7 who in
the beginning caused to revive or make famous, all the prin
cipal places in his kingdom, as Babel,8 Erech,9 Accad,10 and
1 Part of one of the three sacred books of the Sabean Mandaites (now
called the Christians of St. John), of which an account has been given in the
Journal des Savans, Paris, 1819, by Sylvestre de Saci, has been published
under the title of " Codex Nasarseus, Liber Adami appellatus," 5 vols. 4to.
2 Jasher appears to have been the son of Caleb and Azubah ; compare
1 Chron. chap. IL, v. 18, with Joshua, chap. X., v. 13, and 2 Samuel, chap.
I., v. 18.
3 The book of Enoch the prophet, supposed for ages to be lost, translated
from an Ethiopic MS. by the Rev. Richard Lawrence, LL.D., Archbishop
of Cashel.
4 General Epistle of Jude, v. 14.
5 Josephus mentions (lib. I., cap. iii., sec. 8), Antediluvian Records.
6 Called an Ethiopian. — Euseb., Chron. Armen. I., p. 53.
7 The giant warrior of the Syrian version ; the Nebroth, Nebrod, and
Nimriid, or terrible giant of the Arabs (Euseb., Chron. Armen. ed. in folio,
pp. 37, 39) ; the Zohak, or Zohauk, of the Persians (see Bibl. Orient., Art.
Dhohak) ; also the well-known Belus of the Greek writers, and the Nimrqd
of Gen., chap. X., v. 8, 9.
8 Gen., chap. X., v. 10, Bellamy's translation,
9 Now the mount of El Assayah. — See above, vol. I., p. 116. Itis supposed
that the city and tower were built to commemorate the descent of the Ark
and that it represents the A'rcaa of the Hebrews, and the city of the Ark.
Compare Harcourt's Doctrine of the Deluge, vol. I., p. 196, with Bryant's
Ancient Mythology, vol. IL, p. 524.
10 The celebrated mound of 'Akar Kiif. — See above, vol. I., p. 117.

in

CHAP. I.J HE ATTEMPTS TO ESTABLISH IDOLATRY. 25
Calneh,1 all of which are within the limits, as now defined, the eight
of the land of Shinar.2 cite!™
Pursuing his conquests, we are told that Nimriid went forth
to war against Assyria, and there he built Nineveh, and the
city Rehoboth,3 and Calah,4 and Besen, between Nineveh the
great city and Calah.5 On this occasion no doubt some of
the sons of Asshur were expelled for the second time, the
remainder being subjected ; the Pyramid at Nimriid or Besen 6
was probably constructed 7 as a step towards the establishment
of the conqueror's secular and priestly authority : for, (as it has Nimriid ain
been rendered) he (Nimriid) profaned to be mighty in the authority!
earth ; 8 concerning which thing it shall be said, like Nimriid
the mighty destroyer in the presence of Jehovah.9 This
appears to allude to his determination to abolish the remains of
the primeval patriarchal worship, of which no doubt the
Cherubim was the type ; and to establish throughout his
dominions the religion which had been adopted by his grand
father in Phoenicia. There was already a temple on the
mount at Erech l0 dedicated to the moon,11 and it is probable
that at this time the patriarchal worship was much corrupted
among the Shemitic people of Mesopotamia.
1 Or Chalanne, afterwards Carchemish, on the Mesopotamian Khabiir.
— See above, vol. I., p. 117. s Ibid.
b Below the Khabiir. — See above, pp. 52, 119.
4 Now Sar-piili Zohab, on the slopes of the Zagros, and on the high road
leading from Baghdad to Kirman-Shah, vol. IX., p. 36, of Royal Geog.
Journal. 5 Gen., chap. X., v. 11, 12. See the Holy Bible, containing the
authorized version of the Old and New Testaments, with 20,000 emend
ations. London, Longman, Brown, and Co., 1842.
6 See above, vol. I., pp. 21, 22.
7 The recent excavations, and the interesting Assyrian remains found
beneath this structure, have determined this site.
8 Committed profanation by abolishing the true worship, and substituting
idols, in order to become popular. — Note on Gen., chap. X., v. 8, Bellamy's
translation. 0 Gen., chap. X., v. 9, Bellamy's translation.
10 Irka, Irke, or 'Irkah. Compare Bryant's Mythology, vol. IL, p. 524,
and Harcourt's Doctrine of the Deluge, vol. I., p. 194.
11 The Babylonian Juno. — Jackson's Chronology of the most Ancient
Kingdoms, vol. III., p. 33.

26

OBJECT OF THE TOWER NEAR BABYLON. [CHAP. I.

Nimriidproposes to
build a city
and a tower.

The tower
intended to
serve as a
tomb.

A temple
with an
observatory.

With a view to the establishm'ent of his religion, as well as
the consolidation of his power, Nimriid is supposed to have
said, " We will build for us a city and tower, with its head like
heaven ; which we will make as a monument to render our
name (Dtf Shaim,) famous; lest we should be scattered on the
face of the whole earth." l A building was therefore meditated
which should be superior to all other structures ; its dimen
sions were to be stupendous, that it might be visible through
out a large portion of Babylonia, and become a grand land
mark, as well as the centre of Nimriid's priestly and secular
power. According to Eupolemus,2 the city existed previously,
and the tower was erected not within its circumference, but in
its vicinity;3 Bfrs, or Baris, the name of the tower, signifies
high ; and the dome or top is supposed to have represented
the heavens, and to have been ornamented with the zodiacal
constellations,4 on which the Sabaism of the Chaldeans was
afterwards partly based.5 Like the later structures of the same
description in Egypt, it was intended to serve as the tomb
of the founder, Nimriid or Belus ;6 and in the temple there
was to have been an image holding a sword as a protection
against men and demons.7 When Babylon was visited by
Herodotus, the court, as well as the temple on the summit,
were dedicated to Jupiter Belus ;8 the ruins of which, as well
as those of the observatory on the summit, still remained in
the time of Diodorus Siculus.9 But whatever may have been
the symbol of worship originally represented on Nimriid's
temple, afterwards that of Bel,10 the chief object of its construc-
1 Gen., chap. XL, v. 4, Bellamy's translation.
2 Euseb., Prsep., lib. IX., cap. xiv., p. 416, and cap. xvii., p. 418.
3 Ibid.
4 Gen., chap. XL, v. 4, note by Bellamy; and Bryant's Mythology,
vol. I., p. 477 ; Euseb., Prsep. Evan., lib. I., pp. 41, 42.
5 For an account of the Chaldeans, see the latter part of the next chapter.
6 Strabo, lib. XVI., p. 730, and Arrian, Exped. Alex., lib. VII., cap.
17, compared with Pliny, lib. VI., cap. 26, and Diod. Siculus, lib. IL,
cap. 9.
1 See the Jerusalem Targum.
8 Herod., lib. I., cap. clxxxi., clxxxii.
9 Diod. Sic, lib. IL, cap. ix.
10 Prideaux's Connexion of the Old and New Testament, vol. I., p. 96.

GHAP. I.J POSSESSIONS OF THE SHEMITIC PEOPLE. 27
tion, namely to prevent the dispersion of the people over the
face of the earth, was frustrated ; and the ruins are, to this day,
a monument of the failure of their presumptuous undertaking.
The Shemites, as has been said, occupied Upper Meso- The shemites
potamia, with a part of Syria, and they continued to dwell Babei.
in those regions up to the period in question ; the seat of their
government being Salem, and their ruler the mysterious high-
priest Melchizedek,1 who was of the line of Shem, if not the
patriarch himself.2 In a late edition of the Bible it is stated,
with reference to the passage relating to the destruction of
Babel, that Melchizedek received a comaiand from between
the Cherubim to go down to Babel and confound the vain
words of the people. Jehovah said, " Behold another people,3
all of them with vain lip : even at this time, they profane with
their offerings ; and now shall nothing be restrained from them
of all that they have imagined ; 4 come, we will descend,5 and
then confound their doctrines, so that a man shall not hearken
to the speech of his neighbour."
This was done, that the true religion might not be destroyed Nimrud's
by the new settlers from the East ; and God having commu- fronted.
nicated his will respecting the idolaters of Babel, the people of
Shem went thither to confound their purpose. Being a powerful
people, they readily impeded the progress not only of the idola
try, but they also prevented the consolidation of a government
which would soon have extended to Canaan, and thus caused
what is called the Dispersion of Mankind : but this dispersion
may, perhaps with some propriety, be considered as a reoccupa-
tion of the regions inhabited before the Flood. The persons who
quitted the land of Shinar, had, in all probability, some know
ledge of the regions to which they proceeded ;- and it may be
presumed that they were not by any means in a savage state,
but that they carried with them a certain degree of civilization
1 Gen., chap. XIV., v. 18.
2 Calmet's Dictionary of the Bible, Melchizedec.
3 Ham's descendants, as worshippers of idols, were called another people. —
Note by Bellamy on Gen., chap. XL, v. 5.
4 Gen., chap. XL, v. 6, Bellamy's translation.
5 Meaning the people of Salem were to descend, not the Almighty. — Note
by Bellamy, Gen., chap. XL, v. 7.

28 CIVILIZATION OF THE SHEMITES. [CHAP. I.
and some knowledge of the arts and sciences of that time,
though their religion was already deformed by Sabaism. The
influence which their civilization and their religion had on the
countries to which they journeyed, and in the sequel on Europe,
after the time of Alexander the Great, will be among the
subjects of occasional notice in the succeeding chapters of this
volume.

( 29 )

CHAPTEB II.
THE DISPERSION.
SPREAD OF MANKIND EASTWARD, NORTHWARD, AND WESTWARD,
FROM BABYLONIA.
Limits of the Territories about to be occupied. — Directions taken Eastward
and Westward. — Noah's Family commingle in Armenia. — The Shemitic
People reoccupy Babylonia. — The mixed Tribes of this Territory called
Chaldeans. — Spread of the Cushites from Babylonia to Media, Persia, and
Central Asia. — Phut, the supposed Leader of the Mongols. — Georgian
and Tibetan character.- — Similarity of Eastern and "Western Architecture.
— Western origin of the Chinese. — Spread of the Cushites Northward
and again Westward, along the Taurus. — Second commixture of the Sons
of Japhet and Ham. — Descent of the Chasdim into Babylonia. — The
Cushite Dominions centre in Babylonia. — Spread of the Sons of Togormah,
Gomer, and other Descendants of Japhet. — Nimriid's Death. — Ninus or
Belus II. invades Armenia. — Haik and his Descendants govern Armenia.
— Tombs of Noah and his Wife. — Haikanians and Togormeans. — Aramais
changes the name of Gihon to Araxes. — War of Aram with the Medians.
— Derivations of the name of Armenia. — Settlements of Togormah. —
Meshed and Askenaz.— Northern spread of the Sons of Japhet. — Ham's
Posterity in Syria and Arabia. — The 'Adites and other lost Tribes of
Arabia. — Traditional Account of the Curse of Ham and his Descendants
in Africa. — Cusha-dwipa, within and without. — Sanc'ha-dwipa. — Axumitic
or Amharic character. — Countries of Habache or Ethiopia, Nubia, &c,
first occupied, next Egypt. — Architecture carried into Greece. — The
Chaldean Kingdom of U'r. — Kahtan and his followers occupy Arabia. —
Possession of Jerah and Uzal. — The Cushites pass into Africa. — Chaldeans,
their Language used in Mesopotamia. — Derivation of the name of Chal
dean. — The Chaldean Tribes. — The Chaldean Nation and Priests. —
Chaldean Philosophy, &c.
With the exception of the tracts mentioned in the preceding
chapter, as having been partially occupied to the westward by
the descendants of Mizraim, the possessions of the sons of Noah
had scarcely hitherto extended beyond the limits of Armenia

30

the postdiluvian territories.

TCHAP. II.

and the other
towards Cen
tral Asia.

Extension of an(l Shinar. But it will be seen, that the countries into which
JNoan s sons. . '
these branches are about to be followed, embrace very extensive
territories, which, although they were peopled by numerous
ramifications from the original stocks, contained comparatively
few nations. These territories formed a belt, which extended
nearly round half the globe, and comprised the middle region
ofthe world, within about 115° of longitude ; namely, from the
western shores of Europe to the borders of Sinae,1 in the far
east. Of this extensive tract, which may be considered the
historical zone, Armenia occupies the centre ; and from hence
the migrations necessarily extended westward and eastward.
Those who took the former course, having almost in the outset
One section the chain of the Hsemus (Balkan) on the one side, and the
wards Europe, river Danube on the other, would, as they proceeded westward
between the Alps and the Rhine, eventually reach the western
shores of Europe; originating during their progress, the dif
ferent tribes or nations of this continent. The other section, by
taking an opposite direction, would, whilst peopling Media and
Persia, have as limits the two great chains2 at the northern and
southern borders of these kingdoms ; from whence again, the
migratory band would eventually be conducted along the
Caucasian chain and the slopes of the Himalaya, originating, as
they spread towards China, the Hindu and Mongol nations ;
whose ramifications, in the process of time, probably included
the earliest tribes of America.
At the period described near the close of the last Chapter,
namely, about the 140th year of Faleg (Phaleg), when the
abandonment of the great work which had been contemplated
was attended by a separation of the people into seven different
nations,3 the human race consisted of three great divisions under
the sons of Noah : this arrangement will now be followed,
although it is obvious that the divisions must have in some
measure commingled in Armenia ; and the subsequent inter-

Three races
of mankind.

1 China is called the Land of Sinim, Isaiah, chap. XLIX., v. 12.
8 Vol. I. pp. 64, 67, 73, 74, and 189.
3 These, according to 'Abii-1-Faraj, Hist. Dynast., p. 2-18, were the
Persians, Chaldeans, Greeks, Egyptians, Turks (Tartars), Indians, and
Chinese.

CHAP. II. J TRIBES OF BABYLONIA. 31
course in Babylonia must have tended to increase their amal
gamation. The Shemitic branch appears to have regained part of its The Shemitic
original allotment, about the beginning of the dispersion. For, P°
besides those who occupied a portion of Syria and Arabia, as
far as Hadramaiit and 'Oman,1 we find that the followers of
Elam inhabited the country eastward of the river Tigris ; and
those of his four brothers had possessions north-westward of
Babel, where Nimriid appears to have remained ;2 some being
in Assyria, near Nineveh, others under Arphaxad settled at
Haran, which he called after his son- ;3 and the remainder in The
Mesopotamia, where they bore indifferently the names ofsupposed to
Arameans, Mesopotamians, and the Syrians or Assyrians; astheSame
also the Kadhani, Kelani, or Chaldeans, who were, according Chaldeans>
to some, the same people as the Nabatheans.4 The two first
were interchangeable, and had been, as well as the other appel
lations, at one period, in common use for the people living
between Babylon and the gulf of Issus.
Moreover, it appears that the Suriani or Syrians, and the and Syrians
Athuri or Assyrians, were identical with the last, being mixed ; or ssyria"
and Mas'udi adds, that they inhabited 'Irak Arabi, where they
were divided into several tribes, such as Yununni or Ninavi
(Ninevites), the Gordyas or Gordyans, Aram or Arameans, and
Nabt el 'Irak, the Nabatheans of 'Irak ; in short, all the
dependencies of the Chaldean empire spoke a language ap
proaching the Syriac.5 The latter appears to have been
derived from that of the Chaldeans, who, as a people, will be
noticed more at large, after having followed the sections of the
line of Ham, spreading westward as well as eastward.
The earliest migrations of the postdiluvian people are stated
in the book of Genesis, and have been particularly noticed by
1 Golden Meadows of Mas'udi, p. 9, Arabic MSS. in the British Museum.
2 Jackson's Antiquities, &c, vol. I., p. 229.
8 'Abii-1-Faraj, Hist. Dynast., p. 16, and Chron. Syr. p. 7.
4 Mas'udi, Extraits des MSS. du Roi, tome VIII., p. 141, &c. par Sylvestre
de Saci; also Golden Meadows of Mas'udi, Arabic MSS.in the British Museum.
5 Compare Strabo, lib. XVI., p. 756, with Herod., lib. VII. c. 63, and
Mas'udi, Golden Meadows, chap. IV. ; also Extraits des MSS. du Roi,
tome VIIL, p. 141., par Sylvestre de Saci.

32

THE CUSHITES SPREAD EASTWARD.

[CHAP. II.

Spread ofthe
Cushites to
Syria ;

also into
Khuzistan,

Media,

Persia,

and Central
Asia.

the ancient writers Herodotus and Strabo : they have been
described subsequently by Moses Choronensis, and in later
times by De Guignes, Cumberland, Jackson, Hyde, Faber,
&c. ; but the learned Bryant appears to have been the first
who, in a satisfactory manner, traced the routes followed by
the different branches of the human family.
In describing the supposed site of Paradise, the countries
occupied by the first Ethiopians have already been partially
considered in connexion with the Asiatic Cush ; l and in the
preceding chapter of this volume, it is shown that, up to the
time of the dispersion, the line of Ham occupied the chief part
of Syria, in addition to the countries along the shores of the
Bed Sea, and also a part of the mountainous districts lying
north-westward of Babylon. The followers of Nimriid re
tained Babel, also part of the territory eastward of the Tigris.
For it appears that the name of Kiish, the Chaldean Chuth,
or Kushasdan, land of the Sun,2 also that of the Cathai and
Cesi,3 or Cossoei, and the modern Khuzistan, was carried to the
latter country.4 The Cushites, the reputed ancestors of the
Huns, are described as having quitted the plains of Sbinar in
two great bands.5 One of these, after occupying the Cossoean
mountains, spread onward, and probably became the Budii of
Media : 6 they subsequently extended eastward of the latter
territory ; for it appears that the whole of Persia had at one
time the name of Kiish, and that the people were called Kush-
anians ; which name, observes Saint Martin, comes to us, with
accessories denoting a Syriac origin.7 The name of Kiish was
likewise applied to the western side of India, at least ; 8 the
adjoining territory of Fran being called Kusdi Khorasan or
Kiish, westward of the Indus. This tract comprised Bactria,
Sogdiana, Chorasmia, Hyrcania, and Parthia; and Khusru
Niishirvan, one of the monarchs of Fran, was styled King
1 See vol. I., chap. xii. 2 Vol. I., p. 281.
3 Plin., lib. VI., cap. vii., xx., and xxvii.
4 See above, vol. I., pp. 202-205 and 281.
s De Guignes, Hist, des Huns, vol. I. p. 1.
6 Ritter, Erdkunde, vol. IL, p. 896.
7 St. Martin, Mem. sur l'Armenie, tome IL, p. 392.
8 Kitab al Bolden, No. 617, in the library at the East India House.

CHAP. II.] THE MAGI AND BRAHMINS. 33
of the Cushites, who, it may be observed, are expressly called
the ancestors of the Persians and Indians.1 The central
situation of I'ran not only afforded an easy intercourse with
India itself, but likewise with Tartary and China : and, that
such connexion existed, may be gathered from the incidental
notices of Diodorus Siculus and Herodotus. The tract west- India.
ward of the Indus was the country of the straight-haired or
Asiatic Ethiopians of Herodotus,2 as well as of Eusebius,
who says, that beyond Carmania there is a country called
Ethiopia looking towards India.3 This territory, with that
of the Paracanians, formed the seventeenth Satrapy, and paid
400 talents.4 The Indi, who constituted one branch of the Origin of the
eastern Ethiopians, are called the wisest of mankind,5 and mmf,'anda "
it is understood, that from them were derived the Magi of Buddhists-
Central Asia, as well as the Brahmins,6 and a still more
numerous and influential class, the Buddhists. The Brahmins
were at first seated on the borders of the Black Sea,7 and
afterwards became powerful in India. The leader of the
Buddhists, the Hermes of the East,8 and the well-known Budd,
is supposed to have been Phut, the son of Ham,9 whose worship
was carried by the spread of mankind in this direction ;
namely, through Central Asia to China, the Dje'nasdan of the
Armenians, the Tchinistan of the Persians, the Sin of the
Arabians,10 and land of Sinim.11 It may here be mentioned,
in corroboration of what has been said, that the Kuzari, or
1 Kitab al Bolden, No. 617, in the library at the East India House, com
pared with vol. IL, p. 373 of St. Martin.
2 Herod., lib. VII., cap. Ixx.
3 Chronicon Pasch., p. 29, edition 1688. * Herod., lib. III., c. xciv.
5 Philostratus, Vit. Apollon., lib. IV., p. 6.
6 Maurice's Hist, of Hindustan, vol. IL, p. 187.
7 Cedrenus, tome I., p. 203, and Syncellus, p. 239.
8 Creuzer, Symbolik, tome I., p. 15.
9 Bot in Arabia, Bod in Persia, Pout or Poutti in Siam ; in Tibet Pout,
Pott, Pot, and Poti ; in Cochin China But ; in China Proper Fo or Fo-hi (De
Guignes) ; in Japan Bo, in Celtic Bud, in India Buda, and in Egypt Phtha.
See Sprengel ; Ehrman's Bibl. der Reisebeschreibungen, vol. XXXIIL, p.
155, compared with Harcourt's Doctrine ofthe Deluge, vol. L, p. 405.
10 St. Martin, Memoires sur L'Armenie, tome IL, p. 15.
11 Isaiah, chap. XLIX., v. 12.
VOL. II. D

34 KNOWLEDGE OF THE ANCIENT CUSHITES. [CHAP. II.
Nail-headed ancient characters of Georgia, are nail-headed : these, with
in Tibet. one or two exceptions, are the ground of all the Tibetan letters,
in which there is an upright line with a nail-headed top. Ac
cording to the Lamas themselves, the latter are derived from
Sanscrit characters, the oldest of which, the Devanagari, are
manifestly compounded of nail-headed perpendicular strokes ;
and these circumstances confirm the opinion that the Indians
derived their astronomy and literature from Assyria.1
That this was the direction taken by one portion of the
Cushites, may be inferred from the preceding, as well as other
circumstances. Throughout those countries, the traveller cannot
fail to notice the extensive bunds, canals, pyramids, rock-temples,
and colossal statues, which have been executed ; and we are
told (what these structures evidently bespeak), that they were
erected by branches of the same family : the pyramids, in par-
Cushite know- ticular, are similar to those of Assyria. It also appears that
ledge in «. . J A l
eastern Asia, the Cushites excelled in the practice of medicine, the knowledge
of herbs, the cultivation of the vine, &c. ; and to the Egyptian,
Indo, and Chinese Cushites, unquestionably belonged the arts
of manufacturing silk and cotton, with that of dyeing. To
these, in the instance of the latter people, may be added the
knowledge- of gunpowder and the mariner's compass, with sun
and moon dials, calculated to suit different latitudes. The use
of knotted cords,2 which were succeeded by decimal calculating
boards called Swanpan,3 writing paper and wooden blocks for
printing, which have long been known in China, likewise be
speak a considerable advance in the arts. Hence it is evident
that the founders of this, as well as those of the adjoining
The first empire of the Hindus, far from being in a savage state, must,
Egyptians and r . ° ° ' '
Asiatics com- on the contrary, like the Egyptians, another branch from the
pared. Assyrian root, have been well acquainted with the arts of social
life. An isolated exclusive system of policy appears to have
handed down these blessings in China, and to have preserved,
1 Dissert, on the Babylonian Inscriptions, by Joseph Hager,D.D., p. 41-43.
2 In the most ancient ages, this simple contrivance enabled the Chinese to
recall their own ideas, and communicate their thoughts to others. Martini,
Hist, de la Chine, liv. I., p. 21.
3 Corresponding to the Abax of the Greeks.

CHAP. II. J EXTENSION OF THE CUSHITES. 35
at the same time, the most ancient form of government in the
world — namely, the tribal or patriarchal form ; whilst the
ancient knowledge of the inhabitants of the country watered by
the Nile, is only known to us from the wonderful monuments
which remain there to this day. It may also be observed, in
corroboration of what has been said regarding the nail-headed
characters, that those engraven on the agate and other Baby
lonian cylinders, closely resemble Chinese letters ; and a tra- The c^?ese
ditional belief generally prevails amongst the people of China, lonia.
that their ancestors came from a distant part of the west, and
that they looked up to the King of Babel.1 Even the names of
Sem, Hoam, and Fohi,2 with a traditional account of the
Deluge, have been preserved in that country.
Beverting to the other section that quitted Shinar about the
same period as the preceding branch, but taking a different
direction, it is stated, that, after proceeding northward into the
mountain valleys of Media and Georgia, accompanied by some
of the sons of Japhet, they separated from the latter in Central
Armenia, and turned westward, along the slopes of the Cau
casus, into those tracts,3 which, at one time, had been occupied
by some of this people ; and the name of Kusdi Kabgokh, or
Chus of the Caucasus, was given in consequence to the whole
tract lying between Khuzistan and the Caucasus.4 On the
slopes of the latter range, under the name of Chasas or C'hasyas,
the Chasdim, or Cossais according to some, became a powerful Th? Chasdim
tribe,5 which spread westward, gradually peopling the fertile
valleys of Armenia, and some of those in Lesser Asia, through
which tracts they may be traced. On the slopes of the Cau
casus, northward of the river Araxes, (the presumed Gihon,)
is ancient Albania, once called Kusdi,6 and at the western side
ofthe range, the Djani or Chaldeans of Colchis,7 afterwards the
1 Called the King of Kings. Mas'udi, translated from the Arabic, by
Aloys Sprenger, M.D., pp. 309, 366.
2 De Guignes, Hist, des Huns, vol. I., p. 45. 3 Ibid., p. 1.
4 St. Martin, Memoires de l'Armenie, tome IL, pp. 371, 392.
5 Lieut. Wilford on Egypt and other countries, from the ancient books of
the Hindus. Asiatic Researches, vol. III.
6 St. Martin, Memoires de l'Armenie, tome IL, p. 357 ; and tome III.,
p. 197. 7 Ibid.
D 2

36 THE CHASDIM, OR CHALDEANS, OF HAM. [CHAP. II.
Chamitoe. The other branches occupying the rest of the ter
ritory have already been followed westward,1 as far as the
Leuco-Syrians. country of the Leuco-Syrians or Cappadociaiis.2 The latter
occupied a part of the territory now given to Havflah, that is,
the country within the river Halys,3 and they appear to have
been the earliest workers in brass and iron, as well as the in
ventors of steel ; 4 from which circumstance they derived the
name of Chrysor.5
As the Macrones and Mossynoeci were Chusites,6 and the
Chalybes were not only linked with the former, but also with
the Sanni, the Tibareni, and some of the other branches in
question, it seems clear that the whole belonged to the mixed
race of Assyrians or Chaldeans,7 who were evidently the same
people as the Chasdim ; 8 and who, at a period no doubt long
The Chasdim anterior to the call of Abraham, being then a considerable
invade Baby-
lonia. nation, descended from the north and conquered Babylonia
from the sons of Shem.
Doubtless, on this occasion, the Chasdim were conducted, as
they probably had been in their preceding migrations, by a
class of men possessing that influence which science confers
throughout the east : this class assumed the authority of priests
of Belus,9 and were astronomers,10 magicians, and soothsayers.11
They were continually devoted to the study of philosophy12
1 See above, vol. I., pp. 275, 276. 2 Plin., lib. VI., cap. iii.
3 See chap. XII.
4 Ammian. Mar., lib. XXII ; Apol. Argon., IL, v. 374. '
5 Sanchoniatho, ed. Orell, pp. 17, 20, et seq. 6 Chronicon Pasch., p. 415.
7 Herod., lib. VII., cap. Ixiii., also lib. I., cap. xxviii. ; and Strabo, lib.
XII., p. 549.
3 Dion., V. 767 ; Apol. I. 2 ; and Pliny, lib. VI., cap. iv.
9 Herod., lib. I., cap. clxxxi. ; and Diod. Sic, lib. I., cap. xvi., also lib.
II. , c. ix.
10 The Chaldeans, says Cicero, who came originally from the Caucasus,
observed the celestial signs by following the motions of the planets, and were
the priest-class of Babylonia. — De Divinatione, lib. I., cap. xix.
11 Magic and incantations are attributed to Chus as the inventor, and
were practised among his sons. — Euseb., Prsep. Evan., lib I., cap. x. p. 35 ;
Dan., chap. V.
12 Clement of Alexandria, Stromat, lib. I. p. 359, and Strabo, lib. XVI. ;
also Faber, vol. III., p. 435.

CHAP. II.] TERRITORIES OF THE CUSHITES. 37
and astronomy, and their attainments were transmitted in
succession from father to son ; hence they became, in a great
measure, the chief people of Babylonia.1
The race to which the Chasdim belonged was very numerous. The descend-
Moses mentions only fourteen descendants of the line of Japhet, ^ of Noah.
and twenty-six in that of Shem, whilst those of Ham numbered
thirty-one ; and in other respects they were the most important
of the three, having, as we have just seen, had in Babylonia the
first regular government with an established religion,2 and no
doubt also a system of laws. Elsewhere the Cushites were
indifferently known by the designations of Auritoe, Scuthai,
&c. ;3 their territories, says 'Abii-1-Faraj, extended from Bhino-
clura to Gadira ;4 and according to Strabo,5 they occupied the
principal countries as far as India, and again quite to Mauri
tania in the opposite direction. One of their seats, where they
had a temple only second to that of Babylon itself, was Aiir,
or Our, or U'r ofthe Chaldees," and the Orchoe of Ptolemy ;7
the site of which, nearly twenty-five miles westward of Sheikh
el Shuyiikh, appears to have been successfully identified with
the mound of Mujayah.8 There were, however, two other Three places
places which also bore the name of U'r, viz., the cities of
U'rfah and Kal'ah Skerkat; the latter of which is on the
western bank of the Tigris between the greater and lesser Zab ;9
and from its situation on the borders of Assyria, it was probably
occupied when the followers of Asshur were driven from Babel
to Nineveh. Besides the derivation of the word Ethiopia,
which has been already given,10 another has been founded on
the name of the object of worship, among the people of the
1 Diod. Sic, lib. IL, cap. xxi.
2 Pausanius, Messen., p. 261, and Diod. Sic, lib. I. c. xvi.
3 Bryant's Ancient Mythology, vol. III., p. 245.
4 'Abu-1-Faraj, Chron. Syr., p. 7.
5 Lib. I., pp. 31, 35.
6 Bryant's Ancient Mythology, vol. I., p. 13, and above, vol. I., p. 93.
7 Lib. V., cap. xxiv.
3 See above, vol. I., pp. 93, 116, and Ainsworth's Assyria and Babylonia,
pp. 179, 180.
8 Royal Geographical Journal, vol. XL, p. 4-7, and Cumberland's Times
of the First Planting of Nations, p. 232.
10 Vol. I., p. 281.

38 ARMENIA OCCUPIED BY HA1K. [CHAP. II.
region so designated; it is conceived to be formed by the
monosyllable ops, with the prefixes el, which signifies light,
splendour, Almighty power, and majesty, and theos (God) ;
thus it would signify either the eternity of heaven and earth,
or eternal God over earth ; which would accord with the know
ledge allowed to be possessed by this people,1 one of whose
designations was, the God-like Cushites; while another was,
sons of light, or wise men, who divine secret things.2
Japhet's pos- From the eldest son of Noah came a portion of the Medes,
Iberians, Sclavonians, and Babylonians ; also the followers of
Ashkenaz and Riphath in Lesser Asia,3 who appear to have
settled in Pontus, Bithynia, and Cappadocia.
Begarding the descendants of Togormah, the son of Gomer,4
we find from Armenian history that Haik or Haicus, the repre
sentative ofthe line of Japhet, and the undoubted father ofthe
Armenians, collected his followers to the number of 300, and
quitting Babylonia, apparently with the second Cushite branch,
at the time of the confusion of language, he proceeded to the
foot of Mount Ararat ; this event took place about the year
b.c. 2107, or rather 2607 ofthe Julian period.5
Commixture On arriving, they were joined by a portion of the people who
Japhetand° had been settled in that part of the country, secluded from
Ham* civilized intercourse since the descent from the Ark. They
probably had been without any regular form of government,
but they spoke the primitive language of Noah. These were,
it is presumed, a portion of the followers of Ham, who had
continued in the neighbourhood, when the bulk of the tribe
quitted that part of Armenia ; and if this view of the matter
be well founded, the sons of Ham became a second time mixed
with those of J aphet.
1 An explanation given by Mr. Colin Mackenzie, who came to this conclu
sion, from the fact that Opism is a generic mode of worship or reverence
among many nations ; such as Oropian, a worshipper, or descendant of the sun
and earth, from Orus, the Egyptian Apollo ; Oropus, a city of Macedonia,
Oropus, a city of Bceotia, &c
2 Arpha-chasd, M. Court de Gibelin, Monde primitif, pp. 8, 9.
3 'Abii-1-Faraj. Hist. Dyn., pp. 8, 11.
4 "Wells' Geography of the Old Testament, vol. I., p. 58.
5 Moses Choronensis, cap. IX.

CHAP. II.] COMMIXTURE OF THE THREE RACES IN ARMENIA. 39
Having remained here a short time, Haik proceeded with Country of
the principal part of his tribe in a westerly direction, leaving Haits-d-sor.
his grandson Cadmus near Ararat. After journeying for a
few days, he reached an extensive plain, to which he gave the
name of Hare (Fathers), in order that his posterity might be
always thus reminded, that their founder and father was of the
race of Togormah.
Here he took possession of the fertile district, lying along
the Murad-chai, probably a little to the north of Miish, and
built a town which he called Haicashen,1 after his own name ;
here also he became fixed, and the people already there sub
mitted readily to his laws and government.2 The people in
question, in all probability, were some of those left by Shem in
the second stage of his progress towards Shinar ; and as Haik
had already been joined by some of the Cushites near Ararat,
the commixture of the three races in Armenia at this early
period seems evident.
The country then occupied and called Hare, was the tract
lying westward of Lake Van, and extending in the same
direction from thence to Erz-Bum ; the central part of which
was afterwards known by the name of Haits-d-sor,3 or the
valley of the Armenians.
Beverting now to Babylonia, the country recently quitted
by the Armenians, we find that, during the height of his power,
Nimriid entrusted the government of the northern portion of
his dominions to his son Ninus, who was in consequence pro- Ninus reigns
moted from the Assyrian city of Telane, which was probably at meYe '
built by Nimriid under the name of Tunim,4 to the capital of
the empire, Nineveh, a name signifying the habitation of a son,
or a place to receive the descendants of Nimriid.5 Whilst
governing this part of the empire as deputy, Ninus considerably
enlarged the city which had been built by his father, and con
structed a wall around it 100 feet high, with 1500 towers;6
1 Michael Chamish, Hist. Armen., translated by J. Avdall, Esq., vol. I.,
p. 5.
2 Ibid. s Or Haisudsor, Moses Choronensis, lib. I., cap. x., p. 29.
4 'Abii-1-Faraj, Hist. Dynast., p. 15.
5 Bishop Cumberland's Times of Planting Nations, p. 165.
c Diod. Sic, lib. IL, cap. iv.

40

HAIK OVERCOMES BELUS THE SECOND. [CHAP. II.

succeedsNimriid,

and is killed
by Haik.

Place of
descent.

and when the decease of Nimriid opened to his enterprising
spirit a wider field, he took the name of Belus the Second, and
extended his power not only over the Babylonians, the Naba-
thcei, the Chaulotoei (Havflah), and the Agroei,1 but also over
all the conquests of Nimriid, with the exception of Armenia.
Circumstances having now given him a pretext for the invasion
of the latter country, he despatched a mission to Haik ; and on
the latter refusing to return to his former allegiance, he pro
ceeded to invade the country on its weakest side, that of
Ararat. This part of the territory was abandoned on his
approach, and Cadmus, one of the princes of Armenia, sought
the protection of his grandfather, who drew up all the forces he
could muster, to make a stand on the shores of Lake Van. The
result of this battle was favourable to the Armenians, and Belus
was killed by an arrow directed by Haik himself, which penetrated
his brazen breast-plate.2 On returning in triumph to the city of
Hare, the victor took upon himself the sovereignty of Armenia ;
and thus commenced a second monarchial government, inde
pendent of that of Babylon, which continued without interruption
in the family of Haik during the lengthened period of 1342 years.
Owing to his success in overcoming the idolatrous Belus,
Haik was considered the earliest champion of the true religion.
He died about eighty years after the defeat of Belus, being then,
as the Armenians state, 500 years old.3 His son Armenac,
who next ascended the throne, quitted Hare soon after his
accession, with a large portion of the people ; and having
advanced a few days' journey towards the. north-east, he settled
in a plain delightfully situated at the foot of a mountain, along
which ran a river of the . purest water. Here he built a city
which he called Aragaz, or Armenagaz, situated near Arnohwote,
or the place of Descent, to which, as well as to Aporateeion in
the same neighbourhood, allusion has already been made. In
this city, as Josephus informs us, was the sepulchre of Noah.4
And in support of this assertion it may be observed, that
1 Strabo, lib. XVL, p. 767. 2 Moses Choronensis, lib. I., cap. x„ p. 29.
3 MSS. of Armenian History, collected in 1831 by the Author; see also
Moses Choronensis and Michael Chamish.
4 Lib. I., cap. iii.

CHAP. II. J RIVER GIHON CHANGED TO ARAXES. 4 1
according to Armenian tradition Noyanzar, or Nemzar, Noah's Tomb of
wife, was buried here by her sons; it is certain that the place
bore the name of Marant or Maranta,1 up to the time of
Tavernier.2 But to the mountain itself, Armenac gave the
name of the " foot of Armenac," after himself, which it retains
to this day in common with that of Ararat.3
Manavaz, the brother of Armenac, remained at Hare, where
his followers took the name of Manavazerans ; and from Buz,
another brother who had settled near the north-west shore of
the sea of Akhthamar (Lake Van), came the name of a second The Togor-
in on us &c
branch, the Buzonians; but the most general name for the
descendants of Haik, at this remote period, was that of Ha'ika-
nians ; although they were also known by the different appel
lations of Ascanazians, Japhetians, or Togormeans, from
Togormah,4 father of Haik, their capital being Hare. Accord
ing to Michael Chamish,5 Aramais, the son of Armenac, having
" succeeded to the sovereignty on the death of his father, built a
city of hewn stones on a small eminence in the plain of Aragaz, River Gihon
close to the river then called Gihon, which name he now Araxes! * e
changed to Arax,6 after his son Arast or Eraskh ;7 but the new
city, which now became the capital of his kingdom, he called
Armavir, after himself.8 The circumstance just mentioned
may serve to strengthen the opinion, that the Gihon of Genesis
is the same as the river Araxes. The plain of Aragaz lies
beyond the left bank of the Araxes, to the north of Mount
Ararat ; and the site of Armavir itself was probably between
Echmiyadzin and the river.
Amassia, his son, succeeded Aramais, and having settled
two of his sons in villages, bearing their names (Pharacote and
Zolakert), close to the foot of Ararat, he gave to the latter the
1 " The Mother is here."
2 Voy. de Tavernier, tome I., cap. ii., and Journal of Royal Asiatic
Society, No. 8, p. 340.
3 Michael Chamish, vol. I., p. 12. 4 Ezekiel, chap. XXVIL, v. 14.
5 Vol. I., p. 12, translated by J. Avdall, Esq.
6 This river, instead of its original name of Gihon, took successively those
of Armais, Arashe, Raski, Eris, Araksis, Arras, Araxes, &c — See above,
vol.1., p. 11.
7 In Armenian, grandson of Armenac. 8 See vol. I., p. 16.

42 EXTENSION OF ARMENIA. [CHAP. II.
name ofthe " foot of Masis," after himself; and the district at
its base he called the country of Masis.
Geiam's Gelam, the son and successor of Amassia, having left a
deputy in Armavir, quitted that place with a large body of
people, and proceeded to the north-eastward in order to extend
his dominions by the establishment of colonies. On reaching
the sea, or lake of Sevan, now called Goukcha also, he built a
number of towns and villages along its shores, giving them as
usual his own name. This sea therefore became known hence
forward as the sea of Gelam,1 which name it still retains ; and
the whole of the lands on its borders were bestowed on the
renowned Sisac, the most skilful archer, as well as the most
eloquent man of those days. He covered the whole face of
this tract with villages and hamlets, whose inhabitants were
known by the name of Sisakans or Seunics, and dwelt chiefly
in the country lying eastward of the lake Sevan.2 Gelam,
however, still prosecuted his conquests, particularly towards the
banks of the river Cur ; the inhabitants of the whole country
eastward, as far as the shores of the Caspian, willingly sub
mitting to his sway, and taking the name of Aluans from one
of his surnames. Gelam continued to reside in his newly-
acquired territory, and was succeeded by his son Harma, who
not only fortified Armavir, but embellished the surrounding
country with pleasure-houses.3
That branch of Noah's family which descended from Madai,
third son of Japhet, became now of sufficient importance to
attract the attention of their neighbours, who were under the
Aramsucceeds dominion of Aram. This prince, who had recently succeeded
his father Gelam, by his policy and the exercise of splendid
talents, consolidated and greatly extended the dominions be
queathed to him. His first success was in repelling the sons of
Madai, who were signally defeated when attempting to invade
Armenia ; 4 and another inroad made about the same period by
Barsham, prince of the Babylonians, shared the same fate.
Encouraged by these advantages, Aram now successfully in-
1 Michael Chamish, History of Armenia, translated by J. Avdall, Esq.,
vol. I., p. 14.
2 Ibid., p. 15. 3 Ibid., p. 16. 4 Ibid., p. 18.

CHAP. II.] japhet's descendants. 43
vaded Cappadocia, where he left Meshak l as governor, who
built a city which he called Meshok after himself. This was £-ity of
. -. . . . Mazaca.
corrupted into Majak and Mazaca by the inhabitants, the
Cappadocians ; and the name was subsequently changed into
Caesarea or Gaysarey ; the country around this city being
annexed by right of conquest to the paternal kingdom, which
still bore the ancient name of Haik. Thus Cappadocia is styled
the First Armenia, and the conquests northwards from thence,
towards the Black Sea, the Second Armenia, whilst those
which were made to the southward, being chiefly the present
Pashalik of Mar'ash, constitute the Third Armenia; and theFh;st>s.ec,ond>
- . . . and third
whole of them together were called Armenia Minor, to dis- Armenia.
tinguish this tract from the original country of Ha'ik, which, in
compliment to Aram and his followers, took the name of Ar
menia (afterwards Armenia Major) ; and, from this time, the
inhabitants became known by their present name.2
Besides the Medes, and the descendants of Togormah who
occupied Cappadocia, part of that country was possessed by the
posterity of Meshech. The descendants of Askenaz settled
in Pontus, and those of Biphat adjoining them in Paphla-
gonia ; 3 the sons of Ham being partially mixed with them.4
The tract in question, Armenia Major, comprises the rich
valleys of Georgia and great part of the supposed land of Eden,
from whence Ham's descendants spread round the Caspian
Sea into Media and Tartary ; whilst those of Japhet took, in
the first instance, two directions. One portion spread along the
northern shores ofthe Euxine into the tracts lying westward of
this sea ; where they appear to have been joined by the other
branch, which had crossed the Hellespont after moving west
ward along the southern shores of the Black Sea : and both, in Europe peo-
their onward course, as already mentioned,5 peopled Europe sons o/japhet
and the isles of the Gentiles. The remainder of this people
continued in Asia Minor.
1 The Mosoch of the Greeks, and Mosocheni, Jos. Ant., lib. I., chap, vi.,
s. 1.
2 Michael Chamish, History of Armenia, vol. I., chap, i., translated by
J. Avdall, Esq.
3 Jos. Ant., lib. I., c. vi., s. 1.
4 Cumberland's Sanchoniatho, p. 472. 6 See above, p. 30.

44 THE LOST TRIBES OF ARABIA. [CHAP. II.
Concerning the subdivisions of this branch of Noah's family,
Gomer is considered to be the progenitor of the Sarmatians, and
. the Gomerae, or Galatians and Gauls ; 1 Magog of the Scythians,
northern parts Javan of the lonians and the Greeks, Tubal of the Tibarenians,
Meshech of the Muscovites, and Tiras of the Thracians ; the
whole territory occupied by them extending from Media west
ward to Gadira, including, consequently, the countries of the
Franks and Spaniards : the northern part of Asia was also
peopled by the posterity of Japhet ; and it is not improbable
that they may likewise have spread into America.2
Having thus briefly described the early migrations of the
human family towards the regions lying eastward and north
ward of Babylonia, those moving southward and south-eastward
from the same part ofthe world, are now to be shown.
The Shemites The Shemitic people no doubt occupied the upper extremity
Mesopotamia, of Mesopotamia, with some of the adjoining portions of Syria
&c' westward, and of Assyria eastward, more particularly the neigh
bouring province known as the territory of the Arapachites ; 3
the city of Haran 4 being their principal seat at this period.
Owing to the weakened state of Babylonia, consequent on the
dispersion of mankind, the descendants of Shem gained con
siderable power in that territory ; and that they obtained the
chief authority soon afterwards, may be inferred from the
colonies which they sent out from thence : these colonies long
continued in some degree dependent upon that city.
The Hamites After the allotment of the earth to the sons of Noah, and
part of Syria . n .... . '
and Arabia previously to the dispersion ot mankind, the sons of Ham
possessed the greater part of Syria, in addition to the tract
which extends from the shores of the Bed Sea into Arabia
Felix and Hadramaiit ; and of these sections, now denominated
the lost tribes of Arabia, the 'Adites were one of the first, being
probably derived from Nimriid himself, who was an 'Adite,
or giant in power. The others, already enumerated,5 were the
1 Jos. Ant., lib. I., cap. vi., sec. 1.
2 Gen., chap. IX. v. 27. Compare Hales' Chronological History, vol. I.,
p. 351, with Bar HebrEeus, Chron. Syr., p. 7.
* Ptolemy, lib. VI., cap. i.
4 'Abu-1-Faraj, Hist. Dynast., p. 11, ed. Poc 1663.
4 See above, vol. I., p. 659.

chap, n.] ham's SONS PROCEED TO AFRICA. 45
Thamudites, the Amalekites, and the Obailites, in Arabia The lost tribes.
Felix ; also the Tasim, and Bern Tasini, and Beni Jadis, tribes
towards Bahrein, with the Beni 'Abd Dhakhan, and the
Omayyim or Omaim, who are said to have been the first to
build houses, that is, to become fixed. Such are the names
given to these branches,1 who were, it appears, worshippers of
the moon, the Ba'alat of Ham.2
That the sons of Ham occupied the banks of the Nile at a
very remote period is generally admitted ; and we learn from
Eusebius, that iEgyptus, who is also called Mizraim, was
born to Cham, the son of Noah. He was the first 'who went
to Egypt in order to settle there when the dispersion of the
people took place.3 Although the time cannot be fixed with
very great precision, yet the circumstance of their migration, as
well as their route thither, may be traced in the accounts which
have been handed down to us by the people of India : these
describe the curse of Hani in the spirit, although not quite in J^^fjJJ?
the precise words, of the book of Genesis. Charma, it is Ham's sin, &c.
related, having laughed at his father Satyavrata, (who had
by accident become intoxicated with a fermented liquor,)
was nicknamed Hasyasila, or the laugher. The royal pa
triarch, (Satyavrata,) was particularly fond of Jyapete,
(Japhet,) but he cursed Charma. The children of the latter
being obliged to quit their native country, called Cusha-dwipa
(within), they commenced their journey after the building of
Padmamandira, (Babel,) on the banks of Cumudvate, or
Euphrates. How long they may have continued in Asia,
cannot be precisely determined, although there is a strong
reason to believe that some, or all, remained a considerable
time in Yemen or Cusha-dwipa, before they crossed over and
carried the same name into Africa.4
All tradition appears to coincide in placing the sons of Ham 4f"ca occu"
in the valleys of Africa, as early ,as about the second century
after the flood. As this portion of the globe was occupied in
conformity with the original allotment of their grandfather, and
1 Arabic MSS. 7357, British Museum, translated by Aloys Sprenger, M.D.
2 Ibid. 3 Chron. Arm., ed. in fol., tome I., p. 498.
4 Lieut. Wilford's Asiatic Researches, vol. III., pp. 313, 322.

46 THE SUKKIMS, ETC. OF AFRICA. [CHAP. II.
Thothm and doubtless) als°5 with a knowledge from tradition of the fertility
of those regions, it is not surprising that the followers of
Mizraim and his son Thoth should have crossed the straits of
Bab-el-Mandeb by means of boats or rafts, to the western
shores of the Bed Sea. After peopling this tract, which was
at first regarded as part of Arabia,1 and spreading into the
interior, they at length arrived on the banks of the Nile or
Cali, giving the name of Sanc'ha-dwfpa to the country. This
was Cusha-dwipa (without), and included Ethiopia and Abys
sinia : his (Charma's) descendants were called in the Sanscrit
Hasyasilas, and in the spoken dialects, Hasyas and Habashi.2
The Sukkims, By those descendants of Charma, the African Negroes are
ture. ' meant, and they are supposed to have been the first inhabitants
of Abyssinia, or the Sukkims of Scripture,3 because after
quitting Arabia, or Cusha-dwipa, to cross over, they dwelt as
Troglodytes in sucas,4 or dens on the opposite side : and it may
be added, the Abyssinians say that they came from Arabia.5
But, adds Lieutenant Wilford, it is probable that the posterity
of Pingacsha (Phoenicians), or the Yellow Hindus, divided,
and proceeded in two bodies, the one to Phoenicia, and the
other along the Arabian shores.6
The region called Sanc'ha-dwfpa, in a confined sense,
meant the whole of the eastern shore ; whilst, in a more ex
tensive acceptation, it comprised all Africa, being the last
place to which the name of Cush has been applied : and the
former, or Cusha-dwipa (within), extended from the shore of the
Mediterranean and the mouth of the Nile, to the district of
Sirhind, on the borders of Hindustan.7
It appears that the inhabitants of Arabia and of the eastern
parts of Africa, were, in early times, intimately connected ; for
the Homeritse and the Sabsei, according to Procopius, were
1 See Lieut. Wilford on Egypt and other Countries, from the Ancient
Books of the Hindus : Asiatic Researches, vol. III.
2 Ibid., pp. 302, 313, 330. 3 2 Chron., chap. XII., v. 3.
4 It is probable that the word Sucas signified an arbour or booth, as well
as a den, though it was originally taken in the sense of a cave, from Sanc'ha.
— Asiatic Researches, vol. IL, p. 342.
5 Michaelis, Spicilegium Hebrse, p. 147.
6 Asiatic Researches, p. 322. 7 Ibid., p. 301.

CHAP. II.J EGYPT PEOPLED THROUGH ABYSSINIA. 47
one and the same people, being merely separated by the Bed
Sea ; J and Meroe itself once bore the name of Saba.2
One branch of the Sabaeans under the name of Agaazi, Arabians and
founded Axum, the capital of Habesh, where they were found the same
at a later period still speaking the dialect of Geez, which is peop e'
pure Arabic : they also claimed to descend from the Arabians,3
and used the Axumitic, or Amharic nail-headed characters.4
Moreover, Ludolphus states, that their ancient language, which
we call Ethiopic, approaches very nearly to the Arabic,
without being so much like it as to denote a late transmigration.
And the people themselves resemble the Arabs in complexion,
as well as in following many of their customs.5 It is remark
able that the name of Habashi, which is applied to the people
in this part of Africa, is to be found in Sanscrit ;6 and the cir
cumstance indicates an eastern or Assyrian origin.
From Habesh, the tide of emigration was evidently north
ward, along the valley of the Nile ; for, according to tradition, Egypt peopled
Osiris led a colony from Ethiopia into Egypt, which country s;a^. ys'
received from the parent state the practice of deifying kings,
together with hieroglyphical writing, the usage of embalming,
the forms of their sculptures, andthe whole sacred ri tual.7
Pritchard, in his elaborate work,8 considers that Egypt was
peopled from the regions towards the south, and this supposition
has been followed subsequently by Heeren, as well as by Jahn,9
and a recent traveller, Mr. Hoskyns. Heeren endeavours to
show that it is deducible from monumental evidence, as well as
from written testimony, that in Africa, Upper Egypt was the
first seat of civilization, which was afterwards extended by
means of colonies, sent out from thence towards the north;
also that in the same regions a priest-class was first established.10
1 Procopius, Gazaous in Comm. ad 3 Reg. X. I. to the Queen of Sabd.
2 Jos., lib. I., cap. x.
3 Mich., Spicil. Geogr., lib. I., p. 47, from Dionysius and Syncel. Chro.
4 See Ludolph., Grammatica. Amharii, cap, I.
5 Ludolphus, Hist. Ethiop., 1.
6»Dissert. on the Babylonian Inscriptions, by Joseph Hager, D.D., p. 41.
7 Diod. Sic, lib. III., cap. ii.
8 Pritchard's Physical History of Mankind, vol. I., p. 384, London, 1812.
9 Jahn's Hebrew Commonwealth, p. 8.
10 Heeren's African Researches, vol. I., p. 339, et seq.

48 ARCHITECTURE OF THE GREEKS DERIVED FROM EGYPT. [CHAP. II.

Architecture,
&c,

derived from
Assyria.

Kingdoms of
Haran and
Zobah.

That the first settlers reached this part of Africa from the
southern part of Arabia, instead of rounding the northern
extremity of the Bed Sea, may be inferred not only from the
monuments themselves, which mark a less advanced state of
the arts in Nubia than in the country lower down the Nile, but
also from the difficulties that would have been encountered in
passing through the long tract of desert country bordering upon
the Bed Sea. Whereas by the other route, the progress was
comparatively easy into Arabia Felix ; and from thence sub
sequently along the western shore of the Bed Sea to the valley
of the Nile, where papyri found with the mummies, and other
specimens discovered elsewhere, show that the written character
goes back almost to the time of the earliest settlements, whilst
the stupendous pyramids and many other works of art, still
remain to attest the civilization which was then attained by
those who had come thither from Assyria. From the models
of ancient art yet existing in Egypt, the Greeks probably
derived that architecture, which they afterwards brought to
such perfection ; and it has been supposed that in this way the
European nations obtained the first principles of the arts and
sciences from Babylonia, through the medium of the Phcenician
and Egyptian Cushites.1
About this period the territory of Western Arabia was des
tined to become almost the exclusive possession of the tribes
belonging to one of the two great Shemitic branches, which
quitted Babylonia, soon after the dispersion, under Kahtan ; for
the persons who subsequently accompanied Abraham and Lot,
only peopled Palestine and the borders of Arabia, with a
portion of the interior of the latter country.
The principal seat of the descendants of Shem was, however,
the upper extremity of Mesopotamia, especially the Chaldean
kingdom of U'r, in which, as will subsequently be seen, the
patriarch Job flourished, and which at a later period comprised
the separate kingdoms of Haran and Zobah (Nisibis).
- Beferring to the former migration, the sons of Kahtan,

1 Josephus, Ant., lib. I., cap. viii., s. 2, says, that astronomy was carried
from Chaldea to Egypt, and from thence to the Greeks ; and Zonares, lib. I.,
cap. i., p. 22, says the same thing of the arts in general.

CHAP. II.] SECOND MIGRATION INTO ARABIA. 49
says one of the earliest Jewish historians, finding that they had Descendants
not any particular allotment, in consequence of the second
division of the world, about the time of the death of Phaleg,
selected as leaders, Sheba, Asir or Ophir, and Gjawilah or
Havflah,1 under whose guidance they quitted Babylonia, and
proceeded to make conquests and settlements in another part
of the world. Joktan, the descendant of Eber, had thirteen
sons, who are mentioned as being leaders or heads of nations ;2
and their dwelling was from Mesha, " as thou goest unto Sephar,
a mount of the east.3" The resemblance of the former name to Supposed to
Mekkah, appears to indicate that one extremity of their ter- Mekkah and
ritory was in the neighbourhood of that city, while Bas Seger, eger"
a bold cape rising to about 3000 feet at the south-eastern coast
of Arabia, would, seem to represent the mountain at the other
extremity. The identity of the latter seems to be established
by various circumstances connected with its position. The fine
plain of Dhafar or Zhafar, stretches eastward from this head
land to the town of Morbat or Mirbat, situated at the foot of
another high range, which still produces gum and incense, as in
the time of Edrisi.4 The latter, called Jebel Subhan, seems to
be connected with Bas Seger, by a range, of mountains from
3000 feet to 4000 feet high, which encloses the luxuriant tract
alluded to, with the extensive ruins of El Balad and several
towns, as El Hafar, Sallalah, Diriz, El Bobat, &c. The Exports of
n i. i j ¦ 1 j? i • j Hadramaiit,
remains ot an export trade in myrrn, frankincense, and gum- ¦ •
arabic, from these places, as well as from that of Morbat, in
connexion with Hadramaiit, in addition to the preservation of
the ancient language by the neighbouring tribe of Beni Mahrah,
or Mehreh, near Morbat,5 appear to show that this must have
1 Bar Hebrseus, Chro. Syr., p. 8.
2 Howard's History of the World, vol. IL, p. 63, and Gen., chap. X.,
v. 26 to 29. 3 Gen., chap. X., v. 30.
1 P. 54, Edrisi, ed. Jaubert, tome Cinquieme, Recueil de Voyages et
Memoires, &c, par La Societe de Geographie, &c, Paris, 1834, compared
with Niebuhr, Desc. de l'Arabie, p. 248.
5 Edrisi, ibid., pp. 150, 151, compared with Abu-1-Feda, translated by De
la Roque, p. 328, and Haines' Memoir on the South-East Coast of Arabia,
p. ,116-119, vol. XV. of Royal Geographical Journal, also Captain Saunders'
Survey ofthe Coast of Arabia, vol. XVI., pp. 174, 175, 187, 194, &c.
VOL. II. E

50

SETTLEMENTS IN YEMEN.

[CHAP. II.

Scat ofthe
Himyarites.

Descendants
of Ham in
Yemen.

been a part of the Himyaritic Thafar.1 As will presently be
seen, the territory lying between the latter tract and Mekkah
was more particularly the seat .of the Himyarites and the
Kahtanites. It comprised the southern part of Nedjd, and
nearly the whole of Yemen, or the greatest portion of the
country denominated Happy Arabia; whose most extended
limits included, as has been seen, not only Hadramaiit, but also
the tract stretching eastward from thence to the Persian Gulf.2
The bulk ofthe descendants of Ham, the followers of Mizraim
and Thoth, appear to have crossed from the western side of
Arabia Felix into Africa,3 but some traces of those who re
mained are still supposed to be found in certain parts of
Arabia. Saba or Mareb,4 the Mariaba of Pliny and Strabo,
and once the capital of the Sabeans, possibly took its name
from Seba, son of Cush ; 6 and the district of Khaalan, or
Kaulan, (south of Asir,) may have derived its appellation from
Havflah,6 the second son of that patriarch. Sabtah,7 Bamah,8
and Sheba,9 are also places whose names are presumed to have
been given by the posterity of Cush. There are, likewise, the
Beni Kusi,10 Beit el Khusi,11 and Beni 'A'd,12 whose language,
says Edrisi, is still spoken by the people of Khuryan Muryan,
1 There is also a town in Yemen, near Jerim, called Dhafar or Saffar. —
Niebuhr, Descr. de l'Arabie, tome III., pp. 206, 251.
2 See above, vol. I., pp. 656, 657. 3 Ibid., p. 659.
4 Mareb, once Saba, at which place, adds Edrisi, is the Dike. — P. 53, tome
Cinquidme, Recueil de Voyages et Memoires, &c, ed. Jaubert, Paris, 1836;
also 'Abu-1-Feda, p. 323, translated by M. De la Roque, Amsterdam, 1718.
5 Compare vol. I., pp. 624, 625, with Pliny, lib. VI., cap. xxviii., and
Strabo, lib. XVI., pp. 586, 777 ; also Niebuhr, vol. III., p. 252, Descr. de
l'Arabie, &c
6 Niebuhr, Descr. de l'Arabie, vol. I., pp. 234, 253.
7 See Appendix to vol. I., p. 722, Sabhah.
8 Appendix to vol. I., p. 716, Ramah, and also a village near San'a,
Niebuhr, p. 203.
8 Appendix to vol. I., Table 2, p. 705, and Table 3, p. 707 ; also Niebuhr,
Descr. de l'Arabie, tome III., p. 224.
10 Dwelling in a district ofthe country of Rema. — Niebuhr, vol. III., pp.
216, 253. " Ibid.—Niebuhr, pp. 228, 253.
12 Abu-1-Feda, p. 316, on the hills north of Dhafar, translated by De la
Roque, Amsterdam, 1718, and also on the borders of El Hajar, vol. I., p. 630,
and Haines' Memoir on the South-East Coast of Arabia, vol. XV., p. 112
of the Royal Geographical Journal.

CHAP. II.l THE PURE ARABS FROM KAHTAN. 51
J • ¦ «
or Khartan and Martan ; : though unknown to the other Arabs Remains of
of the present day. Except a knowledge ofthe former existence ine ""
of these tribes, and some traditions handed down of the idolatry
of the last,2 also some remains of the Amalekites in 'Oman and
Bahrein,3 no traces remain of the Cushite settlers in Arabia ;
and the gradual intermixture of these with the posterity of
Kahtan, will probably account for the almost total extinction
of the people of 'A'd, and those of Thamud, Tasim, Jadis,
the Imlik or Amalek, and other sections faintly known to us
as the lost tribes.* Doubtless the people of Kahtan, who are Yemen and
designated pure Arabs by their descendants,5 had their principal
seat in Yemen, where they lived under Ya'rab ben Kahtan,
probably Jerah ; 6 his brother Jurham or Hadoram being ruler
of the Hijaz : 7 and both names are still preserved by the Beni
Jurham, or Beni Jerah, near Mekkah.8 Eastward of Mekkah
we still find the large tribe of Beni Kahtan ; and on the eastern
side of the province of Asfr, is the district of Kahtan or Ned-
jeran, and a tribe bearing the former name ; likewise an ancient
site, Beit-el-Kahtan, or dwelling of Kahtan,9 and again in
Hadramaut is the tomb of the patriarch, and that of his father
Heber or Houd ;10 also, a town called Kohhtan,11 which was no
doubt connected with the former name.
Southward of Sana is the small district of Khaulan or San'a, once
Havflah, probably from the twelfth son of Joktan, and the Esal or Uzal-
ancient name of the capital itself, once Esal or Osal,12 appears
to have been derived from Uzal, his sixth son.
1 The Curia Muria Isles. — See Edrisi, ed. Jaubert, pp. 48, 49, tome
Cinquieme, Recueil et Memoires, Paris, 1836; and Haines' Memoir, vol. XV.,
p. 121 of the Royal Geographical Journal.
2 Among the people of Mahri. — See vol. I., p. 639.
3 Add. Arabic MS. 7357 in the British Museum, translated by Aloys
Sprenger, M.D.
4 Arabic MSS. 7505 and 7496 in the British Museum, and Lane's Koran, p. 1 2.
5 See Table 2, vol. I., Appendix. 6 Gen., chap. X., v. 26.
7 Arabic, MS. 7357 in the British Museum, translated by Aloys Sprenger,
M.D. 8 Appendix, vol. L, pp. 705, 711.
9 Niebuhr, Descr. de l'Arabie, tome III., pp. 238, 252.
10 See above, vol. I., p. 638 ; and Edrisi, p. 54, ed. Jaubert, tome Cin
quieme, Recueil et Memoires, &c, Paris, 1836.
11 Niebuhr, tome III., pp. 249, 252.
12 Vol. I., p. 623, and Gen., chap. X., v. 27.
E 2

52 shem's descendants in Arabia. [chap. ii.
Besides the preceding, we have the Beni Sheba,1 probably
the descendants of the tenth son, also the Beni Jobab 2 from
the thirteenth ; and it has been remarked by the great Arabian
S Hatomtut traveller» tnat Hadramaiit itself, may have been the territory of
the third son Hazarmaveth.3 It thus appears, that, whilst
traces of some of the earlier descendants of Ham are found in
Arabia, the names and indications of those of Shem are still
more numerous, particularly in Yemen, which became the
seat of the Tobbai and of the Himyarites.
'Abd-el Shems, the slave or worshipper of the sun, and the
descendant of Kahtan, succeeded Ya'rab in the sovereignty of
this territory, and from Kaklan, his successor, descended the
Beni Lakhim, Ghassan, and, also, the celebrated dynasty just
Sons of mentioned, which was founded by Himyar,4 the fourth de-
• imy r' scendant of Peleg, and almost the cotemporary of Abraham,
who was the fifth in another line.5 The posterity of the former
patriarch is no doubt represented by the Beni Himyar.6 The
recovery already noticed of Babylonia by the Shemitic people,
previously to their occupation of Yemen, agrees with the
account given by Arabian historians, and likewise with those
of Ptolemy and Strabo. The former calls the Babylonians a
colony from Arabia Deserta,7 and the latter particularly notices
the resemblance in character, frame of body, language, and
mode of life, between the Syrians, Armenians, and Arabs.8
Syrians, Elsewhere he identifies the Babylonians with the Chaldeans of
Chaidea1^ Gerrha.9 It appears from Mas'udi that the Chaldeans spoke
the same language as the Arabians, and were the same people
as the Syrians or Assyrians, who inhabited 'Irak Arabi.10 This
author also distinguishes the northern Cushites, who entered
1 Appendix to vol. I., Tables 2 and 3, pp. 705, 707.
2 Beni Djoudob, vol. I., Appendix, Table 2, p. 705.
3 Descr. de l'Arabie, tome III., p. 252.
4 Or El 'Arenjej, also El 'Arfej.— Arabic MSS. Nos. 7353 and 7357 in
the British Museum, translated by Aloys Sprenger,. M.D.
6 Ibid.— Arabic MS. 7357.
6 Eastward of Damascus. — Niebuhr, Descr. de l'Arabie, vol. III., p. 341.
7 Lib. V., cap. 20. » Lib. XVI., p. 784, and lib. I., p. 41.
s Lib. XVI., p. 254.
10 Extraits des MSS. du Roi, tome VIII., p. 141, par Sylvestre de Saci.

CHAP. II.] DERIVATION OF THE CHALDEAN NAME. 53
Babylonia, from the Nabatheans,1 with whom they amalga
mated. These circumstances appear to have given rise to the Chaldean tic
opinion of an eminent historian of the day, who, in speaking
of the steppes of Mesopotamia, observes, " It cannot be
" doubted, that at some remote period, antecedent to the
" commencement of historical records, one mighty race pos-
" sessed these vast plains, varying in character according to
"the nature of the country which they inhabited; in the
" deserts of Arabia pursuing a nomad life ; in Syria apply-
" ing themselves to agriculture ; and taking up settled abodes
" in Babylonia," &c.2 We are likewise informed that this
extensive race spoke the same language as the ancient Baby
lonians 3 or Chaldeans.
The question concerning the origin of the Chaldeans, and
whether they were a distinct nation, or merely the particular
section of a people, has given rise to many different opinions ;
it is therefore here intended to give some account of them,
and of the state of knowledge which prevailed among them ;
endeavouring, at the same time, to distinguish the Sabean
followers of Cush from the descendants of Shem,4 who were
equally designated Chaldeans.
This appellation was not, as has been supposed, derived The na™e
either from Arphaxad or Chesed, but rather from Arfkesed, Arfkesed.
the compound of the Arabic Orf and Chasd ; which, instead
of an individual, evidently designates a people.5
It was not, however, always applied under the same circum
stances, or even to the same race, being found at various places,
and with different significations, between the Ganges and the
Nile ; moreover, the difficulty of the subject is increased by Different ap-
finding, both in sacred and profane history, that the name is atth^name.0
one time given to a nation, at another to a tribe, and again to
a priest-class, whether the descendants of Shem or Ham.
Michaelis supposed that the Chaldeans came from the north,
1 Arabic MS. in the British Museum, translated by Aloys Sprenger, M.D.
2 Heeren's Historical Researches concerning the Asiatic Nations, &c,
vol. I., p. 46, Boh n, London, 1846, compared with Mas'udi, Arabic MSS.
8 Heeren, ibid., p. 407. * See above, vol. I., p. 92.
5 Michaelis, Spicilegium Geogr., II. , p. 76, and Schlotzer's Universal
Hist., XXXI., p. 235.

54 VARIOUS CLASSES OF CHALDEANS. [CHAP. II.
and were of Sclavonian extraction, while Diodorus Siculus
pronounces them to have been Egyptians ; Gesenius embraces
this last opinion, on the ground that Nimriid, the chief of
Babylonia descended from Cush, and that this circumstance
may have been the foundation of the fable of Berossus, that
Babylonia was peopled by a sea monster.
TheChaideans In one part (and probably the most ancient) of the Scrip
tures, it is said that the Chaldeans, doubtless alluding to a
tribe, made three bands and fell upon the camels.1 Elsewhere,
and also alluding to the tribal state, " bands of the Chaldeans, <
" bands of Assyrians, and bands of the Moabites " are men
tioned.2 There are likewise the Chaldeans of Mizpah ; 3 and
elsewhere the C'hasas of the east,4 or the Cesi of Pliny,5 also
the Chasdim on the slopes of the Graucasus or Coh-cas (Cau
casus).6 Moreover, Ptolemy speaks of a tribe of Chaldeans in
Lower Mesopotamia,7 where there were other branches of
Chaldeans, particularly the Orcheni and Borsippaeans.8
as a priest- Again, the Chaldeans are mentioned as a priest-class by
class, and as .
Herodotus9 and by Ammianus Marcellinus. They are also
named by Arrian,10 and in several places by Diodorus Siculus ;u
and more particularly by Strabo, who says, that in Babylonia a
place is specially allotted to the native scientific men, who
occupy themselves with philosophy, and are called Chaldeans.12
They appear as a separate class in the book of Daniel, viz.,
the Astrologers, Sorcerers, Chaldeans, and Soothsayers.13 The
a nation. Chaldeans appear under a third denomination, that of a nation,
being mentioned as coming with Nebuchadnezzar from the
north, with horsemen and companies and much people.1* Again,
they are more clearly designated as such in the book of Isaiah,
where it is stated, that the land of the Chaldeans was founded
1 Job, chap. I., v. 17. 2 2 Kings, chap. XXIV., v. 2.
3 Jer., chap.. XL., v. 10.
4 The C'hasapa, between the Indus and the Jumna.
5 Lib. VI., cap. 20. 6 Ibid., cap. 17. 7 Lib. V., cap. 20.
8 Strabo, lib. XVL, p. 701. s Lib. L, cap. clxxxi., p. 145.
10 Exp., lib. III., cap. xvi. ; lfy VII., cap. xvi., xvii., xxii.
11 Tom. 1, lib. IL, cap xxi., pp. 173, 273, 275, 280.
12 Lib. XVL, pp. 701, 739. >3 Chap. IL, v. 2, 4, 10.
14 Ezekiel, chap. XXVL, v. 7.

CHAP. II.] THE CHASDIM OR CUSHITE CHALDEANS. 55
by the Assyrian, for them that dwelt in the wilderness ; or, as
it has been more correctly translated, " Behold the country
" of this nation, which had not been till Ashur allotted it to
" the inhabitants of the desert." 1 The appellation is in many
other places given to them as a nation, as in the 2nd Chro
nicles, where mention is made of the " King of the Chaldees ;"2 fos™ Chaldean
and again, the " Chaldeans, that bitter and hasty nation ;"3ting.
we find, also, " Nebuchadnezzar, King of the Chaldeans ; " 4
and again, " Darius, King over the realm of the Chaldeans ; " 5
"and these, it may be observed, correspond with profane history,
Evechius, or Nimriid the Cushite, being the first of the line of
Chaldean kings.6
The Cushites were no doubt the earliest Chasdim, for the The Chasdim
whole territory which they occupied near the shores of Pontus north.
was called Chaldea (Chasdim).7 As has been noticed already,
the latter name was carried from thence into Babylonia, where
the Chasdim, and another people, the. Kazd, Kadhani, or
Kelani from the south, appear to have amalgamated. The
name in question therefore equally belonged to the races of
Ham and Shem ; Nimriid and his successors belonged to the
former race; and, to the latter, Arphaxad, Chesed, Seriig,
Terah, and many others. Abraham, especially, was greatly The shemitic
distinguished for his knowledge of the celestial sciences ; 8 Arabia.™8 m
and according to Arabian historians, the Shemitic Chaldeans
are represented by the great tribe of Beni Khaled;9 dif
ferent branches of which, as the Beni Babiah, &c, (equally
Chaldees,) are still found at different places in the Arabian
peninsula.10 It will be seen, from the preceding statements, that the
• Isaiah, chap. XXIIL, v. 13. 2 Chap. XXXVL, v. 17.
3 Habb., chap. I., v. 6. 4 Ezra, chap. V., v. 12.
5 Daniel, chap. IX., v. 1.
6 Preface, p. xix., and pp. 67, 68 of Ancient Fragments, by Isaac Preston
Cory, Esq.; Pickering, London, 1832.
7 Eustathius, ap. Dionysii Periegetes, 769.
8 Euseb., Praep. Evan., lib. VII., cap. viii.
9 Arabic MS. in the British Museum, translated by Aloys Sprenger, M.D. :
also Niebuhr, tome III., p. 333, Utrecht, 1774, compared with Burckhardt,
Notes on the Bedouins and Wahabis, p. 215.
10 See above, Appendix, vol. I., pp. 716, 722, 723.

56 PHILOSOPHY OF THE CHALDEANS. [CHAP. II.
expression Chaldeans was indifferently applied to a tribe, to a
The priest- nation, and to a particular caste ; the last signification, how-
class' ever, was the most general, being, in a great measure, esta
blished by custom. Alluding to the priest-class, w& are told
by an ancient writer, who may be called their historian,1 that
the Chaldeans, whom he styles the most ancient Babylonians,
were in the habit of turning days into years in order to support
their claim to antiquity.2 Their manner of life, he adds, is
similar to that of the Egyptian priests ; secular employment
being forbidden, as in the case of the latter, in order that they
might devote themselves exclusively to philosophy, and more
especially to the knowledge of astronomy. Instruction com
menced in this science with infancy ; and the precepts incul
cated descended from father to son, with an authority which
checked the desire of seeking anything new.3
their phiio- The state of knowledge, which had in consequence become,
sophyand ag -fc wer6j nereditary among this people, is thus described
by the historian. The Chaldeans believed the world to be
eternal, and the fabric of the universe to be ordered and sup
ported by Divine providence, by which, and not by chance, they
considered the motions of the heavenly bodies to be regulated.4
In some matters, however, the Chaldean tenets were crude ;
for instance, they believed the earth to be hollow, and they had
the most incorrect ideas of the relative distances of the planets,
whose different times of revolution were attributed to the dif
ferent rates of their motions, rather than to the various extents
of space which they traverse. On the other hand, the canals
constructed and the vast structures raised by the same people,
bespeak architectural and mechanical skill ; and that some
knowledge of mathematics must have been included in their
acquirements is evident, from their being acquainted with the
use of the gnomon and clepsydra ; as well as from the fact
that they had determined, with some degree of precision, the
revolutions of the planets. They were also aware that the
1 Histoire Universelle de Diod. Sic, traduite par M. L'Abbe Terasson,
Paris, 1737, tome I., liv. ii., chap. 21.
2 Diod. Sic, lib. IL, cap. xxi., p. 275. 3 Ibid., p. 274.
4 Ibid., p. 275.

CHAP. II.] SABAISM GENERAL IN THE WORLD. 57
moon has a borrowed light; and the cause of her being occa- knowledge of
sionally eclipsed was likewise understood.1 Moreover, the M ronomy-
Chaldeans were the first to divide the day into twelve parts,2
and they were acquainted with different cycles, as the Saros,
Neros, &c, and the lengths of the lunar and solar years ; the
former they made to serve for ordinary, and the latter for
astronomical purposes.3
Ptolemy details some ofthe eclipses which had been regis
tered in Babylonia. These, however, only go back as far as
720 b.c, and the times are expressed merely in hours.
It may safely be inferred, that the knowledge of the celestial
motions, derived by that people from a long series of obser
vations, had, in the first instance, become subservient to ancient
Sabaism, and, at a later period, to judicial astrology, its off- Astronomy
spring. By the influence which this knowledge gave them, the j"6^?™'
Chaldean priesthood established the belief that they could with
certainty foretel events affecting the most powerful nations, as
well as ordinary individuals.4 The system of worship based on
astronomy by the Babylonians, as well as that which was in use
among the people of Haran and the Magi, so closely resembled
the religions of Egypt and Canaan, where they worshipped the
host of heaven on the housetops,5 that J'amblichus considers
them all to be identical.6 This opinion was doubtless founded Sabaism gene-
on the general prevalence of the particular branch of worship theVoruLhOUt
under consideration, for whether merely including the sun and
moon, as in the modified Arkite form,7 or the whole of the
heavenly bodies, which was more general, it is evident that,
antecedently to the Christian dispensation, no part of the world
was free from the taint of Sabaism.
The alternations of day and night, with those of the seasons
and the productions of the earth, from their connection with the
1 Diod. Sic, lib. IL, cap. xxi. 2 Herod., lib. II. , cap. cix.
3 Hales' Anal, of Chron., vol. I., p. 41. 4 Diod. Sic, lib. IL, cap. xxi.
5 Zeph., chap. I., v. 5 ; and 2 Kings, chap. XXIIL, v. 5, " The idolatrous
priests who burnt incense unto Baal, to the sun, and to the moon, and to the
planets, and to all the host of heaven."
6 Hebenstreit, Diss, de Jamblichi, Philosophi Syri Doctrina Christiana
Religioni, &c, Leipz., 1704.
7 See preceding chap., pp. 15, 16.

58

ASTROLOGY OF THE CHALDEANS.

[CHAP. II.

on the five
planets,

Astro-meteor- periodical revolutions of the heavenly bodies, appear to have
"""" l given rise to the belief, that each of those bodies was a celestial
spirit, to whom, agreeably to the confused idea which prevailed
among mankind that some kind of atonement for sin was
necessary, a high mediatorial office was ascribed.
It has been supposed with great probability, that this belief
led to the first departure from the purer light of the primeval
religion, which was transmitted, though dimly, through Noah's
immediate descendants. To the celestial bodies, as divine
intelligences, were ascribed an intermediate place between the
earth and that Almighty Being, who had thus been partly
forgotten, or, according to the Chaldean creed, was by far too
exalted to take cognizance of what is passing in the terrestrial
world. The planets occupied the most prominent places in the
astro-meteorological system, and amongst these, the Chronus of
the Greeks, or Saturn,1 also the Babylonian Venus, and the
Zohak of the Arabs,2 were supposed to exercise particular in
fluences ; but the sun,3 as having the greatest power of all the
celestial bodies, was believed to have most weight in the pro
duction of important events.
The Chaldeans, like the Greeks at a later period, distin
guished all the visible planets by particular names, as Merodach
(Mars), Meni (Venus), Nebo (Mercury), and Bel (Jupiter) ;
and the whole five were styled interpreters, as being supposed
to mark by their risings, settings, and colour, the \events to
which individuals are to be subjected. The phenomena of
nature, such as the appearance of a comet, the occurrence
and comets, of an earthquake, and eclipses, were supposed to indicate the
approach of events connected with nations and their sovereigns,
as well as private individuals.4
Subordinate to the five planets were thirty stars called
counsellors, one half destined to observe what passes below, or
1 Also called II, as well as Saturn. — Euseb., Prsep. Evan., lib. I., cap. 10.
2 A temple was dedicated to this deity at Mekkah. — See Lane's Koran,
p. 29, Madden and1 Co., London, 1848.
3 The Assyrians gave the name of Bel to the Sun as well as to Saturnus. —
Procopius, Comm. in Esai, cap. xlvi.
4 Diod. Sic, lib. IL, cap. xxi.

CHAP. II.] IMAGE-WORSHIP IN BABYLONIA. 59
the actions of men, and the remainder what is passing in Messenger
heaven; mutual intercourse being maintained by means of
messenger stars traversing, once in ten days, the space which
separates the celestial and terrestrial worlds.
To each of the twelve principal of these counsellors was supposed in-
allotted a month of the year, and one of the twelve signs of the consteUatfons?
Zodiac ; 1 through which latter, the motions of the sun, moon,
&c, appear to have been determined with considerable pre
cision. The Chaldean system of astrology appears also to have
included twenty-four constellations beyond the Zodiac, one-
half in the northern portion of the heavens, and the other in
the southern. The latter was supposed to have reference to
individuals who are deceased, and those of the former, which
are visible, to the actions of the living, and these were consi
dered to influence the whole train of good and evil to mankind :
to these were added, as an additional means of predicting what
is to happen, the art of divination by the flight of birds, the
entrails of victims, and the interpretation of dreams.2
The divine mediatorial power attributed to the planets, &c,
appears to have been followed by a lower kind of idolatry,
namely, the use of images ; which being made under certain
aspects of those bodies, and consecrated by magical rites, were
believed to continue under their influence. It is sufficiently ~
J Consecrated
clear, that images of this kind, whether small or great, were images.
connected with Babylonian worship,3 and doubtless, they were
similar to the Teraphim mentioned in Scripture : 4 but it may
here be observed, that as the names of these images are She
mitic, and correspond with those of the heavenly bodies,5 it
has been inferred that they were purely astrological.
1 Compare Diod. Sic, lib. IL, cap. xxi., with Ideler, Ueber der Ursprung
des Thierkreises. Letronne, while questioning the derivation of the Zodiac
from the Chaldeans, admits that the Dodecatemaries came from that people
to the Greeks. — See his Review on Ideler's work, Journal des Savans for
1839, pp. 493, 528."
2 Diod. Sic, lib. IL, cap. xxi. 3 Dan., chap. III., v. 6, 7, 11, 15, &c.
4 Judges, chap. XVIL, v. 5, chap. XVIIL, v. 4 and 20 ; Genesis, chap.
XXXL, v. 19, 34, chap. XXXV., v. 2, 4.
5 Ba'al, Nebo, Merodach, Succoth, Benoth, &c, note by Aloys Sprenger,
M.D.

60 ACCOUNT OF THE CHALDEANS CONCLUDED. [CHAP. II.
Such is the account which has been transmitted to us of the
Chaldeans and their leaders, at the period when the knowledge
and influence of the priest caste probably were greatest, namely,
between the departure of Kahtan and that of the other Shemitic
branch from Babylonia towards Canaan ; the settlement of this
branch in the latter territory will be noticed more fully in the
succeeding Chapter.

( 61 )

CHAPTEE III.

STATE OF ARABIA FROM THE DEPARTURE OF ABRAHAM TO THE
DEATH OF JOB.
Abraham quits U'r of the Chaldees. — The Patriarch proceeds from Haran
to Damascus, Palestine, and Egypt. — Settlement of Abraham and Lot. —
Invasion and Discomfiture of the Assyrian Kings. — March of the latter
through the Desert. — Destruction of Sodom from natural and supernatural
causes. — The Alliance of Lot's Daughters with the people of the country,
originates the Moabites and Ammonites. — Birth of Ishmael and Isaac. —
Expulsion of the former. — Territory of Ishmael's Descendants. — The
Sons of Keturah and the Midianites. — State of Egypt from the time of
Abraham to that of Joseph. — Historical interest of Egypt. — Invasion of
the Hyk-sos, part coming through Abyssinia. — Their Dominion in Egypt,
and Period of their Expulsion. — The Sons of Esau occupy Mount Seir. —
Mingled People of Arabia. — Amalekites, Edomites, Saracens, &c — The
Horites. Eliphaz the Temanite. — Position of the Land of Uz. — Period
of Job's Trial. — The Localities about O'rfah correspond with the circum
stances in the book of Job. — State of Knowledge in Arabia in the time of
Job. — The Tobba'i of Yemen. — Expedition of the Himyarites into Central
Asia. — Samarcand founded. — Language and written Character of the
Himyarites. — Inscriptions found in Yemen, also at Hisn Ghorab, Nakb-
el-Hajar, &c, and others near San'a. — Ard-es-Saba, or Land of Saba. —
Himyari Inscription found near 'Aden.- — Traces of that People in
distant countries. — The Hebrew Language, its Cognates and written
Character.
The settlement of the principal branch of the Shemitic people Ab h ,
in the central and southern parts of Arabia, as detailed in the departure an
preceding Chapter, was at no distant period followed by the epoch. "
occupation of the north-western extremity of the peninsula by
another section of the same race. The possession of Palestine
afterwards took place ; and this event had in the sequel, the
greatest influence upon the state of the neighbouring nations,
more particularly on the empires of Egypt and Assyria.
The departure of Abraham for the promised land, became

62 Abraham's departure from u'r. [chap. iii.
one of the most interesting events recorded in the Old Testa-
Abraham ment ; but the previous removal of the patriarch from Lower to
removes from
Lower to Upper Mesopotamia, has not been distinguished with sufficient
potamia. eSt " clearness, from the subsequent journey which he made by Divine
command from Haran.
Causes of Alluding to the former, Josephus gives as the cause of this
change of change of residence, that the patriarch Terah hated Chaldea,
on account of the loss of his son Haran;1 who died in the
presence of Terah his father, in the land of his nativity, in U'r
of the Chaldees.2 But elsewhere he alludes to another and a
more powerful reason, viz., an opposition excited by the
Chasdim of Mesopotamia. This took place at U'r, the birth
place of Abraham,3 who is thus particularly described by
Berossus, without being actually named : " After the Deluge,
in the tenth generation, there was a certain man among the
Chaldeans, renowned for his justice and great exploits, and
for his skill in the celestial sciences."4 The latter cir
cumstance apparently gave umbrage to the hierarchy of
Babylonia, which was no doubt increased by the opposition
of the patriarch to their doctrines ; for he not only in-
^.knowiedge culcated the great truth that there is but one God, the Creator
enmity of the of the universe, and taught that if other gods contribute in
any way to the happiness of mankind, it is by His appointment,
and not by their own power;5 but according to another authority,
he proceeded to set fire to the temple of the idols in U'r of the
Chaldees, and Haran, his brother, having gone in to extinguish
the fire, was there consumed.6
It is also stated by Muhammedan writers, that Abraham
refused to continue his former vocation of selling images for
Azar or Terah, his father ;7 and elsewhere it appears that he
opposed the astrology of the day ; maintaining that the hea-
1 Jos., Ant., lib. I., cap. vi.
2 Gen., chap. XL, v. 28, Bellamy's translation.
3 Euseb., Prsep. Evan., lib. IX., cap. iv., from Eupolemus.
4 Ibid., lib. IX., cap. xvii.
5 Jos., Ant., lib. I., cap. vii., compared with Zonares, Annales, tome 1
p. 22, Paris, 1686.
a 'Abu-1-Faraj, Hist. Dynast., p. 11. Bruns and Kirch, Leipsic, 1788.
7 Bibliotheque Orientale, Arts. Azar, and Muhammed fils de Malik-shah

CHAP. III.] HIS ARRIVAL AT HARAN. 63
venly bodies were subservient to Him who commands them ; Abraham
to whom alone men ought to offer honour and thanksgiving.1 Sabaism.
Abraham having been converted by a special revelation to
the true faith,2 from which his family had departed, in the way
so particularly described by Epiphanius;3 or (as it is elsewhere
expressed), "delivered from the fire of the Chaldeans,"4 and
the patriarch and his kindred being determined to abandon
idolatry, and no longer "to follow the gods of their fathers,"5
they removed to another part of the country ; or, as it is more
clearly expressed in Scripture, " they (Terah and Abraham,
&c.) went forth from U'r of the Chaldees, to go to the land of
Canaan ; so they came to Haran, and dwelt there." 6
According to the chronology given by Josephus, this event Epoch of his
took place 420 years after the Deluge, and 1020 years anterior from Mesopo-
to the building of Solomon's temple.7 Commentators differ tamia"
very little regarding the latter period ; and adopting that of
Crossthwaite,8 the departure of Abraham from Mesopotamia in
the year 2031 b.c, will become a cardinal point to determine
the subsequent dates, which will be chiefly taken from those of
the valuable historian of the Jews.
Being now settled at such a distance as Haran, Abraham and
his family could freely follow the purer light which had been '
handed down through Shem ; and the preservation of that
light was thenceforth specially entrusted to them.
The change of residence is distinctly mentioned as having
taken place in the sixtieth year of the patriarch, and as he was
seventy-five when he quitted his father's house, it follows thatB.C.2016.,
1 Jos., Ant., lib. I., cap. vii., also Zonares, Annales, tome I., p. 22.
2 Acts, chap. VII., v. 2.
3 " And from the times of Tharra, the father of Abraham, they introduced
images and all the errors of idolatry, honouring their forefathers and their
departed predecessors with effigies which they fashioned after their likeness.
They first made these effigies of earthenware, but afterwards they sculptured
them in stone, and cast them in silver and gold, and wrought them in wood
and other kinds of materials." — Ane Fragments, by I. Preston Cory, Esq.,
p. 55.
4 2 Esdras, chap. IX., v. 7. 5 Judith, chap. V., v. 6, 7.
6 Gen., chap. XL, v. 31.
7 Ant., lib. VIII., cap. iii., sec. 1.
8 Crossthwaite's Synchronology, &c Parker, London, 1839.

64 ABRAHAM PROCEEDS TO CANAAN. [CHAP. III.
Abraham he na(j remained above fourteen years at that city1 before he
accompanied . . .
by a numerous departed thence to perform the higher duties which had been
commanded.2 Taking, therefore, Sarai his wife,3 and Lot his
brother's son, with all their substance, and the souls they had
gotten in Haran, Abraham now went forth to go into the land
of Canaan.4 This portion of sacred history mentions the fact
very briefly ; but from later circumstances it is evident that, in
quitting Haran, Abraham was accompanied by a considerable
body of people, such as would form a large tribe in the present
day, which is an important circumstance in connexion with the
increase of the Hebrew people.
He is said to It is expressly stated that Abraham came with an army from
at Damascus, the region situated above Babylon, that of the ChaldeeSj and
reigned as a stranger or foreigner in Damascus, where, even
now, his name is celebrated, and a part of the town shown
which is called the dwelling of Abraham. It is added, that not
long afterwards he removed with his people to the region then
called Khananea, but now Judea.5 From this city, which is
said to have been founded by a sovereign called Marsuphus, or
El Murephus, about twenty years before the patriarch was
born,6 Abraham took as his steward an inhabitant named
Eleazer;7 but shortly after his arrival, in consequence of a
grievous famine, the party proceeded from Judea into Egypt.
B.c.2014. Being highly esteemed for his wisdom, Abraham, as we are
informed, greatly ingratiated himself with the people, by corn-
Arithmetic municating to them a knowledge of the arts, particularly of
toparteTtT7 arithmetic and astronomy, which were thus brought from the
the Egyptians. Chaldeans into Egypt, and from thence carried into Greece.8
1 'Abu-1-Faraj, Hist. Dynast., p. 13, compared with Philo Judaeus, 16,
Migrath. Abrah. p. 415.
2 " Now Jehovah had said to Abraham, go forth from thy land, also from
thy kindred, and from the household of thy fathers, to the land which I will
show thee." This consequently refers to a time anterior to his removal
from U'r. — Gen., chap. XII., v. 4, Bellamy's translation.
3 Gen., chap. XII. " Ibid., v. 5.
5 Nicolaus Damascenus, lib. IV., Historiarum.
5 'Abu-1-Faraj, Hist. Dynast., p. 13. 7 Gen., chap. XV, v. 2.
8 Annales, Johannis Zonares, tome I., p. 22, Paris, 1686, compared with
Jos., Ant., lib. I., cap. viii. ; Euseb., Prsep., lib. IX., cap xvi. ; St. Augustin,
lib. XVIIL, cap. xxxvii., de Civit. Dei.

chap, hi.] Abraham's return to judea. 65
From this incidental circumstance it is evident, that the state of
knowledge on the banks of the Nile was at this time inferior to
that ofthe Chaldeans ; or, in other words, that the Babylonians
had made considerable progress during the interval between the
departure of the first settlers towards Egypt and that of
Abraham. After continuing about five years imparting this knowledge
to the Egyptians, Abraham and Lot, taking all their substance,
retraced their steps into Judea ; where an amicable separation b. c. 2009.
speedily took place. Finding their flocks much too great for
the country, Lot chose in consequence the fertile pasture-ground jud"™and
¥ng eastward of the river Jordan, and Abraham settled more separation
° _ ' _ from Lot.
to the westward, in the promised land ; namely in the plains of
Mamre, near Hebron. Shortly after the establishment of the
former patriarch amongst the descendants of Ham, a circum
stance occurred which has a particular historical interest, since
it not only shows that a constant intercourse was maintained
between this part of the country and Babylonia, but also that
the Assyrian dominion, founded by Nimriid, extended to the
borders of Syria and Palestine, and most likely included those
countries also.
Previous to the settlement of Lot, and whilst Abraham, then
in his seventy-first year, was still at Haran, the war of Chedor-
laomer commenced,1 and the Assyrians having made a hostile
inroad, imposed a tribute on this part of the country, as well as
the adjoining territory of Syria. This appears to have been
regularly paid during the succeeding twelve years ; 2 but a
rebellion in the thirteenth year caused a fresh invasion, and syna,Ctl°n °f
Tidal or Thadel, bearing the high-sounding Assyrian title of
King of Nations, marched at the head of the chief princes of b-c-2o(js,
his territories — namely, Chedorlaomer, king of the Elamites ;
Amraphael, king of Shinar ; and Arioch,3 king of Ellasar, in
Assyria ; and smote the Bephaims in Ashteroth Karnaim, and
the Zuzims in Ham, the Emims in the valley of Kiriathai'm,
the people of Jebel Jelad, and the Horeeans or Horites of
1 'Abu-1-Faraj, Hist. Dynast., p. 11. -2 Jos., Antiq., lib. I. cap. ix.
3 Major Bawlinson, vol. IX., p. 47, of Royal Geographical Journal, and
Judith, chap. I., v. 6.
VOL. II. F

66 DISCOMFITURE OF THE KINGS OF ASSYRIA. [CHAP. III.
Mount Seir; and having pushed their conquests along the
northern side of Wadi El 'Arabah as far as the wilderness of
Paran, and towards the shores of the Mediterranean, smiting as
they returned by Enmishpat (Kadesh) all the country of the
Amalekites, likewise that of the Amorites in Hazezon-tamar,
and subseqent they finally entered what was then' called the vale of Siddim,
Assyrians. or the woodland valley. Here they encountered and vanquished
the assembled forces of the kings of Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah,
Zebo'im, and Bela or Zoar, taking all their substance; and
amongst other captives was Lot, the ally of these kings.1
On receiving intelligence of this successful invasion. Abraham
hastily armed his followers, and being supported by the forces
brought by Mamre, Eshcol, and Aner, he overtook the Assy
rians on the fifth night at Dan, near one of the sources of the
Jordan, and before they had even time to arm, he put them to
the route, and continued a close pursuit till they were again
overtaken on the second day at Hobah, on the left hand, or north
of Damascus. Here, as the fruits of a complete victory,
Abraham and his allies, in addition to the spoil, rescued his
Rescue of Lot relative as well as the captive Sodomites ; and it was in return-
wUhMei-"8 ing m triumph that the patriarch was welcomed by Melchi-
chizedek. zedek, the king of Solyma (now called Jerusalem), a most
ancient city.2 It may here be observed, that as the death of
Shem occurred about 502 years after the Flood, it is quite
possible, as already hinted (p. 27), that the king of Salem may
have been that patriarch himself ; to whom, as the high-priest
of God,3 the expulsion of the people of Ham must have been
peculiarly acceptable.
It has been inferred from the limited number of men stated
to be with him (318), that Abraham repelled a mere foray, or,
at most, a partial inroad of the Assyrians ; but if these were
the men regularly armed and trained, and if an estimate be
formed on the moderate scale of four unarmed persons to each
of these, his followers would number about 1600. Moreover, it
1 Josephus, lib. I., cap. ix., compared with Gen., chap. XIV, v. 1 to 14,
and Zonares, Annales, tome I., pp. 21, 22.
2 Zonares, Annales, tome I., p. 21.
3 Jos., lib. I., cap. x., and Gen., chap. XIV., v. 18, 19.

CHAP. III.] DESTRUCTION OF SODOM. 67
must be remembered, that the patriarch's means were not con- Abraham's ioliOWGrs fi j 1 1 1
fined to the number of his own followers, but included the allies.
Amorites, led by the confederate chiefs already mentioned, who
probably brought a considerable force into the field. It is not,
therefore, difficult to imagine that a retreating horde, encum
bered with captives, spoil, &c, and necessarily covering an
extensive space, might be completely routed by the sudden and
judicious attack made at Dan by night, when eastern people are
seldom prepared to resist an enemy. This success was followed
by a close pursuit, and a second victory at Hobah. The route
taken on this occasion by the retreating Assyrians was evidently
different from that by which they had advanced against the
kings of Sodom. For the Cushite tribes on the borders having
made common cause with the latter, the Assyrians, instead of Advance and
passing through the cultivated tract in the line of Hobah and Assyrians.
Dan, which would have afforded to the invaded time to
assemble their forces, chose the shorter and more direct route
of the Desert ; then, as has just been mentioned, by skirting
the borders of the wilderness, the Bephaims, Zuzims, and the
five kings of the territory now occupied by Lake Asphaltites,
being overcome in succession, the invaders followed the valley
of the Jordan to Dan, and thence along the western side of
Damascus to Hobah, where their final destruction took place.
About three years after the skilful rescue of Lot, IshmaelB.c.2005.
was born, in the encampment between Kadesh and Bered ;! and
thirteen years subsequently the fair portion of territory occupied
by Lot, was the scene of the most awful catastrophe hitherto The catas-
recorded, the Deluge alone excepted; for according to thevXVf1
Scripture2 account, as well as that given by Strabo,3 thirteen 1 im
cities of the plain were, from the joint effects of natural and
supernatural agencies, overwhelmed by an inundation of burning
sulphur. The vale of Siddim, being full of slime, or bitu
minous pits, at the time of the battle of the kings, and these pits
having been ignited by, fire sent down from heaven,4 the
asphaltum also burning freely, the materials were gradually
consumed, and the conflagration at length produced the basin
1 Gen., chap. XVL, v. 14. 2 Gen., chap. XIX., v. 24, 25.
3 Lib. XVL, pp. 760, 763. 4 Verse 24. F 2

68 FLIGHT OF LOT. [CHAP. III.
now occupied by the Lake of Sodom and Gomorrah ; which
has been ascertained to be in one part about 1200 yards deep.
produces the The peculiar salt and bitter taste of the waters of the Dead
Sodom. Sea, and the quantity of bitumen collected on its surface, in the
manner described by Diodorus Siculus,1 with its powerful
exhalations, which are perceptible at the distance of many
miles,2 are so many circumstances in accordance with the brief
account of the destruction of this tract of country given in. the
book of Genesis, as well as with that of profane historians,3 and
the traditions of the Arabs. The latter state, that in this
locality the Thamudite giants4 (in whom may be recognised the
people of Sodom) were destroyed.
Lot's flight to It was during the awful conflagration in question that Lot
fled to Bela, a small city which had been spared for his sake;
and from thence he speedily removed to a cave in the vicinity.
According to the version given by Onkelos of the portion of
Scripture contained in the fourteenth verse of the nineteenth
chapter of Genesis, namely, " sons-in-law, who were to marry
his daughters,"5 it would appear that the latter had only been
affianced according to eastern custom ; an explanation which,
though different from that hitherto given, appears to be borne
out by two incidental circumstances connected with this part of
the narrative. The first is suggested by the particular words
used by Lot himself regarding his daughters, at the beginning of
the eighth verse ; and the second, by the fact that no reference
is made to any other daughters but those who escaped with
their father.
There is likewise a different version given of another circum-
andcircum- stance connected with Lot's posteritv, which is approached with
stances con- . L , .- xl
nected much diffidence, lhis version, if correct, would make the
origin of the Moabites and Ammonites much less objectionable
than that which has been hitherto ascribed to them.
1 Lib. II. , cap. xxix. ; also Tacitus, lib. V.
2 Ibid., pp. 310, 311 ; and above, vol. I., pp. 402, 403,404.
3 Ibid., lib. IL, cap. xxix. ; Strabo, lib. XVL, pp. 760, 763, 764 ; Pliny,
lib. V., cap. xvi., p. 504.
4 Arabic MSS., No. 7357, in the British Museum, translated by Aloys
Sprenger, M.D.
5 Gen., chap. XIX., v. 14.

therewith.

CHAP. III.] MARRIAGES OF HIS DAUGHTERS. 69
According to a recent translation, the sense of the passage is Marriages of
as follows : — The elder of Lot's daughters said to her sister, ters,
" Our father is old, and there is not a man to come to us, as b. c. 1991.
is the custom of all the land, therefore we will drink wine with
our father, then we will abide from him ; thus we shall procure
posterity after our father. So they drank wine with their
father that same night, when the first-born abode from her
father, but he knew not where she abode, neither when she
married."1 " Now it was in after time that the first-born said
to the younger, Behold, I abode in time past from my father :
we will drink wine also this night, then go and abide from him ;
thus we shall procure posterity after our father. Then they
drank wine also that night with their father, and the younger
married and abode from him ; but he knew not where she
abode, neither when she married. Thus both the daughters of
Lot conceived unknown to their father. Then the first-born
bare a son who was called Moab, and the younger also bare a
son, and she called his name Ben Ammi."2
The disobedience and deception practised by Lot's daughters
on these occasions, were sufficient to bring a curse upon the off
spring, which was thus derived from the guilty people of the
land, and they continued in consequence distinct nations. The
former, or the Moabites, occupied the city of Ar, and the rest The Moabites
of the country on the banks of the river Arnon, from whence ites continue
they expelled the giant Emims of the race of Ham :3 the capital »*P«»tetrib*
of the latter was Babbah of Ammon, the city of waters,4 from
whence they expelled the Zamzummims.* The Moabites and Am
monites being under these circumstances chiefly Cushite, conti
nued, as might be expected, in consequence separate branches.
About the period of the destruction of Sodom, the name of
the Hebrew patriarch was changed from Ab-ram (high father)
to Abraham, the intended father of a multitude of nations ;
and a few years afterwards the promised heir was born in his b.u. 1987.
tent near Beersheba ; on which occasion, at the instance of
1 Gen., chap. XIX., v. 31 to 33, Bellamy's translation.
2 Gen., chap. XIX., v. 34 to 38, Bellamy's translation.
3 Deut., chap. IL, v. 10, 11. "2 Sam., chap. XII., v. 26, 27.
5 Deut., chap. IL, v. 20.

70

ISHMAEL'S TERRITORY IN ARABIA. [CHAP. III.

Ishmael's expulsion.

His descend
ants inter
mingle with
other tribes.

The sons of
Keturah, &c.

Iscah or Sarah, Ishmael was sent forth to enjoy an inheritance
elsewhere. But even if this fact did not appear in the sequel,
it can scarcely be doubted that in the richly-figurative language
of the East, the bread and water provided for Hagar and her
son, denoted that an ample provision had been made for the
fugitive. Indeed, it can scarcely be imagined that a wealthy
prince could have banished his youthful son as a helpless wan
derer, instead of bestowing upon the future Arabian prince
some part of his ample flocks, and even a proportion of his
numerous followers to tend them. Ishmael, and those who
accompanied him, may therefore be considered as constituting
a new tribe in the valleys of Arabia Petraea, and by no means
an unimportant one, since the chief was of sufficient consequence
to form an alliance with the Cushites of Egypt;1 and subse
quently, a marriage with the daughter of Mozauz or Modhaudh,
the chief of the powerful tribe of Jorham, (Jurham) ; and, with
the twelve princes, his sons, commenced the grafted race, or
El Arab Mostearibe.2 Their territory must have been con
siderable, for we are told that it extended from Havflah unto
Shur,3 as thou goest towards Assyria, or, as it is clearly implied
in another part of the same verse, from the confines of Egypt
to Havflah on the higher Euphrates ; so that, in fact, it included
the whole of the upper or western part of Arabia Deserta.
No doubt Ishmael's descendants had intermixed with the earlier
inhabitants, as he himself had done ; and it is evident that they
gained the ascendancy to some extent, for the name is preserved,
sometimes separately, at other times in conjunction with that of
the Hagarenes, who, it is asserted by a Hebrew commentator
(Kimchi), were descended from Hagar by an Arab husband.
The death of Sarah, about 1944 b.c, and the alliance of
Abraham with a Canaanitish woman, Keturah or Tour,4 gave
rise to other inhabitants of Arabia. Subsequently to the death
of Abraham, some, or perhaps all of these sons, appear to have
settled near the Elanetic Gulf; in a tract of country which

Gen., chap. XXL, v. 21.
See Appendix to vol. I., Table III.
Gen., chap. XXV, v. 18.
Price's Essay towards the History of Arabia, p. 80.

CHAP. III.] EARLY CIVILIZATION OF EGYPT. 71
probably took its name from Midian, and became afterwards so
remarkable for its wealth and civilization.
Beverting now to the Hebrew tribes, the principal branch The HeDrews
tip ii- • ¦ i ¦ 1 were nume-
descended from the heir of promise, and considering that the rous from the
chief part of Abraham's numerous followers, who accompanied Abraham.
him into Canaan, belonged to this race, it is evident that they
must have been a considerable people at the time they went
down into Egypt. In pursuance of the Divine purpose of
preserving the chief line of the Patriarch's posterity,1 during
the coming years of famine, Jacob's favourite son was conveyed
as a slave to a neighbouring empire, whose important position
among the nations of the world, became from henceforth better
known in consequence of this new link.
A concentrated territory, like the Valley of the Nile, the First govern-
upper portion especially, was admirably adapted for the pro- men ° "
gressive improvement of a fixed government. This govern
ment appears to have been commenced on the establishment
of the followers of Mizraim in the country, towards the middle
of the second century after the Deluge :2 and as the new settle
ment was not liable to be weakened by extension and sub
division, as in the case of tribes spreading into wider regions,
" its advancement would necessarily be rapid. Accordingly it
will be remembered, that only 32 1 years after the commence
ment of this kingdom, Abraham found it an established mo
narchy, with those gradations in rank and office on which its
successful maintenance depends at home ; and from the know
ledge which the Patriarch had of the country previous to going
down to Egypt, it may be inferred that the necessary com
mercial and political relations already existed, for drawing
wealth and prosperity from abroad.
The state of the country at this period is very briefly and
generally noticed ; but at the time now under consideration,
namely, about 201 years later, Joseph found there a learned B.c. isi 3.
caste, consisting of priests, physicians or embalmers, called social state of
Healers; also distinct classes of husbandmen, watermen, andEsypt"
1 Gen., chap. XLV., v. 7.
2 Manes began to reign, says Shuckforth, p.d. 116, or, according to
Galterer, 153 f.d.

72 HISTORICAL INTEREST OF EGYPT. [CHAP. III.
shepherds. In fact, everything denoted the existence of a
well-regulated and extensive kingdom, which, in addition to its
various products at home, already enjoyed those of distant
regions by means of caravan commerce.
Probability At this period, the country was under the sway of the
ligion existed Memphian Pharaoh; and that some knowledge of a purer
n Egypt. religion had been preserved by the people of Egypt, is evident,
from the impression made on the monarch by his dream, as
well as from the conduct of one of his predecessors in restoring
Sarah to her husband.1
Government jf. appears that when Jacob came thither, about 215 years
the coming of after Abraham's visit, the monarch was attended by courtiers,
and high ofBcers of state, and that his court was regulated by
a strict ceremonial. There was a state prison under the charge
of a captain of life-guards; and no doubt there was then a
regular army : at a rather later period this numbered 600,000
men. The early civilization and science of Egypt were such as to
render it improbable that the whole should be due to the
gradual improvements made on the creation of an infant colony,
and it may rather be ascribed to the progressive extension of
the attainments already possessed by the first persons who
migrated towards that part of the old world.
Egypt recalls to our minds a train of historical associations
which command a high degree of interest ; and the monuments
of art with which the country abounds, appear to justify the
opinion that she originated the architecture which, in Greece,
was afterwards carried to such perfection.
With regard to one period of her early history, the establish
ment of the shepherd race on the banks of the Nile is thus
described by an ancient historian : —
Comingof the " It came to pass during the reign of Timaus, that God was
Hyksos, displeased with us, and there came up from the East, in a
strange manner, men of an ignoble race, who had the confidence
to invade our country, and easily subdued it by their power,
without a battle. Having demolished the temples of the gods,
1 Gen., chap. XII., v. 15-20.

CHAP. in. J INVASION OF THE SHEPHERDS. 73
and inflicted every kind of barbarity upon the inhabitants, they
at length made one of their number king, whose name was
Salatis. The seat of his government was Memphis ; and Lower
Egypt (called the Arabian nomef being now tributary, he
stationed garrisons in suitable places, and directed his attention
chiefly to the eastern frontier as a protection against the Assy
rians, foreseeing that they would one day undertake an invasion and ** 'gCon"
of the kingdom."2
From the term " ignoble," it may be inferred that the con
querors were not, like Manetho himself, derived from a pure
Cushite stock, but had been part of the Shemitic people who,
at a later period, had followed the sons of Mizraim into Arabia,
and again into Africa ; and the successive inroads into the latter
country, with other circumstances, make it probable that some
were Cushites, and others branches of the Himyarites. It is
stated that the latter and the Sabsei were one and the same
people, only divided by the Bed Sea ; and from the similarity of
the Ethiopian language to the Arabic in its most ancient state,
as well as the practice of circumcision, it would appear that
they had come from thence at a very early period.3 Accord- a Cushite
colony enters
ing to tradition, preserved from time immemorial among Abyssinia.
the Abyssinians, another Cushite colony came into that country
soon after the flood, and settled in a ridge of mountains on
the confines of Atbara. Here they excavated dwellings, and
spread industry and arts eastward and westward from thence ;
Axum and Meroe being the earliest cities which they founded.4
Another section, called Shepherds or Berbers, occupied the
tract extending along the African coast, southward and north
ward of the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb. These were considered
the ordinary class, who, being partly nomadic, moved with their
numerous flocks from place to place; having their principal
seat in the country now called Beja. The former branch,
1 Jos., Cont. Apion., lib. I., s. 14.
2 From Manetho. — See Ancient Fragments, pp. 169, 170, by Isaac
Preston Cory, Esq. W. Pickering, 1832.
5 Ludolphus, Hist. -ZEthiop. I., and Comment, ad suam Hist. JEthiop.,
lib. XVL, p. 60, compared with Hudson, Geog. Min., tome I., p. 46.
* Bruce's Travels to discover the Source of the Nile, vol. IL, pp. 12, 13,
14, 18, Dublin, 1791 ; Jos., Ant., lib. II., cap. x.

74 THE PASTORS PROCEED THROUGH ABYSSINIA. [CHAP. III.
however, being the warrior and dominant class, were more
particularly considered the Hyksos.1
The name of From the preceding circumstances it would appear that the
babiy giveuTo name of Shepherd, at least, was equally applied to the two
two races. rgceg wflo peopled Africa at distant intervals; such as the
Cushites in the first instance,2 and subsequently the Sukkims,3
and other Shemitic branches. But that a numerous people de
nominated Pastors descended along the Nile, is manifest from
the remains of troglodyte dwellings at Axum as well as Meroe,
and likewise from the circumstance of their first stronghold
having been in the Theban district ; to which it will be recol
lected, they afterwards added Lower Egypt. Here, on account
of their vocation, which was an abomination to the Egyptians)
they continued to live almost as a separate people till the time of
their expulsion, when agreeably to the terms of the capitulation
they quitted Egypt, and the main body retired into Palestine.
Joseph seems to have been alive at that time, and it is probable
that the Israelites lived amongst them previously to their de
parture, since Jacob and his followers, who were of the same
race, and followed a similar calling, obtained permission from
Pharaoh, who was a shepherd king, to settle in the land of Goshen.
The shepherds, as might be expected, were opposed to the
Egyptians, not only in the use of cattle for food, but also in
Sabaism of the the worship of images ; they adored the heavenly bodies ; and
ep er s' a remarkable proof that they were conversant with the motions
of these is given by Syncellus, who states,4 that Assis or Asith,
their sixth king, added five intercalary days to the year, which
previously consisted of 360 days. The calf was deified as
Apis during the reign of that monarch.5
The inroad of the Hyk-sos,6 or Shepherd Kings of Arabia,
one of the most remarkable events connected with the history
of Egypt, has been placed as late as 1176 b. c, and their ex-
1 Bruce 's Travels to discover the Source of the Nile, vol. IL, pp. 20, 21, 23,
Dublin, 1791. 2 See vol. I., p. 281. 3 See preceding Chapter, p. 33.
4 P. 123. 5 Ancient Fragments, by I. Preston Cory, Esq., p. 141.
6 Hyk denotes a king, in the sacred dialect, and Sos, in the vulgar lan
guage, signifies a shepherd, and hence shepherd king.— From Manetho,
p. 171 of Ancient Fragments of Isaac Preston Cory, Esq. W. Pickering,
London, 1832.

CHAP. III.] THEIR EXPULSION FROM EGYPT. 75
pulsion in the year 1070 ;' but both the inroad and the expul- Coming of the
sion probably took place at a more remote period. ' ep er s an
In the second chapter of the second book, Manetho states
that the shepherds quitted Egypt during the reign of Tuthmosis, their expui-
the seventh king of the eighteenth dynasty,2 whose exploits in Egypt.
delivering the country are made prominent on the walls of the
Memnonium. The date of their departure is placed 393 years
before the flight of Danaus to Argos ;3 that is, soon after
Joseph's death, between 1620 b. c. and 1630 B.C. or, according
to Josephus, 1623 b. c. The latter period,4 with the addition of
259 years and 10 months for the reign of the first six shepherd
kings,5 and 100 for their successors up to the close of the
war, in the 9th year of Thummosis,6 would place the arrival
ofthe shepherds 1982 B.C.
It may, however, be observed that Manetho elsewhere men
tions that the Hyk-sos and their descendants, retained possession
of the country during a period of 511 years,7 which would
carry back their first invasion to about 2134 b. c. As this was
about two centuries after the time of the settlement of Mizraim's
followers in Egypt, and is anterior to the departure of Kahtan
from Mesopotamia, it would in this case show that the earliest
shepherds were Cushites.
Josephus evidently confounded the exodus of the Israelites
with the departure of the shepherds, which mistake may pos- Mistake of
sibly be in some measure explained, by the latter being chiefly
composed of his own, that is, the Shemitic race.
1 Synchronology, &c, by the Eev. Ch. Crossthwaite, pp. 116, 117, 240,
241. Parker, London, 1839.
2 Ancient Fragments, by Isaac Preston Cory, Esq., p. 116, from Manetho.
3 Ancient Fragments, p. 138, by Isaac Preston Cory, Esq.
* Cont. Apion., lib. I., s. 16, and IL, s. 2, in speaking ofthe departure of
the shepherds, on the authority of Manetho, 393 years before the flight of
Danaus, he places that event 612 years previous to the building of the
temple: 1011 +612 = 1623.
s Salatis, Baeon, Apachnes, Apophis, Sethos or Ianias, and Assis, making
259 years 10 months. — Ancient Fragments, pp. 140 and 170, by Isaac Preston
Cory, Esq.
6 Amosis, Chebron, Amenophis, Memphres or Mephres, Mispharmuthosis,
and Tuthmosis (or Thummosis), 100 years.— Ibid., pp. 141, 142.
7 Cory's Ancient Fragments, p. 171, from Manetho.

76 ORIGIN OF THE DESIGNATION SARACENS. [CHAP. III.
Esau removes The other Israelitish stock, namely the five sons of Esau by
to Mount Seir. ' •> . . *
his two Canaanitish wives,1 and his second marriage with
s Bashemath, Ishmael's daughter, had proceeded in another
direction, and became part of the inhabitants of the Arabian
peninsula; having removed with their father, after Isaac's
b.c. isoi. funeral, to Mount Seir.2 These were the latest additions to
the Arab race, and with the preceding offsets from the stocks of
Abraham and Lot, they gradually formed the part of the
inhabitants expressively called the mingled people of Arabia.
The intermixture, however, took place chiefly with the Ama
lekites, Amorites, and other Cushite tribes on the borders of
Palestine ; without materially changing the state of the pure
or ancient Arabs in the interior of the peninsula. The
distinctive appellations of Edomites, Midianites, Ishmaelites,
Moabites, and Hagarenes,3 appear to have been the longest
preserved in north-western Arabia ; to these, the designation
TheNaba- of Nabatheans succeeded, and was applied in a general way,
reneSrT" ty Diodorus Siculus and other writers, to the whole of the
cens, &c. nomad races of the upper part of the peninsula. At a later
period, however, it was replaced by that of Sharkeyn, or
Eastern people, afterwards Saracens, which was adopted almost
universally by European writers ; its partial use by orientals
being probably derived, as already noticed, from Zaraka,4 a
town, rather than from Sarah, the wife of Abraham ; whose
descendants were confined to two branches, namely, the He
brews and the sons of Edom.
The latter on coming into Arabia, appear to have found the
sons of Esau enjoying a patriarchal government under the
Horite kings, which in all probability differed but little from
that of the Sheikhs of the present day. These princes
were succeeded by the dukes of Edom, for it is remarkable
that this title had not been in use whilst the sons of Esau were
in Canaan. Nor was it adopted till some little time after they
Eiiphaz the settled in Mount Seir ; for Eliphaz, son of Adah, was at first
Temanite, and
time °f J0b" > Gen., chap. XXXVI, v. 2.
s Ibid., v. 6, 8, and chap. XIV, v. 6.
8 Psalm LXXXIII, v. 6, 9.
4 See above, vol. L, p. 631.

CHAP. III.] SITUATION OF UZ. 77
styled the Temanite, from that portion of the new territory
which fell to his lot.1
The distinction thus incidentally made' may be of some im
portance ; for if this individual were in reality the oldest of Job's
friends, the circumstance may assist in determining the period
to which one of the most interesting, and one of the oldest
portions of Scripture belongs.
Several particulars, which will presently be noticed, go far
to show, that the residence of Job could not have been in
Idumea, nor even, as has been supposed by Dr. Lee, in the
tract between Damascus and the river Euphrates ; but in all
probability it was in the vicinity of O'rfah, where a tank and a Upper Meso-
¦n i 1 r>- / -n i ¦ i t i t • potamia, the
well on the road to Diyar ±>ekr, with other localities, are con- land of Uz.
nected with the name of the great Patriarch.
It will be remembered that the district in question was one
of the seats, and possibly the principal one, of the Shemitic
people ; it was also the land of Buz, son of Nahor,2 and probably
also that of the eldest son of Aram,3 to whom the foundation
of Damascus has been attributed,4 with the more probability,
since this place might have been occupied by this branch of the
sons of Noah, as they spread westward.
As a constant political intercourse appears to have been The Shemites
maintained between the central government of Assyria on the Jamia and"
one hand, and the dependent provinces about the borders of^erca^con"
Syria on the other, it can scarcely be doubted that tribal, and
still more strongly kindred ties, would be equally maintained
between the descendants of Shem living in Mesopotamia, and
those who occupied the borders of Syria and Arabia. And it
may be observed that, agreeably to the prevailing customs of
the east, such a journey as that from Idumea to the supposed
rendezvous at O'rfah, would only be an ordinary circumstance,
willingly undertaken in order to mourn with and comfort the
distinguished chief of their tribe : some distance is certainly
implied by the necessity of making an express appointment.
1 From Teman, a city of Edom. — Jer, chap. XLIX, v. 7, 20 ; Ezek,
chap. XXV, v. 13 ; Amos, chap. L, v. 12.
2 Gen, chap. XXII, v. 20, 21. 3 Gen, chap. X, v. 23.
4 Bochart, Geo. Sacr, lib. II, cap. viii.

78 EPOCH OF JOB'S TRIAL. [CHAP. III.
JobV'trili* -^0W> since tne establishment of Teman as head of a family
would, in patriarchal times, probably take place when the man
was about the age of fifty, it may be presumed that the visit of
Eliphaz, and the trial of Job, took place nearly at the time of
Jacob's departure for Egypt; and as Job had then ten sons
and daughters, some settled in life, the patriarch himself could
scarcely be less than about fifty years of age, which would
carry his birth back to 1851 B.C., and the seventy-ninth year
of Jacob.
Nature and With reference to the localities connected with this history,
climate of the . . . . . ... .
country where lt is evident that Job lived in a manufacturing city, situated in
Job resided. -, . t ¦ i ¦ i *i *>
a productive country, having corn and wine and oil presses ;
with silver, iron, and brass mines 3 in the neighbourhood. The
tract in question, we are told, was wet with the showers of the '
mountains,4 and it enjoyed the fertilizing effects of the small
and great rain, having at other times its waters bound in thick
clouds.5 Proximity to high mountains would cause the pre
ceding changes ; and that the country was likewise exposed to
an extreme climate, is manifest from repeated allusions to the
severity of winter, viz., snow and treasures of hail ;6 cold from
the north, snow on the earth, 'and ice straitening the breadth of
the waters ;8 and again, being hid as with a stone, and the face
of the deep frozen.9 In consequence of lying at the foot of
Taurus, ancient Osroene is subject to all the preceding changes ;
and it appears to correspond likewise with the other circum
stances incidentally mentioned in the book of Job. Here, in
North Lat. 37° 9' 44", the twilight 10 is lengthened, and the
clusters or constellations designated the Pleiades, Orion, Mazza-
roth, and Arcturus, would be constantly in view.11 The idola
ters of the day,12 the Sabeans of Haran too, were at hand to fall
upon the oxen ploughing,13 nor were the Chasdim, whether

1 Weaver's shuttle; Job, chap. VII, v. 6. 2 Job, chap. VI, v. 11.
3 Chap. XXVIII, v. 1-3. 4 Chap. XXIV. v. 8.
5 Chap. XXVI, v. 8. « Chap. XXXVIII, v. 22.
' Chap. XXXVII, v. 6, 9. » Ibid, v. 10.
9 Chap. XXXVIII, v. 30. '» Chap. Ill, v. 9.
» Ibid, v. 31, 32. '2 Chap. XXXI, v. 26, 27.
13 Chap. I, v. 14, 15.

CHAP. III.] LOCALITIES CONNECTED WITH JOB'S HISTORY. 79
those of the Taurus, or, more probably, another branch of the
same people from the adjoining plains of Dura, too distant to
carry off the camels from the neighbouring desert.1 The topaz
of Asiatic Cush2 would likewise come within Job's knowledge ;
moreover, he had extensive mines of native steel and iron near
Mar'ash, on one side, and of copper, silver, and gold on the
other, both at Kebban Ma' den, and near Diyar Bekr.
The presence of Elihu seems to offer an additional reason in Eiihu's reia-
favour of this part of the country. He was, we are told, the vailing cus-
son of Barachiel the Buzite, of the kindred of Bam or Aram ; oms'
therefore, in all probability, he was part of the family of Buz,
son of Nahor ; in which case he belonged to the same tribe,
and lived in the same neigbourhood as Job. He was evidently
a bystander, and not being one of the visiters, he was, as
youngest of the party, according to Arab usage, the last to
speak ; and, in fact, he only ventured to give an opinion when
the subject of discussion was almost exhausted ; nor is he again
mentioned at the close of this interesting dialogue, as is the
case with the other speakers.
The state of astronomical knowledge, as well as that of the
arts in general which prevailed in Arabia at this time, as
deduced from the discussions with Job, have already been
noticed;3 but one portion, namely, the monumental inscrip
tions, claims some further observation in connexion with the
advanced state of civilization which appears to have prevailed
in the districts about Yemen, as well as in those of Idumea and
O'rfah. At the period in question, the influence of the Israelites, as The Israel.
regards the people of Arabia, was almost in abeyance, owing to Egypt?" '"
their settlement in Egypt, whilst that ofthe older Shemitic branch
was quite in the ascendant. At the termination of Job's life, as
here presumed about 1651 B.C., or in his 200th year, Yemen had
already been for a lengthened period under the Tobbai.4 It
1 Job, chap. I, v. 17. 2 Job, chap. XXVIII, v. 19.
3 Vol. I, p. 666.
* From the Arabic Tabbaiah, which had a general signification, like that
of Emperor, Khan, Pharaoh, Caesar, &c. — Bibliotheque Orientale,D'Herbelot,
article Tobbd,.

80 STATE OF ARABIA UNDER THE TOBBA1. [dlAP. III.
has been seen that Himyar, also called 'Arenjej,1 or, according
to another authority, El ' Arfej,2 succeeded his father, Saba ;
and with him commenced the Himyaritic dynasty. He was
the first who wore a diadem, and, being an enlightened prince,
he consolidated the government which had originated with his
ancestor Ya'rab.
Himyar and Himyar was successively followed by Wathel, Sessac, Yaafar,
his successors "
' Deryeth, Nu'man, Asmah, and Shedad. The last is supposed
to have commenced his reign about 1578 B.C. He was inva
riably called Sheddd-ben- Ad ; who, according to Arab tra
dition, built some of the Pyramids as trophies of his extensive
victories in Africa.3 One great and distant expedition under
the Himyarite sovereign Hareth-al-Bai'sh, had recently pro
ceeded towards India ; from whence much booty was brought.4
The latter But Abrahah, the son and successor of Hareth-al-Baiish,
N^gritia? ™ ° turned his arms towards Africa, and having penetrated far into
Nigritia, he obtained the surname of Dhulmenar, or the Man
of the Spires or Pharos, in consequence of having built these '
towers, which were said to have been intended to guide his
retreat ; but it is more probable that they were stations and
posts to protect his military operations and contain the neces
sary supplies.
invasion of Dhulmenar was succeeded by Afrikus, who undertook a
Abyssinia. .. . itii / i^>»i • • \
great expedition against the .Berbers (south of Abyssinia). He
built a town which was called after his own name, and he car
ried his arms to the most distant part of the habitable world,
or, according to Hamadun, as far as Tangier.6
Afrikus was succeeded by his son, Alfeidar, or Dhalghanatir ;
meaning, in Himyarf, the man of many fingers. Afterwards
he turned his arms eastward, but died in 'Irak during his
expedition. He was succeeded by Scharbabil, and the latter
by El Hodad.
1 Arabic MSS, No. 7353, in the British Museum, translated by Aloys
Sprenger, M.D. 2 Ibid, 7357.
3 Makrizi, translated by Aloys Sprenger, M.D, from MSS. in the British
Museum. * Schultens, according to Hamza, p. 23.
5 Nowairi, in Schultens' Hist. Joctaindarum, p. 25.

CHAP. III.] TRACES OF THE HIMYARITES. 8 1
About this period a remarkable expedition appears to have
proceeded under Abu Kurrub, the Himyarite, who, after having
invaded India and Bactria, founded an empire in the latter
territory, the capital of which was Samarcand. This city was
so called after one of the Arabian princes named Shamar ; and,
it is added, one inscription was placed over the gate of Merv,
and another over the gate of China.1 The kingdoms of G-hassan
and Hfrah were afterwards added to their preceding territories ;
so that, when at its height, the Himyaritic power extended from Extent of the
Bactria and India to Abyssinia, and again from the extremity powe'r.
of Yemen to the shores of Syria ; thus comprising almost the
whole of the dominions, which were at one period subject to the
Cushites.2 By some, however, even the name of this widely-
spread race has been considered apocryphal ; but it should be
recollected that the existence of the Tobbai, in Arabia at least,
does not depend entirely upon tradition ; for there are proofs
that a civilized people existed at a very remote period, bearing
this appellation, and speaking a language exclusively their
own — a dialect of which is still in use amongst the people of
Mahrah.3 It is no longer doubtful that they also had a peculiar
written character of great antiquity called Suri or Syrian,4 and
many specimens have been found in different places, but more
especially in Yemen. Niebuhr was aware of the existence of Himyan
inscriptions in an unknown character, at San'a and other places ; found in
but, as his usually persevering researches were frustrated by emen'
illness, it remained for Seetzen, the celebrated discoverer of
Djerash, to set this part of the question at rest, by finding them
at Dhafar, one of the places which had been formerly enume
rated ;5 and not far from the town of Jerim, Seetzen discovered
1 P. 363 of El-Mas'udi's Historical Encyclopasdia, translated by Aloys
Sprenger, M.D. Allen and Co, Leadenhall Street, 1841.
2 See above, p. 18.
3 " Les Arabes de Mehret sont de race non melangee. Le langage
des habitans est tellement corrompu qu'on a de la peine a les comprendre,
c'est l'ancien Himyarite." — Geog. D'Edrisi, ed. Jaubert, tome I, p. 150;
Becueil de Voyage et Memoires, &c, Paris, 1836.
* Dissertation on the Newly-discovered Babylonian Inscriptions, by Joseph
Hager, D.D, p. 14.
5 The Sheikh described a particular stone, to Niebuhr, as having an
inscription on it, which neither the Jews nor Muhammedans could read.
VOL. II. G

82 INSCRIPTIONS FOUND IN YEMEN, ETC. [CHAP. III.
Also at three such inscriptions : one he purchased, and a second was
copied; but the third was so deeply embedded in a wall, that
he failed in the attempt to copy it. Again at Mankat, one
hour from Dhafar, this lamented traveller met with five other
Himyari inscriptions, on different stones, which, were built into
the wall of a mosque. Of these, only two were copied, the
others being too high to admit of being deciphered. Four out
of the five were on white marble, in relief ; and it is remark
able that, in the case of the largest, which in point of art and
execution equals any Greek inscription, the lines are attached
to strokes, like the well-known and most ancient De'vanagari
Sanscrit character.1
In 1834 and 1835, the officers of the Honourable Com
pany's ship " Palinurus," under Captain S. B. Haines, of the
Indian Navy, discovered, near the southern coast of Arabia,
several Himyari inscriptions, the situations of which are
marked on the survey of the coast made by this officer,2
on the namely, at Wadi She'ikhavi, in 51 E.L., also near Bas Bag-
TRm??* hashu' in 50° °' 30" EX-' and at Hisn Ghorab, about seventy
miles to the westward of Makallah ; another, again, at some
little distance in the interior near the ruins of Nakb-el Hajar ;3
which are situated in Wadi Me'ifah, some miles north of Jebel
Hamari. The third and fourth were separately copied by two
of the officers, Lieutenants Wellsted 4 and Cruttenden,5 and
published by the former.
likewise San'a. Subsequently Lieutenant Cruttenden had the good fortune
to bring before the world two others, which were obtained at
San'a, during his visit to that city in 1836. One of these
was brought from a spot only a short distance from the house
" May it not be Himyaritic,'' adds the illustrious Dane, " since this was the
site of Idaphar, which, according to ancient historians, was a royal residence
ofthe Himyaritic kings?" — Niebuhr, vol. Ill, p. 83. Amsterdam, 1774.
1 Seetzen's Letter to Von Hammer, Fundgruben des Orients, tome IL,
p. 275.
2 See vol. IX, part i. ofthe Journal ofthe Boyal Geographical Society.
3 14D 4' 30'' N. lat, and 47° 4' 30" E. long.— Ibid.
4 See Lieut. J. R. Wellsted's Travels in 'Oman and Arabia, vol. IL,
pp. 421, 426.
5 The copies made by Lieut. Cruttenden are deposited in the East India
House.

CHAP. in. J OTHER TRACES OF THE HIMYARITES. 83
that had been occupied by the famous Niebuhr himself. It is JS6 tbund ncar
therefore very possible that other such inscriptions may still be
found in that country, and it is even said that there were some
amongst the ruins of the bund near Mareb. This celebrated
structure was, we are informed, built of cut stone, secured by
iron cramps, forming a prodigious mass of masonry, 300 cubits
broad, and about two miles long, being the distance across the
mountain valley, where, as is the case with similar works on the
north-west side of India, particularly at Oedipore, an immense
body of water was collected from the different Wadfs. Whilst
perfect, an ample supply of water was at command, not only for
irrigation, but for ordinary purposes also ; and upon the dyke
itself there were, according to the Arabs, inscriptions in the
Musnad character.1 On some of the stones, which have been
brought from that place in preference to preparing others at
San'a, Himyaritic characters have been found ; with which may
be coupled the interesting fact, that the locality in question is
called Ard-es-Saba,2 which goes far to prove that this was the Mareb, the
ancient Saba.3 Three of the inscriptions copied by Lieutenant ancien a •
Cruttenden, I.N., are in relief, and the fourth deeply cut into
marble : the letters are about two inches and a half long, and
are exactly in the same character as that which was used at
Nakb-el Hajar.
Another was found near the Himyaritic sea-port of 'Aden in
1842. It is on a circular slab of pure white marble, having a
raised rim round it ; and, being less carefully executed, it pro
bably belongs to a later period than those already noticed.4
Monumental traces of the Himyarites are not, however, by
any means confined to their original seat in Western Arabia ;
they are also found in distant countries, both eastward and Himyari
westward. Beyond the opposite shores of the Bed Sea, for Afri"aandS1BAsia.
1 Antiquities of Yemen, from an Arabic MS. in the British Museum,
translated by Aloys Sprenger, M.D, No. 1496.
2 The land of Sheba. — Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol.
VIII, p. 268.
8 Mareb was the capital of the country of Saba. — See Golius in Alphergan,
p. 86.
* Captain Haines' Letter to J. P. Willoughby, Esq., Secretary to the
Government of Bombay.
G 2

84 ANTIQUITY OF THE HIMYARITIC INSCRIPTIONS [CHAP. III.

Antiquity of
the

Cuneatic and
Himyaricharacters.

Commonorigin of the
Shemitic
tongues.

instance ; in the latter direction, Jasasin 'Ibn Amrii, the Him
yarite, conducted an expedition into Africa, as far as the valley
of Sand, and even further, when the advanced body under his
generals, perished. To commemorate this event, Jasasin
ordered a metal statue to be placed on a stone, with an inscrip
tion in the Himyari character.1 The affinity of the De'vana-
gari Sanscrit to the Himyari, as well as the existence of an
inscription at Samarcand, have been already noticed. The
characters on the Bactrian coins, also appear to have a striking
resemblance to those in question. And it is still more extra
ordinary that almost at the very antipodes of Samarcand, cha
racters have been found, whose similarity bespeaks a common
origin.2 So far as success has attended the efforts of the learned
in deciphering them, the Himyaritic inscriptions are of very
remote antiquity, and possibly it may be found that the inscrip
tions in question, are more ancient than the Assyrian letters of
Pliny ;3 consequently, that they were in use previously to the
Cuneatic letters. In this case, the language connected with
the former may have been the parent of many tongues belong
ing to the various races, which are, as it were, so many recog
nised branches spreading from the parent stem, and showing in
almost every instance an affinity to the root itself,
The most numerous are the simple or monosyllabic branches,
which prevail throughout the north-eastern parts of Asia and
the greatest part of America and Africa.
The second are, for the most part, dissyllabic, combining at
the same time some grammatical construction ; and to these
belong the Persian, the Grecian, the Latin, and the Teutonic
tongues, &c.
The third, or trisyllabic roots, appertain to the race now
more particularly under consideration, namely, the Shemitic
family, to which belong the Sanscrit, Chaldee, Arabic, Syriac,
Phoenician,4 Canaanitish,4 Pehlavi, the Ethiopic of Habashi, or

1 Schultens, p. 25, according to Hamza.
2 Mr. Waldeck's new work on Yacuta. 3 Lib. VII, pp. 236, 238.
4 Both of these languages are derived from Babylonia.— Dissertation on
the Newly-discovered Babylonian Inscription, by Joseph Hager, D.D.,
p. 14.

CHAP. III.] THE SHEMITIC LANGUAGES. 85
Abyssinia, with the Cufic ; and especially the mixed language
and square character of the children of Heber. The last
appears to have been the result of an intercourse between the
Shemites and Cushites of Syria and Palestine, after the arrival
of Abraham.
This patriarch no doubt preserved his own language whilst Derivation of
he remained in Babylonia, as well as subsequently in Haran ; from Chaidee
but that a change took place after his departure from the latter an
city, is almost capable of demonstration. We find Laban,
during the journey in pursuit of his relatives, used the pure
Chaidee, " Jegar Sahadutha," for the heap of stones which
had been raised; whilst Jacob calls it by the Hebrew word
Galeed.1 It may be inferred from the former circumstance,
that the Chaidee was the language of Abraham up to the time
of his departure, and that the change took place in Canaan.
This, it is supposed, occurred in consequence of mixing Chaidee
with the existing language of the country, and also with that of
Hagar, who was a Cushite. In this way, therefore, the Chaidee
Arabic dialect, together with its cognates, Syriac, Samaritan,
Phoenician, Ethiopic, &c, is presumed to have been derived
from the ancient Arabic of the Canaanites, &c, which was
spoken by Abraham and his family with a Chaldean pronun
ciation : moreover, there is no doubt that the present Hebrew
characters are of Chaidee origin.2
At the period more particularly alluded to, namely, between Epoch ofthe
the departure of Jacob, or rather the trial of Job, 1801 b.c, zation in
and that of the supposed time of the death of the latter, be- ra ia'
tween 1651 and 1640 b.c, the principal provinces of Arabia
appear to have been in their most advanced state of civilization ;
this was probably derived from two races of people, namely,
from the followers of Kahtan, who settled in Yemen, &c, and
at a subsequent period from those of Abraham and Lot. The
written character of each branch has been preserved ; and that
still in use, namely the Hebrew, seems to have been connected
with the older and more remote or Himyaritic branch, which is
now almost extinct.
1 Or Galgnedh.— Gen, chap. XXXI, v. 47, 48; Jennings' Jewish
Antiq., vol. II. , p. 331. 2 Explanation by Mr. Rassam.

86

COMMON ORIGIN OF EASTERN DIALECTS. [CHAP. III.

The .eastern
and western
dialects had
one common
origin.

Besides a sufficient affinity both in the roots and verbs of
eastern and western languages to indicate that they had one
common origin, it also appears, from the high authority of Sir
William Jones, that the square Chaldaic letters in which most
Hebrew books are copied, were originally the same, or derived
from the same prototype, as the Indian and Arabian characters ;
and there can be little doubt that the Phoenician had a similar
origin.1 Another well-known philologer, in his learned researches,
speaking of one of the oldest tongues extant, observes, that the
Sanscrit draws its origin, and that some steps of its progress
may be traced, from a primitive language which was gradually
refined in various climates, and became Sanscrit in India,
Pehlavi in Persia, and Greek on the shores of the Mediter
ranean.2

1 Asiatic Researches, vol. I, p. 423.
2 H. T. Colebrooke, Esq., vol. I, p. 201 of Asiatic Researches.

( 87 )

CHAPTEE IV.

GLANCE AT THE PHOENICIAN, EGYPTIAN, JEWISH, AND ARABIAN
HISTORIES, FROM B.C. 1623 TO B.C. 1322.

Successive Colonies proceed from Arabia into Egypt. — Commerce of the
Egyptians maintained principally by Land. — The Sepulchres furnish a
Pictorial History of the Country. — Cotton, Linen, Porcelain, and other
Manufactures. — Alphabetical Writing in use antecedently to the construc
tion of the Pyramids. —Costumes of the various People. — Rich Hangings
and Carpets manufactured. — Dyeing in use ; also Metals, Chariots, and
Household Utensils. — System of Cultivation pictorially represented. —
Use of the Himyaritic character by the Arabs in the time of Joseph. —
Agricultural Products, and Caravan Trade to distant Countries. — Pro
ducts and Caravan Trade of the Phoenicians.- — Position of their Territory.
— Settlements of the Phoenicians previously to the coming of the Shepherds.
— Commencement of Sea Navigation and rise of Tyre. — Colonies planted
in the Mediterranean and Atlantic, &c. — Rapid rise of the Egyptians after
the expulsion of the Shepherds. — The Egyptians become jealous of the
Hebrews. — Forced Servitude of the latter. — Commencement of their
flight from the Land of Goshen. — Pursued by Pharaoh. — Passage of the
Red Sea, near Suez. — Advanced state of the Edomites and Midianites. —
Jethro visits Moses. — Arab Polity made the basis of Moses' Government.
— Moses conducts the People to Mount Sinai. — Promulgation of the Moral
Law. — Guided by Hobab, the Israelites advance to Kadesh-Barnea, and
the southern borders of Canaan. — Retreat from thence after being de
feated by the Amalekites. — Destruction of Korah and his Companions. —
Journey to Ezion Geber and Mount Hor ; and eventually to the foot of
Mount Pisgah. — Limited extent of the country traversed during the
Exodus. — Passage of the Jordan. —Some of the ancient Inhabitants are
driven into Egypt, others settle in Armenia. — War between Armenia
and Assyria. — Progress of the Egyptian Kingdom. — Sesostris and his
Conquests.
A state of civilization approaching that mentioned in the Successive
preceding chapter as belonging to the Himyarites, had long ArabiaV0™
prevailed in the neighbouring country of Egypt ; to which EsyPl-
kingdom the tide of emigration had been constantly flowing

88 ANCIENT MONUMENTS OF EGYPT. [CHAP. IV.
from Arabia and Syria: and Egypt being a source of parti
cular attraction to the people of the former country, it appears
that, down to a comparatively late period, a succession of colo
nies were continually entering it by the Straits of Bab-el-
Mandeb ; — while the colonies, which quitted this country and
Phoenicia during the period now to be noticed, were the means
of spreading knowledge to countries more remote.
The settlement of the bulk of the fugitive shepherds amongst
the Phoenicians naturally gave a fresh impulse to the com
merce of the latter people, by the necessity of finding employ
ment and additional outlets for the new comers ; and at this
time, circumstances were peculiarly favourable for emigration.
Land com- The deficiency of timber suitable for the construction of
bytnePU SUe vessels, and the aversion of the Egyptians to undertake long
prrferenceto voyages, greatly limited the navigation of that people; but so
that of the sea. advantageous was the situation, and so vast the resources ofthe
country, that it maintained commercial intercourse, chiefly by
land, with nearly all the known parts of the world ; for which
its agricultural and other products furnished ample means.
The compartments of the Pyramids and Temples of Egypt
exhibit, in colouring still vivid, the history and occupations of
the inhabitants of the valley of the Nile, with a fidelity which
leaves little to desire regarding their architecture, sculpture,
painting, and hieroglyphics, as well as their social state.
Agriculture, The fine linen, dyed cottons, and stuffs enveloping the
sculptures • •
painting, &c. mummies, together with the finished specimens of porcelain,
the golden ornaments, and the rolls of papyri, which are occa
sionally found in the sarcophagi, establish the fact that the
corresponding manufactures and arts, alphabetical writing
included,1 must have been in use amongst the inhabitants of
this kingdom antecedently to the construction of the great
Pyramids. 1 Three different characters were used by the ancient Egyptians ; viz., the
hieroglyphic or monumental, the hieratic, and enchorial. The second, which
was more particularly that of the priests, appears to have been taken from
the hieroglyphic, and it dates from a very remote era ; but the use of the
enchorial, which is derived from the hieratic, does not appear to go further
back than the accession of the Ptolemies. — Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians,
vol. II, p. 13.

CHAP. IV.] WEAVING, DYEING, AND OTHER ARTS OF EGYPT. 89
In some of the cemeteries, and with colours almost as fresh Pyes' cos" .
tumes, carpets,
as when first applied, are shown the various costumes of the &c., ofthe
priests, husbandmen, artisans, and other classes of people. In Egyptians.
others are depicted rich hangings and bright carpets, with
coloured thread and golden wire interwoven,1 such as may
have served as models to the Israelites, when preparing the
costly materials for the tabernacle.2
In addition to weaving and various other manufactures, the
art of dyeing was far advanced, the materials for this purpose
being, in all probability, brought from distant parts of the
world ; and, in the pictorial history of the country, one of the
kings is represented attired in magnificent robes, offering gold
and silver to the gods. These metals are said to have been
drawn annually from the mines to the value of thirty-two
millions ;3 and so abundant were they, that they were used by
Osiris in the formation of implements of husbandry.4
Other metals, including iron,5 were used for architecture and Their warlike
for warlike implements. The chariots, particularly from their ™d household
light construction, seem to have been of brass.6 utensils.
These, as well as the ordinary articles of household furniture,
such as couches, vases, tripods, baskets, glass, and vessels of
earthenware, all betoken a state of refinement in the arts which

1 Goguet, Origin of Laws, &c, vol. II, p. 86. Carpets were in use in
Egypt, and a small rug has been brought to England: it was found at
Thebes, and is in the collection of Mr. Hay. — Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians,
vol. II, p. 190, and vol. Ill, p. 141.
2 Exodus, chap. V. Those who have not had an opportunity of examin
ing the monuments of Egypt, will have the means of judging of these repre
sentations by inspecting the great work of Denon, or that of Sir Gardner
Wilkinson, on the Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians, which is
equally interesting and faithful.
3 Diod. Sic, lib. II. , cap. v. compared with Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians,
&c, vol. I, pp. 232, 233.
4 Ibid, lib. I, cap. viii.
5 Colonel Howard Vyse discovered a piece of iron in the midst of the
masonry of the Great Pyramid, which he thinks could only have been placed
there when that monument was erected.
6 This metal was largely used by the Israelites in the construction of the
altar of sacrifice, &c, and was probably brought from Egypt by them
amongst the spoil. Exod, chap. XXV, v. 3, and chap. XXVII.

90

ANCIENT INSCRIPTION IN YEMEN. [CHAP. IV.

Himyari in
scription dis
covered in
Yemen.

has scarcely been surpassed in modern times. Such articles
are said to have been introduced by Menes.1
Agriculture Paintings in relief represent the busy occupations of lading
occupations of and unlading the boats employed in the traffic along the Nile ;
the Egyptians. tney alg0 gnow tne nature 0f fae products, as well as the
various employments of the husbandmen, from simple irriga
tion to the completion of the process of cultivation, whether of
cotton, flax, barley, rye, or wheat.2 In the days of Joseph
supplies of corn were drawn from Egypt to appease the
famine which prevailed in Judea,3 and about the same time,
in the southern parts of Arabia ; where, according to an inscrip
tion stated to have been found in Yemen, the agricultural
products of Egypt were sought at any price.
During the viceroyalty of Abderahmen, who governed
Yemen in the reign of Moawiyah, the first of the Ommiadan
Caliphs, between the fortieth and fiftieth year of the Hijrah,
a torrent laid bare a sepulchre, containing the body of a female,
who had been interred with regal splendour. A seven-stringed
necklace of the richest pearls adorned her bosom. Her arms
and legs were ornamented with bracelets, armlets, and anklets,
seven of each ; on each finger was a ring, also set with a valuable
gem. A casket filled with treasure was placed at her head, and
also a tablet containing the following singular inscription : —
"In thy name, O God, the God of Himyar, I Tajah,
daughter of Dhu Shefar, sent my purveyor to Egypt ; but he
delaying his return, I sent my handmaid with a bushel of silver
to bring me back a bushel of flour. I next sent a measure of
gold, and again a measure of pearls ; but receiving nothing for
support, I am shut up here. Let those who hear my story
learn to commiserate my fate ; and should any woman covet
and use one of my ornaments, may she die the same death by
which I have perished."
The preceding account claims a particular interest in con
sequence of the approximative date which has been ascertained
from it. It is clear that the Himyari character was in use
1 Diod. Sic, lib. I, cap. iv.
2 Exod, chap. IX, v. 31, 32 ; Plin, lib. XIX, cap. i.
a Gen, chap. XLI, v. 57 ; XLII, v. 1, 2, 5 ; and XLIV, v. 1.

CHAP. IV.] EARLY INTERCOURSE BETWEEN ARABIA AND EGYPT. 91
among the Arabs, at least as far back as the time of Joseph ; J Ancient
also that a mercantile intercourse was maintained with Egypt Arabia."1
at that period, probably through the port of Philoteras on the
Bed Sea, near Kosseir, as well as by land. The supposed
exchange of a measure of silver, gold, or pearls, for a similar
quantity of flour, expresses in powerful though figurative language
the misery of Arabia during the famine of that period.
1 The original Arabic of Ibn Hesham Firanzabidius, which was copied for
the author by Mr. Hormuzd Rassam, is here given from Albert Schultens'
Monumenta Vetustiora Arabise, p. 67, and note. Leyden, in Batavorum apud
Johannem Luzac. MDCCXL : —
^ Ji !y&i> j-aii!l li^ U*ie tjSV. *=/+* tyifi
l^tf j.li <JJ! liAJj uJUilj •> >s^! ^ ^ ^yjl J>-si }jjb}
¦¦¦• uJlb^JI ^llj |»];l (j^sJ' ^ 8,U ^1 J^' ^ &J)
l_Jla.| X»o» j-aall 1<\# liiUs *Ja=}> JlJ' ^ ^*L**-' J*!' if)
Jo-ly cubjcr* ^yU cuLs* *^<\ill^ <!oL=^' Jal ^jlc ^,J«i
* ytib ji-1 tJl Jx Lo«U to) Lol^M. jy& ^li ^ UJ *j2j>
^y=^' ^j ^ fi J6 Uilai ?J^j!|j L^*jJIj t-jbJJb ^y^
•:• t-aib 3j _&»- Jfw ^j ly'Ui Uj^j Iii, I jl*l jJ^U 1*31
Jji ,J *UI j^i ^ u* <-^^ *_-r*JI tos^Jb U*=~ bj^
* ywo <te-L Sk*i tf» **Jl** UjVj^ b'd 8jl ijc. ^bsr
•>^jJ1 ^ySy (_?»-Ui U«b
t m

92 LAND TRADE OF THE EARLY PHOENICIANS. [CHAP. IV.
Abundance of corn had, in fact, made Egypt the principal
granary of the adjacent kingdoms, and this branch of trade, as
well as that arising from the manufactures of the country, was
carried on by means of several great routes, which diverged
from that kingdom to every part of the world then known ;
thus facilitating commercial intercourse among the remotest
nations.
Caravan trade The products brought by caravans from the western and
through ,r „ . „ . i -ii jt
Egypt. southern parts of Africa, together with those conveyed along
the Nile from the tracts about its sources, found a central
point on the lower part of this river, from whence they were
transported by other caravans into Arabia, Syria, and Phoe
nicia ; thus embracing, particularly through the latter territory,
a trade in gold, spices, and slaves with the eastern part of the
old world.
It has been seen that the first Cushites had already spread
from Asia Minor towards the Peloponnesus,1 also to Syria,
Arabia, and Egypt, and again eastward and northward from
Mesopotamia. Colonies from the same race being thus spread
over the greatest part of the world, naturally caused the inter
course which prevailed in the time of Job and the Himyarites,
The spread of and prepared the way for the commerce carried on by the
prepares Canaanitish branch of this people
Phoenicia possessed manufactories of glass, golden orna
ments, linen and woollen stuffs ; but it was celebrated above all
for its matchless dyes. These formed the basis of an enriching
trade, which was carried by the enterprising people of that
country into many regions ; amongst which Egypt seems to
have held the first place, since the Phoenicians had a com
mercial dep6t in the capital itself — one entire quarter of
Memphis, called the Camp, having been occupied by the
Tyrians.2
the way for Besides the traffic through Egypt to the interior of Africa,
also to Yemen and Hadramaut, there were two principal lines
which may have been almost coeval with the dispersion of
1 See above, vol. L, p. 344 ; also Herod, lib. I, cap. xciv, and lib. VII,
c. viii. xi. 2 Herod, lib. II, cap. cxii.

commerce.

CHAP. IV.] EARLY COLONIES OF THE PHOENICIANS. 93
mankind : one of these took a northern direction through Different
Asia Minor towards the foot of the Caucasus, from whence it routes!11
penetrated into Central Asia.1 The second, which seems to
have been the most ancient, sought the rich products of Baby
lonia and those of the shores of the Persian Gulf,2 which
doubtless included, in the latter case, other eastern countries
also ; since by this route the silks, spices, and other valuable
merchandize of India, found their way to the shores of the
Mediterranean, through the emporiums of Tadmor and Ba'albek,
which afterwards sprang up to facilitate the transport of mer
chandize. The pre-eminence of Phoenicia in commerce and
civilization was, however, as much owing to the enterprise of situation of
. . , . . . . . ,. f L . Phoenicia.
its people as to its geographical position; since the tract in
question consists merely of a narrow strip of land, with the
elevated range of Lebanon on one side and the Mediterranean
Sea on the other,3 without any particular advantages in respect
of harbours.
The island colony of Aradus was situated towards the
northern extremity of Phoenicia, and to this succeeded, nearly
at equal intervals in following the coast southward, Tripolis,
Byblus, with the earlier capital Sidon, which was called after
the first-born son of Canaan ; finally, at the southern extremity, Separate
the daughter of Sidon, the celebrated city of Tyre. With the st'°tfs q™8 an
exception of some commercial connexion, these settlements phtEmcia-
were at first separate kingdoms or states; consisting, in each
case, of a particular city with a certain tract of territory
attached; but all, in the sequel, became in some measure
dependent on Tyre, and were united in one common worship,
that of the Tyrian Hercules. The latter city, Palce-Tyrus,
appears to have been built on the mainland,4 but it is stated
that a castle had been founded about 2740 B.C.8
This_ structure, as well as the Temple of Hercules, was Castle of
no doubt situated on the island to which in this, as in other Tyre*
1 Ezekiel, chap. XXVII.
8 The Phoenicians were descended from the Erythreans. Dionysius,
Perieg, V, 305.
3 See above, vol. I, p. 539.
4 Vol. I., p. 481. * Herod, lib. II, cap. xliv.

94 RISE OF TYRE, AND COMMERCE BY SEA. [CHAP. IV.
islands se- instances, the Phoenicians gave the preference, as being safer
lectedhythe ,i ,, • i i
Phoenicians, than the mainland.
The earliest settlements had, as a matter of course, been
made by land, and chiefly in the direction of the Archipelago,
in which the Sidonians had possessions previously to the
Greeks. That attributed to Cadmus appears to belong to this
period, but as more than one colony seems to have borne this
name, it has been imagined that the word Cadmon (Oriental1)
had a general application; not in allusion to an individual,
but rather to a race, the Cadmonites or Hivites. Another
Mosehus leads Phoenician leader has however been more precisely designated,
colony into namely Mosehus, who is called a Sidonian, and, according to
™ Possidonius,2 proceeded to Greece, where he gave instruction
in philosophy, &c, before the time of the Trojan war. It is
moreover stated, that several Phoenicians had migrated about
that period into Asia Minor and Greece,3 &c.
After the settlement of the shepherds in Phoenicia, about
1623 B.C., as already mentioned, a great change took place in
the state of that country; for the caravan trade with the
various eastern and southern countries being insufficient for the
increasing population, new openings were anxiously sought for.
From the circumstance of vessels being represented on some
of the ancient monuments of Persia,4 Assyria,5 and Egypt, and
Use of vessels, the certainty that floats of some kind must have been used in
crossing to the latter country, it may be inferred, irrespective
of what may have been personally known to Canaan regarding
the antediluvian vessel, that his immediate followers were not
altogether unprepared for the great enterprise of sea-navigation;
The extensive forests of Lebanon afforded ample materials for
this purpose ; and the construction of vessels seems to have been
speedily followed by maritime settlements, which were no less
1 The Greek KaS/j.ov answers exactly to the Phoenician, or Hebrew ^IQIp
Cadmoni, i.e. a Cadmonite, or one descending from the Cadmonites or
Hivites. " Cadmus sailed from Phoenicia into Bosotia ; and his name dis
covers his origin, for Cadmus in the Phoenician tongue signifies Oriental."
Chronicon Carionis, a Melancthone et Peucero, lib. II, p. 61.
1 Strabo, lib. XVI, p. 757. 3 Justin, XIX. 2.
4 In the bas-reliefs at Tak-i-Bostan.
5 The sculptures recently found near Nineveh.

CHAP. IV. j FIRST SETTLEMENTS OF THE PHOENICIANS. 95
necessary to promote commerce by sea, than interior depots
had been to foster that which had previously existed by land.
The rising kingdom of Tyre, at the southern extremity of first maritime
T)i •• ! . ,, ... ii- settlements of
r ncenicia, now assumed an important position, and being the Phceni-
impelled by the double object of acquiring wealth abroad and cians"
preventing dissatisfaction at home, the difficulties of the sea
were gradually overcome by its people ; and one colony was
planted after another in a westerly direction, not only along
the shores of the Mediterranean, but also on those of the
Atlantic Ocean ; till at length Tyre became the queen of
Phoenician cities, and the emporium of the ancient world.
Cyprus, owing to its proximity to the parent state, was Colonies in
doubtless colonized at a very early time : a revolt at Citium, or cwivs>
Cetium, a city founded by the Phoenicians, is mentioned by
Josephus ; : and the same people are known to have had
colonies in the other cities ofthe island.2
To this succeeded some of the smaller islands of the Archi- the ArcMpe-
pelago, extending northward as far as the Hellespont, where it
is understood that the Phoenicians founded the cities of Pro-
nectus and Bithynium:3 the coasts of Sicily and Malta4 were
likewise occupied, in addition to those of Crete, at this early
period.5 It will be remembered that the island of Crete is made the and Crete ;
point of departure for the Tyrian Hercules, whose route from
thence, in accomplishing the tenth labour, is minutely described
in the fable.6
Having traversed the deserts of Libya, built the city of also in Spain.
Hecatompylos, and introduced civilization and the knowledge
of agriculture as he passed along the coast of Africa, he reached
the Straits of Cadiz, and erected, at the extremity of the two
continents, the columns which bear his name.7
1 Ant, lib. IX, cap. xiv.
2 Strabo, lib. XVII, p. 1003, compared with Thucydides, VI. 2.
3 Steph. de Urb, V, p. 2.
4 Besides the vestiges of Phoenician remains which nave been found in dif
ferent parts of these islands, others have recently been discovered by Mr.
William Winthrop, Consul for the United States, and Mr. Walter Lock, of
the Royal Artillery, whilst excavating a temple at Citta Vecchia.
5 Thucydides, VI, p. 2. 6 Diod. Sic, lib. IV., cap. v. 7 Ibid.

96 FIRST SETTLEMENTS OF THE PHOENICIANS. [CHAP. IV.
He continued his expedition by the invasion of Spain, and
having overcome Chrysaor, the father of Geryon, he carried
off as booty the oxen of the latter, which are made to represent
Hercules tbe g0\^ 0f the country, and then returned towards Phoenicia
returns by ° •" .
land. by way of Gaul,1 Italy, and the islands of Sicily and Sardinia.
Notwithstanding the obscurity of Phoenician history, and
the mystery in which that people enveloped their earliest
enterprises, there is little doubt that the principal events have
been preserved in the preceding mythological version.
The more distant enterprises were not undertaken till the
dominion of the Phoenicians was firmly established over the
eastern islands of the Mediterranean ; yet from incidental cir
cumstances it would appear that Cadiz in Spain, Utica, Leptis,
and some other settlements in the northern shores of Africa,
were founded. about three centuries anterior to Carthage.2
It will elsewhere be seen that on account of the mines, Tar-
tessus and the rest of the southern part of Iberia became one
of the most important of the Phoenician settlements, and Cadiz
became one of the ports from which distant voyages were
undertaken. These, as regards the circumnavigation of Africa,
and also the Ophirian voyages, were probably based upon the
extensive caravan lines, by which sufficient geographical know-
Trade by land ledge must have been obtained to prepare the way for the
voyages of the daring expeditions of the Phoenicians by sea.
Phoenicians. Although the advancement of the Egyptians must have
been seriously retarded by the protracted contests, which ter
minated in the expulsion of the shepherds, it will be seen that,
subsequently to this event, the progress of that people became
very rapid.
B.C. 1672. About 137 years after the period when Joseph had been
all-powerful in Egypt, the increasing numbers of the Hebrews
1 From a recent translation made by Mons. S. Munk, of the Phoenician
inscription at Marseilles, it appears that it contained various regulations, de
scribing with much detail the manner of conducting the sacrifices in a temple
of Ba'al, which a Phoenician or Carthaginian population at one time possessed
in that city. Journal Asiatique, pour Novembre et Decembre, 1847, pp.
473-532. 2 Compare Bochart, Geog. Sacra, V, p. 373, with Velleius Paterculus, I,
p. 2, and Aristotle, de Mirabil, c. cxlvi. ; also Diod. Sic, lib. V, cap. XV.

CHAP. IV.J STATE OF THE ISRAELITES IN EGYPT. 97
had awakened the jealousy and even the alarm of the people ; jealousy of
or, as it is expressed, " there arose a king who knew not * e syptians-
Joseph;"1 and Amosis or Chebran, the reigning Pharaoh, as
the surest means of guarding against danger, determined to
reduce them to a state of servitude, instead of considering them, Tasks and
as heretofore, his guests. The descendants of Jacob now Israelites.
became the working population of the country: oppressive
tasks were allotted to them, the fulfilment of which was
rigorously exacted.
The people continued in this state about eighty-eight years,
during which time of real bondage their patriarchal form of
government does not appear to have been altered ; the tasks,
weighty enough doubtless, were distributed by their own
officers;2 and the superintendance was left to the Hebrew Exacted under
_ r . . the supenn-
ohoterim, under the general direction of Egyptian overseers, tendence of
That the daily provisions were ample, is sufficiently evident officers.
from the subsequent recollections of Egypt, and the reproach
addressed by the people to their leader, that "they had eaten
bread to the full " when in Egypt.3
The mighty signs and wonders performed through the
agency of Moses, in the region of Zoan4 or Tanis, having at
length convinced Pharaoh that the children of Israel were B.C. 1584.
under the special protection of an omnipotent Power they
were permitted to depart; therefore, taking their flocks and
all that was theirs, they journeyed from Barneses to Succoth.5
The traveller who is acquainted with these localities can Position of
scarcely feel any difficulty in identifying the tract lying along Goshen,
the eastern branch of the Nile with the land of Goshen, or
Geshen, meaning the pasture country, which from the foray
made by Zabad and others against the cattle of the men of
Gath,6 was evidently the nearest part of Egypt to Palestine,
for it is clear that the foray took place before the Hebrews
quitted the country, and whilst they still retained their
pastoral character.
On account of its numerous branch canals, Esh ShurkeVeh, now Esh
J Shurke'yeh.
1 Exod, chap. I, v. 8. 2 Exod, chap. V, v. 14.
3 Exod, chap. XVI, v. 3. 4 Psalm LXXVIII, v. 12, 43.
5 Exod, chap. XII, v. 37, 38. 6 1 Chron, chap. VII, v. 21.
VOL. II. H

98 DEPARTURE OF THE ISRAELITES. [CHAP. IV.
the supposed representative of the pasture country, is one of
the richest portions of the Delta: such also it must have been
in former times, when watered by the Pelusiac branch of the
Nile ; and the position of this tract coincides much better with
the circumstances attending the Exodus than any locality
higher up the Nile.
Ancient Hieropolis, or Barneses, is nearly in the centre of
the supposed pasture country, and, making a trifling circuit, it
is about fifty miles from thence to the sea of Suez. The first
stage was Succoth, which, as the name seems to indicate, was
Flight ofthe most likely an encampment of booths; and the second was at
Etham, on the borders of the wilderness, both places being
apparently within the limits of Goshen ; for it was only when
the Israelites were about to pass the borders, that Pharaoh
hastened after the fugitives, either from Zoan or Memphis,
but probably from the former. The desert (called Shur),1
which the Hebrews had now reached, evidently commenced
on the eastern shore of the Gulf of Suez, whose waters pro
bably extended farther at that time than at present, in the line
now partly occupied by the bitter lakes. Etham may, there
fore, have been at the extremity of the ancient inlet, perhaps
only a few miles to the north-west of its present termination,
near Suez ; so that, in following the direct line towards Pales
tine, the Hebrews, after touching the sea at the place in
question, would have passed at once into the wilderness.
and pursuit by Pharaoh having been apprized that the three days' journey
1 i:,i"'11 was about to be exceeded, rapidly followed with his chariots,
when the Hebrews turned, as commanded, and encamped
before Pi-hahiroth, between Migdol and the sea, over against
Ba'al Zephon ; a position so enclosed that it led Pharaoh to
say, " they are entangled in the land."2 In turning from the
direct line, the fugitives would equally move along the western
side of the inlet, whether in its present or its supposed state ; and
they must in one short march have had an almost inaccessible
mountain on their right, the sea of Suez on their left and in
B.C. 1584. their front ; whilst their pursuers occupied a position in their
1 Exod, chap. XV, v. 22 ; Numb, chap. XXXIII, v. 6, 7, 8.
s Exod, chap. XIV, v. 3.

CHAP. IV. J PASSAGE OF THE RED SEA. 99
rear, which effectually covered the whole space between the
right side of the Bed Sea and Jebel Adaggi, or the Mountain towards the
of Deliverance ; thus, in fact, leaving them only the prospect of
death or captivity.
But the moment of their deliverance was at hand, and amidst
murmurings and hopeless despair, a strong east wind became
the immediate instrument of the Almighty.
The waters of the Bed Sea form a shallow bay below Suez, Position of the
and a narrow inlet north-westward of the town, which, as before
observed, once extended much farther. The peculiar position
of this inlet, and the exceeding violence of the winds which
occasionally prevail, in the upper part of the Bed Sea especially,
seem to bear out the explanation which has been frequently
given respecting this providential interposition.1 A violent
wind coming from the east, or rather north-east, would, owing
to the nature of these localities, have the effect of separating
the waters at the spot where a small bend takes place, just above
the town of Suez ; and by continuing to drive the lower portion
of the waters outwards during the whole night, the Israelites
would have the necessary time to effect their passage between
the waters thus separated. Their escape being discovered at Escape of the
daylight, and a pursuit commenced, a sudden cessation of the destructiraof
wind, by allowing the separated waters to rush inwards and the EsyptiaDS-
outwards at the same instant, would be sufficient to complete
the miracle by overwhelming the host ofthe Egyptians.
Independently of the argument from the position of the
inlet of Suez, there is evidence that this was the route taken,
from the names Jebel Adaggi and Wadi Faroun3 being pre
served on its western side, also those of 'Ai'n Marah and 'A'in
Musa, with others, on the way from its eastern shore towards
Mounts Horeb and Sinai.
With regard to the passage of the Israelites, it is very Traditional
remarkable that Diodorus relates a tradition, that on one DioTsicf
occasion the sea suddenly retired, and after leaving its bed dry
for a time, returned as suddenly.3
1 Compare chap. VIII. of Supplement to Shaw's Travels with p. 245,
vol. I, of Bruce's Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile. Dublin, 1791.
8 Map of the Bed Sea, by Captain R. Moresby, Indian Navy.
3 Lib. Ill, cap. xx.
H2

100 CIVILIZATION OF THE EDOMITES AND MIDIANITES. [CHAP. IV.-
As the Hebrews had long lived under the Egyptians, they
could scarcely have been inferior to them in their knowledge of
the arts of life, when their 600,000 families1 departed to assume
an important position amongst the nations of the world ; yet it
appears that their civilization and wealth were less than those of
some of the tribes existing at that time in Arabia.
state of the At the commencement of the Exodus, the eighth king of
Edom resided at the capital, Dmhaba; and under him were
eleven dependent princes, who governed as many cities, as
Bozrah, Avith, Masrekah, Behoboth, Pau, &c.2 That the
surrounding country was well cultivated, is evident from the
existence of wells, fields, and vineyards ; and what is called a
" king's highway " passed through the country.3
The allies of this people, whose territories were situated near
and Midianites the Elanitic gulf, were still more advanced, for the Midianites
the* Exodus.0 are said to have possessed many cities and goodly castles; and
being at the same time manufacturers, they had a great store
of articles made of goat's hair and wool.4 Moreover, it
appears that they had amassed chains, bracelets, ear-rings,
and tablets to the value of 16,750 shekels of gold. Nor
were their nomadic riches less considerable ; since amongst
the spoil afterwards taken by the Israelites,^ are enumerated5
675,000 sheep, 72,000 beeves, and 61,000 asses. But
from an incidental circumstance, it would appear that the
Midianites were more distinguished for their civil polity than
even for their wealth. When the Israelites reached their
halting-place, near Bephidim, after the memorable destruction
jethro visits of the Amalekites,0 Jethro the priest of Midian quitted his
residence on the opposite shores of the Elanitic gulf, and came
1 This number has been considered much too great for a period of 430
years, but as Abraham's servants, &c. consisted of 316 persons shortly after
his arrival in Judea, the Israelites must necessarily have been a large body of
people, at the time of their going down to Egypt ; of which, the sons of
Jacob may be considered so many Sheikhs or Chiefs.
! Gen, chap. XXXVI, v. 33, &c.
3 Numb, chap. XX, v. 17; Deut, chap. II, v. 27. '
4 Numb, chap. XXXI, v. 20.
5 Ibid, v. 36.
* Exod, chap. XVII, v. 11, 12.

Moses,

CHAP. IV. J JETHRO INSTRUCTS MOSES. 101
with his daughter Zipporah, and his two grandsons, Gersham
and Eliezer, to congratulate Moses, and offer a sacrifice and
burnt-offering for the great deliverance of his son-in-law and the
Israelites from the thraldom of Pharaoh. This visit throws
great light on the state of the Arabs at that period ; for it was
on the following dny that Jethro instructed Moses in their
principles of government, which would appear to have been
the most perfect then known.
On perceiving that Moses was attempting to carry out a
crude system, which could not be put in practice without wearing
out the prince as well as the people, Jethro proceeded to make and instructs
known to him a method which had borne the test of experience details of Arab
amongst the Midianites and other Arabs, and which was at once pollty'
simple and efficient; it consisted in appointing men of truth,
and hating covetousness, to be rulers over tens, and fifties, and
hundreds, and thousands. These individuals were to share the
burden with Moses, to whom only the difficult cases were to be
referred, by judging the people at all seasons agreeably to
established laws, no doubt similar to those already in use
amongst the Midianites.
After delivering these instructions, Jethro returned to his
own people ; and we are expressly told that Moses "hearkened
to his voice," and did all that he had said, " by choosing able
men out of all Israel, whom he made heads over the people."
The jurisprudence thus borrowed from the Midianitish Arabs,
was evidently based on the patriarchal authority, by which the
head of a family regulates absolutely, the concerns of his
, children, his servants, and other inmates of his household; in
the way still exemplified by the Anizeh, the Shamar, and the
other great tribes of Arabia.
In the patriarchal system, a family represents the unit in the
scale of government ; and the union of two such families,
under the older of the parents, gives the head of ten ; the
political union of ten such families, probably also connected by
blood, and acknowledging as chief, or elder, one whose age and
other qualities might command a preference, necessarily gives Details of the
the chief or judge over fifty ; whilst an alliance of about double fdopteTbT
the number would form a higher tribunal, that of one hundred, Moses-

102 GRADATIONS IN PATRIARCHAL GOVERNMENT. [CHAP. IV.
which corresponds to the tribe of an inferior Sheikh of the
present day. A larger body, such as might be composed of
ten of the latter, or about 1000 males, was, among the Hebrews,
a " House of Fathers."
In the case of the Arabs, the office of chief was at first derived
from birth and age, but it afterwards became elective, through
the heads of families. Such is the case in China, where the social
links are carried from the peasant upwards to the sovereign
patriarch. The head of a house of fathers, like a Sheikh of Arabia, was
responsible to the great Sheikh or Emir, and as a matter of
course there must have been twelve such to represent the sons
of Jacob ; each having the assistance of a chief genealogist or
scribe to aid in deciding the ordinary questions of internal
government, the greatest and most momentous cases alone
being reserved for the judgment of Moses.
In this respect, and indeed in many other particulars, the
This was position of the Hebrew prince differed little from that of a
offtea Arabs at Sreat Emi'r of tne Present day. Thus Sheikh I'sa of the
of the present Montefik sat dispensing justice from his diwan in his square
mat enclosure at the town of Al Kiit, when, as will be noticed
in its proper place, he was to receive the commander and
officers of the Euphrates Expedition.
On the departure of Jethro, who refused the tempting
advantages . offered by his son-in-law, Moses, agreeably to the
command then given, " that the people should serve God on
this mountain " (Sinai), led his charge to the pasture-ground,
where he formerly tended the flocks of his father-in-law.
From the summit of Sinai was now promulgated, with cir
cumstances of awful grandeur, a brief summary of moral and
religious duties, which was afterwards engraven on tables of
stone, as a perpetual memorial of the obligations of the Hebrews
towards their invisible king. But in order that they might be
Promulgation neither forgotten nor misunderstood, an extensive code was
]°awhem°ral a(ided, containing numerous ordinances for their civil and
religious government. These laws were made known in detail,
B. c. 1583, from tjme to tjme? Dy ^e powerful voice of Aaron, from the
top of Horeb ; a spot which, owing to its moderate height and

CHAP. IV.] HOBAB GUIDES THE ISRAELITES.. 103
the facility of approaching it on all sides, was admirably suited
for oral communication with an immense multitude.
The priesthood being sanctified and set apart, and the taber
nacle, or moveable temple, being completed, the Israelites were and constmc-
lii i i i tion ofthe
told that they had dwelt long enough on the mount ; and the tabernacle.
cloud being removed to signify that all was ready, the whole
body proceeded towards the wilderness of Paran. As this
occurred on the 20th day of the second month of the second
year,8 and as they had reached Mount Sinai' precisely at the
completion of the third month after their departure from
Egypt,3 the time occupied in receiving these laws was eleven
months and twenty days.
Moses, however, instead of trusting to his own topographical Journey of the
knowledge in a case of such importance as that of the intended
route, and above all of obtaining water for so vast a multitude,
appealed to the Midianites ; and after some difficulty, his relative
Hobab, the son of Baguel or Jethro, no doubt by the desire of
his father, consented to be their guide, or, as it is expressed,
" to be instead of eyes."4 In consequence of this arrangement,
it fell to the lot of the Midianitish prince to decide on the conducted by
places of encampment, as well as to be otherwise useful to the
Israelites, particularly on commencing a nomadic life ; which
although before unknown to the Hebrews, was generally that
of the Midianites and other tribes of Arabia.
This circumstance therefore sufficiently explains why Hobab
was offered a share in the expected benefits of the Israelites, pro
vided he continued to guide them ;5 and being accustomed to
lead his people and their flocks to the different wadis where
pasture was abundant, he found little difficulty in performing
his task.
In moving from the camp at Horeb, the standard of the
children of Judah led the way ; it was followed by those of
Issachar, Zebulun, &c.,6 all taking the direct route by slow
marches towards Kadesh-Barnea, which is eleven days' journey
by the way of Mount Seir,7 no doubt moving by short stages and making
1 Deut, chap. I, v. 6. 2 Numb, chap. X, v. 11, 12.
3 Exod, chap. XIX, v. 1. 4 Numb, chap. X, v. 31.
5 Ibid, v. 32. 6 Ibid, v. 13, 14, 15, &c.
7 Deut , chap. I, v. 2.

104

RETREAT OF THE ISRAELITES.

[CHAP. IV.

they reach the
borders of
Canaan,

Defeat and
retreat along

Wadi .
el 'Arabah to
Ezion-geber.

from spot to spot, like the great nomadic tribes of the present
day ;* and it may be observed that towards the latter part of
the pilgrimage the grand Mekkah caravan passes over a con
siderable portion of the tracts trodden by the Israelites during
the Exodus.
From the wilderness of Sin, the Hebrews took a north
westerly direction to the southern borders of Canaan, where
they remained forty days,2 when the twelve spies returned with
such alarming accounts of their enemies, that a panic ensued.
The consequence was, that they not only abandoned the intended
conquest, but a dangerous insurrection broke out against Moses
and Aaron ; and notwithstanding the advice given by Joshua
and Caleb, who narrowly escaped being stoned to death for
endeavouring to restore order, preparations were commenced
for returning to, Egypt under another captain.3 A feeble
attempt was made to push their way, but this failed ; and, as a
punishment for their want of confidence in the first instance,
and presumption in the second, the Israelites of that genera
tion were interdicted from entering the promised land.
A serious defeat by the Amalekites and Canaanites having
followed near Hormah, and the purpose of entering Canaan
being abandoned, the .discouraged Israelites commenced a
retrograde movement towards the wilderness of Sin ; probably
with the intention of returning to Egypt. It was during the
early part of this retreat that the awful destruction of Korah
and his companions occurred ; and the authority of Moses and
Aaron being supported by this interposition of Providence, the
Hebrews submitted once more to their guidance, and were
conducted through the tortuous wadis on the western side of
Wadi el 'Arabah, till they crossed the latter at the head of
the Elanitic gulf. Turning northwards at or near Ezion-geber,
their wanderings continued along the eastern side of the valley
in question, to Mount Hor, where Aaron died. A detour was
now made round the country of the Edomites," who had refused
the use of the highway, and also that of the Moabites and
Ammonites, who being thus taken in flank, no longer offered
1 See above, vol. I, pp. 683, 684, 685, &c.
2 Numb, chap. XIII, v. 25. 3 Ibid, chap. XIV, v. 4.
4 Ibid, chap. XX, v. 17-21.

CHAP. IV.] THE ISRAELITES CROSS THE JORDAN. 105
serious resistance. Heshbon, Bashan, &c, having successively Advance to the
fallen, the Israelites halted in the plains of Moab, at the foot °ot ° 'sga '
of Pisgah, after spoiling the Midianites of their gold, silver,
and flocks.
During the preceding period the Pentateuch must have
been completed, probably from written as well as oral testi
mony ; and here the great leader of the Hebrews terminated Death of
his earthly career, after allotting the several tracts destined for passage^rthe
the twelve tribes; who passed the Jordan accordingly the same Jordan-
year, not long after the visit of Balaam from Mesopotamia,
and his forced prophecy.
Although the wanderings of the Hebrews had continued for
forty years, the extent of the country traversed was very
limited, being chiefly confined to the wadis lying westward
and eastward of the range of Mount Seir, or rather of Wadi
el 'Arabah. The country on each side of this depression is well
known, particularly the beaten track of the annual pilgrims to
Mekkah. The pasture throughout this line is for the most part
good ; and the Israelites thus possessed this important advantage
to an equal, if not to a greater, extent than the pastoral Arabs of state of the
the present day. They were, it is true, deprived of many of the shSiarto that
comforts they had enjoyed in Egypt, as fish, cucumbers, melons, of the Arabs-
leeks, onions, garlick, &c. -,1 but having ample flocks, they were,
as a matter of course, provided with the ordinary means of
subsistence which the nomadic life affords, independently of the
miraculous supply of quails and manna. Even water was pro
duced for them when their guides failed to find it at the
different cisterns or secret wells which, from time immemorial,
have existed in northern Arabia.
The erratic life of the wilderness, which the Arabs have
continued in the manner already described,2 with enviable con
tentment, almost from the time of the Dispersion, was intended
as, and no doubt became, a serious punishment to the un
manageable followers of Moses, who had been hitherto only
accustomed to a settled mode of life in Egypt.
But with the extinction of one generation their probation Occupation of
Judea.
1 Numb, chap. XI, v. 5. s See above, vol. I, pp. 682, 683, &c.

106 THE HEBREWS CONQUERED BY CUSHAN-RISHATHAIM. [CHAP.IV.

B.C. 1543.

Flight ofthe
Canaanitesand Philis
tines.

Dominionof Cushan-
Rishathaim.

terminated, and Joshua, having succeeded Moses, led the
people across the Jordan. A portion of the inhabitants appear
to have fled from Philistia to Africa, and they are said to have
erected a monument commemorative of their flight from Joshua,
son of Nun, the robber.1 On the same occasion another
section of the ancient inhabitants took a north-easterly direc
tion, and proceeded into Armenia under a leader named
Canaanidas, whose descendants, as well as those of his followers,
were afterwards known by the name of Gunthanians.2
The flight of a portion of the earliest inhabitants of Palestine,
seems to have been facilitated by the intercourse which con
tinued to exist between distant countries after the Dispersion.
This intercourse is evident, in the case of the Canaanites and
Philistines, from a passage in one of the prophets, by which we
learn that the Palestines (Philistines), were brought out of
Caphtor or Cappadocia (the western or third Armenia), and
the Syrians from Kir,3 which is also in Armenia.
The Israelites, however, had not been long on the western
side of the Jordan, and were not as yet in full possession of the
promised land ; when shortly after the death of Joshua, about
1516 b.c, they submitted to the arms of Cushan-Bishathaim,
whose appellation of wicked Cushite most likely owed its origin
to his descent from Nimriid, and to his being, at the same
time, their determined enemy ; and it appears that the Hebrews
continued under his yoke, and in a state of servitude, for about
eight years.4 This prince ruled Mesopotamia, which was then
a separate government from that of Assyria.
At the period in question, a protracted contest for the
dominion appears to have been maintained with alternate suc
cess between this kingdom and that of Armenia. Heykab,
shortly after the commencement of his reign over the latter
kingdom, is said to have raised the national glory to a greater
height than it had attained previously. He subdued Amindas,

1 Procopius, de Vand, lib. II.
2 Hist, of Armenia, by J. Avdall, Esq, vol. L, p. 27.
3 Amos, chap. IX, v. 7.
4 Jackson's Chronol. Antiq, vol. I, pp. 137, 138, compared with Judges,
ch. Ill, v. 8.

CHAP. IV. J SETHOS OR SESOSTRIS, KING OF EGYPT. 107
king of Assyria, and compelled him to do homage ; but Wars between
Belochus or Belock, the successor of the latter, recovered the and Assyrians.
lost ground, having during a hotly-contested campaign defeated
and killed Heykab.
Beverting to the western extremity of the Old World, it
will be seen that Egypt, now a united kingdom under the
eighteenth dynasty, or the Diospolitan kings, was rapidly
advancing in power and in civilization. This was more par
ticularly the case at the period of the Exodus, and even for
some time previously. Amenophis, the ninth sovereign of the
line in question, is supposed to have erected the celebrated
Memnonia at Thebes, and the fourth in succession was Barneses Rameses n.
„ 1/-1 i ii ior Sesostris,
the Second, or the Great, who appears to have been the B.C. 1376 to
Sesostris of the Greeks, and probably the second monarch so B-c- 1328 •
called. This sovereign has been known under so many different
names, that considerable difficulty is felt in establishing his
identity, and some have doubted his existence. Newton, and
after him Marsham,2 conceived that this individual represented
the Sesac, or Shishak of the Hebrew scripture, whilst a
contrary opinion is maintained by Hales, Bussel, Gatterer, and
others. "Such a controversy," observes the learned Jahn, "is
not easily decided ;"3 but if the 247 years given by Manetho
to the sovereigns between Tethmosis or Thummosis, who
expelled the shepherds, and Barneses4 or Sesostris, be deducted
from the time of that expulsion in 1623 B.C., the commence
ment of the reign of the great Egyptian monarch would have
taken place about 1376 B.C. and its termination in 1328 b.c5
Herodotus,6 in a more general way than the Egyptian priests, period of his
says that there were 330 kings after Menes ; eighteen being reign'
Ethiopians (apparently the shepherds), and that the rest were
Egyptians ; all being men, with the exception of one, a woman,
1 From Manetho, Ane. Fragments, by I. P. Cory, Esq, pp. 117, 119.
2 Chronol, XIV, p. 353. London, 1672.
3 Jahn's Hebrew Commonwealth, vol. I, p. 133.
4 Ane. Fragments, by I. P. Cory, Esq, pp. 173, 174.
5 Manetho states in his second book, that Sesostris reigned 48 years. Ibid.
Cory, p. 110.
6 Herod, lib. II, cap. xcix, c.

108 FLEETS AND ARMIES OF SESOSTRIS. [CHAP. IV.
named Nitocris. Of these, nothing particular is recorded, with
the exception of Moeris, who dug the lake that bears his name,
and Sesostris. This last sovereign conducted a fleet from the
Arabian Gulf, and, having conquered the nations bordering on
the Erythrean Sea, he returned to Egypt ; and proceeding
again at the head of a mighty army, he traversed the con
tinent of Asia, and subjugated every nation that opposed him.1
His exploits, as well as those of Thummosis, are indicated on
and conquests, the walls of the ruined palace at Thebes which bears his name,
and where he is represented as a great conqueror bringing
home in triumph numerous captives taken from various nations.
The invasions and conquests of this monarch are known
traditionally in many countries, with this peculiarity, that the
enterprises were not merely the hasty inroads of African
hordes. The main body, acting on the direct line, was sup-
Army of ported by two vast fleets : one of these appears to have sailed
ported by two round Arabia, in order to support the right flank on the side
of Asia, whilst the other moved from the Mediterranean to the
Black Sea, to support the operations in that quarter ; and both
of them carried the supplies which are indispensable to insure
success in such gigantic operations. Two great fleets, pro
ceeding from the opposite shores of Egypt, and thus provided,
must have lessened the difficulties attending the movements of
such a prodigious force, and also have afforded great advantages
to Sesostris, compared with those possessed at a later period by
Darius, Xerxes, and other eastern warriors, in their invasions.
Manetho says that the conquest of Asia, and Europe as far as
it advances Thrace, occupied nine years, and that Sesostris everywhere
erected monuments of his victories.2 Diodorus Siculus, who
goes more into detail, says that by the help of his fleet of 400
ships, Sesostris gained the islands of the Bed Sea, and subdued
the bordering nations as far as India. He himself marched
forward with his land army, and conquered all Asia. He
passed the Ganges, and traversed India to the shores of the
main ocean, and laid the foundation of commercial relations
1 Herod, lib. II, cap. cii. Ane. Fragments, by I. P. Cory, Esq, p. 154.
2 Manetho, book II, compared with Ane. Fragments, by I. P. Cory,
Esq, p. 110.

into Thrace.

CHAP. TV.] RETURN OF SESOSTRIS FROM SCYTHIA. 109
with that part of the world. Having subdued the Scythians as
far as the Tanai's, which river divides Europe from Asia, he
retraced his steps towards the banks of the Phasis, where some
of his Egyptian followers remained, either to cultivate the
country, or because they were weary of the expedition.1
Previously to the determination to retreat, Sesostris had Supposed
been in danger of losing his whole army, owing to the diffi- memorated?m'
cul ties of the passes and want of provisions. His expedition
having terminated, he erected pillars to commemorate his
conquests, and then returned to Egypt.2 In this invasion he
led, according to the historian,3 600,000 foot, 24,000 horse, vast army of
and 27,000 armed chariots; and he had, as already mentioned, Sesostns"
fleets in the Arabian and Mediterranean Seas. It is, however,
evident that the vast force met some kind of check in Scythia,
from whence Sesostris retired, either for this reason, or on
account of the intelligence which is said to have reached him
at this period, that his brother Armais had assumed the
sovereignty of Egypt. He returned immediately, laden with
the rich spoils of Asia, and bringing a multitude of captives ; Captives and
some harnessed to his car, others destined to be employed in forced labour-
the public works. These works, as the inscriptions upon them
state, were raised without the labour of any of his native
subjects.4 From the time that Sesostris left some of his followers on
the shores of the Black Sea, may be dated that intercommuni
cation between Egypt and Colchis, which induced Ammianus
Marcellinus to say that the Colchians were an ancient colony
of Egyptians.5 This is likewise the statement of Herodotus,6
who observes, that the knowledge possessed by the Colchians
was derived from Egypt ; and Sesostris appears to have Armenia a
established some of his followers also in the valleys of the Egypt.ency °
Caucasus. Armenia itself, as we learn,7 was, at least for a
1 Herodotus, lib. II, cap. ciii. " But, be this as it may," adds the his
torian, " it appears that the Colchians are of Egyptian origin." — Ibid,
cap. civ.
2 Diod. Sic, lib. I, sec. IL, cap. iv. s Ibid., cap. iv.
4 Ibid, cap. iv. 5 Amm, XXII, cap. viii.
6 Lib. II, cap. civ.
7 Hist, of Armen, by J. Avdall, Esq, vol. I, p. 260.

1 10 GOVERNMENT OF EGYPT UNDER SESOSTRIS. TCHAP. IV.
short time, a nominal dependency of Egypt. But, as soon as
the conqueror quitted the country, Pharaoh, who had been
left in charge, constructed strongholds, as a protection against
future incursions.1
The glory of Sesostris was not confined to his conquests, for
he appears to have been almost equally celebrated for his good
Sesostris' government, and his management of the resources of the
Egypt!1116 ° country: the subdivision of Egypt into thirty inferior king
doms, or nomes, is said to have been his arrangement. The
discovery of the canicular period of 1460 years, in which the
festivals of the sacred year (containing 365 days without a
fraction) would return to the same seasons as at the commence
ment, is no doubt due to the ancient Egyptians ; and, according
B.C. 1327. to Strabo,2 Plato, who resided during several years in Egypt,
learned from the priests of that country what portion of a day
was to be added to 365 days in order to make up a complete
tropical year, or the period in which the sun, setting out from
the first point of Aries, returns to the same point.
1 Hist, of Armen, by J. Avdall, Esq., vol. I, p. 260.
2 Lib. XVII, p. 806.

( 111 )

CHAPTEB V.
outline of egyptian and jewish history, from their settle
ments in phoenicia and palestine, in 1584 b.c, to the
destruction of the assyrians under sennacherib, about
709 b.c.
Egyptian Religion and Philosophy carried into Greece. — The Shepherds
settle in Phoenicia, and the Hebrews in Palestine. — Colonies proceed from
Phoenicia and Egypt to Greece, — Origin of the Argonautic Voyage. —
The Fleet returns from Colchis to Byzantium, plunders Troy, and pro
ceeds to Spain. — Some of the Argonauts return to Greece by sea, others
by land, with the booty acquired. — Lydia and Assyria. — Ninus succeeds
to the Throne of the latter Kingdom.— He conquers Bactria, and marries
Semiramis. — This Queen becomes a great conqueror, and founds the City
of Shemiramgerd. — Inscriptions regarding Semiramis found near Lake
Van. — Ninus succeeds and organizes the Kingdom. — Period of the Trojan
War. — Memnon serves at the siege with an Armenian contingent. — Esta
blishment of the Hebrew Kingdom. — David succeeds Saul, and is acknow
ledged by the Twelve Tribes. — He makes Jerusalem the capital, and
establishes his dominion over Judea, Syria, and a part of Mesopotamia. —
Accession of Solomon. — The Court and Regal Establishments of this
Monarch. — Cost of the great Temple at Jerusalem. — Solomon erects
another Temple for his Egyptian Queen, and constructs Tadmor and the
other Store Cities. — Inquiry concerning the position of Ophir. — Visit of
the Queen of the South, or Abyssinia. — Her Posterity by Solomon reign.
— Saba and Sheba synonymous. — The Himyarites and Sabseans of Africa
the same people. — Early Land Trade, and difficulties attending Ship
Caravans or Mercantile Fleets. — Products of the Countries on the Mo
zambique. — Distance, and Time required for a Voyage to this Coast. — ¦
The other, or Eastern Voyage, was probably founded on a previous
Caravan Trade to India. — Sanscrit Names of the Merchandize. — Aurea
Chersonesus supposed to be Ophir. — Distance, and Time required for a
Coasting Voyage to the Straits of Malacca. — Trade by Barter. — The
Tyrians employed by Solomon. — The Tyrian Hercules, and early Colonies
of Tyre. — Establishment of Carthage, and various Settlements made by
this commercial kingdom in Spain and elsewhere. — Accession of Reho-
boam, and separation of the Ten Tribes. — Shishak invades Judea. — Con
solidation of the Armenian Kingdom. — Invasion of Zerah the Ethiopian.
— The Kings of Assyria, according to Ctesias. — Invasion of Judea by

1 1 2 SPREAD OF COMMERCE AND CIVILIZATION. [CHAP. V.
Pul. — Tiglath Pileser carries the Jews captive into Assyria. — Nabonassar,
and Works of Semiramis at Babylon. — Second Captivity of the Jews, by
Shalmaneser, and interchange of the Ten Tribes with the Assyrians. —
Sennacherib succeeds Shalmaneser ; subjects the Babylonians, and invades
Judea. — Siege of Jerusalem and destruction of the Assyrians. — Sen
nacherib flies to Nineveh ; is assassinated by Adrammelech and Sharezer,
his sons. — Profane Accounts of the Discomfiture of the Invaders.
Egyptian It appears, from various sources, that many of the religious
religion and • n i t\ ¦ iii • l • r~t i
philosophy rites ot the Egyptians had been carried into Greece, together
Greece.111 vfith. such knowledge of astronomy, geometry, and philosophy,
as had been derived by that people from Chaldea ; and it is
also known that many of the chiefs who were expelled from,
or who quitted 'Egypt about the time of the departure of the
Shepherds, formed settlements in different parts of Greece.
Thus Inachus founded a kingdom at Argos ; l Cecrops, of
Sais, another in Attica;2 and Lelex a third, on the river
Eurotas, afterwards called Sparta.3 In addition to these
colonists, two races of men proceeded, as has been lately
mentioned, from the banks of the Nile into Phoenicia and
Palestine, and thus commenced the two kingdoms which
became afterwards so remarkable in the history of the world.
One was that of the Hebrew people, who were conducted by
Joshua into Palestine about 1584 b.c; and the other that of
the Shepherds, who, about thirty-nine years previously, were
led by Arcles, or Certus, their last sovereign, into Phoenicia,
where, having become a maritime instead of a pastoral people,
they assisted in founding the city and kingdom of Tyre ; in
which, even as early as the coming of the former people,
they appear to have laid the foundation of navigation and
commerce.
Colonies from The settlement of the Cadmonites in Boeotia, which took
Greenlee, place, according to the fable, on their failing to find Europa,4
and probably a little more than a century after the emigration
of the Shepherds, may therefore be considered as an Egyptian
1 Pausanias, Greece, vol. I, p. 117.
2 Ibid, p. 7, and vol. II, p. 254 ; and Diod. Sic, lib. I, sec. I, cap. 16.
3 Pausanius, vol. I, p. 116.
1 Herod, lib. IV, cap. cxlvii.

CHAP. V.J VOYAGE OF THE ARGONAUTS. 113
rather than as a Phoenician colony ; by which, the knowledge
of letters and rudiments of commerce were drawn indirectly
from Egypt. It will be remembered, that, in addition to the
preceding, a direct intercourse took place at a later period, by
the arrival of Danaus in Greece from Egypt,1 apparently about Danaus pro-
1230 b.c.2 These establishments were followed by others in Greece.
widely-distant countries ; and though the expeditions which
led to them were merely commercial or piratical, they proved
of great importance, by diffusing civilization and a knowledge
of useful arts.
Phryxus and Helle, having fled from the threatened wrath First voyage
of Ino, proceeded from Argos in a galley, either called the
Bam, or possibly bearing a ram's head,3 to seek an asylum at
the court of their relative iEetes, king of Colchis. After the
accidental death of Helle in the straits leading towards the
Black Sea, which event gave rise to the name of Hellespont,
ever since borne by those straits, Phryxus continued his voyage
to Colchis, where he was afterwards murdered,4 for the sake ofand death of
the treasures belonging to his father, which he had brought ryx
from Thebes. The desire of revenging thi£ atrocity caused the
memorable enterprise of the Argonauts, which has generally
been considered allegorical, or rather mythological. But
although blended with fiction, and partly lost in the romance
of poetical description, the voyage comes to us so well sup
ported, that there is every reason to believe the foundation, at
least, to have been correct. The early connexion of Colchis
with Egypt, the concurring testimony of the Greek historians,
together with the names, parentage, city, and nation of each
individual engaged in the expedition,5 seem to leave little
doubt regarding the authenticity of an undertaking which had,
as is well known, many important consequences.
1 Diod. Sic, lib. V, cap. xxxvi.
2 Jos, Cont. Apion, lib. II, s. 2, says that there intervened a period of
393 years between the departure of the Shepherds and the flight of Danaus,
which being deducted from 1623 (see above, p. 75) leaves 1230. The de
parture of Danaus from Egypt has however been placed two centuries
earlier. See note on p. 58, vol. I, Wilkinson's Ane. Egyptians.
3 Diod. Sic, lib. IV, cap. xii. 4 Ibid.
5 Apollonius Rhodius and Apollodorus Atheniensis.
VOL II. l

114

RETURN OF THE ARGONAUTS.

[chap. V.

Voyage to the
Black Sea.

Vessels of the The expedition appears, from the best authority, to have
been of some extent, for it consisted of six ships, manned by
Grecian princes and their followers.1 The principal vessel,
(the galley of Jason, the admiral,) the celebrated Argo, was,
according to some, so called from Argos, the builder ; but the
name was more probably derived from Argha, signifying, in
the Egyptian language, a sacred vessel, she having been taken
to the temple of Delphos, and there consecrated.2
The flotilla reached the coast of Colchis safely, where every
success attended the land operations under the Theban Her
cules;3 and some enterprises of minor importance appear to
have been undertaken in the countries lying northward of the
Euxine, particularly towards the Ister, the Tana'is, and the
Don, which have given rise to some geographical difficulties,
in consequence of the poetical effusions of the narrators. The
Argonauts are described as shaping their course down the
middle of the Pontic Sea, where they escaped with difficulty
from a violent tempest, and finally reached the straits, which
they entered in safety, with all the treasures they had acquired
during their forays.4 In passing, they visited the country of
Byzas, afterwards the seat of Byzantium, and, having erected
altars and offered sacrifices, they proceeded through the Pro-
pontis and Hellespont to Troy.
After plundering the city, Hercules bestowed Hesione, the
daughter of Laomedon, upon his friend Telamon, who carried
her to Greece. The Argonauts now continued their enter
prise, by proceeding through the Mediterranean to Spain, in
which part of the world colonies were already established, both
from Egypt and Phoenicia. They then returned to Greece
with great spoils, part of them by sea, sweeping the Medi
terranean, and the remainder by land ; and these brought with
them immense herds of cattle.
Rise of Lydia. Lydia had already become an important kingdom, Alcaeus,
the son of Omphale, the twelfth sovereign from Menes, or
1 Iliad, V, 641, and Diod. Sic, lib. IV, cap. xi.
2 Herod, lib. IV, cap. clxxix.
3 Apollodorus Atheniensis, de Hercule, p. 45.
4 Diod. Sic, lib. IV, cap. xiii.

Return from
Colchis to
Troy.

The fleet
proceeds to
Spain, &c.

CHAP. V.] CONQUESTS OF SEMIRAMIS. 115
Manes, (possibly Noah,) being on the throne. Belus, his suc
cessor, is said to have subdued Assyria, and having expelled
the Egyptian colony left by Sesostris on the northern frontier
of Colchis, he became possessed of the whole empire, instead of
being monarch of Lydia only. This sovereign was succeeded Ninus sue-
by Ninus, who was probably born about the time his father father Belus,
took the capital of Assyria, which from henceforth bore his
name, in accordance with the custom of that period, of attach
ing to places the names of distinguished individuals; and
during his campaigns in Asia he obtained the name of Picus.1
We are elsewhere told that Ninus arose from the south,2 and
came to the Black Sea, and the extreme north, destroying
everything.3 Diodorus Siculus4 also gives nearly the same
account, adding, that Ninus had conquered Bactria before
Semiramis reigned alone, and perhaps whilst she was still the
wife of Menon. The latter, who was one of the principal
officers attached to the army, is supposed to have put himself
to death through jealousy, and this event opened the way for
the union of Semiramis with Ninus. Semiramis thus obtained and marries
scope for the exercise of her great talents, which were after- emiramis-
wards employed most effectively in consolidating her second
husband's conquests in Bactria.5 Here Ninus died, and ,
Semiramis became, in consequence, mistress of the greater
part of the world, one of her capitals being Babylon.6 Be-
markable specimens of the arts belonging to this period
were not, however, confined to Babylonia; they have also
been discovered near Malatfyah,7 and in many other places
throughout her dominions. These remains are particularly
noticed by Diodorus,8 especially the magnificent road con- Road exca-
structed at great expense by the Assyrian queen across the semiramis.
1 From Scaliger : Ancient Fragments by I. P. Cory, Esq., p. 76.
2 The Red, or the Erythrean Sea.
3 Orosius' Hist, lib. I, cap. iv.
4 Lib. II, cap. vi. 5 Ibid, cap. vii.
' Strabo, lib. XVI, p. 737. Compared with Diod. Sic, lib. II, cap.

viii 7

On a tablet between Malatiyah and Kharput. Vol. X, p. 25, Journal of
the Royal Asiatic Society.
8 Lib. II, cap. xii. 12

116

REMAINS OF THE TIME OF SEMIRAMIS. [CHAP. V:

Summer
residence of
Semiramis.

Cuneiform
inscription near Van.

Elwand range of mountains, including the ancient Orontes,
where distinct traces of it were observed by Major Bawlinson ;
who states ' that throughout its whole extent, from the Gung
Nameh, the western base of the mountain, it still presents the
most unequivocal marks of having been artificially and most
laboriously constructed. On the summit of the mountain the
pavement is still in tolerable preservation. Having successfully
terminated the war in Armenia, and being pleased with the
salubrity of the air, as well as the fertility of that picturesque
country, Semiramis built a magnificent city on the shores of
the sea Akhthamar (Lake Van). On this city no less than
12,000 workmen, under 600 overseers or architects, were em
ployed;2 and, according to Armenian history, it became
henceforth the summer residence of its foundress.3 Several
ancient inscriptions have been lately discovered on the shores
of Lake Van, near the ruins of Shemiramgerd ; and the
lamented Professor Schultz, who copied forty-two of these
inscriptions, deciphered the word " Shemiram " in several of
them, particularly in one which is written in the arrow-headed
characters. The dominion of the Assyrian queen, therefore,
over Armenia no longer rests wholly upon tradition; and,
thanks to the pains-taking Schultz,4 and the subsequent labours
of Major Bawlinson, as well as those of another remarkable
traveller, there are still clearer traces of events connected with
this as well as the later and still more interesting Achaemenian
period ; which have been recorded in almost imperishable mate
rials at Bisutiin.5

1 Journal ofthe Royal Asiatic Society, vol. X, part iii, p. 320.
s Michael Chamish, History of Armenia, translated by J. Avdall, Esq,
vol. I. pp. 23, 24. This city .has lately been visited by James Brant, Esq.,
Her Brit. Majesty's Consul at Erz-Rum : its site had been satisfactorily de
termined during the previous journey of the late Professor Schultz.
3 Michael Chamish, History of Armenia, translated by J. Avdall, Esq.,
vol. I, p. 24.
4 Memoire sur le Lac de Van et ses environs, par Monsieur Fr. W. Schultz.
Journal Asiatique, vol. IX, 1840, p. 257-322.
5 The Persian cuneiform inscriptions of Bisutun, deciphered and translated
by Major H. C. Rawlinson, C.B. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society,
vol. X, parts i, ii, and iii.

CHAP. V.J SCULPTURES AND SYRIAC INSCRIPTIONS. 117
The sculptures and Syriac inscriptions so particularly men
tioned by Diodorus1 as having been executed by order ofBisutunthe
Semiramis at this place, which is now identified with the Mount ghistan.
Baghistane of that author, are supposed by Major Bawlinson2 to
have been totally effaced by Khusrau Parviz, when he was pre
paring to form the long surface, scarped by the Assyrian queen,
into the back wall of his palace. According to another
traveller, however, Mr. Masson, certain remains of these sculp
tures still exist ; three female heads, and some traces of Syriac
characters, having been discovered by him on his visit to
Bisutun in 1830.3
1 Lib. II, cap. xii.
s Journal ofthe Geog. Society, vol. IX, p. 114.
3 From a manuscript paper in possession of the London Asiatic Society,
and some other observations by Charles Masson, Esq. : —
" The scarped mountain at Bisutun, I considered to have been once
covered with the bas-reliefs or sculptures noticed particular!}' by Diodorus
Siculus, as well as intimated by Isidorus. I had not, and have not any Female figures
doubt upon the matter, because tliere are still three female faces of very aDQ
singular beauty, which have been spared by a very lucky chance, when
either wantonly (if the act of Muhammedans) or designedly (if the act of
others) the chisel was employed to obliterate all traces of these sculptures.
Above the faces are also the remains of an inscription, but not in cuneiform
characters : the forms to me, looking from the plain below, were circular
and square, such as certain of the Greek letters might be, or square Sama
ritan, or even Indo-Sali. These faces, as well as characters, I believe have
been unnoticed by modern travellers ; still they certainly exist, and once
seen, no one could again look upon the scarped mountain without having
them in full view. The prominent feature of Cambadena is Baptana, where,
according to Isidorus, ' there is a statue and pillar of Semiramis.' The
location of Baptana, at Bisutun, having been admitted, it is natural to in- inscriptions at
quire if we have at that spot any traces of the remarkable sculptures described '
by Diodorus, and it is gratifying to be able to assert that we have. Diodorus
says, lib. II, cap. xii, ' Semiramis having completed all these works,
marched with a great army against the Medes, and having reached the foot
of a mountain called Baghistane, she there formed her camp, and traced out
in the plain a garden, &c. Mount Baghistane, which is consecrated to
Jupiter, had one of its sides, a precipitous rock 17 stadii in height, and full
of inequalities, turned towards the garden. Semiramis caused it to be
smoothed at the bottom, and had her head, accompanied by a hundred of her
guards, sculptured on it. She added to this an inscription in Syriac cha
racters,' &c. " At

118

ACCESSION OF NINYAS.

[CHAP. V.

Referring to the successes of Semiramis, it may readily be
con^ue™18 imagined that an ambitious woman, possessing despotic power
Bactria, and an(j ampie means, would be ready, not only to follow out her
husband's plans in the neighbouring country of Bactria, but
even to push them further eastward, as stated by Diodorus
Siculus, who makes her forces in this campaign amount to the
prodigious number of 3,000,000 of foot, 500,000 horse,
100,000 chariots, and 100,000 men mounted on camels, besides
several hundreds of stuffed elephants, to impose upon the
Indians.1 Her career, however, terminated with this expe
dition, for having met with a repulse on the frontiers of
India, and her life having been soon afterwards attempted by
an assassin, at the instigation of her own son, she resigned the
throne in disgust.
Ninyas being thus placed in possession of a powerful and
extensive empire, his first care was its consolidation by the
appointment of provincial governors in whom h£ could confide,
and under whom were judges, generals, and all other officers
requisite for its well-being.2 The satraps, or deputies, were
instructed to raise a certain description of force, which, after

s succeeded
by Ninyas.

as described
hy Diod. Sic.

" At Bisutun is a high mountain, the lower parts of which have been
smoothed or scarped, exactly as the historian describes his Mount Baghistane
to have been. On this smoothed front are still to be recognized the faces of
three colossal figures ; and what is much to the point, they are obviously
female faces. Diodorus does not mention in the above extract that the
guards delineated on the rock were females ; but if my memory deceive me
not, we have evidence in some author that the Assyrian Queen was attended
by guards of her own sex. Above the three faces are the vestiges of symbols
or characters, possibly the faint remnants of the historian's Syriac inscription.
The faces are carved in bas-relief, and of exquisite workmanship, attesting
the perfection of the arts, of sculpture at least, at so early a period. But the
circumstance of these colossal figures being carved in bas-relief, unfortunately
rendered their obliteration comparatively easy to be effected, and the whole
front of the rock exhibits the marks of the chisel employed in the work of
destruction. These faces might escape the observation of a casual or inat
tentive observer, but they are readily as well as more favourably seen by
looking upwards upon the rock in an oblique direction, and from the north,
as in that case their profiles are turned towards the observer."
1 Diod. Sic, lib. II, cap. xvi, xvii. ! Ibid, cap. xvi.

CHAP. V.] TROJAN WAR, AND ITS ORIGIN. 1 19
performing military service for one whole year, should be dis
charged, and replaced by another levy. This is the first
militia upon record in history.
The intercourse existing between Greece and the shores of Cause ofthe
the Black Sea, previously to the voyage of the Argonauts, ™'3an war'
became more constant after this event, and so continued up to
the siege of Troy. This celebrated war appears to have had a
more remote cause than the abduction of Helen, being sup
posed to date from the journey of Antenor to demand his sister
Hesione from Telamon : and its connexion with the Argonauts
is the more probable from the circumstance that the sons of
some of the heroes engaged in the Argonautic expedition were
employed on this occasion. Hence the commencement of the
siege may be fixed at about forty-five or fifty-five years later
than the voyage alluded to, and probably about the same time
after the departure of Danaus from Egypt for Argos. This
would' place the Janding of the Greeks in Asia between 1185 B.C. iiss.
and 1175 b.c, or nearly the time hitherto assigned to that
remarkable event, which has, in a great measure, served to fix
so many dates belonging to the heroic age.1 Armenia appears An Armenian
to have shared in this war; Teutamos, the sovereign of that employed at
country, having sent Memnon thither, at the head of a con- the SKge-
tingent of 10,000 Ethiopians (of Asia), and as many Susians,
with the addition of 200 chariots.2
At this period, Lydia also held an important place in the
history of the world, having become a maritime power ; and
thus, by intercourse with the isles of the Mediterranean, Asia
Minor became one of the links by which knowledge spread
westward from the cradle of the human race.
In a neighbouring territory, the theocracy of the Hebrews
had lately terminated with the death' of the prophet Samuel,
and the regular Jewish monarchy succeeded. Saul, the first Saul's acces-
.. ii-i t>i j. i_ • £1 sion and death,
king, had carried on successful wars against his powerful
neighbours the Philistines,3 the Ammonites,4 and the Amale-
1 A later time, namely, 900 b.c, has been given. See pp. 31, 32, 40, 54
of the Tables of Synchronology, &c. by the Rev. Charles Crossthwaite.
Parker, West Strand. s Diod. Sic, lib. II, cap. xvii.
8 1 Samuel, chap. XIV, v. 31. 4 Ibid. v. 47.

120

EXTENT OF DAVID S KINGDOM.

[chap.

The Hagar-
ites, Itureans,
&c.

David is
chosen, and

reigns over
the twelve
tribes.

The limits of
his kingdom
extendedbeyond the
Euphrates.

kites,1 as well as into the more distant territories of the
Hagarites, the Itureans, the Nephisbites, &c, lying towards
the banks of the Euphrates. He took from these wealthy
nomads 100,000 men, 50,000 camels, 250,000 sheep, and
2,000 asses,2 notwithstanding the support they received from
the king of Zobah.3 These nations had not been able to
regain the authority formerly possessed by Cushanrishathaim,
by whom the nomadic tribes west of the Euphrates, as well as
the Hebrews themselves, had been subjected ; and they were
overcome by the prudence and valour of Saul; but this
monarch, having experienced a signal defeat from the Philis
tines in the plains of Esdraelon, fell by his own hand in the
year 1056 B.C. The Philistines followed up their victory by
taking many cities, and spreading themselves over the country.4
Things were in this discouraging state when the rulers of the
tribe awarded the sceptre of Judah to David, in Hebron ; the
other eleven tribes recognizing Ishbosheth, the son of Saul, as
their king. A civil war was the consequence of this opposition,
but it was terminated, at the end of seven years and six months,
by the murder of Ishbosheth. David's authority being then
acknowledged by all the tribes, he besieged and took Jebus
from the Jebusites, which became from thenceforth his capital.
Being now sole monarch, and free from all internal enemies,
the new sovereign gradually extended his dominions over Ccelo-
Syria, Damascus, Palmyrene, and Iturea ; he also subdued the
Moabites, Ammonites, Philistines, and other sections of the
ancient inhabitants who had previously occupied the whole
range of country from Thapsacus to the borders of Egypt;
thus realizing the covenant which was to give to Abraham and
his posterity the territory from the river of Egypt to the great
river.5 After subjugating the Edomites, Moabites, &c, David added
still more to his territory, having, towards the close of his
reign, extended the borders even beyond the Euphrates. Here
1 1 Samuel, chap. XIV, v. 48. s 1 Chron, chap. V, v. 19, 20, 21.
3 1 Samuel, chap. XIV, v. 47.
4 Ibid, chap. XXXI, v. 1, 2, aud following verses.
5 Gen, chap. XV, v.. 18.

CHAP. V.J ROYAL ESTABLISHMENT OF SOLOMON. 121
he encountered Hadarezer, son of Behob, king of Zobah (pro- Brass brought
bably Nisibis), the ally of the king of Syria ; and having ^a. esopo"
defeated him, he brought " very much brass " from Tibhath
and Chun, two of his cities.1 This commodity was, no doubt,
the produce of the mines near Diyar Bekr, where it may have
been found in the same abundance as in the present day, for
we read that in the time of Solomon there was a sufficient
quantity of it left " to make the brazen sea, the pillars, and the
vessels of brass," for the service of the Temple.2
A few months before his death, David resigned to Solomon, Death of
' p ' David, and
one of his youngest sons, the government of his kingdom, which
was then the principal monarchy in western Asia. It extended,
as we have seen, from the Mediterranean Sea and the country
of the Phoenicians to the Euphrates; and, again, from the
river of Egypt and the Elanitic gulf, till it included Berytus,
Hamath, and even Thapsacus.3 The Canaanites, who seem to
have been obedient and peaceful subjects, were tributary to
David, as were also the Moabites, Ammonites, the nomad
Arabs, and the Syrians of Damascus.
Finding peace on all sides, Solomon's attention was speedily accession of
given to the cultivation of the arts and the promotion of com
merce, all of which found an active protector in a monarch
who was distinguished for his learning, as well as for his archi
tectural taste. The latter was displayed in his design for the
celebrated Temple ; and for the execution of this splendid
work there were introduced into the country many foreigners,
from whom the Hebrews acquired instruction in different
branches of the mechanical arts.4 Besides artizans, many
distinguished individuals, and even sovereign princes, were Tynano yfi 7JI ti c
attracted to Jerusalem, in order to see and converse with employed on
the royal sage, and have, at the same time, an opportunity the TempIe"
of examining in detail the institutions of the State.5 These
comprehended the administration of the laws, and the regu-
1 1 Chron, chap. XVIII, v. 8, the Betah and Berothai of 2 Samuel,
chap. VIII. v. 8.
2 1 Chron, chap. XVIII, v. 8. s See above, vol. I, p. 539, 540.
4 2 Chron, chap. II, v. 13, 14, &c. " I have sent thee a cunning man,''
&c. " Skilful to work in gold and in silver," &c.
0 Ibid, chap. IX, v. 1 and following verses.

122 ROYAL ESTABLISHMENT OF SOLOMON. [ciIAP. V.
lations relating to the discipline of an army, consisting of
infantry, cavalry, and chariots, for the security of the kingdom
from foreign as well as domestic enemies. The court con
tained within it all the establishments becoming the state of a
great monarch; and the inferior details of domestic labours
were performed by servants or slaves, who were designated
hewers of wood and drawers of water.
Materials, &c, The greater part of Solomon's subjects were employed, either
this structure, in preparing the materials or in the building of the temple, for
a period of thirty-nine years, having, besides, the effective
assistance of Hiram. It appears that 80,000 men were
occupied in the mountains preparing stone ; others, numbering
30,000, were engaged in hewing wood, and there were 70,000
bearers of burdens, making in all 180,000 constantly employed,
under 3,600 overseers.1 The gold, silver, and other costly
materials left by David expressly for the erection of this superb
building, with the additions made by Solomon, and the free
labour bestowed upon the work, have been estimated at a sum
exceeding the national debt of Great Britain ; but even at the
moderate computation of Josephus, the 10,000 talents of gold
Cost of the and 100,000 talents of silver, at the lowest value, namely the
Temple. syrian talent, would be 17,7 18, 750J.2
Shortly after the completion of this edifice, Solomon erected
what was no doubt an idolatrous temple, for the use of his
Cushite wife, the daughter of Miphra Muthosis, with whom he
had received as a dower the city of Gaza, which the king of
Egypt had recently captured.3
Solomon also built Tadmor in the wilderness, and all the
store cities store cities in Hamath; likewise Beth-horon the upper and
Soiomra. Beth-horon the nether, and Ba'alath;4 but the greatest under
taking of all, was the establishment of regular commercial
intercourse by sea, with that part of the eastern world known
under the name of Ophir.
1 1 Kings, chap. V, v. 15, 16 ; 2 Chron, chap. II, v. 18 ; Jos, lib. VIII.
cap. ii. s. 9.
4 Jos, chap. XIII, description ofthe Temple.
3 1 Kings, chap. Ill, v. 1.
4 2 Chron, chap. VIII, v. 4, 5, 6, compared with Jos, lib. VIII. cap. vi.

CHAP. V.] INQUIRY CONCERNING THE LOCALITY OF OPHIR. 123
The coasts of Arabia and eastern Africa, with those on Ophir sought
both sides of the peninsula of India, have each in turn been ™en as°AsTa.
considered the place bearing that name ; but as the first does
not correspond, either as to distance or products, with the
indications afforded in the Scriptures, the question lies between
the second and third regions.
Each of these possesses the chief requisites for the return
cargoes, but the greatest number of authors are in favour of the
coast of India, which has all the different products, possibly in
cluding the doubtful almug, or algum.1 Although so much has
been written on the subject, a few remarks on the time and
means by which the united fleets may have overcome the dangers
of Tharshish, or the open sea, in search of wealth, may not be
out of place. In connexion with the time mentioned, a diffi
culty has arisen regarding the country of the Queen of the
South, which is imagined by some to have been on the eastern,
whilst it has been placed by others on the western side of the
Bed Sea. The first rests in a great measure on Arab history
and tradition ; and whilst the Saba of Yemen, by its southern Saba of Yemen
position, agrees with the supposed seat of the Queen's govern- an
ment, the ancient Saba, afterwards Meroe,2 not only agrees as
well, but it may with greater propriety be styled, " the utter
most parts of the earth."3 It has already been seen that the
Himyarites of Arabia and the Sabaeans of Africa were one and
the same people,4 and that the name of Sheba or Saba, equally
of Arabic derivation, is found in both countries. But a writer,
whose veracity is now better understood than formerly,
mentions the interesting fact, which has been repeated by most
subsequent travellers, that the Abyssinians claim the celebrated
princess who visited Solomon as one of their sovereigns ; The Queen of
adding, that her posterity reigned over their country for a long Solomon.
time. Moreover, the Abyssinian annals describe the journey
of the learned Queen of Sheba, Saba, or Asaba (meaning
south), to visit Solomon, and add that she had a son by this
1 Possibly the odoriferous thyon of Pliny, in lib. XIII, cap xvi.
1 Jos. Ant, lib. II, cap. x. s. 2. s Matthew, chap. XII, v. 42.
* Ludolphus, Hist. iEthiop. I, and Comment, ad suam Hist. iEthiop, lib.
XVI, p. 60.

124 LAND AND SEA CARAVANS. [CHAP. V.
monarch, to whom, after a reign of forty years, she left the
kingdom.1 This occurred about 986 b.c, and it has been remarked that
the existing usages, and even the religion of the Abyssinians,
show traces of an early intercourse with the Hebrews.
The voyage under consideration was not, however, neces
sarily directed to the country of the Queen of the South. It
Earliest trade will be recollected that the gold of Ophir was known in the
p "' time of Job,2 as well as in that of David, having been brought
to Judea chiefly, or perhaps entirely, by land ; and, whatever
be the place from whence that metal was obtained, the local
ities of other portions of the merchandize must be sought for
beyond the limits of Arabia. It has been seen that this
Caravan country is at present traversed by several caravan routes ;3 and,
Arabia. r°US in ancient times, those of the Sabaeans towards the western
side of the peninsula converged on Petra -and Egypt; the
Sabean city of Mareb being the grand mercantile depot, while
those towards the eastern side tended to Tadmor, which was
another great emporium, from whence there were branches to
Jerusalem, Tyre, Ba'alat (Ba'albek), and the other store cities.
Since the camel finds sustenance even in the most desert tracts,
almost any distance may be accomplished by caravans com
posed of these animals ; the allotment of a sufficient number, to
transport from place to place the supplies of provisions and
water, in addition to the merchandize, being all that is
required : the formation of ship caravans, however, must have
been very different, owing to the extreme difficulty of their
organization. The compass was unknown, as well as the
Difficulties monsoons ; and even if there had been sufficient knowledge of
todedbygsea. tiie winds and of tne geography of the countries, to enable the
navigators to shape a direct course, the sort of ship then in use
must necessarily have confined them to a coasting voyage,
which, in fact, was all that the Phoenicians attempted at a later
period with superior vessels. Supposing the barks depicted in
the grottos of Eleutherium and other places in Egypt, as well
1 Bruce's Travels, &c, vol. II, p. 109-113.
2 Chap. XXII, v. 24.
3 See above, vol. I. pp. 618, 629, 630, 637, 685.

CHAP. V.J TIME OF A VOYAGE TO AFRICA. 125
as in the temples of India, to give some idea of those in use
on the Bed Sea in the time of Solomon, and taking the size of f™£l ancient
the men and other objects as a guide in forming a judgment,
the vessels must have been mere flat boats, of between three
and five tons burthen ; sometimes with a square sail to assist,
but depending chiefly on rowers. For this reason, they had a
much greater proportion of men than sailing vessels require ;
and supplies of water would have been requisite almost every
day, and of provisions very frequently. Under such. circum
stances, the flotilla was not likely to accomplish more than the
vessels of Nearchus did; the daily progress during the cool
season in day-time, and at night during the summer, may
therefore be estimated at twenty-five miles at most.
The eastern coast of Africa, about the Mozambique channel, Products of
would afford gold, silver, ivory, apes, and peacocks or parrots ; coastof Africa.
and the distance, following the coast, including that of the Bed
Sea, is about 4405 miles. This, at 25 miles per day,
would require 170 days, or, with the sabbaths and halts, 218.
This, with 90 for the monsoon, and 120 for the delay in
collecting the merchandize, would give 428 days in all ; which,
adding 308 for the return voyage, would be two years and six
days; and this, according to Hebrew computation, would be
called three years.
But as the gold of Ophir,1 and at least some of the other
objects of merchandize were prepared during the reign of
David,2 it follows that the countries from whence they were
brought must also have been known before communications
were opened by vessels, and tbe destination of the latter must
therefore be sought somewhere in the prolongation of the
existing caravan lines.
The most important of these was that adopted by Solomon, Trade between
which passed through Tadmor towards the Persian Gulf. This S^Im!:
line appears to have been in use since the Phoenicians removed
1 Three thousand talents of the gold of Ophir, and 7000 talents of refined
silver; also wood, onyx stones, and all manner of precious stones. 1 Chron,
chap. XXIX, v. 2-5.
2 For preparation ofthe materials, see 1 Chron, chap. XXII, XXVIII,
XXIX.

126 TIME AND DISTANCE OF [CHAP. V.
from the shores of the latter to the coasts of the Mediterranean ;
Arados and Tylos being afterwards depots for imports from
more distant countries. No doubt the merchandize sought
was brought there in the first instance by land, but probably
afterwards by water also ; and circumstances, otherwise trifling,
go far to show that a remote tract of the east was the seat of
this trade. The Singalese kakyn nama, or sweet-wood, cinna
mon,1 together with other Indian articles, such as pepper, fine
linen, or muslin and cotton, have each a Greek name, which
corresponds with the original Sanscrit.2
Moreover, it is expressly stated by Josephus, that, in order
to fetch gold, the shipping of Hiram and Solomon proceeded
to a land, which of old was called Ophir, but is now the Aurea
Chersonesus, and belongs to India.3 As the ancient Egyptian
TheAurea name of the latter country was Sophir,4 which is nearly that
conside"edUas used in the Septuagint, it is not improbable that the peninsula
ophir. 0f ]y[a]acca an(j the adjoining tracts may represent the Ophir
of Job, David, and Solomon. The name itself is still pre
served, being given to Gounang-passaman, one of the culmi
nating points of the great chain in the island of Sumatra, a
lofty mountain rising to the height of 13,842 feet.
The country lying between this island and Cape Comorin
produces sandal-wood (which probably represents the algum),
as well as the other objects of the voyage. These were, in all
Products probability, obtained by barter only, at the expense of much
by'means*?6 time m SoiaS fr°m place to place ; and the delay which
barter. occurred on this account must have been increased by the
necessity of waiting for a change of monsoon to return. As
the nature of the flotilla put a direct voyage out of the question,
that to Ophir could have been accomplished only by coasting
along the shores of Arabia, afterwards (supposing Ophir were
1 This name was imported with the commodity. Herod, lib. Ill,
cap. iii.
2 Heeren's Asiatic Researches, vol. II. p. 421 et seq, Bohn, 1846, com
pared with Quatremere, Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscriptions, tome XV. pt. ii.
p. 349-402.
3 Ant, lib. VIII. cap. 6, s. 4.
4 Michaelis, Spicilegium Geog. Heb, II. 184.

CHAP.

v-]

THE OPHIRIAN VOYAGE..

127

in India), keeping along that of Mekran, and finally following
both sides of the peninsula of Hindustan : —

From Ezion-geber, or Dhahab,1 pursuing the windings of
the coast, the western side of Arabia gives a distance of
The southern side of tlie peninsula to the coast of Persia,
at the Straits of Ormuz ....
From the Straits of Ormuz to the River Indus
From the latter to Cape Comorin
From Cape Comorin to the River Ganges .
From the River Ganges to the Straits of Malacca
Total

1206 miles.

1660 732
1390 1350
1500

7838

time required voyage.

At the rate of about 25 miles in 24 hours, this would occupy Distances and
313 days, which, with the addition of the sabbaths, 44 days, foTth"
and other halts, as rests, at intervals of about 10 days, say 31,
would make the outward voyage to the coast of Sumatra quite
388 days ; and this is exclusive of detention from bad weather,
which must have occurred frequently, especially during the
monsoons ; for assuredly such frail barks could not venture to
proceed, excepting at the commencement, or towards the
termination of these periodical winds. This applies more
particularly to the Bed Sea; for outside of the straits of
Bab-el-Mandeb, and, again, along the coasts of Mekran and
the western side of India, the only resource would be to haul
up the flotilla until the strength of the gale were passed. It is
difficult to estimate the time lost in consequence of these
delays, outward and homeward ; but as a monsoon would be DeIay and
... , difficulties
encountered during each voyage, about three months may be caused by the
allowed, making 90 days each way ; and as from 90 to 120 1~
days would probably be occupied on the coasts of Ophir and
Parvaim2 in bartering for the desired articles, and in refitting
the ships, this number of days, with 478 for the return voyage,
will give 1076 days, or nearly three years in all, for the time
consumed in an enterprise which forms one of the glories of
Solomon's reign.
As it was chiefly owing to the skill and intrepidity of the Thf ea^J
ship-men of Hiram that the trade with Ophir was opened by Phoenicians
1 This place is represented, Plate 45.
2 2 Chron, chap. III. v. 6.

monsoons.

128

PHOENICIAN VOYAGES WESTWARD.

[CHAP.

extended by
the Tyrians

into Africa
and Europe.

sea, it will not be out of place to revert to the progress pre
viously made by these mariners.
By the extension of the earliest navigation, Tzur, or Tyre,
had assumed a high place as the emporium of trade with
various kingdoms,1 having gotten gold and silver into her
treasures, by great wisdom and traffic.2
It has already been seen that their leader was Arcles, who,
as the Tyrian Hercules,3 was the first navigator in the Medi
terranean, and the founder of several colonies ; he was deified
by the Tyrians, and even by the Egyptians, by whom he had
been expelled.
The settlement in Spain, which Arcles had intrusted to his
son Hispal, speedily became the most valuable of these infant
colonies. From Cadiz, the principal port of the southern part of the
Peninsula, voyages were undertaken to the western coast of
Africa, where the colonies appear to have been so numerous
that, at a later period, we are told the Getuli destroyed about
300 settlements belonging to the Phoenicians.4 Other voyages,
again, were directed northward, and appear to have been
extended to the British islands, and the estuary of the Bhine,
if not also to the Baltic Sea.
The mines found in the southern parts of the peninsula of
Iberia, about Tartessus, Carteia, &c, seem to have contributed
still more to the extension ol the trade of Phoenicia. Gold
and silver, which were at this period so abundant as to be used
1 Fine linen with broidered work from Egypt was woven in thy sail, blue
and purple from the Isles of Elisha (Hellas). They of Persia, of Lud, and
of Phut were in thine army. Tarshish was thy merchant ; Javan, Tubal, and
Meshech, they were thy merchants : they traded in men and vessels of brass.
Togormah traded in thy fairs with horses and mules. The men of Dedan
brought thee horns of ivory and ebony. Syria was thy merchant: they
occupied in thy fairs with emeralds, purple, and broidered work, and fine
linen, and coral and agate. Haran, and Canneh (Calneh), and" Eden, the
merchants of Sheba, Asshur, and Chilmad, were thy merchants, &c. — Ezekiel,
chap. XXVII, v. 7, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 23.
2 Ibid, chap. XXVIII, v. 4, 5.
3 Cic, de Nat. Divin, lib. Ill, compared with Josephus, Ant, lib. VIII.
cap. v.
4 Strabo, lib. XVII, p. 825.

CHAP. V.] EARLY USE OF IRON AND OTHER METALS. 129
for anchors, and even farming implements, were sent into the
latter country to be exchanged, together with glass, purple,
fine linen, and trinkets, for the commodities of eastern
countries. There is little doubt that the Tyrians had availed themselves Early com-
of the waters of the Bed Sea for commercial purposes previ- KeTseaf
ously to the voyages undertaken by Solomon, although no dis
tinct proofs of the fact have been handed down in connexion
with their history. Gold of Ophir, coral, pearls, and the topaz,
were known in the time of Job ; l and when Joseph was sold,
we hear of a mixed caravan of Ishmaelites and Midianites,
merchantmen engaged in trade.2 During the Exodus, gold,
silver, brass, iron, tin, and lead, were found in Idumea ; 3 and
it will be remembered that David's preparations for the
Temple, included gold of Ophir, silver, brass, iron, the onyx,
and other precious stones.4
It appears that during the reign of the latter monarch, the
idolatrous title of Abu Ba'al (Abibalus), which had been given
to the first sovereign of Tyre, was renewed, and bestowed on
the father of Hiram.
The reign of this prince was particularly connected with The temples
the religion of the country, for, according to Menander of dedicated to3
Ephesus, he pulled down the existing temples, and constructed ^stracru,ees and
others, which he consecrated to Hercules and Astarte.5
The historian of the Jews continues the line from this
sovereign to Pygmalion, in the seventh year of whose reign,
and 143 years after the building of the temple, Dido fled into
Africa.6 Whether in consequence of growing dissensions or want of Departure of a
n i m i ii,.i colony from
space, a portion of the 1 ynan people proceeded to the coast Tyre.
of Africa, where a suitable site was obtained for a city ; and as
the best means of maintaining a position situated at the extre
mity of a continent inhabited by a warlike people, they con
sented to pay a ground-rent or tribute.7 Carthage occupied a
1 Chap.- XXVIII, v. 15-20. 2 Gen, chap. XXXVII, v. 28, 36.
s Numb, chap. XXXI, v. 22, 50. 4 1 Chron, chap. XXIX, v. 2, 4.
5 Josephus, Cont. Apion, lib. I, s. 18. 6 Ibid.
7 Justin, XIX, 2.
VOL. II. K

130 VARIOUS COLONIES ESTABLISHED IN AFRICA. [CHAP. V.

of Carthage
and

peninsula between Tunis and Leptis, which, by projecting into
the gulf of the former, gave rise to two bays, both of which
Establishment were tolerably well sheltered by the projection of Cape Bon.
The city was defended on the land side by the citadel of
Byrsa, and triple walls, ninety feet high by thirty feet broad,
the rest of its circumference being protected by a single line.1
The system which had raised the parent city to a hitherto
unexampled state of prosperity was pursued at Carthage, with
the advantage of occupying the centre, instead of, as at Tyre,
the extremity of the commercial outlets, which the Mediter
ranean Sea commanded, into Europe and Africa. The former
continent especially, on account of the rich mines of Andalusia,
required intervening stations, such as the Balearic Isles, Sar
dinia, Sicily, &c, in addition to a chain of settlements along
the African shores, from the pillars of Hercules to the seat of
government. Besides the preceding colonies, some of which
were merely renewed, having been first instituted by the Phoe
nicians, others were placed in different parts of Mauritania,
Numidia, Cyrenaica, and Marmarica.2
The latter stations fulfilled the double object of promoting
agricultural industry and encouraging the trade of the mother-
country, by serving as depots of merchandize at suitable dis
tances, for the use of the caravans trading to the interior ; and
as the safety of these isolated positions required the good-will
of the inhabitants, who were, generally speaking,' warlike, their
sanction was secured by territorial acknowledgments and other
considerations.3 The colonies in the interior contributed largely, partly in the
shape of tribute, but chiefly in agricultural produce, towards
the expenses of Carthage, whose resources were also augmented
by supplies from her numerous colonies elsewhere. These
were partly received as taxes, and partly as donations to the

various colonies
elsewhere.

Colonial resources of
Carthage.

1 Appian, I, 435, &c, compared with Campomanes, Antiquidad Maritima
de la Republica Carthago.
2 Diod. Sic, lib. I, compared with Heeren's Hist. Researches, Africa,
vol. I, p. 7, and pp. 39, 40.
8 Polybius, I, 177, compared with Heeren's Hist. Researches, Africa,
vol. I, p. 30.

CHAP. V.] GREATNESS OF CARTHAGE. 131
chief city of a kind of federation, which was established for the
object of mutual benefit, rather than with the view of exercising
an acknowledged dominion.
Having in the very outset the advantage of the experience Phoenician
which the parent city had derived from several centuries of foundation of e
traffic by land as well as by sea, the African colony of Carthage, Carthage
instead of seeking new paths, such as those pursued by its
predecessors, had only to follow their steps, taking advantage
of a more extensive field. For, besides additional maritime
Colonies, Carthage possessed the resources derived from the con
tinent of Africa, through the agricultural establishments which
had been formed in the interior, in connexion with the capital.
Africa, including Egypt, produced corn, fruits, wax, honey, Commercial
skins of wild beasts, ivory, gold, silver, flax, linen, &c, in great Africa.
abundance. Frankincense, perfumes, gold, pearls, and precious
stones, together with the purple, trinkets, and rich stuffs, &c,
of Tyre, were received from the Bed Sea and Arabia, as well
as the countries lying eastward of the latter; and from the
western and northern countries they imported iron, tin, copper,
lead, amber, gold, and silver.
Having thus the greatest part of the resources of the world Nature ofthe
at command, with the advantages of a government which, being ^ernm,!1!
partly aristocratic and parfly democratic, was considered the
most perfect hitherto known,1 it is not surprising that the Car
thaginians should have gradually raised their city to a pitch of
greatness, exceeding that of Tyre at her most splendid period.
But, on the other hand, extensive colonization necessarily
produced many jealousies, while ambition excited by pros
perity, speedily led to foreign wars ; and with mercenary troops, cause of the
which could be raised to almost any extent in Africa and Spain, w"sbaginian
Carthage subsequently engaged in a protracted and, as it
proved, fatal contest with the future mistress of the world.'
But before becoming involved in a struggle for existence,
maritime enterprises, similar to those made to Ophir in the
time of Solomon, were occasionally undertaken by this people ;
which, as coming within the limits of this work, will be noticed
in their proper places. ¦ ' Aristotle, de Rep, lib. IV.
k2

132 DIVISION OF THE HEBREW KINGDOM. [CHAP. V.
The infant kingdom of Israel acquired much strength towards
the close of David's career, and it continued to progress during
that of his successor, when its power was increased and consoli
dated, by means of extensive commercial and political relations
with other countries.
Dissatisfaction But a change took place about the end of Solomon's till
peopie.Hebrew then prosperous reign : the introduction of idolatry,1 and the
heavy taxes exacted for the support of his luxurious capital and
effeminate court, having sown the seeds of defection previously
to this monarch's decease. The bulk of the Israelites were
consequently ready to revert to a state of discord ; and the
enterprising Jeroboam was the most formidable of the three
principal leaders, whose attempts to gain power distracted the
commencement of the succeeding reign.
The imprudent conduct of Behoboam speedily caused a
separation of the Hebrew kingdom, and Jeroboam having
returned in haste from Egypt, was placed at the head of ten
tribes and of the tributary nations. The seat of his govern
ment, now called the kingdom of Israel, was at Shechem.
The tribes of Judah and Benjamin, forming the kingdom of
Judah, only remained to Behoboam, whose capital was Jeru
salem. The idolatry of Egypt had been adopted, in a great
measure, by the bulk of the Hebrew people, and Jeroboam
easily induced the Egyptians, his allies, to punish and humble
the king of Judah, who having permitted idolatry in his own
dominions, had drawn upon himself this chastisement, the
coming of which was made known to him by the prophet
Shemaiah.2
shishak Amenophis, who, according to Manetho, was the son of
' Tethmosis and grandson of Myspharmuthosis, or Misphragmu-
thosis, the father-in-law of Solomon, was on the throne at this
time.3 He was the Bala of the Arabians, and appears to have
been deified under the title of Ba'al, or Belus : 4 he is supposed
also to have been the famous Shishak, or Schesonk. At the
1 1 Kings, chap. XI, v. 7, 8.
2 2 Chron, chap. XI, v. 2, 3, 4.
3 Ancient Fragments by I. P. Cory, Esq., p. 118.
* Crossthwaite's Synchronology, p. 245.

invades Judea.

CHAP. V.] EXTENT OF THE ASSYRIAN DOMINION. 133
head of 1200 chariots, 60,000 horsemen, and a people without B.C. 971.
number, including the Lubims, the Sukkiims, and Ethiopians,
he took the fenced cities of Judah ; Jerusalem itself surrendered
to his arms, when he carried off the treasures of the Temple
and those of the palace,1 leaving Behoboam weaker, and con
sequently less able than before, to contend with the increasing
power of Jeroboam and the Israelites.
Turning towards western Asia at this period, it will be seen
that the extension of the Haiganians, or Armenians, as a people,
had hitherto been chiefly towards the east ; they followed, in the Spread of the
first instance, one of the vales of Eden, now a fertile valley of imemans-
the Araxes, as far as the shores of the Caspian Sea, and from
thence they spread into the gorges of the Caucasus, under the
name of Ha'ikanians.
They are the Gargareis of Strabo, who places them north of
Albania, close to the Amazons, and says that they came with
the latter from Themiscyra, on the Black Sea.2 In all proba
bility they are one of the many colonies that came into
Armenia after the first great emigration from Shinar.
The Armenian kingdom appears to have been consolidated
at this particular period under Pharnak, who made the country
independent, and succeeded in so maintaining it, although
exposed to the invasion of two powerful enemies, the Assyrians
and Babylonians, who menaced him in turn during the re
mainder of the fifty-three years of his reign.
The Assyrian or Cushite dominion was very extensive about
this time, for it not only included Arabia and Iran, which was
now the seat of government, but also the dependencies of the
latter in central Asia, and even in India. At this remote
period, the latter region was composed of three immense pro- India com-
vinces : that of the Ganges, that of the Indus, and peninsular provinces'. "*
India, all of which paid tribute to I'ran, having been previ
ously subjected by Ferfdiin or Arbaces.3
Subsequently, however, Tartary appears to have gained a
temporary ascendancy, I'ran having been occupied for twelve
years by Afrisiab, king of Tiiran. This prince was in turn
1 2 Chron, chap. XII, v. 3, 9. '- Strabo, XI, p. 504.
8 Sir William Jones, vol. I., p. 49.

134 CUSH USED TO SIGNIFY ARABIA. [CHAP. V.
expelled by Zal, father of Eustam, hereditary prince of
Se'istan ; and the last was succeeded by Loo, or Loah.
This sovereign, and the period of his reign, appear to syn-
Zerah, the chronise with Zerah, the Ethiopian, and his invasion of Judea
vades Judea?" " with a vast army and 300 chariots." i Dr. Wells remarks
that the original word Cush could not have meant the portion
of Africa so called, which lay at too great a distance from
Judea to permit such an invasion : moreover, if it had taken
place from that part of the world, the intervening country of
Egypt must have been passed through, and subdued by such a
powerful host.2
But the geographical difficulty will cease if we bear in mind,
that the word Cush was applied to the Arabian as well as to
the African territory ; and probably it formed at this moment
a part of that extensive empire which stretched continuously
from the shores of the Bed Sea to the territories of Fran,3
from whence Judea had already been frequently invaded.
About this period Assyria resumed her place in the history
of the world, after having been for a lengthened period almost
The Assyrians a complete blank, and scarcely noticed in profane history. It
in the time of is, however, clear that the dominion founded by Nimriid con-
ra am; tinued intact up to the time of Abraham, when the subsidiary
kings of Elam, Shinar, and Ellasar, are mentioned as following
Tidal, the Assyrian king of kings, or of nations, to the borders
of Palestine ; 4 and it seems to have been unimpaired at the
time of Balaam's prophecy regarding Ashur,5 as well as when
Cushan-rishathaim, the dependent sovereign of Mesopotamia,
occupied Judea.6
The defensive preparations of the Hyksos, as mentioned by
u , profane writers,7 also show that at this period the Assvrian
fl Y\ ft A 1 ^ Cl 1 1 '1 ¦
later period, power extended almost to the borders of Egypt ; and it is like
wise evident that it was in full force more than a thousand
years after its formation, when Teutamos, the twentieth sove-
1 2 Chron., chap. XIV, v. 7.
2 Wells' Geog. of the Bible, vol. I, p. 192.
3 Kusdi Kabgok.
4 See page 65 of present volume, and Gen, chap. XIV, v. 1.
5 Numbers, chap. XXIV, v. 22. " Judges, chap. Ill, v. 8, 10.
7 See above, p. 73.

CHAP. V.J ASSYRIAN AND MEDIAN DYNASTIES. 135
reign from Ninyas, led a contingent to the siege of Troy.1 The Assyrian
Other incidental circumstances are mentioned by Eusebius,
Syncellus, and Diodorus Siculus, in addition to the more
detailed history of the kingdom given by Ctesias from the
Persian archives. The latter, who had the advantage of col
lecting his materials during a residence of seventeen years at
the court of Artaxerxes Mnemon, commences with Nimriid or
Ashur, and gives in succession Ninus, Semiramis, Ninyas,
Arius, Azalius, Xerxes or Baleus I., Armamithres, Belochus I.,
Baleus II., Sethos (called Attados), Mamythus, Ascaleus,
Ascarius or Maschaleus, Spherus, Mamylus, Spartheus,
Ascatides, Amyntes, Belochus IL, Baletores or Beletaras,
Lamprides, Sosares, Lamparus, Panyas, Sosarmes, Mithreus,
Teutamus or Tautanus, Teuteus, Thineus, Dercylas, Em-
pacmes or Eupales, Saosthenes, Pertiades or Perithiades,
Ophrateus, Ephecheres, Acraganes, and Thonos Concolerus or
Sardanapalus. The reign of this monarch, who appears to represent the Median
earlier Sardanapalus of the Greeks, was terminated by a revo- cording'to
lution, in which he was overthrown by Arbaces, who, assisted tesias'
by the Babylonian forces under Belesis, succeeded to the
throne. The dynasty of the former, namely, Mandauces,
Sosarmus, Artychas, Arbianes, Artseus, Artynas, Astybaras,
Aspadas or Astyages, and Cyrus, ten, including Arbaces, is
called Median by Ctesias, owing to the founder being con
sidered one of this people, though in reality an Assyrian. This,
and a similar circumstance at a later period, regarding Deioces,
have caused some historical difficulties, which may, however,
be in a great measure removed by distinguishing the Median
dynasty of Ctesias, which commenced with Arbaces, from the
later line, beginning, according to Herodotus, with Dejoces :2
Media being in each case a satrapy of the empire, and not a Historical dif-
„ ticulties caused
Separate nation. by the Median
But even if no such explanation were offered respecting the ranc '
1 Diod Sic, lib. II, cap. xvii.
8 This distinction is the result of the talented researches of the late T. M.
Dickinson, Esq., Secretary of the Bombay branch.— See Journal of the Royal
Asiatic Society, vol. IV, p. 217, &c. London, 1837.

136 DURATION OF THE ASSYRIAN EMPIRE. [CHAP. V.
i
relative condition of Media, it could scarcely be supposed that
the once-powerful kingdom of Assyria should have ceased to
exist from the reign of Ninyas to that of Sardanapalus.
The Assyrian Indeed, it is shown by undoubted authority, that at the time
empire, and ' •> _ J .
of the commencement of the Median revolt under Deioces, or
Kaikobad, the Assyrians had already been masters of upper
Asia for a period of 520 years.1 And the probability that in
his last work on Assyria, the historian may have distinguished
between the great empire over central Asia, and the previous
state of the Assyrian monarchy, is strengthened by the account
of Trogus Pompeius in Justin, who says 2 that the Assyrians
ruled in Asia for the term of 1300 years.
There must, doubtless, have been a line of sovereigns during
its line of the period mentioned by Herodotus, if not the whole of the
probably interval in question ; and possibly such as that supposed to have
uninterrupted. kegn taken from j.ne Persian archives. And as several circum
stances mentioned in connexion with the later, as well as the
earlier sovereigns, are substantiated from other sources, may
not greater weight be claimed for the historian of Cnidus, than
that which has usually been given to his enumeration of the
earlier kings ? It is just possible that the monumental history
and inscriptions now being rescued from the ruins left by time
Remains near on the banks of the Tigris, may, when deciphered, not only
enlighten the prove that the archives in question existed, but also in some
h\story!n degree restore the important link wanting in the early history
of Assyria.3
1 Herod, lib. I, cap. xcv.
s Lib. I, cap. ii, compared with Agathias Scholasticus, lib. II, p. 63.
3 Considering the vast importance of these discoveries in connexion with
the earliest postdiluvian history, it cannot be uninteresting to give the extract
of a letter addressed by Mr. Hector, an officer of the Euphrates Expedition,
to Thomas Stirling, Esq., of Sheffield, dated June, 1845, respecting his visit
to Khorsabad, &c. : — " Khorsabad is eighteen to twenty miles N.N.E. of
• Mosul. I examined the excavations over and over again, and the more I
looked at the remaining sculptures, the more was I struck with astonishment
as I thought of the ages and ages that have passed by since they were exe
cuted and buried. There are, I think, fifteen immense chambers or streets
cleared out, all connected with each other at right angles, and all covered
¦with sculptures and inscriptions of various sizes and sorts, representing pro
cessions of men in state, the same of horses, richly caparisoned, apparently

CHAP. V.] THE MEDIAN DYNASTY OF CTESIAS CORRECT. 137
Whatever doubts may have been justly entertained regarding
the preceding sovereigns do not apply to the so-called Median
dynasty of Ctesias, since it is found that Arbaces, as well as
led as an offering to the king ; scenes of battles, and fighting of all descrip
tions, with bows and arrows, spears, daggers, and shields, &c. &c. ; armies
marching with horses and chariots, besieging towns, &c. ; drinking parties,
with tables and chairs and wine-cups, with servants pouring out the wine ;
garden scenes ; hunting parties, shooting birds and hares in forests, with
bows and arrows ; men impaled before besieged towns ; dead men falling off
ramparts in fighting ; prisoners in chains ; sea scenes, with fish swimming
about. There is one scene which would exactly correspond to the taking of
Tyre by Nebuchadnezzar (Ezekiel, ch. xxix, v. 18), where the prophet
says, ' every man's head was bald, and every shoulder was peeled.' There
were a great many large-winged bulls, with men's heads, about twenty to
thirty tons each, and generally of beautiful execution. They were placed at
the end and corners of the different passages or chambers, and generally in
pairs ; these the people seem to have worshipped, and placed there as pro
tecting deities. The remaining sculptures looked very well and perfect
while standing in their places, but fell to pieces immediately on attempting
to disturb them. It is evident that the place was destroyed by fire, from the
quantity of charcoal found in excavating ; and in some spots, where the fire
had been strong, the marble sculptures were burnt to lime to a considerable
depth on the face that had been exposed  I left M6sul on the
2nd June, travelling by night, on account of the heat, and took the road
along the east or left bank of the Tigris, on purpose to see Tell Nimrud.
" June 3. — Arrived at Nimrud. The place, as to shape, has somewhat
the appearance of Khorsabad, but is three or four times as large. The
artificial mound, which I suppose to have been the palace, is of an oblong
form, about two miles in circumference, and from 50 to 60 feet high,
perhaps more, with a high conical pyramid raised at the north corner of the
mound, about 120 feet high, which must have been a watch-tower, or some
thing of that kind. The apparent wall of the city is from six to eight miles
in extent, forming a kind of square, corresponding to the four cardinal
points. The mound is placed at the S.W. corner of the enclosure, where the
Tigris had at one time washed its two sides. At present, the Tigris has
receded some four miles, and left a large plain between the mound and the
present bed of the river. On the top of the mound I saw the upper end of
some marble slabs above the ground, closely joined together, forming a
chamber or cistern, 22 feet by 12 ; it was nearly filled with earth. I was
informed its depth was from 8 to 10 feet. No appearance of writing was to
be seen ; but had it not been so dreadfully hot, I would have dug it out.
There are quantities of broken bricks, with cuneiform characters upon them,
scattered over the mound ; they appeared to be inscribed all over, and the
characters are much larger, and seem to have been cut, not stamped, in the
centre, like those generally brought from Babylon, and those which I saw at

138 MENAHEM PURCHASES PEACE. [CHAP. V.
Assyrian several of his successors, not only figured 4in Persian history,
nected with but were likewise connected with the kingdoms of Israel and
that of judea. jU(jan . more particularly Sosarmus, the thirty-ninth of the
general list of Ctesias and the third of his Median dynasty, who
is represented by Pul.
Menahem, the murderer of the regicide Shallum, appears to
have brought on his country the vengeance of the Assyrians, by
the temporary conquest of Tipshah or Thapsacus ; and having
on his return succeeded to the crown of Israel, he purchased,
on the appearance of the Assyrians, an ignominious peace, by
paying 1000 talents, and Pul, or Sosarmus,1 returned to his own
dominions. Alexander Polyhistor, in noticing the circumstance, says
Pui overcomes there was a king of the Chaldeans whose name was Phulus, of
whom also the historical writings of the Hebrews make mention
under the name of Pul, who they say invaded the country
of the Jews.2
But a small kingdom, sufficiently wealthy to raise at a short
notice about 375,000£3 as a peace-offering to the Assyrians,
was not likely to enjoy for any lengthened time the deliverance
thus purchased by Menahem, who, though he had the command
of 60,000 soldiers, paid this contribution in preference to
defending his country. After this humiliating treaty was
made, the intestine wars, which continued with alternate suc
cess between the kingdoms of Israel and Judah, in which that
of Syria occasionally took a part, afforded the Assyrians a pre
text for interference.
Tigiath-Pile- Tiglath-Pileser, or Artychas, had succeeded his father
JudeTand Sosarmus, or Pul, on the throne of Assyria; Nabonassar,
Khorsabad. On the south side of the mound there is a piece of a kind of
rough sandstone, with cuneiform writing upon it, very roughly executed. In
the edge of the mound, where the rains have formed guts 10 or 12 feet below
the surface, pavements of bricks of bitumen are to be seen. I had nothing
with me that would dig out one of these bricks, to see if they contained
inscriptions." 1 Royal Asiatic Journal, vol. IV, p. 231.
* Euseb, Ar. Chron, 39.
3 One thousand talents of silver.— Jos, lib. IX., cap. xi, compared with
2 Kings, chap. XV, v. 20.

CHAP. V.J SPOLIATION OF THE TEMPLE BY TIGLATH-PILESER. 139
probably another son of the latter, being viceroy at Babylon,
which in consequence became for a time a separate government.
The former monarch, on some pretence, now fell upon the carries the
kingdom of Israel, and took Ijon, Abel-beth-Ma'achah, Janoah, eaJSnto35
Kedesh, Hazor, Gilead, Galilee, and all the land of Naphtali, AssJria-
and carried the inhabitants captive to Assyria.1
Afterwards, Ahaz, the king of Judah, being besieged in Jeru
salem by the united forces of Pekah, king of Israel, and Bezin,
king of Syria (who at this juncture recovered Elath), made an
urgent appeal to the king of Assyria, sending as a propitiation
the treasures of the Temple and palace, &c. Moved by these
presents, and by the submission of the king of Judah, Artychas
marched to his assistance, and having taken Damascus, he slew
Bezin, and carried the people captive 2 to Kir.3
On learning the death of Bezin, and the advance of the
Assyrians into the dominions of Israel, Ahaz proceeded to
Damascus, taking with him all the gold and silver from the
royal treasury, as well as from the Temple of God, together
with its precious gifts; and having carried the whole to
Tiglath-Pileser, at Damascus, agreeably to his engagement, he
returned to Jerusalem.4
These events took place towards the end of the reign of Babylon under
Artychas, or Tiglath-Pileser ; whilst Babylon continued under a onassai
his brother Nabonassar. This is the sovereign who has obtained
such unenviable notoriety by his vanity in destroying the
records of his country, in order that a fresh era might be
supposed to commence with his reign.
The city of Babylon, which had of late declined, in conse
quence of Nineveh being the seat of the supreme government,
was now destined to recover its former splendour under the
second Semiramis. This queen is by some supposed to have Semiramis
been the mother, and by others the wife, of Nabonassar, and * e secon '
she has been greatly celebrated by Herodotus for the works
' 2 Kings, chap. XV, v. 29.
2 Ibid, chap. XVI, v. 8, 9.
3 So called by the Persians. This is the Kur or Cyrus, a tributary of
the river Araxes ; the Kur ofthe Russians. — See above, vol. I, pp. 10, 12.
4 Josephus, lib. 'IX, cap. 12.

140

WORKS OF THE SECOND SEMIRAMIS.

[CHAP. V.

Restorationof Babylon.

Avith which the capital was adorned during her time. These
consisted in spacious quays, magnificent palaces, and other
noble edifices. One of tbe royal palaces was erected on the
eastern, the other on the western bank of the Euphrates, and
they were connected by a bridge, as well as by a tunnel under
the river. Descriptions of the famous temple of Belus, of the
stupendous walls encircling the town, and of the lake to drain
it, are familiar to all from the descriptions of Herodotus,
Diodorus Siculus, and other ancient historians. Strabo also
enumerates, in a general way, the magnificent works exe
cuted by this queen, as the walled cities, aqueducts, ditches,
roads, &C.1
Nadius, who usurped the government of Nabonassar, pro
bably after the death of Semiramis, was succeeded, two years
later, by Chinzius and Porus, whose joint reign lasted five
years. Judaeus, the next monarch, was followed by Merodach
Baladan, and during the reign of the latter the neighbouring
territories became the theatre of some important events.
Hoshea having failed in furnishing the usual tribute to
Assyria, the kingdom of Israel was in consequence invaded
by Shalmaneser, and compelled to submit to that powerful
monarch, the Arbianes of Ctesias. But the Assyrians had
scarcely recrossed the Euphrates when Hoshea attempted to
shake off the yoke; and having for this purpose formed an
alliance Avith So, or Sabacus, king of Egypt, he began by
imprisoning the Assyrian officer who was stationed in his
capital to receive the tribute.
Besolved to punish effectually the indignity thus offered to
the representative of the supreme monarch, Shalmaneser again
invaded Syria : he immediately laid siege to Samaria, and as
Sabacus made no effort whatever to give the promised aid to
his ally, that city fell, after having been beleaguered for three
years, when Enemessar, as he is now called,2 carried away the
His return, and seven tribes from the western side of the Jordan into Assyria,
se^JTtribK. as nis father, Artychas, had previously done the* others, from
the eastern side of the same river.

Shalmaneser
invades the
kingdom of
Israel.

The captivity of the ten

1 Lib. XVI, p. 737.
2 Tobit, chap. L, v, 2.

CHAP. V.J THE ASSYRIAN IDOLATRY ESTABLISHED IN SYRIA. 141
tribes was thus completed.1 On the present occasion, Arbianes Tobit is
carried the principal inhabitants to Halah, and to the Khabiir, Mneveh.0
the river of Gozan,2 and to the cities of the Medes. Babylon,
the capital, is commonly spoken of as being the abode of the
captives, but many of them were taken to the country lying
about the Khabiir, and even to the Assyrian capital, Nineveh,
in which Tobit's kindred were placed.3 This person there
became the purveyor of Enemessar, the father of Sennacherib,4
and through the kindness of the king he was permitted occa
sionally to visit the other captives in Media.5 From the latter
circumstance it would appear that the country of the Medes
was again subject to Assyria at this period.
Not content with the removal of the prisoners to the moun
tains of Media, Arbianes, or Shalmaneser, by way of securing
effectually his dominion over Syria, sent colonists thither from Assyrian
some of the most populous cities in his empire, as from Babylon, ^to Syria!
Cutha, Ava, Hamath, and Sepharvaim (Sippara), and located
them in Samaria, where the idolatrous practices of the Assyrians
soon became firmly established.6
Elibus, having slain Merodach-Baladan, and usurped the
throne of Babylon, with the intention of becoming independent,
Sennacherib, who had recently succeeded his father Shalma- Sennacherib
neser, proceeded with an army against the Babylonians, and, succeeds> aad
after routing them, he commanded that Elibus and his adhe
rents should be carried into the land of the Assyrians. In
consequence of this success, Sennacherib took upon himself the
government7 of the Babylonians, appointing his son Asadanius,
or Esar-Haddon, to be king, and then retired into Assyria.
Having heard a report that the Greeks had made a hostile
descent upon Cilicia, he put himself immediately at the head of
his army, and overthrew them in a pitched battle.8 overthrows the

Greeks.

1 2 Kings, chap. XVIII, 9 and following verses ; and 1 Chron, chap. V,
v. 26.
2 On the eastern side of the Tigris.
3 Tobit, chap. I, v. 10. 4 Ibid, v. 15.
5 Ibid, v. 14.
e 2 Kings, chap. XVII, v. 24.
7 Ancient Fragments, by I. P. Cory, Esq., p. 61
8 Ibid, from Euseb, Ar. Chron, p. 62. He afterwards built the city of
Tarsus, after the likeness of Babylon, and called it Tharsis.

142 Sennacherib's invasion of judea. [chap. v.
The first invasion of Judea by Sennacherib (the Sargon of
Isaiah),1 took place in the fourteenth year of Hezekiah, when,
all the fenced cities being taken by the Assyrians, the king of
Judah, in the hope of arresting their progress, resorted to the
desperate expedient of stopping all the fountains, as well as the
overflow of the brooks running through the land.2 He was
compelled, however, to submit to the powerful conqueror ; and
the latter having, as the price of peace, received the sum of
thirty talents of gold and three hundred of silver, sent his army
He invades towards Egypt, under the command of Tartan, who took
Ashdod,3 one of the frontier towns.
Notwithstanding this success, Sennacherib appears to have
considered it dangerous to continue the invasion of Egypt,
whilst the kingdom of Judea remained unsubdued in his rear,
particularly at the moment when a vast force was on the march
in that direction, under Tirhakah, king of Ethiopia.4
He therefore abandoned hostilities against Egypt, in order
to hasten the conquest of Judea ; when, having overcome and
subdued the whole country and its cities, with the exception of
Libnah and Lachish, he renewed the siege of those places,
and also commenced in form that of the capital itself But
besieges Jeru- whilst the majority of his forces were employed in pushing the
siege of Jerusalem, in the hope of anticipating the intended
assistance of the Egyptians and Ethiopians, Tirhakah was
marching his army through the Desert, in order to fall directly
on their rear. At this juncture the operations of the Assyrian
monarch were completely paralyzed by the sudden loss of
Destruction nearly his whole army. God, says Berossus, had sent a pesti-
before Lra- lential distemper among them, and on the very first night of
saiem. tne gjege j §5,000 men, with their captains and generals, were
destroyed.5 Sennacherib, in consequence of this disaster, fled
with all speed to Nineveh, where he was assassinated in the
temple of the idol Nisroch, by his sons Adrammelech and
Sharezer;6 or by one of them only, according to Eusebius.
' Chap XX, v. 1.
s 2 Chron, chap-. XXXII, v. 4; the outlet of Cedron towards the
besiegers. a Isaiah, chap. XX, v. 1. 4 2 Kings, chap. XIX, v. 9.
0 Berossus, quoted by Joseph, lib. X, cap. i.
6 2 Kings, chap. XIX, v. 37.

CHAP. V.J DESTRUCTION OF SENNACHERIB'S ARMY. 143
The latter author, after enumerating the various exploits of this Death of
monarch, whom he calls Sennacherim, adds, that he reigned Sennacherib-
eighteen years, and was cut off by a conspiracy which had been
formed against his life by his son, Ardumusanus.1
The overthrow of Sennacherib in this expedition, which was
destined against Egypt, is described by Herodotus,2 who gives
such a version of the affair as might be expected from the
vanity of the Egyptian priests, from whom he received the
account, and who would naturally ascribe the deliverance to
their own gods. The relation given by Herodotus is as follows :
— " After this, Sethos ascended the throne of Egypt, and
treated his soldiers with great severity ; he took from them the
lands which had been granted by former kings, and the con
sequence was that they refused him any aid against Senna
cherib. This caused great perplexity to Sethos, who went into
the temple, and complained with tears to his idol of the peril
he was in. In the midst of his distress he was overtaken by
sleep ; and in his vision he was told to be of good courage, for
no misfortune should befall him. Confiding in this dream, he Account of this
took such of the merchants, artificers, and populace as were Herod'otus? y
willing to follow him, and marched to Pelusium, where the
Assyrian army was encamped. When arrived at this place,
field-mice in great numbers spread themselves about among the
invaders, and gnawed in pieces the quivers, bows, and thongs
of the shields ; so that on the following morning, being destitute
of arms, they were obliged to fly, and, being closely pursued,
many of them fell." " Even to this day," adds Herodotus,
" there stands in the temple of .Vulcan a statue in stone of this
king, having a mouse in his hand, and saying, as expressed by
the inscription, 'Let him who looks on me reverence the B.C. 710 or
Gods."'3 706-
1 Euseb, Ar. Chron, 42. 2 Lib. II, cap. 141.
3 Herod, lib. II, cap. 141.

( ^4 )

CHAPTEB VI.
FROM THE DEATH OF SENNACHERIB, ABOUT 709 B.C., TO THE FALL
OF BABYLON, 538 OR 536 B.C.

Hezekiah's Treasures. — Babylon and Nineveh united. — Ecbatana taken. —
March to Cilicia. — Chinilidanus and the Scythian Invasion. — Cyaxares. —
Nabopolasar and Nineveh. — Saracus destroys himself. — Nabopolasar
governs Nineveh. — Pharaoh Necho's Fleets and invasion of Babylonia,
Carchemish, &c- — Nebuchadnezzar as the General of his father invades
Palestine and Egypt. — Daniel carried captive. — The Army returns by two
routes to Babylonia. — Nebuchadnezzar mediates between the Lydians and
Medes. — March to Jerusalem. — Plunder of the Temple. — Nebuchadnezzar
adorns Babylon. — Rebellion of Zedekiah. — Jeremiah's prophecy. — Nebu
chadnezzar besieges Jerusalem, and carries Captives to Babylon. — Judea
laid waste. — Tyre besieged and taken. — Nebuchadnezzar attacks Egypt
and carries Spoils to the Temple of Belus. — Commerce, Canals, and Works
of Nebuchadnezzar. — Nebuchadnezzar's Prophecy. — He loses his reason.
— He resumes the throne. — His Death and Character.- — Evil-Merodach
succeeds, and is Assassinated. — Neriglessor succeeds. — His War with
Cyrus. — An embassy comes from India to Babylon. — Depravity of the
Babylonians. — Belshazzar ascends the throne of Babylon. — His mother,
Nitocris, prepares for a Siege. — Advance of Cyrus. — The river Gyndes
drained by means of numerous Channels. — Babylon beleagured. — The
stratagem of diverting the Eiver. — Assault of Babylon.— Babylonia added
to Assyria.
Division of From several circumstances mentioned in Scripture, it is
the Shof ° evident that the preceding short and disastrous reign had
Sennacherib, brought the affairs of Assyria into a very troubled and
confused state. The death of Sennacherib was followed by
a temporary division of his empire; in consequence of the
efforts made by the rulers of some of the satrapies to establish
their independence. One of the number, Merodach Baladan,
the Mardoch Empadus of Ptolemy,1 and son of Nabonasar or
1 Jahn's Hebrew Commonwealth, vol. I, p. 149.

CHAP. VI.] ESARHADDON'S ACCESSION. 145
Baladan, who, as his deputy, had hitherto governed Babylon,
now sent an embassy to congratulate Hezekiah on his recovery
from sickness, as well as on his miraculous delivery from the
invasion of Sennacherib ; and it was on this occasion that, in
the pride of his heart, Hezekiah showed the treasures of his Hezekiah's
house, as well as those of the Temple.1 He received, as the Tan*ty,
punishment of his vanity, prophetic intelligence of the coming
captivity, at the moment when Babylon had just revolted from
Assyria, and become a separate kingdom.2
After a reign of twelve years, Merodach Baladan was suc
ceeded by Arkianus, who reigned only five years; and this
period was followed by an interregnum of two years, on the
termination of which Belus mounted the throne ; but the rule
of that sovereign did not exceed three years. Apronadius
succeeded, and at the expiration of six years the sceptre passed
to Bigebelus. After the short space of one year the crown
devolved upon Messomordacus, who reigned only four years:
after which another interregnum occurred at Babylon.
Esarhaddon, the third son, succeeded his father (Sennacherib) Esarhaddon
in the government of Assyria after a short interval ; he appears throne of e
to be represented by Artacus, the sixth of the Median dynasty Assym-
of Ctesias.
This monarch found the kingdom in a very distracted state, Revolt of the
owing to the revolt of one portion of his people, probably the ersiaus-
Persians, called Cadusians,3 who maintained a bloody contest
with the Medians ; but having at length restored peace by
gradually extending his dominion over both kingdoms, he was
prepared, now that his power was consolidated, to take advantage
of the favourable opportunity offered by the interregnum at
Babylon, to add that kingdom to his other possessions. Being
thus placed at the head of a powerful army by the temporary
re-union of Babylonia and Assyria, Esarhaddon determined to Esarhaddon
pursue his father's project of extending his dominions, and he
proceeded to the invasion of Syria, Palestine, and Egypt, leav- invades Syria
1 J and Egypt.
1 Dean Prideaux's Connexion, vol. I, p. 19, (ed. 1831); Jos, Ant, lib.
X, c. 2.
2 2 Kings, chap. XX, v. 12, 13, 17, 18.
3 Diod. Sic, lib. II, cap. xxii.
VOL. II. L

146 NABUCHODONOSOR. [CHAP. VI.
Dejoces raised ing Dejoces, who ruled at Ecbatana, to govern the kingdom,
of Media™n< to which the latter had been called by the unanimous voice of
the Medes.1
It was during these wars in the western countries that Sar-
dochoeus or Saosduchinus, son and general of Esarhaddon,
having defeated Manasseh, king of Judah, and overtaken him
Captivity of in his flight, carried him to Babylon in chains.2 Some com
mentators, and amongst them Dr. Hales, are of opinion that
Esarhaddon was the great Sardanapalus ;3 but the capture of
Nineveh does not appear to synchronise with the reign in
question. Saosduchinus 4 succeeded his father Esarhaddon, after having
been his deputy over Nineveh and Babylon ; and Phraortes,
about the same time, succeeded Dejoces on the throne of Media.
Accession and Being of an ambitious and warlike disposition, Phraortes
Phraortes! invaded his neighbours in I 'ran with such success, that he was
enabled to conquer the whole of that part of Asia. , In the
belief that the same success would attend him in a still greater
undertaking, he subsequently turned his arms southward, and
commenced that rebellion against his sovereign, which, in the
end, proved fatal to himself.
Saosduchinus We can scarcely feel a doubt that the monarch here alluded
donosor!C °" to is the same who is so particularly mentioned as Nabuchodo-
nosor in the apocryphal book of Judith, for the dates, as well
as the whole of the circumstances, perfectly correspond. There
we find that, in the twelfth year of Nabuchodonosor's 5 reign at
Nineveh, Arphaxad, or Phraortes, who reigned over the Medes,
rebelled, and fortified the palace and treasury, built by his
father Dejoces 6 in Ecbatana,7 with walls of hewn stone, having
towers and gates seventy cubits high by forty cubits broad, for
the going forth of his mighty men.8
1 Herod, lib. I, cap. 97, 98. s 2 Chron, chap. XXXIII, v. 11.
3 Crossthwaite's Synchronology, p. 260.
4 Ancient Fragments, by I. P. Cory, Esq, pp. 80, 83.
5 The Nabuchodonosorus of Chaldean history.
6 Herod, lib. I, c. 98, 99.
7 Now Takhti-Sole'iman ; also Shiz or Gaza, vol. X, pp. 157, 158, of
Royal Geographical Journal.
0 Judith, chap. I, v. 1-4.

CHAP. VI.J PREPARATIONS FOR WAR. 147
The city and fortress of Ecbatana are particularly described Description of
by Herodotus. The palace and treasury occupied the centre Ecbatana.
of an enclosure, consisting of seven concentric circles, each
being constructed in such a manner that its battlements over
topped the neighbouring wall. The battlements of the first
circle were white, those of the second black, the third scarlet,
the fourth blue, the fifth orange, and all were thus distinguished
by different colours, except the sixth, which was plated with
silver, and the seventh with gold.1 The conical hill and posi
tion of the ruins of Takhti Soleiman appear to coincide with
the descriptions of Herodotus, the seven colours being derived
from a fable of Sabean origin, the walls here representing the
seven heavenly spheres, and the seven climates through which
they revolve.2
In order to overcome this rebellious attempt, Nabuchodo- Nabuchodono-
'it-ii 1 m- • sor assembles
nosor assembled all that dwelt by the -Euphrates, the 1 lgns, the forces of
and the Hydaspes 3 (Hedypnus), in the plain of Arioch,4 with
the king of the Elymseans, also very many nations of the sons of
Chilod or Gelod,5 and marched the whole to the field of
battle. In addition to the troops thus assembled, the king of the his empire.
Assyrians sent to all that dwelt in Persia, and westward in
Cilicia, Damascus, Libanus, and Anti-Libanus, as well as on the
sea-coast ; also in Carmel, Galaad (Gilead), Esdraelon, Sa
maria, Jerusalem, Betane, Chellus, Kades, Taphnes, Bamesse,
and all the land of Gezen (Gosen), together with Tanis, and
1 Herod, lib. I, cap. xcviii, xcix.
s Royal Geographical Journal, vol. X, pp. 126, 127.
8 The Hydaspes is evidently a mistake, probably in transcribing the Hedyp
nus. The latter is supposed (see above, vol. I, p. 205) to be represented
by the eastern arm of the river Kariin ; and as it flows along the northern
border of Elymais, the next province mentioned in Judith, its geographical
position coincides.
4 Judith, chap. I, v. 6, and Tobit, chap. I, v. 14. Now the district of
Mah-Sabadan, described under the name of Massabatice by Strabo, pp. 524,
725, as intervening between Susiana and the districts around Mount Zagros ;
also as the Sambatse of Ptolemy, lib. VI, cap. i. See vol. IX, p. 47, of
Royal Geographical Journal.
5 Supposed to be part of the Arabs, probably of the Palmyrene district,
and others bordering upon Syria.
L2

148

PREPARATIONS FOR WAR.

[CHAP. VI.

Ecbatanacaptured, and

rejoicings at
Nineveh.

Projectedinvasion of
Judea.

Memphis, and the inhabitants of Egypt, as far as the borders
of Ethiopia, But as many of these nations were very remote,
they made light of his commands, and sent his ambassadors
away in disgrace ; : from which it may be inferred that his
power to command them was merely nominal.
This took place in the seventeenth year of his reign, and the
preparations of Nabuchodonosor had occupied more than four 2
years previously to taking the field. Being victorious in his
enterprise over the horsemen, chariots, and cities, he took the
towers of Ecbatana ; and Arphaxad being slain with darts in
the mountains of Bagau (the Bhages of Alexander),3 the con
queror returned to Nineveh, where he took his ease, banquet
ing with all his army for the space of 120 days, as Ahasuerus
(Artaxerxes Longimanus) did at a later period.4
The preceding account perfectly agrees with that given by
Herodotus of Phraortes, the son of Dejoces, who was doubtless
the same monarch, and who, not being content with Media,
proceeded from conquest to conquest, till he undertook an ex
pedition against the Assyrians of Nineveh, in which he perished
with the greatest part of his army.5 It is, besides, a remark
able corroboration that the defection of the allies ofthe Assy
rians is also stated by Herodotus, who adds, as Judith does,
that they were still powerful.6
The defection of the western states led to the invasion of
Judea by the Assyrians: of this there is not any account,
excepting that which is given in the book of Judith ; this book,
therefore, supplies some important links in profane as well as in'
sacred history.
During this time of continued festivity, and in remembrance
of his oath to be avenged upon the people of the provinces
westward of Assyria, also with the purpose of bringing, as he
said, the whole world under his dominion, Holofernes, the

1 Judith, chap. I, v. 7—12. 2 Judith, chap. I, v. 14.
3- Represented by the remarkable ruins of Kal'eh Erig near Veramin, east
ward of those of Rei, and also of the city of Teheran. Vol. X, p. 135 of
Royal Geographical Journal.
4 Esther, chap. I. 5 Lib. L, cap. cii.
6 Herod, ibid.

CHAP. VI.J THE ASSYRIAN ARMY. 149
general of his armies,1 was called into his presence; when the Army of
great king, or, as he is also called, the " lord of all the earth,"2
proceeded to give him detailed instructions to move with
120,000 men and 12,000 horsemen, or mounted Median
archers, against the disobedient people in the western country,
at the same time commanding this people to send hiin earth
and water, such having been at all times the tokens of sub
mission in the east.
The account of the succeeding operations, as given in the
book of Judith, has a great interest for the military historian,
since it shows that the Assyrian forces were regularly divided
into horse and foot, with a proportion of officers, the whole
systematically organized according to their several grades, from
the general-in-chief to the followers of the camp. This organiza
tion not only secured the due performance of all the executive Organization
duties and details, but was also the means of overcoming the forced. ssynan
greatest of all difficulties experienced by large armies, that of
providing the supplies. By an efficient commissariat, provi
sions of all kinds were prepared and transported for the con
sumption of this vast force throughout its lengthened march.
The details in the book of Judith are so precise, that they
may be considered as constituting an answer to the objections
which have been made to the marches of the eastern armies in
ancient times, on account of the supposed difficulty of providing
the necessary supplies. This difficulty has been thought insur-
, mountable, though the campaigns of Darius, Xerxes, and others
seem to establish the fact that it was overcome.
We are told that Holofernes went from the presence of his Supplies for
lord, and called together the governors, captains, and officers of
the army of Assur ; when, having arranged them, as a great
army is ordered for war,3 he took camels and asses for their
carriages, a very great number, also sheep, oxen, and goats,
1 Supposed to be derived from the Persian " Aula Pharneese," as ex
plained by Col. D'Arcy, E.A., and we find the name of Artaphernes amongst
the generals of Darius.
2 The sovereign of Persia still receives the title of Shah-in-Shah of 1'ran.
• — Correspondence relating to Afghanistan : Parliamentary Papers, pp. 78,
134, 135.
a Judith, chap. II, v. 14, 16.

150 MARCH OF THE ARMY THROUGH ASIA MINOR. [CHAP. VI.

The means
of transport.

Subsidiary
forces are
added.

Route by
Mount
Argaeus.

through Asia
Minor,

without number, for their provision, and plenty of victuals for
every man in the army. He then prepared depots to receive
the corn, to be collected out of all Syria, for his passage ; also
gold and silver he took out of the king's house in great abund
ance. Then went forth he, and all the army, with the chariots
and horsemen and archers, who covered the face of the earth
like locusts.1
The march from Nineveh is particularly detailed, and the
geography of the successive countries so faithfully followed, that
even if the book itself be apocryphal, it must have been from
the pen of some individual, who was well acquainted with the
whole of the countries lying between the Tigris and the river
of Egypt ; the details are thus given : 2 " And there joined
unto him [Holofernes] all that dwelled upon the mountains,
and those that dwelled by the Euphrates, Tigris, Hydaspes
(Hedypnus), and the field of Arioch, that was^the king ofthe
Elimees [^EXvfialwv^ ; and many people of the nation of Gelod
joined their armies with him," 3 even as far as Jerusalem and
Bethaven, and Chellus and Gades and the flood of Egypt. So
when they were past Nineveh three days' journey, they came
unto the plain of Bectoleth,4 at the mountain Arge or Argaeus
(Arjish Tagh), which standeth on the left hand of the Upper
Cilicia. And it may here be mentioned that as the mountain
in question lies to the north or left hand, and not far from the
borders of Upper Cilicia, the most convenient route thither
from Nineveh would be along the valley of the Tigris, and
onward along the plain of Malatiyah to the Halys at the
A'yanlik of Haji Bektash.5 Holofernes subsequently moved
his tents from Bectoleth, and led his army, as well horsemen as
footmen, with their chariots, into the mountains ; and invading
their castles and winning their holds, he broke into the famous
1 Judith, chap. II, v. 20.
s In Day's black-letter Apocrypha, published in 1549.
a Judith, chap. I, v. 6, 7.
4 Or opposite to the plain of Bectoleth, according to the Greek Apocry
pha. Antwerp, 1566.
5 As this place is but a little way from the mountain in question, and not
distant from the ancient Mazaca, it is therefore probable that this city may
represent Molopus, and that the plain near Bektash is that of Bectoleth.

CHAP. VI.] PROGRESS OF HOLOFERNES. 151
city Molopus. He destroyed Phud and Lud, and spoiled all
the people of Basses and Ismael, who dwelt toward the desert
at the south side of Challeorus.1 And then passing over cilicia and
Euphrates, he went by Mesopotamia and all the noble cities Damascus>
that stood by the river Arbonai,2 and he destroyed them even
to the sea-side, and subdued the coasts of Cilicia, and slew all
that withstood him. And he came unto the borders of
Japheth, that lie against Aluster and Arabia, and he went
through all the country of the Medians,3 and set their tents on
fire, and burned their houses ; and then came he down into the
fields of Damascus, in harvest, and set on fire all their lands,
vines, and trees, and burnt their flocks and cattle, and spoiled
their cities and fields, and killed all their youth with the edge
ofthe sword.
Nabuchodonosor, 4 passing through Syria, Sobal, and Ala- *° ^e coast of
pamea, Mesopotamia and Idumea, came in sight of Asdrelon,5
nigh unto Dorats,6 which is against the strait passage of Jewry;
and pitching his tents between Gaba 7 and Scython-Pofim,s he
tarried there that month, whilst he gathered together all the
vessels that belonged to his army.
The death of Holofernes during the siege of Bethuliah, 9 ter- Death of
minated this remarkable campaign, as is supposed about 656 b.c.
Eight years later, 648 B.C., Chinilidanus, or Chuniladanus,10 also
called Saracus,11 succeeded to the dominion over the vast pos
sessions of Nabuchodonosor ; and he had the seat of his govern
ment in Nineveh. Being of an effeminate disposition, the
power entrusted to him was not long recognised, especially by
the Babylonians and Medes ; the latter revolted about 663 b.c, Revolt of the
and Cyaxares, properly Kei Axares, who succeeded his father
1 Perhaps Chalcis, in the desert of Aleppo.
2 No doubt the Mesopotamian Khabiir.
8 Probably so called as being the recent conquests of Dejoces and Phraortes.
4 Supplementary passage in black-letter Apocrypha.
s E<ropa)jXwj' — Esdraelon.
6. Aoraiac, the land of dates or gifts. Antwerp Apocrypha.
7 Tafia— Gaba.
" The city of the Scythians.
9 Jotapata or Safet. See Vol. I, p. 479.
10 Cory's Ancient Fragments, pp. 80, 83.
11 Prideaux's, Connexion, vol. I, p. 40.

152

INROAD OF THE SCYTHIANS.

[CHAP. VI.

Inroads and
Conquests

¦ofthe Scy
thians.

Phraortes, not only recovered what had been lost by the defeat
of his father, but drove the Assyrians within the walls of
Nineveh. About the twelfth year of his reign a formidable inroad into
Assyria took place, led by Madyas.1 A swarm of Scythians
from Central Asia passed the Caucasus in search of a richer
country with a milder climate, and having penetrated, probably
by the route of Derbend, into Media, they defeated Cyaxares
in a bloody contest, overran that kingdom, and established
themselves in the regions of Colchis. Having no other enemy
to contend with, the Scythians extended their conquests to
Syria, and even to the borders of Egypt ; from whence, owing
to the judicious entreaties and presents made to them, they re
turned through the land of the Philistines. Wars, however,.
appear to have been carried on with various degrees of success
during a period of twenty-eight years 2 against both the Medes
and the Assyrians : within that time, such a division of
interests was created as led to the downfal of the Assyrian
empire ; and the two collateral empires of the Medes and Per
sians rose upon its ruins.
The importance of Media among the ancient nations had
dominion'sand increased very much at this period ; for, Cyaxares having deli
vered his country from the Scythians, by murdering the greatest
part of them at a general feast which was given in every family,
the Medes regained their freedom, and with it their ancient
boundary, the Halys.3 A war succeeded with the Lydians on
account of the protection given by the latter to some fugitive
Scythians; and after a battle, made remarkable by a total
eclipse which terminated the engagement, peace was subse
quently restored by the intervention of Labynetus, the king of
Babylon, and Syennesis, king of Cilicia ; which was cemented
by the marriage of Astyages, son of Cyaxares, to the daughter
of Alyattes, king of Lydia.4
At this period Babylonia was a separate government under
Nabopolasar, who, having been sent thither as commander of
the army of Saracus, took this opportunity of revolting, and

Cyaxaresrecovers his

forms an
alliance with
the Lydians.

1 Herod, lib. L, cap. ciii.
* Ibid, cap. cvi.

2 Ibid, cap. cv.
4 Ibid., cap. lxxiii, Ixxiv.

CHAP. VI.] CAPTURE OF NINEVEH, AND DEATH OF SARACUS. 153
turning his arms against his sovereign.1 This individual, also
called Busalossorus,2 having obtained Amuhean, the daughter
of Astyages, satrap of Media, to be affianced to his son, Nabo-
palasarus, who is called by Eusebius Nabuchodorosorus,3 and
being assisted by the Medes, under Cyaxares, marched to sur
prise the city of Ninus or Nineveh. Saracus, the king, being siege of
apprised of these proceedings, sent his three sons and twoNineveh'
daughters, with a great treasure, to Paphlagonia, and being
reduced to extremities by the joint attacks of his traitorous
enemies, which continued upwards of two years, he burnt him
self with his concubines, in the royal palace.4 Nabopolasar
succeeded to the dominion of the empire in consequence of this
event, and Nineveh having been almost entirely destroyed
during the late siege, he determined to establish the seat of
government at Babylon : this city, which was soon afterwards Babylon
surrounded by a strong wall,5 thus became the capital of the capital?
Assyrian empire.
Beverting to another kingdom, it appears that about this Psammeticus
period the attractions of commerce had broken down the bar- thTcommerce
rier which had hitherto excluded foreign vessels from the ports of Egypt-
of Egypt. For Psammeticus, the reigning prince, having ap
plied himself to the advancement of trade, did not hesitate to
bring about this great change by admitting foreign vessels in
future, and receiving with hospitality the strangers who accom
panied them.
The gifted Nechus or Pharaoh Necho, his successor, directed Pharaoh
the energies of his enlarged mind to carrying out on a grand acandatTuSz,
scale the mercantile projects of his father. He endeavoured,
as it were, to cause the isthmus itself to disappear, by opening
a communication between his fleets in the Mediterranean sea,
and those in the Arabian Gulf, by means of a canal. This was
sufficiently broad for two triremes to sail abreast in passing
between the Bed Sea at Suez, and the river Nile at the town
of Bubastis.6 Being warned by an oracle to leave its comple-
1 Euseb, Chron., p. 46. s Euseb, Ar. Chron, p. 53.
3 Ibid. * Jackson, Ane. Chron, vol. I, p. 342.
6 Euseb, Chron, 49.
6 Herod, lib. II, cap. clviii, clix.

154 CIRCUMNAVIGATION OF AFRICA. [CHAP. VI.
tion to a foreigner,1 he relinquished the excavations for a still
more remarkable undertaking.
and sends a Nechus being determined to solve the geographical problem
AeeT niCian of the peninsular form of Africa, employed certain Phoenicians
for this purpose, despatching them with instructions to cir
cumnavigate this continent, and return to Egypt through the
Pillars of Hercules. In accordance with these commands, the
fleet prepared for this purpose sailed down the Arabian Gulf,
and entering the Indian Ocean, continued to coast southward
till the autumn, when the crews landed and sowed some grain ;
and having awaited the harvest, they continued the voyage,
again putting ashore to sow and reap as they advanced. After
the lapse of two years they reached the Pillars of Hercules, and
to circumna- during the third year they returned to Egypt, and stated, adds
vigate nca. jjerociotuS) t< wnaj. js no|. credible to me though it may be so to
others," that in their circumnavigation of Libya they had the
sun on their right hand, that is on the north.2
The alleged difficulty of giving credence to the fact thus
stated, is precisely that which in modern times best confirms its
truth, resting as it does upon a change of position during the
latter part of the voyage,- which the mariners could not by any
possibility have imagined. But independently of the confirma
tion thus given, the circumnavigation of Africa at the time in
Previous question was not so much a fresh voyage of discovery, as the
the°coast|eof extension of others which had been already carried along the
Africa. coasts of this continent for the extension of commerce. The
western coast was already known, whilst the previous and more
difficult enterprise to Ophir must, in connexion with the land-
trade, have given some knowledge of the eastern coast ; so that
only the southern coasts of Africa, on each side of the continent,
were in reality unknown at the time Nechus despatched his
fleet.
Pharaoh Not satisfied with the well-merited distinction which he had
acquired in consequence of the benefits conferred upon man
kind, more particularly by the circumnavigation of Africa,
1 Seventy years later it was resumed by Darius Hystaspes, and ultimately
completed by Ptolemy the Second. Strabo, lib. XVII, p. 1157.
2 Herod, lib. IV, cap. xlii.; and Kennel, p. 672, ed. 1800.

CHAP. VI.J PHARAOH NECHo's CAMPAIGNS. 155
Pharaoh Necho determined to take advantage of the unsettled invades judea,
state of the countries beyond the Euphrates, and marched, at and
the head of a large army, to Akko (now Ptolemais), in order to
proceed through Palestine and Gilead to the dominions of
Nabopolasar. Being refused a passage, however, by king
Josiah, a battle took place at Megiddo,1 in which the king of
Judah was killed ; when a contribution of one hundred talents
of silver and one of gold was levied upon Jerusalem, and car
ried into Egypt.8 Having now secured the intended line of
march, and made all the necessary preparations, he proceeded
towards Assyria. This was in the third year after the battle advances into
of Megiddo, and after crossing the Upper Euphrates he attacked SJ ""' "
the celebrated city of Carchemish. During this operation an
extensive revolt having taken place in Coele-Syria and Phoenicia,
two provinces which had been conquered by Nabopolasar, that
king determined to punish the delinquents in these provinces,
but being himself too far advanced in life to undertake such a
campaign, he sent his son, who is best known as Nebuchad
nezzar, then the partner of his throne, with a powerful army
against the Egyptians and revolted Syrians. A complete victory Nebuchad- •
over the former, at Carchemish, was the consequence ; and the the Egyptians,
young prince, pursuing his success, subdued the whole country
to the river Nile, with the exception of Judea, which was then
under Jehoiakim. Against this province, however, he speedily
turned his arms ; and Jerusalem being surrounded, Jehoiakim invades Judea,
saved his capital by promising tribute for the next three years.
As security for this payment a number of the principal inha
bitants, amongst whom was the prophet Ezekiel, were delivered
up, together with a portion of the treasures of the temple, and
carried as hostages to Babylon.3
On the death of his father, Nebuchadnezzar returned to the and returns to
capital ; and to this event we owe the knowledge that two
different lines of march were in use at the period in question
1 Magdolus; Herod, lib. II, cap. clix. Cory's Ancient Fragments, p. 157.
8 2 Kings, chap. XXIII, v. 29-33 ; 2 Chron, chap. XXXVI, v. 3-4 ;
compared with Herod, lib. II, cap. clix.
3 Jos., lib. X, cap. vi. ; 2 Kings, chap. XXIV, v. 1 ; 2 Chron, chap.
XXXVI, v. 6.

156 NEBUCHADNEZZAR DESTROYS NINEVEH. [CHAP. VI.
the route of between Babylon and Jerusalem. The king, as we are told by
Berossus, gave orders that the part of the forces which wore
heavy armour, together with the captives and the baggage,
should proceed leisurely to Babylonia, no doubt through the
populous countries in the line of Syria ; whilst he, with a few
of his attendants, returned home by crossing the desert direct
to Babylon. When he arrived there he found that his affairs
had been faithfully conducted by the Chaldeans, the principal
person among them having preserved the kingdom for him ;
Nebuchad- and he accordingly obtained possession of all his father's domi-
nezzar ascends ¦ -.i . ;,• 1
the throne, Dions without opposition.
The tranquillity of Jerusalem, which had thus been purchased
at the expense of its treasure, continued undisturbed during the
three first years of the captivity. Nebuchadnezzar had at this
time become a mediator between the Medes and the Lydians ;
and having united with the sovereign of the former people he
proceeded to besiege Nineveh,2 which was then occupied by the
Lydians. Jehoiakim seized this opportunity to rid himself of the tribute
imposed upon him, by rebelling, probably trusting to assistance
Siege and from Egypt. Nebuchadnezzar however, continued his opera-
N?neveh.°n ° *i°ns against Nineveh till he had depopulated the city and laid
it in ruins; thus accomplishing all that the prophets had pre
dicted concerning it.3 After this,4 having also in the mean
time established his authority over the dominions of Nabopo-
Nebuchad- lasar, he marched westward to punish his rebellious satraps in
jXar,anddeSthat direction. In this expedition, he took the whole line of
country from the river Euphrates with all that appertained to
1 Cory's Ancient Fragments, p. 329 ; from Syncel. Chron, 220 ; Euseb.
Prsep. Evan, lib. IX.
s Nahum, chap. II.
8 Ibid, also chap. III.
4 There is a difference of three years at this period among the commen
tators ; which may be accounted for by the circumstance that Nebuchadnez
zar, Who was engaged with more weighty matters, had left the subjugation
of Palestine to the neighbouring tribes, the Chaldeans, Syrians, Moabites,
and Ammonites, 2 Kings, chap. XXIV, v. 2. These ravaged the country
from 602 to 599 B.c, and shut up Jehoiakim in the city, probably till near
the time of Nebuchadnezzar's return to the western provinces.

CHAP. VI.J JEHOIAKINS CAPTIVITY. 157
the king of Egypt, including Jerusalem itself,1 which was in alli
ance with the latter kingdom at that time.2 Jehoiakim having
been killed and thrown before the walls,3 the money of the royal carries spoil
treasury, with the golden and other vessels ofthe temple of Solo- Baby i™!™8 *
mon, were taken away and placed in the temple of Babylon ; *
3023 Jews were at the same time conveyed as captives to that city.
Jehoiachin, also called Jechoniah, and in contempt Coniah,
succeeded his father at eighteen years of age. The peace of
the city was not, however, of long continuance, for after the
short interval of three months, Nebuchadnezzar returned to Second siege
besiege it, and took Jehoiachin, with his mother and his whole and '
Court, and all the treasure of the house of the Lord and the
king's house, and carried away all the princes, the mighty men
of valour, even 8,000 captives, and all the craftsmen and
smiths, together with the mighty of the land, to Babylon.6 A
portion of these was planted on the river Chebar, and amongst
them was Ezekiel, whom we find prophecying in the land of the
Chaldeans, on the banks of that stream.6 Farther in the in- further cap- ¦
terior were Mordecai and others; for, as Berossus expresses it, j'lws.0
" he distributed the captives in colonies in the most proper
places of Babylonia." 7
On his return from this campaign, Nebuchadnezzar devoted Embellish-
his attention for some years to the embellishment and enlarge- Babylon.
ment of Babylon ; but in this occupation he was interrupted by a
hostile confederacy of the kings of Ammon, Moab, Edom, Tyre,
and Sidon. Into this conspiracy, notwithstanding the warnings
of Jeremiah s and Ezekiel,9 Zedekiah, once Mattaniah, then king
1 2 Kings, chap. XXIV, v. 7. a Ibid, chap. XXIII, v. 33, 34.
s Jos, lib. X, cap. vi.
4 2 Chron, chap. 36, v. 6, 7, and Jer, chap. LIL, 18th, and following verses.
5 2 Kings, chap. XXIV, v. 15, 16.
6 Ezekiel, chap. I, v. 3.
I Cory's Ancient Fragments from Berossus, p. 39, and Syncel. Chron,
p. 220.
8 Where are now your prophets who prophesied unto you, saying the
king of Babylon shall not come against you, nor against this land ? Chap.
XXXVII, v. 19.
9 Ezekiel gave a very remarkable but enigmatical warning of the fate of
Zedekiah, by predicting that he should be carried to Babylon, and yet that
he should not see it, though he should die there. Chap. XII, v. 1 3.

158 CAPTIVITY OF ZEDEKIAH. [CHAP. VI.
Rebellion of of Judah, had entered, hoping that with the powerful assistance
zedekiah. of hig ^ pharaoh Hophra, king of Egypt,1 he might be able
to throw off the Chaldean yoke, and release the Jewish captives,
who were then looking for a speedy return from Assyria as well
as Babylonia, to their native land.
On the news of Zedekiah's rebellion, the Babylonian monarch
anticipated the promised succour of the Egyptians, by making
a hasty march and surrounding Jerusalem.2 Having thus in-
Nebnchad- terposed his forces between those of Zedekiah and the Egyp-
Ijerusaibe<m1,eSeS tians, he marched to meet the latter during their advance. On
this movement3 being made, the Egyptians hastily retreated into
their own country, without even hazarding a battle in support
of their allies ; and Nebuchadnezzar being thus at liberty, began
the siege of the city in form, that is, by building forts round
about it.4 After a siege of eighteen months 6 a famine pre
vailed, and all the men of war fled by night, by the way of the
gate, between the two walls. The Chaldeans pursued the king,
and having overtaken him in the plains of Jericho they carried
him to Biblah,6 where his sons were put to death in his pre
sence by order of Nebuchadnezzar. After this, Zedekiah's own
eyes having been put out, he was led in fetters of brass to
Babylon,7 where he died, without, as had been predicted, having
seen the splendour of the city, now adorned with Jewish spoils,
including the magnificent vessels of Solomon's temple,8 which
are supposed to have furnished the materials for the golden
eolossus on the plain of Dura,
and adorns his These had been carried thither by Nebuzar-adan, the com-
itePspoiirtU mander of the Boyal Babylonian Life Guards, who not only
set fire to the temple as well as to the palaces, but destroyed
all the defences of the city,9 leaving merely some of the poorest
1 Jerem, chap. 37, v. 2-7 ; and chap. XVII, v. 3.
2 Joseph, lib. X, cap. viii.
3 Jerem, chap. XXXVII, v. 7.
4 2 Kings, chap. XXV, v. 1.
5 i. e. from the 10th month of 590 b.c. to the 4th month 9th day of 588 ;
Jerem, chap. XXXIX, v. 1, 2.
6 A province of Hamath. 7 2 Kings, chap. XXV, v. 7.
8 Ibid, v. 13-17 ; 2 Chron, chap. XXXVI, v. 18.
9 2 Kings, chap. XXV, v. 8, 9, 10.

CHAP. VI.] TYRE TAKEN BY NEBUCHADNEZZAR. ' 159
of the inhabitants as vine-dressers and husbandmen l in Judea,
under the government of Gedaliah, a Hebrew, the son of
Ahikam.8 The rebellion of Ismael, and the murder of Gedaliah, caused Destruction of
the return of Nebuzar-adan, who entirely deprived Judea of city of Jem-
its remaining inhabitants ; and as these were not immediately salem"
replaced by others, the country continued for a time uninhabited,
wasted, and desolate.3 Such was the melancholy termination
of the Israelitish monarchy, after it had stood about 468 years
from the commencement of David's reign.
The second year after the destruction of Jerusalem, Nebu- Tyre besieged
chadnezzar once more crossed the Euphrates, to make war on Nebuchad- 7
the western nations, and laid siege to Tyre : this siege or nezzar-
rather blockade continued for a period of thirteen years, when
the city surrendered, but not until it had been deserted by its
inhabitants.4 During this protracted siege, detached parties were sent by
Nebuchadnezzar in different directions to reduce the Sidonians,
the Moabites, and the Ammonites ; and to revenge the death
of Gedaliah. Nebuzar-adan, at this time, carried 745 captives
from Judea, -which completed the desolation of the land.5
Shortly after Tyre had fallen, Nebuchadnezzar took advan- Nebnchad-
tage ofthe intestine disturbances caused by the rival claims of "hTspoHsT/8
Apius and Amasis, to invade Egypt, and having mastered the f fj^'™'0
whole country, and slain great numbers of the natives, he en
riched himself and his army with the spoils of that kingdom :
on this occasion he transferred numbers of Egyptians, as he had
before done Jews, Phoenicians, and Syrians, to his territory
beyond the Euphrates.6
The spoils obtained in these expeditions were employed by
1 2 Kings, chap. XXV, ver. 12 ; also Jerem, chap. XXXIX, v. 10.
8 2 Kings, chap. XXV, ver. 22.
8 Deut, chap. XXVIII, v. 21 ; Jerem., chap. XLIV, v. 2.
' Ezek, chap. XXVI, v. 2, 7. This city was now taken for the first
time, after a glorious resistance, against one of the greatest warriors of
ancient times.
5 Jerem, chap. LIL, v. 30.
6 Josephus, Cont, Apion, lib. I, cap. 19; Syncel. Chron., 220; Euseb.
Prasp. Evan, 1. 9, s. 41.

160

NEBUCHADNEZZAR ADORNS BABYLON. [CHAP. VI.

He adorns
Babylon.

Erects a
palace,

and forms
hanging gardens.

The Nahr-
Malka canal.

TraditionconcerningNebuchad-

Nebuchadnezzar in augmenting the splendour of his capital,
and in adorning its temples, particularly that of Belus, in a
sumptuous manner.1 The same king also rebuilt the old city,
and added another to it on the outside, surrounding each of
them with three walls, as defences against any subsequent
attempt to besiege Babylon, and effect an entrance into it by
diverting the river. Some of these walls were, built of burnt
brick and bitumen, and some of brick only. When the king
had thus fortified the city, and had magnificently adorned the
gates, he added another palace to those in which his forefathers
had dwelt: this structure adjoined the others, but exceeded
them in height and splendour, and round it he formed what
has been called a pensile paradise, or hanging garden. ' This,
which was composed of high terraees, and supported on stone
pillar's, was made to resemble a mountainous tract of country,
and was so arranged in order to gratify his queen, who had
been brought up in Media, and was fond of such scenery.2
The improvements of the capital were not, however, the only
undertakings of Nebuchadnezzar ; the great work of the Nahr-
Malka canal, and one portion of the extensive Nahrawan, east
ward of the Tigris,3 are attributed to this monarch.
The object of the former was to open a communication for
vessels between the rivers Euphrates and Tigris. It is also
believed that the Pallacopas was cut by him, to carry the inun
dation of the former river into a lake, 1 200 stadia, or about
120 miles in circumference, from which were to be sent out
numerous small channels, for the purpose of irrigating and fer
tilizing this part of Babylonia.
Eusebius relates, from a Chaldean tradition, that after the
completion of all his works, Nebuchadnezzar prophesied, from
the roof of his palace, the conquest of the city by the Medes
and Persians, and then expired.4 This tradition is probably a
variation ofthe account given in the Scriptures5 ofthe temporary
1 Jos, Oont. Apion, lib, I, cap. xix.
2 Ibid, and Syncel. Chron, 221 ; and Euseb, Prsep. Evan, lib. IX, s.
41, from Abydenus.
3 See vol. I, pp. 28, 30. 4 Euseb, Prsep. Evan, lib. IX, s. 41.
5 Daniel, chap. IV, v. 33.

CHAP. VI.] CHARACTER OF NEBUCHADNEZZAR. 161
insanity with which this great monarch, when at the summit of Temporary
prosperity, was afflicted: the circumstances there mentioned, j^11? of the
may indicate either that the king, under the influence of his
malady, imagined himself to be transformed into an ox, and
wandered about the country, or simply that he withdrew from
his palace and dwelt in retirement, confining himself to a vege
table diet till his reason returned. The former opinion is not
improbable, since a person labouring under any kind of mental
aberration is honoured in the East, and is allowed to follow un
interruptedly the tendency of his own will.
On the recovery of his reason he resumed his throne, but it
is not known how long afterwards he occupied it. Unfortu
nately we have only a mere outline of the reign of this monarch,
who, from the importance of his military expeditions, his en
couragement of commerce, and the splendour with which he
adorned his capital, was evidently one of the greatest princes of
antiquity. Vestiges of his canals remain, and his trade to Commerce
China is known historically ; but as yet no work has reached JJ," timeofNe-
us detailing the links which connected the interior and exterior buchadnezzar.
commerce of this great empire.1
El Voradam, the Evil-Merodach of Megasthenes, Evil- Evii-Mero-
maradach of Berossus, and the Iloarudun of Ptolemy, who had ^ andCeS"
assumed the government during the insanity of his father,2 suc
ceeded to the throne on his death ; but having proved himself
both unworthy and tyrannical, he was assassinated in the follow- death by
ing year, after exhibiting one, and perhaps only one, trait of assassmatl0n-
generosity, in releasing the unfortunate Jehoiachin, king of
Judah, after a captivity of thirty-seven years.
During his short reign Evil-Merodach laid the foundation of
that animosity between the Medes and Persians which after
wards occasioned the destruction of the Babylonian empire. It
appears that during a hunting expedition, that prince, at the
1 In ancient times there was a trade with China from the ports of Sur and
Kilhat in the Persian Gulf; an island half way, called Kolah (possibly
Ceylon), being at one period the entrepot for that trade : Arabic MS. 7503,
in the British Museum, compared with Masudi's Historical Encyclopaedia,
p. 328, translated by Aloys Spernger, M.D.
8 Jerome, Comment, on Jerem, chap. LIL, v. 31, and Calmet's Diction
ary of the Bible— Evil-Merodach.
VOL. 11. M

162

WAR BETWEEN MEDIA AND BABYLONIA.

[CHAP.

VI.

Rise of hosti-
* lities between
the Medes and
Babylonians.

Neriglissar murders and
succeeds Evil-
Merodach at
Babylon, and

Cyaxares suc
ceeds Astyages
in Media.

Cyrus takes
the field
against
Neriglissar.

The Indiars
offer media
tion.

head of some Babylonians, ranged through a part of the adjoin
ing kingdom of Media, when Astyages, the king of that country,
accompanied by his son-in-law Cyrus, hastily assembled some
troops, and having put the followers of Evil-Merodach to the
rout, he pursued them to their own border with considerable
slaughter. Neriglissar or Neglisarus,1 the Neriglissoorus of Josephus,2
son-in-law of Nebuchadnezzar, took this opportunity of murder
ing his brother-in-law Evil-Merodach, and succeeded him as
king of Babylon.
In order to secure the throne thus usurped, and restrain the
growing power of the Medes and Persians, at a period when
the energies of the youthful Cyrus were beginning to display
themselves, Neriglissar proceeded to collect the forces of the.
several satrapies of Lydia, Phrygia, Caria, Cappadocia, Paph-
lagonia, Cilicia, &c. : he even sent envoys to the kings of India,3
in order to obtain assistance from them. Cyaxares, with the
assistance of Cyrus, had succeeded his father Astyages on the
throne of Media, and with the view of counteracting the warlike
preparations of the king of Babylonia, he called his nephew out
of Persia with a body of 30,000 men, appointing him com
mander-in-chief of all his forces. After three years employed
in extensive preparations, Neriglissar the Babylonian, assisted
by a body of Arabians, together with the other forces, including
the Lydians, under the command of the well-known Croasus,
advanced to encounter the Medes and Persians under Cyrus.
The latter, on his side, was assisted by a body of Armenians,
who had already subdued that portion of the kingdom of Ba
bylon which was next to their country. Previous to the com
mencement of hostilities, it is said that an embassy arrived from
India to inquire into the grounds and causes of the war, offering
mediation if it might be accepted, and threatening at the same
time to join that party which appeared to have justice on its
side:4 this was probably a consequence of the mission just
mentioned as having been sent to India by Neriglissar.
In the contest which followed, Cyrus gained a complete
1 Euseb, Chron. Arm, pp. 41, 42.
2 Contr. Ap, lib. I, cap. xx. ; Euseb, Praap. Evan, lib. IX.
8 Cyropsedia, lib. I. 4 Ibid, p. 36.

r-v

'I *

©
I ¦ B

I
I

/

CHAP. VI.] NITOCRIS AND HER SON BELSHAZZAR. 163
victory over Neriglissar, who was slain -,1 and the Babylonian Defeat of the
camp, together with all the baggage, and many captives, were and LydUns,
taken next day, after much slaughter. &0-
Neriglissar was succeeded by his son Laborosoarchodus, whose
cruelty and oppression caused the revolt of two of his provinces,
and an invasion of Babylonia by Cyrus ; the latter, however,
returned into Media, being unable to induce his enemies to quit
the impregnable walls of the city.
The Babylonian monarch being thus freed from immediate Cyrus returns
danger, gave the rein to all his vicious propensities, and that 10m a y ou
to such an extent, that his irritated subjects conspired, and put
him to death by torture.2 After his decease, the conspirators
assembled, and by common consent placed the crown upon the Accession of
head of Nabonnedus,3 one of the leaders of the insurrection.4 0rVeishazzar.
This was the Belshazzar of Scripture, being the son of Evil-
Merodach, by Nitocris, a very politic, active, and resolute
woman, who in reality governed the empire. Whilst the dissi
pated and thoughtless grandson of the warlike Nebuchadnezzar
rioted in intemperance, and indulged his grossest appetites, his works of
mother had completed the great works commenced by that con- Nltocns-
queror, and perfected the defences ofthe capital, more especially
the walls which defended the banks of the river, and which were
curiously built with burnt bricks and bitumen.5 The tunnel
also is supposed to have been her work ; and as a farther means
of preserving the capital of an empire, then tottering to its very
foundation, Nitocris laid in a sufficient store of provision to supplies coi-
supply the inhabitants for many years.6 But the period was b^5™
now fast approaching when the prophecies against this rich,
voluptuous, and idolatrous city,7 were about to be accomplished ;
and the instrument chosen to "subdue nations and loose the
1 Euseb, Prsep. Evan, lib. X.
2 Joseph, Contr. Apion, lib. I, cap. xx. ; Euseb, Prsep. Evan, lib. IX.
8 Nabonnidich of Ptolemy ; the Labynetus of Herodotus, lib. I, cap.
clxxxviii. * Cory's Ancient Fragments, p. 41.
s Ibid.
6 Herod, lib. I, cap. cxc.
7 The glory of kingdoms, and the beauty of the Chaldee's excellency,
Isaiah, chap. XIII, v. 19.
M 2

164 THE GYNDES DRAINED. [CHAP. VI.
loins of kings"1 was already advancing against it from Sardis,
accompanied by the Armenian king, Tigranes, with his forces.
The river It was during this march that the wild feat was performed of
draped by punishing the river Gyndes for disrespect to the Persian prince.
Cyrus. jn conseqUenCe 0f one of the sacred white horses having been
drowned in attempting to swim across this stream, Cyrus declared
that he would make it fordable, without wetting the knees of
those who were passing. Accordingly, his whole army having
halted, and his operations against Babylon having been suspended
for this purpose, he. dug 360 channels, and diverted the body
of the river into them. This was, however, an operation of no
very great difficulty, in such a country as that through which
the Diyalah passes in the latter part of its course, especially as
a whole army of men, accustomed to the management of water,
was employed upon it for the remainder of the season. It
Former course appears, that at one time the Diyalah did not disembogue itself
iya 'into the Tigris, but its waters were carried, chiefly in one
channel, in a south-easterly direction, into the Kerkhah, and the
change may possibly be the consequence of the canals dug by
Cyrus on this occasion.
Beishazzar is Whilst the invaders were delayed by this useless operation,
defeated and > • •
takes refuge Nitocris was occupied in collecting a large army to oppose them,
wanTof'6 anc^ ^e enervated monarch, Beishazzar, drew out these forces,
Babylon. hoping to cover and save the capital ; but he experienced a signal
defeat, and was driven within the walls of Babylon by the vic
torious Persians.
Blockade of Cyrus, having thus become master of the surrounding country,
a y on' immediately commenced what was rather a close blockade than
the regular siege, of the city, which previously to that time had
been deemed, impregnable, owing to the extent and peculiar
strength of its works ; on which, in fact, all the skill of their
architects, and much of the wealth of successive sovereigns of
that great empire, had been expended.
In addition to the inner fortifications ofthe citadel, or palace,
with its gates of brass, there was a triple line of exterior de
fences, flanked by lofty towers, which encircled a vast city,
amply furnished with troops. It had, moreover, an enormous
1 Isaiah, chap. XLV, v. 1.

chap, vi.] siege of babylon. 165
population, which was abundantly supplied for a long time to
come, owing to the foresight of Nitocris. Within the walls, as strength of its
is customary with Eastern cities, it had the advantage of gardens
and tracts of cultivated ground,1 and a wide space between the
houses and the walls.2 Such a city might fairly be considered
to be perfectly secure against any kind of open attack ; there
fore, it was with a firm reliance upon its extraordinary strength,
that the defenders of Babylon treated the hardy warriors of
Cyrus with the utmost scorn. It is said that they derided the
efforts of the besiegers from the summits of their towers and
walls.3 The siege continued for more than two years, without the Duration of
slightest impression having been made on the place, notwith- f '
standing all the perseverance and valour of the besiegers. At
that time battering-rams, catapultas, and mines, appear to have and mode of
been unknown to Cyrus ; and the works which he executed fora
the purpose of reducing the city consisted merely of an extensive
circumvallation, provided with towers constructed of date-trees,
and sufficiently elevated to command the walls.4 The forces of
Cyrus were, moreover, inferior to those of the Babylonians,
while the high walls and towers, with the strong lines of defence,
appeared to render the city impregnable. In these circumstances
Cyrus, either of himself, or in consequence of a hint from one
of his generals,5 determined to adopt one of those daring pro
jects, by which great commanders are distinguished from ordi
nary captains.
Having learnt, it is supposed from Gobryas and Gadates, Project of
two Babylonian nobles, who, having been ill-treated by their ducTthe city.
king, had deserted to the Persian camp, that a great annual
festival would be held at a particular time within the walls,
Cyrus determined to take advantage of the circumstance by
storming the city, at the very instant when he might expect to
find the whole of its defenders lost in revelry. In order effec- Cyrus pre-
tually to accomplish this project, he gradually and silently fhTwatereof'
prepared the means of suddenly diverting the waters of the the EuPhrates.
1 Quin. Cur, lib. V, cap. i. a Diod. Sic, lib. II, cap. viii.
3 Cyropsedia, lib. VII. ; Quin. Cur, lib. V, cap. i.
4 Cyropsedia, lib. VII. 5 Herod, lib. I, cap. cxci.

166

THE COURSE OF THE EUPHRATES CHANGED. [CHAP. VI.

siege

Euphrates from their ordinary channel ; thus opening a passage
for his troops, along the bed of the river, into the very heart of
the city.
This gigantic operation was more practicable for the Persians
than it would have been for a nation less accustomed to the ma
nagement of water, more particularly as they had just practised
nearly a similar operation, by draining the river Diyalah. More-
Enlarges the over, they had the great advantage of finding the work facili-
Semiramis, tated by the existence of a canal cut by Semiramis, and since
enlarged by Nitocris, for the purpose of conveying the over
flowings of the great river into the Chaldean lake. Cyrus had,
therefore, only to enlarge this canal sufficiently to receive the
whole, instead of a portion ofthe waters of the Euphrates, which
would at once flow into the new channel, without the necessity
of constructing a bund or dyke for this purpose.
and pushes the The plan being matured, Cyrus continued to push the siege
with increased vigour; and in order to occupy the enemy's
attention more effectually on the side of the city, he employed
his best troops in that quarter, whilst the inferior soldiers, to
gether with the numerous hordes always following in the train
of an Asiatic army, were employed in working out the bed of
the canal, which was opened at some distance to the north-west
of the city.
Herodotus does not tell us whether or not a bund was con
structed as an additional means of diverting the course of the
river; but this could scarcely have been necessary, for the
stream in that part of Babylonia is so dull, that a new bed with
a deeper channel in the proposed direction, and at the most, a
partial bund projecting at a suitable angle from the lower side
of the canal, would have answered the purpose.
The operation was accomplished after nightfall on the
evening of the festival, supposed to be that of Sacea, which,
according to Berossus, took place in the eleventh month, called
Loos ; when, during a period of five days, it was the custom
that the masters should obey their domestics, one of whom was
led round the house, clothed in a royal garment, and him they
call Zoganes.1
1 Ancient Fragments, p. 43, by I. P. Cory, Esq.

Facility of
divertingthe river
Euphrates.

CHAP. VI. J CAPTURE OF BABYLON. 167
Cyrus posted one-half of his army where the Euphrates enters Plan ofthe
the city, and the other half at its outlet, the columns being ge- attack' and
nerally guided by the two Babylonian nobles just mentioned ;
and the troops having orders to enter the channel from above
and below at the same time. At the appointed hour, the revelry
being at its height, the columns advanced along the bed of the
river, in which the water had been suddenly diminished so as to
be quite fordable : and as the gates leading from the quays to the
river had been left heedlessly open,1 they entered the streets, its success
imitating the shouts of the revellers, and were thus enabled, reUveiry.the
unnoticed, to unite at the royal palace itself. The king, sup
posing the noise of the assailants to be only the clamour of a
drunken mob, ordered his guards to open the gates and ascertain
its cause; on which, his foes rushed onwards with resistless
force, and having killed the guards, forced their way to the
palace. Beishazzar, with his sword drawn, defended his life for
some time, but was at length slain, and his attendants shared Death of
the same fate. This took place in the month of November, in
the year 536 b. c, perhaps within one hour after the mysterious
characters written by a supernatural hand on the wall had been
interpreted by Daniel.2
The main object ofthe assault having been accomplished, by Humanity of
the taking ofthe royal palace and the death ofthe king, Cyrus, the assault,'
in conformity with that humanity which prevailed with him, an
even during the feverish moment of an assault, immediately
issued a proclamation, promising life and safety to all who might
come to him and deliver up their arms, at the same time
threatening death to those who refused to accept his proffered
clemency. This had the desired effect, for the inhabitants soon
submitted to the conqueror. Cyrus in consequence became
master of this mighty capital without further bloodshed. So
quietly, indeed, was this accomplished, that those who occupied
the citadel, probably the Mujellibeh, learnt only at day-break
that the city belonged to Darius the Mede, or rather to Cy
axares, who was both uncle and father-in-law to Cyrus ; or, to
1 Isaiah, chap. XLV, v. 1.
2 In that night was Beishazzar, the king of the Chaldeans, slain ; and
Darius, the Median, took the kingdom. Daniel, chap. V, v. 30, 31.

168 FIDELITY OF CYRUS. [CHAP. VI.
use the expression of Xenophon, " When that part of the city
which borders on the river was already in possession of the
enemy, those who dwelt nearer the centre knew nothing of it." l
his fidelity to It was in behalf of Cyaxares that Cyrus had undertaken this
Cyaxares. great expedition, and though he had added Babylonia to his
conquests over Asia, Syria, and Arabia, he still regarded his
uncle as the head of the empire, being during the remainder of
his life content to govern as deputy or viceroy at Babylon, as
he had till then governed the kingdoms of Ararat, Minni, and
Askenaz.2 1 Cyropsedia, lib. VII. s Jerem, chap. LI, v. 27.

( 169 >

CHAPTEB VII.
glance at the history, of the medo-persian empire under
darius the mede, cyrus, cambyses, darius hystaspes,
xerxes, artaxerxes, and darius nothus, from 536 b.c. to
404 b.c.

Cyrus the Great visits Persia. — His Accession and Forces. — Daniel's autho
rity. — Preparations for Building the Temple at Jerusalem. — Cyrus'
Decree. — The Medes and Persians become one Nation. — Cambyses suc
ceeds. — Invasion of Egypt and Ethiopia. — His Death. — Smerdis usurps
the Throne. — His Death. — Stratagem and Accession of Darius Hystaspes. —
Rebellion in Susiana and Babylonia. — Darius marches to quell the latter.
—Revolt and Capture of Babylon, according to Herodotus.- — A Revolt in
the Upper Provinces recalls Darius. — His authority is established. — ¦
Organization of the Empire. — Posts established. — Use of Firmans. — The
Temple at Jerusalem Rebuilt. — Voyage of Scylax. — Invasions of Scythia
and Greece. — Zerd-husht, or Zoroaster, and the Religion of the Magi. —
Invasion of Greece. — Battle of Marathon.. — Fresh Armaments of Darius. —
His Death. — Character. — Xerxes' Succession. — Invasion of Greece. —
Contingents. — March. — Bridge over the Hellespont. — Thrace. — Ther
mopylae. — Salamis. — Retreat into Asia. — Battles of Platsea and Mycale.
— Death of Xerxes. — His Character. — Artaxerxes Longimanus, or Aha-
suerus, succeeds. — Esther. — The Jews. — Reception of Themistocles at the
Court of Assyria.— Double Victory of the Greeks on the Coast of Pam-
phylia. — Peace between the Greeks and the Assyrians. — Xerxes Murdered.
— Sogdianus and Darius Nothus.
After the fall of Babylon, about 536 b.c, Cyrus visited his Cyrus accom-
father and mother in Persia, and from thence he returned cyaxareif
through Media, bringing with him as his wife the daughter of TlsltsBabylon-
Cyaxares, with whom as a dowry, he had been promised the
kingdom of Media in reversion, after the death of her father.
Cyaxares himself accompanied the bridal party to Babylon,
where he died, after having, in council with his son-in-law,
divided the empire into 120 provinces, which were to be The empire
governed by those who had distinguished themselves during the pro°v?™ess 12°
under

170

DECREE OF CYRUS.

[CHAP. VII.

three
presidents.

The rebuild
ing of the
Temple is

decreed by
Cyrus.

The sacred
fire of the
Temple com
pared

¦with that of
the Magi.

war, the whole being under the general superintendence of three
presidents, of whom Daniel was the first r1 a preference, to
which the prophet was well entitled, not only in consequence
of great wisdom, but also his long experience; having spent
about sixty years as prime minister at Babylon.
On mustering his forces, Cyrus found that his army, distri
buted over the empire, consisted of 600,000 foot, 120,000
horse, and 2,000 chariots armed with scythes.
Daniel did not fail to take advantage of the favourable
moment, offered by his high position and influence in the
empire at the time of Cyrus' accession, to press the object most
at his heart; using for this purpose the powerful argument,
that 120 years previous to his birth, Cyrus was predestined to
release the Israelites from their captivity.2 Accordingly the
prophecy, specially naming Cyrus as the shepherd who was to
perform the pleasure of God, by saying to Jerusalem thou
shalt be built, and to the Temple thy foundation shall be laid,3
being shown to that prince, Daniel's wishes were granted ; and
about November of the same year, being also the seventieth of
the captivity, the decree was issued, giving permission to all the
Jews who were so disposed to return to Judea ; and, to those
who preferred to remain, perfect liberty to contribute as they
pleased, gold, silver, and precious stuffs, to assist in building
and adorning the Temple.4
In this memorable firman, Cyrus asserts,, " that the God of
heaven had given him all the kingdoms of the earth, and
charged him to build a house at Jerusalem which is in Judah,"5
where (it is added) " they do sacrifice with continual fire."6
The last part of the sentence seems to allude to " the lamp
to burn always in the temple,"7 which no doubt Cyrus consi
dered the same as the fire of the Magians. The doctrines of the
latter, as restored by Zoroaster, constituted nearly a pure
1 Dan, chap. VI, v. 3.
* Isa, chap. XLIV, v. 28, and chap. XLV, v. 1.
8 Ibid, chap XLIV, v. 28.
* Ezra, chap. I, v. 3, 4, and VI, v. 3, 4.
5 Ibid, and chap. I, v, 1, 2.
6 1st Esdr, v. 6, 24; and Brisson, de Eegn. Pers, 351, 356.
7 Exod, chap. XXVII, v. 20.

CHAP. VII.] PREPARATIONS TO REBUILD THE TEMPLE. 171
theism;1 which being apparently the religion of Cyrus, that
monarch caused the idols of Babylonia to be replaced by the
fire ; and that the latter was maintained as a symbol of the Fire was a
Deity and not as an object of worship, is manifest from a noTan object
remarkable sentence, which was applied to Cyrus and his of ""'orsl11P-
paternal grandfather. " Think not," said Zoroaster, " that they
were adorers of fire; for that element was only an exalted
object, on the lustre of which they fixed their eyes ; they
humbled themselves a whole week before God ; and if thy un
derstanding be ever so little exerted, thou must acknowledge
thy dependence on the Being supremely pure."8
In accordance with the command he had issued, Cyrus not Cyrus restores
only restored the 5,400 sacred vessels of the Temple of Jeru- the Temple?
salem, but also prescribed the size of the building intended to
receive them ; and even directed that the expense of its erection
should be defrayed from the royal treasury."3
Shesh-bazzar, the Zerubbabel or Zorobabel of Scripture, a de- Zerubbabei
scendant of David, and the grandson of Jeconiah, having been Jerusalem?
nominated governor of Jerusalem by Cyrus, he prepared to lead
his countrymen homeward ; and after a delay of some months
in assembling the bulk of Judah and Benjamin, in addition to
some from the other ten tribes, and also in making the neces
sary preparations for a journey of about 720 miles, 42,360 accompanied
Jews, with 7,337 servants,4 accompanied him across the Desert, jews!'from
and reached their native land. This was seventy years from
the commencement of the captivity.5
The limited number thus collected by the first edict, deno
minated by the Hebrew writers, the bran or dregs of the
people,6 were chiefly from Babylonia and the adjoining region Babylonia and
of Susiana, in which however, others still remained, while the le^ng'the
bulk of the ten tribes resided in Assyria, Media, and other ten tribes in
parts of the east. Zeal for the Temple having been the grand mS?1 a°
motive of the journey, the restoration of the altar for burnt-
1 See above, vol. I, p. 85. 2 Sir "Wm. Jones' Works, vol. I, p. 89.
3 Ezra, chap. I, v. 1 1, and VI, v. 3, 4, 5 : 2 Chron, chap. XXXVI, v. 23.
4 Ezra, chap. II, v. 64, 65.
5 Jer„ chap. XXV, v. 11, and chap. XXIX, v. 10.
6 Talmud, Bab. in Kiddushim.

172

CYRUS UNITES THE MEDES AND PERSIANS. [CHAP. VII.

Foundation
laid of the
secondTemple.

The Samari
tans interrupt
the work, and

influence the
court of Persia,

The Medes
and Persians
become one
people under
Cyrus.

Doubts re
garding the
manner of
Cyrus' death.

offerings, was the first object 1 of those who returned, and the
contracts for the reconstruction of the building, as well as the
preparation of materials having been completed, the foundation
of the Temple was laid with great solemnity, soon after the com
mencement of the second year.2
The size, and even the plan itself, were the same as those of
the former structure, but the means at command were greatly
inferior, and this disadvantage was increased' by an unexpected
circumstance, which interrupted the progress of the work. The
mixed people of Samaria, who were Cutheans intermixed with
a remnant of the tribes of Ephraim and Manasseh, and claiming
descent from the two last, proposed to assist in the great national
work ; but from a jealous and exclusive spirit, the new comers
indignantly rejected the proposal. The ancient feud between
the rival people was thus revived, and assumed a character of
fierce and implacable hatred, from which the Jews immediately
suffered. Samaritan influence and intrigue were successfully
exerted at the court of Persia to stop the work. The Jews,
however, hoping for a change, continued to collect and prepare
materials during the remaining five years of Cyrus' life, as well
as the life of his successor.
With Cyrus, the sovereignty had passed from the Medes to
the Persians, and the two became henceforth one people in
dress, manners, and religion ; the customs of the latter nation,
being naturally adopted by the sovereign, in compliment to the
place of his birth ; and as a matter of course they were also in
troduced amongst the Babylonians. Cyrus likewise first esta
blished the custom of removing the court from Babylon at the
expiration of the winter months ; two months, in the spring,
were spent at Shushan, and the warmest season, at Ecbatana.3
According to Xenophon,4 the subsequent years of Cyrus'
reign were spent in peaceable pursuits. But Herodotus and
Diodorus Siculus, give a very different account of the manner
in which the days of this conqueror terminated ; and though
the tomb of this monarch, on the plains of Murgh'-ab, N.N.E.
of Persepolis, seems to favour the statement of Xenophon,

1 Ezra, chap. III., v. 3.
8 Cyropeedia, lib. VIII, p. 233.

2 Ibid, v. 8, 10.
4 Ibid, cap. vii, p. 551.

CHAP. VII. J CAMBYSES MARCHES THROUGH ARABIA. 173
it is unlikely that the circumstances related by the historians
concerning his expedition to a distant country, and the manner
of his death, should be altogether fabulous. They expressly
state that Cyrus, having invaded the country eastward of the
Caspian Sea,1 perished in a great and bloody battle against
Tomyris, queen of the Massagetse,2 after constructing a city
to which he gave the name of Cyropolis.3
Cainbyses, his second son, who had been appointed his sue- Cambyses
cessor, ascended the throne about 529 b.c, and manifested all ^ronef ' e
his father's love for war, but without a shadow of prudence. This
prince, one of those who bore the scriptural title of Ahasuerus,
having taken some offence against Egypt, made extensive pre
parations by sea and land throughout his vast empire, in the
very commencement of his reign, for the conquest of that
country. More than three years were employed in engaging prepares to
the Cypriots and Phoenicians to assist him with their fleets, and ^°™desEgyPt>
in collecting the Greek auxiliaries.
The subjugation of the growing colony of Carthage had been
contemplated also, but in consequence of the Phoenicians having
refused to assist against those with whom they were connected,
(the Carthaginians being originally from Tyre), this part of the
project was abandoned : the intended operations were therefore to
be confined to Egypt, and the upper portion of the Nile. Ac
cordingly, leaving Patizithes, a chief of the Magians, as his crosses the
deputy at Susa, Cambyses took the field in the fourth year of desert?"
his reign, and agreeably to the arrangements already made for
the friendly passage of his army through Arabia, he marched at
the head of an overwhelming force in a direct line across the 526 to 525 B.C.
latter country, instead of taking the more circuitous and ordinary
route, through Upper Mesopotamia and Syria. At the sug
gestion of Phanes of Halicarnassus i contracts were made with
the Arabs for the necessary supplies of water ; and, faithful to
his engagements, the king of Arabia collected all the camels
in his dominions, and having loaded them with large skins,
chiefly those of camels, filled with water, he sent them to the
1 Herod, lib. I, cap. cciv. 2 Ibid, cap. ccv, ccxiv.
3 Strabo, lib. XVI. See Appendix (A.) to this volume.
* Herod, lib. Ill, caps, iv, vii, ix.

174 CAMBYSES INVADES ETHIOPIA. [CHAP. VII.
places which were destitute of that indispensable requisite
The Arabs 0f life.1 Water being thus provided the march of Cambyses
for the march, was safely accomplished as far as Pelusium ; and this strong
hold, the key of Egypt, was taken by the following stratagem,
which was proposed by Phanes, who, on some disgust, had
Pelusium revolted from Amasis and joined Cambyses.2 The Persian
taken, and J •" .
king placed a number of cats, dogs, sheep, and other animals in
advance of his troops, and the Egyptians being unable to shoot
an arrow that way, lest they might injure some of those sacred
animals, the place was carried without difficulty.
Egypt submits Psammeticus, who had just succeeded on the death of
Amasis, being defeated in a great battle fought in that neigh
bourhood, the invaders advanced to Memphis, where the
Egyptian prince surrendered, and the whole of Egypt sub
mitted in consequence. Cambyses being master of the country,
indulged his ungovernable temper by destroying many of its
monuments ; nor did he even respect the dead, for the body of
Amasis was dug up,3 and treated ignominiously.
His rash During his short stay in Africa, Cambyses gave the reins to
towards0"8 his headlong and reckless disposition, by undertaking at the
same time two distant land expeditions ; each of which was
attended with the most fatal result. The first consisted of
the temple of 50,000 men, whom he despatched to set fire to the temple of
Jupiter Ammon. This force is said to have been overwhelmed
by a shower of sand raised by a hurricane, whilst traversing the
desert of Oasis Magna,4 from which it is certain that the troops
did not return.5
and against The second expedition proceeded under his own command
Ethiopia. towards Ethiopia, but the necessary supplies failing, a portion
only of the army returned to Thebes, the rest having perished :
the troops had in their retreat, been driven to the necessity of
consuming first the sumpter beasts, and finally, as a last resource
to maintain life, a number of their companions : these were
taken by lot to be put to death for the support of the others.6
1 Herod, lib. Ill, cap. ix.
2 Ibid, lib. IV, and Polygaenus, lib. VII.
8 Ibid, lib. Ill, cap. xvi. * Ibid, cap. xxv.
5 Ibid. « Ibid.

CHAP. VII.] STRATAGEM OF DARIUS HYSTASPES. 175
Shortly after his return from the expedition, he received in
telligence of a revolt in his own dominions, which was headed
•by Gomates, a Magian 1 (the brother of Patizithes) ; this man
having personated Smerdis or Bardeus,2 who had been mur- a revolt
. . . excited bv
dered by order of Cambyses.3 This information induced the Smeniis
king to set out with all haste for Persia, leaving the government causes
of Egypt to the care of Ariandes. He avoided on his return
the shorter route of the Desert by which he had advanced, and
took that of Syria, where he died of a wound received from his
own sword whilst precipitately mounting his horse. This event the return and
took place on Mount Carmel at Ecbatana ;4 which place had Cambyses.
been named by the oracle of Buto,5 as that which would be
fatal to him.6
We are told that there was not any one sufficiently bold
to oppose the Magian, and Gomates had remained in undisputed
possession of the empire during seven months, when Darius,
the Gushtasp of the Persians, son of Lohrasp or Hystaspes, one
of the seven nobles who conspired against him, mounted the
throne.7 According to Herodotus, it had been agreed among
these nobles, that he whose horse first neighed to the rising
sun should be king ; and, by an artifice, the horse of Darius Darius obtains
• i i n i ¦ -n ... the throne by
was made to win the monarchy for his master. .but, in de- a stratagem.
tailing his own achievements on the tablets at Bisutun, this is
made a religious war, in which, by the help of Ormazd, Darius
1 Journal ofthe Koyal Asiatic Society, vol. X, pp. 201, 202.
a Ibid. 3 Herod, lib. Ill, cap. lxi.
4 Plin, lib. V, cap. xix. 5 Herod, lib. Ill, cap. lxiv.
6 According to the translation of the Bisutun tablet, Gomates, a Magian,
having falsely declared himself to be Bardeus, the son of Cyrus, and the
brother of Cambyses, the whole state of Persia, Media, and the other pro
vinces became rebellious, and he assumed the crown : and Cambyses, unable
to endure his misfortunes, died. — Journal of the Eoyal Asiatic Society,
vol. X, pp. 201, 202.
7 These alone, says Darius, were my assistants : IntEephernes, the son of
Uys  a Persian ; Otanes, the son of . . . . , a Persian ; Gobryas
by name, the son of Mardonius, a Persian ; Hydarnes, the son of . . . . ,
a Persian ; Megabyrus, the son of Zopyrus, a Persian ; and Aspethines, the
son of . . . ¦, a Persian.— Bisutun Tablet. Journal of Royal Asiatic
Society, vol. X, p. 257.
0 Lib. Ill, cap. lxxxv, lxxxvi.

176 STATISTICS OF DARIUS HYSTASPES. [CHAP. VII.
slew Gomates the Magian, and the chief men who were with
him; and having re-established the chaunts and sacrificial
worship, he confided these duties to the families who were de-^
prived of them by Gomates, or, in other words, he restored the
ancient religion of the country in connexion with the State.
Darius, although he only followed the steps of Cyrus and his
uncle Cyaxares, may be considered the real founder of the
Persian empire, in consequence of the wisdom he displayed in
the government of the country, which had only been in part
reduced to order, after having been subjected by the arms of
tionofX'za" ^ose monarchs. Darius accomplished these great objects by
dividing his vast dominions into provinces of a convenient size :
a certain number.of these constituted a viceroyalty, of which
there were twenty, each under the general superintendence of
a satrap, to whom all the inferior governors of provinces, dis
tricts, &c, were responsible ; though they were appointed or
removed only at the pleasure of the sovereign himself. By this
arrangement, a salutary check was maintained over the governors
ofthe satrapies. Such a check was the more necessary, as in
various general the satrapies not only comprised many provinces, but
emptre?S° 6 sometimes one of them consisted of several kingdoms. In the
first, for instance, were the lonians, the Carians, the Lycians,
Pamphylians, and others -,1 in the second were the Mysians,
the Lydians, and the Cabalii. Babylon, together with the
territory of Assyria, belonged to the ninth satrapy.2
Moderate In the time of Cyrus, and even during that of his successor,
contributions . "L . . . . .
established, there was not any fixed taxation, and the sovereign only re
ceived uncertain gratuities from time to time ; in addition to
which, during war, contingents of men and money were fur
nished for the exigencies of the state. This system" prevailed
till a fixed tribute and a regular quota of men were esta
blished for each satrapy3 by Darius. This regulation induced
the Persians to designate him the Broker, whilst with equal
point, Cambyses was called Master, and Cyrus the Father of
and inter- the Empire.4
But the statistics, then so wittily termed brokerage, were the

communica tions

1 Herod, lib. Ill, cap. xc. 2 Ibid, cap. xcii.
8 Ibid, cap. lxxxix. 4 Ibid.

CHAP. VII. J REBUILDING OF THE TEMPLE AT JERUSALEM. 177
more easily managed, in consequence of a system of intercommu- throughout the
nication which had been commenced throughout the empire in empne'
the time of Cyrus, and was more completely established in that
of Darius.1 The object was accomplished by means of couriers,
who were stationed at certain distances, for the rapid transmis
sion of the firmans, which in this way1 were sent to, and answers
received from, the different governors. Those issued by the Firmans or
monarch are supposed to have been stamped upon barrel-shaped Medes and
bricks of small size, which were afterwards solidly baked as the Persmns-
best and surest means of preventing any change in the edicts ;
which thus became the laws of the Medes and Persians.2 With
out doubt one of the most memorable was the decree of Cyrus, Darius causes
permitting the return of the captives to rebuild Jerusalem and o/theTempie
its Temple. Encouraged by the prophet Haggai, the work was *° beresumed>
resumed in the beginning of the second year of Darius, viz.,
520 b.c Tatnai, the governor of Syria and Palestine, having
made an appeal to his sovereign, in order to ascertain if the
decree of Cyrus really existed, as was alleged by the elders of
the Jews, a search was in consequence made, and the decree
being found in the archives of Ecbatana,3 the king enjoined
Tatnai and Setharboznai to see it fully executed. These per
sons were further commanded to carry out the original inten
tions of Cyrus, and to give at the same time all possible
assistance to the Jews in rebuilding their Temple.4 To this
measure Darius was no doubt moved, like his predecessor, by an
irresistible impulse, which made each an instrument in fulfilling
the Divine purposes. In other respects, it would seem that the the return of
court of Persia could have no good ground of objection to ^ Je]?'
the return of the Jews to their native land, since, in such *e edict of
return, they only moved from one part of the Assyrian domi
nions to another.
1 Herod, lib. VIII, cap. xcviii.
2 Several of these barrel-shaped bricks may be seen in the British
Museum ; and Asiatic tradition connects them with the firmans of the great
Assyrian monarchs : the character is cuneiform.
8 Ezra, chap. VI, v. 1-3.
* 1 Esdras, chap. V, v. 47, and following verses ; also Ezra, chap. VI.,
v. 5-17. VOL. II. N

178 REVOLT OF THE SUSIANS AND BABYLONIANS. [CHAP. VII.

Rebellions in
Susiana and

Completion of The Temple, which had been commenced by Zerubbabel
emp e" twenty years previously, or about 534 b.c, was completed in
the seventh year of Darius, on the same scale of grandeur, but,
in point of costly materials, it was " as nothing " if compared
with the former structure.1
Expedition to The first distant undertaking of Darius was that of sending
an army under his general Otanes to Samos, with the view of
restoring Syloson, the brother of Polycrates the tyrant of the
island, to his throne, from whom when a private individual, he
had received a splendid garment. This service was scarcely
completed when the attention of the king was urgently called
to his own dominions, by the revolt ofthe Babylonians. Their
city, having been so long mistress of the East, could ill brook
the change caused by its subjection to Persia, especially when
Shushan became the capital of the empire ; this change neces
sarily diminishing its pride and splendour.
It appears from the Bisutun monuments, that Darius was
occupied previous to his accession, and probably as a satrap of
his father, who governed Parthia and Hyrcania, in quelling a
rebellion in Susiana and another in Babylonia. The former,
led by Atrines the son of Opadarmes, was speedily overcome
by his deputy, but the latter being very serious required his
presence ; Naditabirus, the son of Aena, calling himself Nabo-
chodrossor, the son of Nabonidus, having seized the govern
ment. An interesting description, and even some of the
details, are given of the campaign which followed. Darius, by
means of a demonstration and the use of rafts, forced the
passage, and defeated the army of Naditabirus on the banks of
the Tigris, and completely overcame him the second time,
when disputing the passage of the Euphrates near a city called
Zanzana close to Babylon. A signal defeat in the vicinity of the
capital put an end to the rebellion, and Naditabirus being
taken prisoner was put to death.2
A fuller account, especially of the capture of the city, is
however, given by Herodotus.
1 Haggai, chap. II, v. 3.
2 Translations of the Bisutun Tablets, vol. X, part iii, pp. 211-214 of
Journal ofthe Royal Asiatic Society: London, 1847.

Babylonia
quelled by
Darius.

CHAP. VII.] RECAPTURE OF BABYLON BY DARIUS. 179
Hoping to recover its lost importance by an attempt like The Baby-
that which was made by Nabopalasar against the Assyrians, lonians revolt"
the Babylonians took advantage of the unsettled state of things
consequent on the death of Cainbyses, to make preparations for
war, by secretly laying in stores of provisions ; and at the end
of four or five years, the city was so amply provided, that the
citizens openly revolted, and set up a king.
On receiving this intelligence, Darius hastily assembled his Darius
forces, and marched a powerful army to put an end to this agamst"
rebellion. Seeing themselves begirt by a force which they Babyl011,
could not oppose in the field, the Babylonians turned their
thoughts wholly to the best means of resisting it within the
walls ; and having for this purpose agreed to cut off all unne- Cruelty ofthe
cessary mouths, they cruelly strangled the whole of the women a 7 °maiis"
with the exception of the favourite wife of each individual, and
a maid-servant to every house.1 After continuing the siege for
twenty months without the slightest advantage, Darius made
himself master of the city by one of the most extraordinary
stratagems hitherto recorded in history. Zopyrus, one of his stratagem of
most devoted captains, having cruelly maimed himself, went to the"ity:°ta e
the city, pretending to have fled from the tyranny of his
master: having obtained the confidence of the besieged, and
eventually the command of some of their troops, he thus gained
an opportunity of opening two of the gates of the city to the
Persians. Darius in consequence obtained possession of the his cruelty to
place, when he immediately caused the crucifixion of 3,000 lonians/"
Babylonian nobles, who had been the chief fomenters of the
revolt ; he likewise took away the hundred brazen gates of the
city, and reduced the height of its walls from 200 cubits to
only 50 cubits.2
The remaining inhabitants were not however, molested, but Repeopiing of
on the contrary, Darius caused each of his satrapies to furnish '
a proportion of women, amounting in all to 50,000, to replace
those who had been so cruelly put to death before the siege.3
Darius appears to have remained at Babylon till a revolt, or
rather an opposition to his authority, in Persia, Susiana, Media,
1 Herod, lib. Ill, cap. cl. a Ibid, cap. clviii, clix.
' Ibid, cap. clix.
N 2

180 DARIUS INVADES SCYTHIA. [CHAP. VII.
consolidation Assyria, &c, obliged him to march in person, when being, as it
e empire. jg eXpresse(^ Dy j.ne grace 0f Ormazd, completely successful in
suppressing these rebellions, the most formidable of which was
that of Media,1 he became the sovereign of Persia, Susiana,
Babylonia, Assyria, Arabia, and the maritime parts of Egypt.
Also of Sparta, Ionia, Armenia, Cappadocia, Parthia, Zarangia,
Asia, Chorasmia, Bactria, Sogdiana (Gandaria), the Sacse, the
Sattagydes, Arachosia, and the Mecians ; in all twenty-one
countries.8 After the accomplishment of this object, Darius became
anxious to know the state of the countries lying eastward of
Scythia, with a view to their conquest, and more especially the
termination of the river Indus. Accordingly he built a fleet at
Caspatyrus, in the territory of Pactyica on the Indus, which he
Scylax sails entrusted to a skilful Greek mariner named Scylax, a native of
Indus, and Caryanda, who admirably fulfilled the instructions of the
monarch by sailing down the whole length of the river ;3 thence
ascends the coasting to the straits of Bab-el-Mandeb, and ascending the
. ^rabian gUif f.Q jne p0rj. aj. itg nortQern extremity, from which
the Phoenicians had before taken their departure to circum
navigate Africa.4
The reality of the Periplus of Scylax has been much
questioned, but scarcely it would seem upon sufficient grounds,
since such a voyage was but limited compared with that of
Ophir, and it was in all probability only following the course of
the ordinary maritime trade between western India and the
Persian Gulf. This voyage was accomplished in the short space
of thirty months ; and Darius immediately availed himself of the
information acquired by it, to subjugate a portion of the Indian
territory westward of the Indus :5 this afterwards became the
twentieth satrapy, and yielded a revenue of 360 talents of gold.6
Dariusinvades Soon after the consolidation of the new territory, Darius
cy ia* commenced preparations with a view to the subjection of
Scythia, by way of punishment, as he alleged, for the invasion
1 The name of Phraortes is mentioned in the Tablet in connexion with
this kingdom.
2 Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, vol. X., pp. 197, 198.
8 Herod, lib. IV, cap. xliv. * Ibid, cap. xlii.
i Ibid, cap. xliv. • Ibid., lib. Ill, cap. xciv.

CHAP. VII.] HIS RETURN TO ASIA. 181
of Assyria by the people of that country in the time of
Cyaxares,1 about 120 years before.
The fleet which accompanied the troops consisted of 600
vessels, chiefly manned by lonians and others from the coast of
Asia Minor, while the land army collected on this occasion,
including the cavalry, amounted to 700,000 men,2 who were
conducted by Darius himself to the shores of the Bosphorus, Passes the
where they found a bridge already executed for their passage a bndgeof0"
into Europe. The preparation of a bridge of boats wasboats'
evidently a familiar operation at this time, both in Babylonia
and Assyria. The one in question exceeded three-quarters of
a mile in length, or according to Herodotus, seven stadia,3 and
it was successfully completed by Mandrocles the Samian, not
withstanding the great difficulty caused by a very rapid
current.* During the passage of his troops, Darius proceeded as far as
the Cyanece rocks, at the entrance of the Black Sea; from
thence he despatched his fleet with directions to ascend the
Ister a certain distance, and prepare another bridge. Having subdues
reduced Thrace, Darius continued his march to the appointed
passage ; and after a fruitless pursuit of the Scythians through
deserts and uncultivated countries5 for three months, he re
turned after losing one-half of his numbers, but without aban
doning his purpose, for he left Megabyzus the Persian, one of
his chief commanders, with 80,000 men, to finish the conquest.
This general, having succeeded in bringing the Thracians and
others under the Persian yoke, rejoined Darius at Sardis,6 from Returns to
which place he afterwards accompanied the monarch to Susa.7 gusa's a°
Soon after the Scythian expedition, a revolt, arising out of a
contest between two small factions at Naxos, one of the
Cyclades, led the way in a most unexpected manner to an
important train of events. Aristagoras having failed in imme- Aristagoras
diately putting down the revolt in that island,8 and being
unable to fulfil the engagement made with Artaphernes, his
1 Herod, lib. IV, cap. i. 8 Ibid, cap. lxxxvii.
3 Ibid, cap. Ixxxv. * Ibid, cap. lxxxvii.
5 Ibid, cap. cxxii, cxxiii. ° Ibid, lib. V, cap. xxiii.
Ibid, lib. V, cap. xxv. " Ibid, cap. xxxiv.

182

WAR OF DARIUS UPON GREECE.

[CHAP. VII.

assisted by the
Athenians,burns Sardis.

Finally de
feated near
Ephesus.War arises,

¦which exalts
the military
glory of
Greece.

Early suc
cesses of the
lonians.

Capture of
Milo, Chios,
&c

immediate chief, to meet the expenses, determined to take
arms1 against Darius. With the assistance ofthe lonians, and
with twenty-five vessels which had been sent from Athens and
Eretria,2 Aristagoras and his allies boldly sailed to Ephesus ;
from whence they marched to Sardis, which city being chiefly
built of cane, was burnt either accidentally or otherwise. The
approach of the Persians and Lydians soon afterwards caused
the retreat of the invaders. They were, however, overtaken
and defeated at Ephesus, from whence the discouraged Athe
nians retreated with their vessels and quitted the alliance.3
These circumstances determined Darius to make war upon
Greece, which was carried on for a time with various degrees
of success. Of its principal events, a brief notice will presently
be given, on account of the consequences which resulted from
them to the empire of Persia ; and because they were the first
steps by which the military glory of the Grecian people, was
raised to the high eminence which it subsequently attained.
The lonians speedily revenged the defeat at Ephesus by a
brilliant descent which they made on the continental territory
of Darius. In this they not only occupied Byzantium, and
different places near the Hellespont, but likewise many others
in Caria; and in consequence of these successes they were
joined by the people of Cyprus.4 In order to punish this inva
sion, and at the same time take ample revenge for the burning
of Sardis, Daurises and Dardanus were sent with ample forces
first against Abydos, Lampsacus, &c, and thence into Caria.
In this province they gained a victory after a bloody battle,5 the
fruits of which, however, were lost by a successful ambuscade
placed by Heraclides ;6 who followed up his success by subduing
the Eolians and the rest of the ancient Teucrians.7 Soon after
these successes, mutual discord and Persian intrigues caused the
Samians and Lesbians to abandon the lonians, and the fleet of
Darius having captured Milo, the inhabitants were removed to
Susa. In the following year Chios, Lesbos, and Tenedos, shared

1 Herod, lib. V, cap. xxxv.
3 Ibid, cap. cii, ciii.
5 Ibid, cap. cxvii, cxx.
7 Ibid.

Ibid, cap. xcviii, xcix.
4 Ibid, cap. ciii, civ.
0 Ibid, cap. cxxi, cxxii.

CHAP. VII.] THE ZORO ASTERS OF PERSIA. 183
the same fate ;! whilst the shores of Thrace were subjected by
the Phoenician fleets, in alliance with Persia.
It was during an inroad in the northern provinces of Persia slaughter of
by Argjasp, a Scythian prince, which took place in the thirty- ?™m^[ and
fifth year of Darius, that the celebrated Archimagus (Zoroaster)
and the priests of his religion, about eighty in number, were
slaughtered in the principal fire temple at Balkh, during an
assault made on that city.
By some it is believed that the founder of the Magian order
lived about 624 years before the first Egyptian dynasty, by
others it is thought that he was cotemporary with Ninus ;2 and
Xanthus, the historian of Lydia, places him '600 years before
the invasion of Greece by Xerxes.3 It appears, however, that
there were several persons who bore the name of Zoroaster. Four prophets
One of these was a Chaldean or an Assyrian ; another was an of zoroLte™6
inhabitant, or according to some, a king of Bactria, who was
also called Oxyartes ; a third was a Pamphylian, and there was
a fourth, who, according to Pliny, lived a little before the time
of Xerxes.
The last appears to synchronize with Zerdusht or Zerd-husht, zerd-husht
the celebrated religious reformer of Persia, whose ministry was andent the
brief, but very remarkable, in consequence of the successful relision-
efforts which he made to restore the ancient religion. His
tenets are contained in the celebrated Zend-avesta, and its com
pendium the Sad-der.4
The exalted moral precepts, and the great knowledge of the its precepts
divine attributes therein inculcated by this sage, have by some derwed from*
been supposed to have been derived from his intercourse with the Hebrews.
the Hebrew people in the time of Daniel, or possibly from the
prophet himself, with whom he was cotemporary in Susiana.
The reformer is supposed to have been born at Urumfyah,
and to have commenced his ministry at Shiz 5 in that neigh-
1 Herod, lib. V, cap. xxxi.
! Justinius, lib. I.
3 Miiller's Fragmenta Historicum Gfsecorum, p. 44.
4 Hyde's Hist. Eelig. Vet. Persar, cap. xxv, xxvi.
5 Or Canzaca, the Atropatenian Ecbatana. — Royal Geographical Journal,
vol. X, p. 68.

184 RELIGION OF THE MAGI. [CHAP. VII.
bourhood : his work professes to be the result of his prayers and
meditations in a cave near that place.
His reforma- It should not, however, be forgotten, that this Zoroaster did
Magian not teach anything new, but merely restored what had been
re lgion. inculcated some centuries before by an individual of the same
name.1 Sabaism and other corruptions, such as sacrifices on the
highest mountains to Jupiter, the sun, moon, earth, &c.2 being
prohibited, the doctrines of the reformed Magian religion
became nearly those of the ancient Persians. The good and evil
principles are considered as being permitted by the will of God ;
The doctrines a general resurrection and day of retribution were likewise
him. Ca e y inculcated by Zoroaster, who added, that those who had done
well, and lived in obedience to the law of God, were to pass into
the realm of light, and those who had done evil, were to suffer
everlasting punishment in a land of obscurity. " Endeavour,
therefore, O man " (so runs the precept), " to do all the good
thou canst, without fear or apprehension, for God is benign and
merciful, and will reward even the smallest good thou dost."3
Account given A passage of Celsus, preserved by Origen,4 appears to throw
7 e sus" some light on the account given by Herodotus of the Sabaism
of the Persians. Celsus compares the path of the soul through
the firmament and planets, to a ladder which leads through seven
The seven gates to the sun. The first gate is said to be of lead, which,
fpheres! according to the Persians, expresses the slow revolution of
Saturn ; the second is tin, which typifies the brightness of
Venus ; the third gate being of brass, represents the supposed
firmness of Jupiter ; the fourth is iron, and on account of the
general usefulness of that metal, it is represented by Mercury ;
the fifth, a mixed metal, is applied to Mars ; the sixth, quick
silver, is identified with the Moon ; the seventh gate is of gold,
the emblem of the Sun, according to the Persians.5
Clitarchus, in his 12th book, mentions as a summary of the
1 See vol. I, p. 85. s Herod, lib. I, cap. cxxxi.
3 Sad-der, part V. ; Hyde's Hist. Eelig. Vet. Persar, &c.
4 Orig. Contra Cels., lib. IV, edit. Spencer.
* See the French translation, vol. I, p. 426, and vol. II, pp. 889, 390, of
the Zend-avesta, for a similar account.

CHAP. VII.] TENETS OF ZOROASTER. 185
religion of the Magi, that they offer to the gods sacrifices,
prayers, and vows. Nature and the origin of the gods are
objects of their researches, believing that fire, air, water, and
earth, are divinities. They object to the worship of statues, and
consider it most perverse to believe that the gods are male and
female.1 The worship of Venus was condemned by the Magi, who The Magi
remained firm to the great article of their faith, which theyGe0d.ve
carefully transmitted to their posterity,2 that " there is one
God:" the belief in magic was probably introduced a little
anterior to the time of Zerd-husht or Zoroaster.
The explanation of the sage himself regarding the use of fire,3
and the above-mentioned assertion in the firman of Cyrus,4
serve to show that the sun and fire were considered but as
symbols of the Deity,5 and were venerated as such. In order The sun and
to protect the latter, as an emblem of the Divine presence, a^y^ou^f*
temples were built for worship instead of continuing the ancient the Deity-
custom of burning fires on the tops of the mountains.6 A
liturgy was composed by Zoroaster, and tithes were set apart
for the maintenance of the priesthood ;' but fasting and celibacy
were condemned, as tending to a neglect of the best gifts of
God ; whilst diligence in cultivation was considered better than
repeating ten thousand prayers.8
Here we are almost reminded of the thousands of rams, and The spiritual
ten thousand rivers of oil of the prophet ;9 and many passages in Jong preserved
the Zend-avesta still more clearly recognize the Almighty
government of the world, as well as that spiritual morality so
conspicuous in the book of Job,10 and which bears at the same
time such close affinity to the precepts of Noah.
Other traces of a primaeval religion appear to have been in Fran. ;
long preserved in the territory of Iran, which by its geogra-
1 Apud Diog. Laert. 2 Hyde, Hist. Relig. Vet. Persar, p. 90.
3 See above, p. 171. " See p. 170.
5 Ibid. " Herod, lib. I, cap. cxxxi.
7 Sad-der, art. viii.
8 Zend-avesta, tome I, p. 224, and Precis des Systemes de Zoroaster.
8 Micah, chap. VL, v. 5, 8.
10 Job, chap. XX, v. 4, 9, 11, and 27 ; chap. XXIIL, v. 12, 14; chap.
XXIV, v. 1 ; chap. XXIX, v. 11-17; chap. XXXI, v. 4, 5, 6, 26, 39.

186

A PURE RELIGION IN PERSIA.

[CHAP. VII.

Purity of
¦worship main
tained in
Persia

and in Meso
potamia in the
time of
Balaam.

Dariusassumes the
title of
Archimagus.

Mardoniusinvades Greece.

phical position connected the western countries with those of
central and eastern Asia, and became at the same time the
means of transmitting through the Magi, and their successors
the Brahmins, a remnant, at least, of such a revelation of a
future state as had been imparted to mankind.
The inscriptions placed by Darius Hystaspes on the tablets
at Bisutun, and those of his successor at Persepolis, clearly
show that religion was intimately linked with the state,1 and at
the same time they confirm the statement made by Sir William
Jones and others, that the ancient Persians worshipped with
pious fear, love, and adoration, one all-wise, omnipotent,
eternal, infinite, and omnipresent God.2
At the time of the exodus of the children of Israel, the same
elevated morality appears to have existed among some of the
people of Mesopotamia. Balaam, the Chaldean seer, tells the
messengers from Moab3 that man should act justly, love mercy,
and walk humbly with his God ;4 adding, towards the close of
his conference, that a star shall proceed from Jacob, and a
sceptre from Israel.5
This remarkable prophecy was fulfilled about 1544 'years
later, when the Magi, the supposed posterity of the prophet
himself, followed a star from the East, till it brought them to
the manger of the Messiah in the city of David.
The death of Zoroaster, and the evils inflicted on the country
in consequence, were soon revenged by a force under the son of
Darius, who drove the Scythians before him with great
slaughter. And the principal fire temple being restored, Darius
continued his support to the re-established religion by assuming
the title of Archimagus in the room of Zoroaster.
At this time, in consequence of the part taken by the
Athenians in the rebellion of Aristagoras, a large fleet was
despatched with a numerous army under the command of Mar-
1 Eoyal Asiatic Journal, vol. X, pp. 280, 286, 291, 310.
1 SirWm. Jones's Works, vol. I, p. 87, compared with Hyde's Hist. Eelig.
Vet. Persar, cap. xxiii. and xxxiii. ; also Euseb, Prsep, Evangel, lib. I,
cap. ult, p. 42.
3 The Elders of Moab carried the rewards of divination in their hand.
Numb, chap. XXII, v. 7.
4 Micah, chap. VI, v. 8. 6 Numb, chap. XXIV, v. 17.

CHAP. VII.] DARIUS PREPARES TO INVADE GREECE. 187
donius, who received peremptory orders from Darius to subdue
Eretria, Athens, and Macedonia.1 But the loss of 300 vessels
and 20,000 men in doubling Cape Athos, together with an
attack of the Bryges, compelled this commander to retreat into
Asia, after fulfilling only one object, which was the reduction of
the Macedonians.2 Far from being discouraged by this unfore
seen result, Darius renewed his preparations, and prepared
vessels on a greater scale than those before sent : at the same Darius
time he dispatched heralds to Greece to demand earth and an™ water."'1"
water. The people of Egina complied with these demands, but
war was the consequence of the refusal of the Athenians.3
Darius seized this occasion to send Datis and Artaphernes
into Cilicia, where they embarked 300,000 men in vessels ;
and having burned the capitals of Naxos and Eretria, they
passed on to the coast of Attica, and occupied the plain of
Marathon with a force which has been estimated at 100,000
men.4 The Athenian army was advantageously posted on the Position ofthe
hills overlooking this circumscribed space, but Miltiades, who forces" a^d
had served under the Persians, and was well acquainted with
the nature of their troops, as well as their tactics, determined to
forego this advantage, in order to avoid the fierce, and almost
irresistible shock of an Asiatic host, by suddenly becoming the
assailant. Accordingly, with a front sufficiently extended to
occupy the whole width, he rushed at full speed, with 10,000
Athenian and 1,000 Platsean warriors to attack the enemy..
The latter were most disadvantageously posted, being hampered
by their circumscribed position between the sea, a marsh, and
the hills in question, and exposed at the same time to the long
spears of the Greeks. Success, therefore, favoured the assail- utter defeat
ants on both flanks, but in the centre they were broken by the Persians.
Persians, who advanced for some distance through their dis
ordered ranks. Had Datis taken advantage of this circum
stance, the city of Athens would soon have been in his
possession, but the Persians, being without orders, ceased to,
advance, and the Athenians, having routed both flanks, wheeled
1 Herod, lib. VI, cap. xliii. * Ibid, cap. xlv.
3 Ibid, cap. xcii.
' By- Cornelius Nepos. Herodotus does not mention the number.

to Persia.

188 RESULT OF THE BATTLE OF MARATHON. [CHAP. VII.
round, and, by attacking the rear of this mass, the battle was
gained : the name of Miltiades was thus immortalized by a
splendid and unexpected victory.
The loss of the Athenians is stated to have been only 192
men during this unprecedented engagement, which terminated
by taking seven of the enemy's vessels, and driving the dis
comfited Persians into their ships, after losing 6,400 men.1
Datis returns Datis made a bold attempt to recover his lost ground by
doubling Cape Sunium, hoping to reach the city of Athens, but
being frustrated by the rapid return of the handful of brave men
from Marathon, he sailed back to Asia2 to make the result
Fresh prepara- known to his sovereign. Darius feeling irritated, rather than
by Darius. discouraged by this fresh disaster, resolved to take the field in
person : and, accordingly, he sent orders to the different
satrapies of his empire to equip vessels, and to furnish troops
and provisions on such a scale as would overwhelm his enemies
in Greece.3
After three years had been spent in making preparations and
in assembling his numerous legions, and when just about to
a rebellion in march, Darius received news of a rebellion in Egypt : this he
determined to suppress at the same time, by detaching a portion
of his army in that direction, whilst he intended to proceed with
the remainder to punish the Greeks. A lengthened contest
amongst his three sons, to determine which should be named the
successor to the throne, was scarcely decided in favour of
Death and Xerxes, when a short illness carried off Darius in the thirty-
character of _ ' . •>
Darius. sixth year of his reign.
Although remarkable for that chivalrous generosity in par
doning offences, which so frequently forms part of the character
of an Asiatic prince, Darius stained the brighter portions of his
life by occasional acts of useless cruelty, such as the wanton
execution of the three sons of Oebazus,4 and that of his Egyptian
lieutenant, Aryandes, for merely coining money in his name.5
This monarch had the glory, not only of extending his empire,
but also of consolidating many large and rich provinces ; as
Herod, lib. VI, cap. cxv, cxvii. s Ibid, cap. cxvi.
Ibid, lib. VII, cap. i. * Ibid, lib. IV, cap. lxxxiv.
¦ * Ibid, cap. clxvi.

CHAP. VII.] GOVERNMENT OF DARIUS HYSTASPES. 1 89
those of Thrace, Macedon, the Ionian Isles, and the wide-
spreading territory bordering upon India.
In addition to the detailed arrangements already mentioned Works
for the management of the vast territory extending from the Darius. 7
Indus to the Nile, the reign of Darius Hystaspes was very
remarkable in other respects. He continued the canal intended
by Nechus to open a communication from the Nile to the Bed
Sea,1 and coined money of the purest metals, both gold and
silver; of the former was the well-known Daric, and of the
latter the Aryandic of Egypt.2 ' But in thus providing for their
ordinary wants, Darius did not fail to study the prosperity of
his people, by the equity of his government3 on one hand, and
the generosity of his rewards on the other ; and above all, by
the moderation of his imposts. He was accustomed to refer His modera-
the question of the amount of such taxes to the opinions ofand equiy'
others,4 taking care at the same time to fix the demands at a
lower rate than had been pronounced equitable by the wise men
of the state ; who were, we are informed, consulted by him on
all occasions of importance.5
The enlightened reign of this monarch, the second Ahasue-
rus of Scripture, or rather the second who bore what appears to
have been a title rather than a name, was likewise distinguished
by other circumstances, which had an influential effect upon his
dominions ; amongst these were the fostering care so success- encourage-
fully given to astronomy through his brother Jamasp6 (Gush- "i^nce.
tasp), who was celebrated for his acquaintance with the fasci
nating science of astrology, and the change effected by the
restoration of the Magian religion to its primitive purity. The
latter object was brought about by Zoroaster, whose tenets
speedily took a firm root in the empire,7 and spread to the
borders of Bactria.
Whilst this monarch and his immediate predecessors, Cyrus
and Cambyses, were laying the foundation of the Persian mo-
1 Herod, lib. IV, cap. xxxix. * Ibid, cap. clxvi.
3 Ibid, lib. Ill, cap. lxxxii, lxxxiii, cxxxii, and cxl.
4 Plutarch, Apothegm, p. 172. 5 Esther, chap. I, v. 13-15.
• Vol. I, p. 89. 7 See above, vol. I, p. 85.

190 MARITIME ENTERPRISES OF CARTHAGE. [CHAP. VII.
Colonies of narchy, the merchant princes of Africa were extending their
a" age. possessions, by means of conquest, in the Mediterranean, and
by their enterprising fleets elsewhere. Mercenary warriors,
furnished by the African and European colonies of Carthage,
secured her dominion in Sicily, Sardinia, &c. ; while numerous
and well-organized fleets were employed in establishing other
agricultural and trading settlements.
Beverting to the latter, for which Tyre and Carthage had
been so remarkable, two maritime enterprises appear to have
taken place about this period which are deserving of notice,
both on account of their importance, and also as having been
probably the last undertaken previous to the Punic wars.
Voyage of According to a fragment preserved by Bufus Festus Avienes,
British islands. Himilcon, a distinguished citizen of Carthage, conducted a
fleet with settlers from that city, and having passed through the
Pillars of Hercules to Gadira, he made his way from thence to
the so-called Holy Island, which lies expanded on the sea, and
is, the dwelling of the Hibernian race: at hand, it is added,
lies the Isle of Albion.1
Hanno Of the other undertaking, commanded by the celebrated
western coast Hanno, a fuller account has been preserved by an inscription
of Africa, and ^^ ^e piaced on nis return, in the Temple of Cronus,, at
Carthage. About 30,000 Libyo-Phcenician men, women, and
children, were conveyed in sixty vessels, of fifty oars each, to
settlements on the western shores of Africa ; these successively
extended to the Island of Cerne, the situation of which is sup
posed to have been either near Mogador or Santa Cruz ; that is,
between 30£° to 31i° south latitude. The second part of the
reaches the expedition appears to have been merely a voyage of discovery,
Gambia rivers, which, from a passage in Herodotus, may be inferred to have
reached the Gold Coast, at the mouths of the Senegal and
Gambia.2 The death of Darius Hystaspes had the effect of showing
1 Heeren's Historical Researches, &c, Africa, Appendix, vol. I, p.
502, 504.
1 Herod, lib. IV, cap. cxcvi, compared with Heeren's Historical Re
searches, Africa, vol. I, pp. 92, 175, and Appendix, 475, &c.

CHAP. VII. J XERXES PREPARES TO INVADES GREECE. 191
that the recollection of upright conduct may survive the indi
vidual, particularly when the interests of a nation are concerned ;J
for the memory of Cyrus being reverenced throughout Persia,
the son of Darius, by the daughter of that monarch, was Accession of
naturally preferred to his brothers, and Xerxes in consequence Mnofcfnw/"
obtained quiet possession of the empire about 486 b.c
This prince commenced a reign which, although comparatively
short, was remarkable for great events ; and the first year was
employed in perfecting the preparations for war, which were al
ready far advanced. In the course of the following year, Xerxes
completed one of his father's objects, which was the recovery of
Egypt ; and leaving his brother Achaemenes governor of that
country,2 he returned to Susa. The same year was made still
more remarkable by the birth, at Halicarnassus,3 of the cele- Herodotus
brated historian who has recorded these events ; and from his c°rnassuf.al1"
account of this reign, Xerxes appears to have been willing to
forget the grievances of his father against Greece. The flames xerxescon-
of his ambition were however kindled by the interested advice preparations
of Mardonius,4 which prevailed against the better judgment of of his fatb-er-
Artabanes ; and those mighty preparations were commenced,
which put in motion probably the greatest armament ever
assembled in the world, on any occasion. Every nation from
Bactria to Carthage5 sent its quota of infantry and cavalry,
furnished with flour and other provisions ; additional supplies
being placed in suitable depots for the intended operations by
vessels furnished by the maritime states of his dominions. To He places a
facilitate the movements by land, a bridge was ordered to be Heufspom,1116
placed across the Hellespont, and to render those by water more
secure than before, Xerxes employed the Persians, Bubares and
Artaches, to cut a canal through Mount Athos, so that his and cuts a
galleys might pass from the Gulf of Contessa (Strymonicus Mount Athos.
Sinus), to that of Monte Santo (Singiticus Sinus), without
risking such a loss as was experienced by Mardonius in doubling
the promontory. Doubts have long existed regarding this
extensive work, which, however, is not only mentioned by
1 See Appendix (B.) to this volume. * Herod, lib. VII, cap. vii.
3 Aul. Gell, lib. XV, cap. xxiii. Herod, lib. VII, cap. v., vi.
5 Ibid, cap. lxxi., lxxxvi.

192 MARCH OF XERXES TO EUROPE. [CHAP. vn.
several authors,1 but what appear to be its remains may still be
traced in parts of the peninsula ; moreover, its object, and the
manner of its construction, are so particularly detailed by
Herodotus,2 that we can from thence scarcely doubt the fact.
Xenes quits These and other preparations being completed, Xerxes put
Susa,andj ^g army ^n motion towards the spring of the year 481 b.c, by
marching from Susa to Critales in Cappadocia,3 where all the
levies from the regions lying to the eastward were assembled :
he proceeded from thence to Lydia, where he was joined by the
levies from Arabia and the rest of the territory lying to the
experiences westward : here the boundless wealth and liberality of Pytheus
ofPytheus. 7 were exercised in maintaining, for a time, the whole of the army.4
This vast concentration appears to have been conducted with
the utmost regularity, owing to the accuracy of the combi
nations, and the care taken in providing supplies throughout
the extensive line between the capital of Persia and that of
Lesser Asia. During the winter's halt at Sardis, heralds were
despatched to make the usual demands of earth and water from
the Grecian states,5 whilst workmen were employed in replacing
The bridge the floating-bridge across the Hellespont, which had been
0V6T thti
Hellespont is destroyed by a storm at the moment when it was almost com-
aeStorm!ano! pleted.6 Early in the spring, Xerxes continued his march
replaced. towards Abydos, where he found not only a prodigious fleet
assembled,7 according to his orders, to facilitate the contemplated
invasion of Europe, but the means were likewise prepared for
Account of this passing thither without embarking his legions. This surprising
st^cture11""7 bridge, connecting Asia with Europe, is described as being double;
one portion was formed by means of 360 fifty-oared boats, and
the other of 314 triremes, in a line parallel to the former:
each vessel was firmly anchored in a slanting direction, so as
best to resist the effects of the current on one side, as well as
the strong winds to which it was exposed on the other.8 Two
1 Thucydides, lib. IV, cap. cix. ; Plato, De Leg, lib. III. ; Diod. Sic,
lib. II, cap. ii.
" Lib. VII, cap. xxi, xxii, xxiii.
8 Herod, lib. VII, cap. xxvi. * Ibid, cap. xxvii.
4 Ibid, cap. xxxii. • Ibid, cap. xxxiv.
' Ibid., cap. xlv. J Ibid., cap. xxxv.

CHAP. VII.] XERXES ENUMERATES HIS FORCES. 193
enormous reed cables, and two others of hemp, well secured at and method of
the extremities, were passed over each line of boats from side tion.repara"
to side of the Hellespont. Across these cables, trunks of trees
were laid to support a platform, on which a deep covering of
earth was placed ; while barriers at the sides, to protect the
horses and other animals,1 completed this gigantic undertaking.
Although one part of the bridge afforded a passage for the
troops, whilst the baggage and the numerous camp followers,
which always accompany an Asiatic army, had the use of the
other, seven days and nights were consumed in passing into
Thrace. The fleet then proceeded westward through the The army
Dardanelles in order to rendezvous at the Sarpedian promon- Dardanelles.
tory, whilst the army proceeded north-eastward by the Cherso-
nesus, and along the Gulf of Melas to the plain of Doriscus.
Here Xerxes halted, and the fleet, consisting of nearly 3000 Xerxes num-
vessels, being drawn up on the beach,2 the number of his on the plain of
followers was ascertained by the novel proceeding of causing onsous-
the whole multitude to pass in succession through a walled
enclosure, which was of the necessary size to contain exactly
10,000 men.3
The graphic details given by Herodotus are admirably adapted
to place before the imagination the grandeur of the spectacle
exhibited on the plain of Doriscus : when, mounted on a
splendid car, the monarch visited in turn the contingents fur
nished by the several nations within his dominions ;4 and subse
quently, from a throne raised on a Sidonial vessel, reviewed his
fleet,5 which for this purpose was ranged in order of battle.
On land, the Persian troops, wearing close-grained felt caps, Armament
wide trousers, many-coloured tunics with sleeves, steel cuirasses, men^ofTne
bucklers, bows, quivers, and poniards in the girdle, some of ^Medes
them also displaying gold, others silver pomegranates,6 led the Assyrians,
way.7 The Medes followed, similarly equipped ; then the
Assyrians, and next the Chaldeans, both wearing linen cuirasses
and brass helmets of an extraordinary form ; these were armed
1 Herod, lib. VII, cap. xxxvi. 2 Ibid, cap. lix.
3 Ibid, cap. Ix. * Ibid, cap. c.
5 Ibid. " Ibid , cap. xii.
7 Ibid, cap. ixi.
VOL. II. O

194 FORCES OF XERXES AND BATTLE OF THERMOPYLAE. [CHAP. VII.

Bactrians, Indians,Lydians,Arabs, &c.

Numbers of
the assembled
host.

Xerxes advances to

the pass of
Thermopylae.

with javelins, poniards, and wooden clubs bristling with iron
spikes.1 After them came the Bactrians, the Indians, the
Parthians, the Ethiopians, the Armenians, the Lydians, and
others ; the Arabs, wearing girdles and ample dresses,2 being
last, that their camels might not frighten the horses.3.
The numbers were found to be 1,700,000 infantry,4 and with
the addition of cavalry, marines, &c, there probably was an
aggregate of upwards of two millions and a half of fighting men ;
the women, eunuchs, and camp followers, being estimated at an
equal number ;5 but, as the result proved, Xerxes had very few
soldiers,6 for although there was a regular gradation of command
from the chief of 10 up to the commander of 10,000,7 the
invaders of Greece can only be regarded as a tumultuous assem
blage, which, like a cloud of locusts, covered and devastated the
country as they advanced ; and the forced labour of the inha
bitants for several months scarcely sufficed to grind the vast
quantities of corn which had been collected at the different
places.8 From the plains of Doriscus this multitude advanced towards
the river Strymon in three bodies ; one of these kept towards
the interior; the centre was led by Xerxes himself, who
forced the people to accompany him onward ; whilst the third,
under Mardonius, followed the coast line, keeping near the
fleet.9 The land forces reached the entrance of the celebrated pass
of Thermopylae without meeting any interruption ; but the fleet
was less fortunate in the voyage thither, for it encountered a
storm by which 400 vessels were lost on the coast of Magnesia.10
The invading army found 4,000 Greeks, including 300
Spartans, under Leonidas, occupying that strong pass ; the fleet,
in which consisted the principal strength of the defenders, being
stationed on the neighbouring coast of Euboea. Xerxes made
several attempts to force the pass, which were successively
defeated, and he found his whole host totally inadequate to

Herod, lib. VII, cap. ixiii.
Ibid, cap. lxxxvii.
Ibid, cap. clxxxv, clxxxvi.
Ibid, cap. lxxxi.
Ibid, cap. cxxi.

Ibid, cap. Ixix.
Ibid, cap. Ix.
Ibid, cap. ccx.
Ibid, cap. cxix.
Ibid, cap. cxc.

CHAP. VII.] BATTLES OF ARTEMISIUM AND SALAMIS. 195
that object, till Epialtes showed a path by which the hill might
be gained, and the pass turned : this object was at length
effected by Xerxes, after having suffered the loss of 20,000
men.1 At the moment when Leonidas and his gallant band perished
so gloriously, a well-contested action was fought between the
two fleets near Artemisium.2 This proved to be a drawn battle ; Battle of
but the Persian flotilla was destined once more to suffer from rtemislum-
the effects of a violent tempest, which immediately succeeded
the fight,3 and greatly lessened the superiority of the Persians
over the Greeks in the more important contest then at hand.4
Xerxes being at this juncture in possession of Thermopylae,
sent one portion of his troops to pillage the temple of Delphos,5 Xerxes
whilst he proceeded at the head of the remainder to besiege the citadel of
citadel of Athens, which he captured and burnt.0 The city l ens"
itself had been almost entirely abandoned on tbe approach of
Xerxes, it being resolved to make the principal stand on board
the fleet.7 All possible care and attention had been bestowed
on the latter by Themistocles and Aristides ; who had advan
tageously placed 380 well-manned vessels8 in the straits of
Salamis. Here the shock took place, and a glorious victory Naval victory
was gained over the remainder of the Persian fleet, notwith
standing the encouragement given by the presence of the
sovereign, who witnessed the bravery and self-devotion of the
queen of Halicarnassus (Artemisa) and the other combatants,
from a commanding spot near the foot of Mount iEgaleos.9
The loss of this battle immediately caused that sort of de
spondency which is common with Asiatic princes when a reverse
is experienced ; and forgetting that he was still at the head of
his victorious legions, Xerxes determined to make a retrograde Result ofthe
march forthwith to the Hellespont ; whither he despatched the attle"
remainder of his shattered fleet in order to secure and protect
1 Herod, lib. VIII, cap. xxiv. 2 Ibid, cap. xi.
8 Ibid, cap. xii. 4 Ibid, cap. xiii.
5 Ibid, cap. xxxv. 6 Ibid, cap. Iii. and liii.
7 Ibid., cap. xii.
B Ctesias says there were 700 opposed to upwards of 1,000. — See Photius,
History of Persia, cap. 26.
9 Herod, lib. VIII, cap. lxxxix, xc. o 2

196

RETREAT OF XERXES AND BATTLE OF PLAT^A. [CHAP. VII.

Retreat of
Xerxes, and

sufferings of
his army.

Mardonius
killed at the
battle of
Platea.

the bridge.1 These arrangements having been made, Xerxes
retraced his steps by the same route along which he had ad
vanced from Thessaly, where, agreeably to his previous plans,
the self-confident Mardonius was left with the immortals, the
cuirassiers, and other chosen troops, to the number of 300,000 ;
this chief having undertaken to finish the war satisfactorily.2
Xerxes now made forced marches with the remainder of his
troops, and reached the Hellespont in forty-five days, after
having suffered a severe loss from plague, dysentery,3 and
scarcity of provisions ; which, owing to his unexpected march,
could not be provided at the different stations, as had been the
case when advancing. The bridge having been again carried
away by a tempest, the remnant of the army crossed the
Hellespont in the fleet, and accompanied Xerxes to Sardis.4
During the terror-stricken haste of the king, the Athenians
having refused to submit, the operations of his general com
menced in his rear. Mardonius marched through Bceotia into
Attica with his whole army, and burnt everything, sacred as
well as profane, that had escaped the fury of his master in the
preceding year ;5 particularly at Athens and its vicinity. He
then returned into Boeotia, and encamped on the river Asopus,
whither he was followed by Pausanius and Aristides, with all
the forces they could muster.
After continued manoeuvres for ten days, a feigned retreat of
the Greeks brought about a glorious battle near the temple of
Ceres at Plateea, in which, after a protracted and bloody
contest, Mardonius was killed ; and the greater part of his army,
which, including the auxiliaries, amounted to about 350,000
men,6 was destroyed by the Grecian forces, scarcely mustering
110,000.7 The same day on which the troops of Xerxes were destroyed
in Europe, the remainder of his expeditionary fleet and army
experienced a similar fate in Asia. Leotychides, who was
invited by the lonians, left Sparta with a fleet for the purpose

1 Herod, lib. VIII, cap. cvii.
3 Ibid, cap. cxv.
5 Ibid, lib. IX, cap. xiii.
7 Ibid, cap. xxix.

Ibid, cap. c.
Ibid, cap. cxvii.
Ibid, cap. xxxi.

CHAP. VII.] BATTLE OF MYCALE ; RETURN OF XERXES TO SUSA. 197
of liberating the Grecian cities in Asia. Being unable to meet The Persian
i . . . . i i-> • i i fle^ an^ army
and cope with him at sea, the Persians sought protection by
beaching and entrenching their ships near the promontory of
Mycale, where they had the support of about 60,000 men, who
had been left by Xerxes, under the command of Tigranes, to
defend Ionia.1 Just at the moment when the Athenians and
Lacedaemonians were preparing to make a double attack, Leoty-
chides resorted to the stratagem of causing a courier to spread
amongst the Greeks, a report of the destruction of the Persians destroyed
by their countrymen in Boeotia. Being thus encouraged, and near yca e"
their ordinary rivalry increased to the utmost, they advanced
to the attack, and at length carried the position which, after the
lonians took flight, was nobly defended by the Persians till
they were all killed, fighting hand to hand behind the entrench
ments.2 The immediate result of this victory was the deliverance of Xerxes retires
to Susii
the Ionian cities from the Persian yoke ; for, instead of endea
vouring to regain his lost ground, Xerxes, on learning the fate
of his forces in Europe, after giving orders for the destruction
of the Greek temples in Asia, with the intention of substituting
those of Persia, sought his safety by proceeding with haste from
Sardis to Susa; leaving Phoenicia and the other maritime
provinces to defend themselves. The remnant of his prodigious
forces either remained in the European provinces of the empire,
or returned as scattered fugitives to different parts of Asia. In
the mean time, pursuing their successes, the Greeks under
Aristides and Cimon, drove the Persians from Cyprus as well
as from the Hellespont and Propontis : Byzantium itself was
mastered by Pausanius after a short siege.
On reaching his capital, Xerxes abandoned himself to a life
of pleasure, which continued till he was murdered at the insti- His murder.
gation of Artabanes one of his officers.
Thus ingloriously terminated, about 470 B.C., a reign of
nearly twenty-one years, which in the commencement was
remarkable for excessive vanity and ambition, mixed with
cruelty and thoughtless profusion ,• and towards its close, for
degradation and despondency. The character and the life of
Xerxes present the most opposite extremes. The concentration
1 Herod, lib. IX, cap. xcv. " Ibid, cap. ci, cii.

198

ARTAXERXES OR AHASUERUS.

[CHAP. VII.

Character of
Xerxes.

Artaxerxes
Longimanus usurps the
throne.

Banquet at
Shushau.

from the remotest parts of his dominions of a large fleet, and a
vast army, with the abundant supplies provided for the voyage
ofthe one and the marches of the other ; the formation of bridges
and the excavation of a canal for the passage of the fleet through
Mount Athos, all undoubtedly indicate an enlarged mind ;
while his Egyptian campaign, and even the first part of the
expedition to Greece, claim for him the title of warrior, which
his name was intended to signify. Besides these circumstances,
the conduct of this prince, in bestowing upon Pytheus heaps of
gold in return for his splendid hospitality and his presents to his
father Darius,1 bespeaks generosity. But, on the other hand, he
was guilty of the utmost barbarity in putting to death the son of
that citizen ;2 he disgraced himself by his treatment of the remains
of Leonidas ; and he showed his despondency and cowardice in
quitting the army, and abandoning his projects against Greece,
while the almost unbounded resources of the empire were still
at his command. The principal events of this monarch's reign
are recorded on the monuments of Persepolis.3
As the Medo-Persian custom of naming a successor had not
been followed, Artaxerxes, third son of Xerxes, after murdering
Darius his eldest brother, usurped the throne ; Hystaspes the
second son being then in charge of the distant satrapy of Bactriana.
Artaxerxes, or Ahasuerus, who is also called Macrochir or
Longimanus, soon put an end to the civil war which had been
fomented at home by Artabanes, and this chief was put to
death (b.c 470). The prince was equally successful afterwards
against his brother in Bactriana, whom he defeated, and whose
party he entirely ruined. Having thus secured quiet possession
of the empire, Longimanus applied himself to its consolidation
by the reformation of abuses on the one hand, and on the other,
the removal of such functionaries as were likely to be favourable
to the two factions which he had overcome. He commemorated
the establishment of his power by feastings and rejoicings, which
continued at Susa for 180 days,4 and concluded by a great
feast of seven days, for all the people that were present in
Shushan : in the same way Vashti the queen entertained the
women in the harem.
1 Herod, lib. VII, cap. xxvii, and vol. I, p. 277. s Ibid. cap. xxxix.
8 See Appendix (C.) to this volume. 4 Esther, chap. L, v. 4.

CHAP. VII.] THE HEBREWS FAVOURED. 199
The grand banquet took place in the garden of the king's
palace ; the court opening into it being adorned with white,
green, and blue hangings, fastened with cords of fine linen and
purple, to silver rings and pillars of marble.1 On the last day
of the entertainment, while under the influence of wine, the
king, wishing to display the attractions of his royal partner
before the assembled guests, commanded the presence of the
beautiful Vashti ; but as this would have been a violation of The queen
eastern customs, as well as an outrage on her delicacy, the queen divorced.
refused to appear,2 and a divorce was the consequence of the
wounded dignity of the monarch.
The attractions of Esther caused her to be chosen to succeed Esther
Vashti, and it is more than probable that her influence over throne.0
Ahasuerus produced for her countrymen a favourable change
in the sentiments of the prince, who liberally supported Esdras
and Nehemiah ; not only in the commencement of their labours,
but likewise at a later period, when the decree was issued for
rebuilding the walls of Jerusalem.3 The former received from
Ahasuerus, in the seventh year of his reign, a very ample com- Ahasuerus
mission, empowering him to return to Jerusalem accompanied ^ return to™*
by all the people of his nation who were so disposed, with Jerusalem.
liberty to restore the temple of the Jews. At the same time,
it must be observed, the attention of the king was directed at
home to the maintenance of the religion of Zoroaster. The
early part of his reign was distinguished by the hospitable
reception and generous friendship bestowed by Artaxerxes on
his enemy Themistocles ; whose banishment was not, however, Friendly
unconnected with events which soon embroiled Persia, once themistocles
more, in a war with Greece.
The government of Artaxerxes had been gradually acquiring
strength since his accession ; and hoping to recover some of the
authority of his predecessors over the maritime provinces, the
king assembled, on the coast of Pamphylia, a fleet and an army,
which were to be reinforced by eighty triremes from Phoenicia.
1 The courts of the Persian palaces usually open into a spacious garden,
which would only require a splendid tent equipage, such as that of the late
monarch, with its extensive enclosures of various-coloured canvas, to complete
the preparations for the guests.
8 Esther, chap. I, v. 12.
8 Esdras, chap. VIII, v. 21 ; Neh, chap. I, v. 2.

200

DEATH OF ARTAXERXES.

[CHAP. VII.

Forces of
Artaxerxes defeated by
Cimon.

The Greeks
assist the
Egyptians.

B. C. 463.

Artaxerxes
makes peace.

Death of
Artaxerxes.

Darius Notlius
reigns.

Intelligence of these preparations determined Cimon, the
distinguished rival of Themistocles, to attack the Persians before
they could be joined by the expected squadron, and he accord
ingly proceeded with a fleet and a body of land forces to the
river Eurymedon on the coast of Pamphylia, where he gained
a brilliant double victory over the Persian fleet and army on
the same day, in the year 470 b.c
This success induced the Athenians to send Charetimis with
their victorious forces to assist the revolt of the Egyptians
under Inarus. In consequence of this support, that prince
maintained his ground till a second and more powerful army
was sent thither by Artaxerxes, under the command of Mega-
byzus, who succeeded in reducing the country to subjection after
a protracted war of six years ; during which the Athenians lost
two fleets. But these losses were amply repaid by the successful
wars carried on both by sea and land by the illustrious Cimon ;
who at length reduced Artaxerxes to the necessity of making
peace on the most disadvantageous terms. The Athenians not
only secured the freedom of the Grecian cities in Asia, but
likewise obtained other conditions of importance, which were
peaceably preserved during the life of Artaxerxes. This prince
died suddenly, at a time when he was about to arbitrate between
two of the civil powers in Greece, on the subject of the Pelopo-
nesian war. Xerxes, his only son by Esther the queen, suc
ceeded him ; but he was almost immediately afterwards murdered
at the instigation of his illegitimate brother, Sogdianus, who in
consequence gained the throne about the year 425 b.c, from
which, however, he was deposed two years later by Ochus.
This prince, called by historians Darius Nothus or the

Bastard, being the illegitimate son of Artaxerxes, reigned from
423 to 404 b.c, without any other remarkable events than the
successive revolts of the Egyptians, Medes, and Lydians, which
were soon suppressed.
A short time before his death, Darius confided to his younger
son Cyrus the government of the western part of Lesser Asia ;
and this circumstance led to an important chain of events which
endangered the safety of the empire.1
1 See Appendix (D.) to this volume.

( 201 )

CHAPTEB VIII.
THE REIGN OF ARTAXERXES, SON OF DARIUS NOTHUS ; INVASION
OF CYRUS, AND MARCH OF THE TEN THOUSAND GREEKS FROM
BABYLONIA. FROM 404 TO 360 B.C
Nature of Eastern Governments. — Cyrus appointed Satrap of Lesser Asia.—
Origin of his Rebellion. — His Government and Armaments. — Cyrus
advances through Asia Minor. — His March from Myriandrus to the
Rivers Chalus, the Daradax, and Euphrates. — Advance from Thapsacus
to the River Araxes and Towns of Corsote and Carmandee. — March from
the Pilse towards Babylon. — Battle of Cunaxa, and Death of Cyrus. —
Commencement of the Retreat. — The Greeks reach the Median Wall,
and cross the River Tigris. — March to Opis, Larissa, Mespila, and Jebel
Jiidi. — Advance through Kurdistan to the Rivers Centrites and Teleboas.
— Passage of the Rivers Euphrates, Phasis, and Harpasus. — Advance to
Gymnias and Mount Theches. — March to Trebizonde and Cerasunt. — -
The Mossynoeci, Chalybes, and Tibarenians. — City of Cotyora. — Voyage
to Harmene, and thence along the Coast of Paphlagonia to Heraclea. —
Separation and Defeat of the Greeks. — The Greeks re-unite and Defeat
the Troops of Pharnabazus. — The Greeks join Seuthes, and take service
under the Lacedaemonians. — Xenophon resigns the Command. — State of
Greece and Asia at the close of the King's Reign. — Character and Death
of Artaxerxes.
The events connected with the close of the Teign of Darius
Nothus, and the commencement of that of his successor, are of
the greatest interest to the inquiring mind, on account of the
graphic illustrations which they furnish of the principles as
well as of the practical workings of eastern monarchies. These Regenerative
possess, on the one hand, the power which in the abstract eastern es
belongs to despotism, and, on the other, the mild and rege- sovernments-
nerative principles, inseparable from the patriarchal system on
which they are based. It is true, that an eastern sovereign is
absolute, and frequently tyrannical ; but whilst the fascinations
of unlimited power must tend to foster this feeling, he cannot
altogether forget that he should be the father of his people ;

202 government of the younger cyrus. [chap. viii.
B. c. 408. and this, as a redeeming point, appears to be the chief cause
that those monarchies are upheld, and even restored, under
very adverse circumstances.
Darius Nothus Darius Nothus, partly to lessen his cares by the subdivision
divides his , . ./ . .„,. cjj
empire. of his gigantic empire, but chiefly to gratify his queen, connded
the satrapy of Lesser Asia to her favourite son Cyrus. This
arrangement, if permanent, would still have left, on the decease
of Darius, the extensive empire of Eastern Asia, as the share
of the elder son. Such appears to have been the intention of
the monarch, whilst the object of Parysatis was to enable her
younger son to obtain the empire of Cyrus the Great; to
which, by the laws of Persia, he was entitled, in consequence
of having been born after his father's accession to the throne.
His brother came into the world previously to that event.
Cyrus extends The territory westward of the river Halys comprised
in Asia Minor. Phoenicia, Ciliciaj Caria, and other maritime dependencies,
and its ruler was enabled to exercise a powerful control over
the Athenian, the Lacedaemonian, and other Greek States,
which had then recently acquired political importance ; and
great as was the power thus obtained by the youthful Cyrus, it
was much increased by his generous disposition, and the ample
funds at his disposal. He strengthened himself by his alliances
with the Greek governors in Asia Minor ; and by subsidizing
Lysander, he enabled the Lacedaemonians to overcome the
Athenians, and terminate a war of twenty-seven years duration.
He is recalled He had not, however, been long in Lesser Asia, when he
was summoned to his father's court, nominally on account of
the king's illness, but in reality, either because he had put to
death two noble Persians, relatives of Darius, for some want of
respect shown to him as viceroy, or because some intimation
had transpired of those designs, which he afterwards carried out.
The prince obeyed the summons with much reluctance ; and
either from misgivings concerning the reception he might
experience, or merely to swell the pomp of his journey, he
took with him Tissaphernes, and 300 heavy-armed Greeks,3
with other portions of the forces he was levying, and pro-
B. C. 404. ceeded slowly towards Susa.
1 Xenoph, Anabasis, lib. I, cap. i.

CHAP. VIII.] PREPARATIONS AND PROJECT OF CYRUS. 203
Parysatis succeeded in reconciling the dying monarch to her
favourite son, but her entreaties failed to accomplish the greater
object for which she interceded, and instead of declaring Cyrus
his successor, Darius merely bequeathed to him the continua
tion of his present satrapy, under his elder brother Arsaces.
On ascending the throne, this prince took the name of Artaxerxes
Artaxerxes, and by his extraordinary memory, obtained from Darius.8
the Greeks that of Mnemon.1 Whilst being inaugurated at
Pasargada, he was informed by one of the priests of Bellona,
that Cyrus intended to murder him in the temple.2 The latter Cyrus resumes
was in consequence seized, and sentenced to death, but the JjJentT6™"
entreaty of Parysatis saved his life, and preserved his govern
ment, to which he was permitted to return.
The desire of revenge being now added to ambition, the
young prince lost no time in making extensive preparations for
war; his design appeared to be favoured at this moment by a b.c. 402.
fresh rebellion in Egypt, and by the disaffected state of, the
greater part of Lesser Asia, more particularly of the Grecian
colonies, over which Cyrus had great influence. Even at Susa
itself he had a strong party, for his emissaries did not fail to His liberal
prepare the people for the intended change, by telling them measures "to
that the empire required a liberal-minded sovereign such as ^ng™ue the
Cyrus, who loved war, and would not only shower his favours
upon those who served him, but support and augment the glory
of the throne.
Such were the circumstances under which the armaments of
the prince were commenced, avowedly against Tissaphernes,
and the revolted cities in Caria, Lydia, Ionia, &c, but in
reality for the purpose of dethroning his brother. The du- Projects to
plicity of Cyrus appears to have been successful, for the king ^g.Te the
sanctioned his request to be allowed to add Ionia to his
government : instead, however, of adopting decided measures
to crush the rebellion, Cyrus encouraged the existing dis
content, and fomented a mutual opposition amongst the western
provinces ; especially those which were either nominally or
really subject to Tissaphernes.
1 Xenoph, Hellen, lib. I.
3 Plutarch, in Artaxerxes, vol. VI, p. 251, ed. Langhorne.

204 STRENGTH OF THE ARMY UNDER CYRUS. [CHAP. VIII.
Cyrus ingra- This satrap being unpopular, the lofty character and profuse
tiates himself . / _ ° r . , , , , i , i 1.1 ,.
with the generosity of Cyrus carried the day, and nearly the whole ot
Tissaphernes. tae cities ceased to acknowledge the orders of Tissaphernes,
giving homage and tribute willingly to the prince ; who had,
in consequence, almost the whole territory of Ionia at his
disposal.
He makes Cyrus is said to have told the people of Persia, that he was
toTePersTant! better versed in philosophy, as well as in the tenets of the
Magi, than his brother ; that he could drink more wine ; and
that he possessed a greater and more royal heart than the
king : in the figurative language of his countrymen, he added,
that he would give horses to the foot soldiers, and chariots to
the horsemen ; also, that he would bestow villages instead of
farms, and cities instead of villages ; and that he would pay
by measure, instead of counting out the money.1
Revolts, Bevolts similar to that of Cyrus still occasionally take place
ofCyrus, in the East, where the satraps or pashas, except in respect of
the annual tribute which they pay, may be considered inde
pendent of the sovereign at Constantinople. In 1831, the
pashas of Albania, Baghdad, and Egypt, from some dissatis
faction, took arms against the sultan. The two first, though
very powerful, failed; but the last, proceeding with more
caution, entered Syria, under the pretence of punishing the
pdsha of Acre. The sultan, however, hoping the latter would
successfully resist, lost the opportunity of giving timely assist-
still take place ance ; and the fall of that fortress led to the temporary loss of
in Asia. gyria an(j a part of Agja Minor-
The Ephori In return for the assistance formerly given to them by Cyrus
sender1"011 against the Athenians, the Ephori of Lacedeemon sent their
fleet> fleet under Samius to join that of the prince,2 whose army
consisted of 70,000 Asiatics chiefly from Persia, and about
13,000 Greeks under Clearchus, and other influential chiefs ;
amongst these was Proxenus, a distinguished Theban, who
was accompanied by Xenophon,3 the celebrated historian, of
the campaign. 1 Plutarch, in Artaxerxes, vol. VI, p. 254, ed. Langhorne.
2 Xenoph, Hellen, lib. ILL; cap. i. s. 1.
3 Anab, lib. Ill, cap. i, s. 4, 7.

CHAP. VIII.] MARCH FROM SARDIS TO CELiEN^E. 205
Leaving his relatives and friends in charge of the govern- and Cyrus
ments of Lydia, Phrygia, Ionia, &c, Cyrus commenced the march from
march from Sardis in April, and displayed admirable judgment ar 1S'
in taking the more circuitous route along the great plains, and
through the principal cities of Asia Minor, in preference to
that by which Xerxes advanced through Cappadocia ; since it
gave him the support of his fleet, by which he could receive
supplies and reinforcements from time to time, besides having
a fair chance of concealing for a longer period his bold design.
Hoping to deceive his brother, Cyrus gave out that he was Ostensibly
going to punish the Pisidians, but his real object being no plsidians.6
longer doubtful, Tissaphernes, with an escort of 500 horsemen,
proceeded to Susa ; and on communicating the intelligence in
person, the king commenced his defensive preparations.1
The direction of Cyrus' march appears to have been parallel Cyrus' march
to the Cogamus,2 and having passed the Maeander on a bridge
of seven boats, probably above the junction of the Lycus, he
advanced to the well-peopled town of Colossae, the site of
which, near Chonos,3 is about seventy-seven geographical miles
from Sardis : and the thirty parasangs of Xenophon (taken at
2 • 6 miles each) give seventy-eight geographical miles.
After a halt of seven days, during which the army was Being rein-
joined by 1,500 heavy-armed veterans and targeteers, under advances^
Menon of Thessaly, Cyrus advanced twenty parasangs to Celsen8e-
Celaenae, whose site, as well as that of the later city of
Apamea Cibotis, appears to have been near the present town of
Dinei'r,4 and about forty-eight geographical miles from Chonos,
or fifty-two geographical miles, if estimated at 2 ¦ 6 miles the
parasang. At this city, which was no less magnificent than the
former, there was a palace of the king, and one of the prince,
both situated on the Maeander, with the much-prized Persian
luxury of an extensive park full of wild beasts :5 here, Cyrus
1 Anabasis, lib. I, cap. ii. 2 See route on Index Map.
3 Afterwards Chronae, on the Lycus. — W. J. Hamilton's Researches, &c,
vol. I, pp. 501-510 ; Rennell's Illustrations of the March of the Ten
Thousand Greeks, p. 23, London, 1826.
4 Rennell, pp. 22 and 24, and W. J. Hamilton, vol. I, pp. 497, 499, 505,
and vol. II, p. 366.
5 Anabasis, lib. I, cap. ii.

206 CYRUS ADVANCES TO THE PLAIN OF CAYSTRUS. [CHAP. VIII.

Halt of thirty
days, and

its secret
object.

Advance to
Peltae, and

thence to
Ceramorum
Agora.

Cyrus rounds
a portion of
the Taurus,

and gains the
plain of
Caystrus.

spent thirty days by a halt, which is the more unaccountable,
as the army had remained a week at the previous station. The
energetic character of the prince forbids the belief, that the
temptations of the chase could have been allowed to interfere
with his ambitious project; and as the reinforcements from
Greece could have joined more easily at either of the two
halting-places to which he proceeded, delay on this account was
unnecessary. Beasons, however, may be found in the deceptive
policy of Cyrus towards his brother, and in his desire to keep
his troops in ignorance of his designs. The concentration of
his army and the halt itself, being for the time in accordance
with the supposed purpose of extirpating the Pisidians.
An additional force of Asiatics, with the levies brought from
Thrace and the rest of Greece, under Clearchus, having been
reviewed in the park, and a census taken, the troops in two
days performed a march of ten parasangs to Peltae, a well-
inhabited city ; which, being the last on the road to Mysia,
probably was a little way westward of Ishekli, or Eumenia,1
and about twenty-five geographical miles from Dineir, the
distance according to the parasangs, at 2 * 6 miles, being only
twenty-six geographical miles. After halting three days to
celebrate the Lupercalian sacrifice, Cyrus advanced twelve
parasangs to Ceramorum Agora (the market of the Cramians),
whose site, according to the back distances from Kdniyeh, would
be a little east of 'Ushak, and about thirty-one geographical
miles from Ishekli, the parasangs giving but 31*2 geographical
miles. Having by these two almost retrograde marches2 ad
vanced sufficiently far to the JnMST.W. to round a difficult
portion of the Taurus, he resumed the easterly direction, and in
three marches or thirty parasangs,3 having passed through the
great mountain barrier, probably near the present town of
Afiyiim Kara-hisar, he reached the city called the plain of
Caystrus ;4 the position of which may have been about Chai
Keui, near Eber Gol, and seventy-four geographical miles from
'Ushak, the parasangs giving seventy-eight geographical miles.
1 W. J. Hamilton's Researches in Asia Minor, &c, vol. II, p. 203.
8 See Index Map. 3 Anabasis, lib. I, cap. ii.
4 Or a city on the Plain of Caystrus. Anabasis, lib. I, cap. ii.

CHAP. VIII.] VALUE OF THE ANCIENT AND MODERN PARASANG. 207
The difficulties regarding the positions of this and the two The ancient
preceding sites have been removed by researches recently made p^r^ItT11"
in the country by Mr. W. J. Hamilton, and also Mr. William
Ainsworth, during the Euphrates Expedition/and in his Travels
in the Track of the Ten Thousand Greeks.1 The former, from
a mean of the two marches eastward, viz., from Sardis to
Colossae, aud from Iconium to Dana (Tyana), concludes the
value ofthe parasang to be about 2-455 geographical miles.2
The modern farsang, or farsakh, of Persia, varies according the farsakh of
to the nature of the ground, from three and a half, to four Persia-
English miles per hour ; and being almost always calculated for
mules, or good horses, under favourable circumstances it fre
quently exceeds four miles. The ancient parasang appears to
have been fixed at thirty stadia,3 which at 202 ¦ 84 yards would
give three geographical miles. But this being also a road
measure, it no doubt varied as at present, and was regulated
according to the nature of the country ; and fortunately we
have the means of ascertaining this difference with considerable
precision. A line, drawn along the map so as to touch the Distance from
river, at short distances, from Thapsacus to the river Araxes, is ThapsVcus
about one hundred and five miles, which, for the fifty parasangs estimated»
of Xenophon, give 2 ¦ 10 geographical miles each. By the
route followed from Sardis to Thapsacus, it is eight hundred and
fifty-three geographical miles, which will give 2 • 608 geogra
phical miles for each of the three hundred and twenty-seven
parasangs. Again, from Thapsacus to the mounds of Moham
med, thirty-six miles from Babylon, where, for the. sake of
water, the route constantly follows, and almost touches the river
Euphrates, it is four hundred and twelve geographical miles, and thence to
thus giving 1 "98 geographical miles for each of the two hundred
and eight parasangs, or 2 ¦ 294 geographical miles for the mean
of both. This scarcely differs from the result obtained by the
laborious and discriminating geographer Major Bennell, who,
without our present advantages, estimated the parasang at
2 ¦ 25 miles ; which, in fact, approaches an average of the
1 Parker, London, 1844.
2 W. J. Hamilton's Researches, &c, vol. II, pp. 199, 200.
3 Herod, lib. II, cap. vi. ; lib. V, cap. liii. ; lib. VI, cap. xlii.

208 REVIEW OF THE GREEKS BY QUEEN EPYAXA. [CHAP. VIII.
whole march of Cyrus. We find that the distance from Sardis
to Cunaxa, or the mounds of Muhammed, cannot be much under
or over 1,265 geographical miles, making 2 • 364 geographical
miles for each of the five hundred and thirty-five parasangs
given by Xenophon between those places.1
Average From the preceding calculations, it appears that we are
parasang. warranted in taking the average value of the parasang, at
2 • 608 geographical miles throughout the march to Thapsacus,
and at 1 • 98, or almost two miles from thence to Cunaxa ;2 but
subsequently, it is less than two geographical miles. The
greater speed in the first part of the march, was the natural
consequence of moving during the most favourable season of
the year (April and May), with the additional advantage of
roads. The want of the latter must have been a serious im
pediment to the carriages during the next fortnight ; for,
Difficulties although the marches were pressing, the heavy-armed men, with
Mesopotamia11 their weapons, would have been greatly retarded by the almost
and Armenia, insupportable heat of the summer months: in the subsequent
retreat, the mountains, the rivers, and unknown tracts, as well
as the snow on the ground, must have caused still greater
retardations.
Epyaxa, queen But to return to the march itself. During a halt of five days
visScyrus. on tne plams °f Caystrus, Cyrus received Epyaxa, the queen
of Cilicia; whose mysterious' visit and opportune supply of
treasure enabled him to appease the Greeks by giving them
three months' arrears of pay. Accompanied by Epyaxa, he
advanced ten parasangs to Thymbrium, on the borders of
Lycaonia, probably at, or a little south-eastward of the present
town of Ak-Shehr, and twenty-four or twenty-five miles from
Chai Keui. In two days more he advanced ten parasangs to
Tyriacum, a populous town, probably represented by I'lghun,
which is twenty-five or twenty-six miles from Ak-Shehr (the
ten parasangs give twenty-six miles in each case). Here he
Review of his remained three days, and delighted his guest by a splendid
Tyriacum. display of his Greek forces, uniformly clothed, and armed with
brazen helmets, scarlet tunics, greaves, and burnished shields,
1 Anabasis, lib. II, cap. ii, s. 6.
2 The country hereabouts is called Abil Jada.

CHAP. VIII.] CYRUS GAINS THE PASS OF THE TAURUS. 209
at the same time astonishing her, by causing the phalanx to The phalanx
charge in their usual manner, shouting aloud to terrify the manoeuvres-
enemy as they advanced, running with their long spears pro
tended.1 Epyaxa and her escort accompanied the army, moving, and
encamping with the prince. In three marches of twenty para
sangs, the army reached Iconium, a distance, by the route of
Kadun Khan and Ladik,2 of forty-nine or fifty geographical miles.
After halting five days at that place, it advanced thirty para
sangs in five marches along the plains of Lycaonia, and halted,
probably near or westward of the now small town of Kara
Bunar, (Barathra,) which is sixty or sixty-one miles from Epyaxa quits
Koniyeh. Prom thence, Epyaxa returned to her husband Barathra. ,
Syennesis, the king of Cilicia, probably crossing the Taurus by
Kizil Chesmeh, 'Alan Buzuk, Mizetli, Soli (or Pompeiopolis),
and onward to Tarsus. It may be inferred, from what subse
quently passed in Cilicia, that the object of this remarkable Supposed
mission, and the timely supply of treasure, was to induce Cyrus visits,
to take another route, that Syennesis might not be embroiled
with Artaxerxes, by permitting the march through his territory ;
and it is not improbable that, from her peculiar intimacy with
the prince, the queen believed she had been successful. Cyrus
availed himself of her return, to send a body of Greeks under
Menon, nominally as a guard of honour, but in reality to turn
the Cilician gates, the only pass which was practicable for an
army through this part of the Taurus ; he then advanced
twenty-five parasangs in four days to Dana, now presumed to
be Tyana, which is forty-nine or fifty miles from Kara-buriar.
Cyrus had been informed that Syennesis in person, with a Cyrus turns
powerful body of troops, occupied the heights commanding this Taurus^ ° * e
almost impregnable passage ;3 but during a halt of one day at
the entrance, making the necessary dispositions to force his
way, the videttes brought the satisfactory intelligence, that the
heights had been abandoned by the Cilicians, on learning that
Menon had reached his destination, and turned the pass, after
plundering Tarsus, and opening a communication with the
1 Anabasis, lib. I, cap. ii. 2 See Index Map.
3 See above, vol. I, pp. 293, 354
VOL. II. P

210 MARCH FROM TARSUS ALONG THE COAST. [CHAP. VIII.
Lacedaemonian galleys. The opportune arrival of the latter,
added to the belief that the negotiation of Epyaxa had been
successful, seems to have prevented the intended resistance of
reachesTarsus, Syennesis, and four days' inarch through one of the longest
and most difficult passes in the world,1 brought Cyrus to
Tarsus ; which city is sixty-eight or seventy geographical miles,
(called twenty -five parasangs), from the farther side of the .pass
near the Kolu Kushla.2
At first, Syennesis refused to obey the mandate of Cyrus to
appear at Tarsus, but Epyaxa induced him to quit his fastness
is visited by in the mountains, and the Cilician prince made his peace by
presenting large sums of money for the army: he received
from Cyrus, in return, a Persian robe of honour, a golden bit,
and other royal presents, in addition to a guarantee that his
territories should not be plundered.
The halt of twenty days at Tarsus, was rendered memorable
by a circumstance which threatened to terminate the enterprise,
Events at at the moment when the requisite funds had been so unexpect
edly obtained. The Greeks, chiefly the followers of Clearchus,
perceiving that they had been entrapped, loudly demanded to
return, instead of proceeding against Artaxerxes ; a service for
which, as alleged, they had not been engaged.3 After lengthened
discussions, the oratory of Clearchus prevailed, and by judiciously
placing before the turbulent soldiery, on the one hand the
The discontent difficulties and dishonour of a return, contrasted with the pros-
is appeased, pect of glory and rewards before them on the other, he induced
them to advance. The object now avowed by Cyrus, was the
punishment of his enemy Abrocamas, the satrap of Syria ; who
was, he said, encamped on the banks of the Euphrates, at the
distance of twelve marches.4
Cyrus ad- An additional half-daric being promised per month, Cyrus
CTosses'thed advanced ten parasangs, in two marches, and crossed the river
rivers SaVhun garus now the Saihun, where it was three plethra wide. Here
and Jaihan, . l
the direct distance is seventeen geographical miles, but that by
the road is rather more than twenty-nine miles between those
1 See above, vol. I, pp. 293, 354, and Anabasis, lib. I, cap. ii.
2 See No. 1 of Euphrates' Maps. 8 Anabasis, lib. I, cap. iii, s. 1.
1 Ibid, s. 20.

CHAP. VIII.] CYRUS REACHES THE GATES OF SYRIA. 211
places.1 In another march of five parasangs (actually seventeen
to nineteen miles), he reached the Pyramus or Jaihan, which
was one stadium in breadth ; and fifteen parasangs, made in
two marches from thence, brought him to Issus, the last city of
Cilicia,2 which is thirty-three to thirty-four miles from the
town of Misis. The widths given by Xenophon, indicate that and reaches
the passage of the Sarus was effected somewhere about the ssus'
place now occupied by the city of Adanah, and that of the
Pyramus, in the vicinity of the present town of Mallus or
Misis ; and neither of the rivers being fordable, it may be
presumed that they were, as in the case of the Maeander,
crossed on some kind of temporary bridge.3 Cyrus found his where he finds
fleet anchored near the city of Issus, and with it came a re- reinforce™
inforcement of 700 heavy-armed men under Cheirisophus, ments-
besides 400 others who had quitted Abrocamas, that they
might take service against the king,4 making it evident that
the object of the expedition was now well known in this part of
the country. Keeping between the mountains and the sea, one The army ad-
march of five parasangs brought Cyrus to the gates of Cilicia &ecoast.0ng
and Syria. Here a rocky spur, covered with brushwood,
descends from the Amanus into the sea, leaving, as described
by Xenophon, a narrow pass. This has been since washed
away by the sea, and a paved road has been substituted for it.
The latter is carried over the spur itself, and through the ruins
of a marble gateway on the southern declivity. The gateway,
now bears the European name of Jonas' pillars, and the
Turkish name of Sakal Tiitan (Beard Catcher). A little way
northward of the pillars, on a hill perhaps nearly 300 feet high,
stands the castle of Merkez (Centre), which commands the
pass. Half a mile beyond the castle there is a wall, which Nature ofthe
terminates at the sea with a tower ; a little farther is the C0UDtry-
Merkez-siii, and again, beyond, a small pile of ancient ruins.
There are also other ruins higher up the river ; and at the
distance of two miles from the sea are traces of a double wall
on each side, where the stream issues from the mountains.
The Merkez-siii, or ancient Kersus, determines the sites of the
1 See Map No. 1. 2 Anabasis, lib. I, cap. iv.
3 Ibid, cap. ii. " Ibid, cap. iv.
P 2

212 PASS OF BEILAN. [CHAP. VIII.
so-called gates or fortresses, which were erected to defend the
ground ; the one being in Cilicia, and the other in Syria, the
river flowing between them.1
The limited width of the pass along the borders of the sea,
added to the difficulty of turning it by keeping along the lower
part of the Amanus, gave to it great importance and strength,
especially when approached from the side of the Issus. Aware
of this difficulty, and under the impression that it would be
Cyrus turns, strongly occupied, Cyrus caused his fleet to land his heavy-
and carries the . ..... i • 1 i n p
pass of Syria armed veterans both within and without the Syrian fortress, to
an ncia. secure a passage for his army; but Abrocamas, not wishing
to oppose a prince who might eventually take away his satrapy,
had already retreated at the head of a force, estimated at
300,000 men, and Cyrus, without opposition, completed the
next march, which was to the commercial city of Myriandrus.
Each of these marches was of five parasangs, that is eleven or
twelve miles.
Events at During a halt of seven days at this place, Xenias and Pasion,
two men of some importance, stealthily departed by sea, but
the judicious conduct of Cyrus in sending their effects, as well
as their wives and children after them, prevented others from
following an example which might have been fatal to his under
taking ; and even those Greeks, who had been hitherto back
ward, became zealous followers, believing that so magnanimous
a commander would not fail to be still more liberal to those who
were faithful.2
March to the The important pass of Beilan, as well as the gates of Cilicia
8nd ' and Syria, having been abandoned by Abrocamas, the army of
Cyrus made twenty parasangs, in four inarches, to the river
Chalus. Proceeding through the pass in the Beilan chain,
and advancing north-eastward, keeping quite clear of the lake
of Aga Denghiz and the surrounding marshes, it is about sixty-
one geographical miles to the upper part of the Baluk-su or
Baluklu-sii3 (Fish Biver), and about sixty-eight or seventy
miles from the town of Beilan, if a greater sweep be made
northward along the slopes of the hills.4 As there were three
1 Anabasis, lib. I, cap. iv. 2 Ibid.
3 See Map No. 1. * See above, vol. I, p. 412.

%

CHAP. VIII.] MARCH TO THE RIVERS DARADAX AND EUPHRATES. 213
rivers to cross, namely, the Kara-su, the Aswad, and the 'Afrin,
four days would certainly be required for this part of the march.
In advancing first in an easterly direction along the Baluk-sii,
then southward by the banks of the same stream, and again
eastward, quitting the latter when opposite to the fountain of
El Bab, near the source of the stream called Dhahab or Dabb,
it is about sixty-one miles to the last, the presumed Daradax:1
and if the windings of the Koweik be followed in the earlier from thence to
part of the march, it would be seventy or eighty miles 2 from Daradax.
the higher part of the Chalib or Chalus, which, as in the time
of Xenophon, still abounds in fish.3 The distance (thirty para
sangs) given by Xenophon between the rivers Chalus and
Daradax, which was accomplished in five marches,4 agrees with
the nature of the intervening country ; for whether the wind
ings of the upper part of the Koweik were followed, or the
stream forded two or three times in preference, a fifth march
would be requisite as already mentioned.5
Having wantonly destroyed the palace and park of Belesis, Palace of
the late governor of Syria, Cyrus, in three days' pressing stroyed.
marches," following and constantly touching the Euphrates from
Balis, reached the river Euphrates at Thapsacus,7 which, as
has been shown,8 is about sixty-four or sixty-six miles from the
Daradax. Here Cyrus fulfilled his promise, by plainly telling the At Thapsacus,
Greeks, through their commanders, that he intended to proceed known The eS
to Babylon and against the king. At first the soldiers wereob^echof hls
angry, and for some days it was doubtful whether they could
be induced to proceed. Abrocamas had destroyed the boats
by which he had crossed, but the river happened to be fordable
that year,9 and Menon having persuaded his division to set
the example by fording, the water coming up to their breasts,
the rest of the contingents speedily followed. The whole army
being then put in motion along the left bank of the great river,
1 See above, vol. I, p. 415. 2 Ibid, p. 412.
3 Anabasis, lib. I, cap. iv. ' Ibid.
5 Vol. I, p. 416. 6 Anabasis, lib. I, cap. iv.
7 See Maps Nos. 1 and 3. 8 See above, vol. I, p. 417.
0 Ibid, p. 416.

214

ADVANCE FROM THAPSACUS TO THE PYL.E. [CHAP. VIII.

He advances
to the river
Araxes,

and from
thence to
Corsote.

Distance of
the Pylae from
Corsote.

City of Car-
mandse, and

disputes of
the Greeks.

they advanced a distance of one hundred and five geographical
miles, or fifty parasangs, in nine days, to the river Araxes,1 and
entered the desert of Mesopotamia, after making the necessary
provision for the coming march.
In five marches, at times occupied in hunting ostriches, roe,
deer, wild asses, and bustards, they accomplished a distance of
thirty-five parasangs to the river Masca and the town of Cor
sote ; the position of which seems to correspond with the ruins
of Al Erzi, whose site is sixty-three miles from the river
Araxes.2 There has been some little difficulty about the termination
of the succeeding march of ninety parasangs ; but as it appears,
by the subsequent movements, that the Pylae were about twenty-
four miles short of the Median wall, the pass in question may
safely be placed about twenty-seven miles below Hit,3 or nearly
opposite to the village of Jarrah, from which, by the map, there
are about one hundred and seventy-five, or one hundred and
seventy-seven geographical miles to represent the ninety para
sangs from Corsote to the Pylae, which, at 1 ¦ 98 each, give
178 "2 geographical miles.
Some time during the previous march they halted opposite
to a large and magnificent city called Carmanda;,4 from which
panic, palm-wine, and other supplies were obtained; crossing
the river for this purpose on rafts made with the skins of their
tents stuffed with rushes. It was in the vicinity of this place
that the serious dispute occurred between the followers of
Clearchus and those of Menon, which, after some difficulty,
Cyrus settled with that tact and knowledge of mankind for
which he was so remarkable.
Not long after the army had marched from this place, that
is, probably, during the first day from the Pylae, the dung of
the horses, and other traces of a body of horsemen, supposed
to be about 2,000, were perceived, who had probably been em-
1 Anabasis, lib. I, cap. iv, v. 2 See Map No. 3.
3 See Maps Nos. 5 and 7.
* As there is no other site on the right bank of the river, the position
alluded to may have been near Jibbah, an island, opposite to which, on that
bank, there are some ruins at fifty-eight miles from 'A'nah, and thirty or
thirty-two from Hit.

CHAP. VIII.] REVIEW, AND ESTIMATE OF THE ARMIES. 215
ployed in destroying the forage. Under pretence of preventing
this operation, but in reality to communicate witb Artaxerxes,
Orontas, a Persian nobleman, volunteered to pursue them ; but
his real purpose having been ascertained, by a letter prepared
to be sent to Artaxerxes, and having been pardoned on two
previous occasions, Cyrus ordered that there should be held a
court-martial of his countrymen, who sentenced him to death,1 Orontas
i . sentenced to
and he was not seen subsequently ; but whether privately death.
executed" or not, did not then appear.
Having in three days advanced twelve parasangs through Cyrus reviews
Mesopotamia, Cyrus reviewed his forces, and put them in n^ght a
order of battle at midnight.2 Expecting to engage the king on
the following day, the prince, with his usual tact, addressed his
followers in the most animated and, to soldiers, the most encou
raging language. They were told that the satrapies of an
empire, which extended so far south as to be uninhabitable
through heat, and so far north, that the people perished from
cold, would soon be at his disposal, and that he would adorn
the brows of the generals with the coronets of princes, his only
apprehension being, lest he might not have a sufficient number
of friends to fill the other situations.3
The census taken, showed that the various levies raised in
the maritime and Greek states amounted to 10,400 heavy-
armed men, and 2,400 targeteers, with nearly 20 scythed
chariots, in addition to a mixed force of 100,000 Asiatics. The
army of Artaxerxes, according to some deserters from it, was
reported to be 1,200,000 infantry, 6,000 horse, and 200 armed
chariots ; large bodies of this force being commanded by Abro
camas, Tissaphernes, Gobryas, and Arbaces. But as the first
was not present with his contingent, the actual number was only Estimate of
tli p oontf'iicl] Di?
900,000 men, and 150 armed chariots,4 or 400,000 horse and foot, armies.
according to the more moderate estimate of Diodorus Siculus.5
The position of the king was admirably suited to cover the
capital, for, in addition to an army, which according to the
lesser estimate (allowing three followers for each soldier)
1 Anabasis, lib. L, cap. vi. 2 See Map No. 7.
3 Anabasis, lib. I., cap. vii. * Ibid, cap. viii.
5 Lib. XIV, cap. ix.

216 POSITION, AND RETREAT OF ARTAXERXES. [CHAP. VIII.
mustered 100,000 fighting men, and which would, independently
The king's 0f the chariots, form a line two deep extending twelve miles ;
forces wgi*c
entrenched, the I'sa,1 the Nahr Sersar, and other canals, were so many
successive lines of defence, the whole constituting a splendid
position, which, being in a plain, was suited for the chariots
as well as for the cavalry.
Not satisfied with these advantages, and the additional line
of the Median wall, Artaxerxes formed an entrenched camp
along the Euphrates, in the rear of the whole, to cover his
baggage,2 and also cut a wide and deep ditch as an advanced
line of defence. With the exception of a passage left near the
bank of the Euphrates, the latter work appears to have been
carried from the river at a spot a few miles north-westward of
the I'sa canal, till it joined the Median wall, probably about
the centre.
abandon their ~$0 doubt Artaxerxes intended to have made a stand for his-
approach of empire at this and the succeeding lines of defence, but during
an advance of three parasangs next day, in order of battle,
Cyrus found the first line and the Median wall abandoned. It
is evident that on the approach of the prince something like a
panic /'nduced Artaxerxes to lose sight of all his advantages,
and he continued in full retreat towards Babylon, till the oppor
tune arrival and entreaties of Teribazus inspired him with fresh
courage.3 The flight was now changed into an advance, and
the invaders were met under circumstances which proved
favourable to an extent that could not have been anticipated.
Cyrus passes Previously to reaching the new entrenchment, Cyrus had ad-
advances. an vanced with great regularity, but on finding that the works had
been abandoned, and that the royal army had fled, he put faith
in the previous prediction of the soothsayer, to whom he gave
the promised reward of 3,000 darics or 10 talents; and be
lieving that the empire would be his without a struggle, the
The royal march became exceedingly careless. About noon, on the third
adv/nclfin ^ay, tne invaders found themselves almost in presence of the
order of battle. Persian army, at a moment when they were in great confusion,
some having their armour, and even their arms, carried in
1 See Maps Nos. 7 and 8. 2 Diod. Sic, lib. XIV, cap. ix.
3 Plutarch, in Artaxerxes, vol. VI, p. 255, ed. Langhorne.

CHAP. VIII. J BATTLE OF CUNAXA, AND DEATH OF CYRUS. 217
waggons, or on sumpter horses.1 The situation is not men
tioned, but taking the moderate estimate of about fifteen miles
for a whole day, Cyrus was probably near the mounds of
Muhammed,2 that is about thirty-six from Babylon, and as
many from the Median wall, when Petagyas, a Persian, in
whom he confided, came at full speed, crying out, in Greek as
well as Persian, that the whole of the king's forces were at
hand in order of battle. Cyrus hastened to arm, and his chariot
being exchanged for his horse, he issued those orders, which
probably would have secured complete success, if Clearchus
had not failed in his duty 3 at this critical moment. The The Greeks
Greeks under this general occupied the right of the prince's prepare,
army, and the Asiatics formed the rest of the line, which neces
sarily was greatly outflanked by that of the king. Knowing
that, agreeably to Persian custom, Artaxerxes would be in the
centre of his army, Cyrus determined to attack this point with
the chariots and the Greeks, who were the elite of his force ;
but these, or rather their commander, although professing
obedience, determined not to lose the advantage of leaning on
the river with bis right flank, and Cyrus proceeded to the post
of danger under the impression that his orders would-be obeyed.
The battle was commenced by the Greeks, singing the paean, and became
as they advanced against Tissaphernes, who commanded the l e assailants-
enemy's left wing. On seeing this, the Persian infantry fled,
and not being supported by the cavalry, the drivers of the
chariots having also fled, the expectation of breaking through
the Greek phalanx with these machines was at an end, and
the left wing being thrown into disorder by the Greeks almost
without loss,4 some already complimented the prince on being
king. But Cyrus perceiving that there was still much to do advanced
impetuously to charge the centre which still remained firm ;
when, though without the expected support of the Greeks, he
1 Plutarch, in Artaxerxes, vol. VI, p. 256, ed. Langhorne, compared
with Anabasis, lib. I, cap. vii.
2 See Map No. 8.
3 Plutarch, in Artaxerxes, vol. VI, p. 257, ed. Langhorne, compared
with Anabasis, lib. I, cap. viii.
4 Anabasis, lib. I, cap. viii.

218

CONTEMPLATED RETREAT OF THE GREEKS. [CHAP. VIII.

Clearchus
causes the
loss of the
battle.

routed the guard of 6,000, which preceded the king; and killed
their commander. At this moment, when the king thought
whilst maWnd a^ was ^os^' Cyrus rushed heedlessly forward, and just as he
an impetuous had reached and wounded his brother in the midst of his guards,
a dart brought him to the ground at his feet, and he perished
covered with wounds.1 The success of Artaxerxes was how
ever limited to this event, and. to some trifling advantages over
the left of Cyrus, which enabled him to plunder the tents, &c,
for, oh the other flank, Clearchus was quite successful.2 It is
therefore evident, that if Clearchus had obeyed the orders of
Cyrus, the Greeks would have broken the centre as easily as
they forced the left of Artaxerxes' army.
Being for some time ignorant ofthe death of their chief they
thought the victory had been completely won, and such was
their impression till the following day, when they received a
message from Ariaeus, that he would wait for them a short
time in his former encampment previously to returning to
Ionia. The Greeks immediately sent to offer the crown to Ariaeus,
as the fruit of the victory, which they believed they had
achieved ; but, before they received his answer,3 a message was
delivered from the king, commanding them to lay down their
arms. To this, notwithstanding his extremely precarious situa
tion, Clearchus replied with much dignity, that it was not usual
for conquerors to deliver up their arms.4
After nightfall, 40 horse and 300 Thracian foot, under
Miltocythes, deserted to Artaxerxes ; and about midnight, the
remainder of the Greeks, under Clearchus, reached the camp
of Ariaeus,5 which was probably a short distance in the rear,
and not far from the river, as the baggage had been directed to
follow the stream.6 A consultation immediately followed, and
the Persian chief gave the benefit of his local experience, by
pointing out for their retreat a route preferable to that by
which they had advanced, on account of its affording a better
prospect of obtaining provisions and protection from the cavalry

The Greeks
retire to the
camp of
Aria;us.

1 Anabasis, lib. I, cap. viii.
3 Ibid, lib. II, cap. ii.
5 See Map No. 7.

2 Ibid, lib. I, cap. x.
* Ibid, cap. i.
8 Anabasis, lib. II , cap. ii.

CHAP. VIII.] FIRST MARCH AND NEGOTIATION OF THE GREEKS. 219
of their pursuers. These observations had due weight with The Greeks
the Greeks, and it was determined to commence that retreat; their way °r'
the accomplishment of which constitutes an event unrivalled in homeward-
military history, and first demonstrated the weakness of the
Persian monarchy. Previously to setting out there was made,
under the oaths of the leading Greek and Persian officers,
who dipped their swords and spears in the mingled blood of
a bull, a wolf, and a ram,1 a compact, in which the barbarians
engaged faithfully to conduct the Greeks on their homeward
route. The troops were then put in motion, it being intended,
agreeably to the recommendation of Ariaeus, to substitute for
the exhausted line near the Euphrates, one through the villages
along the Tigris. The Greeks were to make very long marches The line of
through Mesopotamia, and thus get well in advance, in order choserffor *
that the king might be unable to attack them with a large ^empt!"8
force ; a small one they had no reason to fear.2
Accordingly, in the presence of overwhelming numbers, the
daring attempt to force a passage northwards, through pro
vinces and territories more or less subject to the king, was
commenced. The first march 3 proved so far inauspicious that The retreat
the Greeks went to rest supperless, in consequence of finding
the villages, which they reached that night, without supplies,
having been recently occupied by the enemy, whose cavalry
was at hand, and even in their front.4
In taking a northerly direction from the presumed position obstructions
of the camp, it would be necessary to cross the Nahr Malka ; S3«md mareh.
and on account of this obstruction, as well as the presence of
an enemy, the distance made would scarcely exceed ten miles.
Fatigued by the march, and without sustenance, a slight cir
cumstance was sufficient to cause a tumult and almost a panic
among the Greeks. The panic was however speedily calmed
by the ingenuity of Clearchus, and at day-break he marched
with the intention of becoming tbe assailant. This bold ma
noeuvre led to a negotiation with the king on equal terms, and
guides were in consequence appointed to conduct the Greeks
across the Nahr Sersar, and its affluents, which intersect this
1 Anabasis, lib. II, cap. ii. 2 Ibid, sec. 5.
3 See Map No. 7. * Anabasis, lib. II, cap. ii.

220 RETREAT TOWARDS SIT ACE AND OPIS. [CHAP. VIII.
part of the country. These cuts appear to have been filled
with water, but the difficulties were overcome by cutting down
the palm trees to make bridges, in which operation Clearchus
set the example, and the army reached the intended halting-
place in some villages probably not more than ten miles from
the preceding station. These were abundantly supplied with
The Greek corn, vinegar, and wine made from dates.1 After spending
wi?htthe°DS about twenty-three days in negotiations, having made engage-
Persians fail. ments to be faithfully conducted homeward, and obtained
supplies, the Greeks, the troops of Ariaeus, and those of the
king under Tissaphernes, commenced what seemed a peaceable
march, although certain circumstances attending it gave rise
to suspicion, and some precautions were adopted in conse-
They continue quence by the Greeks. In three days, probably taking, as in
the Median ° the preceding march, a westerly direction, in order to round
wal1- the marshes and inundations near 'Akar Kuf,2 the armies came
up to, and departed from, the Median wall into the interior.3
1 Anabasis, lib. II, cap. ii. 2 See Map No. 7.
3 The translation of this passage of Xenophon, aftKovro Trpoc to MifoVac
TtiyoQ, icai rraprjk^ov avrov e'lo-ia, Anabasis, lib. II, cap. iv, has been much
discussed and variously rendered. In Allpress's Xenophon, p. 80, the
army is made to arrive at and pass along within the Median wall, which
translation is also given in the Anabasis of Xenophon, by Charles Anther,
LL.D, William Tegg and Co., Cheapside; by the Eev. Dr. Butcher,
Fellow of Trinity College. Dublin ; as well as by Schneider, who, in a note
on this passage, condemns Halbkardt for translating it : " Kamen sie zur
Medischen Mauer, und setzten ntin jenseit derselben ihren Marsch fort."
Viger, in his Greek Idioms, also quotes an instance from Xenophon, where
the verb occurring in the passage in question joined with a substantive in the
genitive case, signifies "departure from" or deflection; and Donnegan's
Greek Lexicon gives eio-u) as an adverb, with the signification of " in the
interior," " inside," or within, which renderings of the passage are in con
formity with the relative geographical positions of the Median wall and
Sitace. On the other hand, Hutchinson, in his edition of Xenophon, p. 139,
and Mitford, History of Greece, vol. IV, p. 189, state that the Greeks came
up to and passed through the Median wall ; and this interpretation has been
followed by Bishop Thirlwall, in his History of Greece, vol. IV, p. 335, ed.
London, 1847, since he conceives, in accordance with Passow, in his Greek
Lexicon, that when joined with a verb of motion t'io-w must bear the sig
nification of to the inside, not on the inside. The Bishop of St. David's
considers that Schneider's condemnation of Halbkardt arises solely from the
great difficulty of reconciling his translation with the geographical position

CHAP. VIII. J POSITION OF SITACE. 221
This wall, whose remains are described by Xenophon,1 was of
bricks, and once 100 feet high and 20 feet thick : it is still to
be traced, with its towers and ditch, running south-westward
from the Tigris, nearly opposite Kadisfyeh, to the Euphrates,
near Felujah, a distance of forty-two or forty-three miles.3
In two marches of eight parasangs, apparently in an easterly
direction, and crossing two canals coming from the Tigris, they
encamped near a handsome park, close to the once magnificent
city of Sitace, which was situated about fifteen stadia from the
river Tigris. The next morning they crossed the river on a Thence they
bridge of thirty-seven boats, without being molested by the Tigris, and
enemy ; and making twenty parasangs in four marches, they ^™nce t0
reached the river Physcus, where stood a large and populous
city named Opis.3
In taking the distance backward at the average rate of the
march through Asia Minor, or 2608 geographical miles per
parasang along the Upper Tigris (at the favourable season ofthe
year), from the known point of the river Zab, there would be 130
geographical miles for the fifty parasangs to Opis, which places
that city a little above Kaim,4 and close to the head of the
Nahrawan, instead of being, as before supposed, some miles
lower down near the river 'Adhim.5 Twenty parasangs or Position of
fifty-two geographical miles from the latter along the ancient ^taceDd
bed of the Tigris, would place Sitace about ten miles north
west of Baghdad, near Sherfat el Be'fdha, the presumed site of
the Sitace of Xenophon.6 The circuit made to the Median
wall in going thither can be partly accounted for, by the
necessity of avoiding the marshes and inundations, which at this
season, the period of floods, would have intervened in a direct
line from the first halting-place.
of Sitace, but that the philological difficulty thus raised by Schneider, is
quite as great as the geographical difficulty of the other. The same opinion
appears to be held by other Grecian scholars : the Bight Eev. Dr. Wilson,
Lord Bishop of Cork and Cloyne, and the Rev. Dr. MacDonnell, Senior
Fellow of Trinity College, Dublin, among the number.
1 Anabasis, lib. II, cap. iv.
2 See a.bove, vol. I, 29, 30, 118, also Geographical Journal, vol. IX,
pp. 446, 472, and 473, and vol. XI, p. 130.
3 Anabasis, lib. II, cap. iv. 4 See Map No. 6.
5 See above, vol. I, p. 30. ° Anabasis, lib. II, cap. iv.

222 TREACHERY TOWARDS THE GREEKS. [CHAP. VIII.
The Greeks Keeping parallel to the river Tigris in advancing from Opis,
retreat"6 pa^ six marches brought the Greeks to some villages belonging to
the lesser Zab, the queen-m other, Parysatis ; which, at 2-608 geographical
miles for each of the thirty parasangs, or 78-24 geographical
miles, would place the villages in question about three miles
beyond the Lesser Zab.
Continuing the march through the Median desert, the army
halt opposite halted on the evening of the first day opposite to Csenae,
which at 15648 geographical miles for the six parasangs,
would place this large and opulent city on the right bank, at the
ruins of U'r of the Persians, which are three or four miles below
Sherkat, or To-prak Kal'ah-si. In four more days making
twenty-four parasangs, it halted on the river Zab ; where the
enemy was prepared to oppose their passage.1 Here a nego
tiation was most imprudently entered into with Tissaphernes,
who, having by these means got Clearchus, Menon, Proxenus,
Agias, and others, into his power, carried them to the king,
clearchus and by whose order they were beheaded.2 After the calamity of
headed!56" losing their principal leaders by this treachery, the manage
ment of the retreat devolved upon Cheirisophus and Xenophon,
but more particularly on the latter, owing to his talents and
courage. Having, by an animating address, prepared the
Greeks for difficulties and dangers, the carriages were burnt,
and the baggage being reduced as a necessary preliminary, the
army passed the river Zabatus, probably in boats, and then
advanced in order of battle with the remainder of the baggage
in the centre ; but they were so much harassed by the Persian
horse under Mithridates, that the Greeks scarcely advanced
three miles during that day. Ever fertile in expedients,
Xenophon Xenophon immediately organized 200 Bhodian, or other
Greeks slingers, and fifty cavalry clad in buff coats and corslets;
and the whole being mounted on the baggage horses, not only
repulsed Mithridates on the following day, but subsequently
to the mins of covered the march to the large uninhabited city called Larissa,
anssa, an w]jjcn foe army reached in the evening.3 The remains of a
vast pyramid, and extensive walls, go far to show that Ashur
1 Anabasis, lib. II, cap. iv. ! Ibid, cap. vi, sec. 16.
3 Ibid, lib. Ill, cap. iv.

CHAP. VIII.] THE GREEKS REACH LARISSA, MESPILA, ETC. 223
or Nimriid represents the place in question ; and, as already
observed, its situation between Nineveh and Calah, justifies the
supposition of Bochart, that this was the Besen, or Al Besen of
the Scriptures.1 The succeeding march of six parasangs, to the
Median city of Messila or Mespila, makes the latter agree with onward to
the site of Nineveh, which is about sixteen miles from the Nineveh.0'
preceding ruins at the nearest point.
The difficulties of the Greeks were now increased, owing to
the presence of a very large army, consisting of the troops of
Ariaeus, those of Orontas, and some under a natural brother of
the king, in addition to a portion of the royal army under
Tissaphernes. On the following day, the Persians, with this
prodigious force, menaced both flanks as well as the rear of the
retreating army, but failed in making any serious impression ;
and having completed the march of four parasangs, the Greeks
encamped in some villages abounding in corn. The distance Halt at some
of about ten miles and a half would bring them to the small Tlllases-
Chaldean town of Tel Keif, 2 a site of much interest.3
On the following day the disadvantages of marching in a From thence
square, without being covered, having become' manifest, par- advanced
ticularly when passing a defile or bridge, six companies of one some vlUases-
hundred men each, in subdivisions of fifty and twenty-five men,
were formed into a moveable column, which not only protected
the rear, but was always ready to act on emergencies when any
detached duties were required.4
Having failed to make an impression, another and more Difficulties
promising project was adopted by the Persians, who, by making fl^t^^ms
a rapid march, succeeded in placing themselves in advance bfoftheenemy-
the Greeks. In proceeding steadily over the plain at some
distance from the Tigris, the latter were cheered on the fourth
day with the sight of a triple range of hills, beyond which,
there was a palace with many villages around it, and these
were their intended halting-place. The Greeks had reached
the first eminence, and were descending to gain the second,
1 See above, vol. I, pp. 21, 22. 2 See Index Map.
3 W. F. Ainsworth's Travels in the Track of the Ten Thousand Greeks,
p. 141.
4 Anabasis, lib. Ill, cap. iv.

224

ADVANCE FROM ZAKHU INTO KURDISTAN. [CHAP. VIII.

The Greets
arrive at
Zakhii.

They are
closely pressed.

The Greeks
force their-
way to

some villages
on the Tigris.

when a shower of darts, stones, &c, announced that it was in
possession of the Persians; but after a stout resistance they
succeeded in forcing this, as well as the subsequent position,
and with some loss finally reached a village at the foot of the
mountain. Here they found an abundance of provisions, par
ticularly wheaten flour and wine, with barley for the horses ; and
during a halt of three days, arrangements were made for the
care of the wounded by establishing a medical department con
sisting of eight surgeons for this purpose.1
The four preceding inarches of six parasangs each, or from
forty-eight to fifty miles, as well as the distance from Tel
Keif, and the nature of the Jebel 'Abyadh, or Cha Spi, of the
Kurds, make the position of Zakhii,3 or Zakkd, on the Khabiir,
answer the description of this halting-place of Xenophon.3
During the succeeding day's march over the level country
beyond Zakhii, the Greeks were so much pressed by Tissa
phernes, that it became necessary to halt at the first village.
A skirmish succeeded, in which the Persians were worsted and
forced to retire. The latter encamped, as they were accustomed
to do, at the distance of sixty stadia, as a security from night
attacks, which cause so much alarm to the Persians, owing to
the manner of picqueting their horses. On perceiving that the
Persians were clear off, the Greeks decamped, and in two
marches, probably passing over the plain of Zakhii in the line
of the present Chaldean village, of Tel Bobbin, without seeing
the enemy, they gained the winding mountain valleys of Kur
distan. A superior knowledge of the country, and the greater
speed of their horses, had however been turned to account by
the Persians in the meantime, and the Greeks, to their astonish
ment, found the enemy in possession of the heights (probably
near the ruins of the castle of Bahabi) over which they neces
sarily must pass, whilst the troops of Ariaeus and Tissaphernes
pressed upon their rear.4 The skill and courage of Xenophon,
however, soon triumphed over this difficulty, for by making a

1 Anabasis, lib. Ill, cap. iv. ! See Index Map.
. 3 Anabasis ; and Ainsworth's Travels in the Track of the Ten Thousand
Greeks, p. 144.
4 Anabasis, lib. Ill, cap. iv.

CHAP. VIII.] CRITICAL POSITION OF THE GREEKS. 225
flank movement at the head of a select body of troops,
the defenders were turned, and the pass being forced, the
Greeks proceeded in their march and encamped at one of the
well-stored villages in the plain near the Tigris ; now, doubt
less, the tract round Jezi'reh-ibn-'Omar.1
The lofty barriers of Jebel Jiidi being in front, as well as on
one flank, and an almost impassable river on the other, or
western side, the pass leading to the plain being moreover
occupied by a numerous army, an individual, whose name well Proposed
deserved to have been recorded, offered to extricate the ten rWerf6 °
thousand from their perilous position by enabling them to, pass
the river ; the project was to form for the troops a bridge con
sisting of 10,000 inflated skins of sheep, goats, and other
animals, covered with hurdles and turf.2
This ingenious contrivance was however declined, from an The Greeks
opinion that the troops might be attacked during the passage, country, and
and the Greeks made a retrograde, or rather a flank movement,
penetrating, or more properly exploring, a valley running in an
easterly direction into the mountains ; probably along the vale
of Mar Yuhannah, now the seat of a Chaldean bishop.3 In
the villages of this valley, the Greeks not only obtained supplies,
but also intelligence almost of equal importance, since it enabled
them to decide on the best means of accomplishing their
hazardous enterprise.
Besides the route westward to Lydia, Ionia, &c, and that determine to
which they had partly followed from Babylonia, also a third nnTof march.
going eastward to Susa and the Persian Ecbatana, they learnt
from some prisoners that there was a fourth leading northward
over the Carduchian mountains, by which the march might be
continued without either crossing the Tigris, or being so much
exposed as before to the enemy's cavalry.
Having decided on scaling the mountains to follow the last
route, a rapid night-march not only carried the Greeks some
1 Ainsworth's Travels in the Track of the Ten Thousand Greeks, p. 148.
8 An account of such bridges will be found in the Chapter on Arts and
Sciences at the end of this volume.
3 Travels in the Track of the Ten Thousand, by W. F. Ainsworth.
Parker, 1844.
VOL. II. Q

Centrites.

226 OPPOSITION OF THE KURDS. [CHAP. VIII.
distance from their pursuers, but enabled them to master one
of the most defensible passes in the country, before the Kurds
were prepared to offer anything like serious opposition. In
this remarkable opening, no doubt that which passes by the
They regain castles, and through the flourishing gardens of the village of
igns,an j^nj^ (Phcgnica) } 1 the Greeks found the houses, as in the
present day, well supplied with copper utensils.2
The Greeks having dismissed the slaves lately taken, and
reduced the baggage and horses to the utmost, quitted the river
for a time, when, proceeding by the ravine of Zawiijah and over
the highlands of Finduk, they regained the great stream at a
difficult pass, probably the present Chelek, where there is a
after a harass- rapid and a ferry. With much difficulty and some loss, the
reach the river Greeks gained this pass, partly by detaching a force to turn it,
and partly by a direct attack ; and after being exposed for a
time to similar warfare, they reached the river Centrites or
Buhtan-cha'i, which falls into the Tigris above the ancient
Armenian village of Til.3 The march from the vale of Mar
Yuhannah occupied seven days of harassing warfare, and it was
Formidable so judiciously conducted, that the Kurds only had time to occupy
the Kurds, the passes in small numbers : here, however, they rolled down
fragments of rocks on the Greeks whilst passing the more diffi
cult roads and narrow defiles.4 The latter were often very
steep and commanded by precipices ; from which, with much
difficulty, the mountaineers were driven, either by a direct
attack, or by being turned, in the manner now practised.
tiefof the0nl" ^e ProPose(* 1uiet nal* 0I> tne Greeks in an abundant plain
Greeks. was cut short by their unexpectedly finding a body of horse and
foot, who proved to be Armenian, Mygdonian,5 and Chaldean
mercenaries in the pay of the Persians, advantageously posted
to dispute the passage of the Centrites.
In addition to this difficulty, the Greeks found that it was
1 Travels in the Track of the Ten Thousand, &c, p. 155 ; and Anabasis,
lib. IV, cap. i.
! Ibid. 3 See above, vol. I, p. 18.
4 Anabasis, lib. IV, cap. ii.
5 Possibly from the valley of Belicha. There are it appears two Chaldean
districts, those of Milan and Batan, in that neighbourhood. Ainsworth's
Travels in the Track ofthe Ten Thousand, p. 168.

CHAP. VIII.] THE GREEKS APPROACH THE CENTRITES. 227
almost impracticable to cross, owing to the water being up to
the breast, with a rocky bottom and a rapid current ; and they
were the more discouraged, on turning round, and perceiving
that the Carduchians occupied the encampment which they had
just quitted.1
Chance, however, made known to the Greeks a crossing- Passage ofthe
place which does not appear to have been sought or thought of,
and owing to the masterly disposition of Xenophon, they passed
without serious loss, notwithstanding the opposition in front, and
the annoyance to the rear from the Carduchians and Persians,
who suffered some loss, the latter especially, from Xenophon's
cavalry.2 Leaving the Persian forces and undisciplined Kurds behind,
the Greeks, without serious opposition from the mercenaries,
advanced five parasangs through the hills and gentle acclivities
of this part of Armenia, to a village with the palace of. the
satrap, and many elegant houses, each having a turret at the
top. At this place, which seems to be represented by the town
of Se'rt, they found provisions in abundance, although it was, The Greeks
like the preceding part of the country, deserted.3 Having 1^^ the
refreshed themselves here, two days' march of ten parasangs, satraP>
brought them above the springs of the (eastern) Tigris, and
in ten additional parasangs, they reached the banks of the and advance to
river Teleboas. Teieboas.
It is considered to be a journey of thirty-eight hours from
Se'rt to Mush by the shortest route ;4 but as the Greeks ap
proached the source of the Tigris, theirs must have been rather
longer. About twenty hours would be consumed in their
march to the high ground in question ;5 and about twenty hours
more, in reaching the supposed Teleboas or Kara-su, at the
village of Arisban, near Mush.6 As the trunk of the Murad-sii,
into which the latter falls, is not usually fordable in this part of
its course, it became necessary for the Greeks to proceed higher
1 Anabasis, lib. IV, cap. ii. 2 Ibid. 3 Ibid, cap. iv.
4 Lieut.-Col. Shiel's Journey from Tabriz through Kurdistan, vol. VIII,
p. 77, of Royal Geographical Journal.
5 Near Bitlis, which is above fifty miles from Se'rt. Ibid.
6 See Index Map.
Q2

228 MARCH FROM THE TELEBOAS. [CHAP. VIII.
up, that is, in a north-easterly direction, between this stream and
A compact the slopes of Nimrud and Sapan Taghs : this was facilitated in
Teribazus, is consequence of a compact proposed by Teribazus, that the
march through Armenia should not be molested, and that the
Greeks should be permitted to take provisions, provided they
abstained from useless devastation.1
Agreeably to an arrangement which was highly advantageous
to those, who, in the month of December, were to encounter
the severe cold and deep snow of this elevated country without
tents or the means of carrying provisions, the Greeks recom
menced their march ; and in three days, followed and watched by
the Persians at the distance of ten stadia, they advanced fifteen
parasangs over a plain, when they arrived at another palace
surrounded by many beautiful villages full of provisions.2
Whilst sheltering themselves in these villages from a deep
fall .of snow, some suspicion about the hostile intentions of the
Persians, which appears to have been the consequence of their
broken by the own excesses, induced the Greeks to make an attack ; and in
Greeks. ^s^ ^e £en^ ^ne silver.p0sted bed, and some of the domestics
of Teribazus were taken. After breaking the compact by this
act of hostility, the Greeks hastened onward, and having passed
a difficult defile without experiencing any molestation, in three
marches through snow, without perceiving habitations, they
reached and forded the Euphrates or Murad Chai, at no great
distance, according to report, from its springs, the water only
reaching to the middle of the body.3
Great difficni- Having accomplished the passage, the Greeks marched
by the snow, fifteen parasangs from thence in three days, over a plain covered
to the depth of six feet with snow, from which, and from a bleak
northerly wind, the soldiers suffered exceedingly, especially in
the third and fourth marches ; some of the men experiencing
that craving species of hunger called Bulimy.4 The last day
at night-fall, Cheirisophus found himself at a village only one
parasang from that which was occupied by the satrap himself;
and here many of the Greeks who could not obtain cover
perished from cold. Being ignorant of the advantages of
1 Anabasis, lib. IV, cap. iv. 2 Ibid.
3 Ibid, lib. V, cap. v. Mbid.

CHAP. VIII.] ARMENIAN VILLAGES. 229
lessening the rigour of an Armenian winter, by clearing
away the snow at their bivouac, they suffered in the most
deplorable manner,1 and many more must have perished, had it
not been for Xenophon, who, by his authority and encouraging Encouraging
example, checked the Persians, and subsequently succeeded in xenophon.
joining his coadjutor Cheirisophus.2 As at present, the Ar
menian villages generally consisted of subterraneous apart
ments, which being entered either by a sloping descent, or by
means of a ladder from an aperture resembling the mouth of a
well, they were found to contain horses, cows, goats, sheep, and Armenian
fowls, in addition to one or two families, who resorted to this described.
protection from the severity of the winter, with an ample stock
of provisions and fodder.3 Under the faith of their confident
assertion that they were the king's troops, the Greeks remained
eight days in these villages, enjoying an abundance of fowls,
lamb, kid, pork, and veal, with plenty of wheaten bread, and
barley-wine (beer), which the people drank out of jars by
means of reeds ;4 they proceeded three days through a deserted
country, and in seven other marches, performed without a
guide,5 they found themselves on the river Phasis, where it is a
plethron wide.
Agreeably to the intention of fording the great rivers towards The Greeks
their sources,6 the Greeks would necessarily proceed from the nwch reach"*
Teleboas in a north-eastern direction through a very mountain
ous tract, till they could cross the Murad Chai :7 this could not
have been the case before they reached 39° 10' north latitude,
or somewhere about seventy miles from the Kara-sii, which,,
under existing circumstances, would require the seven marches
given by Xenophon.
From hence, in a north-western direction to a point where the upper part
the river Aras or Phasis8 of Xenophon is generally fordable, or ArasPhaS1S
1 Diod. Sic, lib. XIV. cap. x. 2 Anabasis, lib. IV, cap. v.
3 Ibid. 4 Ibid, cap. vi.
6 After conducting the army for three days, the bailiff left it on account
of the ill usage he experienced from Cheirisophus. Anab, lib. IV, cap. vi.
6 Anabasis, lib. IV, cap. i. 7 See Index Map.
0 Supposed to be from the plain or district of Pasiani or Pasin, which is
traversed by the Aras in this part of its course. See D'Anville's Ane. Geog,
vol. I, p. 361, London, 1810, and Mr. Brant's Map, vol. VI, of Eoyal
Geographical Journal, and vol. X, pp. 341-430.

230

MARCH CONTINUED THROUGH ARMENIA. [CHAP. VIII.

Increasing
difficulties of
the retreat.

The Greeks
force their
¦way through
the country of
the Taochians.

Cattle, &c.
contained in
entrenchments

namely, at the junction of the Hasan Kal'eh-su and the Bin-gdl-
sii, near Koprf Keui, it cannot be less than from seventy to
eighty miles ; since the shorter distance from the latter point
to the upper part of the Murad-sii, near Kara Kilisa, is sixty-
six miles.1
It has just been seen, that the distance in question occupied
thirteen marches, or, including four days not particularly
mentioned, about sixty-nine parasangs. But as it is to be
observed, that these were intended to be road distances answer
ing to one hour, it may fairly be presumed, that an army could
not accomplish much more than about one mile in each, es
pecially through snow so deep that the whole of the specified
time must have been consumed between the rivers Euphrates
and Araxes ; even the pressing marches through Mesopotamia
were less than two miles per hour. We are told, that it even
became necessary to tie bags stuffed with hay to the horses'
feet to prevent their sinking.2
On the second day after crossing the latter river, the Greeks
discovered the inhabitants of the surrounding countries, namely
the Chalybeans, the Taochians, and the Phasians, assembled
to dispute their passage, and occupying strong ground pro
bably between the territories of the two last.
Here, as when difficulties of the same kind previously oc
curred, the eminences were gained by an attack made in the
flank by volunteers ; and the disheartened defenders having
fled with loss, the Greeks got possession of some well-stored
villages in advance.
During the succeeding five marches of thirty parasangs,
made through the territory of the Taochians,3 provisions were
scarce, it being the custom of the country people to place their
1 Mr. Brant's Journey, vol. X, p. 424 to 430 of Royal Geographical
Journey. 8 Anabasis, lib. IV., cap. vi.
3 Presumed to be part of the mountainous tract stretching northward of
the upper part of the Araxes. Traces of the name are supposed to be found
in the Ta&k of the Turks, and Tuchi or Taoutchie of the Georgian dis
tricts. — Apercu des Possessions Russes au-dela du Caucase, sous le Rapport
Statistique, Ethnographique, Topographique et Financier. St. Petersburg,
1836. 4 tomes en 8vo, avec une carte. M.S. traduit par M. le Capitaine
Stoltzman.

CHAP. VIII.] ADVANCE TO THE RIVER HARPASUS. 231
supplies in secret fastnesses, probably wattled enclosures such
as those still in use in the little Kabarda and district of
Tuchf.1 One of these entrenchments, containing a number of
oxen, asses, and sheep, was, however, taken after a prolonged
resistance ; during which, the women chose to perish rather
than fall into the power of the Greeks.
The latter now proceeded a distance of fifty parasangs The Greeks
through the territory of the Chalybeans to the river Harpasus, [heShoSrtiieS
which they accomplished in seven marches ; 2 notwithstanding Chalybeans-
the difficulties caused by the most warlike, and the most
troublesome people hitherto encountered. The system of
hostilities pursued, chiefly consisted in constantly harassing
the rear ; but when pressed in turn, they retreated to fast
nesses in which their provisions were secured : so that the
Greeks would have been starved by their systematic and per
severing opposition, had it not been for the supply of cattle
taken from the Taochians.
The difficulties experienced by Bennell, Ainsworth, and
other commentators in following this part of the retreat of the
ten thousand, will be greatly lessened, if it be borne in mind,
that the daily marches, through the deep snow in January,3
the army being also harassed by the Chalybeans, must have
been very short. From the supposed crossing-place on the Difficulties of
Aras, keeping a little way northward of the direct line, it is through.011
about 110 miles to the Tchdriik-su (Jorak) or Acampsis, near Amenia-
Kara Aghatch, which would coincide with the fourteen marches
given by Xenophon,4 as does also the position of the river in
question, with the Harpasus ; the last seven inarches being, as
we are informed, through the country of the Chalybeans, the
Chaldeans of Strabo.8
This probably was the southern part of the district of
Tchildir; for the Chaldeans, as a separate people, occupied a The Greeks
tract next to the Colchians, which was, however, afterwards march through
1 See above, vol. I, pp. 154-159. 2 See Index Map.
8 The writer found it very deep in this part of Armenia, both in De
cember, 1831, and in January, 1832.
4 Anabasis, lib. IV, cap. vii.
Lib. XII, p. 549.

232 COUNTRIES BETWEEN THE HARPASUS AND GYMNIAS. [CHAP. VIII. '
extended to Pontus, and formed a considerable kingdom under
Mithridates.1 Quitting the river Harpasus,2 twenty parasangs, made in
four marches, brought the Greeks to a halting-place at some
villages, possibly near the present town of Bai'burt, in which
they remained three days to obtain provisions. From hence,
the country of apparently proceeding towards the western pass through the
ana Cyt ians' great northern chain, they made twenty parasangs in three
additional marches, to the rich and well-inhabited city of
Gymnias.3 Possibly this place may now be represented by
the small town of Gemeri on the Kara-sii, an affluent of the
river Frat ; in which case the distance thither being about 60
miles, would occupy seven or eight marches along the slopes of
the Paryadres, a branch of the Taurus,4 or, as is stated, through
reach the city the country of the Scythinians. This appears to be the only '
trace of that ephemeral power, which commenced with the
Sacse or Scythians,5 on the banks of the Araxes ; from whence
the people extended their name and authority over Imiretia,
Colchis, Georgia, the Caucasus, Media, Persia, and even
Palestine; according to Herodotus6 the same people ruled
Asia during twenty-eight years.
The sea On leaving Gymnias, the guide furnished by the satrap of
from Moeunt tne district, delighted the Greeks by saying that he would
Theches. forfeit his head if he did not show them the sea in five
marches ; and accordingly on the fifth day, on ascending the
holy mountain of Theches, the Greeks gave a tremendous shout
of surprise and delight on finding his promise realized. The
mountain alluded to may be the present GaurTagh;7 and
from thence to Tarabuzun, although the direct distance is not
great, the journey occupied five days with good horses. This
1 Compare Stephanus de Urbibus, pp. 101, 749, with Adelung's Mithri
dates, vol. I, p. 315, and Athenasus, vol. VI, p. 13, according to Nicholas
of Damas. et Orell, p. 136, and above, pp. 36, 55.
2 See Index Map. 3 Anabasis, lib. IV, cap. vii.
4 See above, vol. I, pp. 286, 287.
5 Compare Diod. Sic, lib. II, cap. xxvi, with Herod, lib. I, cap. cv,
and Ouseley's Oriental Collections, vol. II, p. 143.
8 Lib. I, cap. cvi.
7 From the summit of this mountain the writer saw the sea in 1831.

CHAP. VIII.] SCYTHINIA AND MOUNT THECHES. 233
was owing to the necessity of passing along what in reality is Distance from
more a winding chasm than a mountain valley in the ordinary Tarablzfn.10
acceptation of the word ; and it is scarcely necessary to
observe that the marches through the mountains of Kurdistan
and Armenia often must have presented difficulties and caused
delays susceptible of the same kind of explanation.
Gaiir Tagh is not, however, the only mountain in this part
of the country, from which the Euxine may be seen, for the
guide informed the author that it is also visible from three
other peaks, namely, the Zigani mountain, two hours N.W. The sea is
of Godol; again, with a more extensive view, from Fililein, Sree other
two hours on the other side of Godol towards Gumish Khanah ; from\aaDragui,
and, lastly, at the higher peak of Karagul,1 three hours south
ward of the latter.
The name of the first, " Infidel Mountain," and its position
with respect to Tarabuziin, claim for it the honour of repre
senting the holy Theches ; the localities also appear to corre
spond to the description. Xenophon tells us tbat on the first
day they came to a river separating the Macronians from the
Scythinians ; and on this, which disembogued into another The Greeks
river, the Macronians were drawn up to dispute the passage, ty ?heXPa°crod-
A negotiation, followed by a treaty, produced however friend- nians>
ship with that people.2
Eleven or twelve miles N.N.W. of Gaiir Tagh (visible
from thence) is the village of Damajula, which is situated near
the meeting of four valleys and two rivers. One of the latter
coming from the JS".W. has remarkably steep banks rising
fifteen or twenty feet, with hills above, of difficult ascent on
the eastern side, and a chain of more accessible shoulders on
the opposite; both are covered with firs, and silver poplars
of small size. This ' valley would have been met during the
first day's march from Gaiir Tagh, and troops posted on the
opposite sides would be within speaking distance, although they
must have been completely separated by the difficult nature
of the ravine. Peace being concluded, the Greeks were con- enter into a
ducted by this people during the succeeding three marches treaty'
through the remainder of their territory ; no doubt follow-
1 See above, vol. I, p. 287. 2 Anabasis, lib. IV, cap. viii.

234 DEFEAT OF THE COLCHIANS. [CHAP. VIII.
ing the valleys of Damoulee and Godol, till at the termi
nation ofthfe latter, and about tbirty-one miles from Damajula,.:
they entered that of Gumish Khanah, a little northward ofthe
town of this name.
The Colchians The great and deep Valley in question runs northward from,
toopposT "P thence along the foot of the Colchian mountains for about
twelve miles, when an abutment of the latter, called Karakaban,
crosses it near Zigani, at an elevation of about 5300 feet, and
the pass thus formed was occupied in force by the Colchians.1
Being in a state of hostility with the latter, the Macronians
returned to their own country, a distance of about forty-three
miles, which would correspond with the . three marches made
in a more favourable season (February), than the preceding
part of the march. It is difficult to imagine a stronger barrier
or a more formidable position than that which here presented
itself, to exercise the talent, and display the unshaken intre-
the Greeks pidity of the Grecian chief. Owing to the nature of the
neai i ..» ....¦> ¦¦¦- groun(^ ag wen ag ^ne numbers by which it was occupied, the
Greeks, even could they have passed the latter unbroken,
would have been outflanked had they attacked in line. But
Xenophon, without hesitation, turned this circumstance to his
own advantage, by a masterpiece of tactics hitherto un
equalled.
By means of a The Greeks were formed in eleven columns, three of which,
attaXthe each consisting of 600 targeteers and archers, occupied the
pass is camed, nanks an(j centre ; these ascended the hill at such dis
tances from one another that Xenophon not only outstretched
the flanks of the Colchians, but was also prepared to attack
them in rear, if, contrary to expectation, they had stood the
shock and maintained their ground. At first the Colchians
advanced, but before they closed with the Greek columns, they
opened right and left, and eventually fled in disorder, abandon
ing the well-stored villages in their rear.2
After three days' halt, suffering from the quantity and nature
of the honey, which, from the abundance of the Azalea pon-,
tica, the Bhododendron ponticum, and the hellebore in this
fine country, affects the brain for a time, the Greeks, in two
1 Anabasis, lib. IV, cap. viii. ' 2 Ibid.

CHAP. VIII.] MARCH FROM TREBIZOND TO CERASUS. 235
marches of seven parasangs, reached the villages near Tara-
buzun (Trebizond). Here they halted for a space of thirty
days, doing sacrifice, celebrating gymnic games,1 and occupied
with the double object of endeavouring to provide shipping
through the Greek admiral in the Euxine (Anaxibius), and in
foraging or rather plundering the rich valleys in the vicinity,
in order to lay in a supply of provisions for their march, in
case of failing to collect vessels ; for, agreeably to the Grecian and the Greeks
law, without an express compact, men were bound to no reci- tTzun.' ar
procal duties.2 In one of these excursions, the Drillce de
fended their capital with such determined valour, that the
Greeks were repulsed, and it required all the talent and
presence of mind of Xenophon, who was summoned to their
assistance, to extricate the troops from their critical situation :
this he effected by interposing a barrier of burning houses
between his troops and the enemy.3
When the supplies furnished by the surrounding country
were nearly exhausted, and only a portion of the necessary
shipping was obtained, the Greeks embarked their women and The women
children, with the sick and the aged, under the two oldest are sent by sea!
generals, Philesius and Sophsenetus, while the remainder pro- and
ceeded by land ; and in three marches they reached the Greek
city Cerasus, now Kerasunt. The site of the ancient city is
presumed to have been on the Kerasun Dere'h-su,4 about eight
miles from Cape Yoros, and from Trebizond not quite forty
miles. And considering the difficulties of the country, it is
not likely that a greater distance could have been accomplished
in three days. Here they halted ten days, still mustering
8,000 men,5 and with the exception of one-tenth, which they
dedicated to Apollo and the Ephesian Diana, every man
received his share of the prize-money produced from the sale
of the slaves ; who appear to have been taken on every occa
sion that offered itself throughout the march.
1 Anabasis, lib. IV, cap. viii.
2 Mitford's Greece, chap. XV, sec. iv.
8 Anabasis, lib. V, cap. iii.
4 W. J. Hamilton's Asia Minor, vol. I, p. 250.
s Anabasis, lib. V, cap. iii.

236 ADVANCE THROUGH THE MOSCHIAN TERRITORY. [CHAP. VIII.
the Greeks Those who had come thus far in vessels, continued their
march into the voyage along the coast, whilst the remainder marched to the
Moschif ° * 6 borders ofthe Mossynoeci or Moschi, whose territory was mari
time, and appears to have stretched from a little distance west
ward of Tarabuzun, to the district of Pharnacia, or upwards
of seventy miles along the coast. These are described as a
savage people, living in the eastern part of Pontus, subsisting
on the flesh of wild animals and the fruit of the oak, and in
habiting trees and turrets, from which they take their name of
Mossynce.1 Having made an alliance with one tribe or section of this
people, who came by sea to join them, the Greeks entered the
territory, and marched against the others, which had given
them umbrage. This last, then occupied a fort or citadel
within what was considered the metropolis, which appears to
have been in the neighbourhood of Kerasunt. This fortifi
cation had been the cause of the present war, for being strong,
the district which happened to possess it for the time being
was considered to be supreme, and it was seized by one of the -
belligerents, contrary to a stipulation, that it should be common
to both.
The Greeks The Mossynoeci, making their usual dancing gestures, ad-
su^era e ea , vanceci f.Q tbe attack of their countrymen, who were supported
by a. portion of the Greeks, both were however repulsed with
considerable loss, and pursued till they were covered by the
main body of the latter. Next morning, after an eloquent
exhortation to recover the disgrace of having for the first time
shown their backs to an enemy, Xenophon moved to the attack
in columns, having his allies on the left, and the intervals
occupied by the light-armed troops, in order to prevent those
of the enemy from getting between, and pelting the Greeks
afterwards with stones. After a determined defence, the place was taken,
stronghold of and the king and his attendants allowed themselves to be
the Moschi. burnt rather than abandon the wooden tower which served as
his palace. The Greeks now sacked the remainder of the
city, and having delivered it over to their new allies, in eight
days they completed their march through the rest of the Mos-
1 Strabo, lib. XII, p. 547.

CHAP. VIII.] VOYAGE FROM COTYORA TO HERACLEA. 237
synoecian territory,1 and traversed that of the Chalybes. The
latter were subjects of the former, and far from being nu
merous, they lived by the manufacture of iron,2 and were
mixed with the Tibarenians.3 It was with some reluctance
that the Greeks consented to march through the territory of
the latter ; they did so, however, keeping near the coast till
they reached Cotyora, now probably Ordou, and originally a Cotyora and
Sinopian colony. The distance to this city from the field of c'unaxa. """
battle near Babylon is estimated by Xenophon at six hundred
and twenty parasangs,4 which, at the presumed average of 1 • 9
mile per parasang, would be but 1 175 • 8 miles, and this was
performed in one hundred and twenty marches. This gives
9 • 79 miles each day, which, considering the difficulties of the
season and the encumbrances of buff-coats, shields, and some
baggage, would scarcely be, if at all, exceeded.
Here this distinguished band met an unkind reception, for, inhospitaiity
instead of exercising hospitality, the Cotyorians refused to °ia*sf otyo"
receive the sick into the town, or even to provide a market
without the walls. The Greeks, however, remained there occupations of
forty-five days, which were employed in making processions, the Greeks-
in celebrating the gymnic games according to the manner of
their respective states, and in supplying themselves with pro
visions, which was done partly at the expense of the Cotyo
rians, and partly by plundering the neighbouring Paphlago-
nians : this gave great umbrage, and the Sinopians would have
retaliated had it not been for the firmness displayed by Xeno
phon. After discussing the question of forming a Greek
settlement on the Euxine, as well as the relative advantages of
a homeward voyage by sea, and a march thither by land, the
former course was adopted ; and the Cotyorians having pro
vided the necessary shipping to get rid of their uninvited The Greeks
guests, a fair wind carried the Greeks rapidly along the coast cotyora;
of Paphlagonia, when, passing in succession the rivers Ther-
medon (Thermeh-su), Iris (Yechil Irmak), and Halys (Kizil
Irmak), they landed at Harmene or Armene, a port five miles 'and at
Harmene, and
1 See Index Map.
2 Xen, Anabasis, lib. V., cap. v. ; Apollon. Rhodius, IL, v. 375.
3 Bocliart, in Phaleg, p. 207. 4 Anabasis, lib. V, cap. v.

238 DISCORD AND SEPARATION OF THE GREEKS. [CHAP. VIII.
from the flourishing city of Sinope, once a Milesian settlement.1
Here they halted five days, and Xenophon having declined the
honour, after consulting the gods by sacrifice, Cheirisophus was
elected sole commander/ the army preferring this to continuing
as heretofore under an oligarchy of military chiefs, who were
not considered so likely as a single general to enable the soldiers
to acquire booty as they approached Greece. Next day, the
wind being fair, the Greeks proceeded along the remainder of
the coast of Paphlagonia, and, continuing to follow that of
again at Bithynia, the army disembarked near Heraclea at the close
of the second day's sail. By a strange mistake, Xenophon
mentions the rivers Thermedon and Halys,3 as having been
passed in this, instead of in the preceding voyage from Cotyora
to Harmene.4
At Heraclea discord not only caused Cheirisophus to lose the
chief command, but led, for a time, to the army being divided
into three separate bodies.5 The Arcadians and the Achseans,
mustering about 4,500 heavy armed men, proceeded by sea
under ten generals or chiefs, and disembarked at Calpse on the
coast of Asiatic Thrace, confidently expecting, by preceding
their comrades, to obtain much booty. The heavy-armed men
and the Thracian targeteers, who amounted to about 2,100 men,
Separation of under Cheirisophus, marched along the coast to Thrace ; and
into three" the third, under Xenophon, consisting of 1,700 heavy armed
corps. with 300 targeteers and 40 horsemen, landed on the confines
of Thrace, and marched towards Calpse,6 in a direct line. In
the latter part of this march through the heart of the country,
the commander, by means of his cavalry, learnt that the Ar
cadians had at first been successful, by taking numerous slaves
and a quantity of cattle, but afterwards the Thracians had
Perilous situa- nearly destroyed the detachment under Hegesander, annihilated
body'ofthe another under Smicres, and surrounded the hill occupied by
Arcadians. fae remamcler of the Arcadians.7
In a moment, the ingratitude and wrongs experienced from
1 Anabasis, lib. V, cap. v. 2 Ibid, lib. VI, cap. i.
3 Ibid. 4 See Coast of the Black-Sea, Index Map.
5 Anabasis, lib. V, cap. ii. ° Ibid, lib. VI, cap. iv.
7 Ibid, cap. iii.

CHAP. VIII.] GALLANTRY AND GENEROSITY OF XENOPHON. 239
his countrymen were forgotten by Xenophon, and after making
a feeling appeal to them, he put his troops in motion, hoping
not only to extricate the Arcadians, but likewise by concen
tration to reorganize the army once more. " Let us there
fore press on," said Xenophon, " resolved either to die on the
field, or save our countrymen." The Greeks did not fail to Courage and
respond to this generous feeling, and the able generalship of xenophon.
Xenophon accomplished the object without even the necessity
of fighting a battle.1
The sudden extinction of the numerous fires lighted by
Xenophon's troops, induced the Thracians, as well as the Ar
cadian Greeks, to decamp, the former supposing that a night junction
attack was intended ; this belief gave time for a junction with consequence.
the latter to be effected next day near Port Calpae, now Kiepe
or Kefken 'Adasi.2 This place is on a neck of land about
seventy miles eastward of Byzantium; and here Xenophon
also found the forces which had marched under Cheirisophus,
but the general himself was just dead of fever.
The late discord produced a salutary lesson; and having
buried the dead, including Cheirisophus, the Greeks resolved The Greeks
to continue the march under the same generals, and subject to separated °
the regulations which previously existed. Having also decreed future-
that the man, who might again propose to divide the army,
should suffer death, preparations were made for a movement,
beginning, as usual, with sacrifices.3
For some days, the omens continued unpropitious, when the
soldiers becoming suspicious of Xenophon, and very impatient,
about 2,000 of them proceeded to collect provisions under
Neon, an Asinsean, the successor of Cheirisophus : being
attacked, whilst dispersed in the villages, by a body of horse
under Pharnabazus, they were driven to an adjoining hill, after
the loss of 500 men, the greatest calamity hitherto expe
rienced.4 From this perilous situation they were relieved by
a select body of troops under Xenophon; who, in order to
prevent alarm or despondency, took the precaution of securing The Greeks
the position of the Greeks by running a fosse and a strong Curedgthdr
1 Anabasis, lib. VI, cap. iii. 2 Index Map.
3 Anabasis, lib. VI, cap. iv. " Ibid.

240

DEFEAT OF THE PERSIANS AND BITHYNIANS. [CHAP. VIII.

position,assume the
offensive.

Xenophon
makes a com
bined and

successful attack on the
enemy.

The Greeks
advance from
Calpae

palisade from side to side of the neck of land which joins the
promontory to the continent. The baggage being thus pro
tected, and a vessel having arrived most opportunely from
Heraclea with corn, wine, and live cattle,1 the moral courage
of the Greeks was in some measure restored,, and Xenophon
assumed the offensive. He found the enemy's forces regularly
disposed in line under Pharnabazus, Spithridates, and Bathines,
and formidable from the numbers both of the Persian horse
and Bithynian foot.2
The main body of the Greeks advanced to the attack in line,
having in reserve three divisions, of about 200 men each,
supporting the flanks and centre, keeping at the distance of
about one hundred paces from the principal line.
The troops in this line, owing to some difficulties in crossing
a wide valley, hastily concluded that the movement was im
possible, and halted in consequence. Xenophon, as usual,
hastened to the post of danger, and put himself at the head of
the intended attack : this was successful after repeated charges
had been made, and the Greeks returned to their encampment,
having gained a complete victory.3
The immediate result of the action was the retreat of the
Persian forces, so that the army obtained the command of the
surrounding country and its supplies. It may here he observed,
that when the whole body made an excursion, the booty became
common property ; but at other times parties of soldiers, with
their slaves, made marauding excursions on their private
account, on which occasions, agreeably to a general vote of the
army, the acquisition of each individual was considered to be
his own ;4 arrangements which naturally gave rise to constant
disputes. The country people now furnished certain supplies
in order to save their farms and villages, and as the Greek
cities also sent provisions, the camp abounded in every
thing necessary.5 Owing to an opinion that Port Calpse
was to be a permanent colony, the hopes of a profitable
trade brought merchants there, and deputations arrived from

1 Anabasis, lib. VI..
8 Ibid, cap. v.
5 Ibid.

cap.

2 Ibid, cap. vi.
4 Ibid, cap. vi.

CHAP. VIII. J THE GREEKS TAKE SERVICE UNDER SEUTHES. 241
some of the Bithynian tribes to solicit alliances with the
Greeks. The next halt was at Chrysopolis, a city situated almost at toChrysopolis,
the western entrance of the Bosphorus, which place the Greeks Byzantium.
reached in six days, having taken a vast quantity of slaves and
cattle during the march. From hence Anaxibius, the admiral
at Byzantium, at the instigation of Pharnabazus, who hoped to
save the rest of his satrapy from being plundered, induced the
Greek generals and captains to visit that city, promising to take
the Greeks into regular pay if they passed over for this pur
pose. This took place accordingly ; but finding themselves
deceived and sent out of Byzantium on a false pretence, the
soldiers re-entered, and would have seized and retained the city,
if Xenophon had not managed to induce them to proceed to
some villages in the vicinity, whither he followed, after being
almost expelled from the city which he had just saved. After
wards, agreeably tq a treaty concluded at a great banquet, and
on the faith of large promises, the Greeks marched to assist
Seuthes, son of Msesades, in recovering his patrimony as one They serve in
ofthe independent kings of Thrace.1 " Thrace, and
A joint night march was then made, and, agreeably to the
practice of the Greeks, the heavy troops of both forces were put
in advance, as the surest means of regulating the rest of the line.
The result of the first attack was the capture of many slaves and
cattle. Another trifling affair brought about a peace; but
Seuthes failed in the promised payments.
During an expedition which followed into Upper Thrace, the then under the
Lacedsemonians, who had entered into an alliance with Pharna- nians.
bazus, offered pay to the Greeks if they would serve against
Tissaphernes. This they accepted, and having received some
cattle from Seuthes in lieu of the payment due from him,
Xenophon led the Greeks across the Dardanelles to Lamp-
sacus ;2 from whence they proceeded through Troas, then
crossed Mount Ida to Antandrus. Subsequently the army
marched to the plain of Thebe, thence through Adramyttium,
by Certonium, Aterne, and the plains of Ca'icus, to Pergamus, a
city of Mysia. In a second excursion made in this neighbour-
1 Anabasis, lib. VII, cap. iii. 2 Ibid, cap. viii.
VOL. II. R

242 FORMATION OF THE GREEK ARMY. [CHAP. VIII.
After a sue-" hood, the first having failed owing to the height of the walls and
sessful foray ' ° ¦, 11 -n i-u
against the strength of the castle, Xenophon captured the wite, children,
and the chief part ofthe riches of the Persian chief Asidates,
with which booty he returned to Pergamus ; and soon after*-
wards Thimbron, the admiral, arrived with proposals to enter
the Lacedaemonian service. Having, in addition to their pay,
the prospect of continuing the same freebooting warfare in a
more promising field, the offer was accepted, and Xenophon
Xenophon delivered" over the troops whom he had so long and so ably
command! * 6 conducted, and with whom he had braved so many dangers.
The military The celebrated formation of the Greeks consisted in a portion
oPtiieGrteks. of bowmen and horsemen being added to the light or middle-
armed and heavy-armed infantry ; the latter, embodied in the
dense order of the phalanx, being the chief dependence. The
soldier found his own arms according to his means, and in a
great measure after his own taste ; but his discipline was regu*
lated by the institutions of the state to which he belonged. An
individual not provided with armour, and unacquainted with
the discipline of the heavy armed, was put among the more
Heavy and ignoble or light-armed troops ; in which he had less pay, no
troops!™ allowance for a servant, and, above all, his name was not en
rolled amongst those who fell in battle.1
But the force thus organized laboured under the disadvantage
of being employed only in an annual tour of service ; and, owing
to the jarring interests of the different states, their contingents
carried with them the still more serious evil of discord, which,
although smothered for a time in the midst of dangers and
when exposed to incessant exertions, was at other times ready
to break out and compromise the safety, if not the very exist
ence, of the army. On the other hand, the narrative of the
events in question exemplifies the principle that strength is
gained by combination ; it shows also what may be effected by
troops acting under the salutary restraint of discipline. Xeno-
Advantages of ph on has proved to the world not only that dense bodies are
a dense mass, begt gUjte(j to force the;r way through an enemy, but that they
can retreat with comparative safety, even in the presence of a
greatly superior force. In such a movement, more particu:
» Mitford's History of Greece, chap. XXIV, sec. iii.

CHAP. VIII.] TACTJGS OF THE GREEKS. 243
Jarly through a mountainous country, the line is shorter than
that of the pursuing force, which of necessity covers more
ground, so that, when halted to repel an attack, the former at
once becomes superior on the ground which it occupies. There
fore, although an enemy may overtake, he dare not attack with in attack and
a small force ; and whilst he is concentrating sufficient strength ing.
to operate with advantage, the retreating columns will have
gained a considerable distance. It was simply on this prin
ciple, skilfully carried out, that the ten thousand Greeks were
enabled to continue their march, alternately forcing the passes,
occupied by hostile Kurds, Chalybeans, &c, and with in
domitable valour showing an irresistible front to their pursuers.
The Anabasis, therefore, has been in a great measure the A knowledge
.,„ i-i -i-ii of tactics
guide ot commanders in subsequent times ; and it has done acquired from
more to advance military tactics than any other portion of
ancient or modern history. Even before the events in question
could be recorded, a decided improvement in the art of war
took place throughout Greece ; and this continued to increase
till it caused the overthrow of the ponderous empire wielded
in Asia by the Persian monarchs. The invasion of the
younger Cyrus first made the real state of this vast territory
known, and those who had so successfully braved the power of
the great king were ready to do so again.
When the Greek troops took service for this purpose under Mildness of
• . the Persian
the Lacedaemonians, the different provinces of Persia continued, government.
as in the time of Darius Hystaspes, to preserve their institu
tions, and were governed by their own laws. Then, as now, if
the satrap sent his tribute to the great king at the stated
time, he was in other respects almost unfettered, for the Persian
laws were both few and simple, and the treatment of the con
quered was mild and liberal.1 But frequently, as it is in modern Some of the
times also, several inferior governments were placed under amchided
powerful satrap. The Pontic and Hellespontic provinces, for ^j™1 kins"
instance, were governed by Pharnabazus, whose territories bore
indifferently the name of the Bithynian, or Hellespontine
satrapy. The seat of the government was at Dascylium, a
rich pity, in which there was a sumptuous palace, having parks
1 Herod, lib. VI, cap. xlii.
R2

244

THE PERSIAN GOVERNMENT.

[chap. VIII.

Eastern governments
based on
feudalism.

Pharnabazusand Tissa
phernes combine

to expel the
Greeks from
Asia.

and open chases, with fish and game of every kind.1 Some of
the satrapies included kingdoms, as that of Tissaphernes, under
whom were Lydia, Caria, Ionia, and, in fact, most of the tract
westward of the river Halys.
Except that the power of the chiefs was derived from the
sovereign instead of being hereditary, the working details of
the Asiatic districts were based on feudalism ; and as the effi
ciency of the latter in a great measure depended on the fidelity
of the chiefs who were raised to the government of provinces,
the actual power of the king over his distant dominions was
imperfect; the empire, as a whole, not only being unwieldy
from its extent, but weak, owing to the intrigues, jealousies, and
contending interests of the satraps. These rulers were easily
moved to take arms one against another, or failing an open
rupture, they were ready to invade the territory of a rival, or
to provide another state with the funds for this purpose ; some
times, even, they made war upon their sovereign himself. As
an elucidation of this state of things, it may here be mentioned,
that when the Lacedaemonians determined to make war on the
Persians in Asia, Dercyllidas, the successor of Thimbron, suc
cessfully invaded the satrapy of Pharnabazus, and secured the
independence of the Ionian and JEolian colonies ;2 having for
this purpose at least, the tacit assistance of Tissaphernes, who
gladly contributed funds in order to keep the Greeks at a
distance from his own districts.
But the advantageous position, which, with a small force,
enabled Dercyllidas to attack one great satrapy, and keep the
other in check, was lost by the ill-advised orders issued by the
Ephori of Lacedaemon, to carry the war into Caria ; for, being
thus released from the presence of the Greeks, Pharnabazus
made a proposal to Tissaphernes to unite their forces, in order
to expel them from Asia.
With this view, the two satraps proceeded into Caria, and
by a treaty subsequently made near the Maeander, Dercyllidas,
with his forces, agreed to quit the continent ; the Asian Greeks
were to be considered free ;3 and as the Greek cities already
1 Xen, Hel, lib. IV, cap. i. » Ibid, lib. Ill, cap. ii.
' Ibid.

CHAP. VIII.] STATE OF THE ASIAN SATRAPIES. 245
enjoyed their own institutions, each party gained the leading
object almost without a sacrifice.
Ere this treaty was ratified by the Persian king, a report that Agesilaus pro-
he was making preparations induced the Lacedaemonians to send Ephesus11'6
a force under Agesilaus to Ephesus. The events which followed,
though not strongly marked, are well calculated to show the
nature of the Persian government in Lesser Asia, and were, in
the sequel, of vast importance to that empire. The nominal
object of the armament being the independency of the Greek
cities, Tissaphernes professed his willingness to accede ; but covert pre-
during a truce to obtain the king's sanction for that object, he Tissaphernes.
collected an army, and then announced to Agesilaus that if his
forces were not immediately withdrawn from Asia, he must
expect the vengeance of the great king.1
On the other hand, the Grecian commander assembled the
Ionian, JEolian, and Hellespontine forces, and feigning an
attack on Caria, he unexpectedly fell upon and plundered the
satrapy of Pharnabazus ; but on the repulse of his cavalry by
an inferior body of horse near Dascylium, he retreated to the
coast, where, having organized a fresh army, he defeated Tissa
phernes and took the Persian camp on the river Pactolus.2
Defeat seldom finds excuse or even palliation in any country, Tissaphernes
still less in the east, and the renewed influence of Parysatis 1S suPersedeQ-
over the king being thrown into the scale,3 Artaxerxes com
missioned Tithraustes to supersede and behead Tissaphernes.
More influenced by his personal interests than the desire to Tithraustes
wipe away the late disgrace, the new satrap told Agesilaus that makes a
_ r •' . *• . . separate peace.
his predecessor had justly suffered for his misconduct, adding
that the king consented to the freedom of the Asian Greek
cities on the payment of the ancient tribute for the land ; and
he proposed that the European army should be withdrawn.4
In furtherance of this object he advanced about 6,000^., or
30 talents, to defray the expense of the march, and gave a hint
that Pharnabazus might still be considered an enemy of the
1 Xen, Hel, cap. iv. ; Plutarch, in Agesilaus.
* Xen, Hel, lib. Ill, cap. iv.
3 Plutarch, in Artaxerxes, vol. VI, p 273.
4 Xen., Hell, lib. Ill, cap. iv.

246 CONTESTS OF THE GREEKS IN ASIA. [cHAP. Vllt.
Agesilaus con- Greeks. Accordingly, Agesilaus proceeded northward^ wheil
campaign. some towns voluntarily surrendered and others were taken by
assault. Being reinforced by 1(000 Paphlagonian horse and
2,000 targeteers, be plundered Bithynia and took its attractive
capital.1
The Greeks At times, bowever, the Persian cavalry maintained its strpe^
then abandon riority, and 700 Greeks were routed by 400 under Pharna-
Bithyma. DazuSi in return, the camp of the latter, was surprised ; i but
afterwards a personal conference led to a better understanding,
and believing that he had gained his object of detaching Pharna
bazus from his allegiances Agesilaus led his army out of
Bithynia.
The Persians Whilst Agesilaus, encouraged by his successes, was making
at sea. preparations for the dismemberment of the Persian empire, a
fresh combination of Athens, Bffiotia, Corinth, Argos, &c.
against the Lacedaemonians, obliged the latter to recall their
forces. Pharnabazus seized this opportunity, and assisted by
a Phoenician fleet, he completely defeated that of the Lacedae
monians near Cnidus. The misfortune was partially redeemed
The Persians almost immediately by the battle gained by Agesilaus over the
Co6onea.liedr confederates in the vale of Coronea ;3 and this appears to have
been the last victory either won Or shared by the Grecian troops
which had accompanied Cyrus.
Proposals of The result of the battle of Cnidus, aided by a profuse libe-
the Laceda;- 4 j r
monians to rality on the part of the Persian satrap was fatal to the Lace
daemonians; and the power of Athens being in a great degree
restored by the money and fleet of Pharnabazus, the Lacedae
monians despatched AntalcidaS to Susa, hoping, in conjunction
with Boeotia, Corinth, &c, to renew their alliance with Arta
xerxes, through Teribazus, the satrap of Lydia.
The terms proposed, namely, to acknowledge the king's
sovereignty over the Greek cities in Asia, the islands, as well
as the Greek cities in Europe being at the same time indepen
dent were acceptable to the satrap ; but the latter portion being
opposed by one of the parties, the negotiation failed as regarded
peace. Teribazus, however, was, so far gained, that forgetting
the late hostility of the Lacedaemonians to his sovereign, he
' Xen, Hel, lib. IV, cap. i. ! Ibid. 3 Ibid, cap. iii.'

CHAP. VIH.] TROUBLES IN GREECE : ARTAXERXES' RESCRIPT. 247
secretly furnished money to equip their fleet,1 and hostilities
were renewed by sea and land without any very decided result.
In this state of things, the Lacedaemonians despatched An-
, talcidas once more, as ambassador to Teribazus, who had re
sumed his command in Lesser Asia. This satrap was not
only found to be favourable, but provided with the necessary
authority from Susa.
Teribazus immediately appointed a congress to be held, and Rescript of
the ministers ofthe belligerent republics having in consequence,
assembled, he- produced a rescript under the royal signet to the
following effect : — " Artaxerxes, the king, holds it just, that all
cities on the continent of Asia should belong to his dominion ;
also the islands of Clazomenee and Cyprus ; and that all other
Grecian cities, small and great, should be independent ; Lem-
nos, Imbrus, and Scirus to remain, as before, under Athens :"
to which was added, " the king will join in war with those who
accepted, against those who refused these terms."2
Although as an assemblage of disciplined military commu- Disunion of
nities they were irresistible whilst united, that never-failing
source of discord, separate independence, made it far otherwise,
and all acceded to the rescript of the Persian king as a mediator,
that he might terminate the destructive quarrels, assassinations,
and massacres, existing among themselves.
Momentary tranquillity in Greece enabled the king to send B. c 382.
300,000 men, under Teribazus and his son-in-law Orontas, to Artaxerxes
Cyprus, where Evagoras, who had carried war into Phoenicia, into Cyprus™7
taken Tyre, and formed an alliance with Acoris, the ruler of
Egypt,3 was in open rebellion. Unable to resist, Evagoras
determined to become an obedient satrap ; and by a timely
submission, he not only preserved the original government of
Salamis, but Cyprus was made a separate dependency of the
empire, a feudal vassalage; or, as it is expressed in the treaty, Evagoras is
" it was made Subject to Artaxerxes, as one king is to another :"4 his post.
so that Evagoras was rewarded rather than punished.
1 Xen, Hel, lib. IV, cap. viii.
8 Mitford's Greece, chap. XXV, sec. vii, compared with Diod. Sic,
lib. XIV.. chap, xxvii.
3 Diod. Sic, lib. XV, cap. v. 4 Ibid.

248 cadUsian war : and state of Greece, [chap. viii.
Teribazus being recalled at the instigation of Orontas, who
succeeded to the satrapy of Lydia with the general direction of
public affairs in that quarter, the former accompanied Arta
xerxes with 300,000 foot and 20,000 horse, to punish the
revolted Cadusians.1 A warlike people and a sterile country
reduced the troops to the greatest extremity, from which, how
ever, the ingenuity of Teribazus delivered them. He made a
treaty by which the two sovereigns of that country were brought
Teribazus is separately to submit to the king: and as a reward for this
eminent service, he was restored to his former government and
honours.2
B. c 376. The recovery of their citadel by the Thebans led to those
contests in Greece which preceded the battle of Leuctra ; but
The Thebans the war seeming endless, ambassadors were sent with Pelopidas
Persia.40 fr°m Thebes, Argos, and the other states, to solicit the der
cision of Persia. Pelopidas returned from Susa, accompanied
B. c 367. by a person of rank, bearing another rescript ; in which man-
resCcript of date, as if still all-powerful in regulating the affairs of Greece,
Artaxerxes. tne j^Jng pronounced that Messenia should be independent of
Lacedsemon, that the Athenians should lay up their fleet, and
that war should be made on the state which refused to comply.
It was also provided that if any Greek city denied its contingent
for the latter purpose, it should be attacked forthwith ; all who
complied being considered as the friends, and those who refused
as the enemies of the king.3 A congress was held at Thebes ;
but as unity only prevailed' in time of danger from without, a
civil war almost immediately followed.
Temporary The doubtful battle of Mantinea, and the death of Epa-
1 minondas, led to another temporary peace ; from which, how
ever, the Lacedaemonians were excluded.4
Agesilaus Agesilaus was about to proceed against Messenia, when a wider
naSr Tachos. ne^d offered itself to his ambition ; and in his eightieth year,
forgetting his dignity and reputation, he quitted the throne of
1 A people near the south-western extremity of the Caspian Sea, and also
called Geles. — Plin, lib. VI, cap. xvi. ; Strabo, lib. XL, p. 507.
s Diod. Sio, lib. XV, cap. v., and Plutarch, in Artaxerxes, ed. Lang
horne, vol. VI, pp. 274, 275.
3 Diod. Sic, lib. XIV, cap. xxvii. 4 Ibid, lib. XV, cap. xxi.

CHAP. VIII.] NECTANABIS USURPS THE THRONE OF EGYPT. 249
Sparta, hoping to receive the command of the forces of Egypt
then in rebellion. On his arrival, Tachos the satrap, being
disappointed in the personal appearance of the mighty king of
Sparta, when he beheld a diminutive and aged man, reserved
for himself the chief command of the forces by sea and land,
with which he proceeded against the Phoenicians, confiding to
Agesilaus^only the mercenaries.1
On the departure of Tachos, his cousin Nectanabis attempted NectanaWs
to seize the government of Egypt, and both having applied to throiie! * 6
the Lacedaemonians, Agesilaus was enabled, with the sanction
of that people, to place Nectanabis on the throne. Tachos,
being expelled, fled to his master Artaxerxes, who not only
pardoned his rebellion, but conferred on him the command of
the Egyptian army.2
The conspiracy of the self-appointed satrap of Egypt was
very formidable to the king, who was at the same time em
barrassed by the rebellion of Orontas, satrap of Mysia; Arior-
bazus, satrap of Phrygia ; Autophrades of Lydia ; Datames of
Cappadocia, and Mausolus of Caria ; and besides these, he was
at war with the Lycians, Pisidians, Pamphylians, Cilicians,
Syrians, Phoenicians, and all the Asian Greeks.3
Orontas was appointed general of the Asiatic confederacy ;
but either being insincere at first, or subsequently a traitor, he
betrayed their purpose, and the whole fell to the ground at the
very moment when the long-cherished object of Agesilaus, the
dismemberment of the empire, seemed about to be realized.
He died whilst on his return to Greece, in his eighty-fourth Death of
year.4 Lesser Asia having returned to its allegiance, the king s*silaus-
made another attempt to recover his dominions in Egypt, but
did not live to see it completed.
Hoping to put an end to the intrigues and contentions of his Artaxerxes
three sons, Artaxerxes declared Darius, the eldest, his sue- successor. '
cessor, and allowed him to assume the title of king ; but not
being satisfied with his position, the prince formed a conspiracy,
in which Teribazus joined. Both were put to death, however,
1 Plutarch, in Agesilaus, vol. IV, pp. 212, 213, ed. Langhorne.
s Diod. Sic, lib. XV, cap. xxii. 8 Ibid.
4 Plutarch, in Agesilaus, vol. IV, p. 215, ed. Langhorne.

250

DEATH AND CHARACTER OF ARTAXERXES. [CHAP. VIII.

B. C. 360 or
359.
Precept given
by Darius
Nothus.

Artaxerxes'
early cha
racter,

and later con
duct, ,

and Ochus, having got rid of his other brother Ariaspes, suc
ceeded to the throne on the death of Artaxerxes, then in his
ninety-fourth year and the sixty-second of his reign.1
His father, Darius Nothus, had left him, together with his
immense empire, the valuable precept : " Act justly in all
things towards God and towards man ;" and, addressing him
on his death-bed, added that he, himself, had governed suc
cessfully, because he had ever done, to the best of his know
ledge, what religion and justice required, without swerving
from either.2
Being of a mild and affable disposition, with moderate desires,
it appears that, in the outset of his reign especially, Artaxerxes
followed his father's last instructions so faithfully, that he secured
the affection of his subjects. But on the other hand, he caused
the person to be put to death who robbed him of the glory (for
such he chose to consider it) of having killed his brother ;s and
he sanctioned, if he did not originate, the treachery by which
the Greek generals perished. Later in life, the queen-mother
prevailed upon him to put Tissaphernes to death, and committed
other atrocities in his name ; and on mere suspicion he put
many of his grandees to death after his expedition against the
Cadusians. The inmates of his harem are said to have num
bered 360 ;4 and finally he outraged the laws even of Persia, by
marrying two of his own daughters, Atossa and Amestris.

Plutarch, in Artaxerxes, vol. VI, p. 282, ed. Langhorne.
Athenseus, lib. VII. : Dipnosophist. Justin, lib. V, cap. viii. and xi.
Plutarch, in Artaxerxes, vol. VI, p. 263, ed. Langhorne.
Ibid.

( 251 )

CHAPTEB IX.
OUTLINE OF THE MARCHES AND CONQUESTS OF ALEXANDER THE
GREAT TO HIS ENTRANCE INTO BABYLON.
Resources of Macedonia, and her Constitution. — Philip's Accession and
Wars. — Battle of Chaeronea. — Assassination of the King and succession
of Alexander.-^ Appointed Leader of the Greek Confederacy. — Civil and
Military state of Macedonia. — Alexander's Campaigns on the Danube
and against the Illyrians. — Preparations and Invasion of Asia. — Situation
of Persia under Darius Codomanus.— Government arid weakness of the
Satrapies when invaded. — Alexander crosses the Hellespont, trusting to
success for his resources. — Battle of the Granicus.— Advance to Sardis
ahd Ephesus into Caria. — Winter there. — The Married Soldiers visit
Greece. — Telmessus and other cities of Lycia taken. — Alexander passes
Mount Climax, and marches to Celsenae and Gordium. — Asia Minor
Submits.— Cilicia, Campestris, and rugged Cilicia invaded. — Approach of
Darius.' — Battle of the Issus. — Visit to the Captives. — Darius' Baggage,
&c. taken at Damascus. — Invasion of Phosnicia. — Capture of Tyre and
Gaza.— Subjection of Egypt. — Visit to the Oasis of Ammon. — Settlement
of the Government of Egypt. — March to Thapsacus and through Meso
potamia. — Passage of the Tigris. — Preparations of Darius. — Battle of
Arbela. — March to Babylon and Bestoration of the celebrated Temple.
The campaigns which have been followed in the preceding The invasion
chapter, more particularly the retreat of Xenophon and his aeAyounbJer
followers, no doubt led in some degree, to the still more Cyrus
eventful period of history now about to be noticed ; from
which not only very great geographical knowledge but ex
tensive commercial benefits were derived. The campaigns of
the army i-aised by Cyrus demonstrated what might have been
the power of the Grecian republics, had they been united as
well aS free ; but owing to the Weakness caused by the divisions
arising from an excess of liberty, the Grecians became subject led to the
to, or rather merged in, the bordering and comparatively new of Aielmder.
kingdom of Macedonia ; whose prince, profiting by the geo
graphical knowledge acquired during the expedition to Baby-

252 ADVANTAGEOUS SITUATION OF MACEDONIA. [CHAP. IX.
lonia, and the experience theii gained in the art of war,
executed those mighty achievements which led to the conquest
of the Old World.
Great battles and extensive conquests haye belonged to
every period of the world, and extraordinary campaigns, such as
that of the ten thousand Greeks may have taken place from
time to time ; but the brilliant victories, the unparalleled sieges
and vast conquests, above all the wonderful marches of Alex
ander the Great, will, in all probability, stand alone for ever ;
more particularly when considered in connexion with the
limited means at his command.
Geographical Situated between Thrace, Thessaly, and Epirus, Macedonia
po»i ion m ^y. j£S south-easterly prolongation forms a peninsula terminating
with three capes, namely, the Nympheeum promontory, now
Mount Athos,. the Ampelae promontory, now Cape Drepano,
and that of Canastaerum, now Cape Pailhuri ; but although it
has a rugged mountain barrier on the remaining sides, namely,
advantages of on tne n0rth-east, on the north, the west, and the south, the cul-
Macedonia. , ' ' '
tivatable territory is more extensive than that of any of the Be
publican states. Moreover, it possesses a better soil, and is, on
account of the facilities of communication, more valuable, and,
at the same time, stronger ; for, owing to its being less broken
and separated, its defenders can be more readily united than
those of Greece.
Her patri- In addition to these advantages, Macedonia derived others
tution. of greater importance from her ancient patriarchal constitution,
in the maintenance and defence of which the community at
large had the greatest interest ; and, as will presently be seen,
it was at the same time the source of great strength in offen
sive as well as defensive warfare.
Enjoying the actual freedom of a limited monarchy, rather
than that which existed nominally in the democratic states of
Greece, the people of Macedonia were greatly attached to the
constitution, and to their sovereign. The king, it is true, was
nominally supreme, being both the commander of the army
and the administrator of justice ; but this double authority was
regulated by certain principles and established laws.
of Aeekin°Wer *n ^e ^atter caPac'ty' ^or instance, he only condemned or

CHAP. IX.] SOCIAL STATE OF THE PEOPLE. 253
acquitted in concurrence with the assembled representatives ;
and in the former, high treason and other grave matters were
determined by him in a council of the whole army.
The princes of Macedonia, three brothers, were originally Common
from Argos ; * the speech, the manners, and the religion of the Macedonians
Macedonians were also those of the Greeks ; 2 their common and Graciaus-
origin going back to the time of the arrival of Danaus from
Egypt. It would appear that the Pelasgians occupied Argos,
Epirus, Macedonia, and the whole of Greece,3 at the period in
question ; the name of that people having been previously
applied to the whole territory.4 Instead of having fortified
cities like the Greeks, the Macedonians chiefly occupied open
agricultural villages, and the necessity of being always pre
pared, rendered them a nation of warriors. But at a later Warlike pro-
. i . . P . -ii i i pensities ofthe
period certain frontier provinces were considered as advanced Macedonians.
posts, which were usually entrusted to the younger sons of the
reigning family.
But the advantages of thus keeping war at a distance were
counterbalanced by the jarring interests which arose, as these
appanages became partly hereditary ; particularly, as in the
instance now to be mentioned, when the chief became a com
petitor for the throne.
Hearing that Perdiccas had fallen in an unsuccessful battle Philip, son of
against the Illyrians, Philip, son of Amyntas, left one of these pires^the8'
governments and hastened to Pella, hoping to succeed his sovemment-
brother. Although hereditary, the Macedonians were not
very strict as to the succession, provided it continued in the
royal house. On this occasion, one party favoured a child, the
son of Perdiccas, another Pausanias, who was supported by the
Thracians ; and a third, assisted by the Athenians, espoused the
cause of Argaeus. Moreover, confusion and dejection prevailed
amongst the people owing to the recent defeat, added to the
apprehension of a fresh invasion of the Illyrians.
Superior talents, enlarged by education in the school of
1 Herod, lib. VIII, cap. cxxxvii.
8 Mitford's Greece, chap. I, sec. 1 and 34.
3 JEschyl, Danaid, p. 316, ed. H. Stephen, and Mitford's Greece, chap.
I, s. 2 ; Strabo, lib. VII, p. 321.
4 Herod., lib. VIII, cap. xliv.

254 philip's education and accession. [chap. ix.
By his talents Pythagoras, when the guest of Epaminondas at Thebes,' and
and capacity . , . ....
possessing at the same time elegant and winning manners,
Philip was eminently qualified to take the lead hi Macedonia.
Although arduous, his situation was promising; for the
working powers of government being distributed amongst the
people,2 the eloquent master-spirit of the prince could not fail
to lead his subjects, securing their affection, and commanding
their admiration at the same time. Professedly as guardian of
he gains the his nephew Amyntas, Philip first gained the army, and next
ieadfngnmen succeeded in bringing the leading men to his interest, by ex-
ofthe country. pregg-ong 0f conncieniCe on the one hand, and large promises on
the other ; at the same time, by the secret and judicious use of
gold, he put a stop to the plundering invasions of the Paeo-
nians and Illyrians.3 Confidence being now in some degree
restored, Philip gave his earliest attention to the state of the
army, endeavouring to perfect the organization of Archelaus,
and grafting on it the more modern tactics of the Greets.
With the latter, as well as with the experience gained by the
Cyrean army, he was well acquainted, and from him originated
Origin of the the celebrated Macedonian phalanx, which it is supposed he
phalanx. had already introduced into his former government. It con
sisted of 375 men in front and 1 6 deep armed with spears from
14 to 16 feet in length, in addition to a long shield, a short
sword, a headpiece, and a breast-plate of quilted linen.'4
With troops thus formed and armed the king overcame the
Athenians; and his competitor Argeeus having been killed,
Subjection of the peace which ensued enabled him to reduce the Illyrian
ynans. ^.^eg ^Q gllb.missi0n.5 The Macedonians now assisted the
Athenians in taking Potidaea, with the intention of seizing the
neighbouring territory of Olynthus also. But before there
was time to accomplish the latter object, an unprovoked descent
made on Pydna by the Athenian fleet put an end to the
alliance ; and satisfaction being refused, the Macedonians and
Olyntheans, with united forces, marched against the Athenians,
B c 357. recovered Pydna, and captured Potidaea. A successful expe-
1 Diod. Sic, lib. XVI, cap. ii. ' 2 Ibid.
3 Ibid. * Potter's Archaeol, vol. II, chap. xvji.
s Diod. Sic, lib. XVI, cap. iii.

CHAP. IX.] WARS IN ILLYBIA AND THRACE. 255
dition into Thessaly having followed, Philip married Olympias, Philip defeats
the daughter of the king of Epirus, and professed himself and marries
ready to imitate Archelaus by cultivating the arts of peace ; 01ymPias'
but the restless spirit at Athens brought about a formidable
confederacy of the kings of Thrace and Illyria, assisted as
they were by the principality of Paeonia.1
Alike prepared to meet and to surmount such difficulties, Philip's suc-
the energetic Philip despatched Parmenio, his ablest general, ee"s'
against the Illyrians, and, having overcome his opponent in B. c. 354.
Paeonia, he marched into Thrace, where he was equally for
tunate. These last successes were scarcely completed, when a
courier announced a great victory gained by Parmenio over
the Illyrians ; a second messenger brought intelligence that his
horse had gained the Olympian race ; and a third made known
the birth of a son and heir to his kingdom, which now extended Birth of his
from the Euxine' sea to the Adriatic.
Philip's election to be general of the Amphictyons gave
fresh vigour to his enemies, and Demosthenes induced the
Athenian people to declare that they did not admit the claim
of the king of Macedon to be an Amphictyon : troops and ships
were accordingly sent into Boeotia ; and, for this purpose, con
ceding the precedency to the Thebans, they marched to
Chaeronea. Philip, as general of the Amphictyons, carefully avoided Campaign
being the aggressor ; and having fruitlessly repeated his desires Athenians and
of peace to the Athenians and Thebans, marched at the head e ans'
of 30,000 foot and 2,000 horse into the Boeotian province,3
then occupied by 50,000 Athenians and Thebans.3
Philip retained the command of tbe right wing, and en
trusted that of the left wing to Alexander. The Athenian
forces were, commanded by Chares, and the Thebans by
Lysicles ; the latter being remarkable for his rashness, and
the former for his ignorance as a commander. The battle
continued doubtful till about mid-day, when Alexander, anxious
to signalize himself in his first battle, attacked, and with great
difficulty overcame the sacred battalion of the Thebans. Nearly
1 Diod. Sic, lib. XVI, cap. xi. s Ibid, cap. xxiv.
* Ibid.

256 BATTLE AND PEACE OF CH^ERONEA. [CHAP. IX.
Battle of at the same time Philip gained some advantage over the
Chaeronea. Athenians on the left. But at this moment Lysicles pene
trated the centre of the Macedonians, crying out, "Let us pursue
them to Macedonia !" Perceiving the mistake made by ad
vancing thus incautiously, instead of attacking the phalanx in
flank, Philip coolly remarked, "The Athenians do not know
how to conquer," and causing the phalanx to fall back and
re-form under the cover of a height, put the Athenians to
flight, when the whole army was routed with the loss of 1,000
Athenians and as many Thebans.1 Demosthenes himself nar
rowly escaped, throwing away his shield as he fled.2
Philip's mode- Philip's moderation after this victory, both at Thebes and
ration after Athens, was great. No individual was allowed to suffer in
the victory. ° ....
person or property ; and his magnanimity and generosity at
the latter city excited the admiration of the whole of Greece,
with the exception of the implacable war party.
Philip elected Peace was offered on the same terms as before, and a con-
GUre°eCctt0r °f Sress being assembled at Corinth, Philip was elected general
autocrator of Greece, which appointment was particularly
opportune, by favouring the changes that had taken place.
The fascinations of the late great victory took the place of
B.C. 336. nobler objects. The peaceable improvement of Macedonia was
postponed, and Philip sent two of. his generals in order
to attempt the conquest of Asia, whither he had previously
sent Attalus and Parmenio to prepare the way, by exciting
revolt.3 The divorce of Olympias soon followed, and next
year their daughter was married to her uncle the king of
Epirus.
Philip It was during the festivities on the latter occasion, and as it
fhe'handof ^s believed, to revenge an insult received from Attalus, that
Pausanias. Philip perished by the hand of Pausanias, a Macedonian youth
of rank.4Being the popular king of a free people, and, at the same
time, head of the Greek republics by their free choice, Philip
was in a position to extend to the latter the benefit of a limited
monarchy, with all the happiness and independence that are
1 Diod. Sic, lib. XVL, cap. xxiv. * iEsch. de Cor, p. 545.
3 Diod. Sic, lib. XVI, cap. xxv. * Ibid.

*CHAP. IX.] ALEXANDER SUCCEEDS HIS FATHER. 257
compatible with the interests of the community at large. But
the details of the intended improvements, as well as those con
nected with the Persian war, were lost by the untimely fate of
the king.
On his accession, Macedonia was but an ordinary state Power of
weakened by war and dissensions, but on the death of this compared with
gifted monarch it was, next to Persia, the most powerful king- Persia-
dom existing ; and having now become the centre of arts and
civilization, its influence was much greater than the latter king
dom. The vast physical power which descended to Darius
Codomanus was thus, in a great measure, counterbalanced, and
the successor of Philip was placed in a position no less com
manding than that of the Persian monarch himself. Happily,
notwithstanding his extreme youth and inexperience, Alex- By his judi-
ander was gifted with the necessary talents to grapple with Alexander7'
the complicated and difficult circumstances in which he was
placed. Previously to the funeral obsequies, the prince told the
assembled Macedonians that, though the name was changed,
they would find that the king remained.1 The able statesmen
and generals of his father, therefore, were continued ; the friends
of Philip became those of Alexander ; and the machinery con
tinuing the same, none of his personal friends being raised to
distinguished offices, civil or military, it is not surprising that
the energy of Alexander was sufficient, on the one hand, to
stifle the plot which had caused the catastrophe at home,5 and,
on the other, to maintain the ascendancy as chief of the
Grecian republics, notwithstanding the unremitting exertions of
Demosthenes and the rest of his enemies.
At Corinth, the states, with the exception of Lacedsemon, is elected
decreed that the youthful Alexander should be head of the Gretk era-
confederacy, and that the unquiet spirits should be occupied by federacv-
carrying the war into Asia ; for which, as will be seen, there
were ample me^ins at command. The surface of Macedonia
Proper nearly equalled that of republican Greece, but, owing
to circumstances, its power was infinitely greater. The people
enjoyed equal rights; and since all might be called upon to
serve, they were a nation of men uniting the civil and military
1 Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. ii. 2 Arrian, lib. I, cap. xviii.
VOL. II. S

258 STATE OF MACEDONIA UNDER ALEXANDER. [CHAP. IX.
Military and character, for which they were prepared by an appropriate
leges ofAe education. In fact, the laws "for the city and the camp were
Macedonians. jn every reSpect similar; the army exereising jurisdiction
abroad, and the people at home. But the disadvantages arising
from the leader of 'the army being controlled, were counter
balanced by the enthusiasm which that leader inspired, and
they Ceased altogether under such generals as Philip and
Alexander, whose appeals to the affections of the soldiers were
superior to mere commands, and rendered the courage of the
army irresistible.
Alexander's Dangers at home, however, delayed the contemplated attack
firstcampaign. -r»- it> • i ¦ i • i i l 1 p e
on Persia, and Parmenio being entrusted with the defence ot
Macedonia against the Illyrians, Alexander proceeded against
the rebels : by a rapid march he not only covered Amphipolis,
but drove them into the mountains. Here, conjointly with
the Thracians, they took up a strong position between steep
precipices on the verge of a quick declivity, having in front a
barrier of waggons ready to be rolled down, in order to break
the Macedonian phalanx as it advanced.
Perhaps on no occasion throughout a military career replete
with the most daring achievements, were more skill and codl
intrepidity displayed, than by the youthful prince in this
hazardous attack. On seeing the Waggons put in motion, as
they advanced, those Macedonians who could not shelter them
selves behind rocks, were commanded to lie down under a cover
formed by means of their compacted shields. This project
succeeded, and the machines having passed over them almost
Defeat of the harmlessly, the phalanx re-formed and advanced. Being at-
Thraciansand tac^e(^ at tne same time in flank by the Hypaspists led by
Alexander, the enemy fled with such precipitation that they
left their families and slaves in the hands of the conqueror.1
The line . of inarch from Pella by Amphipolis indicates that
this affair took place on the southern slope of Mount Hemaeus,
near the principal pass through the Balkan, and northward of
Adrianople. A victory over the Triballians or Bulgarians followed, and
in three days, traversing Mount Hemaeus, Alexander reached
1 Arrian, lib. I , cap. i.

CHAP. IX.J ALEXANDER CONQUERS THE GOTHS, ETC. 259
the river Ister, or Danube, no doubt below the present town of
Widdin. Here he experienced a slight check in attacking the
island of Peuce,1 but he speedily effected the passage of this Passage of the
considerable river, partly by means of vessels dragged up the
stream from the Euxine for this purpose, and partly on the
skins of which the tents were formed, stuffed with straw.2
The great water barrier, which had been their chief depend- Subjection of
ence, :being t,hus overcome, the Getae or Goths hastily fled,
leaving their capital and much booty at the mercy of the
Macedonians. Alexander was now obliged to retrace his steps,
and as the best means of repelling the inroad of the Illyrians
and Taulantians into Macedonia, he made a rapid march and
gained a battle over the former near their capital, Pellion,
before their allies had time to render assistance ; the latter
were therefore beaten in detail, and a peace having been dic
tated in consequence to the Illyrians and Taulantians, Alexander other tribes.
was free to attend to other objects of importance. 3
Owing to a combination of the republics, which had been Return of
brought about by Demosthenes, the conqueror hastened towards subjection of
Greece ; but the report of his death led to a revolution before Thcbes-
he reached Thebes, and the city was stormed in consequence :
6,000 of the inhabitants perished in the assault, and 30,000
of the survivors being condemned to be sold, Alexander
returned to his kingdom to celebrate the Macedonian Olympic
games in the. city qfDia, previously to commencing his gigantic
enterprise.4 With the exception of the opposing Lacedaemonians, the The invasion
invasion of Asia was popular throughout Greece; and the by the Greeks.
meeting at Corinth, has been aptly called by Bollin, a Diet of
the Western, deliberating on the destruction of the Eastern
world. A; force of 7,000 Greeks and 5,000 mercenaries were
therefore readily placed at Alexander's disposal, and the
exhausted treasury left by Philip having been replenished by a
loan of 800 talents, he crossed the Hellespont in the spring, at b. C. 334.
the head of a force, according to , Anaximenes, of 43,000 foot
1 The Danube forms several islands below Widdin.
* Arrian, lib. I, cap. iii. s Ibid, cap. v., vi.
4 Ibid, cap. xi.
s2

260 STATE OF ASIA. [CHAP. IX.
Alexander's and 5,500 horse, or with little more than 34,500 infantry and
preparations. 4^QQ cayalry) accordmg to Arrian and Plutarch ;J and with
the riches of Asia as a temptation to his followers, he ventured
to invade an empire whose power was but little diminished since
the time of Xerxes ; notwithstanding its serious reverses, and
some changes which it had undergone : these may now be briefly
noticed.
state of Asia It has already been seen that after his failure in Egypt,
of°Xerxestime Ochus took the command of Lesser Asia in person ; and the
renewed allegiance of Sidon being followed by the collection of
a powerful fleet, that of Cyprus also followed, and nine govern
ments having been formed under as many vassal kings, the army
proceeded through the territory of Sidon ; and the ulterior
object, the subjection of Egypt, was completed by these skilful
combinations. Extremes belong to the Asiatic character, and
in this case three brilliant campaigns were succeeded by a state
of inactive luxury.2 In order that this might be as little inter
rupted as possible, Ochus, partly following out the intentions of
the second Darius, divided his vast territories into two great
governments ; that of the eastern provinces was entrusted to the
eunuch Bagoas, as a reward for his great services during his
command in Egypt ; and on Mentor, whose services in the
same part of the world had given him an equal if not a greater
claim, that of the western districts was conferred: This satrapy
extended from the Euxine to Upper Egypt; it was, conse
quently, larger than the territory of the younger Cyrus, and
was ably conducted. Indeed, everywhere good government
and prosperity prevailed throughout both viceroyalties.
Ochus having been poisoned, and his successor, Arses, like
wise having met the same fate after a reign of three years,
Codomanus, the satrap, of Armenia, and a descendant of the
to the acces- second Darius, was raised to the throne.3 Some preparations
Codomanu"US bad been made by his predecessor to avert the hostile intentions
of Philip, which were largely increased when he learnt from his
emissaries, particularly in Athens, after the termination of the
1 Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. xvii. ; Plut. de fort. Alex, p. 327.
2 Diod. Sic, lib. XVI, cap. xlvii. and Iii.
3 Ibid, lib. XVII, cap. ii.

CHAP. IX.] NATURE OF THE VICEREGAL GOVERNMENTS. 26 1
Illyrian war and the capture of Thebes, that the threatened
invasion of the father was about to-be realized by his victorious
son. Darius had been distinguished not only as a warrior against
the bordering nations, but still more for his judicious govern
ment of a large tract of country ;: and perhaps at no time since
the hosts of Xerxes marched into Greece, was the empire more
capable of being formidable, than when the satrap Codomanus
appeared as the sovereign of Asia, under the well-known name
of Darius.Averse from war, and of a mild, equitable, and amiable dis- Character and
• r> i ¦ i i • • i • p i i i disposition of
position, we are justified in believing, that it he had been per- Darius.
mitted to carry out his plans, or had his circumstances been less
trying than having such a powerful enemy as Alexander, the
reign of this prince might have been as much distinguished for
the equity and justice of a flourishing government as it now is
remarkable in the page of history, for the greatest calamities
and reverses.
The two earlier sovereigns of the same name, more par
ticularly Hystaspes, followed the Median, or rather the still
more ancient system of government, and the third equally
endeavoured to carry out the paternal arrangements ; making
in practice as well as in theory, little or no distinction between
born subjects, and those who had become so either from choice
or by the rights of conquest.
The vast territory of Darius, which comprised numerous The nature
.... i • j-o> i of Eastern
provinces, or, more properly, kingdoms, having different manners, governments.
languages, laws, customs, and interests, presented at best a dis
jointed mass, without any common interest in supporting the
supreme government ; or any tie whatever beyond that of tem
porary subjection. Therefore, one decided victory carried with
it the allegiance of many satraps, who, in the East, are at all
times ready to transfer to the conqueror those services which
they had previously rendered to the legitimate sovereign ; to
whom they consider such services due only as long, to use the
phraseology of the East, as it is God's will that he should retain
power. 1 Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, c. 2.

262 ADVANTAGES POSSESSED BY THE INVADERS. [CHAP. IX.
Weakness of This source of inherent weakness existed in the empire on
the invasion of another prince, whose talents and daring were
scarcely inferior to those of the great conqueror himself. The
younger Cyrus was well aware that a single victory would have
placed at his command the empire for which he contended, and
ensured for him the same services from Abrocamas, Tissapher
nes, Teribazus, and the other satraps, which they had previously
rendered to his brother. And if it be borne in mind^ that had
it not been for the disobedience of Clearchus this object would
have been accomplished with a force of only 12,000 veterans to
assist the Asiatics, the nature and comparative power of the
great enterprise now about to be described will be better under
stood. In following the steps so ably traced by his prototype,
Advantages Alexander conducted into Asia at least triple the number of
possessed by _ _ l ,
Alexander, experienced troops, who were entirely devoted to their leader,
and raised to the highest pitch of enthusiasm by his personal
example, and the additional temptation of the great wealth of
Asia : in the distribution of this, it will be seen that he realized
the promised liberality of Cyrus. The funds on which he
relied to carry out his momentous undertaking were the fruits
of his victories.
Alexander was nO doubt as well acquainted with the political
state of the territories about to be invaded as he proved to be
with their geographical state. The mutual jealousies of the
satraps, as evinced by Tissaphernesj in assisting the Greeks to
overcome his rival, and the limited authority of the great king
over these feudal chiefs*1 could not have escaped the penetration
of the Macedonian monarch.
His admirable Well knowing how to turn such advantages to account by con
tinuing the satraps in their governments ; and, at the same time,
holding out incentives, almost princely, to every chief in his
army, Alexander felt that the zeal of his officers as well as the
discipline of his troops must necessarily prevail, and bring in its
train the defection of some, or perhaps all of the Greek mer
cenaries who were employed against him ; as well as gain for
him the suffrages of the Greek settlements in Asia. To pro^
cure the freedom of the latter was the avowed object of Alex-
1 See above, vol. II, chap, viii, pp. 243, 244.

policy.

CHAP. IX.J THE MACEDONIANS LAND IN ASIA. 263
ander ; though had the wishes of the people been consulted,
most of the states would probably have remained contentedly in
their allegiance to Persia,.
Depending almost entirely on Asia for ordinary supplies as Heupeasssratthe
well as money, but little provision was made, and the army soon
reached the straits which separate Europe from this continent.
Whilst the fleet, was, occupied in transporting the troops across
the unguarded Hellespont from Sestos to Abydos, Alexander
poured libations to the waves, ordered altars to be raised where
he embarked and landed ; and when visiting the localities
immortalized by the king of poets, in accordance with the
keenness of his feelings and the powerful superstition of the
time, fie offered sacrifices to Protesilaus and some others of the
principal heroes connected with the fate of the city : on the site
of Troy itself he hung his own armour, replacing it by a suit *°^ j*^8 1
which had been worn by one of the former heroes.1 Troy.
Aware that although he had neglected the passage of the
Hellespont, the satyap Mentor was prepared to, oppose his
advance either across Mount Ida or through the towns along
the western coast, Alexander caused his army to proceed east
ward along the Propontis, and having, as just noticed, visited
Troy, he joined it at Arisba. Front hence he advanced by Advance along
Percote and Ijainpsacus to the Practius river ; and onward by into Bitiiynia.
Hermotus and Colonae to the neighbourhood of Zelia, in
Bithynia. Since the death of Mentor, the Persian forces were jointly
under Spithridates, the satrap of Lydia, Ionia, &c, and Arsites,
the Hellespontine satrap; Menrnon being only an auxiliary
without a command. Contrary to the advice of the latter, to
waste the country and avoid a battle, it was determined to take
the bolder course of defending the territory, and a rapid march
enabled the lieutenants of Darius to take a position near Zelia,
on the river Granicus,2 with a force consisting of about 20,000
Persian horse, and as many Greek mercenaries under Omares f Defensive
but with the addition of the light-armed troops and followers, prepar ! "
1 Arrian, lib. I, chap. xi.
* Diod. Sjc, lib. XVII, cap. iv.
8 Arrian, lib. I, cap. xv.

264 BATTLE OF THE GRANICUS. [CHAP. IX.
the aggregate probably approached 110,000, as estimated by
Diodorus Siculus,1 and Quintius Curtius.2
Defective Instead of placing the cavalry in the rear as a support, and
Persiansfn116 the heavy armed in the first line, where their spears would have
Granicus. told so effectually in defending the bank of the river, the
Persian chiefs, depending upon their principal arm, committted
the serious mistake of reversing this order ; posting the horse
on the level ground near the river and the phalanges on the
heights.3
Alexander's Having in person carefully examined, and also ascertained
plan of attack. that ^ riyer wag fordable, Alexander immediately prepared to
attack, giving to his troops, with the intervals, a front equal to
the too extended line of the enemy. The phalanges occupied
the centre, and the cavalry the two wings. On the left were
the Grecian, the Thracian, and the Thessalian horse ; on the
right were the royal companions, also the Macedonian heavy
horse and the Hypaspists ; the first being supported by the-
Agrians and bowmen, and the second by the Paeonians, who
were also middle armed. Alexander entrusted the command of
the left wing to Parmenio, reserving to himself that of the right, '
which was to make the principal attack. This wing advanced
under cover of some infantry and cavalry to begin the battle ;
and although the latter were quickly compelled to retire, their
attack gave the main body time to reach the right bank, on
which point, attracted by the splendour of Alexander's armour,
the Persians directed their choicest troops, when the battle
became more a personal struggle between individuals than an
Progress of ordinary action. The bravery of the Persian leaders was con
spicuous till the more successful valour of Alexander and the
royal companions prevailed ; when Mithridates, a son-in-law of
Darius, Pharnaces, the queen's brother, Spithridates, and seven
others of great eminence having fallen, the retreat of the Persian
cavalry was the consequence. The infantry being now left
without support, Alexander immediately made an attack with
a condensedforce against the centre of the Persian Greeks,
1 Lib. XVII, cap. iv. 2 Preface, p. 20.
8 Compare Arrian, lib. I, cap. xv, xvi, with Diod. Sic, lib. XVII,
cap. iv, and Quint. Curt, page 20, Preface.

var

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Wfe:J.';„. .....

j - -;- ) - •

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IN KNo

y

CHAP. IX.] ADVANCE TO SARDIS, EPHESUS, AND CARIA. 265
who after a resolute but unavailing resistance were broken. In The Persians
addition to the killed, amongst whom were many of the leading after an ohsti-
men of Persia, 2,000 prisoners surrendered themselves in this Date defence-
great and complete victory gained by Alexander against the
forces of Darius : his own loss was very trifling.
Funeral honours for the slain were the first consideration of
the king, and the next, those objects likely to facilitate his
ulterior plans. The wounded received personal visits, and were
treated with extraordinary care. Privileges and immunities
were granted to distinguished soldiers ; and 300 complete suits
of Persian armour were sent to the temple of Minerva, in which
they were placed, with the inscription " From Alexander, son
of Philip, and the Greeks, excepting the Lacedaemonians, these
trophies taken from the barbarians of Asia." Begarding the
empire as his own, Alexander admonished the soldiers to avoid
plunder and spare his subjects ; and Callas, the satrap over the
Hellespontine Phrygia, received instructions to exact only the
regular revenue hitherto payable to Darius at Dascilium, and
to receive it at the capital city.
Alexander retraced his steps to Illium; from whence, following Alexander ad-
nearly the route of the army of Cyrus, he proceeded through sardis,
Antandrus, Adramyttium, Pergamus, and Thyatira, to Sardis ;
which formidable citadel with its treasure, were surrendered by
the treason of Mithrenes, the governor. Alexander having
continued the ancient constitution of the city, and ordered the
erection of a temple to Jupiter, he proceeded to Ephesus, where and proceeds
he ordered that its venerable temple should be rebuilt by his EpSs!
engineer, Denocrates, and that the tribute formerly raised for
Darius, should in future be paid to this establishment.1 Miletus
then fell, after a short but determined resistance ; and, in con
sequence, the Persian' fleet was compelled to leave the coast:
his own fleet being laid up to save expense, Alexander advanced
to Halicarnassus ; which was occupied by a considerable force
under Memnon, the commander-in-chief of the Asiatic coast of
the empire.
The province (Caria) was however divided ; Orontobates was into Caria.
faithful to Darius, whilst queen Ada, his competitor, joined 2
1 Arrian, lib, I, cap. xviii. •* Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. v.

266 SIEGE OF HALICARNASSUS. [CHAP. IX-
Hanca°rnass AlexanQ,er ; she gave up the strong fortress of Alindae, and
assisted him with troops and supplies. Under these circum
stances, the consummate skill of the besieged enabled them, to
protract the defence of Halicarnassus for a considerable period ;
for, when by infinite labour the besiegers filled up the ditch so
as to place their engines near the walls, their works were con
stantly demolished or burnt by the sallies of the besieged.
Again, when the former succeeded in levelling part of the walls,
another portion was seen to rise suddenly behind the opening.
The contest was long and doubtful, and bold sallies were con-.
stantly made ; in one of which, literally a battle, the Macedonians
lost more men in maintaining their position than they had done
at the battle of the Granicus. The constancy of Alexander,
taken°andits nowever) triumphed at length ; Memnon retreated by sea to
castle block- Cos, and the capital of Caria being demolished, Alexander,
after visiting queen Ada in the fortress of Alindae (Moola),
continued his march coastways, leaving the citadel of Halicar-f
nassus (now Budroun) still occupied by the troops of Darius.
As a reward for the services of Ada, Alexander confirmed
to her the princely dignity and authority, and also granted to
the kingdom its ancient and valued political constitution.
Owing to the time of the year, distant operations were post
poned, but the approaching winter was not destined to be spent
in a state of inactivity. The officers and soldiers who had been
recently married, were permitted to go home, with an under
standing that they would return in the spring, bringing any re
cruits they might be able to engage; after, by way of encourage
ment, dwelling upon the generosity and kind feelings displayed
by their victorious captain. Parmenio was now despatched to
Communica- preserve the communication with Greece, and raise contri
tions preserved , . . n .... .
-with Greece, butions in money and supplies in the countries still subject to
Persia ; whilst Alexander proceeded with a select body of
troops, almost without baggage, to reduce the towns and ports
along the mountainous shore, stretching from Caria eastward.
Here he found the way prepared by the news of his liberality
and successes, which had preceded him. The people being
favourable, the mercenaries consented to depart, and the strong
town of Hyparna, on the borders of Lycia, became his without a

CHAP. IX.] CONQUEST OF LYCIA. 267
blow. Entering the latter territory, he took. Telmissus (now
Makri), and crossing Anticragus, Pinara (now Minara),
Xanthus, and Patara fell in succession, in addition to thirty
small towns which followed this example ; and, lastly, Phaselis, Further opera-
the principal city of Lower Lycia (now Tekrova, in the Gulf of andLycia.
Adalia), sent deputies bearing a crown of gold and offers of
submission: on his way thither, to pass the remainder of the
winter, he captured the town of Telmissus, in Pisidia, by storm.
Towards the close of winter, Alexander hastened onward,
hoping by occupying the ports of Cilicia and the adjoining part
of the Syrian coast to deprive the enemy of the services of his
fleet; and this was carried out with his characteristic boldness.
Mount Climax, a singularly rugged chain, intervened in the
line of Perga, and terminated' at the coast by a precipitous cliff
washed by the sea, leaving no passage whatever, except under Adventurous
,. . ' rTT . -tii march round
extraordinary circumstances. Having ascertained that the Mountcumax.
periodical wind was at hand, which would cause a momentary
passage, Alexander despatched a few light troops over the
ordinary route, and seizing the precise moment of a decrease of
water, during a northerly wind, the troops by wading for many
hours up to the middle, at the foot of what is termed the ladder,
succeeded in passing along the Lycian shore. The accomplish
ment of this rash undertaking, was attributed to miraculous
interposition ;l and the Pamphylian towns of Perga, Aspendus,
Side, and Sillium, being subjected in consequence, Alexander,
following the vale of Cestrus, entered the recesses of Mount
Taurus. Here he defeated the Salagassians and Telmisseans,
captured the city of the former, formed an alliance with the
Selgae ; and the whole of Pisidia submitted, apparently for the subjection of
first time to any conqueror.2 Pisidia, &c
A march of five days enabled Alexander to take the capital
of Phrygia (Celaenae), after which he marched on Gordium,
where he was joined by Parmenio and the rest of his army,
including the bridegrooms, with a strong body of recruits from
Macedonia ; and the first campaign in Asia terminated by
cutting the famous knot.3 , xxix. s Ibid, cap. xxx.

ng the famous knot.3
Plin, lib. V, Alex, pp. 673, 674.
! Arrian, lib. I, cap. xxvii, xxviii, >

268 memnon's project and death. [chap. ix.
Memnon pur- • Memnon, hoping to recover his oversight, by which Sardis,
Alexander.0 Ephesus, Miletus, and Halicarnassus were lost to Darius, was
both diligent and successful in another quarter during the ope
rations just mentioned. A large portion of the coast, it is true,
was in possession of a victorious enemy, but the numerous
islands were open to Memnon's commanding fleet ; which,
having taken Chios without a blow, proceeded to Lesbos, and
took the island, with the exception of Mitylene. Memnon
awaited the fall of this city, in order that he might proceed to
the Hellespont, and execute his part of the great plan which
had been projected, of cutting Alexander off from Europe, and
thus enabling Darius to overpower the small force that had
His death. dared to invade his dominions. But death terminated Mem
non's faithful services in the camp before Mitylene ; and Phar
nabazus, his nephew and successor, being unequal to the task,
his great designs fell to the ground.
Being no longer seriously threatened, Alexander had the
choice of either resuming the offensive, or of remaining on the
defensive behind the Taurus, confining himself to the peninsula
of which he was already almost master; and circumstances
speedily gave him the command of the remainder of the ter
ritory. Owing to some dissatisfaction, Paphlagonia offered to
transfer its allegiance from Darius to Alexander ; x and since
the only province still subject to Persia, namely, Cappadocia,
submitted as he advanced, Alexander thus became master of
the whole of Hither Asia : but it was necessary to possess
Cilicia also, this being the first province beyond, and contain
ing the most practicable route between Greater and Lesser
Hither Asia Asia ; also, with Syria by land, and Greece by sea. Alexander,
therefore, made a rapid march to the place where Cyrus had
been encamped ; and having forced the imperfectly guarded
gates of Cilicia, he was in time to save Tarsus from being
plundered by the Persian troops.2
Over-exertion, added to the imprudence of bathing in the
cold waters of the Cydnus, brought on a fever, which delayed
his progress for a time, but from which he eventually reco
vered. The important mountain-passes which connect Cilicia
1 Arrian, lib. II, cap. iv. s Ibid.

subjected.

CHAP. IX.] THE ARMIES OF DARIUS AND ALEXANDER. 269
with the countries to the eastward must have been known from
the march of Cyrus ; therefore Parmenio was despatched along cilicia Cam-
the coast with the greater part of the heavy-armed foot to Ruggedcmcia
occupy them ; this he accomplished, in addition to taking the 0CCaPied-
city of Issus, and securing the defile to the westward (Kara
Kapii), whilst the rest of the army was engaged on a more
difficult service in the opposite direction. Anchialus, a town
founded by Sardanapalus, was the fruit of Alexander's first
day's march ; and, proceeding westward, he garrisoped Sole,
after laying it under contribution. Having subjected Bugged
Cilicia in the short space of seven days, he received intelli
gence, on returning to Campestris, that Halicarnassus had
fallen, and that his generals had been completely successful in
Caria. Whilst Alexander was employed in securing Cilicia,
and the part of Syria westward of the Amanus, Darius was
scarcely less diligent : his Greek mercenaries were increased to Va?t PrePa-
•' ° .... rations of
about 30,000 men,1 to whom were joined about 60,000 Darius.
Asiatics, called Cardacs, trained like the Greeks for close
fight ; and the middle and light armed made up the remainder
of an army estimated, most likely including the followers, at
600,000 ;2 which, however, would only give from 150,000 to
200,000 combatants. But if the large number of Greeks and
Cardacs be taken into consideration, Darius was at the head of
the most efficient army which had hitherto marched towards
Greece, and he was assisted by many talented refugees from
the latter country : this, however, owing to the suspicious dis
position of Asiatics, was at least but a doubtful advantage.
Darius crossed the Euphrates and encamped about two days He crosses the
from the passes of the Amanus, at a place called Sochi ;3 where,
his Grecian counsellors recommended him to halt, urging that
the impetuosity of Alexander would induce him to advance.
The Persians attributed this advice to sinister motives, and
recommended the bolder course of moving through the passes
to expel the invaders ; adding, that this would be more be
coming a great monarch and the fine army which he had
raised. Darius appears to have hesitated, and during the
1 Arrian, lib. II, cap. viii. 2 Ibid.
3 Possibly Ukuz-Suzle' on the river 'Afrin.

270

MUTUAL PREPARATIONS FOR BATTLE. [CHAP. IX.

Darius ad
vances from
Sochi, and

Alexander to
Myriandrus.

The contend
ing armies
pass one
another.

delay, intrigue and suspicion caused the unjust execution of the
Athenian Charidemus. This event turned the scale,; and the
treasure, the harems of the distinguished officers, with the
heavy baggage, being sent to Damascus, the army was ordered
to advance for this purpose ; quitting ground, which although
but partially adapted for cavalry, afforded space to deploy the
whole army.
Alexander, who was then at Mallus, felt, on the one hand,
that the advantages of a fine position would be -lost by proceed
ing, whilst on the other, a moral effect must be iproduced on
his adherents by attacking Darius. As usual, Alexander
determined to risk everything, and a movement was made, in
ignorance that Darius was then simultaneously advancing,
which gave rise to the singular circumstance, that the contendr
ing armies were, previously to the battle, in reverse positions.
Having resolved to engage Darius wherever he could be
found, the energetic Alexander hastened through the Syrian
gates, and encamped beyond Myriandrus. As a defensive
position, and for an inferior force, the narrow strip extending
to the Issus was particularly favourable. The Mediterranean
secured one flank, the .range of Amanus the other, the prin
cipal pass (now Be'flan) being no doubt occupied ; there was
besides a speedy communication by means of light vessels, with
the rest of the ground to be defended. In this state of things,
Darius crossed the Amanus by the upper or northern pass,
which had been neglected by Alexander, and having debouched
near the town of Issus, just after Alexander had passed, some
of the sick and wounded Macedonians who had been left there
were cruelly maimed, and then sent to report the number. of
his forces to Alexander. A violent thunder-storm at the
moment, prevented Alexander from ascertaining the fact till
the following day, when one of his vessels announced that a
very large army was encamped on the western slopes of
Amanus. Although much surprised, and probably seriously
alarmed, by this unlooked-for intelligence, his retreat being
thus cut off by an overwhelming force, he carefully concealed
his apprehensions, and adopted at the same time the most
decided measures.

CHAP. IX.] POSITIONS OF THE CONTENDING ARMIES. 27 1
The soldiers were commanded to take refreshments prepa
ratory to a march ; and in order to anticipate the discouraging
effect of a retrograde movement, Alexander, with admirable
presence of mind, told his commanders that Darius had taken
precisely the step which he most desired ; having been led by
divine impulse into a situation where a great part of his force,
and particularly his powerful cavalry, could not act for want of
space. Hoping also to remedy his own omission, he despatched
a body of horse with some bowmen ; and, himself speedily fol- Alexander
returns lvthI
lowing, he reached the gates of Cilicia and Syria about mid- occupies the
night ; when, having gained this important pass, which had before Darius?
been equally neglected by Darius, he halted for the rest of the
night.1 It is probable that Darius became aware of the relative posi
tions of the armies rather sooner than it was known to Alex
ander ; but this advantage was lost to him on account of the
encumbrances which impeded his movements : he endeavoured
the next morning to repair his neglect ; but finding the gates
already in possession of the enemy, he halted after a march of
about ten miles, and occupied a position which extended from
the mountain to the sea along the river Pinarus.2
At the foot of the mountains, the stream in question, now Positions of
the Deli-chai, makes a bold sweep southward, and again west- armies tendmS
ward, between banks so steep as to be impracticable for ordi
nary cavalry -; but a little lower, and onward to the sea, the
banks are lower. Darius therefore proceeded to strengthen
his position along the right bank, covering the operation by a
large body of cavalry and infantry, who remained in advance
till it was completed. The margin of the Pinarus was there
fore occupied by the heavy-armed troops of Darius, the Greek
mercenaries and the family of Darius being in the centre, with
the Cardacs on each flank. The nearest heights on the left
were occupied by light-armed troops; the cavalry extended
along the right bank, from the Cardacs to the sea.3 The plains
and the resources of Cilicia being thus completely covered, the
1 Arrian, lib. II, cap. viii.
8 Ibid, lib. II, cap. x, and Quintius Curtius, lib. Ill, cap. 9, 10.
3 Ibid, Arrian and Quintius Curtius.

272 THE RIGHT WING OF EACH ARMY STRENGTHENED. [CHAP. IX.

Dispositions of
Alexander's
forces.

The right of
the Persian
army
strengthened.

position of Alexander was full of' difficulty, and a daring
attack offered the only chance of extricating his army from its
perilous situation.
Having ascertained the enemy's formation, he placed his
phalanx opposite to the Greeks serving under Darius, and the
republican Greeks were posted on each flank to oppose the
Cardacs and the cavalry. The left wing was entrusted to
Parmenio ; Alexander commanded the right, intending, by a
desperate attempt, to force the enemy's left.1
The limited space decidedly favoured the attack of an infe
rior force, particularly as the banks of the river did not offer
any serious impediment except towards the left of the Persians,
where it was counterbalanced by another circumstance, of
which Alexander speedily took advantage. Owing to the out
ward sweep made, as already noticed, by the Pinarus in passing
the lowest slope of the hills, the Persians, who occupied the in
terior or right bank, must of necessity not only have been out
flanked by an enemy occupying the exterior side, but partly
taken in reverse also as the assailants advanced. But, as stated
by Arrian,2 the latter were in the first instance exposed to the
same evil ; for, owing to the curve or bay in the mountains,
the Persian light troops posted on the high ground, threatened
the rear of the Macedonians. Believing that these hills
effectually secured the left of the position, Darius detached a
considerable body of cavalry to strengthen his right, posting
nearly the whole of this arm between the Cardacs and the sea.
Here the grand attack ofthe Persians was to be made on- the
cavalry of Alexander, with a view to its being followed up,
by taking the infantry in flank and rear.
By these dispositions, the right and stronger part of each
army was opposed to, and destined to attack the left and
weaker portion of the enemy. But on perceiving that this had
been carried too far, Alexander despatched the Thessalian
horse and some chosen foot to reinforce Parmenio, who had
orders to keep close to the sea, that he might not be outflanked ;
while Darius made no attempt to remedy his error.
Alexander having completed his dispositions, addressed a
1 Arrian, lib. II, cap. x. a Lib. II, cap. viii.

CHAP. IX.] THE BATTLE COMMENCED BY ALEXANDER. 273
few animating words to his followers, alternately rousing the Alexander
national feeling of the Macedonians, the Greeks, Illyrians, and soldiers.
Thracians ; reminding the Greeks of the conduct of the ten
thousand,1 and the whole that they were about to be the libe
rators of the universe, and to push their conquests farther than
those of Hercules or Bacchus ; also that the spoils *of the East
would soon be at their feet, almost without the necessity, of
using a sword to gain them.
At this juncture, the wild war-cry of the Persians was heard Commence-
and answered by that of the Macedonians, which was still progress of the
louder, owing to the reverberation of the mountains andbattle'
forests. Alexander seized this moment to order the middle
and light armed troops to advance, to cover the phalanx, which
had an enemy in rear as well as in front ;2 and the Persian
light troops being driven from the heights which encircle this
part of the Pinarus, a position was gained from which missiles
reached the flank and rear ofthe Persian heavy armed, on the
river's brink.3 Alexander seized this moment, to lead his pha
lanx slowly across the Pinarus, and having ascended its oppo
site bank, he rushed to attack the Cardacs, who were quickly
routed. Encouraged by this success, the Macedonian phalanx
next attacked the more formidable post of the Persian Greeks,
and a severe contest followed. At the same time, the cavalry Mutual ad-
was hotly engaged, each side having the advantage alternately ; durlnftiie
both suffered great loss, and, owing to the great bravery of the contest-
troops, the combat was long undecided.4 In the meanwhile
the Macedonian infantry suffered severely in this part of the
battle, but they continued to persevere5 till the confederate
Greeks, after having put the enemy's left to flight, came to
their support. Being thus taken in flank, the Persian Greeks
gave way, and were nearly all put to the sword.
The conflict now approached the centre of the line, in which,
agreeably to ancient custom, Darius had taken post, seated on
a splendid chariot drawn by four horses abreast, and his
striking costume as well as his position, at once marked him as
1 Arrian, lib. IL, cap. vii. a Ibid, cap. ix.
8 Ibid, cap. x. " Diod. Sic, lib. XVIII, cap. vi.
5 Ibid, cap. xi.
VOL. II. T

274

DEFEAT AND LOSS OF DARIUS' ARMY. [CHAP. IX.

Flight of
Darius, and

loss of the
battle in con
sequence.

a special object of attack, as well as defence ; for Sabaces the
satrap of Egypt, Atires, Bheomithrus, and other illustrious
Persians, perished at his side ; and it is said that Alexander
himself was slightly wounded in the tumult.1 Darius con
tinued in his chariot in the midst of the slaughter, till the
horses became so ungovernable, owing to their wounds and the
heap of slain under their feet, that the king would have been
carried into the enemy's ranks, had it not been for a vigorous
charge made by his brother Oxathres. This gave time to
bring up another chariot, and the struggle continued for a
time.2 But as the left had been routed, and he was nearly
cut off from the right wing, by the almost total destruction of
the centre, Darius fled in his chariot, till the nature of the
ground obliged him to mount his horse.3
Up to this period the Persian horse appear to have had the
advantage ; and it is probable that even the skill of Parmenio
and the bravery of the Thessalian cavalry would have been
unavailing, had it not been for the masterly attack made by
Alexander on the opposite extremity of the line, and the rapid
successes which caused the Persian horse and the rest of the
right wing to commence a retrograde movement that they
might not be cut off*
Near the battle-ground the mountains are practicable for
infantry, and they are partially so for such expert horsemen as
the Persians. The infantry would naturally resort to the
slopes of the hills for immediate safety, but owing to their posi
tion near the sea, the bulk of the cavalry would be obliged to
follow the coast, till they could return as they entered, by the
Upper Amanic pass, which was at no great distance ; and there
no doubt the pursuit of Alexander terminated.
Arrian states the loss of the Persians to have been 100,000,
including 10,000 horse,5 which probably was more than half
the number of combatants. Other writers, except Justin,

1 Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. vi, and Quintius Curtius, lib. III..
cap. xi.
2 Arrian, lib. II, cap. xii. ; Plut, p. 669.
8 Arrian, lib. II, cap. xi.
4 Ibid. 5 Ibid.

chap, ix.] Alexander's kindness to the captive queens. 275
make it greater.1 The latter 2 gives 61,000 foot, 1 1,000 horse, Loss of the
and 40,000 Persians. corl^'to^
The carnage during a fierce and prolonged contest in theJustin-
centre of the line must have been considerable, but this could
scarcely have been the case, either on the left, where the Per
sians were speedily routed, or on the right, where they had
the advantage ; and the estimate of Justin, in the absence of
any Persian accounts, seems to be nearest the truth, even in
cluding the followers. On giving up the pursuit, and retracing
his steps as far as the camp lately occupied by Darius, Alex
ander found the royal tent prepared, agreeably to Eastern
custom, with all that splendour for which the Persians were
remarkable ; and he could not overlook the circumstance that
he appeared to have succeeded to the dominion, as well as to
the moveable palace of Darius. The feast given the same night The tent of
to some of his principal officers, was interrupted by wild shrieks
and lamentations in an adjacent tent. On ascertaining that
the latter emanated from a part of the royal harem, who were
making the customary lamentations for the supposed death of
Darius, Alexander sent to inform the princesses that he was Alexander
still alive, adding the assurance, that their treatment should in captives"03™1
every way be suitable to their exalted rank. Next day, after honoul'ably-
seeing his wounded soldiers, though still suffering from his own
wounds, he visited the royal captives, accompanied by his
favourite Hephaestion, to give this assurance in person. The
superior height ofthe latter — -a lofty stature being much valued
in Persia — caused Sisygambis, the queen-mother, to throw her
self at his feet ; Alexander endeavoured to relieve her confusion
by saying there was no mistake, for Hephaestion was also an
Alexander. At once perceiving, from his condescension and kindness,
that Alexander did not intend that the youthful queen should
experience the fate which the laws of Asiatic conquest prepared
her to expect, Sisygambis, after acknowledging her gratitude,
added, addressing the conqueror particularly, " That she could
support the heavy yoke entailed by her calamity, since he pre-
1 Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. vi, states it to be 120,000, and 10,000 horse.
a Lib. XI, c. 9.
T2

276 CAPTURE OF DAMASCUS AND INVASION OF PHOENICIA. [CHAP. IX.

Altars con
secrated on
the field of
hattle.

Advance into
Syria and
Phoenicia.

Parmenio
capturesDamascus.

ferred to be distinguished by his clemency rather than by his
power."1 The magnanimous decision of Alexander was taken possibly
not without a struggle, and he quitted their tent exhorting the
princesses to take courage ; but, lest his resolution might fail,
he did not again trust himself in the presence of the youthful
queen, the most attractive as well as the most lovely woman of
her time.2
After celebrating the merits of the slain, and bestowing suit*
able rewards on the living, Alexander consecrated altars to
Jupiter, Hercules, and Minerva on the battle-ground, prepa
ratory to indulging that overpowering ambition to which his
late success had given birth, and for which circumstances were
now so peculiarly favourable.
Darius with the remnant of his army had passed the river
Euphrates, leaving Syria unprotected. Parmenio and the
Thessalian horse were despatched to seize it, whilst the rest of
the army took nearly a parallel direction along the coast
towards Phoenicia. Although a satrapy of Persia, this
territory contained several governments, subject to different
patriarchal chiefs or kings, who were always jealous, and not
unfrequently opposed to one another. Aradus, one of these,
comprised the northern part of Phoenicia, and, within its limits,
Mariame and Marathus, two ports nearly opposite to the isle
of Aradus (Buad).3
Owing to the mercantile connexion of the latter place with
Greece, the transfer of its allegiance to Alexander was to be
expected ; and during the advance of the conqueror, no doubt
along the valley of the Orontes, Gerostratus, the sovereign of
Aradus, sent a golden crown in token of submission. .
Parmenio, in the meanwhile, accomplished his task; for,
through treason, the capital of Syria, with a large amount of
treasure, fell into his hands, as well as the deputies who had
been sent by the Lacedaemonians, Thebans, and Athenians, to
concert measures with Darius against Alexander. Nearly at
the same time messengers came from Babylon with an appeal,
1 Quintius Curtius, lib. Ill, c. xii. 2 Ibid.
8 Plin, lib. Vv c. xx,

CHAP. IX.] DARIUS PROPOSES PEACE WITH SPLENDID OFFERS. 277
which, being at once feeling and dignified, showed that Darius
was not subdued by his recent calamity. His letter stated, in
substance, that Alexander having continued the unprovoked
hostilities commenced by his father, he had been compelled to
defend his territory ; and God's will having disposed of the
victory, it now remained to offer peace and friendship, and to Darius pro-
solicit, as a king from a king, the release of his wife and family peace.
at the price of any ransom he might name, in addition to the
territory westward of the Halys.1
On receiving this letter, Alexander summoned a council,
before which, it is said, he placed in the name of Darius other
proposals2 more suitable to his wishes ; but, however this may
have been, the conqueror, in his reply, dwelt upon the former
invasions of Greece, the murder of Philip, and the unjust
acquisition of the throne by Darius. Not satisfied with these
reproaches, Alexander desired that he might be addressed as
king of Asia, and lord of all that was once possessed by Darius :
on such terms he expressed his readiness to restore to Darius Haughty reply
his family, provided he supplicated in person ; adding, that he
then might ask freely, and nothing would be refused.3
Phoenicia was of vital importance, in order that Alexander
might cripple the naval superiority of Persia, and circumstances
favoured his desire to obtain possession of it. Jealousy of their
prosperous daughter, Tyre, induced the Sidonians to request
Alexander to take their state under his protection, and the
request was readily granted. The town of Byblus capitulated
on his approach ; and as he advanced, even the Tyrians sent
Azelmic, the son of their king, to tender their submission.
Doubting their sincerity in desiring to transfer their allegiance
from Persia, Alexander announced his intention of visiting the
city, that he might offer sacrifices to the Tyrian Hercules.
Suspecting his purpose, the Tyrians replied, that in all other The Tyrians
refuse to open
matters they were ready to obey, but declined admitting either their gates to
Persians or Macedonians within their walls; adding, that it
1 Compare Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. vi, with Quint. Curt. lib. IV.r
cap. i, and Arrianj lib. II, cap. xiv.
2 Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. vi.
3 Arrian, lib. IL, cap. xiv, and Quint. Curt, lib. IV, cap. L

278 SITUATION OF TYRE. [CHAP. IX.
was unnecessary to do so in this case, since the original temple
was still standing in Old Tyre.1
Determination This reply being submitted to a council of war, agreeably to
Tyre!iege the Macedonian custom, it was determined to reduce Tyre,
which was then the bulwark of Phoenicia, previously to pro
secuting the contemplated invasion of Egypt.3 The natural
strength of an insular situation, fortified with prodigious care, and
the possession of a superior fleet, induced the wealthy Tyrians
to brave the contemplated attack, considering their city to be
impregnable. Palaetyrus was the most ancient city,3 but' if
not previously, we know that as far back as the time of Hiram
there was a temple dedicated to the Olympian Jupiter on the
island, with which there was a communication by means of a
kind of bank or dike.4 Ithobal the Second appears to have
been on the throne during the memorable siege of thirteen
years by Nebuchadnezzar ;5 when the inhabitants retired to the
island, and having cut off the communication by destroying the
dike, the disappointed conqueror was obliged to abandon the
enterprise.6 Subsequently the city was confined to the island,
which is at the distance of about 800 yards from the coast, and
was probably much larger at that time than previously.7
Alexander Stimulated rather than deterred by the additional difficulty
restore the of being deprived of a fleet, Alexander determined to restore
ancient mole. tne ancient communication, and after some little hesitation the
troops commenced the gigantic undertaking of carrying out a
mole from the mainland, using for this purpose the neighbour
ing forests, and the remains of the ancient city. A stiff clay
bottom made the work at first comparatively easy, but as the
water deepened, the difficulties were greatly increased, and the
workmen being exposed to attacks from the vessels, in addition
1 Arrian, lib. II, cap. xvi, and Quint. Curt, lib. IV, cap. xi.
2 Arrian, lib. II, cap. xvii.
3 Vol. I, pp. 480,481.
4 Hiram, the son of Abibalus, raised a bank to join the temple of Jupiter
on the island to the city. — Jos. Ant, lib. VIII, cap. ii, sec. vii.; and
cap. v., sec. iii.
5 Jos. Ant, lib. X, chap, xi, and lib. I. Contra Apion.
8 Ezek, chap. XXIX, v. 18.
7 See above, vol. I, p. 481.

CHAP. IX.] SIEGE AND FALL OF TYRE. 279
to those from the walls, Alexander erected as a protection, two
wooden towers at the extremity of the dike to contain his
engines ; and covered them with leather and raw hides to pre
vent their being easily burnt.1 But the intrepidity and vast
resources of the enemy triumphed ; and a bold effort enabled
the besieged to burn these structures by means of a hulk filled
with liquid bitumen and other combustible materials, which
they ignited as she was placed against the towers. Part of the
dike was destroyed also,2 and a sudden storm afterwards com
pleted the destruction of the work.3 Alexander was so much
discouraged, particularly by the latter circumstance, that he
was on the point of abandoning the siege, and of marching to Difficulties of
Egypt ;4 but being opportunely reinforced by vessels from
Bhodes, Cilicia, and the ports of Phoenicia, he determined to
renew the attempt by sea and land, depending chiefly on the
former, since he had now the superiority on that element.
A hasty attempt to storm through an imperfect breach
having failed, Alexander took advantage of a calm day to make
a general assault, by approaching the walls, and making simul
taneous attacks on different points with his battering engines.
After some progress was made with these machines, ships with
ladders were advanced to replace the others, and at length
Alexander stormed at the head of the main body. Thus, after
a protracted and determined resistance of nearly eight months,
the proud city of Tyre was carried, having sustained the loss of final success of
6,000 men ; 2,000 were afterwards nailed to gibbets, and exan '
30,000 of the inhabitants were sold for slaves : the Macedo
nians were not only greatly enraged by the obstinacy of the
defence, but also by the cruelty of the Tyrians in putting to
death some Macedonians who had been taken on the passage
from Sidon.5
During this operation, Alexander's lieutenants were success
ful in Paphlagonia, Lycaonia, Tenedos, Ohio, &c, being unop-
1 Arrian, lib. II, cap. xviii.
8 Ibid, cap. xix, and Quint. Curt, lib. IV, cap. iii.
8 Quint. Curt, lib. IV, cap. iii.
4 Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. vii.
5 Compare Arrian, lib. II, cap. xxiv, and Quint. Curt, lib. IV, cap. iv.y
and Justin, lib. VIII, cap. iii, and lib. XL, cap. x.

280 DARIUS AGAIN PROPOSES PEACE. [CHAP. IX,
Fresh offers of posed by Darius, who instead of exerting himself to preserve
Tyre, appears to have trusted entirely to negotiation. The
generosity experienced by his beloved queen made a strong
impression on him. Darius is said to have prayed that, next
to himself, his noble enemy should be the sovereign of Asia.
It was with these warm feelings that messengers were despatched
with fresh proposals, which reached Alexander towards the
close of the siege of Tyre. Ten thousand talents were offered
as a ransom for his family by Darius, and a peaceful alliance to
be cemented by a marriage with his daughter ; with whom, as
her dower, Alexander was to have the countries lying between
the river Euphrates and the Mediterranean sea.
Alexander To this Alexander haughtily and briefly replied, that he did
to make peace, not want the money, and need not ask Darius's leave to marry
his daughter; adding, that he would not accept part of an
empire which he considered to be wholly his own.
All hope of peace being thus ended, Darius reluctantly pre
pared for another struggle, and the Bactrians under Bessus,
with other distant levies which had been too late for the recent
campaign, were ordered to assemble at Babylon ; but these
preparations did not cause any change in the plans of his
enemy.1
b. c. 332. On the fall of Tyre, Alexander marched towards Jerusalem,
He marches to being bent on punishing the Jews for refusing supplies during
the late siege, which they had done on the broad ground that
they were bound to Darius as long as he lived. This imminent
danger was, however, averted by a vision, agreeably to which,
the high-priest Jaddua, accompanied by the priests in their
various-coloured robes of fine linen, went forth attended by a
multitude of citizens clad in white, and met the conqueror a little
way from the city. On perceiving this sacred procession, it is
said that Alexander advanced alone, and having prostrated
himself before the holy name of God inscribed on the diadem
of the leader, he took the high-priest by the hand, and entering
the city as a peaceable visiter, he offered sacrifices in the
temple. Here it was shown him in the book of Daniel that he
was prefigured as the Greek destined to overthrow the Persian
1 Arrian, lib. II, cap. xxv.

4

CHAP. IX.] ALEXANDER MARCHES TO JERUSALEM AND GAZA. 281
empire ; with which he was so much delighted that he readily
granted to the Jews the boon of retaining the laws of their Certain privi-
forefathers ; he granted them also immunity from taxes every to the Jews.
seventh year, when they neither sow nor reap.1
The animated and highly-wrought picture of the Jewish
historian has been doubted, but Alexander was unlikely to
leave such an important city unnoticed in his rear ; and from
his subsequent relations with the Jews, it may be inferred that
some understanding with them was established, either personally
or by one of his officers.
The only place southward of Jerusalem which could impede Advance to
future operations was Gaza, a city commanding the high road
to Egypt, and then governed by Batis. Notwithstanding the
successes of Alexander, to which all other rulers seemed ready
to succumb, this faithful eunuch, with the assistance of a body
of Arabs whom he had engaged for this service, determined to
defend his post for Darius. A fortress situated between Phoe
nicia and Egypt, and having a small port on the coast, at
the distance of a short league, was of vital consequence to
Alexander ; but the difficulties to be overcome required all the
energies of this great commander. He had not to contend, as
recently, with an arm of the sea, and a powerful fleet, but the
extent of the city, and the unusual height of its walls, which
were raised on the crest of ground about sixty feet above the
plain,2 gave considerable, strength to the place, independently of
its position; which, though not in the ocean, was in other
respects effectively an island. It is not surprising, therefore, its peculiar
i n . . ... -ii position,
that some of the engineers considered it impracticable to master
such walls by force ; but Alexander observed that the difficul
ties were small compared with the importance of the under-
. taking ;3 and he proceeded to give orders to commence what
proved almost the greatest achievement which he was ever
destined to accomplish.
On the southern side of the city a prodigious mound was
commenced, and as the surrounding desert denied the ordinary
1 Joseph. Ant, lib. XL, cap. iv, v, viii.
8 Biblical Researches, &c, by E Eobinson, D.D, vol. II, pp. 374, 375.
3 Arrian, lib. II, cap. xxvi.

282 SIEGE AND FALL OF GAZA. [CHAP. IX.
resources, earth and timber, probably olive and date trees,
which abound,1 were brought from a distance over the sand
with great labour ; the people of the adjacent country being
employed for this purpose.
Protracted Owing to these difficulties, added to those caused by the
city.nce """* determined defence and constant sallies of the besieged, the
rampart and the mines progressed but slowly ; especially the
latter, which as the sand required to be everywhere supported,
were, even with this assistance, maintained with the greatest
difficulty, more particularly as the work was exposed at the
same time to constant attacks in every stage.
The battering machines, including those which had been
used at Tyre, having at length been brought to play with
advantage on a level with the walls, and a partially practicable
breach effected, the assault took place forthwith.8 Notwith
standing a severe loss, the Arabs thrice held their ground
against the shock of the Macedonians; but in a fourth, the
example and unshaken valour of their leader, who before, in
repelling one of the sallies, had been severely wounded in the
shoulder by an arrow discharged from a catapult,3 enabled
some of the Macedonians to get within the walls, and the gates
being forced open one after another, the main body of the army
Capture ofthe entered the city. The Arabs, however, maintained their
city y storm. c]iaracj:eY^ continuing a brave but ineffectual resistance till the
last, every one losing his life where he stood ; except indeed
Batis himself, who fell into the hands of the enemy covered with
wounds, but still alive.* Six thousand men perished according to
one account, that of Hegesias ; and 10,000 Arabs and Persians
according to another,5 in addition to the wives and children of the
inhabitants, who were sold for slaves by order of Alexander.6
This commercial emporium contained great stores of frankin-,
eense, myrrh, and other booty ; and a remarkable proof of this*
and of the connexion of this place with the East, is given by
Plutarch, who says that Alexander sent his tutor, Leonidas, a
1 Biblical Researches, &c, by E. Robinson, D.D, vol. II, pp. 372-376.
2 Arrian, lib. II, cap. xxvii, and Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. vii.
3 Diod. Sic, lib. IV, cap. vi. * Arrian, lib. II, cap. xxvii.
s Quint. Curt, lib. IV, cap. vi. 6 Arrian, lib. II, cap. xxvii.

CHAP. IX.] MARCH TO EGYPT. 283
present of five hundred talents weight of frankincense, and a
hundred of myrrh, in recollection of the hopes he had entertained
and the reproof he had received when a boy. It seems that
Leonidas one day had observed Alexander, at a sacrifice, throw
ing incense into the fire by handsful, and said, " Alexander,
when you have conquered the country where spices grow, you
may be thus liberal of your incense ; but, in the meantime, use
what you have more sparingly." Alexander therefore wrote
thus : " I have sent you frankincense and myrrh in abundance,
that you may be no longer a churl to the gods." l
The sale of captives was the custom of the time ; but for the
honour of Alexander it is to be hoped the statement is not
correct of his having, as Achilles is said to have treated
Hector, caused the dying Batis to be dragged round the town
at the heels of a chariot.2
Circumstances favoured the next enterprise ; for on arriving March to
before Pelusium with his army and fleet, the Egyptians being
dissatisfied with the satrap Mazaces, were ready to welcome
Alexander. Having thus acquired the fertile territory of the
Nile without a blow, the excitement of warlike objects gave
place for a time to those of peace : and having examined the
course of the Nile from Memphis to Heliopolis, Alexander
strove to unite his new and old subjects by amusements and
religious ceremonies, himself assisting in the sacrifices to Apis,
instead of outraging the feelings of the Egyptians by showing
contempt and scorn for the objects of their worship. An
examination of the coast succeeded, and in order to replace the
defective ports at Pelusium and the Canopus, the city bearing
his name was projected on a scale of magnificence which its
ruins still indicate, with a view of facilitating the commerce of
the west, also of commanding that which was expected to spring
from his intended conquest of the east. For this invasion
Alexander was now preparing, by raising troops in Greece to Alexander
strengthen and consolidate his Asiatic levies ; and it was during Ae govern-
the interval thus employed that his visit to the remarkable mentof Egypt'
temple of Ham or Ammon, in the oasis of the latter name,
1 Alexander, in Plutarch, Langhorne's ed, p. 356.
! Quint. Curt, lib. IV, cap. vii.

284 REGULATION OF EGYPT AND ADVANCE TO TYRE. [CHAP. IX.

The ancient
laws pre
served.

Alexander marchestowards Asia.

ProbablythroughPhoenicia.

took place ; probably to give Alexander's enterprise the sanc
tion of the oracle.
Accompanied by a considerable body of horse and foot, he
arrived at the temple ; and, in the return, the greater part of
the troops took the longer route by the shore of the Mediterra
nean Sea, whilst Alexander with the remainder boldly crossed
the desert in a direct line to Memphis.
The arrangements for the government of Egypt were now
completed, the basis of which was the maintenance of the
ancient laws under' the executive government of local chiefs,
some of whom were Egyptians, and others Macedonians, and
the whole were placed under the general supervision of a vice
roy or Deloaspis -,1 the post next in rank, with the chief military
command, being naturally entrusted to a Macedonian.
Having - completed these arrangements, by issuing public
orders for all to respect and execute the ancient laws and insti-
tions, Alexander determined, by assuming the offensive, to
anticipate the march of Darius towards Syria and Egypt.
Being reinforced by 400 Grecian infantry, and 500 Thracian
horse, in the spring of the year 331 B.C. he put the army in
motion towards Tyre ; 2 his force amounting apparently to
7,000 horse, and about 40,000 foot, besides the Asiatic levies,
whose number has not been given by historians.
At Tyre, the appointed rendezvous of his fleet and army,
Alexander found deputies from Athens and several other
republics, soliciting his return to defend them against the Lace
daemonians ; but past successes had only inflamed the desire of
encountering more dangers, and making other conquests. Alex
ander therefore sent some , money to Antipater, and having
despatched a fleet to the Peloponnesus, the march was con
tinued, after celebrating a public sacrifice to Hercules, in which
the whole army joined.
Although the route onward from Tyre is not mentioned, the
facility of obtaining supplies, as well as the circumstance of the
Phoenicians and Cyprians being ordered to furnish vessels 3 for
crossing the Euphrates, clearly indicate that it was through

Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. v.
Ibid.

Ibid.

, cap. vi.

CHAP. IX.] MARCH THROUGH MESOPOTAMIA. 285
Phoenicia, most likely by keeping along the Upper Orontes to
the neighbourhood of Antioch, at a moderate distance from
which place there were four crossing places over the Euphrates,
namely, the Zeugmas of Sumei'sat, Biim Kal'ah, Bir, and
Thapsacus. Alexander directed his march on the last, which was the Darius assem-
crossing place of Cyrus,1 whose steps he was following. Pre- rous army e'
parations to meet the invaders were by this time far advanced, ^rl"1 the
and the Scythians, Parthians, Indians, and other levies, with
200 scythed chariots, being assembled in Babylonia, and the
troops newly armed with swords and spears of a longer and
better description, Darius found himself at the head of a more
numerous army than that which had been destroyed at the
Issus.2 •
On reaching Upper Mesopotamia, Mazaeus was posted in
advance to dispute the passage at Thapsacus, but he abandoned
this position without offering any obstruction, except that of
breaking down the bridge on the approach of the enemy ; and
Alexander, instead of resorting to the tedious operation of
using his boats, repaired the bridge, and passed the great river
without the slightest opposition.3
Local tradition has transmitted the fact of the passage of Nicephorium
Iskender Acbar ; and there is the additional fact that, tempted U1 '"
by the advantages of the situation, he ordered the city of Nice
phorium, now Bakkah, to be built.4
The position of Darius near the Tigris, and the circum
stances of the country along the direct line having been wasted
by Mazaeus, determined Alexander to proceed to Babylon by
the circuitous route along the Tigris, which, in addition to
affording more supplies, would be less exposed to excessive
heats.5 1 Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. vii.
s Quint. Curt, lib. IV, cap. ix. ; Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. vii, says
800,000 foot and 200,000 horse.
3 Compare Arrian, lib. Ill, chap, viii, with Quint. Curt, lib. IV,
cap. ix.
4 Plin, lib. VI, cap.xxvi. ; lib. V, cap. xxiv.; and above, vol. I,
pp. 48, 114.
6 Arrian, lib. III, cap. vii.

286

PREPARATIONS OF DARIUS.

LCHAP. IX.

Route from It is a proof of the accuracy of the historian, that, conform-
theTigr^8. ° ably to his description, in proceeding northward along what was
subsequently one of the royal roads (which is still to be traced
by the pavement) to Carrae and to Amida, now Diyar Bekr,
the river Euphrates, and subsequently the mountains of Ar
menia, would be on the left hand.1
Whilst crossing Upper Mesopotamia, it was ascertained from
some of his scouts who had been taken, that Darius was
encamped with a numerous army in a position where he
intended to dispute the passage of the Tigris.2 On receiving
this intelligence, Alexander directed his march towards the
spot that had been indicated ; but on arriving there, he neither
found Darius nor any of his troops, therefore he only expe
rienced the difficulty of fording a stream which, owing to its
depth and rapidity, is all but impracticable for an army.
The passage is supposed to have taken place in the vicinity
of Eski Mosul, which point would have been speedily reached
if, as is probable, Alexander took a more easterly direction when
he reached the vicinity of either Mardin or Nisibin. It appears
Retreat of that Darius on reaching Upper Mesopotamia, suddenly turned
Dinus icross
the Tigris and to the right, and crossed first the Tigris and then the Caprus or
Lesser Zab, and halted at Arbela, now Arbil, a small town with
a ruined castle, situated on an artificial mound 742 feet above
the sea. It is not stated why Darius quitted the favourable
ground in Mesopotamia, where there was scope for the whole
of his forces, including the chariots, but it may be inferred from
his attempts to negotiate,3 that a peaceable reunion with his
family, and not a battle, had been his object ; and thus he lost
the opportunity of crippling, if not destroying, Alexander's
army, first when crossing at Thapsacus, and again at Eski
Mosul. But having at length resolved to meet his enemy, Darius
left the greater part of his baggage, provisions, &c, at Arbela,
1 Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. vii. See also the route from Thapsacus towards
the interior of Mesopotamia, in a north by easterly direction, to Haran, and
from thence, by Mardin, to the river Tigris, at Eski M6sul. Map No. 2 and
Index Map.
2 Ibid. 3 Quint. Curt, lib. IV, cap. xi.

CHAP. IX.] LAST PROPOSALS OF DARIUS FOR PEACE. 287
crossed the Lycus, or Great Zab, and encamped on the river
Bumadus, at a village called Guagamela, which is about 600
stadia 'from Arbela.1 In the meanwhile, Alexander, with his
usual tact, quieted an alarm, which the occurrence of a total
eclipse of the moon at the moment of passing the Tigris had
caused in the camp, by directing Aristander, the soothsayer, to
assure the soldiers that the eclipse portended evil to Persia,
and not to Macedonia. Being ignorant of the position of Alexander ¦<
crosses tiDtl
Darius, he followed the course of the Tigris into Assyria, advances
having the Gordyaean mountains on his left ; but during his Tigris. e
fourth march, his uncertainty was relieved, by learning from
some prisoners that Darius occupied a strong camp at no great
distance ; and he halted, in consequence, to prepare for battle.
Darius appears to have taken this opportunity to make his
third and final proposals for peace, to which he was alike
inclined by a quiet disposition, and personal esteem for Alex
ander ; whose greatness of mind in the first instance towards
Statira, and particularly his feeling conduct at the time of the
queen's death, had inspired an affectionate husband with the
warmest gratitude and the greatest admiration. With tears in
his eyes, and his hands raised towards heaven, Darius prayed
that God, who disposes of all things, would preserve to him
the empire of the Persians and Medes as it had been received ;
but he added, as the recollections of the husband overcame
the pride of the monarch, " if it be otherwise decided, and
the glory of the Persians must fall, may none but Alexander sit
upon the throne of Cyrus."2
The princely offer of 30,000 talents of gold and all the He again re-
territory lying between the Hellespont and Euphrates, as a liberal terms.
dower with his second daughter, having been made by the
ambassadors, couched in language which enhanced the value,
(for Darius was ready to divide the empire itself,) it was as a
matter of form referred to the council. But the peaceable
course advised by Parmenio, with the silent sanction of his
colleagues, not being palatable, Alexander told the deputies
that with the exception of the money, which he did not want,
1 Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. viii.
s Quint. Curt, lib. IV, cap. xi.

288

APPROACH OF THE TWO ARMIES.

[CHAP. IX.

some prepara
tions,

His neglect.

the rest was already in his possession ; and attributing to
Darius the design of endeavouring to corrupt his friends, and
bribe his soldiers to kill their prince, he added, that he would
pursue him to the last extremity, not as an open enemy, but
as an assassin and a poisoner.1 To these reproaches they
simply replied, that since Alexander was resolved to continue
to make war, his frankness was praiseworthy, and it was time
they should hasten to apprise Darius of. the necessity of being
prepared for an immediate battle. Accordingly, Darius took
Darius makes something like a decided step by detaching 3,000 horse under
Mazeeus to endeavour to obstruct the enemy, who by this time
had almost reached the Persian camp.
•It has been seen that the hope of peace, and the prospect of
recovering his family, had caused Darius to commit the un
pardonable oversight of allowing the invaders to cross two
mighty rivers, and without interruption to traverse extensive
plains, where the Persian cavalry might have watched their
movements at some distance ; leaving them only a desert as
they advanced. But instead of being thus harassed, Alexander's
forces, numbering about 40,000 European infantry and 7,000
cavalry,2 independently of the Asiatic levies, entered Assyria
in the most efficient state, advancing with the infantry forming
two columns in the centre, the cavalry on the flanks, and the
baggage in the rear.3 After advancing about 30 stadia, the
cavalry under Mazaeus was seen retiring from some hillocks,
which being immediately occupied, the Persian army was
indistinctly visible through the fog.4 The long-wished-for
opportunity of meeting his adversary for the moment perplexed
rather than encouraged Alexander, who instead of closing with
the enemy as usual, determined by the advice of Parmenio to
delay the attack. Taking the light horse and the royal cohort,
Alexander examined the camp of Darius, and having made
himself well acquainted with the position of the enemy, and
strengthened his own, by means of a palisade, a council of
war was summoned to deliberate. Parmenio and some others

Alexanderreconnoitresthe camp of
Darius.

1 Quint. Curt, lib, IV, cap. xi. 2 Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. xi.
3 Quint. Curt, lib. IV, cap. xii.
4 Compare Quint. Curt, lib. IV, cap. xii, with Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. xi.

CHAP. IX.] DARIUS ADDRESSES HIS ARMY. 28y
recommended a night attack as being likely to be unexpected,
and therefore terrible as well as destructive. To this, the uncer
tainty of attacks in the dark, the superior knowledge possessed
of the country by the enemy, and the difficulties of a retreat
were opposed; and the meeting was reminded that it was
incumbent on Alexander to conquer openly. Orders were now
issued to take some repose preparatory to a regular battle, and
the different commanders were desired to make known to the
soldiers that the contest was not for a petty province such as Alexander
Phoenicia, Syria, or even Egypt, but for the empire of Asia ; . soldiers.6" ''
and that success would depend upon the courage and united
exertions of every individual.1
Although a feeling of anxiety, if not of alarm, was manifested
about the result of the contemplated struggle, the address of
Darius was powerful. Not long ago, he observed to his army,
they had marched against Greece, but the inconstancy of fortune
at the Granicus, and again at the Issus, had removed the
barrier of two great rivers, and placed the Persians on the
defensive, in the heart ofthe kingdom. But his duty had been
performed by assembling a force which this vast plain could
scarcely contain ; he had likewise furnished the necessary arms,
equipments, and provisions, with suitable battle-ground for this
multitude : the rest, he added, depended upon themselves. " It Animating
is," observed the king to the soldiers, " become a contest for Darius to his.
existence, and, what is dearer still, the liberty of your wives followCTS-
and children, who must fall into the hands of the enemy, unless
your bodies become a rampart to save them from captivity."
Darius added, that; his own mother and his children were still
in that prison where Statira had lately perished, and now
appealed to their compassion and fidelity for deliverance from
a prolonged captivity. His eloquent address concluded with
this remarkable peroration : — " The enemy," said the king, " is
at hand ; and as this contest must either overturn or establish
the greatest empire in the world, I conjure you by the splendour
of the sun, by the fires on our altars, which represent this lumi
nary, and by the immortal memory of Cyrus, the great founder
of the empire, to maintain the glory of the nation unsullied."3
1 Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. ix. 2 Quint. Curt, lib. IV, cap. xv.
VOL. II. U

290 ORDER OF BATTLE OF THE PERSIAN ARMY. [CHAP. IX.
Darius now proceeded to make the following arrangements.
The Persian On the left, the principal line consisted of Dahians, Arachosians,
e' horse and foot intermingled; in front were the Bactrian and
Scythian horse, with 100 two-wheeled chariots ; and in rear,
forming a third line, were the Cadusians and a mixed body of
Persian horse.1 The right was also formed in three lines, the
principal of which was composed of Caelo-Syrians, Mesopota-
mians, Medes, Parthians, and Sacae, in addition to Tapurians
and Hyrcanians, supported by another line composed of
Albanians and Sacesinae ; with a third in front, of chariots and
cavalry, namely, the Armenian and Cappadocian horse. In
the centre under Darius himself were the royal kinsmen, the
Persian Melophori, who were distinguished by grenades of
gold, 2 the Indians, the Carian exiles, and Mardian archers;
with the Greek mercenaries on each side. In front were 50
chariots and 15 elephants, and in the third or supporting line,
were the Uxians, the Babylonians, the Sitaceni, and the people
bordering upon the Erythrean Sea.3
ascertained by A document containing the preceding plan of Darius having
been intercepted on the eve ofthe battle, Alexander was not only
informed of the whole of the details, but he appears likewise to
have known that Darius meant to keep his forces under arms,
expecting a night attack.4
The Macedonians passed the night in a state of anxiety, in
which, contrary to his wont, Alexander largely shared.5 The
soothsayer Aristander was summoned, and after endeavouring
to propitiate Jupiter, Minerva, and Victory, by prayers and
sacrifices, Alexander retired, but not to sleep. Absorbed with
anxiety about the result of the coming battle against such
fearful odds, at one time he planned a general attack with his
whole force on the Persian right, at another a general attack in
Various plans front was contemplated, and this again gave place to a meditated
tempiated. attack on the left wing ; and in this unsettled state the great
captain continued . till at length his bodily frame being com-
1 Compare Quint. Curt, lib. IV, cap. xiii, with Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. xi.
2 Herod, lib. VII, cap. xii.
3 Compare Quint. Curt, lib. IV, cap. xiii., with Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. xi.
4 Ibid. s Ibid. Quint. Curt.

CHAP. IX.] MACEDONIAN ORDER OF BATTLE. 29 1
pletely exhausted, he found relief from the all-absorbing anxie- Preparations
ties of the mind, and a deep sleep was the consequence, which attack? a°
continued till long after daylight. On being awoke with some
difficulty by Parmenio, Alexander briefly directed the com
manders to take post and await his orders.1 He speedily
appeared in the unusual equipment of armour, displaying a
cheerful countenance, from which the army confidently augured
victory ; and the palisade being _ overturned to give space, the
troops were immediately formed, nominally in two wings with
the cavalry in front, but actually in a grand hollow square, in
order to resist the general attack intended to be simultaneously
made on the front, flanks, and rear by the enemy's forces, which
greatly outflanked the Macedonians.
The latter were thus detailed : the right wing comprised the Order of
auxiliary horse called Agema, and was supported by the squadrons
of Philotas and Meleagre, &c. To these succeeded the phalanx
and the Argyraspides, strengthened by the corps of Caenus, the
Orestae, and Lyncestse, who were followed by the foreign levies
under Amyntas with the Phrygians, who completed this wing.2
The formation of the left wing was nearly similar, having the
Peloponnesian and other cavalry in front, the Thessalian horse,
with the phalanx and infantry, in the rear. A moveable phalanx
was ready to support any part of each wing, prepared to con
tract or dilate its front as occasion required; and auxiliary
corps were placed ready for action towards the flanks and rear,
both of which were as well protected as the front itself;3 and in
order to avoid the most formidable arm of the enemy, Alex
ander desired a passage to be opened for the chariots and the
horses, with a view to the latter being speared as they passed.4
Parmenio commanded the left wing, and as usual the king led
the right, which was advancing, when Bion a deserter came at
full speed to indicate the position of the caltrops : the cavalry
avoided them in consequence, by taking an oblique direction.
1 Compare Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. viii, with Quint. Curt, lib. IV,
cap. xiii.
' s Diod. Sic. ibid. ; Quint. Curt, ibid ; Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. xi.
3 Quint. Curt, lib. IV, cap. xiii. j Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. xii, xiii.
4 Ibid. Arrian, and Quint. Curt.
U 2

292

DARIUS COMMENCES THE ATTACK. [CHAP. IX.

The Persian
attack com
mences suc
cessfully.

For some time
the battle con
tinues doubt
ful.

But Darius commenced the battle at this moment, by making
a signal for his chariots to advance, and Bessus to charge
Alexander's left flank simultaneously with the Massagetian
cavalry. The former caused considerable loss and disorder as
they broke through the first line of the Macedonians at full
speed, and the danger was increased by Mazaeus having got
into the rear of the Macedonian left ; at the head of 1,000 horse
he reached the baggage, and not -only released many of the
captives, who were slightly guarded, but he was at the point of
also rescuing the family of his master.1
Parmenio being alarmed, sent Polydamus for orders ; when
Alexander replied, that victory will not only recover what is
lost, but obtain what belongs to the enemy also ; " Let him not,
therefore," said the king, " woaken the order of battle or be
influenced by the loss of baggage, but continue to fight in a
manner worthy of Philip and Alexander."
Amyntas, however, with some squadrons, made an attempt
to rescue the baggage, and on being repulsed by the Cadusians
and Scythians, he retreated towards the king, who was so
uneasy lest the soldiers might quit their ranks to save their
effects, that he despatched Aretas with his lancers to attack the
latter.2 By this time the chariots had penetrated the phalanx, and the
flanks of the horses being pierced right and left, they became
unmanageable ; a frightful carnage ensued of horses and men,
and there was a general discomfiture ; some carriages, however,
penetrated to the rear, mangling and killing the unfortunate
beings whom they happened to meet. In the meanwhile Aretas
killed the chief of the Scythians whilst pillaging, and pursued
his people ; but the Bactrians having recovered the lost ground,
the Macedonians sought safety by flying towards Alexander.3
Uttering the cry of victory, the Persians fell with fury upon the
enemy as if he had been everywhere defeated ; which, in fact,
must have been the result, had not the intrepid leader main
tained the contest almost single handed. Having at length by
his animating example, reproaching and exciting alternately,

Quint. Curt, lib. IV, cap. xiii, xv.
Ibid, cap. xv.

Ibid.

CHAP. IX.J CRITICAL STATE OF THE BATTLE. 293
renewed the courage of his soldiers, and a successful charge
being made at their head, it was followed up by an attack on
the Persians ; but being taken in reverse as he advanced by
the left wing of the enemy, Alexander would have been de
stroyed, if the Agrian cavalry had not attacked the latter in
rear, and obliged them to face about to defend themselves.1
This caused an extraordinary, if not an unprecedented state
of things. Alexander was engaged at the same time with an Alexander
enemy in his front and another in the rear. The latter were ™™ his mam"
attacked by the Agrians, and these in turn by the Bactrians, sr°and-
who had returned with their pillage, and being unable to
resume their ranks, fought according to chance in a desultory
manner. A succession of hostile bodies encircling one another in deadly
strife, must ere long have been fatal to one of the armies, and
owing to what was of itself an accidental circumstance this
melee ended by the total overthrow of the Persians. Darius
was in a chariot, Alexander on horseback, and each surrounded state of the
by followers ready either to conquer his rival, or fall under the in the day.
eye^of their prince, when the death of his charioteer, who was
killed by a dart thrown by Alexander himself, gave rise to the
belief in both armies, that Darius himself had fallen.2
Previously the battle had been stoutly and successfully con
tested. The baggage and spoil of Alexander's army had been
plundered by Mazaeus, his right wing was taken in reverse, his
left was worsted by the Massagetian horse,3 and even in the
heat of the battle, after their chief dependence, the chariot^, had
been overthrown, the Persians maintained their ground during
the carnage, till they thought they saw their sovereign fall,3
From this instant there was a complete panic, the centre and Panic and
left flying amidst indescribable and irremediable confusion ; pefsia°s.
and Darius was hurried along in a cloud of dust, so dense, that
it is said the sound ofthe whips urging the horses was the only
guide by which Alexander pursued the fugitive monarch.4 The
1 Quint. Curt, lib. IV, cap. xv.
2 Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. viii. ; Arrian does not mention this circum
stance. i Quint. Curt, lib. IV, cap. xv. 4 Ibid.

294 FLIGHT AND CARNAGE OF THE ASIATIC ARMY. [CHAP. IX-
Total rout of historian, who appears to have been most familiar with the
details of this momentous battle,1 observes, that the calamities
of a whole century seemed to be comprised within the short
space of that fatal day. Some of the fugitives strove to save
themselves at all risks by taking the shortest road, others
directed their steps towards difficult defiles, or paths unknown
to their pursuers. Horse and foot, armed and unarmed, the
healthy, the sick, and the wounded, without order, and without
a chief, hastened onward in a frightful state of confusion, which
was increased if possible by efforts to find the means of alle
viating their thirst. Begardless of all other considerations, they
drank to such excess on reaching the river Lycus, that they.
were unable to continue their flight, and the bridge which, in
consideration of the fugitives rather than himself, Darius had
purposely left, being soon overcrowded and choked, numbers
were driven into the stream.2 Alexander, however, did not
continue the pursuit, alleging that his troops were exhausted,
their weapons blunted, and that the day had closed ; but, in
reality, he halted with vexation and rage because he was aware
that the retrograde movement, which he was about to make to
relieve Parmenio from his critical situation, must permit the
enemy to escape. But he had not proceeded far, when he met
the Persian and Parthian cavalry in full retreat. The intel
ligence of the fall of Darius had caused Mazaeus to relax in his
efforts, and ultimately to retreat, taking a circuitous route with
Pursuit of the the remainder of Darius' forces to Babylon.3 No longer ob-
AifxanderT structed, Parmenio made an onward movement with the left
wing, seizing the enemy's tents as he proceeded, he subsequently
, captured their baggage, camels, elephants, &c, and continued
to advance, till Alexander himself returned to the Lycus ; and
after a short rest resumed the pursuit, hoping to complete the
wonderful success of the day, by capturing the fugitive king.4
Niebuhr5 supposed Guagamela to be represented by the
village of Karmelis, which is situated on the Khazir stream,
1 Quint. Curt, lib. IV, cap. xvi. 2 Ibid.
8 Compare Quint. Curt, lib. IV, cap. xvi, with Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. xv.
4 Arrian, ibid.
5 Travels, vol. II, p. 342, Copenhagen edition.

CHAP. IX.J DARIUS RETREATS INTO MEDIA. 295
about sixteen miles eastward of Mdsul, but it does not appear Probable site
that there is any local tradition regarding this most important °f the battk'
battle ground mentioned in Asiatic history, excepting Beit
Germa, or house of bones, which possibly may be connected
therewith;1 and the circumstance that Arbela was built by
Darius.2 In all likelihood the battle took place between 'A'in-el-
Bertha (Mons Nicator) and the great Zab, probably on that part
of the plain which is watered by the Khazir-sii or Bumadus.3
Beyond a hollow square to protect the flanks and rear, there
was nothing remarkable in the order of the battle of Arbela,
which was only a fierce protracted melee, and Alexander, who
was most indebted to his personal bravery, and the steady disci
pline of his troops, particularly in sustaining the shock of the
chariots, at length gained the victory.
By one account4 the loss of the Persians during this fearful Loss of the
Persiims
struggle for the empire, was 40,000 men, and by another, more
than double this number ;5 but even the former seems to be an
over estimate, and out of all proportion to the 100 Macedonians
stated to have fallen on the other side.6 The flight of Darius
naturally continued till he reached the baggage and reserve of
his army at Arbela, where he assembled several of his principal
officers, some of whom had likewise arrived from the battle.
Expressing his belief that Alexander would endeavour to seize
the two capitals, Darius announced his intention of proceeding
to Ecbatana to raise another army, hoping to have his revenge
after Alexander's warriors were absorbed in the enervating Darius pro-
luxuries of Babylon and Susa ;7 adding expressively, that in batana.°
difficult circumstances, things that are necessary, not those
which are great, must be first thought of; and that his prede
cessors had been enabled to recover previous losses by the use
of iron rather than gold.8 Having abandoned the idea of de
fending Mesopotamia and Susiana, Darius, accompanied by the
1 Travels and Researches in Asia Minor, Mesopotamia, Chaldea, and
Armenia, by W. F. Ainsworth, F.G.S, F.R.G.S, vol. II, pp. 135, 136.
2 Rich's Kurdistan, vol. II, p. 18.
3 Ainsworth's Travels, &c, vol. ii, pp. 135, 136.
4 Quint. Curt, lib. IV, cap. xvi.
5 Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. viii. 6 Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. xv.
7 Quint. Curt, lib. V, cap. i. 8 Ibid.

296

ALEXANDER ENTERS BABYLON.

[CHAP. IX.

Alexanderarrives at
Arbela.

Alexandercontinues his
march to
Babylon

Bactrians, some Persians, his kindred, a few Melophori, and
about 2,000 foreign mercenaries,1 proceeded to the Atropa-
tenian Ecbatana, probably by Bowandiz, from whence tra
versing the Zagros at the pass of the Keli-shin, he finally arrived
at the Median Ecbatana.2 Alexander reached Arbela too late
to get possession of Darius, but the royal furniture and rich
stuffs, together with 4,000 talents, fell into his hands.3
As Darius had foreseen, the route of Babylon was taken,
and in four days Alexander reached the city of Memnis, evi
dently Kerkiik, from the distance, as well as from the par
ticulars given of a fountain in a cavern, with such an abundance
of bitumen that it supplied cement for a great part of the walls
of the capital.4
On approaching the Queen of the East, Mazaeus came with
his family to offer the city and his services, to which the con
queror was entitled agreeably to eastern custom ; and thus a
very formidable siege became unnecessary, The inhabitants
perfumed the streets with incense and spices, and the Magi, the
Chaldeans, the soothsayers, and the musicians having attended
the triumphal march of Alexander, he sacrificed to Belus, and
gave directions for the restoration of the celebrated temple
devoted to this deity.5
' Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. xvi.
2 Major Rawlinson, Vol. X, Roy. Geog. Journ, pp. 2), 149.
3 Quint. Curt, lib. V, cap. i, but Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, p. 538, says
3,000 silver talents.
4 Quint. Curt, ibid. 5 Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. xvi.

( 297 )

CHAPTER X.
CAMPAIGNS OF ALEXANDER IN SOUTHERN, NORTHERN, AND EASTERN
PERSIA, ALSO IN BACTRIANA, SOGDIANA, AND EASTWARD OF THE
RIVER INDUS.

March to Susa, the Persian Gates, and Persepolis. — Advance to Ecbatana. —
Treasure found in those Cities.— Advance to the Caspian Gates. — Pursuit
and Death of Darius. — Invasion of Hyrcania. — Campaigns in Khorasan
and Drangiana. — Alexandria ad Caucasum built. — Invasion of Bactria. —
Passage of the Oxus. — March to Maracanda and the Jaxartes.— Siege of
Cyropolis.— Activity of Spitamenes. — Warlike People north of the Paro
pamisus.- — Capture of the Fort of Oxyartes. — Alexander's Marriage to
Roxana.— Expedition into Margiana. — Hill Fort of the Parsetacse taken.
— Winter at Zariaspa, and Death of Clitus. — Return across the Paropa
misus, and March to the Indus. — Siege of Aornas. — Visit to Nysa. —
Alexander passes the Indus and defeats Porus.— Sakala taken. — The Army
refuses to cross the River Hyphasis.
To the wealth of Babylon the army had looked forward as the
reward of their past labours and dangers, as well as of those to
be encountered in overcoming the vast preparations which had
been made to defend the seat of empire.1 But the leading
object of the growing ambition of Alexander had now been
obtained without resistance ; for the mighty struggle in ap
proaching Arbela not only had placed the Queen of the East
at the feet of the conqueror, but also had paralysed everything
like an organized defence of the neighbouring territory ; and
the second city of the empire, with its strong castle and pro
digious wealth, awaited the conqueror.
The unprotected treasures of Susa being the next object, Alexander
Alexander hastened to complete his arrangements for the gowrmnent^f
government of Babylonia, which with Susiana became the base Bal)ylon-
of still greater and more distant operations.
The satrapy of Armenia was bestowed upon Methrines, that
1 Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. vi, p. 518.

298 SUSA AND THE TREASURE TAKEN BY ALEXANDER. [CHAP. X.

He marehes
towards Susa.

-with regal
honours.

of Babylon was continued to Mazaeus:1 Apollodorus raised
numerous recruits in Asia; and others having arrived from
Macedonia,2 Alexander, after halting thirty-four days and
distributing ample rewards, proceeded towards Susa, the more
central capital, and the winter residence of the Court.3
As Alexander approached, the son of Abulites came to
offer to surrender the city, and on reaching the Choaspes,
now the Kerah or Kerkhah, the offer was repeated by the
satrap in person; whose respect was further manifested by
He is received having a procession of elephants and swift dromedaries,
bearing presents of regal magnificence.4 Besides which the
conqueror found in the royal treasury of Susa 50,0005 un-
wrought ingots, or about 9,365,000/., which had been collected
by different sovereigns for their children and descendants ; but
had now passed to a stranger as the result of a single battle.
Whilst in this city, reinforcements joined from the Asian Greek
cities,6 which enabled Alexander to complete his preparations for
another campaign. Having restored the satrapy of Susiana to
Abulites, and entrusted the government of Susa itself, with the
care of the royal captives, to Archelaus, he resumed his march
towards Persis. Making, as has been presumed, a detour7 to
avoid the river Coprates, or river of Dizful, on the fourth day
the army crossed the Pasitigris, probably above Ahwaz,8 and
invaded the territory of the Uxii. The people of the plains

Preparations
for another
campaign.

1 Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. xvi.
2 Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. xii. ; Quint. Curt, lib. V, cap. ii.
8 A direct line in an ES.E. direction, through Lower Mesopotamia,
would touch the river Tigris about the commencement of the Shatt-el-Ha'i
at Kut-el-'Amarah, which is 70 miles from Babylon ; and 55 miles farther
is the ancient crossing place of that river, called El Kantarah, which is a
little below Imam Gharbi. The remaining distance to Siis is about 100
miles, or nearly 230 miles in all, over a level country ; and the march occu
pied 20 days, according to Arrian (lib. Ill, cap. xvi.), including the pas
sage ofthe Hai Canal and the rivers Tigris and Choaspes.
4 Quint. Curt, lib. V, cap. ii.
5 Forty thousand only, according to Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. xiv.
6 Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. xvi.
7 See above, vol. I, p. 205.
8 Following a part of the river Shapur, the distance would be from 42
to 45 miles.

CHAP. X.] THE UXII SUBDUED. 299
submitted, but a considerable body of mountaineers under pian of
Madates opposed him, and the pass which they occupied wasai
too strong to be carried by a direct attack.1 Alexander having,
however, ascertained that the fortress might be taken in reverse,
detached 1,500 light troops and 1,000 Agrians under Tauron2
at sunset ; and moving himself north-eastward at the third
watch to give time, he passed the straits by daybreak,3 being
provided with materials to make screens to protect his men
during the delicate operation of placing the towers against the
walls. The flinty and precipitous nature of the ground, however, Rock fortress
caused a serious loss notwithstanding; and perceiving some
hesitation among his men, Alexander asked the soldiers if they
were not ashamed to make difficulties before such a paltry
place, after having taken so many splendid cities. A tortoise
was now formed with their bucklers as a protection, just as the
corps under Tauron appeared above the citadel, and the enemy
being thus closely pressed on both sides, the town presently
surrendered. Some of the inhabitants fled, and others retired
into the citadel, which afterwards surrendered, under favour
able terms, obtained at the earnest intercession of Sisygambis.
Some ruins near the caves of Shikoftehi-Suleiman, on the
plain of Mai- Amir, appear to be those of the Uxian city ; and
the narrow pass, connecting the plains of Halegiin and Mal-
Amir, answers to the straits passed by Alexander before day
light.4 The rest of the Uxian territory being added to the satrapy Alexander
of Susiana, Alexander despatched the main body under Par- advance!5 "
menio along the plain, and leading the light troops by the
mountain road on the left flank, he joined them, on the fifth
day, near the Susiad rocks5 which separate Susiana from Persis
or Fars. The difficult defile at the foot of Kal'eh Sefid, about
1 Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. xv.
2 Quint. Curt, lib. V, cap. iii ; but Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. xvii, calls
the commander Craterus.
3 Quint. Curt, lib. V, cap. iii.
4 Baron de Bode's Notice in Royal Geographical Journal, vol. XIII,
pp. 108-112.
5 Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. xv, p. 541 ; Quint. Curt, lib. V, cap. iv.

300 ALEXANDER FORCES THE PERSIAN GATES. [CHAP. X.
four miles eastward of Fa'ilioun, no doubt represents the Uxian
narrow, and the Persian Gates, whose great natural strength
had been increased by art ; and moreover they were occupied
by a strong force under the Satrap Ariobarzanes.1
He experi- A determined attack was made on these defences next morn-
from theCUxU. inS '¦> but as the assailants were exposed to bowmen, darters, and
machines, placed on the heights commanding each side of this
narrow defile, and being at the same time vigorously opposed
in front, Alexander was at length forced to retire. Success,
however, was only delayed ; for, on learning that some difficult
paths led through the mountains, one of those plans of attack
was speedily formed which so often lead to successful results.2
Taking the most laborious and difficult part of the enter
prise, Alexander proceeded that very night at the head of a
chosen body of light troops, and having, by extraordinary
rapidity in passing over the most difficult ground, surprised
three outposts in succession, he finally succeeded in getting
round to the rear ofthe Persian camp about daybreak; and on
the trumpets announcing this success to the rest of the army,
Craterus, as had been concerted, simultaneously attacked the
opposite extremity of the pass. The enemy being now completely
surprised by Alexander's manoeuvre, effectual resistance was in
vain; some fled from Alexander to Craterus, whilst others
Capture of the attempted to escape from Craterus towards Alexander, and in
im,ui «.(. . ^-g nejpiess situation a large proportion of the defenders were
cut to pieces ; but Ariobarzanes, with great intrepidity, made
his way towards Persepolis at the head of a few horse.3 Fresh
exertions being necessary in consequence, Alexander continued
the march without giving his troops a moment's repose, and
finding that Philotas, who with admirable forethought, and
knowledge of the country, had been previously detached for
this purpose, had already prepared a flying bridge, the Araxes,
1 Forty thousand foot and 700 horse, Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. xviii. ; but only
25,000 foot and 300 horse, according to Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. xv,
p. 541.
2 Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. xviii. ; Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. xv. ; and
Quint. Curt, lib. V, cap. iv.
3 Compare Quint. Curt, lib. V, cap. iv, with Diod. Sic, lib. XVII,
cap. xv, p. 542, and Arrian, lib. Til, cap. xviii.

CHAP. X.] PERSEPOLIS TAKEN AND SACKED. 301
now the Band-emir, was crossed ; and, hurrying onward with
the cavalry, Alexander reached Persepolis in time to anticipate March to
the plunder of the royal treasury, which he privately knew ersep01
from Tiridates, the governor, was intended by the Persians.
The city was devastated in the most remorseless manner,
with the exception of the palace and citadel. The former
was occupied by Alexander himself, and in the latter he found
the prodigious amount of 120,000 talents,1 near 27,120,000^.
sterling. The scarped rock immediately behind the grand plateau is
evidently the remains of the acropolis,2 and the position of its
sepulchral excavations, at some distance above the ground,
without a regular entrance, agrees with that of the tombs of the.
kings in the royal mountain, in which the bodies were placed,
probably by machines, and in which there were excavations
suited for the treasure.3 The ruins on the adjoining plain seem Euins of Pa-
to have been those of Pasargada, but probably the second city sarga a'
of this name. From the other Pasargada, which was founded
by Cyrus, and now surrendered by Gobares with 6,000 talents,4
being separately mentioned, it may be inferred that it was at
some distance from the existing capital, and therefore, possibly,
it coincides with the Persagadis ( Qu. Farsa-Gerd ?) and the
tomb of Cyrus, now the Mesjid-f-Madreh Suleiman on the
plains of Murgh-ab,5 about twenty-three miles north-eastward of
Persepolis, which was opened by Alexander, on his return from
India.6 That knowledge of the countries to be passed, for which Halt at Perse-
Alexander was so remarkable, induced him to halt four months j^ctTonof the
Cosscei, &c.
1 Quint. Curt, lib. V, cap. v. ; Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. xviii. ;
Justin, lib. XL, cap. xiv.
2 Rex Arcem Persepolis, Quint. Curt, lib. V, cap. vi.
8 See above, vol. I, pp. 73, 210, and Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. xvi.
4 Cyrus Persagadum urbem condiderat, quam Alexandre prsefectus ejus
Gobares tradidit. — Quint. Curt, lib. V, cap. vi.
5 Since the above was written, the inscription, which is five times re
peated on the pilasters at Murgh-ab, viz., Adam Qurus' k'hs'aya-piya,
Hakhamani'siya, has been translated, Ego Cyrus, rex Achsemenius. —
Memoires de laSociete Royale des Antiquaires du Nord, Copenhagen, 1844,
p. 422.
6 Quint. Curt, lib. V, cap. i.

302

PURSUIT OF DARIUS TO ECBATANA.

[chap. X.

at Persepolis, in order to escape the severity of a Persian
winter. During the earlier part of this inclement season he
subjected the Cossoei, Mardi, &c. ; but want of active occupa
tion subsequently led to the most unpardonable scenes of
revelry and excess, during one of which, at the instigation of
Thais, an Athenian courtesan, and whilst in a state of ebriety,
he threw the first torch into the splendid palace of Xerxes and
his father Darius.1
Darius pre- ^ appears that, on reaching Ecbatana, Darius commenced
pares for war. preparations for another struggle in Media, Parthia, Bactria,
&c, and on the side of Greece also, where the timely employ
ment of 300 talents had induced the Athenians and Lacedae
monians to make war upon the Macedonians, &c. ; but as
Alexander had succeeded in the main object of providing for
the continuation of the war by securing the treasures of
Darius,2 the mass of which was safely deposited in the citadel
of Susa, he was not disposed to give his enemy more time to
mature his plans. Therefore, leaving the heavy baggage to
follow, he commenced his march towards Media before the
¦ whiter had quite terminated.
On the twelfth day he learnt that the confederate republics
had been successful, and that the intelligence of the defeat of
the Lacedaemonians had deterred the Cadusians and Scythians
from sending assistance ; and Darius being in consequence
unable to keep the field had quitted Ecbatana, taking with
him 3,000 horse, 6,000 foot, and 7,000 talents; and three
days later Alexander occupied the summer palace of the luxu
rious monarchs of Persia. During this halt Alexander's army
was reinforced by 5,000 foot and 1,000 Greek horse, with a
much larger barbarian force, which the Greeks also raised.
Being thus strengthened, and having ample funds, Alexander
1 The hachis, or grand hall of reception, appears to have been commenced
by the latter and finished by the former monarch. — Quint. Curt, lib. V,
cap. i. ; Memoires des Antiquaires du Nord. Copenhagen, 1844, pp. 353,
361, 363, 364.
2 These, including the remains of the spoils of Lydia, which Cyrus con
veyed to Ecbatana, amounted to 445,000 talents, or nearly 90,570,000/.
sterling (Hales' Analysis of Chronology, &c, vol. I, p. 215) ; for, as foretold,
Dan, chap. XI, v. 2, the fourth king was to be richer than they all : " by his
strength through his riches he shall stir up all against the realm of Grecia."

Reinforce
ments join
Alexander at
Ecbatana.

civic sent

CHAP. X.J ALEXANDER PASSES THE CASPIAN GATES. 303
was in a condition to realize the hopes given in the outset to The
his followers ; and in so doing he well knew how to increase home*8
his influence as a general, and at the same time augment his
power as a sovereign. Accordingly he declared that the civic
Grecian troops were released from the obligation of further
service ; giving, as a recompense for their bravery and good
conduct, a donation of about 400,000^. sterling ; but he added
it was open to all to continue to share his glory and fortune.
These, as might be expected, after such unexampled successes
and liberality, were very numerous ; the others proceeded to
Phoenicia to embark for Euboea.
With a view to active operations, Harpalus, with the remains
of the treasure and 6,000 Macedonian foot, was left at Ecba
tana, and Parmenio being directed to lead the mercenary
troops through the territory of the Cadusians into Hyreania,
Alexander resumed the pursuit of Darius. Speed being of Pursuit of
more consequence than numbers, a select body, consisting of anus-
the royal companions, some Agrians, a few bowmen, and mer
cenary horse, advanced from Ecbatana, probably by the line
of the present capital of Teheran, to Bhagae; accomplishing
the distance of about 250 miles with' such speed, that many of
the infantry who could not support the fatigue were left behind,
and numbers of horses died from fatigue.
Finding that Darius had abandoned the Caspian Gates (one
day's march eastward), Alexander halted to collect his troops,
and was joined by some of the army of Darius.
On the sixth day, Alexander marched to the Caspian Gates, Darius carried
where he learnt from Bagistanes, a Babylonian, and other fugi- DyTis^fficere.
tives, that Darius had been the victim of a conspiracy, and was
now conducted as a prisoner by the usurper Bessus, and his
coadjutors the satraps of Arachosia and Aria.1 Commise
rating, probably for the first time, the unhappy situation of the
king, Alexander was soon in pursuit, at the head of some of his
light troops, > provided with two days' provisions, and followed
bv the main body with the heavy armed, &c, under Craterus.
Long and very rapid marches are amongst the most remark
able circumstances connected with the campaigns of this
1 Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. xxi.

304

PURSUIT AND DEATH OF DARIUS.

[CHAP. X.

, Alexander
pursues the
conspirators.

Death and
character of
Darius.

prince of warriors, and none were more extraordinary than the
present. It appears to have been continued without interrup
tion during the afternoon and succeeding night ; and, after a
short repose the following noon, it was continued throughout
the next night, when at daybreak Alexander reached the place
where Bagistanes had left the satraps. Here he learnt that
Bessus was not far in advance, conducting the royal captive in
a covered chariot. Although the troops were almost exhausted
they made fresh exertions, and about the following noon
reached a village which the satraps had only quitted the pre
ceding evening. Another effort, therefore, might crown Alex
ander's wishes, and on this he determined. In order to secure
the services of part of the phalanx, 500 of this body were
mounted on cavalry horses, with whom, and the rest of the
horse, Alexander hastened onward without allowing any re
pose. Leaving the dismounted men with the remainder of his
troops to follow by the ordinary road, he took a direct line
across the desert, and next morning, at daylight, after having
marched about 175 miles in rather less than four days, he dis
covered the enemy escaping in a disorderly manner.1
Finding that Alexander gained upon them, notwithstanding
their efforts to hurry on the chariot, Satibarzanes and Bar-
zasntes fled in company with Bessus, after grievously wounding
their prisoner; and before Alexander reached the spot, the
unfortunate king had already expired by the road-side, probably
somewhere in the plain country near Dhamahan.
Whether the prodigious efforts made by Alexander were to
complete the fall of Darius or display a tardy generosity cannot
now be known, but his remains, after being embalmed by
order of Alexander, and under the superintendence of the
queen-mother, were deposited in the usual place of sepulture
of the royal family, with all the pomp and ceremony belonging
to the sovereign of Persia.2 The eventful career of Darius
terminated in the fifth year of his reign and the fiftieth of his
age. His talents and disposition were admirably suited to
adorn private life, and under other circumstances he probably
1 Compare Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. xxi, with Quint. Curt, lib. V, cap. xiii.
2 Quint. Curt, ibid.

CHAP. X.J INVASION OF HYRCANIA, THE MARDI, ETC. 305
would have been equally distinguished as the head of a great
empire : even Arrian, who was not very favourable to him,
says that he never attempted any invasion upon the rights of
his subjects.1
Soon after the murder of Darius, Alexander proceeded to
the ancient capital of Parthia, Hecatompylos, which appears to
have been at no great distance ; where, having concentrated
his scattered troops, he marched to the borders of Parthia,2
and after a little time descended from the elevated plateau to
invade Hyrcania, now the low marshy tract of Mazanderan.
In order to subdue several mountain tribes at the same time, Alexander
Alexander marched in three divisions : Erigyius led the main Tapuri!
force along the royal road towards Zadracarta, the modern
Saree;3 another under Craterus, with the carriages and heavy
baggage, made a circuit to the west through the territories of
the Tapuri (Taberistan) ; the third, under the king, crossed
by the shortest and most difficult path,4 and being reunited in
the plains of Hyrcania, the whole marched to Zadracarta,
where the satrap of Tapuria, and other chiefs, came to transfer
their allegiance from Darius to Alexander.
Perhaps no prince better understood the consolidation of his Alexander's
conquests than Alexander; he rewarded the fidelity of the the followers
aged Artabazus and his sons to Darius, by places of honour of Danus-
about his own person ; the satrapy of the Tapuri was continued
to Autophradates, with the addition of the adjoining territory
of the Mardians. The. rough and mountainous country of this
people was now invaded and subjected for the first time, chiefly
by means of a troop of darters, raised and organized after
the matchless equestrian warriors of Parthia.5
Public games, and Alexander's growing inclination to give
way to the luxuries of Zadracarta, were interrupted by intelli
gence from Bactria, that Bessus had formally claimed the
sovereignty of Asia, assuming the title of Artaxerxes.
1 Lib.. Ill, cap. xxii. 2 Quint. Curt, lib. VI, cap. iv.
3 From the position of the Tapuri, and the other routes taken, the junction
of the three corps would have been in this neighbourhood.
*• Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. xxiii.
5 Compare Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. xxiii, xxiv, with Quint. Curt, lib. VI,
cap. iv, v., and Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. xix, xx.
VOL. II. x

306 MARCH THROUGH PARTHIA TO DRANGIANA. [CHAP. X.-
Being resolved to prevent the murderer of Darius from ob
taining his throne, Alexander immediately marched by the
shorter route along the southern slopes of the Elburz chain,
passed the confines of Parthia, and reached Susia,1 a city of
Aria, about 550 2 miles from Zadracarta. Although one of the
murderers of Darius, Satibarzanes was pardoned on his submis
sion ; and Alexander having sent him back with distinction to
the seat of his government,3 hastened his march towards
Bactria, in order to anticipate the auxiliaries expected from
Scythia.
Flank march Shortly afterwards, Alexander having learnt that the Mace-
to Artacoana. J ' °
donian guard of honour had been put to death, and that Sati
barzanes was raising troops to support the pretensions of Bessus,.
his former accomplice, made a retrogade, or rather a flank
movement ; and taking with him a light division, he marched
seventy-five miles4 in two days to Artacoana, but the satrapi
had already fled from his capital, having been deserted by most
of his followers. The position of this city, afterwards Alexan
dria, which was near, or at Herat in Aria, opened another and
more convenient route into Bactriana, but the hostile disposi^
tion manifested elsewhere, obliged Alexander to remain on the
southern side of the Paropamisus ; and he marched against
Barzaentes, the satrap of Drangiana. Like his coadjutor Sati
barzanes, he fled towards the borders of India; but being
Execution of arrested and sent back, Alexander caused him to be executed
Barzsentes. „ , . , „ , . . .
for the muraer ot his sovereign.
The route taken towards the Drangee, or more properly
Zarangaei, meaning the inhabitants of the country round the
lake of that name, was nearly southwards to Furrah, probably
representing Phra, and it is a distance of 199 miles6 to Proph-
thasia,7 now supposed to be Peshawarun, which is situated on
1 Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. xxv.
2 By the longer route, or the northern side of the Elburz chain, it is
about 665 miles from Saree to Fyzabad, near the presumed site of Susia.
3 Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. xxv.
4 Six hundred stadia. — Ibid.
s Ibid.
6 Pliny, lib. VI, cap. xvii.
7 Vol. I, p. 168.

CHAP. X.] CONSPIRACY OF PHIL0TAS : ADVANCE TO ARACHOSIA. 307
the northern side of lake Zerrah.1 The halt at this place became
memorable in consequence of the execution of Philotas,2 who
was prosecuted by the king himself; and sentence being
passed by a jury of Macedonians, he was executed on the spot.
The acquittal of Amyntas on this occasion favours the belief
that the guilt of Alexander's most intimate and favoured friend
was established : it is not so clear that Parmenio, who was Death of
arraigned in his absence, and afterwards executed, deserved his
tragical fate.
After some delay, and with embittered feelings, Alexander
followed the lower part of the Etymander or Helmand river,
and he reached the district of the Ariaspae (breeders of horses),3
a quiet agricultural people of limited number ; on whom, in
return for supplies opportunely furnished to his army, Cyrus
had bestowed the honourable appellation of Evergetaa, bounti- The Ariaspa?
rr or EvergeUe.
nil or benefactors.
Being pleased with a state of civilization, which this people
had preserved, owing to their isolated and almost insular situ
ation, which was formed by the lake Zerrah and two rivers,
Alexander declared them free, offering them an increase of ter
ritory, of which however they only availed themselves to a
limited extent.5
Eesuming his march he received the submission of the Ge- Submission of
drosi and the Arachosi. The capital of the latter territory6 is and Arachosi.
supposed to have been in the Ghilziyeh country, not far to the
south-eastward of Kandahar, or Alexandropolis, and at a place
now named U'lan Bobat,7 or Shahri-Zohak.8 The distance
1 Ariana Antiqua, by H. H. Wilson, M.A. F.R.S. p. 154.
2 Compare Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. xxvi. Quint. Curt, lib. VI, cap. vii,
viii, with Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. xxiv.
3 Supposed to be derived from the Indian word 'Aryaswa. — Ariana
Antiqua, by H. H. Wilson, M.A, F.R.S, London, 1841.
4 Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. xxvii. ; Quint. Curt, lib. VII, cap. iii. ; and
Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. xxiv.
5 Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. xxvii.
6 Arachosiorum Oppidum. — Plin, lib. VI, cap. xvii.
7 Not Deh Zangee, the Huzarah capital, as stated, by mistake, p. 169,
vol. I.
8 Major Rawlinson's Letter from Kandahar, vol. XII, pp. 112, 113, ot
Royal Geographical Journal.
x 2

308

DEATH OF SATIBARZANES.

[CHAP. X.

Comparative
distances.

Death of
Satibarzanes.

Pursuit of
Bessus.

The great
chain of the
Paropamisus.

thither from Peshawarun, in a direct line, approaches 300
miles ; but including the circuit made to the territory of the
Gedrosians, it probably would be about 460 miles, which would'
coincide with the 4,600 stadia given by Eratosthenes,1 and
approaches the 515 Boman miles of Pliny.2
The adjacent territory of the Indi who had sent back Bar-
zaentes, ' next engaged the attention of Alexander, notwith
standing the mountainous nature of the country and the deep
snows of this tract, which corresponds with the rugged district
around Ghiznf or Ghazne'in.3 Intelligence having been brought
of the irruption of Satibarzanes at the head of some Bactrian
cavalry, and, at the same time, of another revolt of the Arians,
for once an important service was entrusted to others, namely,
two Persians and two Macedonians, who, being despatched
with an adequate force, succeeded, after a well-contested battle,
in which Satibarzanes was killed, in dispersing the Arians ; and
the great barrier of the Paropamisus was now almost the only
protection left to Bessus.
. The grand object of Alexander being thus accomplished, of
securing his rear by subjecting the tribes southward ofthe great
chain, he prepared, notwithstanding the physical difficulties
of the country, to pursue Bessus with nearly the whole of his
forces, which had just been augmented by the troops lately com
manded by Parmenio ; as well as reinforcements from Greece,
and 30,000 eastern youths, who were to be trained to arms
in the Macedonian manner.4
The army marched 2,000 stadia5 to Karura, or Kabura, the
Ortospana of Strabo,6 and onward from thence till they halted
at the root of the vast chain, here called the Paropamisus,7 but
westward bearing, as has been seen, at different places, the
names of the Elburz, the Masula, and the Taurus. It may be
1 P. 175, Ariana Antiqua, by H. H. Wilson, M.A, F.R.S, London,
1841. 2 Lib. VI, cap. xvii.
8 Ariana Antiqua, p. 178, and above, vol. I, p. 169.
4 Plut. in vita Alex.
5 Stated to be 250 Roman miles.— Plin, lib. VI, cap. xvii.
8 Lib. XI, p. 514, and vol. XII, p. 113, of Royal Geographical Journal.
7 Vol. I, pp. 161, 172.

CHAP. X.] INDIAN TRADE KNOWN TO ALEXANDER. 309
followed for a distance of 1,950 geographical miles, namely,
from the shores of the Propontis, through lesser and greater
Asia; till, under the names of the Hindu Kush and Himalaya,1
it forms the water-shed between India and Chinese Tartary.
Bearing the name of the Yun Ling mountains, it runs north
eastward through China Proper, and finally, as the Kinghan
or Siolki chain, it traverses Mongolia in the same direction,
till it unites with the stupendous Altai, in about fifty degrees
north latitude, and before the latter terminates on the shores
ofthe Northern Pacific.
As the inquiring mind of the great conqueror is not likely Alexander's
to bave neglected the sources of information at his coihmand, knowledge of
there is every reason to conclude that Alexander was not only
aware of the vast length of the great chain at which he had
now arrived, but that he had also a general knowledge of the
extensive regions by which it is traversed. Whilst in Phoenicia,
Alexander had a full opportunity of ascertaining particulars
regarding the Indian trade. Indeed, his letter sent with a
present of frankincense and myrrh to his former tutor, of itself
establishes this fact ;2 while the construction of the Syrian, and
afterwards of the Egyptian Alexandria, may be taken as a
further proof how much his attention had long been turned to
this subject. Thus the products of the East afforded the means
of carrying out, or rather of renewing the lucrative trade of the
Phoenicians, which, as has been seen,3 extended to the most
distant parts of the world.
The plains northward of the great Asiatic chain were tra- ^^throu j,
versed by the two eastern caravan routes ; both, as will be Persia, &c.
more fully described in the xvinth Chapter, converging
upon Balkh, from whence another double line conveyed the
goods westward. Part rounded the Caspian, and the remainder
traversed Persia, towards the Mediterranean Sea. The latter
line was more particularly connected with Phoenicia, to which
territory the sea-trade between China and the Persian Gulf
1 Vol. I, pp. 72, 73, 74, and 284 to 294.
a See above, p. 282.
' Ibid, p. 128, et seq.

310 EASTERN PHILOSOPHY CULTIVATED. [CHAP. X.
was also directed. This, as has been seen, passed through
Arabia.1 The earlier intercourse between Europe and the East was not,
however, by any means, confined to the passage of merchants
and their followers from one region to another. Philosophy
and letters were, from the remotest times, diligently cultivated
in Egypt and the East ; and between the eighth and third cen-
Thaies and turies before Christ, learned men, Pittacus, Thales, Herodotus,
others seek
instruction in and others from the West, frequently sought instruction on the
Jl banks of the Nile, as well as in the more distant region of
I 'ran. Erom the writings of Herodotus, the voyage of Scylax
must have been well known to Alexander.
The central situation of Iran connected that region on the
one hand with India and China, and with the western countries
on the other. At a very remote period, woven silk, furs, and
the best kind of iron, reached the latter by the route of Persia.2
A political connection also existed between the Persians and
Indians, and a portion of the territory of the latter people was
Early use of subjected by Cyrus.3 The use of maps and plans of seas and
1 harbours in their wars against the Greeks, and particularly a
map on copper,4 attest the knowledge of geography which had
been attained by this people. The writings of Ctesias there
fore, and still more the archives of his adopted country, must
have opened a wide field to the inquiring mind of the youthful
monarch. With such materials at command, the intervals of
repose between his brilliant campaigns were not likely to be
spent in idleness; indeed, the successive movements demon
strate, in every instance, that Alexander and his engineers were
already prepared for every contingency. The barriers which
had been raised by the peculiarities and exclusiveness of an
Amaimagation eastern government, were now succeeded by a complete amal-
wesTrn"1 and gamation of races, and from this period dates the fusion of the
nations. eastern with the western countries. Persia, hitherto the
greatest kingdom of the world, was now at the feet of the
1 Vol. I, p. 124.
2 Plin, lib. XXXIV, cap. xiv.
8 Xen. Cyropsed, lib. VIII, p. 510.
4 See above, lib. V., cap. xlix.

CHAP. X.J ENTRANCE INTO BACTRIA. 311
conqueror, and furnished, not only the means of extending his
conquests, but at the same time the knowledge how they could
best be carried out.
The formidable barrier at which Alexander had now arrived
being as yet impracticable for an army, the troops, in order to
avoid the dangers of inaction and idleness, were employed in
building Alexandria ad Caucasum, which is stated to be fifty Alexandria ad
Koman miles from Ortospana ; but as it is at the same time built.
added that accounts vary,1 it may be inferred that the site in
question was at or near Beghram, the Bei'hram of the East.2
Before the snow was off the ground, Alexander entered the
mountains by the pass of Koushan, which is a little way north
west of that place, and understood to be practicable most of the
year. After fifteen days of great suffering from cold, hunger,
and . fatigue, the army reached the plains and more congenial
climate of Bactria, without opposition ; for Bessus, being unable
or unwilling to meet the invaders, had retired into Sogdiana,
and was followed by some of his allies under Spitamenes, who
burnt their boats after crossing the Oxus. The Bactrians
being dispersed, the campaign terminated with the capture of
Aorni and Bactra, the two principal cities of the province, and
here Alexander permitted those soldiers who were wounded or
otherwise disqualified to return to Europe ; he then resumed
the pursuit of the fugitive Bessus." The great and rapid river Alexander
Oxus was crossed by means of tent skins, stuffed with light oxus!
materials, and made impermeable to water; on which, partly
as rafts and partly as separate floats, the whole army, not being
Opposed, was transported across in the short space of five days.3
This bold manoeuvre decided the campaign, the daring
manner of effecting the passage producing a greater impression
than the most brilliant victory ; for Spitamenes the satrap of
Sogdiana, and Dataphernes the satrap of the Daae,4 offered to
deliver Bessus, now their prisoner, to one of Alexander's
1 Plin, lib. VI, cap. xvii.
2 Vol. I, p. 172, and vol. XII, p. 113, of Royal Geographical Journal.
3 Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. xxix ; or six days, according to Quint. Curt,
lib. VII, cap. v.
4 Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. xxix.

312 BESSUS TAKEN : ACTION NEAR THE JAXARTES. [CHAP. X.
officers ; and Ptolemy, son of Lagus, being despatched at the
head of the taxis of Philotas (100 men according to Xenophon),
and a select force, made a distance equal to ten ordinary
marches in four days, and returned with the captive. On
being brought into his presence, naked, and led by a halter,
Bessus is cap- Alexander subjected him to the further ignominy of being
treated with scourged, and then conducted to Bactra,1 or Zariaspa, to await
ignominy. his doom_ Alexander halted at Maracanda, the capital of
Sogdiana, now Samarkand, to replace the horses lost in crossing
the Caucasus, as well as to receive supplies from the rich valley
of Al Sogd, and the rest of the province ; since designated the
Miihammedan paradise of Ma-wera-1-nahr.2
All this territory, the ancient Transoxiana, had acknowledged
the authority of the conqueror; but in marching onward, arid
as he approached the northern frontier, hostilities were renewed.
In the vicinity of this river, mistaken for the Tanais, and
variously called the Araxes of Cyrus, the Orxantes,3 Jaxartes,
and Silys,4 some of the Macedonian horse, when foraging at a
distance, were surprised and slain by some of the barbarians,
about 20,000 of whom returned to their mountainous country ;
which in the absence of precise details, may be presumed to be
southward of the Jaxartes, and towards the border of the
Ferganah district. Alexander lost no time in pursuing them
thither, where he was bravely opposed by slings and arrows ;
when, after several determined attacks and severe losses, besides
receiving a dangerous wound, he succeeded in dislodging and
dispersing the enemy.5
Alexander Having been shot through the leg, and the lesser bone broken
wrLfina by an arrow, the necessary repose required for the limb, com-
utter. pelled the active-minded prince to endure the slow motion of a
litter ; and a warm contest was settled by deciding that the
infantry and cavalry should alternately have the honour of car
rying their general.
1 Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. xxx.
3 Ibn Haukal; Ouseley's translation, p. 233, ed. 1800.
8 Plin, lib. VI, cap. xvi.
* Quint. Curt, lib. VII, cap. vi, places the capital, Maracanda, beyond
the Orxantes, or Jaxartes.
5 Compare Quint. Curt, lib. VII, cap. v, with Arrian, lib. Ill, cap. xxx.

CHAP. X.] REVOLT OF THE SOGDIANS AND SCYTHIANS. 313
An embassy arrived at this period from the Scythians of Emhassy sent
Europe, and another from those of Asia, namely, the Abii, Scythians to
who are distinguished as being the most just nation upon earth.1 exan er'
Both were favourably received, without however entering into
any kind of treaty ; but with a view to the consolidation of his
conquests southward of the river Jaxartes, Alexander sum
moned the Sogdian chiefs to meet and deliberate on this
matter.2 But instead of conciliating, this step only excited the jealousy
of his new subjects; and Alexander's intention of constructing
a city on the Jaxartes being viewed with suspicion, gave the
partisans of Bessus, the Sogdians, together with many of the Revolt of the
Bactrians, and all the Scythians within the river in question, an 'Scythians, &c.
opportunity of engaging in a fresh revolt. The Scythians took
the initiative by putting to death the Macedonian troops who
were stationed within their territory ; and the whole withdrew
to certain strong places southward, probably in the district of
Ferganah. Six of these were built of that, particular material
called tapia, a kind of conglomerate ;3 but the seventh, Cyro-
polis, now Khojend, had stone walls and a citadel, with a
garrison proportionate to its great importance.
Perceiving how the mistake of the enemy in abandoning a
desultory warfare might be turned to good account, Alexander
sent Craterus to establish a complete blockade by lines of con- Blockade of
-r» • • r\ i 1 Cyropohs.
travallation at Cyropohs.4 Beginning with Gaza, whose gar
rison was put to the sword, four other towns were successively
taken, and the siege of Cyropolis was then carried on with
great vigour. During the tedious operation of preparing the
battering and other machines, Alexander, availing himself of
an unexpected opportunity, led a small party one by one into
the town, along the narrow bed of a mountain torrent which
had been neglected. The party entering in this manner,
opened the nearest gate, which admitted a sufficient force to
1 Iliad, lib. XIII, v. 6 ; and Arrian, lib. IV, cap. i.
2 Arrian, lib. IV, cap. i.
3 See above, vol. I, p. 667.
* Arrian, lib. IV, cap. ii. ; Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. xxx.
6 Probably Ghaz, at the western extremity of Ferganah.

314 PASSAGE OF THE JAXARTES : SCYTHIANS DEFEATED. [CHAP. X.
Capture ofthe carry the town. It was taken after a fierce struggle, the
town and ¦; . ... .
citadel. garrison consisting of 18,000 men ; 8,000 of these were killed,
and the rest retired to the citadel, which, for want of water,
surrendered within two days.1 The fall of this city completed
the conquest of the country ; but unfortunately the brilliancy
of Alexander's exploits was stained by his cruelty in razing
most of the towns and destroying their inhabitants.
The speed and energy of these operations disconcerted the
northern Scythians, who had arrived to co-operate just as
Cyropolis had fallen ; but, thinking they were safe, they
remained on the further side of the Jaxartes, taunting and
insulting the victors.
Exasperated by their conduct, and the interruptions they
caused in building the city, afterwards called Eschata or
Alexander Extreme,2 Alexander determined to punish them. The bold
JaxarteTand an& delicate operation of crossing a large river for this purpose,
immediately in the face of a numerous and determined enemy,
was effected by means of inflated skins for the light armed, and
large rafts for the cavalry and phalanges ; the operation being
covered by darts thrown from machines on the left bank, the
soldiers kneeling behind their bucklers, with archers, slingers,
&c, in advance, to clear the bank as they approached, the
troops being animated by peals of trumpets.
Owing to these masterly arrangements, the Scythians were
unable to maintain their position on the right bank ; and the
defeats the landing being effected, the subsequent defeat of the Scythians
in a severe struggle, forced them to sue for peace, and express
their readiness to submit to the conqueror.3 This opportune
event left Alexander free to proceed against the satrap of
Sogdia, Spitamenes, who in one inroad had destroyed a con
siderable body of Macedonians on the river Polytimetus, and
he was now about to make another to renew the siege of Mara
canda. 1 Arrian, lib. IV, cap. i. ; Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. xxx.
2 Probably the modern Aderkand or Uzkend, on the Jaxartes, near the
eastern end of Ferganah district. — Edrisi, vol. VI, pp.205, 210, 211;
Recueil de Voyages et Memoires, &c, Societe de Geo, ed. Jaubert.
3 Quint. Curt, lib. VII, cap. viii., ix. ; Arrian, lib. IV, cap. iv, v.

Scythians.

CHAP. X.] STATE OF THE COUNTRY. 315
A rapid march of about 1,500 stadia made in three days,1
anticipated the latter operation; Spitamenes retreated, and
Alexander, after causing the country near the banks of the
Polytimetus or Kohik river2 to be devastated, and leaving some
of the Sogdians still in arms, took up his winter quarters in
Zariaspa or Bactra.3
While in this city, Alexander ordered Bessus to be muti- Alexander's
lated previously to being sent to Ecbatana ; where, agreeably Bessus. '°
to the laws of the Medes and Persians, he was made to suffer a
cruel death.4 Here also 20,000 men joined the army from
Greece, but this number scarcely replaced the losses sustained
during the preceding difficult marches ; and they were urgently
needed in order to maintain the conquests already made north
ofthe Paropamisus.
After crossing this great chain, Alexander found himself in state of the
different circumstances from those in which he had previously peopled a°
been. Southward, where a portion of the people defended
the peaceable artizans and manufacturers who composed the
mass of the inhabitants, the submission of the whole country
naturally followed the loss, of one or two battles. But north
ward, where, as herdsmen and husbandmen, all the inhabitants
of a country were necessarily warriors, one defeat only led the
way to another attempt to regain their cherished liberty. It is
not therefore surprising, that whilst Alexander was preparing
for his ulterior operations, the Sogdians, who occupied different Revolt of the
• t-» i i i Sogdians.
strongholds,5 again rose against Peucolaus, the satrap whom he
had appointed.
As this circumstance interfered with the execution of his
plans, Alexander, to avoid the delay which must be the con
sequence of besieging several places successively, determined to
employ at once the whole of his army on this service ; with
the exception of a small force which was left to watch the Detached
Bactrians, who had also manifested a disposition to rebel. amy?8 ° *
Alexander himself marched towards Maracanda, whilst four
1 Arrian, lib. IV, cap. vi. ; Quint. Curt, lib. VII, cap. x, says, having
made a great distance in four days.
2 Which passes near Samarkand. * Pliny, lib. V, cap. xviii.
4 Quint. Curt, lib. VII, cap. x. 5 Arrian, lib. IV, cap. xv, xvii.

316 OPERATIONS NORTH OF THE PAROPAMISUS. [CHAP. X.
other divisions under Hephaestion, Ptolemy son of Lagus,
Perdiccas, and- Ccenus were successful elsewhere ;T all having
had the easy task of reducing cities, instead of being obliged
to overcome the ordinary but more formidable desultory warfare
Alexander 0f the Sogdians. Alexander took up his winter quarters at
tv inters tit
Nautaka. Nautaka,2 in Sogdiana, now Karshi and the first city beyond
the Oxus ; but that period did not pass in total inactivity. The
ever-active Spitamenes seized this opportunity to make an
inroad at the head of some Sogdians and Massagetse towards
ajs0' 329 10 bactria, where he revenged himself by killing several of the
corps called companions, and a good many mercenary horse,
before he was expelled by Alexander in person.
ofCSprtamenes. He made a fresh attempt afterwards, by attacking Gabse, or
Bagse, on the river Oxus ; where he was defeated by Ccenus
the satrap, with consequences which are characteristic of the
state of the country at that time ; for his Bactrian and Scythian
followers seized this opportunity to make their peace, by sending
the head of Spitamenes as a peace offering to Alexander.3
With this chief terminated the long-continued warfare in the
plains of Bactria and Sogdiana ; but in the remoter parts of
the latter territory, and also in the adjoining province of
Paraetacene, some strongholds were still occupied, one of which
in the sequel proved to be peculiarly difficult to Alexander
himself. Oxyartes, the Bactrian chief, whilst keeping the field,
had placed his family with some of his own people and a party
of Sogdians, on a rock-girt fort in the Sogdian mountains;
which, being amply provisioned and almost inaccessible, was
deemed altogether impregnable. Invited, and as usual stimu
lated by its difficulties, Alexander reached, and summoned the
place whilst it was still deeply covered with snow ; and the
scoffing reply that they only feared winged soldiers, gave
Surprise and additional interest to the enterprise. A daring plan being
Oxyarta. speedily formed to attempt what appeared to be impossible,
Alexander promised ten talents to the first who should reach
the summit of the rock, nine talents to the second, and smaller
sums, ending with 300 darics, to the last ; 300 of the most
1 Arrian, lib. IV, cap. xv. ; and Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. xxxiii.
2 Arrian, lib. IV, cap. xviii. 3 Ibid.

CHAP. X.] CAPTURE OF THE HILL FORT OF OXYARTA. 317
expert in clambering rocks were selected to make an attempt
on one particular side, which was so high and so precipitous,
that, as Alexander probably was aware, it was considered unne
cessary to keep watch there. By aiding one another, and by Manner of
the assistance of short ropes with iron wedge-pins driven into ?hTrockf
the ice and crevices of the rocks, the men finally reached the
summit before daybreak, after prodigious exertions and the loss
of thirty or thirty-two of their number, who slipped and were
killed during the perilous undertaking.
Assured of their success by seeing the concerted signal of
long pieces of linen waving from the summit, to imitate the
motion of wings, Alexander, preparatory to an assault against
the less precipitous part of the position, sent another summons,
announcing that his winged soldiers had gained the summit of
the rock ; and the surprise and consternation were so great in
consequence, that the garrison immediately surrendered. This
singular post, which is called by Quintius Curtius the rock of
Arimazes,1 and Sysimithres by Strabo, is supposed to be repre
sented by Kurghan-Tippa on the Oxus.2 Amongst the captives
were the family of Oxyartes ; one of whom was, by this accident,
destined to become the bride of the conqueror. Next to the
queen of Darius, the celebrated Boxana was considered to be
the loveliest woman in the East ; and as she made a deep
impression on Alexander,3 an alliance so likely to further his Alexander
ambitious projects was speedily completed. As might have been Roxana.
expected, it was followed by the submission of Oxyartes himself;
and, as will presently be seen, it led to that of another formidable
chieftain. The expedition into Margiana appears to have followed this Expedition
success, the conqueror directing his march south-westward intoMargiana"
from the Oxus towards the fertile district in question, in which
he afterwards built the city of Alexandria, subsequently called
Seleucia, afterwards Antiochia Margiana,5 and now the consider-
1 Lib. VII, cap. xi.
2 Ariana Antiqua, by Professor Wilson, M.A, F.E.S, p. 167, London,
1841. 3 Arrian, lib. IV, cap. xix. * Ibid, cap. xx.
•"' Vol. I, p. 173, and Quint. Curt, lib. VII, cap. x.

318

INVASION OF MARGIANA.

[chap. X.

Rock of
Chorienes be-

Capitulationof the fort.

Murder of
Clitus.

B. C. 327.

able town of Merw-el-Bud on the river Murgh-ab.1 He marched
to the Ochus or Tedjen, and crossed into the territory of the
Parsetacse ; in which was the rock of Chorienes,2 a still more
formidable hill fort than that of Oxyartes. The circumference
at the bottom was about two miles ; there was only one ascent,
by a narrow and difficult winding approach of more than a
mile long, and a deep and difficult ravine separated the rock
from the only rising ground from whence it might be assailed
with any prospect of success. Alexander determined to avail
himself of the latter, and to effect a communication with the
fort. In order to shorten the period of the siege by multiplying
the hours of employment on the proposed gigantic undertaking,
the army was divided, one-half working by day, and the other
half in three watches by night ; the troops erecting, under Alex
ander's personal superintendence, covered galleries one above
another, with the protection of wooden towers. At first the
attempt was ridiculed, but when its gradual approach brought
the besieged within reach of the Macedonian darts on the
same level, Chorienes requested to see Oxyartes.3 The latter
entered the place accordingly, and by dwelling upon the resist
less power and matchless generosity of Alexander, Chorienes
was induced to send his submission before any serious impression
had been made. As Alexander had previously crossed the
Tedjen,4 this place was probably situated a little way from the
south-eastern extremity of the Caspian Sea.
The cold season being now at hand, Alexander, most unfor
tunately for his character and peace of mind, determined to
winter at Zariaspa, where, at one of the revels to which he was
now unhappily addicted, he murdered Clitus. The grief caused
by the fatal result of his ungovernable rage on this occasion,
required to be dissipated by new conquests, which were destined
to open the little known but wealthy regions of India, for the
benefit of mankind.
Leaving 10,000 foot and 1,500 horse under Amyntas,5 to

1 Within a bow-shot.— Recueil de Geographie, &c, tome V.
Paris, 1836, Edrisi, ed. Jaubert.
2 Arrian, lib. IV, cap. xxi. a Ibid.
4 Quint. Curt, lib. VII, cau. x. ' Ibid, cap. xxii.

p. 466,

CHAP. X.J CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE ASPII, ETC. 319
protect the territory northward of the Caucasus, Alexander
marched with an army of about 120,000 men ; and, in ten days
from Drepsa or Drapsaca, probably Anderab or Inderab,1 he
reached Alexandria ad Caucasum, and proceeded to Ortospana,
in order to resume the more direct, and easier route towards
Central India, along the southern slopes of the Paropamisus,
from which he had diverged in pursuit of Bessus. Having
entrusted the Paropamisan satrapy to Tyriaspes, he marched Alexander
on Nikaaa and the Kophen. This appears to have been the wards'thf'
Kabul river, or rather its northern branch, which directly Indus-
crossed Alexander's line of march, and is formed by the junction
of the Tagao and Punjshir affluents. At the crossing place of
the Kophen, previously to its junction with the southern branch
and flowing eastward, Taxiles, and other Indian princes, brought
presents to Alexander, offering to him the use of their elephants.
Hephaestion and Perdiccas proceeded from hence by the direct
route, and having, after a siege of thirty days, taken the capital
ofthe refractory king of the Peukelaotis2 (possibly Peshawur),
their march was continued, in order that they might prepare a
bridge of boats for the passage of the Indus by the main body.3
Alexander conducted the latter by a more northern route
over difficult mountain paths towards the river Khoes,4 beyond
which he was advancing against the Aspii, the Thrysei, and
the Arssei,5 at the head of some cavalry and 800 heavy -armed
infantry (mounted). He was moving with his usual over
confident daring, when the inhabitants of one of the towns,
probably the Aspics, were tempted by his small force to meet
him in the field ; but by a vigorous attack in which Alexander Alexander is
Was wounded, they were driven within their twofold walls,
which being carried, the Macedonians, to revenge the wound
received by the king, and their brave resistance, gave no
1 The position given by Edrisi of Anderab or Inderab, with respect to Ba-
raian and other places near the Paropamisus, seems to coincide with Drapsaca.
— Pp. 475, 477, tome V, Recueil de Voyages et Memoires, &c, ed. Jaubert.
2 Arrian, lib. IV, cap. xxii. ; Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. xii.
8 Quint. Curt, lib. VIII, cap. ix.
4 Probably the Kama or Kooner river. — Memoir on the Marches of Alex
ander, by M. Court, Journal of As. Soe, Bom, vol. VIII, p. 306.
5 Arrian, lib. IV, cap. xxiii.

320

CATTLE SENT FROM INDIA TO GREECE. [CHAP. X.

to the moun
tains,

Defeat of the
Indians.

quarter to the flying inhabitants, and Alexander completed this
atrocity by destroying the town.1
Intimidated by its fate, Andaka,2 the next place, surrendered
on the approach of Alexander, who continuing his march towards
the Euaspla river, the inhabitants of the capital of the Aspii
TheAspiifly burnt their city, and fled to the mountains. Here a battle
followed, in which the Indian chief was killed, and Alexander
continued his inarch over the rest of the mountains to Arigaeum,
which had likewise been burnt and deserted by the inhabitants.
Alexander appointed Craterus to rebuild the place, and en
courage the inhabitants to return and form a settlement ;3 but
as the spirit of the people had survived their capital, it was
necessary to reduce a strong fort in the mountains to which
they had removed with their cattle. Against this, therefore*
Alexander marched his forces. Ptolemy and Leonatus com
manded two divisions, the third and smallest was conducted
by the king towards the principal body of the enemy. This
circumstance led to the victory ; for the Indians despising his
limited force came down to meet him in the plain, where skill
and science speedily overcame an irregular mass, and about
40,000 souls, with a prodigious quantity of cattle, were the
fruits of the victory." Finding the cattle of extraordinary
strength, activity, and endurance, with the advantage of being
easily fattened, Alexander, notwithstanding the difficulty of
transporting these animals not less than 2,600 miles by land,
ordered a selection to be sent to Macedonia to improve the
European breed, and the hump is found on the cattle in Greece
to this day.
Following up the position which he claimed as the successor
of Darius, the country of the inoffensive Assakenes was his next
object. Perceiving that their boundary, the rapid Guzseus or
Euaspla (apparently the Lundye river), with a bottom com
posed of round stones, offered no impediment, and that the
invaders were crossing in regular order, the enemy fled to their
towns without attempting to obstruct' the passage, and Alexander
1 Arrian, lib. IV, cap. xxiv. ; Diod. Sic , lib. XVII, cap. xii.
2 Arrian, lib. IV, cap. xxiii. ; or Alaidera, Quint. Curt, lib. VIII, cap. x.
a Arrian, lib. IV, cap. xxiv. " Ibid, cap. xxiv, xxv.

Alexander
sends cattle
into Europe,

CHAP. X.] MAZAGA TAKEN, AND THE PEOPLE PUT TO THE SWORD. 32 1
with a small force speedily encamped before the walls of the
capital. The inhabitants of Mazaga, assisted by 7,000 Indian
mercenaries, and confident in superior numbers, immediately
sallied forth to attack Alexander, who, having led his troops
away from the town, and being pursued with little order, sud- Defeat of the
denly faced about and drove them within the walls with loss. Mazaga.
Battering engines were then brought against the walls, but,
though a practicable breach was made, three determined assaults
on different days failed ; and in one of these Alexander was
wounded in the leg and arm. The result of a fourth attempt
was still doubtful, when in consequence of the death of the
Indian chief, the mercenaries in his pay sent a proposal to
Alexander to capitulate ; and having agreed that the town was
to be surrendered on condition of passing into his service, the
mercenaries marched out and encamped on a bill near the
Macedonians. On the alleged ground that they intended to cruelty and
desert from their new engagement during the night, they were Alexander0
surrounded by the Macedonians soon after dark ; and besides p°oa,reds0fhe
committing the atrocity of putting all to the sword in cold blood, Mazaga.
Alexander took possession of the city with as little scruple, as
if there had been no capitulation.1 Mazaga, or Mazoga, would
appear to have been a little way eastward of the Lundye river,
or its principal affluent the Suvat ; probably the former, as it
flows nearly parallel to the Kabul river, which was his line of
march. Against Bazira and Ora, two of their towns near the Indus,
which had not been intimidated by the fate of the capital, he
sent two of his officers. Aldatus speedily took the former;2 Capture of
and beginning to despair of being able to defend their position 0r^iraaD"
in the latter, although it was stronger, the Bizareans, accom
panied by some of the surrounding population, retired to the
celebrated rock of Aornos, which was of a pyramidal form,
almost inaccessible, and was deemed altogether impregnable.
As a bridge had been constructed over the Indus, and the ter
ritory westward of that river was now reduced to quiet subjec
tion, Aornos only excepted, Alexander collected magazines for
1 Arrian, lib. IV, cap. xxvii. ; Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. xliii.
2 Arrian, lib. IV, cap. xxvii. ; Quint. Curt, lib. VIII, cap. x.
VOL. II. Y

322

SIEGE OF THE ROCK OF AORNOS.

[chap. X.

Blockade of
the rock of
Aornos.

Repulse of
Alexander.

a protracted blockade, if he should fail in the assault -of that
formidable fort ; which, according to tradition, had successfully
resisted Hercules the son of Jupiter, from whom as we know
Alexander claimed descent.1
Everywhere favoured by the reputation of his princely gene
rosity, several natives volunteered to lead some active men by
an unfrequented path to a part of the mountain which com
manded the fort ; accordingly a chosen band under Ptolemy,
son of Lagus, moved that very night, and, unperceived by the
enemy, gained the indicated post by daybreak.2 This proved
to be a detached hill, or rather a kind of shoulder, which
though separated by a sort of valley, gave an easier access to
the body of the mountain, than could be obtained from the
country below. Accordingly an assault was made by Alexander
next day, but it was repulsed, notwithstanding the diversion
created by Ptolemy's troops. That commander being now
menaced in turn, his isolated post, although strengthened, was
in a critical state, but it was maintained notwithstanding, till
about noon of the following day ; when by means of repeated
attempts, and persevering struggles, assisted by the feigned
attacks made on the fort at the same time by the force under
Ptolemy, Alexander's junction with the latter was effected.3
A general assault made by their united forces soon afterwards
having failed, the army next day commenced, under Alexander's
personal superintendence, a causeway, which was to cross the
For this purpose each man being allotted
100 palisades, and all being most diligent, a furlong in length
was nearly completed before night, and on the fourth day a
body of Macedonians passed and occupied a kind of abutment
projecting from, and on a level with, the mountain itself. The
Indians sent to propose a capitulation, in order to gain time ;
but Alexander, having notice of their intention to withdraw
during the night, attacked and destroyed many of them in their

A causeway
theTaUe"058 intervening hollow

1 Quint. Curt., lib. VIII, cap. xi. ; Arrian, lib. IV, cap. xxviii, xxix. ;
Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. xliv.
2 Arrian, lib. IV, cap. xxix. ; Quint. Curt, says Mullinus or Eumenes,
Alexander's secretary, was employed on this service, lib. VIII, cap. xi.
3 Arrian, lib. IV, cap. xxix.

CHAP. X.J AORNOS TAKEN, AND MARCH ALONG THE INDUS. 323
attempt to escape. On the same night he took possession of
this remarkable rock.1
Aornos was probably a general name for a stockaded inoun- Supposed
tain, such as that already mentioned in Bactria, and most likely ^J.1""1 ° ' e
Hellenized from the Sanscrit ' Awara, or 'Awarana, an inclosure.2
As it stood on or near the banks of the Indus,3 its position should
be found on the right bank of that river, at some distance above
Attock ;4 and here there is a spot called Akora. In conse
quence of a rising which took place during this daring opera
tion, Alexander made a retrograde movement to Dyrta, the Alexander's
capital of the Assakeni, but he found the territory deserted, movement to
Owing to the news of his late successes. Leaving Nearchus and Dyrta' &c'
Antiochus to endeavour to capture some of the inhabitants, so
as to ascertain the resources of the country, particularly in
elephants, he marched to the thickets bordering upon the Indus,
in which he recovered the elephants which had been previously
carried off by the Assakeni.5 From these thickets some vessels
were constructed ; and whilst part of the troops were conveyed
down the river to the bridge which his officers had already
prepared," Alexander visited Nysa and its ivy-clad mound,
Merus. This took place at the request of the inhabitants, who
were the descendants of Dionysus (Bacchus) or Sesostris, from
whom they pretended to have derived their regular government,
which at their solicitation, was now confirmed.7 Alexander found '
two large vessels prepared, each of thirty oars, in addition to many
smaller, and a bridge of boats, which had been constructed in the
neighbourhood of Attock by Perdiccas and Hephaestion, assisted
bv Mophis. This prince, who bore the title of Taxiles, had, as Embassy sent
. r r t • . * i i > i. i- hy Taxiles,
it appears, sent an embassy to solicit Alexander s protection, and
1 Arrian, lib. IV, cap. xxix, xxx.; Quint. Curt, lib. VIII, cap. xi. ;
Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. xliv.
2 P. 192 of Ariana Antiqua, by H. H. Wilson, M.A, F.R.S.
3 Compare Quint. Curt, lib. VII, cap. xi, with Strabo, lib. XV, and
Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. xliv.
4 M. Court's paper on Alexander's Exploits, &c, Journ. As. Soe. B,
April, 1839, p. 309.
5 Arrian, lib. IV, cap. xxx.
6 Ibid, also lib. V, cap. vii, and Strabo, lib. XV.
7 Arrian, lib. V, cap. i, ii. ; Quint. Curt, lib. VIII, cap. x. ,
Y 2

324

ALEXANDER CROSSES THE INDUS.

[CHAP. X.

Alexandercrosses the
Indus.

presents whilst the king was still in Sogdiana.1 On making this request
offered. . ... . . , . ,1
in person, bringing at the same time regal presents to the
amount of 200 silver talents, 3,000 oxen, 10,000 sheep, and
30 elephants,2 Alexander not only acceded, but promised to
invade the territory of his rival, Porus ; although for this
purpose, he must abandon, or at least postpone, his favourite
object, the descent of the Indus to examine the shores of the
Indian ocean ; and for which the necessary flotilla was now pre
pared at, or in the vicinity of Attock.
Availing himself of the excuse of his new alliance, Alexander
passed the limits which as the conqueror of Darius he had pre
viously claimed, and marched to the city of Taxila ; which is
supposed to be represented by the modern Manikjala, situated
about forty -five miles eastward of Attock.
Here he passed the remainder of the winter, and having
augmented the territory of his ally, although as a matter of pre
caution leaving a garrison in that place, he proceeded to fulfil his
new engagements. Accompanied by 5,000 Indians, furnished
by Mophis, and taking with him on carriages the vessels used
in passing the Indus, which for the convenience of transport
Coenus had brought from that river in two or more parts,3 he
March to the marched to the banks of the Hydaspes, the Bidaspes of Ptolemy.
janum!esan This is now represented by the Jailum or Behut, the second
stream of the Punjaub, which falls into the Chinab or Chan-
drabhaga, the Akesines of Alexander's historians.4 The Jailum,
during the season of floods, carries a considerable volume of
water, flowing with great impetuosity over a rocky bed,5 which
is seldom fordable during the south-west monsoon.
Bucephaia and The sites of Bucephaia and Niksea, particularly the former,
being determined by Mr. Masson, it may from thence be con
cluded that Alexander reached the river between Derapoor and
Jelalpoor. Here he found a numerous army, consisting of in
fantry, cavalry, war chariots, and elephants, ready to dispute the
passage. Porus, the king, was encamped near the opposite
1 Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. xliv.
2 Arrian, lib. V, cap. iii. s Ibid, cap. viii.
4 Ibid, cap. xx, and Quint. Curt, lib. IX, cap. ii.
5 Ibid, cap. ix. and x. ; compared with Quint. Curt, lib. VIII, cap. xiii.

Niksea.

CHAP. X.] PORUS TAKES POST ON THE HYDASPES. 325
bank, having placed strong posts under chosen captains to Porus pre-
defend the river at the ordinary fords, which at this season tffiX?
might be considered impracticable, for being near the summer
solstice,1 the river was almost full of water. There was, besides,
a serious difficulty to be overcome, in the line of moveable
castles, the artillery of the Indians, which Alexander was about
to encounter for the first time.
Hitherto rivers of even greater volume had been crossed in
the face of an enemy without hesitation, but on the present
occasion, though amply provided with boats, rafts, and floats,
Alexander was induced to hesitate ; and in resorting to other
means, he has left us one of the best of the many lessons in
military tactics, which have been derived from this great master
in the art of war. As it was not considered practicable to force
a passage in the face of an equal, if not a superior force, the
invaders were compelled to resort to some expedient by which,
at least, a considerable part of the army, if not the whole, might
have time to form after gaining the left bank ; thus, as it is Alexander's
termed, stealing a passage by resorting either to a false attack, deceive him.
or some other expedient, to deceive the enemy.
Keeping the latter object in view, Alexander, for several
nights in succession, caused demonstrations to be made of the
intention of crossing, which were repeated with unusual din and
clamour, till at length Porus was tired of sending his elephants,
and making other preparations to repel the expected attempts ;
and finding that these alarms were not succeeded by any serious
attempts to cross, he gradually ceased to harass his troops by
such repeated and useless night marches. This feeling of
security was increased by the public declaration of Alexander
that it was his intention to wait till the low season.2 The Porus becomes
vigilance of Porus being thus lulled, Alexander determined to e
execute the project which he had formed, by attempting to cross
from a rock, under cover of a wooded island in the river, about
150 stadia above the camp.3 He destined for this service 5,000
cavalry, consisting of the companions, with some Scythians,
Bactrians, and mounted Dahian archers, in addition to 6,000
infantry, formed of two brigades ofthe phalanx, with the Agrians
1 Arrian, lib. V, cap. ix, x. 2 Ibid, cap. x.
3 Ibid, cap. xi, and Quint. Curt, lib. VIII, cap. xiii.

326 ALEXANDER PREPARES TO PASS THE HYDASPES. [CHAP. X.
Preparations and bowmen. Craterus remained in the camp to make a great
of Alexander. , . „ . *•
noise, and other demonstrations of attempting to pass at a par
ticular time ; he was, however, ordered to cross, in case Porus
proceeded with the whole, or the greatest part of his force, to
meet the king ; but to remain quiet if he withdrew only a small
part, or none of his troops. A chain of posts kept up the
necessary communications, and a demonstration was to be made
by the foreign horse and foot under Meleager and Gorgias ;
who were posted between the camp and the island, with orders
to pass over and reinforce Alexander the moment he was per
ceived to be engaged.1
Passage of the A dark stormy night, with peals of thunder, and the usual
Jailum, and . ¦ 1 n 1 i • 1
defeat of the accompaniments, in that part 01 the country during the south
west monsoon, of torrents of rain, prevented the enemy hearing
anything that was passing on the right bank, and by daybreak
as the storm ceased, the transports pushed across and disem
barked, as they supposed, on the left bank : it proved, however,
to be an island, and another still intervened ; to this they
passed, and finally they reached the main, by fording, with the
water up to the breasts of the infantry.2
The scouts had observed the transports and the floats of
Stuffed hides passing the first island, and the alarm rapidly
passed to Porus ; who perceiving Alexander's tent still in its
place, with the main body apparently undiminished, and making
demonstrations, he despatched his son with 2,000 cavalry, and
120 war chariots to deal with what he judged to be a feint,
intended to induce him to quit his advantageous position. The
Grecian troops had passed the river by the time the young
prince approached the landing place, and Alexander, per
ceiving the smallness of the numbers and the unprotected
state of the latter, made an immediate attack ; in which 400
horsemen, including the young prince, were slain.3 Porus,
Judicious on learning from some of the fugitives the real state of things,
ofPo?u™en and tne loss of nis son> immediately marched, and took post to
give Alexander battle in an open plain. His force consisted '
of 30,000 infantry, 4,000 cavalry, 300 chariots, each with six
men, namely, two with bucklers, two archers, and two armed
1 Arrian, lib. V, cap. xii. 2 Ibid, cap. xii, xiii.
3 Ibid, cap. xv.

CHAP. X.J ATTACK ON BOTH FLANKS OF PORUS' ARMY. 327
drivers ; besides which there were 200 elephants bearing huge
wooden towers filled with armed men.1 The last were placed
in the centre about 100 feet apart ; and a little in the rear was
the infantry, so posted as to cover the intervals between the
elephants ; on the wings, the cavalry were placed with the war
chariots in front, aligned with the elephants, and giving to the
whole the appearance of a city, of which the elephants seemed
to form the bastions, or rather towers.2
The preceding movement, and this skilful order of battle, and skilful
had anticipated Alexander's intention in hastening onward with ander.
a body of horse to attack the camp of Porus, and he was
obliged to manoeuvre with his cavalry to give time for the
phalanx to come up, and also to prepare for a battle in the
difficult circumstances in which he was unexpectedly placed.
The previous plans required to be instantly changed, and in so
doing, Alexander promptly adopted a course calculated to
neutralize the almost irresistible power of the chariots and
elephants when brought to bear in a direct attack ; this was,
to attack by the flanks, a measure which would give scope
for his numerically and morally superior cavalry to act, before
Porus could have time to change his formation.
Having matured a plan likely to accomplish these objects, Double attack
the battle commenced by the main body of cavalry, under ofthecavalry-
Alexander, making an oblique attack on the enemy's left wing,
which was menaced at the same time by the mounted archers
in front : Coenus with the remainder of the horse was to make
a similar movement against the right of the Indian army : the
phalanx and the rest of the infantry were commanded to stand
fast till they saw that the preceding demonstrations were suc
cessful. Porus, being most apprehensive about the principal and
double attack in front, ordered the cavalry to move from the
right by the rear, to support his left, which was menaced ; and
.the right wing being weakened in consequence, Coenus not only
turned it, but pursued the Indian cavalry towards the other
1 Arrian, lib. V, cap. xv, and Quint. Curt, lib. VIII, cap. xiv. Ac
cording to Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. xiv.; 50,000 infantry, 3,000
cavalry, 1,000 chariots, and 130 elephants.
2 Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. xlvii.

328 SUCCESS OF ALEXANDER. [CHAP. X.
wing. The result of these movements was, that the Indian
cavalry, with inferior numbers, had to oppose a double front,
namely, one to the cavalry under Ccenus, which had taken
them in flank and rear, and another to the rest of this arm
Successful led by Alexander, who at this critical moment made a sue-
Alexander, cessful charge, and obliged the chief part of the Indian cavalry
to take refuge among the elephants ; the horses of the latter
being accustomed to these formidable creatures, whilst those
of Alexander would not dare to approach.1 As Alexander did
not fail to improve this advantage by continuing to make it
chiefly a cavalry action, the victory may be said to have been
won from this moment ; although it was still fiercely contested,
and continued doubtful for a length of time.
The Indian cavalry had now sufficiently recovered their
wonted courage to assume the offensive ; and at the same time
the elephants, having changed front, were about to charge
the Macedonian cavalry in the rear, when the phalanx of
Seleucus advanced and saved the cavalry by following these
The elephants animals, and in turn attacking them in the rear. The latter
Macedonian movement caused the elephants to face about once more, and
phalanx, penetrating the phalanx caused great confusion in different
places in the ranks, which might have been altogether fatal, had
it been followed up by a charge of cavalry ; but the Indian
cavalry were again met and repulsed by Alexander, when on
the way to support the elephants,2 on whose efforts the result of
the struggle chiefly depended. Happily for Alexander, the
Macedonians were not intimidated by the unprecedented
struggle in which they were now engaged. Although this
mighty animal was irresistible wherever his steps were directed,
his power was at length paralysed. The steady resistance of
the unbroken sections of the phalanx, and the effects of the
missiles ofthe archers and Agrians, which were chiefly directed
but afterwards to deprive the animals of their guides, caused them to become
ma^eabie. frantic in consequence of their wounds : some being quite un
governable were equally formidable to friends and foes ; whilst
others as if by consent refused all farther efforts, bellowing in
concert as with uplifted trunks they withdrew from the battle. 3
1 Arrian, lib. V, cap. xvi, xvii.
2 Ibid, cap. xvii. 3 Ibid.

CHAP. X.J DIGNIFIED CONDUCT OF PORUS AFTER HIS DEFEAT. 329
During this period, Coenus' had broken through the enemy,
and the whole Macedonian cavalry being united, Alexander
made repeated and desperate charges upon the Indian infantry,
entirely breaking their ranks wherever he attacked.
Alexander enclosed the confused mass, to which the Indian
army was now reduced, by means of his cavalry, which was
placed at intervals, and the phalanx, with shield touching shield,
and pike protended ; and the struggle was brought to a close
, by the opportune arrival, at this juncture, of Craterus, who, as Craterus
had been arranged, crossed the river with the main body of decides'The11
the army, probably including the foreign horse and foot. The battle"
whole of the chariots and elephants were captured, and 20,000
of the Indian infantry, besides three-fourths of the cavalry, fell
in this well-contested battle :l 12,000 were killed and 9,000
were made prisoners ; the loss of the Macedonians, whose
numbers greatly preponderated towards the close of the battle,
being only 280 cavalry and 700 infantry.2
Porus, who did not mean to survive, fought manfully, till at Dignified con-
the repeated request of Alexander, and being at the same time
overpowered by thirst and the effects of a wound in the right
shoulder, he at length consented to descend from his elephant.3
Both sovereigns advanced, and the Indian king met his dis
tinguished enemy with that gallant bearing which he had main
tained during an obstinate conflict of seven or eight hours;
and on being asked how he desired to be treated, he briefly
replied " As a king." " That shall be done on my own
account," said Alexander ; " but do you ask nothing more ?"
" No," replied Porus, with much dignity ; " everything is in
cluded in the first request."4 Alexander was so much struck
by the greatness of mind displayed by his defeated, but not
fallen enemy, that he treated him with marked honour, and
made some amends for his unjust invasion by restoring the
kingdom,5 and giving the whole country between the Hydaspes
1 Compare Arrian, lib. V, cap. xviii. ; Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. xiv.
2 Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. xiv.
3 Arrian, lib. V, cap. xviii. ; Quint. Curt, lib. VIII, cap. xiv.
4 Ibid, cap. xix. ; Plutarch in Alex.
5 Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. xlvi.

330 PASSAGE OF THE RIVER AKESINES. [CHAP. X.
Generosity and the Akesines (a large accession of territory), to Porus, who
afterwards proved himself a faithful and attached vassal of the
vast empire of Alexander.1
Craterus was ordered to superintend the construction of a
city, called Niksea, to commemorate this remarkable victory,
and another close to the landing-place near Jerum, named Buce
phaia, in honour of his favourite horse, whose life terminated
on this occasion from the effects of heat and over exertion,2 at
Loss of Buce- the age, it is said, of thirty years. Pursuing his aggressive war-
p aus' fare, Alexander continued his march to the river Akesines,3 the
modern Chinab or Chandrabhaga, receiving as he advanced
the submission of thirty-five considerable cities ; also ofthe other
Porus, called the coward, and of Abissares, who, in addition to
forty elephants, brought considerable sums of money. Having
Passage of the overcome the difficulties of crossing the wide, rapid, and rocky
Akesines, in boats, on stuffed skins, and other rafts, the army
advanced to the river Hydraotes, or Hyarotes (the modern
Iraotu, or Bavi, of Muhammedan geographers ;4 the Sanscrit
Iravati and Bavi), which was bordered with a thick forest of
trees, unknown elsewhere, and full of wild peacocks.5 This was
passed with less difficulty than the preceding stream, and the
march was continued in a direction probably parallel to the Bavi,
with a view to punish the Cathaeans, the Oxydracse, the Malli,
and two other confederate tribes. Passing the city of Pemprama,
Subjection of on the third day, Alexander approached Sangala, also called
Catha»ns.a" Sakala ; in whose environs he found the warlike Cathaeans, and
some of their confederates, encamped within a triple line of
waggons on a rising ground close to the city.6 The cavalry,
and afterwards a body of foot led by Alexander, having been
repulsed by the missiles of the Cathaeans from behind the first
line of carriages, the phalanx was brought up ; which succeeded
with much difficulty in forcing the three barriers, and drove
their defenders into the town. The latter was defended by
1 Arrian, lib. V, cap. xxi, xxiv.
2 Ibid, cap. xix, ; and Plutarch in Alex.
3 Quint. Curt, lib. IX, cap. i.
4 Ariana Antiqua, by H. H. Wilson, M.A, F.R.S, p. 195. London,
1841. 5 Quint. Curt, lib. IX, cap. i. e Arrian, lib. V, cap. xxii.

CHAP. X.] PROPOSED CONQUEST OF CENTRAL INDIA. 331
brick walls, and on one side it had the further protection of a
shallow lake. The Cathaeans attempted to escape by crossing
this piece of water at midnight ; but their purpose was antici
pated by Ptolemy, who received them with a barrier of their
own waggons, and drove them back into the town. Porus
arrived at this period with many elephants and a re-enforce
ment of 5,000 Indians ; and the walls being breached, the town
was carried by storm, 17,000 of the defenders being slain,
and 70,000 made prisoners.1 The Cathaei, now the Kattias, Origin of the
are a pastoral tribe which, from the circumstance of the name
and the particular use of waggons, is probably of Tartar or
Scythian origin. They constitute the chief part of the popu
lation between the Hydaspes and Delhi;2 and the ruins of
Haripa are supposed to represent the capital, Sakala.3 Eumenes,
the secretary of Alexander, was despatched to offer favourable
terms to the allies of the Cathaeans, but the news of the fall of
that town had caused them to fly in a body,4 probably towards
the mountains near the sources of tbe Hydraotes. Alexander
pursued them for some distance, but being too late, he returned,
laid Sangala level with the ground, and gave the country round Sangala razed,
it to those Indians who had willingly submitted.5 Tempted by conquests.
accounts of the rich tracts of Central India, whose inhabitants
were said to be wisely governed and highly civilized, and
stimulated by the hope of finding amongst this warlike people
enemies worthy of being conquered, Alexander determined to
proceed against the Gangaridae and the Prasii, the most
powerful of all the Indian nations.
Thirsting for conquests in eastern India, and desiring after- The Greeks
wards to descend the Ganges to the Indian Ocean, Alexander Hypnosis.
was approaching the Hyphasis, a rapid and difficult river, seven
stadia in width, and six fathoms deep,6 when circumstances
occurred which put a limit to that victorious career, and those
1 Arrian, lib. V, cap. xxiv.
2 Burnes' Travels, vol. Ill, p. 130.
3 In about 30° 24" : see Notes of a Journey from Lahore to ICarachee, by
C Masson, Journ. of As. Soe. Bora, vol. V, p. 57.
4 Arrian, lib. V, cap. xxiv. 5 Ibid.
6 Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. Ii. ; Quint. Curt, lib. IX, cap. ii.

332 DISCONTENT OF THE ARMY. [CHAP. X.
conquests, to which no other history offers anything like a
parallel. A spirit of dissatisfaction had led to the conspiracy at the
foot of the Paropamisus, as well as to the conspiracies of Phi-
lotas, and of the band of pages beyond those mountains ; but
one much more deeply rooted now manifested itself, for Alex
ander learnt that discontent pervaded the whole army, including
his own friends and favourites. Worn out by fatigue, wounds,
and the climate during the rainy season, and seeing no limits
to the intended conquests of their prince, in a country whose
extent was utterly unknown, frequent meetings had taken place
They deter- among the followers of Alexander, who stimulated one another
cross th°e river. t° refuse to cross the Hyphasis even if Alexander led the way.1
The constitution of Macedonia, as has been seen, gave to the
army almost the authority of a popular assembly; and the,
principal commanders, looking earnestly forward to the enjoy
ment of their wealth and honours at home, learning also that
they would have to encounter, near the Ganges, Xandrames,
an Indian prince, who had blocked up the passes with
20,000 horse and 200,000 foot, besides 2,000 chariots and
3,000 trained elephants,2 some of them went so far in their
meetings as to declare, that if the king required them to enter
into new wars, his command should not be obeyed.3
Alexander Lest this feeling should lead to an open rebellion against his
summons a .1 •. j i ¦ n , i , ,
council of authority, and hoping, as on former occasions, to rouse a better
officers* spirit, Alexander summoned a council of the superior officers,
and made one of those eloquent appeals, which had succeeded
on every previous occasion : " Seeing," said the king, " that
you do not follow me with your wonted alacrity, I have sum
moned this meeting, either to persuade you to advance, or that
you may show me the necessity of returning." Seeming thus
to make it an open question, he continued: " If you complain
either of your own labours or of the conduct of your leader, there
is nothing more to be said ; but if by these exertions, the river
1 Arrian, lib. V, cap. xxv.
2 Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. Ii. ; Quint. Curt, lib. IX, cap. ii. ; Aggram-
mes, according to Quint. Curt, lib. IX, cap. ii.
3 Arrian, lib. V, cap. xxv.

CHAP.X.] ALEXANDER FAILS TO PERSUADE HIS ARMY TO ADVANCE. 333
Hydraotes has become the limits of our empire, which extends
westward to the iEgean sea, and northward to the river Jaxartes,
why do you hesitate to pass the Hyphasis, and having added the
rest of Asia to our conquests, then descend the Ganges, and sail
round Africa to the pillars of Hercules. Life," added the king,
" distinguished by deeds of valour, is delightful, and so is death
leaving an immortal name ; persevere, therefore, O ! Mace
donians, and I promise to exceed the wishes of every individual,
and make him the object of envy."1
A deep silence followed, which was at length broken by Result of the
Ccenus, who, in affecting language, described the past dangers con ere^ce•
encountered, the victories achieved, and the anxious longings
of the soldiers to turn homewards their weary steps.2 His
pathetic appeal caused tears to roll down the cheeks of the
veterans, and was even too much for Alexander himself, who
then abruptly broke up the council. The next day it was re
assembled, when the king angrily declared that he would
advance, taking only those who were willing to follow him,
adding, that the others might return and tell their families that
their leader had been deserted in the midst of his enemies.3
A profound melancholy prevailed in the camp during the Alexander ap-
three next days, while Alexander was secluded even from his tuaiiyto his
most intimate friends; after which, finding that the troops re- determine"^
gretted his displeasure, but continued firm to their purpose, retire*
Alexander made a virtue of necessity by yielding with a good
grace, taking that course which was best calculated to maintain
his own dignity with apparent consistency. He sacrificed, and
then announced to the army that owing to unfavourable auspices,
it was his intention to return without crossing the Hyphasis.
Shouts of joy welcomed this intelligence, and the soldiers,
weeping aloud, implored countless blessings upon his head, who,
1 Arrian, lib. V, cap. xxvi.
8 He expatiated on the loyalty ofthe soldiers, and on their undiminished
devotion to the king, adding that they were still ready to expend their blood
in order to render his name more celebrated ; but he concluded by stating
that they considered it reasonable to oppose any further advance, since they
had reached the end of the world, and were seeking an India unknown to
the Indians themselves.— Quint. Curt, lib. IX, cap. iii.
8 Arrian, lib. V, cap. xxvii, xxviii.

334 ALEXANDER RETRACES HIS STEPS TO THE HYDASPES. [CHAP. X.
although invincible to others, had allowed himself to be over
come by the wishes of his followers.1 Twelve towers were
erected, and sacrifices being offered on these altars as testi
monies of gratitude to the gods, with the amusements of horse-^
races and gymnastic exercises, Alexander gave the newly-*
acquired territory to the faithful Porus, and harmony being
Alexander perfectly restored, he retraced his steps from the Hyphasis to
Hydaspes. e the Hydraotes, and from thence to the Akesines, where he found
the city, which he had left Hephaestion to build, almost finished.
Thence he continued his retrograde march to the Hydaspes,2
where he repaired the injuries caused by the floods to Nikaea
and Bucephaia. Here he was reinforced from Greece by
6,000 horse and 7,000 infantry under Harpalus ; 3 and here an
embassy from Abissares brought thirty elephants and other
presents. At the same place part of the army had been
Preparation of employed all the summer in constructing vessels or rather boats,
the Hydaspes. 2,000 of which had been built from the neighbouring forests ;
these were manned by Carians, Phoenicians, Egyptians, and
Cypriots, who understood the equipment of such a flotilla, and
were assisted in its management by the people ofthe country.4
Although cruelly disappointed by the persevering opposition
of the Macedonians, Alexander appears at once to have turned
his powerful mind from warlike to peaceable objects ; and the
descent was commenced in three divisions, each of which was
equal to a modern corps d'arme'e, being between 40,000 and
50,000 men. One, under Craterus, marched along the right
bank ; another, the larger, under Hephaestion, moved in a
parallel line on the opposite side, with 200 elephants ; whilst
The fleet aad Alexander followed the stream itself, with a chosen body of
the^Hydaspes. horse and foot, ready to support and strengthen either of the
others ; 6 Philip, the satrap of the territory westward of the
Indus, the intended kingdom of Porus, was to follow with the
rear guard four days later. At day-break sacrifice was per
formed, and the troops intended to be conveyed by the river
having embarked, libations were offered to this stream, also to
1 Arrian, lib. V, cap. xxix. 2 Ibid.
3 Quint. Curt, lib. IX, cap. iii. 4 Arrian, lib. VI, cap. xxiii.
'¦" Ibid, cap. ii. and iii.

CHAP. X.] MARCH, AND DESCENT ALONG THE HYDASPES. 335
the Akesines, which it receives, and to the trunk of the whole,
the Indus ; when the fleet moved at the sound of the trumpet.
Nearchus was admiral, Onesicritus the pilot or master; and
the whole forest of vessels, having its movements regulated by
the voices of the officers, moved majestically down the stream.
The war horses, seen through the lattice-work of the sides of
the vessels, and the decks covered with warriors, struck the
Indians with astonishment and admiration.1 In eight days the
fleet reached the confluence of the Akesines, where, owing to a
narrow channel and high banks, rapid and strong eddies are
formed, which were attended with some inconvenience on this
occasion. Being unaccustomed to such difficulties, the boat
men in alarm suspended their exertions as they approached this
narrow part of the river; and before they regained their Difficulties
courage two of the galleys or long vessels fell aboard of one expenenced-
another, and sunk with the greater part of their crews ; but the
shorter and round vessels were more fortunate.2
When this difficulty was passed, and the eddies were less
violent, Alexander brought his fleet to the right bank, and
having made an excursion to the westward to punish the Sibae,
the Sivi or Saivas, he recrossed the Akesines, and caused
Nearchus, with the greater part of the fleet, to descend to the
country of the Malli, keeping three days in advance of the
army.3 The latter having in the meantime been joined by the
corps under Craterus, Hephaestion, and Philip, the advance
took place as before in three divisions, in order to be prepared
for an enemy. That under Hephaestion was five days in
advance of Alexander, and the third under Ptolemy brought
up the rear at three marches distance to collect the stragglers ; They reach
the whole were to rendezvous at the confluence of the Hydraotes 0f the Hy-enc
with the Akesines.4 i'ffiT1
The exterior as well as the interior sides of the lower parts
of these rivers were occupied by the Malli, of whom a trace is
supposed to be found in Multan, or, as it is still called, Malli-
than, the place of the Malli;5 and, having learnt that this
1 Arrian, lib. VI, c. iv. 2 Ibid, cap. iv. and v.
8 Ibid. * Ibid, cap. v.
5 Burnes' Travels, vol. iii, p. 114.

336 CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE MALLI. [CHAP. X.
people were about to join the Oxydracse, or Sudrakas, in order
to oppose him, Alexander determined to anticipate the junction
of these formidable tribes. Accordingly, on approaching the
desert on their frontier, which had been considered an effectual
barrier, he placed himself at the head of the equestrian archers,
with half the auxiliary horse, the targeteers, archers, &c, and
making a lengthened march throughout most of that day and
the succeeding night, by the direct and unexpected route of the
Desert march wilderness, he found the Malli so little prepared, that their
MaM.pnSv e principal city was easily taken. Two thousand of the Malli
who took refuge in the castle were put to the sword ; J and
those belonging to another city in the vicinity having fled, they
were pursued during the night ; some were overtaken, and
killed on the banks of the Hydraotes about daylight next
morning ; 2 whilst others crossed the river, and took refuge in
a strongly fortified town. The latter place, however, was pre
sently carried by assault, and all being either killed or taken,
Alexander continued his cruel and exterminating war, by lead
ing his army against a city and castle of Bramins, in which
some of the Malli had been encouraged to take refuge ; both
were stormed, with the loss of 5,000 of the Malli.3
The next object was the most populous city of the Malli,
which was found deserted by the inhabitants, who to the number
of 50,000 occupied the opposite bank of the Hydraotes. The
river was now fordable, and Alexander was scarcely mid-stream
at the head of his cavalry when the Indians retreated before
him. But he was on the point of paying the penalty of this
rash enterprise, for, on seeing that he was not supported by
infantry, the Malli halted, and several vigorous charges made
1 by Alexander having been repulsed, he was forced to practise
the Parthian warfare in order to maintain his ground. This
gave the necessary time for the infantry to come up and dis
perse the Malli, who fled into an adjoining strong city. Thither
he pursued them with his cavalry, and prevented their escape
till the infantry came up, when he regularly formed the siege4
1 Arrian, lib. VI, cap. vi. 8 Ibid, cap. vii. s Ibid.
' Ibid, cap. viii.— A city of the Oxydracse, according to Quint. Curt,
ib. IX, cap. iv.

CHAP. X.J EXTERMINATING WARFARE AGAINST THE MALLI. 337
of the place ; but here the career of the matchless Alexander
had almost terminated. Besting for the remainder of tbe day,
the next morning the city was attacked ; and this having been Assault of
carried, some of the army proceeded to undermine and others
to scale the walls of the citadel. Alexander's impatience ill
brooked delay, and, seizing a ladder, he mounted it, protected
by his shield, being closely followed by Peucestas, bearing the
sacred buckler, and Leonatus ; Abrias, a soldier receiving
double pay for merit, mounting nearly at the same time by
another ladder. Alexander, having fixed his shield on the
crest of the wall, drove some of the defenders headlong from
the battlements, and others being slain with his sword, a footing
was gained on the wall, which Leonatus and the two others,
by great efforts, also succeeded in obtaining, just as the over
loaded ladders broke down in consequence of the eagerness of
the Hypaspists to share the peril of their intrepid leader. By
this time Alexander's splendid armour and matchless daring
had caused the enemy to make him the object of every missile
that could be brought to bear from the neighbouring towers Perilous
and walls ; when, after a moment's consideration, balancing Alexander.
between his guards on one side, who implored him to throw
himself backward into their extended arms, and, on the other,
the chance of appalling the barbarians by the boldness of the
deed, he leaped down into the citadel, placing his back against
the wall that he might the more readily defend himself.
Determined either to conquer or die gloriously, he slew some
with his sword, amongst whom was the Indian governor, and
wounding others with stones, he maintained his ground, being
presently assisted by his three followers, who leaped down and
fought valiantly to save him.1 Abrias was killed by an arrow ;
another arrow pierced the breastplate of Alexander, and
wounded him so severely, that at length be fell forward on his
shield from loss of blood. He was, however, defended on one
side by Peucestas with the sacred shield, and on the other by
Leonatus ; but both of these being severely wounded, the fate
of the king became more and more hopeless, and it was, in
fact, on the point of being decided, when some of the Mace-
1 Arrian, lib. VI, cap. ix.
VOL. 11/ Z

338

ALEXANDER S PERILOUS SITUATION.

[CHAP. X.

Daring rescue
of Alexander.

His conva
lescence ; he
reviews the
army.

Alexander
reaches the
Delta of the
Indus.

donians reached the spot, and encircled their beloved general
at the very instant when life seemed to be extinct. Some had
effected an entrance by scaling the ramparts with the assistance
of iron pins driven into the face of the walls, others effected
the same object by hoisting one another to the top, a larger
body, by forcing a gate, reached the inside ; and the assailants
having glutted their revenge by putting every creature to
death, they bore off the king upon his shield, not knowing
whether he was still alive or dead.1
After the difficult operation of cutting out the head of the
arrow, there was a gradual improvement ; and in the course of
seven days Alexander was able to occupy a tent on two boats
lashed together for this purpose ; in this state he was conveyed
down the river to the camp and rendezvous of the army, at the
confluence of the Hydraotes and Akesines. Finding that the
report of his death had produced lamentation and despondency
throughout the army, he first showed himself on a couch, and
subsequently, by a still greater effort, he appeared on horse
back, when he was received with enthusiastic cheers by the
soldiers, who raised their hands to heaven, with tears of grati
tude gushing from their eyes.2
During his tedious convalescence, the Oxydracae and some
unsubdued portions of the Malli sent their submission, with an
excuse from the former for being tardy, and the latter for their
protracted resistance.3
Passing through the territory of the Oxydracse as far as the
Indus, he ordered a town with docks to be constructed at the
confluence ofthe Akesines with that river, and then dropped
down to tbe royal palace of the Sogdi. From thence he pro
ceeded to the rich dominions of king Musicanus, who submitted,
but afterwards gave some trouble, as did Sabbas or Sambus,4
the prince of the territory, now represented by Sinde ; and,
finally, Alexander halted at the upper extremity of the Delta,
where he prepared to carry out his project for commercially
connecting Europe with the eastern parts of Asia.

1 Arrian, lib. VI, cap. x, xi.
3 Ibid, cap. xiii.

2 Ibid, cap. xii, xiii.
4 Ibid, cap. xvi, xvii.

( 339 )
CHAPTEB XI.
MARCH OF ALEXANDER FROM THE INDUS TO SUSA AND BABYLON ;
AND VOYAGE OF NEARCHUS TO THE FORMER CITY.
Preparations for the return of the Army and Fleet.— Projected Trade with
India as the basis of the intended Commerce. — Alexander abandons his
purposed Conquests in Eastern India. — Descent ofthe Indus and despatch
of Forces under Craterus and Hephaestion. — Alexander crosses the
Desert. — The Difficulties of the March. — He reaches Kirman. — Slow
descent of Nearchus. — Halt at Karachee. — Advance to the River Arabius,
and along the coast of the Oritas.— Voyage to Cape 'Arabah, the Town
of Mosarna, and the extremity of the Coast of the Ichthyophagi. — The
Fleet reaches Cape Jask and Harmozia. — Nearchus meets Alexander. —
Voyage continued to Diridotus or Teredon. — Ascent of the Pasitigris to
Agines and Susa. — Ancient and modern Distances of the Voyage. — Games
and Sacrifices at Susa. — Asiatics and Europeans to be united by Marriages
and other means. — Discontent ofthe Army. — The general employment of
Asiatic Mercenaries. — Former project of Commerce. — Geography of the
Kariin and Kerkhah. — Alexander ascends the Tigris to Opis. — Bunds and
Dikes. — Mutiny at Opis. — Alexander goes to Susa. — Advance across the
Zagros into Media. — Visit to the Nissean Plains. — March against the
Cossoei and to Babylon. — Alexander's preparations. — Reinforcements of
vessels and troops. — His gigantic projects, and Death. — Digression on the
Course, Risings, Flooding, &c. of the Indus.
Although the attention of the historians of Alexander has
been given almost exclusively to his stirring campaigns, yet
some circumstances, incidentally mentioned by them, go far to
show that the daring achievement now about to be noticed had
been projected by him previously to making the march of
9,265 miles, which we have just followed from ancient Tyre to
the river Hyphasis.1 The first step in establishing the great
1 Tyre to Thapsacus 
Thapsacus to Susa 
Susa to Beghram 
Beghram to the Jaxartes 
Return to Beghram, including various marches
during the campaigns against the Sogdians,
Hill fort of Oxyarta, Aspii, &c. &c.
Beghram to the Hyphasis ....

376 miles,

806
3,535 865

3)

2,997

;>

686

5?

9,265

>>

z 2

340 knowledge of the east before Alexander, [chap. xi.
line of commercial intercourse between the inhabitants of the
far east and those of the west seems to have been the construc
tion ofthe city at the foot ofthe Amanus, bearing the name of
Alexander, and the next consisted in building the Egyptian, or
second Alexandria, the gigantic project having no doubt been
matured as the conqueror passed through Phoenicia. A faint
light only had previously been thrown upon the geography of
The produc- India ; yet the rich productions of that extensive peninsula were
early known tolerably well known, having' been sought for ages as the
m the West. c}}0icest objects of trade in Phoenicia, Palestine, and Egypt.
From the booty of Gaza, Alexander sent specimens of the arts
and productions of the East as presents for his mother and
favourite sister, besides the balls of frankincense, myrrh, and
other aromatics, already mentioned1 as having been sent, with
a note from him to his preceptor, Leonidas ; 2 from which it
Alexander may be inferred that, during his boyhood, the king had
wSth'them. acquired some knowledge of the countries yielding those pro
ductions.3 Nor can it be doubted that the inquiring mind of
Alexander was early directed to the sources of the wealth
which had made the rock of Tyre the richest mart in the world-
The archives at Jerusalem must also have shown that, more
than fifteen centuries anterior to the fall of the cities of Gaza
and of Tyre, a rich land trade passed through this very terri
tory from distant countries ; and that upwards of six centuries
anterior to the visit of Alexander a route was opened by sea
with the same countries. There were other sources also from
which information might be derived in addition to the parti
culars collected from Jews and Arabs, for the expeditions of
know?edgefMs Sesostris> Semiramis, and Darius Hystaspes would necessarily
furnish additional knowledge of the regions of the East, more
particularly during the reign of the last sovereign, when Scylax
descended the Indus, and crossed the Indian Ocean to. the
1 Chap. IX, p. 282.
2 Plutarch in vita Alex.", p. 356.
3 Among these may be reckoned the sweet wood or cinnamon, the hakym
nama of the Singalese ; while of manufactured goods he may have seen the
bussine sindon, or byssus, fine linen or muslin (Herod, lib. II, cap.
Ixxxvi, and lib. VII, cap. clxxxi.), and the produce of the cotton plant, the
karpas of Esther (chap. I, v. 6).

CHAP. XI.] KNOWLEDGE OF INDIA FROM CTESIAS. 341
Arabian Gulf or Eed Sea.1 Alexander had, moreover, access
to the work of Ctesias, who describes the manners, customs,
and productions of India ; and he must have learned much
from the Persians, who were conterminous with, and claimed
part of, the territory in question.
With the preceding sources to guide, and a geographical A commerce
establishment, that of his engineers, to follow out the inquiry probaMy'con-
in detail, it is not going too far to presume that the commerce A™xander^y
as well as the conquest of India formed part of Alexander's
original project. The plan of the conquest no doubt gradually
became more mature as Alexander advanced ; so that, although
the subjection of the territory near the Indus and the descent
of that river might have been the objects at first proposed, yet
fresh information on the spot would have caused the extension
of the plan, had not the army refused to undertake the intended
campaign into the provinces near the Ganges.
Thwarted in his purpose of descending this great river, and
making it the boundary of his empire, Alexander at once gave
way as if to reason, and reverted to his previous plan, for which
vessels had already been prepared, not only on the Indus, but
also on one or two of its affluents, particularly in the country
of the Xathri.2
The tranquil descent of the Akesines, as has been shown, His intention
was interrupted by the campaign against the Malli and their Hindus."12
allies the Oxydracee, and again, after the submission of both
these, by other tribes who were not disposed to be guided by
the renown of the western conqueror, and who required to
feel, ere they could appreciate, the power of Alexander. The
chief of one of these tribes, namely, Musicanus, who governed
the rich country of that name, and also that of the Brahmins,
having been crucified at the capital,3 and Oxycanus having
submitted, Alexander was free to renew his descent, and give
1 Herod, lib. IV, cap. xliv.
! Somewhere on the Chin-ab, or Akesines, as the boats were floated along
this stream.
3 Probably the ruins of Alore, near Bukhur.— Burnes, vol. Ill, p. 138,
of Royal Geographical Journal; and Ariana Antiqua, by Professor Wilson,
p. 203.

342 COMMENCEMENT OF THE HOMEWARD MARCH. [CHAP. XI.
all his thoughts to the accomplishment of his extensive com
binations by land and water.
With regard to the land operations, in order to husband the
resources of the country by having several lines of march,
Craterus was despatched with the elephants, three brigades of
the phalanx, and with the inefficient persons, to take a central
line through the countries of the Drangse and Arachosians to
Kirman. Previously, however, to the march of this body of
troops, Alexander sailed down the western branch ofthe Indus
with some ofthe most suitable of his vessels, and, notwithstand
ing the difficulties caused by the high tides, which were now
greatly increased by the S.W. monsoon causing, on the reflux,
a violent rush of water called a bore, he passed the island of
He sails on CiUutas, near Karachee : having, with two or three vessels only,
theIndianSea- proceeded about 200 stadia into the open sea, and sighting
another island, he returned and then landed, and after offering
sacrifices to Neptune, he ascended to Pattala and gave orders for
the construction of a haven and docks.1 He then passed down
the left or eastern branch, and with some biremes and triremes
sailed into the ocean : returning from thence he examined the
coast on horseback, and ordered another harbour to be con
structed on one side of a spacious lake ; but having found the
western branch, especially its estuary, more suited for naviga
tion, he returned once more to Pattala to superintend the con
struction of the basin and other works there.
Nearchus ap- Depending upon the zeal and fidelity of Nearchus, who was
command the *° conduct the expedition by sea as soon as a change of mon-
expeditionby soon WOuld permit, the army was put in motion about the
beginning of September ; Hephaestion leading the bulk of the
forces by a more inland route, whilst the king at the head of
the targeteers, the archers, and most active troops, kept nearer
the coast ; sinking wells occasionally for the use of the fleet
being the main object.
Taking a westerly direction from the bifurcation of the
Indus, Alexander appears to have first touched the sea near
the estuary of the river Arabius, a little way eastward of Son-
1 Arrian, lib. VI, cap. xix, xx.

sea,

CHAP. XI.] COUNTRIES OF THE ARABITiE AND ORIT2E. 343
nieany. The people, the Arabitse, made their escape into the
interior, and as the Oritae, a free people originally from India, Alexander's
followed the same prudent course, Alexander, leaving the foot Orite! °
to follow at more leisure,1 divided his horse into several parties
that they might cover more space as they advanced, and pro
ceeded in pursuit ; many of the fugitives were in consequence
either slain or taken prisoners.2 Being joined at the next
halting place by the corps under Hephaestion, the army ad
vanced to Rambacia. At this large village, which was con
sidered the capital, Leonatus was left with a force to keep the
Oritae in order, also to construct a city, and collect provisions
to assist the fleet, and here he remained till Nearchus arrived
at the port of Kokala.3
The united forces afterwards entered the desert country of Productions of
the Horites," now the Urhu, and doubtless once the Oritse, district."1
keeping more into the interior. This country produces a
number of myrrh-trees much taller than elsewhere, also spike
nard, and a thorn with such thick-set prickles that hares are
caught by the down as birds are taken with birdlime.5 With
the assistance of the camel a tract of this kind may be traversed
with moderate difficulty, but when deprived of this invaluable
animal .a forbidding wilderness, scantily supplied with water,6
becomes really formidable to an army ; and accordingly the
march from the borders of the Oritae, probably by Kedje or
Chodda,7 to Bunpur and to Pura or Pareg, was attended with
many difficulties and great privations ; not so much from the
nature of the country, as because Apollophanes, the satrap of
Gedrosia, had shamefully neglected his duty in providing
supplies which, although thinly peopled, Gedrosia might have
furnished. The supplies, together with the camels, horses, and
mules, which were brought by Stasanor for the use of the army,
arrived after the completion of the inarch across the desert.
1 Arrian, lib. VI, cap. xxi. 2 Ibid.
3 Ibid, cap. xxi, xxii, and Ind, chap, xxiii.
4 Quint. Curt, lib. IX, cap. x.
5 Arrian, Ind, cap. xxii, and Quint. Curt, lib. IX, cap. x.
6 For a description of these desert tracts, see vol. I, pp. 78, 79 ; and for
those of Mekran and Baluchistan, vol. I, pp. 178, 179, 184.
7 See vol. I, p. 179.

344 ALEXANDER CROSSES THE DESERT OF GEDROSIA. [CHAP. XI.

Firmness of
Alexander.

Distress ofthe The historian tells us that the beasts of burthen first perished,
St!" 6 then the sick or weakly persons, and lastly a portion of the
army1 which, as might be expected under such circumstances,
had become disorganized. The influence of the officers had
ceased, and even the semblance of Alexander's authority was
nominally preserved, by seeming to be ignorant of those irre
gularities which could not be remedied; and the soldiers
suffered as much from excess when supplies, particularly of
water, chanced to be abundant, as from scarcity.
Alexander met these difficulties with his usual greatness of
mind ; and it was on one trying occasion that the well-known
circumstance occurred of pouring into the sand the helmet-full
of brackish muddy water, which by great exertions they had
collected for the use of the king. The succeeding portion of
the march from Pareg was accomplished without difficulty to
Kirnian, where Craterus joined the king; after making the
prescribed detour by Arachosia and through Drangiana,2 fol
lowing the valley of the Helmand to the borders of lake Zerrah,
and thence in a south-westerly direction to the capital of the
province. The previous campaigns must have made Nearchus ac
quainted with the affluents of the Indus, and his stay at Pattala,
as well as the explorations by Alexander, would naturally give
him similar information regarding the trunk itself; which in all
probability was almost as well known at that time as it is at
present, when the source and much of the upper part of the
stream have still to be explored.
Nearchus was to commence his voyage after the change of
the monsoon, taking with him the largest and most suitable
vessels, leaving the others on the Indus, where from the use of
boats it is evident that navigation of some kind must previously
have existed ; and it is probable that Alexander was aware that
the Persian Gulf communicated with the Indian Ocean, and
that the estuaries of the rivers Eulaeus and Euphrates might
be reached by the fleet.
Why it is not stated, but instead of delaying a couple of
months for the favourable season, the two admirals, after burn-
1 Quint. Curt, lib. IX, cap. x. . 2 See above, vol. I, p. 228.

The Indus
known in
Alexander'stime.

CHAP. XI.] THE FLEET REACHES PORT ALEXANDER. 345
ing some of the vessels which were not required,1 quitted the
station near Pattala early in October, and descended the slow passage
western arm of the river with unaccountable slowness, con- T°Zv. ' e
sidering that the stream had been previously explored by
Alexander himself. In fact only nine miles were made during
the last six days as the fleet approached Coreatis, a place still
within the estuary ; where the freshness of the air, the mixture
of sweet with bitter water, and the surprising periodical effects
of the tide, were experienced, of which such a natural and lively
description is given by Quintus Curtius.2
Early on the seventh day, however, by cutting a canal of
five stadia through the mud along the western side of the
entrance, the vessels passed into the open sea without being The ships gain
forced to encounter the heavy surf on the bar. Once clear the open sea'
of this difficult river, the fleet made 150 stadia (from Coreatis)
to the sandy island of Krokola3 at the commencement of
the territory of the Arabii.4 The island opposite to Karachee
appears to correspond with this station, being about fourteen
miles, following the sinuosities, from the Pill mouth of the
Indus. The modern Karachee is situated on a large, commo
dious, and safe inlet, capable of containing vessels of two or
three hundred tons burthen, and it has a considerable trade
with Kach'h, Bombay, and the Malabar coast. The houses of
the town are chiefly composed of mud and sandstone, forming
very narrow streets ; the country immediately around is desti
tute of vegetation, and the water is brackish; but corn is
brought from Ha'ider-abad, and rice from Kach'h and the coast
of Malabar.5 Thence, after remaining one day, the ships pro
ceeded on their voyage, having the mountain Irus on their right
hand,6 and a low flat island on their left; and going through the
narrow passage thus formed they came to a safe haven, which,
being both large and commodious, was named Port Alexander.
Opposite to the mouth of this haven, at the distance of two
1 Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. Ivii. 2 Lib. IX, cap. ix.
3 Pliny, lib. VI, cap. xxi. * Arrian, Ind, cap. xxi.
5 Lieut. Kempthorne, Indian Navy, vol. V, p. 263, of Royal Geographical
Journal. 6 In the interior, westward and northward of Karachee, there are several
mountains, one of which no doubt represents Irus.

346 ISLAND OF BIBACTA : MOUTH OF THE ARABIUS. [CHAP. XI.
The island stadia, there is an island called Bibacta,1 partly sheltering it;
and as the Etesian winds (the S. W. monsoon) grew very bois
terous, blowing directly on the shore, Nearchus landed his men,
when surrounding the camp with a stone wall, as a protection
from the barbarians, he remained twenty-four days2 awaiting
the termination of the monsoon ; having in all likelihood found
supplies which had been provided by Alexander.
The sheltered anchorage at the western side of the inlet or
bay of Karachee, between Cape Tent and Munoora Point, seems
to answer to Port Alexander, which is sheltered by a sandy
island, possibly Bibacta, and the passage thither at high tide
inside of the sandy island opposite to the present town coin
cides with the description of Nearchus. The next station of 60
stadia, after the wind abated, was the desolate island of Domas,3
probably one of those near the entrance of the inlet ; and the
succeeding voyage was round Munoora Point to the country of
Saranga ; from whence it is 300 stadia to the commodious haven
- of Morontobara,4 probably the estuary of the Bahur river, some
distance northward of Cape Monze.
Having with some difficulty gone through the narrow rocky
entrance of this harbour, the fleet, with the assistance of the
tide, passed through a narrow channel between an island, pro-
Arrival at the bably Chulna, and the main, and made 70 stadia; 120 stadia
Arabius. more brought the vessels to the mouth of the river Arabius,
where was found a large and safe harbour, but no fresh water.5
Sonmeany, a small fishing town governed by a sheikh, marks
Poverty of the ^ situation. The people are hospitable but poor, living
people. chiefly on rice and dried fish. The inlet has water for vessels
of one or two hundred tons, and is sheltered from all winds ;
but there is an extensive bar at the entrance which can only be
passed by vessels of small burthen at high water.6 This river
separates the last part of the country of the Arabitae from the
Oritae : these last are clothed and armed like the Indians, but
1 Bibaga, Pliny, lib. VI, cap. xxi. B Arrian, Ind, cap. xxi.
3 Perhaps the Torallibus of Pliny, lib. VI, cap. xxi.
4 Arrian, Ind, cap. xxii. 5 Ibid.
0 Lieut. Kempthorne, Indian Navy, vol. V, p. 264, of Royal Geographical
Journal.

CHAP. XI.J THE FLEET REACHES THE COAST OF THE ORITiE. 347
their customs and manners appear to be different from those of
their neighbours.1
Sailing about 200 stadia along the coast of the Oritae, the
fleet anchored near the island of Pagala, and from thence 430
stadia more brought it to Kabana, where the anchorage being The fleet
bad, three vessels were lost during a storm which was encoun- stormaatr$ a
tered. From hence 200 stadia were made to Kokala, probably Kabana-
the existing Mahee Makace, and the port of Bambacia or Alex
andria,2 the capital of the Oritae country, where Alexander
ordered a colony to be established.3 Here were found supplies
which had been left by Alexander, also the corps under Leo
natus, who had defeated the Oritae and their allies with the loss
of 6,000 men.4 At this place the fleet was refitted, and those
men who were unwilling to bear the fatigue and exertions of the
voyage were replaced by others sent by Leonatus ;5 for as the
perils of the sea were more dreaded than those of the land, no
doubt the latter was the favourite service. After a rest of ten Arrives at the
days the voyage was resumed, and having the benefit of the
N. E. or favourable monsoon, the fleet made 500 stadia in
one day to the river Tomerus," probably the Hingol river,
whose estuary forms a kind of lake near the shore.7 Here the
landing was opposed ; but the natives being defeated, and many
of them captured, the fleet remained six days refitting among
the shaggy and wild-looking barbarians,8 who occupied low
huts supported by fish-bones. Another stage of 600 stadia
brought it to Malana or Hormarah (Ras Malin), the western
limits of the Oritae, now the Urhu tribe, and the commence
ment of Gedrosia, as well as the territory of the Ichthyophagi.9
A stage of 60 miles brought the fleet to Bagasira, a haven
capable of receiving it, and having the village of Pasira at
about 60 stadia from the shore.10 The bay is now known by The bay of
the name of 'Arabah or Hormarah : it is deep and commodious, Arababi
with good anchorage, well sheltered except from the southward
1 Arrian, Ind, cap. xxv. 2 Pliny, lib. VI, cap. xxiii.
8 Arrian, lib. VI, cap. xxi. " Ibid, cap. xxiii.
s jDj(j_ 6 Tonderan. — Pliny, lib. VI, cap. xxiii.
7 Arrian, Ind, cap. xxiv. 8 Ibid, cap. xxv.
9 Ibid, cap. xxv, xxvi. l0 Ibid.

348 THE FLEET ARRIVES AT KALAMA AND KARNINE. [CHAP. XI.

Dwellings of
the Baluehes.

The fleet
arrives at
Kalama and
the island
Earnine.

A Gedrosian
pilot obtained.

and eastward.1 Rather a large fishing village (once Pasira) is
situated on a low sandy isthmus, forming another bay on the
western side of the promontory, now Cape 'Arabah. The
people, who are Baluehes, have little trade and are very poor,
living chiefly in huts of cajan2 sticks, covered with date-tree
leaves ; they are hospitable, and have some goats, fowls, and
dried fish, but melons are the only thing grown.3
After halting one day, the fleet sailed round the adjoining
high and rugged promontory, and having gained 200 stadia it
came to Kolta, whence departing at day-light it made 600
stadia more to the village of Kalama, where were found some
dates and green figs. Here there was an island about 100
stadia from the shore, called Karnine, where Nearchus was
hospitably entertained, receiving presents of cattle and fish. But
the former, says Nearchus (probably sheep), eat fishy, not much
unlike sea-fowl, being fed upon fish,4 there being no grass upon
the island. Ashtola, a desolate island of about five miles in
circumference, and twelve miles from the coast of Mekran,
represents this station: it is inaccessible except at one place
where there is a sandy beach, being surrounded by cliffs rising
abruptly about 300 feet ; latterly it was a rendezvous of the
Jawasimi pirates.5
Making 200 stadia from Karnine, the fleet put to shore on
the coast of Karbis, not far from the inland village of Cysa or
Kysa, where were found some small boats belonging to poor
fishermen who had fled, but no corn. From thence, sailing
round a high rocky promontory, now Passenae, running 150
stadia into the sea, the fleet came to the safe fishing haven of
Mosarna, where was obtained a Gedrosian pilot, who engaged
to conduct them safely to the coast of Carmania, with which
doubtless this port had commercial intercourse.6 Under the
1 Lieut. Kempthorne, Indian Navy, vol. V, pp. 264, 265, of Royal Geo
graphical Journal. 2 Cytisus cajan. Ibid.
3 Ibid.
4 In many places, both here and in Arabia, the cattle are fed entirely on
dried fish and dates mixed together. — Lieut. Kempthorne, Indian Navy,
vol. V, p. 270, of Royal Geographical Journal. Arrian, Ind, cap. xxvi.
5 Ibid, and vol. V, p. 266, of Royal Geographical Journal.
0 Arrian, Ind, cap. xxvii.

CHAP. XI.J THE FLEET REACHES THE COAST OF GEDROSIA. 349
guidance of the Gedrosian, the fleet made, in one stage of 750
stadia, the coast of Balomus, and from thence another of 400
stadia brought it to Barna, a village with palm and other fruit
trees, also myrtles and various flowers. In another stage of
200 stadia it reached Dendrobosa, and 400 stadia onward the
haven of Kophas or Kophanta. This was probably the bay
westward of Ras Gwadel ; and it appears to have been a large
fishing station, where the people had slight boats with paddles,
which were used, says Arrian, as diggers do their spades.1
Making 800 stadia from thence, the fleet anchored near The fleet
Kyiza, which being a barren rocky coast, it proceeded onward Kyiza? **
without landing ; and having by fraud surprised a small town,
situated on a hill, probably at or near Gwutter bay, there was
obtained a small supply of corn, and, what was more common,
some meal made of dried fish ground to powder.2 Thence the
fleet proceeded to the rock or island of Bagia, probably Ras-
Briefs, and onward, 1,000 stadia from thence, to the commodious
haven of Taimona, where the crews were permitted to land.
This seems to coincide with the existing bay of Charbar or Taimona pro-
Choubar, in which there is a walled town of the former name, present Bay
subject to the Imam of Maskat, and having an extensive trade of Charbar-
with different parts of India, which is chiefly carried on by
Banian merchants. It contains about 1,500 inhabitants, living
in meanly-built houses, chiefly mud, with flat roofs. The streets
are narrow and dirty, and in the vicinity are some date groves,
also a few fields producing corn and vegetables.3
At 400 stadia from thence the fleet came to the ruined city
of Kanasis, where there was found a well and some palm trees ;
and sailing all night and the day following along a barren coast
to Kanates, it anchored, the crews being unable to land for the
usual purpose of cooking and refreshing themselves : it then
made 750 stadia to the country of the Traesi, which contained The fleet
some poor villages, with a little corn and some dates, and here ^tryof the
the followers of Nearchus captured or plundered seven camels.4 TrffiS1-
1 Arrian, Ind, cap. xxvii. 2 Ibid, cap. xxviii.
3 Lieut. Kempthorne, Indian Navy, vol. V, p. 271, of Royal Geographical
Journal. 4 Arrian, Ind, cap. xxix.

350 THE FLEET GAINS THE MOUTH OF THE ANAMIS. [CHAP. XI.
The next stage of 300 stadia brought the fleet to Dagasira,
a town frequented by herdsman, and in another of 1,100 stadia
it reached the extreme limits of the Ichthyophagi. According
The coast of to the present voyage this coast extends 10,000 stadia; Strabo
phheagiChthy°" gives it only 7,400 stadia, and the distance on the charts is but
449 miles. At present, as in the time of Nearchus, fish, both
fresh and reduced to meal when dry, forms a large part if not
the whole sustenance of the people, as well as of their cattle.1
On reaching Badis, a port of Moghostan, towards the
southern extremity of Kirman, which appears to be repre
sented by the town of Jask, near the well-known cape of that
name, Nearchus found stores of vines and corn, with plenty of
fruit trees, except olives. Passing Bambarak, or Kove Mubar-
rack, named by Nearchus the second mount of Semiramis,
and having made 800 stadia, the fleet anchored opposite the.
Arabian promontory, called Maceta,2 now Coomza, and the
adjoining small island of Ras Musendom. Next day the fleet
The fleet entered the Gulf of Persia ; and going along the northern shore
Pmian Gulf, by Neoptana, now Karroon,3 a fishing village, it made 800
stadia to the mouth of the river Anamis,4 where uncertainty as
to his voyage, and the chief difficulties in accomplishing it,
were at an end.
More powerful incentives to a great undertaking can scarcely
be imagined than those which influenced Nearchus. After
being selected in preference to all others by the king, he re
ceived instructions in person to carry out an enterprise which
the monarch had previously destined for himself, as the last
and greatest object to complete his vast undertakings, and
there was from time to time during the voyage the animating
incitement of endeavouring to keep pace with the parallel
movement of the king. But, on the other hand, the difficulties
were sufficient to outweigh all these considerations, and deter
almost any other commander. The vessels could only carry a
1 Lieut. Kempthorne, Indian Navy, vol. V, p. 270, of Royal Geographical
Journal ; Arrian, Ind, cap. xxix.
2 Arrian, Ind, cap. xxxii.
8 Vol. V. of Royal Geographical Journal, p. 273.
' Arrian, Ind, cap. xxxiii.

4
M

H 1-!

CHAP. XI.] NATURE AND DIFFICULTIES OF THE UNDERTAKING. 351
limited supply of provisions, for four or five days at most ; and
the want of more than sitting space for the rowers, rendered it
absolutely necessary that they should have daily opportunities
of taking refreshment on shore; and supplies even of water
were very doubtful.
But notwithstanding these serious considerations, the admiral Boldness of
did not hesitate to venture into an unknown sea, rowing from ^ducting"
one headland to another of a strange coast, which, in case 0ftheTOyase-
the requisite supplies being obtained, might or might not con
duct the fleet to its destination in the Persian Gulf.
Owing, as has been seen, to an imperfect knowledge of the
seasons, Nearchus was exposed for some weeks to the S. W.
monsoon, at a period when the coast is even now considered
impracticable. But he hauled up at one moment, and per
severed at another, till he joined Leonatus on the coast of the
Oritae. Subsequently all assistance ceased, and all communi
cation with the army, so much so as to induce a suspicion that,
being no longer under the eye of Alexander, the voyage had The voyage
become in some measure predatory; but, however this may have°been^n
have been, trusting to his own resources in digging wells and PartPredatory-
collecting provisions, the admiral conducted his fleet to Har-
mozia, a city situated in an agreeable, and with the exception
of the olive, a fruitful country. Here there was abundance,
instead of the scanty supplies previously obtained with such
difficulty ; and to his great surprise Nearchus learnt from a
Greek, who had strayed to the coast, that the king was at
Salmonte,1 at no great distance from thence. It is difficult to
account for the conduct of the admiral on this occasion, for
having ascertained from the prefect that the intelligence was
correct, instead of either going in person or immediately send
ing a report to the king, Nearchus hauled up his fleet on the
banks of the Anamis or Minnow, and secured it by constructing
a double rampart with a deep ditch, which could be filled from
the river. During these defensive preparations, the prefect
proceeded to the camp of Alexander, and Nearchus was ordered
to report his voyage in person ; when, after a journey of five
days on foot, he and his followers arrived with untrimmed
1 Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. Iviii.

352 NEARCHUS MEETS ALEXANDER : MARCH RESUMED. [CHAP. XI.

Nearchus re
ceived by
Alexander.

The fleet
arrives at
Ormuz.

The admiral
visited by
Mazanes.

beards, and were scarcely recognizable, owing to their soiled
clothing and their sun-burnt, swarthy, and emaciated bodies.
They found Alexander and the army enjoying a luxurious rest
after the difficulties of the desert march.
The reception of the admiral, according to his own narrative,
was most flattering ; for it is said that with tears of joy Alex
ander declared that the preservation of the fleet was more
acceptable than the conquest of Asia itself, and that Nearchus
should not be exposed to any fresh toils and hazards.1
The latter circumstance, taken in conjunction with the forti
fications round the fleet, and the despatch of messengers to
bring Nearchus to the camp, would imply that all had not been
right during this remarkable undertaking ; but, whether Near
chus avoided communication with the king, fearing to be
questioned concerning the events of his voyage, or from other
motives, the request that he might be allowed to preside over
the fleet till it reached Susa was granted. Nearchus being
despatched, offered sacrifices at Harmozia to Jupiter the pre
server, and on the 1st January, 325 b.c, proceeded by Organa,
now Ormuz.2 The fleet made 300 stadia to another island
(Oaracta),3 larger, well inhabited, and fully 800 stadia in
length : and at this place arrived Mazanes, the governor, who
offered his services, probably by4 command of Alexander, to
share and control the authority of the admiral. Prom thence
the fleet sailed 200 stadia along the southern shore to another
port on the same island. Passing an island sacred to Neptune,
now called Angar or Angam,5 the fleet encountered a storm,
and was much exposed on what is now Bassadore bank,6 till
with great difficulty the ships got into deep water: it then
made 400 stadia to another island, probably the Little Tomb.
From hence, leaving Pyldra, now Polior, on the left hand, the
fleet arrived at Sidoddne, a small town, probably represented
either by Duan or the fishing village of Mogoo,7 both situate in

1 Arrian, Ind, cap. xxxv. a See above, vol. I, p. 229.
3 Pliny, lib. VI, cap. xxiii. * Arrian, Ind, cap. xxxvii.
5 More properly Hinjam or Hanjam, vol. V, p. 279, of Royal Geo
graphical Journal.
6 Ibid, p. 280. 7 Ibid.

CHAP. XI.J THE FLEET REACHES THE PORT OF SITAKUS. 353
a bay ofthe same name, and now, as in the time of Nearchus,
only affording fish and water. From thence the fleet sailed The fleet
300 stadia to the promontory of Tarsias, now Cape Certes or Certes, and
Ras Jerd ; and from thence it made 300 stadia to Cataea, a
barren rocky island at the extremity of Carmania, which is
sacred to Mercury and Yenus ; probably Kenn or Keis, an
island next in importance to Kishm.1 Proceeding onward 40
stadia the fleet came to a place upon the Persian shore called
Has, now Chiroo, opposite to which was the island of Caican-
drus, which forms a haven, now the channel inside of Inderabia,
or Hinderabi, an island almost without cultivation.2 Nearchus
next arrived at an inhabited island where he says pearls are
found, now Busheab ; and 40 stadia from this station the fleet
entered a convenient harbour supposed to be that at the western
extremity of the same island.3 From thence the fleet sailed to
Ochus, a high mountain promontory, probably Ras Nabend, arrives at the
where it found a safe haven inhabited by fishermen, now called soioo.
the bay of Alsaloo.
Proceeding onward 400 stadia the fleet reached Apostani, a
harbour in which they found many ships at anchor, and where
there was a village 60 stadia from the shore.4 This haven is
probably represented by the bay of Congoon, on the western
side of Cape Berdistan or Verdistan : the next station, called a
noted bay, with many villages at the foot of a mountain,6 seems
to be that formed between Monsaly island and Ras Monsaly.
Thence the fleet passed on about 600 stadia further, and
anchored at the mouth of the brook of Areon in the country
of Gogana, which most likely is represented by the existing
small town of Cogoon. The next station, about 800 stadia
from thence, was Sitakus, where the fleet found plenty of corn
and other supplies which the king had provided for their use ;
and being a safe harbour, the ships remained twenty-one days The ships refit
to repair and refit.6 This station no doubt is represented by ^?' Shehr.
1 Vol. V, p. 279, of Royal Geographical Journal ; and see above, vol. I,
p. 230.
2 Lieut. Kempthorne, vol. V, p. 281, of Royal Geographical Journal.
3 iky. * Arrian, Ind, cap. xxxviii.
5 Ibid. ° Ibid.
VOL. II. 2 A

354 NEARCHUS REACHES THE RIVER AR0S1S. [CHAP. XI.
sitatus or the well-known port of Abu Shehr or Bushire,1 which being the
only safe haven on this part of the coast, was on this account
chosen for this important object by Alexander himself.
Advancing from thence, the fleet made 750 stadia to Hierates,
a place well inhabited, and having a canal called Heratemis, in
which the fleet was accommodated ;2 probably the present Bander
Reicht. Sous Poshoon, or Cape Bang, appears to represent
the peninsula of Mesambria, near the river Podargus ; and
Cool-band-creek seems to be in the vicinity of another station,
at about 200 stadia distance, called Taoce, near the mouth of
the river Granis ; at which there is a palace of the Persian
monarch 200 stadia from the coast.3 Two hundred stadia on
ward, the fleet reached the mouth of the river Ragonis, where
it found a safe haven,4 possibly one of the two Khdrs, a little
way eastward of Ras el Tombe ; and from thence it made
400 stadia to the mouth of the Brizana river.5 From this
spot, most likely Bander Delem, by taking advantage of the
tide, the fleet anchored at the mouth of the Arosis, which being
the largest river met by Nearchus, and having the Persian
territories on one side, with those of Susiana on the other, is
doubtless represented by the Tab or Indian.6
intricacy of The difficulties previously encountered in navigating the low
the voyage on .. n ct • 1
the coast of alluvial coast of Susiana greatly increased from hence, and are
made prominent in the narrative of the admiral, who mentions
the use of huge posts, and pieces of timber, to guide the vessels
through these intricate channels.7 We also perceive, and it may
also be inferred, that a separate independent government pre
vailed in this territory, like that of the Sheikh of Chaab at
present.8 About 500 stadia from the estuary of the Arosis, the fleet
anchored at the mouth of a lake called Kataderbis, which was
well stored with fish, and had a small island called Margastana
lying opposite. The fishing inlet called Khdr Musa, and the
1 See above, vol. I, p. 209. a Arrian, Ind, cap. xxxix.
8 Ibid. ' Ibid.
5 Ibid- 6 See above, vol. I, p. 202.
7 Arrian, Ind, cap. xii.
8 The Susians live according to their own laws.— Arrian, Ind, cap. xl.';
see above, vol. I, p. 202.

Susiana.

CHAP. XI. ] NEARCHUS REACHES DIRIDOTIS. 355
island of Derah, as well as the narrow channels, appear to cor
respond ; and the distance on the map, of thirty miles by the
windings, is nearly three-fifths of that given by Nearchus, or
about the general proportion between the positive and the com
puted distances of this part of the voyage.
From Kataderbis the fleet advanced through narrow channels Termination
in the same direction for 600 stadia, no doubt experiencing tneofthev°yase-
greatest difficulty in keeping clear of the Alie Mei'dan bank,
and not daring to put into any port for the crews to refresh
themselves. Keeping off the shore that night and all the next
day, it made 300 stadia, or 900 in all, and from Kataderbis1 it
came to a small village in the Babylonian territories named
Diridotis (Teredon) ; and thus was completed one of the most
daring voyages on record. The port at which they had arrived
was not unknown, being frequented by the Arabian merchants
who transported thither their frankincense and other spices for
sale. The distance from the mouth of the river to Babylon
was estimated at 3,300 stadia, or 330 miles ;2 by the Euphrates
itself it would be about 354 miles, or nearly 74 more than by the
Pallacopas, which is 280 miles, including the distance along the
Euphrates from its second or lower head to Hillah. The fleet,
in following the windings of the channel, might be carried much
beyond the Shatt el 'Arab, which is easily missed, and thus it
-might have reached the supposed mouth ofthe Pallacopas oppo
site to the island of Boobian. It is probable that the channel
westward of the latter was the passage used by the vessels pass
ing from Gerrha to Teredon. The site of the latter city, the Teredon sup-
supposed work of Nebuchadnezzar,3 is presumed to be at Jebel jebel san&n.
Sanam, a gigantic mound near the Pallacopas branch of the
Euphrates. This spot is about 23 miles S.S.W. of Basrah, 13
or 14 S. by W. of Zobei'r, and nearly 18 miles N.W. ofthe sup
posed estuary opposite the island of Boobian, near the Khdr
'Abd-ullah ; but at the time in question the latter may have been
near, or even have touched Jebel Sanam.
At Diridotis, Nearchus received a messenger bringing news
of the approach of Alexander, ivherefore the fleet steered some-
1 Arrian, Ind, cap. xii. 2 Ibid.
3 Eusebius, from Abydenus, apud Grotium, lib. Ill, cap. xvi.
2 A2

356 NEARCHUS ASCENDS TO SUSA. [CHAP. XI.
what backward in order that it might sail by the river Pasitigris
to meet the army.1
We are told2 that, keeping the country of Susa on their left
hand, they passed through the lake by which the Tigris empties
itself, and thence 600 stadia onward to a village of the Susians
called Agines, which is 500 stadia from Susa.3 Now the latter
The Pasitigris territory would have been equally on the left, whether Diridotis
theKarun? " were situated on the Pallacopas or on the Shatt el 'Arab, and
there would have been the same necessity for the fleet "to steer
somewhat backward," in order to enter the Pasitigris ; whose posi
tive geography, if this river be represented by the river Kariin,
will be found to correspond with the movements of the fleet.
The bed of the lake, once formed, according to Polybius,
by the Choaspes, Eulaeus, and Tigris, may still be traced.4
It extended over most part of the country lying between Diri
dotis and Agines (Ahwaz), and its waters were discharged by
the separate channels of the Euphrates, or rather by the Shatt
Former bed of el 'Arab and Kariin. The old bed of the Kariin exists * below
the site ofthe lake; and, no doubt, served the fleet in ascend
ing to the latter, whose waters appear to have terminated 600
stadia from Agines,5 or about the existing village of Ismaili ;
where, in fact, the ground becomes a little more elevated.
Agines itself is stated to be 500 stadia from Susa, and the sup
posed site of Ahwaz is 42 miles from thence by the air line, and
47 miles along one of the ancient beds of the Shapiir, following
its supposed course from Susa till it met the Kariin at Ahwaz.6
On receiving fresh news of the king's approach, whidh seems
to have occurred after ascending the lower part of the Pasitigris,
Nearchus continued his voyage to the bridge, newly built for
The fleet the king's forces to pass towards Susa, where he met part of the
Susaf UP army. In obedience to orders, Nearchus7 proceeded to wait
upon the king at Susa, probably going by land, as the passage
of the fleet is not mentioned ; but being afterwards at the city,
1 Arrian, Ind, cap. xiii. s Ibid. 3 Ibid.
4 Ainsworth's Assyria and Babylonia, p. 194. Parker, 1838.
9 Ibid, p. 193; Arrian, Ind, cap. xiii.
6 See above, vol. I, pp. 198, 199.
7 Arrian, Exp, lib. VII, cap. v., and Ind, cap. xiii.

' «

II «jl 4"

#1

tv:
CHAP. XI.] ALEXANDER ADVANCES FROM KIRMAN. 357
it must have ascended either by the ancient Shapiir or Shawer
river, or else by the canal of the Shatt el Maktuah (cut river),
which once connected the rivers Kerkhah and Kariin.1
The distances given by the admiral in his account of the Comparative
voyage from the Indus, only approximate in two portions of
the coast, and those the shortest, namely, along the Arabitae
and Oritae. Throughout the rest of the voyage they do not,
however, by any means correspond with those determined by
maps laid down from the recent surveys.
Carefully following the sinuosities, the distances are : —
Geographical „. ,. Nearchus
Miles.. Stadia- gives
From the Pettee, mouth of the Indus, to 1 ___
„ ,, * ' . ... > 104 to 108, or 1.080 1,000
Sonmeany and the river Arabius . J
From Sonmeany to Cape Malin, on the 1 1Qg tQ ^
Ontsean coast  1
From Cape Malin to Cape Jask, on the 1 tQ ^
coast of the Ichthyophagi ... J
From Cape Jask to Cape Nabon, the J 4QQ ^ m
ancient limits of Carmania ... 1
From Cape Nabon to the Indian or j 29g tQ 3 qi 3Q0Q
Arosis, on coast of Persis . . . J
From the Arosis to the Pallacopas or -j
coast of Susiana, following the Khors I 112 to 115, or 1,150 2,000
and passages in and out .... J  14,840 22,700
It thus appears that the actual length of the voyage is but Length of the
about two-thirds of the estimate of Nearchus ; and taking this NTrf hus.
proportion from Cape Malm to the Pallacopas, and allowing
ten stadia to the geographical mile, the stations mentioned may
in general be traced.
It appears that so soon as Nearchus was despatched to com
plete his great enterprise, Alexander moved westward, where
his presence was urgently required to put an end to the mis-
government and irregularities which had sprung up in his
absence. The main body was committed, with the elephants, to
Hephaestion, with directions to march by the longer but more
convenient route along the coast, that is, in a south-south-westerly
direction to Laristan, passing, according to tradition, through
1 See vol. I, pp. 195, 199.

358

ALEXANDER PROCEEDS TO SUSA.

[CHAP. XI.

Alexander Benarooz and Beruz.1 Alexander, at the head of some infantry,
visits Pasa- „ . . „ J
garda. a lew bowmen, and the companion cavalry, crossed the hills by
a direct line to Pasagarda. Finding that the tomb of the great
Cyrus (Mader-i-Solelman)2 had been plundered during his ab
sence, of the cups, scimitars, jewels and other valuables, with
the exception of the golden coffin, which the robbers had not
been able to carry off,3 Alexander left Aristobulus to restore
everything to its former state, and build up the door with solid
masonry, and proceeded to Persepolis and Pasargada, whose
melancholy ruins caused him much regret. Here the misgovern-
Orsines put to ment was speedily remedied by putting Orsines to death for
government?" oppression and misconduct; and Peucestas was appointed to
succeed to the satrapy, as a reward for his faithful services in
defending Alexander's life at the most critical moment among
the Malli.4
After a short delay Alexander continued his march, most
likely along the route by which he had originally advanced,
through the Susian rocks to the bridge over the Kariin or Pa
sitigris, going from thence to Susa. Here he was speedily
joined by Nearchus and Onesicritus, and in all probability by the
vessels also, for there is little doubt that their crews were present
when sacrifices were offered for the safety of the fleet and army:
these were ,as usual, accompanied by the exhibition of various
kinds of sports, to commemorate* the accomplishment of the
voyage, and a scarcely less extraordinary march5 through the
desert. The fate of Orsines awaited the satrap Abulites and his son,
on the accusation of the Susians for plundering their temples
and oppressing the people.6 Like many other satraps, they had
thus acted under the belief that Alexander would not return to
have a day of reckoning, and exercise control over those whom
he had placed in authority. But Alexander was not only de
termined to punish the guilty, whether Macedonians or those of
other nations, with impartiality, but also to make a strong effort

Alexander
determines to abolish
national dis
tinctions.

1 See vol. I., p. 228. * Ibid, p. 209.
3 Arrian, Exp, lib. VI, cap. xxx. 4 Ibid.
5 Arrian, Ind, cap. xiii, and Exp, lib. VI, cap. xxiii, xxiv.
6 Ibid, lib. VI, cap. xxx.

CHAP. XI. j PROPOSED CONSOLIDATION OF THE EMPIRE. 359
to settle the government of his vast empire. The basis assumed,
was at once novel and difficult, being the removal of na
tional distinctions, and of the assumption by the Greeks of
superiority over conquered nations. Whilst in Egypt, he formed
the project, which he was now about to put in execution, of
bringing the people of his vast empire to coalesce as one nation,
enjoying equal rights and privileges, though differing in religions,
language, and manners ; and marriages were to be part of the
means of accomplishing this great object. Alexander had al
ready availed himself of the Macedonian custom of taking a
wife from another state ; and as the Greeks were more than
likely to be influenced by his example, he married Barsine or He marries
Statira. He disposed of many noble maidens to Hephaestion, Statira-
Nearchus, Craterus, and others ; and about 10,000 of his people
appeared to receive their brides at a public wedding, including
that of the monarch. This was celebrated in the Persian man
ner, with five days' festivities ; and not only were dowries
bestowed upon all, but Alexander took this opportunity of
paying the debts of his soldiers, to the amount, it is supposed, of
five millions sterling.1 This was followed by the distribution Distributes
of honorary crowns, and some changes in the organization ofcompTnsLT"
the army ; the object of which will presently be seen, and for
which the Epigoni, and the levies trained in the Grecian disci
pline, afforded ample materials.
The partial use of the Persian language in the army, and the
adoption of the Macedonian dress by Asiatics, gave umbrage to
the European soldiers; and even the exercise of justice towards
barbarians was a serious ground of complaint with the Macedo
nians. But, as will be seen, Alexander was prepared to meet
the discontent which had been for some time ready to break out
in the army.
The grand project of opening, or rather extending, the exist- Reorganiza-
ing commerce with eastern countries, was only second to the army.
projected change by which the conqueror purposed, quietly, to
substitute for the Macedonian army a more general organization
of troops to be raised amongst the most warlike nations then
under his dominion. 1 Arrian, Exp, lib. VII, cap. iv, v.

360 TRADE WITH INDIA CONTEMPLATED. [CHAP. XI.
The employment of mercenary troops had long prevailed
both in Macedonia and Greece, and the extension of this system
was in fact adopted by Alexander soon after his career of con
quests commenced. The Agema, it will be remembered, did
good service at the Issus, as well as in the subsequent struggle
Mounted at Arbela. To these the mounted archers and other levies were
to the army, added ; for the practice of the principal nations in Asia, the
Medes and Persians, had gradually overcome the prejudices
entertained in the outset by Alexander against that species of
troops. But we are nowhere informed at what period, during
the retrograde march from the Hyphasis, the more sweeping
change was planned. It has just been seen that it was first
developed at Susa, where it was based upon a wide system of
intermarriages, when his own union with Statira gave him an
additional claim to the throne of Darius.
Proofs that a The other part of his plan, trade with India, undoubtedly
India -was originated at a still earlier period — having been contemplated
piateo\0ntem when the Egyptian Alexandria was ordered to be constructed ;
and the project itself must have been matured to a certain extent
during his stay in Egypt, since, in offering sacrifices to the gods
at CiUutas on the Indus, Alexander announced that it, was in
conformity to directions given him by the oracle of Ammon.1
This circumstance also demonstrates that a visit to the shores
of the eastern ocean had then been contemplated. The prayer
offered that his fleet might prosperously make the voyage from
the Indus to the Euphrates, Tigris, &c.,2 affords another argu
ment; and the desire expressed as he passed through Pasargada
and Persepolis to examine the two last rivers,3 completes the
chain of circumstances.
Alexander commenced the intended voyage by going on
board the fleet, which lay ready at Susa, with his targeteers, the
Agema, and some part of the auxiliary horse : with these he
Alexander sailed down the river Eulaeus, leaving the greater part of his
EuhEus.S 6 forces to march under Hephaestion. When not far from the
mouth of this stream, he left those ships which were out of
order, and taking the best, he sailed out into the ocean ; after-
1 Arrian, lib. VI, cap. xix. ! Ibid.
3 Ibid, lib. VII, cap. i.

CHAP. XI.] ALEXANDER ENTERS THE TIGRIS. 361
wards, having entered the Tigris, he was joined by Hephaestion
and the rest of the fleet, which for this purpose passed through
a canal (now the Hafar) cut from the river he had descended.1
A reference to the maps Nos. 10 and 11 will at once show
that if the river here mentioned, namely, the Eulaeus, were The Eutens
represented by the modern Kerkhah, into which Alexander ^^ the
might have passed his fleet from Susa, by means of a canal, the K<ir,in-
stream would at once have carried the vessels into the lower
part of the Tigris, without the necessity of entering the latter
river from the ocean, and the whole of the equipment would
have been ready to ascend the latter stream without the neces
sity of entering it, as it is stated, through a canal.2 These
objections do not, however, apply to the Kariin Proper, into
which it will be seen from the map, that the fleet could have
passed by two different channels, namely, either by a canal from
Susa into the river Kerkhah, and from thence by the Maktiiah
canal into the Kariin, or, more directly, along the river Shapiir.
Presuming that it was the latter, Alexander would have been
carried along this stream from the walls of Susa into the Kariin
near Agines ; and following this river, then probably known
first as the Eulaeus, and afterwards as the Pasitigris, the fleet
would pass through the lake, and again into the lower river, or
old Kariin, which no doubt was the principal stream, although
sending a bifurcation westward. Along the latter, Alexander
sent the smaller and damaged vessels towards the Hafar canal,
and descended, with those which were more efficient, along the
greater arm. On reaching the sea through the estuary of the
Kariin or Pasitigris, he turned westward, and ascended the Shatt
el 'Arab to the western extremity of the Hafar, from whence,
being rejoined by the rest of the fleet, he proceeded to the spot
where Hephaestion and the rest of the army were encamped.
From thence the united forces ascended along the trunk of the
Tigris as far as the city of Opis ; whose site may be looked for Opis probably
a little below the ruins of Samarrah, or in about 34° 5' N. L. : 0f Samarrah,
but Arrian gives no particulars of this voyage, except that
Alexander commanded all the weirs and other obstructions,
which had impeded his ascent, to be removed, and the channel
1 Arrian, lib. VII, cap. vii. 2 Ibid.

362

STATE OF THE TIGRIS ." SUBAQUEOUS WALLS. [CHAP. XI.

Effects of
removing the
river walls.

Thirteen Macedonians
seized and
executed.

to be cleared.1 No doubt the bunds or dykes, which at intervals
raise the water to a higher level for the purpose of irrigation,
are alluded to, and some of these, such as those still to be seen
below Opis, on the affluent of the 'Adhim,2 and others higher up
in the Tigris,3 which run from side to side of the river, might
have been mistaken for defensive works ; but this could scarcely
have been tbe case with the ordinary irrigating walls, since they
overlap and leave a passage in the centre to accommodate boats
or rafts ; and through these, no doubt, the fleet of Alexander
passed on this occasion.
The removal of these walls would have been favourable to
navigation ; but in other respects it was detrimental, and par
ticularly so by diminishing the productions of the country, to
the increase of which the skill and industry of the Assyrians
had been so successfully directed.4
Here unfortunately a blank occurs in the narrative of Arrian
and other historians respecting the first part of the march from
Opis, and even the cause of its being undertaken. It is, how
ever, tolerably clear from the history of Diodorus Siculus, that
the movement into Media instead of being homeward, brought
things to a crisis by causing a decided outbreak, the whole army
mutinously calling out to be discharged, and adding, in derision,
that Alexander might enlist another Father Ammon for his
future campaigns. Although Alexander could not have been
quite unprepared for this conduct, never were his intrepidity and
presence of mind so conspicuous as on this trying occasion ; for,
descending from the tribunal, he rushed into the crowd, followed
by those immediately round his person, and seizing thirteen of
the ringleaders, he caused them to be executed on the spot.6
This being done, Alexander returned to the tribunal, where he
made an eloquent address to the troops, then terrified into a
state of sullen silence and astonishment. He recounted what
they had been, and the glorious conquests of the world which
made them what they then were, having himself no other dis-
1 Arrian, lib. VII , cap. vii. 2 See above, vol. I, p. 30.
3 Ibid, p. 21. * Sequel, chap. XIX.
5 Compare Arrian, lib. VII, cap. viii, with Diod. Sic, lib. XVII,
cap. Ixiv, and Quint. Curt, lib. X, cap. iii.

CHAP. XI.] ALEXANDER FORMS AN ASIATIC ARMY. 363
tinction, after leading them over plains and mountains, lands
and seas, than the purple robe and diadem : he added, in con
clusion, that all were welcome to return, and relate at home,
that after sharing in all these glories they had deserted their
king, leaving him to the care ofthe barbarians, whom, with him,
they had conquered.
After thus expressing himself, he hastily retired, and for Persian nobles
three days remained secluded in his palace ; but not idle, for oZm^dsIn
at the expiration of that time, being still without concessions the army-
from the army, he summoned the Persian nobility to the palace,
and as the 30,000 Epigoni, and a similar number of other
trained Asiatics, all in the prime of life, furnished ample means,
he proceeded to execute the plan which had been gradually
formed, of dispensing with the services of the Macedonians, and
admitting the Asiatics to those common rights which had been
hitherto denied by their conquerors. Accordingly he selected
for the command of the several bodies of his army, chiefs from
the different provinces of Persia, who assumed the rank and
distinctions of the Greeks. In addition to the Persians already
admitted into the royal companion cavalry, he formed a body
of royal companion infantry, and another of noble Persians, who
were called Argyraspides, from their silver shields. But the T1>e Argyras-
• i 1 j? ii t> • i i pides formed.
most galling circumstance was the renewal ot tne 1 ersian body
guard called royal kinsmen, who alone, in former times, had
the privilege of saluting the king of kings. This produced the
most decided effect ; for after remaining two days under arms,
the troops hurried in a body towards the gates of the palace,
and having piled their arms to show the nature of their appli
cation, they loudly implored the king to come forth, and declared
their readiness to give up the surviving ringleaders. The king's
victory being thus complete, a reconciliation followed, with a Alexander
public banquet for Greeks and Asiatics ; and the establishment hlsMacedo-0
of a separate force under Asiatic, officers, henceforth enabled man soldiers-
Alexander to preserve a balance between his old and new sub
jects, in conformity with the plans which he intended to carry
out. A selection was now made of the Macedonians and others
who were incapacitated for active service, more than 10,000 of

364 ALEXANDER ADVANCES INTO MEDIA. [CHAP. XI.
whom were sent home under Craterus ; this favourite and dis
tinguished veteran being appointed, in order to remove the diffi
culties caused in the home government by the imperious and
ambitious conduct of Olympias.
Unfortunately, the succeeding part of Arrian's history is
deficient, and Quintius Curtius equally fails. Diodorus Siculus,
however, partly supplies the blank, at least from Susa onward ;
but we are quite left to conjecture the route by which Alex
ander proceeded from Opis to that capital. It is clear 1 that
the meeting and subsequent despatch of the invalids took place
at Opis, whither the vessels had ascended. The circumstance
of the fleet being on the spot, and at one of the heads 2 of the
Alexander famous Nahrawan, and water communications being the par-
NahrawL e ticular object of Alexander, it is not impossible, as already
Choaspes hinted,3 that Alexander, with some of the flotilla which came
from the Indus, may have passed along the canal in question
into the ancient Choaspes ; and this is the more probable, since
it is stated that part of the fleet which afterwards assembled at
Babylon had been brought thither from the Persian sea by
the river Euphrates.4
For some cause or other, his presence having been called for
in Media, Alexander marched thither from Susa ; taking the
H"oute to Susa. easier but longer route, which for some time skirts the southern
side of the Zagros, he passed through the villages of Charras
and Sittacene in four days to Sambana. At this place, which
appears to be represented by the ruins of Samarrah, once the
capital of Masabadan,3 Alexander halted seven days, and in
four marches reached Celonae, a Boeotian colony, which, in the
time of the expedition of Xerxes, settled at this place, now
Sirwan, or Keiliin.6 After halting some days, the army
resumed its march towards Baghistane (the place of gardens),
a very fine country, producing everything required for the
1 Arrian, Exp, lib. VII, cap. viii. to xi.
2 At Ka'im. See vol. I, pp. 27, 28.
3 Ibid.
4 Arrian, Exp, lib. VII, cap. xix.
5 Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. lxvii, and Major Eawlinson, vol. IX,
p. 59 of Royal Geographical Journal.
6 Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. lxvii.. and Geographical Journal, pp. 55, 56.

CHAP. XI.] ALEXANDER SUBDUES THE COSS^EANS. 365
necessity or pleasure of man.1 As this place, the well-known Visits Bag-
Bisutiin, was passed by Semiramis on her way to Chaone or
Kangawar, it would naturally attract Alexander's attention,
who turned a little out of his way for the purpose of visiting
it,2 taking, probably for convenience, the route by the gates of
Zagros, and the high table-land of Kirrind,3 to the city in
question. From thence he passed into the neighbouring province,
which it is said formerly reared 150,000 horses; but Alex
ander, who spent a month there, found about 60,000 only in
these celebrated pastures, which probably are represented by
the grazing grounds of Khawah and Alishtar.4 In seven
marches from the misnamed Nisaean Plains, Alexander reached
the Median Ecbatana, Hamadan, where Hephaestion died,
during the gymnic sports and carousals which usually took place
after any considerable undertaking.8
Alexander was now about to return to the intended seat of
his empire ; and in order to alleviate the grief arising from the
loss of his friend, writes Plutarch, he undertook an expedition
against the Cossaeans ; and, dividing his army into two corps,
notwithstanding the difficulties of their mountainous country
and their strongholds, the warlike inhabitants were subjected in
forty days, and Ptolemy, the second in command, was left to
complete the task, by erecting forts, to deter the people from
living, as before, by plundering their neighbours.6 The prin- The principal
cipal seat of this ancient people seems to have been the rock emails at
fort of Khorram-abad, once Diz Siyah, or Kiih Siyab, which ^rram"
originated the title of Cosscean.7
From these mountains, Alexander continued at a slow pace
his march to Babylon, and was met on the way thither, as well
as subsequently to his arrival, by envoys, whom the fame of
his exploits, and apprehension of his power, had brought thither
1 Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. lxvii. 2 Ibid.
3 Ibid, and Geographical Journal, vol. IX, pp. 48, 49, and 112; and
above, p. 116-118.
4 Geo. Journal, vol. ix, pp. 100, 101. 5 Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. lxvi.
6 Compare Quint. Curt, lib. X, cap. iv, with Arrian, Exp, lib. VII,
cap. xv. ; Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. lxix. ; Strabo, lib. II, p. 795.
7 See vol. I, p. 206, and Royal Geographical Journal, vol. IX, p. 99.

366

VAST PROJECTS OF ALEXANDER.

[CHAP. XI.

Alexander
proposes to
circumnavi
gate Arabia
and Africa.

Babylon se
lected as the
seat of the
empire.

from Africa, Europe, Phoenicia, and almost every other part of
the world ; and he entered the city to receive them, notwith
standing the adverse warnings and predictions of the Chal
deans,1 who may have feared that the desolation predicted by
Jeremiah would follow his visit.2
In the pride of success, new and enlarged projects of con
quest and undertakings by sea were contemplated by Alexander;
Africa and the peninsula of Arabia were to be circumnavigated,
as well as subjected, and the Caspian Sea explored ; new cities
were to be built in Europe and in Asia, the former to be
peopled with Asiatics and the latter with Europeans; the
wandering Arabs were to be brought into order, the river
Euphrates to be navigated from Thapsacus, as the Eulaeus
had been to Susa, and the Tigris to Opis, as well as the canal
between those cities; and, finally, a great port was to be
formed at the destined capital of the world. The first object
was entrusted to Nearchus, the second to Heraclides, who was
to construct vessels in order to explore the waters of the Cas
pian, and ascertain whether, as stated by Herodotus a century
before, it really was an inland sea.3 Miccalus was to bring
seamen from Phoenicia, as well as vessels from Thapsacus, to
animate the promising maritime commerce of Persia, &c, but
the remainder, or the fourth part of his new and vast under
takings, he reserved for himself.4
As a central spot between India, Egypt, and the Medi
terranean, the capital of Darius Hystaspes was selected as the
seat of the intended empire; but as an extended commerce
and the improvement of Babylonia were contemplated, a haven
was ordered to be constructed at the seat of government,
capable of containing 1,000 long galleys, which in the first
instance were to be employed in punishing the Arabs, who had
not even solicited his friendship, and were contented with their
wild independence.
Archias being sent, explored the Arabian coast to Tylos, and
1 Compare Diod. Sic, lib. XVII, cap. Ixx, lxxi, with Quint. Curt, lib. X,
cap. iv, Arrian, Exp, lib. VII, cap. xv, xvi, and Plutarch, vita Alexander.
2 Jeremiah, chap. XXV, v. 12. 3 Lib. L, cap. cciii, cciv.
* Arrian, Exp, lib. VII, cap. xix, xx.

CHAP. XI.J ALEXANDER IMPROVES THE PALLACOPAS. 367
his successor, Androsthenes, is supposed to have made his way
round the peninsula to the Eed Sea.1 Alexander himself was
employed in the same way nearer home, having in the first
instance sailed down the river Euphrates, and then ascending
the Pallacopas he entered Arabia, where he built a city, and a city built in
placed in it those Greeks who were disabled.2 A canal was thedisabied
cut to prevent injury from inundations during the floodings at Greeks'
the summer solstice ; but being defective in its construction, too
great a proportion of water found an exit by this channel at
other times of the year.
After having by personal examination ascertained the cause
of the defect, Alexander determined to confer a lasting benefit
on the Babylonians by giving them the means of commanding
this outlet, and of regulating at pleasure the level of the water
in the great river.3
As the original head of the Pallacopas was above Babylon,
it probably commenced in a bend where there is a small river
called Hawasin, on the right bank, which, no doubt, was in the
precincts of the ancient city. Nearly five miles higher, where the
river makes, as it approaches Suda island, a sharp bend south
ward, is the canal called Hindiyeh, going to Mesjid 'All and
onward, parallel to the Euphrates. As this cut is nearly
twenty-three miles below the Kuthah, it clearly corresponds
with the separation described by Abii-1-feda as taking place
six farsangs from that river,4 running through Kiifah, and from
thence into the marshy country below, the ancient Paludes
Babylonia?. As the first opening had been cut through a light and oozy Defects ofthe
soil, 10,000 men were usually employed for three months0
annually, and sometimes ineffectually, to stop this outlet when
the water was required in the main channel. The new cut
was through firm and rocky ground, probably at the spot above
indicated (Hindiyeh), from whence it was carried into the old
channel, the former inlet to which was effectually closed. Sub
sequently, after steering his own galley through the marshes,
Alexander caused another head to be cut above them, from the
1 Arrian, Exp, lib. VII, cap. xx. 2 Quint. Curt, lib. X, cap. iv.
3 Arrian, lib. VII, cap. xxi.
' Another copy has seven. — Abu-1-feda; MS. translation by Mr. Eassam.

368 DEATH OF ALEXANDER. [CHAP. XI.
river below Babylon to the bed of the Pallacopas, probably
near the city which he ordered to be built. At Manawiyah,
nine or ten miles above Diwaniyah, there are the remains of a
canal, possibly of the one in question, which is adapted to carry
the stream clear of the marshes.
A fleet col- Of the fleet which Alexander was collecting, some of the
Alexander on vessels were brought, as we have seen, from the river Tigris
the Euphrates. and gus;ana . some were transported from Phoenicia to Thap
sacus, in order that they might descend the Euphrates ; and
the rest were built of cypress wood on the spot.
On returning from the exploratory voyage above mentioned,
which probably took place during the floods of the succeeding
season after his arrival, Alexander found that a second embassy
had arrived at Babylon, with golden crowns, sent as presents
from the Grecian republics, and also with large reinforcements
from Greece, Lydia, and Caria, to supply those who were
lately discharged. Peucestas also arrived with 20,000 Persians,
besides a body of Cossaeans and Tapurians.1 The leading
object of Alexander's studious care, the formation of the fleet,
was now far advanced ; and but little was wanting to unite his
subjects on the Indus, the Euphrates, and the Nile, by the
powerful interests of commerce, when he was cut off in the
prime of life, after an unexampled career of glory. A fever,
He dies of a caught in the marshes of Lamliim, cut short those great pro-
[n Aemarahes. Jec^s» which only could have been planned by the vast and
capacious mind of this mighty conqueror, who had never
known anything like failure in his plans, or a defeat in either a
battle or a siege.
Some account of the great river which had been navigated
by Alexander, and was also one of his chief objects of interest,
Sources ofthe will not here be out of place. The Indus, or Sindus,2 has its
springs in two great arms towards the southern borders of
Tibet, on the slopes of the great range which, more westward,
is known as the Bulut Tagh, or Cloudy Mountains,3 and here as
the Himalaya.4
The water-shed of this parent range seems to be on the
1 Arrian, lib. VII, cap. xxiii. 2 Pliny, lib. VI, cap. xx.
3 See above, vol. I, p. 161.
* A part of the Caucasus, called Paropamisus. — Pliny, lib. VI., cap. xx.

CHAP. XI.] SOURCES OF THE INDUS. 369
northern side, and is marked by the two contiguous sacred Sources of the
lakes, Mepang, or Manas Sorowar, and Bawan Rhud ; from Indus*
which mountain basin, or its vicinity, come four noble rivers,
viz, in a western direction, the great river Sanpoo, or Brahma
pootra ; the Gogra, or Ganges, flowing south-east ; the Sutlej,
running south-westward ; and the Indus.
The last, called also the Singzing-kampa or Eckhung-choo
river, apparently commences a few miles north-westward of the
lake, with which it may have a communication. About seventy
miles onward it receives the other branch, the Sing-he-tsiu, The sing-he-
and continues to flow in the same direction, for about 200 addi- braneh.U
tional miles, to the town of Leh, or Li. A little beyond this
place it receives the Seechoo, or Lingtee, a considerable tributary
coming from the south-south-east ; and again, about sixty miles
onward in the same direction, it receives another river on the
opposite side, which flows first southward from the Kara Korum
mountains in Tibet; then, by a bold sweep westward, and after
wards southward, it enters the main stream ; but little more is
known than its bare name, the Shayuk.
About sixty miles onward, the united waters take a western The Indus
direction for a like distance, and then bend southward as this Himiiaya
great stream breaks through the Indian Caucasus, or Himalaya. range"
Here, taking the name of the Sinde, it inclines a little to the
west, passing Kaspatyrus to Attock ; just short of which place
it receives the only considerable stream coming from the
western side, namely, the Kabul river.1 When clear of the
mountains near Attock, the river, which is of a considerable
breadth and contains a great volume of water, washes for about
seventy miles the abutments of the Afghan mountains on one
side, and the great plain on the other, as far as the village of
Maree. Having passed the Salt range near this place, the
great river separates for a time into three and sometimes four
channels, which, after continuing parallel at a short distance
from one another, reunite near the town of Nowakot, in about
32° 10' N. L.
Continuing a southerly course, nearly parallel to the Hala its course
mountains, and having a small part of the great plains inter- sou
1 Sec vol. I, p. 170.
VOL. II. 2 B

370 COURSE OF THE INDUS. [CHAP. XI.
vening on the right side, the Sindus, or Indus, passes Dera
Ismael Khan and Kakuree, where it is 1,000 yards broad and
twelve feet deep. From thence it flows southward by Leia to
Dera Ghazee Khan, and onward to Mittun, just short of which
place it is joined by the united waters of the Panj-ab, which
give it a south-western direction, after having enriched the
large and fertile tract of country bearing that name.1 The
principal of the streams, the Sutlej, or ancient Hesidrus, comes
from Lake Bawan Bhud, not far from the source of the parent
stream, and after flowing to the west, along the northern slopes
of the Himalaya, breaks through this range in a south-westerly
direction : it continues to flow through a mountainous country
Joined by the to Hurrekee, where it is joined by the river Beas, the upper
HuTrekee? part of the celebrated Hyphasis, which flows south-westward
from the slopes of the Himalaya to the point of junction.
After receiving this stream near Hurrekee, the Sutlej con
tinues the previous course, passing a little westward of Fero-
zepiir, and so on to Fulehpiir, Bhawulpiir, and Ooch. Latterly,
however, this stream has been better known as the Ghara than
by the previous name of the Sutlej. The Beas, Beeah, or
Bypasa, no doubt represents the Hyphasis of Alexander, which
appears to have had a separate channel to the northward,
flowing usually at the distance of about twenty miles, and
nearly parallel to the present channel, from the neighbourhood
Junction of 0f Hurrekee, till it falls into the present bed. This takes place
the Hvphasis . . „ . . . . . , -,. . ,. . , . .
and the just before its junction with the Uhinab, whose trunk brings
thither the united waters of the other three rivers of the
Panj-ab. The Chin^b, once the Akesines, and the largest of
the streams,2 appears to have its source in 78° E. L., from
whence it flows north-westward along the southern slopes of
the Himalaya, till, at Kishtawar, on the borders of Kashmir,
it takes a south-western direction, nearly dividing the territory
of Lahore as it flows by Jumbo, Vezir-abad, Jelalpiir, to Lai
Kango and Trumoo ferry, where it receives the western river,
the Jailum, or Hydaspes. This considerable arm, which,
according to Pliny, is the recipient of the other stream,3
1 Burnes, vol. Ill, p. 139, of Eoyal Geographical Journal.
2 Ibid, p. 147. 3 Lib. VI, cap. xx.

CHAP. XI.] THE SUTLEJ AND CHINAB RIVERS. 371
appears to be formed by three branches coming through Affluents of
Kashmir, namely, the Sutf, which springs north of the the Chin!ib-
Himalaya, and the Pir Panj-ab, and the Jailum, or Behut,
both of which rise southward of that range. The last passes
through Kashmir itself, at some distance westward of which it
receives the Sutf, and, bending southward, is joined by the
Pir-Panj-ab, ten or twelve miles short of Jailum, and the sup
posed site of Bucephaia.1 From hence, inclining a little west
ward, the Behui, or Bedusta, and also the Jailum, or Hydaspes,
flow to the battle-ground of Nikaea (near Jelalpiir), from
whence they run for a time to the south-west, and again south
ward into the Chinab, at the ferry already indicated.
Preserving the latter name, the trunk takes a south-westerly Meets the
course for nearly sixty miles, till it meets the last of the so- neLrBiraiee.
called five rivers a little below Biralee. This stream, the
ancient Hydraotes, and now the Bavi, appears to rise on
the borders of the district of Lahoul. It flows westward to
Chumba, where it takes a south-west course by Noorpiir,
Lahore, and onward, by an exceedingly tortuous course, to the
point of junction already mentioned. Preserving the name
of the central branch, it flows south-westward, passing near
Multan, and, having afterwards received the Ghara, the
Chinab takes the name of the Panj-nud, till this appellation,
as well as its waters, are lost in those of the Indus.
With the accession of the Pani-ab tributaries, the Indus Magnitude of
•a , . , , , the Indus after
presents a great body of water as it flows onward, its breadth receiving the
often exceeding 1,000 yards,2 with a depth of fifteen feet and p^b. '
upwards ; and it forms several islands in its south-western
course from Mittun to the bend at Duturna, below Bukkur
and Ravi. Below these towns, and near to Larkhanu, the
bifurcation of the Narra takes place ; the branch continues at
first nearly parallel to the great stream, both afterwards
inclining more westward, and again southward, and they
reunite at Sehwan, once Sindomana,3 below Lake Manchur,
1 Pliny, lib. VI, cap. xx.
2 Memoir on the Indus, by Sir -Alexander Burnes, vol. Ill, p. 135, of
Royal Geographical Journal.
3 Ibid, p. 138.
2b2

372

THE BAGAR AND HAJA.MARI BRANCHES. [CHAP. XI.

The Indus
flows near
Hai'der-dbad.

It enters the
sea by six
mouths.

after forming a succession of islands on the main stream,
which is frequently three-quarters of a mile broad, with a
current of about two miles and a half per hour.1 Here the
Indus takes a south-easterly direction as far as Sallarah, from
whence it flows southward, passing near the western side of
Hai'der-abad, and on to Banna, but sending previously the
Feleili branch through the former city, and thence south-south-
eastwards by Kdtri to the sea at the Kdre mouth. Banna may
be considered as the apex of the existing delta, one side being
formed by the' Pinyari or Goongroo river, which runs south-
south-eastward by Maghribi to its estuary, called the Sir ; and
the other is the main river, which during its onward course
sends out five branches on the western, and a short one, namely,
the Mall, near its termination, on its eastern side. One of the
former, which is now usually dry, runs westward from T'hat'hah
(Tattah) till it meets the Garah river, which flows from that
place to the vicinity of Kanicb.ee. The next, called the Bagar,
is sent out a little below T'hat'hah, and it has a south-western
course till it falls into the sea by six mouths, which are open,
and more or less navigable, during the season of floods. These,
taking them from west to east, are the Piti, now almost closed,
the Dub'hu, the Khan, the Pintiyani, the Juwah, and the
Richel ; the third is the Titiyah, which quits the trunk thirty-
five miles from the sea, and runs south-eastward, with a channel
of thirty yards wide, and a stream about two feet deep only, in
the dry season. It terminates in the Bichel river, below the
villages of Kdteri and Beman-Jo-poro. The fourth is the
Hajamarf, or, as it is called, the upper part of the Siyahan river,
which is the most winding and intricate, yet presenting more
facilities for navigation than any of the other branches. It
quits the parent stream about twenty-two miles direct distance
from the sea, and makes a tortuous course to Bander Yikkar,
or Bari Gdra, which, although a miserable place, has consider
able trade. It subsequently makes a winding course, as before,
in the general direction of west-south-west, to its funnel-shaped
estuary, which is twenty miles from thence. There are only
1 Memoir on the Indus, by Sir Alexander Burnes, vol. Ill, p. 132, of
Royal Geographical Journal.

CHAP. XI.J CHANGES IN THE ESTUARY OF THE INDUS. 373
seven and a half feet water on the bar at high tide, but nowhere
within it, is there less than twelve feet as far as Vikkar.
The fifth river is the K'he'diwarf, which diverges sixteen The K'he'df-
miles below the preceding branch, and reaches the sea after an
irregular west-south-western course. The entrance of the
K'he'diwarf is formed by a channel of four miles long, and
from 600 to 800 yards broad, with a depth of sixteen or
eighteen feet at high tide ; and about three miles within the
bar it receives the Ad'hiyarf, coming from the parent stream,
over which it has, in consequence, some advantages. Bevert
ing to the latter, after sending out the Bagar, it flows
south-south-westward to its estuary, the Kiikewarf mouth,
which is about fifty-five miles from thence by the stream and
forty-eight in a direct line. It takes the name of Wanyani
below Hajamarf, and that of Manija as it approaches the The Manija
estuary. At present there is but one entrance, which varies
from 1,100 yards to one mile and a half wide, with two
channels, the preferable of which is 500 yards broad at the
outer, and 130 yards wide at the interior side: it has a depth
of from twelve feet to three fathoms and a half, and a current
in the dry season of less than three miles and a half per hour,
which is increased to seven miles and one-tenth at the maximum
during the freshes. The Hajamarf and the K'hedfwarf are,
however, the only other mouths which may be entered during
the dry season.
But at no very distant period, the mass of the waters of the Changes
Indus appear to have passed along the Bagar channel, from taken piara at
which four beds, now dry, appear to have carried a portion of^^^of
the stream south-eastward across what is the existing main
channel, and onward to the sea, discharging at the Warf, the
Kajah, the Biidah, and the Kha'i mouths. Besides these
alterations, the fact of extensive changes having occurred is
placed beyond doubt by a large vessel, the Fateh Jang, once
carrying forty guns, being found near the village of 'Alf-abad,1
besides the embedded hull of a gun-brig near Sikkar ; 2 both
1 Vol. VIII, p. 348, of Royal Geographical Journal.
2 Ibid, vol. X, p. .530.

374

FLOODING OF THE INDUS.

[CHAP. XI.

Rise, and de
crease of the
Indus.

being at some distance from any of the existing arms. But a
great and rapid river, bringing down three cubic inches of
alluvium to a cubic foot of water, on a flat open coast,1 is suf
ficient to account for these remarkable alterations, and for the
circumscribed width of the present delta. The 1,000 stadia
mentioned by Arrian,2 if taken from the higher ground near
the Pftf mouth, would reach to the coast of Kach'h in about
69° E. L, from whence it is a like distance to Ha'ider-abad ;
possibly, therefore, the apex of the Delta and the port of
Pattala may have been somewhere near that city.
The Indus begins to rise, and increases gradually, from the
23rd of March, but is subject to a slight decrease occasionally
up to July, during which month, and the early part of the
following, there is no decrease ; and on the 7th of August it is
at the highest, the maximum total rise being 15 feet 2-8 inches.
During the rest of the month, and most of the following, the
fall is tolerably regular, with an increase occasionally, till the
22nd, when there is a second maximum rise of 13 feet 11-5
inches ; after which it is on the decrease, with a good deal of
regularity, to the 23rd of March.
Times of ap- The delta of the Indus is exposed to gales in February, but
deitafromthe it may be approached occasionally till the middle of March, or
even towards the end of April,3 and of late, by steamers, up to
June, but with much difficulty, being then flooded for some miles
inward at high tide. About 100 vessels are profitably employed
in fishing on this coast, but almost entirely from the beginning
of October to the middle of March, during which period there
is neither difficulty nor danger on the coast of Sinde.4 Land
and sea breezes prevail alternately, at this period, with cold
weather; and the tides are everywhere extremely irregular.5
1 The Indus conveys to the sea annually 10,503,587,000 cubic feet of
mud. — Commander Carless, vol. VIII, p. 356, of Royal Geographical
Journal. 8 Lib. VI, cap. xx.
3 Commander Carless, vol. VIII, pp. 331, 332, of Royal Geographical
Journal. 4 During the months of June, July, August, and part of September, the
communication between Bombay and Sinde may be said to be cut off.
5 Commander Carless, vol. VIII, p. 331, of Royal Geographical Journal.

CHAP. XI. J BOATS AND NAVIGATION OF THE INDUS. 375
The boat in use, called a diindf, is well adapted for the Construction
navigation of the river and the transport of goods. The shape the'induf °°
is peculiar, being without a keel, flat-bottomed ; and both the
bow and stern, which are perfectly flat, rise from the water at
an angle of about 30°, to suit the shelving banks of the river.
It is rigged with a square sail aft, and a lateen sail forward,
and is steered by means of a large triangular rudder, hung over
the slanting stern : the largest are eighty feet long, and carry
sixty tons, drawing only four feet water. For want of better
materials, the boats of the Indus are formed of innumerable
small pieces of wood, fastened by bamboo pegs, and they are
consequently liable to accidents ; but any great deviation from
the principle of their construction would not be an improve
ment.1 Between Bukkur and Mittun, the boat most in use,
called a zohruy, is built of the talee tree, of an oblong square
shape, flat-bottomed, and rounded at the extremities. Some
exceed eighty feet in length and twenty in width, with only
one mast.2
Ever since the time of Alexander, this great stream and its
tributaries have been navigated by the above kind of flat boat,
in one of which the late enterprising Burnes ascended at the
favourable season to Lahore, a distance of nearly 950 miles, in
sixty days.3
The ordinary trade is carried on at a moderate rate, namely, Trade on the
twelve or thirteen shillings for 15 cwt, from Bander- Vikkar Indus"
to Shikarpiir. The distance is about 390 miles, chiefly
through a delta, which, owing to the changes constantly taking
place at its estuary, is beset with difficulties. But the river
has now become known by the careful surveys of Commander
Carless and Lieutenant Wood, of the Indian Navy; and, fol
lowing the steps of the late Sir Alexander Burnes, a steamer
has ascended as high as Vezfr-abad, on the Chinab, a distance
of about 1 000 miles ; while, on another occasion, the Meanee
steamer reached Ferozepiir, on the Sutlej, and more recently
1 Commander Carless, vol. VIII, p. 355, of Royal Geographical Journal.
s Sir A. Burnes, vol. Ill, p. 135, of Royal Geographical Journal.
3 Vol. Ill, P- 113) of Royal Geographical Journal.

376

MARCHES OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. [CHAP. XI.

Manner of
conveying
troops to
Ha'ider-abad.

the capital (Lahore) : troops, also, are constantly conveyed
by steamers to reinforce or relieve our stations near Ha'ider-
abad. This is sometimes effected by crossing the bar with
one of the river steamers to meet the larger one outside, but
more generally by marching from Karachee to the lower part
of the Bagar, there to embark. But this difficulty, and also
the passage of the bars, might be avoided, by cutting a canal
from Karachee to some part of the trunk of the Indus : this
would require but a moderate amount of labour, and would
greatly facilitate our growing commerce on the river.

Adverting to what has been said on page 252, a careful
computation of the routes of the army has given the following
approximative tables of the

Marches of Alexander the

Great.

Miles.

Miles.

European Routes.

Pella to Widdin, below Lom, on the Danube .
300
300
180
175
325
Total ....
Routes in Lesser Asia.
1 280
From the Hellespont to the Granicus
52
75
139
56
80
Halicarnassus to Alindse and Makri . .
122
Makri to Xanthus and Telmissus ...
140
64
67
43
Celsene to Yerma, probably Gordium .
133
49
Ancyra (high route) to the Camp of Cyrus .
198
199
Tarsus into Rugged Cilicia and back
165
Tarsus to Myriandros and back to the Issus
120
Total
1,602
Carried forward . .
2,882
CHAP. XI.] MARCHES OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT.

377

Brought forward
Routes in Syria.
From the Issus by Aradus to Tyre .
Tyre to Jaffa 
' Jaffa to Jerusalem 
\ Jerusalem to Gaza 
Gaza to Pelusium  Total . . .
Routes in Africa.
Pelusium to Memphis 
Memphis to the Sea 
The Sea to Paraetonius 
Parffitonius to the Temple of Ammon . '.
Ammon to Memphis  Total . . .
Routes through Syria and Mesopotamia.
Memphis to Pelusium and Gaza ....
Gaza to Tyre 
Tyre to Aradus 
Aradus to Antioch 
Antioch to Thapsacus 
| Thapsacus to Haran, Mardin, and Eski Mdsul
Eski Mosul to Arbela 
Arbela to the Tigris, at the Great Zab .
The Great Zab to Opis 
Opis to Babylon 
Babylon to Susa  Total . . .
Persian Routes.
' Susa to the Pasitigris 
The Pasitigris, north-eastward to Mai-Amir
The Uxian city to Kal'eh Sefid ....
Kal'eh Sefid to Persepolis 
Persepolis to Ecbatana (Hamadan) .
Hamadan, by Rhagaa, to the Caspian Gates .
The Caspian Gates to Hecatompylos . . .
Hecatompylos to Zadracarta 
During the campaign of the Mardi and Reten
Thence to Zadracarta 
Zadracarta to Susia in Aria 
Susia in Aria to Herat 
Herat to Prophthasia (now Peshawarun)
Peshawarun to U'lan Robat, or Shahri-Zohak
U'lan Robat to Kabul 
Kabul to Beghram  Total . . .
Carried forward

Miles.

Miles.

273 863253
136

125146
145172
334

261 134 122120
140
280 8552
130 88
230

45 87
188 84
480286
215 115
375 115
550 130192
460 198 35

2,882

580

922

1,642

3,555
9,581

378

MARCHES OF ALEXANDER THE GREAT. [CHAP. XI.

Miles.

Miles.

Brought forward

¦•

9,581

Routes in Bactriana.

110
Inderab, or Drepsa, to Balkh, Bactra or Zariaspa
216
204
ISTautaka to Maracanda, or Samarkand . . .
115
Samarkand to the River Jaxartes ....
166
140
Second campaign to Gaza, Cyropolis, and Eschata
250
Eschata to Polytimetus River and Zanaspa . .
450
Zariaspa to Maracanda and Nautaka
312
245
Kurghan-Tippa to Merw-el-Rud ....
310
Merw-el-Rud to the Rock of Oxyartes . . .
380
The Rock of Oxyartes to Zariaspa ....
580
Total ....
Routes West and East ofthe Indus.
326
3 804
375
45
55
125
The Hydraotes to Sakala and the Hyphasis .
86
The Hyphasis, back to the Hydaspes . .
180
The Hydaspes to the confluence of the Akesines
250
The Akesines to the Malli, and back to theHydraOtes
210
'
Descent of the Hydraotes and Indus ....
Total ....
Routes in I'rdn.
860
2 186
1,250
219
590
308
280
110
40 days' campaign against the Cossoeans
360
340
Total
3,457
19,028
( 379 )

CHAPTEE XII.
THE SUCCESSORS OF ALEXANDER, FROM 323 B.C. TO 246 B.C.
State of the Empire at the time of Alexander's Death. — Threatened Hos
tilities. — Arrangements for the Succession. — The various Governors retain
their situations. — Roxana puts Statira and her Sister to Death. — Eumenes
enters Cappadocia. — Death of Perdiccas. — Defeat and Blockade of
Eumenes. — Invasion of Phoenicia, and March towards Babylonia. — The
Army of Eumenes escapes from an Inundation, and enters Susiana. —
Eury dice and Philip put to Death by Olympias. — Campaigns in Susiana. —
March through the Cossaean Mountains. — Campaign in Media. — Drawn
Battle, and Death of Eumenes. — Antigonus settles the minor Govern
ments. — Combinations against, and Preparations of Antigonus. — Antigonus
marches into Asia Minor. — Demetrius Defeated near Gaza. — The Naba
theans, and Expeditions of Antigonus against Petra. — Roxana and her
son Alexander murdered by Cassander. — Barsine, Hercules, and Olympias
put to Death. — Antigonus and the other successors of Alexander assume
regal titles. — Expeditions of Antigonus and Demetrius: they proceed
against Egypt, and are repulsed. — Demetrius besieges Rhodes, and fails
in repeated Attacks. — Sieges of Fortresses in ancient and modern times. —
Seleucus extends his Empire into India. — His Treaty with Sandrocottus,
and March into Asia Minor.— Forces assembled under Seleucus and
Antigonus near Ipsus. — Result of the Battle. — Subdivision of Alexander's
Empire into four great Kingdoms. — Demetrius is taken, and dies in
Captivity. — Death and Character of Seleucus. — Accession of Ptolemy
Philadelphus. — Prosperity of Egypt under this Monarch.
The voyage of Nearchus, and especially the preceding cam- A knowledge
paigns of Alexander, had made eastern Persia and the ad- rWecffrom
joining countries practically known to the Greeks; but the ^™ng^'s
knowledge thus acquired of these regions would have speedily
passed away, had it not been preserved by the subsequent wars :
it was at the same time turned to account by the commercial
relations which in consequence sprang up. The protracted and the wars
• • i • i p ii ii ¦ i i ii « of his succes-
contests for dominion which followed the untimely death otSo.-s.
Alexander must, however, claim immediate notice, since they

380 ARIDiEUS REGENT OF ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE. [CHAP. XII.

Threatenedhostilities.

Joint regal
powerarranged.

The several
governorsretain their
situations.

Roxana puts
her rivals to
death, and
gives birth to
a son.

took place in the kingdoms lying between the Nile and the
Indus, which had submitted to the power of the conqueror.
Alexander appears to have anticipated these fearful struggles,
for in bequeathing his colossal empire to him who should prove
the bravest, he added, that his generals, in fighting one with
another, would offer ample funereal sacrifices to his manes.1
Scarcely had a reign of unparalleled conquests terminated
with these words, when Perdiccas, to whom the king had con
fided his signet, commenced operations at the head of the
cavalry, by surrounding the phalanx, which was then under
Meleager, in Babylon.
Bloodshed, however, was for the moment averted by the
prudent efforts of Eumenes, the late king's secretary; and as
no individual could expect support from his competitors for
power, all agreed to the proposal that Aridseus, the natural
brother of Alexander, should share the regal office jointly with
the expected son of Boxana ; an infirmity of mind to which the
former was subject, and the prospective infancy of the latter,
having united all suffrages in their favour. It was at the same
time decided that a magnificent procession should convey
Alexander's remains into Africa,2 and that Taxiles and the
other Asiatic chiefs should retain their satrapies, as part of the
intended empire ; 3 while its western portions were severally to
continue under Ptolemy, Antigonus, Eumenes, and others.
It was also determined neither to construct the pyramidal
monument to Philip, nor the six splendid temples which were
to have been raised, nor even the thousand long ships which
had been intended to command the shores of the Mediterranean ;
and thus the ample funds which had been expressly left by
Alexander for these purposes, became available for other
objects. With the decision to make these changes regarding
the intentions of the late king, the momentary. unanimity of his
captains terminated.
Boxana, shortly after endeavouring to secure the, regal suc
cession by putting to death Statira and Drypetis, the daughters
of Darius, gave birth to a son, in whose name, jointly with that
1 Diod. Sic, lib. XVIIL, cap. i. a Ibid., cap. ii.
8 Ibid.

CHAP. XII.] PERDICCAS' DEFEAT AND DEATH IN EGYPT. 38 1
of Aridajus, now called Philip, the government was nominally
carried on ; the real power, however, was exercised by Boxana,
assisted by Perdiccas.
After quelling an insurrection in Greece, and another in Eumenes eon-
Thrace, Perdiccas turned his attention towards Cappadocia ; fnCap^adocia.
when, the strongholds of Isaura and Laranda being taken, and
Ariarathes, the king, crucified by his orders, he entrusted the
government of that kingdom to Eumenes. Leaving him to
prosecute the war, Perdiccas proceeded to invade Egypt, now
become a consolidated kingdom. Eumenes, in the mean time,
being appointed generalissimo of Caria, Lycia, and Cappadocia,
had organized an army, with which, in the first instance, he
defeated and killed Craterus, and ten days later he gained a
more signal battle over Neoptolemus.1
But these successes were not sufficient to turn the scale in invasion of
favour of his chief, Perdiccas, whose unjust attack upon murder of
Ptolemy, in Egypt, terminated in his defeat, after which he PerQ10cas-
was put to death by his own troops. Antipater, who was now
chosen sole protector of the kingdom, with sovereign power,
proceeded to make the following allotment of the provinces,
4Jie details of which are calculated to show the vastness of the
empire. Ptolemy retained Egypt, and Laomedon Syria ; Philoxenus Antipater dis-
had Cilicia; Amphimachus obtained Mesopotamia and Arbi- provinces of
litis ; Babylon fell to Seleucus, the commander of the troops phir!(."ew cm'
called companions ; and Susiana to Antigonus.2 With regard
to the eastern portion of the empire, Peucestas received
Persia; Tlepolemus, Carmania; Stasander, Aria and Drangia;
Philip, Parthia; Stasanor, Bactria and Sogdia; Syburtius,
Aracosia; Oxyartes had the region of Paropamisus, while
Pithon had Media and the tract eastward from thence to
India, in which region Porus and Taxiles retained their former
possessions. In Western Asia, Nicanor received Cappadocia ;
Phrygia Major, and the tracts near the coast, were given to
Antigonus, Caria to Cassander, Lydia to Clitus, Lesser
1 Diod. Sic, lib. XVIII., cap. xi., compared with Plutarch, in vita
Eumen. 2 Diod. Sic, lib. XVIII., cap. xiii.

382 EUMENES IS BLOCKADED IN THE CASTLE OF NORA. [CHAP. XII.

B. C. 318.

Eumenesassumes the
offensive in
Phoenicia.

Phrygia to Aridseus. Cassander was appointed general of the
horse, and the; command of the household troops was given
to Antigonus, with orders to prosecute the war against
Eumenes, who, on account of his fidelity, was now reputed a
Antigonus de- public enemy.1 The latter lost no time in preparing to defend
in Cappadocia. himself; and Antigonus immediately marched into Cappadocia,
where he gained a decided and well-contested victory over
Eumenes. Defeated, but not discouraged, the latter retreated
into Phrygia, where he defended the castle of Nora2 so suc
cessfully, that Antigonus, although at the head of 60,000
infantry and 19,000 cavalry, was glad to grant him very
favourable terms. The faithful Eumenes now received the
appointment of commander of the king's forces in Asia,3 and
immediately commenced extensive preparations for the coming
campaign. By unremitting exertions he collected about 15,000
men ; and hoping to maintain the royal cause, he hastened to
take the bold step of commencing operations on the side of
Phoenicia, which was at the moment invaded by Ptolemy; but
finding himself deprived of the expected support of the king's
fleet, in consequence of its recent defeat on that coast, and
having besides to contend with the forces of Antigonus, who
had followed him thither, he placed the river Euphrates be
tween his troops and those of his antagonist, and then took
post at the neighbouring city of Carrhse.
The inactive season was employed in preparations for the
approaching campaign ; and amongst other appeals to the sup
posed adherents of the royal cause, embassies were sent to the
satrap of Media, and to Seleucus, the governor of Babylonia.
Early in the spring, in consequence of the equivocal answer
of the latter, Eumenes marched against him at the head of
20,000 men, hoping to seize the treasures of Susa, and at the
same time to receive reinforcements from the upper satrapies.
With these objects in view, he appears to have advanced along
the Tigris, till he encamped on its banks at about 300 stadia
from Babylon. The distance here given4 nearly corresponds
with that between the city and the Tigris at the bifurcation of

B. C. 317.
Eumenes
marches along
the Tigris,
and encamps
near the Hai.

1 Diod. Sic, lib. XVIII., cap. xiii.
Ibid., cap. xvii.

2 Ibid., cap. xvi.
4 Ibid., lib. XIX., cap. iv.

CHAP. XII.] EUMENES CARRIES THE WAR INTO BABYLONIA. 383
the Hai, near which he, no doubt, intended to cross the prin
cipal stream.
Whilst collecting boats for this purpose, it appears that Perilous sitoa-
Seleucus cut a dyke, probably that of the canal in question men^ f™y.
which crosses this part of Mesopotamia. The country was in
consequence so rapidly inundated, that it was only by occupying
some elevated ground, and by the speedy use of boats at the
same time, that Eumenes saved his troops from destruction,
and gained the left bank, leaving his baggage ' behind.1 The
latter was, however, recovered the next day, when Eumenes
found means to restore the dyke and drain the water. Seleucus,
finding that his stratagem had failed, was glad to make a truce,
and his opponent immediately occupied Susiana, dividing his
army into three corps, to facilitate the means of obtaining
supplies,2 whilst he awaited the expected reinforcements from
the upper provinces.
Antigonus still hoped by a rapid march to recover what had
been lost by the skill and boldness of his adversary ; but
arriving too late, he employed the winter season, which had
now arrived, in concerting measures with Seleucus and Pithon
for another campaign.3
Whilst thus occupied, events occurred elsewhere which were
well calculated to hasten, if they did not give rise to, those
bloody contests which ere long convulsed the empire from one
extremity to the other.
At the instance of Polysperchon, Olympias returned from oiympias puts
Epirus, her place of banishment, to Macedonia, and having Eurydiceto
obtained possession of Philip, as well as of her rival Eurydice, death-
she treated the captives with the greatest rigour, and after
wards caused them to be put to death : thus terminated the
nominal reign of Philip, after a period of six years and a half.4 B. c 317.
One barrier to his ambition being thus removed, Antigonus, Antigonus
the self-appointed regent, moved early in the spring towards knia? a y"
Babylonia, taking his whole force, including the contingents of
Seleucus and Pithon. Having crossed the Tigris in boats,5 he
1 Dipd. Sic, lib. XIX., cap. iv. 2 Ibid.
3 Ibid. 4 Ibid., cap. v.
5 Ibid., cap. vi.

384

EUMENES DEFEATS ANTIGONUS IN SUSIANA. [CHAP. XII.

directed his march on the capital, to encounter Eumenes, and
the reinforcements drawn by him from Carmania, Ariana,
Drangiana, &c.
Marchestothe Finding a determined resistance, he left a body of troops to
" besiege the castle of Susa, and advancing against Eumenes, he
exposed his army to a trying march from thence to the river
Coprates, at a season when the heat was at the greatest, and
everything completely burnt up. Using boats, and rafts formed
of inflated skins, which were propelled by means of poles,
6,000 horse and 2,000 foot were transported across the lower
part of the stream in question, probably the river of Diz, with
orders to excavate a ditch and prepare a camp within it for the
whole army. Eumenes, who was posted behind a river, pro
bably the Kariin (here called the Tigris1), and only eighty
stadia from the enemy, was perfectly aware of all that was
taking place, and determined, in conformity with the tactics of
the school in which he had been educated, to make the best of
his position by becoming the assailant. He therefore crossed the
Tigris (Kariin) at the head of 4,000 foot and 1,500 horse, where
he found 6,000 men collecting forage, under the protection of 300
Eumenes by cavalry and 3,000 infantry : these he attacked, and routed,
before there was even time to form, causing the whole to fly in
the greatest disorder. Antigonus and the rest of his forces,
after an ineffectual effort to cover or protect the fugitives, were
obliged to witness the sudden destruction of 4,000 men, who
by rushing headlong into the boats, and causing the greater
part to sink, either perished in the water or were taken pri
soners, without the possibility of receiving assistance. Nor
was the loss confined to those killed and drowned, for numbers
were sacrificed by exposure to the sun during the subsequent
retreat to Badaca.2 After reposing here for a short time,
Antigonus put the army in motion, and proceeded towards
Media, that he might be near the provinces from which he was
to receive reinforcements. In this march he had choice of two
routes, the longer and easier of which he determined to avoid,
because it would have exposed his troops to the heat of the sun
1 The Pasitigris of Quint. Curt, and Arrian.
2 Diod. Sic, lib. XIX., cap. vi.

a manoeuvre
routs the
enemy.

Antigonusretreats to
Badaca.

He assumes
the offensive.

CHAP. XII.] PASSAGE THROUGH THE COSSJ3AN MOUNTAINS. 385
for forty days ; he therefore preferred to move by the shorter March
and more difficult route through the country of the Cossseans, H"18
his intention being to force his way, contrary to the advice of Mountains-
Pithon, who suggested that he should endeavour to purchase
the good will of these hardy mountaineers. The route thus
chosen, which is described as being irregular, narrow, and pre
cipitous, badly supplied, and occupied by hostile tribes, but
cool,1 appears to be that which passes up the valley of the
Kerkhah to A'bi-Garm, and from thence crosses the mountains
to Khorram-abad.2 Nearchus, one of the generals, was sent in
advance, at the head of a body of archers, some slingers, and
other light troops, with orders to drive the Cossseans from their
principal strongholds, and having done so, to line the roads, so
as to ensure the safety of the main body. Antigonus followed
with the latter, and a chosen body of horse, under Pithon,
covered the rear.3
Nearchus, as instructed, preceded the main body, and seized
several commanding points ; but many others were overlooked,
and these, being occupied by the enemy, caused great annoy
ance and serious loss to those who followed. Those imme
diately round Antigonus suffered most, and were greatly
exposed to the stones and darts of the Cossseans. They sue- The army
ceeded, however, in making good their passage, after having pf^'lnto
been exposed to this harassing warfare for nine days, during Media-
which they incurred a heavy loss in men, elephants, and
horses. On entering Media, abundant supplies, with a remount
for the cavalry, in some measure restored the wonted tone
of the army, and the march was continued to the higher
provinces. Eumenes now broke up his camp on the banks of the Eumenes
Pasitigris (Kariin), to pursue his enemy; and taking the route Xoughthe
of the ladders, or Pylse Persicse, and subsequently passing Py'* Persicaj.
through the shaded valleys and gardens 4 of Basht and Fa'iliouii,
he reached Persepolis in twenty-four marches. The soldiers,
who had been scantily supplied during this time, found their
1 Diod. Sic, lib. XIX., cap. vi.
2 Major Rawlinson, Royal Geographical Journal, vol. IX., p. 63.
3 Diod. Sic, lib. XIX., cap. vi. 4 Ibid., cap. vii.
VOL. II. 2 c

386 eumenes' army is feasted at persepolis. [chap. xii.
toils rewarded by a great feast, which, like that of Alexander
The army is on. a greater occasion, had been prepared by Peucestas for the
Peucestas. whole army. An altar, dedicated to the conqueror, and another
to his father Philip, occupied the centre, round which the
generals, masters of the horse, nobles, and chiefs of Persia had
their several tables, forming an interior circle of two stadia ; a
second, of four stadia, was occupied by officers of the second
order; and a third, of eight stadia in circumference, was
destined for the Argyraspides, and those who had served under
Alexander: the fourth, or that intended for the mercenaries
and auxiliaries, was ten stadia in circumference.1
Eumenes out- Eumenes, having drank hard at this and another banquet
gonusT Antl" which he subsequently gave to his troops, was attacked by
fever, which in the latter part of the march obliged him to be
carried in a litter. By making a forced march in this manner,
he succeeded in anticipating the intention of Antigonus, by
throwing himself between the latter and Gabene, in the district
of Parsetacene.
On the appearance of the enemy's advance, Peucestas
ordered the line of battle to be formed ; but the soldiers, who
suspected that Eumenes was dead, at first refused to obey.
Eumenes was therefore brought out in his litter, with the
curtains drawn back, in order to convince them that their
general was still alive.2 Eumenes had 35,000 foot and 6,000
horse, with 114 elephants, while Antigonus had only 28,000
foot, 8,500 horse, and 65 elephants. The latter, who out
flanked his enemy on this occasion, attacked in echellon from
the right, and repulsed the left of Eumenes ; 3 but after a long
and obstinate struggle, with various skilful manoeuvres and
alternate advantages on both sides, the contest ended at night-
in the battle fall to the disadvantage of Antigonus. He retained, however,
Antigonus is ' part of the battle-ground, and buried the dead before he retired
•worsted. ^Q wjnf.er at Gadamolis, or Gadarlis, in Media. On the other
hand, Eumenes secured his object by marching from the battle
grouncl into the unexhausted district of Gabene.
Positions of The two armies having moved in almost opposite directions
the contending from ^q recent field of battle, were now separated by a distance
1 Diod. Sic, lib. XIX., cap. vii. 2 Ibid., cap. viii. " Ibid.

CHAP. XII.] RAPID MARCH OF EUMENES TOWARDS MEDIA. 387
of twenty-five marches, through inhabited countries, but of
nine only by the more direct route, which was, however,
entirely without the means of subsistence.1 Antigonus being
aware that the troops of his rival were dispersed in different
winter quarters, for the sake of supplies, formed the bold pro
ject of surprising and attacking them with a superior force,
before they could assemble.
Accordingly, ten days' supplies were prepared ; and giving Antigonus
out that he was about to traverse Armenia, he moved the mrpHs^
whole army by forced marches across the mountains towards Eumenes-
Gabene. Strict orders were issued that no fires should be
lighted at night, lest his approach should be discovered from
the heights ; but after obeying this order for five nights, the
soldiers, on account of the severity of the winter, made fires,
and these being seen by the inhabitants, notice of an approach
ing enemy was immediately given to Peucestas and Eumenes.
The former, who had charge of the advance, was about to Happy expe-
make a hasty retreat, lest he should be cut off, but Eumenes, Eumenes.
arriving at the moment, encouraged him to maintain his post
on the borders of the desert, assuring him that he knew how to
delay the enemy till the army could be collected. Ever fertile
in expedients, this commander ordered all the troops that he
could assemble at the moment to follow him quickly to the
elevated ground overlooking the plain, and choosing the most
conspicuous places, he caused fires to be lighted at each. At
nightfall they were to be very large, as if supper were in pre
paration ; but in the second and third watch they were
gradually to become extinct, thus having the appearance, from
a distance, of an army encamped on the spot. This simple
stratagem completely succeeded; for Antigonus and Pithon,
believing that the whole army was in their front, immediately
halted, to allow their troops the necessary time for refreshment
and repose, preparatory to a general engagement. During this
interval, Eumenes was equally prepared, and both armies being The two ar-
i l j mles prepare
encamped within forty furlongs of each other, it was resolved for battle.
to decide the war.
Antigonus placed his cavalry in the wings, having tbe
1 Diod. Sic, lib. XIX., cap. x.
2 c2

388

DEATH OF EUMENES.

[chap. XII.

Eumenes com
mences the
engagement,refusing his
right wing.

Eumenes is
put to death.

Antigonusarranges the
differentgovernments.

Fifteen thou
sand talents
taken at Susa.

infantry in the centre, the elephants in front, and light-armed
troops occupying the intervals between these animals.
Eumenes, with the elite of the cavalry, placed himself in the
left wing, opposite to his adversary, having sixty elephants,
forming an oval, in his front, here also with light troops filling
up the intervals. Philip, the satrap of Parthia, commanded
the right wing, and had orders to retreat rather than risk its
safety by a general engagement. The whole force amounted
to 114 elephants, 36,700 infantry, and 6,050 cavalry, all
animated with the best spirit.
The battle, which commenced with the elephants and cavalry,
terminated, after a lengthened struggle, with mutual advan
tages, the cavalry of Antigonus having defeated its opponents,
while, on the other side, the infantry of Eumenes was victorious.
But the families of the Argyraspides having been taken, these
troops sacrificed their honour to recover their wives and childen ;
for on a hint from Antigonus that such an exchange would be
acceptable, the Macedonians delivered up their general.
The talented and upright Eumenes, being- now for the second
time in his power, Antigonus, without hesitation, caused him to
be put to death ; and having gone through the form of honour
ing his remains with the public rite of burning, he completed the
mockery by sending the ashes in a funereal urn to his relatives.
Antigonus now occupied winter quarters between the Median
Ecbatana and Bhages, and took advantage of this interval of
repose to confirm those governors who were too powerful to be
dispossessed, removing others who were inimical to his interests.
Amongst the latter were Pithon, who was tried and executed,
and Peucestas, the satrap of Persia. Having personally super
seded the latter, he assumed the title of king of the country,
and sovereign of all Asia : he likewise confirmed Oxyartes,
Evitus, and others, in their governments ; after which he pro
ceeded towards Susa, where he found the celebrated golden
vine, and other treasures valued at 15,000 talents.1
During this period the flames of war continued to rage in
Europe, chiefly in the territories governed by Cassander, by
whom Olympias had been invested in Pydna since the murder of
1 Diod. Sic , lib. XIX., cap. xv.

is ..
"A

CHAP. XII.] ANTIGONUS RESISTS SELEUCUS AND PTOLEMY. 389
Aridseus and Eurydice. At length famine overcame the bravery Olympias is
of the defenders of that place, when the haughty Olympias,
deserted by her troops, fell into the hands of her enemies, and
the mother of Alexander was put to death, by the kindred of
those who had already suffered by her orders ; but Boxana and
her son, who were destined to experience a similar fate, still
remained in captivity.
Favoured by these circumstances, Antigonus marched to- Combination
wards Babylon, and on his approach Seleucus fled to Ptolemy, ptoiemyi and
whose authority then extended over Syria and Phoenicia as Cassan er-
well as Egypt. He was well received ; and he soon induced
Ptolemy to join with the rulers of Macedonia and Thrace in a
combination against Antigonus, who now openly aimed at
uniting the whole of the Macedonian conquests under his
dominion. He prepared for the approaching conquest by esta
blishing beacons and couriers to secure speedy intelligence
throughout Asia, by raising troops, by building a fleet, and
at the same time strengthening his party by an alliance with
Bhodes and Cyprus.
His advantageous position between Ptolemy on the one side, Antigonus
and the confederates in Asia on the other, was speedily turned preparations.
to good account. A fleet being urgently required to cope with
that of Ptolemy, which, under Seleucus, threatened the coast
and menaced the camp before Tyre, numerous shipwrights
were immediately employed to construct vessels at Tripoli,
Sidon, and Byblus, and also on the coast of Cilicia. The
forests of the Taurus supplied materials for that coast, and
1,000 pairs of bullocks were employed in transporting the
magnificent pines and cedars of Lebanon to the ports of Syria.1
Leaving, in addition to the necessary protection at these
places, 3,000 men, under Andronicus, to blockade Tyre,
Antigonus proceeded southward, and having secured his flank
on the side of Egypt by subjecting the cities of Joppa and
Gaza, he returned to resume in form the siege of the first
place.2 During its progress, however, the operations of Ptolemy siege of Tyre.
in Greece, and those of the confederates in Asia, called for par
ticular attention to the northern provinces. Leaving, therefore,
1 Diod. Sic, lib. XIX., cap. xviii. 2 Ibid.

390 ANTIGONUS INVADES LESSER ASIA AND ARABIA. [CHAP. XII.

Antigonus
marches into
Lesser Asia.

B. C. 313.

Ptolemy de
feats Deme
trius at Gaza.

B. C. 312.
Result of the
campaign.

Antigonussends a force
against the
Nabatheans.

his son Demetrius at the head of an ample force, Antigonus,
after experiencing some loss from the snow, crossed the Taurus,
and put his army into winter quarters at Celsene in Phrygia,
being supported by his newly-constructed fleet from Phoenicia.1
He had now obtained command of the sea, and by the skilfully
conducted campaign that followed, the greater part of Caria
fell into his hands. During that and the following year, he
gained the alliance of most of the Peloponnesus, of Eubcea,
Thebes, Phocis, and Locris ; in consequence of which a treaty
followed with Cassander, who, from a formidable opponent, be
came a dependent ally.
But these successes were clouded by a serious reverse
experienced elsewhere by his forces. Ptolemy having been
successful in Cyrene and also in Cyprus, had just returned to
Egypt. From thence, at the instance of Seleucus,2 he marched
to attack Demetrius with a superior force; and the latter
being routed in a pitched battle near Gaza, fled to Tripoli and
despatched a courier to entreat his father's speedy assistance.3
As the consequence of this battle, Ptolemy recovered the cities
of Phoenicia, with the exception of Tyre, and Seleucus was
enabled to resume his government of Babylonia. With this
resumption commenced the celebrated era of the Seleucidse.
The approach of Antigonus, and the defeat of Cilles by
Demetrius, caused Ptolemy to retire into Egypt, leaving his
enemy master of Ccelo-Syria, &c.4
Elated with these successes, Antigonus determined to turn
his arms against the Nabathean Arabs. By their laws, this
particular section of the Arab race, like the Bechabites of an
earlier time,5 were forbidden to drink wine, to sow seed, and to
build or possess houses. Being almost wholly without cultiva
tion, their food was necessarily limited to the milk and flesh of
their flocks, with the addition of fruits, roots, wild honey, and a
sort of pepper, which, says Diodorus Siculus, they mixed with
the last.6 Athenseus, the general to whom Antigonus entrusted
the enterprise, having ascertained that the bulk of the Naba-

1 Diod. Sic, lib. XIX., cap. xx.
3 Ibid.
5 Jer., chap. XXXV., v. 2-10.

Ibid., cap. xxiii.
Ibid., cap. xxv.
Lib. XIX., cap. xxv.

CHAP. XII.] DEMETRIUS PROCEEDS AGAINST BABYLON. 39 1
theans were absent at a fair on the borders of Syria, made a Antigonus
forced march of 220 miles in 72 hours, and seized Petra their capital
capital.1 But the Arabs, being apprized by some of the fugitives that
their enemies were not on the alert after their success, made a
sudden attack during the third watch, and killed Athenseus
and all his troops, with the exception of some 80 horsemen,
who escaped wounded.2 Antigonus now despatched Demetrius Second expe-
with 4,000 light armed foot and as many horse to avenge the Demetrius"
death of Athenseus ; but being unable to make any impression
on a people, who for the sake of freedom occupied the caverns
of Petra in the heart of a desert, without even ordinary sup
plies, he gladly consented to retreat towards Lake Asphaltites,
on condition that the Nabatheans would send deputies with
presents to appease his father. The expected profit from the
bitumen of the lake was, however, some compensation to the
latter for the failure at Petra, and turning his thoughts to a
still higher prize, Demetrius was despatched to recover
Babylon.3 This undertaking had almost succeeded, one castle being B. c 311.
taken, and the other about to fall, when the recall of Demetrius
to assist his father in Asia Minor, enabled Seleucus to move
from his retreat in the Babylonian marshes, and recover the
city. The hostilities which were at this period simultaneously
continued in Greece, were terminated by a treaty with the
confederate princes, by which Cassander was to hold Asia in
trust for the youthful king. But in the following year, hoping Roxana and
to receive the crown of Macedonia, he caused Alexander and andeTmur-6*"
his mother Boxana to be murdered ; and thus her cruelty in dered-
putting the youthful and beautiful Statira to death met a just B. c. 309.
reward. Ostensibly denouncing this treason, Polysperchon,
the competitor of Cassander, sent for Hercules, the remaining
son of Alexander, by Barsine, the widow of Memnon.4 This
had the desired effect of alarming Cassander, and he agreed to
share the government with Polysperchon, who having thus
gained his object, immediately put Barsine and Hercules to
1 Diod. Sic, lib. XIX., cap. xxv., p. 731. 2 Ibid., p. 732.
8 Ibid., pp. 733-736. 4 Ibid., lib. XX., cap. vi.

392 ' DEMETRIUS CAPTURES CYPRUS. [CHAP. XII.
Cleopatra put death. One of the race, however, still remained, Cleopatra,
the sister of Alexander. Her beauty and noble birth, added
to her influence over the Macedonians, had caused her hand
to be sought by the most powerful of her brother's captains, as
the means of advancement. It appears that Ptolemy was
preferred to his rivals ; and the princess was on her way from
Sardis to Egypt, when Antigonus caused her to be seized, and
privately murdered.1 Thus, in the brief space of fourteen
years, the whole of Alexander's family perished by the sword,
and the prophecy that his mighty empire should be plucked up
and given to others was literally fulfilled.2
Demetrius Shortly after the death of Cleopatra, operations were under-
war into taken by Antigonus against Cassander ; and Demetrius, at the
yprus' head of a powerful fleet and army, having freed the Grecian
cities, carried his arms into Caria. He then invaded Cilicia,
and from thence sailed to Cyprus to besiege Salamis.3
But here he met with the most determined resistance, which
he endeavoured to overcome by the use of helepoles and various
kinds of battering-rams. The arrival of Ptolemy during these
operations, with a considerable fleet, caused the siege to be
turned into a succession of naval engagements ; and, at length,
a signal victory gained over the latter occasioned his return to
Egypt, and Cyprus submitted in consequence to the conqueror.4
Antigonus and Antigonus was so much elated with his son's success, that he
tors assume immediately assumed regal dignity, and caused Demetrius to
rega tit es. ^ ^e same- Ptolemy likewise proclaimed himself king, as did
Seleucus, Cassander, and Lysimachus ;5 Antigonus continuing,
as before, to occupy a place between the kingdom of Ptolemy
on one side, and that of Seleucus and Macedonia on the other.
But the newly-acquired diadems of both father and son were
destined to be tarnished during the operations which now took
place, by land and sea, against Egypt.
Expedition of Demetrius, who was recalled from Cyprus to assist in the
ag°instnU" projected expedition, was placed in command of the fleet, with
Ptolemy. orders to keep along the coast, in sight of the land forces;
1 Diod. Sic, lib. XX., cap. ix. 2 Dan., chap. XL, v. 4.
3 Diod. Sic, lib. XX., cap. xii. 4 Ibid.
5 Ibid.

CHAP. XII.] EXPEDITIONS AGAINST EGYPT AND RHODES. 393
whilst the latter, consisting of 80,000 foot, 8,000 horse, and
83 elephants, marched to Gaza.
Antigonus, having procured a number of camels from Arabia to
carry the requisite supplies, advanced by a forced march, hoping
to surprise Ptolemy, relying on the fleet for sustenance when the
ten days' provisions carried by the army should be exhausted.
This movement appears to have taken place just before the The fleet en-
change of the seasons ; the calms, therefore, which had delayed storm on the
the fleet in the first instance were followed by the usual strong coastofEgyPt-
northerly gales which commence in the early part of May, and
make the open coast of Egypt unapproachable.1 A large por
tion of the fleet was lost near Baphia (Bafah) ; some vessels
returned to Gaza, and the few that remained, with great diffi
culty rode out the gale at anchor, probably near Cape Starki
beyond El Arish, without the possibility of communicating with
the army, and suffering greatly from the want of water. But
the unexpected cessation of the storm relieved the weather-
beaten mariners from the fear of death, and they found
refreshment in the camp of Antigonus. He, after vainly ex- Antigonus ad^
pecting to be joined by the vessels which had separated in the driven back by
early part of the storm, now advanced towards the Nile. By PtoIemy-
this time, however, Ptolemy was prepared at all points, and
the attempts of his enemy to enter Egypt not only failed by
land, but, subsequently, both at the Pelusiac and Tanitic
branches of the Nile. Bepulsed at every point, and finding
his army rapidly decreasing by sickness and desertion, Anti
gonus was obliged to retrace his steps, and encounter for the
second time the privations and exposure incident to traversing
the desert tract lying between Palestine and Egypt.
The next operation was the siege of Bhodes. The Bhodians Demetrius ;
had, it seems, been secretly inclined to support the cause ofaga?nstS
Ptolemy ; which circumstance, added to the wealth they had Rhodes-
lately acquired by trading as a neutral territory, determined
Antigonus to undertake the subjection of that island. Deme
trius was therefore sent thither with a sufficient force and a
powerful fleet, provided with all kinds of engines for the
intended siege. The Bhodians, finding their town beleaguered,
1 Diod. Sic, lib. XX., cap. xvi.

394 RESISTANCE OF THE RHODIANS TO DEMETRIUS. [CHAP. XII,

Preparations
ofthe Rho
dians against
tbe besiegers.

Vessels and
machines used by
Demetrius.

Renewedattack on the
laud side, with
fresh ma
chines.

and that Demetrius refused to listen to any terms, prepared
for defence, sending at the same time to request the assistance
of Ptolemy, Lysimachus, and Cassander, on account of whom,
in fact, the war had taken place. As an encouragement to the
citizens during the coming struggle, it was decreed that those
servants who proved most faithful should obtain, their freedom^
and that the parents and children of those who died in the
cause should be maintained at the public expense. With these
and other promises all were excited to the highest pitch of enthu
siasm, and the noblest spirit animated the Bhodians throughout
a siege which has become most remarkable from the skill, per
severance, and valour which were displayed on both sides. The
effects of the darts and stones thrown from the walls were nearly
counteracted by means of the testudo ; and huge double towers,
of sufficient height to be on a level with the top of the wall,
being floated on vessels, were placed alongside the fortifications.
These moving castles were, however, met by others placed by
the Bhodians at the entrance of the harbour, to hurl stones,
darts, and arrows against the enemy. The vessels of Deme
trius succeeded, however, in approaching the, walls, which were
fiercely assaulted, and as obstinately defended, till, at the
expiration of eight days, Demetrius was obliged to retire to
the outer harbour.1 After repairing his shattered fleet, he re
entered the port, and made a still more formidable and con
tinuous attack, which had almost carried the town, when the
desperate efforts of the Bhodians were once more successful;
and many of the besieging vessels being destroyed by fire and
other means, the rest again retreated to the outer port.2
Demetrius now resumed the siege by land, chiefly using for
this purpose an helepolis, consisting of several loop-holed
stories. The machine was put in motion by eight immense
wheels, and was propelled by 3,400 ofthe strongest men in the
army. To this machine numerous testudos, battering-rams, and
covered galleries were added, with everything that ingenuity
could devise. The whole means of assault employed 30,000
workmen, and occupied a space of four furlongs along the walls.
The besieged, however, were equally active ; for, by using the
1 Diod. Sic, lib. XX., cap. xvii. 2 Ibid.

CHAP. XII.] PROGRESS OF THE SIEGE. 395
materials of their houses, and even of their temples, they had Countermines
raised another wall within that which was being battered down. thePdefence"
Things were in this state, when a deserter informed the citizens
that the miners of Demetrius were already almost within the
defences of the city. Countermines now became their only
resource, and both besiegers and besieged speedily met, as it
were, on equal terms, under ground.1
Bribery was now resorted to, but equally without success, and
the besiegers renewed their efforts above ground. The walls
were fast giving way before such powerful means from without,
whilst famine was assisting the enemy within, when Ptolemy's
fleet arrived most opportunely with provisions and reinforce
ments. Encouraged by this assistance, the besieged, under
cover of their engines, which launched fire-balls, darts, stones,
&c, made an unexpected and vigorous sally, from the effects of
which only a portion of the besieging engines were saved, and
that with extreme difficulty.2 Whilst these were being repaired,
to renew the attack, fresh means of defence were employed by
the Bhodians, who formed a crescent-shaped entrenchment,
embracing the whole of that portion of the walls which was
attacked. Demetrius, with equal perseverance, advanced his
machines, and carried a considerable portion of the defences ;
but as the centre tower still resisted his efforts, he resorted to a
general night attack by sea and land. On this occasion, some
of the assailants forced their way into the town, but after a The Rhodians
lengthened and bloody struggle the Bhodians were successful, assault™!]1^
and a peace followed, by which the city was to continue under make Peace-
its own laws, and at the same time enjoy its own revenues ;
while they agreed to assist Antigonus in any wars which he
might undertake, excepting those against their ally Ptolemy.3
This place furnishes a striking example of the methods of
attack and defence employed in ancient times; the greatest
skill, perseverance, and valour having been equally displayed
for more than twelve months, both by the besiegers and besieged.
Never were assaults more frequent and energetic, or courage
more indomitable. When one wall ceased to resist the pon-
1 Diod. Sic, lib. XX., cap. xix. 2 Ibid.
Ibid.

396

ANCIENT AND MODERN SIEGES COMPARED. [CHAP. XII.

Explosive
mines em
ployed in the
sixteenthcentury.

Alexander's successorsthrow off the
mask.

B. C. 305 to
303.

Seleucus pre
pares to ex
tend his ter
ritory beyond
. the Indus.

derous machines of Demetrius, another appeared within, offering
a more impenetrable barrier than the first. The remains of the
helepoles and other machines, which were presented by Deme
trius to the Bhodians, as a just tribute to their valour, realized
a sufficient sum to erect the colossal statue, which was considered
as one of the wonders of the world.
At a later period, this fortress witnessed the first employment
of that branch of the military art, which has since contributed
greatly to the superior efficiency of the attack over the defence
of fortresses. In 1522, more than 100,000 enthusiastic Muslims
commenced the siege of this fortress under Suleiman II.
But notwithstanding the use of a powerful artillery, and of the
other means employed at that time, besides a great sacrifice of
life, a band of 6,000 warriors, under the knights of St. John,
resisted successfully, until the besiegers resorted to the expedient
of explosive mines: from that period such mines have often
accelerated the fall of a besieged place.
As the government, which had hitherto been carried on in the
names of a weak-minded prince and an infant king, had ceased
to exist, the ambitious designs of Alexander's generals were
no longer concealed ; and his vast conquests were regarded as
an inheritance, which might be lawfully secured by the most
powerful among them.
The position of Seleucus at Babylon, and his tact in turning
his attention eastward, rather than mixing in the contests to the
westward of that city, gave him the largest portion of the spoils,
so that he extended his dominion with little difficulty to the
borders of India ; but his ambition being little short of that
of Alexander himself, the Iranian empire1 was insufficient.
Seleucus therefore prepared to extend his territory, and cir
cumstances were particularly favourable to him, for he was in
alliance with Ptolemy, Cassander, and Lysimachus ; and whilst
the forces of Antigonus were still employed in besieging
Bhodes, he proceeded from Babylon at the head of a powerful
army, hoping by a rapid march to recover the provinces,
beyond the Indus, which had recently shaken off the Mace
donian yoke. Being master of the intervening kingdoms,
1 From the Indus to the Euphrates.

CHAP. XII.] SELEUCUS OPPOSES ANTIGONUS IN LESSER ASIA. 397
with the necessary supplies at command, and the certainty of
receiving constant reinforcements, a march through I'ran was
not attended with any particular difficulty. But on finding
Sandrocottus, the sovereign of the whole country, with 600,000
men, and a proportion of elephants ready to oppose him beyond Treaty with
the Indus, he took the prudent course of renouncing all pre- aud^eturn"8'
tensions to that territory, in consideration of being furnished by from India-
Sandrocottus with' 500 elephants ; then, making a retrograde
march, he was in time to take a decided part in the concerns
of the west, which, since the truce made at Bhodes, had
become more complicated. Demetrius, who was serving as Antigonus and
generalissimo of the Greeks, was opposed by Cassander in opposed'by
Europe, while Lysimachus had taken from Antigonus, not|^™°"asl"
only all Phrygia and Lydia, but the whole of the territory
between the Propontis and the Maeander.
This state of things obliged Antigonus to hasten in person
from Syria by forced marches ; and, with the public funds, he
raised the requisite forces to march against Lysimachus.
Seleucus, in, the mean time, having re-formed his army in
Babylonia, marched into Cappadocia to meet Antigonus ; who
was obliged in consequence to recall Demetrius1 with all speed. B. c 302 to
He was, besides, pressed on the other hand by Ptolemy,
who had taken advantage of this opportunity to recover the
tract between Egypt and Asia Minor, the cities of Tyre and
Sidon excepted. The forces in Cappadocia and Phrygia, now
about to contend for dominion, numbered on one side 60,000
foot, 10,000 horse, and 75 elephants, under Antigonus and
his son-; and on the other, 64,000 foot, 10,000 horse, 400
elephants, and 120 scythed chariots. Demetrius attacked Battle of
Antiochus, the son of Seleucus, with a degree of success which Ipsus-
might have been complete, had he not been carried away in the
pursuit till the infantry was completely separated from the
cavalry. Seleucus, with admirable coolness, took advantage of
this circumstance to interpose his elephants between the enemy's
horse and foot, and the greatest part of the latter seized this
opportunity to go over to him.
Seleucus now made a determined attack with his infantry on
1 Plut. in Demetrius.

398 RESULT OF THE BATTLE OF IPSUS. [CHAP. XII.
Death of the main body, and thus completed the great defeat near
Antigonus. T 1 ta • • J • r> i • i n . ,
Ipsus.1 Demetrius, on seeing his father perish nobly in the
heat of the battle, rallied a few of the troops, and retreated to
Ephesus, and from thence to the shores of the Mediterranean,
accompanied by a youth, who was afterwards known as
Pyrrhus the Great.
The principal barrier to a peaceable settlement being re
moved, the territories of Antigonus were divided amongst the
confederate princes, and the mighty empire of Alexander, now
B.c. 301. formed four great kingdoms. Ptolemy, in addition to his
Subdivision of possessions in Africa and Arabia, obtained Palestine and
empire. erS Ccelo-Syria ; Cassander had Greece added to Macedonia;
and Lysimachus, Bithynia in addition to some of the provinces
beyond the Hellespont. Lastly, Seleucus was the acknowledged
sovereign of the rest of Asia. Demetrius, however, retained,
as the wreck of his father's power, Cyprus, Tyre, and Sidon,
with the throne of Macedon; and his influence in Greece
enabled him to raise upwards of 100,000 men, with part of
which he continued the war, hoping to recover his father's
B. c. 287. dominions in Asia. Pyrrhus, however, succeeded in expelling
him from Macedonia ; and, being joined by the greatest part of
the opposing troops, the hopes of Demetrius were effectually
crushed in that quarter.
Demetrius Impelled, however, by insatiable ambition, the prince con-
XmpttoUtiIe tinued to make other efforts, both in the field, and by means of
regain his alliances, to recover his lost ground : the last measure was a
crown. ii/>
desperate attempt with a handful of men to surprise Seleucus
by night in his camp. Failing, as might have been expected,
he fled to the mountains, and ihere remained till hunger forced
B. c 286. him to surrender. Seleucus generously allowed his prisoner the
range of ample hunting-grounds, with all the conveniences of
life : the temperament of Demetrius was, however, ill calculated
to support the great change in his condition ; and he was
gradually seized with hopeless melancholy. The elasticity of
his mind was destroyed; he grew corpulent, and abandoned
himself to drinking and gaming. The excesses of the table
and a life of inactivity, brought on a severe distemper, which
1 Apion in Syriac, p. 122.

CHAP. XII.] FATE OF DEMETRIUS AND SELEUCUS. 399
terminated his existence in the third year of his captivity, and Demetrius dies
the fifty-fourth year of his age. A striking contrast to the in captlvlty-
fate of this prince will be found in the life of his son, whose
moderation preserved the crown of Macedonia for a lengthened
period in the family.
Seleucus, the successful rival of Antigonus, continued to be
the undisputed sovereign of the greater part of western Asia,
till he was assassinated bv Ptolemv Ceraunus, B.C. 280. A Death and
clitiruettT of
short time before this, he had however resigned part of his Seleucus.
empire, with his queen, Stratonice, in order to save Antiochus,
who was pining to death for his stepmother. Seleucus was
distinguished for his just and enlightened government, and more
particularly for the construction of numerous cities, the most
remarkable of which were Antioch and Apamea, both on the
Orontes, with Seleucia, the port of the former; also Theo-
dosia, and the greater Seleucia on the Tigris. The latter was
afterwards capital of the empire of Antiochus Theos, which
extended from the shores of the Mediterranean to the limits of
Bactria. The second of the Ptolemies, who was sumamed Phila-
delphus, succeeded to the throne of Egypt at this period, and
in the first year erected in Alexandria the celebrated Pharos, The Pharos \
at the cost of 800 talents. The early part of his reign was erected-
likewise distinguished by the formation of a nobler monument,
namely, the great library :' the translation of the Old Testa
ment, now known as the Septuagint version, was one of the
earliest fruits of this institution ; which, as will be noticed
hereafter,2 had much influence on the infant literature of
Europe. Those enlarged views, which had facilitated navigation and Commerce
the acquisition of knowledge, were by Philadelphus extended to encouraged by
the commerce with distant nations. A city called Berenice, Ptolemy-
after the name of his mother, sprang up on the western shore
of the Bed Sea, through which, as will hereafter be seen,3 an
active trade passed from and to the Nile ; again a canal leading
to the same river, from the northern extremity of the Bed Sea
1 Strabo, lib. XVII., p. 791. 2 Chap. XVI.
3 Chap. XVIII.

400 REVOLT OF PARTHIA. [CHAP. XII.
was executed : and, as an additional means of superseding the
route from Elath to Bhinocolura, on the borders of Palestine,
this prince had fleets on that sea, as well as on the Mediter-
War between ranean. Intrigues, which were the natural consequences of an
Theosand incestuous marriage, and the demoralized state of the East, led
Ptolemy. fa a war between Antiochus Theos and Ptolemy,1 from which
the former gladly disengaged himself after losing a large
portion of his eastern possessions. Theodotus , having revolted
and become the sovereign of Bactria, his example was followed
in other provinces of that part of the world; but the most
important change was that which, from a comparatively trifling
circumstance, took place in Parthia. Agathocles, who governed
for Antiochus, had so enraged the people by offering violence
to Tiridates, that they put him to death ; and Arsaces, the
brother of the youth in question, having expelled the Mace
donians, assumed the government of that extensive country,
which from henceforth was destined to play a distinguished
part in the history of the world.2
1 Strabo, lib. VII., p. 152. s Justin, lib. XLL, cap. iv.

( 401 )

CHAPTEB XIII.
GLANCE AT THE PARTHIAN AND ROMAN WARS, FROM
222 B.C. TO A.D. 631.
Seleucus Callinicus invades Parthia. — His Death. — Parthia becomes inde
pendent. — Antiochus the Great succeeds. — Suppression of the Rebellions
in Media and Persia. — Ptolemy Philopater gains Palestine and Coelo-Syria,
and visits Jerusalem. — Increase of the Roman power in Asia. — Demetrius
Nicator invades Parthia, and is taken prisoner. — Extension of the Parthian
Dominions. — Judicious Polity of Mithridates. — Antiochus Sidetes invades
Parthia, and is killed in battle. Pacorus, King of Parthia, seeks the
friendship of the Romans. — Campaign of Lucullus in Armenia. — Pontus
becomes a Roman province. — Crassus invades Parthia. — Surena takes the
Field. — Fate of the Roman Army. — Surena's Triumph at Ctesiphon. —
Surena's Death. — Circuitous march of Antony into Media. — Siege of the
Capital. — Retreat from Praaspa to the Araxes. — Augustus proclaimed
Emperor. — Preparations of -3Slius Gallus. — March of the Roman Army
into Arabia Felix. — Return of the Expedition to Egypt. — Siege of
Jotapata by the Romans. — State of Jerusalem. — Siege and Capture of
the City. — Massacre of the Inhabitants. — Trajan's Accession. — Invasion
of Assyria, and descent of the River Euphrates. — The Nahr-Malka
opened for the passage of his Fleet. — Capture of Ctesiphon, and descent
to the Persian Gulf. — Return of Trajan. — Siege of Atra. — Severus
descends the Euphrates. — Passage of the Nahr Malka, and Capture of
Ctesiphon. — Second and third Siege of Atra. — Retreat of Severus. — Wars
of Sapor, and Capture of Valerian. — Invasion of the Roman Provinces in
Europe by the Goths, &c — Rise of Odenatus, Prince of Palmyra.— He
makes War on Sapor. — Death of Odenatus. — Zenobia seizes some of the
Roman Provinces. — Her contests with Aurelian. — Siege and Fall of
Palmyra. — Galerius Defeats the Persians. — Wars of Sapor II. and Con
stantine.— Remarkable Siege of Nisibis. — Rise of Julian. — His prepara
tions for War. — Descent of the River Euphrates with a Fleet and Army
to Anatho. — Fearful Hurricane encountered when approaching this City.
— Descent of the River continued. — Siege and Capture of Perisaboras, &c.
— Julian crosses Mesopotamia to Ctesiphon. — Retreat and Death of Julian.
— Jovian succeeds and effects a Retreat with the Roman Army. — Belisa-
rius is Defeated by the Persians. — Chosroes invades Syria, and Captures
Antioch. — Chosroes is Routed by Justinian. — Second Invasion of the
Roman Territories, and total Defeat of Chosroes. — Rebellion of Varanes
put down by Chosroes. — Decline of the Persian power.
During the period about to be considered, the contest which
had previously been so general in all quarters amongst the suc-
VOL. II. 2 D

402 PTOLEMY ENCOURAGES LEARNING IN EGYPT. [CHAP. XIII.

Science and
learning en
couraged in
Egypt.

SeleucusCallinicus is
defeated, and
dies in cap
tivity.

B. C. 222.

Rebellion of
Molo and
Alexander.
B.C. 219.

cessors of Alexander, became chiefly confined to one portion of
Western Asia, that inhabited by the Parthians : these, in their
connexion with other countries, will now be briefly noticed.
Ptolemy Euergetes, who at the close of the preceding chapter
filled the throne of Egypt, was more occupied with peaceful
than with warlike pursuits, being no less the encourager of
learning and science, than his predecessor Ptolemy Philadelphus.
On the library of Alexandria he bestowed particular care, with
the assistance from time to time of those individuals, who having
made themselves remarkable for their knowledge and acquire
ments, became in consequence the cherished guests of the
Egyptian monarch.
Whilst the arts of peace were fostered in this kingdom, those
of war maintained their pre-eminence in the adjoining territory.
The first object of Seleucus Callinicus, the successor of An
tiochus, on being partly extricated from two unsuccessful con
tests, one with Ptolemy Euergetes, and another in Asia Minor
with bis brother Antiochus, was to march against the Parthians ;
but owing to fresh commotions at home his purpose was delayed,
and Arsaces obtained another opportunity of consolidating his
power. As soon, however, as these troubles seemed to permit it,
Seleucus renewed the attempt with that perseverance which cha
racterized the successors of Alexander : but being defeated and
taken prisoner by Arsaces, he died in captivity.1 The Parthians
afterwards celebrated this victory as the first day of their inde
pendence, and as that by which their leader had raised himself
from a low condition to the throne : Arsaces taking from thence
forth the title of king, became in fact the Cyrus of Parthia. The
short reign of the son of Seleucus, Seleucus Ceraunus, or the
Thunderer, was followed by that of his brother Antiochus, sur-
named the Great, which, in his fifteenth year, commenced under
difficult circumstances, both as regarded Egypt and his own
territory. His brothers, Molo and Alexander, the satraps of
Media and Persia, withdrew their allegiance from him, and
hostilities commenced in Egypt against Ptolemy Philopater,
who was now on the throne. The war was urged personally by
Antigonus in the region of Ccelo-Syria with little success, and
1 Justin, lib. XLL, cap. iv., compared with Athenseus, IV., cap. xiii.

CHAP. XIII.] ANTIOCHUS INVADES ASSYRIA, ETC. 403
was carried on at the same time in Mesopotamia under his
general Xensetas. This last was still less fortunate ; for having
passed the Tigris, near Seleucia, he fell into an ambuscade in
that neighbourhood, and perished, with those whom he com
manded. Mesopotamia as well as Babylonia thus fell into the
hands of the rebels.1
In the spring, Antiochus took the field, and passing the Antiochus
Euphrates, no doubt at the Zeugma of Thapsacus, he wintered rebeis?S
at Antiochia of Mygdonia (Nisibin). Subsequently his troops B.C. 217.'
crossed the Tigris, and having relieved Dura, which had been
besieged by Molo's troops, he advanced by Oricum to Apol-
lonia,2 the capital of that part of Assyria which bears this
name. Here he gained a complete victory, and the rebel
Molo having in despair laid violent hands on himself, his fol
lowers submitted ; as did subsequently the Atropatians, with
their king Artabazanes, and the whole were received into alle
giance as formerly.3
On the coast of Phoenicia contests, on the whole favourable Defeat of
to Antiochus, were carried on both by sea and land ; but these ptoiemy"8 y
were followed, in the spring, by a campaign which terminated Phll°Pator-
in his defeat at the great battle of Baphia, the consequence of
which, was the submission of Coelo-Syria and Palestine to
Ptolemy. In making a progress through these territories, the conqueror
visited Jerusalem, where he offered sacrifices to the God of
Israel, and bestowed rich gifts on that holy place. It is also
stated that he visited the second court of the temple, and that
when about to penetrate to the holy of holies, contrary to the
express law of God, he was stricken with terror and retired.4
During the next season, Antiochus being, by the terms of the ^duesUS
treaty that followed the late campaign, at liberty to renew hos- Bactria and
tilities, carried the war into Asia Minor, and having defeated mediate
Achseus, and taken Sardis, he subsequently recovered Media, countnes-
1 Polybius, lib. V., cap. xlvi.-xlix., compared with Justin, lib. XXX.,
cap. i.
2 Now Thereban : D'Anville's Ane. Geog., vol. IL, p. 35.
3 Polybius, lib. V., cap. liv.
4 Third book of Maccabees, chap. I., v. 9, to chap. IL, v. 24, as found
in the Codex Vaticanus of the LXX. ; also Polybius, lib. V., cap. lxxx.
2d2

404

PROGRESS OF THE ROMAN POWER IN ASIA. [CHAP. XIII.

B. C. 201.

B. C. 183.

Increase of
the Roman
power.

DemetriusNicator invadesParthia.

His army is
destroyed.

Parthia, and Hyrcania, and concluded a treaty by which
Arsaces was to assist in regaining the other provinces ;' in
consequence of which Bactria was subdued. The forces of
Antiochus numbered 100,000 foot, and 20,000 horse.
But notwithstanding the success which thus attended his en
deavours to recover the territory of his predecessors, Antiochus
discovered in the sequel that circumstances were greatly altered :
the Boman power now extended into Asia, and notwithstanding
bis repeated and persevering efforts, it was firmly established
between the chain of the Taurus and the river Halys; in
consequence of which, the kings of Syria were wholly excluded
from Lesser Asia. Things were in this state, when Seleucus
Philopater succeeded Antiochus the Great in the government
of a kingdom, now oppressed with the enormous annual tribute
of 1,000 talents to the Bomans.
Henceforth, the interference and influence of the latter
people rapidly increased amongst the Greeks, the Macedonians,
the Syrians, and the people of Asia Minor. Many provinces
had in reality become Boman, some having been bequeathed and
others obtained by intrigues or negotiations ; so that in the year
1 45 b. c but little of the Seleucidsean territory remained.
Demetrius Nicator still, however, retained Syria, though in
volved in a serious and protracted war with the Maccabees ;
which had scarcely terminated when he was threatened with
more serious danger from another quarter. The Parthians
were, at this period, governed by Mithridates, the brother of
Phraates ; and, of late, this people had subjected the whole of
the countries lying between the Indus and Euphrates. Some
of the inhabitants being of Macedonian descent, Demetrius was
urged by repeated embassies to enable them to shake off the
yoke ; and, full of bright hopes built upon the promised general
insurrection, this prince marched eastward with the bulk of
his forces. The Elymaeans, Persians, and Bactrians, succes
sively declared in his favour as he advanced, and he defeated
the Parthians in several engagements ; but at the very moment
when the prospect of recovering his eastern territory seemed
most promising, the Parthians, under the plea of negotiating,
1 Justin, lib.XLL, cap. v.

CHAP. XIII.] FATE OF DEMETRIUS NICATOR. 405
or by some other ruse de guerre, made him prisoner, and cut
his army to pieces.
Following up this victory, Mithridates obtained possession of Parthian
. ... . . . . dominions,
Mesopotamia and Babylonia, which, in addition to his previous &c, under
possessions, gave him the command of the territory lying be
tween the Ganges, the Euphrates, and Mount Caucasus.1 In
stead of considering them as ephemeral conquests and enriching
himself by their spoils, the great Mithridates consolidated these
acquisitions, making them an integral part of the Parthian
empire, whose integrity was preserved during many ages, not
withstanding the diversity of nations which the state comprised.3
Either by force or persuasion the talented ruler of Parthia
induced most of the princes of Asia to form alliances on his
own terms ; and it is said that he took from each whatever was
valuable, as the basis of the laws by which the empire was
regulated during the remainder of his reign : this terminated
in a glorious old age, and was not less illustrious than that of
Arsaces I.3
Subsequently, Antiochus Sidetes, hoping to liberate his brother b. c. 135.
Demetrius, invaded Parthia at the head of 80,000 men ; and |^t°ecsYss
in the campaign that followed, Phraates II. being defeated in defeated in
three successive battles, all the conquests of his father Mithri
dates were lost. A change, however, soon afterwards took
place ; for the invaders, being confined within the limits of
Parthia Proper, and encumbered with followers who were triple
the number of fighting men, experienced a signal defeat ; when
Antiochus was slain, and his army entirely cut to pieces.4
Phraates was about to follow up this success by the invasion Phraates loses
of Syria, when a war broke out with the Scythians. In this the Scythian"
contest he perished, and his successor Artabanus subsequently war'
lost his life in a battle with the Thogarian Scythians.5 B- c. 129.
Pacorus, the son and successor of Artabanus, tempted by
the renown of the Bomans, and desiring their friendship, was
1 Justin, lib. XLL, cap. vi.
2 Diod. Sic. in Excerpt. Valesii, pp. 360, 361.
8 Ibid., compared with p. 597, vol. II. of Wesseling's Mithridates.
4 Justin, lib. XXXVIIL, cap. x. ; Diod. Sic. in Excerpt. Valesii, p. 374 ;
Jos. Ant., lib. XIII., cap. xvi.
5 Justin, lib. XLIL, cap. i.

406 LUCULLUS SUBDUES ARMENIA. [CHAP. XIII.
Origin of the induced to send ambassadors to Sylla in Cappadocia; and this
Tff£irs between.
the Romans step led to important consequences ; for the Bomans, as allies
an art tans. Qf ^e Syrians, or otherwise, henceforth maintained an almost
uninterrupted war with Parthia.
This commenced under Phraates III., who besieged the city
Artaxata, with a view to the re-establishment of Tigranes on
the throne of Armenia. Phraates withdrew, however, on the
appearance of Pompey, after renewing the alliance concluded
by his father, first with Sylla, and then with Lucullus.1
Lucuiius Mithridates, though disappointed in the assistance promised
Armenia. by his son-in-law Tigranes, continued the war, but being again
B.C. 65. defeated, he sought and obtained from the latter an asylum in
Armenia; Tigranes, however, scarcely granted hospitality to
his relative, and even refused to see him : at the same time he
carried the war in another direction as far as the confines of
Egypt. The success of Tigranes gave umbrage to the Bomans,
and Lucullus invaded Armenia in consequence, though osten
sibly, as a punishment for the asylum which had been afforded
to Mithridates.
The vigour and talent for which the early career of Tigranes
had been distinguished were now totally wanting, and his
retreat before the invaders became almost a flight. One portion
of Lucullus' army continued the pursuit, whilst another, under
Sextilius, was employed against Tigranocerta ; but soon after
wards the two divisions were united with the view of prosecuting
the siege more vigorously. Tigranes now called a council of
war, in which it was determined to attack the Bomans, and the
appearance of the king's army crowning the hills beyond the
river (presumed to be the Mesopotamian Khabiir), was hailed
by those in the city as the harbinger of victory.
Battle of Leaving a force to continue the siege, Lucullus crossed with
anf Subjection the remainder of his army at a ford where the river makes a
surrounding Dend to the west- This Save nis movement the appearance of
territory. a retreat ; but the decision of the battle in his favour against
fearful odds, opened the gates of the capital, with its treasure,
to the conqueror. Thus terminated this remarkable campaign,
1 Diod. Sic, lib. XXXVL, p. 22. Liv. Epit., lib. c, compared with Dio
Cassius, lib. XXXVL, p. 24.

si

CHAP. XIII.] CRASSUS QUITS ROME FOR SYRIA. 407
in which Lucullus, at the head of an organized body of 1 1,000
men, 10,000 being heavy-armed foot, and 1,000 cavalry,
archers, and slingers, and assisted only by Machares the son
of Mithridates, had successfully invaded the kingdom of Ar
menia, which was defended by 250,000 men.1
Pompey superseded the Boman general, and ended the war Pontus
soon afterwards with the assistance of Tigranes the younger, Roman8 a
who had taken arms against his father, and Pontus, as well as Province-
Syria, became a Boman province; the latter in right of
Tigranes, who had been elected successor to Cybiosactes, the
last of the Seleucidse, who had been murdered in Egypt.
Parthia, the next object of conquest to the Bomans, was
under the government of Orodes, who had usurped the throne
of his brother, Mithridates IL, and was assisted by the cele
brated Surena.
At this period Caesar was nominated to Gaul, and his rival, Crassus pro-
Pompey, to Spain, while Crassus obtained the government of government
Syria, which his avarice prompted him to seek, that he might iu Syria-
make war upon the Parthians. His object being known, it was
with exceeding difficulty that he got out of the hands of Ateius
Capito, and the party who were opposed to the unjust invasion
of this rich and powerful nation, which had never been subjected
by any foreign enemy.2 Passing through Galatia he reached
his consular appointment, which comprised Syria and the
neighbouring provinces. He then lost no time in commencing
his plans against the Parthians, and hastening across the
Euphrates, he found Mesopotamia altogether unprepared against
invasion. Had this unexpected advantage been followed up, First invasion
Crassus might have taken Seleucia and the whole of Babylonia ; of Parthia-
but after storming Zenodotia,3 he most unaccountably retraced
his steps, leaving about 8,000 men in the towns of Mesopotamia.
During the succeeding winter, Crassus increased the revenue
of Syria by new taxes and fresh sacrileges, not even sparing
1 Plutarch in Lucull., vol. I., p. 509, Paris, 1624, compared with Appian,
Mithrid., cap. Ixxxvi.
a Plutarch in Crasso. Appian, Bell. Civil, lib. IL, pp. 437, 438.
8 Supposed to have been on the river Khabur.

408

ENVOYS SENT BY ORODES TO CRASSUS. [CHAP. XIII.

Orodes sends
envoys to
Crassus.

PreparationsoftheParthians.

Person and
character of
Surena.

the seat of the much-venerated Syrian goddess Atargetes,1 or
the hitherto-respected treasures of Jerusalem.2 Having plun
dered this rich temple, and the others within reach, and being
joined by his son, who had been serving under Caesar in Gaul,
he collected his forces early in the spring to renew the invasion
of Parthia. Aware of his hostile intentions, the warlike Orodes
had not only assembled a numerous army in the meanwhile,
but had sent a special embassy to the proconsul during his
preparations. Agreeably to their instructions, the envoys on being admitted
to his presence, inquired with admirable tact, whether Crassus
were about to break the existing alliance by order of the
Bomans, or only to make war to satiate his private interest;
for, in the former case, a war of extermination must be the
consequence, whereas, in the latter, the Parthian sovereign would
be ready, in consideration of his age, to allow the Boman
garrison to retire from Mesopotamia unmolested. Crassus
haughtily replied, that they should have his answer at Seleucia ;
on which the envoys briefly and expressively replied, that hair
would grow on the palms of their hands, ere he took the city in
question.3 Orodes, little fearing an attack on the western side through
the Desert, but rather expecting his enemy would attempt to
penetrate either by the route of Armenia, or that of Upper
Mesopotamia, divided his troops, and proceeded himself with
the main body to cover the frontiers of the former, while he
despatched the remainder to encounter the invaders in the
latter direction.4
This important command was entrusted to a celebrated indi
vidual, whose character, as handed down by Plutarch, displays
that extraordinary mixture of qualities, for which the eastern
people are sometimes remarkable. To a commanding stature
and winning manners, Surena joined wealth, power, and au-
1 Strabo, lib. XVL, p. 748 ; Plin., lib. V., cap. xxiii. j Plutarch in Crasso,
and above, vol. I., p. 421.
2 Jos. Ant., lib. XIV., cap. vii.
3 Flor., lib. III., cap. ii. ; Plutarch in Crasso.
4 Plutarch in Crasso.

CHAP. XIII.] PERSON AND CHARACTER OF SURENA. 409
thority only inferior to those of the king, who had been His !mportant
. . . services to
indebted to his valour for the recovery of Seleucia from Mith- Orodes.
ridates, and for the preservation of the crown itself. The tra
velling equipage of this chieftain comprised 1,000 baggage
camels, 200 chariots for his harem, and 1,000 heavy-armed
horsemen, besides a number of light-armed troops; forming,
with vassals, slaves, &c, a body of about 10,000 followers.1 In
his case the luxury of an Asiatic prince was united with the
intrepidity of the soldier, for while ready to lead his troops
on the most desperate enterprise, like the Arabs and Medes
he was not ashamed to paint his face, and dye and perfume his
hair.8 Surena now advanced against the Bomans, and quickly Surena ,
¦n n p • ¦ i assumes the
recovered Mesopotamia, k rom some ot the fugitives, the offensive.
Bomans learnt that they were about to encounter brave and
determined enemies, whom they could neither escape by flight,
nor overtake in pursuit, and who were consequently very
different from the Armenians and Cappadocians, whom Lu
cullus had driven out of the field.
In consequence of this intelligence, Caius Cassius and most Crassus crosses
of the legionary tribunes, advised Crassus to proceed cautiously, with 40,000
whilst Artavasdes or Artabazus,3 king of Armenia, recom-men'
mended him to throw himself into the mountains to avoid the
Parthian horse. But the general, following his own opinion,
advanced towards the frontiers of Mesopotamia, and passing
the Zeugma of Thapsacus, entered that country at the head of
seven legions, and 4,000 horse ; or, including the auxiliaries,
about 40,000 men.
Seeing his chief determined to advance, Cassius recommended
him to keep along the Euphrates, drawing supplies from his
fleet during the march towards Seleucia. But the insidious
advice of Ariamnes, king of Edessa, then a visiter in the camp,
prevailed, and the Bomans advanced over a desert tract, till
the scouts brought intelligence that the Parthian army was at
hand. Crassus, believing the assurance of Ariamnes that the Mutual
enemy's forces were not numerous, adopted a square formation,
with, as the necessary consequence, a limited front. One of
1 Plutarch in Crasso. 2 Ibid. 3 Ibid.

410 CRASSUS ADVANCES INCAUTIOUSLY. [CHAP. XIII.
the wings was given to his son, the other to Cassius; the
general retaining the command of the centre himself. Thus
advancing, after a long and painful march, the enemy was dis
covered, but apparently not in force, near the river Balesius
(Belik). Surena, who was prepared in every way, had not
only concealed a part of his forces, but their arms also, least
they should be betrayed by their glare ; till on a given signal,
an army well mounted, and with shining cuirasses, appeared to
spring out of the ground, and advanced to the attack, making
a frightful noise. Surena, richly dressed, charged at the head
Commence- of his spearmen. Finding the phalanx impenetrable, the Par-
battie. thians retired, according to their custom, in apparent confusion,
but again returned to make a more general attack, by means
of showers of arrows, which were poured in on all sides.
Crassus now ordered the light-armed troops to advance and
charge the enemy : this for the moment was successful ; but the
Parthian horse speedily re-formed, and forced the troops to seek
protection behind the heavy-armed foot. Showers of heavy
arrows were now discharged against the close mass, on which
every missile took effect, and the situation of the Bomans was
the more hopeless, since the Parthians had the means of re
plenishing their quivers from a reserve carried on camels.
Charge of Young Crassus, by his father's directions, now advanced at the
"head of 1,300 horse, 500 archers, and eight cohorts; when the
Parthians, as was their custom, took to flight. Not doubting
that this was real, the youth, crying out, " They fly before us !"
pushed on at full speed ; but when far from support, he found
himself charged by the supposed fugitives. The Bomans
halted: but instead of engaging in a close fight, the Parthians,
as before, resorted to a discharge of arrows against those whose
situation scarcely admitted of either attack or defence. As a
last resource, the young commander, at the head of his cavalry,
made an ineffectual charge against the cuirasses and steel-
covered horses of the enemy, and after having been wounded,
retired with his remaining men to join the infantry, and seized
His critical a rising ground, which they hoped to defend till succours could
situation and arrive_ j}ut seeing no chance of assistance, and being unable
to use his arm, he sought the relief of death from one of his

young Crassus.

CHAP. XIII.] FATE OF CRASSUS AND HIS ARMY. 411
attendants. The Parthians having killed or taken all that
remained, marched without delay against Crassus, displaying,
as they advanced, the head of his son on the point of a lance.
On perceiving this dismal trophy, Crassus exclaimed, like a Efforts of
true Boman, "This misfortune is mine; let us charge, and encourage his
punish these insulting barbarians, since the loss of one man trooPs-
cannot affect the victory." His efforts to reanimate the troops
were however vain ; and the Parthians continued their harassing
attacks till nightfall, when they retired, to allow, as they said,
the father one night to lament his son.1
This was truly no more than he required, for the excitement Retreat of the
„ . . . iii Roman army.
ot the contest being over, his energies sunk so completely that
he covered his face in his cloak, and became incapable of further
exertion. A council of war was therefore called, and it was
resolved that a retreat towards Carrhae should be commenced at
dawn, which took place accordingly, the wounded being left to
their fate. Three hundred horse, under Ignatius, proceeded,
however, early in the night by the same route, and passed on
to the Zeugma, after apprizing the governor of Carrhae that a
battle had been fought with the Parthians : Crassus found in
consequence an asylum in this city. This, however, proved
only temporary : Surena was not long behind his enemy, and
having ascertained that Crassus and Cassius were within the
walls, he prepared to invest the place. To avoid so critical a
situation, the Boman army continued its march the same night,
closely followed by Surena, to whom their purpose had, it would
appear, been betrayed.
Finding the army hampered in marshy ground, Cassius Difficulties
separated himself from the guide, whom he suspected, and encoun ere ¦
returned to Carrhae, whence he made his way into Syria ; but
Crassus remained entangled in his difficult position. At day
light he removed to a hill, and the troops having been formed by
Octavius into a hollow square, continued the retreat; their
bodies serving as a rampart to protect their general.
Crassus now increased the disadvantages of his position by Death of
thoughtlessly entering into a negotiation, and even accepting ias "'"
an invitation to confer with his enemy. A kind of scuffle ensued,
1 Plutarch in Crasso.

412 SURENA'S MARCH INTO CTESIPHON. [CHAP. XIII.
which led to the death of the unfortunate Boman, and to the
destruction of the remainder of his army.1
As in the similar catastrophe at Kabul, in our own time, it
is doubtful whether the enemy had planned the death, or
merely intended to bring about the capture of the chief. But
the scene which was subsequently enacted at Seleucia, makes
the latter conclusion more probable than the former.
Position of the The marshes in which the Bomans found themselves en
tangled when advancing, indicate that this event must have
taken place some miles southward of Haran, and the battle
ground was in all probability a little further in the same direc
tion.2 The previous passage at Thapsacus, and the march from
thence through a desert country to the river Belik, seem to
show that Crassus must have proceeded eastward, or nearly so,
in a direct line from Thapsacus to the upper part of that
river.
Triumph of Surena proceeded to Seleucia after the battle, and there
Ctesiphon. celebrated his victory by a mock procession, in which Crassus
was personated by an individual, who was made to enter the
city preceded by lictors and other accompaniments of such dis
plays. Tbe head of his fallen enemy had, however, already
been despatched to Orodes with this brief message : Surena
sends the head of the Boman general, whose army has been cut
in pieces. Orodes received this present, with transports of joy,
in Armenia, whilst engaged in cementing, with public feasts, his
recently-formed alliance with Artabazus ; and having obtained
a more particular account of the action from the messenger,
Syllaces, he commanded melted gold to be poured into the
mouth of the lifeless head, in order that, as he observed, the
passion of Crassus for this metal might be satiated.
Pacoms But Surena did not long enjoy the glory of his victory ; for
invades Syria. Qr0(ieSj fearing he might be supplanted by his vezir, caused
him to be put to death, and then sent an army under his own
B. c. so. son Pacorus to invade Syria, at a time when the Bomans were
much occupied in another quarter.
1 Plutarch in Crasso.
8 The distance from Carrhae must have been small, since the fugitives
reached that city about midnight after the battle.

CHAP. XIII.] ANTONY INVADES PARTHIA. 413
The campaigns in Europe which have been so well described
by the Boman historians, and in the Commentaries of Caesar
himself, having terminated at Pharsalia, the East again became
the theatre of war.
After the reunion of Octavius and Antony, the latter took Antony takes
the field in person, hoping to snatch the laurels of victory from
his own lieutenant Ventidius,1 and afterwards to subjugate the
Parthians ; and in order to avoid the passes occupied by the
enemy in the line through Kurdistan,2 he appears to have made
a detour of 1,000 miles, to the river Araxes ;s probably keeping Route of his
„. . army towards
westward, and again northward, ot the most mountainous part praaspa.
of Armenia.
Having arrived on the borders of Media, and wishing to
hasten operations in order to rejoin Cleopatra, he left Statianus
in Atropatana4 to bring on the baggage and military engines,
while he made a forced march of 300 miles to Praaspa or
Phraata, the Atropatenian Ecbatana,5 having taken, it is sup
posed, the route near the lake of Urumiyah and the Miyandab
plain, following the valley of the Jaghatii by Sa'in Kal'eh,
to the stronghold in question.6
Feeling at ease respecting the safety of their city with Capture of the
Antony's present means, the Parthian army which had come baggage and
to protect it, allowed the place to be quietly invested, and ensines-
crossing the mountains in a direct line, they fell unexpectedly
upon Statianus, and not only routed his escort, but captured
the whole of the baggage and military engines.7 Antony on
perceiving his fatal mistake, and suspecting the object of the
march, hastened to pursue the Parthians, but finding he was
too late, he returned to resume the siege, raising a mound
1 Jos. Ant., lib. XIV., cap. xxvii.
8 The pass of Keli-shin, and the mountainous country about Rowandiz,
Would be in the direct line from Thapsacus to the Median Ecbatana.
8 If the valley ofthe Upper Euphrates were followed, keeping northward
of Erz-Riim to the central part of the river Araxes, the distance from Thap
sacus would exceed 1,000 miles.
4 Plutarch, p. 933, and Appian, vol. III., p. 77.
6 Now Takhti-Soleiman, Royal Geog. Journal, vol. X., pp. 113, 114.
6 Ibid., p. 115.
7 Strabo, lib. XL, pp. 523, 524, 525, compared with Dio Cassius, lib.
XLIX., p. 465.

414

AUGUSTUS PROCLAIMED EMPEROR. [CHAP. XIII.

Antony'sretreat from
Phraata.

B.C. 31.
Augustus
assumes the
purple. B. C 24.
B. C. 20.

iElius Gallus
lands in
Arabia.

Marchthrough the
country.

against the walls, as the only means of replacing the engines.
He persevered for a time under these adverse circumstances ;
but being unable to make an impression on the town, or to
bring the active enemy who harassed his rear to a general
action, supplies also beginning to fail, he abandoned his en
trenchments as they stood, and forthwith proceeded by the
mountain road towards the Araxes. Antony retreated by a
different line from that by which he had advanced, namely,
through the mountains, leaving it is supposed Maraghah on the
left, and skirting Sehend in the direction of Tabriz. There
was a sort of understanding that the march would not be
molested ; notwithstanding which he found himself constantly
harassed by the Parthians, and suffered the greatest losses and
privations, being attacked no less than eighteen times before he
quitted the Median territory. The principal affair, that of
Gallus, in which the Bomans lost 8,000 men, took place pro
bably not far from Miyandab.1 But at length he recrossed the
Araxes into a friendly country, after the loss, chiefly by sickness,
of 20,000 infantry and 4,000 cavalry.2
Antony speedily rejoined Cleopatra, and ere long the battle
of Actium took place. On the death of Antony and Cleopatra,
Augustus entered Alexandria, and two years later he assumed
the title of Emperor.
The early part of his reign was remarkable for an expedition
sent into Southern Arabia,3 in order to secure by commercial
treaty, or other means, a share of the gold, silver, and other
reputed treasures of that country.
By command of the emperor, JElius Gallus, the governor
of Egypt, prepared an adequate flotilla at Cleopatris, from
whence he proceeded to Leuce Komi, a port in the Nabathean
territory, then well known to the Bomans as a commercial
entrepot between Southern Arabia and the great mart of Petra,
and now represented by El Haura4 on the coast of Hijaz.
With a force consisting of 10,000 Bomans, 500 of Herod's
guards, and 1,000 Nabatheans commanded by Syllaeus, and
conducted by the latter as the representave of their ally Obodus,
2 Plutarch in Ant.

Royal Geog. Journal, vol. X., p. 115.
Detailed in Strabo, lib. XVL
The white town. D'Anville's Ane. Geog., vol. II. , p.

8.

CHAP. XIII.] EXPEDITION OF ^LIUS GALLUS. 415
king of the Nabatheans, the expedition proceeded through an Progress
arid country, carrying on camels the water necessary for sub- country 0/
sistence. After a toilsome march of many days the armyAretaB-
reached the territory of Aretas, who, as the relative of Obodus,
gave them a friendly reception ; but owing to the want of
roads, thirty days were subsequently consumed in passing
through the country of this chief, which is described as only
producing palms, and a coarse kind of rye, with butter instead
of oil to render the food of the people palatable. The army
now entered the nomad district of Ararena,1 of which Sabus was
king. In this tract, which was almost entirely desert, fifty days
were consumed before the army reached the fertile country of
Nigranes, probably Wadi Nejran. The king fled on their ap
proach, and his city was taken by assault. From thence in six
days the army arrived on the banks of a river. Here an engage- Engagement
ment took place, in which the Arabians lost about 10,000 men, Arabs. e
and the town of Asca (Cisca), fell in consequence to the invaders.
Gallus next proceeded to the town of Athrulla, which did not
offer any opposition. Having procured supplies, and left a
garrison in this place, the Bomans proceeded to Marsyaba,
in the country of the Bhamanetae, which was governed by
Ilasarus. After six days, want of water obliged Gallus to raise
the siege of this town, which according to the account given by
the prisoners, was only two days from the spice country. Per
ceiving that he had followed the guides uselessly for six months,
Gallus determined to return, and taking for this purpose a Retreat of
more direct line, in nine days he reached the battle-ground of aulus a us'
the Nigranes. Eleven days carried the army from thence to
the Seven Wells ; from whence they marched by Chaalla to
Malothas, and thence through an uninhabited country to Nera
Komi, a seaport town under the dominion of Obodus : thus
accomplishing in sixty days in returning, a distance which had
occupied six months during the advance. Gallus then crossed his return to
the Bed Sea to Myos-Hormos, from whence he marched toEgyptl
Coptos, and returned to Alexandria. There seems little doubt
that the extreme point reached, Marsyaba, is Mareb or Saba,
1 Gosselin, in his researches, with much probability supposes that Strabo
here alludes to the district of Nedjd-el-'Aridh.

416 THE TROPHIES TAKEN FROM CRASSUS RESTORED. [CHAP. XIII.

Observationson the
campaign.

Augustus recovers the
eagles, &c,
taken from
Crassus.B. C. 20.

B. C. 1.
Rebellion of
the Jews.

also called Marsaba, being, like the former, in or near the
country of the Bhamnatae.1
Although there are not sufficient materials to follow the
wanderings of the Boman army under iElius Gallus, the time
consumed during the advance may easily be accounted for,
without the supposition that the Boman general had been
deceived. The detour of Nedjd-el-'Aridh was probably taken
to round the high range of Jebel Imariyeh. This and the
subsequent march through desert countries in central and
southern Arabia, would give a distance of nearly 2,000 miles
from El Haura to Marsyaba, which would have occupied
nearly the specified time of six months ; whilst the return,
when better acquainted with the countries to be traversed,
would naturally have been much more rapid, the direct distance
to one of the ports on the coast opposite to Medina, being only
about 1,000 miles.
The failure in the attempt to subjugate the Arabs was almost
the only disappointment which occurred during the reign of
Augustus, all else having been prosperous. The Parthians
were glad to restore the trophies as well as the remaining
captives taken from Crassus ; and in the following year an
embassy came for the second time, bringing rich presents from
the Indians, to seek his alliance.2 Moreover, extensive tracts
of country, and even kingdoms, were disposed of by Augustus :
among these was Armenia, which was, for the second time,
bestowed on Tigranes; the latter having been raised to the
throne on the expulsion of Artabanes.
When the advent of the Bedeemer of mankind took place,
Augustus still wielded the sceptre of Borne ; and, only half a
century after the decease of this emperor, the predicted punish
ment of the Jewish people commenced, through the instru
mentality of Gessius Florus, the last and most cruel of the
governors who ever tyrannized over Judea. In the second
year of his government, the Jews, exasperated beyond endurance
by his atrocities, everywhere took up arms, and giving loose to
their passions in murders and robberies, Caestus Gallus was
sent to subdue them, but was shortly afterwards superseded in
1 Strabo, lib. XVL, p. 782. « Ibid., lib. XV., p. 719.

CHAP. XIII.] VESPASIAN INVADES GALILEE. 417
the command by Vespasian. The Boman general commenced Capture of
the war by burning Gadara ; after which, with the assistance of
his son Titus, he laid siege to Jotapata, knowing that Galilee
must follow the fate of its capital. The city was defended by
the celebrated historian of the Jews with such valour, that it
resisted 60,000 Bomans for forty-seven days, when it was
carried by a fearful assault in which every individual was either
killed or taken prisoner. After the fall of this city,1 Vespasian Successes of
reduced Joppa and Tarichea by storm, and Tiberias having TUus!Siai1 ar
surrendered, he likewise captured Gamala. Titus was em
ployed against Girchala, which being taken, he rejoined his
father, in order to undertake the siege of the capital, the
principal object of the war. Three parties at this time divided state of
the power in Jerusalem, and a fourth was invited to assist in
its defence, viz., the Idumeans, who, as the descendants of
Esau, were considered a part of the Jewish nation. But on
being admitted to the city, to revenge some supposed insult,
they indulged their predatory habits by plundering and com
mitting other excesses, after which they returned to their own
country, leaving Jerusalem to its fate. Discord was at its
height when Titus approached ; who, after the necessary re- a.d. 73.
connaissances were made, commenced the siege in form. The Commence-
tenth legion occupied the Mount of Olives ; a third legion "ege."
took post three stadia beyond the city ; and the rest of the
army, after levelling the ground between Scopus and the walls,
was stationed where these turn from north to west, and from
thence to the tower of Hippicus. During these preparations,
Titus sent Josephus to offer terms of peace, which were scorn
fully rejected as it were by the whole nation, then assembled
from all parts to keep the feast of the Passover. Titus, there
fore, proceeded to level the suburbs, and after carrying some of
the works, he put a stop to all chance of egress by lines of
circumvallation. Famine soon ensued, and this to such a Distress of
fearful extent, that the cravings of hunger overcame a mother's emsa em'
love, and the body of the offspring became the food of the
wretched parent. When this inhuman circumstance was made
known to Titus, he determined on the extirpation of a people
1 Now probably Safet.— See vol. I., pp. 479, 480.
vol. II. 2 E

418 CALAMITOUS DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM. [CHAP. XIII.
who had chosen to be reduced to such extremities ; and the
siege being pushed" with increased vigour, the castle of Antonia
was taken, the gates burned, and the temple plundered and
afterwards destroyed by fire, notwithstanding the efforts of
Fate of the Titus to save this noble structure. A horrid massacre sub-
peopiend sequently took place, and 1,101,000 Jews are said to have
perished in this memorable siege, while 97,000 were sold as
slaves : : the descendants of those who escaped still continue
outcasts in the remotest corners of the world.
The work of massacre and pillage being over, Titus caused
the fortifications to be razed to the ground, with the exception
of a piece of the western wall, and the three towers of Hippicus,
Phasaslus, and Mariamne, which were left to give future ages
some idea of the strength of the city.2
A.D. 78. On the death of Vespasian, Titus received the purple : his
a.d. si. brother Domitian succeeded him, and was followed by Nerva,
a.d, 9fi. who closed a happy reign by the judicious choice of a successor.
Trajan's wars This was Ulpius Trajan, a native of Italica, near Seville, who,
ermany. .^ congequence 0f tn<3 decision of Nerva, quitted the govern
ment of lower Germany, to assume that of the Boman empire.
During his second war against the Dacians, the famous
bridge of twenty large arches was thrown over the Danube by
his engineer, Apollodorus of Damascus.3 His conquests over
the Dacians and Armenians procured for him the reputation
of a great general ; but these, as well as the subjection of Arabia
Petrea, by his lieutenant, Aulus Cornelius Palma, the governor
a.d. 107. of Syria, were only preparatory to his invasion of Parthia.
He constructs Early in, the spring he advanced towards the enemy ; but as
the country near the Tigris produces little wood adapted for
the purpose, he conveyed thither on carriages the materials
prepared in the forests near Nisibis for the construction of a
fleet : and on reaching the river, he prepared to lay a bridge
over against Mount Cordynas, the highest of the Gordyaean
chain.4 The barbarians (Assyrians) were posted on the op
posite bank to prevent the passage, yet Trajan succeeded in
1 Jos. Bell. Jud., lib. VI., cap. i. ii. 2 Ibid., lib. VII., cap. i.
8 At the narrow part of the river, near the present Orsova.
* Pliny, lib. VII., cap. xxvii.

CHAP. XIII.] TRAJAN MARCHES INTO ASSYRIA. 419
throwing a bridge across the river : part of the vessels were Passage of the
lashed together to form the bridge, while others, with soldiers Tlgns' and
and archers on board, were posted as if to cover the operation
of passing the river, or to manoeuvre oil each flank. Owing to
this judicious plan of attack, and the consternation caused by
the appearance of such a fleet in a country, where, from want
of timber, it could not have been constructed, the enemy fled.
The Bomans immediately crossed the river, and subdued section of
iii • • • Adiabene.
the whole country of Adiabene, which is that part of Assyria
near Nineveh, and also contains Guagamela and Arbela, where
Alexander conquered Darius. The inhabitants, changing .s
into t, call this part of the territory Athur, for Assur.1
Not finding any enemies who were in a condition to offer Descent of
resistance, the Parthians being extremely weakened by their Euphrates.
civil wars, Trajan advanced as far as Babylon, and visited the
lake, the sulphur (or bitumen) of which had been used in con
structing the walls of that stately city. The strength of this
bitumen, when mixed with bricks or small stones, is so great
that it becomes harder than marble or iron.2
Difficulties have been experienced in explaining the descent Observations
of Trajan, who, according to the historian Dio, proceeded from localities.
Assyria by the Tigris to Babylon, which is situated on the
sister stream. But as the name of one river is sometimes used
by ancient writers for the other, there is little doubt that on
this occasion the Boman fleet descended the Euphrates. As
has been described, the vessels were transported on carriages
from the forest of Nisibis to the banks of the Tigris, and sup
posing them to have been carried back in the same manner,
Trajan could have taken his forces from the neighbourhood of
Sinjar, along the Mesopotamian Khabiir into the Euphrates at
Circesium, and then have continued the descent to Hit and Trajan com-
Babylon ; where the narrative of the operations is resumed.3 NahrMaika.
Trajan had resolved, writes Dio Cassius, to carry his vessels
1 Dio Cassius, ed. Reimer, Hamb., lib. LXVIIL, cap. xxvi. ; Steph.
1592, Xiphilinus, p. 252-254. 2 Ibid.
3 As the historian carries him from the Euphrates across the country, it is
obvious that Trajan must have descended this river, and not the Tigris, as
erroneously stated in his text.
2 E 2

420

TRAJAN VISITS THE PERSIAN GULF. [CHAP. XIII.

Assyria, &c,
declaredRomanprovinces.

Trajan
descends the
Tigris^ &c.

from the Euphrates into the Tigris, and he commenced the
canal now called Nahr Malka for this purpose ; but he aban-
Supposed beds doned the work on ascertaining that the bed of the Euphrates
Mesopotamia, was higher than that of the Tigris, and that there was danger
that the former would be drained in consequence of the waters
descending to the lower level. Transporting his vessels, there
fore, by means of carriages across the country which lies between
the two rivers, and which is a very narrow tract, he crossed
tbe Tigris and entered the city of Ctesiphon, where he found
the daughter of Chosroes, and the golden throne of this prince.
Having conquered the surrounding country, and declared
Assyria, Mesopotamia, and Arabia, to be Boman provinces,
he was saluted as emperor, and established his right to the
surname of Parthicus. He also received from the senate the
honour of a triumph, attended with feasts and public rejoicings,
which were to continue as long as he thought proper.
After the fall of Ctesiphon, Trajan sailed down the Tigris
to the Bed Sea, a part of the ocean so called from the name
of a prince who formerly reigned there, and without difficulty
reduced an island, called the Isle of Messene, which is situated
in the Tigris, and of which Atambilus was king. But owing
to stormy weather, the rapidity of the river, and the reflux of
the sea, the fleet was exposed to extreme danger. The inha
bitants of a city called Spasinas received him in a friendly
manner ; and he afterwards came to the ocean itself, which he
viewed very attentively. Seeing a ship ready to sail for India,
he said that he would have made the voyage himself if he had
been younger ; adding, that Alexander had been happy in
carrying his arms so far.1
Symptoms of revolt in the newly-acquired provinces having
called for the presence of the emperor, he immediately re
turned to Ctesiphon, where, having assembled the Parthians
and Bomans on the neighbouring plain, and recounted from an
elevated spot his various expeditions, he declared Parthamas-
pates king, and placed the crown on his head. He next pro
ceeded against the Hagarenes or Saracens,2 who had endea-
1 Dio Cassius, ed. Reimer, Hamb., lib. LXVIIL, cap. xxvi.
2 Probably a portion of the Arabs westward of the lower Euphrates.

A.D. 117.
His return to
Ctesiphon.

CHAP. XIII.] SEVERUS DESCENDS THE EUPHRATES. 421
voured to shake off the Boman yoke ; but owing to the scarcity
of water and provisions for the troops, and the excessive heat,
Atra,1 the capital, successfully resisted his arms ; and Trajan
being foiled, as Severus was at a later period, he raised the
siege and proceeded to Cilicia,2 where he died in the nine
teenth year of his reign.
Adrian, his successor, resolved to abandon useless conquests, Adrian
and having withdrawn his troops from the territories beyond number ofthe
the Euphrates, that river once more became the boundary of pr°"\annces,
the Boman empire.
Peace, which continued for many years, was again disturbed a.d. 167.
by the Persian king Vologeses, who was defeated by Cassius.
At a later period, the emperor Severus resolved to subject the
Parthians, who, while he was occupied in the civil war, had
possessed themselves of Mesopotamia, and laid siege to Nisibis. a.d. 197.
This city held out till Severus appeared, when the Parthians Severus
. d6sccncls tli©'
immediately retreated. Following up his success with in- Euphrates.
creased means, and considering the autumn the most favour
able season for his intended expedition, the emperor put his
fleet and army in motion ; the latter partly on the banks of the
stream, partly on the water. On reaching Babylonia, he caused
the Nahr Malka to be cleared v out, by which means his fleet Passesthrongh
was conveyed from the Euphrates into the Tigris. Seleucia canauya
having fallen, he laid siege to Ctesiphon, which was at length
carried ; but this operation was attended with many privations
to the troops of Severus, who were forced to eat such roots as
they found in the fields. The city was given up to plunder, and Capture of
the inhabitants put to the sword^with the exception of 100,000
women and children, who were sold as slaves. The pompous
account given of his exploits, which were also represented by
paintings, obtained for Severus from the senate a triumph, with
the title of Parthicus Maximus.
As the supplies had been consumed in descending the line of Return of
the Euphrates, Severus was determined to return by another siege of' Atra.
route. The army ascended therefore along the Tigris, and in a.d. 129.
passing through Upper Mesopotamia, made an unsuccessful
attack against Atra (El Hadhr). In the following season,
' Probably El Hadhr. s Xiphilinus, Trajan, p. 254.

422 SEVERUS BESIEGES ATRA THE SECOND TIME. [CHAP. XIII.
Severus, having made great preparations in troops as well as in
military engines, laid siege for the second time to this city,
whose resistance could not be tolerated, all other places having
submitted to the dominion of Bome. But, though no means
were spared in carrying on the attack, he was as unsuccessful
in this attempt as in the former, and suffered the loss of his
Second siege, choicest troops. Many were slain whilst foraging ; for, at that
resistance of moment, the Arabian cavalry were accustomed to fall upon
them suddenly from the exterior, whilst the besieged showered
darts on those near the walls. But the greatest loss was ex
perienced when the Bomans had reached the foot of the wall,
and had beaten down part of it, for the besieged then threw
quantities of burning naphtha on the assailants, when, besides
the destruction of the men, the warlike engines were consumed
in an instant by this liquid fire.
Severus raises Severus, from the ground where he was posted, had the
the siege and . . . . x
retreats. mortification ot being an eye-witness of this catastrophe, and of
the failure of the assault, at the moment when his soldiers
attempted to enter the town through the breach. Severus now
ordered a retreat to be sounded ; but finding that a whole day
passed without any offer of surrender from the inhabitants, he
gave directions for another assault. The European soldiers
refused to advance, and the Syrians having undertaken that
service, were repulsed with great loss. After remaining twenty
days before this place, he raised the siege and proceeded to
a.d. 201. Palestine, after which he went to Egypt, where he rendered
funeral honours to Pompey the Great.
a.d. 211. This monarch died whilst carrying the Boman arms into
Great Britain. He was then in the neighbourhood of York,
preparing to renew the invasion of Caledonia, the wall which
he had carried across the island from Solway to the mouth of
the Tyne not having been a sufficient protection against the
people of that kingdom.
The Persian The cruelties of his son Caracalla, and of his successor
th0aToftheaCeS Heliogabalus, caused two invasions of the Boman territories.
Parthians. Qn the first occasion, the Bomans purchased peace from Arta-
banes, king of the Parthians, by fifty millions of drachmas ;
but, on the other, Artaxerxes, who had established the Persian

CHAP. XIII.] DEFEAT OF ARTAXERXES. 423
on the ruins of the Parthian power, was foiled before Atra,
when he returned to his kingdom after ravaging Media,1 instead
of taking Syria which was then unprotected.
The decline of the Boman discipline had, for a time, given invasion and
the superiority to the Persians ; but, the ancient discipline ACrtaxe°xes
having been restored by the emperor Alexander, when Arta
xerxes advanced at the head of many thousands of horsemen, a.d. 233.
1,800 chariots, armed with scythes, and 700 elephants, each
carrying, according to custom, a tower filled with archers, he
was entirely defeated ; and, to use the words of the Boman
general, in his relation to the senate, the most potent Persian
king Artaxerxes, with 120,000 horse, was put to flight, and
1,000 Cataphractarii, whom the Persians call Clibanarii, killed
in war.2
About five years later, Alexander was assassinated, and a.d. 238.
Gordian III. assumed the purple in consequence. Sapor, son Sapor's;
„ . , n >ii ¦ i -j^i accession and
01 Artaxerxes, the remarkable prince who now occupied the character.
throne of Persia, was of lofty stature, arrogant and haughty in
his demeanour, passionate, cruel, and an enemy to the principles
of justice. This prince, the restorer of the Persian empire,
entered the Boman dominions at the head of a numerous army,
captured the cities of Nisibis and Carrhae, overran Mesopo
tamia, and committed dreadful ravages in Syria. Antioch
itself had fallen, and the Boman soldiers were beginning to
desert their standards, when Gordian restored confidence by
boldly assuming the offensive.
For this purpose he hastened to the theatre of war, and Gordian
advancing from Syria, soon proved that the efficiency of an opp^fs thJ
army does not depend on its numerical strength. The Bomans Persi:ms-
speedily recovered Artaxance and Antioch, as well as Nisibis
and Carrhas, in the face of a host of Persians, and Sapor
retreated before his energetic enemy, who proposed to follow
him even as far as Ctesiphon.3
Subsequently, however, the Persians regained some of their
1 Dio Cassius, lib. LXXX., p. 318.
2 Lamprid. vit. Alex., cap. Iv., Ivi.
3 Julius Capitolinus in vit. Gordian, cap. xxvi., xxvii., compared with
Zosimus, lib. I., pp. 5, 6.

424

SAPOR CAPTURES VALERIAN.

[CHAP. XIII

Defeat of
Sapor, and
death of
Gordian.

Capture of
Antioch.

A.D. 260.
Valerian is
taken prisoner
by Sapor.

Rome and her
Europeanprovinces are
threatened.

lost ground; but Gordian, having again advanced, totally
defeated Sapor on the banks of the Mesopotamian Khabiir,
and forced him to retreat into his own dominions. Whilst
following up this success, Gordian was put to death by his own
troops, at the instigation of Philip, the captain of his guards.
A splendid monument, recording his titles and conquests in
Greek, Latin, Persian, Hebrew, and Egyptian, was, however.
erected by the soldiers to the now deified Gordian at the
Circeian camp, which, according to Ammianus Mareellinus,
who visited the spot, was at Dura, near Zaitha, and sixty stadia
below Circesium on the Aboras.1
Sapor renewed the war successfully in the time of Valerian,
and having taken Antioch, after conquering the intervening
territories, he returned to Persia, with much booty.2 About
this period the Borani Scythians crossed the Euxine, and,
having plundered Trapezus and certain places near the Bos
phorus, they retreated, on the approach of Valerian.3
Valerian, thinking the territory on the Bhine and the Danube
secure, hastened into Syria to meet Sapor, and his allies the
Armenians and Cadusians ; but having encountered these com
bined forces under serious disadvantages, he was signally defeated
near Edessa, and subjected to a lengthened and cruel captivity.4
This ill success brought on the Boman empire a flood of
invaders, who, coming from the wide circumference of Asia,
converged upon one portion of Europe, and threatened the
destruction even of Bome itself. One section, the Scythian
Goths, ravaged the southern coast of the Pontic sea, and a
considerable part of Asia Minor. A second, the Sarmatians,
occupied a part of Dacia, and the neighbouring tracts. A
third invaded Spain ; 5 whilst a fourth, the Alemanni, accom-
1 Amm., lib. XXIII., cap. v., and lib. XXIV., cap. i. ; and Gord. vit.,
cap. xxx., compared with Eutropius, lib. IX., cap. ii. ; Zosimus, lib. III., p. 49.
2 Zosim., lib. I., pp. 10, 25, 33, Ox. ; Ammian., lib. XXIII., cap. v. ;
Zonares, lib. XII., cap. xxiii. a Zosim., lib. I., pp. 12, 28, 29.
4 Ibid., pp. 33-34; Aurel. Vict., p. 210; Petri Patricii deLegat., p. 29;
Valerian, vit., p. 175 ; Zonares, lib. XII., cap. xxiii. ; Trebell. Poll., Valer.,
cap. vi.
5 Zosim., lib. I., p. 42, Ox. ; Gallieni, vit., pp. 176-178 ; Zonar, lib. XII.,
p. 24. See Aur. Vict. De Cses., cap. xxiii.

CHAP. XIII.] RISE OF ODENATUS. 425
panied by the Franks, penetrated into Italy as far as Bavenna.
Gallienus hastened from Gaul, and successfully opposed the
torrent of the Franks, and compelled them to retreat. Those
who invaded Dacia were likewise repulsed. As usual a civil
war ensued, by which Begillianus gained the power, while, in
the mean time, the Persians were actively employed.
Sapor laid waste both Mesopotamia and Syria ; and, after sapor lays
surprising Antioch and levelling the principal buildings of the vrtlm\a?S0~
city, proceeded into Cilicia, where he .plundered Tarsus ; then,
advancing into Cappadocia, he stormed Csesaria and put its
inhabitants to the sword.1 The thoughtless conduct of this
prince, now at the height of his prosperity, raised up an un
expected, and, as it is proved, a formidable enemy.
Odenatus, a ruling emir of Palmyra and eastern Arabia, indignity
held an intermediate place between the two great powers, odenatus by
which for some time had been contending for sovereignty. ** Persian
Hoping to keep on friendly terms with both, he sent several
camels laden with rare and valuable presents to the Persian
king. But the haughty Sapor tore up the letter which had
been addressed to him, and caused the presents to be thrown
into the river, declaring that he would exterminate him and
his country for his presumption, unless he showed proper
respect to his lord and sovereign, by prostrating himself at his
feet with his hands tied behind his back.2 Odenatus declared
that he would either be revenged for this indignity, or perish
in the attempt, and joined his forces with those of the Bomans.
The latter, who had continued broken and dispirited since the Caiistus
, r it i • iii i ..... assumes the
capture ot Valerian, were now assembled under an mdivi- offensive.
dual, who distinguished himself by his daring and judicious
manner of assuming the offensive. Caiistus, or rather Balista,
transported his forces by sea from the coast of Italy to that of
Cilicia, and arrived just in time to prevent the surrender of
Pompeiopolis, or Soli, to the Persians. Being joined, as he
advanced towards Lycaonia, by his new ally Odenatus, the
Persians, who occupied this and the neighbouring provinces in
1 Amm. Marcel., lib. XXIII., cap. v. ; Zonar., lib. XII., cap. xxiii. ;
Zosimus, lib. L, p. 33, Ox.
2 Petr. Patr. de Legat., p. 29.

426

ODENATUS ASSUMES THE REGAL TITLE. [CHAP. XIII.

Campaign of
the Romans
and Palmy-
reans-

A.D. 260.

Odenatus assumes the
regal title.

Odenatusdefeats Sapor
near Ctesi
phon.

A.D. 264.

A.D. 266.

fancied security, were defeated, and the harem of Sapor, chiefly
owing to the efforts of Odenatus, made part of the spoil.1
Balista hastened to Cilicia, where he captured Sebaste and
Coryeus,2 whilst his ally, faithful to his purposed revenge, fell
upon the rear of the Persians as they reached Euphratesiana,
and obliged them to repass the river. This operation was
attended with such heavy loss, that Sapor gladly purchased a
safe retreat from the garrison of Edessa, by restoring the
treasure which he had amassed whilst plundering the Boman
territory.3 Odenatus now assumed the title of king of Palmyra, and the
following year, being commander of the Boman forces as well
as his own, he again took the field, and having recovered for
his allies the cities of Nisibis and Carrhss, advanced into Persia,
hoping for an opportunity of punishing his enemy by releasing
Valerian.4 Sapor, at the head of a powerful army, was defeated by
Odenatus in an obstinate engagement near Ctesiphon, which
city he was prepared to hold to the last. The Persians, how
ever, had hastened from all parts of the empire to support their
monarch ; and a succession of well-contested battles were fought
under the walls, generally to their disadvantage. But Sapor
maintained the city and his royal captive against all the
efforts of his enemy ;5 and Odenatus at length abandoned the
enterprise, after devastating the surrounding country as a
punishment of the people. In a subsequent invasion, Odenatus
besieged Ctesiphon a second time, and had mastered the place,
when an irruption of the Goths into Asia Minor called him
thither, when, according to Syncellus,6 he was assassinated at
Heraclea, by his cousin Maconius.7

1 Trigint. Tyr., cap. xiv. ; Zonar., lib. XII., cap. xxiii. ; Trebell. Poll.,
Valerian, cap. vii. 2 Zonar., lib. XII., cap. xxiii.
3 Petr. Patr. in Excerpt, de Legat., p. 25 ; Trigint. Tyr., cap. xiv. ;
Zonar., lib. XII., cap. xxiii.
4 Gall, vit., cap. xxxii. ; Zosim,, lib. I., p. 36.
5 Trebellius Poll., vit. Gall., cap. xxxii. ; Zosim., lib. I., p. 36.
6 P. 382.
7 Trebellius Poll., Gall, vit., cap. xxxii. ; Trigint. Tyr., cap. xiv., Zosim.,
lib. I., p. 36 ; Zonar., lib. XII., cap. xxiv.

CHAP. XIII.] ZENOBIA IS DEFEATED AT IMMA AND AT EMESSA. 427
The sons of Odenatus being too young to reign, their mother, Zenobia
Zenobia, governed in their name as empress, or rather, queen takes Syria,
of the East. Gallien, foreseeing that she would not maintain c-
the same fidelity towards the Bomans as her late husband, sent
Heraclianus against her, who, being defeated by Zenobia, was
forced to retreat towards Bome ; the queen, giving way to the
fascinations of ambition, followed up this success by the sub
jection of Syria, Mesopotamia,1 and, subsequently, of Egypt.
Zenobia continued undisturbed till the time of Aurelian, a.d. 272.
whose wars with the Goths permitted her to make a fresh
attack on the side of Bithynia. But the former wars having
terminated, the emperor proceeded forthwith against the queen
of the East, receiving, as he advanced, the submission of Ancyra
and Tyana ; the latter, after an obstinate siege.
Operations against the queen commenced near Antioch : the Aurelian
first battle is supposed to have taken place at Imma on the plain zenobia at
of 'Umk, and was decided by a well-timed stratagem. During Imma-
the greater part of the day, the armour-clad cavaliers of the
desert bore down everything before them. All, however, was
not lost as long as the resources of talent and presence of mind
remained. Aurelian instructed his cavalry to retreat, and even
to simulate flight. They continued this system till the heavy-
armed troops of Zenobia, spent with exertion, entered marshy
ground, when the Bomans unexpectedly faced about, aud at
the close ofthe day snatched the victory from the queen ofthe
East. Her fugitive troops hurried into Antioch, but again
quitted the city on finding that the inhabitants were likely to
declare for Aurelian, and proceeded towards Emessa. On
pursuing them, Aurelian found the heights and defile of Daphne
strongly occupied. But a closely-formed body advancing, pro
tected from missiles by the cover of their shields, carried the He forces the
heights, and turned the pass. On approaching Emessa (Horns), pass DaPhne'
Aurelian found Zabdus posted in order of battle, with 70,000
men to oppose his progress.2 A double attack was immediately
made, in which the cavalry of Aurelian was overturned, but
the Boman infantry being successful, the victory remained
1 Orosius, lib. VII., cap. xxiii. ; Zosim., lib. I., pp. 36, 41, 44.
2 Vopiscus, Aurel., vit., cap. xxv. ; Zosim., pp. 45, 46, 48.

428

STATE OF PALMYRA BEFORE THE SIEGE. [CHAP. XIII.

Preparations
at Palmyra.

Second defeat, with the latter, and the ground was covered with the slain.
unci FGtXftH.t of
Zenobia. The queen, unable to "trust the inhabitants of Emessa, who
were prepared to declare for the Bomans, made a rapid retreat
to her capital, followed by Aurelian, who secured the treasure
left by her in Emessa. During his advance, several combats
took place with the Arabs ,• but he continued his march till the
beautiful city of the wilderness was before the eyes of the
victorious Bomans.
Zenobia was prepared to defend herself in what was deemed
an almost impregnable and well-garrisoned position ; while in
consequence of its central situation as the commercial entrepSt
of the East, Palmyra was in the highest state of wealth and
prosperity which had ever yet been attained by any city, Tyre
and Carthage alone excepted.1 As lately as the time of
Odenatus it had been skilfully fortified, and in addition to the
advantages of high and strong walls, it possessed that of an
isolated situation in a wide-spreading desert. Here the re
sources of the besieging army in water, would be limited to a
scanty supply, while the city was amply provided for a pro
tracted defence, which, from the enormous wealth of the people,
their devotion to their queen, and her determined valour,
promised to be successful ; supported as it was outside the
walls, by the Arab, Persian, and Armenian auxiliaries. Such
a state of things, at a period when defensive siege warfare was
equal to, if not superior to that of attack, almost justified the
answer of defiance, which was sent in the name of Zenobia, by
her secretary, to the summons of Aurelian, who, from that time,
appears to have determined to be revenged on this minister.
Thinking their city impregnable, the inhabitants, from the
summit of their walls, irritated the Bomans with reproachful
epithets, while the latter gradually raised towers, and carried on
their approaches with timber, supplied by the neighbouring date
groves. Sorties and other efforts were not wanting ; for, en
couraged by their sovereign and the influential men who were
so much attached to Zenobia, the city was long and valiantly
defended.2 But Syria being open to the besiegers and rein-
1 Vopiscus, Aurel., vit., cap. xxviii. ; Zosim., p. 50.
2 Ibid.

Commence
ment of the
siege.

4

CHAP. XIII.] FLIGHT OF ZENOBIA AND FALL OF PALMYRA. 429
forcements having joined them under Probus, the hope that Zenobia quits
supplies would fail them seemed vain, while, on the other hand, is "taken a°
those of the city began at length to be exhausted. It waspnsoner-
therefore resolved that Zenobia in person should seek further a.d. 273.
assistance from Persia.1
The departure of the queen took place during the night, by,
it is supposed, one of the channels constructed for cleansing the
town ; and, mounted on a dromedary, she made her way almost
unattended towards Zelebi. But her escape having been made
known, some fleet horsemen overtook the fugitive on the very
banks of the Euphrates, and Zenobia returned as a captive to
Aurelian. All hope of assistance from Persia was now at an
end, and the question of capitulation to avoid starvation was
therefore seriously agitated within the city. A certain party,
animated by the spirit of the warrior-philosopher Longinus,
urged its defence to the last extremity, whilst another proposed
to capitulate. The latter, which was headed by Sandarion, Fall 0f
prevailed, and the siege terminated. Palmyra,
Taking with him the spoils of the city, Aurelian returned to
Emessa, where he caused Zenobia, and those who had favoured
her revolt, to be examined. The queen pleaded the peculiar
circumstances in which she had been placed, the weakness of
her sex, and the injudicious advice of her counsellors, including,
it is said, the faithful Longinus, who, to the disgrace of the and execution
.12 of Longinus.
emperor, was executed.
Zenobia claimed descent from Cleopatra and the Ptolemies. Character of
She is said to have understood the Egyptian, Greek, and Latin
languages, and to have been acquainted, through Longinus,
with Oriental and Egyptian history. To these intellectual
accomplishments were added personal bravery and skill in
martial exercises. Zenobia appears to have possessed some of
the high qualities which so eminently belonged to her husband,
although during her reverses in Syria, and the latter part of the
siege of Palmyra, she scarcely displayed that courage and
constancy for which she has obtained such credit.
Aurelian had scarcely ended the siege, when he was recalled
1 Vopis., Hist. August., cap. xxviii. ; Zosim., lib. I., pp. 44, 48, 50.
2 Zosim., p. 51 ; Vopis., Aurel. vit., cap. xxviii.-xxx.

430 THE PERSIANS SUE FOR PEACE. [CHAP. XIII.
Revolt and by a revolt of the Palmyrenians, who had murdered Sandarion
PaSimyra?n° and the Roman garrison. Having surprised the city by the
rapidity of his march, he put the women and children to death,
and destroyed the town, the splendid temple of the sun alone
excepted.1
a.d. 273. After the fall of Zenobia, all the provinces formerly subject
to Rome returned to their allegiance, together with most of
the territory as far as Bactriana. Hormisdas, the successor of
Sapor, sent rich presents, and embassies came to Bome even
from China and Ethiopia.
Aurelian was successively followed by Probus, Carus, and
Galerius, Diocletian. The last, fearing he might experience the fate of
Diocletian. Valerian, sent Galerius against the Persians. This general
A.D. 297. having fought two battles, advanced hastily and incautiously
into Upper Mesopotamia, where, on the ground so fatal to
Crassus, he was signally defeated:2 he was, however, one of
those men who are destined to rise above reverses ; and, re
newing the invasion with a fresh body of 25,000 men, he
entered Armenia and gained a complete victory over the
Persian king, who fled, leaving his harem in the hands of the
conqueror. From the desert in which he had taken refuge,
Narses sent to entreat Galerius to restore the queen and his
children, and not to extinguish an empire, which, he said, was
Peace with the the eye and sun of the earth. A treaty followed, and the
harem was restored, on condition that Narses should give up
Sophene and the other provinces westward of the Aboras:3
these were retained by the Romans till the defeat of Julian,
notwithstanding the repeated efforts of the Persians to recover
them ; and Armenia was restored to Tiridates.
Sapor and The wars which arose in consequence were chiefly between
Constants Sapor IL* and Constantius. The former, who had twice
prepare for r ... ..T. .
war. failed before Nisibis or Nisibin, again made extensive levies,
1 Vopis., Aurel. vit., cap. xxxi. ; Zosim., lib. I., p. 56 ; Trig. Tyr.
cap. xxix.
2 Orosius, lib. VII., p. 25.
8 Petr. Patricii. Excerpt, de Legat., pp. 26, 27 ; Procopius, de Edificiis,
lib. II. , cap. vi. ; Zonares, lib. XII., cap. xxxi. ; Ammian. Marcel.,
lib. XXIII., cap. v. ; Eutropius, lib. IX., cap. xv.
4 Son of Hormisdas, and grandson of Narses.

CHAP. XIII.] RETREAT OF THE PERSIANS BEFORE NISIBIS. 431
and assembled auxiliaries from various nations, hoping thus to a.d. 348.
terminate the war. The river Tigris not being defended, the
Persians crossed on three bridges, and advancing, they halted
at Hillu near Singara, where they fortified their camp ;l Con
stantius being posted seven or eight leagues from thence. Sapor
placed his archers on the ramparts, with the cavalry in advance;
and with the rest of his troops he made demonstrations as if to
give battle, but in reality with the intention of retreating, in the
hope of being pursued, till they could fight under cover of the
entrenchments. Thus the two armies remained for some time, neither of the Position of the
commanders wishing to attack. It is stated that Sapor at nla/smgara.
length reconnoitred the enemy from an artificial elevation,
which appears to have been formed in front of his adversary by
means of a pile of shields. Perceiving that such a dense mass was
unattackable, Sapor retired and entrusted the care of the army
to his son, assisted by one of his generals. The Persians now
retreated, and were followed by the Romans to their camp.
An attack then took place, first on the covering cavalry and
afterwards, contrary to the orders of Constantius, on the camp
itself. This was however carried ; and the son of Sapor, with
considerable spoil, fell into the hands of the Romans: but
during the night, whilst the Roman troops were refreshing
"themselves, the Persian archers made a sudden attack, and
defeated them with heavy loss, which was followed by great
privations and hardships during their retreat ; but Nisibis was
still retained by the Romans.2
External and internal wars in the west, occupied the Romans,
and gave Sapor time for fresh preparations for war. These
being completed, he invaded Mesopotamia at the head of a
numerous army, collected from various parts of his dominions,
and even from the borders of India. Being well provided with
elephants and warlike engines, he undertook the siege of
Nisibis for the third time. Constantius could not render any Third siege
assistance, but the city was well provided, and, what was of sapor? 'S 7
1 Jeron. Chronic, Eus. a.d. 351, Julian, Orat. 1, p. 23 ; Spanheim's
edition, 1696.
2 Ibid., compared with Ammian. Mar., lib. XVIII., cap. v. ; Eutropius,
lib. X., cap. vi. ; and Sixtus Eufus, cap. xxvii.

432 PROTRACTED SIEGE OF NISIBIS. [CHAP. XIII.
Extraordinary greater consequence, was defended by the brave and talented
efforts of the Z- ... i t • -n •
Persians. Lucibanus, the father-in-law of Jovian. Battering rams and
mines having proved ineffectual, Sapor turned the Mygdonius,
in the hope of depriving the defenders of water ; but as the
cisterns and wells still gave a supply this project failed, and
Sapor resorted to another contrivance, which was familiar to
the Persians. This was the construction of a series of bunds,
to collect such a body of water above the town, as might in
undate the country, and, as he hoped, the city also. The
former part of the plan was accomplished, but owing to the
elevation of the site, the latter failed. Boats carrying engines
were now floated alongside the walls, but the attack, though
Failure ofthe continued for some days, was repulsed. Seventy days having
assaulting been consumed in various efforts, it was determined to make a
Nisibm. gna^ attempt by collecting such a mass of water as would rush
with irresistible force along the bed of the river, and in so
doing, carry away part of the defences. A hundred cubits of
wall were levelled by this contrivance, and the Persians imme
diately assaulted the place ; but owing to a violent thunder
storm at the moment, they were repulsed with the loss of 10,000
men.1
Sapor raises In spite of renewed attacks, the besieged repaired the breach,
the siege. an(j 0QCe more prepare(J to oppose their enemies. Sapor con
tinued to persevere, till news of the invasion of the Massagetse
added to famine and sickness among his troops, obliged him. to
a.d. 350. burn his engines, and terminate a siege of four months' dura
tion, in order to march towards the Oxus.2
a.d. 355. Four years later Constantius appointed his cousin Julian, the
philosopher, governor of Gaul, where, as well as in other parts
of Europe, he distinguished himself as an able general, and thus
prepared himself for those extensive and more important opera
tions which will presently be noticed.
Sapor Beverting to Persia, the ever-active Sapor, hoping at this
theaRomIndeS juncture to be able to recover Armenia and Mesopotamia, took
dominions. the field for this purpose, and passed the Tigris near Nineveh
on a bridge of boats. But finding the country wasted in the
1 Julian., Orat. 1, pp. 27, 28; Orat. 2, pp. 62-65 ; Spanheim's edit., 1 696 ;
Zonar., lib. XIII., p. 14; Zosim., lib. III., p. 161 ; Jul. Theoph., p. 33.
- 2 Zonar., lib. XV., cap. vii.

CHAP. XIII.] JULIAN PREPARES TO INVADE PARTHIA. 433.
direct line of Thapsacus, and the Romans' preparing to dispute
the passage of the Euphrates at that place, the Persians turned
northward through Mesopotamia, in order to cross that river,
now flooded, towards its sources. Sapor passed Nisibis, but in Amida carried
a fit of anger he was induced to depart from his plan bybystorm-
attacking Amida, which he carried by a bloody assault, after a
siege of seventy-five days, and the loss of 30,000 men.1
The opportunity of striking a decisive blow being thus lost, a.d. 3go.
operations were delayed till the spring of the following year, f^aSon of
when Sapor re-entered Mesopotamia, and captured Singara SaPor-
after a short siege ; then passing Nisibis, he stormed Bezabde,
once Phenice,2 and laid siege to Birtha (Bir) at the extremity
of Mesopotamia ; but having failed in several attempts to carry
this strong place, he retired to his own dominions.
Constantius, who had hesitated between the necessity of Death of
opposing this enemy, or moving against Julian (the apostate),
who had been declared emperor by the soldiers at Paris, decided
on the latter course, but died on the march.
With a view to the invasion of Persia, Julian fixed his head- A. D. 362.
quarters at Antioch, to the great annoyance of the Christians of
that place. Here, his extensive preparations of troops, and Julian's pre-
ships both for war and for burthen, being completed, Julian put Antioch.
his army in motion in the month of March, and in five days
reached Hierapolis. Remaining at this place three days, he
proceeded to the neighbouring Zeugma of Kara Bambuche, or
Buyuk Membij ; and appointing Lucian and Constantius to
conduct the fleet then assembling at Sumei'sat and other places
on the upper Euphrates, he proceeded to Batnse in Osrhoene.
There the inhabitants of Edessa presented him with a crown, March to
and begged he would honour their city by his presence. He carrh!Lan
acceded to their request, and afterwards advanced to Carrhae.
From hence, he had the choice of two routes into Persia, one
by the Tigris and Adiabene, the other along the Euphrates ;
and thus far the invasion would have appeared to be by the
former line, rather than that which he intended to follow.3
1 Ammian. Mar., lib. XVIII., cap. iv., viii. ; lib. XIX., cap. viii. ;
Zonares, cap. ix., p. 20. 2 Ibid., lib. XX., cap. vi., vii.
B Ibid., lib. XXIII., cap. ii., iii., p. 273, compared with Zosim., lib. III.,
pp. 160, 161, ed. Ox. 1679.
VOL. II. 2 F

434 THE ROMAN ARMY ENTERS MESOPOTAMIA. [CHAP. XIII.
Whilst in this city, news was brought that the Persians were
ravaging the Roman territories, which intelligence took the
army by surprise ; but the emperor perceiving that it was little
more than a foray, determined to persevere. Leaving 18,000
heavy-armed troops therefore under Sebastian and Procopius to
Julian changes protect the surrounding country, and ultimately join him near
his line of L . , iti ¦> , i • i i ¦ , n
operations, oeleucia, he suddenly turned southward with the remainder ot
his forces, which amounted to 65,000 horse and foot.
In three days, following the course of the river Basilius
through the plain of Haran, he reached Nicephorium or Calle-
nicum,1 a strong fortress where there is a rich mart; and here,
whilst receiving the submission of the Arabian princes, his
fleet appeared.2 Following the windings of the Euphrates for
a distance of ninety-eight miles, he arrived at Circesium, at the
confluence of the Khabiir with the Euphrates, where the army,
animated by the sound of trumpets, crossed the former on a
The army bridge of boats, and in sight of the fleet, which was waiting for
riverKMbrfr, tne troops, in the latter river.3
The flotilla, which had been prepared with great care to
facilitate the expedition, comprised no less than 600 vessels of
wood, and 500 covered with leather, in addition to 50 vessels
of war, besides numerous flat boats, intended either for the con
struction of bridges, or for the transport of the vast supplies
required, of warlike engines, arms, and provisions.
The next day, after entering the Persian territory, the
emperor harangued the troops according to his custom, and at
the conclusion of the oration, he gave each man 130 pieces of
silver. The command of the infantry was confided to Victor,
and that of the cavalry to Arinthseus and Hormisdas. The
latter was the son of the king of Persia, who on being deprived
of his kingdom by his brother, had taken service under Con
stantius : he now commanded the cavalry which composed the
and advances left wing. The infantry formed the right, having a rear-guard
phrafes. " "" at the distance of seventy stadia ; the baggage and camp
followers occupied the intervening space, and 1500 light troops
1 Now Eakkah. 2 Ammian. Mar., lib. XXIII., cap. ii., iii.
3 Zosimus, lib. p. 161, III., ed. Ox. 1679, compared with Amm. Mar.,
lib. XXIII., cap. v.

CHAP. XIII.] DESTRUCTIVE EFFECTS OF THE DESERT WIND. 435
were kept in advance : the remainder of the force appears to
have been embarked.1
After marching sixty stadia, the army reached Zaitha, from The tomb of
whence the tomb of the emperor Gordian was conspicuous at
a great distance,3 probably at Dura, the next halting-place.
This was a deserted town on the Euphrates two days from the
Aboras; and it is mentioned that the soldiers killed a lion
during this part of the march ;3 and also that one of the men
perished by lightning.
In four easy stages Julian reached the town of Anatho, the
Phathusse of Zosimus,4 opposite to which there was an island
having a castle on it. This latter was defended by the inhabit
ants, but being surrounded during the night, they were induced
to capitulate the following day after a parley.
It was at this period of the invasion that a hurricane
occurred, which deserves to be particularly mentioned, on
account of a similar hurricane having taken place, during the
passage of the British Expedition down the same river, and
nearly at the same place. The storm of the 7th April, a. d.
363, is thus described by the historian : — " When the sun was Julian's expe-
declining near the western horizon, a small cloud appeared ; the ters a hum-
air suddenly became so thick that they could not see, and after caue"
repeated and threatening peals of thunder, accompanied by
flashes of lightning, a soldier was struck down by lightning with
two horses which he was leading from the river after they had
drank at it."5 In another passage he adds: — "A whirlwind
seized on them, and making numerous eddies, so confused the
encampment that many tents were rent to pieces, and most of Some of the
the soldiers thrown on their backs or faces, not being able to many ofthe
keep their feet through the violence of the wind." destroyed!"*
On the same day a no less dangerous accident happened.
For the river having suddenly overflowed its banks, some of the
» Zosim. lib. III., pp. 161, 162; Ox. 1679.
*' Hie Gordiani Imperatoris longi conspicuum vidimus tumulum. — Amm.
Mar., lib. XXIII., cap. v.
3 Ibid., lib. XXIV., cap. i. Musa seems to correspond with this site in
point of distance. See Map IV.
4 Lib. III., pp. 163, 164.
5 Amm. Mar., lib. XXIII., cap. v., p. 279.
2f2

436

julian's forces continue the descent, [chap, xiii.

The army
reaches Hit.

Trajan's throne.

ships laden with provisions were sunk ; the dykes, which were
constructed of stone-work, for the purpose of keeping up the
waters used for irrigation, having been torn away.1
The descent from Anatho was continued soon after the ter
mination of the storm. The emperor, on the march, invested
an island fort called Thilutha,2 in the middle of the river, but
he was obliged to be satisfied with a promise that the inha
bitants would surrender ultimately, if Sapor should be con
quered. Julian now continued his march by Achaichala to Barax-
malka,'1 where he appears to have crossed the river; and he
proceeded seven miles to Diacira, which is on the right in
descending the Euphrates. The soldiers pillaged this place of
a large quantity of corn, killed the women who had remained
there, and completely destroyed the town. On the bank along
which the army marched, probably at Hit, a bituminous spring
was found.
The emperor having recrossed the river, advanced to Sitha,
then to Megia, and afterwards, according to Ammianus, to
Zaragardia or Ozogardana,4 where, according to Zosimus, a
stone still exists, which is called by the people of the country
Trajan's throne. Pillaging and burning the town occupied the
whole of this and the following day.
The emperor being astonished to find that during his long
march through an enemy's territory no opposition had been
offered, despatched some troops under Hormisdas, who knew the
country, to reconnoitre. On this occasion the latter narrowly
1 The violence of the tempest, as described by Amm. Mar., lib. XXIII.,
cap. v., and Libanius, Oration X., p. 314, will be easily understood by those
who witnessed the storm of the 21st May, 1836, when a mass of water
covered the left bank of the river at Werdi, and carried portions of the
Tigris steamer and some of her cargo far into a field of corn.
2 Now 'Anatelbus, and still a strong fort, whose walls are washed by the
river. The site of Anatho on the left bank, with an island opposite having
a castle, also corresponds with the description of Ammianus, lib. XXIV.,
. cap. v.
3 Jibbah, the Pombeditha of D'Anville, vol. I., p. 440, may represent
Baraxmalka, between which place and Hit was Diacira.
1 This site must be sought on the left bank, some distance below Hit ;
Amraian. Mar., lib. XXIV., cap. v., compared with Zosim., lib. III., p. 165.

CHAP. XIII.] JULIAN SUCCESSFULLY ENCOUNTERS THE PERSIANS. 437
escaped an ambuscade, which, having fortunately discovered
posted behind a canal, he attacked and routed.
The army continuing to advance, reached a canal extending
from the Euphrates towards the Tigris. A thick glutinous Julian turns
slime at the bottom, made it difficult for the cavalry to cross it, forcestwd"
especially in the face of an enemy strongly posted on the oppo
site bank. To overcome this difficulty, 1,500 men under
Lucilius, and a body of troops under Victor, rounded each flank
of the enemy, and having marched the whole night, simul
taneously attacked his rear. Being obliged to face about to
repel this unexpected onset, the army readily effected the pas
sage of the canal, and immediately advanced on Perisaboras,1 an advances to
exceedingly strong place, being surrounded by a double wall, ensa oras*
and having in the interior an elevated acropolis, which was also
surrounded by a high wall, forming a segment of a circle.
This work was approached either by means of a difficult road Description of
from the inner wall of the town, or by a kind of passage, which * e e ences'
led thither in an oblique direction along the southern and
western sides of the hill. In these quarters the city was con
sidered impregnable. On the north it was defended by a canal,
excavated for this purpose, while, at the same time, it supplied
the inhabitants with water; and finally, on the eastern side, there
was a rampart with a ditch protected by high towers, the lower
portions of .which were of brick, the upper of composition, pro
bably the Persian conglomerate.2
The siege of this place was now commenced with such Siege and
ardour, that the inhabitants proposed to capitulate, and Hor- town.™ '
misdas was sent to arrange tbe terms. But the pride of the
Persians was roused by his appearance, and the prince was re
minded that he was basely conducting strangers against his
king and country. Incensed at their conduct, Julian pressed
the siege with redoubled energy, and the Perisaboreans being
unable to defend their extensive walls, now partially breached,
retired into the citadel. The Bomans accordingly entered the
town, and having thrown down the walls and burnt the houses,
they placed engines upon the ruins, from which darts and stones
1 Zosim., lib. III., p. 168 ; Ammian. Mar., lib. XXIV., cap. v.
2 For a description of this, see sequel, chap. XIX.

438 SIEGE AND CAPTURE OF PERISABORAS. [CHAP. XIII.
were showered into the citadel. A square tower was also con
structed of great wooden beams, well secured by iron cramps,
and of the same height as the walls, for the purpose of launching
darts against the defenders.
Capitulation The Persians bravely continued their resistance for some
of the citadel. ^^ bufc at lengtll capitulated, and 5,000 men, with Momonius
the governor, were permitted to retire from the plaee. This
being the largest city of Assyria excepting Ctesiphon, the
Bomans found in it vast stores of provisions, arms, and warlike
engines.1 The ruins of Tell 'Akhar, between the left bank of
the Euphrates and the Nahr I'sa, answer the description of the
historian, and correspond with Firuz-Sapor, or Anbar, which
is supposed to occupy the site of Perisaboras.2
Progress of Having laid the city completely in ruins, Julian proceeded
fn Mesop^a-e$ ^Tom *hence along, as may be presumed, the southern side of
™>a- the Nahr I'sa, and making his way through a country which
had been inundated by the Persians (no doubt that near 'Akar
Kiif ), he reached the town, which had been deserted by the
Jews who inhabited it. The soldiers burned this place, and
then came to Maozar-Malka. This city was situated on, or
near the Nahr Malka, and was strongly defended by a double
wall flanked with sixteen lofty towers, and a deep ditch.
Having gradually approached the latter, a mine was carried
under the foundation of the wall and the vigilance of the
besieged being diverted by an external attack, until the moment
when it was ready, the assailants entered the city by this sub
terranean passage, and put the inhabitants to the sword.
Passing several canals on bridges, and taking two fortresses,3
notwithstanding the opposition of Sapor's son, the army now
advanced and captured Sabatha,4 within thirty stadia of Seleucia;
but in order to approach Ctesiphon, which was the main object
of the enterprise, it was necessary to overcome the difficulty of
crossing the Tigris at the former place. Julian, following the
1 Amm. Mar., lib. XXIII., cap. xxiii., compared with Zosimus, lib. IIL,
p. 171., ed. Ox. 1679.
2 D'Anville's Ane. Geog., London, 1810. Feulder, Wilkie, &c, vol. IL,
.p. 37.
3 One, according to Zosimus, p. 174, was called Besuchis.
* Zosimus, lib. III., p. 1 80.

CHAP. XIII. J RETREAT AND DEATH OF JULIAN. 439
example of his predecessor Trajan, caused the Nahr Malka to Julian's fleet
be cleared out, and the vessels were immediately floated into theENahrDg
the Tigris. After the army bad been with some opposition J^al¥ int0 the
and difficulty transported across, the Persians, who lost 3,500
men in the action, were pursued to the gates of Ctesiphon ;
and that city might possibly have then been taken by assault,
if the Boman general Victor, had shown more presence of mind
and daring.
Disappointed of the expected reinforcements under Sebastian
and Procopius from Upper Mesopotamia, and Sapor himself
advancing, Julian determined to abandon the siege. His pur
pose appears to have been to meet the Persian king, rather than
to effect a retreat ; and that his march might not be encumbered, Julian bums
he forthwith destroyed his magnificent fleet, with the exception
of a few boats,1 which were to be transported on carriages, for
the passage of rivers. The lofty spirit of Alexander, his
supposed model, no longer existed, and the hopes of Julian
rested on a rapid march to Corduene, a part of Assyria still
friendly to the Bomans. Taking therefore twenty days' provi- commences
sions, the army marched through the country to a place called
Noorda, and from thence, after resting, to the river Durus,
probably the Diyalah, which they crossed on a bridge, and
reached Barophthce. They found the country laid waste, the
corn having been burned by the enemy, who speedily appeared,
and a skirmish took place before they reached Symbra. This
place, which is called Nacumbra by Ammianus, is contiguous to
two towns, connected by a bridge, and separated by the Tigris,
namely Nisbara and Nischanabe ; the first, however, the enemy
had burned. Flying parties of Persian cavalry now appeared, Difficulties of
and became more and more troublesome, almost surrounding
Julian's forces. The Persians attacked the rear-guard of the
latter between Danabe and Synea, but they made good their
march to Acceta, where they saved some forage from the
flames, and proceeded to Marausa, Marousa, or Macauga, where
there was another engagement. From thence, passing some
villages, they came to Zummara, where they defeated the Per
sians ; but on the following day, being almost completely sur-
1 Eighteen Roman and four Persian vessels.

440 JOVIAN SUCCEEDS ON THE DEATH OF JULIAN. [CHAP. XIII.

Death of
Julian.

Jovian suc
ceeds to the
command,

rounded, they were again attacked by the latter, and Julian
was mortally wounded in the battle which ensued.1
The morning after this contest, the army met to elect an
emperor, and saluted as such the first officer of the palace, with
the title of Jovianus Augustus. Jovian had, it seems, been a
sincere, though not an avowed Christian, and perceiving an
opportunity of serving the cause which he had most at heart,
he declared that he would neither accept the government of the
empire, nor even the post of general, unless he were to hold
the command over Christians. The soldiers replied with one
voice, that they were really Christians, and that they cherished
more what they had been taught during the days of Constantine
and Constans than what they had since learned under Julian.
With this assurance, and trusting that the hand of Providence
would save the army from the cruel alternative of perishing
either by hunger or by the sword, Jovian undertook the com
mand. The same day, after repelling a fresh attack of the
enemy, he marched to a fortress called Sumera, whose site is
probably that of the later Muhammedan city of nearly the same
and continues name.2 The next day Jovian encamped in a valley, where, on
the following morning, he repulsed another attack of the Per
sians. The following night the Bomans occupied Charcha, and
on the next evening, when approaching Dura after a march of
thirty stadia, the baggage-drivers were almost cut off; and after
four days of continued fighting, Jovian succeeded in breaking
through the enemy by whom he had been encircled. The sol
diers being now aware that they were near the Roman territory,
were clamorous to be allowed to pass the river, and some Gauls
and Sarmatians who were accustomed to swim rapid rivers,
passed across the same night as an experiment. The rest of
Difficulties of the army remained two days endeavouring to form a bridge of
inflated skins, which failed owing to the rapidity of the current,3

to retreat

the march.

1 Ammian. Mar., lib. XXV., cap.ii., compared with Zosim., lib. III., p..
181—190. Libanius, Orat. X.; Gregory Nazianzen, Orat IL, sec. xv.—
xviii. ; and Zonares, lib. XIII., cap. xiii.
2 Sammarrah.
3 The passage was attempted about the 7th of July, which is during the
season of floods. See vol. I., pp. 38, 39.

CHAP. XIII.] TREATY OF PEACE WITH THE PERSIANS. 44 1
and the army was nearly reduced to the greatest extremities for
want of provisions.1
But before any plan could be formed, the Persians most Jovian makes
Unexpectedly proposed peace. The terms, though hard for Persians.4 * e
Romans, were justified by circumstances ; and in four days a
treaty was concluded for thirty years, the Romans having
agreed to restore Nisibis, Singara, and the part of the territory Nisibis
ceded to Diocletian: there was a further condition that the^0^ara
Romans were not to give any assistance to the king of
Armenia. Being now free from the annoyance of the enemy, the march
appears to have been continued for a time through difficult
ground, along the bank of the river. The troops suffering from
scarcity of provisions, many of the soldiers heedlessly attempted
to swim across, and were either drowned, or cut off by the
Arabians on reaching the other side. But at length the trumpet Passage of the
gave a general signal to cross, when each individual hastened to lgns
escape from the calamities to which he had hitherto been
exposed. Some on hurdles hastily constructed, others on
inflated skins, or leather bags and other contrivances, crossed
the torrent obliquely. The emperor himself, with some of his
followers, used the shallow boats that had been preserved, which
crossed and recrossed till all were ferried over ; and at length,
adds the historian, all of us, excepting those who were drowned,
reached the opposite bank, having escaped our perils by the
favour of heaven.2 a.d. 363.
From the known position of Dura, it may be inferred that
this remarkable passage was effected in the neighbourhood of
Tekrit, which lies in the line from thence towards Hatra : the
latter place was afterwards reached by a forced march. Hearing March acro.ss
1 i • i /» i i Mesopotamia.
that for seventy miles onward, neither food nor water were to be
procured, the army laid in a stock of both, killing for this pur
pose their camels and other beasts of burthen. After six days'
march, without having found even grass, they obtained a tem
porary supply at the Persian fortress of U'r.3 From thence,
1 Amm. Mar., lib. XXV., cap. ii.
2 Zosim., lib. III., p. 190; Amm. Mar., lib. XXV., cap. viii.
3 Kal'ah Skerkat.

442

BELISARIUS DEFEATED BY THE PERSIANS. [CHAP. XIII.

Belisariusfollows the
Persians.

The Romans
are defeated,
and both
armies retreat

A. D. 532.

Successful inroad of
Chosroes into
the Roman
provinces.

but still suffering great privations, the march was continued by
Thilsaphaeta to Nisibis, whither Sebastian and Procopius had
come with supplies, to meet the emperor.1
Except occasional incursions of the Persians, little occurred of
moment between the rival nations for a lengthened period, when
Azarethes, the general of Kobad, invaded the Roman terri
tories at the head of a combined army of Persians and Arabs,
by the route of Comagene. Belisarius, who was sent to oppose
the enemy with a very inferior force, having garrisoned the for
tresses in Mesopotamia, advanced with 20,000 men to meet
him at Chalcis. Finding their purpose of invading Syria anti
cipated, the Persians retraced their steps, and were followed by
Belisarius, who encamped day by day on the ground which they
had just~quitted. The Bomans, who could not appreciate his
prudence, accused their leader of cowardice, and demanded to
be led to battle. Belisarius pointed out that the enemy was
flying before them, which was all they could desire ; but as this
had no effect, he was constrained to give battle. The contest
was terrible, and at a late hour of the day, victory still remained
doubtful, when a charge of the Immortals broke the left wing of
the Bomans, and decided the battle in favour of the Persians.2
Belisarius retreated after dark with the remains of his forces,
and gained Callinicus on the Euphrates, whilst, on the other
hand, the Persians marched into their own country. But on
each soldier reclaiming an arrow from the pile, which according
to custom was formed at the commencement of the campaign,
the Persian king, who then discovered the extent of his loss,3
refused to grant the expected mark of distinction.
During the negotiations which followed, Chosroes 'Amishire-
van succeeded his father Kobad (Cobades), and Justinian,
wishing to be at liberty to oppose the Vandals, agreed to pay
the Persian king 11,000 pounds weight of gold. This laid the
foundation of a protracted contest between the sovereigns, which
was in general favourable to the Persians. Urged by the
Arabians and others, Chosroes, taking advantage of the absence
of Belisarius, invaded the Roman territory in contravention of
1 Amm. Mar., lib. XXV., cap. viii., and Zosimus, lib. III. p. 194, &c.
2 Procopius, Bell. Pers., lib. I., cap. xviii. * Ibid.

CHAP. XIII.] CHOSROES CAPTURES ANTIOCH BY STORM. 443
the treaty, following on this occasion the river Euphrates from
Circesium to Zenobia ; a distance about equal to that which an
active man would march in three days.1 Having again advanced
the same distance, he came to Sura, which he took and
burned.2 He next levied a tribute on Hierapolis, and demanded
twice as much from Beroea, which latter he afterwards remitted,
as the inhabitants were unable to pay it.3
He now advanced against Antioch : when there he offered to Siege and '
spare the city for a moderate consideration, but a reinforcement Antioch?
of 6,000 men having arrived from the Lebanon, the people in
consequence not only refused to treat, but ridiculed the
besiegers from their walls. Enraged at this, Chosroes occupied
the rocky ground south-eastward of the city, and forthwith
commenced the siege with vigour. The inhabitants defended
themselves with great valour; and, to increase their means,
they suspended, between the towers at the summit of the cur
tains, on the external side of the walls, massive beams of wood
on which troops were posted. But the cordage having given
way, the men were precipitated from a considerable height, and
those in the towers, believing that the walls had been beaten a. d. 542.
down, took flight. Chosroes seizing the opportunity, stormed
the town, and the greater part of the city was reduced to
ashes.4 His previous offers were now gladly accepted : 5,000
pounds of gold were to be paid to the Persians within two
months, and 500 pounds annually. In return, the Persians
agreed to relinquish all claims to Dura, and to prevent the
barbarians from breaking into the empire through the Persian
gates.5 The towns of Apamea and Chalcis being, however, Renewal of
plundered by the Persians as they returned, Justinian renewed tbe war"
the war. Belisarius, to whom it was6 entrusted, sent his general
Arethas into Assyria, which he laid waste as far as he could.
He then entered Persia, and took the fortress of Sisibranum ;
1 Procopius, Bell. Pers., lib. I., cap. xxi., and lib. II. cap. v.
E Ibid., lib. IL, cap. v.
3 Ibid., cap. vi., vii. 4 Ibid., cap. viii., x.
8 Ibid., and Evag., lib. IV., cap xxv.
* Procopius, Bell. Pers., lib. IL, cap. xix.

444

DEFEAT AND DEATH OF CHOSROES I.

[chap. XIII.

Inroad of the
Persians.
A. D. 543.

Second inva
sion and total
defeat of
Chosroes.

A.D. 574.

Accession of
Hormisdas. A. D. 581.

A. D. 589.

but owing to the sickness among his troops caused by violent
heat, he was obliged to return to the Roman dominions, and
Chosroes, who had hastened from Lazia to encounter him, put
his army into quarters at Ctesiphon.1
In the spring of the following year, Chosroes again advanced
across the Euphrates. Passing Sergiopolis (Resafa), and
keeping that river on his right, he marched to Comagene,
otherwise Euphratesia ; meditating an advance from thence to
Palestine to take Jerusalem. Belisarius, being despatched
against him, boldly threw himself upon the flank and rear of the
Persians, and caused them to retreat.3
The next year Chosroes entered the Boman territory at the
head of a powerful army, and found himself unexpectedly
opposed by Justinian with 150,000 men near Dura. A Scy
thian chief who commanded the right wing, unexpectedly
turned the flank of the Persians, and making an attack in their
rear penetrated into the camp, when he not only pillaged the
royal tent, but captured the baggage, part of the harem, and
even the sacred fire. Chosroes, in some measure, recovered his
disgrace, by a spirited attack on the enemy's camp during the
night ; but considering himself still in danger, he retreated to
Malatiyah ; afterwards, having burnt the town,3 he crossed the
river Euphrates on an elephant, and escaped on a camel, leaving
his army to its fate. Justinian now pushed on to the banks of
the Araxes, and renewed the war in the spring ; but Chosroes
did not live to meet the enemy.
Hormisdas, his son and successor, made peace ; but un
mindful of his father's prudent directions to avoid war with the
Bomans, shortly afterwards commenced hostilities, which were
attended with adverse circumstances and severe loss ; and wars,
which partook of the nature of mutual inroads, were carried on
at intervals between the Bomans and Persians for about nine
years, when Martyropolis, (Myafarekin,) submitted to the
former power.
1 Procopius, Bell. Pers., lib. IL, cap. xix.
2 Ibid., cap. xx., xxi., xxvi., and Theophanes, Chronographia, pp. 186,
187. 3 Menander in Excerpt. Legat., pp. 113, 125.

CHAP. Xllf.'J CIVIL WAR IN PERSIA. 445
Varanes, general of Hormisdas, then took the field, and War and re-
carried the war first into Suania, from thence he proceeded into varanes.
the Lazian territory, where he amassed considerable riches,
and having sent his treasure to Baghdad for security, he
marched towards the Araxes.1 A Roman army was now sent
against him, and two battles were fought: in the second, the
first not having been decisive, the Persians were entirely
defeated.2 Varanes afterwards raised tbe standard of civil war,
and several towns followed his example.
Chosroes IL, who succeeded Hormisdas at this juncture, a. d. 590.
oftered an amnesty to Varanes, with the second place in the Chosroes puts
kingdom, but these propositions were refused with the utmost rebellion!
insolence, and Varanes even went so far as to command the
monarch to abdicate his throne. Both parties prepared in con
sequence for a contest ; and in this, Varanes being victorious,
Chosroes sought an asylum with the Boman garrison of Cir-
cesium. Accompanied by a Boman army, Chosroes re-entered his
own kingdom, where he was received as sovereign by the
people ; and the rebellious army, 40,000 strong, being defeated
by a force of 60,000 under Chosroes and the Boman general
Narses, Varanes abandoned the contest. Chosroes now took
possession of his kingdom, and undisturbed peace continued for and takes
some time between him and the Bomans.3 But in the first year hu kingdom.
of Heraclius, the Persians having captured Apamea and Edessa, A- D* 60°-
advanced towards Antioch, where the Bomans gave battle, and
were completely defeated : in the following year the Persians
took Caesarea in Cappadocia, and carried off a multitude of
captives. Chosroes afterwards took Palestine ;4 Egypt and a. d. 607.
Lybia to the borders of Ethiopia, were likewise subjugated, and
the Persians carried their conquests even to the Thracian
Bosphorus.5 Two campaigns followed in Armenia, which were on the
whole favourable to Heraclius. That of the succeeding year
Theophylact. Simocatta, lib. III., cap. vi.
2 Ibid., cap. vii.
3 Evagrius, lib. VI., cap. xvi. to xix. " * Eutychius, Ann. IL, p. 212.
I Theophanes, p. 248—268.

446

CAMPAIGN OF HERACLIUS.

[CHAP. XIII.

A. D. CIS.

Battle near
Nineveh.

Death of
Chosroes II.

was still more active, and was carried on alternately on the
banks of the Halys, of the Euphrates, and on the slopes of the
Taurus ; the Persians, however, maintained their ground. In
December Heraclius passed the Zab, and approached Nineveh,
where a battle took place which was obstinately contested
during a whole day, without either army yielding the field.
Chosroes, however, retired during the night, and eventually
returned to his palace of Dastagerd to await reinforcements.
The emperor pursued him, and captured the place, in which he
found a quantity of silks, carpets, and other valuables. Chos
roes escaped with difficulty through a subterraneous passage,
with his wives, and having reached the castle of Ctesiphon, he
was there imprisoned and put to death by his son, who made
peace with Heraclius.1
During the decline of the Persian empire, the Arab nation
was making rapid advances towards the attainment of vast phy
sical and moral influence in the world.

1 Theophanes, pp. 266, 268, 271, 272.

( 447 )

CHAPTEE XIV.
GLANCE AT ARABIAN HISTORY DURING THE REIGN OF THE EARLIER
KHALIPHS, FROM A.D. 40 TO 1097-

Early connection of Arabia with other Countries. — Central situation and
geographical position of this Territory.' — Flood of El Arim. — Foundation
of the kingdoms of Ghassan and Hirah. — Conquests of the Tobbdi. —
Invasion and Conquest of Yemen by the Abyssinians. — State of Religion
amongst the Arabs up to the time of Muhammed. — War of the Elephant.
— Subjection of Yemen by the Persians. — The plans of Muhammed
favoured by circumstances. — Early life of the Prophet, and commence
ment of his Ministry. — Attractive Doctrines of the new Religion. —
Accession of Abu Bekr and 'Omar. —Character of the latter Prince. —
The Dress, Arms, &c, of the Arabs, adapted for difficult enterprises. —
Conquests of 'Omar. — Accession of 'Othman. — The Berbers : commence
ment of the Moorish dynasty in Africa. — Ayeshah commences a Civil War
agamst 'AH. — Invasion of Spain by the Moors. — Arab Conquests in the
Mediterranean and elsewhere. — Fiscal arrangements of 'Omar ben 'Abd-el-
'Aziz. — The Moors penetrate into France. — Commencement of the reign
of the Abassides. — Baghdad occupied. — Rise of Harun-el-Rashid. —
State of the Khaliphat during his reign. — Intercourse cultivated between
Arabia and Europe. — Temporary division of his Territory. — Accession of
Mamun. — He encourages Philosophy and Literature. — Assemblies of
Learned Men at the court of Baghdad.— Cultivation of the Persian,
Indian, and Greek Languages encouraged. — Style of refreshments at the
Khaliph's palace. — His liberality. — Revenue of the principal Court Physi-
sian. — Mu'tasem's accession and contests with Justinian. — His encourage
ment of Architecture. — Military and Civil organization. — Extensive pri
vileges of Muslims. — Formation of regular Troops in Arabia. — Discontent
in consequence at Baghdad. — Construction of the city of Sammarrah. —
A cartel established for the exchange of Muslim prisoners, &c. — Wars
with the Greek Empire. — Recitals of the Rawi to the Khaliph at night. —
Mutawakkel builds a great palace. — Learned Men in the time of Mamun. —
Subdivision of power in Arabia. — Origin of the Huns and Turkish Tribes.
 Conquests of Mahmud Ghizni and the Afghans. — Rise and progress of
the Seljukian dynasties.
The almost unceasing wars briefly sketched in the two pre
ceding chapters, only partially affected the peninsula of Arabia ;

448

CENTRAL SITUATION OF ARABIA. [CHAP. XIV.

Early isolati
of Arabia.

Its geo
graphies
position.

Extent and
superficies of
Arabia.

which, although conterminous with the Parthians and Persians
on one side, and with part of the Roman territories on another,
continued, as it were, almost isolated in the centre of the world.
But it will now be seen that instead of occasional expeditions
as heretofore into other countries, the people of Arabia hence
forth took a prominent place amongst other nations ; and,
concentrating their energies, they speedily overran Asia, Africa,
and a portion of Europe.
Arabia, it will be recollected, constitutes a middle region,
which, touching Asia on one side and Africa on the other,
appertains geographically to each, although politically, it does
not belong to either continent. Its people, however, from their
origin, as well as their subsequent relations, have been closely
linked with both.
With respect to their origin, it will be recollected that this
was the territory intermedially occupied as mankind spread
towards Africa ; and, with regard to their relations with other
countries, it may be observed that the Ophirian mariners
coasted its shores ; that pilots from this country circum
navigated Africa ;T and that the merchandize which constituted
the objects of the earliest eastern trade traversed its wide-
spreading plains : within its limits, also, are comprised the
scenes, among which occurred the wanderings of the Israelites,
as well as many of the great events connected with scriptural
history. Jezireh El' Arab, in its largest sense, is bounded on
three sides by seas, and on the fourth by the river Euphrates.
Taking the air-line, it extends for a distance of 1,500 miles
from the Mediterranean at Iskenderiin to the Indian Ocean at
Bas Sherbeda, one of the horns of Khuriyan-Muriyan Bay;
and it has a superficies of 1,153,762 square geographical miles,
or rather more than the great peninsula of Hindustan. Though
split into multitudinous tribal sections,2 a broad line of demar
cation exists, on one side of which are the fixed inhabitants, and
on the other the nomad races of the peninsula. Amongst the
leading branches of the latter are the Shammar, the Anizeh,
the Harb, El Saba, El Kohtan, the Beni 'AM, Beni Khaled, &c.3
See List, p. 703-724, vol. I.

Vol. L,
Vol. I.,

p. 652.
Table IV., Appendix.

CHAP. XIV.] FLOOD OF EL 'AR1M. 449
Amongst the former are the sons of Cush,1 and those of Kahtan.
There are likewise the grafted or naturalized Arabs,2 who,
particularly the Himyari, obtained power in Yemen, the ruler
being styled the great king.3
Here, about the time that the first princes of the Cahlan
branch of this dynasty governed in Yemen, and either during
the reign of Akran or that of his son Duhabshan, the flood of
El 'Arim is supposed to have occurred, by the bursting of the
gigantic dike at Mareb.4 The epoch of this calamity, by which
the city and a large portion of the surrounding country was
destroyed, has been assigned to different periods between the
time of Alexander the Great and the third century of Christ.
But, of the eight tribes who were driven from their dwelling-
place in consequence of this inundation, one section settled at
Ghassan,5 and another at Hirah in 'Irak; and the commence- Kingdoms of
ment ofthe latter kingdom may serve to fix approximately theH^aiiand -
time of the flood. Now, a sovereign named Cholebus and
another called Charibael are mentioned as reigning jointly in
Yemen,5 probably about a.d. 40 ; and scarcely a century
later, the descendants of Akran were firmly established there ;
hence, as the line of the Tobbat continued unbroken, the date
just mentioned, which was probably also that of the settlement at
Ghassan, may claim a preference. Asaad Abii Kurriib, third
of the new line of Tobbai, appears to have been a successful
conqueror, who, after invading Tehameh, carried his arms into
Azerbaijan, and from thence to distant parts of the East.
One of his successors having embraced Christianity, marched Expedition
into the Hijaz at the head of an army of 100,000 men, pur- int0 the ?ij*z-
posing to exterminate the Jews who had been settled about
Medina since their flight from the arms of Titus and Adrian.
But, instead of fulfilling his purpose, he became himself a
convert to the Mosaic ritual, which, on his return to Yemen, was
introduced among his subjects.
About this period an expedition sent from Abyssinia appears
' Vol. I., pp. 658, 659. ! Ibid., pp. 654, 658, and Tables IL, III., App.
3 Specimen Historiae Arabum, by Pococke ; Historia veterum Arabum,
ex Abii-1-feda, Oxonise, 1806, pp. 65, 66.
4 Ibid., pp. 67, 77. 5 See above, p. 81.
8 Vincent, Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, vol. IL, p. 314-317.
VOL. II. 2 G

450 ARABIA BEFORE THE TIME OF MUHAMMED. [CHAP. XIV.
invasion of to have crossed the Red Sea under Aizanas,1 who after sub-
Abyssinians. e duing the Himyari and other tribes, carried away a number of
a.d. 330. captives, with their sheep, oxen, &c. The final subjection of
Yemen took place however at a much later period.2 One of
the Beni Thaleb of the Nejran, who had been converted to
Christianity by Akeimaur, a Syrian, having escaped from a
a. d. 539. persecution, induced the Christian king of Abyssinia to proceed
against Yemen : the latter landed his forces at 'Aden ; and
Second success having attended his arms, the Abyssinian line of kings
Yemen."0 commenced with Aryat or Aruat, whose efforts in favour of
Christianity added fresh fuel to the flames of discord in Arabia.
The various kinds of worship enumerated (vol. I. pp. 661,
662), were combined with the tenets of the Magi and the fire-
worship of the Persians ; and to these, as has been mentioned,
were added, at later periods, Judaism and Christianity. Abra-
Abrahahisdis-hah or Abramus, once a Roman slave and now a Christian,
Mekkah. e °re having usurped the throne, proceeded at the head of 40,000
men against the Koreish, then the guardians of the Ka'ba at
Mekkah. Prayers being offered by the inhabitants, the white
elephant on which Abrahah was mounted refused, it is said, to
carry him towards the temple. At the same time a flight of
birds, each carrying, according to tradition, a stone in its bill
and another in each claw, let fall these missiles on tbe heads of
the besiegers. Abrahah alone escaped, and on reaching San'a
died of a loathsome disease. Thus ended the war of the
elephant, which has become memorable as marking the date of
Chosroes Muhammed's birth.3 Ere long, at the instance of Siph, one of
Y^men*! tne excluded line of the Himyari, Chrosroes Aniishirevan,
invaded and subdued Yemen, which continued to be governed
subsequently by Persian satraps, till Badhan, the last governor,
adopted the new faith.
state of Arabia No period could be more favourable than that selected by
mencementof Muhammed for the development of those plans to which the
Muhammed's preceding years of his life had been devoted.
The existence of various kinds of idolatry in Arabia, and
the admixture of Judaism with a corrupt form of Christianity,
1 Voyage to Abyssinia, by Henry Salt, Esq., Rivington, London, 1814,
pp. 411, 462; Vincent's Nearchus, &c, vol. II. , pp. 317, 318.
8 Vincent's Dissertation on the Adulitick Inscription, vol. II. , rjri. 534.

CHAP. XIV.] MUHAMMED COMMENCES HIS MINISTRY. 451
gave rise, in that country, to a state of civil and religious
discord, which greatly favoured the views of this extraordinary
man, and prepared the people to receive the system of religion
which he had formed by a combination of the two last ; at the
same time the surrounding nations were not in a state to resist
the warlike impulse communicated to the people of that country
by his influence and example.
Abu Kasem Muhammed, the factor of the rich widow Contemplated
Khadijeh, when only in his thirteenth year,1 is understood to reUgfon?
have contemplated the introduction of a new religion. This
idea probably occurred to him about a.d. 583, during his
intercourse with a Nestorian monk at Bozra in Syria;2 and his
purpose appears to have been confirmed by another visit to the
same individual. After Khadijeh became his wife, he prepared
himself for the object he had in view by making himself
acquainted with the tenets of the Jews, as well as those of the
different sects into which the Christians were already divided.
About fifteen years after his marriage, his project being First
matured, Muhammed announced that he was about to restore Mohammed/
the true religion of Adam, through Noah, Abraham, Moses,
Jesus, and the prophets, and he succeeded in making his doc
trine sufficiently attractive to enlist the people in its cause, not
withstanding the self-denying ordinances which were enjoined.
In addition to the eternal truth that there is only one God,
he joined belief in his own name as that of the apostle of the
supreme and incomprehensible Being, inculcating at the same
time- prayer, fasting, and alms, as religious duties. The first is
supposed to carry the Muslim half way to God ; the second to
bring him to the door of the heavenly palace ; and the third to
gain his admittance.
To the self-denial enjoined by stringent fasts, such as that of
the Bamadan, and by the devotion of one-tenth, even sometimes
of one-fifth, of the yearly income to charity, were added the
prohibition of gaming, usury, the use of wine, &c. ; while wilful
murder, calumny, fornication and adultery, were enumerated
as deadly sins.3
1 He was born a.d. 570or 571. 2 Abti-1-Faraj, Hist. Dynast, pp. 161, 162.
3 " Verily God commandeth justice, and the doing of good, and the giving
unto kindred what shall be necessary, and he forbiddeth wickedness and ini-
2 G2

452 QUALIFICATIONS OF MUHAMMED. [CHAP. XIV.
Miihammed's In return for the restraints thus imposed on the Arabian
people, Paradise, with its rivers, its marble palaces, delightful
gardens, luxurious fruits and wines ; besides robes of silk,
diamonds, pearls, dishes of gold, and still more sensual gratifi
cations, were promised as rewards to the faithful in the life to
to come.1 Expectations such as these, united to the commanding
aspect and winning manners of the preacher, were calculated
to enlist, as his followers, the pagan Arabs, and even those who
were either half Jews, or who, by becoming partly Christians,
had made a step in the true direction.
A general idea may be formed from what has been said of
the tenets propounded in the beginning of the seventh century
by this extraordinary man, who, from the circumstances of his
previous life, was equally prepared to become alternately either
a warlike leader in the field, or the guide of his hearers from
the mim'bar or pulpit.
His aids in the His adventures during his mercantile journeys to eastern
th^KoSn!1 ° cities, and, still more, the experience gained during an expe
dition which he joined in his twentieth year, against the
predatory tribes of Arabia, had prepared him in an eminent
degree for military achievements ; whilst his early intercourse
with learned individuals, furnished him with materials for his
grand object. Among these, in addition to those already
mentioned, were Hertebe, an Arab, Solei'man, a Persian,
Barylas, a Jacobite, 'Abd- Allah Ibn Salaam, and Waraka, the
nephew of Khadijeh. The latter had, in the first instance, ex
changed his native polytheism for the Jewish faith ; and having
subsequently embraced the Christian religion, he was well
acquainted with the Old and New Testaments.2
Basis of its On the information derived from these sources were based
compilation. n -»«- t p • i ii „
the Muslim faith and the precepts of the Koran, a part of which
work, according to tradition, was prepared in the convent of
Mount Sinai ; but whether there or elsewhere, it is evident
that much was taken from the Bible.
quity and oppression ; he admonisheth you, that ye may remember." Koran,
chap. XVL, v. 92. Sale, compared with Lane's Selections from the Kuran.
See also chap. IL, v. 31, 173, 269, 273 ; III. v. 36 ; XVII., v. 33, 37.
1 Koran, chap. II., v. 23 ; XVIII., v. 30 ; XXXVIL, v. 39, 48 ; LVIL,
v. 11, 37, &c.
2 Abu-1-feda, de Vit. Muhammed, p. 14-17.

CHAP. XIV.] TOLERATION ENJOINED IN THE KORAN. 453
The self-appointed prophet, however, in rejecting the gross The prejudices
idolatry of his countrymen, respected many of their feelings and respected!1 *
prejudices. The ancient veneration for the Ka'ba was still
retained, and the hospitality, on which they prided themselves
so much, was enjoined as part of the new creed ; the rite of
circumcision was also retained.
These politic measures did not, however, prove sufficient, and
even Mohammed's own powerful tribe, the Koreish, only adopted
the new faith after a contest of ten years' duration, which was
scarcely terminated at the prophet's decease, A. d. 632.
The judgment formed by posterity regarding the Koran,
has, it would seem, been chiefly founded on certain passages
in that book, which refer principally to the infidels who main
tained bloody and protracted wars in opposition to the religion
it inculcated. The work did not profess to contain anything
new. Muhammed simply announced himself as a teacher and The restora-
admonisher, who had come to restore the ancient religion by ancient reii-
means of persuasion, not by violence.1 The use of the sword gl0n Professed
was to be chiefly defensive, his followers being enjoined to wait
till they were attacked.2
Freedom of trade and toleration of their worship were per
mitted to those who were not believers, and they were to be
left to the punishment of God, the only arbiter and recompenser
of every one as he deserves :3 it is also stated that the hope of
salvation is not confined to the Muslim, but that every one who
believes in God and does good works will be saved.4
These precepts, however, were but little regarded during the
lifetime of the Arabian reformer, and still less in the time of

1 Koran, Chap. III., v. 138; XVL, v. 84, 91, 124; XVII. 95;
LXXXVILL, v. 21.
8 " Fight for the religion of God against those who fight against you, but
transgress not by attacking them first, for God loveth not the transgressors,"
&c. Chap. IL, v. 186. "Let there be no violence in religion," &c. Koran,
chap. IL, v. 257.
3 Ibid., chap. XLV., v. 14.
4 " Surely those who believe, and those who judaize, and Christians, and
Sabeans, whoever believeth in God and the last day, and doth that which is
ri"-ht, they shall have their reward with their Lord ; there shall come no
fear on them, neither shall they be grieved." Chap. IL, v. 59. Lane's Selec
tions from the Kuran, compared with Sale. See also chap. IL, v. 106.

454

CHARACTER OF OMAR.

[chap.

XIV.

Muhammed an
impostor and
enthusiast.

Early diffu
sion of Mu
ll ammedan-

A.D. C32.
The Arab
people united
under Abu
Bekr.

The govern
ment regulated
by 'Omar.

his successors, when the sword became the chief instrument in
propagating his creed.
Muhammed commenced his career as an impostor, and
in all probability ended it as an enthusiast ; leaving this
enthusiasm as an inheritance, which, through the instrumentality
of his successors, produced mighty changes in the eastern world.
Nearly twelve centuries have elapsed since the commencement
of the Arabian revolution, but it seems as difficult as ever to
comprehend the extraordinary and daring conception of Mu
hammed, and the wonderful success which attended^his project.
With the blessings ofthe Gospel of our Saviour, the Arabian
doctrines cannot, and must not be compared ; but for some wise
purpose, they have hitherto been permitted to hold a middle
place in the moral world, by superseding paganism. The faith
of El Islam became, at an early period, predominant from the
tropic of Cancer northward, to the borders of Siberia, and from
the shores of Albania eastward, to the plains of Delhi ; giving
to its disciples an improved, if not a high, state of morality, and,
may it not be added, a tolerant disposition when compared with
that of most other creeds.1
Abu Bekr, the coadjutor of Muhammed, found an unsettled
government ; but the impetus had already been given, and by
following the steps of his predecessor, the Arabs became for the
first time united and powerful. 'Irak was subjected during his
reign ; Syria was also invaded, and Damascus surrendered on
the very day that the khaliph died.
But a much greater advance was made under his successor,
Abu Hassah Ibn el Khatib, the celebrated 'Omar, whose fiscal
arrangements included every department of the state.2 This
prince was eminently qualified to become the leader of a brave
and enthusiastic people. He was content with such humble food
as barley-bread, dates, and water. His couch was a simple
mat,- and the porch of abuilding, the foliage of a tree, or even
the firmament of heaven, served him as a canopy ; and that

1 'Omar and the earlier khaliphs gave privileges to Muslims, as well as
to those who might become converts, while the rayah was protected, his
religion permitted, and his internal polity preserved. — See vol. I., pp. 371
376, 379, and Sequel, vols. III. and IV.
s See vol. I., p. 253-261.

CHAP. XIV.] HIS ACCESSION AND CONQUESTS. 455
emanation from heaven, justice to all mankind, was at all times
his guiding principle. Such was the leader of a race of
people, whose ordinary habits and mode of life fitted them to
follow a daring chief.
The kefiyeh protected the head of the Arab, and a flowing Equipments
cloak covered his person.1 Arrows, the jerid, and a sling, were qUaift1es°of
his arms for distant combat ; while a scimitar, a long lance with the Arabs-
a light bamboo shaft, a h an jar, and a battle-axe, were used in
close contests ; and bread and cheese, with dates occasionally,
were considered ample provision for the longest march. Being
thus lightly equipped and easily provided, and the greater part
of the troops being mounted on fleet horses, a campaign was a
simple affair, which the Arabs speedily brought to a close.
'Omar's accession took place on the fall of Damascus; and Conquests of
throughout his reign wars were carried on, partly by himself
in person, and partly under the direction of his lieutenants.
Everything gave way before an unencumbered army ; and the
conquests of 'Omar spread like a flood in all directions. East
ward his arms were successful in the bloody field of Kadisiyeh,2
and after the victory of Nahavend, they were carried towards
the Oxus. Westward his armies advanced to Jerusalem, and
finally to Alexandria, in Egypt. In connection with this city,
however, 'Omar's name has obtained an unenviable notoriety,
in consequence of the -wanton destruction of its great library
by his deputy, Amrii Ben As.3
According to the Persian historian Khondemir, 'Omar took
from the infidels 36,000 cities and castles, destroyed 4,000
temples or churches ; while he either endowed or founded
1,400 mosques. In the twenty-second year ofthe Hijrah, A. D. 644.
'Omar perished by the hand of an assassin, and was succeeded
in the khaliphat by 'Othman Ibn Assan. Continuing their Accession of
previous successes during bis reign, the Arabs took Cyprus and 0thman-
Hamadan ; and from thence they advanced to Khorasan. They
also invaded Isauria, and made an expedition into Africa.
The Moorish dynasty in that region dates from about this
period. 1 Herod., lib. VII., cap. Ixix ; see also vol. I., p. 668.
2 Bibliotheque Orientale d'Herbelot, art. 'Omar.
3 Ibid., art. Amrou Ben-Al-As.

456 THE MOORISH DYNASTY OF THE ARABS. [CHAP. XIV.
Settlement of According to tradition, as well as the accounts of the Arabian
Afri^.rbers m authors, the Berbers who preceded the Moors, came from the
coast of Syria, the Gergashites, Jebusites, &c, being one
branch of that race ;l the descendants of the Canaanites who
were exterminated by Joshua, were another ; the descendants
of the Amorites, (Ait Amor,) were a third ; and the Sabaeans of
Abyssinia, a fourth.2 It is, however, believed that the Berbers
in general are, like the ancient Egyptians, descended from Ham;3
and of these, the Mazigh, appear to be one of the oldest tribes :
many of the dialects of Barbary are apparently derived from
theirs, or from one common language which was similar to it.
Subjection of But, however this may have been, the ancient branches, like
the Arabs? 7 the Cushites of Arabia, merged into the later comers. These
were the Mauri or Moors, who under the various denominations
of Saracens, Hagarenes, Easterlings, &c, entered Mauritania
at the period mentioned, and after a contest of forty years'
duration, succeeded in conquering the country.
'All Ben Abi Taleb, the husband of Fatimah, was the first
cousin of the prophet, and the first to acknowledge his divine
mission ; and, on the murder of 'Othman, he succeeded to the
khaliphat, but not with the unanimous consent of the people.
Ayeshah, the Ayeshah, the surviving widow of Muhammed, formed a strong
Muhammed, party in her favour. She took Basrah ; and at Khoriaba, at the
opposes i. head 0f 30s000 men, she disputed the pretensions and the
doctrines of 'All. She appeared in her shebrye,'1 mounted on a
camel, and moving from one part of the field to another in
order to animate her troops ; but at length the animal being
ham-strung, she lay on the ground till the close of the battle,
which is called by the Arabs, that of the Camel. Subsequently,
Moawiyah raised forces in Syria to dispute the right to the
khaliphat ; and, after a series of bloody combats near Suffein,
without a decided result, the question of the succession was
determined by arbitration.
Death of 'Air, The decision being unfavourable to 'All, this chief settled at
quentschisms". Kufah, where lie was subsequently assassinated ; but he had
already laid the foundation of the Shi'ah section of Miiham-
1 Procopius, Vandalicorum, II. * See above, pp. 46, 47.
3 Ibn Khaldiin, MS., No. 9574, in the British Museum.
4 See vol. I., pp. 683, 688.

CHAP. XIV.] THE MOORS INVADE SPAIN. 457
medanism, which under Hasan, Hosein, and their successors,
has ever since been opposed to the Sunnies, or the more orthodox
party.1 Religious discord, however, did not entirely cripple the efforts
of the Arabs, for during the khaliphat of ' Abd-el-Malik, the
fourth from Moawiyah, 'Irak, Sigistan, and Khorasan, acknow
ledged their dominion. A little later, namely in the 76th year
of the Hijrah, dinars and dirhems were first struck with the
Arabic inscriptions ; and only seven years subsequently, the
invasion of Spain commenced.
The Arabs had, as has just been mentioned, subjected Mau- invasion of
ritania, from whence in the 92nd and 93rd years of the Hijrah, MPoa0rkby the
Tarikh Ibn Zerka was despatched to Spain by the African
khaliph, Tarikh Ibn Okair. The landing took place at
Gibraltar, from whence the Arabs advanced into the interior ;
when, having defeated Roderic, the last of the Goths, near
Toledo, they overran a considerable part of the country,2
and thus laid the foundation* of the kingdom which afterwards
conferred such benefits on Europe. This dynasty commenced
during the khaliphat of El Walid, who, besides Spain, had
conquered Sardinia, Majorca, and Minorca ; and in Asia,
Ma-wera-1-nahr, Kashgar, Turkestan, with part of India on
this side of the Ganges. So that the Arab language and the
. banners of El Islam, extended from the shores of the Atlantic
to the banks of that river, and again from the desert of Sahara
to the Jaxartes.
The short reign of Sole'iman, the successor of El Walid, Polity and
was followed by that of 'Omar ben ' Abd-el-'Aziz, who carried "oma/ben
out and improved upon the fiscal arrangements of his prede- 'Abd-el-'Aziz.
cessor, the first khaliph of that name. Founded on a calcu
lation of the yearly earnings of a labourer employed in
cultivating the soil, the pay for the military and civil branches
was regulated, and thej taxes to be levied were carefully fixed
on a moderate scale for every district of the empire.3 His
own finances were regulated with the utmost frugality ; so much
so indeed, that his whole daily expenditure did not exceed two
1 See vol. I., pp. 85, 86. 2 Mariana, lib. VI., cap. xxii.
3 See vol. I., p. 254-261.

458 THE MOORS DEFEATED IN FRANCE. [CHAP. XIV.
dihrems, or 8$d. From infancy his mind had been fixed
entirely on the other world, and his life was in consequence
just, religious, and devout.
The short reign of Yezid Ibn 'Abd-el-Malik succeeded, and
was followed by that of Suleiman Ibn Hesham, a.h. 112. Mos-
lema, one of his generals, marched against the Turks, as far as
the Caspian Sea, but returned without effecting anything, while
Hesham's troops gained some advantages over the Christians.
Hesham subsequently advanced with 90,000 men as far as Tyana
in Cappadocia, but was defeated by the Imperial army under
the emperor and his son Constantine at Synnada in Phrygia.
The Moors 'Abd-el-Bahman, the khaliph's lieutenant in Spain, being deter-
invsclc Kruiicc mined to carry the war into France,1 entered that kingdom at
the head of a powerful army, and advanced to Aries, where he
defeated a large body of the French. Thence, passing the
Garonne and the Dordogne, he continued his march, devastat
ing the country as he proceeded. Having advanced as far as
Tours,2 he was there, after a contest of seven days, defeated by
tho famous Charles Martel, and ' the Arabs with difficulty
effected a retreat into Spain.
Baghdad built During the reign of the three succeeding khaliphs, namely,
Al Walid (surnamed Abii'l Abba's), Yezid Ibn Khaled, and
Abu-1-' Abbas, which occupied a space of twenty-one years,
warlike events were confined to the Arabian territory itself.
The last of these princes commenced the line ofthe Abassides;
and with them the arts and sciences became objects of particular
attention. Abii Jaafer Al Mansiir laid the foundation of a
great city on the banks of the Tigris, in 140 of the Hijrah,
and finished its construction four years later. Baghdad, the
new capital, was occupied in the 144th year of the Hijrah,
and was destined to merit the name, so happily given by its
founder, of Medinet el Salaam, a city of peace,3 though during
the reign of the first princes of this line, there were occasional
wars, and also invasions of the imperial territory. Harun-el-
Bashid, who, as the general of Mohadi, his father, the successor
1 Eoderic Tolentaus, Hist. Arabum, cap. XIII., p. 12 ; cap. XIV., p. 13.
2 Mariana, lib. VI., cap. xxii., xxiii.
3 Biblioth. Orient., art. Baghdad ; Abii-1-Faraj, Hist. Dynast., 1663, p. 141.

and occupied.

CHAP. XIV.] EMBASSY FROM ARABIA TO EUROPE. 459
of Abu Jaafer Al Mansur, had already distinguished himself
by penetrating through the Grecian provinces as far as the Hanin-ei-
Hellespont, succeeded his brother Musa Al Hadi. His fleets Eashl'd ,ad-
x . Tances to the
and army invaded Cyprus,1 and he carried bis arms into Hellespont.
Natolia ; he might even have wrested this province from the
hands of the feeble Constantine, had he pushed his successes.
But great as were his courage and capacity for war, he was still Civil and
more distinguished by his zeal for literature and the arts, perit^fthT
combined with a love of justice and truth. The vow which heempire-
had made to undertake the pilgrimage to Mekkah on foot, if he
ever came to the throne, was now redeemed. Flourishing
towns sprang up in every part of his dominions ; traffic was
encouraged by land and by sea, and at this time, which was
the golden age of the khaliphs, Baghdad surpassed Con
stantinople itself in magnificence. Friendly and literary
communications were opened with many parts of Europe, and,
in some instances, in a very remarkable manner. Hariin, who
was in tbe east nearly what Charlemagne was in the west, sent
an embassy direct to that emperor, and, at his instance, another Embassy to
was sent at the same time to the same court from Abraham, ai emagne-
one of the most powerful emirs of Barbary. Amongst the
presents were an elephant, then but little known in Europe, a
rich tent, and, what was still more singular, a curious sort of
clock, as a specimen of the state of the arts in Arabia.1 The
ambassadors passed through France, and were entertained at
Aix-la-Chapelle with fetes and exhibitions calculated to impress
them with the power of the emperor.
Hariin distributed his territories among his three sons. The Division of
eldest, Amin, had Baghdad, Chaldea or Babylonia, the three*
Arabias, also Mesopotamia, Assyria, Media, Syria, Palestine,
Egypt, and Africa, with the title of khaliph.
Mamun, the second son, received Persia, Kirman, India,
Khorasan, Taberistan, Zabulistan, and Kabul, with the tracts
beyond the Araxes and Jaihan. While Mu'tasem, his third son,
had Armenia, Natolia, Georgia, Circassia, and the tracts belong
ing to the khaliph in the neighbourhood of the Black Sea ; the
1 E^inhartus, Vita et Gesta Caroli Magni, Colonia, 1521, p. 108.

460 ENCOURAGEMENT TO LITERATURE IN ARABIA. [CHAP. XIV.

A.D. 809.
A.D. 813.

Mam tin's ac
cession and
character.

Literary
assemblies in
the palace of
Baghdad.

brothers were to succeed one another, also, in the dignity of
khaliph.1 Hariin died soon afterwards at Tuz, and was succeeded by
Amin. But war shortly arose, and was continued for five years
by the brothers, when AM 'Abd-allah al Amin was succeeded
by Abii-1-Abbas-al Mamun. The foundation of the literature
of the East had been laid, and even part of the superstructure
raised by Hariin-el-Bashid ; but the reign of Marniin forms a
still more important epoch in the learning and science of
Arabia. This prince made war upon the emperor of Con
stantinople, and besieged Carrhae in Mesopotamia, which he
captured and demolished. The following year he marched
into Cilicia, and having gained several places by capitulation,
he proceeded to Egypt, where he captured Tai'm ; after which
he returned to Damascus.8 In this year he besieged, during a
hundred days, the city of Liiliia, which afterwards surrendered
by capitulation.3 On his way back to Baghdad, he ate so
immoderately of dates, and drank so largely of cold water,
that a violent fever ensued, which carried him off. Marniin is
described as having been liberal, merciful, thoroughly acquainted
with the art of government, and well versed in the speculative
sciences of his time, besides being largely the encourager of
learning. Different branches of knowledge had been already
fostered by Hariin-el-Bashid, but the reign of Marniin was
eminently the golden age of Arabian literature. At Baghdad
learned societies were formed ; and there, encouraged by the
protection of the monarch, congregated the literary men of the
empire, who were accustomed to assemble every evening at the
palace, as the companions and even friends of the khaliph.
In the court of Mamun learning became the passport to
advancement, and the greater the attainments of an individual,
especially when united with engaging manners, the brighter was
the prospect before him of honours and advancement. It is
1 Historia Sarracenica, &c, a Georgio Elmacino, Lugdun., 1625, cap. VI.,
p. 115.
2 Elmacin., lib. IL, cap. viii. ; Bibliotheque Orientale d'Herbelot., art.
Al Mamun.
3 Elmacin., lib. II. , cap. i. and viii.

CHAP. XIV.] LITERARY ENTERTAINMENTS GIVEN BY MAMUN. 461
true, that ready wit and winning manners sometimes did more
than the deepest learning could effect without these advantages,
but subjects were frequently discussed in the presence of this
remarkable prince in a manner which would do honour to the
most distinguished men of the present day. Indeed, without a
profound knowledge of the particular science which a man
professed, it was impossible for him to attain eminence among
the philosophers of Baghdad.
Al Mas'udi and other authors have described at some length Luxury of the
the half-literary, half-social re-unions in question, which had apar men
evidently reached a considerable degree of refinement. We
are told that the riches of India and China, regulated by a
refined taste, were displayed in the decorations of the apart
ments ; which were lighted with wax candles, so highly perfumed,
that the most exquisite odours filled the air ; this being kept at
an agreeable and delicately stimulating temperature by the
thawing of ice. Vocal and instrumental performers, skilled in
Arabian, Persian, Indian, and Greek music, delighted the
senses of the. assembled guests, while refreshments to gratify the
palate were handed by youths from Khorasan and Turkistan,
chosen for the purpose on account of the symmetry and grace
fulness of their forms.
The khaliph was accustomed to distinguish certain indi- Public
viduals on their appearance in public, by requesting them to
recite any verses or passages in prose which had made a
particular impression on him ; when the merits of the production
were canvassed by the company, including the prince himself,
whose observations were witty and laconic. Terse rhyme was
the fashionable mode of expression, and was frequently used
also in state papers, with due regard, however, to simplicity
and brevity. Contrary to this practice of the ancient Arabs,
the modern Persians use a lengthened phraseology, in which
the meaning is not unfrequently almost buried.
The refreshments chiefly consisted of ices, and iced fish, Confectionary,
meats, and fruits; and it seems that the Italians, who are the
best confectioners in Europe, learned at least part of their art
from the Arabs, with whom they were in close contact during
the middle ages. Many of the Italian dishes are the same as

462

LIBERALITY AT TBE COURT OF BAGHDAD. [CHAP. XIV.

Revenue of
the principal
physieian at
Baghdad.

Liberality of
the khaliph.

A. D. 833.
Campaign of
Al Mu'tasem
against Theophilus.

those of the Arabs, and the word sorbetto (sherbet ice), is
clearly from the Arabic.1
Some estimate may be formed of the extravagant expenditure
of the court of Al Marniin, by taking, as an example, one item
derived from that of another khaliph, who was known to be
more moderate in his disbursements. Kifti informs us that
Gabriel, son of Bakhtishu'a, the royal physician, received..from
the treasury of Hariin-el-Bashid 10,000 dirhems monthly, and
from his private purse 50,000 dirhems in cash, besides 10,000
in clothes, the first month of every year. The khaliph was
bled twice every year, and on each of these occasions, Gabriel
received 100,000 dirhems ; he received the same sum on
administering medicine in the spring and autumn.
But this was only a part of Gabriel's receipts. Tsa Ibn
Jafer, the son of the khaliph, bestowed 50,000 dirhems
annually, and Zoba'idah, the favoured wife of Harun-el-Rashid
gave as much. From Al 'Abbaseyah he received a similar
sum, and from Fatimah 70,000 dirhems. From Ibrahim Ibn
'Othman 30,000 ; from Al Fadbl Ibn Ar Babiah 50,000 in
cash, and 100,000 in perfumes, horses, clothes, &c. From'
Yahya el Barmekite 600,000, from Ja' forte Barmekite
1,200,000, and from Abu Fadhl el Barmekite 600,000 dir
hems. The preceding does not include occasional presents,
or even the annual produce of his estates, amounting to
1,500,000 dirhems; so that the principal physician received
for his services in the Abasside court, about 5,280,000 dirhems,
equal to about 99,000/., or more than the personal revenue of
the principal sovereigns of Europe. And when the presents
distributed by the khaliph in his harem and among his
courtiers are taken into account, together with his extraordinary
liberality to learned men, it is evident that the disbursements
at the court of Baghdad must have been prodigious.
On the death of Al Marniin, Al Mu'tasem succeeded to the
khaliphat ; and in the early part of his reign, the emperor
Theophilus advanced as far as Malatiyah, committing great
ravages. The khaliph, in return, took the field with a formi-
1 Abii-1-Faraj, Hist. Dynast., 1663, p. 160-164; Elmacinus, p. 139;
Renaudot, p. 274.

CHAP.

XIV.] AGRICULTURE ENCOURAGED. 463

dable army, and having invaded the imperial territories,
reduced Ancyra, and laid Antioch in ashes. A battle between
the contending armies near Amorium, ended to the disadvan
tage of the emperor's forces. Amorium1 was afterwards stormed
and levelled to the ground, 30,000 men being killed, and as
many taken prisoners ; and thus terminated the campaign.
Al Mu'tasem died in the year of the Hijrah 227 ; but character of
although he was possessed of much talent, and many good A1Mutasem'
qualities, the empire seems to have declined during his reign.
According to Al Mas'iidi, he was passionately fond of archi
tecture, which he said promoted civilization, the principal
object of life, and at the same time increased the revenue by
spreading money through the state. He also encouraged the
improvement of the breed of cattle, and promoted occupation
among the working classes. In accordance with these ideas,
he instructed his vezir, Muhammed Ibn 'Abd-el-Malik, to
occupy for him any land, for which after a year's time, he
might receive eleven dirhems, in return for ten expended upon
it. Another propensity of the Khaliph was to purchase His foreign
Turkish slaves ; of whom he had in his army, no less than guards-
4,000, clad in various kinds of brocade, wearing girdles
embroidered with gold, necklaces, and bracelets ; while their
uniform was distinguished by its richness, from that of the other
troops. He had previously formed a body-guard, composed of
people from the delta of Egypt, from Yemen, Barbary
(Mugharebeh), Khorasan, and Turkistan. This measure,
which was at first advantageous in reconciling the different
nations to the government, proved in the end the ruin of the
state ; for these troops gradually became as formidable to the
khalifdom as the Praetorian bands became to the empire of
Bome ; and, at length, acquired a degree of power superior to
that of the khaliph himself.
According to the original institutions of the Arabian empire, Privileges of
the Muslims, including persons who voluntarily embraced the the Muslims-
religion of Islam (others were expatriated), formed the free
and fighting population. In return, they were not only exempt
from taxation, but had a claim on the public funds. Being
1 At Hergan Ka'leh. — Hamilton's Asia Minor, vol. I., pp. 453, 454.

464 RELIGIOUS DISCORD IN ARABIA. [CHAP. XIV.
excluded from agricultural pursuits,1 they were supported from
the revenue levied on the other subjects of the state. These
hereditary soldiers occupied camps, which soon became im
portant cities, as Basrah, Kiifah, &c, owing to the wealth
obtained by prize-money ; one-fifth of the booty2 taken in war
Establishment being appropriated to the warriors. In Syria and Meso-
of permanent ° lt jt * ^
troops. potamia, such stations were called in Arabic Jomid (armies),
and , in 'Irak, Ansar, meaning settled, in opposition to the
wandering habits of the Arabians in general. This separation
of the troops from the rest of the people produced an inde
pendent spirit in the former ; and to this evil was added the
discord produced by religious differences. At this time,
Damascus, and other places, became so many centres of Arabian
learning, comprising ¦theology, law, the study of Arabic gram
mar, and literature; and the discussions on the first of these
subjects led, towards the close of the third century of the
Various Hijrah, to the formation of at least seventy different religious
in ArabL!eC S sects, of which that of the Shi'ahs, or followers of 'All, was
the most numerous and most persevering ; in fact, scarcely any
year was allowed to pass, without an effort on their part to
place an 'Ali-ite on the throne of 'Abbas.
Mamun As the attempt made by Al Mamun to terminate this state
uniteathe1S '° 0I" discord had failed, although he had united the contending
SM'ahs3 and famnies by marrying his daughter to the leader of the opposing
party, whom he declared his successor, Al Mu'tasem was
obliged, as a matter of security to himself, to form the new
body-guard, the Mugharebeh just described, from individuals
who did not belong to either party. It was in consequence
called the guard of foreigners, and may be compared to the
Swiss guards of France.
The introduc- In taking this necessary but dangerous course, Al Mu'tasem
trooptf0re'gn departed from the customs of the empire, and overlooked the
superiority claimed by the followers of El Islam over the rest
of the world. Foreign soldiers had indeed frequently fought
in the ranks with the latter ; whole corps of Berbers served
with the Miihammedans in Africa, and Al Mamun employed
the Turks in Ma-wera-1-nahr ; but in these instances the
1 By 'Omar. — See vol. I., pp. 253, 254.
2 Called Khams. — See vol. I., p. 253.

CHAP. XIV.J MUTASEM EMPLOYS BERBERS AND OTHER TROOPS. 465
foreigners were persons who, having been previously adopted
by some tribe, had enlisted in Muhammedan corps, and served
as auxiliaries ; they were called Moula, or clients, and had the
same right as if they had been born in the tribe.
The discontent and opposition shown to this change, par- Discontent in
ticularly by the Arabs at Baghdad, were increased by theBaeM6d'
manner in which the citizens were treated. The soldiers, says
Mas'udi, rode through the narrow streets and markets of the
city without the slightest consideration for the citizens; old
men and children being frequently trodden under the feet of
their horses. To avoid such evils, Al Mu'tasem proposed, at
first, to form a camp at a spot about four farsangs from
Baghdad ; but the soldiers, considering the distance incon
venient, after fixing on .different sites near the banks of the
Tigris, he chose Katiil, situated on a canal of the same name, Foundation of
which was inhabited by Nabatheans and Jeramikahs, where he
built a palace ; and so many of the people of Baghdad removed
thither, that the capital was almost deserted. During theA-D-836-
progress of the work, Al Mu'tasem chanced to spend three
days in the Christian convent of Sammarrah ;' when, on account
of the salubrious air, and the good hunting around it, he pur
chased it of the monks for 4,000 dinars, and there built a
palace and barracks. Having the assistance of labourers and
artisans from all parts of the East, the work proceeded so
rapidly, that a magnificent city was erected in the course of a
few months. The soldiers were quartered at the Karkh of
Sammarrah, two farsangs from thence on the way to Bakkah,
which place subsequently became but too famous in the annals
of rebellion and bloodshed. In order to avoid contact and Arrangement*
. , . it . for the settle-
COnfuSlOn, the inhabitants and the soldiers were separately ment ofthe
classed according to the places or cities from whence they C1 y"
came, each section having its own market, and its particular
quarter in the town of Sammarrah.
The khaliph did not long survive the completion of his new A-D- 842-
city, and he was succeeded by El Wathek Billah. During the The Norman
reign of this prince, which was not of long duration, the Nor- mva e pain"
mans sent a fleet to drive the western khaliph, 'Abd-el-Bahman
1 Bibliotheque Orientale d'Herbelot, art. Mu'tasem.
VOL. II. 2 H

466 THE NEW PALACE OF MUTAWAKKEL. [CHAP. XIV.
Ibn el Hakem, out of Spain. This force attacked Seville and
Cadiz, but in both cases were repulsed, and on the approach of
Cartel d ¦ h ^e Arabs, tne Normans hastily quitted the peninsula.1
the Christians This reign was remarkable for the establishment of a cartel
changt of" to regulate the exchange of prisoners between the Christians
prisoners, an(j Arabs, Cilicia being the place selected for this purpose.8
El Wathek imitated his uncle Al Mamun in his love for, and
encouragement of, the favourite sciences of the day, and he was
also distinguished by his liberality and charity. He was
succeeded by his brother Jaafer Abii-1-Fadl Al Mutawakkel,
whose reign was short but very remarkable. In the early part
of it, the Greeks penetrated into the khaliphat, by the route of
Sume'isat; but their own territories were in return speedily
A.D. 860. invaded by the Arabs, who carried off 70,000 prisoners :3 their
fleet having menaced the coast of Syria, the Greek troops
Mutawakkel landed and seized the citadel of Antioch. The khaliph was
fearning^eS assassinated the following year : he is described as having been
very affable and munificent, particularly in his encouragement
of learned men, who consequently flocked to his court as to
TheRawi their home. Al Mutawakkel was accustomed to beguile
the' khaliph. restless nights, by sending for the Bawi,4 who either narrated
in poetry the history of former kings, or amused the monarch
by repeating some lively tale. One of the latter, by giving an
account of a battle scene as represented in the palace of Hirah,
inspired him with the idea of erecting a similar structure ; and
the result of this sudden thought, was the most splendid archi-
Paiace erected tectural monument that had been erected by the khaliphs.
' iaip " The palace consisted of a great structure in the centre, and
two wings. The former contained the grand hall of reception ;
in addition to the khaliph's ordinary apartments, and those for
his robes. The right wing was allotted for the harem, and the
left contained the culinary establishment. In addition to these
buildings there were two others, called Kemen (ambuscades)
for the use of the courtiers and gentlemen in waiting; both
being within the grand enclosure of the palace. The noble
example of his predecessors, more particularly the encourage-
1 Roderic Tolentanus, Historia Arabum, cap. XVII., p. 24.
a Abu-1-Faraj, Hist. Dynast., 1663, pp. 167, 168.
* Ibid., ann. Hijrah 256.- * See vol. I., p. 663.

CHAP. XIV.] THE TURKS ENTER WESTERN ASIA. 467
ment given to literature and science by El Bashid and Al impulse given
Mamun, now began to produce a beneficial effect. Talents S£
were called into activity, and a large expenditure had, bytion-
increasing commerce and industry, given an impulse to civi
lization and literature. The assemblies of Al Mutawakkel
were distinguished by the presence of Al-Otahiah, Al Bohtarf,
Al-Suli, and Al Mobarred ; all of whom were remarkable for
elegance of style. To these learned men must be added, the
families of Honain of Hirah, and Bakhtishura of Jondisabiir,
which produced the most skilful physicians of that time.
There were also seen the mathematicians of Haran; and
among them, Al Kinde, the greatest writer on natural Progress of
philosophy of whom Arabia could then boast.1 Subsequently, andiiterature.
however, intestine wars caused some interruption to the ad
vancement of literature ; and during the reign of Al Mo'tazz, Settlement of
the third in succession from Al Mutawakkel, Turkish influence western A.iia.;
became predominant. It was only a century earlier that a
branch of this people from Turkistan passed the Caspian
Straits, and entered Armenia. They were followed during
the next year by more of their countrymen, who took2 up their
abode in western Asia ; and at the period now in question,
their descendants constituted the chief forces of the empire,
besides being all-powerful in the khaliph's counsels. The
animosities between the two sects into which the Turks were
divided, tended still more to weaken the empire, which de
clined in consequence during the reigns of Al Mohtadi, Al
Mo'tamed, Al Mo'tadid, and Al Moctasi ; that is, from 869 to
902. But during the time of the last-mentioned khaliph, the
empire again became formidable. Seleucia was recovered Seleucia and
from the Bomans ; Syria and Egypt were likewise conquered ; rescued from
the arms of this prince were carried into Ma-wera-1-nahr, and the Komaus-
his successor, Moktader Bi'llah, received an embassy from the a. d. 869.
Greek emperor to obtain a cessation of arms and an exchange
of prisoners. The beautiful character derived from the Cufie
belongs to, or rather was renewed at this period ; in which,
also, flourished several learned men, as Al Tabari, Al Battani, a. d. 932.
1 Elmacinus, p. 125-150-251 ; Abu-1-Faraj, Hist. Dynast., 1663, pp. 171,
173, 2 Theophanes, Chronograph., 866.
2n2

468 ORIGIN OF THE HUNNISH OR TURKISH TRIBES. [CHAP. XIV.
Decline ofthe Al Bazi, and Abii'l Senna.1 In other respects, however, this
khaliphat and reign was not prosperous. Many of the provinces ceased to
acknowledge the supreme government, and the defection in
creased to such an extent, that the actual power of Al Moctasi,
the fourth in succession from Moktader, was almost confined
to the district around Baghdad. Yamana, Bahrein, and the
subdivision of eastern parts of Arabia, were governed by Abu Thaler, the
e empire. Karmatian ; Fars acknowledged another chief who resided at
Shiraz; and Egypt and Syria obeyed a third. Africa was
ruled by the Fatimites ; Spain by 'Abd-el-Bahman ; Sicily
again acknowledged another chief, as did the provinces of
central Asia.2 But Baghdad, although still pre-eminent as the
centre of learning, declined in other respects during the fourth
century of the Hijrah; which was, however, remarkable for
the occurrence of some important events towards its close.
Origin of the The Huns and Turks appear to have been derived from a
Hunnish . *¦ i .
tribes. common stock, which, at a remote period, ruled one great
empire under Oghuz Khan, extending almost from the shores
of the Pacific (Corea), to those of the Caspian Sea. A
The northern division subsequently took place ; one portion of this people
HunsorTurks. . . . ^ J, f -,,, , " ,
The southern becoming known as the northern, and the other as the southern
Mongols. Huns, each having a chief called Tanjus, or Khan (emperor).
The former portion was driven westward towards Europe, by
the Chinese, and in the sequel these were known by the name
of Turks. The Persian historians, however, from aversion to
this name, substituted that of Tartars, giving to the other
section that of Mongols. The latter people, according to the
conclusive authority of the Chinese, occupied the eastern and
smaller portion of the Hunnish territories, namely, Khitan or
Khitay. This tract, which touches Mongolia proper, extends
from Corea to Kashgar,4 ' and was occupied by the Kin, the
ancestors of the Manchous.
ofXnTurklsh The °tlier branch of tJle Huns had their seat towards the
tribes. n'MS western side of the Steppes, (Tiiran) ; and from the river
1 Bibliotheque Orientale d'Herbelot, art. Eazi, &c. ; Abu-1-Faraj, Hist.
Dynast. 1663, pp. 191, 192; Elmacinus, pp. 185, 195.
2 Abu-1-Faraj, ann. Hijrah 318.
8 De Guignes, Hist, des Huns, vol. I., p. 213-272.
4 Gaubil, Hist, de Gench. Turk., p. 2-11.

CHAP. XIV.] CAMPAIGNS OF MAHMUD GHIZNI. 469
Jaxartes, they spread southward and westward, bearing occa
sionally the name of Tartars, but more generally the older
appellation of Turks : according to their own historians, their
common ancestor was Turk, a son of Japhet.
Oghuz Khan, his descendant, is said to have occupied
Turkistan about the time of Abraham. His descendants formed
numerous tribal branches, of which the Kiptshaks or Tartars,
who will afterwards be noticed, and the Oghuzes, were the most
remarkable. The latter gave rise to the various dynasties which
governed Afghanistan, Persia, Syria, Egypt, and Asia Minor.
The Turks appear to have first become known under the Rise of
distinguished commander Sabektekin, the governor of Khorasan.1 GhfznTd
Mahmud, his son, soon after his accession, assumed the title a. d. 1001
of Sultan, and having subdued the eastern provinces of Persia,
he proceeded to attack the king of Lahore. Being successful
in this expedition, he afterwards penetrated into the interior of
the empire ; when, nothing being able to withstand the enthu
siasm of his followers, he forced an advantageous peace from
the sovereign of Hindustan, and returned to Ghizni laden with
spoil. The subjection of Guriistan (Georgia) followed, and His campaigns
. . p T 1 • i • ln Georgia anc*
two years later, another invasion of India; but during thisindk
campaign a great many men perished in a flooded district, no
doubt the Bunn of Kach'h, which, however, he passed, though
with exceeding difficulty, and made good his march to Kho
rasan.2 During another irruption, a. h. 416, he subjected the a. d. 1025.
northern parts of India, and after putting about 50,000 men
to the sword, he returned to Ghizni laden with the inestimable
treasures of the Indian temples,3 and a vast number of prisoners
who were sold as slaves.4 His subjects, the Afghans, being Nature of thi.
chiefly cavalry, and depending for supplies upon the countries s ''"' '
they invaded, a distant march such as that into India was
speedily accomplished.
The descendants of the Khan of the Sea, the head of theRiseofTogrui
second branch of the Turkish Huns, were amongst those who bNshmenfof "
came from Transoxiana at this period ; and one of these was the Se,Jukides-
1 Mirkhund, apud Teixeira, p. 255 ; and Bibliotheque Orientale d'Her-
belot, art. Mahmud Ghizni.
2 Abu-1-feda, Chron., ad an. Hijrah 404.
3 The celebrated Gates of the Somnath, in Guzerat, were amongst these.
4 D'Herbelot and Mirkhund, apud Teixeira, p. 283.

470 THE AFGHAN CONQUESTS IN ASIA. [CHAP. XIV.
Origin of the Dohak, the father of Seljuk, who had acquired large possessions
dynasty. near Bokhara.1 The latter, who was brought up by Bigii, the
khan, is considered the founder of a dynasty bearing his name,
which in reality commenced with his grandson Muhammed,
who is better known as Togrul Be'i. An attempt to make
terms with the elder Turkish branch, then under Mahmiid
Ghizni, the ruler of Khorasan, appears to have failed, and that
province being successfully invaded, the prince, the first of the
Conquests of Iranian dynasty of the Seljukides, was crowned at Nishapiir,
a.d. io38.' A. h. 429. The conquest of this place was followed by that
of Herat and Meru ; and, during the wars with the Gaznevides,
which continued throughout the 25 years of this reign, many
a.d. io63. of the Persian provinces were subjected; 'Irak, and conse-
cVnqueste ofd <luen% Baghdad, being of the number : this city was taken
Alp Arsian. A. H> 455. Alp Arsian, or the courageous lion, succeeded to
a. D. io7o. the conquests of his uncle Togrul Bei; and in the seventh
a.d. 1071. year of his reign, he defeated the Greeks with great loss;
in another battle the following spring he gained a still more
decided victory near Malazkerd,2 when the emperor Bomanus
Diogenes was amongst the prisoners.3 Alp Arsian was slain
two years subsequently whilst contending with an assassin.
a.d. 1073. His son Malik Shah succeeded him on the throne, and during
his reign, Damascus, with the greater part of Syria, was added
a.d. 1092. to his territories. He died at Baghdad. This prince was the
greatest of the Seljukian conquerors,4 being sovereign of the
different countries lying between Egypt and the Jaxartes ; the
Dominion of whole of which had been acquired in the short space of 56 years.
the Seljukides. The g^ havbg injudiciously left ^ empjre fo ^
youngest of his four sons, civil dissensions were the conse
quence; but long before a separation took place, and whilst
the Seljukian power was still wielded by the same sovereign,
the enthusiasm of the Muslim people was raised to the utmost
height by a war of religion and, it may be said, of extermi
nation, which will presently be noticed.
' Bibliotheque Orientale d'Herbelot, art. Seljuk; Abu-1-Faraj, Hist.
Dynast, 1663, p. 225 ; Renaudot, pp. 439, 440; Elmacinus, pp. 267, 277,
278. 2 In Persia. — Hist. Orientale d'Herbelot, art. Alp Arsian.
3 Abu-1-Faraj, p. 227 ; Renaudot, p. 441 ; Elmacinus, p. 277.
4 Abul-1-Faraj, p. 237-239 ; Renaudot, pp. 447, 448.

( 471 )

>

CHAPTEB XV.
PRINCIPAL EVENTS CONNECTED WITH WESTERN ASIA FROM THE
TWELFTH TO THE NINETEENTH CENTURY.
State of the Seljukian rulers in the Eleventh Century. — Peter the Hermit
visits Jerusalem, and urges a Crusade. — The state of Europe favourable to
such an enterprise. — Progress of the first Crusaders through Europe and
Lesser Asia. — Favourabledisposition of the Fatimites. — Capture of Antioch.
— Divided state of the Muslims. — Capture of Jerusalem, and Massacre of
the People. — The Khaliph Nur-ed-din, and his General, Salah-ed-din. —
Change in Salah-ed-din's character. — Termination of the Fatimite dynasty
of Egypt. — Death of Nur-ed-din, and rise of Salah-ed-din. — Campaign in
Palestine. — Defeat, and return to Egypt. — Salah-ed-din's Campaign in
Mesopotamia, Syria, and Yemen. — Frank and Egyptian Fleets in the Red
Sea. — Capture of Aleppo, Sinjar, Nisibin, Damascus, &c. — Defeat of the
Crusaders at Hattin. — Salah-ed-din takes Jerusalem. — Tyre is retained by
the Crusaders. — The Franks being reinforced besiege 'Akka. — Salah-ed-din
encloses the besiegers. — Progress of the Siege. — Obstinate defence of the
Muslim Garrison. — Salah-ed-din marches towards Koniyeh. — The Franks
are reinforced from Europe. — 'Akka is closely pressed. — The Kings of
France and England arrive to assist in the Siege. — Fresh efforts of Salah-
ed-din to relieve 'Akka. — Several Battles are fought. — The Fortress ca
pitulates. — The Crusaders march against 'Askulan. — Defeat of Salah-ed-
din. — Treaty of Peace with Richard Cceur deLion. — Death, and Character
of Salah-ed-din. — The Franks are joined by a Fifth Armament from
Europe. — They are repulsed in Egypt. — Frederic II. arrives, and makes a
Treaty. — Louis IX. is defeated near Mansourah. — Battle between the
Templars and Hospitalliers. — Louis IX. lands in Africa, and dies near
Tunis. — The Franks are driven out of Palestine.— Separation of the Shi'ah
and Sunnie Creeds. — Limits, &c, of Mongolia. — Rise of Genghis Khan. —
Origin of the name.— Consolidation of his Kingdom.— Invasion of China.
—Subjection of Kharism, Khorasan, Persia, &c— Extent of his territories.
— Part of Russia is subjected. — Kiptshak becomes a Russian Province. —
The Persian successes of Genghis Khan.— Origin, and titles of Tamerlane.
— Turkistan subjected. — Fresh Conquests meditated by Tamerlane. —
Khorasan and Southern Russia subdued.— Campaign in Siberia, and against
Toktamish.— Taimur subjects Southern Persia, Baghdad, Mesopotamia,
Armenia, &c— Taimiir's Campaigns in India, Anad61i, Syria, Ac-
Capture of Baghdad.-Defeat of Bajazet.— Death of Taimur.— Taimur

4/2 INTERCOURSE BETWEEN ASIA AND EUROPE. [CHAP. XV.
and Alexander compared. — Tamuir's Successors, and subdivision of his
Territories. — Persia, and the Sophi Dynasty. — Nadir Shah and his Suc
cessors. — The Seljukians of Rum, and rise of the 'Osmanli Turks. — Sultan
Murad reigns at Adrianople, and conquers most of European Turkey. —
Career, and death of Bajazet, and temporary Restoration of the Seljukides.
— Success of Sultan Murad II. — Capture of Constantinople, and first use
of Gunpowder. — Sultan Suleiman extends his Conquests in Europe, trans
ports a Fleet to the Red Sea, and sails to India. — Organization of his
Empire. — Yemen, Georgia, Cyprus, and Daghestan are added to the
Turkish Territories. — Extent of the latter in the time of Muhammed III.
— Turkey comes into warlike Collision with European Powers. —Treaties
of Belgrade and Kuchuk Kainarji. — The French invade Egypt and Syria.
— War of Russia and England against the Porte, in 1806. — Accession and
Reforms of Sultan Mahmud II. — Effects of these changes. — Rebellion in
Greece. — Battle of Navarino. — Russian War of 1828 and 1829. — Loss of
Territory, and present Limits of Turkey.
Extension of Intercourse to a certain extent had, from very early times,
toweenTsia taken place between Europe and Asia ; but it was in the early
and Europe. part 0f fae peri0(j now t0 be considered, that a more intimate
and lasting connexion was established between these conti
nents. This was the consequence of warlike movements con
verging in opposite directions upon the regions of Western
Asia ; from which ultimately resulted, as it were, in repay
ment of the calamities of war, a marked improvement in the
condition of mankind.
During more than two centuries one inroad of mounted
warriors followed another from Central into Western Asia ;
and, Europe having been armed against the latter continent,
host after host of warlike enthusiasts was poured from thence
into Palestine, from a.d. 1097 to a.d. 1291, which, with the
conterminous countries, then became the point of attraction for
the nations both of the east and west.
Local associations which were intimately connected with the
Christian dispensation had long caused the Holy Land to be
an object of the deepest interest to the people of Europe.
Facilities _ From the time of the pious visit of the mother of the great
grim" visaing Constantine, and the foundation by her in the fourth century
Palestine. 0f various religious establishments in that territory, in order to
A. D. 1069. facilitate such journeys, pilgrimages were frequently under
taken from different parts of Europe to Mount Calvary. At

CHAP. XV.J CHANGE IN THE SELJUKIAN DYNASTY. 473
a later period, the chivalrous Abasside, Hariin-el-Bashid pre
sented his brother monarch Charlemagne with the keys of
Jerusalem ; and such were the facilities afterwards given by
the Muslim rulers, that on one occasion the pilgrims who
visited the Jordan, &c, in the train of the Archbishop of
Mentz, numbered 7,000 persons.1
These amicable relations were, however, seriously inter- Separation of
rupted by the political changes which occurred about this territory
period in the Seljukian dynasty. Malik Shah having incon
siderately left his empire to Mahmud, the youngest of his four
sons, the contests which ensued in consequence between these
princes and their uncle, led eventually to the division of the
territory into numerous governments, the four principal of
which were under as many sovereigns. I 'ran, or Persia, the most
important region, constituted, up to the time of Malik Shah,
the supreme government. That of Kirman commenced a. d.
1041, under the Seljukian prince Kaderd, whose ten successors,
in addition to the province in question, ruled over some of the
islands of the Persian Gulf. The third was that of Bum, or into four
Anadoli, which fell to the lot of Suleiman, the cousin of
Malik Shah, and the fourth was that of Syria and Palestine.
These last regions were the seats of the events immediately in
question, while the three former governments became of im
portance only at a later period.
Toucoush, or Tatash, the brother of Malik Shah, having a.d. iotg.;
wrested Antioch, and, subsequently, Jerusalem, from the
hands of the Christians, entrusted the government of the latter
to the emir Ortok, and with this ruler commenced the harsh
treatment of the Christians. An episcopal establishment was,
it is true, still tolerated in the holy city ; but the choice
between tribute oppressively exacted, and conversion to the
religion of Muhammed, was offered to pilgrims during the
seventeen years' dominion of the Ortokites in Jerusalem. a. d. 1094.
Such was the state of the city at the time, when a gentle- Pilgrimage of
Peter the
man of Picardy undertook a pilgrimage to it, in the hope of Hermit,
thereby expiating the errors of his youth. Indignant at the
treatment which he witnessed and experienced, he indulged
1 Gretser, de Sacris Peregrin., lib. I., cap. vi.

474

PETER THE HERMIT.

[chap. XV.

in preaching
the crusade.
A. D. 1095.

promised to
those who
joined in the
crusade.

and his success his ardent temperament on his return, by preaching throughout
Europe the deliverance of the holy sepulchre from the infidels.1
Twenty-one years previously to the appearance of this enthu
siast, Pope Gregory VII. had endeavoured to arm Europe
against Asia,2 and Urban IL, taking up the same views, sup
ported the project of Peter the Hermit, as the pilgrim was
designated. The prospect of recovering a city and territory hallowed by
the presence of the founder of Christianity, enlisted the hier
archy in its favour. Many persons joined the proposed expe
dition in order to indulge their ambition, or to repair their
broken fortunes ; whilst various immediate advantages, such
as immunity from incarceration for debt, the remission of
penance, absolution from all sins, and the assurance of eternal
felicity, as the reward of martyrdom, secured the support of
the common people. The sovereigns of Europe did not per
sonally join the first crusade ; but, in less than two years from
the return of Peter to Europe, multitudes of all ranks below
the crown, women as well as men, having a cross of silk or
cloth sewn on their garments as a badge of their enterprise,
assembled from every country of Europe, and, under the
standard of the cross, marched towards Palestine.3 The want
of supplies for an unorganized rabble, with other difficulties,
soon thinned their ranks, still 100,000 horse and 600,000 foot
are said to have reached the plains of Bithynia.4 The subse
quent march to Syria, and occasional contests with the enemy,
diminished their numbers so much that the force scarcely
exceeded 300,000 men, when Bohemund appeared before
Antioch. This city, from its connexion with the early history
of the Christian Church, had become a primary object of
interest, and it was carried after a protracted and bloody siege
of eight months.5
Shortly after the return of Peter the Hermit to Europe,
Palestine again acknowledged the authority of the Fatimites.6
i William of Tyre, p. 638.
2 Labbi. Concilia, torn. X., p. 44. 3 Ibid.
4 Willel. Tyr. de Bello Sacro, lib. IL, cap. xxi., and lib. III., cap. xi.
5 Ibid., lib. IV., cap. ix., x.
6 Renaudot, Hist. Patriarch. Alexandria, p. 478.

Numbers of
the crusaders.

A.D. 1097.

CHAP. XV.] ARRIVAL OF THE CRUSADERS IN PALESTINE. 475
But circumstances were now materially changed ; Jerusalem,
the main object of the European armaments, being now under
the paternal government of Moctadi, the khaliph of Egypt,
instead of the iron rule of Ortok.
The crusaders appearing as enemies ofthe Sunnie branch to Favourable re-
which Moctadi was opposed, this high-minded ruler of the Fati- mfseTb^the
mites was disposed to consider them as friends, and made rulerofEgypt
known that a safe and hospitable reception awaited them at
the holy sepulchre, provided they laid aside their arms.1
A haughty answer was returned to this proposal, and after
some delay in making arrangements, about 40,000 Franks2
continued their march ; when, having taken Bamla and mas
sacred a considerable number of Muslims, they proceeded
onward to Jerusalem or Al Kuds ; and the object of their
hopes and wishes soon appeared crowning the bare hills of this
part of Judea. The city stood a determined siege of forty capture of
days, which was terminated by a week of unrelenting massacre erusa cm"
in cold blood, when 70,000 Muslims perished, of whom,
10,000 were slaughtered in the Mosque of 'Omar.3
In 1117, following up these successes, the Franks besieged
Tripoli and attacked Damascus. These places resisted all
their efforts ; but they were more successful against 'Akka and
the neighbouring fortress of Kaifa, both of which were carried
by storm.
At this period the Muslim people were divided between the
contending creeds of the Shfah and Sunnie whose differences,
together with the separate interests of Syria, Damascus, and
Egypt, greatly facilitated the reduction of the country, so that
the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem, under Godfrey of Bouillon, The Ijatin
was easily established, and the Franks obtained possession of ^nr^a°™mof
Tripoli, Tarsus, Adanab, Sidon, as well as nearly the whole of established.
the coast. This took place after a second crusade, in which
nearly a million of persons had wasted away through famine,
1 William of Tyre, lib. IV., cap. xxiv.
2 The effective force appears to have been nearly 22,000, ibid., lib. VIII.,
cap. v.
3 Abu-1-feda, vol. III., p. 519, ed. Reiske, compared with William of
Tyre, lib. VIII.

476 SALAH-ED-DIN ASSUMES THE OFFENSIVE, [CHAP. XV.
a.d. 1148. pestilence, and the sword, during their march towards Da

mascus.1

Successful Nur-ed-din, son of Sanguin, a worthy representative of the
NuWUdm? earlier khaliphs, having united the governments of Aleppo
and Damascus, assumed the offensive against the remains of
the Frank armies, and after defeating them in a serious battle,
a.d. ii67. he took the fortresses of Harem and Panias, or Banias, by
storm.2 Three years afterwards the castle of Moneidera in
Syria fell, and subsequently the castle of Ja'ber ; 3 after which
the towns of Kinnisrin and Seruj, including the dependencies
of the latter, were ceded to him. In the following year, the
forces of Nur-ed-din, under his general Shairacuk, recovered
Egypt with the exception of Damietta ; the youthful Salah-ed-
din, nephew of the latter, being one of the emirs who were
employed on this occasion.4
The Latins feeling that the safety of their position required
the possession of Egypt, and being reinforced by a fleet and
army sent for the purpose by the Emperor Frederic, they pro-
a.d. ii69. ceeded by Tyre and 'Askulan to the mouth of the Nile; but
after an ineffectual siege of Damietta for nearly two months,
they were glad to secure an unmolested retreat to 'Askulan.5
a. D. 1170. Salah-ed-din, who had been very active on this occasion,
having assumed the chief command, penetrated into the terri
tories of the Franks ; but he returned to Egypt after taking
Gaza, without engaging their army.6 At a later period he
made another inroad as far as Sobal in Syria, and returned by
Aelath or 'Akabah to Egypt.7
Saiah-ed-din In the following year, a. h. 567, on the deposition and death
roy of Egypt, of Al 'Adhed, the last of the Fatimites, Salah-ed-din virtually
A. D. ii7i. became sovereign of Egypt, though he was still nominally a
dependent of Nur-ed-din. The extensive treasures of Al
'Adhed were now at his command, but Salah-ed-din, acting
according to that self-denying principle for which his uncle
1 Mill's Hist, of the Crusades, vol. I., chap. ix.
2 William of Tyre, lib. XIX., cap. viii,
3 Abii-1-feda, Chron. ad. an. Hijr. 564 ; Ibn Shonah ad. an. Hijr. 569 j
Abu-1-Faraj, Hist. Dynast., Pocockio, Oxon., 1663, p. 256-266.
4 William of Tyre, lib. XX., cap. vi., vii. 5 Ibid., cap. xvi.
" Ibid., lib. XX., cap. xx. r Ibid., cap. xxix.

CHAP. XV.J AND SUCCEEDS TO THE GOVERNMENT OF EGYPT. 477
was remarkable, distributed them amongst the emirs and judicious
troops, with such liberality that he gained their unreserved ^^
support, and, at the same time, the means of consolidating his
power. Giving way, however, to ambition, or, as stated by
historians,1 being influenced by better and far higher motives,
a great change took place in his character. From that time
Salah-ed-din not only carefully abstained from the vices of
wine and gaming, but as an expiation of his former crimes,2 he
resolved to expel the so-called unbelievers from the territory
which they had so long defiled by their presence.
The abolition of the Fatimites of Egypt, who were Shi'is Projects for
was celebrated by public rejoicings in Baghdad, in the belief tKTsimf
that there would follow the reunion of all Muslims under one Power-
spiritual head, as well as the humiliation of the Franks, whose
successes had been regarded as the just punishment of schisms
amongst the true believers. Nur-ed-din, although aware of
the real motives of Salah-ed-din, professed himself satisfied
with his conduct ; but on perceiving a favourable opportunity,
he was on the point of invading Egypt with one portion of his
army whilst the other was acting against the Franks, when his Death of
death delivered his nominal vassal from all apprehension. Nur-ed-dm-
Although Salah-ed-din was now firmly established on tbe
throne of Egypt, he still acknowledged himself the depend
ant of Nur-ed-dm's son and successor Al Saleh Isma'il Mu
hammed, and he caused prayers to be offered up in all the
mosques for the deceased monarch.
Making the unity of religion his avowed object, Salah-ed-din saiah-ed-dm
proceeded against Damascus, Ba'aibek, and Hamath ; when, Damascus,
having signally defeated Al Malik, Al Saleh, and his allies, Ba'aibek, &c.
near the latter places, having also subjected the Assassins of
Lebanon, with nearly the whole of Syria and Mesopotamia, he
returned to Egypt, where he assumed the title and prerogatives
of sultan, founded a college, built an hospital, and fortified the
city and castle of Misr.3
Previously to the accession of Salah-ed-din, the Latin king-
1 Ism. Abii-1-feda in Chron. ad. Hij. 565 ; Ibn Shohnah, ad. an. Hij.
565 ; Bib. Orient., p. 742 ; Abii-1-Faraj, Hist. Dynast., 1663, p. 264-276.
a Al 'Adhed's death has been attributed to him.
3 Abii-1-Faraj, Hist. Dynast., Pocockio, Oxon., 1663, pp. 267, 268.

478 CAMPAIGN OF SALAH-ED-DIN IN PALESTINE. [CHAP. XV.

Salah-ed-din,
as sultan,
takes the field
against the
Franks.

A.D. 1177.

Defeat of the
Muslims near
'Askulan.

Renewed
campaign in
Syria, fol
lowed by
peace.

Campaign of
the Muslims
in Northern
Syria.

Maritime
operations on
the Red Sea.

dom enjoyed comparative security, owing to the religious
animosity existing between the Syrian and Egyptian govern
ments. But the Christians having broken the truce, Beginald
of Chatillon seized a fortress on the borders of the desert, from
whence he pillaged a caravan; and satisfaction having been
refused, Salah-ed-din led a formidable army of 80,000 horse
and foot towards Syria, laying siege to 'Askulan as he advanced.
But whilst part of the sultan's forces was employed in foraging
and ravaging the country, the Franks made a determined and
successful attack on the remainder ; a confused retreat of
the latter across the intervening desert was the consequence,
which was attended with great loss in men and beasts of burthen
before the fugitives reached the confines of Egypt.1 Salah-ed-
din, notwithstanding this signal discomfiture, again took the
field, a. h. 575, and after carrying by storm a strong fort, which
had been constructed by the Franks to command the ford of
El Arjan, near Banias, he marched to protect the sultan of Al
Bum, Kilij Arsian, against the Armenians. A general pacifi
cation, which included Mosul and Diyar-Bekr, was the result of
this campaign, and Salah-ed-din returned to Egypt towards the
close of the following year, a. h. 576.- Shortly afterwards he
made an ineffectual attack on Beirut and Mosul ; but he was
more successful during the remainder of this campaign, when
he reduced, a. h. 577, Al Bohah, Bakkah, Nisibin, Seriij, and
subjected the country as far as the Mesopotamian Khabiir.
During the following year a part of Salah-ed-din's forces were
despatched into Yemen, where peace was established and his
authority recognised.2 The next operations took place on the
adjoining sea, on which the Franks had fitted out two fleets, with
an adequate force on board. One blockaded Aelath, and the
other ravaged the coast of Africa, near Aidab, cutting off the
communication between that port and Salah-ed-din's troops in
Yemen. These bold undertakings were wholly unexpected by
the Muslims ; but the viceroy of Egypt, Salah-ed-din's brother,
rapidly equipped a fleet, and after defeating the ships blockading
1 Abii-1-feda in Chron., ad. ami. Hij. 573; Ibn Shonah, ad. ann. Hij.
573. 8 Abii-1-feda in Chron., ad. an. Hij. 577 ; Abu-1-Faraj, Hist. Dynast.,
1663, pp. 270, 271.

CHAP. XV.] NAVAL OPERATIONS. 479
Aelath, he encountered the remainder off Babig, on the African Destruction of
coast. After a very protracted and bloody engagement, crusaders? the
vigorously sustained on both sides, victory remained with the
Muslims, who sunk several ships, slew many men, and took a
, great number of prisoners. From 579 to 582 operations were
continued with advantage to the Muslims. Amid surrendered
honourably after a siege of eight days, and Salah-ed-din gained
possession of Aleppo and its dependencies by treaty in return
for Sinjar, Nisibin, Bakkah, Seriij, and the tract along the river
Khabiir ; after which operations he took possession of the citadel
of Aleppo and marched to Damascus.1 But a.h. 583 produced Saiah-ed-dih
still more decided results. Salah-ed-din advanced to meet the crusaders
Franks, and drew up in order of battle ; but finding this did near Hatt1"'
not entice them to quit their position on the plains of Sepphoris,
now El Buttauf, he removed to a spot near the lake of Tiberias,
and this measure having also failed, he carried the town of that .
name by storm. Both armies now advanced at the same
moment, and a fearful engagement commenced near Hattfn,
which continued till night parted the combatants. On the
second day the contest still remained undecided, but on the
third, victory declared for the Muslims, who sullied their laurels
and the name of their prince, by putting to death 230 knights
after the engagement. Guy de Lusignan, the king of Jeru
salem, fell into the conqueror's hands, and was royally received ;
but Reginald de Chatillon was decapitated by the sultan him
self for the violation of a treaty, and the further perfidy of
intercepting and murdering in time of peace the persons
belonging to a caravan going to Mekkah. The defeat and dis- -Akka.Beirut,
persion of the Christian army was followed by the loss of 'Akka, &e™sfa|i™n'
Beirut, 'Askulan, and some other towns of the Frank kingdom, consequence.
Jerusalem was forthwith besieged, and the hopes entertained a.d. ns7.
by the Christians of a protracted and determined resistance
were disappointed, for in fourteen days the Muslim banners
were planted on the walls ; and Salah-ed-din, generously disre
garding his vow to revenge the massacre of his people when the
city was stormed by the Franks, granted a capitulation, by
which it was agreed that the garrison should pay for themselves
1 Abii-1-Faraj, Hist. Dynast., 1663, p. 271 ; Abu-1-feda, Excerpta, cap.
XVIII. p. 33.

480

SALAH-ED-DIN TAKES JERUSALEM [CHAP. XV.

by a fresh
army of
crusaders.

Terms ofthe ten Tyrian dinars each, for each of their wives five, and for
Jerusalem, each child two dinars, and should then be allowed to quit the
city in peace. Those who could not pay were to be made slaves.
The conqueror, however, modified these terms by accepting a
smaller sum, and allowing between 2,000 and 3,000 to depart
without any ransom whatever.1
Sal ah-ed-diri's first care was to release the Muslim prisoners ;
the next to restore the Temple to its former state ; and the third,
and most important, was the establishment of schools and
colleges. This prince was now master of the whole of Syria,
with the exception of one fortress, which still held out. This
siege affords a striking example of the protracted resistance
which may be made by a fortress, even when completely
Tyre relieved isolated. Owing to the noble defence of Conrad of Montserrat,
the ancient city of Tyre resisted all the efforts of the Muslims
under Salah-ed-din till the third army of crusaders reached the
coast of Syria in tbe early part of 1 19 1. This timely reinforce
ment not only saved the last stronghold of the Christians, but
it put the Franks in a condition to commence the siege of the
neighbouring fortress of 'Akka, with a force of 30,000 infantry
and 2,000 cavalry. This army was, however, in turn placed
almost in a state of blockade by the enterprising Salah-ed-din,
who for this purpose occupied the places in its rear from El
Nahr Al Halu, to Tell Ayadhiya. By- drawing troops from
Hamah and Other places, the Muslim prince acquired the
superiority in point of numbers, when a bloody but indecisive
engagement of two days took place, which was followed by
another. This last was disadvantageous to the Franks, and
Salah-ed-din. was enabled to reinforce the town, though the
siege still continued. The concentrated fire of a numerous
artillery, and the support afforded by means of parallel trenches
of attack, were then unknown ; and siege operations consisted
chiefly in manual combats between the opposing parties, which
were attended with much bloodshed on both sides. Scarcely
a day was allowed to pass without a powerful sortie being made
from the place, or an attack being made by the besiegers on
the covering army. In one of these the Franks penetrated
William of Tyre, p. 1019, et seq. ; Abii-1-Faraj, Hist. Dynast., 1663,
p. 273.

Battle under
the walls of
'Akka.'

m
m '-¦

¦o

CHAP. XV. J OPERATIONS BEFORE 'AKKA. 481
almost to the Sultan's tent, but, according to the Muslim Second battle
writers, they were repulsed with the loss of 10,000 men. The waiiTof e
subsequent retreat, however, of the sultan to Kheruba, in con- 'A^i'
sequence, it was said, of a bilious attack, affords ground to
believe that the Franks had a fair claim to the victory. Be Renewal of
this as it may, the necessity of defending Constantinople against 'Akuf* '
Barbarossa, who was marching against that city, prevented
Salah-ed-din from giving any further assistance to the garrison
of 'Akka. The siege was then renewed and continued on both
sides with unabated valour. Lofty towers were as usual em
ployed to enable the besiegers to gain tbe tops of the walls, and
the operations were aided by the Christian fleet. The former
structures were, however, destroyed by naphtha, under the
direction of an engineer from Baghdad, and the latter was
defeated by the fleet of the Egyptians, at the moment when the The Christian
J . . OJF. ' fleet defeated.
garrison was reduced to extremities.
Encouraged by this success, a formidable sally took place,
which, being supported by an attack from part of the sultan's
troops, caused tbe Franks considerable loss. This, added to the
effects of a pestilential distemper which appeared in the camp
about the same time, would probably have caused the abandon
ment of the siege had it not been for an opportune diversion by
Frederic Barbarossa, who had defeated two Muslim armies and
taken Iconium, which obliged the principal part of Salah-ed-din's
forces to march, in order to meet this exigency.1
The Franks being at the same time reinforced by 10,000 men Mutual efforts
under Count Henry, and again by other troops from Europe, besiegers and
redoubled their efforts, and large stones were thrown so sue- besiesed-
cessfully from powerful machines, that the garrison must have
been overcome had they not succeeded, during a well-timed
sally, in setting fire to, and reducing to ashes one of the principal
engines erected by Count Henry. Two other large engines
were afterwards consumed by fire-darts, having red hot points.
Provisions, however, began to fail in the town, when a tern- stratagem of
porary supply was introduced by a stratagem : vessels, of which to provision
the sailors were disguised as Franks, with ensigns bearing the ' e p ace'
1 Abu-1-feda in Chron. ad an. Hij. 586; Alb. Schult. in vit. Salad.
Bibliotheque Orientale, art. Salah-ed-din.
VOL. II. 2 l

482

CAPITULATION OF AKKA.

[CHAP. XV.

The sultan
succeeds in
relieving the
garrison.

Richard I
joins the
besiegers.

Capitulationof 'Akka.

A.D. 1192.

cross and having hogs on board, so deceived the Christians,
that they were allowed to pass into the port. Subsequently
other vessels, bringing every thing necessary to sustain a siege
till the succeeding spring, entered in like manner. On the part
of the besiegers, scaling ladders, with additional machines,
including a prodigious moveable tower, were brought close to
the walls ; but these were burnt as before during a sally ; and
in the following season, a. h. 587, a storm having driven away
the vessels of the besiegers, the sultan was enabled once more to
reinforce the garrison of 'Akka.
Although labouring under the disadvantages of a considerable
portion of the walls being levelled, two general assaults were
repulsed, and the breaches were again repaired by the Muslims.
The Franks now began to suffer from want of provisions as well
as from disease, when (a.d. 1192) reinforcements came from
Europe under Philip II. of France ; and later the lion-hearted
Plantagenet, called by the Arab writers Malik El Argetar
(king of England), arrived with a considerable force, brought
thither in twenty-five ships of war. Such a state of things
was calculated to discourage the garrison ; but on the other
hand the sultan was by this time sufficiently recovered from
his protracted illness to display some of his wonted energy.
Salah-ed-din's exertions to raise the siege were commen
surate with those of the besiegers to carry the fortress ; and the
contending armies being animated by the presence of their
sovereigns, who were rivals in bravery and skill, nine battles
were fought with various success, and many atrocities were
committed on both sides. At length the Muslim garrison
capitulated, under the sanction of their sultan, upon honour
able terms. But in consequence of some misunderstanding
and mutual failure in carrying out the stipulated terms, the
king of England, with the ferocity of that time, caused 3,000
prisoners to be put to the sword.1
Bichard, as generalissimo of the invading forces, now pro
ceeded towards 'Askulan ; the king of France leading the van
1 Abu-1-Faraj, Hist. Dynast., p. 274-276; Historiarum Patriarchorum
Alexandrinorum Jakobitorum, &c, by Eenaudot, 1713, p. 545; and Bib-
liotheque Orientale, art. Salah-ed-din.

CHAP. XV.] DEATH AND CHARACTER OF SALAH-ED-DIN. 483
during this march of about 115 miles, which was accomplished March ofthe
in ten days, and during that time a succession of engagements against
took place with Salah-ed-din, who constantly led his forces. 'AskuMD-
The Franks having demolished the walls of the fortress of
'Askulan, as well as those of Bamlah and other places,
Salah-ed-din encountered them once more in a general action
on the plains of Arsiif, and being defeated, with great loss, he
was prepared to listen to terms. The health of the rival
princes had suffered, and each being required elsewhere, nego
tiations were commenced. The personal interview proposed by Peace con-
Bichard was, however, declined by the sultan ; but acts of royal the Muslims.
courtesy were occasionally exchanged, and a truce was at length
concluded. By its conditions, the sultan retained Jerusalem,
with its dependencies, in addition to part of the territory of
Palestine, the rest of the latter being ceded to the Franks.1
Bichard now returned to England, and Salah-ed-din to
Damascus, where he disbanded his followers after liberally
rewarding their services ; but the constant toil to which he had
for some years been subjected brought on a bilious fever, which
terminated his life shortly after, a.d. 1194.2 This prince was Death and
a striking exemplification of the character of an eastern poten- saiah-ed-dm.
tate, being a man who possessed some of the darkest, and
many of the brightest, qualities of human nature. His rapid
rise was followed by ingratitude, if not by other crimes, towards
the family of his early benefactor, Nur-ed-din ; and he rapa
ciously seized the territory of many Muslim princes to gratify
his ambition : in some instances he exhibited cruelty, as well as
rapacity, particularly with regard to prisoners; but he was
otherwise mild, humble, patient, liberal, and rigidly just, being
ready at all times to attend to the complaints of the meanest
suppliant; and the empty treasury at his death sufficiently
proves that there was not anything selfish in the character and
actions of this chivalrous and distinguished warrior. He com
menced his career as the son of a simple Kurd of Tekrit, and
closed it in his fifty-seventh year as sovereign of an empire,
1 Abu-1-Faraj, Hist. Dynast., p. 419 ; and Bibliotheque Orientale, art.
Salah-ed-din. 8 De Guignes' Histoire des Huns, p. 237 ; Bibliotheque Orientale, art.
Salah-ed-din. 2 I 2

484 OPERATIONS AGAINST EGYPT. [CHAP. XV.
which extended from Barbary to the banks of the Tigris, and
from the Indian Ocean to the mountains of Armenia.
Ai-Assaal Ere long Al Assaal, the son and successor of Salah-ed-din,
laiah-ed-dm. lost a considerable portion of his dominions, which were seized
by his relatives and competitors, particularly by his uncle, Al
Malik Al 'Adel, who secured the kingdoms of Egypt, Damascus,
and Jerusalem ; and hostilities between Syria and Egypt being
renewed, the hopes and prospects of the Franks revived.
A flfth and A fourth armament of crusaders being assembled, and the
ment join the tedious march through Europe accomplished, the Latins took
crusaders. Constantinople by storm, a.d. 1204 -,1 and having, after three
day's slaughter ofthe inhabitants, placed Baldwin on the imperial
throne, they proceeded to divide the Greek territories amongst
the princes of the crusades. Few changes occurred in Palestine
for some little time, but a fifth armament, composed chiefly of
a.d. 1216. Hungarians, being equipped, the Franks landed at 'Akka, and
Expedition of advanced to Nabulus. Here discord breaking out, a part of
into Egypt.erS them proceeded to Damietta,2 and after having laid the country
waste as far as Cairo they returned to Palestine. They sub
sequently renewed this expedition and captured Damietta, but
having failed in an attempt on Cairo, they finally agreed to
restore Damietta, and to liberate the captives, with an under
standing that the invading forces were to return without
molestation to Palestine.3
Jerusalem In Syria, however, the efforts of the Franks were subse-
the Franks, quently more successful, and in a. h. 625, Jerusalem was occu
pied, on condition that the city should continue dismantled,
and the Muslims have free access to the two grand temples.
Several maritime places were ceded to the Franks at the same
A.D. 1228. time. Subsequently4 the Emperor Frederic II. arrived in
Syria, and by his intervention a treaty was concluded by which
Treaty con- the Muslims restored to the Christians Jerusalem, Bethlehem,
Frederick ii. and the rest of the country as far as Jaffa and 'Akka, together
with the towns and fortresses of the maritime part of Syria,
1 Villehardouin, 120, 130.
2 William of Tyre, p. 682 ; God. Mon. II., p. 388.
3 William of Tyre, 688, 694 ; Herold, lib. III., cap. vii., ix.
4 A. H. 626, according to Ibn Shohnah, ad ann. Hij. 628.

CHAP. XV.] LOUIS IX. PREPARES A SECOND EXPEDITION. 485
and even some places in the interior ; the liberation of prisoners
was likewise to take place on both sides.1 Peace appears to
have continued till a.h. 645, when the Karismians entered
Jerusalem and razed the fortifications of 'Askulan and Taba- .
riyeh.2 This led to the sixth crusade in the following year, A-D, 1249-
when Louis IX. of France landed his force at 'Akka, and after
a short rest, assumed the offensive by sailing towards Egypt,
where he occupied Damietta without resistance.3 But at this
place his success terminated, for after advancing to Mansourah, Defeat of the
and passing the eastern branch of the Nile, he was defeated in n^Man™1106
an obstinate battle, with that stream in his rear : great slaughter BOurah'
ensued, and a number of prisoners were taken, amongst whom
was St. Louis himself.4 By the treaty that followed the king
restored Damietta, and having paid a million of dinars he was
allowed to return to Palestine, from whence he proceeded to
France, where he was warmly received, notwithstanding the a. d. 1253.
signal failure of his enterprise.5 The inactivity that followed Battle between
the departure of the monarch ripened those jealousies which *ed hb?1"8
had been in abeyance among the crusaders, and their energies pliers.
being no longer exercised against an enemy, a battle was the
consequence among themselves, in which the Templars were
almost destroyed by their rivals, the Hospitalliers.6
By this time Louis had prepared another army, hoping to a. d. 1270.
wipe away his previous reverses ; but Henry III. of England,
taught by experience, was opposed to any fresh expedition,
and only consented to give partial support, by permitting his Edward
son Edward, and the Earls of Warwick and Pembroke, to join SS, rf*
the sovereign of France. SotT*
In the year 1271 the king sailed at the head of 60,000 Louis lands in
men, like himself full of ardour, so that much might have been ^^
accomplished had he not changed his plan and landed in Africa ^f ns
instead of Syria. At the siege of Tunis, which followed the
capture of Carthage, Louis died,7 and a fatal sickness caused
1 Annalum Boiorum Libri Septem., Joanne Aventino auctore, Ingoldstadt,
1554 p. 665. 2 Matthew of Paris, p. 683.
3 Joinville, 126. 4 De Guignes' Histoire des Huns, IV., 177, 191.
5 Ibid. ; Abu-1-Faraj, Hist. Dynast., 1663, pp. 322, 324.
6 Matthew of Paris, p. 684. 7 Histoire et Chronique du roi St. Louis,
par Ch. du Fresne Sr. du Conge, Paris, 1668, p. 28-128.

486 EXPULSION OF THE CRUSADERS. [CHAP. XV.
such severe loss among the troops that the commander of the
army returned to France. The force under Edward of only
1,000 men alone proceeded and landed at 'Akka in 1271.
Prince The reputation and daring character of the prince soon in-
Edwards r in • l'
campaigns in creased his little band to 7,000 men ; and after a succession ot
Land.°ly desultory, yet, on the whole, successful expeditions to the
interior, during which his bravery was frequently sullied by
much unnecessary bloodshed in sacrificing his prisoners, Edward
returned to England, after making a truce with the sovereign
of Egypt for ten years.1 This proved to be the last effort
made in the cause, for another crusade, which was sanctioned
by the Council of Lyons in 1276, fell to the ground.
The Franks in The Franks of Palestine, however, instead of prudently
bring on abstaining from aggression at the moment when they were
er war. (jepen(jen^ on their own resources ; by attacking certain Muslim
merchants, provoked a war, which was fatal to their cause.
Tripoli was taken by the Muslims in 1289,2 and two years
later, after a bloody siege, 'Akka surrendered to them. They
soon afterwards obtained possession of Jerusalem and the rest
a.d. 1291. ofthe Holy Land.3 Syria and Palestine have ever since been
The Muslims subject to the rule of Muslim princes, and, in the beginning of
Palestine. the sixteenth century, they were united to the Ottoman empire.
From that time those regions have suffered only temporary
convulsions in consequence of the efforts of the pashas to
become independent ofthe sultan, to whose authority, however,
the provinces of the empire have always reverted.
Thus terminated a desultory and desolating warfare, carried
on by the chivalry of Europe for more than two centuries,
without securing any of the objects for which they contended.
But though the ends were not gained, good has resulted ; for the
expeditions of the crusaders have, by opening new fields of
inquiry, been the means of enlarging our knowledge of the
1 Annals of Waverley, in Gale, vol. IL, p. 225 ; Continuation of Matthew
of Paris, 859.
2 Sanectus, lib. III., pars 1 2, cap. xx. ; De Guignes' Hist, des Huns,
livre XXI.
3 Sanectus, lib. III., pars 12, cap. xxii., xxiii. ; De Guignes' Histoire
des Huns, livre XXI. ; Hist, of the Siege of 'Akka, in Martenne, Vit.
Perip. Amp. Coll., vol. I., p. 782.

CHAP. XV.] POSITION AND LIMITS OF MONGOLIA. 487
East, and thus conferring important benefits on mankind with
respect to science and commerce.
But if the intercourse with Europeans made little alteration
in the social state of Syria and Palestine during the two
centuries of cruel warfare to which these provinces had been
subjected, most important changes occurred in the Muslim
dominions elsewhere, both with respect to political power and
religious doctrine.
The changes produced in matters of faith were far more The Muslims
permanent in their influence than those which were brought becomeCtwod
about by the sword ; for, in the sequel, they became the means emPires-
of separating the Muslim world into the Shi" ah empire of Persia,
and the Sunnie empire of the Osmanlis, each of which will
require a brief notice, on account of their influence upon
western Asia and eastern Europe.
The superficies of the plateau of Mongolia is very similar to Limits and
that of Arabia, and the habits of its people correspond to Mongolia! °f
what is known of those of the Kirgis Kazaks,1 in their normal
state. The plains of Mongolia lie between the Chinese terri
tory in about 27° 45' N.L., and Siberia in 52° 30' N.L., and
stretch from the borders of Tartary in about 84° E. L. to those
of Mandshouria in 122° E. L., giving for the air line, in the
former direction, nearly 1,500 miles, and in the latter about
1,200. Its superficies exceeds 1,200,000 geographical square
miles. The population is, however, very limited, scarcely
exceeding, it is supposed, 3,000,000 souls.
In order to give some account of the Turk or Tartar branch The
ofthe Huns, which is known by the general name of Mongols, Hunsg°han
the Scythians of Herodotus,2 it is necessary to go back almost
to the close of the twelfth century, at which time the most
remarkable period of their history may be said to commence
with Genghis Khan, or Yesoncay or Temugin, the chief of some
30,000 families, who was then in his fourteenth year. This
prince being unable to defend his possessions against the inroads
ofthe Mongolian khans, a.h. 566, sought protection from Oungh, A. d. mo.
the khan ofthe Keraites, and the Prester John of Europeans, who
1 See above, pp. 9, 10.
a Lib. I., cap ciii. ; Jeremiah, chap. V., v. 15, VI., v. 1, 22, 23.

488

EARLY CONQUESTS OF GENGHIS KHAN. [CHAP. Xv

A. D. 1175.
Rise of
Genghis
Khan.

A.D. 1192.

A.D. 1202.
Projects of
Genghis
Khan.

A. D. 1203.

A. D. 1205.

A.D. 1210.
His first and
second inva
sions of China,

A. D. 1215.

bestowed his daughter on his guest, raised him to a suitable
rank, and gave him the command of his army, with which, in
two pitched battles, Temiigin defeated the allied Mongolian
khans, who had conspired against him and his father-in-law.
Some years afterwards he fled to his own territories, a.h. 588,
being either justly or unjustly suspected of plotting against his
benefactor. It appears that, at this time, he rallied round him,
in addition to his own legitimate followers, many of the tribes
which had been subject to Oungh Khan; and at the head of
these forces he defeated his former protector, and usurped his
dominions, a.h. 599.
At the close of the same year, having succeeded in bringing
over to his cause the principal tribes of this part of Asia, he
summoned a great council of the Mongol and Tartar chiefs, by
whom he was proclaimed Khan of Khans, i. e., Genghis Khan,
which name he henceforth adopted, instead of that of Temiigin.
He next defeated the Naimans and subjected their country;
and a. h. 602, he declared his intention of invading China, as
well as southern Asia, as parts of the world which, by Divine
appointment, he was commissioned to conquer. Following in
other particulars the steps of his Muslim prototype Muhammed,
Genghis Khan promulgated a code of laws, and organized his
forces into bodies of tens, hundreds, thousands, and tens of
thousands.1 The advantages of this formation were tested
immediately afterwards, upon a rising of the Mongol chiefs
against his authority : five years were consumed in this warfare
before he was free to undertake the projected expedition to
China, which took place a. h. 607.
Being successful in this campaign, the sovereign of China
made peace with, and bestowed his daughter on the khan.
Notwithstanding this, the latter invaded China three years
later ; and, after conquering the Kiptshak territory, he again
invaded the former, and added the northern provinces of that
empire to his possessions : the authority of the chief was thus
extended eastward almost to Pekin.2

1 See vol. I., p. 674, and above, p. 101.
2 Ant. Gaubil., Hist, de Gentchise Khan, pp. 23, 24 ; Ibn Shohnali, ad
an. Hijrah 611.

CHAP. XV.] CENTRAL ASIA AND KHORASAN SUBDUED. 489
Genghis Khan was now solicited to give assistance to the Gengis Khan
khaliph of Baghdad against Muhammed Kothbeddin, the Kharism.
ruler of Kharism. The predecessors of this prince, had esta
blished a powerful monarchy in a part of the Seljuk dominions,
having its capital at Kharism ; and some ambassadors and
merchants of Genghis Khan having been murdered in this ter
ritory, the desired occasion for hostilities was thus afforded,
a. ii. 615. Genghis Khan proceeded towards the Jaxartes, a.d. 1218.
accompanied by his four sons, and a prodigious force. An He takes
undecided battle took place with Muhammed near that river ; and Balkh.
notwithstanding which, Transoxiana was subjected in the
course of the next two years, and Samarkand, although gar
risoned, it is said, with 1 1 0,000 men, fell after a lengthened
siege. The city was pillaged by the conqueror, who put
30,000 of the garrison to death. Genghis Khan, continuing
his conquests, then advanced to Balkh, a.h. 618, and having A. d. 1221.
massacred the inhabitants on account of the assistance they
had given to the son of Muhammed, he crossed the Paropa
misus, stormed Bamyan, and took Tiiz, Herat, and other
cities, overcoming everything like opposition with extraordinary
rapidity. During the years 619 and 620, the khan, partly by means a. d. 1222.
of his lieutenants, continued his successful career ; and having Congests and
subdued Great Bokhara, Kharism, Khorasan, Mesopotamia, Genghis
and part of Azerbaijan, he advanced beyond the Caspian Sea KMn-
to the banks of the Wolga ; after which, returning southward,
he reduced Kandahar, Multan, and Ghizni.1
During this expedition he held a diet of the khans and A. d. 1224.
generals of his empire, as well as of the ambassadors of con
quered countries, whose number on this occasion, it is said,
exceeded 500.
After this display of his power, he marched against China, a. D. 1226-7.
and died whilst attacking the province of Kin, then in his
seventy-second year, a. h. 623, bequeathing his immense pos
sessions to his assembled sons and grandsons, with these words :
" I leave you the mightiest empire in the world, but if you
wish to preserve it, be united." He was interred with great
' Ibn Shohnah, ad an. Hij. 623.

490

SUCCESSORS OF GENGHIS KHAN.

[CHAP. XV.

Character of
GenghisKhan

Batifs terri
tories in
Europe. ,

A.D. 1313.

The dynasty
called the
White Horde.

pomp, and a noble monument was afterwards erected over his
grave : trees being planted by those who visited the spot, it
became one of the finest sepulchres in the world.1
In addition to great prudence, a penetrating judgment, and
unconquerable resolution, Genghis Khan possessed temperance,
patience, and a degree of fortitude which was proof against
all difficulties ; and being gifted with natural eloquence to per
suade as well as to command, he had all the qualities requisite
for a great conqueror. But, on the other hand, he was bloody
and cruel ; and even when this propensity was not indulged,
he was disposed to treat his enemies with insolence and rigour.
Notwithstanding the dying advice of Genghis Khan, his ter
ritories, which extended westward from China to the river
Euphrates, were, like those of Alexander, after a little time,
divided amongst his generals. Of these the two principal ruled
over the Chinese and the Mongols. Another had Tiiran,
while the fourth and fifth possessed Persia and a part of Europe.
It appears that during the lifetime of Genghis Khan, his
grandson Batii carried his arms across the frontiers of Ger
many, and having conquered some of the Sclavonian, Turkish,
and Finnish tribes, he made the princes of Bussia his vassals.
To the territories thus acquired, the principal portion of which
was situated between the rivers Don and Wolga, he gave the
name of Kaptshak, or Kiptshak. The chiefs Becke, Meugku
Timiir, Talabugha, and Toktay, continued to occupy the seat
of government in the Crimea, which was afterwards known as
the Golden Camp ; and Hungary, Poland, and even Germany,
suffered from their ravages. The last of these princes, who
made himself remarkable by the abandonment of the Arabian
creed for that of Sabaism, was succeeded by the Uzbek, Mamay,
and the third successor of the latter was Toktamish Khan, the
founder of the dynasty of the White Horde. He carried
Moscow by storm, and ravaged Bussia. He also renewed the
treaties with the Genoese and Venetians, and was proceeding to
restore the ancient power ofthe Kiptshak, when Taimur engaged
in battle and destroyed his forces on the banks of the Kama.
1 Histoire du Grand Genghis Can, lr Empereur des Anciens Moguls et
Tartars, &c, par Sherif-ed-din, traduite par Petis de la Croix ; Paris, 1710.

CHAP. XV. J ORIGIN AND RISE OF TAMERLANE. 491
Some Tartar chiefs afterwards gained the ascendant, and The Crimea,
maintained themselves in the Crimea, on the Yaik, and at ^tiements of
Great Serai, one of them assuming the title of Khan of the the Eussia"
~, . , __ itt . • provinces.
b-olden Horde. In the contests which followed, the Bussian
princes began gradually to gain power, and the war, which
proved to be the last with the Golden Horde, was brought to
a close, by the defeat of the great Khan at Oka on the Don,
near Azov. The khanat of Astracan was afterwards subjected,
and two centuries later that of the Crimea was added by the
Empress Catherine to her territories : thus, in 1774, the once-
powerful kingdom of Kiptshak became a Bussian province.
Persia fell to Hulakii, another grandson of the great con- HuiaW and
queror ; and the son of Hulakii extended his authority over governCPers^..
the Seljukian princes of Anaddli. Ghazan, one of the suc
cessors of the latter, threw off his allegiance to the great khan
of Tartary, and he and his subjects embraced the Muslim
faith. This, however, was of short duration, for during the
reign of Aljapta Khan, the eighth from Hulakii, Persia ceased
to be a state, being then divided among several petty dynasties,
one of which possessed Baghdad, another 'Irak, and a third
Shiraz ; and thus it continued till there appeared on the
theatre of the world a conquerdr who eclipsed the warlike
achievements of his ancestor Genghis Khan.
This was Taimur-Bec, or Taimur-Lenk (the lame), the
Tamerlane of Europeans, under whom the tide of conquest
flowed towards that part' of the world, which comes more par
ticularly within the scope ofthe present work.
This prince, called by Eastern writers the fortunate, the Taimur
axis of the faith, and the conqueror of the world, was of f^^f uis
Mongol origin, being descended in the female line fromKhfin*
Genghis Khan.1 He quitted Turkistan in his twenty-fifth
year to share in the contests consequent on the division of the
Persian empire into separate kingdoms. Having declared war
against the emir Husein, chief of Khorasan, in consequence
of the treachery of this prince, who had previously been his
dearest friend, and whose sister he had married, Taimur cap- A. d. 1365.
1 Preface to Sherif-ed-din Ali's History of Timur Bee, by Mons. Petis de
la Croix.

492 tai'mur subjects part of persia and Armenia, [chap. xv.
tured the town of Nakhshab, and subsequently defeated Husein
himself near Balkh r1 being afterwards declared khan of Ju-
A. D. 1369. gatai, Samarkand became his capital.2
Taimur Some cause of hostility having arisen against the khan of
Turkish. Khinda, war was declared ; and in five well-contested campaigns,
not only was the territory of that khan subjected, but also
the part of Siberia and Great Tartary, now called Turkistan.3
These successes, by feeding the ambition of Taimur, did but
prepare the way for greater enterprises ; for, about this period,
he seems to have formed the design of making conquests
exceeding those by which, a little more than a century pre
viously, his ancestor had astonished the eastern world.
Takes the The new operations commenced in Khorasan and the
town of Herat, adjoining part of Persia. Herat having been taken by storm,
and the rest of the towns and fortresses having surrendered
without resistance, the whole of the kingdom became subjected-
to the authority of Tai'mur.4 Southern Persia was now
attacked, and subsequently Mazanderan and the other pro
vinces lying along the southern shores of the Caspian Sea.
The rest of the kingdom followed.5 Armenia offered no re
sistance, but Van, and the surrounding country, as well as
BevoK at Diyar Bekr, were defended for a time.6 A revolt at Ispahan
maTsacreof was punished by the massacre of 70,000 persons, whose heads
were piled on the walls by the orders of Taimur, each soldier
having been required to furnish a certain number. Many,
however, unwilling, it is said, to kill the Muslims, bought heads
of the executioner, and carried them as if cut off by them
selves, paying at first the high price of twenty Copaghi dinars
per head ; but when the required number was nearly obtained,
their price fell to half a dinar, until at length they found no
purchasers.7 1 Histoire de Timur Bee, par Sherif-ed-din, traduite par Petis de la Croix ;
Paris, 1722, liv. I., chap, xv., xvi.
2 Ibid., liv. IL, ch. i., ii. 3 Ibid., chap. xix.
4 Ibid., chap, xxx.-xxxiy. 6 Ibid., chap, xxxvii.-xl.
0 Ibid., chap, lviii., lix.
7 Ibid., chap. Ix. Schildberger, in his Wunderbarliche und Kurzweilige
Geschichte, &c, Frankfurt-on-the-Maine, 1554, says, when -Taimur took
Ispahan, he ordered about 7,000 children under fourteen years of age to be
trodden down by his cavalry.

CHAP. XV.] TAIMUR's CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE KIPTSHAKS. 493
Tai'mur now turned his arms against the Kiptshak. De- TaVmuVs
parting from the Gihon (Jaxartes), which he crossed on a campaign
bridge of boats, and passing Kara-suma, he continued his ^tamish.
march in a northerly direction as far as the great range of the a.d. 1389.
Altai. Here he turned north-west, and crossed the upper
part of the Tobol river in Siberia ; from thence proceeding
westward, he crossed the Ural mountains, and eventually drew
up his forces on the Biclaya, an affluent of the Wolga. Here a.d. 1390.
he encountered, and totally defeated, the army of his opponent
Toktamish, who had hastened thither from Orenberg to meet
him.1 Leaving the prosecution of the war to his lieutenants, Tai'mur
returned to Samarkand ; but, in the following year, he took a.d. 1.392.
the field, and engaged in a war which continued during five
years. Disturbances also broke out at this period in northern Tainim-
Persia, which were quelled by his generals, who exercised southern
the greatest cruelties on the people. Taimur now marched takes'3' *" -
towards southern Persia, and entered Fars through Luristan. Basnda<1-
Taking Shiraz and Kal'ahssefid on the way he proceeded
towards Baghdad, which surrendered without resistance. On
this occasion his troops swam across the Tigris, and thereby
impressed the inhabitants with an opinion that they were
invincible. Ahmed,2 the khaliph of Baghdad, who had fled
on his approach, was overtaken by Taimiir's generals before
he reached the Euphrates, and being defeated, he left his
harem and his sons in the possession of- the conquerors. The
scholars and artists of Baghdad were removed to Samarkand,
and as a means of preserving discipline amongst his troops,
Taimur caused the wine found in that city to be thrown into
the Tigris.3 a.d. 1392.
His operations were now directed towards Upper Mesopo- Subjection of
tamia. Passing the Tigris at Tekrit, which he took by storm Mesopotamia,
after a most obstinate defence, he proceeded towards Diyar Armema> &c-
Bekr, and having plundered the town he continued his march
to Edessa; but he returned subsequently to Mardin, being
1 Histoire de Timur Bee, par Sherif-ed-din, trad, par Petis de la Croix,
livre III., chap, x-xiv. s Ibid., chap, xvii., xix., xxi., xxii., xxiv., xxx.
3 Ibid., liv. III., chap, xxxii.

494 INVASION OF INDIA, CAPTURE OF DELHI, ETC. [CHAP. XV.
unwilling to leave an unsubdued foe in his rear. He laid siege
to this place ineffectually, but the prince of Mardin having
submitted, Taimur imposed the usual annual tribute ; and pro
ceeding by Bitlis through part of Armenia and Georgia, he
fought a great battle with the khan of Kiptshak on the river
Terek.1 Having subjected this territory he advanced as far as
Moscow,2 from whence he returned to Samarkand, to prepare
for the invasion of India.3
Taimur passes After receiving congratulatory embassies on the occasion
traverseTthe" from many of the countries of the east, Taimur marched
Panj-ab. against Mahmud, who had recently usurped the empire of the
A. D. 1398. late monarch of India, Firus-shah. Traversing the lower part
of the Hindu Kiish, towards its western extremity, he passed
. the Indus, and proceeded across the Panj-ab, nearly in the
line followed by Alexander the Great; from thence, after
putting to death 100,000 prisoners that his Tartar forces might
Capture of be unencumbered, the march was continued towards Delhi.4
return to ' The army of the Indian ' monarch was completely defeated
Samarkand. near £Q-g cj^ j.Qe immense treasures of which fell into the
hands of the conqueror ; and Taimur pursued the fugitive,
Mahmud, almost to the banks of the Ganges. Having esta
blished his authority in the country, he returned to Samarkand
before the expiration of the year.5
Campaigns in His assistance being solicited against Mirza Miran Shah, the
Anaddii,' and lunatic governor of Georgia, whose conduct had excited his
yna' subjects to revolt, Taimur again took the field, and entering
Georgia, he razed the temples, ravaged the country, and took
the towns and fortresses. The haughty conduct of Bajazet,
the Turkish sultan, having excited his displeasure, Taimur
marched into Anad61i, when Sivas was taken after a siege of
eighteen days. The 'Osmanli inhabitants appear to have been
spared on this occasion, but the conqueror indulged his savage
cruelty by burying 4,000 of the Christian defenders alive.6
1 Hist, de Timiir Bee, par Sherif-ed-din, trad, par Petis de la Croix,
liv. III., chap, xxxiii., xxxv., xxxvi., 1., Ii., liii.
2 Ibid., chap. Iv. 3 Ibid., chap. Ixv.
4 Ibid., livre IV., chap, i.-xx. ' Ibid., chap, xx.-xxxix.
Ibid., liv. V., chap. xv.

CHAP. XV.] CAPTURE OF ALEPPO, DAMASCUS, AND BAGHDAD. 495
From Sivas, Tai'mur proceeded into Syria against the Conquests of
Egyptian sultan Ferruj. 'Ain-tab, which was feebly defended, syr£.ur in
surrendered on his approach,1 when, continuing his march, he
routed the enemy near Aleppo. The Tartars entered the city
with the flying Egyptians, and plunder, with much bloodshed,
ensued.2 Leaving Aleppo, he proceeded against, and took
Emessa ; he also took Ba'aibek, which, according to Sherif-ed-
din, was built by Solomon.3 Damascus was taken soon after
wards, and its workmen carried into Turkistan.4 Advancing
towards Baghdad, Taimur constructed, at Mosul, a bridge over
the Tigris, which the whole of the army crossed in a week. a. d. 1402.
The inhabitants of Baghdad, who had revolted in favour ofRevoitof
i "n i r\ Baghdad and
the Jigyptian monarch, were cruelly punished ; 90,000 human punishment of
heads having, it is said, been piled in heaps in the town.5 * e peop e'
Taimiir was now to meet a more formidable enemy in
Bajazet. Assembling his forces near Aleppo he crossed the
great range of the Taurus, and penetrating into the interior of
Asia Minor, he found the Turkish sultan near Angora, at the
head of a well-appointed army, but inferior in strength to his own.
Bajazet, who had already filled Europe with the terror of his
name, had been lately besieging Erzingan : 6 he had been accus
tomed to overcome the warriors of Hungary, France, and Ger
many, and now he did not hesitate to meet the Tartars of Taimur.
A fearfully bloody and protracted struggle at length, how
ever, terminated in the route of the 'Osmanlis, and the capture
of sultan Bajazet.7 After taking Ephesus and Smyrna, and Taimur
ravaging tbe country, Taimiir returned to Samarkand ; 8 but captures
he died not long afterwards, in his seventy-first year, while at Angora! Bear
the head of an expedition proceeding against China.9
The sovereign of the Tartars and Mongols has, with much
reason, been compared with the great warrior of Macedon, who AD- 1405-
1 Histoire de Timur Bee, par Sherif-ed-din, trad, par Petis de la Croix,
liv. V., chap. xix.
2 Ibid., chap. xx. 3 Ibid., chap, xxiii.
4 Ibid., chap, xxvii. s Ibid., chap, xxxi., xxxii.
0 Ibid., chap, xxxiv.
7 Ibid., chap. Ivi., compared with Hans Schildberger's "Wunderbarliche
und kurzweilige Geschichte, &c. 4to. Frankfurt-on-the-Maine, 1554.
3 Ibid., liv. VI., chap. xxiv. ' Ibid., chap. xxx.

496

TAIMUR AND ALEXANDER COMPARED. [CHAP. XV.

Tai'mur
comparedwith
Alexanderthe Great.

TaimurV
successors.

Persia, &c,
retained by
his son.

A.D. 1502.

almost eighteen centuries before, traversed the steppes of Tartary
and the plains of India. But, if the rise of Taimiir, and his
subsequent success, appear more surprising than the brilliant
career of a conqueror, who had the inheritance of a kingdom
as the basis of his great achievements, it must be remembered,
on the other hand, that Alexander had to contend with well-
organized and mighty empires, whilst the Asiatic leader was
almost always engaged with undisciplined hordes, governed by
chiefs who were, in most instances, hostile to one another.
Great atrocities marked the career of Taimur, while such
deviations from the laws of humanity were the exceptions in
Alexander's course. In many particulars, however, the con
querors were alike. An organized plan was pursued by each,
and the territories subjected differed but little in extent. Both
protected and encouraged the arts and sciences, and were
remarkable for the judicious organizations of their territories.
The extension of Eastern commerce shows the enlarged mind of
the European conqueror, whilst the Tufukat, or Code of Laws,1
distinguished the later monarch of the Eastern world.
Mesopotamia, Syria, Asia Minor, Armenia, and the Kipt
shak, were lost almost immediately after the death of Taimur,
but the rest of the accumulated territories of the sultan were
divided and shared among his thirty-six sons and grandsons
and their competitors. His descendants were the prmces, de
signated the Great Moguls, who reigned over northern India
for about three centuries.
Shah Kokh, his son, retained Transoxiana, Tartary, Khorasan,
and Persia. The three first provinces were held by his descend
ants2 till these were expelled by the Uzbecks at a later period;
but Persia, and the provinces lying to the westward, were con
tested by two races of Turkomans, the one called the black
sheep, the other the white sheep. The latter race, however,
under Uzun Hasan, acquired the ascendancy over the other
tribe, and obtained the greater part of Persia.
The descendants of Uzun contended for his extensive terri
tories till these were themselves supplanted by Isma'il Shah,
1 Instituts Politiques et Militaires de Tamerlan. Longles, Paris, 1787.
2 Arabshah, Continuation of Hist. Timur, p. 146.

CHAP. XV.] NADIR ShIh's SUCCESSES. 497
the first of the Sophi dynasty. This prince, during the greater The Sophi
part of his reign, was almost entirely occupied in subduing the ynasty"
various provinces of the empire;1 but, by establishing the
Shi'ah faith in his kingdom, he laid the foundation of that
enmity which has beeome national between the Persians and
-the Turks.
Notwithstanding the wars with the Uzbeks on one side, and Nadir shah
the Turks on the other, the Persian monarchy was consolidated succes'sors.
during the reign of Isma'iTs successor, Shah Tamasp, and the
dynasty2 continued unbroken till the accession of Nadir Shah. a.d. me.
This daring and talented leader, who as the general of
'Abbas III. had distinguished himself against the Turks,3 having
established a rigid system of discipline in the army, conquered
, Afghanistan and Kandahar. After these successes he pene
trated into the Indian territories as far as Delhi, from whence
he returned with booty 4 valued at thirty-two millions of pounds
sterling. His death was followed by dissensions which caused
the loss of the Afghan kingdom, but the various competitors a.d. 1747.
at length acknowledged the authority of Kerim 'Khan, who a. d. 1759.
held the supreme power, and ruled equitably and mildly till
his death. Bussia took advantage ofthe contests which fol- A- d. 1779.
lowed the decease of Kerim Khan to take certain portions of
the Persian territory under her protection. The sovereignty a.d. 1783.
was at length acquired by the reigning dynasty, the Kajar, the a.d. 1789.
second prince of which was Futteh 'All Shah, the grandfather a. d. 1796.
of the present sovereign, Shah Muhammed.
Beverting now to the Seljukians : after the time of Malik
Shah their territories in Anaddli were divided into a great
many small districts, as Kara-si, Sarii-Khan, Aidih, &c, which,
under the 'Osmanlis, still retain their names and their limits.5
This people, the third branch which descended from the Origin ofthe
original Turks, continued for some time unknown, but they branch1 of
became in the sequel more important than either the Turkoman Turks-
or Tartar races. Their history may be said to have com
menced with Kayi, a chief of Khorasan, who fled from the
1 Texeira, cap. XL VIII., p. 339.
s Hanway, Revolut. Pers., vol. IV., p. 40. 3 Ibid., pp. 112, 121.
4 Ibid., pp. 134, 150. 5 See vol. I., pp. 309, 310, 314.
VOL. II. 2 K

498 FOUNDATION OF THE TURKISH EMPIRE. [CHAP. XV.
ad. 1234.' arms of Genghis Khan, a.h. 621, and conducted 50,000 of his
tribe to the neighbourhood of Erzingan. Three sons of this
prince, and their followers, afterwards returned to Turkistan ;
but the fourth, Ertoghrul, continued in the same place, and
obtained of his countryman, 'Ala-ed-din, the Seljuk sultan of
Kdniyeh, the small track of Sultan Ohi, as a fief.1 Ertoghrul
A.D. 1288. died a.h. 687, and was succeeded by his son 'Osman, who
founded the Turkish empire. A dream that a tree grew out of
his lap and overshadowed the earth- led, it is said, to his bril-
Successof liant career, The capture of the fortress of Melangena, now
first Sui'tsn of Kara Hisar, was his earliest achievement; Nice and Briisah
the Turks, followed ; and at a later period he even beleaguered Constanti
nople.2 Urklan, his son and successor, became independent of
the Seljukian sultan of Kdniyeh, and his reign was rendered
remarkable by the introduction of coined money, and likewise
by the formation of the corps of Janizaries.3 The advantages
of this organization soon became manifest. He forced the
A. D. 1330. Emperor Andronicus to take refuge under the walls of Con
stantinople ; he also conquered Bithynia, and the greater part
of Mysia. Subsequently, the Asiatic Greek provinces were
subjected, Nicaea became the capital of Urklan, and Gallipolf
a.d. 1333. was also taken.4
Conquests of Murad or Amurad succeeded Urklan, and Adrianople being
AuDn "r ' taken, two years later, it became his capital. This brought
a. d. i36i. on tne nrs,: European league against the Ottomans, The
A. d. 1363. Hungarians, led by their king, and assisted by the Bosnians,
Servians, and Wallachians, crossed the Balkan; but being
signally defeated by Murad, near Adrianople, the greater part
of what is now called European Turkey fell into the hands of
the conqueror.
A.D. 1386. At a later period he carried his arms into Asia, where a
victory gained near Kdniyeh, led to the subjection of 'Ala-ed-din,
the Seljukian prince of Karamania. His career was termi-
1 For this track, see vol. I., p. 321.
General Hist, ofthe Turks, from the beginning of the Nation, by Richard
Knollys, Oxford, 1610, pp. 142, 143, 161.
3 Yeni-cheri, or the " new troops."
4 General Hist, ofthe Turks, &c, by Richard Knollys, p. 183.

CHAP. XV.J SULTAN BAYAZID EXTENDS HIS EMPIRE. 499
*
nated three years later by the dagger of an assassin, after he
had gained a brilliant victory over the confederate Hungarians,
Poles, &c, near Kossova.1
Bayazid (Bajazet), his successor, overran Greece, and ex- sultan Bayazid
tended his dominions towards the south-eastern provinces of^f^1"3
Germany, as well as over the Seljukian principalities in Asia, a.d. 1389.
with such rapidity, that he gained the name of Lightning
(Ilderim).2 He was attacking Constantinople for the second
time, when he was called to defend his possessions in Asia
against the famous Taimur.
The fatal battle already mentioned, which took place near Temporary
Angora, led to the re-establishment of the Seljukian princes in Tt^e sdjuWans.
Asia, and also to a series of contests for the succession amongst
the three sons of Bayazid, which, after an interregnum of nearly
twelve years, ended in favour of Muhammed L, who regained a.d. 1413.
the Asiatic territories by expelling the Seijukians from Kara-
mania. Murad IL, his successor, though loving and seeking the quiet Success of
,, . , n . . .n j ¦ Sultan Murfid
of peace and retirement, was almost incessantly engaged in wars, n.
partly in Asia Minor, but chiefly in Greece and Thessaly, and A. d. 1422.
subsequently with the Hungarians, who were defeated in a great
battle near Vascape (Varna).8
Nearly the whole of Greece was subdued by Murad ; but the
prince of Epirus, the well-known Scanderbeg, maintained his
province by his fertile military genius and great intrepidity.4
The reign of Miihammed IL commenced A. h. 855, and became
memorable by the overthrow of the Greek empire. Having
taken Bulgaria and the fortresses of Sophia, Butschuk, and
Silistria, the Turks commenced making preparations for the
siege of Constantinople. The fall of the splendid capital of Use of
Constantine took place after a resistance of fifty-three days, and Muhammed
it was accelerated by the use of siege artillery of vast calibre. constanti-nS
The employment of an explosive power had been already n°Ple--
known, according to the Turks, for some centuries. Their
account states that the castle of Alexandria was reduced
1 General Hist, ofthe Turksj &c, by Richard Knollys, pp. 189-201.
s Ibid., pp. 203-211. 3 Ibid., pp. 296, 297.
1 Ibid., pp. 315, 316.
2 K 2

500 USE OF SIEGE ARTILLERY AGAINST CONSTANTINOPLE. [cHAP. XV.

First use of
gunpowder.

A.D. 1512.

Conquests of
Sultan
Suleiman in
Europe.

A.D. 1529.

Suleiman's fleet proceeds.
from the Red
Sea to India.

A. H. 244, 245, by means of a kind of gun, which had been
excavated in the rock.1 Among the warlike machines prepared
for the siege of Constantinople, was one of those gigantic pieces
of ordnance which still defend the passage of the Dardanelles.
This immense weapon of destruction, which, by the explosive
force of gunpowder, threw a stone ball of 100 pounds weight,
was cast at Adrianople under the superintendence of a rayah,
and being transported from thence by 150 yoke of oxen, it
was placed in battery before the walls of Constantinople.2
The province of Servia, and the city of Otranto, in Italy,
were also added to the Turkish dominions during the reign of
Muhammed ; but his successor, Bayazid II., added nothing to
the extent of the empire. During the reign, however, of the
next monarch, Selim I., which proved to be short and cruel,
though glorious, a part of Persia, Syria, and Egypt, were sub
jected.3 Sultan Suleiman succeeded and commenced his career by
taking Belgrade from the knights of St. John ; he subsequently
captured Buda ; after which, having defeated Lewis, king of
Hungary, he overran his kingdom, and, advanced to the gates
of Vienna. He was compelled, however, to raise the siege of
that city ; but in 1562, Charles V. and his brother Ferdinand,
ceded to Suleiman the greater part of Hungary, and paid him
a tribute of 30,000 ducats. The successes of this prince were
not confined to his land forces ; his navy, then the finest in the
world, participated largely in them. One of his fleets scoured
the coasts of Italy, Spain, and Africa, and another was floated
on the Bed Sea. The timber for its construction being cut in
the forests of Cilicia, was transported from the port of Adalia
to Pelusium, and from thence carried up the Nile to Cairo.
Here it was prepared in frame, and when ready to be put
together and floated, the whole equipment, including cordage,
guns, anchors, provisions, &c, was transported on camels to

1 An officer of Artillery, the Ka'ia Be'i of the Pasha of Widdin, read this
circumstance to the Author, from the books of Acklat Minoree, and Halet
Tary. 2 General Hist, of the Turks, &c, by Robert Knollys, p. 343.
3 Ibid., pp. 517, 526, 530, 531.

CHAP. XV.] SULEIMAN RETURNS FROM HIS INDIAN EXPEDITION. 501
Suez for this purpose. Seventy-five large sbips, besides smaller
vessels, being launched,1 Suleiman's admiral sailed down the
Bed Sea to Tor, Jiddah, Camaran, and 'Aden, from whence he
proceeded through the Indian Ocean to attack the Portuguese
at the island of Diu, in the gulf of Cambay ; but although he
had sixty-two galleys, with a number of smaller vessels, and
upwards of 20,000 men in addition to the fleet and army of the
king of Cambago, he failed in the attack, and retreated, leaving
his tents, artillery, and 1,000 wounded men. After this dis
comfiture he returned to 'Aden.2
In the economy of his government, Suleiman appears to have Military and
followed the examples of the earlier khaliphs, particularly those ^ofSamz3''
of 'Omar and ' Abd-el-'Aziz, in regulating most judiciously the Suleiman.
civil, religious, and military polity of the empire. Poetry, as
well as the arts and sciences, were also encouraged, and the
laws concerning property were wisely established. Suleiman
was the most distinguished of the 'Osmanli Sultans, and wasA.D. i56<.
deservedly surnamed the Great.
During the reign of Selim II. who succeeded him, Yemen selim n. con-
and Cyprus were added to the Turkish dominions, and the anTcypnis.n
Turkish navy was superior to the united Christian fleets in the
Mediterranean. On the establishment of peace in Europe, the
Sultan commenced a canal to unite the river Don and the
Wolga. Murad III., or Amurad, the son of Selim, again increased Georgia and
the Turkish territories by the acquisition of Georgia, Dagbestan, subdued. U
&c. His troops having afterwards crossed the Caucasus to a.d. 1574.
support the khan of the Crimea, they made their way through
Southern Bussia and Bessarabia to Constantinople, having in
fact, perhaps for the only time in history, rounded the Black
Sea. During this reign diplomatic relations were established
with the principal nations of Europe, and a commercial treaty Political and
with England was concluded by Edward Berton. This formed reiauons°ia
the basis of the existing friendly and advantageous mercantile ^^ ^g^
relations of this country with Turkey. of Em-ope.
Sultan Muhammed III., on his accession, found himself at
1 General Hist, of the Turks, &c, by Richard Knollys, p. 670.
2 Ibid., p. 676, compared with MafFeei, Indica, pars IL, lib. IL. cap. xv.

502 FORMER EXTENT OF THE TURKISH EMPIRE. [CHAP. XV.
Extent ofthe the head of a more extensive empire than that under Justinian ;
dominions in for, including the tributary principalities of Moldavia, Walla-
M^hammtd cnia> Ragusa, and the khanat of the Crimea, it extended from
1IL Barbary northward to Poland, and from the Adriatic Sea east
ward to the extremity of Arabia.1 A rebellion in Asia, sup-
A.D. 1603. ported by Persia, and some reverses in Hungary, caused a
diminution of the Turkish power in the next reign, that of
A. d. 1623. Sultan Ahmed. Mustafa I., 'Osman IL, Mustafa IL, and
Murad IV., were the succeeding sultans. The reign of the
last, which commenced at twelve years of age, was in the begin
ning unfortunate for Turkey. Asia Minor was ravaged, Bagh-
a.d. 1624. dad was taken by the Persians, and 150 vessels, manned by
Cossacks, appeared even before the walls of the seraglio.2 But
towards its close Baghdad and most of the Asiatic provinces
were recovered. Ibrahim I., a prince given up to luxury, suc
ceeded, and perished during a revolt of the Janizaries. Mu
hammed IV., who followed, lost the greater part of Hungary
to the Imperialists, and was afterwards deposed.3
Turkey was from this time in closer contact with the prin
cipal European powers, and wars with them, particularly with
Bussia and Austria, were frequent during the reigns of Sulei
man III., Achmet IL, and Mustafa III. But the stirring
campaigns of this period, in some of which Charles XII. and
Prince Eugene shared, produced little change in the extent of
a.d. 1718. the Ottoman empire previously to the peace of Passarowiez;
when the Venetians and Poles recovered part of their terri
tories, and the Austrians regained the whole of Hungary, with
A.D. 1730. the exception of the Banat of Temeswar.
Chief cause of During the reigns of Mahmiid I., 'Osman III., 'Abdu-1-
these wars. Hamid j Selim m ., Mustafa IV., Mahmiid IL, and 'Abdu-1-
Mejid I. ; that is, from 1730 to the accession of the present
sultan in 1840, frequent and by rio means inglorious contests
were carried on by Turkey, principally with Bussia, which,
however, have been followed by a considerable diminution of
territory. 1 See Sultan Suleiman's letter to the Emperor Ferdinand, Knollys' Hist.,
p. 789.
* Cantemir, Oth. Hist., p. 243. 3 Ibid., p. 284.

CHAP. XV.] RUSSIAN WAR WITH THE LATER SULTANS. 503
The war which commenced in 1736 was carried on by Bussia Treaties of
and Austria jointly against the Porte, and terminated in 1739leS!and
by the double treaty signed at Belgrade and Nissa. The two KainarJ'-
powers restored to the Porte the provinces of Wallachia and A' D' 1739'
Servia, which had been conquered by Prince Eugene ; but
Russia gained some advantages. These, at the subsequent
treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji, were again increased ; and, besides
the great and little Kabarda, she acquired the protectorship of
Moldavia and Wallachia, and that of the Crimea. In conse
quence of the campaign of Prince Potemkin, the Crimea was
incorporated with Bussia at the peace of Jassy. Austria had a.d. 1792.
previously taken the fortress of Belgrade, and secured the pos
session of it by a treaty concluded at that place.
A new enemy now appeared in the southern part of the The Frencn
Turkish empire ; for the French, under their great leader andasyriafP
Napoleon, invaded Egypt, and besieged 'Akka with a view to a. d. 1798.
ulterior designs. These designs were, however, defeated by the a. d. 1802.
well-timed efforts of the British and Turkish forces.
Another war commenced with Bussia in 1806, in which Russia and
England took a part. The British fleet passed the Dardanelles war against*
and threatened Constantinople at a moment when the city was Turkey- AD 1806
quite unprotected ; but the Turks, under the direction of
Count Sebastiani, by extraordinary efforts, mounted upwards of
1,000 heavy guns in the short space of 36 hours; so that, the
city being now protected, and the retreat being likely to be
endangered, the British fleet repassed the Dardanelles with
some difficulty. The Bussians, however, continued their ope
rations on the land side with much success, and even reached
the Balkan ; but the energetic exertions of Sultan Mahmud at
length forced them to retreat beyond the Danube, and peace
was concluded with England about the same time. A. D. 1809.
Sultan Mahmud II. carried out, but on a more extensive Reforms, &c,
scale, the reforms which had been projected by Selim III. ; but Mahmud.
the changes which were made in the organization of the army
and in the civil departments of the state, were, as is usual with
innovations, ill received by the people at large, and there were
risings in Albania, Damascus, Baghdad, and Egypt, for the
purpose of opposing the plans of the sovereign. Under these a.d. 1812.

504

IMPORTANT POSITION OF TURKEY. [CHAP. XV.

Effects of the
battle of
Navarino.

Campaigns
againstTurkey in
1828, 1829.

Existing extent of the
Turkish empire.

discouraging circumstances the sultan concluded a peace at
Bucharest, by which the country beyond the Pruth, and the
Eyalet of Childir near the Caucasus, were ceded to Bussia.
Some years later the fatal battle of Navarino was followed by
the separation of the Greek provinces, and by another war, in
which the young and imperfectly-organized troops of the sultan
were opposed to a powerful Bussian army, which had at the
same time the command of the Black Sea.
The line of the Danube, supported by Varna, Schumla, and
the grand mountain barrier of the Balkan, was bravely defended
by the new levies till towards the close of a second campaign,
when, Silistria and Varna being at length taken, Count Die-
bitsch, by a skilful manoeuvre, passed the mountains, and occupied
Adrianople, the second capital of European Turkey. Peace was,
however, made, and five millions of ducats were paid to Bussia
as an indemnity for the expenses of the war.
By the treaty of Adrianople, and those which preceded it,
the power of Turkey has been impaired, but less seriously than
may, perhaps, be supposed. Her principal territorial losses
were — in Europe, Greece, the remaining portion of Hungary,
and the country beyond the Pruth : in Asia, a portion of
country near the Caucasus : and in Africa, Algeria. It must
be observed however, that the Porte still retains Egypt and
Syria, with the rest of the countries lying between Eastern
Barbary and the Danube ; and thus occupies an important
position between the western parts of Europe and the eastern
parts of Asia, on her retention of which the peace of the world
mainly depends.

( 505 )
CHAPTER XVI.
INTERCOURSE BETWEEN EUROPE AND ASIA.
Settlement of the Indo-Chinese and Egyptian races.— The similarity of the
Monuments of Art denotes a common origin of the People. — First settle
ment in Bactria. — Spread of Religion and Knowledge from thence to
Hindustan, to China, the Indian Archipelago, and America.' — Resemblance
of the People of the latter country to those of Central Asia. — The Syro-
Arabian race, and extent of their Territory. — The Scythian people and
their early Conquests. — Character, Government, &c, of the ancient Scy
thians. — Their settlement in Mesopotamia, and on the borders of Egypt. —
Affinity of the European and Asiatic Languages. — Inroads of the Kim-
merians, the Scythians, and Franks, into Europe. — Connexion of the Scan
dinavians and Normans with the East. — Settlements in Europe previous
to the Irruption of the Black Sea. — Settlement of the Celts in different
parts of Europe. — The Scandinavian worship handed down from Asia. —
Colonies from Spain -and Barbary settle in Ireland. — Central Asia con
nected with Greece through Asia Minor. — Relations of the latter country
with Persia. — Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus derived their knowledge
in part from Asia. — The Grecian Sages seek instruction in Asia. — De
mocritus. — Philosophy and Astronomy first cultivated in Asia. — Orpheus
the supposed founder of the Greek religion. — Thales studied in Phoenicia
and Egypt. — Pherecydes the Tutor of Pythagoras. — Solon visits Egypt
and Lydia. — Ctesias. — Hecateus. — Hellanicus, the cotemporary of Hero
dotus, writes a history of Persia and Babylon. — Pythagoras visits the
Egyptians, the Chaldeans, Persians, and Scythians, and returns to Greece.
¦ — Plato visits Egypt, acquires Eastern learning, and makes Philosophy
attractive. — Aristotle derived his knowledge from the East. — Plato's phi
losophy was founded upon that of the Persians and Indians. — Democritus
is instructed by the Magi and Chaldeans, and travels to India and Ethiopia.
— Antiquity of the Magian and Indian tenets. — The Greeks improve upon
Eastern Literature. — Herodotus and his Acquirements. — Isocrates and his
Pupils. — Astronomy, Mechanics, Geometry, Mineralogy, Botany, and Me
dicine, derived from the East. — Hippocrates. — Galen. — Intercourse with
the East, by Merchants and Travellers. — Journey of Marco Polo. — Genoese
commerce. — Queen Elizabeth encourages Commerce with Babylon, &c. —
The French Republic attempts to open a Commerce through Egypt. —
Travels of Jenkihs. — Benjamin of Tudela, and others. — The Author visits
Asia, and descends the Euphrates in 1830.
The rise and progess of the European nations were little more"Asiatic foun-
than the continuation of the state of advancement previously European
attained in eastern countries ; the history of the latter, there- hist01'y.
fore, becomes an introduction to that of the former. The
languages of all, and the religion of most Asiatic races, are so

506 MOUNTAINS AND PLAINS EXTENDING INTO CHINA. [CHAP. XVI.
closely linked, that they must, according to Diogenes Laertius,1
have had a common origin ; and it can scarcely be doubted,
that the noble structure of European civilization was based
upon the science, commerce, and industry of Asia.
In the preceding pages the intercourse between the eastern
and western nations has been occasionally noticed, but a more
connected view of the subject will now be taken, with reference to
"the influence which that intercourse has had upon Europe itself.
The Taurus The first great change, which was the consequence of the
fngpiainsj0in" sPread of the pastoral tribes from the banks of the Hid-
reguiated the dekel and the Frat, was no doubt, in a great measure, brought
progress of the i i i i • i c
pastoral tribes, about by the wants of the people and the physical structure ot
the earth. The progress of the human race from Shinar, in a
northerly direction, till it encountered the first natural barrier,
has already been noticed,2 and elsewhere will be found a
description of the Tauric chain, which probably influenced their
subsequent progress.3 The plains bordering this vast barrier
afforded to the first wanderers an almost continuous and suitable
Extent of line of country, stretching to the confines of the Indo-Chinese
DyTheyindrd races in 143° E- longitude ; whilst the plains of Arabia served
Chinese races. t0 carry the Mizraim branch ofthe same people into Africa."
The ancient remains towards the extremities of these lines
are sufficient to prove that the social state of the people in
The Indian those places was far advanced ; and that their temples, excava-
monumentsan tions, and other works of art, were nearly alike. And since
testify a there has not been at any period a colony sent from either
commonongin ....... .
ofthe people, region to the other, this similarity of their monuments, which
has been so frequently noticed by travellers, can scarcely be
explained in any other way than by assuming a common origin
for the people who had been so long and so completely sepa
rated. And may not the knowledge of arts and sciences which
was manifestly possessed by the earliest inhabitants of eastern
Asia, and by the people of Egypt, be considered as a proof
that when those regions were first occupied, mankind was not in
a savage, but, on the contrary, in a civilized state, such as may
be supposed to have been the result of instruction derived from
a common line of ancestors ?
1 Lib. I. 2 See above, pp. 35, 36.
3 Vol. I., pp. 67-71. l " See above, pp. 21, 22, 50, 51.

CHAP. XVI.J CENTRAL" ASIA ONCE THE SEAT OF THE SCIENCES. 507
The circumstances connected with the settlement of the sons
of Mizraim1 are sufficiently well understood ; but not so the
eastern branch of the Cushites, in connexion with which several
circumstances of interest, which have not been already noticed,
may now be mentioned.
There is reason to believe that the tracts lying between the The banks of
rivers Oxus and Jaxartes were once inhabited by a people ^reonce'the
whose dominion extended over Bactria and Margiana, and •whoseatofach'i-
....... . . 7 hzed people.
spread civilization from thence into other countries, at a period
long anterior to the mytho-historical age.2 M. Bailly, the
celebrated astronomer, came to the conclusion that the source
ofthe sciences, particularly of astronomy, was in this part of The Indians
Asia, and that the Indians and Chinese had derived their suppoiedto6
religious and other knowledge from thence.3 have derived
t iii-ii their know-
It appears that the day on which the sun enters Aries was 'edge from
chosen for the foundation of Persepolis: it was observed also
in connexion with some of the most remote events of Chinese
history ; and these facts may serve to prove that the duration
of the solar year had then been determined,4 and was made sub
servient to chronological purposes.
I'ran5 afforded an easy intercourse with India and China
during the earlier, and with western countries during a later,
period of the world. The position of Aryavarta, the holy land
of the Brahmins, and the admission of the Hindus themselves,6
show that they derived their sciences from the north-west ; and
the similarity of their religion and language to those of the
Persians, strengthens the belief that the region in question, the
country of the Arians,7 was the seat of their ancestors.
1 See above, pp. 21, 22, 50, 51.
a Antiquites de la Nature et de la Langue des Celtes, par le R. P. Dom.
P. Pezron, Docteur en Theologie, Paris, 1703.
8 Lettres sur l'Origine des Sciences, et sur celles des Peuples de lAsie, par
J. S. Bailly. 8vo, Paris et Londres, 1777, pp. 18, 19.
4 Ibid., p. 42-44.
5 In its largest sense it extended from the Upper Euphrates to the Indus.
Vol. I., p. 65.
6 Institutes of Menu, book IL, 17, 18-; and Elphinstone's Hist, of India,
vol. I., p. 388.
7 Or Arias. This was the designation both of the Persian and Indian
branch. Commentaire sur le Yacna, par M. Eugene Burnouf, 4to, Paris ;
and Herod., lib. VII., cap. lxii.

508 SPREAD OF THE MAGI EASTWARD. [CHAP. XVI.
The religion, , like the philosophy of a nation, frequently
determines its origin. That of the Magi, for instance, who
followed the mysteries of Mithras, is more ancient than that of
the Egyptian worship ; l and the Magi gave birth to the Gym-
nosophists or Brahmins of India.2
The Brahmins The dominant tribes appear to have accompanied their
indiadin leaders from Persia to India; the Brahmins themselves not
being natives of the latter territory, but individuals who brought
thither a foreign language and foreign sciences.3 The sages in
question were, in reality, only the preservers of ancient meta
physics, which, as well as the arts in general, had been handed
down by a people of higher antiquity.4 At a period anterior to
regular history, a civilized empire existed, it is , believed, in
Philosophy higher Asia ; for massive foundations of walls, gold, silver, and
sciences de- copper vessels, diadems, weapons, ornaments of dress, which
rived from nave Deen discovered in the Tartarian tombs, with instruments
higher Asia. '
of bronze, such as knives, swords, spear-heads, statues, remains
of miners' tools, and various domestic utensils, have been found
in the steppes of Asia. Some of these have been deposited in
the Museum of the Imperial Academy of Sciences at St.
Petersburg, and by their execution it is evident that they must
have belonged to a civilized nation.5
Spread of In addition to the Hindus, the people of Central Asia,
to eastern0ple mcmding *ne Mongol races, are supposed, according to some
Asia and authorities, to have spread into the Indian Archipelago, and
even to the New World, which they may have reached by the
way of Behring's Straits.
It is admitted that at the time of the discovery of America,
two distinct races were found inhabiting that continent. One
appears to have come from the north, and to have constructed
the yet existing remains. Three-fifths of the various dialects
1 Aristotle de Philosophic, lib. I.
2 Clearchus apud Diogenem Laertium, lib. I.
3 Lettres sur l'Origine des Sciences et sur celles desPeuples deTAsie, par
J. S. Bailly. Paris et Londres, 1777, p. 89.
4 Ibid., pp. 152, 153.
5 An Inquiry into the Origin of the Antiquities of America, by J. Dela-
field, Cincinnati, 1839, p. 85, compared with View of the Russian Empire
during the Reign of Catherine IL, by William Tooke, F.R.S., Wogan.
London, 1801. Vol. I., pp. 256, 257.

CHAP. XVI.J SPREAD OF AN EARLY RACE FROM ASIA TO AMERICA. 509
of the American Indians resemble the Mongolian languages of Affinity of
northern Asia ; and the remaining two-fifths have an affinity to langua^and
the dialects of Scythian origin. With respect to the other race, Jf0^6^;*058
from a careful examination of their language, mythology, hiero
glyphics, astronomy, architecture, religion, and customs, as well
as the cranial formation, ample evidence is deduced that they
came from Southern Asia.1 As the arts and sciences just men- Supposed
tioned correspond with those which were common to Hindustan on^m" ofthe
aud ancient Egypt, the American people must have descended E™ptkns.d
from some race which had imparted their peculiar ideas and
manners to these two oriental regions. Egypt and Hindustan
appear to have been occupied by the branches of one powerful
family, which established in each country its peculiar system
of astronomy, and there built cities, and erected temples and
pyramids, which they covered with hieroglyphic carvings,
whose remains are splendid monuments of their greatness.2
Almost coeval with the dawn of history, another race, the The syro-
Syro- Arabian, appears to have occupied the tract between se'mitic race.
Assyria and Egypt. This, which is considered as the principal
Semitic race, is particularly known by its two leading branches,
the Nabatheans, who extended across the peninsula, and the
Chaldeans. It has been seen,' that one portion of the latter
was seated in Babylonia; whilst others, such as the Beni
Khaled, preserved their warlike habits by continuing a nomad
life. The steppes of Mesopotamia, Syria, and Arabia, belonged
to this race ;4 and besides preserving the Semitic language, and
handing down the great truths connected with the early history Their state of
of mankind, they applied themselves to medicine, natural advancement'
history, mathematics, and other branches of learning, which
found their way from thence to Europe, particularly through
Barbary and Greece.
The other great section of mankind, the people of Tiiran, People of
are first noticed in early history as the ancient Scythians ; and se^nd section
according to Justin, they conquered the greater part of Asia, of mankmd-
1 Inquiry into the Origin of the Antiquities of America, by John Dela-
field, J. R., Cincinnati, 1839, p. 25-32.
2 Ibid., p. 102-104.
3 See above, pp. 31, 40, 52, &c. 4 Ibid., p. 52

K?

510 CHARACTER OF THE SCYTHIAN PEOPLE. [CHAP. XVI.
about 1500 years before Ninus.1 At the height of their power
the territories of this people embraced about 110 degrees
of longitude, or 5000 miles from east to west, and more
,than 200 miles of latitude northward from the borders of
Persia.
Their fru- Virtues, which the Greeks acquired by learning and philo-
martLi spirit, sophy, were natural to the Scythians ; whose laws were calcu
lated to prevent luxury, fraud, and wickedness, and at the
same time to cherish that martial spirit for which they were so
justly famed in history.2 Scythia had a regal government, and
the crown was hereditary, but the monarch might be deposed,.
or even put to death, if he violated the laws. The people were
The Scythians satisfied with covered waggons, drawn by oxen or horses, which
¦waggons as served for dwellings, and likewise to convey their families and
dwellings. furniture from place to place. Like the Egyptians, they
embalmed the bodies of distinguished individuals, and their
interments were conducted with great pomp and solemnity.3
Bodily The Scythians possessed great bodily strength, being inured
moderation of to labour ; but although prone to war, their passions were under
ispeope. guck gQjjfo.Q^ thai; they made no other use of victory than to
increase their fame. Theft was considered such a crime, and
so severely punished, that their flocks wandered from place to
place in perfect security ; while they subsisted on their milk and
were clothed with their skins.4
The spread of such a people could not fail to have an influence
on those countries in which they settled : their migrations were
extensive; and one of the earliest of these took place under
Finiusa,5 the chief of a Scythian tribe, who is said to have
proceeded into Shinar, where he established schools in which
the sciences and languages were taught ; and he invited Gadel,
son of Eathon and Cavik Jar, son of Neamha the Hebrew, to
superintend them. He afterwards returned to Scythia, leaving
1 Lib. IL, cap. iii.
8 Herod., lib. IV., cap. xlvi.
3 Justin, lib. IL, cap. ii. ; Herod., lib. IV., cap. xlvi.
4 Justin, lib. IL, cap/ ii., compared with Thucydides, lib. IL, p. 200.
5 From this prince, according to Delafield, the name of Phoenicia had its

CHAP. XVI. J SCYTHIAN COLONIES SPREAD INTO EGYPT. 511
his son Niul in Mesopotamia. The latter proceeded to Egypt,
and received as a dowry with the daughter of Pharaoh, a ter
ritory along the Bed Sea, called Capacerunt.1
Not being an idolater, this prince is said to have favoured Niui favours
the passage of the Israelites through his territory ; and having the Israelites.
given umbrage to his father-in-law in consequence, he avoided
his wrath, by embarking on the Bed Sea. After the death of
Pharaoh he returned to Egypt, and was succeeded by his son
Gadelus, whose grandson Sru, with his followers, proceeded to
Spain, and thence to Ireland.
This fabulous account at least shows the belief that in ancient Scythia sup-
times there had existed a connexion between Scythia and been connected
Egypt, which appears to have embraced other countries also. Wlth Egypt-
The affinity between the Persian and Hindu dialects, and
again, between these and the western languages, particularly
those derived from the Scandinavian German, added to the
resemblance between the mythology of the latter country and
that of the Persians and Hindus, seem to prove that both the
religion and the people were derived from, or at least connected
with, a common stock.
Amongst the earliest people noticed were the Kimmerians, The Kim-
who came from Mseotis and settled between the Don and the j^Eu^."18
Donau,2 and were succeeded in the sixth century b.c by the
Skythinians or Scythians, to whom as the more permanent
possessors of the country there will be occasion to revert. Still
greater interest, however, belongs to another tribe, which is
stated to have come into this part of the world after the Trojan
war. It appears that one portion of this Asiatic race remained
on the upper Don, under a chief named Turchi, whilst the re
mainder were led by another called Franco, to the banks of the Franks settle
Bhine, where they commenced building a city, which was to in ermanv-
have been called after their leader, but which does not, how
ever, appear to have been completed.3 Both the Franks and
1 An Inquiry into the Origin of the Antiquities of America, by J. Dela-
field, Cincinnati, 1839, p. 76-78; and Keating's History of Ireland, London,
1733. 2 Herod., lib. I., cap. ciii., civ.
3 Fridegarius Scholasticus, Hist. Franc. Epist.

512 EARLIEST COLONIES FROM ASIA TO EUROPE. [CHAP. XVI.

The Franks
descendedfrom the
Trojans.

Also the
¦Scandinavians and Normans.

Europepeopled from
Asia before '
the irruption
of the Black
Sea.

The Celtic
tribes settle in

the Dardanians1 seem to have been connected with the history
of Troy ;2 for it is stated that some of the Trojans were led by
Antenor into Europe, and having at length reached the upper
part of Italy, they settled between the Alps and the Adriatic
Sea, and gave the name of Troya to a part of this tract. Again,
there was at one time near Asburg, in Cleves, a city called the
holy or lesser Troja. Another writer connects the Franks
with the fugitives from Troy, who came, it is said, into Europe
by way of Mseotis and the Tanais, after the fall of that cele
brated city.3 Moreover, it appears that a belief of a descent
from the Trojans prevailed among the Scandinavian pirates ;4
and, according to a similar tradition, the ancient Normans built
a palace in Sweden, called Trojenburg, also a city named
Troja, which was situated between the river Hackeguaw and
the lake Hartgrepos Lagetrog.5 Near to the latter is the farm
house called Troja-mala, and the Troja forest.
It is very probable that part of Europe was peopled by
Asiatic tribes antecedently to the change which took place in
the basin of the Mediterranean,6 in consequence of the irruption
of the Black Sea through the Bosphorus, and the subsequent
passage of the waters into the Atlantic by the Gaditanian
straits ; the Greek islands being the remains of the submerged
country, over which the wanderers had passed. But of. other
branches which spread westward from northern Scythia, till
arrested by the Atlantic, there are more, particulars. One of
these Scythian tribes has been known by various names, as
Saces, Sacks, or Sacse, Celtse, Gauls, Galatai, Cimbrians, and
Kimper.7 Traces of this race, whose name Celts, signifies
potent, valiant, and warlike, are found at various places between
1 Diod. Sic, lib. V., cap. xxx.
2 Tradunt multi eosdem (Francos) de Pannonia fuisse degressos, writes
the Frank historian Georgius Turonensis.
3 Ptolemy, lib. III., and Dio Cassius, lib. LV.
4 Dudo, "Willemus Gemmeticensis Orderic Vitalis, ibid.
5 These traditions were related to the Author by a learned Swede.
6 Cosmos, by Alex, von Humboldt, vol. IL, p. 117.
7 Antiquite de la Nation et de la Langue des Celtes, autrement appeles
Gaulois, par le R. P. Dom. P. Pezron, Docteur en Theologie. Paris, 1703,
pp. 8-12.

CHAP. XVI.] IMMIGRATION OF THE CELTS AND OTHER TRIBES. 513
the Danube and the extremity of Spain ;: but previous to their
departure from the region situated between Media and Bactria,
they were called Gomerians.2 Without, however, going back
to the sons of Gomer, it would appear that an immigration into
Europe took place about 590 b. c, when Bellavese3 led a portion
of this people from the shores of the Black Sea into Italy, various parts
Their colonies were also found in the lower part of Germany, ° urope'
along the Danube, extending into Pomerania, and likewise into
Illyria, Helvetia, and Gaul. From the latter country, they
invaded the British islands, and originated the Picts or Cale
donians, Welsh, and Irish : the branches of this stem were
numerous, and continued to be powerful throughout Europe,
till they were broken by the Boman power.4
The government ofthe Celts was monarchical: the Curetes, Government
Druids, Bards, &c. interpreted the laws, and administered the °^ Europe!8
sacred rites. Spacious groves, and those singular altars of
massive unhewn stones that are found in many parts of the
countries just mentioned, belonged to their primitive ceremonies,
which, with the assistance of the Dews .and images of darkness
belonging to the ancient Scandinavian worship, appear to have
handed down the mythology of Zoroaster, or rather that of
Ahriman. Colonies from Asia appear to have reached the most western Asiatic
portion of Europe by two different routes ; the earlier people Ireland by the
entered Ireland through Germany to the north, and the later, ^thesoilth.1
called Milesian, at the south-western extremity, having come
thither by sea from the Mediterranean. The numerous cir
cular entrenchments throughout Ireland are connected with the
1 It has been observed that a resemblance exists between the names of the
ancient provinces of Spain and certain words of Persian origin. Thus Tur-
detani, Lusitani, Basitani, Carpetani, &c, answer to Khoristan, Farsitan,
Kurdistan, Dahistan, &c. Hence several philologists have inferred the
Asiatic origin of the first inhabitants ofthe Peninsula. Histoire comparee des
Litteratures Espagnole et Francaise, par Adolphe de Puibusque (Paris,
1844), compared with Researches into the Physical History of Mankind,
by J. C. Prichard, vol. Ill, p. 44-47.
2 The Kimmerians, already noticed, whose seat is mentioned by Ptolemy,
lib. VII., cap. xi., xiii.
8 Meaning in Sclavonic, White-beard.
4 Researches into the Physical History of Mankind, by J. C. Prichard,
vol. III., p. 49-62.
VOL. II. 2 I.

514

EARLY SETTLEMENTS IN IRELAND. [CHAP. XVI.

The Tuatha
De Danann
people.

Traces of a
colony from
Barbary.

The Huns,
Bulgarians,and Hua-
garians, settle
in Europe.

former race, and traditionally with the Danish invasions. But
as the conquests of this people do not appear to have extended
either to the south or the west of Ireland, and as the remains
go further back than the invasions in question, in the eighth
century, it is not impossible that the chains of forts may have
derived their name from the supposed- Asiatics, who are called
in Irish history, Tuatha De Danann i1 by this people they may
have been constructed as inclosures for their flocks, and also in
part for the protection of their families.
Passing over the traditional history of Boath, Gadelian, and
the Milesian race, it appears that Lughaidh, with a view to
recover the Irish possessions of his cousin Milesius, proceeded
thither with a fleet and army of Gadelians ; and about 1300
b. o, according to Keating, overcame the Tuatha De Danann.
Many local circumstances confirm the belief of a connexion
between Spain and the south-western coast of Ireland, and an
impression prevails that at one time a colony came thither also
from Barbary. During a visit made to Ireland in 1821 by
Sadi Omback Benbe'i, then envoy from Morocco, this indi
vidual overheard some people in the market-place at Kilkenny
making remarks on his person and dress in a dialect which was
intelligible to him : he recognized it as one which was spoken
in the mountains to the south of Morocco,2 and with which he
had been familiar as a boy.
Besides the preceding, other Asiatic tribes subsequently came
into Europe ; namely, the Massagetae, the Gets, the Sarmatians,
and finally, the Alamians, led by fourteen different chiefs, who,
with their followers, settled between the Dnieper and the Don.
To these succeeded the various Hunnish tribes whose inroads
and conquests have already been noticed. These were fol
lowed in succession by the Bulgarians, Hungarians, and others;
so that from about 80 b. c to the Mongol invasion in the thir
teenth century one horde after another poured into Europe from
central Asia; thus probably connecting, through the ancient
Scythians, the remains of the central Asiatic empire with the
western nations.

1 Royal Genealogies, by James Anderson, D.D. Lond., 1776, fol. p. 777.
2 The circumstance was related to Professor Hinks, LL.D., ofthe Munster
College, by the individual himself.

CHAP. XVI.] ASIA MINOR CONNECTED WITH l'llAN. 515
Besides the population thus drawn from Asia, there were Knowledge
other sources of civilization which could not fail to have a^toEgypt!1
lasting influence on the development of the human mind. A
thirst for knowledge carried the ancient sages either into Asia,
as the original seat, or to Egypt, which had become the depo
sitory of the learning of the east. From the remotest period
Asia Minor has served as the high road between Asia and
Europe, and having been peopled chiefly from Armenia and
Assyria, two of the provinces of I 'ran, it continued in a great
measure dependent upon the latter, even when its political
importance had almost ceased. The establishment of numerous
Grecian colonies on the shores of this territory at a later period,
made, therefore, but little change. The mass of the people
continued as before more Persian than Greek.1 Asia Minor Asia Minor
was no less distinguished for its wealth and civilization, than p^sk with
for the number of great men to whom it gave birth, and who Greece-
imparted the knowledge which they had drawn from the east to
their neighbours in the west.
Our early associations too frequently foster the belief that the
brilliant productions of Greece were entirely original, although
most of the early authors of the country itself, as well as those
who afterwards examined the subject dispassionately, were philosophy
aware that the most remarkable works were but the reflex of science's ob-
the eastern literature, &c, obtained from Asia, either directly '^"^J™™
or through Egypt. Herodotus says,2 " I think Melampus was
a wise man, who introduced many things into Greece, which he
had previously learnt in Egypt, and amongst others the mys
teries of Dionysius, which he taught with some alterations of
his own. At all events," adds this candid writer, " I am sure
that the Egyptians have not borrowed this or anything else from
the Greeks, for if any knowledge or institutions exist in Greece
similar to those of Egypt, we may be certain that they were
borrowed from the latter country."
Diodorus Siculus, taking the same view, but stating it still Several Greek
more strongly, gives a list of those Greeks distinguished byS!8"17"1
their wisdom and learning who had gone to study the laws and
1 The Carians, according to Thucydides, spoke Persian as fluently as
Greek. 2 Lib. II., cap. xlix.
2 l2

516 THE GRECIAN SAGES SEEK KNOWLEDGE IN EGYPT. [ CHAP. XVI.
sciences of Egypt'.1 It is recorded in the sacred books of the
priests, that Orpheus, Musseus, Melampodes, Daedalus, Homer,
and Lycurgus of Sparta, travelled to Egypt; and at a later
- period, Solon, Plato, Pythagoras, Eudoxus (the mathematician),
Democritus of Abdera, and Inops of Chios, also resorted
thither.2 Some memento of each individual has been preserved
in that country ; and in some cases, likenesses are shown, and
even places named after them or the science they pursued. It
cannot, therefore, be doubted that they had been to Egypt, and
acquired everything for which the country was, at that time,
celebrated.
The hymns It is said that Orpheus borrowed from thence most of the
' hymns to the gods, as well as' his orgies, and the fables respect
ing the lower regions.3 But be this as it may, the ceremonies
of Osiris and those of Isis and Ceres differ only in name.4 The
same author states5 that Melampodes imported the service of
Dionysus (Bacchus), the fables relating to Saturn, those of the
battle of the Titans, and almost the whole Grecian mythology
the Grecian from Egypt. Pythagoras, he tells us,6 borrowed much informa-
mythoiogy ; ^Qn from ^e sacred books ; and the remarkable fact is added,
that he was indebted to the Egyptians for his knowledge of
geometry, as < well as of arithmetic, and his system of meta
physics. Democritus is said to have acquired extensive knowledge of
astronomy during the five years he resided in Egypt ;7 and
Inops, who lived a long time with the priests and astronomers
of that country, imported from thence into Greece the signs of
astronomy the zodiac, the fancied orbital motion of the sun, and many
and the other ,. . -
sciences other circumstances.
Egypt!6*1 fr°m Diodorus Siculus likewise proves that Greek sculpture owed
its origin to Egypt ;9 and Jamblichus10 goes so far as to deny
that civilization derived any benefit from the Greeks ; but it
may be observed that this author was much prejudiced against
1 Diod. Sic, lib. I., sec. ii., cap. xxii., xxxvi.
2 Ibid., cap. xxxvi.
8 Ibid.
4 Ibid. 5 Ibid. « Ibid.
7 Diog. Laert. de Vit. Philos., lib. IX., seg. xxxiv. et seq.
8 Ibid. 9 Lib. I., sec. ii., cap. xxxvi.
10 De Mysteriis, lib. I.

easternnations.

CHAP. XVI.J ASTRONOMY, ETC., DERIVED FROM ASIA. 517
them, in consequence of their upholding paganism in opposition
to Christianity.
Diogenes Laertius, who was well acquainted with the history Philosophy,
of philosophy, literature,- and civilization generally, begins his derWc'd'fr'om''
book by stating that most authors maintain that philosophy had ™
its origin among nations foreign to the Greeks ; for it was cul
tivated among the Persians by the Magians, among the Baby
lonians and Assyrians by the Chaldeans, among the Indians by
the Gymnosophists, and among the Celts by the Druids, who
were likewise called Semnothu or prophets.1 Aristotle2 and
Sotion3 say that Phoenix, Ochus, Zamolxis the Scythian, Atlas Sabaism and
of Libya, and Vulcan, the son of Nilus, an Egyptian, were the invented by
first philosophers, and their followers were called priests orthebarbamns-
prophets. Clemens of Alexandria repeats the words of Dio
genes Laertius, adding many curious details ; and Plato, in
speaking of the origin of astrology and Sabaism, says that
astronomy was invented by the barbarians, but had been
improved by the Greeks."
An individual, however, bearing the name of Orpbeus, and
belonging to a much earlier period, claims attention before this
philosopher, as having had a great influence on the poetry of the
Greeks. According to Plato, the first religion of the Greeks was very Sabaism the
i j ii ii 1 i ancient reli-
simple ; and tne sun, tne moon, and nature in general, were wor-g;onof Greece.
shipped among them as among the barbarians.5 Philo Judseus
adds, that their rites were composed from the religions of differ
ent nations ; the idolatry, fables, and superstitions of the Greek
mythology dating from a later period. Orpheus, who intro
duced foreign doctrines and ceremonies,6 may be considered
the founder of the religion of the Greeks, as well as of their
poetry ; and it has been supposed, with much probability, that
the actions of several individuals have been ascribed to Or-
1 Diog. Laert. de Vit. Philos., lib. I., seg. i., ii.
s Magic, lib. I., apud Diog. Laert., lib. I., seg. i.
3 De Successionibus, lib. XXIII., apud Diog. Laert., lib. I., seg. i.
4 Epinomis, pp. 987, 988. *
5 Plato, De Legibus, pp. 886, 887.
6 Aristoph., Ranee, v. 1030; Plato, Protag., p. 216.

518

SEVERAL INDIVIDUALS CALLED ORPHEUS. [CHAP. XVI.

Orpheus
probably j
mythical

Orpheus and
Linus wor
shipped in
Scythia.

The mysteries
of Ceres and
Isis based on
those of Egypt.
Philosophyof Linus the
Scythian.

Names of
Musaeus, Her
cules, Hermes
&c, from the
East.

pheus himself.1 Cicero,2 however, considers the name to be
fabulous ; but the opinion just mentioned appears to be highly
probable. An individual bearing the name of Orpheus, was
one of the principal Argonauts, and this person would, on
returning home, have an opportunity of introducing in Greece
the doctrines which may have been brought from central Asia
by means of the great mercantile route leading thither from
Trebizbnde. It appears that Orpheus and his master Linus
were worshipped as demigods by the Scythians as well as the
Greeks ; and it is asserted by Diogenes Laertius3 that the
former belonged to Scythia. He is said to have been the most
ancient philosopher ;4 yet it may easily be imagined that the
name in question was applied to all those persons who, about
the same period, took an active part in introducing philosophy
into Greece from the more enlightened countries of the east.
Jamblichus says,5 that the hymns of Orpheus were derived
from Egypt. This Orpheus, however, seems to have been
a later person than the Scythian above mentioned ; and he is
said to have been initiated by the priests of Egypt into their
religious rites.6 He founded the mysteries of Ceres in Sparta,
and also those of Hecate at JEgina,7 in imitation of the mys
teries of Isis in Egypt.
Linus, who was tbe master, or, according to some, the
brother of Orpheus, and the instructor of Hercules in music,
is also said to have invented the sphere, and to have first pro
pounded the belief that everything emanated from one source,
and returned to the same.8
But whether Orpheus were a Scythian or a European, there
is reason to believe that the earlier mythological names, as
Musaeus, Hercules, Hermes, Apollo, Vulcan, &c, were known
in the east long before they were in use among the Greeks.

1 Varro, apud Augustin de Civitate Dei, cap. XXIV., p. 383. Ant-
werpia, 1701.
2 De Natura Deorum, lib. I., pp. 38, 39. s Lib. I.
4 Tertullian, de Anim., cap. IL, p, 569.
5 De Mysteriis, lib. I. « Diod. Sic, lib. I., cap. xx., xxxvi.
7 Pausanias, in Lacon, lib. III., cap. xiii., xiv.
8 Diog. Laert., lib. I., seg. iii. Ed. AmsterdaBmi.

CHAP. XVI.J THALES STUDIES IN EGYPT. 5 19
But instances of a more direct intercourse with Asia may
now be mentioned. Thales of Milet, whose mother was a
native of Phoenicia,1 learned the art of navigation in that
country, and having made the Greeks acquainted with the
Little Bear, by which the Phoenicians directed the course of
their vessels, he was considered the first who had observed that
constellation. Callimachus unintentionally makes this fact
clear by stating that Thales first observed the stars on the
Plaustra, by which the Phoenicians are guided in navigation ;
adding, that some ascribe to him the work of Phocus of Samos
on nautical astronomy. This book is lost ; but the circumstance a work on
of ascribing it to Thales goes far to show that it had a Phoeni- ascribe™to
ciail Source. Thales.
Thales had no preceptor,2 or at least none is mentioned ; but it
is admitted that he studied geometry in Egypt, and measured
the height of the pyramids by their shadows. In addition to
founding the Ionian school of philosophy, he introduced much
of the knowledge of the east into Greece — as the use of the
solar year, and the calculation of eclipses ; he also compared the use ofthe
size of the moon with that of the sun.3 The belief of the caSt^of
immortality of the soul, as propounded in Egypt,4 was intro- ^'^ from
duced into Greece by Thales and his contemporary Phere- the East.
cydes ;5 and it was subsequently adopted and warmly supported
by Plato. The theory of Thales, that water is the origin of all
things,6 is as old as the philosophy of the east: it was not only
believed by the ancient Persians, but it prevailed amongst the
Bedawfn ; and the oriental nations peopled the world with
demons many centuries before the time of Thales. As it is opinion in the
clear that Thales studied in Egypt,7 we may fairly conclude ^ter^the
that his ideas, and those of his contemporaries, were borrowed origin of ail
from that country and others lying more eastward.
1 Clemens of Alexan., Stromat. I., p. 300 ; Diog. Laert., lib. I., seg. xxii.,
xxiv. 2 Clemens of Alexandria, Stromat. I., p. 300, et seq.
3 Diog. Laert., lib. I., .seg. xxiv.
4 Herod., lib. IL, cap. cxxiii.
5 Diog. Laert., lib. I., seg. cxvi.
6 Aristotle, Metaph., 1, 3.
7 Josephus, Contra Apion, lib. I., p. 283.

520 PHERECYDES STUDIES IN EGYPT AND CHALDEA. [CHAP. XVI.

Pherecydes the tutor of
Pythagoras,

and his
philosophy.

Solon studies
in Egypt and
visits Croesus.

Pherecydes the philosopher, who should be distinguished
from the Athenian historian of the same name, was either a
native of Scyros, or, according to some authorities, of Syria or
Assyria;1 and he was the tutor of Pythagoras in the sixth
century b, c8 Suidas,3 Philo of Byblus, Clemens of Alexandria,4
Hesychius of Milet,. Eustathius, and Cicero,5 agree in stating
that he acquired his philosophy in Phoenicia; and Cedrenus
adds, that, like Thales and Pythagoras, he visited Egypt and
Chaldea in pursuit of knowledge.6 According to Theopompus,
Pherecydes was the first among the Greeks who wrote on the
nature of the gods.7 He also wrote a work on cosmogony,
intitled 'EtttoVux0?* which contains the Chaldean theories on
ether, the earth, time, and the four elements.8 Galen assigns
to this author the work " De salubre virtus rationis," which is
commonly printed with the works of Hippocrates ; and if this
be correct, it would clearly prove that medicine has an oriental
origin. Solon, the Athenian legislator, who died in the fifty-fifth
Olympiad, or 549 b.c, went to Egypt; and after being hos
pitably received by Amasis,9 he proceeded to visit Croesus, who
though a sovereign of Asia Minor, was surrounded by an
oriental court.10 Herodotus states,11 that a thirst for knowledge
caused those journeys, and that the one to Egypt bad the par
ticular object of collecting materials for a history, which, agree
ably to ancient custom, was to be written in verse. On
returning from Egypt, he expressed his conviction that neither
himself nor any other Greek had any knowledge of antiquity.12
It is difficult to ascertain how far the institutions of Solon were
influenced by the philosophy of Egypt, but although the
1 Cicero, Tusculum, lib. I., 16; Diog. Laert., lib. I., seg. cxvi.
2 Clemens of Alexandria, Stromat. I., p. 300; Suidas, Lexicon, in Phere
cydes. 8 Lexicon, in Pherecydes. * Stromat I., p. 300, et. seq.
5 Tusculum Disputat., lib. I., 16.
6 Synopsis Hist., I., p. 94 ; Josephus, Contra Apion, lib. I., p. 283.
7 Diog. Laert., lib. I., seg. cxvi.
8 Preface to Mas'udi, p. 35. 9 Plato, Timeeus, vol. III., p. 21.
10 Diog. Laert., lib. I., seg. ]., Ii.
11 Lib. I., cap. xxix., xxx. li Plato, Timaeus, vol. III., p. 22.

CHAP. XVI.] SOLON VISITS EGYPT AND LYDIA. 521
intended history was not completed, the moral influence and
example of Solon, and his impressions as to the superiority of Admitted
oriental learning, could not have failed to promote its advance- oriental
ment among the Greeks. Much of the knowledge he acquired, earmn&-
though not written, was preserved traditionally, and one frag- '
ment is given by Plato.1
v Ctesias, during his residence of seventeen years as physician Position and
at the court of Artaxerxes Mnemon, had great opportunities ctesiaTwith
of ascertaining the state of the eastern countries, and he wrote the east
twenty-three books on the history of western Asia. The first
six contained an account of the Assyrians, and of the times
preceding the Persian conquest ; and the remainder contained
the history of the Persians. As his account differs from that
given by Herodotus, in his first, second, and third books,
opinions regarding this author are very conflicting. But in
comparing the extracts preserved by Diodorus Siculus2 with
the Shah.Nameh, it is found that his account approaches that
of the Persian writers -more nearly than that of Herodotus;
and as he had the use of the royal archives, his materials must
have been of the best description. His Indian history, how
ever, had not the same advantage, and is therefore more ques
tionable ; yet there is much to show that an intercourse must
have existed between Persia and India, and, therefore, indirectly
between the latter and Europe.
Hecateus was born 549 b.c,3 and died" 497 b.c; conse- Hecateus
quently he was one of the earliest Greek historians and geo- EgVptVnd
graphers. Herodotus4 and Agathemerus5 inform us that hePersia'
received instruction from the Egyptian priests ; and, according
to the latter, he subsequently visited Persia. On returning to
his native place, Milet, he persuaded his countrymen to
abandon the conspiracy which had been formed to throw off
the Persian yoke. The arguments he used, namely, the power
of the sovereign and the number of kingdoms which were
subject to his authority, show that he was well acquainted with
1 Timseus, vol. IIL, pp. 22-25. 2 Lib. IL, cap. iii., et seq. %
3 Larcher's Herodotus, tome II. , note 505 ; Charles and Theodore Muller
fix the same year.
1 Lib. IL, cap. cxliii. 5 Hudson's Minor Geographers.

522 PYTHAGORAS VISITS THE CHALDEANS AND MAGI. [CHAP. XVI.

and was the
first Greek
historian.

Hellanicusstudies in
Egypt and
visits Persia,

and writes a
history of
Persia and
Babylon.

Pythagoras
visits the
Egyptians, Chaldeans, and
Magi,

the extent of the vast empire then under either Cyrus or Cam
byses.1 This traveller and pupil of the oriental school should
be considered the father of Greek history, and the fountain
from which so much relating to the geography and history of
the east2 was borrowed ; and so highly was he esteemed, that
Cereidas of Megalopolis3 professed his readiness to die, because
he hoped after death to meet Pythagoras and Hecateus. No
less than 380 quotations from this author are collected in the
"Fragmenta Historicum Grsecorum, Paris, 1841."
Hellanicus, a contemporary of Herodotus, and one of the
most influential of the Greeks, wrote a history of the east, but
little more regarding his life has come down to us. It appears,
however, from Plutarch,4 that he visited Egypt, where he
received instruction in history from the priests. It is probable,
though not quite certain, that he also visited Persia, for the
fragments which remain regarding the Getes agree with the
accounts given by Herodotus5 of this people. It is a curious
circumstance that Hellanicus speaks of a Historia Sacerdotum
of the Greeks ; therefore something like a hierarchy must then
have existed among them. Besides a work on ethnography,
which showed the extent of his knowledge of eastern nations,- and
which has been quoted under various titles, Hellanicus wrote a
history of Persia, and another of Babylon; and it is very
curious that he followed a system which may be considered
peculiar to the Arabs and Shemitic people generally, of
expressing the relationship of two nations or tribes, by calling
their rulers or founders, brothers ; thus they would say, Saxo,
Francus, and Hessus, were three brothers, and sons of Ger
manicus, who was the brother of Anghis.
Pythagoras was acquainted with the Egyptian language, and
visited the Chaldeans as well as the Magi.6 It is even stated,
that he travelled as far as India, and that he was a disciple of
Zamolxis or Zalmoxis the Scythian.7 He was circumcised in

Diog. Laert., lib. I., seg. x.

' Herodotus, lib. V., cap. xxxvi.
3 Apud JElianum Var., Hist, xiii., 20.
4 De Iside et Osiri, p. 364, D. 5 Lib. IV., cap. xciii.-xcvi.
6 Diog. Laert., lib. VIII., seg. iii.
7 Clemens of Alexandria, Stromat. I., p. 303, C.

CHAP. XVI.] SYSTEM OF PYTHAGORAS. 523
Egypt, in order that he might be initiated into the mysteries of
Bhuddism ; for, as it will presently be shown, he afterwards
founded this religion in Greece. He was likewise initiated in
other oriental mysteries r1 and he conscientiously and implicitly
followed the most trifling regulations of the eastern priests.
He carefully abstained from certain kinds of food, both meat2
and drink, and wore a particular dress ; the bent of his mind
was towards religious obedience, rather than the pursuit of and studies
philosophy, and he possessed an inquiring spirit. His reli- philosophy.
gious tendency appears to have become a fixed principle during
his sojourn with the priests of various establishments in the
east. There is little doubt that during his prolonged residence
in these countries, he had acquired the eastern languages, and
these gave him ready access to stores of knowledge which had
not then much deteriorated.
On returning to his native country, Pythagoras founded a He founds
Bhuddistic order, the influence of which, as a learned institu- systemand
tion, could not fail to be very great among the Greeks, who ^^^ in
were then without any literature of their own : the school of Greece.
Pythagoras, therefore, held nearly the same place in Greece, as
that of the prophets held in, other countries.
Pythagoras has been called the father of geometry, mathe
matics, astronomy, medicine, and natural philosophy ; and to
this sage has been attributed many discoveries in the arts, as
well as the institution of the priest caste. The supposed inven- '
tions were, however, chiefly if not entirely borrowed from the
easterns ;3 but as learned men subsequently studied the Pytha
gorean philosophy in Grecia Magna for several centuries, the
belief was established that the tenets inculcated were those of
the founder of that school.
It is not known whether eastern books were brought to Greece The Golden
by Pythagoras, or whether he merely translated passages for posea t0 have
the use of his pupils. His Golden Verses (Aurea Carmina)
appear so completely Bhuddistic, that possibly, the original, in
1 Diog. Laert. lib. VIII., seg. iii.
2 Cicero, de Natura Deorum, lib. II. , p. 16.
3 Clemens of Alexandria, Stromat. I., p. 303, C. Lutitiaj, 1629.

been of eastern
origin.

524

PLATO STUDIES IN EGYPT AND PERSIA. [CHAP. XVI.

Plato studies
under the
Egyptian
priests.

a Sanscrit or Tibetan version, may yet be found in some mo
nastery of that religion in China or elsewhere.
Pythagoras was the next after Homer who wrote a work on
the use of plants, the origin of which he ascribed to Apollo and
the gods generally. Another work on the same subject was
written by Democritus: both philosophers were prepared for
the task by previous study under the Magi of Persia, and the
learned men in Arabia, Ethiopia, and Egypt.
Plato, after studying under Socrates, went at the age of
twenty-eight to prosecute his studies at Megara; and subse
quently he acquired the Pythagorean philosophy under Phi-
lolaus and Eurytus, two of its most distinguished disciples. He
soon, however, saw the advantage of seeking knowledge at its
source ; and, with this object in view, he proceeded in the first
instance to Egypt, where he continued for some time studying
under the priests.1 Subsequently he reached Persia,2 but he
was prevented by existing wars from visiting India ;3 so that he
must have acquired the Indian philosophy in Persia.4 He
died at Athens about 348 b. c, being in his eighty-first year.
In numerous passages of his works, Plato acknowledges that
he was indebted for many things to the Egyptian priests, of
whom he always speaks in high terms.5 It is, however, to be
observed, that the philosophical theories which he found scat
tered through Greek literature were, for the most part, of
oriental origin ; and it is probable, that if his own system were
closely analysed, little would be found that was not originally
eastern. Plato was a man of powerful genius, although what
Grecian he says of the Greeks in general, respecting their having bor-
starwSpnd rowed astronomy and star worship from the barbarians,6 and
bn01Ehtfrom a^s0 resPectmg tneir improvement of whatever they imported,'
may be applied to himself. He purified and refined upon the
oriental philosophy, using in his writings beautiful language,
and an attractive style; so that, through his works, wisdom

Diog. Laert., lib. III., seg. vi. * Pliny, lib. XXX., cap. i.
Diog. Laert., lib. III., seg. vii.
Clemens of Alex., Stromat. I., p. 303, C. Lutitise, 1629.
Ibid. 6 Ibid. 7 Platonis, Epinomis, p. 988.

CHAP. XVI.J PLATO MADE EASTERN PHILOSOPHY ATTRACTIVE. 525
and truth passed from nation to nation in the most pleasing
form. Previously to his time, eastern philosophy had been clothed Philosophy
in the forbidding garb of dogmas, by Hermes, Zoroaster, and nit™ 7
other sages, who called themselves prophets : its precepts were
committed to memory ;! and, probably, it was only understood
by the priests. The dogmas being given as positive commands,
no room was left for the exercise of reason ; but in the works
of Plato the same ideas are conveyed under the form of a
dialogue between friends, the result of which was to give plea
sure while conveying instruction. The conformity of Plato's
tenets to those of the Hindus is manifest from the following
passage in Clemens of Alexandria: — " It is evident that the- Plato's know-
Greeks honoured the barbarians most highly in considering East acquired
them as their teachers and the givers of their laws, and even per^§[pt an
calling them gods. They (the barbarians) think that good
souls, as Plato says, having left their celestial habitation, sub
mitted to come into this lower region, where, taking upon them
bodies, they became participators in all the ills which are con
tracted in this life : in their care of the human race they framed
laws, and taught philosophy, than which no greater good ever
came or will come to the human race.2"
The preceding words evidently allude to the inauguration of
Krishna, and it would appear, from what is added by the com
mentator, that he understood them in this sense. Now, as Plato
did not reach India,, it is evident that he must have acquired a
knowledge of that philosophy either in Egypt or Persia.
A belief in the immortality of the soul is admitted to have The immor-
passed to the Greek from the Egyptians, and there is reason to souPknown to
believe that it came to the latter from more eastern countries. the Easterns- .
Noah himself could not have been ignorant of this great truth,
even if it can be supposed to have been forgotten or lost during
the ages immediately preceding the deluge, when mankind had
reached the greatest state of corruption.
What has been observed regarding Plato, may equally be
applied to the most distinguished of his pupils, Aristotle. The
1 Clemens of Alexan., Stromat. I.
2 Stromat. I., p. 303, A.

526 PHILOSOPHY OF PLATO AND ARISTOTLE COMPARED. [CHAP. XVI.

Aristotle's
natural history
drawn from
Asia.

Hisphiiosophy
derived from
the East.

Plato'sphilosophy comparedwith that ot
Aristotle,

Plato'sphilosophy
had its origin

work of the latter on natural philosophy, the description of
exotic animals, and of the Nile, tjie works on magic and ether,
and the whole book, De Coelo, bear the impress of an oriental
origin. This is particularly shown by two circumstances,
namely, the description of the elephant and the rites of the
Magi, since both must have had an eastern source. Aristotle
collected much information by conversing with natives of
the east ; and his contemporary, Euotas, asserts, that he had
frequently seen him in the society of persons, from whom he
obtained information, adding that much of his knowledge was
drawn from sacred, works, and likewise from his predecessors
who had studied in the east.
The principles contained in the book, De Coelo, had been
known for a thousand years in the east, and the acquaintance
of Aristotle with the eastern animals and plants, which he
describes, must have been from his own personal inspection, or
that of some individual at their native places. The celebrated
work on logic was supposed to be almost entirely translated •
from Ocellus, who is known to have derived his philosophy from
the east.
Plato's philosophy is that of the Indo-Chinese nations, whilst
that of his pupil approaches the philosophy of the Shemitic
people. The latter having the laws of the human understand
ing (logic) as a basis, may be said to begin by the study of
nature, particularly as revealed in the science of astronomy.
Aristotle thus lays the foundation of metaphysics ; and,' that the
doctrines and principles of the Chaldeans were followed by this
philosopher may be proved indirectly by the fact, that the
Arabians, who ever retained among them the philosophy of
the Chaldeans, and who followed it exclusively before the works
of Aristotle were translated into Arabic, afterwards readily
adopted those works when introduced into their country, to the
exclusion of the works of Plato. The Muhammedan theologists
and lawyers being prepared to receive the tenets of the philoso
pher of Stagira, with which, from their previous studies, they
were already familiar.
It would appear that Plato's philosophy had its origin in the
regions of Persia and India ; for he and other philosophers

CHAP. XVI.] DEMOCRITUS SEEKS KNOWLEDGE IN INDIA. 527
considered the tenets of the Magi as the perfection of wisdom.1 in Persia and
Following the Indians particularly, Plato despises the present, India-
for the sake of a future life ; and like them he rests philosophy
on the imagination rather than on the reason.
The philosopher Democritus formed an early and close link riemocritus
between Greece and Assyria, having been brought up and in- SeMagf and
structed by the Magians and Chaldeans, who accompanied Chaldeans-
Xerxes to. the former country, and who were, it appears, for
some time inmates of his father's house.2 It is supposed that
he was one of the youths, who, by command of Xerxes, were
instructed in the religion and philosophy of Persia, with a view
to their introduction into Greece. Orpheus, however, was the Magism makes
first who introduced magism and medicine,3 but it appears that q™^3 m
Osthanes was the chief instrument, and that magism made great
progress in that country, after the wars of Xerxes.4 It is
certain, also, that Pythagoras, Empedocles, Democritus, and
Plato, passed the sea, and exiled themselves from their native
land, in order to bring to it the philosophy of the east.5 It is
stated by Diogenes Laertius,6 that when Democritus was of age,
he increased his knowledge by travelling to India and Ethiopia,
as Pythagoras had done, and as Plato had intended to do.
Moreover, the author in question, as well as others, mention
certain Egyptian doctrines as being of Indian origin; and even
the Egyptians themselves, in some instances, admitted that Egyptian
they had learned them from the Hindus. It would, therefore, HUidu^orioin.
appear from this admission, that, in the opinion of the Egyptians,
the Magian and the Indian were at that time the most distin
guished schools of philosophy, and those in which a learned
education should terminate.
Democritus appears to have been taught astronomy by the Democritus
Chaldeans, and when Anaxagoras published the opinions of the g^ternastro-
latter, he showed that they were much more ancient than his nomy, &c,
1 i • i ii ii ii- • • int0 Greece.
time, and admitted to whom they belonged ; but in acquiring a
technical knowledge of theology from the Magi, he adopted their
superstitions as well as their philosophy.7
1 Pliny, lib. XXX , cap. i. 2 Diog. Laert., lib. IX., seg. xxxv.
3 Pliny, lib. XXX., cap. i. " Ibid. 5 Ibid.
6 Lib. IX., seg. xxxv., &c. 7 Pliny, lib. XXX., cap. i.

528

THE TRAVELS OF HERODOTUS.

[CHAP. XVI.

Herodotus travels to
collect
materials for
history.

His works, however, on astronomy, geometry, music,
botany, &c, were considered the bases of these sciences by
the Greeks ; and the principles being once established, or laid
down, it was easy to make improvements : nor is it difficult to
perceive that, in most instances, such improvements were the
result of careful attention to eastern literature, though, naturally
enough, they have been ascribed to the individual who first
introduced them. For instance, to (Eonopides, of Cos or Coos,
the cotemporary of Democritus, was attributed the discovery
of the obliquity of the ecliptic, whereas he learned this im
portant fact from the Egyptians.
Halicarnassus, now Boudroun, the birth-place of the distin
guished Herodotus, was more of a Persian than a Greek city.
It was for a time under Lydia,1 and it again reverted to the
power of the great king.2 The travels during which Herodotus
collected materials for his history, included Tyre,3 Palestine,4
Syria, Mesopotamia, Media and Babylonia,5 Colchis, the Phasis,
and the coast of the Black Sea. He also remained for a con
siderable time in Egypt, where he visited every town of im
portance.6 It is supposed that he must have acquired the
Persian language, as he frequently compares the authorities of
that kingdom with those of Greece and Lydia.
The account given of eastern history bears the stamp of
oriental tradition, which, though tolerably correct as to isolated
circumstances, has, in many instances, been either mixed up
with other matters, or the same event has been applied to
different individuals, or to different periods of time. For
He confounds example, Herodotus7 relates of Phraortes, the predecessor of
Deuces! *' Dejoces, nearly all that the Persians say of the latter
(Kaikobad). The revolt of the Medes against the Assyrians
was, like all eastern revolutions, caused by the machinations
of a powerful governor, who attempted to form a separate
dynasty.8 The precision of Herodotus, however, regarding
the history of Cyrus9 (since borne out by inscriptions), and
1 Herod , lib. I., cap. xxvii. 2 Ibid., cap. clxxiv.
3 Ibid., lib. IL, cap. xliv. 4 Ibid., lib. II., cap. evi. ; lib. III., cap. v.
5 Ibid., lib. IL, cap. civ. « Ibid., lib. II , cap. xxix., xxxii.
¦7 Lib. I., cap. xcv. 8 Ibid., lib. I., cap. xcvi., xcvii.
D Lib. I., cap. cvii., cviii, &c.

CHAP. XVI.] ORIENTAL SCIENCES IMPERFECTLY TAUGHT. 529
many other facts which could scarcely have been detailed from His materials
memory, show that he had the use of original oriental materials Zlittln'plruy
for the chief part of his invaluable history. But as these were oral-
probably difficult of access, and oral testimony more common,
it is probable that a large portion of their information reached
the Greeks through the latter medium. It may be observed,
that rule's of operation in science were frequently known to the
Greeks before their investigations had reached them. Thus,
Thales learned to calculate eclipses before the principles of
astronomy had been brought into Greece. This was particu
larly the case with medicine, as the priests only communicated
its most important precepts to their Greek pupils. In phi- Manner in
losophy they propounded axioms ; in astronomy they gave the ™hicht.the
leading principles in short sentences. In general, the priests, priests gave
as shown in the cases of Solon and Herodotus, read a subject
from their books, when their pupils, if so disposed, committed
what they heard to writing.
The historians who succeeded Herodotus were more anxious Rhetoric
about style than fidelity, schools of rhetoric being the favourite h"fte0r1sy3>des
establishments ; and Isocrates was compared to the famous
wooden horse of Troy on account of the number of distin
guished pupils who proceeded from his school. As regarded
ancient history, however, the Greek writers of this time mostly
contented themselves with making extracts from the labours of
their more diligent predecessors, who had travelled for the
purpose of collecting traditional history. Even the Cyropsedia
and the Anabasis are confined to barren facts, without any
attempt being made to show what had brought them about.
Geography, one of the eyes of history, is almost entirely over- Defects of
looked ; yet, owing to the importance of the subjects, these ™™nt ms"
works have lived, and will continue to live, notwithstanding
their defects.
The eastern origin of many sciences is sufficiently evident : Astronomy
astronomy, in particular, was first reduced to a system in the the East.""11
celebrated school of Alexandria ; but it had existed long pre
viously, and the popular knowledge which the Egyptians
possessed of this science might have served as the basis of that
vol. n. 2 M

530 ASTRONOMY, MECHANICS, ETC., FROM THE EAST. [CHAP. XVI.

Ptolemy first
established a system of
astronomy.

Astronomydeclines after
the time of
Pythagoras.

Mechanics and
geometry derived from
the East.

which was taught in the new school, even if the works of Hip-
parchus had not existed.
Ptolemy, who was one of the most distinguished astronomers,
brought into a system all the discoveries which had been pre
viously made ; and having verified the facts by observations,
his work, giving the result, became the text-book of all subse
quent astronomers for the next thousand years.
The fragments preserved by the Greeks apparently give but
a faint idea of the actual state of this science among eastern
nations. It is possible that the Copernican system may have
been known to Pythagoras; but as the knowledge of this
system would have overthrown the ancient religions, the priests
naturally kept it to themselves, and thus it was almost lost
during the decline of knowledge which took place in the east
from the time of Pythagoras. Without, however, entering more
into the question, it may be sufficient here to observe, that the
progress which it is admitted had been made by the Indo-
Chinese and Egyptian nations, as well as at Babylon, establishes
the fact that astronomy has an undoubted claim to an eastern
origin. Mechanics owed many great improvements to Archimedes,
who, although not one of the Alexandrian school, had studied
the science in Egypt, where, for the transport of ponderous
weights and the construction of vast edifices, it was in constant
application. It is admitted, also, that geometry was first brought into
practical use in this kingdom : it is not, therefore, surprising
that Euclid was enabled to publish a new and complete work
on the subject almost immediately after the foundation of the
Alexandrian school. As this science was unconnected with
religion, mystery was not necessary, and for this reason it is
more than probable that the Greek philosophers who resorted to
Egypt had every facility given them for its acquisition ; and,
in fact, before the time of Euclid, they were acquainted with
many of its most important propositions.
Mineralogy was unknown to the Greeks, except so far as
they derived a knowledge of it from the east, where metals and

CHAP. XVI.] MINERALOGY AND BOTANY FROM THE EAST. 531
the precious stones are much more abundant than in Europe,1 The Easterns
and where they have long been well known and classed.2 That acquainted
the ancients were acquainted with the mineral kingdom, is rliogy".1"6"
evident from many passages in the book of Genesis, and from
other parts of the sacred volume.3 Some stones were con
sidered as talismans, and were sacred to the planets, while
others were supposed to possess medicinal properties. Accord
ing to the Dabistan, every plant could be represented or
depicted by different stones and metals ; and the Book of
Precious Stones, compiled by Muhammed Ibn Mansiir4 in the Work of ibn
seventh century of the Hijrah for the use of the Shah of Persia, precious
an original and valuable work, clearly shows the eastern origin stones-
of mineralogy.
Botany was noticed by Pythagoras and Democritus;5 and Botany studied
,. "I. i ^i ii by Pythagoras
in ascribing the discovery of the use of plants to the gods, and Demo-
Pythagoras indirectly acknowledges that his materials werecnus'
derived from Egypt. The work of Theophrastus on plants is
written in accordance with the religious ideas of the ancient
Asiatic nations ; and his vanity in adding the Egyptian
synonymes, in order to display his erudition, of itself
establishes the fact that this branch of knowledge had been
previously cultivated in Egypt.
Dioscorides, who is supposed to have been the physician of Dioscorides
Antony and Cleopatra, in his work on medicinal herbs, seldom
fails to add their barbarian names. The medicinal properties
are, in most cases, correctly defined, and the writer seems
to have been better acquainted with the flora of Egypt and
of some parts of Asia than he was with that of Greece and
Italy. Even before the time of Hippocrates some physicians ap- Blood the^
pear to have maintained that blood was the principle of life,6 life, according
and the theory is advocated in the Koran. In Genesis, also, t0 ' |JU
1 Pliny, lib. XXXVIL, cap. iv., v., &c.
a Vol. L, pp. 75, 76.
8 Gen. chap. IL, v. 12 ; Exod., chap. XXVIIL, v. 9, 17-20. See also
Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, Ezekiel, &c.
4 Translated about thirty years ago by Von Hammer.
s Plinv, lib. XXV., cap. iii. ' Hipp., De Nature Hominis.
2 M 2

532

THEORIES OF GALEN.

[chap. XVI.

Opinions of
Hierophilusand Galen.

The geogra
phical and
medicalknowledge of
Hippocrateswas derived
from the East.

Medicalsystem of
Galen, like
that of the
Chinese.

the blood is called the life.1 Hippocrates, however, attempts
to prove that life is the result of mixture, and that the four
elements, fire, water, air, and earth, form ingredients which,
in the animal frame, are represented by four humours, blood,
mucus, and black and yellow bile. Pythagoras, Plato, Hie
rophilus, and Galen were of the same opinion, as were also the
Chinese, the Chaldeans, and, in fact, all the other nations of
antiquity, and the theory was connected with the worship of
the stars.2 There is, therefore, no doubt that the opinion
of Hippocrates and his knowledge of medicine were derived
from the east, although we have no account of his having
travelled thither. The amount of geographical and ethno
graphical3 science which he displays, particularly his knowledge
of the Scythians,4 which even exceeds that of Herodotus, is,
however, very great. He was evidently perfectly acquainted
with Egypt and Western Asia as well as his own country; and
the Greeks of Alexandria subsequently acquired and followed
the system of medicine which he had developed. Galen does
not admit that Hippocrates derived his knowledge chiefly, or
even partially, from the east, while he mentions the medical
skill of the ancient Egyptians. It is, however, right to observe
that the learned and talented Galen, whose books contain
almost everything that was known to the ancients about
medicine, asserts that Hippocrates was the first to propound
the theory of the four elements. The warm and cold medicines
of Galen were intended to counteract the irregularities arising
from the excess of one or the other of those elements, and this
treatment prevailed throughout the Greek practice of medicine.
We find similar ideas among the Chinese : the heart (Lis) is
placed under the sign of heaven, and has the nature of fire ; its
action is greatest in summer : the liver, Lie or Xipr, is the
celestial sign for spring ; the bladder answers to the element of
water, and belongs to the north, cold; the lungs are under
the celestial sign grungiis, and answer to the earth, as well as

Chap. IX., v. 4.

Preface to Mas'udi, by Aloys Sprenger, M.D.

8 The character of Asiatics, contrasted with that of Europeans, drawn by
Hippocrates himself, gives evidence of his enlarged mind.
4 Hipp., De iEre et Locis.

CHAP. XVI.] EARLY EXPEDITIONS TO THE EAST. 533
the five metals, Vim Hd Hd, corresponding to the same number
of planets.1
In addition to the preceding circumstances, the reader may influence of
be reminded ofthe influence which the Anabasis is admitted to ^naveM?*
have exercised upon modern warfare, as it previously had done
upon the movements of , the conqueror of the world, and ofthe
nobler result which followed from the conquests of Alexander :
these united Europe with Asia in intellectual intercourse, and
have produced more important consequences than any other
event recorded in the profane history of mankind.
It has been seen that the intercourse with the east, which Continuation
commenced with Alexander, was continued by the wars of his intercourse
successors, and again by those of the Parthians and Bomans. ^ A^ander.
To the latter succeeded the wide-spreading conquests of the
Arabs, the enterprises of the crusaders, and the western spread
of the Mongol and Tartar hordes, which, in some measure,
amalgamated Asia and Europe by means of numerous colonies
coming from the former into the latter continent. The last
considerable body of easterns was tbat of the 'Osmanlf Turks,
who established themselves in Europe in the fourteenth
century. Subsequent intercourse between the east and the west has Merchants and
been chiefly confined to the important but peaceful operations eastern6"
of the merchant or the journeyings of travellers. Combining countnes-
the character of merchant and traveller, and taking advantage
of the information obtained by Carpini, Ascelin, and Bubruquis,
in 1254, the celebrated Venetian, Marco Polo, after visiting
the khan of the western Tartars, and rounding the Caspian
Sea, reached Bokhara in 1260, and being successful in his Marco Polo
speculations, he made his way to the court of Kublai, the great Bokhara, and
khan of the Mongols. Here he so completely ingratiated
himself into favour that he was employed on different embassies,
which made him acquainted with nearly one-half of Asia, and
also with many of the islands of the Indian seas.
He visited Malacca, Ceylon, Malabar, and Ormuz, and re- returns by way
, „ i ¦ • of the Persian
turned to Italy after an absence of nineteen years, bringing Gulf.
1 Apud Cleyer de Medicina Sinica, p. 9, compare Hipp., De Natura,
cap. cxi.

534

RESULT OF MARCO POLO'S TRAVELS. [CHAP. XVI.

Vasco de
Gama rounds
the Cape.

Jenkinson'soverland
journey.

Charter for
trade with
Babylon.

Benjamin of
Tudela'stravels.

Edrisi and
Abii-1-feda.

with him such a fund of information about Asia, collected from
personal observation as well as that of others, that he has justly
obtained the title of the Herodotus of the middle ages.
It is believed that his work materially influenced the views
of Columbus in his search for a passage to India, and also those
of the mariner Vasco de Gama, who, in proceeding thitherward,
first doubled the Cape of Good Hope. At a time when so
little was known of the east, the narrative of this persevering
traveller naturally appeared quite marvellous ; but time and a
better acquaintance with these countries have established its
fidelity. At this period the Venetians were carrying on a lucrative
commerce with India by the Bed Sea ; whilst their rivals, the
Genoese, reached the same part of the world from the shores of
Asia Minor by way of the Black Sea, the Crimea, Kaffa, Azov,
Astrakhan, Khiva, and Tashkend.
Emulating the success of the Venetian and Genoese trade to
India by these routes, Jenkinson and others were despatched
from England, in 1557 and in subsequent years, to open a trade
with China through the Caspian Sea. But the real state of
the eastern countries being little understood, none of the parties
even communicated with those who carried on the trade through
central Asia.
A charter was given to the Levant Company in 1585, by
Queen Elizabeth, to trade to Babylon, &c. ; and, in 1599,
another company was formed to trade to India, and establish
factories in China, Japan, India, Amboyna, Java, and Sumatra ;
when Mildenhall, Hawkins, Sir Thomas Boe, and others were
despatched overland, in consequence, to the court of the Great
Mogul, in order to establish commercial relations with that
power. Various ancient travellers likewise contributed to this object.
One of the most remarkable was Benjamin of Tudela, who,
between 1160 and 1173, in his persevering search after the
sons of Israel, visited, besides several countries in Europe, the
principal parts of Syria, Persia, and Arabia : he has described
the places he has seen with manifest fidelity.
The geography of Edrisi, arranged like that of Ptolemy

CHAP. XVI.J ADVANTAGES OF THE FRENCH EXPEDITION. 535
according to climates, and that of Abu-1-feda, both of them
valuable works, subsequently appeared ; and, still later, one by
the traveller Ibn Batuta, who spent thirty years (from 1324 to
1354) in visiting different countries. As a Muslim, who could
every where claim hospitality, the difficulties of the journey
were greatly diminished, if compared with those experienced
by Christian travellers. Having visited the regions from
Timbuctoo to the eastern coast of China, he may be con
sidered the most extensive of all travellers.1
The line of the Euphrates was a good deal frequented at a
later period. Bauwolf descended the river in 1574, and the Rauwoif,
Venetian jeweller Balbi in 1579; also, Fitch, Eldred, and If1' Fitch'
others did so in 1583, with merchandise. Pococke commenced
his travels in 1640, and Niebuhr visited Mesopotamia in 1762 ;
Olivier travelled between 1793 and 1798, and the author of
the present work between 1829 and 1832.
With a view to the extension of the eastern trade which the Expedition of
French had long carried on extensively from Aleppo, a formi- inte0FE^pt.
dable expedition quitted Toulon and landed at Alexandria in
1798. The city founded by the king of Macedon for a like
purpose was selected, on account of its advantageous position,
by the modern Alexander ; and Napoleon Bonaparte proposed
to make it once more the emporium of eastern commerce.
Some of the most talented scientific men of whom France scientific
could boast accompanied the expedition, and were forthwith contemplated.
employed in elucidating the ancient monuments, in ascertaining
the capabilities, and at the same time developing the resources,
of the country. The height of the Bed Sea, as compared with improvements
that ofthe Mediterranean, was carefully determined, and aEgppt.6
water communication was projected between those seas, while
Barrhges and other works were planned to command the fer
tilizing effects of the Nile. The battle of Aboukir arrested
these projects ; while the march into Syria and Persia was cut
short by tbe noble defence of 'Akka ; and the French army at
length capitulated in consequence of a well-timed combination
ofthe British forces arriving almost simultaneously both from
India and Europe.
1 Travels of Ibn Batuta, translated by Professor Lee, of Cambridge.

536 napoleon's DESIGNS ON INDIA. [chap. xvi.
Denon's great Although the project itself was defeated, the French expe-
Egypt?" dition has been attended with many advantages. The great
work of Denon is of itself worth the whole expedition. An
increased commerce has been one result of this undertaking,
which has also been the means of extending our knowledge
of eastern nations and facilitating our intercourse with them.
Subsequent It would appear that Napoleon, as emperor, did not abandon
Napoleon for tne Plans ne had formed as general ; and the projected march
an expedition towards India, which had been foiled before the walls of 'Akka
to India. ' nil'
was intended to be renewed under more favourable circum
stances. His first project was to have followed the daring
march of Alexander from the shores of the Mediterranean
towards the banks of the Ganges. His later intention was to
pursue the steps of Trajan and Julian.
Having acquired a better knowledge of the country, Napo
leon proposed to land an adequate force at the mouth of the
Orontes, where a trusty individual, provided with a secret
signal, was to await the arrival of the armament, in order to
guide the army to Mar'ash. This city was chosen as the place
of the first operations ; the adjoining forest being capable of
supplying timber for the construction of the flotilla by which
the troops were to descend the Euphrates. This being accom
plished, Basrah was to have been fortified as a place d'armes,
and base of future operations : the details of this project were
made known officially to a gentleman who was the author's
informant. The great continental war, however, at that time called
Napoleon to another field of enterprise ; but his favourite pro
ject was still cherished. The hope of obtaining the riches of
India, and of acquiring ships, colonies, and commerce, still
haunted his imagination ; and the following was part of the
secret treaty of Tilsit : —
Secret articles "France and Bussia in conjunction to march an army of
of THsTtreaty 70,000 men to the banks of the Indus.
" Austria to allow the French troops to march through her
territories, and to assist their descent down the Danube to the
Black Sea.
" A Bussian force of 35,000 men to assemble at Astrachan ;

CHAP. XVI.] MILITARY ROUTE FROM ASTER-ABAD. 537
25,000 regulars, and 10,000 Cossacks. This force to be con
veyed across the Caspian Sea to Aster-abad, there to await the
arrival of the French troops.
" Aster-abad to be the rendezvous of the combined army ; The combined
to contain the magazines for military stores and provisions, and "miaous at
to be the central point of the line of communication between Aster-abad.
France, Hindustan, and Bussia.
" The French division of 35,000 men to embark in boats on
the Danube, and to sail down that river to the Black Sea.
" On their arrival, to proceed in transports supplied by
Bussia across the Black Sea and the Sea of Azov to Taganroc ;
to pass thence up the right bank of the Don, to the small
Cossack town of Piali Izbianca ; to cross the Don there, and
march by land to the city of Czavitzin, on the right bank of
the Wolga.
" To embark on the Wolga and descend to Astrachan.
" From Astrachan to embark on the Caspian for A ster-abad.
" On the junction of the French and Bussians at Aster-abad,
the combined army immediately to begin its march, and pro
ceed by the cities of Meshid, Herat, Furrah, and Kandahar
to the Indus." The computed duration of the inarch of the
French division from the place of embarkation on the Danube
to the river Indus was 119 days.
" Aster-abad is a town in the province of Mazanderan, close Proposed route
under the Elburz mountains, and the only difficulty for artillery fromnAster-
is said to be from the town to two miles beyond Yeavest (alto- aba "
gether about fourteen miles), partly forest and partly mountain.
But an easier road than this exists from Aster-abad by Kislauh ;
and the author of this plan considers that, by taking the eastern
road by Aster-abad through the lands inhabited by the Yemsol
and Gohlan tribes, the steep passes of the Elburz might be
avoided. " After reaching Shahrud, on the road to Meshid, the force
might divide, one division proceeding by the direct road to
Meshid, and the other by Jah Jerm and Kuchan : this latter
is two or three days farther, and the marches longer ; but good
water is abundant, while the country is better peopled and
cultivated."

( 538 )

CHAPTEB XVII.
LITERATURE AND SCIENCE OF THE EAST.
State of Oriental Literature considered at four different periods. — Asiatic
Civilization during the first period. — Thales and-other Sages acquire Know
ledge in the East. — Intercourse between Asia and Europe. — Second Period :
Literary intercourse commenced by Alexander the Great. — Library and
School of Alexandria. — The people of the East were prepared for Chris
tianity. — Influence of the change of Religion upon Literature. — Spread of
Learning and Civilization from Alexandria. — Rome becomes the centre of
the Christian world. — Third period : Rise of the Arab nation. — The Arabs
resort to Literature as an occupation, and become the medium of modern
Civilization. — Study of the Koran, and practical use of Astronomy,
Geometry, Grammar, and Jurisprudence. — Learned men employed at
Baghdad. — History, Novels, and learned works. — Music and Literature
cultivated by the Arabs in the eighth century. — Bede's knowledge of
Eastern Countries, and use of Arabic names, &c. — The Benedictine Monks.
— Their friendly relations with the Arabs. — The Monks spread a know
ledge of the East. — The modern Sciences cultivated at Baghdad. — Pursuits
of Al Mamun. — Rare Works collected. Sanscrit and other Works trans
lated. — Cultivation of Astronomy. — The Abbot of St. Gallen.— Arabic
Manuscripts collected and preserved in Europe. — The Moors introduce
Arabic Learning into Europe. — Rhymes of Olfrid. — European Versifica
tion like the Arabic. — Provencale Poetry, and Rhymes of Boethius. —
Lyric and romantic Poetry, — The Italians adopt the Arabic Poetry. —
Mathematical Sciences studied in Spain. — First use of Indian Notation. —
Arabic studied in the Schools in France and Spain. — Spread of Arabic
Learning in Europe. — Learned Arabs of the Eleventh and Twelfth
Centuries. — Progress of Oriental studies in Africa. — Gerhard of Cremona
translates the Almagest and other works. — Raymond, Archbishop of
Toledo, encourages Oriental studies. — Abu-1-Senna and other works
translated. — First translation of the Koran. — Hermannus translates
Aristotle's works. — Constantinus introduces Arabic medicine into Italy. —
Travels and Acquirements of Constantinus. — Adelard of Bath, and his
translation of Euclid, &c. — Astronomical Tables prepared. — Adelard's
Treatise on the Astrolabe. — Arabic Seminaries in France and Spain. —
Samuel, a Jew of Fez. — Translation of El Battani's works. — Roger of
Hereford. — Daniel Morley. — The Emperor Frederic II. encourages
Eastern Learning. — His Circular to the Colleges, &c. — Michael Scot and
his Translations. — Alphonso encourages the study of Astronomy. — Fourth
period : Superiority of Western Literature over that of Eastern Countries.
Pursuing the account just given of the intercourse between Asia
and Europe in early times, the literature and the sciences of

CHAP. XVII.] LITERATURE AND SCIENCE IN THE EAST. 539
those continents will now be noticed. The introduction of
oriental studies in the west is intimately connected with the
general history of mankind, and the account of their progress
may be distributed in four different ages.
The first comprises the period from the dawn of history to Eastern and
the reign of Philip of Macedon. The second extends from that Hteratare
of Alexander to the rise of Muhammed. The third relates to Serious.
the great change brought about by the Arabs, with its influence
on the learning of the middle ages ; and the fourth, to the state
of literature in modern times.
Without going back to the ages of tradition and fable, it may state of Asia
be observed that towards the latter part of the remarkable first^och.
period which first claims attention, western Asia was distin
guished by the number as well as the power of the empires
which it contained. One was the Scythian, which spread
over central Asia ; another was the Assyrian ; a third, the
Babylonian ; and others were seated in Arabia, Syria, and
Egypt. Whilst Europe was in comparative darkness, Asia and Africa The civiiiza-
had probably lost but little of their earlier and more advanced a'nd Africa*
civilization. The valleys of the Euphrates, the Oxus, and the P™gu^pethat
Nile, had no doubt witnessed the energies of the earliest culti
vators of the soil; while corn, fruits, domestic animals, and
implements of husbandry passed from the east to the west,
probably following tbe tide of migration along the shores of Colonies and
the Baltic, and those of the Black and Mediterranean Seas, cameby'two
carrying knowledge and civilization in their train. Although ™^lSeUt°
as it were lost for a time, enough remains to show the early
existence of oriental learning, and to enable us to trace its
progress into Europe, where it became the basis of modern
literature and science.
During the part of the first period, extending from about the Thales and
thirteenth to the fourth century b.c, are found the names of °ages sought
Linus the Scythian, Thales, Pherecydes, Solon, Pythagoras, Ans?awledge in
Hecateus, Hellanicus, Herodotus, Plato, Democritus, Hip
pocrates, Ctesias, Theophrastus, and Aristotle. All these
sages were connected, personally or otherwise, with eastern

540

COMMERCIAL INTERCOURSE WITH ASIA. [CHAP. XVII.

Mercantile
and religious
intercoursebetween Europe and
Asia.

Literary
intercourse
betweenGreece and
Egypt.

Influence of
the Cyropsedia
and Anabasis,

and of the
Greek
mercenary
service upon
Europe.

countries ;x and the philosophy of I'ran and India was, by their
care, elaborated into the more perfect system which was after
wards diffused through Europe.
Through the Greek colonies in Asia, especially those esta
blished near Tarabuzun, a friendly intercourse was maintained
between that part of Asia Minor and Greece, which continued
up to the time of Alexander. It may also be observed, that
to commercial communications were joined those of a religious
character. Flotillas annually carried pilgrims from Greece
towards those parts of Asia Minor which were considered
sacred ; and at one period this circumstance gave to the literary
men, even of Sicily, great facilities of obtaining information
from the east. Philistus, for instance, who was born in the
86th Olympiad, must have had literary intercourse with Egypt,
since he wrote several works on subjects relating to that country,3
apparently without having visited it. Graecia Magna also
became the seat of a philosophy,3 based upon the tenets of
Pythagoras and the doctrines disseminated by Pherecydes.
It is scarcely necessary to remind the reader that the "Cyro-
paedia" and the "Anabasis" have long held high rank with
relation to Asiatic history, or that there were other influential
circumstances connected with Asia in operation about the
same period. During the campaigns of the younger Cyrus,
for instance, the Greeks served on both sides. They had also
been employed in the east from the time of Psammeticus,4 when,
as well as subsequently, mercenaries returning after several
years' service under Egyptian or Persian monarchs, could
scarcely fail to introduce into Greece some of the civilization
enjoyed by the Asiatic peoples. Such a train of circumstances
was therefore well calculated to prepare the world for the great
changes which took place in the second period : this last may
be divided into two portions, each of which claims particular

1 See above, p. 516-530.
s De Rebus JEgyptiacis, lib. XII. De Baecho, de Theologia. iEgyptia^
rum, lib. VI., de Syria et Lybia.
8 Diogenes Laertius, lib. I., seg. cxvi.
* Herod., lib. II. , cap. ciii., cliii., and cliv.

CHAP, XVII.] LITERARY INTERCOURSE WITH ASIA. 541
attention, on account of the influence. of the events occurring in
it on the intellectual improvement of mankind.
The earlier portion commences with the literary inter- Literary
course between the east and west which took place towards the whh Asia*
latter part of Alexander's reign; when the interests and pur- IT^X? by
suits of the people in Persia and Asia Minor were, to a great
extent, amalgamated. The works of Hecateus and Hero
dotus were at this period beginning to excite an interest in the
affairs of the east : this was, no doubt, increased by the writings
of Ctesias, which relate to the same part of the world ; and sub
sequently by the works of Aristotle. The great library at Promoted by
Alexandria containing three hundred thousand volumes in ^school of
Chaldaic, Coptic, Egyptian, Greek, Latin, &c.,' and the well- Alexandria.
known school in that city, not only exercised a lasting influence
on the literature of Europe, but prepared the world for the
momentous events of the second period.
The conquests of Alexander and his successors, the Parthian The world
wars, the amalgamation, to a certain extent, of different nations ; Christianity.
the decline of paganism, hastened by the rise of the Neoplatonic
and Gnostic systems of philosophy, added to the revolution
which took place in eastern Asia among the Bhuddists about
63 b. c, were so many events by which mankind was prepared
for the reception of Christianity.
The intercourse of the west with Asia had already produced
some change in the ancient superstitions which, except among
the descendants of Heber, had obscured the pure light pre
served in the family of Noah. The monopoly of knowledge The eastern
by the priests had been partly broken down by the Macedonian prepared for
conquests ; and about this period Bhuddism appears to have a chanse'
spread over the greater part of western Asia, and to have
imparted among the Chaldeans2 some conception of a Trinity
in the Godhead. During the succeeding period, several phi
losophers touched upon the necessity of a revelation from
Heaven ; and this was in due time vouchsafed by the dispen
sation of Christianity. The first prophets belonged to the east, Christianity
and imparted their doctrines in the eastern languages; and the East.
1 Cedrenus, p. 136.
s Calmet's Dictionary of the Bible, art. Trinity.

542 ASTRONOMY, ETC. BROUGHT FROM THE EAST. [CHAP. XVII.
apostles, as well as the most ancient fathers of the Church, both
Greek and Latin, were citizens of the east. Justinus was
a native of Sichem ; Tatianus was a Syrian ; Theophilus
belonged to Antioch ; Clemens and Origen were of Alexan
dria ; Tertullian and Cyprian of Carthage ; and Ambrosius
influence of was a native of one of the African provinces. The advent of
rfteratare!POn Jesus Christ is, however, only noticed here because it connects
chronologically the change which took place in the time of
Alexander the Great, with the progress of literature and science
at a later period of the history of the world.
Many of the Babylonian, African, and Syrian writers con
tributed largely, by their works, to the advancement of learning
in Europe. The two sciences, astronomy and medicine, origi-
The phi- nated in Chaldea or India. Grammar and the philosophy of
language" &c, language, which were so much studied at Alexandria, were
tnro°ughCed a^so Asiatic. Both had been cultivated by the early Arabs,1
Alexandria. from wnom the taste probably passed to the inhabitants of
Syria and Asia Minor.
Learning and The civilization which was already flourishing from the
spread.3"011 frontiers of China to Alexandria, now began to extend from
Alexandria0™ ^s principal sea* on the coast of the Mediterranean, over
the north of Africa, the south of Europe, and north-western
parts of Asia ; and zeal for the Christian religion united the
civilized nations in its cause, but at the same time separated
Rome becomes them widely in other respects. Bome became the centre of
Christianity! the Christian world, which had its beginning in Palestine;
constant intercourse was maintained between the Holy See and
the bishops and monasteries in different parts of the east, and
intercommunication between the various religious establish
ments was the means of spreading the literature of which they
became the depositories.
Third period : In the succeeding, or third period, a new nation, that of the
Arabs.fthe Arabs, rose in the east: having conquered Persia, Mekran,
Syria, Egypt, Barbary, and Spain, these people shook the
power of- the Church in the east. Their success was at first
prejudicial to literature, but the Arabs discovered, almost as
soon as they had adopted settled habits, that man requires
1 Vol. I., p. 691-693.

CHAP. XVII.] RISE AND PURSUITS OF THE ARABS. 543
occupation for his mind, and that the excitement of their
previously active life in the field or the desert, required to
be replaced by other pursuits. Happily, literature was their Literature
choice, and it was cultivated with a degree of spirit and success the Arabs. y
unexampled in any other nation. This was in a great measure
the consequence of their ardent temperament, which had pre
viously united their efforts in the cause of religion, and created
that zeal by which so much had been achieved : for the sub
jection of tbe world was the result of religious enthusiasm
rather than of the ambition of the leaders of a servile nation.
The overwhelming conquests of the Arabs were chiefly the change
work of the Bedawin, whose exchange of their erratic habits byPthe Arabs
for a settled life, was accompanied by a radical change in their "ettied h'fe.g a
manners and ideas. The precepts of the Koran constituting
the basis of the civil and international law of the Arabs, a new
science, that of law (Fik'h), founded on those precepts, was in
consequence originated.
The cultivation of history, poetry, and law gave to the Arabs ™e Arabs
a taste for other studies. Commencing with what may be called nnk between
the hereditary astronomy of a nomad race, the Arabs appear modern"1
to have turned their attention to mathematics, geometry, and civilization.
medicine. In these sciences they collected much from the
nations whom they had subjected, as the Persians, Syrians, and
Copts ; they borrowed from the Greeks, Hindus, and others with
whom they came in contact, all that was valuable in their litera
ture or traditions ; and thus they became the centre of civiliza
tion, and the link between the ancient and modern civilization
of Europe. So numerous were their works, that the celebrated
scholar Scaliger maintained, that if all the Greek scientific
authors were to be lost, the Arabic versions of Hippocrates,
Ptolemy, and others would supply the deficiency.
The first account of the Koran having become an object of study of the
' . ' , ..„ n ,r\ Ti. Koran m the
study and comment, occurs in the life ot Umar. It appears time of 'Omar.
that when the empire had rest after the conquest of Persia, the
disputes about the meaning of passages in the Koran- became so
serious, that the khaliph was obliged to send his armies to
make fresh conquests, in order to preserve peace iu the
nation. It was under the same khaliph that the Sowsid was surveyed,

544

SCIENCE ENCOURAGED BY THE ARABS. [CHAP. XVII.

Early use of
Arabic
grammar.

The khaliph
Moawiyahemploys
learned men.

Practical use and an almanac brought into use, the computations for which
of astronomy iii • „„ , , i t» ¦
and geometry, were made by the assistance ot belman, and a Persian prisoner
whose name is not given, but who is said to have been of royal
blood. These maybe considered the earliest attempts of the
Arabs to make use of geometry and astronomy, for purposes of
practical utility.
'All, the fourth khaliph, is considered as the father of the
Arabic grammar ; and the author ofthe " Fihrist 'n relates, that
the autograph of a work on grammar, written on Chinese
paper, by Abu-1-aswad, existed in the third century of the
Hijrah, amongst a splendid collection of manuscripts.
Under Moawiyah, the first khaliph of the house of Omai'yah,
we find that historians, physicians, and translators of foreign
languages were employed. 'Obayd Ibn Sorayah, a Jorhamite,
came, according to the Fihrist, from Sana to the court of
Moawiyah, who made inquiries concerning the kings of the
Ajemi (Persia), and the confusion of languages. 'Obayd
answered so much to his satisfaction, that, at the khaliph's
request, the information was committed to paper, and the
Shah Nameh (Book of Kings), the best history of the Persian
kings, was the result.
The Fihrist also mentions some more ancient historians ; as
Ziyad, who lived at the time of 'Othman, and bequeathed his
works as a precious inheritance to his sons. Also Al-bekrf, a
Christian of eastern Arabia, and some others : these last were,
however, strictly speaking, rather genealogists than historians.
Another historian, Ibn al-Katami, who lived in the time of
Moawiyah, is mentioned in the Fihrist; and Mas'udi confirms
the statement, by adding that Mo'awiyah had some slaves who
translated history and novels for the amusement of the khaliph.
Al-hakam and his sons were distinguished physicians during
this reign ; and it appears both from Al Mas'udi and El Kifti,
that in the first century of the Hijrah, the khaliph 'Omar had
a library, from which books on medicine were transcribed, in
order that -they might be generally useful.
The first translation of astronomical and philosophical works
into Arabic, was made by Stephanus, under the patronage of
rrrabTained Khaled (Walid), the grandson of Moawiyah, whose attainments
1 MS. in the Royal Library at Paris.

Ancient Arab
historians.

History
and novels
translated to
amuse the
khaliph.

Learned
¦works trans
lated, aud

CHAP. XVII.] THE WORKS OF BEDE. 545
in these sciences were considerable ;* and, according to Beladin,
dinars were coined at Damascus during this reign. It is also
stated that the khaliph possessed a splendid globe which was
made for Ptolemy in Egypt, and, consequently, previous to the
invasion ofthe Arabs.
Music appears to have been cultivated by this people at the Cultivation of
time of, as well as immediately after Muhammed ; and Ibn music
Mosajjij, who flourished under Moawiyah, was one of the
first who accommodated Persian and Greek airs to Arabic
words. He was followed by other proficients in the art.
This brief notice of the beginning of Muhammedan civili- and litera-
zation, will be sufficient to show that the Arabs were a literary Arabs.
nation as early as the beginning of the eighth century; and
even at this period there was some intercourse between the
learned men of England and those of Arabia.
The Anglo-Saxon Bede, who was born in 672, and died in
May, 735, devoted his life to study and teaching in the monastery
of St. Paul, at Jarrow, and his learning attracted students from all
parts of Europe. He was the cotemporary of 'Abd-el-Malik, the Bede the co-
sixth khaliph of the house of Oma'iyah, and the Saracens are 4bd-°ei-Maiik.
constantly mentioned in his works. In the commentary on His knowledge
Genesis, their victories are noticed f and again, in his work, countries,
De Sex JEtatibus Mundi, he details their expedition to Sicily,
also their conquests in Africa, and the siege of Constantinople,
a.d. 717, as well as the circumstance of their pillaging the
coast of Sardinia. He evinces throughout his works a con
siderable knowledge of the east ; and, from other circumstances,
it may be inferred that Asiatic learning was known in England
soon after it began to dawn in Damascus. The use of the probably
1 tj J i. derived from
Arabic article Al in one of his works, shows that _Bede must Arabic sources.
either have used an Arabic original, or a translation from that
language; and his tract, De Indigitatione, is undoubtedly
oriental, since numbers are shown by the fingers, in the
manner practised by merchants in the east. One is expressed
1 Fliigel, Diss, de Arabicis Scriptorum Grsecorum interpretibus. Misense,
1841, p. 6.
2 Beda? Venerabilis Expositio Genesin, lib. III., cap. xvi., xx. Londini,
1693. VOL. II. ^ N

546 TREATISE ON THE ASTROLABE, ETC. [CHAP. XVII.
by bending the little finger of the right hand ; two, by bending
the little as well as the third finger ; three, by bending the two
latter in addition to the middle finger ; four, by bending the
middle and third fingers, leaving the little finger extended.
This system is very ancient in the east ; and authors on
archery, in that part of the world, make use of it in describing
the manner of stringing the bow. The usual position is called
the 'ikd, sixty-three, i. e., four fingers bent on the palm of the
His system of hand, with the thumb resting on the fore-finger. In an Arabic
shnifar tothat work on archery,1 the system of indigitation is explained in"
of theArabs. .exactly the same manner as by Bede. But although the system
itself comes from the east, it was known in Europe before the
time of Bede, and Hieronymus mentions the number thirty
as symbolical of a wedding.2
Bede uses The treatise of Bede on the astrolabe betrays its Arabic
and terms. e origin by the frequent use of the word Al Mucantarat,3 which
is pure Arabic, and when compared with such corruptions as the
word Avicenna for Ibn Sinna, we may conclude that Bede
derived his information from original writings rather than from
translations. Oudin4 and Mabillon5 consider Bede's translation
of the book, Ibn Abii-s-salt, on the astrolabe,6 to be genuine,
and a great part of it has been quoted by Hermanus Contractus,
who died in 1052, which of itself proves the antiquity, if not
the authenticity of the book.
Connexion of The various allusions to Arabic history which are dispersed
the Bene- •
dictine monks] through the writings of the venerable Bede, and the many
with Arabia. qUestions elucidated by him, of which he could only have had
notice from the Arabs, make it more than probable that the
monks of his order (the Benedictines) had already opened the
mines of Arabic learning for the benefit of Europe.
In his book, De Elementis Philosophise, Bede notices the
1 Preserved in the library of Gotha.
s Nam et ipsa digitorum conjunctio, quasi molli osculo se conflectens et
fcederans, maritum pingit et conjugem.
8 Bede, App. Basil, 1563, vol. I., p. 468.
4 De Scriptoribus Ecclesiasticis, Leip. 1722.
5 Acta Benedictinorum, Paris, 1762, I., p. 539.
8 MS. in the library of Modena.

CHAP. XVII.] EMBASSY TO HARUN-EL-RASHID. 547
Book of Nimrud, which appears to have been a translation Works sup-
from the Arabic.1 In the Fihrist2 of Ibn 'Abd Ya'kub, the %£&£*
original, in Arabic, is mentioned ; and there is a copy of it in *|roE?.tne
i tit t i x -i ti « Arabic.
the Medical Library at Bome.
A friendly intercourse was maintained with Arabia at this Friendly in-
period, or at least soon afterwards. Eginhard has recorded tween Europe
that Badbertus, who died in the year 807, was ambassador from f°thf^aim£
Charlemagne to Hardn-el-Bashfd ; and that, accompanied bycentury-
some noble Franks, and monks of Jerusalem, he proceeded, ac- !™r^ans.seyi-t0
cording to Agobardus, from Aries to Africa, and through Egypt Rashid.
to Baghdad. In returning, the embassy visited Carthage, and
brought from thence the bones of St. Cyprian, which were
afterwards deposited in the episcopal church of Agobardus.
The clepsydra, and the curious clock already mentioned,4 were Arabian pre-
brought on this occasion as presents from the Commander of Charlemagne.
the Faithful to the Protector of the Boman Church. It is also
mentioned by Andros, presbyter of Batisbon, in his Chronicles,
that Constantine, the patriarch of Jerusalem, was in corre
spondence with Charlemagne. The zeal of the latter for the Establishment
revival of literature and science was shown by the establishment universities by
of numerous schools and universities: amongst others, those ofC^1**™®1*-
Paris, Corbie, Fontenelle, Ferrieres, St. Denis, &c. ; and, in
Germany, those of Fulda, Metz, St. Gallen, with many others
in the principal monasteries. Under Charlemagne, Italy also
became renowned for the schools of Monte Casino ; and one
for the study of tbe Greek language was likewise founded by
him at Osnaburgh. In addition to these public institutions,
Charlemagne established an academy for adults in his own
palace, which became the model for the three universities of
Paris, and of which he wished to be a member, without any
distinction of rank.5
During the reign of Charlemagne, and under his protection,
1 Albertus, Magnus Speculum. 2 Vol. III. MS. of Leyden.
8 Histoire des Sciences Mathematiques en Italie, I., p. 245.
4 See above, p. 459. Eginhartus, Vita et Gesta Caroli Magni, Colonia,
1521, p. 108.
5 Dell' Origine, Progressi e Stato d'ogni Litteratura, dell' Abbate D. Giov.
Andres, 4°. Parma, 1783, vol. I., cap. viii., pp. 101-104, compared with
Gaillard's Histoire de Charlemagne, Paris, 1782, tome III., pp. 157-267.
2 n2

548

SPREAD OF LITERATURE.

[chap. XVII.

Establishment of Benedictine
monasteries.

Their '
influence on
civilization.

The monks
become the
means of
spreadingknowledge.

The monks
are induced to
study Arabic.

The modern
sciences,music, poetry,
history, &c,
studied in

the Benedictine monks assumed an important place. Their mo
nasteries were intimately connected by a common object and a
common language — the Latin. There was, in consequence, a
frequency and rapidity of communication, which could scarcely
have existed at that period, had it not been facilitated by the
wealth and the extraordinary power of the monastic establish
ments, and of individuals who were distinguished by their
energy and devotion to the cause of learning. Veneration for
their piety procured them a welcome reception wherever they
appeared, even amongst a barbarous soldiery when in a state of
hostility with the country to which they belonged. The Ben'e-
dictines had their head-quarters in Scotland, and, encouraged
by Charlemagne, Scotch emissaries founded monasteries in
St. Gallen, at Batisbon, and at Vienna; the first being the
most influential establishment, and the second almost equally
remarkable, from having sent Albertus Magnus into the world ;
while the third imparted knowledge under the name of the
Schotten Stift. The monks copied with great rapidity books,
which were sent from Italy to Belgium, from France to Ger
many, and from Spain to England ; and there were few Bene
dictines who had not visited Bome, Venice, Paris, Batisbon,
and the cities of Belgium. When tolerably safe, Spain and
Jerusalem were included in their wanderings, which were
rendered easy to them by the hospitality of their reception in
every convent. Their progress was also facilitated by their
knowledge of Arabic. As early as a.d. 873, Hartmot, the
abbot of St. Gallen, caused some of the monks to study this
language, as the great source of information.1
Beverting to the Arabs — Al Mamdn was the first who
acquired from them that knowledge from which the modern
sciences are derived. It has been seen2 that, in the city of
the khaliphs, the Arabic language, poetry, music, history, anti
quities, and the Koran, including those branches of learning

1 Chron. Magnum Bruhlianense, tome I., p. 752, MS. of the library of
St. Gallen, case Furchen, lib. 702, fol. 325 ; and MS. on Oriental Writers
and Professors of St. Gallen.
8 See above, pp. 460 461 ; and Dell' Origine, &c. d'ogni Litteratura, dell'
Abbate D. Giov. Andres, vol. I., cap. viii., p. 119.

CHAP. XVII.] WORKS TRANSLATED FOR AL MAMUN. 549
which the study of that book required, more particularly juris
prudence, or law in its most comprehensive sense, were the
studies of Mamun. His master in the latter was the celebrated
Al Kesay, and for philology and literature, the famous Yezidi ;
and, having acquired these branches of learning, he assembled
the most distinguished men of the empire at his court. The studies and
Fihrist (MS. in the Boyal Library at Paris) contains his treatise IiMamim.
on the prophetic mission. He wrote another on the praises of
the khaliphs who succeeded Muhammed ; also a work on the
unity of God, and the principal Mdhammedan dogmas. It is
supposed that the work on falconry,1 afterwards translated for
the use of the Emperor Frederic IL, was also by Mamun,2 and
it formed the basis of one on the same subject by Frederic
himself^ which was printed in 1596.3
After Al Mamun had converted Al Fadhl to the faith of The khaliph
El Islam, the disciple, in return, drew the attention of the astronomy and
khaliph to astronomy and mathematics, by which sciences, in mathematics.
addition to those of medicine and philosophy, he became so well
known in Europe. He collected Arabic, Persian, and Greek Rare works
works from the cities which had been taken by the Miihamme- ^i Mamunf
dans ; and the fact, that the last two books of the conic sections and
of Apollonius of Perga were particularly sought for, proves that
the collections were made on systematic principles. An astro
nomical establishment was attached to the library; and, be
sides others elsewhere, a regular observatory was subsequently
established in the capital. The principal literati whose names
have reached us as being employed in translating works for the
khaliph, were — Yahiya Ibn Bitrek, who translated Galen, de literary men
Theriaca, and Ptolemy; Ibn Na'ima 'Abdel-el-Mesfh, who ^tf to
translated the Philosophia of Alexander Aphrodisiensis ; them-
also his commentary on the first four books of Aristotle's
Physicse : to these at least twenty individuals might be added
as translators from the Greek into Arabic. Those employed
1 De arte accipitraria Moamii.
2 There are copies of the translation at Paris and Bologna, and a fragment
of the Arabic text in the library at Gotha.
3 Eeliqua librorum trider secundi, de arte venandi cum avibus, cum
Manfredi regis additionibus.

550 INDIAN PHILOSOPHY BROUGHT INTO ARABIA. [CHAP. XVII.
by Al Mamun to translate from Persian into Arabic are less
known, although their labours were more important. After Ibn
Al Mokaffa', who was anterior to the khaliph, the family of the
Naubakh, from which his vezir was descended, were the most
prominent in this field. Next may be mentioned Musa and
Astronomical Yusdf, sons of Khaled; then 'All Al Ta'ime, who translated
pared foruse. tbe astronomical tables called Al Zij : also Al Hasar Ibn Sahl,
probably the person who was appointed by Al Mamun governor
of 'Irak : to these may be added the translators of the Khodai-
nameh.1
Sanscrit and The most important works were doubtless those translated
translated for from the Sanscrit, partly before, but chiefly in the time of Al
the khahph. M£munj since it was through this medium that some know
ledge of the Indian learning and philosophy was first received.
According to the Fihrist,2 the translators from the Sanscrit
were Mikak, the Indian, who was under the protection of
Is-hak Ibn Soleiman the Hashemite ; and Ibn Dahan, another
physician in the Barmakite hospital. Subsequently other
valuable works were translated into Arabic by the learned men
of Haran, from the ancient Chaidee and Syriac : and the lite
rary treasures thus collected from many parts of the world,
were, after the usual ordeal of discussion by the learned
Arabians, deposited in the great library in Baghdad.
Cultivation of At the same time due attention was paid to the important
astronomy,&c. science 0f astronomy, careful observations being made at the
different observatories, particularly by the Jew, Sind Ibn 'All,
and the celebrated Muhammed Ibn Musa Al Khowarezmi ;
Al Yorithmis, Habsh, and others were also employed in cor
recting the astronomical tables. The khaliph, however, died
before the task was accomplished, but not before he had com
pleted his greatest scientific work, by measuring an arc of the
meridian, near Bakkah on the plains of Sennar.
Subsequently to the golden age of Arabic literature in the
time of Al Mamun, the study of that literature was encouraged
1 The Poetical History of Persia. See the names in Al Mas'udi, vol II
p. 27.
e Vol. III. MS. of Leyden.

CHAP. XVII. J ARABIC MSS. BROUGHT TO EUROPE. 551
by the Abbot Bernhard of St. Gallen, about 883 a.d. In 900, The abbot of
that monastery had to lament the death of the great orientalist, encourages
Hartmanner the younger, who had been the intimate friend JlrieSai7 °f
of Alfred of Weissenburg,1 and a disciple of the learned literature-
St. Nother, who lived under Charlemagne and Charles the
Fat.2 We may fairly conclude that the study of the Arabic lan
guage was equally an object of importance in the other Bene
dictine monasteries : in these were prepared the numerous MS. Arabic mss.
translations from the Arabic, which are still to be found in monasteries.
European libraries, particularly in those of Venice, Halle, Got-
tingen, Padua, Berlin, Paris, Oxford, and the British Museum.
Unfortunately the productions belonging to the early period of
Arabian literature are seldom distinguished from those belong
ing to the corrupted age of the Turks and Persians, and but
few of the former have been preserved.
There exist, however, Soyati's History of the Khaliphs ; 3 Arabic mss. ,
Baron Hammer's Gemalde Saal, oder Lebensbeschreibungen Europe?
grosser ostlichen Herrsher ; 4 and Al Mas'udf's Meadows of
Gold and Mines of Gems, now translated by Dr. Aloys
Sprenger, M.D. 5 Also Abu-1-feda, Annales Muslimici ;
Abd-1-faraj, Historia Dynastiorum ; and finally Price's Chro
nological Betrospect.
Another source of Arabic literature may now be noticed, Europe re-
namely, that which found its way into Europe through the i^amingfrSm
Moors of Spain. Its progress is detailed in a compendium the Moors-
of literary history by Abd-1-Hasim Said Ibn Ahmed, and
also in the MS. translation by Don Gayangos, of Al-mak-
kam's Muhammedan Dynasties in Spain. According to the
latter author, the philosophical sciences were not cultivated
in Spain previously to the invasion of the Arabs, a.h. 92.
Subsequently, when the kingdom enjoyed peace under the
Oma'iyades, men of talent devoted themselves to literary pur-
1 Chron. Magn. Bruhlianense, tome I., fol. 752.
2 Metzlar de viris de St. Galli.
8 MS. ofthe British Museum, No. 7324, folio 118, recto, and No. 7325,
folio 138, recto.
4 Leipsic, 1837, ii. p. 219.
5 Allen and Co., Leadenhall-street.

552 ARABIC POETRY INTRODUCED INTO EUROPE. [CHAP. XVII

Various
branches of
learning cultivated in
Andalusia.

Poetry is in
troduced into
Europe from
Arabia.

The rhymes
ofOlfrid
resemble the
Arab poetry.

The Moors
introducepoetry into
Spain.

suits. Towards the middle of tbe third century of the Hijrah,
in the days of Amir Muhammed, sultan of Cordova, the
learned men of Andalusia cultivated various branches of the
sciences. This appears to have been the case up to the middle
of the fourth century of the Hijrah, when the Sultan Al-
Hakem, son of the celebrated Abd-er-Bahman, gave fresh
encouragement to science by inviting learned men to his capital
from Baghdad, Cairo, &c. Indulging the exquisite taste for
literature, which he had acquired during his father's lifetime,
he collected even a richer and more extensive library than that
of Baghdad.
Poetry, the favourite pursuit of the Arabs, soon found its
way into Europe through Spain, and still earlier by another
route. The first poet was Olfrid, a Benedictine monk of
Weissenburg, and the pupil of the Archbishop of Cologne,
who lived about a. d. 870. The rhymes of Olfrid and his song
of victory against the Normans,1 written towards the close of
the ninth century, are the most ancient rhymes on record in
Europe;2 excepting, perhaps, the collection of military songs,
said to have been ordered by Charlemagne in order to animate
and instruct his soldiers, which contained much of the history of
France.3 These verses, as well as those of the Provencals,
bear a strong resemblance to the poetry of the Arabs, the last
syllable only being rhymed.
Giammaria Barbieri,4 Andres,5 and Gingeni prove that
rhyme came from Arabia, chiefly through Spain, to other parts of
Europe. As the bravest warriors were frequently the best poets,
the melodious Arabic rhymes were first heard by the Spaniards
amidst the terrors of war ; for poetical effusions were some
times recited even during the combat. Therefore, when neces
sity compelled the Spaniards to study Arabic, they naturally

1 In Schilter's Thesaurus Antiquitatum Teutonicarum, vol. I.
2 A fine edition of this poem, the Krist, was published by Graff, Konigs-
burg, 1831, 4°.
3 Gaillard's Histoire de Charlemagne,^tome III., pp. 165, 166.^
* Dell' Origine della Poesia Einata, opera di Giammaria Barbieri, publi-
cata da Gir. Tiraboschi, Modena, 1790.
5 Origine e Progressi d'ogni Litteratura, Parma, 1783.

CHAP. XVII.] VERSIFICATION CAME FROM THE ARABS. 553
imitated the rhyme and music which were so captivating to a
southern nation. This effect is shown by Alvarus of Cordova,
who complains1 that the Spaniards were so infatuated by the
beauty of the Arabic style and language, that although scarcely
an individual was capable of writing Latin, numbers were so
strong in Arabic, that they restricted the termination of their
verses to one letter, so as to end with the full sound of the
rhyme upon it, agreeably to the genius of their favourite Arabic
language. This extract from Alvarus shows that versification came Resemblance
from the Arabs to Europe : it shows also the progress of Arabic European to
studies among the Christians. In the present day, writes Sir*^™k?°n
William Jones, scarcely any Arab can read twenty couplets,
however learned he may be, without the help of a dic
tionary, nor does he understand a poem, or a commentary on a
poem. Provencale poetry succeeded that of the Franks. The inha- similarity
bitants of Provence were in contact with the Arabs, or Moors, Proveriga'ie6
and their continual struggle with them for liberty, .caused that a°gtrArablc
unfavourable representation of the latter people which is given
in their poetry. But although the intercourse did not lead to
a profound knowledge of the language of the Arabs, it does
not follow that the rhymes of the Troubadours were not de
rived from the latter people, although the vanity of the Pro
vencale nation prevented them from admitting the fact. The
poem of Boethius is as like an Arabic Kasidah as European
language would allow ; and the rhyme falls usually on the last
syllable. The most ancient rhymes found by Baymond in the Pro- Rhymes of
vencale language are those of Boethius, which are without p^se oTthe
date, but certainly are not older than the tenth century ; and Prc»,en«eaux'
the most ancient prose he discovered does not go back beyond
842 A. d. The celebrated hymn beginning " Veni Sancte
Spiritus," is as early as a. d. 996. The next in point of age is
a poem of a.d. 1100, entitled La Noble Leyczon.2
Not only versification, but the modern lyric, and even
1 About the middle of the ninth century.
s Choix des Poesies des Provengeaux, Ub. vol. II.

554 LYRIC POETRY OF THE BEDAWIN. [CHAP. XVII.
Lyric and romantic poetry, whose essence is rhyme, are of Arabic origin.
romantic L J ,. . „ . , ,
poetry appear The epic would be too long for the lively ±5edawin, who are
origin! AraWc lyric poets by nature; even the Koran and their official
writings being in this style. It has been said that the romantic
love and veneration for the fair sex which characterize the
Provencale poetry are unknown to the Arabs. But, on the
contrary, there is scarcely one Kasidah in Arabic which does
not express the most ardent feelings of love; and Sir William
Jones tells us l that it was invariably the custom either to begin
with expressions of love, or else introduce them in the middle
of the poem ; and the Suffees described even their love to God
under the symbol of affection for a mistress.
The Italians After the French and the Troubadours, the Italians — those
poetPryArabiC at least who lived in the north of Italy— were the first to use
the language of the latter, and to begin to write in verse. The
Spaniards were late in using their own language for this pur
pose, the literature of the country having been previously con
fined to the Arabic ; so that it was only when they had the
example of the Provenceaux in cultivating the vulgar language,
and had become in some degree independent of the Arabs,
that they began to have a literature of their own.
Mathematical About the third century of the Hijrah, the Arabs of Spain
stadieTin commenced the study of the philosophical and mathematical
Spain. sciences, which, in the fourth century of the Hijrah, were intro
duced into Europe, particularly by Gerbert, who died a.d. 1003.
Before his elevation to the papal chair, he travelled through
Italy, Belgium, and Germany ; and in order to study mathe
matics, he went to Spain, and visited Barcelona, if not Seville
also.2 The astrolabe is described by him in Arabic terms, and
it is a remarkable circumstance that Gerbert speaks of a work,
First useof the De Multiplicatione etDivisione, written by Josephus Hispanus.
of notetiSon!em This may possibly have been the first book in Latin, giving the
Indian system of notation and algebra. There is, however, a
Latin MS. in the British Museum which bears the same title.3
It is an explanation of the Indian system of notation ; and
1 Comm. Poesise Asiaticae, p. 81.
2 Gerberti Litera, Paris, 1611, p. 21, &c.
3 Arundel, 343. It is considered as of the twelfth century.

CHAP. XVII. J PROGRESS OF LEARNED MEN IN SPAIN. 555
it may possibly have been the work of Josephus Hispanus.
As the names of the figures are added in Arabic, there is little
doubt of its eastern origin ; indeed, Leonardo da Pisa, who
received from the Arabs the numerals now in use, calls them
Indian.1 Towards the end of the tenth century schools were esta- Schools
blished in the Christian towns of Spain and the south of sPain ana-
France, for the study of Arabic literature and philosophy. ftuadyCo/or the
Avicenna's (Ibn Sinna's) works on logic and metaphysics were Arabic litera-
used in the Sorbonne, the greatest school of theology in Chris
tendom ; and Averrhoes' (Ibn Boshd) works were studied at
Paris, during or immediately after his lifetime.
The commencement of the era of the crusades was that in Decline of the
which the eastern literature and science began to be generally spread of an
cultivated in Europe. At that time almost every country had ^blc learn"
institutions, in connexion with which flourished those distin
guished men by whom the sciences of the Arabs were consi
derably advanced. Among these were Avicenna, who died Learned men
__ , . ',_,,. Aii-/ / • nr, ti ti i of the eleventh
a.d. 1037; Mesne in 1015; Al-bisimi in 1039; Ibn Bod- and twelfth
hrson in 1061 ; Al Hezen, the author of the Optics, in 1038 ; cen ur,es'
Ibn Jezla in 1100; Avenzohar in 1162; Averrhoes in 1198;
and Ma'imonides in 1208.
Spain was particularly distinguished at this period for her Progress of
progress in oriental acquirements. Savawrda, a Jew, flourished l™A\es in
in the beginning of the twelfth century as a professor of Arabic Spam-
learning in the north of Spain. In 1134 he translated a work
on astrology, which has the following postscript: — "Perfectus
est liber iu electioliibus horarum laudabilium editione Hali,
filii Hamet Ebram; translatus de Arabico in Latinum, in civitate
Barshinona, Abraham Indio Ispano, qui dicitur Savawrda,
existente interprete et perfecta est ejus translatio anno 1 134."
Ebram in the above title does not mean Jew, as might be sup
posed, but it is a corruption of Imram, as the name is spelt in
Arabic and in Kiftf.
Gerhard of Cremona was a learned mathematician, astrono
mer, and physician, who died, according to Pipini, at Cremona,
1 Dell' Origine, Progressi e Stato d'ogni Litteratura, dell' Abbate D. Giov.
Andres, 4to, Parma, 1783, vol. I., cap. x., pp. 226, 227.

556

LEARNING ENCOURAGED.

[chap. XVII.

Gerhard of
Cremona
translates the
Almagest of
Ptolemy.
Gerhard's
translations from the
Arabic.

Raymond,archbishopof Toledo,
encourages
the study of
Arabic, &c.

in 1187, in his seventy- third year, and was buried in the
monastery of Sta. Lucia, to which he bequeathed his books.
There is a translation of the Almagest in the Medicean library,
made by him in 1175.1 Although no MS., however ancient,
writes his name Carmonensis, the uncertainty of Gerhard's
patronymic has been favourable, to his fame, for both the
Spaniards and the Italians have claimed him ; and he is in
consequence better known than any other oriental scholar of
the middle ages, though by no means the best of the number.2
One of his works 3 has been printed in various editions, parti
cularly the ninth book, on which several Latin commentaries
have been written, as being the text-book of practical medicine
in the middle ages.
The Synonyma of Basis is the most ancient Arabic and
Latin dictionary extant, of which the MS. Arabic glossary to
Basis, in the library of Leyden, may have been the original text.
The study of Arabic literature at Toledo was particularly
encouraged by Raymond, who was a native of Agens. He
entered the order of St. Benedict, and was brought to Spain by
St. Bernhard. He was made archbishop of Toledo in 1130,
and died in 1150. Among the orientals who were encouraged
by Baymond, were Marcus, an archdeacon of Toledo ; Domi-
nicus Gondisalvus; Jonius Hispalensis ; and probably also
John, archdeacon of Toledo, who is perhaps the same as
Marcus. To John, archdeacon of Toledo, a translation of
Algazeli's Logic is attributed, in the catalogue of the library
of St. Mark, Venice. Albertus Magnus says,4 that Avendar, a
Jewish philosopher, translated into Latin the Arabic works on
logic ; and in another passage he states,5 that he also translated
the works of Aristotle from the Arabic.

1 See Jourdain, p. 127.
s His works and translations are, Canon Avicenna, Aboali filii Davidi
compendium Rasis, and the Almagest. There is a splendid copy of his
translation of the latter in Burney's Collection in the British Museum, No.
275. 3 " Abubecri Rasis Almonsarius ; practica ejusdem antidotarium et liber
divisionum." 4 Op. Lyon. 1651, vol. I., p. 41.
5 Speculum Naturae, lib. IL, cap. vi.

CHAP, xvii.] translation of THE KORAN. 557
If this Avendar be identical with Avendeneth, or Mendeath, Avicennas
he was one of the orientalists encouraged by the archbishop in translated by
the translation of Avicenna's work De Anima, ; and several of Avendar-
his writings are dedicated to this patron of eastern learning.1
According to the above we may ascribe to Avendar all the
works on logic quoted by Albertus. These are, the logic of
Avicenna, of Algazeli, of Alfarabi, and a version of Joannes
Damascenus ad Grisarorium.
In some copies of Avicenna's work De Anima, this transla- Double
tion is attributed to Gondisalvus, one of Baymond's arch- Avicenna's0
deacons. It appears from the introduction in one of the De Amma-
MSS. of Paris quoted by Jourdain,2 that Avendar translated it
from Arabic into his own language, and that Dominicus Gon
disalvus rendered it in Latin. A Jew was hired to explain the
meaning of the text, and the scholar put it into Latin. This
practice accounts for the numerous mistakes and bad ortho
graphy of the translations of the middle ages. All those attri
buted to Dominicus Gondisalvus of Segovia are in reality by
Avendar ; as the metaphysics of Avicenna,3 those of Algazeli,4
Avicenna's book De Ccelo et Mundo, and Alphoranius De
Scientiis. Marcus, who was also encouraged by the archbishop of First transia-
Toledo, first translated the Koran in 1215: of this there is a Koran, and
fine copy in the Ambrosian Library at Milan, and there are two
copies in the Boyal Library at Paris.9 This translation is pre
ceded by a notice on the life and religion of Muhammed, which is
tolerably correct ; then follows the translator's preface, in which
it is stated that when the present archbishop was ordained
bishop of Toledo, he caused the Koran to be translated from of Galen's
* "worlc bv
the Arabic by Marcus, who also translated a work of Galen.6 Marcus.
1 Royal Library of Paris, Sorbonne, 1187. Compare Ane. Fonds, 8802.
2 Recherches sur Aristote, p. 504.
3 F. Library, Paris, 6443.
* MS. of Tunis, 6552.
6 Ane. Fonds, MSS. Latins, No. 3394. St. Victoire, No. 253. Compare
Jourdain's Recherches sur les Traductions Latines d' Aristote, p. 1 10.
6 Which is inscribed " De notibus liquidis a Joannino Honaim, de Grseco
in Arabieum; a Marco Toletano deArabico in Latinum conversus." MSS.
Latins, P. of the Royal Library Paris, 6865, and Sorbonne, 786.

558

translations of hermannus. [chap. xvii.

Hermannus
translatesAristotle's Rhetoric and
Ethics.

Other -works
of Aristotle
translated.

Constantinus
introduces Arabic
medicine into
Italy.
Travels and
acquirements
of Constan
tinus.

But the most learned translator of the thirteenth century
was Hermannus, a German. He studied Arabic at Toledo,
and flourished about the middle of the century. He translated
the Rhetoric of Aristotle, which he dedicated to John, bishop
of Burgos, councillor of the king of Castille.1 Hermannus was
assisted by Arabic scholars, and not by Jews, and he accom
plished his task with the greatest ability. He also translated
the Ethics of Aristotle, of which Robert of Lincoln made
another translation from the Greek. Hermannus acknow
ledged the superiority of the latter, but the earlier version was
from the Arabic. He also translated Aristotle's poetry, follow
ing the edition of Alfarabi. Hermannus' translation of the
Ethics was made at Toledo in 1240, and printed at Venice,
1489. Whilst the orientalists who were educated in Spain, and
those of St. Gallen, rendered the mathematical and astrono
mical works accessible to the Latin reader, Constantinus, a
native of Africa, introduced Arabic medicine into Italy, and
founded the school of Salerno. His translations from the
Arabic were the more welcome, as Celsus and Pliny were then
the only medical works in Latin. It has been said that Con
stantinus travelled thirty-nine years in the east, and went as far
as India; also that he studied grammar, dialectics, natural
philosophy, mathematics, music, and medicine, at Baghdad.
These facts, however, have been doubted, but it appears certain
that in 1072 he entered the monastery of Monte Casino, after
he had been secretary to Robert Guichard, and that he wrote
several medical works, and translated many from the Arabic.2
1 This translation was printed at Venice, 1481, and is in the Royal
Library, Paris, Sorbonne, 1175.
2 His translations are, i. Liber Pantegni, i. e., Ars ingens medicines uni
versalis, libri viginti, auctore Isaac Israelita (Is-hak Ibn Soleiman, a Jewish
physician of Egpyt, who died a.d. 932), et interprete Constantino, monacho
Cassiensis. Royal Library at Paris, 6885.
ii. The Aphorisms of Hippocrates, with the Commentary of 'Ali Ibn
Rodhisan, a physician of Egypt, which he translated at the request of his
pupil Elancon, from an Arabic MS. MS. of the Royal Library, Paris,
6808. Hippocrates, Aphorismes translati.
iii. Isaac's book, De Urinis. Harleian Library, British Museum, 3140,
Royal Library, Paris, 7034 and 6871, A. iv.

CHAP. XVII.] ADELARD OF BATH. 559
The works of Constantinus, published in two volumes at Basle,
1536, may equally be considered as translations from the
Arabic.1 The first English orientalist on record is Adelard of Bath, Adelard of
a Benedictine monk, who lived about the year 1 100; but the i^spain. "*
only notice of his life is that contained in the introduction to
his "Questiones Naturales."2 He states that he remained long
abroad, chiefly residing in France, and lecturing on the
sciences which were then taught in the university of Paris.
Seven years before his return to England, it seems that he
decided upon studying the works of the Arabs, and he went for
that purpose to the Moorish part of Spain ; but not, as stated
by some authors, to Arabia itself, which, it may be observed,
was at that time frequently confounded with the provinces
occupied by the Moors in Spain.3
Adelard has become remarkable in Europe by his translation His translation
of Euclid's geometry, of which work, however, there is a second
version, containing also Campanus' translation of Nasir-ed-dfn's Campanus's
Demonstrations. But the latter translation must have been Nasir-ed-dm's
added at a later time, since JSTasir-ed-din lived subsequently to jjons°I'Stra~
Adelard. There is a copy extant, without the translation of
Campanus, which once belonged to Gregory XL, and is now in
the British Museum. It is evidently of Arabic origin, and
more ancient than the Demonstrations of Campanus. The
existence of two different translations of Euclid's Geometry is
confirmed by the marginal notes to another MS. of Euclid,4
in which the Demonstrations of Campanus are compared with
the earlier work by Adelard. The latter notices, in his Astronomical
/~» • -xt i ii a i ry / • tables Al Zij,
Questiones JNaturales, a book called Al Zij (astronomical and those of
tables), of which there is a Latin translation; and he translated ,

rezmi.

iv. Seven books of Isaac, called Viaticum. Harleian Library, 3140.
v. Isaac, De.Febribus, ibid. This was printed among the Auctores de
Febribus. Venice, 1594.
1 His Antidotarium was translated from the Latin into Greek, and there
is a copy of this translation in the Imperial Library at Vienna.
a Besides the printed text there are several fine MS. copies of this work.
3 See Albertus Magnus, in his book De Cassidibus Arabia? Hispalensis.
4 Harleian, 5266.

560

ARABIC SEMINARIES IN EUROPE.

[CHAP. XVII.

Adelard's last
•work on re
turning to
England.

Treatise on
the astrolabe
and use of
Arabic ¦words.

Arabic semi
naries in
France and
Spain.

Samuel, a
Jew of Fez,
¦writes in
favour of
Christianity.

the astronomical tables of Al Khowarezmi, of which there is a
copy in the Hatton library, at Oxford.1
These tables are also called Ezichiaferim, or Ezieh Za'far,
one of the names of Al Khowarezmi. Besides the astronomical
tables, Al Khowarezmi wrote a treatise on the astrolabe, another
on chronology, and his celebrated work on algebra; which
science is supposed to have first found its way into Europe by
the translation of Budoph of Bruges about a.d. 1144.
Adelard returned to England during the latter part of the
reign of Henry I., and wrote his work " Per difficiles ques
tiones naturales,"2 which is remarkable for its rhyming prose in
imitation of the Arabic style. It is written in the form of a
dialogue between Adelard and his nephew. The greater por
tion of his works, however, still remain in manuscript in Trinity
College, Cambridge.
The Arundel collection 3 contains a work by Adelard on the
astrolabe, which is remarkable for the correctness with which
the Arabic names are spelt. He generally follows the English
pronunciation in transcribing Arabic words ; thus he writes
Jafar, and not, as was usual in his time, Geafar or Gafar.
During the time of Adelard, and previous to his age, schools
for learning existed in various towns in the south of France
and north of Spain, particularly at Toledo ; in which not only
converted Arabs, but Christians and Jews appear to have
been Professors. Among the last was Samuel of Fez, who
came to Toledo in 1080. In 1085 he became a Christian.
His book against Isaac was translated into Latin in 1338 by
Buenhambre, a Spanish Dominican, and may be found in the
twenty-first volume of the Bibliotheca Patrum.
As early as 1 143, Peter of Toledo, assisted by two friends,
Robert Ketenensis and Hermianus Dalmata, who were studying
in Toledo,4 made a translation of the Koran. The former, who
is also called Retenensis, is presumed to have been the trans-

1 Under the title of Ezieh Elkaurezmi, hoc est tabula Chowarezmicce ex
Arabico traducto.
2 Printed and published at Milan in folio as early as 1470.
3 No. 377.
1 Bib. Patrum maxima, vol. xxii., pp. 1030, 1033.

CHAP. XVII.J FREDERIC II. ENCOURAGES ARABIC LEARNING. 561
lator of Ptolemy's planisphere,1 and also of the large work,
Al-Zij of Beten, or El Battani. But there is a better version
by Plato Tibertinus, one of the most correct and industrious
translators of that period. He says there is no better author Translation
on astronomy, either in Greek or Arabic, than El Battani. works. a
This version by Plato Tibertinus has been printed, and there
is a MS. copy in the Boyal Library at Paris.2
Two learned Englishmen may be mentioned in connexion Roger of
with this period, Boger of Hereford and Daniel Morley. The astronomer. e
former, in 1178, observed an eclipse of the sun at his native Daniel Mor-
place. From a fragment of an astronomical work which he philosopher.
wrote3 it appears that he knew Arabic well, and had been at
Toledo. The astronomical tables of Hereford are mentioned by
Bate of Mechlin. Daniel Morley, who was Hereford's friend,
occupied himself particularly with philosophy, and acquired
the name of Philosophus. He went to Paris, and from thence
to Toledo, where he studied the Arabic sciences. On his
return to England he brought a large quantity of books, and
one Arabic MS., entitled " De Berum Natura," which is in the
British Museum.4
The liberality of Baymond, archbishop of Toledo, which The emperor
had given a fresh impulse to the pursuit of eastern literature, encourages '
was renewed with additional vigour, and extended to other .eastern learn"
parts of Europe by Frederic II. This prince was born in
Sicily, spoke Arabic fluently, and was in frequent contact with
the Arabs. He had a predilection for Muhammedans, and
many Saracens attended his court, the sons of Averrhoes being
among the number.
Frederic endeavoured to counteract the narrow-minded views
of the Pope, and the injurious influence of his authority in
retarding the advancement of learning, by introducing Arabic
philosophy and civilization into his empire. His library was
rich in works of all languages, and Latin translations were sent
to the universities, accompanied by precepts enjoining what
1 P. 234, edition of Nurnberg, 1537. 2 Sorbonne, No. 1264.
3 Anni collecti omnium planetarium, compositi a Magistro Eogero Here-
fordiense, anno, &c.
4 Arundel, No. 377.
VOL. II. ^ °

562 TRANSLATIONS BY MICHAEL SCOTT. [CHAP. XVII.
circular should be taught. In a circular letter he enlarges upon the
Fredermto delights of learning, the enjoyment he derived from it, and he
orfe°ntaige urSes ^s cultivation upon the learned, whom he exhorts to
acquirements, communicate their knowledge to their less-instructed brethren ;
adding, that if the mind be not cultivated, life is spent unpro-
fitably. The emperor's circular contains also the following
remarks : " Looking attentively over the books in our library,
we noticed various ancient works on logic and mathematics,
which were written by Aristotle and other philosophers in the
Greek and other languages ; which not having yet been translated
His object of into Latin are inaccessible. As it is our pleasure that these
people. works should be made useful to the public by means of transla
tions, we have ordered some distinguished men, who are familiar
with both languages, to prepare literal translations."
The emperor concludes in these remarkable words : — " There
fore, O learned men, who present to the thirsty drink from the
fountains of antiquity, accept these books as a present from
your friend the emperor, and make use of them in your lectures,
in order that the germs of virtue may grow luxuriantly, and the
darkness of error be dispelled. Admonished by your sovereign,
and encouraged by the intrinsic value ofthe presents themselves,
you are to make them public for the use of the students, and
that they may be a monument to our name."
Michael Scott The largest portion of the labour of the translations fell to
tra^iations. Michael Scott (probably a Scotchman), who had been a pupil
at the school of Toledo in 1207, and was previously at Oxford
and Paris; both of which he quitted in order to exchange
scholastic theology for the Arabic literature. His progress in
this study, as well as his proficiency in astronomy, philo
sophy, and all the natural sciences, had gained the favour of
Frederic. But although he was the translator of Aristotle, and a great
scholar, Scott owed his reputation more particularly to his pre
tensions in astrology and magic.1 He wrote the preface to a
work on magic, which was translated by a Jew from the Arabic
in 1255. This work is in the library at Dresden, and the
character appears to be that of the Mugarebeh ; it is therefore
1 Booaccio and Dante, Inferno, canto XX.

CHAP. XVII. J ALPHONSO X. ENCOURAGES ARABIC SCIENCES. 563
probable that the Jew learned Arabic in Spain, where that
character was used.
The principal works translated by Michael Scott are — Abu-el- Principal
Sinna's History of Animals ; and a work on physiognomies by Mchaef Scott.
Theodosius Philosophus.1 These were dedicated to Frederic II.
He also translated a work on falconry for the emperor.
The encouragement thus given did not cease with the death
of Frederic, or of his son Manfred, for Charles of Anjou con
tinued to support the cause of learning ; and his example was
followed, at a later period, by Alphonso X.
This prince had a predilection for astronomy ; and finding but Alphonso x.
few works on this science in Latin, he caused several of those the sludy of
by Arabic astronomers and astrologers to be translated into astronomy-
Spanish. But instead of employing learned Europeans who
had mastered the Arabic language, as Frederic II. had done,
Jews were selected to translate Arabic works under his own
eye. It is said that he was assisted in his undertaking by forty
men> and that he spent forty thousand ducats in collecting
materials : but the tables which were the result of these labours,
have not been much valued by astronomers. The Secret of
Secrets, and nine other works, are enumerated as having been
translated for Alphonso.2
Although an impulse had been given to learning by Fre- impulse given
deric II. and his successor, its progress continued to be slow, Frederic II.
1 Pitts mentions several other works. These are as follow : —
Aristotle's work, De Coloribus ;
Alchymistisch Siebengestirn, Hamburg, 1695 : this book contains a
treatise on alchemy, by Aristotle, which is said to have been translated by
order of Bishop Honorius from the Hebrew ;
Aristotelis Secretum Secretorum, ad Alexandrum ;
De Regium Regimine ; De sanitatis conservatione ; De physiognomia ;
Ejusdem de signis tempestatum, ventorum et aquarum ;
Ejusdem de miniralibus ;
Alexandri Aphrosdisii clarissimi peripatetici de intellectu ;
Averrois magni commentatoris de animie beatitudine ;
Alexandri Achilliqua bonis mensis de universalibus ;
Alexandri Macedonis in Septentrione monarchi de mirabilibus Indise ad
Aristotelem. Bologna, MS. No. 1901.
The last is a very curious letter, said to have been written by Alexander
the Great to his tutor Aristotle, giving some account of the wonders of
India.
2o2

564. STUDY OF EASTERN LANGUAGES ENCOURAGED. [CHAP. XVII:

The thirteenth
century was
one of activity.

Charles V.
encourages scientific
studies.

Roger Bacon
and his pur
suits.

His learning
caused his
incarceration.

Sir Michael
Scott of
Balweary.Use of Arabic
numerals, &c,
in Europe.

owing chiefly to the delay in translating as well as transcribing
ancient works: but from the reigns of these princes may be
dated the decided change which marks the fourth period.
The thirteenth century has, but scarcely it would seem with
justice, been considered a retrograde period ; for, the necessity
of improvement having been felt, universities were established,
and students assembled in quest of instruction both from Arabic
and Greek sources : that century was therefore, particularly
towards its close, a period of activity, if not of marked advance
ment. Charles V., the reigning monarch of France, was one of
those who, from position as well as education, was enabled to
further the cause of science. He established a library in the
Louvre ; and translations of classical works were made under
his auspices in the university of Paris. Boger Bacon, who
appears to have been one of the students of that university,,
returned with a degree to Oxford, where it was readily con
firmed. The invention of an explosive substance nearly resem
bling gunpowder, the discovery of the principles ofthe telescope,
and the pursuit of alchemy have, more than his other acquire
ments, given celebrity to this individual His Specula Mathe-
matica, and other works which have been printed, show the
vast extent and variety of the information which had been
acquired by the learned Franciscan; and the Opus Magis is
remarkable for a display of knowledge, which far surpassed
that of his age. Bacon's favourite pursuit of astrology and
alchemy, however, in an age of ignorance, caused him to be
suspected of being in league with infernal spirits ; and, instead
of being honoured as the brightest ornament of his age, he was
doomed to pass eleven years in prison.
Michael Scott, who has been already mentioned, and another
individual of the same name who died in 1294, Sir Michael
Scott, of Balweary, or the wizard as he was called, are proofs
that during the same period learning was also cultivated to a
considerable extent in Scotland.
The use of the Arabic numerals, and the practice of Arabic
medicine, became more general during the succeeding century ;
but it is the fifteenth century which, in connexion with the

CHAP. XVII.] PROGRESS OF PRINTING. 565
period now under consideration, claims particular attention. A
decided change commenced with Petrarch ; and the revival of
classical literature, which followed in Italy, was accelerated by
the settlement in that country of several Greek scholars, who
had been exiled from Byzantium. The cultivation of poetry
in Spain as well as other parts of Europe, the establishment of
great public libraries, particularly that of the Vatican, and the
discovery of the art of printing were, at the same time, the
means which contributed powerfully to the advancement of
learning. Lorenzo de' Medici was one of those who gave encourage- Euclid printed
ment to literature; and at Venice, Campanus' translation of a.d. us2.
Euclid was printed in 1482, with diagrams prepared on copper
to illustrate the text. Before the end of the century many
scientific works were printed in Greece and Italy ; and, a little
later, at other places in Europe.
During the first quarter of the sixteenth century, classical Learning
learning was encouraged in France by Francis I. ; and before FranreTnthe11
the middle of this period, it formed a branch of education at ^^^
the British Court. Considerable progress was also made in the
mathematical and physical sciences during this century, in
which flourished the distinguished astronomer Copernicus.
More modern times claim Lord Bacon, Spenser, Shakspeare, its rapid
Descartes, Milton, Newton, Leibnitz, Euler, and La Place, [™modern
with many other individuals distinguished for literature andtlmes-
science ; and within the same period, in addition to the cultiva
tion of the classic works of Greek and Latin authors, the
Chaidee, Hebrew, Syriac, and other oriental languages, have
attracted particular attention. The grammatical structure of
these tongues has been carefully studied, and the languages
themselves successfully compared with one another. The steam vessels
practical use of steam power and of electricity may be men- j^e e^™°s"
tioned as two of the greatest benefits which have been con
ferred on man. The former propels vessels along rivers and
across the ocean ; and, on land, transports travellers and mer
chandize with almost the speed of a hurricane.
The other power, more mysterious in its nature, though as The electric
yet in its infancy, has almost annihilated space, and, in one eesraP ¦

566 THE ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. [CHAP. XVII.
sense, completely annihilated time; since, by moving with a
velocity exceeding that of the earth's revolution on its axis, a
communication in a westward direction may arrive at its desti
nation at an instant which, in local time, is earlier than that of
its departure.

( 567 )

CHAPTEB XVIII.
ANCIENT AND MODERN COMMERCE.
Proposed Notice. — Ancient Commerce of India. — Trade overcomes the diffi
culties caused by "Wars, &c. — Various branches of ancient Commerce. — ¦
Trade of Egypt and the Ishmaelites. — Commerce of Arabia with Tyre. — ¦
Routes from Tyre to Palmyra and Babylon. — Route to Central Asia. —
Trade of the Hindus, eastward and westward. — Trade with Asia in the time
of Pliny. — Routes to Eastern China and India, through Balkh, &c. — Com
merce on the Southern Shores of the Euxine.- — Limited extent of the Greek
Commerce by Sea. — Commerce of the Rhodians, Phrygians, Milesians, and
Carians. — Greek Colonies in Asia Minor. — Limits of their Voyages. —
Commerce of the Phoenicians, Carthaginians, and Gauls with Britain. — '
Nature of this Trade. — Early Trade of the Hindus, and Merchandise in
demand. — Trade from the Persian Gulf, Fars, &c, to China. — The earliest
Navigation was probably that of the Persian Gulf. — Early Navigation of
the Persians, the Arabs, and Hindus. — Commerce in the time of Nebuchad
nezzar. — The black Jews settle in Malabar. — Arab Vessels in the time of
Nearchus. — Commerce encouraged by Alexander's successors. — Route from
Egypt to India. — Discovery of the Trade Winds. — Direct voyages made ta
India, in the time of Augustus, from the Southern Coast of Arabia. — Mu
hammed enjoins Trade as a religious duty. — Mercantile cities ofthe Arabs.
— Extensive range and intercommunication of their Commerce. — Mekkah
becomes one of the centres of Trade. — 'Prosperity of the Arabs in the time
of the Abassides. — Effects of Luxury. — Mutawakkel establishes Trading
Factories. — Learned Men accompany the Caravans. — Precious Stones and
other valuable Commodities are exchanged throughout the Arabian Empire.
— Furs, &c, brought from the Northern Regions across the Caspian and
Black Seas, and European goods sent into Khorasan.— Trade in Silk, Pearls,
Carpets, rich Cloths, &c, partly by barter, partly by coin. — Exports of
Glass, Carpets, Cloth, &c. — Swords were not sent abroad. — Costly stuffs,
Cloths, and other fabrics. — Embroidered stuffs representing Historical and
Geographical subjects. — Commerce from Basrah to India, China, and
Africa. — Change of system in Trading with China.— A Hindu Physician
sent by land to Harun-el-Rashid. — Eastern Commerce carried on by Jews,.
through the Red Sea, &c. — Route through Aleppo to India, and through
Barbary to Baghdad. — Arabian Trade chiefly confined to Eastern Countries.
— Trade by a circuitous route between Constantinople and India. — Venice
becomes a trading Port.— Rise of Commerce in England.— Merchants

568

ANCIENT AND MODERN COMMERCE. [CHAP. XVIII.

Proposednotice on
commerce.

Origin of
trade.

Its progress
notwith
standing all
impediments.

settle in Constantinople. — Rapid progress of Venetian Trade. — Genoa
becomes a mercantile Republic. — Trade of this Port with India through
the Black Sea. — Colonies established on the Shores of the Euxine. —
Trade of the Genoese with Europeans.— England shares indirectly in
Eastern Commerce. — A Company called the Merchant Adventurers
established in England. — Scale of Duties fixed for foreign Trade. —
Exports from England to Flanders, &c. — The Venetian Trade opened
with India through the Red Sea. Bruges becomes a mercantile Dep6t. —
Prosperity of Commerce in France. — Discovery of the Western Coast of
Africa. — Discovery of America. — Rise of Antwerp.- — Trade drawn to
Lisbon. — Various routes to India.- — -The River Euphrates becomes the
principal line. — Voyages of Rauwolf, Balbi, and Newberrie. — Patent of
Queen Elizabeth for Trade by this Route. — Application of the Merchants
for a Loan. — Voyages of Fitch and Newberrie along the Euphrates. —
Queen Elizabeth keeps a fleet of Boats on the Euphrates. — Consequent
cheapness of Goods from India. — Establishment of the East India Com
pany. — Colonial Trade of England, and its advantages. — Increase of
Exports and Imports during Five Centuries. — The Turkey or Levant
Companies of England and France. — State of the Trade of the Levant, of
Egypt, Syria, Asia Minor, Persia, and Mesopotamia. — Trade of the
Arabian and Persian Gulfs. — Partial and proposed Navigation of the
Euphrates. — Facilities and advantages of opening the River Euphrates.
— Openings for commercial enterprise on the Rivers of Mesopotamia.
Passing from the subjects contained in the preceding pages, it
is intended to devote the present chapter to a brief view of the
commercial intercourse by which the nations of the earth have
been bound together for their mutual advantage.
The exchange of the simple necessaries of life for the supply
of wants common to all, was speedily extended to that of
articles of luxury ; and the wants gradually created became, in
time, such necessaries, that, in order to obtain them, every im
pediment, whether arising from physical causes or religious
prejudices, was overcome : thus the merchandise imported at
the present day into Asia continues to pass to its various desti
nations, notwithstanding the hostility of the Arabs, the fierce
spirit of the warlike Turkomans, and the still greater difficul
ties presented by the exclusive systems of the Coreans and
Japanese. From the earliest period of history, Asia and its products
have been the great attraction of the western hemisphere, and
its eastern and middle portions have consequently been the seat
of an enriching trade ; to which the resources of Hindustan,

^:vj.i

Wb&TgW, or M 3,H®KT

axiiL Valley of AxaiaJh.,or Joi?d.axi.

CHAP. XVIII.] ANCIENT COMMERCE OF INDIA. 569
and the adjoining territories, have given an activity that is still
maintained. The present subject will now be considered under the follow- Various
ing heads:— branches of

commerce to
he considered.

1st. The commerce ofthe Phoenicians and Carthaginians.
2ndly. The land trade through Arabia and Asia.
3rdly. Trade by water from and to India and China.
4thly. The Ophirian voyage.
5thly. Trade under the Eoman emperors, &c.
6thly. Trade ofthe Arabs.
7thly. Modern trade.
The position of Egypt was equally favourable for trade by Early com-
land through Arabia, and for that commerce which is said to Egyptians*6
have been opened at a remote period by water with the western
coast of India. But if such voyages were, as has been supposed,
achieved by the Egyptians, in the reigns of Sesostris or Psam-
metichus,1 it would appear that in these enterprises, as well as
in the land trade, that people were ere long superseded by their
neighbours in Palestine and Arabia.
The circumstances attending the sale of Joseph, and the Caravan trade
journeys of Abraham, show that the peninsula of Arabia was Arabia.
traversed at both these periods for commercial purposes, the
products of Asia and Arabia on one side, being exchanged for
those of Africa on the other.2 The caravan routes of Africa3
converged upon middle Egypt, and from thence proceeded into
Syria by way of Foscat, Balbei's, Gaza, Eamleh, and Tyre.4
It has been seen that Phoenicia was first peopled by Cushites Trade of
from the shores of the Erythrean Sea or Persian Gulf,5 and that Tyreand'
its commerce was not only extended westward, but into coun
tries in the opposite direction by land, thus connecting, for the
first time, the eastern and western regions of the old world.
Tyre, the great emporium of trade, did not, however, export
merchandise ; the commodities of foreign nations were, on the
1 Diod. Sic, lib. I., cap. ix., xx. 2 See vol. L, p. 651.
3 See above, pp. 92, 93. " Ibn Haukal, ed. Ouseley, p. 75.
5 Vol. I., p* 281, and above, pp. 46, 92.

easterncountries.

5/0 ROUTE FROM MAREB AND SAN'A TO PETRA. [CHAP. XVIII.
contrary, brought to the Tyrians in Phoenician ships, or by the
nomad tribes, who served as carriers.
Tra?? °l ,. Arabia Felix, as the centre of trade, had several lines of
with Phoenicia, communication with the southern coast. One of these extended
from Mareb to San'a and the port of 'Aden. A second struck
eastward, nearly parallel to the southern coast to Maskat, but
sending a branch previously to the port of Dhafar. A third
route struck northward into the interior from Mareb, passing
other caravan Wadi Dowaser and El Yemameh, to Gerrha (El Katif) on the
Arabia™"6 Persian Gulf. From this port again there was a line to Abadan
and Babylon ; also two caravan routes to the southern coast
of the peninsula, one to the eastern and the other to the central
part of Hadramaut, both apparently conducted by the Minseans.
Route of the From the brief notice of Strabo,1 it would appear that the
Marebto r°m merchandise collected in Yemen from the southern part of
Petra. Arabia, was carried from thence to Petra. This route, which
was probably nearly that of the pilgrims of the present day,
seems to have proceeded from Mareb and San'a, in a line almost
parallel to the shores of the Arabian Gulf, passing by Mekkah
and El Haura,2 and from thence by Tebuk and Teima to
Petra and Gaza. The Tyrians also, who had colonies on the
Persian Gulf, communicated with these ; and particularly with
Gerrha,3 which they reached through the desert by Jebel
Shammar.
Commercial Another and still more important route passed from Tyre to
Tyre toZeiebi. Ba'aibek, Damascus, Palmyra, and the Euphrates at Zelebi,
where it divided ; one branch striking through Mesopotamia to
Babylon and Susa, whilst the other passed by Nineveb, Mdsul,
and Hamadan to Ba'i, and from thence by Damaghan to
Nishapur (or Nisabur), Merv, and Bactra (Balkh), in order
to communicate with the distant parts of the east.
Early trade of The Hindus were always a trading people, having been
amongst tbe first of the Asiatics who fostered commerce. At
the earliest period of which there is any record, their merchants
appear to have moved with perfect security from place to
1 Lib. XVII., pp. 1127, 1128.
8 Albus Pagus of Strabo, ibid.
3 Supposed to be Tyrus and Aradus, vol. I., p. 647.

CHAP. XVIII. J TRADE WITH CHINA AND TIBET. 571
place1 with valuable goods, chiefly consisting of precious stones,
jewels, and various beautiful manufactures in ivory, muslin,
cotton, and other cloths,2 which had been prepared with much
taste and skill, by the people of the country, for home and
foreign consumption.
The spread of mankind through India into the more eastern silk, furs, &c,
countries had prepared the way for such commerce, which was through Asia.
carried in different directions through the steppes of Asia.
Raw silk from China was carried by the route of Persia to the
more western countries, together with woven silk ; furs of the
most costly description from the Bulghars and Khazars,3 with
the best kind of iron ; all of which were brought from Seres.4
Long before the time of Mas'udi, there were carried by the Goods im-
same route many of the perfumes of Tibet and China, as wellxIbe^ciSna
as the numerous productions of India ; or, at least, those which and India*
were in demand in the countries to the westward, such as silks,
cottons, spices, &c. This commerce was well defined in the
time of Pliny, and it may, therefore, be inferred that it existed
long before his day. The chief articles exported from India
were ivory, crystal, amethysts, diamonds, gold, onyx, sardonyx,
cinnabar, myrrh, nardus, pepper, with other spices, and a par
ticular kind of linen.8 These were carried into Persia, and Nature ofthe
the countries lying to the westward ; and we know that a poli- imported.
tical as well as a commercial connexion, had existed between
the Persians and the Indians, since the time of the conquest of
the northern part of India by the elder Cyrus.6
Bactra (Balkh), and the surrounding territory, were the
principal seats of the ancient trade, from whence, as has been
mentioned in a previous part of this work,7 there were two
1 The Ramayana of Valmecki, translated from the original Sanscrit by
William Carey and Joshua Marshman, vol. III., p. 97.
2 Arrian, Hist. Indica, cap. xvi.
3 Die Handelszeuge der Araber unter den Abbassiden, durch Africa,
Asien und Ost Europa; Von Fr. Stuewe. Berlin, 1836, p. 54.
4 Pliny, lib. XXXIV., cap. xiv.
5 Pliny, lib. VI., cap. xxiii. ; lib. XII., cap. xvi. ; lib. XXIX., cap. i. ;
lib. XXXVL, cap. ii. ; lib. XXXVIL, cap. v. vii.
6 Xen. Cyropsed., Hutchinson, 1812, p. 349. 7 See above, p. 309.

572

ROUTES THROUGH ASIA.

[chap. XVIII.

Various routes
throughBalkh.

Early com
merce of
Rai, &c.

principal routes to China.1 One proceeded eastward to Badak-
shan, from whence it took a north-easterly direction by Kashkar
to the celebrated mountain pass of the Stone Tower. Here
it turned eastward by Ouchi and Aksou, and keeping nearly
parallel to the great chain of the celestial mountains, it passed
through the desert of Gobi to the capital of Serica,2 supposed
to be Pekin and the neighbouring gulf of Petchelee ; which
was reached after a continuous journey of seven months from
the Stone Tower.3
Another route appears to have taken a south-easterly direc
tion through Attock to Delhi and Benares, whence it turned
north-eastward through Tibet, until it met the former near
Pekin. Another route proceeded from the lower part of the Panj-ab
to Nfshapur, which place is about twenty-four days' journey
from the Oxus. Near Nishapur the line was joined by one
which came from the country of the civilized Massagetse of He
rodotus; that is to say, from Shash, Ferghanah, Belasfghun,
and Samarkand, descending the valley of Soghd to Bokhara,
and from thence by Merv, once the capital of Khorasan, to
Nishapur. Leaving this city the road takes a westerly direction
for ten days to Damaghan, and eight days more bring the
caravan to Rai. The latter, as a free mercantile city and
commercial republic, might then be considered the greatest
emporium of trade in the world, and it was still an important
place in the third century of the Hijrah.4

1 St. Martin has shown that in early times there were colonies of Chinese
in Armenia who were probably merchants ; but at all events there was con
siderable intercourse between the celestial empire and the south-western
territory of the Black Sea. Memoires Historiques et Geographiques sur
l'Armenie, Paris, 1819, vol. II. , p. 15-55.
2 D'Anville's Ancient Geography, vol. II. , pp. 93, 94.
3 Ancient History of the Indies, with a special consideration of their
influence on the Western Countries, by Joachim Lelewel, Warsaw, 1820,
p. 198, compared with Ptolemy, I, 12; VI., 13-16; and Ammian. Mar-
cell., XXIII., 6.
4 See Kitab-al-boldan, an Arabic MS., No. 617, of the East India Com
pany's Library.

CHAP. XVIII.] EMPORIUM OF TARABUZUN. 573
At Ra'i, the route was crossed by another coming from the Secondary
shores of the Caspian Sea, which took a southerly direction Ispahan™"6
onwards through Ispahan to the Persian Gulf. The principal
road, however, continued in a westerly course, having after
wards a branch to Tabriz, and from thence to Tarabuzun,
whilst the other, as just noticed, passed through Hamadan and
Mosul, &c, to Phoenicia. Ra'i was considered midway between Advantageous
Balkh and Tarabuzun, from which port at a later period goods im.
were shipped for the coast of Cappadocia to supply Asia Minor,
as well as for some of the ports of the Mediterranean, and the
more distant parts of Europe.1
From the story of the Argonauts and the Iphigenia of Tauris,
it may be inferred that the Greeks were in connexion with the
caravan trade by the route which has just been traced ; and in
this way the productions of India and China, as well as those Products of
ofthe more northern territory of the Massagetae were at their India brought
command. Thus, as the various drugs of India, &c, weretoGreece-
obtained almost at first hand, the early acquaintance of the
Greeks with their use was the natural consequence of their
connexion with this overland trade.
The Greek commerce by sea was however restricted to the Limited trade
southern shores of the Mediterranean, the coast of Italy, and by sea. "
that of Asia Minor. The earliest Greek navigators were the
Pelasgians, who about 960 b. c are said to have extended their
colonies to the islands of the Archipelago, the coasts of Asia
Minor and Italy, as far as the extremity of the Adriatic Sea.
They were succeeded by the Thracians : and these were in Early trade of
turn superseded by the Dorian colony of the Rhodians, who Dorians, and '
drove the ships of the Thracians from the sea, and extended Rhodians-
their own commerce as far as the coasts of Cilicia, Italy, Sicily,
and Spain. They also carried on an extensive trade with
Egypt, from whence they drew their principal supplies of corn,
&c.2 On the decline of the Rhodian power, the empire of the
sea passed into the hands of the Phrygians, the Phoenicians,
1 Herod., lib. IL, cap. xiv., xv., shows that an intercourse had existed
between Egypt and the south-eastern coast of the Black Sea.
2 Histoire du Commerce et de la Navigation des Anciens, par Peter Daniel '
Huet, evfquede Soissons, Svo. Paris, 1716, chap, xix., pp. Ill, 112.

574 COMMERCE EXTENDED TO FRANCE AND SPAIN. [CHAP. XVIII.
and the Egyptians, who held it until towards the end of the
eighth century B.C., when it was again restored to the Greeks
by the Milesians.
Numerous Milet, called by Pomponius Mela, the first town of Greece
MUesians. ' both for peaceful and warlike pursuits, became also the greatest
with regard to the number of its colonies, which according to
Pliny,1 amounted to eighty. The Milesians extended their
commerce principally towards the north ; but they also esta
blished colonies in the south, and opened the trade of the Nile,
founding the town of Naucratis on its banks, and that of Abydos
in the interior of Egypt. Sinope, Tarabuzun, and other large
towns, were also originally Milesian colonies. In time, how
ever, their commercial superiority yielded to the growing
power of the Carians, who continued masters of the sea until
overcome by the Peloponnesian Greeks, whose dominion lasted
up to the time of the expedition of Xerxes, 480 B.C.; and,
before this period, the discoveries of the Phocseans had, about
600 B.C. opened to this people new sources of commerce.
Commercial They had carrird their trade to the coast of Italy, where they
itoivFrance ^ad founded Nelia and Legaria, and to the southern part of
and Spain. Gallia, where they built Massilia (Marseilles). They also
reached Spain, where they founded the town of Artemisium or
Diamine, now Denia in Valentia. But among the Greeks
themselves, little was effected in commercial enterprises by sea
during the early period of their history. The Corinthians
appear to have had a few colonies on the coasts of Sicily and
Colonies Illyria, Syracuse being among the former ; while the Athenians,
AsiaMnor"1 at various times, established the greater number of the Greek
Sicily, &c. colonies existing in the Archipelago, on the coasts of Thrace
and Asia Minor, as well as in Cyprus, Sicily, and Italy. But
it seems well ascertained that, prior to the invasion of Europe
by Xerxes, the commercial enterprise of the Greeks had never
carried them beyond the boundaries of the Mediterranean and
the Pontus Euxinus.2 This is, however, contrary to the opinion
1 Lib. V., cap. xxix.
2 M^moire sur les Revolutions du Commerce des iles Britanniques, depuis
son commencement jusqu'a l'Expedition de Jules Csesar, par M. Melot,
tome XXXVIIL, p. 246-290, de Memoires de Literature tirees des

CHAP. XVIII.] PHtENICIANS TRADE WITH BRITAIN. 575
of some authors,1 who consider that tbe British isles were known The British
to the Greeks long before that event.2 ^ known
A very early commerce was carried on with certain islands, Cassiterides.
bearing the name of the Cassiterides, situated near the coast of
Britain, which Camden identifies with the Sorlings :3 the exist
ence also of Britain itself was well known to the Phoenicians, who
traded not only with the Cassiterides or tin islands, but also with
the southern coast of the principal island, which appears to have
been included with the others in the general designation of Cas-
siteridian islands.4 The position of the islands was, however, Trade of the
carefully concealed by the Phoenicians on account of the great with Britain.
advantages which they derived from the discovery. It is diffi
cult to fix the epoch of their first visit to these shores ; but it is
supposed to have been about the time of Moses.5 Strabo 6 men- salt, iron, and
tions salt, with utensils of earthenware, and all kinds of iron and changed for
copper tools, as the articles carried to Britain by the Phoenicians tin> &c-
in exchange for skins, leather, and tin : he also describes these
islands as abounding in grain and cattle, and as having mines of
gold, silver, and iron, all of which, with slaves and hunting-dogs,
were objects of their commerce : the dogs were used by the Gauls
and some of the nations of the Levant for warlike purposes.7
Strabo also considers that the Phoenicians first reached the
British islands from Cadiz.8
The destruction of Tyre and the rise of Alexandria lessened
the trade of the Phoenicians, and the western commerce was
gradually usurped by the Carthaginians. The latter appear to
have rediscovered the British islands about 200 B.C., and to have
Registres de l'Academie Royale de Sciences, Inscriptions, et Belles Lettres,
1749. 1 Defence of the British History, by John Price ; and the Antiquities of
Ancient Britain, by Aylett Sammes.
2 Memoire sur les Revolutions du Commerce, &c, par M. Melot, Me
moires de la Litterature, &c, tome XXIX., pp. 265-295.
8 Britannia, ed. Gough, 1806, vol. IV, p. 565.
4 Herodotus, lib. III., cap cxv. ; D'Anville, Geographie, &c, tome I.,
p. 91.
5 Eusebius, Chron., attributes the discovery of the Tin Islands to a Phoe
nician Hercules, in the seventy-third year of Moses.
6 Page 175, ed. of 1571.
7 Ibid., p. 305. 8 Ibid., p. 175.

576 COMMERCE OF THE INDIANS BY SEA. [CHAP. XVIII.
Trade ofthe again opened the trade ; but less fortunate than the Phoenicians,
Britain. their secret was soon discovered, and the commerce with Britain
was carried on by the Gauls of Duriorigum in Venets, the ancient
inhabitants of Britany, now Vannes. This took place probably
about 120 b.c, when Narbonne was built; to which town, as
well as to Marseilles l the British tin speedily found its way.2
Fleet ofthe Reverting to eastern commerce, which there is little doubt
Hindus in the ti • • L • i l r> i • i •, •
time of was likewise maintained by sea from a very early period, it is
Semiramis. stated that Strabrotatus built four thousand ships of bamboo to
encounter those of Semiramis in battle on the Indus ;3 and from
the circumstance of this river having been covered with vessels
at the time of Alexander's invasion, the antecedent existence of
Early com- a commerce by sea, may safely be inferred. A chain of ports
merce ofthe . .
Indians by sea. on the western side ofthe Indian peninsula is mentioned in the
Periplus,4 particularly Patala, Barygaza now Baroach, Perimula,
Tropina, Antomela, Muziris now Mangalore, and Nelkynda,
from whence trade was carried westward. Taprobana was another
emporium of Hindu commerce, being admirably situated for the
purpose of trade between India, Persia, Arabia, and Africa.6
Corn, rice, butter, oil of sesamum, coarse and fine cotton
goods, cane honey or sugar, were regularly exported to Africa
from Barygaza and the adjoining coast;6 and it has been
already mentioned that Eudoxus discovered the prow of a
vessel, presumed to be of Indian construction, on the coast.7
The Hindu's Moreover, we find from Strabo that a vessel from India
Arabil^Guif. reached the Arabian Gulf, having on board, of all the crew,
only one man, and he perishing from thirst and hunger.8 The
1 Strabo, p. 257, ed. 1571.
2 Memoire sur les Revolutions du Commerce, par M. Melot, 1749, Me
moires de Litterature, &c, tome XXV., p. 57-83.
3 Diod. Sic, lib. IL, cap. xiii., xiv.
* Maris Erythraei, p. 27-34.
5 Montfaucon, Bibl. Patr., vol. IL, p. 336 ; and Periplus, Maris Erythrsei;
6 Periplus, pp. 8, 10, 18.
7 Pliny, lib. IL, cap. lxvii. From the figure of a horse, which is almost
an universal ornament of the vessels of Surat and Bombay, being carved on
this prow, Captain Ormsby, of the Indian Navy, has with much probability
inferred that it was the remains of a Hindu bark. — Asiatic Journal, new
series, vol. XXIV, p. 110.
8 Lib. XVII.

CHAP. XVIII.] EARLY TRADE OF THE ARABS WITH CHINA. 577
Persian trade with India consisted of copper and different
kinds of costly woods, which were brought in large vessels
from Barygaza to the Persian cities ; while the inhabitants of
'Oman carried, in return, pearls, purple cloths, wine, dates,
and slaves, to Barygaza and Arabia ; using small wooden boats
which were tied or sewn together.1 The position of Tapro-
bana, or Ceylon, is particularly mentioned at a later period in
connexion with China. It is stated that an Arab merchant
proceeded from El Basrah, by sea, to 'Oman, and from thence
to Kolah, which is midway to China, and the commercial mart
of the Muslim vessels of Seraf and 'Oman. Here, it is added, vessels from
they now meet the merchants of China, who come for the seraf "trade
purpose in their own vessels to this island; while, formerly, "mth China-
they proceeded the whole way to the coasts of 'Oman, Fars,
and El Bahrein ; also to El Ob'oll'ah and El Basrah ; which
last had the name of Farj-el-Hind.
When the geographical position of the Persian Gulf is con- The position
sidered, and especially the fact that it bathes the coast of favourable to
Babylonia, there can be little doubt that it was the first seatrade'
navigated. We find from the Old Testament that tbe Chal
deans had ships as early as the time of Isaiah f and this was
probably long subsequent to the first establishment of trade in
those parts. When, also, it is recollected that on the coast
of Persia were situated some of the most ancient nations — as
the inhabitants of Susiana, and those of the territory lying
between Babylonia and India — it is natural to infer that a
mutual intercourse must have subsisted both by land and water
between the inhabitants of those countries. The testimony of Commerce o,
Plato, about the close of the fifth, or the beginning of the by sea.
fourth century, b. c, that the Persians were invincible by sea,
owing to their numbers, power, wealth, and knowledge of navi
gation,3 sufficiently bears out the words of the prophet. The
Persians, who were at this period masters of the Assyrian4 and
Babylonian empires, and were in possession of the estuaries of
1 Periplus, Mar. Erythf. 2 Chap. XLIIL, v. 14.
3 Menexenus, vol. V, pp. 239, 240.
*¦ The monuments recently brought from Nineveh establish the fact of
the use of vessels during the early part of the Assyrian monarchy.
VOL. II. 2 P

578

EARLY TRADE OF THE PERSIAN GULF. [CHAP. XVIII.

The Arabs
succeed the
Phoenicians.

They have
always been
pirates or
traders.

Nebuchad
nezzar en
courages trade

Commerce of
Tyre 'with
Arabia.

the Euphrates, Tigris, Pallacopas, &c, carried on the commerce
then existing with India, China, and Africa ; and, as a trade
so extensive must have been the growth of time, it is evident
that its origin is of high antiquity.
Opinions have differed concerning the people to whom is due
the priority of the navigation of this inlet, some considering
that it originated with the people of Kach'h, and others with
the Arabs. As navigation commenced with the Phoenicians or
Erythreans, it is probable that the Arabs who succeeded them,
may claim priority over the Persians as well as the Indians.
The Arabs constantly appear in history as pirates or mer
chants. From the merchants of Midian, ' being the bearers of
spicery, balm, and myrrh, products of India, it may be inferred
that they had some intercourse with that region by sea anterior
to the time of Moses. Be this as it may, it can scarcely be
doubted that navigation among the Arabs goes back at least to
the Ophirian trade; when, if their vessels were not used by
Solomon, the men probably formed part of the crews employed
to man his ships. In any case, however, the constant succes
sion of coasting voyages, stage by stage, along the shores of the
Red Sea, must have taught the Arabs the management of
vessels. Subsequently to the Ophirian voyages2 an eastern trade
may be traced in the Persian Gulf, where Nebuchadnezzar
built Teredon, apparently to facilitate this object ;3 and it was
during the wars of this prince that the Israelites, whose poste
rity is known as the black Jews of Malabar, are supposed to
have made their way to the latter territory, after having been
expelled from their own country.
From the animated description of the prophet Ezekiel,4 it is
evident that Tyre had long maintained an active commerce in
the harbours of Arabia, as well as on the adjoining seas. It is
elsewhere stated that Arabia abounds with mariners, pilots, and
merchants, who exported native commodities to Barygaza, or
1 Gen. chap. XXXVIL, v. 25, and chap. XLIIL, v. 11.
2 See above, p. 122-128.
8 Euseb., Preep. Evan., lib. X. ; Euseb., Chron. XLIX.
4 Chap. XXVII.

CHAP. XVIII.] COMMERCE OF TYRE WITH ARABIA, ETC. 579
Baroach, and other parts beyond the straits;1 there is also
some reason to believe that the Arabs had even circumna
vigated Africa.2
Vessels, apparently of Arabian construction, were found by Trade ofthe
Nearchus on the coast of Mekran ;3 and, in the Periplus, they thne ofm * e
are constantly mentioned,4 as well as by Agatharchides,5 who, in Alexander-
the second century before our era, gives the first historical
evidence of the establishment of Arabian colonists in the ports
of India.
The Egyptian sovereigns were not slow to perceive the Commerce
advantageous position of their country, and measures were DyCthease
early taken for the improvement of commerce with other parts Esyptians-
of the world ; more particularly with the dependent territories
of Palestine, Ccelo-Syria, Cilicia, Pamphylia, Lycia, Caria, &c.
Indeed, the successors of Alexander, although at variance with
each other in all other respects, were unanimous in the pro
motion of commerce, in which they carried out the plan traced
by their great master. Ptolemy Philadelphia, the second
monarch, was particularly distinguished for the measures which
he took to increase the trade of his country ; in furtherance of
which object he founded a city on the western shore of the
Red Sea, called Berenice, after his mother. As an additional
means of attracting the trade which had hitherto chiefly passed
by land from Elath to Rhinocorura, and thence by sea to Tyre,
he caused a canal to be opened from Coptos on the Nile to the
Red Sea, in which he kept a fleet. He had other vessels on
the Mediterranean side of the isthmus of Suez, and a commu
nication was constantly maintained between the two seas.6
The commerce thus opened, which received a great impulse The periodical
from the happy discovery made by Hippalus of the nature ofuined.aSCe
the monsoons,7 appears to have continued until the time of the
Romans. During the vigour of the republic, commerce appears
to have been neglected; but the subsequent extent of the
Roman dominions, and a growing taste for the productions of
1 Periplus, Maris ErythrEei, p. 10. 2 Vol. I., p. 652.
* Arrian, Hist. Ind., cap XXXVIII. 4 P. 19-33.
5 Apud Hudson. 6 Strabo, lib. XVII., p. 791.
7 Peripl. Mar. Eryth., p. 32.
2p2

580

TRADE OF THE ROMANS WITH INDIA. [CHAP. XVIII.

commerce.

other countries, gradually drew attention to it, and caused it
ultimately to be pursued with energy and success.
Valuable trade It was in the time of Augustus that a direct voyage to India
of the Romans . . n j
with India, occurred. Taking advantage of the south-west wind, now called
Hippalus, one hundred and twenty vessels were despatched by
-ZElius Gallus, from Myos Hormos towards India, to bring
back cargoes during the north-east monsoon. Immense profits
of about one hundred per cent.,1 caused the Romans to pursue
this commerce to an extent which afterwards became severely
prejudicial to the empire, in consequence of the vast sums trans
mitted in payment for luxuries.2 Subsequently, as a means of
facilitating the trade, the line of the Nile was substituted for
Route of this the upper part of the Red Sea. For this purpose the mer-
cnmrnprpp XXX XX
chandise was put in boats, in the neighbourhood of Alexandria
at Juliopolis, from whence it was carried up the Nile, in twelve
days, to Coptos ; it was afterwards conveyed on camels, in twelve
days more, about two hundred miles, to Berenice,3 on the Red
Sea, where it was embarked. This took place about the
middle of summer, and thirty days carried the fleet either to
the port of Ocelis, or that of Cana (formerly Coptos), both on
the southern coast of Arabia, a little beyond the Straits of
Bab-el-Mandeb. The remainder of the voyage was completed
in forty days to Muziris, in Lemyrica, now Concan, to which
port the Indians brought their goods. From thence the fleet
returned, laden with costly articles of the east, with the next or
north-east monsoon.4
This commerce continued till the overthrow of the western
ji,: ixnde. empire, when it fell to, or rather reverted to the Arabs, with
all the advantages of direct, instead of coasting voyages. Basrah
appears to have been built as the first Arabian emporium of
trade, and Muhammed visited it when engaged in mercantile
pursuits, in his early life. The prophet was fully alive to the
advantages of commerce, and enjoined it upon his followers as
a religious duty. Every conquered town became the centre of
new commercial relations. The rich products of Syria were
collected in Damascus under the dominion of the Oma'iyades,

The Arabs
continue the

1 Pliny, lib. VI., cap. xxiii.
3 Ibid., lib. VI., cap. xxiii.

2 Ibid., lib. XII., cap. xix.
' Ibid,

CHAP. XVIII.] AL MUTAWAKKEL ENCOURAGES COMMERCE. 581
while those of the Caucasus were to be found in Debil and Principal
Ardebil. During the reign of Abu-l-'Abbas, a.h. 132, Bagh-iSncom-
dad rose to eminence, as the commercial capital of 'Irak ; whilst merce'
the cities of Mdsul and Hamadan flourished in the north, and
those of Ispahan, Shiraz, and the provinces of 'Irak Ajemi and
Fars in the west.
The commerce of the Arabians extended far beyond their Countries to
own territories. The principal cities of Khorasan, Nishapur, commerce
Merv, Herat, and Balkh, commanding the passes to India by exten e '
Kabul and Ghizni, with Samarkand in the north, and Multan
in the south-east, were all united by this trade, which, being
protected by the governments, was carried on without molesta
tion. The enjoined pilgrimage to Mekkah was one of the
causes of the activity of this commerce. Articles manufactured
in the small towns were carried to the markets in the capitals
of the provinces, and thence by the caravan routes to the Ka'ba.
This temple thus became an important fair, where the products Mekkah one
of Asia and Africa were exchanged, and where the Muslim of o7tra.iTtTe
Mauritania came in contact with the Muslim of Ma-wera-
1-nahr. The Arabian empire was never so great or so brilliant as Pernicious
under the first khaliphs of the house of 'Abbas. It was only Wxury0among
when Al Marniin, the great friend and promoter of literature the Arabs-
died, and was followed by khaliphs who were but its nominal
protectors, that luxury sprung up : which afterwards increased so
greatly as to exercise a fatal reaction on manners, where it
should only have been the symptom of intellectual refinement.1
Commerce and industry flourished greatly, however, under Commercial
Al Mutawakkel, who, amongst other measures for its en- 0fthe Arabs!3
couragement, brought into fashion a very fine stout sort of cloth,
afterwards called Al Mutawakkellan, which continued to be
much esteemed to the time of Mas'udi in the following century.
The principal factories, according to Ibn Haukal, were along
the shores of the Persian Gulf; and they were chiefly in the
hands of Guebres.
Subsequently, during the reign of the khaliph Al Mo'tazz, Commerce
trade in the largest sense, was the subject of literary inquiry, sdenceTn"
1 Die Handelszeuge der Araber, von F. Stuewe. Berlin, 1836. r>. 21-45. A.D. 866.

582

COMMERCE WITH ARMENIA. [CHAP. XVIII.

Ra'i becomes
the centre of
Armeniancommerce.

and Jahiz, who died a. h. 255, wrote a work entitled the Nazr-
fi-t-tejarah, or view of commerce. This work does not appear
to exist in any European library, but it is noticed by Ibn
Haukal, Ibn Khordadbeh, and in the Kitab-al-boldan,1 which
seems to contain extracts from it. The advancement in scien
tific education among the Arabs, had, by awakening a desire to
travel, given an additional activity to commerce.
Learned men joined the caravans of the merchants ; and,
in the various towns visited by them, a mutual interchange of
ideas and of knowledge was carried on simultaneously with the
barter ofthe precious stones, gold, silver, and rich stuffs, the
products of the varied climates of the Muhammedan empire.
Ra'i appears to have been the centre of Armenian commerce,
and to have supplied fine carpets for Azerbaijan, Khorasan, the
Khazars, and other countries lying northward of the Caucasus.
The chief articles received from these northern regions, in ex
change, were furs and slaves ; for it is not quite certain that the
mineral products of the Ural found their way at that time into
the empire of the khaliphs. The commerce was chiefly carried
on by the Sclavonians, who were almost the only navigators of
Route through the Caspian and Black* Seas : these came down the Wolga into
caeSp?an°seLs.d ^e f°rmer) paying toll or tribute to the Khazars on their way.
They crossed the Black Sea after selling some of their goods in
Georgia (Jorjan), and, from thence, either proceeded to Meso
potamia or Syria, or sought a market along its southern shores.
One was generally found at Ra'i ; and European goods were
imported from that place into Khorasan. These goods came
from the Mediterranean into the Black Sea, and thence by a
short land transit to the Wolga, by which they descended into
the Caspian. Before the submission of the Kirghis Kazaks to
Russia, the inhabitants of Bokhara and Khiva traded with
Astrachan, which they reached in boats by the Caspian, leaving
their camels at Monghishlak. Their caravans sometimes even
proceeded to Siberia.
Another mercantile dep6t of great importance was Jdroft, in
Khorasan, which was the principal station for the commerce of
Sigistan and Tartary. The best musk formed one portion of
1 MS. of the British Museum, No. 7496.

Route from
Tartary to
Khorasan.

CHAP. XVIII.] EXPORTS AND IMPORTS OF THE ARABS. ' 583
this trade, and was brought from Tibet by land: paper was
another article which was manufactured at Samarkand and
Kashmir. Various articles came from Tartary and China,
especially silk, which was almost exclusively furnished by the
latter country : sal ammoniacum from the desert of Kobi, and
slaves from Tartary, were also brought to the same depot.
Transoxiana contained silver and other mines ; it produced silk, pearls,
also the finest fruit in the world. Darabjerd and Azerbaijan valuable1
furnished quicksilver. Pearls, precious stones, carpets, sharks'- soods-
fins, and woollen cloths were exported by the Arabs in exchange
for Chinese silk and porcelain, which were brought to them by
sea. Their commerce with some people, for instance with the
negroes, was carried on by barter: among these, salt, cotton
girdles, pieces of stuff, or cowries, were considered as money ;
but with other people it was carried on by regular sales, their
coins being the dirhem and dinar. These, though said to have
been coined from the commencement of their empire, are sup
posed to have been in circulation only from the reign of 'Abd-
el-Malik, a.h. 76.1 a.d. 695.
The principal exports from the territory of the khaliphs
appear to have been manufactured articles and some money.
Glass from Kadisiyeh in Mesopotamia was one of the items ;
striped cloth and spices, from Yemen, were others. The carpets secondary
called hosr, were sent from Baghdad ; tent cloth from Bahre'in, merchandize.
turban cloth from Ob'oll'ah, woollen cloth from Fars, perfumes
came from Nejran, and papyrus from Egypt. Chintz was
manufactured at and took its name from Shiraz, as muslin,
according to Mas'udi, did from Mosul, and damask from
Damascus, where they were first manufactured ; but the splendid
swords of the Arabs were not permitted to be an article of
export. The luxury of the rich was the principal incentive to
industry in thousands of manufactures, for it led to the inven
tion of an infinite variety of fabrics. Gold thread, silk, and
yarn were the least costly materials; and, of these, various
cloths and stuffs were made. Embroidery formed a particular Embroidered
branch of industry, which was reserved for the rich; and it ^"torfaTsub-
1 Die Handelszeuge der Araber, &c, von Fr. Stuewe. Berlin, 1836,
p. 58.

584 > TRADE OF THE ARABS BY SEA. [CHAP. XVII1'
frequently represented historical and geographical subjects.
Thus at the greatest auction that ever took place in the palace
of the khaliph Montaser, there were offered for sale nearly a
thousand silk carpets, on which were represented a series of
different dynasties with the portraits of kings and celebrated
men. On another enormous piece of silk stuff, having a blue
ground varied with other colours, were depicted the different
countries of the globe, their mountains, seas, rivers, towns, and
roads ; with the name of each province, town, &c, embroidered
in gold, silver, or silk.1
Trade from Commerce by sea between the ports of Basrah, Ob'oll'ah,
India, China, and Maskat, and the distant countries of Zinzibar, India, and
and Africa. (^hia, was carrie(J on by the Arabs of the tribe of Azd, and
also by the Jews ; and, up to the commencement of the Abbas-
side dynasty, there was an interchange of commodities with
the celestial empire, Chinese vessels coming to Ob'oll'ah, and
those of the Arabs going to Canton.2 When the rebellion in
a.d. 877. China, a. h. 264, interrupted this intercourse, the exchange took
place, as already mentioned, with Ceylon.
Indian trade Part of the Indian commerce was, however, carried on by
part y y an . jan(^ . an(j ^jg wag particularly the case with perfumes, which
would have been injured by a sea voyage. As a proof of the
connexion existing between Arabia and India, it may be men
tioned that a physician was sent from India at the request of
Harun-el-Rashid. He traversed the Hindu Kush, and sailed
down the Oxus ; and, on the death of the khaliph, returned to
India by sea from the Persian Gulf.
Trade between Ibn Khordadbeh, a contemporary of Al Mutawakkel, gives
Europe and . „ .. , -n
eastern the lollowmg account ot commerce between Europe and the
east. The Jewish merchants called Rohdamans, who speak
the Persian, Greek, Arabic, Frank, Spanish, and Sclavonian
languages, constantly travel to and fro between the eastern and
western countries ; and, from the former, they import slaves and
dibaj (in modern Arabic, brocade) into the empire of the
1 Die Handelszeuge der Araber, &c, von Fr. Stuewe. Berlin, 1836,
pp. 48, 49.
8 The voyage of Nicolo di Conti was more than five centuries later, viz.,
a.d. 1420.

countries.

w

a)

O

¦s<

CHAP. XVIII.] ARAB TRADE CHIEFLY CONFINED TO THE EAST. 585
khaliphs. They sail from Europe to the Egyptian coast, from
whence in five days they reach Kolzum : they then proceed by
the Red Sea to Jiddah, India, and China ; and having disposed
of their goods, they return by the same route with other cargoes,
which are either disposed of at Constantinople, or further west
amongst the Franks. Some of these merchants take another Route through
route by sailing from Europe to Iskenderun, i. e. the port of ^p^° pirates
Aleppo,1 from whence it is three days' journey to the Euphrates ; t0 India-
they pass down this river to Ob'oll'ah, and sail from thence
down the Persian Gulf to India and China. Other mer
chants follow the more tedious route from Spain to Tangiers ;
then along the coast of Barbary to Egypt, and proceed subse
quently through Syria and Arabia to Baghdad. The ambas
sadors sent by Harun-el-Rashid to Charlemagne took this
route : on their return they proceeded from Aries to the coast
of Barbary, and thence by land to Baghdad.2
The Arabian trade, although so flourishing in the east, Constanti-
extended but partially to Europe ; and the route from thence "hTdepoTo™68
to India by the Red Sea being cut off, in consequence of Egypt eastern trade-
being under the dominion of the Arabs, commerce sought and
obtained an outlet in another direction. Constantinople was
the seat of this trade, the products of the east being much in
demand in that city when the desire for such luxuries had
become almost extinct in Europe. In order to supply that
demand an indirect route was opened, whose long and circuitous
course may serve as an illustration of the difficulties which
may be overcome in order to satisfy the real or imaginary
wants of mankind. The merchandise in question being carried R0ute to and
for a certain distance up the Indus, was taken from thence tofromIndia-
the Oxus, by which it was conveyed to the Caspian Sea. Hav
ing ascended the Wolga a certain distance, it was carried by
land from the latter river to the Tanai's, by which it descended
1 " Her husband's to Aleppo gone, master of the Tiger." — Shakspeare,
Macbeth. s For the preceding, see Al Mas'udi, Meadows of Gold and Mines of Gems ;
Soo-uti, Hist, of the Khaliphs, two MSS. British Museum ; Abu-1-feda, An
nales Muslemici, II. ; Price, Chron. Retrospect, II. ; Abu-1-Faraj, Hist.
Dynast., 259 ; Karumani Tarikh a'd-dowal.

586

VENICE AN EMPORIUM OF EASTERN TRADE. [CHAP. XVIII.

Venice attracts
the commerce
of the East.

A. D. 803.
The Arabs
open a line for
trade with
India.Commence
ment of the
trade of Great
Britain.

Europeanmerchants settle at Con
stantinople.

A.D. 1101.

into the Euxine, and was finally transported in vessels to Con
stantinople. It is probable that even then some portion of these articles
found their way into Europe through Venice and Genoa. The
former city, from a humble fishing establishment, had in the
fifth century become a mercantile dep6t, and its mariners were
the carriers of an infant trade. Early in the ninth century it
was the seat of a considerable commerce ; wrought silk, with
the spices, drugs, and fruits of the east, being brought thither
from Constantinople, and the various ports of the Levant
belonging to the Greek empire, in order to supply Europe with
these commodities. The trade of Venice gradually extended
during the tenth century ; whilst the Arabs opened a line of
commerce to India from the Red Sea, and also with the eastern
coast of Africa as far as the Mozambique.
Towards the close of this century, the earliest English trade
appears to have commenced under King Edgar : it was carried
on between the east and west coasts of Great Britain, in which
about twelve hundred small vessels, or rather boats, constructed
of pliant light wood and covered with leather, were employed.
At this period also the woollen trade commenced in the Nether
lands, and was carried on by barter.
The commercial privileges obtained from Basilius, emperor
of the west in the beginning of the eleventh century, increased
the trade of the Venetians ; and the sea was covered with their
vessels, which were engaged in supplying Europe with the
merchandise of the east. The Genoese followed this profitable
example, and each people employed a fleet, in the early part of
the succeeding century, to give assistance to the crusaders.
The Venetians shared in the siege of 'Akka, in a.d. 1115.
About the middle of the twelfth century, Constantinople
being still a city of considerable trade, a great concourse of
merchants resorted thither from European as well as Asiatic
countries, in connexion with the commerce carried on with
India by the route through the Black Sea, which has been
already noticed. The European portion of this line was con
ducted by the Venetians and Genoese, and it extended to the
rising commercial establishments of the Hanse Towns and

CHAP. XVIII.] THE REPUBLICS OF VENICE AND GENOA. 587
Hamburgh. In 1136, the republic of Genoa furnished to the
Spaniards one hundred and sixty-three ships and sixty galleys,
to serve at Almeria, Tortosa, and Barcelona against the Moors ;
for which they were recompensed by large commercial privileges
from Spain. And, in return for the assistance given to the
Latins in taking Constantinople, the Venetians obtained several a.d. 1203.
towns in the Peloponnesus, in addition to J;he island of Crete,
Negropont, and other places. But the commercial prosperity
of Venice, which was probably at its height when Marco Polo Commercial
travelled into northern China, was now about to be eclipsed by vTmcl"'7 °f
that of Genoa. a.d. 1260.
This city, from the time of its restoration by Charlemagne Rising com-
in the beginning of the ninth century, had been the persevering Genoese^ the
rival of Venice in her commercial career. Both were the
carriers of Europe, and both sought to extend their trade with
the east, notwithstanding the difficulties caused by the conquests
of Genghis Khan, in the beginning of the thirteenth century.
Marco Polo, as has been mentioned, endeavoured to increase
that of the Venetians by a land route ; but the Genoese, as a
people, were more enterprising and more successful. Pera,
the suburb of Constantinople, having been , bestowed on them
by the emperor M. Paleologus, in return for their services
against the Latins, the Genoese took advantage of this central
position to extend their commerce up the Black Sea, and from
thence eastward. In furtherance of the latter object they Mercantile
established a mercantile colony at Kaffa (the ancient Theo- of^o™^
dosia), near the entrance of the sea of Azov, from whence their iu the Euxine-
goods passed along the rivers Don and Wolga into the Caspian
sea, and again from thence through the steppes lying eastward
of the latter towards eastern Asia. Another colony was located
near the estuary of the Don at Azov, and a third at Jambold.
Between these and Pera there was another chain of colonies
along the coast of the Euxine, the most important of which were
Sinope and Tarabuzun. These cities gave the command of Depots on the
two other lines of communication ; viz., one through Sivas to ofTh^Biack6
Baghdad, and a second, which was in connexion with thatSea-
already noticed, extending from Khorasan, by Tabriz and
Erz-Riim, until it finally passed through the valleys of Da-

588 VENETIAN TRADE WITH EGYPT, ETC. [CHAP. XVIII.
moulee, Godol, and Giimish Khanah,1 to the sea at Tarabuzun.
The castellated buildings constructed at certain distances as
protecting points still exist, and are distinguished by their
peculiar architecture. In consequence of these arrangements,
the Genoese acquired the superiority over the Venetians ; and,
in the early part of the fourteenth century, their ships were
employed in a brisk, trade with the western ports of Europe,
particularly with those of Holland and Belgium, through the
rising city of Antwerp.
Establishment England began at first to share indirectly in this commerce
company in through the foreign traders then established in London : but
London. an a(jvantageous change took place when the company called
the Merchant Adventurers was instituted ; and this association
was followed by the establishment of a scale of duties, with
a.d. 1328. protection to the foreign merchant. The privileges ofthe
company were extended, confirmed, and regulated by Edward
III. ; and the export of wool, tin, lead, leather, &c, to Flanders
and the Baltic, became in consequence so considerable, that
towards the middle of the century, the balance of trade in
favour of England was equivalent to about three quarters of a
' million sterling, even before the traffic was extended to Prussia.
The Venetians The Venetians, being excluded bv their rivals from a share
import Indian J .
goods into of the eastern trade through the Euxine, turned their attention
" '"'" to that through the Red Sea vid Egypt, whither their ships
came to receive the various merchandise of the East, which
they afterwards dispersed through the different parts of Europe.
During the fifteenth century the commerce of Genoa declined,
whilst that of Venice increased, particularly as regarded her
intercourse with European countries. In the latter, manufac
tures increased in proportion to the demands of an extending
Bruges be- commerce ; one great centre of which was Bruges, whose trade
merciai city, extended to the shores of the Baltic, the provinces of Germany,
the Adriatic, and the coast of Syria. The woollens of England
held a prominent place in these transactions, particularly with
the Netherlands ; and the trade in this case, as well as in
many others, was secured by treaties, well calculated to ensure
mutual advantages to all the countries concerned. One
1 See above, p. 233.

CHAP. XVIII.] VARIOUS ROUTES TO INDIA. 589
merchant of France, Jacques Corier, was so wealthy, and at Success of
the same time so liberal, owing to his success in importing gold France?* '"
and silver stuffs from Egypt, Barbary, and the Levant,1 that he
supplied Charles VII. with seven millions of money to carry
on the war in Normandy.
This century was, however, still more remarkable for the
number of vessels which were built, and the daring voyages
undertaken, chiefly in search of a passage to the East Indies.
The Canaries were discovered by the Spaniards, while Ma
deira, with the Cape de Verde Islands, and a considerable
portion of the western coast of Africa, were explored by the
Portuguese. Just before the close of the century, the long-
sought passage to India, round the Cape, was accomplished by
Vasco de Gama; and about the same period the memorable
voyages of Columbus and Vespucius added a fourth continent
to the then known world.
The commercial spirit became still more active during the Commerce
sixteenth century, in the early part of which the merchandise ^inAe7 by
of the east, now for the first time transported in suitable sixteenth
' ... century.
vessels, with all the advantages of improved navigation, made
Lisbon what Venice had, till recently, been — the great em
porium of this trade. And so bold had navigators become
since the time of Columbus, that, in the succeeding century,
the globe was. circumnavigated twice.2 Antwerp, as the cen
tral staple of Europe, became the rival of Lisbon ; and besides
the line by sea from those places to the Portuguese settlements Routes bysea
at Ormiiz and on the coasts of Malabar and Coromandel, the in^"11 to
wealth of India was diligently sought by other routes. Of
these, some have been already noticed, and to these may be
added one from India to Europe, through the Persian Gulf.
From the head of this gulf two commercial lines existed : by
one of these the goods were carried some way up the Euphrates,
and then by land to Bir, Aleppo, and Iskenderun, where
they were embarked for the ports of Greece, Italy, and France.
By the other, they followed the Tigris to Baghdad, and were
carried by Diyar Bekr and Sivas to Tarabuzun, from whence
1 Anderson's Origin of Commerce, vol. I., p. 622. Dublin, 1790.
! By Magellan and Drake.

590 VOYAGES DOWN THE EUPHRATES. [CHAP. XVIII.
they were either forwarded along the southern shores of the
Euxine to Constantinople, or carried by water to the Crimea ;
or to the estuary of the Danube, in order to find their way into
Europe.
Commerce Elizabeth, on her accession, found British vessels trading to
Levant It the Cyprus, Candia, Tripoli, Beirut, &c, and bringing in return
accession of ^fig]^,^ &C-) gju^ camlets, rhubarb, oil, cotton, Turkey
Elizabeth. carpets, gall-nuts, and Indian spices ; a part being imported to
England by Genoese, Venetian, and other foreign vessels.
Route from The routes through Syria to the Persian Gulf, which had
p^ian Gulf ^een Partially in use from the time of the journey of Nicolo di
Conti in the middle of the fifteenth century, became more
generally frequented towards the end of the sixteenth. Leon-
hart Rauwolfs voyage from Bir to Babylon, in 1574, has been
described at length.1 Gasparo Balbi, a Venetian jeweller,
followed him four years later, taking his merchandise with him.
He descended the Euphrates from Bir to Feliijah, from whence
he crossed to Baghdad ; he then descended by the Tigris to the
Persian Gulf, and proceeded to Pegu, the object of his voyage.2
Queen About this time, the English merchant, John Newberrie,
resoWefto baving gone as far as Ormiiz in the prosecution of trade, and
open a trade the attention of Queen Elizabeth having been drawn to the
to India over- .
land. subject on his return, a.d. 1583, her Majesty granted a charter
to Sir Edward Osborne the Lord Mayor of London, and
others, authorizing them exclusively to trade in the dominions
of the Grand Seignior ; and thus was formed the Turkey, or
the Levant Company.3
1 See Eay's Collection of Travels.
2 See his Narrative in Purchas's Pilgrims, vol. IL, 1728.
3 " May 1582. In consideration that Edward Osborne and Richard Stapers,
her Mliw faithful subiects, by their adventure and industrie, and to their greast
costes and chargies traveled and caused trouble taken, as well by secret and
good meanes, as by dangerous waies and passagies, to set open a trade into
the dominions of Turkquie not heartofore in the memory of man knowne to
be  any of this nation. And also have by their like good meanes and
chargies procured of the Senior, commonly called the great Turke, amitie,
safetie, and freedom, for contynewance of the said trade ; whereby good and
profitable event may be had of their commodities of this  realm, sundry
other great benefits to Her Mtie! dominions and subjects. Therefore her M'ic'
tenderinge to the wealth of her people, and the encouragement of her good
subiects in their good enterprises for the advancement of the common weal,

CHAP. XVIII.] ORIGIN OF THE LEVANT COMPANY. 591
The next year, Fitch, Newberrie, and others, being de-A.D. 1 584.
spatched by Sir Edward Osborne, carried cloth, tin, &c, by First voyage
Aleppo to Baghdad, and from thence down the river Tigris to charter.16 ueW

hath of her grace, &c, granted unto her subiects, Edward Osborne, alderman,
and Richard Stapers, mearchant, the whole libertie and privilege of traffique
into the dominions of the said grand senior duringe  of vij yeares from
the date of her M"™ letters-patents.
" With prohibition to all her M"c" subiects to adventure or intermeddle in
the said trade and traffique duringe the said tearme directlie or indirectlie,
without the assent of the said pattentees, under paine of loss of shipp and
goodes, the one half unto her M"0, and the other half to the  , and im
prisonment, and suche furder punishment as to her M"° for so highe contempt
shall be thought meete.
" That Edward Osborne shall be governor of the said societie and trade
duringe the said tearme, and yf he decease within the said tearme, then the
rest of the said societie have libertie to chuse a newe governor.
" That the pattentees, duringe the said tearme, may admitt into the said
societie freedom  to the said dominions, or any part thereof, suche other
of her M"e* subiects, as to them shall seeme best, at their will and pleasure,
freelie, or with suche restraint and condition as to them shall seeme good, not
exceedinge the number of xij or xiiij persons over or above the said pat
tentees. " That they may assemble themselves, or any of them, in any place or
places, for con  and doings tutchinge the affaires of the said trade
duringe the said tearme.
" That they may make lawes, ordinancies, not repugnant to the lawes of
the realm, for the interest and good rule, orderinge and government of the
said societie and trade, the same to revoke and alter at their pleasure, and
thene to put in execution by forfei  , peine, and penalties, to be levied
and extended against the offenders thereof duringe the said tearme, and for
the execution of the said ordinancies and other services and uses of the said
societie and trade, may appointe officers, mynysters, and servants, suche and
so many as they shall thinke meete, and them revoke at their pleasure.
" For as muche as the Genovaies do use to beare the read crosse, like the
flagg of England in their shipp-toppes, and not beinge in leage or amitie with
the said grand senior ; therefore, for the better surtie of the said companie
tradinge into the said dominions of Turkquie, it may please her Mtie to per-
mitt and grant that the said societie, duringe the said tearme, and for the said
trade, may set use, and use the armes of England in the toppes of their
shippes, whereby both her M"™ subiects may be the more certain knowne and
discovered, and more esteemed of and lovingly received in those parts.
" That for the better tryinge of the said trade in good order, rule, and
government, nothinge be done in, and tutchinge the said trade, but with or
accordinge to the  tie and assent of the said Edward Osborne, or of
suche other governor as shall be after his decease, duringe the said tearme.

592 TRADE WITH SYRIA, ETC. [CHAP. XVIII.
Ormiiz, and so on to Goa; carrying, for the purpose of
establishing a trade to the East Indies overland, recom
mendatory letters from the queen to the king of Cambay
" Speciall commandment to all officers of the Admiraltie, and other her Mtira
officers and subiects, to be aydinge and assystinge to the execution of the said
grant and prohibition, and all thinges conteyned in the said letters pattents
accordinge to true meaninge thereof, and must bene finally for the encourage
ment and profit ofthe pattentees." (Cotton. Nero. B. xi. Catalogue ofthe
Cottonian library, 42. The blanks above show where words in the MS. are
illegible.) Another part of the same collection (Cott. Nero. B. viii., 47) in the
British Museum, contains a list of the Turkey merchants, and their request
for a loan from the queen.
" a.d, 1583. The merchants vsinge the trade of Turkquie by graunte
from her M'i0 be these followinge : —
" 1. Sir Edward Osborne, Lord Maior of London.
" 2. Mr. George Barnes,
" 3. Mr. Richard Martin, 1
" 4. Mr. Martin Calthorpe,
" 5. Mr. John Harte, > Aldermen.
" 6. Mr. William Marsham,
" 7. Mr. John Spencer,
" 8. Mr. Thomas Smithe, Esquire.
" 9. Richard Maie l
" 10. Richard Saltunstale, j for the Muscovie Companie.
"11. Richard Staper,
" 12. Henrie Hewet.
" The said persons have in Mynte stocke imploied in the same trade the
summe of 45,000 lbs,1 and for that they vse trade to all these places follow
inge, the same is to little to supplie the same and to defraie the great chargies
in those partes : —
" The citie of Constantinople.
" The citie of Angorie, where the grogrames and chamblets be made.
" The Ilande of Sis.
" Teria and Fogia, in the countrie neare Sio, called Natollia.
" Aleppo and Trepollie in Suria.
" Petrache in the Morea, where currantes and sweete oyle is made.
" The citie of Babylon and Balsara, uppon the river of Euphrates.
" Alexandria in Egipte.
" The Ilande of Cyprus.
" The Ilande of Malta.
" The commoditees they send thether is cloathes readie died and dressed,
carseis2 of all sorts, tinn and connie skinnes, &c. [" And
1 1 lb. of silver equal to 60-62 shillings.
2 A kind of stuff ornamented with gold and silver fringe.

CHAP. XVIII. J CONSULS NAMED FOR THE LEVANT. 593
and the emperor of China. They met with great opposition
from the Venetians, who had factories in those places. They
travelled, however, to Agra, Lahore, Bengal, Malacca, &c,
and returned by Ormiiz, which is described as a place of great
trade in spices, drugs, &c. Thence they proceeded up the
Tigris to Baghdad, Bir, and Aleppo, and arrived in London
in 1591, having made many useful discoveries concerning the
East Indian commerce.1
The trade being established, as it is stated, "by a way lately Consuls
discovered by John Newberrie, Fitch, and others," a fleet of Lae™ttforthe
boats was kept by the Queen at Bir for the use of the
merchants; and, consuls being nominated in the Levant, the
commodities of Greece, Syria, Egypt, Persia, and India, were
obtained at a much cheaper rate than when supplied by the
Venetians. The seventeenth century commenced with the establishment a.d. i«oi,
" And for that it is necessarie for them to keepe a stocke at either of the
said places, thereby to provide to loading for their shippes against the time
they come thether, the said stocke they have is not sufficient. And, therefore,
if it will please her Ma."' to lend the said companie the somme of 10,000 lbs.
weight of silver for the space of sixe yeres, the same to be paid her Matie
againe by even portions, the said companie should thereby augment their trade
to the benefit of the common wealth.
" And they would give unto her Ma'iB the somme of 3000lb in spices,
Turkey carpets, quilts, or suche other thinges, as it should please her Mati0, the
same to be paid within three yeres after the date hereof, or 500lb per yere.
"And for the benefitt of the common wealth, they should hereby be able
to have all shippes of their owne of 200 or 300 tonnes a piece, and thereby
shall sett the more ofthe poore maryners and seafaringe men on worke.
" They shall also be able to shipp more store of broad cloathes and carsies
over, and also shall bring more quantitie of commodities hither. Whereby
things shall be solde here at more reasonable price, and thereby her Ma"e''
Customs, both in and out, shall be the more advanced.
" The commodities they bringe from those partes are all sortes of spices,
rawe silke, appoticarie drugs, India blewe, and cotton woll, as also yarne,
and cloath made thereof, galles, currantes, sweete oyle, sope, quillts, carpets,
and diuers other commoditees.
" The said companie have also brought in diuers sommes of Spanish monie,
which hath bene delivered into her Ma'"'1 Mynte, as the treasurer thereof can
certifie your honnor."
1 Anderson's Origin of Commerce, &c. Byrne, Dublin, 1790, vol. II.,
p. 238. VOL. II. 2 Q

594 COMMERCE OF THE LEVANT. [CHAP. XVIII.
Establishment of the English East India Company, and four ships were
of the East . /> • o "n
India Com- despatched m consequence to Sumatra tor spices, ac. £ rom
pany" this humble commencement has gradually risen that extensive
commerce which far eclipses that of Tyre and Carthage in
ancient, and of Venice, Genoa, and Antwerp, in later times.
The wealth and dominion of the merchant princes of India are
without parallel ; yet, vast as is their commerce, it is but a
Comparison of fraction of the whole commerce of Great Britain. Trade by
commerce in sea attracted attention at the close of the fourteenth century,
i354andi845. jjUf- jt jj^ nof- Decome 0f any real importance till a later period,
when colonies were established as depots for its furtherance and
extension. Without these important accessories, the progress
of English commerce must have been slow and limited. Its
actual progress in less than five centuries may be seen in the
following statement :— A.D. 1354. A.D. 1845.
Exports from England, £822,554 11 6 £134,599,116 0 0
Imports . . . 116,910 10 6 75,281,958 0 0

Surplus of exports, £705,644 1 0' £59,317,158 0 02
Decay of com- The establishment of a company for the purpose of opening
Aleppo. a trade to India by sea, could not fail to injure that carried on
through Syria. The English Turkey, or Levant Company,
which maintained, till recently, an extensive and prosperous
commerce, has of late declined. The French Levant Com
pany, which at one time possessed eighteen or twenty houses
in Aleppo alone, has ceased to exist : this is also the case with
the Venetian trade to Syria, which formerly supported forty
commercial establishments.
Syria and its The commerce of the Levant has always depended on the
StiesTCipa consumption in the country ; and, as a consequence of the de
cline, of demand in Mesopotamia and other parts of Western
Asia, the imports of Syria, from Europe, are now almost con
fined to Beirut and Iskenderun. The former is the port of
Damascus, which city commands the trade of central and
1 Anderson's Origin of Commerce, &c. Byrne, Dublin, 1790, vol. II.,
p. 441.
2 According to the official value, as given, p. 358, of the Progress of the
Nation, by G. R. Porter, Esq., F.R.S. John Murray, 1847.

CHAP. XVIII.] BALANCE OF TRADE AGAINST SYRIA. 595
western Arabia, as well as of part of Syria. Iskenderun is the
port of Aleppo, which city, as the emporium of northern Syria,
has commercial relations with the western part of Anaddli, and
the chief towns of Mesopotamia, as Diyar-Bekr, Mardin, Mdsul,
Baghdad, and Basrah. The nature of the trade carried on by
Beirut and Iskenderun has been already shown,1 and the
imports of Syria, in 1836, amounted to about 2,410,530 dollars, imp0rts and
while the exports amounted to about 1,463,510 dollars. This |*^rts of
limited trade, compared with that of former times, has been
supposed to be a consequence of the commerce between Europe
and India by sea; but as India only partially supplies the
wants of the people of western Asia, other circumstances must
have contributed to cause the present commercial depression
in Syria. Amongst these the prolonged war in Europe holds
a prominent place, since it not only affected the British trade
to the Levant, but tended greatly to put an end to that of the
French and Italians. Another cause, apparently equally pre
judicial at the time, was the removal from Basrah of the East Removal of
India Company's factories, which were so well calculated to Company's
encourage if not to create a commerce in western Asia.
This change at the estuary of the Euphrates, together with
the diminution of the supplies on the coast of Syria, caused the
remaining trade to fall into the hands of native merchants, Native traders
whose resources are in general too limited to carry it on ; European ' e
and goods now pass through several hands before reaching merchants.
the consumer, thus greatly enhancing the price : there is also
the serious disadvantage of a want of return products. As has
just been seen in the case of Syria, this involved the payment
of a balance in cash of 947,020 dollars, in 1836.
Such circumstances could not fail to restrict purchases ; Commerce is
which, being made in Damascus or Aleppo, are exposed to an serious dis-
expensive land carriage, besides the exaction of heavy duties a vantages-
by the authorities, who have yet to learn the important fact,
that moderate taxation is the most productive. One instance
will show the extent to which the evil of oppressive taxation
has been carried.2 1 Vol. I., p. 445-447, and pp. 538, 539.
* Appendix (E).
2 q2

596

RUSSIAN COMMERCE WITH ASIA. [dlAP. XVIII.

Trade with
Persia
through Con
stantinople.

Commerce
opened through Samsiin and
Tarabuziin.

Russiancommerce through
central Asia.

Imports and
exports ofthe
Russians.

Trade of the
Kirghis
Kazaks with
the Russians.

In 1841, the pasha of Mosul exacted, in addition to previous
dues on transit, 3,195,500 piastres, or about 32,000/. on the
goods admitted into the city for consumption ; while it is well
known that the imports would have been doubled under a more
liberal system.
The Syrian trade has also suffered in consequence of the
increased commercial activity through Constantinople and the
Euxine, since the establishment of steam navigation ; and also
since the exertions made by the French and Russian govern
ments to share in the trade of Persia. The commerce from
Constantinople to the latter kingdom, in 1840 and 1841, pro
duced 860,000/. per annum.1 But now that a great part of the
merchandise is carried to Samsiin and Tarabuzun, which by tbe
proximity of the latter port to Tabriz, and of the former to
Sivas and Diyar Bekr, has shortened the land carriage through
Asia Minor, some of it, is supplied by these routes, which was
previously brought from Aleppo. The French government,
on perceiving the disadvantage of leaving their Persian trade
entirely in the hands of natives, who purchased French goods in
Constantinople, and made a return of Persian articles through
Smyrna, determined to make Tarabuzun their entrepot of trade
with Persia; and for this purpose they established there the
necessary consular agents.2
But Russian industry has long competed with that of other
Europeans in this line, as well as in that through central Asia.
Every year numerous and well -equipped caravans leave Oren
burg with white cloths, muslins, woollens, chintzes, and heavy
articles in metals, and proceed through Bokhara and Samarkand
to Koha and Yarkund in China, also to Orgunje and the small
cantons around the capital, bringing back teas, silks, musk,
rhubarb, and other products of China. The Russian traders
study so carefully the wants and tastes of the people with whom
they traffic, that the nations of Kabul are seen wearing portions
of dress got up and sewn for their use at Orenburg.3 A consi
derable trade is carried on by exchange from this place between
the Russians and the Kirghis Kazaks, who bring their articles of
1 Appendix (F). 2 Appendix (G).
8 Letter from Sir William H. Macnaghten to the Government of India.

CHAP. XVIII.] COMPETITION WITH BRITISH ENTERPRISE. 597
merchandise to this and other frontier towns. These consist
exclusively of cattle, sheep, horses, camels, goats, goats' hair,
wool of various kinds, skins, furs, horns of antelopes, and mad
der roots. In 1786 and 1787 the number of Kirghis sheep
imported into Russia, amounted to one million, while fifty
thousand horses were annually introduced by the line of Oren
burg, as well as Siberia. According to the statement of the
aged Kirghises, they annually supplied their neighbours with
two millions of sheep, and one hundred thousand horses, be
sides other articles of merchandise. In exchange for their
cattle and raw materials, they take articles of cast iron and of
copper, such as caldrons, thimbles, needles, scissors, knives,
axes, padlocks, scythes, &c. ; also cloth, velvet, brocades, silk
stuffs, ribbons, handkerchiefs, ropes, alum, copperas, imitation
pearls, small looking-glasses, white and red paint, leather called
youkht, beaver skins, &c. The Chinese furnish the Kirghis Nature of
chiefly with silk, porcelain, brocades, silver, tea, and glazed merceCwTth
crockerv- The inhabitants of Bokhara, Khiva, and Tashkend, *hf Chinese
•> . . inhabitants of
also supply them largely with silk and cotton stuffs, ready-made Bokhara, &c.
dresses, sabres, guns, gunpowder, &c, and receive from them
in exchange, besides their cattle, slaves captured on the Russian
frontier.1 The Koran enjoins that the most perfect protection
should be afforded to merchants during their journeys ; and such
they actually receive on this line. In return for the Russian
exports, the annual imports amounted at a low estimate to four
millions of roubles in 1830 ; and, owing to the activity of their
agents, the scope for the cheaper and better manufactures of
Great Britain has been diminished in central and eastern Asia.
Their exertions, however, are not confined to the latter field, Successful
for notwithstanding the expense and the difficulties attending a ofRussian*
tedious transport by land, their own manufactures are intro-^* ^Ish
duced into Persia, together with fine glazed chintzes, German
cutlery, and other European goods. The latter are partly
supplied from manufactories established at Tiflis,2 for this pur-
1 Description des Hordes et des Steppes des Kirghis Kazaks. Par Alexis
de Levchine, traduite du Russe par Ferry de Pigny, revue et publiee, par
E. Charriere. Paris, 1840. Ch. XVII., pp. 422, 423, 428, 429.
8 Vol. I„ p. 156.

598 DIMINUTION OF TRADE IN THE PERSIAN GULF. [CHAP. XVIII.
pose: these are chiefly managed by German artisans, whose
articles, though inferior to those of England, are sufficiently
cheap to obtain a preference in the bazars.
Re-exporta- The result of a double influx of European goods into Persia
from°Pegrsia! ^m the shores of the Euxine and from Russia produced a
temporary glut in the market, which obliged the native merchants
to dispose of their imports elsewhere, and Mesopotamia has
lately received goods from, instead of sending them into
Persia.
Trade to India The number of British vessels annually visiting the Persian
by native Gulf, has greatly diminished of late years ; but upwards of a
vessels from * .... J r
the Persian thousand bagalas still find their way to the shores of India
between the monsoons,1 and thus maintain, in a quiet and
almost imperceptible manner, an extensive trade through native
agents. This may be considered as the modern relic of that
commerce described by the prophet Ezekiel, when the wealth
of India was wafted in ships laden with all kinds of merchan
dise, " in blue cloths, and broidered work, and in chests of rich
apparel, bound with cords, and made of cedar."2 The custom
is, as it has been for ages, to sail from the Persian Gulf towards
the close of the monsoon, and return after the change of these
Going and periodical winds, thus making one voyage each way during the
thrmonforas!1 Year- This is also the case with ships sailing from the Arabian
Gulf, and the adjoining coasts of Africa and Arabia. It will
be seen3 that irrespective of the trade with Kach'h and other
places, of which there is no registered account, the official
returns4 of 1836 and 1837 give the following comparative
result of the commerce between the three Indian Presidencies
and the Persian and Arabian Gulfs, for the years 1831 to 1832,
and 1836 to 1837, at the termination of the Euphrates Expe
dition. 1 Vol. I., p. 568. « Ezekiel, chap. XXVII., v. 24.
8 Appendix (H). • Ibid.

CHAP. XVIII.] TRADE OF 1832 COMPARED WITH 1837-

599

Imports to Bombay from the Persian Gulf:
the principal articles were — coffee, dates,
gums, indigo, drugs, pearls, spices, horses,
treasure, &c. (see details, Appendix (H).)
Exports from Bombay to the Persian Gulf
(see details, Appendix (H).) : principal ar
ticles — cottons, silks, shawls, sugar, skins,
indigo, colours, tobacco, &c.
Imports from the Arabian Gulf to Bombay .
Exports from ditto to ditto : dried fruits and
British woollens, in addition to the above
articles ......
Imports to Madras from the Persian Gulf:
dyes, fruit, and grain, in addition to the
above articles .....
Exports from Madras to the Persian Gulf:
rice and wax, besides the above
Imports to Madras from the Arabian Gulf .
Exports from ditto to ditto
Imports to Calcutta from the Persian and
Arabian Gulfs .....
Exports from Calcutta to the Persian and
Arabian Gulfs .....
In addition to these, the imports to Bombay
from the coast of Africa, -consisting of
betel-nuts, cocoa-nuts, spices, grain, gums,
and wool, were . . . .
Exports from Bombay to the coast of Africa,
of cottons, silks, dried fruits, drugs, metals,
and British woollens ....
1 Total

Rupees.

36,38,052

45,60,266 16,48,831

11,00,850 5,363
6,44,0822,86,502
12,37,053 9,56,733
16,18,855

Imports and
1836-3T. exports of
India

156,96,587

Rupees.

35,59,589

35,00,241

12,65,130

1,27,413

from and to

73,570 the three _
-rr, mn Presidencies.
70,592
11,00,504 9,12,813
17,86,582

3,50,4496,18,331

152,48,908

The greater part of the imports to the Persian Gulf are car- Boats with
ried up to Baghdad by a fleet of boats, varying from forty to "ackedVto
seventy tons each, which sail or track against the stream in Bashdad-
about a month's time. This portion of the Indian trade has
fallen off since 1832, when it had already suffered a consider
able diminution as compared with the trade of the East India
Company. Happily, however, there will be little difficulty in Decay, and
restoring our commerce to what it was in 1784, when Sir reTvaTof
Harford Jones Brydges, Bart., was the Company's factor at comraeree-
1 Report on Steam Navigation to India, ordered to be printed by the
House of Commons, July, 1834, pp. 127, 128.

600 NAVIGATION OF THE EUPHRATES. [CHAP. XVIII.
Basrah;1 for to attain this, or even a much higher scale of
prosperity, it is only necessary to follow the example of the
Genoese, by organizing the necessary mercantile establish
ments ; employing at the same time steamers, in order to afford
a quick and cheap supply of goods.
Prospects of An extension of our commerce was one great object of the
thedEuphrLs Euphrates Expedition ; and the merchandise which had been
carried out for this purpose, some portion of which still re
mained after the loss of the Tigris steamer, was sought by the
Arabs with such avidity as to show most clearly that a prosperous
commerce might be easily established on the river Euphrates.
Although anticipating in part the subject of the fourth
volume, a few observations relating to this trade will not here
be out of place.
Capabilities of Previously to transferring the Euphrates steamer to the
steam naviga- Bombay government, in accordance with the original plan of
the Expedition, reports stating the practicability of navigating
the river Euphrates were sent to the Home Government from
the late Commander Cleaveland, R.N.,1 from Mr., now Com
mander Charlewood, R.N.,2 and Mr., now Captain, Fitzjames,
R.N. ;3 also from Captain, now Lieutenant-Colonel, Estcourt,
M.P., and Mr. Ainsworth ;" and the opinions expressed in these
reports were speedily confirmed by the ascent of Lieutenant,
now Commander, Charles D. Campbell, I. N.5 (one of the
officers serving under Commander Lynch) to Beles, the port of
Aleppo, which, by the air line, is only a hundred miles from
Iskenderun. The rivers of Mesopotamia also had been
thoroughly explored, and everything promised the permanency
of an establishment in those regions when the services of the
Removal of steamers Assyria, Nimrud, and Nitocris were required to assist
to India. in the operations on the Indus.
Necessity of It is to be hoped that the inopportune check thus given to
placing other , , ,. . ...__. °
steamws on the progress of steam navigation in Mesopotamia, will be re-
the Euphrates. moved . an(j tnat the day is not very distant when other and
more suitable vessels will be employed. A cheap and rapid
communication with India may then be maintained by this
1 Appendix (I). 2 Ibid. (J). 3 Ibid. (K).
4 Ibid. (L), (M). s Ibid. (N).

CHAP. XVIII. J ROUTE TO ENGLAND BY THE EUPHRATES. 601
route, and at the same time a considerable increase would
accrue to the commerce of Great Britain.
Without entering upon the subject at length, it may be Small
sufficient to observe that small vessels of light draught, such as p^edfoMMs
can now be constructed,1 will not experience any serious diffi- PurPose-
culty in carrying the Indian mails from the Persian Gulf to
Bel^s, whence they could be transported through Aleppo, Isken
derun, Trieste, &c, to England. The transit would be accom
plished in twenty-five days from the Gulf, or thirty-one days
from Bombay. The mails from India might be brought by
this route alternately with the Red Sea line, according to the
original intention.
The feeling of protection and support which permanent Advantages
steam establishments must necessarily impart to mercantile estabiish-
transactions in a distant country could not fail to produce aments-
beneficial effect upon commerce. Wood for fuel is abundant,
and easily procured through the Arabs, who not only con
tributed their services in aid of the Expedition, but were in
several instances desirous of British protection ; there is, conse
quently, every facility for conveying a cheap supply of goods not
only to the people living on the banks of the rivers, but also to
the adjoining countries, Persia, Assyria, Armenia, and Arabia. The Arabs
A paper2 has been prepared to show the opening that exists commerce6. t0
for commercial steam navigation in Mesopotamia, which,
whether undertaken by the nation, or by private individuals,
should be commenced on a very limited scale ; its development
being allowed to take place gradually.
Even if the advantages of steam were to be dispensed with, Advantages ot
it is clear, from the success of the Genoese stations on the fi^d™^0311'
Euxine and in Lesser Asia, as well as that of the East India
Company's trade at a later period, that establishments judi
ciously located at certain places, to serve at once for depots of
trade, and as points of support, would be the means of enlarging
British commerce in western and central Asia to a very con
siderable extent.
Baghdad has long been an important emporium ; 3 but others
1 Appendix (N). 8 Ibid.
3 Vol.1 ,pp. 109,110.

602

PROPOSED OPENINGS FOR COMMERCE. [CHAP. XVIII.

Commercialimportance of
Baghdad.

Suitableposition of
Kiirnah.

Stations pro
posed along
the Euphrates,

Other dep5ts
proposed in
Asia Minor.

Fertility and
anticipatedimprovementof Mesopo
tamia.

elsewhere are indispensable to success. Stations at Moham-
merah and Shuster would make the great opening by the Kariin
into western Persia available. Another at Kiirnah would be
equally suitable for the Kerkhah, and the two other great rivers,
whose junction is effected at this place. The Tigris being
already provided with stations at Baghdad and Mosul, the latter
under the vice-consulate of Mr. Rassam, it only requires another
at Diyar Bekr, and the neighbouring town of Mardin, since the
close connexion of the former place with the countries about it
would speedily secure a revival of its ancient commerce.1
The numerous towns along the Euphrates, and the extensive
population, partly permanent and partly nomadic, on the banks
of that river, will ultimately require several stations ; but, for
the present, one should be at Hillah, another at 'A nah, and a
third at Beles.2
The present establishments at Tarabuzun and Tarsus give
some impetus to trade in Asia Minor ; but others might be
formed, with much advantage, at some of the most important
places in the interior, as Sivas, Kaisariyeh, Kdniyeh, and
Angora ; all which have native traders, and the last has a
considerable extent of commerce, but no longer in the hands of
British merchants.3 It is evident that the capital to be em
ployed at the proposed establishments would enable them to
supply goods at a much cheaper rate than they can be obtained
at present, especially as measures would be taken to prevent
those excessive exactions which are so injurious to commerce.4
Though the subject has only been considered relatively to
the people in their present state, it should not be forgotten
that Mesopotamia possesses as many advantages as, or perhaps
more than, any other country in the world. Although greatly
changed by the neglect of man, those portions which are still
cultivated, as the country about Hillah, show that the region has
all the fertility ascribed to it by Herodotus,5 who considered

1 Vol. I., p. 15, and vol. II., Appendix (N).
2 Arab agents, as deputies in charge of fuel, if steamers were established,
would be required at Lamliim, Hit, De'ir, &c.
3 Appendix (N). * Appendix (E).
5 Lib. I., cap. cxcii.

CHAP. XVIII.]- CAPABILITIES OF MESOPOTAMIA. 603
its productions as equal to one-third of those furnished by all
Asia. Being equal to, and in many respects even superior to
Egypt, with regard to its position and its capabilities, the time
need not be distant when the date groves of the Euphrates may
be interspersed with flourishing towns, surrounded with fields of
the finest wheat, and the most productive plantations of indigo,
cotton, and sugar-cane.

( 604 )

CHAPTER XIX.

ARCHITECTURE, SCULPTURE, ETC., OF I RAN, SYRIA, AND ARABIA.

Proposed
sketch of
ancientremains.

The social
state of a
people shown
by their
architectural structures.Mounds. &c,
of Babylonia.

The bricks
used in their
construction

Ruins in Babylonia. — Kiln-burnt and Sun-dried Bricks. — Construction of
the Pyramids. — Cement and Layers of Reeds. — Some Pyramids of Brick,
others of Stone. — Pyramids of Mexico, &c. — Excavations in Assyria and
elsewhere. — Great Fire Temple near Ispahan. — Singular Sepulchral
Excavations. — Ancient Causeways and Roads. — Canals. — Bunds. — Dikes.
— Tunnels. — Arches. — Ancient Mines.— Rocks removed by Fire. — Phoe
nician and Assyrian remains. — Tomb of Cyrus. — Ancient "Writing,
Sculpture, and Painting.— Ruins of Persepolis. — Floating and Stationary
Bridges. — Cements, &c.
In the preceding volume a brief description has been given of
the countries lying between the rivers Indus and Nile ; and it
is here intended to add a sketch of the past and present state
of architecture, sculpture, &c, throughout those regions.
Since architectural remains are justly considered good
criterions of the social state of the people by whom the works
were constructed, those of Mesopotamia and Assyria which go
back to the period of the Noachian deluge, must possess con
siderable interest. On approaching the site of one of the
primeval cities, the attention is attracted by what at first appears
to be a natural conical hill of considerable size, which however
proves to be the mouldering remnant of a vast building : such
a mound could not fail to be remarkable in any situation, but,
rising out of an apparently boundless plain in a transparent
atmosphere, the effect which it produces on the mind is most
striking. The celebrated plains of Dura offer few other remains
of antiquity ; and none which can be compared, in magnitude
or interest, to those gigantic masses, which have been formed
by the ruins of some ofthe greatest works ever executed by man,
and which now serve only to guide the traveller on his way.
The alluvial district of Babylonia being without stone, it was
necessary to resort to other materials for the construction of
public and private works ; and, as clay existed in abundance,

CHAP. XIX.] THE BRICKS OF BABYLONIA. 605
bricks were the materials chiefly employed by tbe builders of
that country. But it is owing to the pyramidal shape of the
edifices, rather than to any peculiar qualities of the materials,
that these monuments of early art still exist.
The Babylonian bricks were of two kinds : one kind con- ^ere either
sisted of such as were burned in a kiln ; the other, and by much dried, j
the larger proportion, being simply dried by being exposed to
the sun. The former vary in size from 1 1 inches to 13£ inches
square, and they are 3i inches deep ; they are sometimes, how
ever, much smaller, and they are of various colours : the bricks
are chiefly cemented with common clay, but, in the quays, the Bitumen used
. . pi i ** cement.
foundations and exterior parts ot the structures that once
adorned this mighty city, bitumen appears to have been exten- size ofthe
sively used. One face of each brick had on it an inscription, bricks.
and sometimes a figure, and in some instances it is also glazed
and vitrified ; and this face was placed downwards : the cement
is usually found adhering to the upper surface.
The second, which is an inferior kind, is rather larger than
those which had been kiln-dried, being nearly 4i inches deep,
and from Hi to 14 inches square; the larger ones weigh 38
pounds 1 1 ounces avoirdupois, and were formed of the pure
clay of the country, rendered more tenacious by being mixed
with a little sand, and some coarse straw or fine reeds. These
bricks, when dried by exposure to a powerful sun, soon became
sufficiently hard, and gave the means of rapidly raising a large
structure, which in so dry a climate was exceedingly durable.
The bricks at 'Akar Kuf are Hi inches square by 4 deep, Bricks and
. . . x cement used
placed with much regularity, and cemented with inferior clay, at'AkarKuf.
or rather common mud ; but the great singularity of this struc
ture consists in the introduction from side to side of layers of
reeds at short intervals, extending from top to bottom of the
huge mass. These breaks usually take place after seven rows
of bricks have been piled upon one another ; that is, at intervals
of about 2 feet 1 1 inches, or occasionally a little more ;! and
the reeds forming these divisions are composed of three layers,
1 Some writers give nearly double, owing, as it may be presumed, to over
looking one layer of reeds. In the author's examination, the sides of the
mound were carefully dug, in order to determine these spaces exactly.

606 MOUNDS OF ASSYRIA. [CHAP. XIX.
Layers of which together form a depth of about 1£ inches, These layers
reeds used m are gQ arrange(i tnat fa^y cross one another, the upper and
structures. lower ones being in parallel positions, and, as a matter of course,
the centre one at right angles to both. This structure, doubt
less originally a pyramid, is now of an irregular shape, with an
Dimensions of accumulation of rubbish at the base. The latter is about 157
'Ak™°KuT.° feet north and south, 1 10 feet east and west, and about 128 feet
high. About midway on the eastern side, there is an aperture
which may have been the entrance of a sepulchral chamber; ;
and it is in many places, particularly near the top, perforated
with square holes similar to those which, in the tapia buildings
of the Arabs, probably served for scaffolding.1
size ofthe The Mujellibeh at Babylon was constructed in the same
theMujeiiibeh. manner of bricks 14 inches square, but scarcely so thick as
those used at 'Akar Kuf. The construction of the latter work
was the more easy on account of its pyramidal form ; and
this figure may also be traced in the Birs Nimriid.2
Construction The mounds of Sus, Kal'ah, Resen, and Nimrud (near
ofSus, &c?n Nineveh) being more ruinous, their forms are less marked than
those of the two preceding works ; but they appear to have
been pyramidal. In all of them the interior mass was con
structed of sun-dried bricks formed of clay, mixed with chopped
straw, and the exterior of kiln-burnt bricks, many of which are
stamped with figures and cuneiform characters.3 Brick pyramids
are found in Nubia, also at Thebes, Dashour, and other parts
Some PJTa: of Upper Egypt ; but in Lower Egypt, where stone was more
others of ' abundant, and likewise at Fakkra in Syria,4 the latter material
was used in order to render the works more durable. Those
of Gizeh the greatest of all, had a coating of stone which filled
up the spaces left by the receding platforms ; and so correctly
were the coating stones formed, that on the exterior surface,
which sloped at an angle of 51°, the joinings could scarcely be
perceived.5 1 Plate VIII. * Plate XXX.
a For the discoveries recently made in the ruins of Khorsabad, Nimrud,
&c, see Nineveh and its Remains, by A. H. Layard, Esq. Murray, 1849.
4 See p. 473.
5 The coating of the second pyramid (Cephren) still remains, near the
summit, and there the ascent becomes extremely perilous.

CHAP. XIX.J THE GENERAL USE OF PYRAMIDS. 607
Pyramids, however, are not confined to the countries west- The pyra-
ward of Babylonia ; the nomadic Tartars also have such works, turttn^enerai
some of brick and others of stone ; although, says Rubruquis, use-
there is no other stone in the part of the country where they are
found.1 The pyramids of Mexico, which have been so well described The pyra-
by Humboldt, have their sides cut in steps like those of Egypt ; Mexico.
and it may be observed that a pyramidal form is given to the
religious edifices of India : thus in the widely-distant regions
of Egypt, India, and America, are found structures resembling
in form the mount of Babel, which was probably the parent of
all tbe others. This mound had on its summit a temple,2 which
was also the tomb of Belus,3 and a Chaldean observatory.4
In the Chaldean language a cave, or an excavated chamber Caves and
for religious purposes, was called Midrach, signifying an emblem structures
or allegory : from this word came the Greek " Mudross," a ^s^sas&0
designation of the sun, and the eastern " Mithras," whose
worship, according to Stephanus, was celebrated in caves ; and
a cave was the symbol of the world, which Mithras, the father of
all things, had made. Buildings on lofty pyramidal structures,
or excavations in the sides of rocks were, in time, used in Assyria,
Persia, &c, instead of natural caves, as places of worship; and
the mounds of Babylonia thus constituted the high altars and
temples of the Chaldeans, or worshippers of the host of heaven.
Extensive excavations, apparently intended to serve as Remains at
temples, have been formed in the hills immediately behind the shuster, and
ruins of Persepolis, and at Shapiir ; such also is the Mesjid-i- elsewhere.
Maderi Suleiman, on the plains of Murgh'-ab. At Shuster, and
again at Dizftil, there are similar excavations ; but these belong
probably to a much more remote period : and wherever the
Zagros range has been explored, others have been found. At
Holwan there are several, and some precisely of the same
character as those of Persepolis, but with the addition of a
mound. At De'ira is the chamber of Ferhad ;5 and farther in
1 Harris's Collection of Voyages, &c, vol. I., page 588.
8 Herod, lib. I., cap. clxxxi. s Strabo., lib. XVI.
4 Diod. Sic, lib. II. cap. ix., and above, p. 26.
5 Royal Geographical Journal, vol. IX., p. 41.

608 CAVES AND RUINS. [CHAP. XIX.
the Cossgean mountains are the beautiful excavations of Bisutun
and Takhti-Bostan, the Mithraic caves of Karaftu,1 with the
celebrated fire-temple of Shiz or Takhti-Sule'iman ;2 and others
are found in different parts of these regions- — two of them, viz.,
the sepulchral excavations in Upper Mesopotamia, and the fire-:
temples near Ispahan, deserve particular notice.
Caves ana About seven miles from the city towards the south-west, and
near Ispahan, on the same side of a rocky mass, are three caves and as many
fire-temples ; which, as well as the mountain in which they
are excavated, are known by the name of Takhti-Rustam. The
easternmost and largest, which, like the others, is a natural
cavern, opens to the south-west. It is of a crescent shape,
about 100 feet wide, 20 feet deep, and nearly as many high at
the entrance ; but it is only 6 feet high at the inner extremity,
where two cisterns have been cut in the rock, one 6 feet and
the other 4 feet in length, and each of them is 2 feet wide. On
each side a column has been erected, as if to support the rocky
canopy; and between the two columns are the dilapidated
remains of several figures resting against the rock ; there are
also some undecipherable tripod-like characters, probably Cufic,
and of various sizes. The cave itself is stained a deep red,
and at the western side are the remains of the fire-temple, which
is now quite a mass of ruins.
Description of The most western, and the highest, cave extends for some
the western- , . . ° '
most cave, distance into the rock, and consists of an inner and an outer
cavern, separated by a wall; both are partially stained of a
deep-red colour, and here and there they display the remains
of written characters. The central, and most interesting of
these grottoes, is of a semi-oval form, low in the roof, and
having at its western side a kind of recess or second cave,
which, with the exterior, gives a depth of 45 feet. The inner
and probably oracular part contains the remains of an undis-
tinguishable figure, and there is a second figure resembling an
audits owl ; there are also some sentences in ancient characters of
ancient re- . . . . „ .. . » "
mains. which the following are specimens : —
1 Described by Sir R. Zer Porter. See Royal Geographical Journal,
vol. X., p. 45.
2 Major Rawlinson, vol. X., pp. 75, 78, of Royal Geographical Journal.

CHAP. XIX.] FIRE TEMPLE NEAR ISPAHAN. 609
No. 1. No. 2.
„ o

<^>^jr

Very ancient and unknown. Translated — Malediction on the Prince of Hell ; also,
wash your feet without temptation.
No 3.
^IU LH WJL
The third inscription, which probably is Aramaic, wants The inscrip-
something to complete the sense ; it is supposed to express, fire-temples.
Pray to Gtd, through the High Priest. The outer part of the
cavern contains several figures, some of which are detached,
and others are cut in the rock in bold relief; but all are nearly
destroyed, with the exception of a bird like an eagle, above
which there is a circular figure, apparently representing a
globe. At the western side of the opening, near the separating
wall, is tbe fire-temple itself, still in tolerable preservation.
The structure is covered with a pediment, surmounted by a
cupola, both built with sun-dried bricks, 9 inches square by
2& inches deep. The temple is 9 feet long, and as many in
breadth, and is 4 feet high ; it has on each side 9 niches, each
10 inches square and 8 inches deep, in which are the remains
of some small figures and characters. Above is the dome,
whose diameter is less than the base on which it stands.
Below, on the eastern side, is the doorway, which runs a little
way into the dome in order to obtain the necessary height. Description of
On the other sides are two shallow niches, which, like the rest the cave-
of the interior, are covered with a yellowish-brown cement.
But as there is not any appearance of a fire having been made
within, and the rock above is thickly covered with smoke, there
is little doubt that the perpetual flame was kept burning on the
top of the dome, where there is a suitable place for it.
VOL. II. 2 R

610

FIRE TEMPLES AND SEPULCHRES. [CHAP. XIX.

Ruined city
near the
villages of
Charmalik
and Narsis.

In the vicinity of Rehoboth, and Kalneh, (Chalanne,)1 also of
Beles, Bir, Rum Kal'ah, Sumeisat, and different parts of
Upper Mesopotamia, there . are many excavations, which, for
the most part, are of an ordinary character, but some are
evidently sepulchral.
Near the villages of Charmalik and Narsis, at a spot about
three miles from the left bank of the Euphrates, and nearly
thirty miles from Sumeisat, are the remains of an ancient city
and several tombs : the ruins are extensive, but without
columns, or any other object particularly striking, except some
large tanks cut in the solid rock, with descents by flights of
steps; the sepulchres themselves are, however, particularly

interesting.

In a gently-swelling hill, composed of a mass of rock showing
above the ground occasionally, about ten of these sepulchres
have been excavated with great skill, and evidently at a remote
period : they are at a short distance from one another, and are
separately "hewn in the rock;"2 nor would they be visible,
were it not for the sloping descent at the entrance

Plan and
elevation of
some singular
sepulchres.

1 Vol. I., p. 523.

Matt. XXVII., v. 60.

CHAP. XIX.] DIMENSIONS, ETC., OF THE SEPULCHRES. 611
Fig. 1 is a plan of the tomb, consisting of two divisions, a Dimensions
andB; Fig. 2 is a section through the outer portion of the tion of the1*"
tomb, along the line c d ; Fig. 3 is a section through both tombs-
apartments, along the line e f ; and Fig. 4 is an elevation of
the entrance, on the line x y.
The tomb is entered through a small aperture or doorway,
rather more than 3 feet high, and 2 feet 6 inches wide, with an
arched top, as represented at m, Fig. 4 ; the entrance is about
2 feet above the level of the floor, and it is closed by means of
a circular stone, moving in two parallel grooves, one above and
the other below. The stone is 3 feet 6 inches in diameter,
and 6 inches thick, which rolls along its edge on a gently-
inclined plane ; h shows its place when rolled back, in order to
enter the tomb, and some force is necessary to bring it to this
position ; but a very slight exertion is sufficient to cause it to
roll along the grooves, j and k, till it covers the entrance, as
marked by the dotted line i. The hole marked h appears to
have been for the purpose of passing a chain through both the
stone and the solid rock at the side of the doorway, and thus
securing the tomb. Some of these sepulchres had the stone
and grooves perfect, with the exception of the chain ; but in tbe
greater number, the former had been broken away and forced
out of its place.
The excavations were all nearly of the same dimensions, and External and
on the same plan. A sloping open descent, g, leads to the dimensions of
entrance, which is in the face of the rock, and of course below the sePulchres-
the surface of the ground; consequently it is not visible, except
at this place.
Within the doorway there is a descent of 2 feet to the floor
of the outer tomb, a; an apartment of 14 feet by 9, with a
niche, c, d, on each side for bodies ; these niches are 7 feet long,
2 feet wide, and 2 feet high, and are terminated by the arched
recesses p and p, Fig. 2 ; the roof is a parabolic vault, exca
vated with much neatness, and about 9 feet high in the centre.
The inner tomb, b, is 11 feet by 9, and nearly 9 feet high,
with three niches, e, f, and g, for bodies. Two of these are
shown in the cut, viz., t g in Fig. 2, and t e in Fig. 3 ; t c ir
Fig. 3 is the corresponding recess in a, Fig. 1. The niches
2 r 2

612 DIMENSIONS, ETC., OF THE SEPULCHRES. [CHAP. XIX.

The ruins
may possibly
be those of
Anthemusia.

Roads cut
through the
Zagros, &c-

Canals in
Assyria and
Mesopotamia.

and roof are arched in the same way as those of the outer tomb,
and the execution of the whole is scarcely inferior to that of
the tombs of the kings near Jerusalem, or to the ordinary
excavations in Upper Egypt.
The ruins may possibly be those of the ancient city of
Anthemusia, which is placed hereabouts by Strabo and Pliny.1
The practice of hewing temples with columns and figures out
of masses of rock, as well as that of raising vast pyramidal
mounds, prevailed through Arabia, Syria, Egypt, and India ;
and the general resemblance of such works in all these countries
sufficiently indicates a common origin, which, it is reasonable
to presume, may have been in Assyria. The caves of Ele-
phanta, Elora, Ajunta, and the temples on Mount Aboo, differ,
however, in their details from those of Thebes, Philoe, and
Abu Simbal ; but these differences are probably only such as
would naturally arise on transferring such a style of architecture
from one country to another.
Amongst the less striking, but more useful works in western
Asia, are the roads, which, in some places, consist of causeways
over marshes, and elsewhere of passes cut through rocky
mountains ; of the latter kind are the Zagros at Keli-shm,2 and
the Caspian Gates.3 And in the plains of Assyria, numerous
canals served the important purposes of irrigating the land,
conveying water to the cities, and, occasionally, as means of
communication. Great water-courses intersected Susiana, as well as Mesopo
tamia, and by crossing the latter territory from side to side, at
different places, they formed as many lines of intercommuni
cation between the two great rivers ; such lines are the Nahr
I'sa, Nahr Sersar, Nahr-Malka, and Nahr Kuthah:4 canals
were also carried along the country parallel to one or other of
the rivers. Near the Tigris, the Ishaki, the El Burech, the
Nebi Suleiman, the Nahrawan, the Dujei'l, and the Khalis,
still remain ; and, diverging from the Tigris, are the Shatt el
Hai and the Shatt el 'A'mah; the former still falls into the
1 Pliny, lib. V., ch. xxiv.
2 Vol. X., p. 21-23, of Royal Geographical Journal.
3 See vol. I., p. 213 * See vol. I., p. 54-56.

CHAP. XIX.] CANALS, BUNDS, DIKES, ETC. 613
Euphrates, and, beyond the latter, is the celebrated Pallacopas,
with several other channels, of which the most remarkable are
those near Mesjid 'All and Lamliim.
By means of these canals supplies of water were obtained in use of
almost every direction, not only for the towns and for irriga- canals?1™1
tion, but also for navigation, for which last purpose the I'sa is
still available.1 Owing to the impermeable nature of the soil,
masonry was seldom used in the formation of the canals. These
great and useful undertakings are particularly mentioned by
the earliest historians, who attribute their construction to
Semiramis and other Assyrian monarchs, whilst tradition
claims for some of them the more remote age of Nimrud ; but
be this as it may, some of the canals belong to the period when
Babylon and Nineveh were in the highest state of prosperity.
In connexion with these canals, and in order to secure all Dikes and
their advantages, immense dikes were constructed in certain s"Cnrethe :
positions in order to retain sufficient supplies of water for'water-
different purposes, particularly for irrigation.
The Bunds of Zikru-1-awaz, or Nimrud, and Zikr Isma'il, on
the Tigris, and that which crosses the 'Adhim, have been
already noticed.2 The like constructions were executed along
the river Euphrates, in the marshes of Lamliim, and also in the
low ground of Susiana ; as at Shuster, Band-i-kir, and Ahwaz ;
such works have also been formed at Dorak and other places Bunds and
in Persia with the most perfect success. Nor were these works es ° Asia"
confined to the regions in question, the same method of securing
supplies of water prevailing in Arabia,3 in Africa, and in Asia.
Descriptions of the prodigious bunds and tanks of India, China,
&c, are familiar to most readers, and their resemblance to
similar works in Babylonia will be readily admitted by
those who have visited both countries. Some of these works,
although no longer objects of attention to the government,
are in many cases maintained, though imperfectly, by the
people, as at Shuster, Band-i-kir, &c, and they still attest the
strength and utility of these specimens of early art ; some of
them, probably, were constructed antecedently to the time of
1 See vol. I., p. 55. ! See vol. I., pp. 21, 30.
3 'Oman, Yemen, Nedjd, &c.

614 METHOD OF RAISING A BUND. [CHAP. XIX.
'Cyrus, in order to raise or divert the waters of the Mesopo-
tamian rivers. In India, besides the construction of the ordi
nary bunds and tanks, the bolder operation of forming a great
reservoir by throwing a dam across an extensive valley, as at
Haider-abad, is frequently practised. The dikes at Oedipore,
Aboo, &c, do not differ from the celebrated Arabian work at
Mareb ; and the method appears to have been used by the
Turks on the European side of the Bosphorus.
Method of To preserve and husband water for ordinary purposes, as
bund! UCtmg a well as to divert it into irrigating channels, must always have
been objects of vital importance in the parched countries ofthe
east, where it is an ordinary occurrence to construct a bund
across a rapid stream. This operation is performed by forcing
into the stream near one bank a large mass of furze, faggots of
brushwood, or numerous bundles of reeds, to serve as the sub
stratum ; this is kept down by stones, or other weighty mate
rials, till it is so firmly fixed that another portion of brushwood
or reeds can be added to its extremity ; and thus the work
proceeds, piece by piece, till the dam is completed by touching
the opposite bank ; after which one of more solid materials can
be constructed if necessary.
Manner of Probably it was in this way that Cyrus diverted the waters
FuDhrates. of the Euphrates to enable him to enter Babylon ;! and that,
subsequently, Alexander filled the channel of the Pallacopas.
The method is still used by the people inhabiting the marshes
of Lamliim, where, by means of dikes, there are two principal
derivations from the main stream, in addition to thousands of
smaller channels, which serve to irrigate this fertile tract of
country.
The tunnel at Under other circumstances, excavations were constructed with
great labour, either to convey water to certain places, or to give
a direct road through elevated ground. A fine specimen of the
former has already been described ;2 and the wood-cut gives a
faithful representation of the central part near the bridge.
Ancient The art of tunnelling appears to have been early practised
Europe. in Europe. The laborious work which conveys the waters of
Lake Alban under the mountain of the same name, and from
1 Herod., lib. I., pp. 190, 191. ! Vol. I., p. 431.

CHAP. XIX.J TUNNELS AND ARCHES. 615
thence into the Tiber, is more than a mile in length, and mostly
cut through solid rock.
A tunnel was constructed by Claudius to drain Lake Celano. Tunnel of
This work, which is three miles long, is partly cut through Claudms-
solid rock, and elsewhere is lined with masonry ; in construct
ing it a number of vertical shafts were sunk in tbe side of the
mountain, so that several parties worked onward at the same
time. But probably the most ancient work of this kind is the canal
in Samos, which is cut to a distance of seven stadia under a
mountain 900 feet high, in order to supply the city with water.1
Herodotus mentions (lib. VII., c. xxii., xxiii.) the tunnel of Tunnels of
Mount Athos; and Strabo (lib. XL, p. 246) the now well-known So^o?
Posilipo, which runs for three-quarters of a mile under the hill
of that name, near Naples, and is lighted by shafts from the top.
No traces have been found of the celebrated work under the
Euphrates at Babylon ; but the minute description given, is
almost sufficient of itself to prove the fact, since there is but one
step between a well-devised plan and its execution. According
to Diodorus Siculus (lib. II. , cap. ix.), the subterraneous com
munication between the two palaces, which were situated on the
opposite sides of the river, must have been a substantial and
permanently constructed work, being 15 feet wide and 12 feet Construction
high, to the commencement of the arch. The upper part of at Babylon?
the communication is here designated an arch ; but whether it
consisted of bricks or stones, disposed similarly to those of a
modern arch, or of horizontal stones resting at their opposite ex
tremities on piers, or of materials laid in horizontal courses, and
gradually projecting from each side wall till they met over the
middle of the covered space, it is impossible now to ascertain ;
yet it is difficult to imagine, unless the construction were such
as that first mentioned, how the building could support the
weight of the soil and of the river (here 480 feet wide) above
it. The like observation may be made respecting the substruc
tion of the hanging gardens.2 The passage under the Kasr3
1 Herod., III., c. 60. 2 Strabo, lib., xvi., p. 738.
3 This was descended by the author in 1831, but when he returned in
1836 the brisks composing this part ofthe ruins were entirely removed.

616 ANCIENT MINING OPERATIONS. [CHAP. XIX.
was formed with bricks in the manner of a modern vault ; and
it appears to have been a work of great antiquity.
Early use of Many constructions yet exist, which seem to favour the
Egypt!*1 " opinion that, in a very early age, arches were formed in Egypt :
for omitting all consideration of the galleries in the great
pyramid, and of the vaulted ceilings in many tombs, since,
although they are hemicylindrical, and formed of wrought
stones, the latter are not keyed together scientifically, the
author, in 1830, found several specimens of regular brick arches
in the western part of the ruins of Thebes ; and many more
remarkable examples were discovered by Mr. Hay, in the valley
Description of of the Assasseef at Gorua1. Three of these arches are of
discovered by considerable magnitude, and form the entrances to tombs
Mr. Hay. which are ofthe age of Psammeticus. They consist of several
courses of bricks placed edgeways, which are made to take
the form of an arch by inserting between every two, at the
upper extremity, a piece of tile or stone ; and each supports
a considerable superstructure. There are some which are only
one brick thick, and serve as the linings of excavations. And
the plaster remaining . on one of the smaller arches disco
vered by Mr. Hay, bears the prenomen of Thothmes the First:2
this arch is likewise in a tomb, and is constructed of sun-dried
bricks, regularly keyed. . Sir Gardner Wilkinson also found
one of the same kind,, having fresco paintings ; and on it the
name of Amenoph the First. If this arch be really ofthe age
of that king, its construction must be referred to a period as far
back as 1487 years before Christ ; and it might then be con
cluded that the first employment of the arch in buildings be
longs to a still earlier period, either Assyrian or Babylonian.3
Mining In addition to the evidence afforded by the existing specimens
the an'cients. 0I" ordinary mining operations, which were performed in ancient
times, as caves, cisterns, open passages, and tunnels, the short
notice given by Moses of the artificer Tubal-Cain, shows that
the use of metals was almost coeval with the human race.
Silver and gold appear to have been abundant in the time of
1 MS. note from Mr. Bonomi. 2 Ibid.
3 An arch is said to have been discovered at Nimriid by Dr. Layard in
January, 1^50.

CHAP. XIX.] ANCIENT MOUNDS AND EXCAVATIONS. 6 1 7
Abraham and that of his grandson, and mining and smelting
were practised in the time of Job.1 The Alybean mines are
mentioned by Homer,2 and those of the Chalybes or Chaldeans
by Xenophon.3 The mountain of Thasos was completely bur
rowed by the Phoenicians in search of metals ;4 and a detailed
account is given, by Agatharchides, of the manner of carrying
on "such operations in Egypt, where of late the remains of the
works, and even the tools have been found. It appears that the
rocks being heated with burning wood, as is practised to this
day in China,5 were cleft with iron implements, in the direction Eocks , ,
. removed by
of the veins of gold. The fragments were first broken in iron fire in Egypt
mortars, then reduced to powder by grinding stones ; the pow-am
der was then rubbed on a sloping board with some water, after
which the lighter particles were removed with sponges, and the
heavier put into jars, with the addition of some lead, tin, salt,
and barley bran ; the jars being put in a furnace, in five days
those materials were destroyed, and the pure gold only was
left.6 The various ruins which have already been noticed, are chiefly Ancient
of three kinds. The most ancient may be readily distinguished excavations.
by numerous masses or heaps, of which a high mound, among,
or near them, usually forms the most striking object. The
second description consists of ruins and extensive excavations,
which usually belong to two different periods ; whilst the third
comprehends the cave architecture in an advanced state, toge
ther with great buildings serving as temples, palaces, and the
like. Of the first kind, Sus, and the primeval cities of Accad,
Babel, Erech, &c, are specimens. Of the second are the
Phoenician ruins of Hagiar Shem in Malta ; consisting of some Phoenician
Cyclopian walls, with a suite of small apartments, which con- Malta"
tain several mutilated figures : such also are the excavations
formed before the time of Alexander, at Fassa, Darabgerd,
' Chap. XLIL, v. 11. * Iliad, lib. IL, v. 363.
3 Cyr. Exped.,lib. V., p. 282. " Herod., lib. VI., cap. xlvi., xlvii.
5 A layer of wood about fifteen inches deep is placed on the rock, and,
being covered with wet clay, is set on fire. The wood, after burning for about
thirty-six hours, splits and cracks the rock, so completely that a depth of
about twelve inches is easily removed.
• Diod. Sic, lib. III., cap. vi.

remains in

618

ANCIENT SITES WITH INSCRIPTIONS. [CHAP. XIX.

Sculptures,&e., in
Bisutun.

Remains at
Shapiir.

Fakrakah,1 and those at Karaftii and Bisutun,2 already men
tioned. These last are formed in the face of some elevated
and scarped rocks behind Kirmanshah, and contain numerous
figures finely executed in relief; with 12 columns on which
cuneiform letters are engraven. Major Bawlinson has since
ascertained that they relate to Persian history, and chiefly that
of Darius, who is here represented as receiving Atin the usurp
ing monarch of Susa, Chitretekhm, the king of the revolted
Sogartii, and other captives, after the death of Berjeye, the
Smerdis of Herodotus.
These, as well as tbe works at Nakshi Rustam, Nakshi
Regib, a part of Takhti-Sulei'man, Taki-Bostan, and Shapiir,
are almost exclusively Sasanian. The ruins at the latter place
contain a number of colossal figures disposed in different groups,
one of which is supposed to represent several foreign ambas
sadors supplicating Shapur to release the captive Emperor
Valerian. Ofthe third class of ruined sites, which, like, those in Egypt,
have excavations and exterior structures, with the addition of
ancient inscriptions, two specimens may here be noticed.
On an eminence in the plain of Murgh'-ab, about fifty miles
north-east of Persepolis, numerous remains mark the site of a
very extensive city ; on which it is evident that much skill and
art bad been bestowed, in order to render it worthy of being
the seat of empire. The most remarkable portion of these
ruins, the Mesjid-i-Maderi-Sulei'man (the mother of Solomon),
^rfstie^a'n. ^as a §rand pedestal, composed of immense blocks of white
marble, on a base 43 feet long and 39 feet broad, and rising
in six tiers or gigantic steps to the platform of the monument,
which is at the height of 16 feet 9 inches from the ground.
The walls of the sarcophagus itself consist of four layers of
large stones ; and the exterior dimensions of the structure are
20 feet 5 inches long by 17 feet 2 inches wide, and 11 feet
high to the cornice; it is covered with a solid roof, whose
exterior is arched. The entrance is in the north-western
end ; and above it are the marks of a tablet. The chamber is
1 On the borders of Azerbaijan.
8 Some of the ruined buildings are Sasanian,

Ruins of the

CHAP. XlX.j PERSEPOLIS. 619
10 feet 10 inches long, by 6 feet 10£ inches wide, and 6 feet
10i inches high : it has a flat roof, and a stone floor, each
composed of two great slabs of marble joined in the middle.
On the wall facing the south-west, has been cut in later times
an ornamental niche, with an Arabic inscription.1 The pedestals
of 24 columns placed around at 14 feet apart, with scattered
fragments of their shafts, mark an area of 400 square feet ;
which at one time enclosed, what is now ascertained to have
been, the tomb of Cyrus.2 The plain of Murgh'-ab is moreover
strewed with ruins, some of which have arrow-headed inscrip
tions ; but, as a whole, these remains are far inferior to those
which constitute the ruins of Persepolis.
This city having been constructed of more durable materials Ruins of
than Ctesiphon, Seleucia, and the other Sasanian cities, and en,epo:s'
even the more ancient cities of Babylon3 and Nineveh, its
remains yet exist in a state to command the highest admiration :
while mounds of earth alone mark the sites of Susa and other
cities of Assyria, the Takhti Jemshid (throne of Jemshid, or
forty pillars) at Persepolis, may be classed with the splendid
buildings at Palmyra, Ba'aibek, Jerash, and Amman ; nor are
its excavations inferior to those of Petra in Arabia, or of the
like works in Egypt and India.
In glancing over these elaborate specimens of early art at
Persepolis, the first place must be given to the excavations. A Excavations in
spacious niche, sculptured in the face ofthe rock, 130 feet high
and 72 wide, forms the facade of the principal tomb ; which is
in two portions, both highly finished. Tbe upper compartment
represents a kind of chest, having numerous figures sculptured
on it; also a fire altar, with a figure standing in the act of
adoration, and an attendant spirit hovering above. A false
door forms part of the sculpture of the second division, and
through its lower part a passage has been broken into the tomb
itself.4 The latter is 21 feet long, by 11 feet broad, and con^
1 Rich's Journey to Persepolis, pp. 242, 243.
2 See above, p. 172, and Appendix (A).
3 See Ruins of Babylon, plate lxi.
4 The regular entrance to this and the other tomb is supposed by Chardin
to have been by a subterranean passage, but as yet, this has not been
discovered.

620 THE TERRACE, PORTALS, ETC., OF PERSEPOLIS. [dlAP. XIX.
tains two sarcophagi cut out of the rock. The second tomb is
a little way eastward of the first, and the niche at the
entrance contains figures in relief: it is nearly of the same
design as the first, but is more ruinous, and probably more
ancient.
The terrace The other objects of antiquity are in front of the tombs ; and
Persepolis! ° a general idea of these remains may be conveyed to the reader
by observing, that they occupy different parts of a grand terrace,
which forms a very irregular parallelogram at the foot of a
stupendous range of rocks. On the eastern side, the terrace is
nearly 1,600 feet long, and three of the sides are surrounded
by massive walls, having in each a number of breaks or inden
tures forming right angles ; but the direct distances from side
to side are respectively 1,540 feet for the western face, 893 feet
for the northern ; and for the southern face, 703 feet.1
Double flight This terrace is approached near the northern extremity of
of steps. j^ western gj^ by means of two double flights of steps, which
are separated by a landing-place 37 feet long by 24 feet wide ;
and so gradual is the ascent, that it is suited for horsemen. It
is constructed with such ponderous blocks of marble, that each
piece contains several steps, 17 feet long by 18 inches broad,
and 3 inches deep ; and the pieces are so neatly joined, that
the whole has the appearance of having been cut out of the
solid rock. A little way from the top of this grand approach,
the road leads through two gigantic portals ; and there are yet
standing two of the four great columns, which once occupied
the space between the two entrances ; their heights are 39 feet
and 28 feet respectively. The front and interior sides of the
Twwinged first portal are supported by two huge unicorns, 14i feet high ;
entSnce.at ' e ana" tnose of tne second, by two winged animals, each having
the head of a man, which is covered with a kind of cap: the
unicorns are in front of the grand staircase, and the other
animals are towards the mountains.
various re- The ruins occupy different parts of the terrace southward of
mains on the . •¦ , j n .
terrace walls, the grand ascent, and form separate inclosures, each with three
or four apartments on different levels. Four of these portions
1 See Plate XLVIII. These dimensions were taken by the late Colonel
D'Arcy, R.A., K.L.S.

CHAP. XIX.] SCULPTURE. 621
are of a square form, and nearly of the same kind of archi- Portals and
tecture; the numerous doorways and window-frames are of bas"reliefs-
striking dimensions, and beautiful proportions, and many of
them still retain their places. The portals are formed of huge
blocks of dark polished marble, having niches with bas-reliefs
of superior workmanship ; and they are also remarkable for
that kind of bold cornice, which so generally terminates the
portals of the Egyptian temples. In addition to the archi
tectural ornaments around the inclosures, and the vestiges of
columns scattered about the interior, tbe supporting walls con
tain numerous groups of figures representing combats between
men and animals of imaginary forms, all sculptured with great
care. One compartment represents a monarch, or some other dis
tinguished person, followed by two attendants, clad like himself
in long robes ; one of them carries a fly-flap, and the other holds
an umbrella above the head of the chief. In another compart
ment, there is a figure seated upon a high chair, resembling
one of those specimens of Gothic carved work, which are occa- Figures, &e.,
sionally to be seen in our time. In the fifth and principal procession?
portion of the ruins are the remains of the grand colonnade of
the hall of reception or temple ; the platform of which extends
162 feet southward of the portals, and communicates with the
lower portion of the grand terrace by means of a double stair
case of finished workmanship. This, like the principal approach,
has two pairs of flights ; and its sides, as well as the adjoining
walls, are thickly covered with figures in relief, disposed in
different compartments and groups. The principal scene repre
sents a grand procession, composed of the royal guards and
attendants, all clad in the ancient Persian costume, armed with
bows, quivers, spears, shields, &c, and having a mass of hair
projecting behind the head like a wig. Other individuals
wearing short dresses, and apparently captives of various nations,
compose the rest of the train ; these follow in succession, leading
chariots, horses, oxen, and camels, and bearing gifts and offer
ings. In a separate compartment is represented a fight between
a lion and another animal like a unicorn, with an arrow-headed Combat of
inscription at the side of the figures. ' animals-

622

THE GREAT HALL OR TEMPLE.

[CHAP. XIX.

Remains of
columns.

Architecture of the palace
or temple.

Hall of
reception at
Persepolis.

A little way from the edge of the terrace, may be traced the
remains of four divisions of columns, consisting of a central
group flanked by a lower one on each side, with a fourth at
right angles to the others. Thirteen of these noble columns
are standing,1 and the positions once occupied by fifty-nine
others may still be traced, as -well as portions of their remains :
within the enclosure there are likewise, at interval?, four huge
blocks of stone, which were either pedestals for figures or
portions of portals.2 Some remains of Kanats, partly of
masonry, and partly cut in the solid rock, extend from the
hills to this part of the ruins. The great columns are of an
order of architecture almost peculiar to this place, and of two
sizes. The cup and leaves of a pendant lotus form the pedestal.
The shaft is finely fluted in fifty-two divisions, and is 16 feet in
circumference below ; but, at about two-thirds of its height, it
has a swell, and it terminates with a very peculiar kind of
capital, which seems to represent the hinder parts of two animals,
resembling bulls of different sizes, so joined together as to leave
between them a hollow, suited for the reception of one extremity
of a beam or stone to support the roof. The whole is composed
of white marble blocks, beautifully fitted, and connected by an
iron spindle running up the centre ; the greater columns are
86 feet in height, and the lesser about 60 feet, both kinds
having the same relative proportions. The form of the capitals,
together with the indications that they were used as supports,
show that the edifice had at one time a roof: in such a climate
this must have been indispensable, whether the structure were a
palace or a temple: a portion at each side was lower than the
centre, and this style of building is still followed in the halls of
reception at Ispahan. These interesting remains betoken a state
of art worthy of the best days of Greece or Rome ; whilst the
cuneiform writing and the hieroglyphic symbols which adorn
the walls, indicate an antiquity much more remote. The
solitary grandeur of these edifices have long interested travellers ;
and the inscriptions upon them have unsuccessfully occupied
the attention of the learned during the two last centuries. The
1 Plate XLVIII.
2 Niebuhr, tome II., p. 110.

CHAP. XIX.] FLOATING AND STONE BRIDGES. 623
most probable conjecture is, that the excavations formed part of
a temple to Mithras, or Ormazd ; and that the exterior build
ings were subsequently added as a hall of reception, by Jemshid,
or by the first Darius.1
Bridges, such as were formed by Darius over the Bosphorus, Bridges at
and Xerxes across the Hellespont, are still constructed at Hifiah, &c
Baghdad and Hillah by means of a line of country boats, firmly
moored from side to side of the river, with their bows towards
the current ; and at such distances apart, as will permit the
intervals to be covered with a platform of sufficient strength to
bear a number of laden camels. In order to facilitate the
passage of these animals at all times, a moveable platform
extends from each bank to the bridge : this platform, by moving
up and down with the bridge, is suited for any degree of eleva
tion or depression to which the stream may be subject throughout
the year. *
The bridges are displaced and restored with great facility. Maimer of
In case of a sudden flood, for example, or when necessary for replacing the
the passage of a large boat, or from any other cause, they may bridee-
be loosened at either extremity, or separated in the middle, and
allowed to swing round with the stream, so as to lie along one
bank, or both. In order to restore a bridge which has thus
been removed in an entire body, it is drawn up along the bank,
against the current, till the lower extremity is brought up to
the place where the head was before, and the head being pushed
out, the bridge is, by the force of the current, made to swing
across the river. Judging from the jetties, and other remains,
at Zelebi, Thapsacus, &c, such must have been the method of
forming bridges at those places in ancient times.
In Persia, the bridges on piers are particularly light and Nature of the
elegant; each arch, instead of being formed with a single Persfa.s °
course of stones, frequently consists of two light courses, which
touch one another, and a cylindrical vault or tunnel passes
quite through each of the hances, between the curve and the
pier. Some bridges have at the top a covered way on each
side for passengers, whilst in others there is one in tbe body of
the structure ; in this case the top, which is paved, and level
1 Appendix (C).

624 ARCHES, HOUSES, ETC. [CHAP. XIX.
throughout the whole extent, is free for the use of camels,
horses, &c. In the present day the bridges are generally of
brick, but the older structures are frequently of stone.
Cupolas and The karvanserais,1 baths,2 and mosques, with the cupolas
without11' and graceful arches of the Persians, have been already noticed.3
centring. gQ j;gnt are tne materia]s with which the two last are con
structed, and so good is the cement (which is chiefly made of
gypsum), that these works are formed without any kind of
centring. All that is necessary being, that the bricklayer's
attendant should hold the portion of the work already executed
for a few minutes, till the bricks or tiles have taken the proper
curve ; more materials are then gradually added, till the arch
or cupola is keyed. Bricks, one inch and a half thick, placed
edge to edge, serve for the cupola, and some of larger dimen
sions, often sun-dried, for the arch : not only an arch over a
doorway is thus formed ; a whole room, or eveii a small house,
is often covered, from one gable to the opposite, with a succes
sion of such arches, each one brick thick ; the form of the
curve being first traced on each gable.
Arches con- On other occasions, the two sides of a Saracenic arch are
Strounddinn the constructed on the ground, from whence they are then raised
sections. Up to their places and keyed. Of late years something of this
kind has been practised in England ; sections of a cylindrical
drain, for example, being separately formed and cemented, and
then put together.
Dwellings of Great similarity prevails among the habitations in the east,
t^^iatlc which, whether in town or country, generally consist of a
certain number of apartments built round a court. In the case
of the richer people, these apartments are numerous, and above
them are corridors : fountains play in the courts, and a raised
stage or diwan is formed in the reception-rooms. The apart
ments which are excavated in masses of rock, nearly resemble
the buildings raised on the ground.4
The ordinary cottages of Asia Minor, Persia, &c, have
already been described.5 The houses in Mesopotamia and the
southern provinces of Persia have under-ground arched apart-
1 Vol. I., pp. 235, 369. s Ibid., 370.
a Ibid., 235. " Ibid., 365, 366. 5 Ibid., 241, 365, 367.

CHAP. XIX.J CEMENTS OF I'RAN AND ARABIA. 625
ments, called serdaubs. From these, the light is almost Summer apartr
excluded, but a current of fresh air is admitted to the different ground'"1 er
apartments by means of a wind-tower (badgir), which is a
square turret, having vertical apertures on the sides, and cross
divisions in the interior. The temperature in the serdaub
during the day in the hot season is from 8° to 11° less than in
the ordinary apartments, and therefore the inmates of the
house then occupy it ; the roof is used as a sleeping place by
night. The common clay used to cement sun-dried bricks in the Use of clay
large structures of Babylonia, as well as the better kind, which cements.
is employed in the foundations of those works, have been
noticed, and it is intended now to describe the nature of some
other cements which are used in that territory, and in different
parts of western Asia.
The remains of Babylon attest the fact mentioned by
Herodotus,1 that some parts of the walls of that city were
cemented with bitumen ; and the same material is still used in
this part of the world.2 It is boiled with a certain proportion Use of bitu-
of oil,3 and is impenetrable by water. It is used to cover cement.
water-courses, tanks, the floors of bath-rooms, and, with the
addition of a proportion of sand or earth, it serves to form the
terraced roofs of houses: its exceeding durability is manifest
from the specimens at Babylon and elsewhere.
In the fountains at Kerkiik, Apcheron, and other places, Uses to which
this mineral is found mixed with different substances, particu- applied? W
larly salt and oil of naphtha ; and a bucket, made of skin, being
shaken beneath the surface, these three ingredients are drawn up
together by means of a swipe. The mixture is thrown into a
reservoir, and afterwards poured into a shallow receptacle, when
the bitumen and salt crystallize, and the oil, being collected, is
put into jars. The oil is generally employed in Persia to give
light : rags well saturated with it being burned in an iron frame,
a few feet from the ground, thoroughly illuminate the court of
a khan or other enclosure. Occasionally, as at Apcheron, white
1 Lib. I., cap. clxxix. 2 Rich's Babylon and Persepolis, p. 100.
3 Where exposed to water, and in the moist places in the ditch, the walls
of Baghdad are built with bitumen.
VOL. II. 2 s

626 CHUNAM OF BABYLONIA AND INDIA. [CHAP. XIX.
and black naphtha are found at the same source ; the former is
valuable as a varnish and in mixing paints, also for the cure of
bruises and sprains in men and animals, and is taken internally
by the Russians as a cordial, or as a cure for the stone and
other diseases.
Mortar used at Amidst the ruins of the Kasr, the hanging gardens, and
its prepara- other places in Babylon, there is another, and a more tenacious
taon" cement, which so firmly unites the kiln-burnt bricks, that it is
almost impossible to separate them without breaking the bricks.
The substance composing the mortar, generally found in the
most ancient remains which are built of burnt bricks, is a
calcareous earth, called jus by the Arabs, and karej by the
Turks ;l it is found in the desert westward of the Euphrates,
and is even now the common cement of the country. Probably
owing to the large proportion of mineral particles which it
contains, it becomes exceedingly hard as well as durable ; and
as it possesses in a peculiar degree the valuable property of
instantly uniting, it greatly facilitates the construction of arches
and domes. The inhabitants of Minorca are indebted to the
Cement of the Arabs for the use of a similar cement, called guish 2 which sets
guish. so quickly, that groined arches of cut stone are formed by it
without centring ; poles being used to support the work till the
cement is quite hard.3
Chunam of On the exposed sides of the bricks once forming the exterior
Babylon and of ^ -g-^ ^ ^ remajns Qf ^ nang.[ng gardenSj fae tuir(J
and finest description of cement is found ; it covers them like a
thin coating of modern stucco, and it is now as hard and
perfect as it was the day it was put on : borak appears to have
formed the substance of this kind of plaster. In its natural
state it is found in large craggy lumps resembling gypsum, of
an earthy appearance externally ; but, being burnt, it forms an
excellent stucco or whitewash.4
The beautiful stucco still used in Babylonia and Persia differs
1 Rich's Babylon and Persepolis, p. 102.
2 A greyish gypsum, partly transparent, is ground, and water added,
when it ferments ; and in this state it is thinly spread between the Stones.
8 MS. note by Mr. Colin Mackenzie.
1 Rich's Babylon and Persepolis, p. 102.

CHAP. XIX.] CEMENTS OF PERSIA AND AFRICA. 627
but little from the well-known chunam of India, the use of ingredients
which was probably carried thither at an early period from the preparing
former regions. This is prepared by mixing 20 lbs. of molasses chunam-
with one peck of gramm, in the state of meal or coarse powder,
and a similar quantity of myrabolans (Indian plums), boiled
separately to a jelly ; slaked lime and fine pit-sand, well com
bined together, and allowed to stand three days, are then added
to the mixture, in such quantities that the whole may form a
very liquid cement. This, when applied in thin layers between,
or outside of, the bricks, is admirably suited for tanks, reser
voirs,1 &c. When required for stucco, the white of four or five
eggs, 4 ozs. of butter, or sessamum oil, and a pint of butter
milk, are to be mixed with every half bushel of cement at the
very moment when it is to be applied. But the tanks, cisterns,
baths, and the lower parts of walls in Babylonia, are coated
with cement formed of a calcareous earth called noora,2 mixed Cement called
with ashes.
The cement used by the Persians to line water-tanks and
cisterns, or to coat water-ways, is no less durable. The pro
portions are, one part of red earth, which is highly charged with
mineral particles or poor ore, two of well-slaked lime, and one
of fine sand : these being well worked up, and made into a heap, Cement used
hardens in the space of about eight hours, after which it is cut Persians to
down and worked up again with water, morning and evening, lme tauks' &c-
for seven days, when it is fit for use. When used as a lining,
it must be shaded and carefully watched for forty-eight hours
to detect and fill up any cracks that may appear in the work.3
According to Tabiri, the cement used by Shapiir in construct
ing the Shadarwan at Shuster, was a mixture of sheep's milk,
with lime and white plaster (nawreh and gatch).
The Moors have another mixture called jabbah, which is Cement of the
composed of two parts of ashes, three of clay, and one of sand jabban?a e
or pounded bricks. These being mixed together with a pro
portion of oil, and applied either as a coating or a cement, will
resist the weather better than marble itself, as we find exempli-
1 This cement has been used by the Author with perfect success for a tank.
2 Rich's Babylonia and Persepolis, p. 102.
3 Note by the late Colonel D'Arcy, K.L.S.
2 S2

628

HIMYARITIC INSCRIPTIONS, ETC.

[chap. XIX.

Antiquity of
writtencharacters.

Assyrian
writing on
ancient
cylinders,

probably '
astronomical.

Other ancient
characters.

fied in the tanks constructed by the Moors under the castle of
Gibraltar, as well as in other parts of Spain, during their domi
nion over that kingdom.
That the use of some kind of written character is of the
highest antiquity, may be inferred from the sculptured columns
and pillars of stone said to have been erected by Osiris, Bacchus,
Sesostris, and Hercules, to commemorate their respective ex
peditions ; and likewise from the history and theology of the
first ages, which are said to have been written by Thoth, or
Hermes, on tables and pillars. Some of the inscriptions may
have been both hieroglyphical, and in letters, like the bilingual
inscription on the black stone at Siis, and the mutilated inscrip
tion on a marble block at the same place. But more ancient
relics than these are found in the same region, and also, though
less frequently, in Phoenicia and Egypt. These are cylindrical
masses of haematite, cornelian, opal, jasper, agate, and other
precious stones. Their size varies from three-eighths of an
inch to three-fourths of an inch in diameter, and from five-
eighths of an inch to two inches in length; they are bored
through the axis longitudinally, and much of the surface is
covered with arrow-headed characters, apparently in connexion
with the mythological and astronomical, or rather astrological
figures, which occupy the remainder of the space. One of these
relics appears to have been a sacerdotal signet which had been
employed to impress and sanctify the victims that were offered
to Mazal-tob, literally King of Stars, who, according to the
Chaldeans, once in nearly 144 years, was the sovereign of the
winter solstice. The figure is the Taurine Jupiter, and above
it is engraved the crescent moon, the Chaldean sign of Feasts,
which is here in the situla of Aquarius ; in which Jupiter is
posited once in every twelve of his revolutions (about 144 years),
and where he remains about a month. But since the time
when the colure of the winter solstice was in the constellation
Aquarius, it has retroceded through somewhat more than two
asterisms ; the sign was therefore engraven at least forty-two
centuries ago.1
Among the specimens of ancient characters belonging to Iran
1 Note by Mr. Landseer, author of the Sabean Researches, &c.

CHAP. XIX. ] BRICK FIRMANS 629
and Arabia, are the unknown inscriptions on the rocks in the
Wadis El Naszeb, Aleyat, and Mokatteb.1 Himyaritic speci- The earliest
mens of the latter, probably the oldest extant, have lately been proSyThe
found on the rocks of Kumurhan, near Malatiyah ;2 and others 9imyantic-
had been previously discovered in Arabia by Seetzen, Reinaud,
Wellsted, and Pritchard. The Chaidee, the Syriac, the
Hebrew, and the Phoenician characters have some resemblance
in form to these ; and when the specimens shall be fully deci
phered, it will probably be found that the languages, not only
of those nations, but also that of the people using the cuneiform
character, are derivatives from this earlier stock.
Numerous specimens of the cuneiform character, which may Probable
be the Assyrian character of Pliny,3 are found in the ruins of written
Susa, Persepolis, Hamadan, and many other places, where they hlstory-
are engraven on stone ; but a richer field is offered on the
stamped bricks found amidst different ruins, and particularly
those at Babylon, where they are much more numerous than
elsewhere. Exclusive of the space left as a margin, and the
figures of lions and other animals which are occasionally intro
duced, a face of each brick presents a written page of 12 or
13 inches square; and so exactly do the same letters resemble
one another, that, when repeated, slight flaws or blemishes,
when they exist, are found on all ; from which circumstance it Supposed use
has been supposed 4 that the Babylonians made use of a move- types°ata
able type to stamp the bricks whilst they were soft. Babylon.
This kind of printing, however, is not confined to the larger Barrel-shaped
type on the bricks, for a still more interesting specimen is baked day,
occasionally found in these regions. This is a barrel-shaped
cylinder, of baked clay, 4i inches long by 2i inches diameter
in the centre, and I5 inch diameter at each extremity, having
nearly the whole surface covered with small arrow-headed
characters. The Arabs call it a firman, and, according to local
tradition, it was baked, in order that the intended edict might
not be changed. Signets of stone and metal are very numerous,
1 Burckhardt's Travels in Syria, pp. 479, 613, 620.
2 By Captain Muhlback of the Prussian Engineers.
8 Lib. VII., cap. Ivi.
' By Mr. Morison, author of the Religious History of Man,

630 ENGRAVING AND WRITING IN THE EAST. [CHAP. XIX.
and the bold style in which they, as well as the other written
characters which are found in this region, more particularly at
Persepolis and Bisutun, are executed, is well known. The
figures and writing engraven upon the cylinders found amongst
the ruins of Babylon, as well as the testimony of Herodotus,1
demonstrate that engraving upon metal and stone must have
been well understood previously to the destruction of that city.
Use of The employment of hieroglyphics was anciently very general
intheILt]CS in the East ;2 and they are supposed, in many cases, to consti
tute astronomical records.3
Public documents were inscribed or written on various mate
rials, besides bricks and stones, as on tablets of wood, copper,
or ivory, rolls of papyrus, the bark of trees," linen,5 and dyed
skins.6
Sculpture of Of the sculptures of the ancients there are numerous speci
mens in high relief, belonging to a remote period, at the above-
mentioned ruins, in the rocks at the Nahr el Kelb,7 in Lycia,8
and in many other places. The block at Siis, with the figures
of a man and two lions, shows that sculpture was anciently

the ancients.

1 Lib. I., cap. cxcv.
2 It prevailed in Babylonia, Egypt, India, and Armenia. See Antiqui
ties, by John Delafield, p. 97. Cincinnati, 1839.
3 In the time of Epigenes, Pliny, lib. VII., cap. Ivi. ; the records em
braced a period of 720 years. See also Cicero, De Divin.
' Quint. Curt., lib. VIII., cap. ix.
5 As in Colchis, Herod., lib. IL, cap. cv., and Egypt, Ezekiel, chap.
XXVII., v. 7. V
6 Exodus, chap. XXV., v. 5 ; also chaps. XXVL, XXXV., XXXVI
and XXXIX.
7 Vol. I., chap, xix., p. 466.
8 Discoveries in Lycia, by Sir Charles Fellows, pp. 428, 430. Second
excursion.

CHAP. XIX.] OBELISKS AND STATUES IN ASSYRIA AND BABYLON. 631
practised with success; probably the earliest specimen is that
at Babylon, which, notwithstanding the very mutilated condition
of the figures, on a careful examination appear to be an elephant
crushing a man beneath his ponderous weight. A portion of
the back may be distinguished; but the space cut out of the
back for the howdar leaves no doubt that an elephant was
represented. The great weight of this mass of granite, as well
as of some other specimens, prevented their removal.1
We are told that a colossal obelisk was transported from statues, &c,
Armenia, and erected by Semiramis at Babylon ; also that she
adorned one of the palaces with animals in relief, and the other
with golden statues of Jupiter, or Belus, of Ninus, of herself, and
her principal officers.2 At a later period another statue in gold, of
great dimensions, was erected on the plains of Dura,3 probably
to the Babylonian deity Ba'al ; and this, or some other like it,
existed as late as the time of Herodotus.4
The arts of statuary and sculpture must, therefore, have been Use of statuary
known in Babylonia in the eighth century b. c In Assyria, at m a y °°'
Bisutun and Persepolis, they were practised probably in the
sixth century b. c. ; and the art of painting is quite as ancient.
It is stated that Semiramis ornamented the celebrated bridge of
Babylon with painted figures of animals; and on the wall of
the Kasr there was a hunting- piece, the principal figure of which
represented the queen herself on horseback piercing a tiger with
a dart.6 Thousands of fragments scattered about this part of the ruins,
and displaying colours still vividly bright, like those of Egypt,
make it probable that the city was thus ornamented ; more par- Figures repre-
ticularly the Kasr and hanging gardens, where, up to 1836, hanlof'the6
portions of the finest stucco, with colours still perfectly fresh, %***¦
indicated that there was some kind of representation on the ex
terior of the walls.
1 Some black stones with inscriptions, one of them a species of jasper, was
sent to the British Museum by Sir Harford Jones Brydges.
2 Diod. Sic, lib. IL, cap. viii. and ix.
3 Daniel, chap. III., v. 1.
* Lib. I., cap. clxxxiii.
5 Diod. Sic, lib. IL, cap. viii.

632 MANUFACTURES OF THE EAST. ' [CHAP. XIX.
The fine shawls and carpets of Persia and Asia Minor have
already been noticed,1 as well as the superior steel manufactures
of Khorasan and Damascus ; the mixed stuffs made at Aleppo
and Damascus of silk and cotton ; and the preparation of
coloured leather, in the art of which the Arabs, particularly
those of Barbary, are unrivalled.2
1 Vol. L, pp. 334, 363.
B Since the preceding pages were written, the diligent researches of
Europeans have been repaid by the most important discoveries. Under
the pyramid, in the hollow of which, according to Xenophon (Lib. III., cap.
iv.J, the Assyrians took refuge, suites of apartments have been recently dis
covered in a ruin beneath the remains of another structure. Nimrud, it is now
well known, has furnished specimens of the arts belonging to the early period
of the Assyrian dynasty, and showing a more advanced state than that of the
arts in Egypt. It is unnecessary to remind the reader that Layard's Nineveh
shows that the Assyrians were acquainted with the use of ivory, also of iron
and of other metals. They had, besides, a knowledge of the pulley and lever,
of fortifications, chariots, horses, ships, &c, and even of the arch. Of all
these, nothing was copied from Greece ; nor were they taken from Egypt,
since the remains are very superior to those discovered in the latter country.
Assyria may consequently now recover her place in the history of the world.

( 633 )

CHAPTEK XX.
BOATS AND HYDRAULIC WORKS OF THE EAST.
Logs, Eafts, and inflated Skins. — Boats of Branches and Wicker-work,
covered with Bitumen. — The Boats of Hit, and their Construction. —
Dimensions, &c. of Noah's Ark. — Round Boats of Mesopotamia. — Canoes
of Reeds and of Timber. — "Wooden Boats of Hit and A'nah. — Ferry
boats, and mode of using them. — Sea-going Boats. — Persian and Arab
Boats.- — Trankeys and Bagalas. — Early use of the Compass. — Chinese
Vessels and Boats. — Subaqueous Walls. — Water-baskets. — Water-levers.
¦ — Bullock-rollers. — Water-wheels. — Persian Wheels. — Kanats or Kah-
reezes. — Souterazi. — Cisterns. — Reservoirs, Tanks, and Cisterns in Syria,
India, &c,
In western Asia are found specimens of every kind of means of Various means
transport which has at any time been used for navigating rivers u^edTn^*'011
or the sea, from the tree on which Usous is supposed first to Western Asia-
have floated,1 to a complete ship. The use of a simple log is
very common among the people on the Upper Euphrates, by Logs and Rafts
whom not only single trees, but also rafts of timber, are fre- Euphrates.^
quently floated to their places of destination.
Another mode of navigating the rivers is by a better descrip
tion of raft ; this is prepared of any required size, by lashing a
number of hurdles together ; and such means of transport are
in use along the Euphrates and Tigris, but more frequently on
the latter river.
But in certain places where they abound, reeds are substi- Rafts made of
tuted for timber ; and of these a flying bridge is prepared, [nflateTskins.
in the course of a few minutes, suitable for transporting indi
viduals and their baggage across a river, the animals swimming
by the side of the raft.2 The usual method of passing rivers is
however, by means of inflated skins of sheep and goats, on
which the Arabs, male and female, fearlessly cross, or descend
to a considerable distance along the great streams of Mesopo-
1 Ancient Fragments, by I. P. Cory, Esq. W. Pickering, London, 1832.
s Plate IV.

634 CROSSING AND DESCENDING RIVERS. [CHAP. XX.
tamia, for agricultural and other purposes, taking everything
they possess ; even bowls of milk are carried in this way.1
The shepherds In a pastoral country like Mesopotamia, the great object of
flocfe cross feeding their flocks makes it almost a daily occurrence with the
dauriver inhabitants to cause the buffaloes and other animals to cross
from one bank of the river to the other in the morning, return
ing in the afternoon in the same manner. This operation is
generally accomplished without any other precaution than that
of the shepherd accompanying the animals on an inflated skin,
carrying his clothes, and a small supply of bread, upon his
head.
Passage of Two inflated goat-skins, attached to one another by means of
means of two a couple of hoops, form the next step in navigating these rivers :
inflated skms. ^s custom prevails also in central Asia, with this difference,
that larger skins, such as those of oxen, asses, or horses, are
substituted for those of the goat or the sheep ; and with these,
says Wendover, they pass rivers and other waters without loss.2
Small rafts are Four such skins being attached by means of withes of willow,
fo™inflated or tamarisk, there is placed over them a kind of platform, con-
skins, sisting of branches in layers, at right angles to one another, and
reaching from side to side. This constitutes the smallest kind
of kellek, on one of which may be seen an Arab family moving
with the stream from one pasture ground to another, carrying
its bags of corn and other effects. This kind of raft is exceed
ingly convenient, since the materials of which it is composed
are easily landed and carried to any part of the country.
Construction For commercial purposes, or when proceeding to a greater
arger ra . (jjs|;ance f-nan ^a^ wnicn is required in changing pasture ground,
a larger construction of this kind is substituted, which, like the
preceding, is extremely simple. A rectangular, or more gene
rally a square platform, having a sort of well or inlet at one
extremity, is first constructed, by means of successive layers of
branches, crossing at right angles, till the whole has become
sufficiently stable, which is usually the case when the flooring is
eighteen inches or two feet deep. On this platform there is a
1 Plate LXXXVIII.
'Voyage of Wendover, an. 1239. Vol. III. of Purchas' Pilgrims,
p. 62 ; also Candish's Voyage, ibid., p. 61.

CHAP. XX. J DIFFERENT KINDS OF RAFTS. 635
fire-place or hearth, within a little enclosure of damp clay, to Fire-place,
prevent accidents. Bough planks are then laid over the rest of The rafts.0'
of the space, which is occupied by the boatmen and merchandise ;
the necessary buoyancy being obtained by attaching in parallel
rows a number of inflated goat or sheep skins to the bottom of
the platform. These skins are refilled with air, from time to
time, by means of a reed pipe ; an operation which can be per
formed at pleasure, since most of the skins can be reached at
the sides, and by means of the inlet alluded to, which is left in
the body of the raft for this purpose, as was the case in the raft
used by the author.
The ordinary kellek, or raft, is from sixteen to eighteen feet Dimensions,
long by fourteen or sixteen broad, and is supported by about rafts for the
thirty-two or thirty-four skins -,1 but the larger ones are thirty or g00ds.
even forty feet in length, and have at least fifty skins, and some
are so large as to require three hundred skins. The latter are
used chiefly to carry merchandise from Mosul to Baghdad, and,
as already observed, tbe river has in consequence been called the
cheap camelier.2
The rafts are generally kept mid-stream during the voyage, The rafts are
by means of two rude oars, made of the rough branches of trees, tn*° completion
a palm branch fan at the end of each, forming the blade. of the voyage.
When the cargo has reached its destination, the materials
composing the raft are sold for fire-wood, and the skins are
taken back by land, for future use. Doubtless this was the
kind of raft used by the Gerrhaeans, who transported the chief Rafts of the
part of their articles of commerce, including some of the and
spices of Arabia, from their capital, by means of rafts, into a y omans-
Babylonia,3 and onward to Thapsacus, to be carried from
thence to other places by land. Kafts were also used for com
mercial transport from Armenia to Babylon, the skeleton being
of wood, which was usually overlaid with reeds, and the bottom
covered with skins.
In one part of the territory a similar raft is used to this day Rafts in
by the merchants and cultivators when conveying their fruit, jeiiaiabad to
&c, from Jeiiaiabad to Peshawur and Attock. When this Peshawur.
1 Plate LII. 2 Vol. I., p. 32. 3 Strabo, lib. XVI.

636 RAFT OF NADIR SHAH. [CHAP. XX.
voyage is accomplished, the raft is taken out of the water, and
the wind having been allowed to escape from the skins, the
latter are conveyed back by their owners to the place from
whence they started.1
Used also in The Kabul river was lately crossed on a small raft made of
Kabufriver. inflated buffalo-skins, which were attached to one another by
means of a few cross sticks. The passage took place at a rapid
occurring in a rocky place between Dukha and Muckem;2
skins are well adapted for overcoming the difficulties of such
situations, as they yield, particularly when wet, should the raft
happen to encounter a rock.
Rafts used for Pietro della Valle speaks of rafts transporting goods to the
™drcm?HtaVy value of 100,000 dollars ; and that which carried Tavernier had
purposes. merchandise of 33,000 pounds, Paris weight, in addition to
thirty persons, with the necessary accommodation. It is usual
to construct on the raft a kind of shed, for the convenience of
passengers. From Xenophon's history it appears that the Greeks crossed
the Euphrates opposite Carmandse, on rafts made with the
skins of their tents, stuffed with rushes and tightly sewn
together ; 3 and a part of Jovian 's army crossed the Tigris on a
raft made of the inflated skins of sheep, oxen, and goats, covered
with a floor of earth and fascines.4 At a later period5 the
troops of Nadir Shah crossed the latter river by means of a
very large raft, on which 2,500 men were transported the first
day and 15,000 on the second, after which the raft fell to
pieces. This float was formed by large beams of palm-tree
wood, fastened together with cables, and rendered more buoyant
by having a number of camels' skins tied to it, these being
sewed up and filled with air.6
Boats built on A remarkable kind of boat is constructed at Tekrit and
and Euphrates. m tne marshes of Lamliim, but more commonly near the
bituminous fountains of Hit. At these places the operation
of boat-building is an every-day occurrence, and extremely
simple. The self-taught shipwrights have not, it is true,
1 Captain Stirling's Pamphlet on this part of Asia. * Ibid.
3 Anabasis, lib. I., cap. v. 4 See above, p. 441.
" February 8, 1733. c Sir W. Jones's Life of Nadir Shah, p. 48.

CHAP. XX.] THE HIT BOAT. 637
the advantage of docks, basins, or even slips; yet they can
construct a vessel in a very short time, and without employing
any other tools than a few axes and saws, with the addition of
a large metallic ladle to pour out the melted pitch, and a wooden
roller to assist in smoothing it. The first step in this primitive
mode of ship-building is to choose a level piece of ground of
suitable size, and sufficiently near the edge of the water ; on Method of
this the builders trace out the size of the vessel's bottom, not strUction.
with mathematical precision, it is true, still a line is used, and
a certain system followed, the floor or bottom of the boat being
the first object. In the space marked out a number of rough
branches are placed in parallel lines, at about a foot distance ;
other branches are placed across them at similar distances, and
interlaced. These, with the addition of a sort of basket-work
of reeds and straw, to fill up the interstices, form a kind of
rough platform, across which, to give the necessary stability,
stronger branches are laid transversely from side to side, at dis
tances of about eight or twelve inches. The bottom being in
this state, the work proceeds to its second stage, by building up
the sides. This is done by driving through the edge of the
former, upright posts, about a foot apart, of the requisite
height ; these are filled up in the same way, and the whole is,
as it were, consolidated by means of rough pieces of timber,
which are placed at intervals of about four feet from gunwale
to gunwale. All parts are then coated with hot bitumen, which Completed by
is melted in a hole close to the work, and reduced to a proper bitumen. °
consistency by a mixture of sand or earth. This bituminous
cement being spread over the frame-work, the application of a
wooden roller gives the whole a smooth surface, both within and
without, which after a brief space becomes not only quite hard
and durable, but impervious to water, and well suited for navi
gation. The usual shape of the boats thus constructed is Dimensions
much like that of a coffin, the broadest end representing the Hlt boat?
bow ; but others are of a neater shape. Such a boat, 44 feet
long, 1 1 feet 6 inches broad, and 4 feet deep, drawing 1 foot
10 inches of water when laden, and only 6 inches when empty,
can be constructed at Hit in the course of one day.1
1 See vol. I., p. 54.

638 CONSTRUCTION OF THE ARK. [CHAP. XX.
This kind of boat is generally used to carry bitumen, salt,
and lime to Hillah, Basrah, and even to Baghdad, sometimes
through the Saklawiyah, but more generally the Ha'i canal.
When arrived at her destination she is broken 'up, and the
bitumen with which she was coated is sold, as well as the
cargo.
Supposed It was probably in this manner that Noah constructed the ark.
of Noah's ark. Of the details we know little, beyond the fact that this floating
habitation was constructed of " Gopher wood, covered within and
without with pitch." The kind of wood used by the patriarch
Various trees is uncertain, but of the various trees which have been named,
represent the either the pine, the cedar, or the cypress seems to have the
Genesis °f ^es* da™ to be considered as the representative ofthe Gopher
wood of Genesis. All these are found in the regions adjoining
Babylonia, in which they may be said to be indigenous, espe
cially the last, the Cupressus sempervirens, whose compactness
and durability make it most probable that it furnished one of
the two materials1 of which the antediluvian vessel was con
structed. Mineral pitch (chemer) was the other substance,
and was better adapted than almost anything else to exclude
water, vessel worms, and to prevent decay.
Miihammedan Scaliger, following Eusebius, states that Noah's three sons were
respecting born beyond the Euphrates,2 probably on the high ground near
j " "i" Sinjar, in which neighbourhood the cypress tree and bituminous
fountains still exist, the former in the Hamrin mountains and
the latter near Kerkiik. This might correspond with the
Muhammedan tradition that Noah was reviled for his useless
labour in preparing a huge vessel in a place where it could
not, by any apparent possibility, be floated.3 He was, they add,
engaged on this work for two years after he returned from
warning Zohak, the king of Persia, of the approaching flood.
Dimensions The ark, as we are all aware, was three hundred cubits in
ofthe ark. length, fifty cubits in breadth, and thirty cubits in height,
finished in a cubit, or sloping roof. These dimensions, pre
suming the smallest cubit to have been in use, would give
450 feet for the length, 75 feet for the breadth, and 45 feet for
1 See above, p. 5, and Gen., chap. VI., v. 14.
2 Cumberland's Sanchoniatho, p. 174. B See above, p. 6.

CHAP. XX.] DIMENSIONS AND CAPACITY OF THE ARK. 639
the depth of this enormous structure, whose burthen, making
an allowance for the cross-beams with which it was braced1 and
the supports, would be upwards of 40,000 tons. From the
description just given of the Hit boats, it will be seen that there
is not anything to prevent the people of that town, or of the
neighbouring country, from constructing such a vessel,2 a larger
scantling only being necessary for the frame-work. The lower its compart-
story being intended for quadrupeds, must necessarily have been ™e^ ^ts
divided into compartments; and these divisions, as a matter ofconstructioD-
course, would support the second floor, which was appropriated
for the people, whose apartments, again, supported the upper
story, or that allotted for the birds.3 As this arrangement
required three floors and a roof, the divisions and the necessary
supports would have given sufficient stability to the whole
structure ; therefore the objections raised on account of the sup
posed difficulty of the work, may be considered as obviated,
more particularly as the ark was destined to remain and be
floated on the same spot ; for we are told that " the waters
increased, and bare up the ark, and it was lift up above tbe earth."4
Bound boats, similar to those of the ancients, still float on The round
the rivers Euphrates and Tigris. Herodotus describes them nTrodouis.
as being round, like a shield, without any distinction of stem
or stern ; formed of willow, lined within with straw or rushes,
and covered without with leather.
They were of various sizes, and some were even capable of Description
carrying a cargo of the weight of 5,000 talents, which, if the &e cargo °
greater Attic talent be meant, would be about 164$ tons, and^jj?£d_ ey
if the lesser, 127 i tons. They were managed by two men
standing up, one of whom propelled an oar, whilst the other
drew one back. The smallest-sized boat had an ass on board,
and the largest several ; these animals were used to carry back
to Armenia the skins with which the boats were covered, all
the other materials having been sold at Babylon. The ordi-
1 See above, p. 6.
2 run. The beth is used, Gen., chap. VI., v. 14 ; and repeated, in speaking
of the ark in which the infant Moses was saved, Exodus, chap. IL, v. 3.
3 Muhammed Tabari, pp. 101, 102.
4 Gen., chap. VII., v. 17.

640 THE KUFAH, OR BASKET-BOAT. [CHAP. XX.
nary freight carried from Armenia and other countries on the
route from thence to Babylon, was palm-wine, in earthen jars.1
Use of the The kiifah, or basket-boat, is used on the Tigris and the
Lower Euphrates; but they are in greater number and in
more general use at Baghdad than at Hillah, or elsewhere.
They are constructed of osiers, plaited together, precisely like
baskets, over a circular frame of stout materials. The section
shows a gentle curve at the bottom, with a deeper one above,
forming the side.2 In some instances, though but rarely in the
present day, the basket-work is covered with leather, which is
stretched over it after being soaked, and whilst still in a wet
The boats are state, so that, when dry, the vessel becomes water-tight. But
^tMeatn'erer the common method is to cover the bottom with bitumen,
or bitumen. which, being smooth as well as hard, effectually excludes the
water, and is more easily and cheaply procured.
Dimensions of The smallest-sized kiifah is about 3 feet 8 inches in diameter,
basket-boat, and about 2 feet 6 inches deep. This vessel is managed by
one man, who uses a large-bladed paddle alternately on each
side. There are other kiifahs, however, varying in size up to
10 feet diameter, with a depth of 3 to 3 1 feet; but some are
15 feet from gunwale to gunwale, and are capable of carrying
a camel, with several passengers in addition; none of the
existing kiifahs, however, would carry such a cargo as that
mentioned by Herodotus.
Advantages of A boat of this shape is more easily built than any other
round boats. . . * J J
vessel, and is scarcely more difficult to construct than a raft.
It possesses a decided advantage over all other vessels Avhen
crossing a rapid current, for, owing to its circular shape, there
is less injury sustained when a collision takes place ; there is,
however, a proportionate disadvantage when going against the
current. These boats in .descending the river have a bundle of
hurdles attached, which float in advance, and a stone of the
weight of two talents drags along the bottom to guide them.
In these remarkable vessels may possibly be recognized the
swift messengers of Isaiah,3 the vessels of bulrushes coming
1 Herod,, lib. I., cap. cxciv.
2 See vol. I., p. 57 ; also Plates LX. and LXII.
3 Chap. XVIII., v. 1 and 2.

CHAP. XX.] COMMON USE OF BASKET BOATS. 641
from beyond the rivers of Ethiopia ; also that of the Nile in the
time of the Israelites.1 .,
As boats of a similar construction bore in Egypt, as in Circular boats
Babylonia, the name of baris, it may be concluded that countries.
the manner of constructing them was carried thither from
the latter region, as well as many other works of art. But
this particular kind of boat is not confined to those countries,
for it is in use, in the present day, as far eastward as the Indian
rivers, and we distinctly recognize these curious vessels in the
coth, or corrach, of Ireland,2 the coracle of Wales,3 and the
light boat of the Anglo-Saxons:4 the latter was probably Boats of the
brought originally from the shores of Pontus and the Caspian
Sea. These vessels were covered with skins sewed together,
and so lightly framed that no coast was too shallow, no river
too small for them. They dared to ascend the streams for
eighty or a hundred miles, and, if danger pressed, their owners
carried them on their shoulders from one river to another, and
thus escaped with facility from a superior foe.5
It is remarkable that boats of this particular construction are Those of the
in use over the greater portion of the known world ; they exist fns£E™ p"fan8t
even among the Esquimaux, who cover them with seal and
fish6 skins. An ancient author7 states that the green willow
was woven into a little boat, which served the Yeneti to cross
the river Po, and the Britons the ocean. In like manner,
a boat is made of the papyrus-leaf, in order to pass the Nile
during the inundations of that river : the leaf is formed into
wicker-work, which in this and almost every other instance
serves as the frame-work, and is afterwards covered with skins
in a raw state.
Floats of hides are particularly mentioned during Alexander's
1 The ark daubed with slime and with pitch, Exod., chap. IL, v. 3.
2 Col. Valiancy's Vindication of the Ancient History of Ireland. Intro
duction, p. 27.
3 Eev. J. Evans, Hist, and Antiquity of N. Wales, p. 278.
4 Sharon Turner's Hist, of the Anglo Saxons, vol. I., p. 74.
h Ibid., pp. 74 and 78.
6 Travels of Nicolo Zeno, Purchas' Pilgrims, vol. III., p. 610; and
Martin Forbisher's Discoveries, Purchas' Pilgrims, vol. V., p. 811.
7 Lucan, lib. IV., v. 130.
VOL. II. ^ T

642 CANOES OF THE LAMLUM MARSHES. [CHAP. XX.
Round boats expedition,1 and the round boat is still used in India. In the
S?Iused Duke of Wellington's Despatches there is an Order, addressed
to Colonel Munroe, to prepare some of them for the Malpoorba
river, in India.8 Another general might have been satisfied to
trust, as usual, to a single covering for the boats ; but that great
commander, with a degree of forethought peculiar to himself,
desires a second leathern cover should be provided.3
The canoe of To the round construction no doubt succeeded that of a
inarehes!11111 larger and swifter kind of vessel, such as those used in the
Lamliim marshes. These are chiefly of reeds, small, low, and
long, like canoes, with the exception of being covered with
bitumen instead of skins. The stem and stern of the boat
being alike, she moves either way with equal facility, and *is
propelled either by one man sitting towards the stern, or, in
the case of the larger canoes, by one at each extremity, facing
the direction in which the boat is proceeding, and using their
paddles on opposite sides, by which means a degree of speed is
obtained scarcely exceeded by that of the swiftest Esquimaux
canoe.
Size of canoes, The beautiful boat in question is confined chiefly to the
and'Moham- Khezail and Kualem, two tribes of Shf'ahs, known to have
merah. come originally from the heart of Persia. This bark is occa
sionally met below the marshes, but at Kurnah, Basrah, and
Mohammerah it is replaced by one of a more substantial con
struction, in the management of which the people of the country
are exceeding expert. These canoes are formed out of a single
1 Arrian, cap. XX.
s Despatches by Col. Gurwood, vol. I., p. 136.
. „ _, ,_ " Camp at Hattiary, 50 miles from Meritch,
8 " Mt dear Munroe, April 8, 1803.
" As it is possible that the service on which I am employed may last
after the rivers will fill, it is necessary that I should make arrangements for
having boats upon all of them ; I have accordingly written to Purneah and
to Mr. Read, to have some prepared in Mysore, and in Soondah ; and I must
request you to have twenty basket boats made in the ceded districts. They
should be the size of 10 feet diameter and 3 feet deep ; and I wish that
they may be covered with double leather. The leather ought to be sewed
with thongs, and of such a size as to cover the gunwales of the boats all
round. I intend that your boats should be on the Malpoorba.
" To Lieut.-Col. Munroe."

CHAP. XX.] CANOES OF BASRAH, AND BOATS OF VnAH. 643
tree, which is commonly of beech, brought from the Indian
Archipelago. The usual dimensions are from 18 to 25 feet
long by 18 or 22 inches deep, and from 2 feet to 2^ feet broad
nearly in the whole length.
This boat is generally managed by one man, sitting as far aft Method by
and as low as possible, using his paddle alternately on each side; propeiiedT "*
but, as in those of Lamliim, a second individual is sometimes
placed at the bow, also using a short paddle, in the manner
already described. A light neat awning of striped cotton
covers these canoes, and shades the boatmen as well as the
sitters. This is suspended by means of two little spreaders at the
extremities, and a moveable curtain is added, which is placed
on the sunny side. The canoe will accommodate four or even
five persons, without inconvenience, and if they continue steadily
in a sitting posture, she will prove to be both swift and safe,
but, owing to the round and narrow bottom, a very slight
movement is sufficient to upset her.
Between Hit and 'A'nah, as well as to some distance above The wooden
the latter town, there is used a roughly-built wooden bark, anf'A'wh.
without a mast, which is tracked upward by hand, and returns
with the current. These boats are flat-bottomed, and, like
those of Hit, partly wall-sided, but sharp at the extremities,
where they rise abruptly several feet higher than amidships;
those portions only are decked. By this arrangement the track
line is sufficiently high to pass brush-wood and other ordinary
obstacles, whilst more command is given to the helmsman, who
stands on the platform at the other extremity, steering by means
of a very long crooked pole, which terminates with a fan or
blade, to increase its power.1 These boats are carvel-built, of Their descrip-
roughly-sawn planks of the beech and other trees growing in
that part of the country, and being very liable to leak, a coating
of bitumen is sometimes added, to make them water-tight.
They are principally of two sizes, the larger of which is rather
more than 40 feet long by 14 feet beam, and the smaller 33 feet
long, 13 feet 2 inches broad, and 3 feet 6 inches deep amid
ships. They are chiefly used in transporting bulky articles
upwards, such as wool, grain, onions, cotton, sheep, lime, &c,
1 See Plate LVII.
2t2

644 ferry-boats at aras and bir. [chap. xx.
their return cargoes being timber, or brushwood and charcoal,
for fuel.
Ferry-boat of Besides the round boat, which is so admirably suited for the
Aras™* purpose, another construction, varying according to local cir
cumstances, serves for the passage of rivers. The ferry-boat of
the river Aras is a mere box open at one end, and rudely con
structed. It is about 22 feet long, by 13£ feet broad, and 3
feet deep. A platform, consisting of rough pieces of timber,
extending the whole length, and strongly planked across, forms
the bottom of the boat, on which the three sides are raised, by
means of uprights, planked in the same way.1 The boat is
poled across the stream, except when the water is too deep,
when oars are used.
The passage- Those used at Bir for the passage of the caravans are of the
boats of Bir. game rougQ DUj^ as fae former, but they are wider and rather
shorter, with an open stern, having a moveable platform
attached, which enables the camels and horses to walk on
board with ease. These boats will transport six of the former
or eight of the latter animals. Their usual dimensions are
from 35 to 40 feet long, and from 12 to 14 feet broad at the
stern, which breadth continues almost to the bow. The latter
portion approaches the shape of a wedge, and is covered with
an elevated platform, or forecastle, about 5 feet in length, on ,
Method of which the naqiidah, or helmsman, stands.2 This man makes a
6™e™¥i4 dextrous use of a long curved pole, having a blade or fan at its
them. extremity, which is so placed as to form a lever against the
stream ; the current does the rest, for by tracking the boat up
the stream to a sufficient distance, after the camels are em
barked, a passage is insured to the proper landing-place on the
opposite side. During the freshes, however, it is not only
necessary to take these ferry-boats still higher before crossing,
but also to Use two oars, and to pull stoutly to gain the opposite
bank at all ; whereas the use of a swing cable, as in Europe,
would at once convert the boat into a flying bridge, so that one
would do at least the work of six of the sixteen which are
usually kept at Bir for this purpose.
Construction The workmanship, which is of rough planking, overlapped,
of the passage-
boats of Bir. ' See Plate II. . ! See vol. I., p. 45.

CHAP. XX.] BOATS ON THE TIGRIS AND LOWER EUPHRATES. 645
and fastened either by nails or wooden pegs, sufficiently indicates
that there has been little change, and perhaps no improvement,
for ages in the construction of these boats.
It is only below Baghdad and in the parallel portion of the Sailing-boats
Euphrates, where more speed is required, and greater com- Euphratesand
merce by sea is carried on, that there exists a form of vessel Tlgns-
which combines the advantages of sails and oars. These are of
various sizes, from five tons to nearly seventy tons burthen, and
they are all of one uniform wedge-like form, having a sharp
raking bow, much of which is out of the water, and a full and
heavy stern, with a kind of open poop, raised for the accommo
dation of the naqiidah and his crew, the rest of the space being
left for the cargo. In general, the rig is the same, consisting
of one mast, nearly amidships, leaning very much forward, and
spreading an immense latine sail, which extends from stem to Their
stern. The ordinary size of such a boat : is 90 feet long, and 20 an(i use, &c.
feet wide ; the draught of water is 7 feet 3 inches, and the
vessel carries about 70 tons.
This is the boat generally in use in the lower parts of the
rivers Euphrates, Tigris, and Kariin, as well as at the upper
parts of the Gulf of Persia, especially for bringing cargoes of
dates, in the season, down the rivers. The larger ones have,
besides the principal mast, a smaller one, with a latine sail at
the stern. Those destined for voyages to India or the coast of The Bagalas
Mekran vary from 70 to about 300 tons burthen, and occa- and AraMan11
sion ally even more. These bagalas, as they are called, are Gulfs>
rigged with two masts, carrying latine sails. This kind of craft
abounds both in the Arabian and Persian Gulfs,2 also along the
coast of Mekran, the western shores of India, and in the channel
of the Mozambique. That in use along the Persian shore is
prettily formed, having a very sharp bow, a curious rudder, and
wide-bladed oars ;3 but those of the Arabs are of a superior con- Trankeys or
struction to any other class of vessels used in the eastern seas. aeh-Ucon-and
The smaller ones are either called trankeys or batillas,4 and struction.
1 Plates XL, LXIIL, and LXVI.
2 See Plates X., XIII., XXVIII. and XLII.
" See Plates X. and XIII.
' Commander Ormsby's Paper in the Asiatic Journal, October, 1 837, p. 108.

646 EARLY USE OF THE COMPASS. [CHAP. XX.
are the more remarkable because little or no iron is used in
putting their timbers together, its place being supplied by coir-
string, and the seams payed with bees'-wax. The Arabs
first tie the planks together, and then fasten them to the ribs.
This method, in consequence of the elasticity it imparts to the
vessels, gives them, in point of sailing, some advantages over
those fastened entirely with nails ; and the superiority is very
observable in the war-boats used by the Arabs of the Persian
Gulf.1 Vessels of the above rig and build are general, not only on
the rivers of India, and throughout the regions just alluded to
with little variety, but also along the Nile, and in the Caspian,
the Euxine, and the Mediterranean Seas.
The Mediter- In some of those countries, as on the coast of Syria, may be
&c*vLe the' observed a kind of galley, apparently similar to the long ships
SiTeys. °f Sesostris; the long raking bow and the huge latine sail,
stretching from thence over the stern, having remained un
changed since the building of the pyramids ; for we find this
rig, even to the details of sails, oars, &c, depicted on the
walls of their chambers.
On the shores of Arabia the same kind of sea-going ships,
as well as river boats, are common ; the former being, at one
season, employed in the lawless trade of piracy, and during the
other in trading, as in ancient times, to India on one side, and to
the southern shores of Africa on the other. These latine-rigged
boats, probably representing the long ships of the Carthaginians
and Phoenicians, cover the greater part of the Archipelago of
Early use of India, and were actually trading with compasses, sea-charts, and
the compass ' J , -*r i • i i n
in the Indian astrolabes on board, between the Mozambique and the coast ot
India, when the Portuguese first rounded the Cape of Good
Hope in 1497; their knowledge of navigation having been
derived, it is supposed, from the Chinese, who had long applied
to such purposes the polarity of the needle.2
Early navi- The Doats and vessels of the latter nation claim a brief
gation ot the

Chinese.

1 Commander Ormsby^s Paper in the Asiatic Journal, October, 1837, p. 108.
' Humboldt's Cosmos, vol. IL, pp. 190, 256, 259, translated by Lieut.-Col.
Sabine, R.A., F.R.S., compared with Anderson's Hist, of Commerce, vol. I.,
p. 322. Dublin, 1790.

CHAP. XX.] CHINESE BOATS AND VESSELS. 647
notice here, as specimens of the craft employed by the earliest
navigators; the Chinese having, apparently, adopted fewer
changes in every respect than any other people in the world. Form ofthe
Of whatever size the boat may be, the part immersed is inva- KToats
riably spoon-shaped, and almost without a keel. The smaller ™Tariably
extremity is the bow, and at the other a powerful rudder is
placed, which can be triced up by a winch at pleasure, into a
recess left for the purpose between the parts of the double stern-
post ; but when in its place it is entirely below the body of the
boat, clear of the dead water ; and as she has scarcely any keel,
the rudder gives the principal lateral resistance when under
sail. The boats are carvel built, but the planks are connected by
nails, which being counter-sunk into one of the planks, are
drawn into the other, the seams and spaces being filled with a
mixture of oil and chunam which, when hardened, is perfectly
water-tight, and is not liable to crack.
The cabin is aft, the cook-house forward, and a capacious
water tank is placed on each side of the heel of the mainmast :
the bulk-heads of Chinese boats are all water tight. The whole
deck is formed of flying hatches, which are fitted over groved
carlines, so as not to allow any water to run below.
Ordinary oars, or peculiar sweeps of great power are em
ployed when the vessel is not using her sails. These last
present little variety, being almost invariably a kind of lug-
sails, of matting, which are admirably suited for work. In
general, there are only two masts, but, occasionally, there is a
small mizenmast; the mainmast is placed nearly amidships,
raking aft a little, and the foremast, which is small, and stepped
well forward, is nearly upright. The masts work upon a pin at
the height of the deck, and each is kept in its place by a fid at
the keel. On each mast there is a mat-sail, with several bamboo
stretchers across it, and these have spans passing round the
mast, so formed as to give the sail full play, and at the same
time prevent its flying away. The sheets are attached to the
end of each stretcher, having spars similar to bowline bridles
fitted to them, in order to keep the sail taut ; and when the
wind is abaft the beam, a sail set on each side gives the whole

648

EGG AND FISHING BOATS.

[CHAP. XX.

The egg or
harbour boat

serves as a
dwelling-
place.

Boats fishing
in pairs.

the appearance of a butterfly's wings. The sails are reefed
in the easiest manner, simply by settling the halliards and
allowing the sail to roll into its place between two. tricing
lines, one before, and the other abaft the mast. Almost every
boat serves as a dwelling, and has, therefore, a family on board
ready at all times for employment : the people are occupied in
fishing or in commercial pursuits ; and, as a matter of course,
culinary utensils and supplies of provisions form part of their
equipment. The tanka, or egg-boat, the use of which is so general in the
harbours of China, is of a wide, short, and flat construction,
having a spoon-shaped bottom, the smaller end being the bow.
She is propelled by means of an oar and scull, the former
which is placed forward, is pulled with a grummet on a thoul,
while the latter, which is aft, works upon a pivot on the
taffrail : this pivot enters a socket of hard wood, which is let
into the scull, and the extremity of the latter is hooked to a
short line attached to the deck, so as to permit it to move
from side to side, in order to give additional power to the man
or, as is more frequently the case, to the woman, who sculls ;
assisted occasionally by a mat-sail at the bow. These boats,
though only from 10 to 14 feet long, accommodate a family,
who are protected from sun and rain by a tilt-shaped sliding
cover of bamboo, which covers a part or the whole of the boat
at pleasure. The cooking-place and utensils are in the after-
part of the boat.
A light kind of wherry, from 20 to 25 feet long, having two
mat lug-sails with spreaders and numerous braces, such as has
just been described, may next be mentioned. These either row
in the ordinary manner or sail, and are not only swift but par
ticularly manageable. The passengers sit on ratan stools or
chairs on the after-part of the deck.
The fishing-boat is stronger and more heavily built, but of
the same rig. These boats go in pairs, using a net between
them. The crews possess perfect command over these boats ;
and, having the means of regulating their speed by taking in
any quantity of sail that may be necessary, they keep pace with
each other as to speed and distance so completely, that a large

CHAP. XX.] FLOWER AND WAR BOATS. 649
trawl or drift net is dragged along as evenly as if it were done Fishing on
by hand. This kind of craft varies in size from 20 to 30 tons, mXTrivers.
and the whole line of coast, from 50 to 60 miles out to sea, is
frequently thronged with them. The author, as he approached
in the "John of Gaunt," counted about 150 pairs thus
employed. Various modes are adopted by the Chinese to
entrap the finny tribe, and one may here be noticed, as it shows
the skill of that people, in combined operations, and how
suitable their boats are for the purpose.
A group of eight or ten small fishing-boats may be seen
dropping down the Canton river, having at the scull, in each,
a woman with a child slung at her back, and a man standing at
the bow. Suddenly, these boats are formed into a circle, with
the bows towards the centre, and at a preconcerted time a
casting net is simultaneously thrown out by each man at the
bow, so that the whole covers the space enclosed by the boats.
There are, besides, various descriptions of cargo boats, some Cargo and
/.i • i • • x- 1 i- ii • j • i i pleasure boats.
ot large size, having a pair ot shears resting on the sides instead
of a mast, in order that the hold may be free for chests of tea.
Streets of boats, moored in parallel rows, present as animated a
scene as the streets of a town ; and it is calculated that 60,000
people live entirely on the water in the Canton river, with
floating eating-houses, gambling-houses, Joss temples, &c.
Amongst these may be distinguished the gorgeously ornamented
flower-boat, which is fitted up with suitable accommodation for
water-parties ; and, when moving up the river, is propelled by
one large sweep, and sometimes by two such at the stern, thus
leaving the rest of the vessel free for the use of company.
The ordinary sea-going cargo-boat is of nearly the same rig as
the fishing-boat ; having two large lug-sails of matting, with a
smaller one at the stern, and having very much the appearance
of a lugger when her jib is lowered. Between the fishing-boat Appearance
and the large heavy junk there are various intermediate-sized Doat J
vessels, of a peculiar construction, some of which are used for
smuggling, and others for warlike or piratical purposes.
The war-boat, though approaching the spoon shape, is of a The war or
fine form : she is very long ; and, having a great many sweeps ^^'
on each side, with a numerous crew, she is exceedingly fast. armament.

650 ARMAMENT AND POWERS [CHAP. XX.
The armament usually consists of two guns in the stern, and a
pivot-gun in the bow, with six jinjals on each side, which are
made to load at the breach, besides a quantity of spears, swords,
shields, stink-pots, and other combustibles to throw on board an
enemy. These, appropriately named fast boats, have three
lug-sails ; but in calm weather they depend entirely upon their
sweeps for speed. Of these there are usually from 12 to 15
of each side, manned by two and frequently three men each.
Method of A plank, well secured by means of an iron hook, projects about
managing the two feet beyond the side of the vessel, in the extremity of which
the sweep works on an iron pivot placed at about one-fifth of
the length of the sweep, which is attached to the deck by a
short line. One man stands on the board to assist the other,
and, as in the case of the egg-boats, they move the sweep
backwards and forwards, so as to give to its blade an undulating
motion nearly parallel to the side of the boat. This appears to
be much more efficient than the ordinary mode of using sweeps,
which is at right angles to the vessel, and the sculling motion
of the Chinese has been adopted with advantage by some of
our sloops of war.
ships or brigs Nothing approaching to a ship or brig is to be found in
China? ™ China, where the vessels of burthen are confined to the far-
famed junks, which are of large size, and in many respects
Description of well suited for trade. As in the case of the boats, the spoon
junk?hmese sbape prevails ; but though the form of the part immersed
is calculated to produce buoyancy with as little resistance as
possible, nothing can be more unwieldy than the upper part of
these vessels, which seem to be almost a copy of the Noachian
structure, having a succession of apartments above the water
line. A huge eye, painted at each side, distinguishes the head of
the junk, which being flat above water, like the stern of an
ordinary vessel, would seem to be entirely incapable of sailing.
The stern, which is apparently still more clumsy, is distin
guished by a ponderous rudder, with a windlass attached, to
lower and trice it up. Entering at the waist or midships, a
hatchway leads from the deck into the hold, which is divided
into compartments for different kinds of cargo. In the bow

CHAP. XX.] OF THE CHINESE JUNKS. 65 1
under the forecastle there is an open apartment with small
cabins at the side. Aft, an open staircase leads into a large
cabin, above which there is another apartment under the poop,
and again another above in which the helmsman is placed ; and
either here or immediately below, there is the joss-house, con
taining gaudy idols and lights burning, with a small cabin on
each side. The length of these junks sometimes exceeds 170
feet, and the beam between 35 and 40 feet ; and occasionally size and
i tip • i n p i-/-.^v 1 mi • • armament of
they are capable ot carrying a bulk ot 500 tons. Ihe rigging these vessels.
is simple: a large mast, placed nearly amidships, a smaller
in the bows, and one still less in the stern at one quarter ; on
each there is a lug-sail made of mats, and having as usual
numerous bamboo spreaders. Some guns are placed in the
waist, others on the forecastle and quarter-deck, with a pro
portion of jinjals. The great unwieldiness of this vessel is,
however, more apparent than real, for the shape of the bottom, Facility in
the great power of the rudder, and the ease with which the sails foele unwieldy
are worked, give a degree of facility in managing the junks which Tessels-
could not be expected. The author has seen one of these
vessels in calm weather maintain her place against a fast-sailing
clipper. Between 200 and 300 of these modern arks, with a
huge wooden anchor at the bow, may be seen entering the
Foochoo-Foo and other rivers of China at the same time,
freighted with cargoes from the Straits, or from Japan, Loochoo,
&c. ; and if they are not the most suitable kind of vessel, it
must be admitted that they do the work well and cheaply
throughout the China seas and Archipelago. Their voyages
are made with precision, guided as they always have been
by needles, which in this part of the world are marked as if Use ofthe
they pointed to the south instead of the north. Bound the HoTt'of'111'1
needle there is a kind of index of time as well as space, one ^^ahle
part of which serves as a sort of chart, having those places
marked on it which would be successively passed in following a
particular line ; Pekin being the supposed point of departure.
Chain cables are occasionally met in the north of China,
where they have been in use for many centuries. The existence
of a chain bridge on the highway of Yunnan, in the province
1 Some junks carry 12,000 pekuls, or 800 tons.

652 MANAGEMENT OF WATER BY THE ANCIENTS. [CHAP. XX.
of Koeitcheou is mentioned by Duhalde, and there are three
of similar construction in the province of Su-chuan, and
another in that of Kwei-choo, and possibly many others else
where.
Management Having endeavoured to trace the gradual progress of navi-
ancTenuimes. gation amongst a primitive people, from the humble beginning
of a log or a bundle of reeds hastily tied together, through the
various gradations upwards, such as boats and canoes covered
with bitumen, to sea-going boats, and the bagalas trading to
India and China, the management of water next claims our
attention; and the existing constructions show that many im
portant circumstances concerning this branch of engineering
have been well understood for ages by the people of Meso-
Subaqueous potamia. Between 'A'nah' and Hit especially, massive suba-
hrigation. queous walls are run out from opposite sides, in such directions
that, if continued, they would overlap in the centre, where,
however, a small space is left to permit the navigation. These
walls are carefully built, some in the Cyclopian style, others
with cement ; but owing to the effects of time, they are now for
the most part mere masses of rubble masonry, impeding the free
course of the stream, and increasing its rapidity below the wall,
but seldom accomplishing the object for which, as will presently
be seen, they were intended.
As the fertility of the country depends almost entirely upon
the supply of water, the methods of irrigation vary according
to the different levels of the surface of the river.
Baskets with When the banks are but little elevated above the stream, as
in Lower Mesopotamia, a quantity of water is thrown up in a
short time by a very simple process. A basket made of date
branches, closely woven, being filled, and a man with a pair of
ropes being stationed on each side, a simultaneous motion
empties the contents of the basket into a channel, which con
veys the water inwards from the bank; a tilting jerk then
replaces the basket in the stream, when it is again filled almost
at the same moment : this operation is continued as long as
may be necessary by a rapid swinging motion alternately up
and down.
But when the bank is too high to throw up the water in this

double cords
to raise water

CHAP. XX.] THE WATER LEVER AND BULLOCK ROLLER. 653
manner, it is raised by another process equally simple. A Lever and
wooden lever, from 13 to 15 feet long, is made to revolve freely Mesopotamia"
on the top of a post 3 or 4 feet high, about two-thirds of the Egypt' &0,
length of the lever projecting over the river, with a leather
bucket, or closely-made basket of date branches, suspended from
the extremity : this is balanced, when full of water, by means
of a bucket of earth or stones at the other end, and this simple
machine is so well contrived, that very slight manual exertion
will raise the bucket sufficiently high to empty its contents into
a cistern or other kind of receptacle ; from whence it is dis
persed over the fields by means of numerous small channels.
From continual practice, an Arab is so adroit in the use of the
machine, that it seems to require but one motion to fill and
empty the bucket ; and as the latter contains five or six gallons,
which are raised at least seven times in a minute, one man can
in this way raise as much water as a bullock. This simple
method is in use not only along the rivers of Mesopotamia, but
in Syria, Egypt, and India, and on the Pei-ho in China.
But when, from the great height of the banks, it becomes Rollers and
impossible to raise the water in this manner, a brick shaft, with worked by
some simple machinery, is substituted. The former, which is Dullocks-
rather more than a semicircle, is built into the bank of the
river ; and the water is drawn up by a single bullock, or camel.
A short but steeply-inclined plain is so disposed as to increase
the impetus given by the power of the animal, in pulling by a
strong rope which runs freely either over a wooden roller, or a
small wheel working on an iron spindle, and is attached to
a leather vessel of a particular description.1 The latter is rather
less than three feet diameter, and of a sufficient depth to con
tain about forty gallons ; it terminates on one side on a level
with the bottom, by a long spout, which, as the vessel ascends,
is bent upwards by means of a cord. The latter passes under
the roller, and its length is so adjusted, that the spout is drawn
out, and the contents discharged, at the precise moment when
the machine has reached the necessary height : the well-practised Method of
animal halts at the bottom of the inclined plane, during the ™™f the
brief space necessary to allow the water to be discharged into
1 Plate III.

where this
process is in
use.

654 MANNER OF WORKING. [CHAP. XX.
a kind of trough or channel, usually coated with bitumen, which
is placed to receive it.
Quantity of In the act of turning towards the side on which the rope is
by this1" * attached to the bucket, the harness, which is made of raw hides,
process. jg detached for a moment from the shoulders of the animal, so
' as to allow the vessel to descend by the run into the water; and
as a stone placed for this purpose weighs down one side, the
vessel is quite filled by the time the bullock has reached the top
of the inclined plane, and has turned round : at this moment
the harness is replaced in the proper position for draught, and
the animal then descends, drawing up the water as before.
Lieutenant Murphy, with his usual care, ascertained that the
vessel is filled and discharged, on an average, once in a minute ;
and that a tolerably active current is kept up in the little
aqueduct at the top, which is about 12 inches in diameter.
Countries In general there are two such water-bags in every shaft, each
drawn by one bullock, and working up and down alternately ;'
but in some cases there are three, and even occasionally four,
of these machines working together. Bullock-rollers are found
at short intervals, not only on the rivers Euphrates, Tigris, and
Karun, but machines like them are used • on the banks of the
Nile; also in India, and other countries eastward of Assyria.
The Chinese, however, accomplish this object in a more effica
cious manner. An endless chain with numerous boards attached
at intervals of about 18 inches, is made to work in a well-
fitted wooden trough, which is placed in the water at an angle
of about 45°. The revolving motion, which is either given by
manual labour or horse-power, is so effective, that a large quan
tity of water is quickly raised by this simple process to a
moderate height.
Water-wheels But in certain places on the Euphrates, more particularly
instruction, below 'A'nah, the ground is irrigated in a different manner.
The current, which here runs from one to three miles per hour,
is made to raise water to a height sometimes of nearly 40 feet ;
and this by such simple and efficient means, that the Arabian
authors have placed the contrivance amongst the wonders of
the world. A rude wheel, usually 33 or 35 feet diameter, is
1 Plate III.

CHAP. XX.] WATER-WHEELS. 655
formed of rough, crooked branches of tamarisk or mulberry
trees, tied together so as to radiate from its wooden axis like
the spokes of a more perfectly-formed wheel. The rim of the
wheel is constructed of light and narrow scantling, but more
perfectly put together than the rest of the work. Around the
exterior of the circumference, a row of roughly-made earthen
pots or buckets is placed, at about 18 inches apart. These are
nearly 20 inches long, and about 3 inches in diameter at the
opening, but swelling out to 4 or 4i inches towards the other
extremity. The wheel being thus prepared, is so placed be- Use of a
tween two walls as to dip nearly a foot into the water, and earthen°n °
being exposed to the strength of the stream, it revolves freely, vessels-
but slowly, on its axis ; the buckets enter the water at the mouth,
and being thus filled, and then forced round by the current in
succession, each vessel as a matter of course becomes uppermost
in turn, and discharges its contents into a trough communicating
with the conduit of an aqueduct, which, from a single wheel,
receives about 150 tons of water in 24 hours. One, two, three, ' Aqueducts in
and not unfrequently four of these wheels are placed parallel with wheels.
to one another, in a bend of the river, at the commencement of
the aqueduct, and nearly at a right angle to the latter ; and as
these wheels are moveable, their axes can, by means of stones
and beams of wood, be elevated or depressed, so as to work
equally well whether the -river be at its utmost height or lowest
level. In general, the earthen vessels, of themselves, give a sufficient Fans used to
impetus to the wheel ; but when the current happens to be very impetus to the
weak, the deficiency is supplied by adding to the rim of the wheels-
wheel six or eight fans, made of palm branches, each about
18 inches square : such additions, however, are very rare, when
the water is raised for the purposes of irrigation only, but they
are indispensable when the water is raised for other purposes,
such as for grinding corn at 'A'nah, or for turning the saw-mill
at Hit.
Only a few, however, of these mills are used by the Arabs of Use of water-
the present day, who say that they belong to the times of igno- china.
ranee, probably meaning those of the ancient Persians ; but at
1 Plate LVII.

656 PERSIAN WHEELS AND AQUEDUCTS. [CHAP. XX.
any rate they prove that the borders of the Euphrates were
once thickly inhabited by a people who had made some advances
in the application of hydraulics to purposes ofthe first necessity.
A similar wheel is used by the Chinese : tubes within it receive
the water, and fans are applied to the rim; the whole is of
bamboo. No doubt the useful but roughly-constructed machines
Persian employed along the Euphrates led to the Persian wheel which
near Antioch. is substituted on the lower part of the Orontes.1 The water-
wheels in and near Antioch are solid, and scarcely inferior to
those of Europe. The ordinary diameter is about 33 feet, but
sometimes it is as much as 45 feet ; some have a double, and
others a single row of tubes, which, like the earthen buckets of
the Euphrates, fill as they pass through the water ; being after
wards reversed, and discharged at the top of the wheel. But
when the current is not sufficiently powerful, a number of
small fans, made of date branches, are added to the wheel, and
a wooden trough at the top carries the water into an aqueduct
like those on the banks of the Euphrates.
Description of These aqueducts have, as may be supposed, suffered in various
oeaquu.ui,. ^gg^gg during the lapse, of so many ages; but owing to the
favourable state of the atmosphere, some, like the buildings in
Egypt, are surprisingly perfect. They are of cut stone, well
jointed and firmly cemented together. The breadth at top is
from 20 inches to 2 feet, and increases towards the base in pro
portion to the height, which varies according to circumstances.2
In some places there are two rows of arches to give the requisite
height, and in others, when the distance is shorter, there is
but one.
Particular These arches, which appear to be of Persian, or rather of
used in the Assyrian origin, almost form a triangle, and, being of a very
aqueducts. earjy age^ jt may ^e presume(j tnat they gave rise to the Sara
cenic, or pointed curvilinear kind. They were evidently cast
without any kind of centreing, by causing the stones or bricks
gradually to project inwards, till the sides met and were keyed ;
and the building, including the conduit, being covered with
durable cement, the effect is particularly striking, although de
prived of columns, pilasters, and other ornaments.
1 Plate XXII. s Plate LVII.

CHAP. XX.] ANCIENT WELLS AND CANALS. 657
The preceding is not, however, the only kind of aqueduct in Subterranean
the east, for subterranean water-courses have been in common water-courses-
use throughout Susiana, Persia, and the rest of the land of
Cush, from the time of Houshung, to whom their invention is
attributed.1 Almost everywhere throughout those regions, this
method of obtaining a supply of running water is familiar to the
people, the mode of construction being handed down from father
to son, as the calling of particular families.
Polybius notices what is now called a kanat, or kahreez, in a Use of the
very particular manner. In describing the campaigns of An- ancient wells
tiochus, he observes, that in these parts (i. e. beyond Ecbatana)
no water is ever seen above ground, although there are many
subterraneous wells and streams throughout the deserts, which
are known only to the people of the country.2
We know, likewise, that such is the value of water at the adopted by the
present time, that the Persians give to those who bring a stream
into a place where none existed previously, the free inheritance
of the ground for five generations ; and there can be no doubt
that corresponding privileges were granted, on the like occa
sions, in ancient times. Encouraged by such a recompense,
neither labour nor expense was spared to convey the water
through subterraneous channels to places where it was wanted.
At the present time, those who use the waters know neither the
beginning nor the course of the channels through which they
flow. During the mad expedition of Cambyses, a king of Arabia Canaisofskins
caused a canal to be made of the skins of oxen and other ani- dTstan^oV1
mais, sewn together whilst raw : this extended from the river twelTe days-
Corys,3 a distance of twelve days' journey into the arid country,
where it filled the large cisterns which had been constructed to
contain the necessary supply of water for his army. Here, no
doubt, the skins represent the primitive kanat or kahreez, the
formation of which may be due to the original inhabitants of
Arabia. The extreme dryness ofthe climate, together with the scarcity construction
4 of a kanat.
1 Sir John Malcolm's History of Persia, vol. I., p. 14.
* Folard's Polybius, lib. X., chap. IV.
3 Polybius, lib. III., cap. ix.
VOL. II. 2 U

658 CONSTRUCTION OF A KANAT. [CHAP. XX.
of running water, obliges the people of Persia to turn their
anxious attention to the discovery of springs : this being accom
plished, and a promising head of water obtained, the subterra
nean tunnel is executed now, as it was anciently, in the following
manner. From five to nine shafts are usually sunk at different depths
near one another, on some elevated ground at the foot ofthe hills,
where it is presumed water may be found : a good supply being
thus obtained at a suitable depth, it is made available by galle
ries of intercommunication between the different shafts. This
being effected at a suitable level, the next operation is to convey
the water in one channel to the village which it is proposed to
supply, or to the fields which are to be irrigated.
Successive Having ascertained the most suitable line of communication,
and con"ected. as well as the level of the plain where the water is to be brought
* into use, successive shafts are sunk in the proper direction,
according to the state of the soil ; and these are severally carried
to such depths, that the main channel or kanat connecting them
may give a free current of flowing water from the head or group
of wells, till it has reached the surface at the proposed spot:
from thence, when irrigation is contemplated, it is conveyed in
open channels.
Method- of The operation of sinking the shafts to the level ofthe bottom
shafts.5 e of tbe kanat is extremely simple. After a circular excavation
has been carried to such a depth that the soil cannot be conve
niently thrown by hand to the surface, a wooden trundle is placed
over the aperture, from which a basket is suspended, and the latter
being filled with the excavated earth by a man working below, it
is wound up and emptied by another workman above. But
when the soil is particularly soft, the walls are secured by ma
sonry, which, however, is seldom necessary; and when the
Levels carried shafts have reached the intended level, the kanat is carried by
progress of separate portions from one shaft to another along the proposed
the work. ]me- By this arrangement, many workmen are employed at
the same time in different places; and habitual practice has
rendered the whole operation so easy and so certain, that a
failure in the necessary slope or direction seems to be almost
unknown. The main channel of a kanat, as well as the shafts

CHAP. XX.] GREAT LENGTH OF THE KANATS. 659
leading down to it, is about 3 s feet diameter, and it is almost
always completed without resorting to any artificial support of
the soil. But when the latter does not possess the necessary
tenacity, the difficulty is overcome either by masonry in parti
cular places, or by a lining consisting of a peculiar kind of
earthen rings. These are of baked clay, from 5 to 9 inches Baked rings
broad in the rim, about 2 inches thick, and large enough to usedto support
enable a man to crawl through the channel formed by placing the soil-
them either at short distances, or, if necessary, in contact one
with another. To facilitate their introduction, as well as the
replacement of those which are broken, the rings approach an
oval shape, so that when placed upright they rest against the top
and bottom of the tunnel, and are kept in their places by stuffing
earth into the spaces left on each side. The pipe thus formed,
being as hard as ordinary pottery, is very durable, and sufficiently
strong to restrain the earth from falling down and interrupting*
the free passage of the water.1
These aqueducts are very numerous, and frequently at a great Kanats carried
depth ; such are those near Shuster, and in other parts where distances.
the supply is augmented by the continual oozing-in of water
from other parts. In some instances lateral galleries have been
added to the main shaft, to open up the springs indicated by
the water trickling into the main channel. Throughout Susiana,
as well as along most of the plains of Persia, the courses of the
kahreezes may easily be traced by means of low flat mounds
about the apertures of the shafts ; and the distances through
which such streams are sometimes conducted is extraordinary.
Since the formation of the vast tunnel under the Thames at
Botherhithe, and of the tunnels at various places on the rail
roads, this subterraneous work has become very common in
Great Britain. These are, however, of small extent compared
with the kanats of Persia, which are frequently carried to a
distance of 12 or 15 miles, and sometimes much more. The Kanats are
karvanserai, on the march between Dangan and Mushed, ^ent'wX
draws its supply of water from a distance of about 21 miles ;miles-
1 The account in the text is given chiefly from a note furnished by Sir
John M'Neill Gr.C.B., Her Majesty's Envoy at the Court of Teheran.
2 u2

660 CONSTRUCTION OF SOUTERAZI. [CHAP. XX.
and in the plain of Sultaniyah, water is in one instance carried
nearly 40 miles.
The kanats yield a considerable revenue to the Shah, who,
in many cases, receives rent for the water instead of the land ;
this amounts to 20 per cent, for a flowing stream, and 15 for
kanats ; but for wells or reservoirs only 5 per cent.1
Such is the importance of a new kahreez, that the day of
bringing the water to its ultimate destination is made one of
rejoicing among the peasants ; who, having patiently awaited
the fortunate hour, named by the astrologers, receive the gush
ing forth of the stream with shouts of joy, accompanied by
songs, music, and loud expressions of the anxious desire that
prosperity may attend it.
Use ofthe The ancient system of conveying water appears to have been
ArabiiTana extended eastward as well as westward, for the kahreez is
Barbary. common in Afghanistan,1 in Kirman,2 and in 'Oman,3 also in
Arabia Felix ; and one near Tangier was still perfect when
seen by the author in 1824. This, however, is a permanent
work, being cased with masonry, and covered with that durable
kind of cement for which the works of the Moorish Arabs are
so remarkable.
The sonterazi The aqueducts just described being only adapted for ground
andMoors. S tnat is tolerably even, the eastern people have overcome the
difficulties of a hilly and irregular surface by means of another
description of canal, which is met with in Barbary, and also in
Turkey, where it assists in supplying the capital. To the great
cisterns in Constantinople water is conducted from the well-
known reservoirs near the village of Belgrade, by means of a
slightly inclined subterraneous canal, called souterazi. This is
Method of merely a system of earthen conduit pipes about four inches and
constructing a na]f m diameter, having a number of inverted svphons con-
these works. . J r
nected together, and opening at the superior parts into small
cisterns placed at the top of towers of a particular description.
Tbe latter are massive pieces of masonry from 20 feet to 40
1 Malcolm's History of Persia, vol. IL, p. 473.
2 Elphinstone's Cabul, p. 304. 3 Ouseley's Ibn Haukal.
4 Near Bediah. — Lieut. Wellsted's Travels, vol. I., p. 276.

CHAP. XX.] RESERVOIRS, CISTERNS, AND TANKS. 661
feet high, decreasing like an Egyptian obelisk towards the top,
on which is the basin or cistern just mentioned. The latter
receives two leaden pipes, by one of which the water ascends
from the conduit on one side, and by the other it again de
scends into it on the opposite side. This last conveys the water
in a similar manner to another tower, and so on : this takes
place over the undulations of the ground till it reaches its ulti
mate destination. The use of the towers, however, is not Towers with
CIS t€ I'll S
confined to the passage of a glen or valley ; they are also con
structed on level ground, with the double object of giving addi
tional distributions when requisite, and also of enabling the
workmen more easily to ascertain where an injury may have
occurred in the pipes.
Receptacles for water are of three kinds ; first, grand reser- Reservoirs to
voirs formed by throwing bunds, as already mentioned,1 across of'water? ie
rivers or valleys which give a large supply of water, as at Bel
grade in Turkey, and at Oedipore, Haider- A'bad, and other
places in India ; secondly, smaller bodies of water are collected
by means of open cisterns, enclosed by substantial walls, such
as those of Solomon,2 of Hesbon,3 and of Irbid ;4 and thirdly,
covered tanks which are coated with cement ; these of various
sizes, and are either for general use or merely for individual
edifices. Some tanks constructed by the Arabs have already
been noticed. Two of these at Constantinople, in connexion with Covered
the souterazi, are remarkable for their size and architecture ; stantinopie.
and one, called the Thousand and One Columns, is about 200
paces long by 100 wide : it is now dry and occupied by silk
twisters. It has upwards of 300 columns, some plain and others
of the composite order, supporting the arches on which the roof
rests. The other, called the Subterranean Palace (Yerf batan
Serai), is more extensive and is still serviceable. This extends
under several streets, and has an arched roof supported by 336
thick marble columns, some of the Egyptian kind, and some
of the composite order.
Those of Bamleh 5 and some other places in Syria are also
1 See above, p. 613. ! See vol. I., p. 496.
3 Ibid., p. 516. * Ibid., p. 413.
s Ibid., p. 492.

662 SYRIAN WATER-WORKS. [CHAP. XX.
extensive, but in general at the towns, villages, and ruins
throughout this country, as well as in the desert of Arabia,
these receptacles for containing water are of moderate size,
having one snlall aperture at a depth of from 30 to 40 feet ;
and occasionally there is a flight of steps to descend to the level
of the water. In general they are not built, but excavated in
the rocks, and as the inhabitants of Syria chiefly depend upon
tanks for a supply of water, such structures are very numerous
throughout the country.

END OF VOL. II.

APPENDIX.

APPENDIX.

(A.)
Although we are nowhere informed that the body of Cyrus was carried back to
Persia, we can hardly suppose it would have been otherwise, since it was the custom
of the now united nations to give, if possible, more than regal sepulture — to
which a monarch, at once distinguished and beloved, would have an irresistible
claim. The Persian inscription, " I am Cyrus, founder of the Persian monarchy,"
with the expressive addition made by Alexander the Great — " Envy me not,
therefore, the small portion of earth, wherein my body lies enclosed,"1 and the
golden coffin, &c, have long disappeared from the interior ; but the identity of
the tomb is established by|the following brief cuneiform inscription, which is five
times repeated on pilasters among the ruins at Murgh-ab : —
Adam Qurus khsarja
piy'a H'akhamanisiya.
This has been deciphered — Ego Cyrus rex, Achaanenius ; and from the absence
of the usual style, " the great king," it has been suggested that it might possibly
refer to the younger Cyrus ;! but it should be borne in mind that he never was
king, and also that the high-sounding title in question, and that of king of kings,
were not applicable to the first Achamenian sovereign, but rather to some of his
successors.

(B.)
Long since this part of the text was written, a sufficient knowledge has been
obtained of the Median and Persian cuneiform inscriptions to establish some cir
cumstances of much interest in connexion with the reign of this sovereign (Darius
Hystaspes). Four of these remarkable records were found among the ruins of
Persepolis; a fifth is on the royal tomb opposite to the palace; a sixth is near
Hamadan (Elwand), and the seventh at Bisutun. One of the first gives the
original of the name : — Dary'awas khsay'apiya
w'az'ark'a, khsay'apiya khsa-
yapiyanam, khsyapiya
dahyunam, Vistasp'ahy-
a puthr'a, H'akhamanisiya, h-
y'a imam t'acar'am aqunus.
1 Arr. Ex., lib. VI. cap. xxix., and Plutarch in Alex.
a Memoires de la Socie'te Eoyale des Antiquaires du Nord, pp. 422, 423. Copenhagen, 1844.
VOL. II. ^ X

666 APPENDIX.
And the whole makes known that " The mighty King Darius, King of Kings,
King of Realms, the son of Kystaspes, an Achaemenian, built this house." *
Another one against the ruins of Persepolis, and above the Sasanian sculptures,
and now called Nakshi Rustam, is very long, and one portion —
11. HA-
12. K DAEIYAWui KU NAAEI ZO" VI YI ATJEA-
.13. ZDAN SA DAHYUS PPO YO BEEIRZZA ZA-
14. EAKHA PHAAsA KHKHABE YO . . ZRADANITHVENA-
15. MYO'H QUTIS, PPO YO KHKHABE PTHRIKHA
16. YUTU YUT . DAT AM PPO YO . S YTJTU PI BEBI-
17.4
is very remarkable, on account of its allusion to conquered countries, and the use
of ships : the translation runs — " I am the noble Darius^ king according to the
will of Auramazdes. These countries, which I conquered with the assistance of
the Persians, paid tribute to me (worthy to be reverenced), and afforded the
continual assistance of ships. What was thus given to me, I have preserved.8
In another, probably alluding to Greece, he speaks of " Those whom Darius
the king commanded, brought help in every way against the rebelUon, which I
skilfully put down."3
Again, on the subject of their religion : —
56. M'artiya a hya Aur'amazd'ah-
57. a phr'amana huw'atiy'a g'as-
58. ta ma pad'ay'a p'apim
59. tyam rastam ma
60. aw'ar'ad'a ma st'a-w'a.
(Translation.)
"The races of mortals depend upon the authority of Auramazde: their own
counsels come to nought. May they not forsake this right way ; may they not
offend, may they not destroy it !"*
And linked with the latter, as intimately connected with Persian life it is
stated that the terrace and propyksa were constructed by Darius and his people
according to the will of Auramazdes.5 Again, oh the same subject : 
7. TKHAT SA-
8. WAQQA . BEEO SA QUSIKHA
9. P . KHA SAWA . BEEO I .
10. QTJsIKH ZU VIYI AUEAZ-
11. DAN SA . BEEO YO QUsI-
12. YA HAK AUEAZDA SA.
13. THU EOVI . N ANAPPETUTH-
14. TA EDAKHA PPO SA . BEEO
1 Memoires de la Socie'te' Royale des Antiquaires du Nord, p. 362. Copenhagen, 1844.
s Ibid., p. 374. 3 Ibid., pp. 383, 384. ¦* Ibid., p. 401. 5 Ibid., p. 419.

APPENDIX. 667
15. QUSIKHA HAK YO QTJsIYA QUT-
16. TA QUsIYA . WA HAK sis.
17. QUTTA . THUK SA . THU . P
18. YO EOVEN.
In this passage, according to the interpretation given, Darius tells us that he
erected the principal terrace,1 which to the east abuts upon the mountain, forming
a magnificent platform, which has been already described.2
But what on every account most deserve attention are the four cuneiform inscrip
tions, on the southern wall of the great platform, each containing twenty-four
lines : — 1st.8
1. Aur'amazda w'az'ark'a, hy'a mapist'a b'ag-
2. anam, huw'a Dary'awum khsay'api-
3. yam ad'ada, husiy'a khsathr'am phrab'a-
4. r'a . w'asna Auramazdaha Dary'awn-
5. s khsay'apiya. patiy'a Dary'awus
6. khsay'apiya iy'am d'ahyaus Par-
7. sa, tyain m'ana Aur'amazda phrab'a-
8. r'a hya niba uwaspa umarti-
9. ya : w'asna Auramazdaha m'an'ac-
10. a Dary'awahus khsay'apiy'ahy.
11. a haca aniy'ana niy'a t'ars'afc-
12. iy'a: patiy'a Daryawus khsay'a-
13. piya . m'ana Aur'amazda up'astam
14. baruw'a h'ada vipibis b'agi-
15. bis , uta imam dahyaum Am-'a-
16. m'azda paciuw'a h'aca hinay-
17. a , haca thusiyara , h'aca d'ar-
18. uga . abiya imam dahyaum ma
19. azmiya, ma hina, ma thus-
20. iyar'am , ma darug'a. Aita adam
21. yan-m yachiyaniy'a Auram'azd-
22. am hadi vipibis b'agibis a-
23. datadiy'a . . . Aur'amazda uda3-
24. uw'a hada vipibus b'agibis.
(Translation.)
" The mighty Auramazdes, who is the greatest of the gods, himself appointed
Darius, being benevolent to him, bestowed upon him the chief power. By the
grace of Auramazdes, I, Darius, am king. The noble Darius, king of this Per
sian country, which Auramazdes bestowed upon me in this court [or open plat-
1 Memoires de la Socie'te' Eoyale des Antiquaires du Nord, p. 419. Copenhagen, 1844.
1 See above, p. 617-620.
3 Memoires de la Socie'te' Royale des Antiquaires du Nord, pp. 405, 406. Copenhagen, 1 844.
2x2

668 APPENDIX.
form] by the power of a horse of excellent virtue, and accordingto the will of
Auramazdes sacred adoration falls to the lot of me, King Darius. I am the noble
Darius king, 0 Auramazdes ! accept from me adoration with the national gods ;
and 0, Auramazdes, defend the country from disease, from barrenness, and from
falsehood ! Let not the storms of winter, nor disease, nor sterility, nor falsehood
enter this country. This happy condition I, with the national gods, entreat
Auramazdes : 0, most wise Auramazdes, preserve me with the national gods !"
2nd.1
1. Adam Dary'awus khsay'apiya w'az'a-
2. rk'a, khsay'apiya khsay'apiyana-
3. m , khsay'apiya dahyunam tyi-
4. sam p'arunam, Vistasp'ahya
5. puthr'a, H'akhamanisiya . patiy'a D'ar-
6. y'awus khsay'apiya w'asna Aur'am'a-
7. zdaha . una d'ahyawa , tya ad'am
8. adarsiya hada ana P'arsa ka-
9. ra , tya. h'acam at'ars , m'ana baj-
10. im ab'ar'a: Uwaz'a, Mad'a, Babifu-
11. s, Ar'abay'a, Apura, Qhudray-
12. a, Armin'a, K'atp'aduka, Sp'ard'a, Y-
13. una, tyiy'a usk'ahya uta ty-
14. iya daryahya ; uta d'ahyawa t-
15. ya : P'aruty'a, As'agarta Parp'aw'a Z'ati-
16. k'a, Hariw'a, Bakhtris, Sugda, Uw-
17. arazmiya, pat'agus, H'aruwatis, H'-
18. 'Ahus, G'adar'a, Saka, M'aka, patiy'a
19. Dary'awus khsay'apiya yachiya
20. aw'ama m'amyahya h'aca aniy'a-
21. na . ma d'ars'am imam Pars'am kar'am pachi-
22. ya . yachiya kar'a Parsa patahatiya hya
23. thuwist'am siyatis akhs'ata huwaci-
24. ya Aura nir'asatiy'a abiya imam vip'am.
(Translation.)
" I, Darius, am a mighty king, king of kings, king of these many countries,
the son of Vistapes, an Achaanenian ; I am the noble Darius, king by the grace of
Auramazdes. These are the countries which I held in subjection — in this thing
the Persians were the actors — and who paid adoration to fire, and paid tribute to
me : Cissia, Media, Babylonia, Arabia, Africa, the Gordjsi, Armenia, Cappadocia,
Sparda, the lonians, both those on the continent and the islands ; and also these
countries, Parutia, Asagarba, Parthians, Zaranga, the Harians, Bactria, Sogdia,
Chorasmia, Palayas, Arachosia, India, Gaudara, Sacians, Maca. The noble King
Darius, worthy to be reverenced. May such adoration be consecrated to me.
1 Menioires de la Socie'te' Koyale des Antiquaires du Nord, p. 407. Copenhagen, 1844.

APPENDIX. QQQ
May I never see this Persian acting in an humble condition. The Persian is an
agent to be reverenced as one who is a defender. May fortune remain safe to this
nation to most distant ages. 0 thou who art justly celebrated with Divine
honours ! "
It has been observed, that as the Scythians (Squdra) are not here enumerated,
but afterwards included among the nations tributary to Xerxes, it is probable that
these inscriptions were cut previously to the expedition undertaken by the great
king against the tribes of Scythia.1
The interpretation of the important and detailed trilingual inscriptions of
Bisutun have thrown much additional light on the history of this reign, especially
the details of the various conquests and expeditions of Darius Hystaspes for the
suppression of revolts, previous to his invasion of Thrace. These inscriptions, and
their interpretation as deciphered by Major Rawlinson, will be found at length in
the Royal Asiatic Journal, vol. X., part i., and vol. X., part iii. The still more
recent and valuable interpretations, by Major Rawlinson and others, ofthe Perse-
politan inscriptions given above, are found to agree in all essential points with
those of the Societe Royale des Antiquaires du Nord, already quoted.

(C.)
The inscriptions which have been deciphered since this work was prepared
elucidate the present, as the others already noticed have done in the case of the
former reign ; and in the same inflated language.8
16. patiy'a Khsyarsa n'arph'a w'azar-
17. ka w'asna Aur'ahya mazdah'a
18. ima h'achis D'ary'awus n'arph'a
19. aqunus, hy'a m'ana pet-
20. a. mam Aur'amazda pa3u-
21. wa hada b'agibis uta t-
22. y'amiya k'artam uta ty'ami-
23. y'a pithra Daryaw'ahus n'arph'ahy—
24. a k'artam aw'asaciya Aur'am'az-
25. da pa3uwa h'ada b'agibis.
(Translation.)
" I am the noble Xerxes, a great king according to the will of Auramazdes,
King Darius built this pillared hall, who was my father. Auramazdes defend
me with gods, both this palace and also the palace of my father King Darius. O
Auramazdes ! worthy to be propitiated, defend me with gods.''
Again on the same interesting subject of the great palace and its portals3 —
11. patiy'a Khsyarsa khsay'apiya w'asna
12. Auram'azdaha imam thuwarpim visadahyum
1 Memoires de la Socie'te Royale des Antiquaires du Nord, p. 408.
2 Ibid. p. 349. 3 Ibid. 351.

670 APPENDIX.
13. ad'am aqunw'am, wasiy'a aniy'asaciy'a nibam
14. kart'am una Parsa tya ad'am aqunw'am
15. ut'amiy'a ty'a pita aqunus ty'apatiy'a k'a-
16. rtam winatiya nibam awa vis'am w'asna A-
17. ur'am'azdaha aquma. patiy'a Khsyarsa
18. khsay'apiya mam Aur'amazda paSuw'a ut'ami—
19. y'a khsathr'am uta ty'a m'ana kart'am uta ty'ami—
20. y'a pithra k'artam aw'as'aciya Aur'amazda pauuw'a.
Which may thus be rendered : —
" I am the noble King Xerxes. According to the will of Auramazdes, I have
built this portal to be entered by the people, also the greater propyteea, and the
palace — my father built the former palace aud its portals. According to the will
of Auramazdes we built them, and also the palace of my father. O Auramazdes,
worthy to be propitiated, defend me ! "
Finally, the dependent viceroyalties of the great king are enumerated, as in
the case of his predecessors, but with the addition of the Squdra or Scythians.1
The inscriptions of Xerxes are found at Hamadan, Persepolis, and Van. The
preceding are from Persepolis — the following, from the former plan, is of some
interest. The translation is that of Lassen, given by Major RawUnson, in the
Royal Asiatic Journal, vol. X., part ii., page 319.
1. Baga wazarka Auramazda,
2. hya mathishta Baganam,
3. hya imam bumim ad
4. a hya awam asmanam
5. ada, hya martiyam ad
6. a, hya shiyatim ada
7. martiyahya, hya Khsha
8. yarsham khshayathiyam
9. akanaush, awam parun
10. am khshayathiyam, aivam
11. parunam framataram.
12. (2) Adam Khshayarsha khsha
13. yathiya, wagarka khshayathi
14. ya, khshayathiyanam khsh
15. ayathiya, dabyaunam par
16. uzananam khshayathiya
17. ahiyaha bumiya wa
18. Zarkaya duriga apiya,
19. Dar (a) yava (h) ush khshayathiya
20. hya putr'a, Hakhamanishiya.
(1) " The great god Ormazd, the chief of the gods (he it is), who has given
this world, who has given that heaven, who has given mankind, who has given
1 Memoires de la Socie'te' Royale des Antiquaires du Nord, p. 408.

APPENDIX. 671
life (?) to mankind, who has made Xerxes king, both the king of the people and
the lawgiver of the people.
(2) " I am Xerxes the king, the great king, the king of kings, the king of the
many-peopled countries, the supporter also of this great world, the son of king
Darius the Achffimenian."
See also M. Burnouf 's examination and translation of this, and a similar inscrip
tion relating to Darius at Hamadan, in his Memoires sur deux Inscriptions cunei-
formes trouvees pres d'Hamadan, p. 121. Paris, 1836.
His interpretation differs very slightly from that given above.

(D.)
An inscription found on the western staircase of Persepolis is so important in
connexion with this period of history, that it is but right to give it at length. It
is in the Persian or Achaamenian writing, and is found thrice repeated on the
northern wall of the smaller platform.
1. Bag'a wazarka Aur'amazd-
2. a, hy'a imam bumam
3. ada, hy'a awam asman-
4. am ada, hy'a m'artiy'am
5. ada, hya say'atam a-
6. da m'artihya, hy'a ma-
7. m Art'akhsathra khsayapi-
8. y'a aqunus, aiw'am p'afuw-
9. nam khsay'apiy'am, aiw'a-
10. m p'aruwnam phramataram.
11. patiy'a Art'akhsathra khs-
12. ay'apiy'a w'azarka khsay'a-
13. piy'a khsay'apiy'anam,
14. khsay'apiya d'ahyunam,
15. khsay'apiya ahyaya
16. bumiya . Adam Art'akhsathra kh-
17. say'apiya puthr'a . Art'akhsathra
18. Dary'awus khsay'apiya
19. puthra . Dary'awus Art'akhsa-
20. thra khsay'apiya puthr'a . Art'a-
21. khs'athra Khsyarsa khsaya-
22. piy'a puthr'a . Khsyarsa Dar-
23. y'awus khsay'apiya puthra.
24. Dary'awus Vastasp'ahy
25. a nama puthr'a . Vastasp'ahy.
26. a Arsam'a nama puthr'a ; Ha-
27. khamanisiy'a . patiy'a Ar-

672 APPENDIX.
28. fakhsathra khsay'apiya.
29. irnan ust'asnam ap'ag'a-
30. nam mim upa mam
31. karta . patiy'a Artakhsathr-
32. a khsay'apiya. mim Aur'a-
33. mazda uta m'athra bag'a pa-
34. <5uw'a uta imam d'ahyum
35. uta ty'a mam k'arta.
The first lines contain merely the too-oft repeated passages, the introductory and
that of the titles, which are explained above. The only thing remarkable is the
omission of the titles " thuriya apiy'a," which are invariably found in the inscrip
tions of Darius and Xerxes, but which the state of the empire in his time no
doubt taught Artaxerxes prudently to omit. The new and original matter begins
in the middle of the sixteenth line, and is here subjoined : Ego Artaxerxis regis
"filius . Artaxerxes 18Darii regis 19filius . Darius Artaxerxis '"regis Alius . Arta
xerxes 2lXerxis regis ^filius . Xerxes Darii ^regis filius . "Darius Hystaspis
"nomine filius . Hystaspes 26Arsamis nomine filius ; Achsemenius . srGenerosus
(sum) Artaxerxes sarex . 2sHsec alta arx 30mea (est) in meo 31palatio . Generosus
Artaxerxes 32rex . me o Auramazdes a3et Mithra deus tuere, "turn hanc regionem,
"turn hoc meum palatium.1
The inscription, besides being most remarkable in a philological point of view,
since it shows how early the ancient Persian language began to decay, is not less
important on account of the historical dates which it supplies. We have here
the genealogy of Artaxerxes the Third, from Arsama, the Greek Arsames, the
father of Hystaspes, quite agreeing with that given by Greek authors, viz. —
Arsama. Arsames.
Vistasp'a. Hystaspes.
Dary'awus. Darius.
Khsyarsa. Xerxes.
Art'akhsathra. Artaxerxes I.
Dary'awus. Darius.
Art'akhsathra. Artaxerxes II.
Art'akhsathra. Artaxerxes III.
With the exception of Xerxes the Second and Sogdianus, who are omitted,
not being the lineal ancestors of Artaxerxes the Third, but only brothers of his
grandfather Darius the Second, we have here the complete genealogy of Artaxerxes
the Third, from Arsames, the father of Hystaspes, and it quite agrees with that
given by Greek authors.2
1 Memoires de la Socie'te' Royale des Antiquaires du Nord, 1844, pp. 423-426.
2 Ibid.

APPENDIX.

673

(E.)
A List of Exactions and Monopolies farmed out by the Pdshd of Mdsul, 1 841.

General stamp on goods .
Dyeing blue with indigo .
, , with madder roots and
printing .
Bleaching 
Building rafts on river
Sale of horses and yarns .
Ferry 
Public weighing .
Duty on auctioneers .
, , corn ....
Precious metals
Duty on copper
, , butchers' meat .
, , oils and sale of sweet
meats .
, , sale of candles .
, , roasting kabobs .
, , dried fruits . .

Piastres.
275,000
224,000 23,000 5,000
50,000
24,000 10,000
30,000 9,000
100,000 20,000 6,000
120,000 40,000
40,000 3,000
20,000

Tax on every load entering
the town . . . 300,000
,, water-melon gardens 13,000
,, other gardens . . 15,000
,, sale or keeping cows 10,000
,, counting flocks . . 300,000
Isnaf, or corporation tax . . 1,050,000
Monopoly on sale of tobacco . 24 . 500
,, ,, soap. . 350,000
>> ,» coffee . 27,000
>> ., salt . . 20,000
,, , , charcoal 27,000
Exactions from Miihammedans
at the new year . . . 60,000
Total . . . 3,195,500

Equal to about £32,000.

Previous to the present Pashi (1841) there was only one small tax levied of
the above exactions, on the Isnafs or corporations of trades, under the name of
" Salian ;" this is an exaction on Miihammedans only. The Kharaj, which extends
only to Christians and Jews, is said to be fixed by the Porte at 110,000 piastres,
but the Pasha levies 200,000. He also exacts 40 piastres on every loaded camel
leaving the town, which is levied on the person hiring the animal.
Comparison of Imports to Mdsul in 1835 and 1841.

British yarns of all descriptions . . . Bales
Handkerchiefs, muslin, lappets, &c. . . , ,
Indigo  Chests
Chintz of all kinds  Bales
Broad cloth, French  ,
Coffee, Mocha .... Cantars of 500 lbs.
Tin Banco  , ,
Sugar, Bengal refined . . , ,
Bed caps from France and Genoa . . . Chests
Domestics, English  Bales
Maddapollam  Pieces

1835

1841

500

20

80

8

75

19

250

50

56

16

100

40

0

4

70

25

50

30

80

None.

4,000

1,500

The enormous monopolies given above, which are in addition to the regular
revenues of the country, depopulate the territory and impoverish the people.
The tax on indigo-dyeing, for instance, is two-thirds more than the value of indigo
itself. Europeans, however, are exempt from these exactions, paying only a
fixed and moderate rate of duty.
The principal inhabitants of the pashalik of Mosul are Turks, Arabs, Kurds,
Bedawins, Yezidis, Nestorians, and Jews. The Turks and Arabs, with a few
Kurds and Yezidis, inhabit the plains ; but the greater number of the two latter

674 APPENDIX.
live in the mountains ; the Bedawins in the desert : the Christians are scattered
amongst the two former. The population of the city alone is estimated at 38,500 ;
1,500 of whom are Jews, 8,000 Christians, and 29,000 Muhammedans.

(F.)
Statement of Imports and Exports at Constantinople, from and to England.
49 vessels arrived from Liverpool in 1839-40, from September to September,
cargoes valued at ........ £842 , 000
33 vessels arrived from London in 1839-40, from September to September,
cargoes valued at ........ 322,500
18 vessels from England with iron, 4,079 tons, in 1839-40, from September
to September, cargoes valued at ....... 36,700
57 vessels from England with coals, 17,329 tons, in 1839-40, from September
to September, cargoes valued at . . . . . . .. 8 , 800
Total .... £1,210,000
And in 1840-41 (September to September) : —
51 vessels from Liverpool ....
23 vessels from London . . . .
13 vessels with iron, 3,150 tons . . .
58 vessels with coals, 21,744 tons . .
The exports during the above periods to England amounted to —
Piastres. Packages. Bales.
In 1839-40, 55,733,344, or £525,786, i.e. 106 = silk 3,842, goats' wool 4,132
In 1840-41, 56,923,660, or £522,235, i.e. 109 = silk 3,518, goats' wool 5,830
The principal exports from Constantinople to Persia consist almost exclusively
of British articles. The estimated value of these were, for'1839-40, 1840-41,
860,000Z. per annum, two-thirds of which were for the Persian market. The
Persians bring to Constantinople, in exchange, large quantities of Persian silk,
Cashmere shawls, galls, tambiki, &c, and money: thus our imports into, and
exports from Turkey, are nearly equalized.
During these two years there was, as has been shown, a decrease of about
1,000 tons of iron, and 330 packages of silk, with an increase of about 4,400
tons of coals, aud 1,700 bales of goats' wool.

value £877,000

„ .223,000

„ 28,300

„ 10,700

£1,139,000

(G.)
In order to convert the friendly assurances which, at different times, had been
given by the Court of Teheran into positive and formal stipulations, Count de Sar-
tiges was despatched by the French government, in 1847, to propose to the Persian
cabinet to sign a treaty of commerce and navigation, which should secure for us
APPENDIX. • 675
in Persia the treatment of the most favoured nation, and which would, moreover,
give to the French government the power of appointing consular agents at those
points where the commercial interests of the two countries might require it.
After a negotiation, in the course of which our envoy at Teheran received the
most positive testimonies of the desire which animated the Persian government,
and particularly from the first minister of the Shah Hadji-Mizza-Agassi, to pre
serve the most friendly relations with France, the treaty in question was signed
by the respective Plenipotentiaries on the 24th July, 1846. It is composed of six
articles, which are the development of the principle founded on the treaties of the
most favoured nations, and the tenor of which completely responds to the dignity
of the king's government, to the interests of French commerce in Persia, and
to the protection of French subjects. Art. 1 secures to the French the right of
travelling, carrying on business, residing and establishing manufactories of any
kind on the Persian territory, and to be there treated in every respect as subjects
of the most favoured nation — that is to say, as Russian subjects, whose privileges
were stipulated for in the treaty of commerce signed at Turkman Tchac,
February 10, 1828. According to the treaties concluded with Persia by Russia
and Great Britain, merchandise imported into Persia by the subjects of these
Powers pay 5 per cent, entrance duty into the kingdom, and goods exported the
same duty of 5 per cent. Such will be, in this respect, our treatment in Persia,
according to the terms of Art. 2, which is drawn up in such a way, that if any
reduction of the above duty should be mad.e in favour of another Power, we shall
be allowed to participate in that advantage. Articles 3, 4, and 5, have for object
to invest the agents of the king's government with an entire jurisdiction over
French residents ; to guarantee the rights of heirs of Frenchmen who might die
in Persia ; and to grant reciprocally the power of establishment of consuls on
points where their presence might be of respective utility, viz., for France, at
Teheran, the seat of the Persian government and the centre of the political inte
rests ; at Tauris, the grand entrepot of the trade of the provinces of Azerbaijan,
'Irak, Hamadan, and Kurdistan ; and at Bender Bouchin, the port for imports
from India and Europe, and with which our colony of Bourbon is prepared to
enter into advantageous relations. On her side, France will receive Persian
agents at Paris, Marseilles, and Bourbon, if the Shah should think proper to
accredit them. In giving, by royal ratification, a definitive sanction to this treaty,
the king's government hopes that the stipulations it contains, at the same time
that they attest the friendly dispositions with which the Persian government is
animated, are of a nature to secure to France a useful and suitable position in
those distant countries, and to extend there our commercial relations. The per
severing skill which Count de Sartiges has evinced during his residence at Teheran
has tended to produce this advantageous result, confirmed by the sending of an
ambassador to Paris, the importance of which has escaped no one in the east.
The chief of this mission, Mohammed Ali Khan, was moreover, by the elevation
of his mind and his knowledge of European affairs, the personage best calculated
to attain the objects proposed by the Persian government.

676

APPENDIX.

(H.)
BENGAL.
No. I. — Comparative Statement of Imports to Calcutta from Arabian and Persian
Gulfs in the Year 1836-7.

Apparel Co.'s Rs.
Books .
Co.'s Bs.
Cotton goods
Co.'s lis.
China goods
Co.'s Es.

f Haberdashery .
. '-. 1 (Rose-water and otter
4'712 (Books . . . .

,'6o8lBengalPens • \ •
' (Cotton piece goods .
r,5o^Cotton • • • •
. . Tortoiseshell

3,798

Drugs 
Co.'s Es. 2,00,109

285

Jewellery .
Co.'s Rs.
Liquors Co.'s Rs.
Manufactured Co.'s Rs.
Metals . .
Co.'s Rs.
Naval stores
Co.'s Bs-

Oilman's stores .
Co.'s Es. 1,11,939

Aloes Assafcetida .
Arsenic .
BrimstoneB'delliumCoffeeGall-nutsGall in gall .
Gums
Medicine Saffron .
Senna leaf
Drugs
Sappan-woodSandal-wood
(¦BeadsI Corals

B. Mds.

B. Mds.

B. Mds.
B. Mds.

¦26'262lLamitta 
' { Pearls, diamonds, and emeralds

Paint and Oil
Co.'s Es
Spices .
Co.'s Bs.
Wares .
Co.'s Es. 329
Salt

Shiraz wine
j Looking-glasses .
_„ I Mother-o'pearl .
*'87tff Copper, Foreign . .
2125'-Iron' Kentledge • •
' /Coir 
'.npt Timbers 
406 'Almonds . . . .
Confectionery Cocoa-nut oil . . .
Cocoa-nut kernel
Dates 
Grocery 
Oilman's stores .
Eaisins 
Seeds, of sort . .
Wax 
(.Grain 
. Earth, red and yellow .
2,213(Cardamums ....
• 'I Cloves 
861 f Hard ware

B. Mds.

B. Mds.
*B. Mds.

B. Mds.

B. Mds.

'\ Silver ware

Co.'s Es. 1,42, 694 [ Elephants' teeth
J Chanks .

B. Mds.

Sundries Co.'s Rs

11,334

' | Cowries

Petty articles

B. Mds.

Quantity.

211 157
6,589 428
6,450 156
2,443

583

78
48

915 46
228 55

5,596

379
29,879

50
42

15

33,575 13
6,771

Treasure

Value.

Rupees. 3,001 1,711 380
1,318 735771
3,798
2,3902,513 2,208
21,677 1,302
1,13.188 4,091
37,071 7,847 936
2,7983,612 234
242
13,569 1,0961,597
10,000 285
4,879 1,669 456 158
248
40,454 2,685 1,136
57,481 4,538 298
4,687 377283
2,213 551
209 120
1,42,694 1,173
7,727
2,434

5,14,8403,97,9739,12,813

APPENDIX.

677

BENGAL.
No I.— Comparative Statement of Exports from Calcutta to Arabian and Persian

Gulfs in the Year 1836-7.

Borax and Tincal . . . . B. Mds.
Bengal paper 
Brass ware 
Bengal rum  Gallons
Beads . . .......
Cotton  B. Mds.
Cocoa-nut oil 
Canvas  Bolts
Drugs 

Grain 
Gunnies and gunny-bags
Ghee 
Ginger 
Hemp, flax, and twine .
Indigo 
Long pepper and roots .
Mats 
Piece goods, cotton .
, , silk
, , embroidered
Provisions, fresh
, , salted
Shawls, Cashmere . .
Sugar 
Silk 
Saltpetre ....
Shell-lac 
Seed-lac 
Stick-lac 
Skins and hides
Seed, of sorts ... . ,
Sugar-candy ....
Sal-ammoniac ....
Soap 
Segars 
Sundries 
Tobacco 
Wax and candles ....
Imports re-exported

B. Mds.
PiecesB. Mds.

Pieces

PiecesB. Mds.

B. Mds.

B. Mds.

Quantity.

2
28
105
275,558 4,500 80
28 19
2,616

109,724
167,096 483

70
25,517 2
25
176 12

411 54
910 2

358 27

Value.

Rupees. 43
120 117
3,585 21
133
771130
3,48,767 472
1,216 299 128
5,17,109 85
2,22,94S2,69,548 16,149 2,590 101
5,798
2,35,725 1,214 151
5,636 120
2,7272,357 866
16,238 17
14S
7,167
1,6141,307

16,65,417 1,21,165

17,86,582

678

APPENDIX.

MADRAS.
No. II. — Account of Imports by Sea in 1836-7.

Beads 
Brimstone ....
China and earthenware
Coffee 
ConfectioneryDrugs of sorts . .
Gall-nuts ....
Medicines ....
Dyes

Fruits

/ Madder
\ Manjesty .
AlbakerAlmonds
Dates .
, , dry .
Fruits of sorts
Kisnusses .
Raisins .
Glass ware ....
Goodauck  I Grain of sorts
Grain . . \ Sanegaloo .
(wheat . .
Gum, Hing ....
Mats  Brass . .
Copper .
Iron
Kussand
Oilman's stores . .
Perfumery ....
Bose-water ....
Piece goods, cotton .
,, silk . .
Fish, dry 
, , salt 
Onions 
Provisions ....
Saltpetre 
Sugar 
Sundries 

Metals .

Treasure

Arabia.

Co.'s Rupees. 6

5
22 15
763

339

4,?56

5
426 120 9

151 69
416 80 4
1C8 20
1,668 6
83 17
1,577

10,165
60,427 70,592

Gulf of Persia.

Co.'s Rupees.
16,005 654 79
40,560 6,801 242 40
2,582 213
4,534 5,836 34
178,128
2,827

213 387 57
4,208 81
1,335 106 12
364287449

128229344

913
500

1,27,413

APPENDIX.

679

MADRAS.
No. II.— Account of Exports by Sea in 1836-7.

Arrow-root .
Betel-nuts . . . .
Cotton 
Cotton twist and yarn
Drugs of sorts
Ginger, dry .
Sappan-wood . . . .
Cocoa-nuts . . . .
,, dry . . . .
Tamarind 
Furniture 
Grain of sorts
Eice ......
Jaggary 
Iron 
Coir, Laccadive .
, , rope . . . .
Poon spars . .
Oil, cocoa-nnt
,, fish 
,, sandal .
Piece goods of sorts .
Salampores . . . .
Piece goods, silk, of sorts
Ghee 
Vegetables .
Sandal-wood .
Cardainums . . . .
Cassia 
Pepper 
Timber and planks .
Turmeric ....
Wax and wax candles
Wooden ware
Sundries 

Arabia.

Gulf of Persia,

Co.'s Rupees.

Co.'s Rupees. 3

335

75

3,069

150

1,792

244

103

1,417

661

469

2,577

47

86

598

726

5

116

204

7,66,592
18,399
89
441
400
770
1,648
3,672
3,517
2,781
274
105
177
2,159
570
2,03,125
32,348
77,599
369
42
257
2
3
25
3,623
522
3
17,024
1,483
2,908
8,595
7,003
2,267
497
16
21
1,758
313
11,00,504
73,570
680

APPENDIX. BOMBAY.
No. III. — Imports from the Persian Gulf, 1836-7.

Coffee 
Dates, dry and wet ....
Eatables 
Glass  I Arabic ....
Olibanum .
Other sorts .
Hardware 
Indigo 
Ivory, elephants' teeth .
Medicines and drugs
Brass, old .
Metals .Copper, old . .
Iron, British bar .
Tin 
Mother-o'pearl, shells . . .
Oil, naphtha 
Pearls and coral 
Perfumery 
Piece goods, of sorts, 209
Saffron 
Shark-fins and fish»maws
Silk, raw 
Stationery 
Sundries 
Spices, cardamons, cloves, &c. .
Tortoiseshell 
Tobacco 
Wine, Shiraz, 306J gallons . .
Wool 

Weight.

Cwt.

179,129

376
2,716 026

31
14,859 6
360 35 7
463 172

20

849

039

Merchandise Treasure
Horses

Total

lbs.
170,643 4

37 77 11
5,924 82

3
46
40

8
46

661
25,218 96
279 526
68,540

In 1837-8 the imports from the Persian Gulf amounted to .
Showing an increase of .

Value.

Rupees. 33,466
3,89,903 29,008 615
4,766
17,84911,541 106
4,985
4,940
2,59,094 210
16,613 150
205
2,539 5,410
16,370 5,564
1,686
4,559
69,086
1,01,199 131
26,34786,287 2,369 287
832
6,730

11,02,897
20,10,892 4,45,800

35,59,589

36,02,274

42,685

APPENDIX.

681

BOMBAY.
No. III.— Exports to the Persian Gulf, 1836-7.

Weight.

Value.

Cwt.

lbs.

Rupees.

5,864 190
192
28
144,761 1,829
70,716 ' 84
1,203
21,591 630
52
8,215
15,212
Cocoa-nuts, 88,0
China-ware Copra or dry coc
1,269
41,018
1,668
7,951
1,052
5(5
136,200
3,612
18,816
350
Earthenware
Eatables and con
300
10,074
Fireworks (Chin
. ,
240
1,535
9,085
6,258
Grain, of sorts
1,28,492
180
1,105
258
26
6,052
Gunnies, 1,500
Hardware and ct
3', 763
' 78
230
itlerv
7,707
*
60
365
8,129
Marine stores
Medicines and <
556
8,249
36,842
7
57
56 84
2,925
20
111
1,030
4,322
37
11,648
2,485
69
11,148
12
56
150
87
5S
735 I
122
409
910
4,715
28
5
995
1,538 16
• •
13,516 160
15
. .
220
245
. .
800
15,608 110
225
/British printed cottons, &c, 1, 602 pieces .
13
2828
29,959 636
16,640
1,89,506
7,82,3782,03,495
j ,. white ditto, 28,989 pieces
Piece goods .
,, cottons, of sorts, 197,191 pieces
222,580
9,87,880 1,04,600 13,259
, , shawls, Cashmere, 735 pieces
34', 622
4o', 4*50
250
65,391
103
31,005
1,560
Stationery .  *
22,460 16,400
63
105
2,71,529 2,54,995
• '
6,9282,660
2,312 195
2,014
28,645
22,300
Merchandise
34,47,341
Treasure
sian Gulf amc
increase of
unted to .
42,900
34,90,241
In 1837-8 the Exports to the Per
37,33,125
Making an
2,42,884
2 Y
VOL. II
682

APPENDIX.

BOMBAY.
No. Vf .—Imports from the Arabian Gulf, 1836-7.

Coffee 
Copra or dry cocoa-nuts 
Dates, dry and wet 
Eatables 
Ginger 
Glass  1 Arabic 
Olibanum 
Other sorts ....
Hardware and cutlery 
Hides, No. 3,260 
Horns, Gynda 
Ivory, elephants' teeth 
Medicines and drugs 
Metals, old copper 
Mother-o'pearl-shells 
Pearls 
Piece goods, country, of sorts, 441 pieces
Senna  ¦
Silk, raw 
Shark-fins and fish-maws ....
Spices, almonds 
Sundries 
Tortoiseshell 
Vermilion 
Wax 
Wood, lava 
Wool 

Weight.

Cwts.

29
5,496 22
7,9479,4221,646

6
638
8,238 13
3,149

915
2,155

3
2
690

lbs.
977,752 56 13

56 639289

5
803032 36

571,559 94 7216
2,418 74
84
100
12,195

Value.

Rupees.
1,96,954 142
12,131 1,734 128
3,594
99,964 61,941
36,734 196
2,844 287
98,56673,225 611
17,366
22,700 739
39,773 378
32,77527,19727,896 19,997 632 126
1,5791,195

Merchandise
Treasure

7,81,404
11,02,290

Total rupees  18,83,694
In 1837-38, the imports were . . 17,76,980

Being a decrease of

1,06,714

APPENDIX.

683

BOMBAY.
No. IV. — Exports to the Arabian Gulf 1836-7.

ApparelBetel-nutCassia

China-ware ....
Cocoa-nuts, No. 450,880
Coir 
Copra or dry cocoa-nuts .
Cornelians ....
Cotton 

Dates, wet 
Earthenware 
Eatables and confectionery 
Fireworks (China crackers) 
Glass 
Ginger 
Grain of sorts 
Gum, b'dellium 
Hardware and cutlery 
Indigo 
Leather ' 
Medicines and drugs 
Copper of sorts 
Iron, Swedish bar 
British bar 
nails 
of sorts 
Spelter 
Steel 
Tin 
Lead, pig and sheet 
, , black 
Molasses or jagree 
Oil, of sorts 
Pepper 
», ^g • 
Perfumery and toys 
(British, of sorts, 40,566 pieces . .
, , yarn 
Piece goods ^Country, of sorts, 123,380 . . .
, , shawls, Cashmere, 5 packages
., yarn 

Metals

S

Silk, raw .
Spices 
Spirits, brandy, 62| gallons.
Stationery 
Sugar 
, , candy 
Sundries 
Tea 
Tobacco 
Wood, of sorts . . . .
Woollens, British, 1 bale

Merchandise
Treasure

Weight.

Cwts. 110

130 61

585

518109

3,282 2
136
243 6
23.3 290 129 10
673 36
1,880 1,455
1,337 7

61

1,2581,120

84
4,725

28
1,430,192

84
107
3,368 62 66
2984 25

85 56 74
105 56
37

19,520

12,026 7,126 41

75
27
4,145
325,342

Total rupees 
In 1837-38, the exports were

Rupees. 8,125 781
6,623
23,037 5,414 546 324
1,422
2,03,694 1,090 525
5,040 813270
3,073
1,74,151 4,170 3,7435,705 200
18,295 100
970
1,175 118
1,4301,778 1,528 400
5,739 250
8,129
33,787 14,924 250
4,210
• 1,77,989 17,317
3,58,051 8,9003,927
11,947 8,378 250
1,305
14,835
15,797 18,168 1,110
49,689 17,688 160
12,47,340 17,790
12,65,13015,21,580

An increase of .

2,56,450

2 Y2

684

APPENDIX.

BOMBAY.
No. V. — Imports from the Coast of Africa, 1836-7.

Betel-nut ....
Cocoa-nuts Gums, of sorts . .
Grain, ditto . .
Horns, Gynda . .
Ivory, elephants' teeth
Metals, spelter . .
Shark-fins . . .
Spices, cloves .
Sundries ....
Tortoiseshell . . .
Wax 
Wood 

Merchandise
Treasure

Weight.

Cwts. 171

1,531

111
1,805 4638
162

19

lbs. 105

48 50

23

288 66

Rupees. 1,149 586
49,601 3,7005,172
2,70,407 323
1,309
9,577 642
2,439 900
3,733

3,49,538 911

Total rupees  3,50,449
In 1837-38, the imports were . . 6,35,106

Being an increase of

2,84,657

APPENDIX.

685

BOMBAY.
No. V. — Exports to the Coast qf Africa, 1836-7.

ApparelCassia .

China-ware .
Copra or dry cocoa-nuts.
Cotton 
Coir 
Dates 
Eatables 
Glass 

Ginger 
Grain, of sorts 
Gums, of sorts 
Hardware and cutlery ....
'Copper, tiles, and plates
Iron, Swedish bars . .
British bars .
nails ....

Metals

1

Spelter 
Steel 
Tin plates, 1 9 boxes 
Medicine and drugs 
Oils, Cassia 
[British white or plain cotton muslin,

Piece goods

11,391 pieces
\ British yarn 
[Country, of sorts, 246,640 pieces

Pepper 
Silk, raw 
Spices 
Sugar 
,, candy ....
Stationery 
Sundries 
Wood 
Woollens, British, 20 bales

Merchandise Treasure

Weight.

30 77
30
210

68

28
266 146 25 2949
163

360

2
716 ISO

lbs. 933

14 14
84 6165

105 20

1,500

154 20 14
93

Total rupees 
In 1837-38 the exports were

Being an increase of

Value.

Rupees. 8,567 139
13,770 138
1,210 125
464
1,221 542 722
10,130 345
81,680 1,628
2,000 770
250 192504
650
1,858 100
49,626 1,500
330,065 4,426 953260
8,552 2,961 125
60,698 1 , 255
5,905

5,93,331 25,000

6,18,3316,45,289

26,958

686

APPENDIX.

No. VI. — Statement of Ships and Tonnage arrived at, and departed from, Calcutta,
Madras, and Bombay, from and to the undermentioned places, in the Years
1836-7. ARRIVED.

Presidency

Countries.

Under
British
Colours.

Under
American Colours.

Under
Portuguese Colours.

Under Arab
Colours.

Under ,
Native
Colours.

Ships

Tons

Ships

Tons

Ships

Tons

Ships

Tons

Ships

Tons

BengalMadrasBombay

( Arabian and I
I Persian Gulf J
Arabia .
Gulf of Persia
Persian Gulf.
Arabian Gulf
Coast of Africa

5
9
9
13 2

1,9471,536
2.2754,171 477

22

398426

B #

12
20 7
2 1

5,295
3,358 770631567

1

•
100

DEPARTED.
BengalMadras
Bombay
( Arabian and 1
\ Persian Gulf/
Arabia .
Gulf of Persia
Persian Gulf.
Arabian Gulf
Coast of Africa
9
43 4 5
6
3,8906,935 692
1,290 1,311
3
645
13
140 14 1
3
5,755
19,990 1,626 542
899
••
••
(I-)
Bushire, July 17, 1836.
Sir, The noble and interesting river Euphrates is far too celebrated to require
more from me than a fair view of the facilities afforded by it for steam navigation,
and of the prospect it offers for establishing an economical and more rapid com
munication between Great Britain and her Indian possessions, than lias hitherto
been obtained: — the brilliant prospects of a new channel being opened to our
enterprising mercantile world, through a steam establishment on the Euphrates,
ought to awaken our best energies.
My personal knowledge of the river Euphrates is limited to the descent made
by the Euphrates Expedition, from Bireh-jik to its estuary, a distance of 1117
miles, performed during the months of March, April, May, and June ; but from
the information of other officers of the Expedition, not a single impediment exists
to steam navigation, upwards from Bireh-jik to Sumeisat, that portion ofthe river
appearing far more favourable than we found the first 88 miles, from Bireh-jik to
Beles, which was much intersected with shingle islands and shoals, making the
navigation intricate, but always affording us a deep channel from 1 to 3, 5, and
occasionally 7 to 9 fathoms, as the river varied its width from 200 yards to 1 and
!¦£ miles, and sometimes even more. The average current in this part of the river
APPENDIX. 687
was about 4 knots, and it takes in the very commanding position of Kal'at en
Nejm, about 40 miles below Bireh-jik.
So far the tribes on the banks were evidently so much awed by the appearance
of our steamers, that instead of the usual hostility shown to individual travellers,
we experienced the greatest hospitality and good will ; and there was excited in
them an avidity to traffic for our woollen goods, cottons, shawls, cutlery, guns, &c,
hitherto quite unknown amongst these wild people.
Next to Bireh-jik, Beles appeared to me the most important station, offering
great facilities for docks and other arrangements, necessary in an efficient halting-
place for the steamers which might here end the voyage upwards. It is less than
50 miles from Aleppo, over a perfectly level country, well adapted for either a
rail or post road, making a journey easily performed in five or six hours by ordi
nary means.
From Beles the river improves considerably, exchanging the shingle islands and
shoals for sandy islands with bluff terminations and bold shores, thickly covered
with tamarisk and poplar, as are also the banks, offering an inexhaustible supply
of fuel, with little exception, as far down as 'A'nah, a distance of 406 miles.
At 'A'nah, and below to Basrah, the scenery is extremely beautiful, the date-
tree prevailing, but frequently other wood in great abundance.
The town of Hit is 103 miles below 'A'nah, and produces salt and bitumen to
any extent, from springs about three-quarters of a mile inland.
The bunds and irrigating walls commence some distance above 'A'nah, and end
about 1 0 miles below Hit : their simple and elegant structures make them beau
tiful features on the river, and they did not cause our vessel the slightest impedi
ment in her descent. One hundred and ninety miles below Hit is Hillah, a very
considerable town, having a bridge of boats across the river, which being under
the control of the Musellim of the place, can be always opened by his orders on
the approach of steamers.
Seventy-six miles below Hillah is Lamliim, but for some miles above, the river
becomes so narrow, and winds so much, that our vessel could be only got round
the turnings with great difficulty and risk to the paddles ; and after entering the
Lamliim Marshes the channel became so extremely intricate and narrow (some
times barely exceeding the breadth across the paddle-boxes), that with the three-
knot current running in it, and sharp turnings, I consider this part of the river quite
unsafe and impracticable for a steamer of our size, but easy work for a much
smaller one.
The people about Lamliim are certainly a wild bad set, and easily excited to
hostility ; but, with proper caution, a steamer may be always made secure against
them. The windings of the channel through the Lamliim Marshes make a distance of
about 42 miles; but from Karayem Inlet the river again recovers its former
dio-niry, indeed improves at every step for 135 miles to Kiirnah, becoming navi
gable for steamers of a considerable size, and from thence to the sea, a distance of
101-J miles, for steamers ofthe largest description.
Basrah is about 40 miles below Kiirnah, and I consider it admirably suited for
the magazines, dockyards, &c, of a large force.

688 APPENDIX.
I consider that a rapid steam voyage may be performed, both up and down the
Euphrates, at any season of the year.
For the lower part of the river from Basrah to Karayem Inlet, a distance of 174
miles, I should propose an iron steamer of 80 or 90 horse power, about 120 feet
long, 20 feet beam, and draught of water in trim 5 feet 6 inches. These dimen
sions would admit of a fine sea bottom, would give a speed of upwards of 12
knots, and enable her to go to sea in safety, should her services be required in any
of the ports, inlets, or rivers in the Persian Gulf. The wind, called Samiel or
Samm, which prevails for some months, also makes it necessary to have a powerful
vessel for the lower part of the river.
The average current from Basrah to El Karayem Inlet I should set at two knots,
therefore this vessel would perform the passage up in nineteen hours, and down in
less than fourteen.
The channel of the Lamliim Marshes, and for some distance above, is so ex
tremely tortuous and intricate, that at Karayem Inlet I should propose a transfer
from the large, to two small steamers : two would be required to carry the con
tents of the large one, also to give power in case of any attack from the Arabs.
These vessels might be 60 feet long, 10 feet beam, and have power enough to
steam upwards of 12 knots, and should not draw more than 2 feet water ; as in the
low season the Karablah passage at 'A'nah, and the channel generally for some
distance above, and for 110 miles below, would not at certain places have more
than 30 inches water. But vessels of this description would of course get over
this, and steaming 1 2 knots an hour, with an average current of 4 knots from El
Karayem Inlet to Beles, a distance of 794 miles, would perform the distance in
eight days upwards, and four days downwards; and allowing for the transfer
between the vessels and other delays, the passage might be considered as ten days
up and five down, adding a day in each case between Karayem and Basrah.
From Karayem Inlet to Beles I allow only twelve hours steaming each day,
and the remainder for taking in fuel, cleaning the engines, &c.
The wheels of these vessels should be protected by extending the outer casing
of the paddle-boxes down to the water edge, or even a little below in the centre
in the same manner as the river boats in England.
The passage of ten days up would in practice, I consider, certainly be reduced
to eight, as the small steamers with their light draught of water would for some
hundred miles be enabled to creep up in the eddies and slack water. However
viewing everything at its lowest average, I should consider (supposing the arrange
ment in the Persian Gulf and Mediterranean comple), that the communication
from Bombay home would be accomplished^ in thirty-eight days, and out in
thirty-three. I have the honour to be, Sir,
Your most obedient Servant,
(Signed) E. F. Cleaveland,
Lieutenant Royal Navy.
To Colonel Chesney, &c, &c, '
Commanding Euphrates Expedition.

APPENDIX. 689
(J.)
Euphrates Steamer, Bushire, July 17, 1836.
OIR, Having been requested by you to state my opinion as to the practicability
of navigating the river Euphrates, and also what I consider to be the best method
of permanently establishing a line of communication on that noble river, I now
offer these few remarks, founded on my observations during the descent of the
expedition from Port William to Basrah in the months of March, April, May,
and June.
From Bireh-jik to Beles, a distance of 88 miles, we met with considerable
difficulty, the river being extremely intricate for navigation in consequence of the
innumerable deceitful shoals and banks, both under and above the surface of the
water. We had no pilot, however, in this part of the river, consequently the
vessels touched on several shoals which would in future be avoided.
But this part of the river (in establishing a route between Great Britain and
India) is not required to be navigated, as we have Beles, and Ja'ber 35 miles
below Beles, both places well adapted for depots, and much nearer to Aleppo
than Bireh-jik, with good roads.
It remains, therefore, to be decided whether Beles or Ja'ber should be the
upper station on the river. I prefer the latter, as it saves 35 miles of rather
difficult navigation, and is but 8 miles further from Aleppo. It also has greater
facilities in forming a depot, and is considered more healthy than Beles.
Considering, therefore, Ja'ber as the upper station on the river, there remain
938 miles of navigation from that place to Basrah. In this distance I consider
we have but two impediments which are worth noticing. The first is the
Karablah rocks, 2 miles above 'A'nah, and the second the Lamliim Marshes.
The Karablah rocks have 10 feet water over them in the high season, and 3
feet at the lowest, the stream running over them at the rate of 7 miles per hour.
We have already a diving-bell at this place, which at a small expense might
clear away the rocks so as to give a passage of 4rJ or 5 feet water in the low
season. But even as this place is at present in the low season, a steamer drawing
2% feet water, if she could not steam, might be warped up by means of a hawser
secured in the centre of the stream above the rocks, with not more than two hours
loss of time.
In the high season I think a steamer could get up without having recourse to
the warp.
The bed of the river from Karablah, 30 miles downwards, is very rocky, many
showing above water; these, however, may be avoided with a little caution.
The rocks of El' Uzz, 9 miles below Hadisah, are the next worse to Karablah, but
they do not offer any serious impediment.
From El' Uzz to Lamliim, or rather to 4 miles above the latter town, we have
288 miles of a beautiful river, the average depth in this distance being three
fathoms, with the exception of some places, a little below the town of Hit,
where 10 and 12 feet would be the average.

690 APPENDIX.
The marshes commence 4 miles above the town of Lamliim ; they extend
about 28 miles in a straight course, and 50 by the main channel.
In these marshes the river divides itself into innumerable small canals, leaving
the main channel averaging about 120 feet in breadth, but in some places not
above 35 feet : the banks during the high season are in many places covered with
water, they should therefore be shown by pickets. All through the marshes the
bank is not raised above 6 inches from the surface of the water, which renders it
unsafe for a steamer's paddles, particularly as there is a current running in the
narrow parts at the rate of 3 knots per how, with very sharp turnings every 200
yards. All this may be avoided by cutting a canal of about 23 miles in length through
a soft loamy soil, and which might be done with great facility by the Arabs who
inhabit these marshes, and are constantly employed digging canals for irrigating
their rice fields.
These marshes end 5 miles above a creek called Karayem Inlet, which place is
well adapted for a depot. And here ends every shadow of a difficulty, as from
this place downwards there is a fine broadr stream with an average depth of 3£
fathoms, and a current varying between 2 and 3 miles per hour.
In forming a steam communication by this river, I should consider Basrah to
be the best place for the lower depot, having greater facilities for that object than
Kiirnah or any place between, although a sea steamer might with ease go up the
river much further than Kiirnah.
From the latter place to Karayem Inlet, a distance of 184 miles, I should
propose to be navigated by a low-pressure iron steamer, her dimensions being
about 110 feet in length with 21 feet beam, and drawing not more than 5 feet
water. A vessel of these dimensions would not only be fit to navigate the river
to Karayem Inlet, but could make sea voyages if required.
From Karayem Inlet two small iron steamers should navigate the Lamliim
Marshes to the first town above them called Diwaniyah in the high season, and
in the low season they should go on to a depot, formed just above the Karablah
Eocks, where, I think, a fourth steamer should be ready to take the contents of
the two small ones up to Ja'ber. This steamer might in the high season meet
the smaller ones at Diwaniyah, and by this means expedite the voyage ; for the
fourth steamer being a much larger vessel would be faster than the smaller ves
sels. Diwaniyah is very well adapted for a depot ; it is about 68 miles above
Karayem Inlet.
The dimensions of the two small steamers should be about 65 feet in length
and 22 feet beam across the paddle-boxes, drawing not more than 2-J- feet water :
they should have high-pressure engines ; so that, with the above dimensions, I think
they might have a speed of 1 0 knots per hour.
The fourth or upper steamer should also have high pressure, her dimensions
being 100 feet in length with 26 feet beam across the paddle-boxes, drawing not
more than 3£ feet water. Particular attention should be paid to having all the
steamers' paddles well guarded.
I do not consider it would be practicable to navigate any part of the river above

APPENDIX. 69 1
Karayem Inlet during the night, but, with the vessels above mentioned, I think
80 miles could be made each day against the current, which would enable the
voyage from Basrah to Ja'ber to be accomplished in thirteen or fourteen days ;
and down the river, at the rate of 120 miles per day, would give nine days.
Depots for wood and bitumen should be formed every 20 miles between Ja'ber
and Hit, both of which can be obtained with great facility from the Arabs on
that part of the river, and at a very low price. From Hit downwards coal should
be placed at convenient distances, according to the quantity each steamer can
carry. During the descent, we found the Arabs not only peaceable, but even in many
instances anxious to secure our protection : this conduct towards us, however, was
caused by our formidable appearance. It would, therefore, be advisable to have
the steamers well armed, having each one great gun, with as many swivels, small
arms, &c, as convenient.
They always evinced great eagerness to barter their provisions, and in fact
everything they possessed, for our Glasgow merchandise, which consisted of hand
kerchiefs and shawls principally ; so that I am convinced considerable commerce
would be carried on with great success on the river.
Taking all these things into consideration, I should say it would be highly
advisable to navigate this river, as being the speediest and most secure route
between Great Britain and her Indian possessions.
I have the honour to be, &c,
(Signed) E. P. Charlewood, Mate, Royal Navy.
To Colonel Chesney, R. A.,
Commanding the Euphrates Expedition.

(K.)
Euphrates Expedition, Bushire, July 15, 1836.
Sir, Having received a request that I should give you my opinion as to the
best means of establishing a steam communication on the river Euphrates, I offer
these few remarks founded on my own observations during our descent of that
splendid river, and I do this with some diffidence as, until my connexion with
the Euphrates Expedition, I never had much turned my attention to steam
affairs. I assume as beyond a doubt that the Euphrates is navigable at the high season
for steam-boats of build and dimensions suited to the different parts. This, the
descent of the Euphrates steamer on the falling waters between March and July
has sufficiently proved, in such a way as to leave little doubt in my mind that at
the lowest season the river could be navigated, or at all events be easily made
navigable. The distance from Bir to Basrah by the windings ofthe stream is about 1056

692 APPENDIX.
miles (the river being still navigable much above Bir), but for the shortest com
munication with the.Mediterranean, it never would be advisable to ascend higher
than about 5 miles below where the steamers lay at Beles, 963 miles from Basrah ;
and it might eventually be found more advantageous to ascend no higher than
Ja'ber Castle, about 35 miles below Beles, which would reduce the steaming
distance from Basrah to 935 miles.
But I should consider the most eligible starting point for the river steamers would
be at or near the junction of the Tigris and Euphrates at Kiirnah, 39 miles above
Basrah ; and if Ja'ber were the place fixed on, the whole river navigation would
then be reduced to 896 miles the sea steamers might then come up to Kiirnah
with ease.
The reasons for preferring Kiirnah to Basrah are — 1st. There is no bank at
Basrah alongside which a steamer might he to take in fuel, &c. ; she would be
obliged to anchor in the open river ; whereas Kiirnah, besides being more shel
tered, has good steep banks, both in the Tigris and Euphrates, on which splendid
wharfs might be built. 2ndly. I should imagine Kumah to be a much more
healthy place than Basrah. 3rdly. Kiirnah, from its situation, commands the
mouths both of the Euphrates and the Tigris : this in case of a hostile power
coming down either fiver would be an immense advantage ; it would also be a
much more convenient depot for the steamers which would navigate both rivers ;
for it is presumed that the navigation of the Euphrates would soon cause a fine
of steamers to run also up to Baghdad.
To navigate the Euphrates properly at the high season,1 it would be requisite,
in my opinion, to have four steamers, to be thus disposed : —
A good-sized powerful steamer to start from Kiirnah, and proceed 135 miles to
Karayem Inlet, just below the Lamliim Marshes, where she would meet two small
ones expressly made for navigating the marshes, the difficulties of which extend
about 50 miles by the windings of the main channel, or about 25 in a straight
line. From Lamliim a large powerful steamer, going 11 or 12 knots, would proceed
at once and with speed to the station at Beles. It would be perhaps advisable to
have two such vessels, always keeping one at each end of the line, and one could
relieve the other in case of her being disabled, &c.
From what I have heard of the state of the river at the low season, I should
say that the large steamer might navigate from the Lamliim Marshes to Hillah at
all times, and from thence it would be necessary to have two small ones of great
power for the rest of the ascent, or the two Lamliim steamers might continue
their progress the whole way up instead of keeping them in the marshes.
In the passage from Kiirnah to the Lamliim Marshes, the steamer might
draw 5 feet water, or even more, and should go at least 10 knots ; it should be
built of iron.
The steamers for the Lamliim Marshes ought not to exceed 65 or 70 feet in
length and 20 feet beam over the paddles, and they ought not to draw more than
1 I consider the navigable high season from the beginning of March to the beginning of July.

APPENDIX. 693
3 feet water : if intended to go up the river at the low season they should only
draw 1£ foot.
The large steamer for the high season above Lamliim might draw 3 to 3£ feet
water, and should possess great power, going 11 or 12 knots. I mention 3J feet
because I am aware of the difficulty of making a vessel of great power draw little
water without her being too large ; the great weight of the boilers and engines in
proportion to the size of the vessels, being much against their being sufficiently
buoyant. The two steamers intended for the upper portion of the river at the low season
should certainly not draw more than 1$ foot water, should go at least 10 knots,
on account of passing the falls which occur at this period, such as Karablah, 'A'nah,
and between the bunds or irrigating parapet-walls above Hit.
They might be 90 feet long and 15 broad, or 23 feet over the paddles. As,
however, it would probably not be thought worth the expense to have these two
vessels at all, the size of those intended for the Lamliim Marshes would answer,
provided they had sufficient power.
The vessels should answer helm quickly, and their paddles ought to be pro
tected by being either built into the sides, or by having guards below the water
edge, like the small steamers on the Thames.
As to their armament, we found the Arabs so different from what we had
expected, and so anxious to secure our protection, that it might be lightly passed
over, did we not know that they would certainly take advantage of the vessels and
attack them if they imagined they were in a defenceless state.
They should therefore each have at least one swivel gun forward or aft, as con
venient, to fire grape and canister, with four one-pounder swivels, and two wall-
pieces ; a good portion of muskets or carbines, pistols, swords, &c, for the crew,
and if Congreve rockets could be kept from spoiling by the carriage or heat, a
supply of them would be invaluable.
The smallest boat might then defy all that the Arabs could bring against her.
The engine-room should of course be amply provided with engineers, stokers,
and coal-trimmers, these last probably from Lascars ; but there should always be a
sufficiency of European seamen to insure confidence in the event of a skirmish.
There should be three officers on board each vessel, as a constant look-out is
required, although, after a time, steady quarter-masters might be brought to take
care of the vessels all the way, particularly as good pilots are to be got all down
the river below Deir.
But the opening of the Euphrates, if once commenced in earnest, should be on
a liberal scale.
An agent should be placed at Beles, another at Kiirnah, and a third at 'A'nah,
to secure the necessary depots of wood, bitumen, &c. I should also recommend
a large store of coal to be placed at the lower extremity of the river in case of
need otherwise wood must be rafted down from the upper part of the stream.
The impediments, such as the rocks of Karablah, those of Is Geria, and others,
should be cleared away, and a canal cut through the Lamliim Marshes.

694 APPENDIX.
This might be be done easier than may be imagined, as the inhabitants are
quite accustomed to canal cutting for the purpose of irrigating the land.
A straight one of 25 or 30 miles, having its banks well dammed up, would
ensure a deep and safe passage, from which irrigating cuts might be made for the
cultivation of the adjoining grounds.
The advantages which would ensue from the establishment of a regular steam
communication on the Euphrates would, I am convinced, amply repay any outlay
and trouble which might attend the commencement.
The avidity with which the inhabitants of the different towns on the river
bought our Manchester woollen goods, &c, sufficiently proves that a great opening
is presented to our commerce. Aleppo, Baghdad, Basrah, and, should the
Kariin be navigated, Ispahan, would soon become marts for British produce, and
the influence of the English name be thus increased and extended.
Taking these things into consideration, it appears to me that England would not
have cause to regret having made the Euphrates the high road to her Indian pos
sessions, even should it afterwards be found that letters and passengers might be
conveyed with more speed by the line of the Eed Sea.
It is almost needless to go into the question of the sea steamers, which Will best
be decided by experience ; but I should say at least two powerful steamers ought
to navigate between Bombay and Kiirnah ; and the Mediterranean line should be
extended to Scanderoon or the Bay of Antioch.
The transport of letters and passengers could be easily managed by an agent at
Beles under the consul at Aleppo, and perhaps an agent or vice-consul at Antioch.
A splendid road might be made over the 100 miles which separate the Euphrates
from the Mediterranean : I should consider a railroad impracticable, but I think a
canal might be cut, incurring, however, a great outlay. This would complete the
communication by water of England with India by the shortest possible line.
I have the honour to be, &c,
(Signed) Jas. Fitzjames, Royal Navy.
Colonel Chesney, R.A.,
Commanding the Euphrates Expedition.

(L.)
Basrah, August 31, 1836.
Sir, According to your desire I proceed to give you my observations upon the
capability of navigating the river Euphrates. These observations have reference
only to the season of high water, and may be comprised within very narrow limits ;
since, I believe, that no difficulties present themselves in carrying out this important
object. The whole line from Ja'ber to a little below Diwaniyah is a long course free from
impediments. There are some few places, where, to conduct a vessel safely and

APPENDIX. 695
surely it is necessary to be acquainted with the line of the deep channel, such as
at Karablah, 'A'nah, and two places above both, where reefs of rocks stretch across
the river ; but where, I believe, a channel does exist sufficiently deep to float such
a vessel as the " Euphrates." There are, along the line I have mentioned, many
projecting ranges of arches, formerly used in irrigating the neighbouring lands, and
there are some insulated rocks, but in no case offering impediments of a serious
nature when their positions are well understood.
Below the line I have mentioned, until arriving at the termination of the
Lamliim Marshes, the river is more difficult, owing to the very sharp windings and
the greater narrowness, so that in this part I do not consider that the " Euphrates "
steamer is suited for the navigation. Yet there would be no difficulty for a shorter
vessel. From below the Lamliim Marshes to Basrah the river presents a fine,
wide, deep, and easy course ; and a still larger vessel than the " Euphrates "
might easily perform the voyage.
The current never exceeds 4£ or 5 knots, except in the most rapid places, and
the " Euphrates" has found no difficulty, not only in stemming it, but in making
5 knots against it by the land.
Probably at the low season it would be found that the " Euphrates" drew too
much water ; and I think that the vessel employed in making the voyages up and
down should not draw more than 22 or 24 inches; but of this I cannot so
well form an opinion, as I am not aware what depth there will be at the low
season. With regard to fuel. — All the way from Ja'ber to a little above 'A'nah there is
abundance of jungle-wood at intervals. It is chiefly tamarisk, and was reported
by the engineer, upon our descent, to be well suited for the engines. The dif
ferent Sheiks engaged to collect supplies for us, and to cut it into lengths, so that
we might, in ascending, experience no delay. Probably we shall find, that they
will have failed in their engagements the first time ; but certainly, when they see
that the vessels return punctually and take their wood, paying a good remunerating
price, these Sheiks will be careful to have the depots regularly prepared. As far
as 'A'nah coal may always be carried up from Basrah, but it will be found cheaper
to float down rafts from the jungle country to the places found convenient for
depots. The practice of floating down rafts is usual amongst the people of the
country as far as Hit.
The last point which requires to be mentioned is the disposition of the Arabs,
and I see no reason to form a less satisfactory opinion than upon the other points
I have already reported.
Perhaps it may be supposed that doubts regarding the intention of the steamer
in her descent, added to the alarm which certainly possessed the people to a great
extent may have rendered our voyage more prosperous than would be the case in
future ; but I am not of this opinion. The doubt and alarm which now exist
would no doubt subside, and finding that they experienced no evil from the peaceful
passage of the vessels, but on the contrary, that provisions were bought from them,
and services required for which they regularly received a proper hire, they would
be induced to look for the return of vessels with friendly feelings, and desire to

696 APPENDIX.
cultivate a good understanding, in order to enjoy as much as possible the profits
which the steamers would bring in their train. <
There are questions of a professional nature, such as the dimensions required
for a vessel suited to the navigation of the river, which I have not the means of
answering except in a general way. Thus, for instance, a power equal to that of
the " Euphrates'' would be ample, but the draught of water should be confined
to 22 or 24 inches; the length of the vessel must be less than that of the
" Euphrates," and she must answer her helm readily, and be capable of turning
quickly. I have now, I think, mentioned all the points to which it occurs to me to refer ;
and I think it will be seen, perhaps, that the navigation of no river was ever com
menced under such favourable circumstances. I have the honour to be, Sir,
Your most obedient Servant,
(Signed) J. B. Bucknall Estcourt,
Captain 43rd Light Infantry.
Colonel Chesney, R.A.,
Commanding the Euphrates Expedition.

(M.)
Bushire, July 17, 1836.
Sir, The general question of the navigation of the river Euphrates, and of the
advantages to be derived from that navigation, is of such a nature that, in acceding
to your request to give an opinion upon a subject rather foreign to my usual pur
suits, my diffidence is to a certain degree overcome by the well-defined view which
the nature of the circumstances have allowed me to take, even after a short
acquaintance with the river and the inhabitants of its banks.
The river Euphrates is evidently a navigable stream. I am acquainted with it
from Sumeisat, in the Taurus, to its embouchure in the Persian Gulf, a distance
of upwards of 1,200 miles ; and in that extent there are only two real difficulties,
both of which are superable, by undergoing an expense quite disproportioned to
the importance of rendering efficient at all seasons of the year, and throughout so
lengthened a course, the navigation of this noble river.
The first obstacle is the Karablah Eocks at 'A'nah, where there is already a
diving-bell at hand, and through which, I believe, it is the opinion of the naval
officers that a steamer might, even at low water, be warped, with a loss of not
more than two hours, in case of her not being able to steam through them.
The second is the narrowness of the bed, and the numerous windings which it
forms in going through the Lamliim Marshes ; but these difficulties, which will
not bear comparison with what has already been overcome in our own country —
for example, in the Forth below Stirling, or the Clyde, at low water, above
Dumbarton — only proved themselves so to the " Euphrates " steamer, which is of
large dimensions, and had her paddles unprotected.

APPENDIX. 697
In the details connected with the rendering the navigation of the river available
to its full extent, the difficulties of the Lamliim Marshes may be overcome by three
modes : —
1st. The navigation by a steamer of proper dimensions and make, as will no
doubt be laid before you by those competent to judge on a question entirely of a
professional character.
2ndly. By digging a canal across the territory of Lamliim ; and 3rdly, by taking
advantage of the offer made by the pasha of Baghdad to dig a canal across the
alluvial flat which in the parallel of that city extends from the Tigris to the
Euphrates. The latter mode of navigating the united rivers appears to me fraught with
many advantages, the Lamliim Marshes are avoided, and the city of Baghdad is
brought into closer relations with Basrah and with Hindustan, both in point of
intercommunication and commerce.
For the efficient navigation of the Euphrates, three river steamers besides the
sea steamers will be requisite — one at a station below the marshes, another to go
through the marshes themselves, and one of greater power for the upper part of
the river.
By taking the road of the Hai or the Tigris, and crossing from thence by canal
to Feliijah, one steamer succeeding the sea steamer at the junction of the former
with the Euphrates would reach the second station, and be succeeded by one more
to the upper station.
In a commercial point of view, the close communication thus established with
so great an emporium of trade as Baghdad is of the very first importance, nor is
the connexion that would be established between Basrah and Baghdad of a trifling
character ; but there are also on the river between Kiirnah and Feliijah large towns,
as Sheikh-el-Shuyiikh and Hillah, and powerful tribes, as the Montefik Arabs, who
have long been actuated by the spirit of commercial enterprise, and whom it
would perhaps not be judicious to overlook.
There is, indeed, amongst almost all the tribes a cupidity that is easily aroused,
and which would stir the people up to new exertion in order to obtain comforts
and luxuries with which they would then first become acquainted, and could not
be slow in appreciating. The boasted frugality and indifference of the Arab are
not proof against the inventions of an improved mechanism in cutlery or fire
arms ; and nowhere is there displayed a greater anxiety for gay dresses and
ornaments : this taste is indeed almost a passion with both sexes. With abundant
instances of the operation of these incentives we have also seen examples of
feelings common to human nature (a nature which is less barbarous here than is
commonly supposed) of the love of decorating their children, and of a desire to
improve their condition ; nor is there here any of the Bedawin apprehension of
doing what may be considered derogatory to the discipline handed down by theii
ancestors, or capable of affecting their warlike independence.
Three localities have been pointed out as the northerly station of the navigation,
Ja'ber, Beles, and Bir. They are all feasible : I should give the preference to
Beles: the station is not unhealthy; the alluvial soil would allow of docks being
VOL. II. 2 z

698 APPENDIX.
dug with facility. The tribes are pastoral, but only partially nomadic, and might
be easily rendered agricultural. The distance from Aleppo and the Mediterranean
is at a minimum, and the country is adapted for post-roads, railroads, or a canal.
The whole character of the descent of the river made by the " Euphrates "
steamer, demonstrated in the most decisive manner that the great moral difficulties
which it was supposed would have to be overcome, only exist in the exaggerated
alarms created by the predatory habits of the Bedawin of the Desert, or degenerated
tribes like those of Sinjar. The Arabs, I firmly believe, never dreamt, and are
incapable, except when guided to it by superior wisdom, of a combined plan of
operations. But it was an unexpected spectacle which was offered at the opening
of the navigation, in the coming forward of the sheiks and elders of the most
reputable and powerful tribes to cultivate the acquaintance and seek the protec
tion of the commander of the Expedition.
When a melancholy accident deprived the Expedition of half of its physical
power, the same impression continued in operation ; and instead of a demand of
tribute or customs, as was so confidently anticipated by some, the tribes were
ready even with pecuniary sacrifices to seek the protection of the British flag.
That little dependence can be placed upon the Arabs, is, with regard to many
of the most affluent tribes only, the calumny of an irritated or an ignorant tra
veller. At all events it must be kept in mind, that the first who may bring those
uninformed nations in contact with a civilization which excites their love and
admiration, is at least the most likely to establish lasting associations in their
bosoms in connexion with the early dawn of a new order of things.
The advantages which are presented by the opening of the navigation of
the river Euphrates, belong to universal civilization, as well as to an increase of
national power. The waters of this great river flow past the habitations of
upwards of four millions of human beings, amongst whom their own traditions
have transmitted the sense of a revolution to be effected by the introduction of a
religion of humility, of charity, and of forbearance.
The intellectual powers of the descendants from the most noble stocks of the
human race are not extinct in their present fallen representatives, and it would be
difficult to say to what extent civilization might flourish when revived in its most
antique home. The mental privileges of the Arab, overwhelmed by moral
despotism and political insecurity, are not less than those of their Assyrian, their
Babylonian, or their Palmyrean ancestors.
The national importance "of this navigation is of the most comprehensive cha
racter. Every one acquainted with the history of the communication of nations,
which as Montesquieu" has ably pointed out, is the history of commerce, must be
aware that those circumstances which led to the annihilation of the commerce of
the estst, would be revolutionized by the opening now proposed to be effected ; and
that while civilization might be confidently expected to return to its almost pri
meval seat, it would do so under a very different aspect, and with vastly improved
means over the days of Opis and Ophir, or of Caucasium and Callinicum.
All these advantages are to be obtained by the navigation which you have
entered upon, and of which you have proved the practicability. The establish-

APPENDIX. 699
ment of a friendly intercourse with the natives would also be effected, to secure
which and to keep up supplies of fuel and provisions, two or three resident
agents might be stationed at distant points on the river, besides one station at the
junction of the Hai and the Euphrates. I have the honour to be, &c,
(Signed) William Ainsworth,
Surgeon and Geologist to the
Colonel Chcsney, R.A., Euphrates Expedition.
Commanding the Euphrates Expedition.

(N.)
COMMEECIAL OPENINGS IN WESTERN ASIA.
The exploratory voyages in descending and ascending the rivers Kariin, Tigris, Navigability of
and Euphrates, have sufficiently proved the practicability of their navigation with the rivers of
vessels of a suitable construction. With regard to the latter, Lieutenant now T . .
Commander C. D. Campbell, of the Indian Navy, having ascended the river from Campbell's
the bar to Beles, in the spring of 1841, a distance of 1030 miles, using chiefly E^'ates'to
wood and bitumen as fuel, stated in a letter to the author : " I quite agree with Beles.
your officers regarding the description of vessels, and have proposed a small one
for the rapids. Even without this I will bring the packets in sixteen days from
Basrah to Beles, after a little more experience of the river."
The steamer now proposed by Mr. Laird of Birkenhead as most suitable for
the river, and whieh would combine all the advantages of the larger vessel recom^
mended by the officers of the Expedition, particularly by Commanders Cleaveland
and Charlewood, should be of the following dimensions : —
Feet.
Length on deck ...... 130
Length on water-line, about . .110
Beam  20
Depth at sides and ends .... 5
With a raised deck amidships over cabins and engines. Engines, a pair of 25-
horse power, with tubular boilers.
The vessel to be divided into thirteen compartments by water-tight bulkheads,
longitudinal and athwartship, and constructed on the principle of the Hon. East
India Company's steam-vessel Napier, now doing good service on the Indus.
The principal of construction is to round the vessel up at each extremity by an
easy curve, leaving only a small portion amidships flat, by which means she is
enabled to glide over the water and turn in so small a space that she is more
manageable than a vessel of 90 to 100 feet long built on the ordinary construc
tion. The rudder is hung on a bar loose, so as to drop to a level with the keel, and
in case of striking the ground it is merely raised up, and again falls into its place
without receiving any injury.
The vessel being of a light construction, the draft of water would not exceed
2 z 2

700

APPENDIX.

Suitability of
the line for
mail communi
cation,

and for
commercial enterprise.

Ormiiz, its
former and
present trade.

Its commerce
transferred to
Baader 'Abbas,

Articles of
export and
import.

Kishm. Its
harbour, and
state of its
commerce.

2 feet when loaded, and the cabins would afford good and airy accommodation
for officers and crew. A speed of 12 knots may be obtained when loaded, draft
of 2 feet, and the boilers would be so constructed as to work regularly at a
pressure of 10 to 12 lbs. per square inch; but being proved to. stand at least
40 lbs. pressure, they- may be worked as high as 20 lbs. when rapids or an
increased strength of current are to be encountered. The cost of such a vessel in
England complete, will be 4,000/. ; and when launched on the river Euphrates,
about 6,000Z.
The reports of the officers of the Expedition, given in the preceding part of the
Appendix, have pointed out the advantages of this Une for mail communication
with India, either as an auxiliary to the Eed Sea, or, in case of any interruption
occurring in that fine, and they have indicated at the same time an important
opening to our commerce by the steam navigation of these rivers. It now remains
to show the scope for British enterprise afforded by the great rivers of Mesopo
tamia. The existing trade between India and the Persian Gulf has been already
noticed ;l and in the impetus which it is hoped this commerce would receive from
the opening of the rivers, Ormiiz, at the entrance of the Gulf, would in some
degree participate. This place, once so celebrated for its opulence and extensive
trade, is now a miserable fishing island, farmed by the imam of Muskat from the
king of Persia. He derives, however, a considerable revenue from the exportation
of salt in large quantities to different parts of the Gulf. It abounds in iron and
copper ore. The harbour is good, and there is excellent anchorage on the north,
side ofthe town. The Portuguese, had possession of the island from 1507 to
1622, when they were expelled by Shah 'Abbas and the English, and the greater
part of the trade was transferred to Gamrun or Bander 'Abbas. The English,
French, and Dutch had factories there, of which the Dutch factory alone remains
in a state of preservation, being used -as a residence by the Imam. Yet the trade
is still considerable; in 1827 the Imam of Muskat, to whom the port belongs,
collected a revenue of 8,000 or 10,000 dollars. Its exports are Persian carpets,
tobacco, and dried fruits ; its imports, Indian cloths, piece goods, and China
ware ; the annual value of these articles was, at the same period, estimated
at about three lakhs of rupees. Although the rise of Bushire has diverted com
merce from Bander 'Abbas, it is still one of the routes to the centre of Persia ;
and when, a few years since, Bushire continued for some time in a disturbed
state, the former recovered some of its earlier importance. In the neighbourhood
of the little village of Khamir, higher up the Gulf, are sulphur mines, extensively
worked, the sulphur being exported in large quantities to Muskat. Beyond this
again is the large island of Kishm, its principal towns being Kishm, Laft, and
Bassadore ; the latter with a good port and station for the Indian navy. The
harbour of Kishm is also good, and its site well chosen. It was-formerly of
greater commercial importance than at present, but its bazar is still well sup
plied with fruits from the interior of Persia ; while good wines, all kinds of dried

Appendix <{H.)

APPENDIX. 70 1
fruits silk and cotton stuffs, with very fine soft carpets of the richest patterns
and dye, are to be had there in abundance : the latter measuring 6 or 7 feet long
by 3 feet broad, were sold for twenty dollars each.' A considerable part of the Trade of
trade ot the Gulf is centred in Bushire, which supplies Shiraz and a large Bushire with
portion of Persia with European and Indian goods, receiving silk and bullion in ^^ &°'
return. It is frequented by ships from, all parts of India. Lieutenant Kemp
thorne mentions having seen fourteen native merchant vessels in its port at once
and the author at a later period has seen almost as many.
The following is a statement from the house of Constantine and Co., Bushire
March, 1841 :— (Number of Ships not stated.) Exports from
Bus/lire and Bomhay.-U to 20 bagalas employed, carrying Persian horses, 800 to fndt| le?
1,000 yearly, from 25 to 35 Company's rupees* freight
each ; ships charging 40 to 45 rupees each.
, , 1,500 bales Persian silk of 75 lbs. each ; some years 2,000
bales or more.
1 1 Almonds, quince seed, gall-nuts.
1 1 Bullion, coins of all kinds, quantity uncertain, probably
20,000?. to 30,000/.
, , Dried fruits, raisins, nuts, &e., rose-water, wine, aniseed-
water, gums, drugs, &c.
Bushire and Calcutta. — Two or three ships yearly ; returns are bills on Bombay,
and the same articles as mentioned above to Bombay.
Bushire and Batania. — A ship yearly ; takes back dates, wheat, ghee, with some
other articles, and bullion.
The imports into Bushire are European and Indian manufactures, and produce of
all kinds.
The next port is Mohammerah, 41 miles up the Euphrates, at the mouth of the Port of
Kariin, a place already possessing considerable trade, which is capable of great M°h™mfrah
increase. This river has been found to be navigable for steamers as far as Shuster, Karfin.
which would form an admirable centre for trade, and where the appointment of Its suitability
an English resident would be attended with great advantages to commerce.
In 1830 the author descended the Kariin in a large Arab vessel carrying cargo,
and it has since been navigated on three occasions by steamers.
Dr. Layard, writing to an eminent English merchant in 1843, thus describes
the capabilities of the country : —
" I believe Susiana to be a province highly capable of the most varied cultiva- Dr. Layard's
tion, the soil is rich, labour cheap, the inhabitants well disposed, and the country gj^j^011 °
traversed by seyeral noble navigable rivers ; but some protection is needed, and
the Persian government should be induced to require the appointment of a consul
at Shuster. The land is highly favourable for the cultivation of cotton, whieh is
now much neglected, but which might be much improved. I made many inquiries
as to the growth of hemp, guided by your notes, which Mr. Hector kindly
1 Sketch of Islands, &c, at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, by Lieutenant Whitelock, I. N.,
Royal Geographical Journal, vol. VIII., pp. 170-177, compared with Survey along the Eastern
Shores of the Persian Gulf, by Lieutenant G. B. Kempthorne, East India Company's Marine,
ibid., vol. V.. p. 275, &c.

702

APPENDIX.

Decline ofthe
trade of
Basrah.

Superior
position of
Kiirnah for
commerce.Baghdad, its
imports, &c.

Opening for
Britishcommerce at
Mosul.

Existingimpediments to
trade.

Russian goods
in Kurdistan.

allowed me to copy, and I found the country well adapted for its cultivation.
Indigo of a good quality is also produced about Dizful, and many articles might
be raised in the country if the inhabitants were encouraged."
Twenty-one miles beyond Mohammerah is the port of Basrah, once an empo
rium of trade in the time of the East India Company's factory, but which lias
gradually declined since its removal. It would, however, probably regain some
of its former importance with the establishment of steam, especially as it is
remarkable for the fertility of its soil ; although from the superior position of
Kiirnah (39 miles above Basrah), and commanding both the rivers Euphrates and
Tigris, it is probable that the latter will be found more advantageous, particularly
as vessels can there lie alongside the houses for loading and unloading in deep
water. From Kiirnah, steamers would ascend the Tigris in four days to Baghdad,
where trade is already carried on. to some extent, but which possesses commercial
resources capable of great development. Its imports and exports, with the revenue
derived from them, have been detailed in vol. I., pp. 109, 110. In addition to
the articles there mentioned, sugar, coffee, and indigo are imported from Bengal.
In one year, about 3,000 bags of Bengal sugar of 10 maunds (19 lbs.) each, 2,000
tubs of sugar-candy of 5 maunds each, 300 bags of indigo, 2 cwt. each, amounting
in value to about 47,000L, were imported into Baghdad, besides coffee, tea, loaf-
sugar, &c. : indigo and cotton might be cultivated with less expense, and as advan
tageously as in Egypt.
The next place of importance on the Tigris is Mosul ; and here a considerable
opening for British commerce exists. The present consumption of English goods
in Mosul and the adjacent country is more than sufficient to support a mercantile
establishment, although these goods are at present carried thither from Aleppo,
Damascus, or Baghdad, by native traders of small capital, who pay a very heavy
duty of 14 per cent., and are purchased from third or fourth hands, by which the
prices to the consumers are so enormously enhanced, as to place the articles
almost beyond their reach. A piece of print worth thirteen shillings in Manches
ter, is sold in Mosul for thirty-two shillings. The English merchants, however,
only pay 3 per cent. The houses at present receiving British goods in Syria
are nearly all commission houses, and consequently unable to sell so eheaply by
1 0 per cent, as the regular merchant ; which is a serious disadvantage to Arab
trade. If mercantile houses were established at Mosul and Diyar-Bekr, goods
arriving from England, even without the proposed facilities of steam, could be
transported at a comparatively small cost from Alexandretta to Dyar-Bekr, and
thence down the river to Mosul ; or the caravans would go direct from Alex
andretta to Mosul, and the consumers would thus obtain British manufactures at
little more than one-half of what they pay at present, and the consumption would
naturally increase. The trade of such an establishment would probably soon
extend into Persia, where Eussian trade is now increasing. ¦ Calicoes printed near
Moscow were in 1839 sold in Kurdistan and Mesopotamia. The products of
these countries would afford advantageous returns to England in gall-nuts, sheep's
wool, and madder-roots. Of tlie former 1,500 cantars, about 350 tons, are
•brought annually from Mosul alone to Aleppo for shipment to Europe, and an*

APPENDIX. 703
exchange with high-priced foreign goods is effected advantageously to both par- Articles of
ties. Prime black galls can be purchased in Mosul at 950 piastres per cantar of Producc
187 J okes (an oke of Mosul is 480 drachms); and including all expenses of m i^fc™
carriage to Alexandretta, they would, when ready for shipment, amount to 1,300
piastres per cantar, or fifty-two shillings per cwt. Sheep's wool is abundant and
•of very fine quality, and gives a handsome profit, even under the present disad
vantageous circumstances. Madder roots, fine goats' wool, yellow wax, and arsenic
are also articles of profitable export from Mosul and Diyar-Bekr. The articles Articles of
most in demand among the natives are printed and dyed calicoes, muslins British
(lappets), printed handkerchiefs, bleached maddapolams, forty yards, fine, cotton demand.
velvets, grey domestics (calicoes), and light cloths, such as are called ladies' cloth
in England ; there is also a considerable demand for zebras, a cotton stuff made in
Glasgow and Paisley. In Mosul they use a good deal of water-twist yarn
No. 20/30 for making a light jaconet which they print for head-dresses ; there is
also a considerable consumption of cochineal by the printers and dyers in that
town. In any mercantile establishment in Mosul, it would be necessary to have
a person at home acquainted with the taste of the natives, to select the goods. Causes of the
The great attention paid by the Eussians to the taste of these countries, has been Puss,a" success
. . m trade.
one great cause of their success in trade.
The commerce of Mosul would necessarily extend to and be connected with Existing trade
Mardin and Diyar-Bekr. The existing trade of the former place is considerable, °* Mardin and
J , Diyar Bekr.
and might be increased. It is accessible from Mosul in 54 hours by Chilloaga
aud Nisibin, and 18 hours from Mardin brings the traveller to Diyar-Bekr. The
population of this town is about 28,000 and an idea of its present trade may be
formed from the following custom-house return of imports : — •
Piastres.
European manufactures, Constantinople . . 2,500,000
Coffee and Sugar  200,000
Indigo and Indian piece goods .... 2,900,000

2,900,000 or £29,000

It has been stated by residents at Diyar-Bekr that this trade is capable of being Probable
increased to double tlie above amount. At Betlis also British calicoes are sold to ™%$f*te<
a moderate extent, and there is some demand for shawls, woollen cloths, printed Brifish artic]es
calicoes, gay-coloured silks and satins, and refined sugar. At Kara Hisar, Sivas, £ danandat
and Tokat, British manufactures are also in request. The yellow berry is culti- p^' &c-) &c-
vated here, and at the latter place an extensive dyeing establishment exists. The
articles most in demand here are British calicoes and muslin, printed cottons and
indigo. The copper from Arghana is refined here and transported to Samsiin for Commerce
shipment. Here there is but a small consumption of foreign goods, although ^^ ^
much commercial activity exists froni the transit of merchandise from and to Con- Constantinople.
stantinopie. In four months the steamer brought 2,480 packages for the interior,
and carried back 4,850 to Constantinople, the latter being wholly the produce of
the country. Another opening exists here for British trade, all the iron at present

704 APPENDIX.
used being Eussian. In the interior, Zileh is a place of some commerce. An
Fair of Zileh. annual fair is held there in the middle of November, which lasts fifteen days ;
from 40,000 to 50,000 persons visit it from all the commercial cities of Syria and
Asia Minor. The trade is carried on by barter. Grain is produced in abundance
Silk manufae- in the plains near Zileh. Silk is manufactured largely at Amasiyeh, but chiefly
Amasjf eh for barter at Zileh and other towns> a sma31 quantity only being exported to Con
stantinople.1
and opening for An increasing but an exclttsively private trade is carried on from Liverpool to
commerce at Iskendenin, and thence to Aleppo, also to Beirut and Damascus ; while Angora
offers a promising position for commercial enterprise; Its trade was formerly
considerable, and British merchants were established there, but it has been
neglected, and its only traffic at present is with' Eussia : Eussian goods are
described as very expensive. The staple produce of the country consists of —
Twisted' Merino, Nos. 1 and 2 . . .40 piastres per hukka, or 480 drachms.
Merino wool ....... 12 ,, „
Yellow berry  25 , , , ,
"Wool  5 ,, , ,
Wax  5 , , , ,
There is a good market for refined sugar, West India coffee, handkerchiefs, chintz,
calico, cotton velvets, silk dresses, cloth for the army, and cutleries of all sorts, pro
ducing, it is said, a profit of 200 per cent. The European imports were stated by
respectable merchants, in many towns in Asia Minor, to be very much larger than
the value of native products exported, in the ratio of 1,000 to 10,000 in value.
Advantages of It is therefore evident that great advantages to commerce would arise from the
an English establishment of an English consul or vice-consul at Angora, and the encourase-
consul or vice- ° ° °
consul at ment and protection which would thus be given to trade. At present a thousand
Angora. native merchants are employed, all making large profits, where one English mer
chant would suffice. This part of Asia Minor is well peopled, and the inhabitants
are industrious. The people, also, are anxious for European goods, but from
passing through so many hands they are at present too dear for their means.
Eussian cutlery is much in demand, there being no supply of British manufacture.
An English merchant, who has occasionally supplied goods for Asia Minor,
recommends loaf sugar, coffee, white Manchester cloths, as tungils, jaconets,
sheetings, &c, and printed calicoes, such as those purchased by the Greek mer
chants (the patterns of which should be selected by some one acquainted with
the taste of the country), as being most suitable at present for the markets of
The sale of Mosul and the neighbouring towns. The same gentleman has given it as his
goods would opinion, that the sale of lO0,000L worth of goods, which otherwise would not be
expenses of the manufactured, would more than repay the country the whole expenses of the
Euphrates Euphrates expedition, without taking into account the merchants' profits. This
Expedition. . . , . r
calculation was made with reference to the present trade, which, however, ulti
mately, would be largely increased.
Notwithstanding all the existing disadvantages, boats with merchandize are con-
1 Journey from Erz-Riim to Trebizond, &c., by Henry Slater, Esq. ; Royal Geographical
Journal, vol. X., p. 442, &c.

APPENDIX. 705
tinually tracked up the rivers in Mesopotamia ; but the fleets going up the Tigris
against the stream from Basrah to Baghdad consume from thirty to forty days,
while a steamer would perform this distance in four days and a half. Good
freights are therefore secured for steamers, and a valuable opening presented for
trade, since an Arab population of about twelve millions is to be supplied.1 The
actual trade to Baghdad was, in 1838, 12,000 bales or 'packages, brought up
the Tigris at a freight of 1?. per bale.
Under such promising circumstances, it seems that a company might advanta- Suggestions for
geously be formed, with a small capital (say of 25,000Z. in 501. shares), for com- ™.e formation
mercial purposes. One steamer might be employed on the Euphrates, commencing company.
at Beles, the port of Aleppo, for the descent. One between Mohammerah and
Baghdad, and a third on the Kariin : a fourth steamer being kept as a reserve,
to give occasional rest to the officers, men, and machinery of the others. The
general voyage of the steamer on the Euphrates might be between Beles and
Hillah, a town of considerable trade, 60 miles below Feliijah, descending to the
ports of Mohammerah and Basrah as occasion might require. Feliijah is the
place of transit to Baghdad, which is nearly opposite to it, at a distance of 23£
miles. An eligible communication would thus be opened with the other steamer Communication
navigating the Tigris. From Iskenderun or Suweidiyeh on the Syrian coast to Eeu "^^ and
Beles, a distance of 100 miles, every facility exists for conveyance. The transit Tigris.
may occupy six days from the sea to the Euphrates, and five or six more to
Baghdad : forty days is an average passage for merchant vessels from England to
Syria, making in all fifty-two days to that internal market. Supplies, would also
reach Baghdad direct from England by way of the Persian Gulph. This channel
also embraces the whole intercourse with India and the Arabian coast, both as to
goods and passengers : the traffic and employment for steamers might possibly be
greater here than on the Euphrates above. The products of Arabia and the
inland countries have been already given in the custom-house returns.2
The steamers in the Black Sea, running between Tarabuzun and Constantinople, Traffic between
and between the latter city and Smyrna, are always crowded with Turks and other £^£™£
Ottoman subjects, often taking with them their harems or families ; the Arabs
also appreciated the superior convenience of steam travelling in the time of the
Expedition, and availed themselves of it as often as allowed. They may, therefore,
be expected to afford a regular and considerable item of passage-money.
Another item will arise from the per centage on specie, pearls, shawls, and
other valuables, in which there is a constant traffic or transit in those countries.
The establishment of the navigation would probably lead to that of English
mercantile houses at all the chief places of trade on the Euphrates, and other
rivers and branches at the interior stations ; so that agents would be found to take
charge ofthe depots and the transaction of the general business of the Company
at moderate remuneration, either by commissions or salary— two exist already.
Independently of the natural facilities for the navigation still greater advantages ^posed^
may attend the opening of a canal from the neighbourhood of Felujah to Baghdad. to i.^.^ ^
J navigation of
• Vol. I., Appendix VIII., p. 724. s Appendix (G.) the Euphrates.
3 A
VOL. II.

706 APPENDIX.
As the commerce increases, some improvements might be desirable, such as a cut
through the Lamliim Marshes, and the removal of some rocks in the river. Four
iron steamers for commercial purposes, 75 feet long, 13 feet beam, with engines
of 25-horse power, and not to draw more than two feet water, may be placed on
the river at a cost of about 9,500Z. ; and four iron tug or accommodation boats
for occasional use, of 60 tons, for about 2,000?. £.
Freight of materials and workmen to Mohammerah by a vessel of 500
tons  '  2,000
Expenses during the voyage  200
Expense of fitting up the vessels and return ofthe workmen, &c. . . 2,500
Cost of four steam vessels at Birkenhead ......... 9,500-
Cost of four tng or accommodation boats  2,200,
Total . . . £16,400
Outfit of one steamer and one tug  £4,100
The expense of each steamer is estimated at about 2,529/.,. or, adding one-
third for the vessel supposed to be in reserve, 3,372?. annually; while the probable
returns, of each steamer for twelve months, have been calculated at 8,544L
These calculations have been formed solely on the existing native trade along
the rivers, without taking into account its probable increase from direct and rapid
intercourse. The calculation of the annual expenditure is. founded upon that of the
Euphrates Expedition ; and the returns are- from, different data collected during
that enterprise.

INDEX

TO THE SECOND VOLUME.

Note.— The dots which, in the text, are plaeed under certain letters, and indicate flieir powers, are, in tlm
Index, omitted.

Abbot of St. Gallen, an encourager of Arabic
literature, 551
'Abdel-l-mesi'h's Philosophia, 549
Abii, tbe, or Scythians of Asia, 313
 , the, send an embassy to Alexander, 313
 , the, were called the most just nation
upon earth, 313
 , revolt of the, and subjection by Alex
ander, 313, 314
Abissares brings presents to Alexander, 330,
334
Aboo, Ajunta, and other temples, 612, 614
Aboras river and Circesium, 424
Abrahah, son and successor of Hareth-al-
Kaish, 80
 , conquests of, in Africa, 80
 , also called Dhulmenar, 80
 , his intention of building the towers o-f
'Pharos, 80
 was succeeded by Afrikus, 80
 , or Abramus, leader of the expedition
against Mekkah, 450
Abraham and Lot, 48
 , departure from U'r, 61
 , Berossus' account of, 62
 a seller of images, 62
 , his conversion, according to Epipha-
nius, 63
 , period of his departure from U'r, 63
 reigned at Damascus, 64
 imparted knowledge to other nations,
55, 64
 journeys of, from Damascus to Syria
and Egypt, 64, 65
 , bis wars with the kings of Assyria, 65
 , his separation from Lot, 65
 meets with Melchisedek, 66
 , his followers and allies, 66
 , his name changed, 69
¦  , Ishmael born to, 70
 expels Ishmael, 70
 , his descendants by marriage with
Keturah, 70
 , his descendants numerous on going
down to Egypt, 7 1
 , advanced state of civilisation in Egypt
when visited by, 7 1

Abraham changed his languageafter quitting
Haran, 85
¦  ¦ and Lot's descendants with the Kahui-
nites civilize Arabia, 85
•  , emir of Barbary, sends an embassy
to Charlemagne, 459
Abrocamas, Cyrus proceeds against, 210
 abandons the Syrian pass before Cyrus,
212
¦  ¦ retreats across the Euphrates, 213
Abulites delivers up Susa to Alexander,
298
 restored to the satrapy of Susiana by
Alexander, 298
 aud his son executed by Alexander,
358
Abu-1-' Abbas commenced the line of the
Abbasides, 458
 encouraged the arts and scieuees in
Arabia, 458
Abii-1-feda's work on geography, 535
Abii Ya'kub and the Fihrist, 547
Abydos the rendezvous of Xerxes' fleet, 192
Abyssinia, Egypt peopled from, 47
 , first colony of Cushites settled in, 73
 , second colony, called Shepherds or
Berbers, settled in, 73
 , Africus, king of the Himyarites, in
vades, 80
 , the language of, Shemitic, 84, 85
 , early intercourse with the Hebrews,
124
 , as governed by Solomon's son, 123,
124
Abyssinians and Arabians, the same people,
46, 47
•  ¦ claim the Queen of Sheba, 123
¦  subdue and govern Yemen, 450
Acampsis(see Tchdruk su) 231
Accad, now 'Akar Kuf, 24
 , Babel Erech, &c, 61 7
Acceta and Julian's army, 439
Achffius defeated by Antiochus the Great,
403
Achaiehala, Julian passes it, 436
Acre, revolt of the pasha of, 204
Actium, battle of, 414
3 A 2

708

INDEX.

Ada, queen of Caria, declares in favour of
Alexander, 265
 gives up the fortress of Alindae (Moola)
to Alexander, 266
Adaggi, Jebel, or Mount of Deliverance, 99.
Adam's knowledge, 8
Adanah taken by the Crusaders, 475
'A'd Beni, language of, spoken at Khuryan
Muryan, 50
 , traditions of, 51
 &c, probably absorbed in the Kah-
tanites, 51
Adelard of Bath, and his works, 559, 560
'Aden, Himyari inscription at, 83
 , Abyssinian forces landed at, 450
Adhim, bund of, 613
Ad'hiyari river, 373
Adiabene conquered by Trajan, 419
 , situation of, 419
 , called Athur for Assur by the inhabit
ants, 419
Adites, branch of Ham's descendants, 44
Adrammelech murders Sennacherib, 142,
143
Adrian circumscribes his empire, 421
Adrianople taken by Murad, 498
¦  , gigantic piece of ordnance cast at, 500
¦  • occupied by the Russians, 504
^Egaleos, Mount, Xerxes witnesses the battle
of Salamis from, 195
^Egyptus or Mizraim, son of Cham, 45
 r- was the first to settle in Egypt, 45
Aelath blockaded by the Crusaders, 478
filius Gallus, 414
Afghans, origin ofthe, 469,
 , conquests under Mahmud Ghizni, 469
 conquered by Nadir Shah, 497
Africa, occupied by the Hamites, 45
 , at first considered part of Arabia, 46
 , spread of the Hamites in, 46
 , connected with Arabia, 46, 47
 , expedition of Jasasin Ibn Amrii into,
84
 distance of the voyage to, 125
¦ ' ¦ , products ofthe eastern coast of, 125
 , its Phoenician colonies, 128
¦  circumnavigated by the Phoenicians
under Pharaoh Necho, 1 54
 , colonies sent from Carthage to the
western coast of, 190
 , the projected circumnavigation of, by
Alexander, 366
— — invaded by the Arabs, 455
— »— , settlement of the Berbers and Moors
in, 455, 456
-  its trade from India, 576
¦  circumnavigated, 579
Afrikus, successor of Abrahah, king of the
Himyarites, 80
 , his expedition against the Berbers, 80
 , town built by, 80
¦  , extent of conquests of, 80
¦ — — ¦ succeeded by his son Alfeidar, 80
'Afrin, the, crcssed by Cyrus* army, 213
Agaazi, the, founded Aram, 47
Agathocles put to death by the Parthians,
400

Agema, a corps in Alexander's army, 360
Agesilaus sent against Ephesus, 245
 -, preparations of Tissaphernes against,
245
 plunders Pharnabazus' territory, and
defeats Tissaphernes, 246
 , his campaign; in Bithynia against
Pharnabazus, 246
 his army recalled to Lacedaemon, 246
 , his fleet defeated by Pharnabazus,
near Cnidus, 245
 defeats the Persians near Coronea, 247
 takes service under Tachos, king of
Egypt, 248, 249
— : — enables Nectanabis to usurp the throne
of Egypt, 249
 , death of, 249
Aghatch, Kara, on the Harpesns, crossing-
place of the 10,000 Greeks, 231
Agines, a village of the Susians, passed by
Nearchus, 356
 , supposed site of Ahwaz, position of, 356
Agobardus' mission to Baghdad, 547
Agriculture much encouraged by the Magi,
. 185
Ahasuerus also called Cambyses, 173
 , or Artaxerxes Longimanus, 148, 198
Ahaz, king of Judah, besieged in Jerusalem,
139
 , and the kings of Assyria, 139
 presents to Tiglath Pileser the vessels
of the Temple, &c, 139
Ahmed, the khaliph of Baghdad, defeated
by Taimiir, 493
 , diminution ofthe Turkish power und^r,
502
Ahriman's mythology probably that of the-
Celts, 513
Ahwaz or Agines passed by Nearchus' fleet,
356
Aiidin, district of Anaddli, 497
Ainsworth's report on the navigation of the
Euphrates, (Appendix M.)
'A'in-tab, district of, 13
 surrenders to Taimiir, 495
Ain-zarbah, &c, 13
Aizanas, the Abyssinian, invades Yemen, 450-
'Akar Kiif, Julian's army at, 438
 , its construction, 606
Akesines, Alexander's passage of the, 330
— — , reached by Alexander's fleet, 3.35
 , the fleet descends the, 335
 , Alexander constructs a eity on the,
338
 , confluence ofthe, with the Indus, 338
 , source, course, and tributaries of the,
370, 371
'Akhar Tell, or Firuz Sapor, and Peris
aboras, 438
 , its situation, 438
Akhoora, called after Noah, 8
Akhthamar, sea of, or lake Van, 116
'Akka, stormed by the Crusaders, 475
 retaken by the Muslims, 479
 , siege of, by the Crusaders, 480-482
 fifth armament of Crusaders land at,
484

INDEX.

709

'Akkd, sixth army of Crusaders, under Louis
IX., disembark at, 485
 , Prince Edward lands at, 486
 taken from the Crusaders, 486
 besieged by Napoleon, 503, 535
Akko, now Ptolemais, Pharaoh Neclio ad
vances to, 155
Akora, near Attock, probably the site of the
fort of Aornos, 323
Akran, king of Yemen, 449
Al 'Adhed, the last ofthe Fatimites, 476
'Ala-ed-din defeated by Murad, 498
Alban mountain, tunnel ofthe, 614
Albania, ancient, once called Kusdi, 35
Albertus Magnus, 548
Alemanni and Franks repulsed by the
Romans, 424, 425
Aleppo ceded to Salah-ed-di'n by the Cru
saders, 479
 plundered by Taimiir, 495
 , trade of, with India, 589
— — , port of, and its trade, 594
 , trade at, decline of, 594
 and Damascus stuffs, 631
Alexander, his birth, 255
— - at the battle of Chaeronea, 255, 256
 succeeds his father Philip, 257
 is elected chief of the Greek confede
racy, 257
— — , his first campaign against the Illy
rians and Thracians, 258
 defeats the Bulgarians or Triballians,
258
 crosses the Ister or Danube, 259
— — defeats the Goths, Illyrians, and Tau
lantians, 259
 takes Thebes by storm, 259
 celebrates the Olympic games at Dia,
259
 , his invasion of Asia desired by the
Greeks, 259
 , his advantages over Darius, 262
 relies on his victories for funds, 262,
263
 sacrifices at Troy, 263
— ^, advances to Zelia, in Bithynia, 263
 defeats Darius' army at the Grauicus,
263, 264
 advances to Sardis, 265
 erects a temple to Jupiter at Sardis,
265
 causes the temple at Ephesus to be re
built and endowed, 265
 takes Miletus and advances to Halicar
nassus, 265
 assisted by Queen Ada of Caria, 266
 , his army winters at Caria, 266
 permits the married soldiers to visit
Greece, 266
 , Parmenio keeps up the communication
with Greece for, 266
 , his success in Lycia and Caria, 266,
267
 marches round Mount Climax, and
subjects Pisidia, 267
 takes Celsense and marches to Gor-
dium, 267

Alexander, his army recruited from Mace
donia, 267
 takes Paphlagonia and Cappadocia, 268
 forces the Cicilian gates, 268
 takes the castle of Halicarnassus, 269
 subjects Cicilia, Campestris, and Rug
ged Cicilia, 269
 advances through the Syrian gates, 270
 defeats Darius at the Issus, 274
 , his honourable treatment of the royal
captives, 275, 270
 sends Parmenio to take Damascus, 276
 refuses peace to Darius, 276, 277
 takes Tyre after a long siege, 277, 279
 , his reply to Darius' second proposal of
peace, 280
 offers sacrifices at Jerusalem, 280
 grants privileges to the Jews, 281
 besieges and takes Gaza by storm, 281
 sends spices to his tutor Leonidas, 282,
283
 founds the city of Alexandria, 283
 visits the temple of Ammon, 283, 284
 consolidates the Egyptian government,
283
 crosses the desert from Ammon to
Memphis, 284
 marches to Tyre, 284
 crosses the Euphrates at Thapsacus, 285
 builds Nicephorium or Eakkah, 285
— — crosses the Tigris, 286
 , his tact in quieting the alarm caused
by an eclipse ofthe moon, 287
 refuses Darius' liberal proposals, 287
 gains the battle of Arbela, 292-294
 seizes Darius' treasure, Sec, 296
 marches towards Babylon, 296
 , his triumphal entry into Babylon,
296
 restores the temple of Belus, 296
 regulates the government of Babylonia,
297
 takes Susa and its treasure, 298
 marches against the Uxii, 298
 advances into Persis, 299
— — »- forces the Persian gates, and crosses
the Araxes, 300, 301
 , Persepolis taken and sacked by, 301
 subdues the Mardi, Cosssei, &c, 302
 sets fire to Xerxes' palace at Persepolis,
302
 takes possession of Ecbatana, 302
 releases the civic Greeks from their
engagement, 302, 303
— — pursues Darius, 303
 , his pursuit of the conspirators, and
death of Darius, 304
 invades Hyrcania, the Mardi, &c, 305
 marches against Bessus and Barzsentcs,
306
 , his route against the Drangse, 306
 marches to the Ariaspaj, 307
 causes the Gedrosi and Arachosi to
submit, 307
 , his march from Peshawarun, 307
— — , his generals disperse the Bactrians,
and slay Satibarzanes, 308

710

INDEX.

Alexander advances to the Paropamisus, 308
¦  , his knowledge of India, &c, 309
 constructs Alexandria ad Caucasum,
311
¦  advances, captures Aorni and Bactra,
and crosses the Oxus, 311
 ¦ halts at Samarkand, 312
 advances towards the Jaxartes, and is
wounded, 312
 receives embassies from the Scythians
of Europe and Asia, 312, 313
 blockades Cyropolis and other Sogdian
towns, 313
 crosses the Jaxartes and defeats the
Scythians, 314
 anticipates the plans of Spitamenes, 315
 , his operations against the Sogdians,
315
 marches to Maracanda, and winters at
Nautaka, 316
¦  ¦ repels the inroad of Spitamenes, 316
 captures the hill fort of Oxyarta, and
marries Roxana, 316, 317
 advances into Margiana, and builds the
city of Seleucia, 317
¦  , the rock fort of Chorienes capitulates
to, 318
¦  murders Clitus, 318
 ¦, his route towards the Indus, 319
 reaches the Kophen and receives pre
sents from the Indian princes, 319
 , his generals take the capital of the
Peukelaotis, 319
 is wounded when advancing against
the Aspii, 319
 the Aspii burn their towns, 320
 orders Craterus to rebuild the town
of Arigseum, 320
¦  defeats the Indians in a pitched battle,
320
 • sends cattle to Macedonia, 320
 crosses the Euaspla against the Asa-
kenes, 320
 wounded before Mazaga, 321
¦  , his cruelty and treachery, 321
 , his generals capture Bazira and Ora,
321
 besieges and takes the rock of Aornas,
322, 323
 makes a retrograde movement to
punish the Assakeni, 323
 , his visits to Nysa and Merus, 323
 crosses the Indus by the bridge of
boats near Attock, 323, 324
 receives an embassy and presents from
Taxiles, 323
 marches to the Hydaspes, 324, 325
 defeat? Porus, 325-329
 , his generosity to Porus, 329, 330
 orders Craterus to build Nikaea and
Bucephaia, 330
 crosses the Akesines and Hydraotes, 330
 advances against the Malli, Cathaei,
Oxydracae, &c, 330, 331
 advances to the Hyphasis, 331
 , bis army refuses to cross the Hyphasis,
332, 333

Alexander, his speech to his generals, 332,
333
 determines to return, 333
 presents tbe territory to Porus and
returns, 334
 prepares a flotilla, and descends the
Hydaspes, 334
 makes an excursion against the Siba?,
335
 recrosses the Akesines, and proceeds
against the Malli, 335, 336
 , his perilous situation, 337
 , his army and fleet rendezvous at the
coufluence of the Hydraotes and Akesines,
338
 receives the submission of the Oxy
dracse and Malli, 338
 descends the Indus to the Delta, 338
 marches from Tyre to the river Hy
phasis calculated, 339
 , his sources of knowledge, 340, 341
 sails down the Indus to the island of
CiUutas, 342
 despatches Craterus towards Kirman,
342
 orders a haven aud docks to be
built at Pattala, 342
 entrusts the naval expedition to Ne
archus, 342, 344 .
 despatches Hephaestion with the bulk
ofthe army, 342
 advances towards the river Arabius,
and pursues the Oritae, 342, 343
 , his force join the main body under
Hephaestion and advances to Rambacia,
343
 , his march through the Urhu district,
and privations experienced, 343, 344
 , his army reaches Kirman, 344
 , his reception of Nearchus, 352
 visits the tomb of Cyrus, and pro
ceeds to Pasagarda, 358
 executes Orsines and appoints Peu
cestas in his place, 358
 proceeds to Susa, 358
 is joined by Nearchus and Onesicritus
at Susa, 358
 executes Abulites and his son, 358
 , his sacrifices and games at Susa, 358
 consolidates his government and adopts
Asiatic customs, 358, 359
 marries Barsine or Statira, 359
 distributes honorary rewards, 359
¦  , his plan for reorganising his army,
359, 360
 had long contemplated a trade with
India, 360
 with his army and fleet examines the
Euphrates and Tigris, 360
 sails down the Eulaeus into the ocean,
360
 is joined by Hephaestion on entering the
Tigris, 360, 361
 passage by which he reached the
Tigris, 361
 ascends the Tigris to Opis, 361
 , his march from Opis into Media, 362

INDEX.

711

Alexander forms an Asiatic army, 363
 , his banquet to the Greeks and Asiatics,
363
 sends 10,000 Greeks home under Cra
terus, 363, 364
 passes the Choaspes, and thence to
Susa, 364
 marches towards Media, 364
 visits Bisutun, 365
 undertakes an expedition against the
Cossaeans, and subdues them, 365
 enters Babylon against the warnings
ofthe Chaldeans, 365
 receives envoys from all quarters, 365
— — , vast projects of, at Babylon, 366
 selects Babylon as the seat of his
empire, 366
 causes the Arabian coast to be sur
veyed, 366, 3£7
 sails down the Euphrates and ascends
the Pallacopas, 367
 constructs a city in Arabia and im
proves the Pallacopas, 367
¦  , his fleet assembled in the Euphrates,
368
 returns to Babylon and receives an
embassy from Greece, 368
¦  dies of a fever caught in the Lamliim
marshes, 368
 , his marches calculated, 376
¦  -, his empire at his death, 379-381
 , his remains carried to Egypt, 380
 , his successor declared by Eumenes, 380
 , subdivision of his empire, 398
¦  (son of Seleucus) and Molo rebel
against Antiochus, 402
 (Port), a haven^ named by Nearchus,
345
¦  , emperor of Rome, restores the ancient
discipline, 423
-  - — defeats Artaxerxes, 423
 , succeeded by Gordian III., 423
Alexandria ad Caucasum, built by Alex
ander, 311
 , or Seleucia, now Merw-el-Rud, 317,
318
.  ., early use of artillery at, 499, 500
 , and astronomy as a system, 529
 , Omar extends his conquests to, 455
 , Napoleon's intention with regard to,
535
Alexandropolis, or Kandahar, 307
Aleyat, inscriptions at, 629
Alfarabi's translation of Aristotle, 558
Alfeidar,'or Dhalghanatir, son, and successor
of Africus over the Himyarites, 80
 succeeded by Scharbabil, 80
Alfred of VVeissenburg, 551
Algazeli, logic of, 557
Algebra introduced into Europe by Rudolph,
'Ali'-abad, the vessel named the Fateh Jang
found near, 373 ,
'Ah' Ben Abi Taleb, successor of Othman,
and husband of Fatimah, 456
 laid the foundation of the Shi'ah section
of Miihammedauisna, 456

'All Beni, nomad tribe of Arabia, 448
Alindae (Moola), fortress of, given up by
Queen Ada to Alexander, 266
Alishtar and Khawah, the plains of, visited
by Alexander on his march to Media,
365
Almagest, the, translated, 556
Al Malik Al 'Adel takes Egypt, 484
Alp Arsian, successor of Togrul Bei, 470
 , conquests of, 473
 , death of, and iiis successor, 470
Alphonso X. encourages Arabic literature,
563
Alsaloo, station of Nearchus' fleet near,
353
Altai mountains, Taimur advances to the,
493
Altar ofthe Arkites crescentehaped, 15
Alvarez of Cordova, 553
Alybian mines, 617
'Amah-Shatt-el, 612
Amalek, remains of this people, 22
 , a son of Ham, 21, 44
Amalekites occupied the tract near Wadi
El Ghor, 21
 and other lost tribes, 22
 , some remains of, in 'Oman and
Bahrein, 51
Amalgamation of the east and west com
menced by Alexander, 541
Amalika, or Imlik, a branch of Ham's de
scendants, 22
Amasis, expedition of Cambyses against,
173, 174
 succeeded by Psammeticus, 174
Amassia succeeds his father Arama'is, 41
Amazons, Strabo's account ofthe, 133
Ambassadors to Harun-el-Rashid, from
Charlemagne, 585
Amenophis IX. erected the Memnonia at
Thebes, 107
 , king of Egypt, the Bala of the Arabs,
132
 , supposed to have been Shishak, 132
 , deified as Ba'al or Belus, 132
America, probably first peopled by Mizraim's
descendants, 30
 , spread of the Asiatics to, 508
American language and people resemble
those of Scythia and Mongolia, 509
 pyramids and temples of, 607
Amestris, daughter and wife of Artaxerxes
Arsaces, 250
Amharic or Axumitic character, 47
Amid retaken from the Crusaders, 479
Amida taken by Sapor 11., 433
Amin, son and successor of Harun el Rashid,
459, 460
Aminda, now Diyar Bekr, visited by Alex
ander, 286
Amindas, king of Assyria, defeated by
Heykab, 106
 succeeded by Belock, 107
Amir Mai, ruins on the plain of, 29'9
Ammon, temple of, 174-
 , Alexander visits the temple of Ham,
or, 283, 284

712

INDEX.

Ammonites, explanation of their origin,
68, 69
 expelled the Zamzummims from Rab-
bah, 69
 defeated by the Israelites, 104
Amorites (Ait Amor), the Berbers descended
from the, 456
Amorium, Theophilus defeated by the Arabs
at, 463
Amosis, the Pharaoh who oppressed the Is
raelites, 97
Ampelae, promontory, now Cape Drepano,
252
Amphictyons, Philip elected general ofthe,
255
Amrii, Jasasin Ibn, a Himyarite, 84
 , monument with Himyarite inscription
erected in Africa by, 84
Amrii Ben As, 'Omar's lieutenant, destroys
the library of Alexandria, 455
Anabasis and its influence, 529, 533
Anadoli and its trade, 594
'A'nah, proposed place of trade, 602
Anamis, Nearchus' fleet reach the mouth of
the river, 350
'Anatelbus, formerly Thelutha, island fort
on the Euphrates, 436 and note
Anatho (the Phathusae of Zosimus) invested
by Julian, 435
 , Julian encounters a. hurricane near,
435
Anaxibius takes the invalids of the army of
the 10,000 to Greece by sea,. 235
 deceives the Greeks at Byzantium,
241
Anbar, or Firuz Sapor, and Tell 'Akhar,
438
Anchialus, town founded by Sardanapalus,
269
 , taken by Alexander, 269
Ancient remains with mounds and exca
vations, 617
 inscriptions of Sesostris, &c, 628
Ancyra and Tyana submit to Aurelian, 427
 taken from the Romans by -Al Mu'ta
sem, 462
Andaka surrenders to Alexander, 320
Andalusia, learned men of, 552
Angir, or Angam island, visited by Near
chus, 352
Anglo-Saxon boats, 641
Angora, Tai'mur captures Bajazet near, 495
 , capabilities and commerce of, 602,
703
Anizeh, tribe of nomad Arabs, 448
Anjou, Charles of, encourages learning, 563
Ansar, or Jomid, the stations of the Muslim
troops, 464
Antediluvian knowledge, 8-1 1, 20
 idolatry renewed by Ham, 15, 16
Anthemusia, supposed site of, 612
Antigonus retains the government of Su
siana, 381
 receives the command of the house
hold troops from Antipater, 382
 defeats Eumenes, and follows him into
Phoenicia, 382

Antigonus advances into Babylonia and
crosses the Tigris, 383
 crosses the Coprates, and is defeated by
Eumenes, 384
 retreats into Media through the Cos-
saean Mountains, 384
¦  outmarched and defeated by Eumenes,
and winters in Media, 386
 fails in taking Eumenes by surprise,
387
 arranges the different governments,
388
 proceeds to Susa, and obtains the trea
sure, 388
 puts Eumenes to death, 388
 marches towards Babylon, 389
 prepares to meet Seleucus, 389
 , his conquests in Asia Minor, Greece,
&c, 389-391
 sends two expeditions against the Na
batheans, 390, 391
 recalls Demetrius from Babylon, 391
 puts Cleopatra to death, 392
 , his successes in Greece and Cyprus,
392
 and Demetrins assume regal titles, 392
 , his expedition by sea and land against
Egypt, 392, 393
 is repulsed by Ptolemy, 393
 sends Demetrius against the Rhodians,
but fails, 393-395
 loses Phrygia, Lydia, &c, 397
 is defeated by Seleucus at Ipsus, and
slain, 397
Antioch built by Seleucus, 399
 captured by the Persians under Sapor,
423
 recovered by Gordian and retaken by
Sapor, 423, 424
 again taken by Sapor, 425
 Julian's preparations at, 433
 besieged and taken by Chosroes I., 443
 defeat ofthe Romans by Chosroes II.
at, 445
 burnt by Al Mu'tasem, 462
 taken by the Greeks, 466
 taken from the Christians by Tatash,
473
 taken by the crusaders nnder Bohe
mund, 474
Antiochia Margiana built by Alexander, and
named Alexandria, 317
 of Mygdonia (Nisibin), Antiochus the
Great winters at, 403
Antiochus, son of Seleucus, 397
 Seleucus resigns his queen to his son,
399
¦  extent of his dominions, 399
 loses a portion of his territories to
Ptolemy Philadelphus, 400
 the Great succeeds Seleucus Ceraunus,
402
 crosses the Euphrates and Tigris, 403
 defeated at Raphia by Ptolemy, 403
 subdues Bactria, Parthia, &c, 403, 404
 , his annual tribute to the Romans, 404
 succeeded by Seleucus Philopater, 404

INDEX.

713

Antipater chosen protector after the murder
of Perdiccas, 381
Antony invades Parthia, 413
 , his circuitous route towards Praaspa,
413
 , his retreat, 414
Aorni, a city of Bactria, taken by Alexander,
311
Aornos, the rock of, invested by Alexander,
321
 , taken by Alexander, 322, 323
Apamea Cibotis, position of, 205
 , on the Orontes, built by Seleucus, 399
 plundered by the Persians, 443
 captured by Chosroes II. , 445
Apcheron, naphtha found at, 625
Apollonius Perga, 549
Apollophanes neglects to furnish supplies to
Alexander's army, 343
Aporateeion of Josephus, 40
Apostacy of the old world, 3
Apostani, probably the Bay of Congoori, a
station of Nearchus' fleet, 353
Apronadius, king of Babylon, 145
Aqueducts, ancient, on the Euphrates, 656
Ar, a city of the Moabites, 69
Arab Mostearibe, El, descended from Ish
mael and his twelve sons, 70
 intermixed with the earlier inhabitants
of Arabia, 70
'Arabah, W sidf El, retreat of the Israelites
along, 104
 , or Hormarah, probably Bagasira,
a station of Nearchus's fleet, 34,7
Arabia, Western, possessed by two Shemitic
tribes, 48
 , occupied by Kahtan and his followers,
49, 50
 Happy, occupied by the Himyarites
and Kahtanites, 50
 ¦  , limits of, 50
•  ¦, descendants remaining in, 50
 , caravan trade of, 570
 , expedition into, by jElius Gal
lus, 414, 415
 , rise of, 447, 448
 , position, extent, superficies, &c, of,
448
 , the tribes of, 448, 449
Arabia, Ishmael's territory in, 70
 , Ishmael's name preserved among some
of the earlier tribes of, 70
 , intermixture of Esau's family with the
Amorites and other Cushite tribes of, 76
 Nabatheans, or nomad races of Upper,
76
 , the Nabatheans, Hagarenes, Saracens,
&c, of, 76
 , mingled people of, from whom de
scended, 76
 , the dukes of Edom, and she'iks of, 76
 , intercourse between the Shemites of
Mesopotamia and, 77
 , state of, under the Tobbai, 79, 80
 , TobMi' inscriptions found in, 81, 82
 , period of the highest civilization in,
85

Arabia, the square Chaldaic letters of, from
the same origin as those of India and
Phoenicia, 86
 , successive colonies to Egypt from,
87, 88
 , Himyaritic character in use in the
time of Joseph in, 91
 , state of civilisation in, at the Exodus of
the Israelites, 100
 , the Himyarites of, the same people as
the African Sabaeans, 123
 , caravan routes through, 124
 , march of Cambyses across, 173
 , the circumnavigation and subjection of,
contemplated by Alexander, 366
 , partly surveyed by two of Alexander's
admirals, 366, 367
 trade of, with India, 577, 578
¦  pirates and mariners, 578
 vessels of, on the coast of Mekkran, 579
¦  . Petraea subjected by Trajan, 418
 • declared a Roman province by Trajan,
420
Arabian polity the basis of Moses' govern
ment, 100, 101
 system of government, 101, 102
• — : — , Syro-, a Semitic race, 509
¦  commerce extended to distant coun
tries, 581
 exports of pearls, carpets, cotton, &c„
583
 imports from China and other coun
tries, 583
 colonies on the coast of India, 579
 learning, &c, 467
 and Persian Gulfs, trade with India,
598
 , architecture, sculpture, &c, 604
Arabians and Abyssinians, probably the
same people, 46, 47
 , resemble the Armenians and
Syrians, 52
Arabic, the Hebrew language derived from,
85
 , a Shemitic language, 84
 Chaidee, derived from the Arabic of
the Canaanites, 85
 , common origin of, with other eastern
languages, 86
¦  ¦ works collected, 549
 works in European libraries, 551
 rhymes, 552
 numerals, 555, 5C4
 medicine introduced into Italy, 558
 philosophy encouraged by Frederic II.,
561
 sciences studied by Daniel Morley, 561
 language acquired by Frederick II.,
563
Arabitee, the, fly before Alexander, 343
 , separated from the Aritae by the river
Arabius, 346
Arabius river, situation of the, 342, 346
 , reached by Nearchus' fleet, 346
Arabs, the, their dress, arms, customs, &c,
454
 , Baghdad built as the capital of the, 458

714

INDEX.

Arabs, declined under Moktader Bi'llah, 467,
468
¦  , change in their pursuits, 543
 , works numerous, 543
>  , the, become the centre of civilization,
543
 employed in translating from Greek
and Sanscrit, 550
¦  cause great changes in the middle
ages, 552
 , rise of, in the East, 552
 of Spain study philosophy, 554
¦ — — trade extended from the Red Sea to
India, 586
 , the, anxious for trade, 600
 favourable to the navigation of the
Euphrates, 601
¦  , their love of poetry, 552
¦  , the, excel in preparing leather, 632
¦  , superiority of their vessels, 645
¦  , early navigators in the eastern seas, 646
 , early use of the compass among the,
646
Arachosi submit to Alexander, 307
 , supposed situation of thejr district, &c,
307 '
Aradus (Ruad), one of the Phoenician
governments, 93, 276
 , Gerostratus, sovereign of, submits to
Alexander, 276
Aragaz, or Armenagaz, city built by Arme
nac, 40
 , tombs of Noah and his wife in, 40
 , situation of the city and plain of, 40,
41
 , called Marant, or Maranta, 41
Aram, or Harma, son and successor of
Gelam, 42
Aram, eldest son of, founded Damascus, 77
Aramais succeeds Armenac, 4]
 changes the name of the river Gihon
to Araxes, 41
¦  calls his capital city Armavir, 41
 succeeded by Amassia, 41
Arameans called Assyrians or Mesopota-
mians, 31
 , their territory, 30
 , according to Mas'udi, » sect of Chal
deans, 31
Ararat, named the " Foot of Armenac," 41
 , named, by Amassia, the " Foot of
Masis," 41 , 42
Ararena of iElius Gallus' expedition, pro
bably Nejd'-el-'Aridh, 415
Aras, or Phasis river, crossed by the 10,000
Greeks, 229
 , probable derivation of its name (note),
229
 , probable situation of the ford used by
the Greeks, 229, 230
Araxes, river of Paradise, 2
 , the, or Gihon, 41
 , derivation of the name of, 41
¦  reached by Cyrus' army, 214
¦  crossed by Alexander, 300, 301
 of Cyrus, or the Jaxartes, 312
 , mistaken for the Tanais, 312

Araxes, the, crossed by Antony, 413
Arbela, probable site ofthe battle of, 295
 , built by Darius Codomanus, 295
 , Darius halts at, 286, 295
 , the battle of, and its results, 292, 293,
294, 297
Arbonai, river of Judith, 151
Arcaa of the Hebrews, or Erech, 24 (note)
Arcadians and Achaeans leave the Greeks,
and proceed by sea to Calpas, 238
 defeated by the Thracians, 238
•  ¦ and Achaeans rescued by Xeno-
phon's division, 239
Archelaus appointed by Alexander governor
of Susa, &c, 298
Arches, antiquity of, in Egypt and Baby
lonia, 616
 and cupolas of Persia, how constructed,
624
Arches, ancient, on the Euphrates; 656
Archias surveys the coast of Arabia, 366
Archimagus, Darius assumes the title of, 186
Archimedes the mathematician, 530
Archipelago, Phoenician colonies in the, 95
 , Phoenician remains in the islands of
the, 95
Architecture similar in eastern countries, 34
 , &c, of Egypt derived from Assyria, 48
 introduced into Greece from Egypt,
48
 , &c, encouraged by Al Mu'tasem, 463
 , sculpture, &c, of I'ran, 604
 , a symbol of the social state, 604
Arcles, the'last sovereign of the Shepherds,
112
 led the Shepherds into Phoenicia, 112
- — - (the Tyrian Hercules) the first navi
gator in the Mediterranean, 128
 , or Certus, deified by the Tyrians and
Egyptians, 128
 , founded a colony in Spain, 128
 , temples at Tyre consecrated to, 129
Ardebil, a commercial dep6t, 581
'Arenjej and El 'Arfej, names of Himyar, 80
Areon brook, Nearchus arrives at the, 353
 , probably represented by Cogoou, 353
Arethas, a Roman general under Belisarius,
443
 campaign of, in Assyria, 443
Arfkesed, father of the Chaldeans, 53
Argjasp's invasion of Persia, 183
Argonauts, voyage ofthe, 113, 114
 , ships ofthe, 114
 , places visited by the, 114
 , Egyptian and Phoenician colonies esta
blished in Spain by the, 114
 , booty acquired by the, 114
 , sons of the, engaged in the Trojan
war, 119
Argos, the country of the Macedonian
princes, 253
Argos founded by Inachus, 112
Argyraspides, corps of noble Persians raised
by Alexander, 363
 , their treachery to Eumenes, 388
Ariaeus, the Greeks offer him the crown, 218
Ariandes, deputy of Cambyses in Egypt, 175

INDEX.

715

Ariandes, death of, 188
Arians revolt and are dispersed by Alex
ander, 308
 , country of the, 507
Ariarathes, king of Cappadocia, crucified by
Eumenes, 381
Ariaspse declared a free people by Alex
ander, 307
Ariaspes, son of Artaxerxes, 250
— — destroyed by his brother Ochus, 250
Aridaeus appointed regent after Alexander's
death, 380
 , receives the government of Lesser
Phrygia from Antipater, 382
 put to death by Olympias, 383
Arigeeum burnt by the Aspii, 320
'Arim, El, the flood of, 449
Arimazes, or Lysimithres rock, or hill fort
of Oxyarta, captured by Alexander, 317
Ariobarzanes defends the Persian gates
against Alexander, 300
¦  • is defeated, and flies to Persepolis, 300
Arioch, plain of, 14
Aristagoras revolts against Darius Hystaspes,
181, 182, 186
Aristotle, his knowledge derived from the
east, 526
 , influence of, 526
 and Plato's philosophy compared, 526
¦  ¦ and other sages connected with the
literature of the east, 539
 , his works translated, 558, 562
Arithmetic and astronomy imparted to the
Egyptians, &c, by Abraham, 64
Ark, the, mentioned by Berossus, 5
 , and its dimensions, 5
 , the building of, 6
 , the remains of, in the Corcyraean
mountains, 7
 , stranded in Armenia, 7
 , portions of, used as amulets, &c, 7
 , profane account of, 7
 , the city and tower of Erech built in
commemoration of the descent of, 24
 , and its construction, 63S, 639
Arkianus, king of Babylon, 14-5
Arkite religion, 14
 altar used, described, 14, 15
¦  religion once prevailed over the ancient
world, 15
Aries, monks from, go to Baghdad, 547
Armais, brother of Sesostris, 109
 assumes the sovereignty of Egypt, 109
Armavir, capital of Aramais's kingdom, 41
Armenac, son of Haik, and his successor, 40
 , migrations of, 40
 , builds Aragaz, or Armenagaz, 40
¦  , succeeded by Aramais, 41
Armenia, antiquity of the language and
nation, 13
 Major inhabited by Noah's family after
the Deluge, 14
 , the centre ofthe territory of Mizraim's
descendants, 29
 , mixed people of, 30, 39
 , Haik assumes the sovereignty of, 40
¦  , First, Second, and Third, 43

Armenia, distinction between the Greater
and Lesser, 43
•  Major, territory comprised in, 43
 , spread of Ham's and Japhet's descend
ants from, 43
 , a colony of the ancient Canaanites
settled in, H) 6
 war between Assyria and, 106
 once a dependency of Egypt, 109, 110
 , the 10,000 Greeks march through. 227
 , Phraates III. takes refuge in, 406
 , campaign of the Roman under Lucullus
and Pompey in, 406, 407
 bestowed on Tigranes by Augustus, 416
 , Persians defeated by Galerius in, 430
 restored to Tiridates, 430
 campaign between the Persians and
Romans iD, 445
 subjected by Taimiir, 492
Armenian contingent employed at the siege
of Troy, 119
 , consolidation of, under Pharnak, 133
¦  mercenaries oppose the Greeks at the
Centrites, 226
 villages, &c, described, 229
Armenians (also called Haigauians), re
semble the Arabs and Syrians, 39, 52
 of the Caucasus called Haikanians,
133
 , the Gargareis of Strabo, 133
Arnohwote, and its derivation, 8, 40
Arosis, the, of Nearchus, probably the Tab
or Indian, 354
Arphaxad, a Shemitic Chaldean, settles at
Haran, 31, 55
Arphaxad, death of, 148
Arsaces succeeds Darius Nothus, 203
 takes the name of Artaxerxes, 203
 becomes governor of Parthia, 400
¦  captures Seleucus Callinicus, 402
 renders Parthia independent, 402
 assumes the title of king of Parthia,
402
 , his treaty with Antiochus, 404
Arssai, campaign against the, by Alexander,
319
Arsames; inscription of (Appendix D)
Arsian, Kilij, sultan of Al Rum, 478
Arsiif, Salah-ed-din defeated by Richard I.
on the plains of, 483
Artabanes murders Xerxes, 197
 , death of, 19S
 , the Parthian, expelled from Armenia,
416
 invades the Roman territories, 422
Artabazus rewarded by Alexander, 305
 or Artavasdes king of Armenia, 409
 his advice to Crassus, 409
 forms au alliance with the Parthians,
412
Artabazanes submits to Antiochus the Great,
403
Artacaonia, capital of the satrap Satibar
zanes, 306
 , afterwards Alexandria, 306
 , position of, 306
Artacus probably Esarhaddon, 145

716

INDEX.

Artaphernes, general of Darius, 187
Artaxance recovered from the Persians by
the Romans, 423
Artaxata, the city of, besieged by Phraates
III., 406
Artaxerxes Macrochir, or Longimanus, 148,
198
 , third son of Xerxes, usurps the throne,
198
 puts Artabanes to death, 198
 defeats his brother in Bactriana, 198
 , his banquet at Shushan, and divorce
of Vashti, 198, 199
 raises Esther to the throne, 199
 empowers Esdras to rebuild the temple
of Jerusalem, 199
 , his reception of Themistocles, 199
¦ prepares for a war with Greece, 199
 defeated by the Greeks under Cimon,
200
 death of, and his successor Xerxes, 200
 (Arsaces), succeeds Darius Nothus,
203
 known as Mnemon among the Greeks,
203
 , Cyrus rebels against, 203
 , army of, 215, 216
 retreats before Cyrus, 216
 advances, gains the battle of Cunaxa,
216-218
 treachery to the Greeks at the Zab,
221
 , his forces harass the Greeks, 223, 224
•  governments and satrapies, 244, 245
 rescript of, to the Greeks, 247
 sends an army into Cyprus against
Evagoras, 247
— expedition of, against the Cadusians, 248
 second rescript of, 248
 pardons Tachos, 248, 249
 troubled state of the empire of, 249
 declares Darius his successor, 249
 , death and character of, 249, 250
Artaxerxes establishes the Persian power in
Parthia, 422
 is defeated by the Romans, 423
 , inscription at Persepolis relating to
(Appendix D.)
Artemisia, bravery of, at Salamis, 195
Artemisium, battle of, 195
Artillery used at the siege of Constantinople
by Muhammed IL, 499, 500
Arts in use by the people of the old world, 8
Artychas, or Tiglath-Pileser, king of As
syria, 138
¦  , succeeded his father Pul, or Sosarmus,
138
 , a separate government under, 138, 139
¦  invades Judea and carries the inhabit
ants captive, 139
 , wars of, with the kings of Syria and
Israel, 139
 receives the treasures of the Temple,
139
Aryandic, coin of Egypt, 189
Aryat, or Aruat, the first of the Abyssinian
kings over Yemen, 450

Aryavarta the holy land of the Brahmins>
507, 508
Asaba, Saba or Sheba, South, 123
Asca (Cisca) taken by the Romans, 415
Ascanazians, another name of the Ha'ika-
nians, 41
¦  , settlement of, in Pontus, 43
Ascent of the Euphrates by Commander
Campbell, 599
Ashtola, probably the island of Karnine, 348
Ashur, the sons of, subjected a second time,
24
 , probably the Larissa of Xenophon, 222
Asia, first landing ofthe Greeks in, 119
 , Alexander's proposed invasion of, 259
 ¦, from the time of Xerxes to Darius
Codomanus, 260
 -, weakness of the governments of, 261,
262
 , the Macedonians land in, 263
 , progress of the Roman power in, 404
 , intercourse between Europe and, 472
 , philosophy and the sciences derived
from, 508
 , the Scandinavian worship from, 513
 ~, colonies entered Ireland from, 513
 , the Huns, Bulgarians, Hungarians,
&c, settle in Europe from, 514
 , knowledge ofthe ancientsages derived
from, 514, 515
 , astronomy, &c, derived from, 517
 Minor occupied by Ham, 18
 submits to Alexander, 268
¦  , wars in, of Antiochus the Great,
403
 connects Asia with Europe, 515
 , commerce with Persia, 595
 , manufactures of, 631
Asiatic army raised by Alexander, 363
•  history an introduction to that of
Europe, 505, 506
 colonies to Europe, 513
 dwellings described, 624
¦  products sought in all times, 668
Asiatics and early Egyptians compared, 34
 , spread of the, to America, 508
Asidates, Persian chief, Xenophon captures
the wife and family of, 242
Askulan, Salah-ed-din defeated by the Cru
saders near, 478
 taken by the Muslims, 479
 taken and demolished by the Crusaders
under Richard I., 482, 483
 , the Karismians raze the fortifications
of, 485
Asmah, a king ofthe Himyarites, 80
Asopus, Mardonius' army encamp on the
river, 196
Asphaltites, Demetrius retreats from Petra
towards the lake, 391
Aspii, campaign of Alexander against the,
319
 , are defeated, 320
 , cattle of the, sent to Greece, 320
Assakenes, Alexander's campaign against
the, 320, 321
 , revolt of the, against Alexander, 323

INDEX.

717

Assaal, Al.'son and successor of Saltih-ed-
din, 484
 loses Egypt, &c, 484
Assan, 'Othman Ibn, (see 'Othman)
Assis or Asith, a shepherd king, 74
 or Assith added five intercalary days
to the year, 74
Assur, called Athur by the inhabitants, 419
Assyria occupied by the descendants of
Shem, 23
 , Nimrud wars with, 24
— — , a separate kingdom from Mesopotamia
in the time of Cushan-Rashathaim, 106
 , war between Armenia and, 106, 107
 subdued by Belus, 115
 , the remains near Nineveh throw light
on the history of, 136
 , history of, connected with that of
Judea, &e., 137, 138
 , conquests of, under Pul and his son
Tiglath-Pileser, 138, 139
 , the Jews carried captive into, 139,
140, 141
 , conquests of, under Shalmaneser, 140,
141
 sends colonies into Syria, 141
¦  , idolatry of, introduced into Samaria,
141
 , Sennacherib, king of, 141, 142
•  divided after Sennacherib's death, 144
 Esarhaddon ascends the throne of, 145
 reunion of Babylonia and, 145
 its history supplied by the book of
Judith, 148
¦  inroad ofthe Scythians into, 152, 153
 Pharaoh Necho's invasion of, over
thrown by Nebuchadnezzar, 155
¦  declared a Roman province by Tra
jan, 420
 laid waste by the Romans under Are-
thas, 443
 , remains described in Mr. Hector's
letter, 136, 137
Assyrian dominion founded by Nimriid, 65
 characters more modern than the
Himyaritic, 84
 and Median dynasties explained, 135
¦  empire and line of kings, probably un
interrupted, 136
 , antiquity of the remains of, 604
 architecture, carried to other countries,
612
 inscriptions and characters of, 628, 629
Assyrians, or Syrians, also Arameans and
Mesopotamians, 31
 , possessions of the, after the Disper
sion, 31
 , (Athuri),were Chaldeans or Syrians, 3 1
 , the, identical with the Nabatheans,
&c, 31
 , the, divided into several tribes, 31
 -, the, introduced literature, &c, into
India, 34
 , the, introduced architecture into
Egypt, 48
 , or Syrians of 'Irak Arabi, the same
people as the Chaldeans, 52

Assyrians, the, subdue Judea, 65, 66
 , extent of their dominions, 133
 , kings of the, according to Ctesias, 134,
135
— — -, the, oppose Trajan's passage of the
Tigris, 418, 419
Astarte one of the wives of Ham, 20
 queen of Byblus and Melcander, 20
 , temples at Tyre consecrated to, 129
Aster-abad, and Napoleon's invasion of In
dia, 537
Astracan, khanat of, subjected by Russia,
491, 536
Astrolabe, treatise on the, 546
Astrology promoted by Enoch, 9
 preserved by Ham, 19
 among the Chaldeans, 57, 58
 and alchemy studied by Roger Bacon
564
 in its primitive state exemplified, 10
 of the earliest Chaldeans and Egyp
tians, 11
 favoured by the longevity of the ante
diluvians, 11
 , cycles ofthe antediluvian, 11, 57
 , &c, introduced into India from As
syria, 34
 made subservient to Sabaism, 57
 of the shepherds of Egypt, 74
 of the Egyptians, and their discovery
ofthe Canicular period, &c, 110
¦  carried to India and China from
central Asia, 507
 of Greece derived from the east, 516,
517, 529, 530
 , Thales' work on nautical, 519
 of the Chaldeans introduced by De
mocritus into Greece, 527, 528
 , Ptolemy established a system of, 530
 declined after the time of Pythagoras,
530
 , medicine, &c, from the east, 542, 544,
550
Astyages, marriage of, 152
 resents the insult of Evil Merodach, 1 62
 succeeded by Cyaxares, 1 62
Aswad crossed by Cyrus' army, 213
Atargetes, the temple of, plundered by
Crassus, 408
Athenian colonies in the Archipelago, 574
Athenians victorious at Marathon, 187, 188
 defeated by the Macedonians under
Philip, 254
Athens, citadel of, taken by Xerxes, 195
 burnt by Mardonius, 196
Athos, Cape, loss of Darius Hystaspes' fleet
off, 187
 , mount, canal cut by Xerxes through,
191
 , formerly Nymphaeum promon
tory, 252
Athrulla taken by the Romans, 415
Athuri, or Assyrians, 31
Atossa, daughter and wife of Artaxerxes or
Arsaces, 250
Atra besieged by the Romans, 421, 423
Atropatana besieged by[ Antony, 413

718

INDEX.

Atropatians, the, submit to Antiochus the
Great, 403
Attica, kingdom founded in, 112
 , march of Mardonius through, 196
Attock, Alexander's bridge of boats over the
Indus, near, 323
 .-, route through, 572
Augustus becomes emperor of Rome, 414
 sends an expedition into southern Ara
bia, 414, 415
 recovers the trophies taken from Cras
sus, 416
Auramazdes (Appendix B)
Aurea Chersonesus, probably Ophir, 126
Aurelian, his campaign against Zenobia,
427-429
- — ¦, his examination of Zenobia at Emessa,
429
 , he executes Longinus, 429
 , Palmyra destroyed by, 430
Auritse, or Cushites, 37
Autophradates, confirmed in his satrapy by
Alexander, 305
Avebury in Wilts, and its remains, 15
Avendar, Jewish philosopher, 556, 557
Avicenna, 546; his works, 555, 557
'Awara, or 'Awarana, Sanscrit for an en
closure, 323
Axum, city of, founded by the Cushites in
Abyssinia, 73
Axumitic or Amharic characters, 47 ¦
Ayeshah, widow of Miihammed, opposes
'Ah', 456
 at the battle of the Camel, 456
Azarethes defeats Belisarius, 442
Azerbaijan, quicksilver from, 583
 invaded by the Tobbai, 419
 subdued by Genghis Khan, 489
'Aziz, 'Omar ben 'Abd-el-, successor of So-
lei'man as khaliph, 457
 , his fiscal arrangements, &c, 457
Ba'al, Abii, (Abibalus) the first sovereign of
Tyre, 129
Ba'al, supposed statue of, 631
 , worshipped by the lost tribes, 45
Ba'alath built by Solomon, 122
 , Ba'alat, or Ba'aibek, caravan routes
through, 124, 570
Ba'aibek, caravan routes through^ 93
¦  taken by Taimur, 495
 built by Solomon, 495
Baaltes, or Astaroth, the moon, 20 (note)
Bala, the, of the Arabs, or Amenophis and
Shishak, 132
Babel called Kusdi Nimrud, 19
 , tower of, built by Nimrud, 24-26
 , temple of, dedicated to Jupiter Belus,
26
 , confusion of tongues at, 27
 , Nimrud appears to have remained at,
31, 32
¦  called Padmamandira, 45
Bab, El, Cyrus' army passes, 213
Bab-el-Mandeb, straits of, crossed by the
Hamites into Africa, 46
Babylon, records destroyed, 139

Babylon, works of the second Semiramis,
139, 140
 , successors of Semiramis the Second,
140
 was not the only abode of the captive
Hebrews, 141
 sends colonists to Syria, 141
 , Sennacherib subdues Elibus, and ap
points Esar-Haddon king of, 141
¦  , united to Assyria by Esarhaddon,
145
- — ¦ becomes a separate kingdom under
Nabopolasar, 152
 , becomes the capital of the Assyrian
empire, 153
 , Ezekiel and others taken as hostages
by Nebuchadnezzar to, 155-157
 , two routes, between Jerusalem and,
155, 156
 , adorned by Nebuchadnezzar, 157-160
 , Beishazzar ascends the throne of, 163
 , defended by Nitocris, 163
 , advance of Cyrus' army against, 164
— — , Beishazzar retires within the walls of,
164
 , siege of, 164-166
 , Cyrus' stratagem to take, 165, 166
 taken, and Beishazzar killed, 167
 , Cyaxares' death at, 169
 , the winter residence of Cyrus, 172
 , rebellion of Cyrus during Darius'
reign at, 178
¦  • retaken by stratagem, 179
 repeopled by Darius, 179
 , its defences destroyed by Darius, 179
 , worship of the Persians and Meso-
potamians of, 186
 , Alexander's march from Thapsacus
to, 285, 286
•  , force assembled by Darius at, 285
 , delivered up to Alexander after the
battle of Arbela, 296
 , the temple of Belus restored by Alex
ander at, 296
 , the government of, regulated by
Alexander, 297
— -, called the queen ofthe east, 296, 297
 , satrapy of, continued to Mazaeus, 298
 , entered by Alexander contrary to the
warning of the Chaldeans, 365, 366
•  , chosen by Alexander as the seat of
government, 366
 , improvements ordered by Alexander
for, 366, 367
 , fleet collected at, by Alexander, 368
 , Alexander dies at, of fever, 368
•  , Seleucus appointed governor of, 381
¦  ¦ visited by Trajan, 419
 , commerce with, by Queen Elizabeth,
534, 592
 , tunnel of, 615
•  , ancient, statues of, 631
Babylonia before the flood, and Berosus'
account of, 4
 , produce of, 5
¦  not materially changed by the deluge,
16,17

INDEX.

719

Babylonia, mixture of races in, 30, 31
 , the Chasdim of, 36, 37
 , the centre of the Cushite dominions, 37
 , spread of mankind eastward and
northward, southward aud south-east
ward, 44
 quitted by the sons of Joktan, 49
 recovered by the Shemites, 52
 invaded by Eumenes, 382
 invaded by Demetrius, 391
Babylonian letters similar to those of the
Chinese, 35
 worship similar to that of ancient
Egypt, Canaan, &c, 57
 image worship probably astrological,
59
 ruins, appearances of, 604
¦  bricks, 604, 605
 structures frequently pyramidal, 606
 cylinders and inscriptions, 629
Babylonians defeated by Aram, 42
 , or the Chaldeans of Gerrha, 52
 , their origin, 54
 , the Chaldeans the priest class of, 53,
54, 56
 , cruelty of, during the siege, 179
Bacon, Roger, and his acquirements, 564
Bactra, or Zariaspa, a principal city taken
by Alexander, 311, 312
 , Bessus sent to, by Alexander, 312
 , Alexander's winter quarters, 315, 318
Bactria, the empire of, founded by Abu
Kurrub the Himyarite, 81
 consolidated by Semiramis, 115, 118
 , and Alexander's march, 306
 , Bessus retires from, into Sogdiana, on
the advance of Alexander, 3 1 1
 , the wounded soldiers sent from, to
Europe, 311
 , Spitamenes is expelled from, by Alex
ander, 316
 subdued by Antiochus the Great, 404
 settlements, and spread of civilization
from, 507
 , or Balkh, centre of trade, 571
Badaca, Antigonus' retreat from, 384
Badger, or wind tower, 625
Badhaii, the last Persian satrap of Yemen,
450
Badis, probably Jask, 350
 , stores of corn, wine, &c, found at, by
Nearchus, 350
Bagar, branch ofthe Indus, 372, 373
Bagae, or Gaba?, on the Oxus, and defeat of
Spitamenes, 316
Bagasira, haven reached by Nearchus, 347
Bagdad suitable for commerce, 601 (Ap
pendix JY.)
 ¦¦, supplies to, from Persian Gulf (ditto)
Baghashii, Ras, Himyari inscriptions, 82
Baghdad, built and occupied as the capital
of Arabia, 458
 flourishes under Hariin el Rashid, 459
 literary entertainments given at, by
the khaliph al-Mamiin, 460-462
 Al Mu'tasem removes the camp to
Katiil from, 465

Baghdad, decline of, during the fourth
century of the Hijrah, 465, 468
 taken by Togrul Bei, 470
 taken by Taimiir, 493
 , revolt and massacre of the inhabitants
by Taimiir, 495
 , learned men invited from, 552
 , the commercial eapital of 'Irak, 581
 and Basrah, trade of, 594
 , great emporium, 601
Baghistan, or Bisutun, sculptures and in
scriptions at, 117, 118
Baghistane visited by Alexander on his
march to Media, 365
 visited by Semiramis, 364
¦  , the well-known Bisiitiin, 365
Bagia (probably Ras Briefs), reached by
Nearchus, 349
Bagdas, viceroy under Ochus, 260
Bahre'in, remains ofthe Amalekites in, 51
Baibiirt, halt ofthe 10,000 Greeks near this
town, 232
Bajazet defeated by Taimiir, 494, 499
 Bayazid II., reigns over the Turks,
500
Balaam's prophecy fulfilled, 186
Baladan Merodach, aud his reign over
Babylon, 140
¦  slain by Elibus, 141
Balbi's voyage down the Euphrates and to
Pegu, 590
Baldwin placed on the throne by the Cru
saders, 484
Balesius or Belik river, battle of the Par
thians and Romans, 410
 , the, probable site of this battle, 412
Balista, or Caiistus, wars against Sapor,
425
Balkh, death of Zoroaster at, 183
 taken by Genghis Khsin, 489
¦  , route through, 571, 581
 , caravan routes converging on, 309,
571-573
Balomus, coast of, and Nearchus' fleet, 349
Baltic, migration from the, 513
Baluehes of Pasira, their trade, 348
Baluk-sii, or Baliiklii-su (Fish river), crossed
by Cyrus, 212
Bambarak, or Kove Mubarrack, passed by
Nearchus' fleet, 350
•  -, called the second mount of Semiramis,
by Nearchus, 350
Bambuche, Kara, Julian at, 433
Bamiyan stormed by Genghis Khan, 489
Band-emir, or Araxes, 301
Bang, Cape, or Sous Poshoon (Mesambria),
354
Banna, town, the apex of the delta of the
Indus, 372
Barathra (Kara Biinar), where Epyaxa
quits Cyrus, 209
Barax-malkS (probably Jibba), Julian's pas
sage of the Euphrates, 436
Barbarossa advances against Constantinople,
481
Barbary, a colony from, reaches Ireland,
514

720

INDEX.

Bardeus, or Smerdis, usurps the throne of
Persia, and is murdered, 175
Baris, or Barit, i.e., the ark or ship in which
Noah was preserved, 7
Barna, village, Nearchus' fleet reaches, 349
Barnea, Kadesh, and journey of the Israel
ites, 103
Barophthae reached by Julian's army, 439
Barsham, prince ofthe Babylonians, defeated
by Aram, 42
Barsine, or Statira, Alexander's marriage
with, 359
 , and her sou Hercules, murdered by
Polysperchon, 391
 , widow of Memnon, 391
Barygaza, or Baroach, port of, 576
Barylas, a Jacobite and instructor of Mii
hammed, 452
Barzaantes, one of the satraps who caused
Darius' death, 304
¦  -, executed by order of Alexander, 306,
308
Basilius and Julian's advance, 434
Baskets for raising water, 651
Basrah built for Arab trade, 580
 proposed by Napoleon as a place
d'armes against India, 536
Bassadore bank, on which Nearchus' fleet
was exposed to a storm, 352
Batan, a Chaldean district, near the Cen
trites, 226 (note)
Batillas, or trankeys, and their construction,
645
 , found in India and Arabia, 646
Batnae in Osrhtene, Julian's visit to, 433
Batis' brave defence of Gaza against Alex
ander, 281, 282.
BattSni, El, work on astronomy, 561
Batii, grandson of Genghis Khan, and his
territories, 490
Batuta's, Ibn, work on geography, 535
Bayazid, or Bajazet, 494, 499
Bazira, near the Indus, taken by Aldatus,
321
Beas, Beeah, or Bypasa, the upper part of
the Hyphasis, 370
Bectoleth plain, probably near Hajf Bektash,
150 (note)
Bedawin, conquests ofthe, 542
 , the, as lyric poets, 554
Bede on the astralobe, 540
 acquainted with Arabic, 545
Beghram, or Beihram, probably Alexandria
ad Caucasum, 311
Behui, or Bedusta, river, 371
Behut or Jailum, and Hydaspes, 324-326,
371
Beilan pass, abandoned by Abrocamas on
the approach of Cyrus, 212
Beirut, trade of, 590, 594 (Appendix N.)
 taken by the Muslims after the battle
of Hattin, 479
Beja the seat of the Abyssinian shepherds,
73
Bekr, Abii, successor of Muhammed, 454
Bektash, Hajf, probably near plain of Bec
toleth, 150

Bel, Belus, or Saturnus, worshipped by
Ham's descendants, 20
 , temple of Babel afterwards dedicated
to, 27
Bela, Lot's city of refuge, 68
Beles, proposed place of trade, 602
Belesis' palace, destroyed by Cyrus, 213
Belgrade taken by Sultan Suleiman, 500
 , treaties at, 503
Belik river (see Balesius), battle of the
Romans at the, 410
Belisarius' campaigns against the Persians
under Chosroes, 443, 444
Belicha, valley, and the Centrites, 226 (note)
Bellavese leads Colonies of Gomerians, or
Celts, into Europe, 513
Belochus, or Belock, king of Assyria, 107
Beishazzar (Nabonnedus), ascends the throne
of Babylonia, 163
 retires within the walls of Babylon, 1 64
Belthis, or Ba'altis, the moon, 20
Belus of the Greeks, or Nimrud, 24
 , temple of, on the tower of Babel, 26
 the Second, or Ninus, 39, 40
 , the Assyrian, bore the name of Picus,
115
¦  succeeds Alcasus as king of Lydia, 114,
115
 , or Ba'al, the title of Amenophis, king
of Egypt, 132
 ofthe Arabs, probably Shishak, 132
 , temple of, built by Semiramis IL,
140
 ,  , adorned by Nebuchadnezzar,
160
¦  . ¦  , restored by Alexander, 296
 , king of Babylon, 1 45
Ben »Ammi, Lof s younger daughter's son,
69
Benares, commercial route through, 572
Benarooz, Hephaestion passes through, when
marching to Laristan, 358
Benedictines, their learning and influence,
546, 548
Beni Jadis, a lost tribe, 45, 51
 , probably absorbed in the Kahtanites,
51
 Jer^h, or Beni Jurham, 51
 Jobab, from a son of Joktan, 52
 Jurham, near Mekkah, 51
 Khaled, the, represent the Shemitic
Chaldeans, 55
Beni Rabiah, a branch of, still existing, 55
Benjamin, the tribe of, return to Jerusalem,
171
 of Tudela's travels, 534
Berbers, or shepherds, 73, &c.
 settle in Africa, 455, 456
 , like the Egyptians, descended from
Ham, 456
 , corps of, in the Muslim army, 464
Berenice, city named after Ptolemy's mother,
399
Bernhard and Arabic literature, 551
Bercea, 443
Berossus' History of Babylonia, 4, 5
 account ofthe deluge, 6, 7

INDEX.

721

Berossus' account of Abraham, 62
 and other profane writers agree with
Moses' account ofthe ark, 5, 6, 7, 638
 , account of the destruction of Sen
nacherib's army, 142
Bertha, 'Ain-el (Mons Nicator), the battle
of Arbela fought between the Great Zab
and, 295
Beruz passed through by Alexander on his
way to Pasagarda, 358
Bessus, general of Darius, 280
 carries Darius captive, and murders
him, 303, 304
 claims the sovereignty of Asia, calling
himself Artaxerxes, 305
 , Alexander advances against him, 306
 is delivered up to Alexander by his
own satraps, 31 1, 312
 , mutilated by Alexander's orders, and
put to death at Ecbatana, 312-315
Besuchis, fortress of, taken by Julian, 438
(note)
Beth-horon, the Upper and the Nether, built
by Solomon, 122
Bethlehem ceded to the crusaders, 484
 , Jotapata, or Safet, 151 (note)
Betlis, trade of, 702
Bezabde, once Pheniee, stormed by Sapor,
433
Bhuddists, spread of, and revolution caused
by, 541
Bibacta, or Bibaga, and Nearchus' fleet, 346
Bidaspes, or Hydaspes, 324
Bir, excavations of, 610
Birs, or Baris, meaning a high altar, 26
Birtha (Bir), Sapor's unsuccessful attack on,
433
Bisutun, or Baghistane, inscriptions found
at, 116, 117
 , Syriac inscriptions supposed to have
been effaced, 117
 , and account of Darius Hystaspes'
usurpation, 175
 , rebellions in Susiana and Babylonia
quelled by Darius, 178
 tablets mention the religion of Persia,
186
 , remains at, 607, 618
Bithynia, the 10,000 Greeks coast along,
238
 , Xenophon's mistake regarding its
geography, 238
 attacked by Zenobia, 427
 conquered by Urklan, 498
 plundered by Agesilaus, 245, 246
Bithynian, or the Hellespontine, satrapy of
Pharnabazus, 243
Bithynium founded by the Phoenicians, 95
Bitumen used as a cement, 625
 and naphtha, how collected, 625
Bitumiuous pits in the vale of Siddim caused
the destruction of Sodom, 67, 68
Black Sea rounded by the Turkish army m
Murad's reign, 501
 ; eruption of the, after the settlements
iu Europe, 512
 , commerce of the, 582
VOL. II.

Boats kept at Bir by Queen Elizabeth, 591
 at Lamliim, Hit, and Tekre't, 635
 , construction of, at Hit, 636, 637
 , in various countries, 641
 , similar to those mentioned by Hero
dotus, 639
 , round, their use and advantages, 639,
642
 , long, succeed the round, 641
 of Lamliim coated with bitumen, 642
 at Kiirnah and Basrah, 641
 , wooden, at Hit and 'A'nah, 643
 , ferry, of the Aras, 644
 , at Bir, 644
 of the lower Euphrates and Tigris,
645
 , ancient, similarity of, to the modern,
646
 of the Chinese, oars and sweeps, 646
 , tanka or egg, 648
 , the fishing, of China, 648
 ,' cargo, flower, and war, 649
Boethius, poem of, 553
Boeotia colonised by the Cadmonites, proba
bly from Egypt, 112
Bohemund leads the Crusaders against
Antioch, 474
Bokhara subdued by Genghis Khan, 489
 and Samarkand, route through, 596
Borak used as stucco, 626
Borsippaeans, a branch of Chaldeans, 54
Bosphorus crossed by Darius' army, on a
bridge of boats, 181
Botany studied by Pythagoras and Demo
critus, 531
Bozra, and Miihammed's visit to, 451
Brahmapootra, or Sanpoo, source of the,
369
Brahmins, origin of the, &c, 33, 186, 507,
508
Brass brought from Mesopotamia by David
as spoil, 121
Brafhu and the Cainites, 4
Bricks of 'Akar Kiif, 605
Bridges of Babylon, ancient and modern,
623
 of Persia, 624
Briefs, Ras, probably represents the island
of Bagia, passed by Nearchus' fleet, 349
Britain, Severus dies in, 422
 , works of the Romans under Severus
in, 422
 -, early Phoenician trade, 575
 rediscovered by the Carthaginians,
575
 , its trade with Gaul, 576
Brizana river (probably Bander Delem),
station of Nearchus' fleet, 354
Bruges, a commercial city, 588
Brusa taken by 'Osman, 498
Bubastis, in Egypt, and Pharaoh Nechos
canal, 153
Bucephaia, site of, determined by Mr. Mas-
son, 324, 330
 , at Jailum, 371
Buda captured by the Turks_ under Sule'i-
man, 500
3 13

722

INDEX.

Budd, the leader of Buddhists, Supposed to
have been Phut, Ham's son, 33
Buddhism, influence of, 523, 541
Budii of Media, probably a tribe of Cush
ites, 32
Budroun, or Halicarnassus, 266-268
Buhtan-chai, or Centrites, 225
Bulgarians settle in Europe, 514
 , or Triballians, defeated by Alexander,
258
Bulimy, or excessive hunger, experienced
by the Greeks in their marches through
Armenia, 228
Bullock rollers for raising water, 653, 654
Buliit Tagh, or Cloudy Mountain ; and its
continuation known as the Himalaya, 368
 , and springs ofthe Indus, 368
Bumadus river, Darius' camp at the, 287
 or Khazfr-sii, and plain of Arbela,
295
Bunar, Kari, or Barathra, 209
Bunds in Africa, Arabia, and Asia, 613
 -, construction of, 614
 in European Turkey, 614
 used on the Mygdonius to inundate
Nisibis, 432
Bunpur, Alexander's march to Pura, or
Pareg, 343
Burech, El, canal, 612
Burgos, bishop of, 558
Busalossorus, or Nabopolasar, 153
Busheab, reached by Nearchus' fleet, 353
Bushire, or Abii Shehr, or Sitakus, 353,
354
But, or Put, was the Chaldaic for Phut, or
Pha, the Bhud of the east, 19
 , sovereign of Kusdi Khorasan, 19
Buyuk Membij, or Kara Bambuche, 433
Buz, from whom came the Haiks or Burzo-
nians, 41
 , son of Nahor, in Upper Mesopotamia,
77
 , Elihu probably his descendant, 79
Byas, afterwards Byzantium, visited by the
Argonauts, 114
Byblus, Ham's kingdom, 19
 , now Jubeil, on the coast of Phoenicia,
once Gebal of the Ammonites, 19
 , Canaan, born at, 20
Byblus capitulates to Alexander, 277
Bypasa, Beas or Beeah river, 370
Byzantium captured by the lonians from
Darius, 182
 taken by the Greeks from the Persians,
197
 saved by Xenophon, 241
Cables, chain, their use in China, 651
Cadmonites, or Hivites, 94
 , settlement ofthe, in Boeotia, 112
Cadmus founds colonies, 94
 , grandson of Ha'ik, settles near Ararat,
39
Cadusians, and Artaxerxes' campaign
against the, 248
Caesarea or Gaysarey, formerly Mazaca,
43

Caesarea, or Gaysarey, stormed by the Per
sians under Sapor, 425
 in Cappadocia captured by the Persians,
under Chosroes II., 445
 , the fleet of Nearchus anchored at, 353
Cain and his wife are supposed to be the
Genus aud Genea of Syria, 15
Cainites, or the daughters of men mentioned
in Gen. vi. 4
 , the last of them supposed to be Nie-
maus or Naamah, the sister of Tubal Cain,
and wife of Ham, 19 -j
Cairo successfully resists the Crusaders,
484
 and Baghdad, learned men of, 552
Calah, now Sar-piili-Zohab, on the slopes of
the Zagros, 24
Caledonians, or Picts, from the Celtic tribes
of Asia, 513
Caiistus (or Balista) wars against the Per
sians under Sapor, 425
Callas, satrap over the Hellespontine. Phry
gia, 265
Callenicum or Nicephorium, now Rakkah,
434
 , Julian arrives at, 434
Callinicus on the Euphrates, the Romans
under Belisarius retreat to, 442
 , arrival of Xenophon at, 238, 239
 , Cheirisophus died at, 239
¦  , proposed Greek colony at, 240
Cambyses, (also called Ahasuerus), son and
successor of Cyrus the Great, 173
'  crosses the Arabian desert and sub
dues Egypt, 173, 174
 expeditions against the temple of Am
mon and Ethiopia, 174
¦  dies when returning to Persia, 175
 Gomates the Magian usurps the throne,
175
 called the master of the empire, 176
Camel, battle of the, 456
Campanus's demonstrations of Euclid, 559
Campbell, C. D., Commander, I. N., on the
practicability of navigating the Euphrates,
599 (Appendix N.)
Cana, or Coptos, port of, 580
Canaan said to have been born at Byblus,
20
 , his kingdom took his own name, 21
 , inhabitants of, and extent of, 21
 , sons of, remained in Syria and Phoe
nicia, 23
¦  , the Israelites cross the Jordan and
enter, 106
¦  ¦, flight of the inhabitants of, to Egypt
and Armenia, 106
Canaanidas leads some of the Canaanites
into Armenia, 106
 , descendants of the, called Gmi-
thanians, 106
Canaanites, flight of the Philistines and the,
106
¦  • and their descendants the Berbers,
456
Canal proposed between Euphrates and
Tigris (Appendix N.)

INDEX.

723

Canals of Mesopotamia, Lamliim, 612, 613,
614
 from the Nile, 153, 154
Canastaerum, promontory of, now Cape
Pailhuri, 252
Candia visited by British vessels, 590
Canicular period, discovery ofthe, attributed
to the Egyptians, 110
Canoes of Lamliim, Kiirnah, and Basrah,
642, 643
Canzaca, or Shfz, 183
Capacerunt bestowed on Niul bv Pharaoh,
511 J
Cape of Good Hope circumnavigated, 589
Caphthorim, people of Mizraim, 21
Cappadocia, styled the first Armenia, 43
 , the Medes and descendants of Togor
mah in, 43
 invaded by the Persians under Sapor,
425
Caprus, the, or Lesser Zab, crossed by Da
rius, 286
Caravan routes through Egypt, Arabia, &c,
92, 93, 124, 569
 route fromTadmor towards the Persian
Gulf, 125
 trade by land to India probably led to
the Ophirian voyage, 125, 126
 routes through Persia, 309
Carchemish, Nebuchadnezzar defeats Pha
raoh Necho at, 155
Cardacs, the, in Darius Codomanus' army,
269
Carduchian Mountains, route of the 10,000
Greeks over the, 225
Carduchians harass the Greeks, 226, 227
Caria supports Alexander aiid Darius, 265
 , Alexander's army winters in, 266
 , Alexander's successes in, 266, 267
Carian commerce succeeds the Milesian, 574
Carmandae, supposed situation of, 214 (note)
 , and dispute among the Greeks at, 214
Carpets exported by the Arabs, 583
 of Persia and Asia Minor, 631
Carrhae, Eumenes takes up a position near,
382
 , retreat of the Romans under Crassus
to, 411
 captured from the Romans by the Per
sians under Sapor, 423
 recovered by the Romans under Gor
dian, 423
 recovered by Odenatus for the Romans,
426
 , Julian advances to, 433
 , two routes from, to Persia, 433
 -demolished by the khaliph Al Marniin,
460
Carthage, a colony from Tyre, founded,
129, 130
 , the Tyrians paid a ground rent for,
129
 , revenue derived from the colonies by,
130
 , great resources of, 131
 , nature of the government of, 131
 sends colonies to the British isles, 190

Carthage, maritime enterprises of, 131, 190
- — taken by Louis IX. of France, 485
Carthaginian wars, cause of the, 131
Carthaginians, the, usurp the western trade,
575
 rediscover Britain, 575
Caryauda, the native place of Scylax, 180
Casluhim, a people who lived to the south
west of Canaan, 21
Caspaty'rus, 180
 , Darius' fleet built at, 180
Caspian Sea, the examination of, projected
by Alexander, 366
 Gates, Alexander's pursuit of Bessus
from, 303
¦  Gates, 612
Cassander becomes the dependent ally of
Antigonus, 390
 governs Asia for the young king, 391
 murders Roxana . and her son Alex
ander, 391
 shares the government with Polysper
chon, 39f
 , Antigonus commences operations
against, 392
 proclaims himself king, 392
 , addition to the territory of, 398
 , puts Olympias to death, 3S9
 combines with Seleucus and Ptolemy
against Antigonus, 389
Cassiterides, the, or Sorlings (Britain),
known to the Phoenicians, 575
Cassius Mount, named after a descendant
of Cain, 4
Cassius, Roman General under Crassus,
409, 411
Cataphractarii, or Clibanarii, of the Per
sians, 423
Cataea, a rocky island passed by Nearchus'
fleet, 353
 probably Kenn or Keis, 353
Cathaei, the, subjected by Alexander, 330,
331
 , the, now the Kattias, 331
Caucasus, Sesostris planted a colony in the
valleys of the, 109
Causeways and roads of Assyria, 612
Caves, Mithraic, 607
 of Assyria and Persia, 607, 608
Caystrus, plain of, and Cyrus' march to the,
206
 , Cyrus visited by Queen Epyaxa at the,
208
Cecrops of Sais, in Egypt, founded a settle
ment in Attica, 1 12
Celaenae, halt of Cyrus' army at, 205
 , capital of Phrygia, taken by Alexander,
267
 , Antigonus' army winters at, 390
Celonae, Alexander's army halt at, 364
 , a Boeotian colony planted by Xerxes'
expedition, 364
 , now Si'rwan or Keiliin, 364
Celsus' account of the sabaism of the Per
sians, 184
Celtic, their tribes spread from Asia into
Europe, 512, 513
3 b 2

724

INDEX.

Celts, their names, government, and religion,
512, 513
Cements of various kinds, 625-627
— — • of the Persians, 627
•  used by Shapiir, 627
~ Centrites, or Buhtan Chai, passed by the
10,000 Greeks, 226, 227
Ceramorum Agora (market ofthe Cramians),
site of, 206
Cerasus (or Kerasunt) reached by the Greeks,
235
Ceres, temple of, and defeat at Plataea, 196
¦  and Isis, ceremonies of, based on those
of Egypt, 518
Cerne island, Carthaginian colonies on, 1 90
Certes, Cape, or Ras Jerd, passed by Near
chus' fleet, 353
Certus, or Arcles, the last sovereign of the
shepherds, 112
 led the Shepherds into Phoenicia, 112
Ceylon, or Taprobana, port of, 576
Chaala, jElius Gallus at, 415
Chain bridges used in China, 651
Chalanne,or Calneh, on the river Khabiir, 24
 , ruins of, 610
Chalcis probably the Challeorus of Judith,
151
 plundered by the Persians, 443
Chaldea (or Chasdim) extent of, 53, 55
¦  , wickedness ofthe inhabitants of, before
the flood, 3
 , Pherecydes studies in Egypt and, 520
Chaldean creed, 20
 images had Shemitic names, 59
¦  mercenaries oppose the Greeks at the
Centrites, 226
 districts in the neighbourhood of the
Centrites, 226 (note)
Chaldeans, the, spoke Arabic, and the same
people as the Syrians or Assyrians of
TrakArabi, 31,37, 52
 (Shemitic) in the steppes of Mesopo
tamia, 53
 , the Shemites, also the Sabean fol
lowers of Cush were called, 53
 , different applications of the name, 53
 , the, considered as tribes, as a priest
class, and as a uation, 54
 , Evechius, or Nimrud, the first king of
the, 55
 , the Chasdim or Cushite, 55
¦  , the Beni Khaled represent the She
mitic, 55
 , the name generally applied to a caste,
56
 , the most ancient Babylonians called, 56
 , customs of, resemble those of the
Egyptian priests, 56
 , philosophy ofthe, 56
'  , astronomy ofthe, 57
— — , the, first divided the day into twelve
parts, 57
 , Sabaism ofthe, 57
 names for the planets among the, 58
¦  ideas ofthe, regarding comets, &c, 58
 , supposed influence of the planets
among the, 58, 59

Chaldeans, image worship among the, 59
 more advanced than the Egyptians in
the time of Abraham, 65
 , of Strabo, or Chalybeans, 231
¦  , a leading branch of the Syro-Arabian
race, 509
 , early knowledge of the, 509
 and the Trinity, 541
Chaidee a Shemitic language, 84
 spoken by Abraham till his departure
from Haran, 85
 the root of the Arabic and Hebrew,
85, 86
 , Hebrew, Syriac, and Phoenician cha
racters similar, 629
Chaldees, U'r of the, three sites of, 37
Chalybeans, march of the 10,000 through
the country of the, 231
 , the Chaldeans of Strabo, 231
 , country of the, probably a part of the
district of Tchildir, 231
Chalybes, the Greeks march through the
territory of the, 237
Chalus (or Chalfb), Cyrus reaches the river,
212
 , the, abounds in fish, 213
Cham, son of Noah, and father of iEgyptus
or Mizraim, 45
Chamitoe, Chaldeans of Colchis or Djani,
afterwards called, 35, 36
Chandrabhaga (see Chinab), 324
Chaone (see Kangawar), 365
Charbar, bay of, probably represents the
harbour of Taimona, 349
 town described, 349
Chareha, the Romans under Jovian reach,
440
Charidemus, execution of, by Darius Codo-
manus, 270
Charlemagne, embassy of, to Harun-el-
Rashfd, 459
¦  , receives the keys of Jerusalem, 473
 connected with the east, 547
Charles V. and Charles of Anjou encourage
literature, 563, 564
Charlewood, Commander, R.N., Report on
the navigation of the Euphrates (Ap
pendix J.)
Charma, another name for Ham, 45, 46
Charmalikand Narsis, ruins described, 610-
612
Charras, village of, passed by Alexander,
364
Charter of Queen Elizabeth for opening a
trade with Babylon, 590-594 (note)
Chasas of the east, or the Cesi of Pliny, 54
Chasdim, Chasas, C'hasyas, or Cossais, the
name of section of Ham's descendants,
35
 territory occupied by the, &c, 35
 synonymous with the Chaldeans, 36
 conquered Babylonia from Shem's de
scendants, 36
 class of wise men among the, 36
 , chief people of Babylonia, 37
 , in connexion with the Chaldeans con
sidered, 54

INDEX.

725

Chasdim, Chasas, C'hasyas, or Cossais, Sec,
the Cushites were the earliest, 55
 , the territory occupied by the Cushite,
55
 (Chaldea), a name given to the terri
tory near Pontus, 55
— — amalgamate in Babylonia with the
Keltini, 55
 equally applicable to the Hamites and
Shemites, 55
Cha Spf of the Kurds, Jebel 'Abyadh, 224
Chebar river, captive Jews formed into colo
nies on the banks ofthe, 157
Chebran, or Amosis, the Pharaoh who op
pressed the Hebrews, 97
Cheirisophus and Xenophon conduct the
Greeks, 222
 elected commander ofthe Greeks, 238
¦  loses the command at Heraclea, 238
 leads his division to Calpae, 238
¦  dies at Calpae, 239
Chelek, pass (in Kurdistan), where thelO,000
Greeks regained the Tigris, 226
Chersonesus, Aurea, considered as Onhir
126 '
Chesed, a Shemitic Chaldean, 55
Chilod, or Gelod, of Herodotus, 147 (note)
China, Mizraim's descendants spread to
wards, 30
 , or the land of Sinim, 30, (note)
 , spread of mankind to, and worship of
Budd carried to, 33
 , names of, 33
 architecture, &c. of, similar to that of
the Cushites, 34
•  , calculating boards, called Swanpan,
of, 34
 , exclusive policy of, 34
 , traditional accounts of the deluge in,
35
 , founders of, from Babylonia, 35
 , names of Noah's sons traditionally
recorded in, 35
 letters resemble those of Babylonia, 35
 , trade of Nebuchadnezzar with, 161
 , account of the ancient trade with, 161
(note)
¦ — — , early trade of the Phoenicians, Per
sians, Indians with, 310
 twice invaded by Genghis Khan, 488,
489
 , invasion of, and Tai'mur s death, 495
Chin-ab or Chandrabhaga, the Akesines of
Alexander, 324
 , Alexander's passage ofthe, 330
¦  , source, course, and tributaries of the,
370,' 371
 , the (see also Akesines) takes the name
of Panj-nud, 371
Chinese letters resemble the characters on
the Babylonian cylinders, 35
 system of medicine like that of Galen,
532
¦  colonies in Armenia, 572, (note)
¦  trade, nature of, with Russia and Tar
tary, 596
.  with Fars and 'Oman, 577

Chinese boats, description of, 647-650
~77T — used as dwellings, 647
Chinilidanus, or Saracus, successor of Nabu
chodonosor, 151
— -, revolt ofthe Medes from, 151, 152
Chintz from Shiraz, 583
Chinzius and Porus reign over Babylon, 140
—  are succeeded by Judaeus, 140
Chiroo, formerly Has, passed by Nearchus,
Choaspes, now the Kerah or Kerkhah, 298
— — , Alexander probably passed into the,
from Opis, 364
Chodda (see Kedje) 343
Chonos (afterwards Chronoe on the Lycus)
Cyrus halts at, 205
Chorienes, Alexander besieges the rock fort
of, 318
 capitulates to Alexander, 318
 , probable position ofthe fort of, 318
Chosroes I. ('Amishirevan), accession of, 442
 , campaigns of, against the Romans,
442-444
 is succeeded by Hormisdas, 444
 II., successor of Hormisdas, 445 '
¦  puts down the rebellion of Varanes, 445
 , his campaigns with the Romans, and
death of, 445, 446
Chosroes 'Aniishirevan's conquest of Yemen
450
Christian pilgrimages to the Holy Land,
472, 473
Christians, the, lose Antioch and Jerusalem,
473
¦  ¦ ill treated at Jerusalem by Ortok, 473
Chrysor, Leuco-Syrians were also called, 36
¦  territory occupied by the, 36
Chulna island, probably passed by Near
chus' fleet, 346
Chun, a city of Zobah, from which David
brought much brass, 121
Chunam, and how prepared, 626
Chus, of the Caucasus, or Kusdi Kabgokh,
territory so named, its position, &c, 35
Cilicia traversed by Cyrus' army, 209-211
 , gates of, turned by Cyrus, 209 ; de
scription ofthe, 211
 , pass of, carried by Cyrus, 212
 Campestris and Rugged Cilicia sub
jected by Alexander, 269
 , invaded by the Persians under Sapor,
425
¦  invaded by the khaliph Al Marniin,
460
 , exchange of Mussulman and Christian
prisoners in, 466
Cillutas, Alexander passed the island of, and
sails on the Indian Ocean, 342
Circesium on the river Aboras, 424
 , Julian's army crossed the Khabiir at,
434 ; Chosroes I. at, 442
Circumnavigation ofthe globe, 589
Cisca or Asca taken by the Romans, 415
Cistern of Hesbun, C59
Cisterns and reservoirs, 660
Citium, in Cyprus, founded by the Phoeni
cians, 95

726

INDEX.

Civilization spreads from Bactria to India,
China, &c, 506, 507, 508
 in Europe advanced by sages travelling
to the East, 514, 515
Clearchus is sent to support Cyrus, 204
 , dispute at Carmandae between the
Greek followers of, and those of Menon,
&c, 214
 causes the loss of the battle of Cunaxa,
218
 , his reply to Artaxerxes when sum
moned to surrender, 218
 leads the Greeks to the camp of Ariaeus,
218
¦  , his negotiations with the Persians, and
their failure, 219, 220
 beheaded by Artaxerxes, 221
Cleaveland, Commander, R. N., Report on
the navigation of the Euphrates (Ap
pendix I.)
Clemens and other Christian fathers from
the east, 542
Cleopatra, sister of Alexander, murdered
by Antigonus, 392
Cleopatris, a flotilla for iElius Gallus col
lected at, 414
Clibanarii of the Persians, or Cataphractarii,
423
Climax, Mount, Alexander marches round,
267
Clitus murdered by Alexander at Zariaspa,
318
Cloudy Mountains, or Buliit Tagh, 368
Cnidus, Lacedaelnonian fleet defeated by
Pharnabazus, near, 246
Codomanus (see Darius Codomanus), 260
Coenae, the 10,000 Greeks halt opposite to
this city, 221
 , position of, 221
Coenus transports vessels from Attock to the
Indus, 324
 at the battle of the Hydaspes, 328,
329
 , his reply to Alexander, 333
Cogamus, Cyrus march to Chonos paral
leled with, 205
Cogoon, town of, station of Nearchus' fleet,
353
Colchis, intercourse between Egypt and,
109
 , voyage of the Argonauts to, 113
 , murder of Phryxus at, the cause of
the voyage ofthe Argonauts, 113
 , Belus expelled the Egyptian colony
left by Sesostris in, 115
Colchians defeated in the valley of Giimish
Khanah, 234
Cologne, archbishop of, 552
Colossae, Cyrus arrives at, 205
Comagene, or Euphratesia, Chosroes I.
marches to, 444
Comets, &c, idea of the Chaldeans concern
ing the appearance of, 58
Commerce of Egypt promoted by Psamme
ticus, 153
 carried on with the East from Phoe
nicia, Tyre, Egypt, &c, 340

Commerce with the East projected by Alex
ander, 338, 339, 341
 , great projects contemplated by Alex
ander for the advance of, 366
¦  fleet collected by Alexander on the
Euphrates, for, 368
 of Egypt extended by Ptolemy II.,
399
 of the Venetians and Genoese, 534
 with Babylon encouraged by Queen
Elizabeth, 534
 with India by the Euphrates route,
535
 through Egypt, attempted by the
French under Napoleon, 535
 of the Greeks limited, 573
 ofthe Rhodians and Carians, 573, 574
 -• ofthe Romans and Arabs to India, 580
 a study in Arabia, 581
¦  ¦ of the Arabs by barter, &c, 582, 583
 established by England with India by
sea, 589
 of Britain in 1354 compared with
1845, 594
 ofthe Levant, in 1836, 594
 , cause of its decline, 594
 from India to Arabia, 598
 an object ofthe Euphrates Expedition,
599
 from the Euphrates to India and
China, 584
 of the Arabs and Jews to China, 584
 between Europe and the East carried
on by Jews, 584, 585
 between Constantinople and Asia, 585
 between Ra'i, Central Asia, Caspian
Sea, &c, 582
 consequent on the opening of the Eu
phrates, and its extension to Arabia and
other countries, 600-603 and (Appendix
JV.)
Commercial voyages undertaken by Marco
Polo and others, 533-535
 routes through Asia Minor, 587, 588
 duties established in England, 588
 treaties established by England, 588
¦  ¦ openings in Mesopotamia, 600
 relations of France with Persia (Ap
pendix G.)
 opening and calculation of expense
(Appendix N.)
Company proposed for trade in Mesopo
tamia (Appendix N.)
Confectionery used by the court of Al Ma
rniin, 461
Confusion of tongues, and the dispersion of
mankind, 28
Congoon, bay of, the station of Nearchus'
fleet, called Apostani, 353
Coniah, term of contempt applied to Jehoia
chin, 157
Conrad of Montserrat defends Tyre, 480
Constantine, patriarch of Jerusalem, was in
correspondence with Charlemagne, 547
¦  , of Africa, 558
 -, the works of, published at Basle, 559,
560

INDEX.

727

Constantinople taken by the Crusaders, 484
 beleagured by 'Osman, 498
¦  besieged and taken by the Turks
under Muhammed II., 499
 , threatened by the British fleet, 503
 , speedy armament of the batteries, 503
 the seat of Genoese trade, 585
 , cisterns of, 660
 , its exports and imports to and from
England, 1839^10 (Appendix F.)
 its exports to Persia (Appendix F.)
¦  ¦ and Trebizond steamers to, (Appendix
N.) lt
Constantius, wars between Sapor II. and,
430-433
 dies when proceeding against Julian,
433
Consuls, French, appointed to Persia (Ap
pendix G.)
Contessa Gulf (Strymonicus Sinus), canal
of Xerxes through Mount Athos, to con
nect the gulf of Monte Santo with the,
191
Cool-band-creek of Nearchus' voyage, situa
tion of, 354
Coomza (see Cape Maceta), 350
Copper, ivory, and wood used in writing, 630
Coprates, the, or river of Dizfiil, 298
 Antigonus' army crosses the, 3S4
Coptos, iElius Gallus at, 415
¦  , canal of, 579
Coracles, Irish and Welsh, 641
Corduene in Assyria, retreat of Julian to
wards, 439
Corbie, university of, 547
Cordynas, Mount, the highest of the Gor-
dyaean chain, 418
 , Trajan's bridge across the Tigris at,
418
.Coreatis, Nearchus' fleet reaches, 345
 , the fleet sails from, to the island of
Krokola, 345
Coronea, Agesilaus defeats the Persians at,
246
Corsote, probably represented by El Erzi,
reached by Cyrus, 214
Coryeus captured by the Romans under
Balista, 426
Cossoei, the, subdued by Alexander, 302
 , Alexander proceeds against and sub
dues the, 365
 , principal seat of the, at Khorram-
abad, or Kiih Siyah, 365
 , Antigonus' army cross the mountains
of the, 385
Cotyora (probably Ordoil), inhospitable
treatment of the 10,000 at, 237
 , voyage of the Greeks from, 237, 238
Cramians, Ceramonum Agora the market
of the, 206
Crassus appointed governor of Syria, 407
 , means adopted to increase the revenue
of Syria by, 407
 , his reception of the envoys from
Orodes, 408
 crosses the Euphrates to meet the
Parthians, 409

Crassus defeated by Surena near the river
Belik, and retreats, 410, 411
 probable situation ofthe battle-eround
412 s '
 , fate of, and ofthe army, 411, 412
Craterus, a general of Alexander, 303
 commands a division of the arinv,
305 J
 carries on the blockade of Cyropolis,
olo
 ordered by Alexander to rebuild the
Indian city of Arigaeum, 320
 at the battle of the Hydaspes, 326, 329
 ¦ commands a division ofthe army along
the Hydaspes, 334
 is despatched to KirmSn to collect
resources, 342
 , route of, to Kirman, 344
¦  returns to Macedonia in charge of in
valided soldiers, 364
 defeated and killed by Eumenes after
Alexander's death, 381
Croesus visited by Solon, 520
Cremona, Gerhard of, 555
Crete colonized by the Phoenicians, 95
 , the point of departure of the Tyrian
Hercules, 95
 , Phoenician remains found in, 95 (note)
Crimea, the golden camp of the Kiptshak,
490
 , origin of the Golden Horde in the,
491
 , added to Russia, 491, 503
Critales in Cappadocia, Xerxes marches to,
192
¦  , the rendezvous of the levies from tho
eastward for Xerxes' army, 192
Cronus or Ham, called II. by the Phoeni
cians, 20
 , and by the Greeks Saturn, 58
Crusaders, the, advantages promised to, 474
 , under Bohemund, take Antioch, 474
 return a haughty reply to the ruler of
Egypt, 475
 take Ramla, Jerusalem, 'Akk£, and
Kaifa, &c, 475
 , establishment of the Latin kingdom
of Jerusalem by, 475
¦  , their unsuccessful attempt to regain
Egypt, 476
 , their fleets on the Red Sea destroyed
by Salah-ed-din's brother, 478
 , lose Sinjar, Aleppo, &c„ 479
 defeated by Salah-ed-din at Hattfn and
consequences, 479
 , lose Jerusalem, 479, 480
 , preserve Tyre, 480
 besiege 'Akka, and are enclosed by
Salah-ed-din, 480
¦  , battles of, before 'Akka, 480
 receive reinforcements under Philip II.
of France, and Richard I. of England,
482
.  1 length obtain 'Akka by capitulation,
482
 under Richard I. demolish 'Askulan,
&c, defeat Salah-ed-din at Arsiif, 483

728

INDEX.

Crusaders, the, make" peace with the Mus
lims, and place Baldwin on the throne,
484
 fifth armament of, land at 'Akka and
advance to Nabulus, 484
 invade Egypt, 484
 joined by the emperor Frederick II.,
and treaty with the Muslims, 484
1  , discord between the Templars and
Hospitalliers, 485
 , under Louis IX., land in Africa, 485
 , under Prince Edward, enter Palestine,
486
 are driven out of Palestine, 486
Crusades, the, lead to the cultivation of
eastern literature, 555
Cruttenden, Lieutenant, Himyari inscrip
tions brought to Europe by, 82, 83
Ctesias' Median and Assyrian dynasties, 135
 ' work on India, 341
 ' intercourse with the East, 521
 , Linus, and other sages connected
with the literature of the east, 539
Ctesiphon taken by Trajan, 420
 , Trajan's return to, 420
 captured by the Romans under Se
verus, 421
 , the Persians under Sapor defeated by
Odenatus near, 426
 first and second siege of, by Odenatus,
426
¦  , retreat of the Persians to, and Julian
from, 439
 , Chosroes' army quartered at, 443
 , Chosroes II. flies to, and is murdered
at, 445, 446
Cufic language derived from the Shemitic,
84,85
 characters, 467
Cunaxa, the distance computed from Thap
sacus to, 207
 , the country about, called Abii Jada,
208 (note)
— — , distance of, from Cotyora, 237
Cuneatic letters probably of a later date than
the Himyari characters, 84
Cuneiform inscriptions near Lake Van, 1 1 6
Curia Muria islands, language spoken in, 51
Cush, land of, allotted to Adam, 2
 one of the sons of Ham, born in Peraea,
18
 , sons of, from whom places in Arabia
are named, 50
 , Sabean followers of, were called Chal
deans, 53, 55
 or Cutha, was king of the territory
called Kusdi Nimrud or Sinaar, 19
 , descendants of, migrated into Airfca,
Yemen, Sec, 22
 and the plain of Dura occupied by
Nimriid, 24
¦  , spread of his descendants eastward,
northward, and westward, 32-35
.  the Chaldeans of, 34, 37, 55
 , Asiatic, known to Job, 79
«  applied to the Arabian as well as to
the African territory, 134

Cusha-dwipa in Yemen, possession of Ham's
posterity in Asia, 45
 , extent of country called, 46
Cushan-Rishathaim subjects the .Hebrews,
106
Cushite dominions centre in Babylonia, 37,
55
 Chaldeans or Chasdim, 55
 dominion, extent of, time of Abraham
and later, 133, 134
 , Assyrian, and Median dynasties, 134,
135
Cushites, the reputed ancestors of the Huns,
32
 , ancient knowledge introduced into
India, Sec, 33, 34
 names by which they were known, 37,
SS
 were the earliest Chasdim, 55
 , the shepherd race which conquered
Egypt, 73
 settled on the confines of Albara, and
lived in caves, 73
 founded Axum and Meroe, 73
 considered to be the Hyksos, 73-75
 , territory of the, subject to the Him
yarites, 81
 the, and Shemites, by their inter
course, gave rise to the Hebrews, 85
 , the spread of the, prepared the way
for commerce, 92
Cuth, Kushasdan, or Kiish, 32
Cyaneoe rocks, Darius Hystaspes at the, 181
Cyaxares, or Kei Axares, successor of
Astyages over Media, 162
 -, his general, Cyrus, slays Neriglissar,
and defeats the Babylonians, 163
 , fidelity of Cyras to, 168
 , visits Babylon, where he dies, 169
, his empire divided into 120 provinces,
169, 170
 (the Second), son and successor of
Phraortes over Media, 1 51
 recovers Media from the Assyrians,
152
 , the Scythians invade and defeat, 1 52
Cybiosactes, the last of the Seleucidae, 407
 , fate of, 407
 succeeded by Tigranes the younger,
407
Cycles of the ancients, 1 1
Cylinders, antiquity of, 628
 of baked clay, 629
 • with inscriptions found in Babylon, 630
Cynic or Canicular year, also called the
Heliacal, and the Eniautus, or the year, 1 1
Cyprian, St., his bones brought to Europe,
547
Cyprus, a Phoenician colony, 95
 taken by the Greeks from the Per
sians, 197
 , Artaxerxes sends an army to suppress
the rebellion in, 247
 becomes a separate dependency of
Persia, 247
 submits to Demetrius, 392
 taken by the Arabs under Othmoji, 455

INDEX.

729

¦  , Isaiah's prophecy regarding, 164

Cyprus invaded by the Arabs under Hariin-
el-Rashfd, 459
 added to the Turkish dominions bv
Selim IL, 501
 and Candia reached by British ves
sels, 590
Cyropolis, town, said to have been built by
Cyrus the Great, 173
 , now Khojend, taken by Alexander,
313
Cyrus the Great, son-in-law of Astyages,
king of Media, 162
 , successful war of, against Neriglissar
and the Babylonians, 162, 163
 advances from Sardis against Babylon,
164 Isaiah's
(note)
 drains the river Gyndes, 164
 blockades Babylon, 164, 165
 , stratagem of, to divert the river
Euphrates, 166
 , assault and capture of Babylon by,
 , fidelity of, to Cyaxares, 168
 succeeds to the Medo-Persian empire,
170 v
 is induced to issue a decree for the re
building the temple at Jerusalem, 170
 restores the spoils of the temple, and
prepares to rebuild it, 171
 , the Persians and Medes become one
people under, 172
 explains the nature of fire worshi p, 1 7 1
 , various accounts of his death, 172
 , his tomb on the plains of Murgh'-ab,
172
 is said to have built Cyropolis, 173
 succeeded by his second son Cambyses,
173
 called the father ofthe empire, 176
 , his decree to rebuild Jerusalem
searched for, 1 77
 supposed to have been stamped
upon barrel-shaped bricks, 177
 , the younger, appointed satrap of Lesser
Asia, 200, 202
 , influence of, in Asia Minor, 202
 is recalled by the king to Susa, 202
 , rebellion of, against Artaxerxes, 203
 deceives his brother, and excites the
western provinces to revolt, 203, 204
 , large promises of, to the Persians, 204
— ¦ — , the Ephori of Lacedaemon send their
fleet to, 204
 , route of, from Sardis to Chonos, 205
 , reasons for the halt of, at Celsenae, 205,
206
' , marches of, from Peltae to the plain
of Caystrus, 206
¦  , Queen Epyaxa visits, 208
— — marches to Thry mbhim and Tyriacum,
where he reviews the army before Epyaxa,
208, 209
 , march of the army from Tyriacum
to Barathra, where Epyaxa leaves him, 209
 , supposed object of her visit to, 209

Cyrus, the younger, sends Menar to turn the
pass of the Taurus, 209
 crosses the Sailnin aud Jaihan, 210,211
 carries the passes of Syria and Beilan,
211 J '
 , his march to the Chalus and Baluk-sii,
212
 crosses the Kara-sii, &c, and advances
to the Daradax, 213
 destroys the palace of Belesis, 213
 reaches the Euphrates at Thapsacus,
where the object of his expedition is made
known, 213
 crosses the Euphrates and reaches the
Araxes, 213, 214
 , his march through the Mesopotamian
desert to Corsote and the Pylae, 214
 , his march from the Pylae towards Ba
bylon, 215
 , his review, and number of the two
armies, 215
 passes Artaxerxes' intrenchments and
advances towards Babylon, 216
 , his death, and loss of the battle of
Cunaxa, 217, 218
 , his achievements led to those of Alex
ander, 252
 the Great, Alexander's visit to the tomb
of, 358
 , diverts the waters of the Eu
phrates by means of a bund, 614
 , inscription on the tomb of, (Appendix
A.)
Dabb (Dhahab) and Daradax, 213
Dacia invaded by the Sarmatians, 424, 425
Dagasira, Nearchus' fleet arrive at, 350
Daghestan subdued by the Turks, 501
Dagou, the fish-god of the ancients, 15 (note)
Dahan Ibn, the physician, 550
Damaghan, route through, 572
Damajula, passed by the 10,000 Greeks, 233
Damascus, Abraham reigned at, 64
— said to have been founded by the eldest
son of Aram, 77
 taken by Artychas, 139
 captured by Parmenio, 276
 taken by the Arabs under Abii Bekr,
454
 becomes the centre of Arabic learning,
&c, 464
 taken by the Seljukides, 470
— ¦— successfully resists the Crusaders, 475
 , SaMh-ed-din dies at, 483
 wrested from Al Assaal, 484
 taken by Taimur, 495
 , commercial depot of the Ommaiyades,
580
 , its port and trade, 594
 , stuffs of, 631
Damask named from Damascus, 583
Damietta taken by the Crusaders, and again
restored, 484
 taken by Louis IX. of France, 485
Damoulee valley, the 10,000 march along
the, 234
Dana, now Tyana, Cyrus' march to it, 209

730

INDEX.

' Danabe, the Persians attack Julian near,
439
Danaus leads a colony from Egypt to Greece,
113
 , flight of, from Egypt, 119
 , the common father of the Greeks and
Macedonians, 253
Daniel appointed one of the presidents of
the Medo-Persian empire, 170
 induces Cyrus to order the rebuilding
ofthe temple, 170
¦  , a cotemporary of Zerd-husht or Zoro
aster, 183
Danube, or Ister, crossed by Alexander, 259
 , Trajan's bridge over the, 418
Daphne, the pass of, 427
Darabjerd, quicksilver from, 583
Daradax probably the Dhahab or Dabb, 213
 , Cyrus' army at the, 213
Dardanelles, Xerxes' fleet sail through the,
193
 , Xenophon leads the 10,000 across the,
241
Dardanians, thes supposed descendants of the
Trojans, 512
Daric, gold piece coined in the reign of Da
rius Hystaspes, 189
Darius Hystaspes obtains the Medo-Persian
throne by stratagem, 175, 668
¦  , the Gushtasp ofthe Persians, 175
 , his account of his accession, 175 (and
note)
 , his organization of the empire, 1 76,
189
 , called the Broker, from his statistics,
176
 , his firmans on barrel-shaped bricks,l 77
 causes the building of the temple to be
resumed, 177
 , his expedition to Samos to reinstate
Syloson, 178
 quells the rebellions in Susiana and
Babylonia, 178
 recaptures and repeoples Babylon, 179
 leaves Babylon to quell revolts in the
upper provinces, 179
 , consolidation and extent of his em
pire, 180 (Appendix B.)
 despatches Scylax to navigate the
Indus, 180
 , his invasion and subjection of Scythia,
180, 181
 , his passage of the Bosphorus and Ister
on bridges of boats, 181
 , his forces defeat the rebel Athenians,
&c, under Aristagoras, 182
 defeats the lonians, Samians, &c, 182
 , his son avenges the death of the Magi
and defeats the Scythians, 186
 assumes the title of Archimagus, 186
 is defeated at Marathon, and returns
to Persia, 187, 188
 dies when ready to invade Egypt, 188
 , his character and public works, 188,
1S9
 , inscriptions at Persepolis, Hamadan,
Bisutun (Appendix B.)

Darius Hystaspes and his conquests (Appen
dix B.)
 and hall of Persepolis (ditto)
•  , his expedition led to Alexander's
knowledge of the east, 340
 inscription of (Appendix D.)
¦ — — Nothus or Ochus deposes Sogdianus,
200
 confides a part of the empire to his
younger son Cyrus, 200
— ' — divides his government, 202
 appoints Cyrus satrap of Lesser Asia,
202
 is succeeded by his son Artaxerxes
(Arsaces), 203
 , his advice to Arsaces, 250
 ¦ Codomanus, satrap of Armenia, de
scendant of Darius II. , 260
— = — > succeeds Arses on the throne of Persia,
260
 prepares to resist Alexander, 260, 261
 , character and disposition of, 261
 , strength of the army of, 263, 264
 , his loss at the battle of the Granicus,
264, 265
 , his army augmented, 269
¦ — — was assisted by many talented Greeks,
269
¦  ¦ Codomanus, crosses the Euphrates,
and encamps at Sochi, 269
 executes Charidemus the Athenian,
269, 270
¦  ¦ prepares for battle, 270
 , the army of, passes that of Alexander,
270
 position ofthe army of, 271
¦  strengthens his right wing, 272
 , his defeat at the battle of the Issus,
272-275
 , his family taken by Alexander, 275
 , his proposal of peace, 276, 277
 , his inactivity during the siege of Tyre,
280
 , his forces ordered to assemble at
Babylon, 280
 , his general, Mazaeus, abandons Thap-
„¦ sacus, 285
 retreats across the Tigris and Zab to
Arbi], 286
 crosses the Great Zab, and encamps at
Guagamela, 287
 , his offers of peace are again rejected
by Alexander, 28*7
 , Alexander's reply to the deputies of,
288
 , his address to his army, 289
 , his order of battle, 290
 is defeated at Arbela, 294
 , his forces retreat towards Babylon, 294
 , his route to the Median Ecbatana, 295,
296
 , furniture, &c, of, taken at Arbela,
296
 , his general, Mazaeus, delivers up
Babylon to Alexander, 296
 quits Ecbatana, 302
 is pursued by Alexander, 303

INDEX.

731

Darius Codomanus is carried away captive
by Bessus, 303, 304
 , his death ; his remains honourably in
terred by Alexander, 304
 , his character, age, and period of his
reign, 304
 , Alexander's generosity to the faithful
adherents of, 305
 , daughters of, murdered by Roxana, 380
Dascylium the seat of Pharnabazus' govern
ment, 243
Dastagerd taken by Heraclius 445
Dataphernes delivers up Bessus to Alex
ander, 311
Datis, Darius' general at Marathon, 187
David chosen king ofthe Hebrews, 120
 opposed by Ishbosheth, and acknow
ledged by the twelve tribes, 1 20
 makes Jebus his capital, 120
 , extent of the kingdom of, 120
 , brass brought from Mesopotamia by,
120, 121
 , his death; he is succeeded by Solo-
. mon, 121
Dead Sea produced by the destruction of the
cities of the plain, 67, 68
 , scriptural and profane accounts of, 68
Debil a commercial depot ofthe Arabs, 581
Dei'rd,, remains at, 607
Dejoces is raised to the throne of Media,
146
 succeeded by his son Phraortes, 146
Dekel, or Dijlath, the third river of Eden, 2
Delem (Bander), the, probably the Brizana
river of Nearchus, 354
Delhi, defeat of Mahmud by Taimiir at, 494
¦  , route through, 572
Deli-chai, the, formerly the Pinarus, 271
 , Darius' army posted along the, 271
Deloaspis, or viceroy of Egypt, 284
Delphos, temple, plundered by Xerxes, 195
Deluge, traces of the, 3
 , Berossus' account ofthe, 56
•  , the, commenced in the month of Jear
or Jar, corresponding with part of April
and May, 6
 , supposed population of the old world
at the time of the, 6 (note)
 , the surface of the earth not materially
changed by the, 17
Demetrius conducts the siege of Tyre, 389
 , his army routed by Ptolemy, 390
 defeats Cilles, 390
 , expeditions of, against Petra and the
Nabatheans, 391
-.  recalled from Babylon, 391
 , his successes in Greece, Cyprus, &c,
and victory over Ptolemy, 392
 assumes regal dignity, 392
 and Antigonus are repulsed in Egypt,
393
 proceeds against Rhodes, 393
 generalissimo of the Greets, 397
 defeated by Seleucus at the battle of
Ipsus, 397
 retreats to Ephesus, &c, 398
 , the possessions of, 398

Demetrius is expelled from Macedonia bv
Pyrrhus, 398
 , his attempt to surprise Seleucus
fails, 398
 , death of, 399
 Nicator's wars when king of Syria,
404 J
 made prisoner by the Parthians, 405
 , attempted liberation of, by Antiochus
Sidetes, 405
Democritus acquired knowledge from the
Magi and Chaldeans, 527
 travelled to India, Ethiopia, &c, 527
— —, instructed by the command of Xerxes
in Persian philosophy and religion, 527
 , and other sages connected with the
literature of the east, 539
Dendrobosa, Nearchus' fleet reaches, 349
Denis, St., university of, 547
Denon's work on Egypt, 536
Dera Ismael Khan, on the Indus, 370
Derah island, the Margastana of Nearchus,
354
Derapoor, Alexander crossed the Jailum,
near, 324
Dercyllidas, his treaty with Tissaphernes
and Pharnabazus, 244
Deryeth a king of the Himyarites, 80
Desert route taken by Nebuchadnezzar, 155
De'vanagarf letters prove the derivation of
Indian literature from the Assyrians, 34
¦  Sanscrit, its characters like those of the
Himyari, 82, 84
Dhafar, or Zhafar, the Himyaritic Thafar, 49
 , Himyari inscriptions at, 81
 , probably Idaphar, 82 (note)
Dhahab, or Dabb, the presumed Daradax,
Cyrus' army arrives at the, 213
Dhakhan, Beni 'Abd, lost tribe, 45
Dhamahan, Darius murdered near, 304
Diacira pillaged by Julian's soldiery, 436
 , probable situation of, 436, note
Dinars and dirhems, with Arabic inscrip
tions, 457
Diocletian, the general of Galerius, defeats
the Persians, 430
 enters into a treaty with the Persians,
430
Dioscorides, physician of Antony and Cleo
patra, his work on medicinal herbs, 531
Diridotis (Teredon}, Nearchus' fleet reaches,
355
 , supposed to have been at Jebel
Sanam, 355
Discoveries of the Spaniards and Portuguese
in the fifteenth century, 589
Dispersion of mankind, and confusion of
tongues, 27, 29
 ¦- into seven different nations, 27
 , three divisions of Noah's sons, 30
 , Shemitic possessions after the, 31
Diu attacked by the Turks, 501
Division introduced by Hispanus, 554
Diyalah, the, former course of, and probable
cause of the change, 1 64
 the, probably the Durus river, reached
by Julian's army, 439

732

INDEX.

Diyar Bekr opposes Taimur, and is plun
dered, 492
 , trade of, 589, 595
 , proposed trade, 601 (Appendix N.)
Dizfiil, caves at, 607
Djani, or Chaldeans of Colchis, afterwards
Chamitce, 35
Djenasdan, or China, 33
Djerash discovered by Seetzen, 81
Dohak, father of Seljuk, establishes the
Seljukian dynasty, 469
Domas, Nearchus reaches the island of, 346
Dorats, of the book of Judith, the land of
dates, 151
Doriscus, plain of, Xerxes numbers his army
on the, 193
Drangae, or Zarangaei, route of Alexander
against the, 306
Drepano, Cape, formerly the Ampelae pro
montory, 252
Drepsa, or Drapsaca, probably Inderab, 319
 , Alexander marches from Zariaspa by,
318,319
Drillae, excursions made by the 10,000
Greeks against the, 235
Druids, the, probably Arkites, 15
 , primeval structures, and system of
religion ofthe, 14, 15
.  and Celts, 513
Drypetis, the daughter of Darius, murdered
by Roxana, 380
Duan, probably Sidodone, a station of
Nearchus' fleet, 352
Dub'hu, one of the six mouths of the Bagar
branch of the Indus, 372
Dues heavily exacted in Mdsul, 595, (and
Appendix E.)
Dujeil canal, 611
Diindi, a boat used on the Indus, 375
Dura, besieged by Molo, is relieved by An
tiochus the Great, 403
 , near Zaitha, and monument erected to
Gordian at, 424, 435
 , Julian's army reaches, 435
 , the Romans under Jovian reach, 440
 ceded by treaty to the Romans, 443
, Chosroes I. defeated by Justinian
near, 444
 , plains of, the remains there, 604, 631
Durus river (probably theJDiyalah), Julian's
army Reaches, 439
Duties on goods first levied in England,
588
 , Alexander marches to quell a revolt
at, 323
Easterlings, the Moors and other Arabs so
called, 456
Eastern governments, nature of, 201
 based on feudalism, 243
East Indies, trade with, by sea, 589
 India Company, established for trade
by sea, 591
 India Company's factories, removal of
the, 592
Ecbatana fortified by Phraortes, 146
 , description of the Median, 147

Ecbatana, or Shiz, represented by the ruins
of Takhti Soleiman, 147
 , the summer residence of Cyrus the
Great, 172
 , and Cyrus's decree for rebuilding the
Temple of Jerusalem, 177
 , Darius proceeds to, 295, 296
 is taken by Alexander, 302
 , Bessus put to death at, 315
 , the Median Hamadan, visited by
Alexander, 365
 , Hephaestion dies at, 365
Eckhung-choo, or Singzing-kampa, names
of the Indus, 369
Eclipses understood by the Chaldeans, 57
 registered in Babylonia, 57
Eden, land of, and rivers, 2
Edessa, Valerian defeated and taken prisoner
at, 424
 , Sapor retreats from, 426
 , captured by the Persians under Chos
roes II., 445
i  taken by Taimur, 493
Edgar (king), first encourages trade in Eng
land, 586
Edom, dukes of, 76
Edomites, &c, afterwards named Saracens,
76 _
Edrisi's work on geography, 534
Edward's, Prince, campaign in Palestine, 486
Edward III. establishes the Merchants'
Company, 588
Egg or tanka boat of China, 648
Egypt, Mizraim, or jEgyptus, the first to
settle in, 45
 , Osiris led a colony from Ethiopia into,
47
 , the earliest seat of civilization in
Africa, 47
 , architecture introduced from Assyria
into, 48
 architecture carried into Greece, from,
48
 , arithmetic, &c, imparted to, hy Abra
ham, 64
 , social and religious state of, in
Joseph's time, 71, 72
 , caravan trade of, 72, 92, 569
 , government of, when Jacob settled in
the country, 72
 , its early civilization and knowledge
derived from the first people, 72
 , the shepherd race in, 72, 73
 , expulsion of the shepherds from, 74,
75
— — , departure of the shepherds and Israel
ites from, 75
 , receives successive colonies from
Arabia and Syria, 87, 88
 , commerce of, maintained principally
by land, 88
 , architecture, sculpture, &c, of, 88
 , dyeing and manufactures of, 88, 89
•  , and three different written characters,
in use, (note,) 88
 , warlike implements and household
utensils of, 89

INDEX.

733

Egypt, pictorial history of the pyramids in,
88,89
 , her early intercourse with Arabia,
90,91
 advanced rapidly after the expulsion
of the shepherds, 96
 , state ofthe Israelites in, 97
 , departure ofthe Israelites from, 97
 under Sesostris, 107
 a united kingdom under the Diospo-
litan kings, 108, 109
 , intercourse between Colchis aud, 109
 , Armenia, a dependency of, 109, 110
 , subdivision of, by Sesostris, into thirty
inferior kingdoms, 110
 , religion and philosophy carried into
Greece from, 112, 113
 , the Cadmonites in Boeotia, probably a
colony from, 112, 113
 , Judea invaded by Shishak, king of,
132
 , Sennacherib's threatened invasion of,
142, 143
 , Psammeticus promotes the commerce
of, 153
 -, Pharaoh Necho's reign over, 153, 154,
155
 , invaded and spoiled by Nebuchad
nezzar, 159
 , Cambyses invades and subdues, 173,
174
 rebels previous to Darius's death, 188
¦  • recovered by Xerxes, 191
 , Achaemenes governor of, 191
 revolts under Inarus, 200
 again reduced by Megabyzus, 200
 revolts during the reign of Darius
Nothus, aud is again subdued, 200
 rebels towards the close of Artaxerxes'
reign, 249
 , Alexander marches to Pelusium in,283
 , Alexander consolidates the govern
ment of, 284
 , sages from the west sought instruction
in, 310, 515-517
 , Ptolemy, after Alexander's death,
retains the government of, 380, 381
 , Ptolemy repulses Antigonus' invasion
of, 393
 , Ptolemy II. extends the commercial
relations of, 399, 400
 , Ptolemy Euergetes encourages learn
ing in, 402
 , Tigranes' campaign in, 406
 , subjected by Zenobia queen of Pal
myra, 427
 subdued by Chosroes II., 445
 invaded by Al Marniin, 460
 retaken from the Crusaders, 476
.  , termination of the Fatimite dynasty in,
476
 invaded by the Crusaders, 484
 , sultan of, defeated by Taimiir, 495
 invaded by Napoleon, 503
 anciently supposed to have been con
nected with Scythia, 511
 , Grecian mythology derived from, 516

Egypt, doctrines of, similar to the Hindu,
527
¦  -, astrouomy reduced to a system in,
529
¦  study of mechanics, geometry, botany,
and medicine in, J 30, 531
¦  ,* Napoleon's plans for the improve
ment of, 535, 536
 , Denon's great work on, 536
 . well situated for trade, 569
 , its early trade with Asia, Arabia, and
Africa, 569
¦  , trade through, to India, 588
Egyptian knowledge less advanced than that
of Babylonia, 65
¦ — — architecture carried to Greece, 72
 ¦ astronomy, state of, 110
¦  army under Tirhakah, sent to assist
the Jews against the Assyrians, 142
 account of the destruction of Senna
cherib's army, 143
 race, from Shinar, 506
 and Indian monuments denote a com
mon origin, 506, 509
•  • knowledge derived from Asia, 515
 ¦ method of imparting instruction, 529
 commerce in the reigns of Sesostris and
Psammeticus, 569
 ¦ trade with distant countries, 573
¦  , fleets in the Red Sea and Mediter
ranean, 579
Egyptians, early trade ofthe, 579
 , encourage trade with Palestine and
other countries, 579
Elanetic gulf, the, and settlement of the sons
of Keturah on it, 70
Elam, territory of, possessed by the descend
ants of, 31
Elburz, one of the names of the Paropa
misus, 308
El Buttauf, port of the Crusaders, 479
Elephant, and war of the, 450
Elephanta, Ellora, and Ajunta, caves of,
probably of Assyrian origin, 612
Elephants sent to Charlemagne, 459
Elibus is defeated, and carried captive into
Assyria, 141
Elihu connected with Job's history, and pro
bably of the family of Buz, 79
Elizabeth, Queen, keeps a fleet of boats at
Bir, 593
 grants a charter to the Levant Com
pany, 590-593
 establishes consuls in the east, 591
El Wathel establishes a cartel with the
Christians for an exchange of prisoners,
466
 succeeded by Mutawakkel, 466
Embroidered stuffs of the Arabs, trade in,
583
Emessa (Horns), Zenobia's forces defeated by
Aurelian at, 427
 visited by Julian, 433
Emessa taken by Taimur, 495
Emim-Zuzim, &c, 21
Emims expelled by the Moabites from the
river Arnom, 69

734

INDEX.

Empires, early, spread over Assyria, Baby
lonia, Arabia, and Central Asia, &c, 539
Enemessar (see Shalmaneser), 140
England trades in woollens, 588
 exports to and imports from Constanti
nople to, in 1839 and. 1840 (Appendix F.)
English commerce in 1354 compared with
1845, 593
Engraving practised before the flood, 20
Eniautus, or Heliacal year, 12
Enmishpat, or Kadesh, 66
Euoch promoted the study of astronomy and
astrology, 9
 ¦, apocryphal book of, 23
Enoch, or Hanock, the first walled city, 9
Ephesus, Aristagoras defeated by Darius's
forces, near, 182
¦  , the temple of, rebuilt and endowed
by Alexander, 265
 , retreat of Demetrius after the battle
of Ipsus, to, 398
 takeu by Taimiir, 495
Ephori of Lacedaemon send their fleet to
join Cyrus, 204
Epigoni, Asiatic corps in Alexander's army,
359-363
Epiphanius' account of Abraham's conver
sion, &c, 63
Epirus, the place of Olympia's banishment,
383
Epyaxa, the army reviewed before, at Tyria
cum, 208
 leaves Cyrus at Barathra, 209
Erech, now the mound of El 'Assayah, 24
(note)
¦  , supposed to have been built by Nimriid,
24 (note)
 , the A'rcaa of the Hebrews, and the
city of the Ark, 24 (note)
 , a temple to the moon existed at, ^25
(note)
Erigyius, one of Alexander's generals, 305
Ertoghrul, father of 'Osman, the founder of
the Turkish empire, 498
Erythrean Sea, or Persian Gulf, 5 (note)
Erythreans, or Phoenicians, early trade of,
578
Erzi, Al, ruins probably represent Corsote,
214
Erzingan besieged by Bajazet, 495
Esal, or Osa], once the capital of Havilah,
51
 , from Usal, the sixth son of Joktan,
51
Esar-Haddon, or Asadanius, son of Senna
cherib, 141
 ascends the throne of Assyria, 145
 , probably the Artacus of Ctesias, 145
 invades Syria, Palestine, and Egypt,
145
 , supposed to be Sardanapalus, 146
 , succeeded by his son Saosduchinus,
146
Esau's descendants people part of Arabia, 76
.  remove to Mount Seir, 76
,  intermix with the Amalekites,
Amorites, &c, 76

Eschata, or Extreme city, built by Alex
ander, 314
Esdras permitted by Ahasuerus to return
and rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem,
199
Esquimaux boats, 641
Estcourt, Lieut.-Colonel, M.P., report oh
the navigation of the Euphrates (Ap
pendix L.)
Esther raised by Ahasuerus to the throne,
199
Etymander, or Helmand, Alexander at the,
307 _
Ethiopia, Asiatic, position of, 33
 , called the country of the straight-
haired, 33
 , derivation ofthe word, 37, 38
 -, or Habache, Habesh, spread of the
Hamites towards Egypt from, 47, 48
 , Tirhakah, king of, leads an army
to assist the Jews against Sennacherib, 142
 , destruction of Cambyses' army when
marching towards, 174
Ethiopic language of Habasbf, a Shemitic
language, 84
Euaspla (apparently the Lundye river),
crossed by Alexander's army, 320
Eulaeus, Alexander's fleet descends the,
from Susa, 360, 361
 , the, considered as the Kariin Proper,
361
Eumenes, secretary of Alexander, arranges
the government ofthe empire after Alex
ander's death, 380
 appointed governor of Cappadocia,
381
 defeats Craterus and Neoptolemus, 381
 , fidelity of, 382
 is defeated by Antigonus, 382
 retires beyond the Euphrates, 382
 marches against the, satrap of Baby
lonia, 382
 defeats Antigonus in Susiana, 383, 384
 again defeats Antigonus, and marches
through the Pylae Persicae to Persepolis,
384-386
 . is delivered up to Antigonus, and put
to death, 388
Euphrates, or Cumudvate, 45
— ¦ — , Cyrus changes the course ofthe, 166
 , facility of diverting the river, 166
 crossed by Cyrus' army, 213
 , or Murad-chai, forded by the 10,000
Greeks, 228, 229
 , the, crossed by Alexander at Thap
sacus, 285
 , Alexander's fleet reaches Babylon by
the river, 364
 , the navigation of the, projected by
Alexander, 366
 , Alexander descends the, and ascends
the Pallacopas to Arabia, 367
¦  , fleet collected by Alexander on the, 368
 , Eumenes crosses the, 382
 , the, crossed by Antiochus the Great,
403
 , the, crossed by Crassus, 407, 409

INDEX.

735

Euphrates, the, Trajan's descent of, 419
 , Trajan transports his vessels to the
Tigris from the, 419
 , the, in Adrian's reign, the boundary
ofthe Roman empire, 421
 , Severus' fleet pass along the Nahr
Malka into the Tigris, from the, 421
 , Julian's army and fleet descend the
Tigris from the, 434
 , the, probably crossed by Julian, near
Jibbah, 436 (and note)
 , the recrossed by Julian's army, 436
 , Julian's fleet sail along the Nahr
Mailed, into the Tigris from the, 438
 , the crossed by Chosroes I., 443, 444
 , Chosroes I., in retreating from the
Romans, on an elephant, crosses the, 444
 visited by travellers and merchants, 535
 , Napoleon's proposed descent of the,
536
 , early trade with India, China, Arabia,
and Africa, 578
 , reports on the navigation of, 600 (and
Appendices I. to N.)
 , ascent of, 600 (Appendix N.)
 Expedition connected with commerce,
600 (Preface, also Appendix N.)
 , mercantile and other advantages ofthe,
601,602
 , route and time, to England, 601 (and
Appendices I. to N.)
 , Tigris and Kerkhah rivers, naviga
tion of, 602
Euphratesia,' or Comagene, Chosroes I.
marches to, 444
Euphratesiana, the Persians defeated by the
Palmyreans under Odenatus at, 426
Europe peopled by Japhef s posterity, 43
 , and intercourse with Arabia and Asia,
459, 472
 , civilization based on that of Asia, 505,
506
•  , and colonies to, from Asia, 511, 512,
514
European trade with the Arabs, and with
Asia, 584, 585
Eurydice is put to death by Olympias, 383
Eurymedon, river, the Greeks defeat Arta
xerxes' forces at the, 200
Euxine Sea, the, is discovered by the 10,000
Greeks from Mount Theches, 232
Evagoras' rebellion in Cyprus suppressed by
Artaxerxes, 247
Evechius, or Nimriid the Cushite, the first
of the Chaldean kings, 55
Evergetae, or Ariaspse, situation of the dis
trict of the, 307
Evil-Merodach, son and successor of Nebu
chadnezzar, releases Jehoiachim from
captivity, 161
 causes hostilities between the Medes
and Persians, 161, 162
 assassinated by Neriglissar, 162
 , the Evil-Maradach of Berossus, and
Iloarudun of Ptolemy, 161
Exactions, mercantile, at Mdsul, 595 (Ap
pendix E.)

Excavations at Beles and Bir, 610
 in Assyria and Persia, 607
 , one class of, with exterior structures
and inscriptions, 617
Exports and imports from 18.39 to 1840
between Constantinople and England
(Appendix F.)
 from Constantinople to Persia from
1839 to 1840 (ditto.)
 and imports from Bengal to the gulf's
of Persia and Arabia (Appendix H.)
 from and to Madras and Bombay
(ditto)
Ezekiel carried among the hostages to Ba
bylon, 155
Factories of the East India Company, re
moval of, 594
Farj-el-Hind, or Basrah, trade to India,
577
Faroun, Wailf, on the route of the Israelites,
99
Fars invaded by Tai'mur, 493
 , or Persis, 230, 299
 ; trade from, to India, 577
 , a commercial country, 581
Farsang, or farsakh of Persia, value of the
ancient and modern, 207
Fateh Jang, vessel found near the village of
'Ali'-abad, 373
Fatimah, the wife of 'Ah',-456
Fatimites, and termination of their dynasty
in Egypt, 476, 477
Feleili branch of the Indus, 372
Feliijah, remains of the Median wall near,
221
Fe'nik (Phaenica), the 10,000 Greeks reach
the village of, 226
Ferganah, Alexander wounded by the moun
taineers ofthe district of, 312
 , the Sogdians retire to their strong
holds in, 313
 , commercial route through, 572
Ferhad, chamber of, 607
Ferfdun or Arbaces subjects India, 133
Ferry-boat of the Aras, 644
 of Bir, and manner of crossing, 644
Fililein mountain, near Godol, 233
Finduk, the 10,000 Greeks cross the high
lands of, 226
Finiusa and the Scythians emigrated to
Shinar, 510
Fire not an object of worship by the Baby
lonians, 171
 a symbol of the deity among the Magi,
185
Fire temple near Ispahan, 608, 609
Firmans of the Medes and Persians on bar
rel-shaped bricks, 177
 , Cyrus's, for the rebuilding of Jeru
salem, 177
 of baked clay, 629
 encourages learning, 510
Firuz-Sapor, or Anbar, probably occupies
the site of Perisaboras, 438
 , ruins of Tell 'Akhar answer the situa
tion of, 438

736

INDEX.

Fishing in China, manner of, 648, 649
Fitch, voyage of, 591-593
Fitzjames, Captain, R. N., Report of the
navigation of the Euphrates (J>99 and Ap
pendix JC.)
Flood, account of, by ancient writers, 3
 , astronomy and astrology known before
the, 9, 10, 11, 20
 , existence of Sabaism before the, 1 5
Florus, Gessius, his tyranny over the Jews,
416
Fortresses, sieges in ancient and modern
times, 395, 396
France, and invasion of the Moors, 458
Franks, invasion of Italy by the, 424, 425
 settle ou the Rhine, 511
 descended from the Trojans, 512
Frederic II. arrives in Palestine, 484
¦  , his treaty with the Muslims, 484
 encourages Arabic literature, 561-563
French Levant Company, 594
Furrah, probably Phra, situation of, &c, 306
Gabae, or Bagae, on the Oxus, 316
Gabene, district of, part of Paraetacene, taken
by Eumenes, 386
Gabriel, Al Maimin's physician, aud his
income, 462
Gadamolis, or Gadarlis, in Media, Antigo
nus' army winter at, 386
Gadara burnt by Vespasian, 417
Gadates, the Babylonian, deserts to Cyrus,
165
Gadelus, successor of Niul, 511
 , his grandson proceeds to Spain and
Ireland, 511
Galatians or Gomerae from Gomer, 44
Galen's medical system, 532
Galerius defeats the Persians, 430
Galilee, the campaign of the Romans under
Vespasian and Titus in, 417, 418
Gallienus opposes the Goths in Italy, 425
Gallipoli taken by the Turks under Urklan,
498
Gallus, defeat ofthe Romans at, 414
 , iElius, his expedition into southern
Arabia, 414, 415
 , Caestus, sent by the Romans against
the Jews, 416
Gama, Vasco de, rounds the Cape of Good
Hope, 589
Gamala captured by Vespasian, 417
Gambia reached by the Carthaginians, 190
Ganges, or Gogra, source of, 369
Gangaridae, Alexander marches to conquer,
331
Garbia, or the North, and countries allotted
to Japhet's descendants, 17
Gardens, hanging, of Babylon, substructure
of, 615
Gargareis of Strabo the Armenians from
Themiscyra, 133
Gauls descended from Gomer, 44
 of Duriorigum trade with Britain, 576
Gaiir Tagh (Infidel Mountain), supposed to
be Theches, 233
 reached by the 10,000, 232

Gaugamela, village on the Bumadas, 287
 , supposed to be Karmelis, on the
Khazfr, 294
Gaza the southern limit of Canaan, 21
 , the peculiar position of, 281
 taken by storm, 282
 , a town of Sogdiana, taken by Alex
ander, 313
 subjected by Antigonus, 389
 , defeat of Demetrius by Ptolemy near,
390
 taken by Salah-ed-din, 476
Gebal of the Ammonites, now Jube'il, called
Byblus, 18
Gedaliah, governor left by Nebuchadnez
zar's general over Judea, 159
 , his murder caused Judea to be laid
waste, 159
Gedrosi submit to Alexander, 307
Gedrosia, distress of Alexander's army when
crossing the desert of, 343, 344
 , Nearchus' fleet reach, 347
Gelam, son and successor of Amassia, 42
 , his territories and migrations, 42
 ¦ succeeded by his son Harma, 42
Gelod or Chilod, Judith, 147 (note)
Gemerf on the Kara-sti, probably the Gym
nias of the 10,000 Greeks, 232
Genghis Khan, origin of the name of, 488
 , early history and conquests of, 487-489
 , his death and monument, 489, 490
 , character of, 490
Genoa and her commercial prosperity, 587
Genoese commerce with India, 534
 fleets assist the Spaniards against the
Moors 587
 ¦ trade, 586-588
 with England, 590
 vessels import Indian spices, 590
Genus and Genea, supposed to represent
Cain and his wife, 1 5
Geography, Edrisi's, and other works on,
534, 535
Geometry derived from Egypt and the
east, 530
Georgia, nail-headed letters of, and Tibet,
33, 34
 subjected by Mahmud Ghizni, 469
— ; — , Taimiir's campaign in, 494
 added to the Turkish dominions, 501
Gergashites, Jebusites, &c, originate the
Berbers, 455
Germa, Belt, or house of bones, supposed
site ofthe battle of Arbela, 295
Gerostratus, king of Aradus, submits to
Alexander, 276
Gerrhaeans, rafts used by, 635
Ghara, one of the names of the Sutlej, 370
 joins the Chinal), 371
Ghassan, Beni, descended from Kaklaii, 52
 , the kingdom of, added to the Him
yari territory, 81
 , foundation of the kingdom of, 449
Ghazan rebels against the Great Khan, and
embraces the Muslim faith, 491
Ghizni, or Ghazne'in, corresponds with the
territory of the Indi, 308

INDEX.

737

Ghiznf reduced by Genghis Khan, 489
 , commercial route through, 581
Ghor, El Wadi, and tribe of Amalekites,
from Amalek, son of Ham, 21
Ghor&b, Hisn, and Himyari inscriptions, 82
Giants' Graves, structures called, near Sligo,
Gibraltar, the landing-place of the Moors
on their invasion of Spain, 457
Gihon river, name changed to Araxes, 2, 41
•  (Jaxartes), the, crossed by Tai'mur
on a bridge of boats, 493
Gingeni and others prove that rhyme came
from Arabia, 552
Girchala taken by Titus, 417
Goa, trade to, 592
Gobi or Kobi, desert of, 572
Gobryas, a Babylonian noble, who deserts
to Cyrus, 165
Godfrey of Bouillon establishes the Latin
kingdom of Jerusalem, 475
Godol Valley, the Greeks march along the,
234
Gold collected in Egypt, 617
 Coast, and Carthaginian voyage to the,
190
Golden Horde, Tartar dynasty in the
Crimea, 491
Gomates, a Magian, usurps the throne of
Cambyses, 175
 deposed and slain by Darius Hystaspes,
175, 176
Gomerae, or Galatians, from Gomer, 44
Gomer's followers, 38
Gomorrah and Sodom, Strabo's account of
the formation, the lake, &c, 67, 68
Goods suitable for Asia Minor (Appendix
N.)
 tracked up the Tigris (Appendix N.)
— pass through several hands in the
East 595 (and Appendix N.)
 influx of, to Persia, 597
Goongroo river (or Pinyari), 372
Gopher wood, 638
Gdra, Bdri, or Bander Vikkar, 372
Gordian III. succeeds Alexander as emperor,
423
 , his campaign against the Persians, 423,
424
 is put to death, 424
 , his monument at Dura, 424, 435
Gorciyae, or Gordyans, a tribe of Assyrians,
31
Goshen, or Geshen, land of, now Esh Shur-
ke'yeh, 97
 , fertility of, 97, 98
Goths, or Getae, defeated by Alexander, 259
 invade the Roman provinces in Eu
rope, 424
 invade Asia Minor, 426
Goukcha, lake of Sevan, so called, 42
— inhabitants called Siakans or Seunics,
42
.  Gelam descendant of Haik, built towns,
&c, on the shores of, 42
Gounang-passaman, a mountain in Sumatra,
called Ophir, 126
VOL. II.

Granicus, battle ofthe, 264, 265
Granis river, station of Nearchus' fleet near,
354
Graecia Magna, the seat of philosophy, 540
Greece, the antediluvian idolatry, renewed
by Ham, 16
 architecture from Egypt, 48
 , religion aud philosophy of, carried
from Egypt to, 112, 515, 519, 526
 , voyage ofthe Argonauts, 113, 114
 , intercourse between, and the Black
Sea, &c, 119
 , Darius' first war with, 182
 , result of the expedition sent under
Mardonius, 186, 187
 , Darius sends heralds to demand earth
and water, 187
¦  ,  dies when about to march against.
188
 prepares for war against Xerxes, 191,
197
 ,.Artaxerxes' campaign in, 199, 200
 assists the revolted Egyptians, 200
 sends a force to support Cyrus, 204
 , disunion among the states of, 246, 247
 , first and second rescripts of Arta
xerxes to, 247, 248
 sends reinforcements to Alexander, 334
 acquires a knowledge of the east by
Alexander's conquests, 379
 connected with Central Asia through
Asia Minor, 514, 515
 , philosophy and the sciences obtained
from the east, 515
 , sabaism the ancient religion of, 517
 , Orpheus the supposed founder of the
religion and poetry of, 517
 , knowledge from the east introduced
by Thales into, 519
 , magism makes progress in, 527
Greek, Sanscrit, &c, from same primitive
tongue, 86
 colonies in Lesser Asia, 540
 or Pelasgian navigators, 573
 trade with central Asia, but commerce
by sea restricted, 573
 colonies in the archipelago, 574
 commerce chiefly confined to the
Mediterranean and Euxine, 574
 commerce very limited before the time
of Xerxes, 574
Greeks, their origin from Javan, 44
 , their first landing in Asia, 119
 overthrown by Sennacherib, 141
 (the Ten Thousand) after the death of
Cyrus offer the crown to Ariaeus, 218
 resolve on fighting their way home,
218,219
 , route of, by the Tigris, 219
 commence their retreat without sup
plies, 219
 negociations with the Persians, 219, 220
 arrive at the Median wall, 220
 cross the Tigris, and reach the rivers
Physcus and Opis, 221
 pass the Lesser Zab, and arrive at the
villages of Parysatis, 222
3 c

738

INDEX.

Greeks (the Ten Thousand) halt opposite
Caenae, 222
 at the Zab lose their principal leaders
by treachery, 222
 destroy their unnecessary baggage, 222 ,
 cross the river Zabatus, and reach
Larissa, 222
 reach Mespila and Tel Keif, 223
 force the heights and, reach a village,
probably Zakhii, 223, 224
 forced march to elude the Persians,
224
 turn the heights and reach the Tigris,
225
¦  , critical position of, 225
 , they make a flank movement, and
change their line of march, 225
 reach the Centrites and Teleboas, 226-
228
 break their treaty with Teribazus, 228
 cross the Euphrates or Murad Chai,
228
— — difficulties, and privations in their
march, 228-230
 pass the river Phasis, 229, 230
 march through the countries of the
Taochians and Chalybeans, 230, 231
 cross the Harpasus, and march through
the Scythian territory, 231, 232
 advance to Gymnias, and Mount
Theches, 232
 march along the valleys of Damoulee,
Godol, and Gutnish Khahah, and defeat
the Colchians, 234
 suffer from eating honey, 234
 halt at Tarabuzun, and embark the
aged, 235
 defeat the Drillae, and march to
Cerasus, where prize-money is distributed,
235
 march through the Moschian and Cha-
lybean territories, 236, 237
 inhospitality of the Cotyorians to, 237
 ¦, voyage of, from Cotyora to Heraclea,
237, 238
 , defeat of the Persians and Bithynians
by, 240
•  proceed to Chrysopolis and Byzantium,
241
 assist Seuthes, and take service under
the Lacedaemonians, 241
 cross the Dardanelles and campaign in
Mysia, 241, 242
 capture the wife and family of Asi-
dates, 242
 , Xenophon resigns the command of, 242
 , military organization and tactics of,
242, 243
 , campaigns against Pharnabazus and
Tissaphernes of, 245, 246
 defeat the Persians at Coronea, 246
Greeks., the, had the same common origin as
the Macedonians, 253
 , refugees in the pay of Darius sus
pected, 269, 270
— -i->..send deputies to Alexander at Tyre,
284

Greeks, the, khaliph Al Mutawakkel's war
against, 466
 defeated by the Seljukides under Alp
Arsian, 470
 , their territory divided among the
princes of the Crusaders, 484
 empire of, overthrown in the reign
of Muhammed II. over Turkey, 499
 , rebel against Turkey, 504
 serving on both sides of contending
armies, 540
 trade with Central Asia in the time of
the Argonauts, 573
 acquainted with Britain, 575
Gregory VII. supports the Crusades, 474
Groined arches without cement, 626
Guebres, the principal factors of Persia,
581
Guish, Arab cement, 326
Giimish Khanah valley, and march of the
10,000 along it, 234
Gunpowder, &c, knowledge of, possessed by
the Chinese Cushites, 34
 , early use of by the Turks, 500
Gunthanians descended from Canaanidas, 106
Gurun, town and district of, 13
Gushtasp of the Persians, Darius Hystaspes,
175
Guzaeus, or Euaspla (the Lundye), river,
crossed by Alexander, 320
Gwadel, Eds, near the haven of Kophanta
of Nearchus, 349
Gwutter Bay, visited by Nearchus, 349
Gymnias city, and the 10,000 Greeks, 232
 , probably Gemeri, 232
Gymnosophists, or Brahmins, of India, 508
Gyndes river, drained by Cyrus, 164
Habash, Habache, or Ethiopia, 47
Habashf, the Hamites in Africa, 47
 , the Ethiopic of, a Shemitic language,
84
Hadoram or Jurham, brother of Ya'rab ben
Kahtan, and ruler ofthe Hijaz, 51
Hadhr, El, probably Atra (see Atra), 42 1
Hadramaut, and remains of the Amalekites,
22
 possessed by the Hamites, 44
 , exports of, 49
 , tomb, of Kahtan and his father in, 51
 , probably the territory of Hazarma-
veth, 52
Hafar canal, by which part of Alexander's
fleet passed into the Tigris, 361
Haggai the prophet, and rebuilding of the
temple, 177
Hagar and her son Ishmael expelled, 70
Hagarenes, descended from Hagar, 70
— — afterwards called Saracens, 76
•  , or Saracens, expedition of Trajan
against the, 420
Hal, Eumenes encamps near the, 382, 383
Hal, Shatt el, canal ofthe, 612
Haider-abao1, the apex of the Delta of the
Indus, 374
 , present mode of conveying troops to,
376

INDEX.

739

Ha'ider-abSd, bund of, 614
Haiganians (see Armenians), 133
Haik or Haicus, representative of Japhef s
line, 38
 , father of the Armenians, 38
 , account of the migrations of, 38
¦  , his followers commingle with those of
Ham, 38
 leaves his son Cadmus at Ararat, 39
 reaches the plain tof Hare, and builds
Haicashen, 39
 , battle of, with Ninus or Belus II. at
Lake Van, 40
 , assumes the sovereignty of Armenia,
and death of, 40
 succeeded by his son Armenac, 40
 , the original country of, was Armenia,
Major, 43
Haikanians (see Armenians), 41, 133
Haines, Captain, I. N., and inscriptions, 82
Haits-d-sor (see Hare), country ot; 39
Hajamarf, or Siyahan, estuary of the Indus,
course, Sec, of the, 372, 373
Hajar, Nakb-el, and Himyari inscriptions, 82
 , inscriptions found at, 83
Hajr El , the country of the lost tribe of
Thamud, 22
Halegun, the pass taken from the Uxii by
Alexander, 299
Halicarnassus, now Boudron, besieged and
taken by Alexander, 266-269
 , the birthplace of Herodotus, 528
Halys or Kizil Irmak, the 10,000 Greeks
sail past, 237
Ham, remains near Mount Ararat, 13
 , idolatry of, 16, 19
 , first possessions of, descendants, &c,
16-18
 , or Manes, the son of Jupiter, founds
the Lydian monarchy (note), 18
 , the Cainite wife of, 1 9
 , his knowledge of astronomy before
the flood, 19
 called the Patriarch of the Deluge,
20
¦  , the origin of the worship of the moon
ascribed to, 20
 , also called Cronus, and worshipped
by the Phoenicians as Beelsamen, or Lord
of Heaven, 20
, the migration of the children of, 21
 , the tribes of Emim, Zuzim, Rephaim,
and Zamzummim were descended from,
21
 , principal branch of descendants of, 23
 eleven generations from Adam to, 23,
24
 territory of the sons of, about the time
of the dispersion, 23
 , descendants of, spread to Syria,
Khiizistan, Media, Persia, and Central
Asia, 32
 , knowledge of, introduced into India,
China, and Tibet, 33, 34
 , his son Phut supposed to be Budd, 33
— — , commixture of the sons of Japhet with
those of, 35, 38, 39, 43

Ham, the sons of, proceed to Africa, 45
 Indian account of the curse of, 45
 , the territory of, called Cusha-dwipa,
45
 ,the descendants of, the African negroes
or Sukkims of Scripture, 46
 , traces of the descendants of, found in
Arabia, 50, 52
Hamadan (the Median Ecbatana), reached
by Alexander's army, 365
 , Hephaestion dies at, 365
 taken by the Arabs under 'Othinaii, 455
 , a commercial city, 581
 , inscription at, relating to Darius
Hystaspes (Appendix B. and D.)
 , inscription at, relating to Xerxes (Ap
pendix C.)
Hamath, Solomon built the store cities of,
122
Hamburgh a commercial city, 586
Hamilcon's voyage to Britain, 190
Hanno's exploratory expedition to the west
coast of Africa, 190
Hanse Towns become commercial, 586
Haran, called after Arphaxad's son, 31
 , and Zobah (Nisibis) formed the Chal
dean kingdom of U'r, 48
¦  , Abraham's departure for, 62, 63
 , Surena's victory over Crassus pro
bably near, 412
 , march of Julian's army through the
plain of, 434
Harb, nomad tribe of Arabia, 448
Hare, plain of, 39
 , afterwards called Haits-d-sor, 39
 , city of, 40 .
Harem fortress taken by Niir-ed-dfn from
the Crusaders, 476
Hareth-al-Raish, the Himyarite, and his
conquests, 80
Haripa, the ruins of, supposed to represent
Sakala, 331
Harirad, or mountain of descent, 7
Harma, son and successor of Gelam, 42
 fortified Armavir, 42
 defeats the Madai and Babylonians,
42
Harmene or Armene, the 10,000 Greeks land
at, 237
Harmozia, visited by Nearchus, 351
Harpasus, or Tchdriik-su, or Acampsis, 231
Hartmot, abbot of St. Gallen, encourages
the study of Arabic, 548
Hariin-el-Rashfd, conquests, &c, of, 459
 , the pilgrimage to Mekkah on foot of,
459 -
 establishes a friendly and literary in
tercourse with Charlemagne and other
European princes, 459
 presented Charlemagne with the keys
of Jerusalem, 473
 receives ambassadors from Charle
magne, 586
Hasawin river, the, running into the Palla
copas, 367
Hasyasilas, also Hasyas and Habashf, Ham's
descendants, 46
3 c 2

740

INDEX.

Hattm, the Christians defeated hy Sal&h-ed-
din at, 479
Haura, El (the white town), formerly the
port of Leuce Komi, 414
Havflah, the grandson of Ham, possessions
of, 18
•  , or Gjawilah, a leader among the
Joktanites, 49
 , from whom the district of Kaulan is
supposed to be named, 50
 , the capital of, once called Esal or Osal,
51
Hazarmaveth, Joktan's third son, Hadra
maiit, was probably the territory of, 52
Heber, or Houd, father of Kahtan, tomb of,
51
Hebrew mixed language, and Syrian cha
racter of, 84, 85
 derived from the Chaidee and Arabic,
85
¦  connected with the Himyaritic,
and its cognates, 85, 86
Hebrews, the, their number on going to
Egypt, 71 ; thehyncrease causes jealousy,
96,97
 become the working people of Egypt,
97
 were superintended by their own
officers, 97
 allowed to depart from Egypt, 97
 , probable route of, 98
 , passage of the Red Sea considered,
and traditional account of, 99, 100
•  , at the time of the Exodus were not
so advanced in civilization as the Arabs,
100
 , Jethro imparts to, the civil polity of
the Midianites, 100, 101
¦  , system of government adopted by
Moses for, 101, 102
¦  , appointment of the priesthood, and
construction ofthe tabernacle by, 103
 , route of, after quitting Mount Sinai,
103
 , the Mekkah caravan partly follows
the route of, 104
 rebel against Moses, 104
 defeated by the Amalekites, and retreat
to Ezion-Geber and Mount Hor, 104
 advance to the foot of Pisgah, 104,
105
¦  cross the Jordan, 105, 106
, extent and produce of the country
traversed by, 105
»  , during the Exodus, lived like the
Arabs, 105
 expel the inhabitants of Canaan, 106
 are subjected by Cushan-Rishathaim,
106
 , termination of the theocracy of, 119
 , David chosen king of, 120
 , Solomon's reign over, 121, 122
— *, early intercourse of, with the Abys-
sinians, 12 3, '124
— — , division ofthe kingdom of, 132
 , idolatry adopted by, 132
— — , wars of the Assyrians with, 138, 139"

Hebrews, the, carried captive to Assyria,
139-141
 and Zerd-hushf s (Zoroaster) know
ledge, 183
Hecataeus studies in Egypt and Persia, 521
 , the first Greek historian, 522
Hecatompylos, the ancient capital of Parthia,
305
 , Alexander concentrates his forces at,
305
Hedypnns river, erroneously called the Hy
daspes by Herodotus, 147
 , the, supposed to be one branch of the
Karun, 147 (note)
Heddekel, the third river of Paradise, '2
Helepolis, a machine used at ancient sieges,
394-396
Heliacal, or Cynic or Canicular year, &c, 1 1
Heliogabalus, invasion of the Roman terri
tories by, the Persians in the reign of, 422
Hellanicus visits Egypt, &c, 522
 , works of, 522
Hellespont, the, named after Helle, who died
in the straits, 113
 and Xerxes' bridge, 191, 192
 , recrossed by Xerxes' army, 196
 , Alexander's army crosses, 263
Helmand, or Etymander river, Alexander
at the, 307
Hemaeus, Mount, where Alexander I. de
feated the Illyrians and Thracians, 258
Hephaestion, one of Alexander's generals,323
•  ordered to build a city on the Akesines,
334
 dies at Hamadan, 365
Heraclea, the 10,000 Greeks disembark at,
238
 , Odenatus murdered at, 426
Heraclianus defeated by Zenobia, 427
Heraclius' campaigns with the Persians,
445,446
Herat conquered by the Seljukides, 470
 taken by Genghis Khan, 489
 stormed by Taimiir, 492
 , commercial route through, 581
Heratemis canal (probably the present
Bander Reieht), and Nearchus' fleet, 354
Hercules' (the Tyrian) route from Crete to
Spain, 96 (see Arcles), 128
¦  cities founded by, 95, 96
 , Alexander consecrates an altar to, 276
 , son of Alexander by Barsine, mur
dered by Polysperchon, 391
Hereford's astronomical tables, 561
Hermannus' Arabic translations, 558
Herodotus born at Halicarnassus, 191
 , travels and works of, 528, 529
 , and the fertility of Babylonia, 602
Hertebe", one of Miihammed's instructors,
452
Heykab, king of Armenia, 106
 subdues the Assyrians, 106, 107
¦  defeated and killed by Belock, 107
Hesbon, cistern of, 661
Hesidrus, or Sutlej, 370
Hierapolis, or Ramesis, position of, 98/
 , Julian's forces halt at, 433

INDEX.

741

Hierapolis, Chosroes I. levies a tribute on,
443
Hierates, and its canal Heratemis, station of
Nearchus' fleet, 354
Hieroglyphics, general use of, 630
Hijaz, Jurham or Hadoram, ruled in the,
and remains of the lost tribes in the, 51
 ) expedition of the Tobbai against the
Jews ofthe, 449
Hillah, trade of, 602
Hillu, defeat of the Romans by the Persians
near, 431
Himalaya, apart of the Paropamisian chain,
309
 , or Indian Caucasus, 369
Himyar, the fourth descendant of Peleg,
52
 , the cotemporary of Abraham, 52
 , the Beni Himyar the posterity of, 52
¦  , or El 'Arfej, succeeds his father Sabd,
80
 , the first who wore a diadem, 80
— — , conquests of the successors of, 80
Himyari, government of the, 80
, conquests ofthe, 80, 81
.  , under AbiiKurrub, founded an empire
in Bactria, 81
 kingdoms of Ghassan and Hirah, 81,
449
 inscriptions found in Arabia, 81, 82
 inscriptions at Mareb and 'Aden, Sec,
83
 , and character, antiquity of, 83, 84
 character probably in use before the
Cuneatic, 84
 , written character, and its affinity to
the Devanagari Sanscrit, 82-84
. inscription in Yemen, 90
.  character in use among the Arabs in
Joseph's time, 90, 91
 , the, powerful in Yemen, 449
¦  , subdued by the Abyssinians, 450
Himyarites, included a part of the tribe of
Imlik or Amalek, 22
 , seat of the, 50, 52
 , the Thafar ofthe, 49, 50
•  ', extent ofthe power ofthe, 81
— — , traces of, in distant countries, 84, 85
 , probably a mixed race, partly shep
herds, 73
 and Sabaei the same people, 73
Himyaritic inscriptions, 629
Hindera,bi,"or Inderabia island, Nearchus
fleet at, 353
Hindiyeh canal, 367
.  , new cut made by Alexander, probably
near the, 367
Hindu Kush, a part of the chain of the
Paropamisus, 309
 , Tai'miir's march along the, 494
 nation, the descendants of Mizraim
founded the, 30
Hindus, supposed to have spread into
America, 508
.  , supposed common origin ot the
Egyptians and Persians, 509-511
— — , origin of Egyptian doctrines, 527

Hindus, the, a trading people in early times,
570
 , manufactures ofthe, 571
 , the favourable position of the, for
general trade, 576
Hingol river, the, probably the Tomerus of
Nearchus, 347
Hinjam, or Hanjam island (see Angar, or
Angam), 352
Hippalus discovers the periodical winds, 579
Hippocrates' medical system and theories,
532
 and other sages connected with the
literature of the east, 539
Hirah added to the Himyarite territory, 81
 , foundation ofthe kingdom of, 449
Hiram's father, also called Abii Ba'al, 129
Hispal, son of Arcles, the Tyrian Hercules,
128
 entrusted with the Phoenician colony
planted in Spain, 128
Hispanus, Joseph, gives the Indian notation
and algebra, 554, 555
Hit, Julian's army reaches, 436
 boats, and their construction, probably
like Noah's ark, 636-639
Hobab, son of Raguel, or Jethro, 103
 becomes the guide of the Israelites,
103
Holofernes, general of Nabuchodonosor, 148
 , derivation ofthe name of, 149 (note)
 , the army of, advances to Cilicia, 150,
151
 dies before Bethuliah (Safet), 151
Homeritae and Sabaei, the, the same people,
46, 47
Horns (see Emessa), 427
Hor, Mount, retreat of the Israelites to, 104
 , Aaron dies at, 104
Horeb, departure ofthe Israelites from, 103
Horites, in the time of Abraham, 76
 , now the Urhu, and once the Oritae
country, 343
 , productions ofthe country ofthe, 343
Hormah, the Israelites are defeated at, 104
Hormarah (see Malana), 347
 , or 'Arabah bay, 347
Hormisdas, successor of Sapor over Persia,
430
,  sends presents to the Romans, 430
 , deprived of his kingdom by his brother,
and takes service under Constantius, 434
 , son and successor of Chosroes I., 444
 , wars between the Romans and Per
sians under, 444
 , Veranes' rebellion against, 444
Hoshea, king of Israel, 140
 , captivity of the ten tribes of Israel
during the reign of, 140, 141
 endeavours to resist the Assyrians,
140
Hospitalliers, the, defeat the Templars, 485
Hulakii governs Persia, 491
Hungary partly conquered by the lurks
t> under Sultan Suleiman, 500
Hungarian army of Crusaders land at
'Akka, 484

742

INDEX.

Hungarians, the, settle in Europe, 514
Huns, descendants from the Cushites, 32
 , origin and extension of the, 468
¦  , Tartar branch of the, called Mongols,
487
•  , the, settle in Europe, 514
Hurrekee, junction of the Hyphasis with
the Sutlej at, 370
 , with the Chin-db near, 370
Husein, chief of Khorasan, defeated by
Taimiir, 492
Hydaspes, the, erroneously called Hedypnus
by Herodotus, 147
- — , the, the Bidaspes of Ptolemy, 324
 , Alexander crosses the, 325-327
¦  , Alexander returns from the Hyphasis
to the, 334
 , fleet prepared by Alexander on the,
334
— — -, source, course, and tributaries of the,
370, 371
 , the, the present Jailum, or Behut, 370
Hydraotes, the fleet of Alexander descends
the Akesines to the confluence of these
two rivers, 335
 , source and course of the, 371
 , or Hyarotes (the modern Iraotii,
Iravatf, or Ravi), 330,371
Hyksos, people of the, 73, 74
 , the, probable time of their inroad into
Egypt, &c, 74
 , Manetho's account of the, 74, 75
Hyparna taken by Alexander, 266
Hyphasis, course of the, 370
 , the, of Alexander, represented by the
Beas, 370
 , junction of the Chin-ab with the, 370
Hyrcania, now Mazanderan, 305
 , Alexander's invasion of, 305
Hystaspes, Xerxes' second son, satrap of
Bactriana, 198
 defeated by his younger brother Arta
xerxes, 198
Iberia an important Phoenician colony, 96
Iberians, the, descended from Japhet, 38
Ichthyophagi, territory of the, reached by
Nearchus, 347, 350
Iconium reached by Cyrus' army, 209
Idaphar Dhafar, a royal residence of the
Himyarites, 81, 82
Idolaters of Babel, 27
Idolatry in the time of Enos, 16
 in Noah's family, 16
,Ham renews the ante-diluvian, 15, 16,
19
 , spread of, over Syria, Greece, Baby
lonia, and Arabia, 16
 , the, of Nimrud prevails, 25
 towards the end of Solomon's reign, 32
 became established in Syria, when
colonists were sent from Babylon, 141
Idumea, and its state of civilization, in the
time of Job, 79
Idumeans, conduct of the, at the defence of
Jerusalem against Titus, 417
II, a name given to Cronus or Ham by the
Phoenicians, 20

Has, now Chiroo, on the Persian shore,
passed by Nearchus's fleet, 353
I'lghiin probably represents Tyriacum, 208
Illyrians subjected by Philip, 254
 and Thracians defeated by Philip, 255
 .Alexander's first campaign against
the, 258, 259
Iloarudun of Ptolemy, or Evil-Merodach,
161
Imlik (see Amalek), 22
Imma, Zenobia defeated by Aurelian at, 427
Imports of Mdsul in 1835 and 1841, 595
(Appendix E.)
 and exports to England from Constan
tinople, 595 (Appendix F.)
 from the Indian presidencies to the
gulfs of Persia, Arabia, &c, 588, 589
(Appendix H.)
Inachus came from Egypt, and founded a
kingdom at Argos, 112
Inderab, or Anderab, probably Drepsa, and
Alexander's march to the Indus, 319
Indi, the Magi, Brahmins, &c, descended
from the, 33
 , the territory of the, corresponded with
Ghizni, 308
 , the, send back Barzaentes, the mur
derer of Darius, 306, 308
India under the Himyarites, 81
¦  , Ophir considered to have been in,
123-127
 , ships depicted in the temples of Egypt
and, 124, 125
 Sophir, the Egyptian name for", 126
 composed of three provinces under the
Assyrians, 133
 paid tribute to I'ran, 133
¦  subjected by Ferfdun or Arbaces, 133
¦  partly subdued by Darius, 1 80
 , Alexander's conquests in, between the
Indus and Hyphasis, 320-331
 , Alexander's route towards, 319, 320
 , early trade of, with Tyre, Phoenicia,
Egypt, Sec, 340
 , sources from whence Alexander de
rived his knowledge of, 340
 , Alexander's original project included
commerce as well as the conquest of, 338,
339, 341
 , Seleucus' invasion of, and treaty with
Sandrocottus, 396, 397
 , Mahmiid Ghizni 's campaigns in, 469
 subdued by Taimiir, 494 "
—j — invaded by the Persians under Nadir
Shah, 497
 , expedition of the Turks to, 501
¦  , spread of religion, &c, from Bactria
to, 5|)7 •
 , Marco Polo and Vasco de Gama's
travels to, 534
 , Genoese and Venetian commerce
with, 534
 , Jenkinson's overland journey to, 534
 , trade in Queen Elizabeth's reign with,
534
 , Benjamin of Tudela's travels to, 534,
535

INDEX.

743

India, Napoleon's proposed expedition
against, 535-537
¦  , direct voyage to, in the time of Au
gustus, 580
¦  trade to, through the Euxine, 586
 first reached by sea, 589
 , route to, through the Persian Gulf,
589
 overland trade to, decline of, 599
 Presidencies, and trade to the Persian
and Arabian Gulfs, 588, 599 (Appendix
¦  trade with, from Constantinople, 585
 trade through Egypt to, 588
Indian literature, &c, from Assyria, 34
 account of the curse of Ham, 45
 caravan trade, 125
¦  philosophy, &c, introduced into
Europe, 309, 310, 523, 526, 527
 people spread eastward, 571
 trade with Ceylon, 576
1  vessel found on the coast of Arabia, 576
¦  trade with Persia, 576-578
•  ships in the time of Semiramis, 576
 fleet from Myos Hormos, 580
 and Arab trade by sea aud land, 584
 commerce by sea, 591
 temples pyramidical, 607
Indians, Cushites called the ancestors of
the, 33
¦  , the, derived their knowledge from
Iran, 507
Indigitation of the Arabs, 546
Indo-Chinese settlements from I'ran, 506,
507
¦  philosophy, that of Plato, 526
Indus, Scylax's voyage down the, 1 80
 , vessels on the, in the time of Semira
mis and Alexander, 576
 , route of Alexander from Zariaspa to
the, 319-323
 , Alexander crosses the, by a bridge of
boats, 323, 324
¦  , town built on the, with docks by
Alexander, at the confluence of the
Akesines, 338
¦  , Alexander halts at the upper ex
tremity of the Delta ofthe, 338
 , the descent of the, one of the objects
of Alexander's expedition, 341
 , Alexander builds a haven and docks
at Pattala, on the, 342
 , Nearchus acquires a knowledge ofthe
sources, &c, of the, 344
¦  , also called the Singzing-kampa, or
Eckhung-choo, 369
 , the magnitude of the, after receiving
the rivers of the Panj-ab, 371* *¦
 , the, enters the sea by six mouths, 372,
373
 , proofs that great changes have oc
curred, as regards the estuaries of the,
373
 , time of the rise and fall of Ihe, and
best season to enter its estuaries, 374
¦  , description of the boats used on the,
375

Indus, present mode of conveying troops to
Haider-aMd, on the, 376
 , the apex of the Delta of the, possibly
near Haider-aMd, 374
 ,_ the, passed by Ta'imiSr, 494
Inscriptions in the Himyari character found
in Yemen, &c, 81
 in the Himyari character discovered on
the south coast of Arabia, 82
 , &c, found at Khorsabad, 136, 137
 in the tomb of Cyrus (Appendix A.)
 at Persepolis and Hamadan, regarding
Darius Hystaspes (Appendix B.)
 at Bfsutiin (Appendix D.)
 relating to Xerxes and the building
of Persepolis (Appendix C.)
Ionia added to the satrapy of Cyrus, 203
Ionian invasion of Darius' territory, 182
 cities freed from the Persian yoke, 197
 colonies freed from the rule of Phar
nabazus, 244
lonians, the, descended from Javan, 44
Iphigenia of Tauris, 573
Ipsus, defeat and death of Antigonus at the,
397
 , result of the battle of the, 398
'Irak Arabi, inhabited by the Syrians or As
syrians, 31
 subdued by the Arabs under Abii
Bekr, 454
 under 'Abd-el-Malik, 457
 subdued by the Seljukides under Togrul
Bei, 470
 Ajemi a commercial country, 581
I'ran, called Kusdi Khorasan or Kiish, 32
 , the situation of, convenient for inter
course with India, China, &c, 33
 , the Assyrian or Cushite dominion in,
133
 occupied by Afrisiab, king of Tiiran,
who is expelled by Zal, 133
 , Loo, or Loah, succeeded Zal, over, 134
 , sages from the west came to acquire
philosophy in, 310, and Chap. XVI.
 , early trade with, 310
 , Seleucus' march to, 397
 and Persia, Seljukian government of,
473
 , Indian and Chinese knowledge derived
from, 507
•  architecture, sculpture, &c, of, 604
Iravati, Iratou, or Ravi, or Hydraotes, 330
Irbid, cistern of, 661
Ireland colonized from Carthage, 190
 called Holy Island, 190
 , Sru and his followers proceed from
Egypt to, 511
 colonized from Asia, 513
 , colonies from Spain and Barbary settle
in, 514
 ¦, the Tuatha De Danann connected
with, 514
Iris (Yechfl Irmak), the 10,000 Greeks sail
past, 237
Irish and Welsh coracles, 641
Irka, Irke, or Irka, the temple to the moon
at Erech, 24

744

INDEX.

Iron, early use of this and other metals,
129
I'sa canal, ditch cut by Artaxerxes between
the Median wall and the, 216
Isaura, fortress in Cappadocia, taken by
Perdiccas, 381
Isauria invaded by the Arabs under
'Othman, 455
Is-haki canal, 612
Ishmael, and time of his birth, 67-69
 aud Hagar sent away, 70
 , the marriage of, with Mozauz, or
Modhaudh, 70
 , the descendants of, and El Arab Mos-
tearibe, 70
 , the daughter of, Bashemath, marries
Esau, 76
Ishmaelites, the, and other Arabs, 76
 , the, since called Saracens, 76
Isis, the mysteries of, founded on those of
Egypt, 518
Iskender Acbar, passage of the Euphrates
at Thapsacus, 285
Iskenderun, port of, Aleppo, 595
Iflma'il Shah, first of the .Sophi dynasty of
Persia, 497
 establishes the Shfah faith in Persia,
497
Ispahan revolts, and massacre of the people
by Tai'miir, 492
Israel separated from Judah during Reho-
boam's reign, and Shechem the capital,
132
 purchases peace from the Assyrians,
and wars against Judah, 13g
— — invaded by Shalmaneser, or Arbianes,
in Hoshea's time, 140
- — , So, or Sabacus, becomes the ally of,
140
— — , the remaining seven tribes of, carried
captive to Assyria, 140, 141
Israelites, the, exodus of the, confounded
with the departure ofthe shepherds', 75
Issus, Cyrus' army reach the, 211
 , the city of, taken by Alexander's
general, Parmenio, 269
Ister, or Danube, crossed by Darius' army,
181
•  , the, crossed by Alexander below
Widdin, 259
Italy renowned for schools in the time of
Charlemagne, 547
Italy, Rhodean trade with, 573
 , Greek polonies trade with, 574
Jabbah, a Moorish cement, 627
Ja'ber castle taken from the Crusaders, 476
Jaihan, the (Pyramus), crossed by Cyrus,
2li
Jamash, brother of Darius Hystaspes, his
knowledge of astrology, Sec, 189
Janizaries, Urklan organizes the cor.ps of,
498
Japhet occupies the western side of
Armenia, 13
— — , the descendants of, spread the ante
diluvian idolatry over Greece, 16

Japhet, commixture of the sons of Ham with
those of, 35-38
 , Haik, the, representative of the line
of, 38
 , the descendants of, people
Europe, 43, 44
Japhetians, another name for the Haika-
nians, 41
Jask, the town of, probably represents Badis,
where Nearchus found stores of corn, wine,
&c, for his fleet, 350
Javan, the progenitor of the lonians and
Greeks, 44
Jaxartes river, various names ofthe, 312
 , the, mistaken for the Tanais, 312
 , Alexander crosses and defeats the
Scythians drawn up on the banks of
the, 314
 , battle between Miihammed Kothbed-
din and Genghis Khan, near the, 489
 , the, or Gihon, crossed by Taimur, 493
 , civilization spread from the banks of
the, 507.
Jiar, or Jar, the second Chaldean month, 6
Jebel Jiidf, critical position of the 10,000
Greeks near, 225
 Imariyeh, 416
Jebus, Jerusalem,David besieges, and makes
it his capital, 120
Jebusites, the, &c, originators of a branch of
the Berbers, 455];
Jehoiakim ransoms Jerusalem from Nebu
chadnezzar, 155
 rebels against Nebuchadnezzar, 157
Jehoiakin, Jehoiachin, or Jechoniah, Son of
Jehoiakim, carried captive to Babylon, 157
 released by Evil-Merodach, 161
Joktan, migration of the sons of, 49
 , leaders selected by the descendants of,
49
 , places named after the sons of, 51
Jelalpoor, Alexander crosses the Jailum,
probably between Derapoor and, 324
Jenkinson's overland journey to India, 534
Jerah, probably Ya'rab ben Kahtan, 51
 , possessions of, 51
Jerd, Ras, or Cape Certes, the headland of
Tarsias passed by Nearchus's fleet, 353
Jerid, a lance used by the Arabs, 455
Jerfm and Himyari inscriptions, 81, 82
Jeroboam rules over Israel, 132
¦  induced the Egyptians to invade the
kingdom of Judah, 132
Jerum, a town near the landing place of
Alexander, on the Hydaspes, 330
Jerusalem, once Solyma, 66
 ,jhe eapital of Judah, 132
 plundered by Shishak, king of Egyyt,
132, 133
 , destruction of Sennacherib's army
before, 142, 143
 ransomed from Nebuchadnezzar,
155
¦  , Pharaoh Necho levies a contribution
upon, 155
— — , first and -second siege of, by Nebu
chadnezzar, 156, 157

INDEX.

745

Jerusalem again taken by Nebuchadnezzar,
and spoiled, 158
 , city and temple of, destroyed by Ne
buzar-adan, 158
 , Cyrus' decree to rebuild the temple of,
170
1  , the fire of the temple of, compared
with that of the Magi, 170
 , Cyrus restores the spoils taken from
the temple of, 171
 , foundation of the second temple of,
172
¦  completion of the rebuilding of the
temple, 177, 178
 , Esdras permitted by Ahasuerus to re
turn to, 199
 , Alexander's visit to, 280, 281
 , Ptolemy Philopater's visit to, 403
, Temple of, plundered by Crassus, 408
 , the siege and capture of, by Titus, 417,
418
 , 'Omar's conquests extend to, 455
 , facilities given to pilgrims visiting,
472
 , Hanin-el-Rashfd presents Charle
magne with the keys of, 473
 , treatment of the Christians of, by the
emir Ortok, 473
¦  , or Al Kuds, becomes subject to the
khaliph of Egypt, 475
 captured by the Crusaders, 475
¦  establishment of the Latin kingdom
of, 475
 taken by Saldh-ed-dih, 479
 , Salah-ed-din improves the condition
of, 480
— — retained by Salah-ed-din on the peace
with Richard I., 483
 taken from Al Assaal by Al Malik Al
'Adel, 484
, conditions on which the Franks occu
pied, 484
¦  entered by the Karismians, 485
 , the Muslims get possession of, 486
Jethro, or Raguel, instructs Moses in Ara
bian polity, 100, 101
¦  , his son Hobab guides the Israelites, 103
Jews, Cyrus' decree concerning the, 170
— — who return with Zerubbabel to Jeru
salem from Babylonia and Susiana, 171
«  , the, during the reign of Darius com
plete the building of the temple, 177, 178
»  , the, permitted by Ahasuerus to re
turn to Jerusalem, 199
, privileges granted to the, by Alex
ander, 281
— — , the, rebel against the Romans, 416
— -, Caestus Gallus sent against the, 416
¦  , final dispersion of the, after the de
struction of Jerusalem by Titus, 41 7, 418
 , the, employed in Arabic translations,
555-557
 , the black, of Malabar, 578
Jibbah, or Pombeditha, probably Barax-
malka, 436 (note)
Job and the dukes of Edom in connexion
with, 76, 77

Job, and probable situation of the land of,
77
 , the trial of, and its probable epoch, 78
 and the localities connected with his
history, 78, 79
 , advanced civilization in the time of,
79, 80
Jonas' pillar, Sakal Tiitan (Beard Catcher),
Cyrus at, 211
Joppa and Gaza subjected by Antigonus,
389
 taken by Vespasian, 417
Jorak (see Tchdnik-su), 231
Jordan, the river, passed by the Israelites,
105, 106
Jorham, or Jnrham tribe, and Ishmael's
marriage, 70
Jdroft, a mercantile depot in Khorasan,
582
Joseph carried into Egypt, 71
 , time of, and social state of Egypt, 71
Josephus and other writers give the period
of Abraham's departure for Haran, 62, C3
Jotapata, or Safet, the Bethulia in the book
of Judith, 151 „,
 besieged and taken by Vespasian,
417
Jovian, chosen by the Romans to succeed
Julian, 440
 continues the retreat, 440
 • makes peace with Persia, 440, 441
Jailum, the, or Behut, formerly the Hydaspes,
or Bidaspes (see Hydaspes), 324, 370
 , the, supposed site of Bucephaia, 371
 , branch ofthe Hydaspes, source, course,
and tributaries ofthe, 371
Jube'il, once Byblus, more recently Gebal
ofthe Ammonites, 18 (note)
Judaeus, the king who succeeded Porus, 140
Judah, kingdom of, formed of the tribes of
Judah and Benjamin, 132
 , invaded by Pul, or Sosarmus, king of
Assyria, 138
¦  , purchase money paid to Pul by
Menahem, king of, 138
i  , Polyhistor's account of Pul's invasion
of, 138
 , Tiglath-Pileser's conquest of, 138, 139
 , the inhabitants of, carried captive into
Assyria by Tiglath-Pileser, 139
 is invaded by the Assyrians under
Sennacherib during Hezekiah's reign,
142
 , sum paid to Sennacherib by, as the
price of peace, 142
 almost subdued, and the capital in
vested, 142
 aided by an Egyptian army, 142
 , the, tribe of, returns to rebuild Jeru
salem, 171
Judea, called Khananea, 64
 .separated from Israel during Reho-
boam's reign, 132
 , Shishak, king of Egypt, invades and
plunders, 132
 invaded by the Assyrians, 148
— — invaded by Nebuchadnezzar, 155

746

INDEX.

Judea again invaded and laid waste, 158, 159
Judith, book of, supplies parts ofthe history
of Assyria, 148
Julian appointed by Constantius governor of
Gaul, 432
 declared emperor by the soldiers at
Paris, 433
 , the preparations of, for the invasion of
Persia, 433
¦  's march to Edessa and Carrhae, 433,
434
 crosses the KMbiir, 434
 encounters a hurricane near Anatho,
435
¦  defeats the Persians, 437
 besieges and captures Perisaboras, 437
 advances through Mesopotamia, 438
 's fleet passes along the Nahr Malk& to
the Tigris, 438
¦  's retreat from Ctesiphon and death,
439
Junk, the Chinese, suited for trade, 650,
651
Jupiter Belus, the temple on the summit of
the Tower of Babel dedicated to, 26
— — , Alexander consecrates an altar on
the battle-ground ofthe Issus to, 276
 , temple in Tyre to the Olympian, 278
Jurham, or Hadoram, brother of Ya'rab ben
Kahtan, and ruler ofthe Hijfiz, 51
Justinian's campaigns with the Persians,
442, 443, 444
Juwah, oue of the six mouths of the Bagar
branch ofthe Indus, 372
Ka'ba, veneration for the, retained in the
Koran, 453
 , the fair at the, and centre of trade, 581
Kabana, Nearchus' fleet encountered a storm
at, 347
Kabul river, the, its junction with the Indus,
369
 , trade to, from Orenburg, 596
, commercial route through, 581
•  river crossed by rafts, 636
Kaderd, first Seljukian prince of Kirman,
473
Kadesh, once Enmishpat, 66
Kadhani, or Kelani, the Chaldeans' or
Syrians' name, derived from their capital
Calwadha, 55
¦  , probably the Nabatheans, 31
KaiJisfyeh, remains of the Median wall near,
221
¦  , battle won by Omar at, 455
Kfidun Khan, Cyrus' army pass, 209
Kaffa, ancient Theodosia, on the Black Sea,
587
Kahtan, migrations from Babylonia of the
sons of, 49
 , intermixture of the lost tribes with
the descendants of, 51
¦  , tribes still bearing the name of, and
where located, 51
•  , tomb of the patriarch, 51
•  , the descendant of, 'Abd-el Shems, 52
¦  , the descendants of, civilize Arabia, 85

Kahtan, Beit-el, dwelling of Kahtan, 51
 , a part of the fixed inhabitants of
Arabia from, 449
Kahtanites, designated by their descendants
pure Arabs, 51
 , Ya'rab ben Kahtan ruled over the, 51
 , the, possess Arabia, 49, 50
Kaifa taken by the Crusaders, 475
Kaisariyeh, a proposed depot of trade, 601
Kajah, an ancient mouth of the Indus, 373
Kajar, dynasty of Persia, 497
Kaklan, successor of 'Abd-el Shems, 52
¦ — — , tribes descended from, 52
— : — , the Himyaritic government founded
by a descendant of, 52
Kakuree, on the Indus, 370
Kal'ah, ruins of, 606
 Sherkat, or U'r, 37
Kalama, a station of Nearchus' fleet, 348
Kaldaf, or Kelani Chaldeans, 31
Kal'eh Erig ruins represent Ragau, or Rha-
ges, 148
Kalneh, excavations of, 610
Kama, or Kooner river, probably the Khoes,
reached by Alexander, 319
Kanasis and Kanates, stations of Nearchus'
fleet, 349
Kandt or Kahreez, 657, 658
Kandahar, or Alexandropolis, 307
¦  reduced by Genghis Khan, 489
 conquered by the Persians under
Nadir Shah, 497
Kangawar, or Chaone, 365
Kaptshak (see Kiptshak), 490
Karachee, passed by Alexander, 342
 , situation, trade, productions, &c, of,
345
 , the island opposite to, probably Kro-
kala of Nearchus, 345
 , proposed canal to the Indus at, 376]
Karaftii, Mithraic caves of, 608
Karagiil mountain, from which the Euxine
is visible, 233
Kara Hisar, formerly Melangena, 498
 , opening for British manufactures at
(Appendix JV.)
 Kapii, pass secured by Alexander,
269
 ¦ Kilfsa, the 10,000 Greeks at, 230
 Korum mountains in Tibet, 369
Kara-si, district of the Seljukian dynasty in
Auaddli, 497
Kara-sii, the, crossed by Cyrus' army, 213
 , the, or Teleboas, falls into the Mur&d-
sii, 227
Kara-suma, the, passed by Taimiir, 493
Karakaban, the Colchians oppose the Greeks
near, 234
Karbis, place visited by Nearchus' fleet, 348
Karej, a kind of cement, 626
Karismians, the, enter Jerusalem, 485
Karkh of Samarrah, the, station for Mu'ta-
sem's army, 465
Karnine, island visited by Nearchus, re
presented by Ashtola, 348
 , a resort of the Jawasfmf pirates, 348
Karroon (see Neoptana), 350

INDEX.

747

Karshi (see Nautaka), 316
Kariin, the Pasitigris, probably the river,
356
 , Nearchus' fleet ascends the Pasitigris
or, 356
 , former bed of the, 356
 , the, crossed by Alexander on his return
to Susa, 358
 river and its commerce, 601 (Appendix
N.)
 Proper, the, probably represents the
Eulaeus, 361
Karura, or Kabura, the Ortospana of Strabo,
Alexander marches to, in pursuit of Bessus,
308
Kashgar conquered by the Arabs, 457
Kaspatyrus, town on the Indus, 369
Kasr, the, of Babylon, its substructure and
ornaments, 615
Kataderbis, lake, a station of Nearchus'
fleet, 354
 , represented by Khdr Miisa, 354
Kattias, the, formerly the Cathaei, 331
 , the origin of the, 331
Katiil, Al Mutasem forms a camp, and builds
a palace at, 465
Kaulan, Khaulan, or Khaalan, probably
named from Havilah (see Havilah) 50,
51
Kayi, origination of the 'Osmanli Turks,
497
Kazd (see Kelani), 31, 55
Kebbdn Ma'den and the mines, 79
Kedje, or Chodda, Alexander marched from
the borders of the Oritae by, 343
Keffyeh, the headdress of the Arab, 454
Keif, Tel, the 10,000 Greeks reach, 223
Keihin, or Sirwan (see Celonae), 364
Keis (see Kenn), 353
Kelishin, pass of, 296, 612
Kenn, or Keis, probably Cataea passed by
Nearchus' fleet, 353
Keraites, Genghis Khan seeks protection
from the, 487
Kerasiin Dereh-su, 235
Kerasunt, the, formerly the Cerasus, the
10,000 Greeks arrive at, 235
Kerkiik, the city of Memnis, passed by
Alexander, 296
Kerim, Khan of Persia, 497
Kersus, or Merkez-siii, 211
Ketura, or Tour, wife of Abraham, 70
KhSbiir, the, a river of Mesopotamia, pro
bably the Arbonai of the book of Judith,
151
,  , the Persians first defeated by the
Romans on the, 424
crossed by Julian's army, near

Circesium, 434
Khadijeh, wife of Muhammed, 451
Kha'i, ancient mouth ofthe Indus, 373
Khaled Beni, or the Chaldeans, 55
 , Beni, nomad tribe of Arabia, 448
¦  ¦, Yezid Ibn, khaliph of Arabia, 458
Khalis canal, 612
Khan, one of the six mouths of the Bagar
branch ofthe Indus, 372

Khan of Khans, title of Genghis Khan, 488
 , or Tangus, title given to the chief of
the Huns, 468
Khananea, now Judea, 64
Kharir-sii (see Bumadus), 295
Kharism subdued by Genghis Khan, 489
Khawah and Alishtai pasture grounds, pro
bably the Nisaean plains, 365
Khazars and their commerce, 582
K'hddiwarf, estuary of the Indus, 373
Khezail and Qualem tribes, the, have the
boats at Lamliim, 642
Khinda, Taimur's war against the Khan of,
492
Khitan, or Khitay, original seat of the
Mongols, 468
Khiva and Tdshkend, trade to, 596
Khoes, the, probably the Kama, or Kooner,
river, 319 (note)
Khojend (see Cyropolis), 313
Khorasan, the Arabs under 'Othman advance
to, 455
1  subjected by the Arabs, 457
— — subdued by Genghis Khan, 489
 subdued by Taimur, 492
 , Taimur's descendants expelled fronfj
by the Uzbecks, 496
¦  , commerce of, 581
 and Damascus steel, 631
Khoriaba, battle of, 456
Khorram-abad, once Diz Siyah, or Kuh
Siyah, the derivation of Cossuean, 365
 , the principal seat of the Cossoeans, 365
Khorsabad, Mr. Hector's account of the
remains found at, 136 (note)
Khuryan Muryan, or Kartan and Martan,
language of the Beni 'Ad spoken at, 50, 51
Khusi, Beit el 50
Kiepe, or Kefken 'Adasi, formerly Port
Calpae, 239
Kimmerians, the, came from Maeotis, and
settled in Europe, 511
 , the, succeeded by the Scythians, 51 1
Kin, province of China, invaded by Genghis
Khan, 489
Kinghan, the, or Siolki mountains, a part of
the Paropamisian chain, 309
Kinnisrfn retaken from the Crusaders by
Niir-ed-din, 476
Kiptshak, names of princes who ruled over
the, 490
 , and the dynasty of the White Horde,
490 491
 , 'defeat of the Khan of the Golden
Horde, and subjection by Russia of the
kingdom of the, 49 1 «
¦  , Taimur's campaign against the, 493
 , the, defeated by Taimur, 494
Kiptshaks, the, or Tartars, from Oghuz
Khan, the descendant of Japhet, 469
 , the, conquered by Genghis Khan, 488
¦ — -, or Kaptshak, territory conquered by
Batii, 490
 Crimea, or the Golden Camp, the seat
of government of the, 490
Kir, the Israelites carried captive to, by the
Assyrians, 139

748

INDEX.

Kir, Kur, or Cyrus, and a tributary of the
Araxes, 139 (note)
Kirghis Kazaks, their astronomy and trade
with Russia and China, 10, 596
Kirman, Alexander marches to, and is joined
by Craterus, 344
— — , commencement of the Seljukian go
vernment of, 473
Kirmanshah, remains at, 618
Kizil Irmak, or Halys, the 10,000 Greeks
sail past the, 237
Kobi, or Gobi, desert of, 572
Koha aud Yarkund, trade to Russia of, 596
Kohhtan, town of, 51
Kohik (see Polytimetus river), 314
Kohtan, El, nomad tribe of Arabia, 448
Kokala, probably Mahee Makace, the capital
of the Oritae country, reached by Near
chus' fleet, 347
Kolta, a station of Nearchus' fleet, 348
Kdniyeh, victory of the Turks over 'Alared-
dfn, near, 498
 , proposed depot for trade, 601
Kophas, or Kophanta, the fleet of Nearchus
reach, 349
Kophen, probably the Kabul, passed by
Alexander, 319
 , Taxiles brings presents to Alexander
at the, 319
Kdpri Keui, the 10,000 Greeks cross the
Phasis, probably near, 230
Korah and his companions destroyed, 104
Koran, tenets inculcated in the, 451-453
— — , the diffusion and beneficial effects of
the, 454
•  , the, and its study, 543
¦  , translated, 557
¦  , the, encourages commerce, 596
Koreish, expedition of Abrahah against the,
450
 , the, the guardians of the Ka'ba, 450
 , the, Miihammed's tribe, averse to the
new faith, 453
Kothbeddin ruler of Kharism, Genghis
Khan's campaign against, 489
Koushan, Alexander's army entered the
Paropamisian mountains by the pass of,
311
Krokola island, reached by Nearchus' fleet,
345
Kuchuk-Ka'inarji, treaty of, 503
Kuds, Al (see Jerusalem), 475
Kiifah, the khaliph 'Ali, retires to, and is
murdered at, 456
 , one of the stations of the Muslims, 464
Jtiikewari, estuary of a branch of the Indus,
373
Kumurhan, and inscriptions at, 629
Kurdistan, the 10,000 Greeks enter, 224
 , description of their march through,
225-227
 , gall nuts from, (Appendix N.)
Kurghan-Tippa, probably the hill fort of
Oxyarta, 317
Kurrub, Abu, king ofthe Himyarites, 81
¦  founds an empire in Bactria, 81
<— — , Asaad Abii, king ofthe Tobbai, 449

Kusdi Khorasan, derived from Khous, or
Ham, 19
 , Phut, a son of Ham, the sovereign of,
19
Kusdi Kabgokh, or Chus, of the Caucasus,
35
 , territory ofthe Chasdim, 35
 , position, Sec, and other names for, 35
 , ancient Albania was once called, 35
Kiish, Shus, or Kushasdan (laud of the
sun), 32
 , the name of, was carried into
Khuzistan on the spread of the Cushites
eastward, 32
¦  , once the name for Persia, 32
Kusi, Beni, 50
Kuzari, the, nail-headed characters of Geor
gia, 33
Kwan-Yan, the temples in China dedicated
to, 15
Kyiza, the, fleet of Nearchus anchors near,
349
Laborosoarchodus, son and successor of Neri
glissar, 163, assassination of, 163
 , succeeded by Beishazzar, 163
Labynetus, the, of Herodotus, Beishazzar,
163
Lacedaemonians, fleet sent to assist Cyrus
by the, 204
 , the, engage the services of the 10,000
Greeks against Tissaphernes, 241
 , the, send a force under Agesilaus to
Ephesus, 245
 , the, plunder Pharnabazus' territory,
and defeat Tissaphernes on the river
Pactolus, 245
 , the, enter into a truce with Tithraustes,
245
 , campaign of the, against Pharnabazus
in Bithynia, 246
 army, the, recalled to Lacedaemon, 246
 fleet, the, defeated by Pharnabazus near
Cnidus, 246
 , the, defeat Pharnabazus near Coronea,
246
 proposals of alliance to Artaxerxes,
246
 , the, furnished with money by Teri
bazus, 247
 rescript of Artaxerxes to the Greeks,
247
Lachish, a fortified city of Judea, 142
Lfidik, Cyrus' army pass, 209
Lakhim, Beni, descended from Kaklan, 52
Lamliim canal, 612
Language, Hebrew, the, from the Chaidee
and Arabic, 85
 , the, of the Asiatic races had a com
mon origin, 509
Languages, various, derived from the
Himyaritic, 84
 , the Hebrew connected with the
Himyaritic, 85
 , Sanscrit, Pehlavf, and Greek, 85
•  , from a primitive source, and modified
in various climates, 86

INDEX.

749

Languages of the Indians and Mongolians
have an affinity to those of America, 509
 resemblance of the, of Europe and
Asia, 511
Laranda, stronghold in Cappadocia taken
by Perdiccas, 381
Laristan, route of Alexander's army from
Kirman to, 537, 538
Larissa, the 10,000 Greeks arrive at, 222
— — , probably represented by Ashur, or
Nimriid, and the Resen, or Al Resen of
Scripture, 222
Latin, kingdom of Jerusalem established,
475
Lazian territory, the, invaded by the Persians
under Veranes, 444
Learned men ofthe sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries, 565
Learning, Sec, introduced into Europe from
the east, 545
 , Arabic, cultivated in Andalusia, 552
Lebanon, its name supposed to be derived
from a descendant of Cain, 4
Leh, or Li, town on the Indus, 369
Lelex, who came from Egypt, settled on the
river Eurotas, 112
 , the Spartans the descendants of, 112
Leonidas, Alexander's present of spice to,
282, 283
Letters, Chaldaic, Indian, Arabian, and
Phoenician, appear to have had a common
origin, 86
Leuce Komi (see El Haura), 414
Leuco-Syrians, also called Chrysor, 36
¦  , territory and arts of the, 36
Levant Company, charter to trade to Baby
lon, 534
 , or Turkey Company established, 590-
593
— — , and countries to which they used to
trade, 592, 593 (note)
•  , decline of the, 594
 Company, French, decline of the, 594
Libnah, a fortified city of Judea, 142
Lingtee, or Seechoo, tributary of the Indus,
369
Linus worshipped in Scythia, 518
 , the philosophy of, and the sphere in
vented by him, 518
Lisbon becomes the commercial depot of
India, 589
Literature, advancement of, under Hariin-el-
Rashid, 459
 and philosophy encouraged by Al
Marniin, 460, 461
 , &c, of the Greeks, derived from the
east, 515-517
 becomes the pursuit of the Arabs, 543
Loan to the Levant Company from Queen
Elizabeth to be repaid in goods, 592, 593
(note)
Logs and rafts, 633
Longinus executed by Aurelian, 429
Loo, or Loah, ruled over Sei'stan, 134
— — , probably Zerah, the Ethiopian, who
invaded Judea, 134
Lost tribes, 44, 45

Lot separates from Abraham, 65
 rescued by Abraham, 66
— — , flight of, from Sodom to Bela, and
intended " sons-in-law," 68, 69
¦  , his daughters, and their supposed mar
riages, 88, 89
Louis IX. of France is defeated in Egypt,
485 MV*
¦  . leads another Crusade, lands in Africa,
and dies at Tunis, 485
Lucilianus's brave defence of Nisibis against
Sapor II., 431, 432
Lucullus's campaign in Armenia, 406
Lulua, city of, taken by Al Miimiin, 460
Lundye, river, the, probably the Guzacus, or
Euaspla, 320
Lycaonia, Cyrus' army marches along the
plains of, 209
Lycia, Alexander's conquest of, 267
Lycus, or Great Zab, Darius crosses the,
287
Lydia, rise and progress of the kingdom of,
114, 115
 , Ninus succeeds Belus as king of As
syria, and, 115
 , becomes a maritime power, 119
Lydian monarchy founded by Jupiter Am
mon or Ham, 18
Lydians, the, defeated by Cyaxares, 152
 , the, are besieged in Nineveh by
Nebuchadnezzar, 156
 , the, and Babylonians defeated by
Cyrus, 163
Lysimachus proclaims himself king, 392
 , the victories of, over Antigonus, 397
 , extent of the territory of, after Antigo
nus' death, 398
Macedonia, geographical position and advan
tages of, 252
 , patriarchal government and limited
power ofthe monarch of, 252, 253
¦  , Philip, son of Amyntas, gains the
government of, 253, 254
 , civil and military state of, under
Alexander, 257, 258
 invaded by the Illyrians and Tau
lantians, 259
Macedonian kingdom, rise of the, 252
 frontier, provinces and outposts, 253
 phalanx organized by Philip, 254
— — conquests, in the time of Philip,
254-256
 power, compared with that of Persia,
257
Macedonians, like the Greeks, were de
scended from Danaus, 253
 , manners and religion similar to the
Greeks, 253
Maceta, now Coomza, and Nearchus' fleet,
350
Machares, son of Mithridates II., assists the
Romans in the invasion of Armenia, 407
Machrochir, or Longimanus, ;and see Arta
xerxes, or Ahasuerus, 198
Macrones, the, were Cushites, and probably
a portion ofthe Chasdim, 36

750

INDEX.

Macronians, their treaty with the 10,000
Greeks, 233
Madai, a section of Japhet's descendants,
defeated by Aram, 42
Madates, the Uxian, opposed Alexander, 299
Mader-i-Soleiman, tomb of Cyrus visited by
Alexander, 358
Maeander, the, crossed by Cyrus on a bridge
of boats, 205
Magi, the origin of the, 33
 , the, slaughtered by the Scythians at
Balkh, 183
 , religious tenets of, 183, 184
¦  , the, spread eastward, and from them
came the Brahmins of India, 508
Magian fire, and that in the temple of Jeru
salem, 170
Magism makes progress in Greece, 527
Magog, the progenitor of the Scythians, 44
Magnesia, and loss of Xerxes' fleet, 194
Mahee Makace, probably Kokala, 347
Mahmiid Ghizni, conquests of, 469
 defeated by Togrul Bel, 470
 and the Seljukian territory divided,
473
 II. of Turkey, and the Russian in
vasion, 503
¦  territory ceded to Russia, and changes
adopted by, 503, 504
Mah-Sabadan, modern name of the plain of
Arioch, 147 (note)
Majorca conquered by the Arabs, 457
Makri, once Telmissus, 267
Makttiah Shatt el (cut river), by which
Nearchus' fleet reached Susa, 357
 , once connected the rivers Kerkhah
and Kariin, 357
Malacca, coast of, probably represents
Ophir, 126
 , distances, and time required for the
voyage, 126, 127
Malana or Hormarah (Ras Malin), the
western limits of the Oritae, 347
 , reached by Nearchus' fleet, 347
Malatfyah, specimens of the arts in the time
of Semiramis found near, 115, 629
¦  burnt by Chosroes I., 444
Malazkerd, battle gained by Alp Arsian
near, 470
Malik, Abd-el, conquests of, 457
.  1 Shah, son and successor of Alp Ar
sian, 470
 , separation of the empire on the death
of, 473
Malka, Nahr, canal attributed to Nebuchad
nezzar, 160
 , the, crossed by the 10,000 Greeks,
219
 , the, comnlenced by Trajan, 419
 , why abandoned by Trajan, 420
•  •  , Severus' fleet passes from the
Euphrates into the Tigris, by the, 421
 Julian's fleet passes by the, into
the Tigris, 438
, the, canal, 612

Malana or Hormarah, Ras Malin, 347
Mall, one of the six mouths of the Indus, 372

Malli, and Alexander's march against the,
330
¦  , remains ofthe race at Multan, 335
 , Alexander's campaign against the,
335-337
 . the, submit to Alexander, 338, 341
Mallithan, or Multan, 335
Mallus (see Misis), 211
Malothas, iElius Gallus at, 415
Mamre, plains of, chosen by Abraham, 65
MamuD, Al, second son of Hariin-el-Rashid,
portion of the empire allotted to, 459
 succeeds his brother Amin, 460
 encourages literature and philosphy,
460
¦  , his liberality to his physieiau, 462
 ¦ succeeded by Al Mu'tasem, 462
 , fails to reconcile the Sunnies and
Shf'ahs, 464
¦  ¦ employed Turks in his army, 464
 , encourages Arabic literature, 550
Manas Sorowar lake, or Mepang, 369
Manasseh carried captive to Babylon, 146
Manavaz, brother of Armenac, and the
Manavazerans, 41
Manawfyah and remains of a canal, pro
bably that cut by Alexander, 368
Mandrocles prepares a bridge of boats for
Darius to cross the Bosphorus, 181
Manes, son of Jupiter, supposed to be Jupiter
Ammon, or Ham, founds the Lydian
monarchy, 19 (note)
 , or Menes, possibly Noah, 114, 115
Mangalore, Muziris, port of, 576
Manija, branch and estuary of the Indus,
373
Manikjala, or Taxila, 324
Manister Grange, (near Limerick), the
primeval structures at, 15
Mankat and Himyari inscriptions, 81
Mansourah, defeat of the Crusaders at, 485
Mansiir's, Ibn, work on precious stones,
531
Mantinea, battle of, 248
Manufactures, British, sought in Western
Asia, 673-704
Maozar Malka, town on the Nahr Malkfi,
taken by Julian, 438
Marah, 'Ai'n, and the route of the Israelites,
99
Maracanda, or Samarkand, capital of Sog
diana, 312, 314
Marant, or Maranta, tombs of Noah and his
wife at, 40, 41
Mar'ash, the third Armenia, comprised the
present pashalik of, 43
 , and Napoleon's 'proposed expedition
against India, 536
Marathon, defeat of Darius' army at, 187,
188
Marathus, or Mariame, a Phoenician port in
the government of Aradus, 276
Marco Polo travels to India, 533, 534, 587
Mardi, the, subdued by Alexander, 302-305
 , territory of the, added to the satrapy
of the Tapuri, 305
Mardin submits to Taimiir, 494

INDEX.

751

Mai-din, proposed place of trade, 594, 601
(Appendix N.)
Mardonius sent with a fleet to subdue
Greece, result of the expedition of, 186,
187
¦  left in Thessaly by Xerxes to complete
the war, 196
¦  killed at the battle of Plataea, 196
Mareb, Mariaba (see Meroe), 47-50
¦  the ancient Saba, called Ard-es-Sabd,
inscriptions found at, and bund at, 83
 , probably the Marsyaba of jElius
Gallus, 415
 , the Sabean city, a great mercantile
depot, 124, 570
Maree village, on the Indus, 369
Margastana, near Derah, island of, met by
Nearchus, 354
 , Antiochia built in by Alexander, 317
Marseilles receives tin from Britain, 576
Marsyaba, also Marsaba, probably Mareb,
or Saba, taken by the Romans, 415
Martel, Charles, defeats the Moors in France,
458
Martyropolis (Myafarekin) submits to the
Romans, 444
Masca, river, reached by Cyrus, 214
Masis and Mesezousar, or mountain of the
Ark, 7
¦  •, district around Ararat called "foot
of Masis," 41, 42
Masula, name of the Paropamisus, 308
Massabatice, of Strabo, the plain of Arioch,
&c, 147 (note) "
Massagetae, Cyrus the Great slain when
fighting against the, 173
 , the, invade the Persian territory in
the time of Sapor II., 432
 , trade with the, 573
Materials for writing of various kinds, 630
Mattaniah (see Zedekiah), 157
Mauri, or Moors, 456
 , expedition of the, against Spain, 457
Maurausa, Manausa, or Macauga, battle at,
between the Romans and Persians, 439
Ma-wera-1-nahr, or Sogdiana, 312
 conquered by the Arabs, 457-467
Mazaca, city built by Meshak, 43
 , afterwards Caesarea, or Gaysarey, 43
 , probably represents Molopus,150 (note)
Mazaeus, a general of Darius at Arbela, 288,
292-294
 delivers up Babylon to Alexander,
296
>  appointed satrap of Babylon by Alex
ander, 298
Mazaga, or Masoga, people of, defeated by
Alexander, and treacherously treated by
him, 321 «
Mazanderan, once Hyrcania, 305
 subjected by Taimiir, 492
Mazanes, governor of Oaracta, 352
Mazigh and Moorish dialect, 456
Mechanics and geometry derived from the
east, 530
Medes, the, -descended from Japhet, 38
 , the, occupy part of Cappadocia, 43

Media only a satrapy of Assyria, 135, 141
¦  , Dejoces raised to the throne of, 146
 , rebellion, defeat, and death of Phra
ortes, the successor of Dejoces, 146-148
¦  ¦ again revolts on the death of Nabu
chodonosor, 151, 152
 , the Scythian inroad into, 152
 recovered by Cyaxares, 152
 and Persia become the Medo-Persian
empire under Cyrus, 172
 , Alexander's route to, from Susa,
364, 365
 , route of Antigonus, retreating from
Babylonia through, 385
 , Antony's harassing retreat through,
414
 ravaged by the Persians under Arta
xerxes, 423
Median and Assyrian dynasties, according
to Ctesias, 135
¦  ; historical difficulties ofthe, 135
•  wall, the, reached by the ten thousand
Greeks, 220
 , discussions regarding the, 220 (note)
Medical theories of Galen, Hippocrates, and
the Chinese, &c, 531, 532
Medici, Lorenzo di, encourages eastern
literature, 565
Medicine, Dioscorides' knowledge of, 531
 introduced from Arabia into Spain by
Constantinus, 558
Medina, settlement of Jews at, 449
Mediterranean, formation of the basin of
the, 512
Megabyzus, a general of Darius, 181
¦  , during the reign of Artaxerxes, sent
against Egypt, 200
Megia, Julian's army at, 436
Megiddo, defeat of Josiah by Pharoah
Necho at, 155
Me'idan Alie bank met by Nearchus, 355
Mekkah, the, caravan, partly passes over
the route of the Israelites, 104, 105
 , and war of the elephant, 450
 , pilgrimage to, by Hariin-el-Rashi'd, 459
 , commerce of, 581
Melangena (now Kard Hisar), captured by
'Osman, 498
Melchizedek's early settlement at Salem, 17
 , the great high priest at Salem, and
ruler of the Shemites considered as Shem,
27,66
Memnis, or Kerkiik, and Alexander's march ,
296
Memnon served at the siege of Troy, 119
 , general of Darius Codomanus, 203
 , his command under Darius, 265
 defends Halicarnassus agahist Alex
ander, 265, 266
 ¦ retreats to Cos, 266
•  , his project to cut off Alexander, 268
 dies before Mitylene, and is succeeded
by Pharnabazus, 268
 , Barsine, the widow of, andAlexander's
son, murdered by Polysperchon, 391
Memnonia at Thebes erected by Amenophis,
107

752

INDEX.

Mempnis, seat of government of the. shep
herds, 73
•  , one quarter of, occupied by the Tyrian
merchants, 92
Menahem, king of Israel, 138
•  , purchases peace of Pul, 138
— — , his war with Judah, 138
Menes introduced refinement into Egypt, 90
Menon turns the Cilician gates and plunders
Tarsus, 209
— — • induces the Greeks to cross the Eu
phrates, 213 '
.  and others beheaded by Artaxerxes,
221
Mentz, the archbishop of, goes to the Holy
Land, 473
Mepang, or Manas Sorowar lake, the source
of four noble rivers, 369
Mercantile establishments in London, 588
 in France, 589
Merchants settle in Constantinople, 586
Merkez, castle near the Syrian gates, 211
Merkez-siii, or ancient Kersus, 211
Merodach Baladan, 144, 145
Meroe, Mareb and Mariaba, once SaM, 47
•  , probably named SaM, from Seba, son
of Cush, 50
•  founded by the Cushites, 73
.  , or Saba, probably the Sheba, whose
queen visited Solomon, 123
Meru conquered by the Seljukides, 470
Merv, route through, 572, 581
Merw-el-Rud, on the Murgh-ab, formerly
Alexandria, &c, 317, 318
Mesambria, peninsula of Nearchus, near
Sous Poshoon, or Cape Bang, 354
Mesha, probably Mekkah, 49
Meshak built by Meshok, afterwards Mazaca
and Caesarea, or Gaysarey, 43
Meshech, posterity of, in Cappadocia, 43
 , from whom the Muscovites are de
scended, 44
Mesjfd-f-Madreh Suleiman, possibly Pasar
gada, 301, 607, 618, 619_
— — , translation of the inscriptions, 301
(note, and Appendix A.)
Mesjid 'Ali, 613
Mesopotamia, the principal seat of .the de
scendants of Shem, 17, 48, 77
 , the Shemitic Chaldeans on the steppes
of, 53
•  , language ofthe Chaldeans used in, 53
 , Abraham's departure from, 63
 , a separate government from Assyria,
under Cushan-Rishathaim, 106
 , Cyrus' march through the desert of,
214
¦  , and Alexander's march, 285
•  , Xenaetas carries the war into, 403
 , Mithridates, obtains possession of, 405
 invaded by Crassus, 407
 declared a Roman province hy Trajan,
420
 invaded by the Parthians, and cam
paign ofthe Romans under Severus, 421
¦  ravaged by the Persians under Siapor,
423-425

Mesopotamia subjected by Zenobia, 427
 , Upper, Persians defeated in, by Gale
rius, 430
 invaded by Sapor IL, 431, 433
 , march of Julian's forces through, 438
 , and retreat ofthe Romans through, 441
 , Salah-ed-din's campaign in, 478
 . subjected by Genghis Khan, 489
 Upper, subjected by Ta'innir, 493
Mesopotamian commerce, 591, 592, 598, 600,
602, and (Appendix N.)
¦  and Assyrian remains, 604
 canals, antiquity of, 612, 613
 wool (Appendix N.)
Mespila, or Messila (the site of Nineveh),
the Greeks reach, 223
Messene, island in the Tigris, taken by Tra
jan, 420
Messomordacus, king of Babylon, 145
Metals, use of, by the ancients, 89, 616, 617
Methrines, satrap of Armenia, under Alex
ander, 297
Mexican pyramids, 607
Midianites and other Arabs, since called
Saracens, 76
 , advanced state of the civilization of
the, at the time of the Exodus, 100
Midianitish polity imparted to the Israelites
by Jethro, 100, 101
Milan, Chaldean district, near the Centrites,
226 (note)
Milesian commerce and colonies, 574
Miletus taken by Alexander, and escape of
the Persian fleet, 265
Miltocythes, deserts with the Thracians to
Artaxerxes, 218
Mineralogy, eastern knowledge of, 531
Minerva, altar consecrated by Alexander to,
276
Mines and excavations of the ancients,
614, 615, 617
Mines, explosive, used at the siege of Rhodes
by Suleiman IL, 39 6_
Minnow, the, or Anamis river, 35]
Minorca conquered hy the Arabs, 457
Misr, city and castle of, fortified by Salak-
ed-dih, 477
Misis, the Jai'han crossed by Cyrus at, 211
Mithras, or Mudross, caves of, 607
Mithridates, brother of Phroates, and king
of Parthia, 404
 , Parthian dominions of, 405
 , succeeded by his son Phraates, 405
 adds Mesopotamia and Babylonia to
the Parthian empire, 405
Mitylene, death of Memnon at, 268
Mixed tribes of Arabia, 70
Miyandab, defeat of the Romans by the
Parthians at, 414
 , Antony's route into Parthia by, 413
Mizraim, son of Ham, born in Peraea, 19
¦  , occupied the region southward of
Canaan, 20
¦  , the descendants of, migrated int6
Africa, Yemen, &c, 23
¦  , extent ofthe territory of his descend*
ants, 30

INDEX.

753

Mizraim, also called iEgyptus, 45 ,
 and Thoth lead the Hamites into
Africa, 46
¦  gives the name of Sanc'ha-dwfpa to the
country about the Nile, 46
 , part of the followers of, remain in
Arabia, 50
 , spread ofthe sons of, 506, 507, 508
Moabites and Ammonites, origin of the, 68,
69
 , the territory occupied by the, 69
 expelled the Emims from the river
Anion, 69
 , the, were chiefly Cushite, 69
 , the, continued separate from the Am
monites, 69
Moawiyah contends for the khaliphat with
'All, 456
 causes translations of foreign works
to be made, 544
Moctadi, khaliph of Egypt, offers a hospi
table reception to the Crusaders, 475
Moctasi, Al, Mohtadi, Al, Mo'tadid, and
Al, Mo'tamed, khaliphs of Arabia, 467
Moeris, king of Egypt, digs the lake bearing
his name, 108
Mogos, or Sidodone, a station of Nearchus,
352
Moguls, Great, of India, the descendants of
Tai'mur, 496
Mohammerah and its trade (Appendix N.)
Mokateb, inscriptions at, 629
Moktader Bi'llah, khaliph of Arabia, and
learned men of his reign, 467
Molo, brother of Antiochus the Great, satrap
of Media, 402 '
 , rebellions, defeat and death of, 403
Molopus, city of, probably represented by
Mazaca, 150
Moneidera Castle taken from the Crusaders,
476
Mongishlak, trade through, 582
Mongol nation founded by Mizraim's de
scendants, 30
Mongolia, limits and superficies of, 487
Mongolians resemble the Kirghis Kazaks,
487
Mongols, or Southern Huns, origin of, 468
¦  , territory and early history of the, 468,
487, 488
 , the Scythians of Herodotus, 487
 territory of the, in Russia, named
Kiptshak, 490
¦  , Tamerlane descended from the, 491
 and Tartars under Taimiir, 491-495
 supposed to have spread into America,
508, 509
Monsaly, Ras, and bay, a station of Near
chus' fleet, 353
Monsoons discovered by Hippalus, 579
Monte Santo, jgulf of, and Xerxes, canal
through Mount Athos, 191
Moola, or Alindae, 266
Moon, the (see Baaltis), 20
Moors, or Mauri, and commencement of
their dynasty in Africa, 456
,  invade and conquer a partof Spain, 457
VOL. II.

Moors, or Mauri, commencement of their
dynasty in Spain, 457
1  , the, overrun a' part of France, but at
length are obliged to retreat into Spain,
458
 , attempt of the Normans to expel the, ,
from Spain, 465
Mophis, or Taxiles, 323
Moral law given to the Israelites, 102
Morontobara, a haven of Nearchus' fleet, 346
Mosambique, the, and products brought
from, 125
 , distance and time consumed in a voy
age to, 125
Mosarna, where Nearchus obtains a Gedro
sian pilot, 348
Mosehus founds colonies in Greece, 94
Moscow, Taimiir advances to, 494
Moses receives instruction in government
from Jethro, 100, 101
Mdsul, Eski, and Alexander's advance
against Darius, 286
 , bridge placed by Taimiir over the
Tigris at, 495
 , a commercial city, 581
 , Piisha of, his exactions on trade, 595
(and Appendix E.)
 , proposed as a vice-consulate for trade
601 (and Appendix TV.)
 , comparative exports and imports in
1835 and 1841 (Appendix E.)
Mossynaeci, the, Cushites, and probably a
portion of the Chasdim, 36
¦  , or Moschi, the march of the 10,000
through the territory ofthe, 236
¦  , territory, manners, and derivation of
the name of the, 236
Mu'tasem obtains a portion of the empire,
459
Mo'tazz, Al, and decline of the empire, 467
Mounds of Assyria and Babylonia, 606
Mozauz, or Modhaudh, chief of the tribe
Jorham, his daughter marries Ishmael, 70
Mubarrack, Kove, or Bambarak, 350
Mugharebeh, or body-guard, raised by Al
Mu'tasem, 463, 464
Muziris, or Mangalore, port of, 576
Miihammed, Abii Kasem, birth and early
youth of, 451-454
¦  , the state of Arabia favourable to the
ministry of, 450, 451
¦  , tenets ofthe religion of, 451-453
 respects the prejudices of the Arabs,
and enjoins toleration, 453
 , death, and character of, 453, 454
 succeeded by Abu Bekr, 454
 (see Togrul Bei), 470
 , Al Saleh Isma'il, son and successor of
Niir-ed-drii, 477
.  ., defeated by Salah-ed-din, 477
 I., expels the Seijukians from Kara-
mania, 499
 II., reigns over Turkey, 499
 takes Constantinople, 499
¦  , artillery used by, 499. 500
 III., extent of the Turkish empire
under, 502
3 D

754

INDEX.

Miihammedan account of Abraham's exile, 62
 sects of Sunnie and Shi'ah, 456, 457
Mujayah, the mound of, identical with Aiir,
Our, or U'r of the Chaldees, 37
Mujellibeh, at Babylon, its construction, 606
 , probably the citadel of Babylon, 167
Multan, or Mallithan (place of the Malli),
335
¦  reduced by Genghis Khan, 489
Multan, commerce of, 5S1
Munoara point, rounded by Nearchus' fleet,
346
Murad I., or Amurad, successor of Urklan,
498
 takes Adrianople and most of European
Turkey, 498
 IL, successes of, 499
.  III., and IV. reign over Turkey, 501,
502
Murad-chai, or Euphrates, crossed by the
10,000 Greeks near its springs, 228, 229
Murgh'-ab, plains of, and tomb of Cyrus,
173, 301 (and Appendix A.)
Musa Khdr, a station of Nearchus' fleet
called Kataderbis, 354
.  Al Hadi, khaliph of Arabia, 459
Muscovites, descendant from Meshech, 44
Musendom, Ras, and Nearchus' fleet, 350
Music cultivated by the Arabs, 545
Musicanus submits to Alexander, 338
 again revolts, and is crucified, 341
 , probable position of the capital of, 341
(note)
¦  and the Brahmins, 341
Musk, from Thibet, 582
Muslim wars with the Christians, 473-486
 separated into two empires, 487
Muslims, the, encourage pilgrims to the
Holy Land previous to the Crusades, 473
 , and the differences between the Sunnie
and Shi'ah, 475
Muslin, named from Mdsul, 583
Musnad inscriptions on the dyke of Mareb,
83
Mu'tasem, Al, terminates the war with
Theophilus, 462, 463
 encourages architecture, &c, 463
 founds the city of Sammarrah, 465
Mutawakkel, Jaaser Abii-1-Fadl, Al, succes
sor of the khaliph El Wathek Billah,
wars with the Greeks, 466
 builds a palace, 466
 , his death and character, 466
 , progress of civilization and literature
under, 467
 encourages commerce, 581
Myafarekin (Martyropolis) submits to the
Romans, 444
Mycale, destruction of Xerxes' army and
fleet near, 197
Mygdonian and other mercenaries oppose
the 10,000 Greeks at the Centrites, 226
Mygdonius, river, turned by Sapor II.,
when besieging Nisibis, 432
Myos Hormos, iElius Gallus crosses to, 415
Myriandrus, Cyrus arrives at, 212
•  , desertion of Xenias and Pasion at, 212

Mysia, and campaign of the 10,000 under
the Lacedaemonians in, 241, 242
 invaded by the Turks under Urklan,498
Mythology of Ahriman probably that of the
Celts, 513
 of Greece borrowed from Egypt, 516-
518
Nabathean laws, customs, &c, 390, 391
Nabatheans of 'Irak, or Nabt el 'Irak, a
tribe of Syrians or Assyrians, 31
— — distinguished from the northern Cush
ites, 52
 and the northern Cushites amalgamate,
53
 , the people to whom the name of was
applied, 76
¦  , and Antigonus' expeditions, against
the, 390, 391
Nabatheans, a branch of the Syro- Arabians,
509
Nabend, Ras, or Ochus; where Nearchus'
fleet anchored, 353
Nabochodrossor, name assumed by the rebel
Naditabirus, 178
Nabonassar, son of Pul, and viceroy at Ba
bylon, destroyed the records of his country,
139
¦  , Babylon under Semiramis II., and,
139, 140
 , successors of, 140
Nabonnedus or Nabonnidich (see Bei
shazzar), 163
Nabopolasar assumes the sovereignty of
Babylonia, and revolts from Saracus_, 152
 , also named Busalossorus, besieges
Nineveh, and on the death of Saracus,
removes the seat of government from
Nineveh to Babylon, 153
 , Pharaoh Necho advances against him,
but is defeated, 155
Nabopolasarus, son of Nabopolasar, marries
the daughter of Astyages, 153
Nabuchodonosor, the Saosduchinus of Ju
dith, 146
 , better known as Nebuchadnezzar (see
Nebuchadnezzar), 155
Nabulus, discord among the Crusaders at,484
Nacumbra, or Symbra,reached by Julian,439
Nadir Shah's early history and conquests,
497
Naditabirus', or Nabachodrossor, rebellion
in Babylonia, quelled by Darius, 178
Nadius usurps the government of Babylon,
and is succeeded by Chinzius and Porus,
140
Nahavend, victory gained by 'Omar at, 455
Nahrawan canal, one portion attributed to
Nebuchadnezzar, 160, 612
Nahr-el-Kelb, sculptures at, 630
Nahr I'sa canal, Nahr Kutea, Nahr Malka,
and Nahr Sersar canals, 612
Nahr, Kuthah, canal, 612
 Sersar, crossed by the ten thousand
Greeks, 219
Nahrawan, Alexander passed by into the
Choaspes, 364_

INDEX.

755

Naiads, or Shipmen, derivation of, 15 (note)
Naimans, the, subjected by Genghis Khan,
488
Nakhsivan, probably the Aporateeion of
Josephus, from which the first colonies
emigrated, 8
Nakhshab, town, captured by Taimiir, 492
Napoleon invades Egypt and besieges 'Akka,
503, 535
 , designs of, against India, 535, 536
Naphtha, how collected, and use of, 625,
626
Narra, bifurcation ofthe Indus, 371
Narses, king of Persia, sues for peace from
the Romans, 430
 , Roman general, defeats the rebel
Varanes, 445
Narsis and Charmalik ruins described, 610-
612
Naszeb, El, inscriptions at , 629
Nasir-ed-dih's demonstrations of Euclid
translated, 559
Natolia invaded by Hariin-el-Rashid, 459
Native traders in the east, and disadvan
tages of, 595 (and Appendix N.)
Naucratis on the Nile, 574
Nautaka in Sogdiana, now Karshi, 316
Navarino, battle of, 504
Navigation and trade of the early Phoeni
cians, &c, 124, 569
¦  , mercantile fleets of the ancients, and
vessels used, 124, 125
 , distance and time consumed in a
voyage to Mosambique, 125
 promoted by Pharaoh Necho, 154
•  , commercial of the Euphrates (Ap
pendix N.)
¦  of the Euphrates, reports upon, 599
(and Appendices I. to N.)
Naxos, revolt at, causes Darius to make war
on Greece, 181, 182
Nearchus left by Alexander to watch the
Assakenes, 323
 appointed to conduct the fleet down
the Hydaspes, 335
¦  acquires a knowledge of the sources of
the Indus, 344
 , his fleet descends the Indus to Coreatis,
345
¦  avoids the bar of the river Indus, and
sails to the island of Krokola, 345
 takes shelter at Bibacta from the mon
soon, 345, 346
¦  rounds Munoora point to the Saranga
country, 346
¦  arrives at Morontobara, and enters
Sonmeany, 346
 sails past the Oritae, and anchors near
Pagala, 347
•  encounters a storm off Kabana, 347
•  reaches Kokala, and the Port of Ram-
bacia, where he refits, 347
,  reaches the Tomerus river, and defeats
the natives, 347
 arrives at Hormarah (Ras Malin), and
the territory of the Ichthyophagi in the
bay of 'Arabah, 347

Nearchus arrives at Kalama, and is hos
pitably entertained at Karnine, 348
 puts to shore on the coast of Karbis,
and obtains a pilot at Mosarna, 348
 reaches the coast of Balomus and
Kophanta, 349
1  surprises a small town and obtains a
supply of corn, 349
¦  proceeds to the island of Bagia, and
the haven of Taimona, 349
 reaches Kanasis, and the country of
the Traesi, 349
1  arrives at Dagasira and quits the coast
of the Ichthyophagi, 350
 reaches Badis, Bambarak, and Cape
Maceta, and Ras Musendom, 350
 enters the Persian Gulf, and reaches the
mouth of the Anamis river, 350
 danger and difficulty of the voyage,
350, 351
 , his voyage partly predatory, 351
 meets Alexander and retains the com
mand of the fleet, 352
 encounters a storm at Angiir Island
and Bassadore bank, 352
 arrives at Sidodone, 352
 rounds Cape Certes to Cataea and Bu-
sheab, 353
•  passes Ras Nabend, and arrives at
Alsaloo and Apostani, now Congoon, 353
¦  reaches Monsaly and Sitakus, now Abii
Shehr, where he refits, 353
 advances to Hierates, Brizana, and
the Arosis or Indian, 354
 , his fleet reaches Kataderbis and Di
ridotis (Teredon), 355
 distances of his voyage from the Indus
to Babylon, 355
 sails back to the Pasitigris, and meets
part of the army on that river, 356
 waits upon Alexander at Susa, 356,
358
¦  , and his account of the distances com
pared with modern surveys, 357
 entrusted with the circumnavigation
of Africa and Arabia, &c, 366
 , a general of Antigonus' army, 385
>  marches across the Cossaean moun
tains, 385
Nebuchadnezzar, or Nabopolasarus, son of
Nabopolasar, sent against the [Egyptians
and Syrians, 153, 155
¦  defeats Pharoah Necho, and imposes a
tribute on Judea, 155
¦  takes Ezekiel and others as hostages to
Babylon, ascends the throne, besieges and
destroys Nineveh, 155, 156.
 invades Judea, and carries the inha
bitants captive to Babylon, 156, 157
•  > besieges Jerusalem the second time,
carrying away more captives, 157
 adorns and enlarges Babylon, 157, 160
 again besieges Jerusalem, 157, 158
 carries Zedekiah and others captive to
Babylon, 158
¦  , Tyre besieged and Egypt invaded and
despoiled by, 159
3d2

756

INDEX.

Nebuchadnezzar, Nahr Malkd, Nahrawan,
and Pallacopas canals, attributed to, 1 60
 , the Chaldean tradition concerning a
prophecy of, 160
 , temporary insanity of, 161
 , his supposed trade with China, 161
 , death and character of, 161
Nebuzar-adan, Nebuchadnezzar's general,
158
Necho, or Nechus (see Pharaoh Necho), 153,
154, 155, 189
Nejran Wadi, in Nedjd-el-'Aridh, the
Ararena of Strabo, 415, 416
Nelkynda, port of, 576
Neon, successor of Cheirisophus, defeated by
Pharnabazus, 239
 and Xenophon defeat the Persians, 240
Neoptana, now Karroon, a fishing village,
met by Nearchus' fleet, 350
Neoptolemus defeated by Eumenes, 381
Nera Komi, iElius Gallus at, 415
Neriglissar, or Neriglissoorus, murders and
succeeds Evil-Merodach, as king of Baby
lon, 162
 defeated by Cyrus, and slain, 162, 163
 succeeded by his son Laborosoarchodus,
163
Newberrie's voyage to Ormiiz, 591, 592
¦  and Fitch proceed to India overland,
and return along the Tigris, 593
Nicaea, the capital of the Turkish dominions
under Urklan, 498
Nicator, Mons ('A'in-el-Bertha), battle of
Arbela fought near, 295
Nicephorium, now Rakkah, built by Alex
ander, 285
Nicaea taken by 'Osman, 498
Nicolo di Conti's route to India, 590
Niemaus, the wife of Ham, probably Naamah,
the sister of Tubal Cain, 19
Nigritia, the Himyarites under Abrahah
penetrate to, 80
Nikaea reached by Alexander in advancing
to the Indus, 319
 , site of, on the Hydaspes, 324
 built to commemorate the victory over
Porus, 330
 repaired by Alexander on his return
from the Hyphasis, 334
Nile, the establishment of the shepherds on
the banks of the, 72, 73
 , canal cut by Ptolemy Philadelphus
from, to the Red Sea, 399, 400
 , route by the, to India, 580
Nimrud, the son of Cush, 24 (and note)
 , cities, &c, built by, 24
 builds the tower of Babel, 25
 , Ninus, son of, reigns at Nineveh, 39
 , probably built Telane, then called
Tunim, 39
 , succeeded by Ninus or Belus, 11, 39
 , or Evechius, the first of the Chaldean
kings, 55
 , probable extent of the Assyrian em
pire founded by, 65
 , Cushan-Rishathaim probably de
scended from, 106

Nimrud, Tell, Mr. Hector's account of the
remains at, 137 (note)
 , or Ashur, probably Larissa, and Al
Resen of scripture, 222, 223
 Tagh, the 10,000 pass, 227
 , Bfrs, mound of, 606
Nineveh, after the dispersion, one of the
principal settlements of the Shemites, 3
 built by Nimrud, 24, 39
 , the place of Tobit's captivity, 141
 , the capital of Assyria, 141
 , Nabuchodonosor's rejoicings at, 148
 , taken and nearly destroyed by Nabo
polasar, 153
 1 seat of government removed to Baby
lon from, 153
 , when occupied by the Lydians, be
sieged and destroyed by Nebuchadnezzar,
156
 , battle between the Romans, under
Heraclius, and the Persians, near, 445
Ninevites (Nenavi), a tribe of the Chal
deans, 31
Ninus, son and successor of Belus, as king of
Lydia, probable time ofthe birth of, 115
 marries Semiramis, and dies in Bactria,
115
Ninus, son of Nimrud, reigns at Nineveh,
and enlarges the city, 39
¦  assumes the title of Belus II. ; invades
Armenia, and is killed, 40
¦  succeeded by Haik, 40
Ninyas, son and successor of Semiramis,
organizes the kingdom, 118, 119
¦  , the first to raise a militia corps, 119
Nisaean plains, probably Khawah and
Alfshtar, 365
Nisbara and Nischanabe on the Tigris, 439
Nfshapiir, Togrul Bel crowned at, 470
Nisibin, or Antiochus of Mygdonia, An
tiochus the Great winters at, 403
¦  , or Nisibis, and materials for Trajan's
fleet, 418
 besieged by the Parthians, and relieved
by Severus, 421
Nisibis, or Zobah, a part ofthe kingdom of
U'r, 48, 121
Nisroch, Sennacherib assassinated by his
sons in the temple of, 142
Nissa, treaty between the Russians and
Turks at, 503
Nitocris, queen of Egypt, 108
 , mother of Beishazzar, works ascribed
to, 163
 prepares for the siege of Babylon, 163
Niul, son of Finiusa, proceeds to Egypt, and
favours the escape ofthe Israelites, 511
 , his descendants proceed to Spain and
Ireland, 514
Noah, supposed residence of, 8, 635
 , called Oannes, or Xisuthrus, 5
 , Miihammedan tradition of, 6, 638
 , remarkable places called after, 7, 8
 , first location ofthe sons of, 13
 , precepts of, 14
 , his altar had the shape of a crescent
moon, 14

INDEX.

757

Noah allots the earth, 17, 18
 , extent of the territory of his descend
ants, 30-39
 , the sons of, at the dispersion, repre
sented the three divisions of mankind, 30
 , grandchildren, and territory possessed
by them, 37, 38
 , tomb of, in Armenia, 40
 , possibly represented by Menes or
Manes, 141, 115
Noora, a kind of cement, 627
Noorda, and Julian's retreat, 439
Nora castle in Phrygia, successfully de
fended by Eumenes, 382
Normans, the, fail in their attempt to drive
the Moors out of Spain, 465
 , supposed descendants of the Trojans,
512
Nowakot, the town of, and reunion of the
two branches of the Indus at, 369
Noyanzar, or Nemzar, the Armenian name of
Noah's wife, 41
Nubia, the Hamites spread from, into Egypt,
Nu'man, a king of the Himyarites, 80
Numerals, Arabic, common use of, 564
Niir-ed-dia unites the governments of
Aleppo and Damascus, 476
•  , is successful against the Crusaders,
476, 477
¦  succeeded by Al Saleh Isma'il Miiham
med, 477
Nymphaeum promontory, now Mount Athos,
252
Nysa, visited by Alexander, 323
¦  , inhabitants of, descended from Sesos
tris, 323
Oannes, the sea-god of Babylonia, 15(noie)
 , Xisuthrus, or Noah, 5
Oaracta, Nearchus joined at, by Mazanes,
352
Oasis Magna, and the destruction of Cam
byses' army, 1 74
Obailites in Arabia Felix, 45
Ob'oll'ah, port of, 577
Ocellis, port of, 580
Ochus, or Darius Nothus, the illegitimate
son of Artaxerxes, ascends the throne,
200
 ¦ suppresses revolts of the Egyptians,
Medes, and Lydians, 200
 entrusts Cyrus with the government of
a part of Lesser Asia, 200
 puts his brother Ariaspes to death,
250
 , government and conquests of, 260
¦  poisoned, and is succeeded by Arses,
260
•  , or Tedjen river, Alexander's march to
the, 318
 , probably RaS Nabend of Nearchus,
now Bay of Alsaloo, 353
Odenatus, prince of Palmyra, becomes the
declared enemy of Sapor, 425 ,
.  and the Romans defeat the Persians
under Sapor, 425

Odenatus assumes the title of king of Pal
myra, 426
 appointed commander of the Roman
forces, and assassinated at Heraclea, 426
Oe'bazus, the three sons of, executed by
Darius, 188
CEdipore, great reservoir at, 661
Oghuz Khan, empire of, 4C8
¦  ', from whom sprang the Hunnish tribes,
468. 469
 , the descendants of Japhet, occupied
Turkistan in Abraham's time, 469
Okair, Tarikh Ibn, khaliph, who despatched
the Moorish expedition against Spain,
457
Olfrid, an early poet, 552
Olympias, daughter of the king of Epirus
and queen of Philip, 255
 divorced by Philip, 256
 puts Philip and Eurydice to death, 383
 is put to death by Cassander, 389
Oman, remains ofthe Amalekites in, 51
 , trade of, to China, 577
'Omar (Abu Hassan Ibn el Khatib), succes
sor of Abii Bekr, 454
 regulated the government of Arabia,
454
 , cities taken and mosques endowed by,
455
¦  , conquests, and death of, 455
 succeeded by 'Othman Ibn Assan, 455
 , the mosque of, and massacre of the
Muslims by the Crusaders, 475
Omayyim, the, or Omaim, lost tribe from
Ham, 45
Onesicritus, the pilot of Alexander's fleet,
335
 joins Alexander at Susa, 358
Oni, Sultan, the tract of, bestowed on Er
toghrul, 498
Ophir, voyages of the Phoenicians to, 96
 , commerce by sea established by Solo
mon, 122
¦  Aurea Chersonesus considered as, 126
 , the name still preserved in the island
of Sumatra, 126
 , the produce of Sumatra similar to that
brought from Ophir, 126
 , the early trade with, owing to the skill
ofthe Phoenicians, 127, 128
Opis, the ten thousand Greeks reach, 221
 , Alexander proceeds along the Tigris
to, 361
 , probably near the ruins of Samarrah,
361
 , events connected with Alexander's
visit to, 362, 363
¦  , Alexander's route from, in returning
to Susa, 364
Ora, a town near the Indus, captured by
Alexander, 321
Orcheni, a branch of the Chaldeans, 54
Ordou and the 10,000 Greeks (see Cotyora),
236
Orenburg, trade from, to central Asia, 596
Or'fah, the land of Uz, probably in the vici
nity of, 77, 78

758

INDEX.

Organa, or Ormuz, and Nearchus' fleet, 352
Orgunje, trade to, from Russia, 596
Oritae, the, defeated by the corps under Le
onatus, 347
 , Alexander founds a colony and builds
a city in the country ofthe, 347
 , Nearchus visits the country of the, 347
Ormazd (Appendix B. and C)
Ormiiz, Portuguese establishment at, 589
Orodes usurps the throne of Parthia, 407
¦  , campaign against, by Crassus, 407
 sends envoys to Crassus, and prepares
to resist the Romans, 408
¦  , the general of, defeats and destroys
the Roman army, 410 411
¦  ¦ puts Surena to death, and forms an
alliance with the king of Armenia, 412
Orontas the Persian sentenced to death, 215
Orontes, Napoleon's proposed expedition to
the mouth of the, 536
Orpheus, his learning derived from Egypt,
516
 , the supposed founder of the Greek re
ligion, 517
 worshipped in Scythia, 518
¦  introduced magism and medicine into
Greece, 527
Orsines, the satrap of Pasagarda, put to
death by Alexander, 358
Ortok, governor of Jerusalem, 473
Ortospana of Strabo, or Kabura, 308
 , and Alexander's advance to the Indus,
319
Orxantes, the, or Jaxartes, and its various
names, 312
 mistaken for the Tanais, 312
Osal, or Esal, afterwards San'£, 51
Osborne, Sir Edward, obtains a charter
from Queen Elizabeth, 590-593
'Osman, founder of the Turkish empire, 498
'Osinanlf branch ofthe Turks, origin ofthe,
497
Osroene, the ancient, corresponds with the
place of Job's trials, 78
Otanes, general of Darius Hystaspes, 178
'Othman, Ibn Assan, successor of 'Omar,
455
 , the Moorish dynasty in Africa dates
from, 455
 succeeded by 'Ali Ben Abi Taleb, 456
Ottoman empire, Syria and Palestine added
to the, 486
Oungh, khan of the Kera'ites, and the Prester
John of Europeans, 487
Oxus, the, crossed by Bessus, 311
— — , the, crossed by Alexander's army on
stuffed tent skins, 311
Oxyarta surprised and captured by Alex
ander, 316, 317
 , supposed to be represented by Kurg
han-Tippa, 317
Oxyartes, a king of Bactria called Zo
roaster, 183
 , the family of, captured by Alexander,
317
 the daughter of, marries Alexander,
317

Oxycanus, prince of India, submits to Alex
ander, 341
Oxydracae, Alexander subjects the, 330, 331
Ozogardana, or Zaragardia, pillaged and
burnt by Julian's army, 436
Pacorus, son and successor of Artabanus,
causes the Parthian wars, 405, 406
 , son of Orodes, invades Syria, 412
Pactolus river, defeat of Tissaphernes on
the, 245
Pagala, reached by the fleet of Nearchus,
347
Pailhuri, Cape, once the promontory of
Canastaerum, 252
Painting, antiquity of, at Babylon, 630
Palae-Tyrus, the ancient city of, 278
— , the causeway of, destroyed during the
siege of Nebuchadnezzar, 278
 , temple at, to the Olympian Jupiter,
278
Palestine occupied by the Shemites, 51,
65
 , the shepherds were driven from
Egypt into, 74
¦  , the Hebrews settle in, 105, 112
¦  submits to Ptolemy Philopater, 403
 and Syria, the fourth kingdom formed
from the Seljukian territory, 473
 Salah-ed-din's unsuccessful campaign,
in, 478
 united to the Ottoman empire, 486
 , expulsion ofthe Franks from, 486
¦  ¦ trades with Egypt, 579
Pallacopas canal, the, supposed to have been
cut by Nebuchadnezzar, 160
¦  , Alexander's ascent of the, 367, 368
¦  improved by Alexander, 367, 368
Palmyra besieged by Aurelian, 428, 429
 , flight of Zenobia, and fall of, 429 _
 spoiled by the Romans under Aurelian,
429
Palmyra makes war against the Persians,
425, 426
Panias or Banias, taken from the Crusaders
by Niir-ed-din, 476
Panj-al), the waters of the, join the Indus,
370
 Pir, a branch of the Hydaspes, and
its source, 371
Panj-ab, Taimur's march across the, 494
Paper brought from Samarkand, 583
Paphlagonia, the descendants of Riphat
settle in, 43
 , plundered by the ten thousand Greeks,
237
 , the Greeks sail along the coast of, 237
Papyrus, boats of, 640
 and the bark of trees used for writing,
630
Parasang (see Farsang), 207
Paratacene, Alexander's operations in, 316,
318
Pareg, or Pura, the probable route of Alex
ander to, 343
Paradise and the land of Eden, were ex»
tensive countries, 1, 2
1

INDEX.

759

Parmenio, Philip's general, 255
¦  commands the left wing of Alexander's
army at the Granicus, 264
 sent by Alexander to keep up a com
munication with Greece whilst wintering
in Caria, 266
¦  joins Alexander at Gordium with re
cruits from Macedonia, 267
 secures the Cilician passes, and takes
the city of Issus, 269
 commands Alexander's right wing at
the battle of Issus, 272
 captures Damascus, &c, 276
 advises peace wheu proposesd by Da
rius for the third time, 287
¦  commands the main body of Alexan
der's army on the march to Persia, 299
 , the execution of, 307
Paropamisus, the, and Alexander's army
halts at the foot of this chain, 308
 , and its names, extent, &c, 308, 309
 , Alexander's army enters the, through
the pass of Koushan, 311
 , Tyriaspes appointed satrap ofthe, 319
 , the, crossed by Genghis Khan, 489
Parthamaspates declared king of the
Parthians by Trajan on the plain of
Ctesiphon, 420
Parthia, Arsaces proclaimed king of, 400
 invaded by Seleucus Callinicus, 402
•  recovered by Antiochus the Great, 403,
404
 , invasion of, by Demetrius Nicator and
Antiochus Sidetes, 404, 405
 , Phraates, the successor of Mithridates,
killed during the Scythian war, 405
 , Phraates III, or Mithridates IL, suc
ceeds to the throne of, 406
 is invaded by Crassus, 407
 alliance of, with Armenia, 412
 restores the trophies taken from
Crassus, 416
 , Trajan's expedition against, 419
 , campaign against," under Severus, 421
Parthians, the Romans purchase peace of
the, 422
Parthicus Maximus, the title of Severus,
421
Paryadres, a branch of the Taurus, 232
Parysatis, the ten thousand Greeks reach
the village of, 222
 , mother of Cyrus causes Tissaphernes
to be superseded, 245, 250
Pasargada, Artaxerxes crowned at, 203
 , surrendered to Alexander by Gobares,
301
.  , probably once Persagadis, and now
Mesjid-f-Madreh Suleiman, 301
 , and Alexander's visit to the tomb of
Cyrus at, 358 (Appendix A.)
Pasfn, or Pasiana, district traversed by the
Aras or Phasis, 229 (note)
Pasion and Xenias desert Cyrus at Myrian
drus, 212
Pasira, village on Cape 'Arabah, 348 _
Pasitigris crossed by Alexander to invade
^ the Uxii, 298

Pasitigris, supposed to be the Kariin, 356,
384
 , the, crossed by Alexander on his
return to Susa, 358
Passenae, rocky promontory passed by Near
chus' fleet, 348
Pastors (see Shepherds), 72-74
Pathrusim, a people living to the south-west
ward of Canaan, the ancestors of the Phi
listines, 21
Patizithes, a Magian, left as deputy at Susa
by Cambyses, 173
Pattala, on the Indus, where Alexander
constructed a haven and docks, 342
Pausanias, the murderer of king Philip, 256
Pearls exported by the Arabs, 583
Pehlavi, a Shemitic language, 84-86
Pekin, journey to from Western Asia, 572
Peltae, reached by Cyrus, and Lupercalian
sacrifices, 206
Pelasgians, territories occupied by the, 253
Pelusium taken by Cambyses, 174
Pemprama, and Alexander's march against
ihe Cathaei and Malli, &c, 330
Pentateuch, probable period of its com
pletion, 105
Perdiccas and Hephaestion, generals of
Alexander, build a bridge of boats over
the Indus, 323
 — prevents hostilities after Alex
ander's death, 380
Perdiccas defeated by Ptolemy in Egypt,
and slain by his troops, 381
Perimula, a port of India, 576
Periods of literature, 539
Perisaboras besieged and captured by the
Romans under Julian, 437, 438
 , or Tell 'Akhar, probably represents
Anbar, 438
Persepolis, the monuments of, record the
events of Darius and Xerxes' reign, 198
(Appendices C. and _D.)
 taken and sacked by Alexander, 301
 , Alexander sets fire to the palace of
Xerxes at, 302
 , and the feast given at, to Eumenes'
army at, 386
 , excavations at, and ruins of, 607, 619-
623
Persia once called Kiish, 32
 , firmans, or laws of the empire of, 177
 , subjects Scythia, 181
 , power of, compared with that of Mace
donia, 257
 , the government of, weakened by its
satrapies, 262
 , early trade of, with India, China, &c,
310, 571, 577
 , politically connected with India, 310,
584 .
 , accession of Sapor to the empire of,423
 , Sapor, defeated by Gordian, retires
to, 423, 424
 , makes peace with the Romans, 430
 invaded by the Massagetae, 432
 invaded by the Romans under Julian,
433-439

760

INDEX.

Persia, Jovian enters into a treaty with,
440, 441
¦  invaded by Belisarius, 443
¦  subdues Yemen, 450
¦  divided into several dynasties, 491
 , southern, subjected by Taimiir, 492,
493
 , after Ta'imiir's death, retained by his
son, 496
 partly subdued by the Turkomans,
called the white sheep, 496
 and the Sophi dynasty, 496, 497
 , territory of, taken by Russia from, 497
 partly subjected by Selim I., 500
Persian empire at the death of Cyaxares,
169
¦  , Cyrus' accession to the throne of, 169,
170
 under Cambyses, 173, 175
¦  , the government of, statistically ma
naged by Darius, 176
 , the extent of, under Darius, 180
 consolidated by Ahasuerus, 198
•  accession of Arsaces, or Artaxerxes,
to the, 203, 204
¦  , nature of the governments and satra
pies of the, 243
¦  weakened by the contending interests
of its satraps, 244
 , disturbed state of, towards the close of
Artaxerxes' reign, 244-250
'  , Ochus, son of Artaxerxes, ascends the
throne of, 250
 army, the, defeated at Arbela, and loss
in the battle, 292-295
¦  Gulf entered by Nearchus' fleet, 350
 nobles appointed to commands in Alex
ander's army, 363
¦  corps, the Argyraspides, raised by
Alexander, 363
¦  empire, the, established by Artaxerxes
on the ruins of that of Parthia, 422
•  provinces ceded to the Romans by
Narses, 430
 Gulf, and factories upon, 581
¦  and Arabian Gulfs, trade from the,
to India, 593, 597, 598 (and Appendix H.)
Persians, the, Cushites called the ancestors
of the, 33
¦  , empire ofthe, arose on the ruins ofthe
Assyrian, 152
¦  , Evil-Merodach causes war between
the Medes and, 161, 162
 war with Greece, and defeat of the,
186-188
 , revolt of Egypt from the, 188
 Cyrus' promise to the, 204
 , the, under Artaxerxes, invade the Ro
man territory, 422, 423
¦  , Odenatus takes arms against the, 425
¦  , successful wars of the Romans and
Palmyreans against the, 425, 426
 , the, in the reign of Kobad, in
vaded the Roman territories, and defeat
Belisarius, 442
•  , the, under Chosroes, invade Syria and
take Antioch, 442, 443

Persians, the, wars of, with the Romans,
under Hormisdas, 444
 power, decline of the, 445
 , the, and Hindus from a common stock
511
 trade by sea, 571, 577, 645
 monuments at Bisutiin, 618 (Appen
dix C.)
Persis, or Fairs, and Alexander's advance to
the Persian Gates, 299, 300
Peshawur, probably Peukelaotis, 319
Peshawarun, or Prophthasia, 306
Petagyas warns Cyrus of the approach of
Artaxerxes, 217
Petchilee gulf, journey to the, 572
Peter the Hermit urges a crusade, 473,
474
Petra, Wailf, 22
Petra, Antigonus' expedition against, 390,
391
Peuce, on the Danube, where Alexander
experienced a check, 259
Peucestas appointed satrap of Pasagarda by
Alexander, 358
1  feasts the army of Eumenes at Per
sepolis, 386
 dispossessed of his satrapy by An
tigonus, 388
Peukelaotis, possibly Peshawur, taken by
Alexander's generals, 319
Pharacote, a son of Amassia, 41
Pharaoh Necho commences a canal at Suez,
153
 , the fleet of, circumnavigates Africa,
154
¦  , campaigns of, 154, 155
 , the canal of, continued by Darius
Hystaspes, 189
Pharnabazus defeated by the ten thousand
Greeks at Calpae, 240
¦  extent of the satrapy of, 243, 244
 and Tissaphernes combine to expel the
Greeks from Asia, 244
 , invasion of the satrapy of, by the
Greeks under Dercyllidas, 244
Pharnak, the Armenian kingdom was con
solidated by, 1 33
— — resists the invasions of the Assyrians
and Babylonians, 1 33
Pharos, probable intention ofthe builder of
the towers of, 80
 built by Abrahah or Dhulmenar, 80
 erected [by Ptolemy IL, and its cost,
399
Pharsalia, 413
Phaselis (now Tekrova), taken by Alex
ander, 267
Phasis, colony founded on the, by the fol
lowers of Sesostris, 109
¦  (see Aras) derived from Pasm, or
Pasiani district, 229 (note)
Phathusae, or Anatho, 435
 , hurricane encountered by Julian's
army at, 435
Phenice, afterwards Bezabde, 433
Pherecydes and Pythagoras, tenets of, 540
Philadelphus (Ptolemy II.), 399

INDEX.

761

Philesius, general of the ten thousand
Greeks, sent with the aged from Terabu-
ziin, 235
Philip, son of Amyntas, and his competitors
for the throne of Macedonia, 253, 254
 , the education and policy of, 254
¦  conquers the Illyrians, Sec, 254, 255
 marries Olympias, 255
 , the conquests and extent of the king
dom of, and the birth of Alexander, 255
 , the election of, as general of the Am
phictyons, causes war with the Athenians,
&c, 255
 gains the battle of Chaeronea, 256
¦  is elected autocrator of Greece, and
attempts the conquest of Asia, 256
 divorces Olympias, and is assassinated
by Pausanius, 256
 succeeded by Alexander, 257
Philip II. of France assists the Crusaders,
482
Philistines, the, were descendedj from the
Pathrusim and Casluhim, 21
Philosophy of the east introduced into
Europe, &c, 309, 310, and Chap. XVI.
Philotas, Alexander's general, 300
¦  executed for conspiracy, 307
Philoteras, near Kosseir, probably the port
through which the early intercourse be
tween Arabia and Egypt was maintained,
91
Phocians, commerce ofthe, 574
 , the, found Marseilles and cities on the
coast of Italy, 574
Phoenica (see Fenik village)
Phoenicia submits to Alexander, 276, 277
 , formerly a satrapy of Persia, 276
¦  , siege of Tyre, the bulwark of, 278,
279
¦  , Alexander's march through, towards
Egypt, 284
•  , and a knowledge of the Indian trade
acquired there by Alexander, 309
¦  , caravan route of, connected with its
sea trade between China and Persian
Gulf, 309, 570, 573
 , and war of Antiochus the Great in, 403
 , early trade of, 569
Phoenicians (from Pingacsha), or the Yellow
Hindus, Lieut. Wilford's supposition con
cerning, 46
¦  and Egyptian Cushites introduce the
arts and sciences into Europe, 48
 language Shemitic, 84
,  , origin ofthe, 86
,  emigrants spread knowledge to remote
countries, 88
 , caravan routes, trade, and products of
the early, 92, 93
 settle in the Egyptian capital, 92
.  , separate kingdoms of the, partly
dependent on Tyre, and worshipped the
Tyrian Hercules, 93
,  ; the, founded colonies in Greece, and
islands colonized by the, 94, 95
 , settlement of the shepherds among
the, 94

Phoenicians, use of ships by the early, 94
¦  , the distant enterprises of the, 96
 ,_ settlements in Spain, &c, three cen
turies anterior to Carthage, 96
¦  , trade by laud led to that by sea, 96
 , inscription at Marseilles, 96
 , the shepherds under Arcles, or Certus,
found the kingdom of the, 112
 -, early colonies in Spain of, 114
 , early knowledge of navigation of the,
124, 125
 , the, conducted the first voyages to
Ophir, 127, 128
 trade extended by the Tyrians 127,128
 colonies on the west coast of Africa,
128
 voyages to the Baltic, Britain, &c,
128
 trade in metals, 128
 , the, employed by Pharaoh Necho to
circumnavigate Africa, 154
 colonies sent from Carthage to Ireland,
&c, 190
 , maritime enterprises ofthe, 190
 , the, first reach Britain from Cadiz, 575
 remains in Malta, 617
Phra (see Furrah), 306
Phraata, or Praaspa, the Atropatenian Ec
batana, now Takhti Solei'man, 413
 , Antony's circuitous march to, 413
 , siege of, by Antony, 413
Phraates II. succeeds Mithridates, 405
 defeated by Antiochus Sidetes, 405
.  , death of, 405
— — ¦ succeeded by Artabanus, 405
 III. attempts to reinstate Tigranes
on the throne of Armenia, 406 ,
 seeks an asylum with Tigranes, 406
Phraortes, or Aphaxad, succeeds Dejoces, on
the throne of Media, 146
 , conquests of, and his rebellion against
Nebucbodonosor, 146
Phrygian commerce succeeds the Rhodian,
573
Phryxus' voyage to Colchis, 113
¦  , the, murder of, gave rise to the voyage
ofthe Argonauts, 113
Phut, son of Ham, born in Peraea, 19
 , But, or Put, in Chaldaic, and the
Bhudoftheeast, 19,33
 supposed to have been king of Kusdi-
Khorasan, 19
Physcus river, the ten thousand Greeks
reach the, 221
Physician sent from India to Harun-el-
Rashfd, 584
Pictorial representations on embroidered
stuffs, carpets, Sec, 584
Picus, a name given to Ninus, king of Ly
dia, &c, during his campaigns in Asia, 115
Pinara (now Minara) taken by Alexander
267
Pinarus (now the Delf-chai), 271
Pingacsha (Phoenicians), 46
Pintiyani, one mouth of the Indus, 372
Pinyari river forms one side of the present
Delta of the Indus, 372

762

INDEX.

, advance of the Israelites to the foot
of, 105
Pisidia subjected by Alexander, 267
Pisidians, Cyrus' march from Sardis osten
sibly against the, 205, 206
Pitch, mineral, Chemer, 638
¦  , ¦  , in the Hamrin mountains, 638
Pithon executed by Antigonus, 388
Plain, destruction ofthe cities ofthe, 67
Planet worship among the ancients, 58
Planets, Chaldean names for, 58
 , supposed influence of, 59
Plataea, Xerxes' army under Mardonius de
feated at, 196
Plato studied in Egypt and Persia, 524
¦  , made eastern literature attractive,
524, 525
— — , the philosophy of, compared with that
of Aristotle, 526
Plato, Pherecydes, Pythagoras, and other
sages connected with eastern literature, 539
Podargus river, 354
Poetry the foundation of Arabian literature,
543, 552
 introduced to Europe from Arabia
through Spain, 552
¦  , amorous, ofthe Arabs, 554
Polior (see Pyldra Polo Marco), 352
Polysperchon, competitor of Cassander, for
the government of Macedon, 391
 murders Barsine and Hercules, 391
Polytimetus river, the descendants of the
Macedonians destroyed by the Sogdians
on the, 314
 , or Kohik, country on the banks of the,
devastated by Alexander, 315
Pombeditha (or Jibbah), 436
Pompeiopolis (Soli), 209
 , and siege of Soli by Caiistus, the
Roman general, 425
Pompey raises Pontus and Syria to the rank
of Roman provinces, 407
 appointed governor of Spain, 407
Pontus, the Askenazians settle in, 43
 becomes a Roman province, 407
Portuguese settlements at Ormiiz, and at
Malabar, 589
Porus and Chinzius succeed Nadius in the
government of Babylon, 140
¦  succeeded by Judaeus, 140
 , Alexander promises Taxiles to invade
the territory of, 324
¦  posts his army on the Hydaspes, 324,
325
 , Alexander, by stratagem, overcomes
the vigilance of, 325-327
 , dignified conduct of, 329
 , Alexander's generosity to, 329, 330
•  , sumamed the Coward, submits to
Alexander, 330
 reinforces Alexander's army before
Sakala, 331
 , territory bestowed on, by Alexander,
334
Poshoon, Sous, or Cape Bang, probably re
presents the Peninsular Mesambria of
Nearchus' voyage, 354 -_

Praaspa (or Phraata), 413
Prester, John, or Oungh Khan, 487
Primeval cities, remains of, 617
Privileges obtained by France from Persia,
595 (Appendix G.)
Products of Kurdistan and Mesopotamia,
(Appendix N.)
 of India, China, and Thibet, 571
 of Asia carried westward, 571
Pronect-us, and city founded by the Phoeni
cians, 95
Prophthasia, probably Pashawarun, 306
Provencal poetry from the Arab, 552, 553
Proxenus and Xenophon join Cyrus' expe
dition, 204
 beheaded by Artaxerxes, 222
Psammeticus promotes the commerce of
Egypt, 153
 succeeds Amasis on the throne of
Egypt, 174
•  is defeated by Cambyses, 174
Ptolemais, formerly Akko, 155
Ptolemy, son of Lagus, receives Bessus from
the satraps of Sogdiana and the Daae,
312
 retains the government of Egypt after
Alexander's death, 380
 , Perdiccas, defeated by, 381
 , extent of dominion of, 389
 combines with Cassander and Seleucus
against Antigonus, 389
 victorious in Cyrene and Cyprus, 390
 is defeated by Antigonus, and retires to
Egypt, 390
 is defeated by Demetrius off Cyprus,
and returns to Egypt, 392
 repulses Antigonus, 393
 , opportune arrival of the fleet of, with
supplies to the Rhodians, 395
 , possessions of, after the death of An
tigonus, 398
 , succeeded by Ptolemy II, or Phila-
delphus, 399
 Ceraunus murders Seleucus, 399
 II. (Philadelphus) erects the Pharos,
and establishes the library at Alexandria,
399
¦  extends the commercial relations of
Egypt, 399
 , public works executed by, 399, 400
 , war of, with Antiochus Theos, 400
¦ Euergetes encourages learning in
Egypt, 402
¦  Philopater defeats Antiochus the Great,
and subjects Palestine and Coelo-Syria, 403
 visits Jerusalem and the temple, 403
 , works, the, 534, 535
Ptolemy's system of astronomy, 530
Pul, or Sosarmus, the thirty-ninth king of
Assyria, and the third of the Median dy
nasty, invades Judaea, 138
¦  succeeded by Tiglath Pileser, 138
Pura, or Pareg, Alexander's route to, 343
Pydna defended by Olympias against Cas
sander, 388
 reduced by famine, and Olympias put
to death, 389

INDEX.

763

Pylae pass, the, reached by Cyrus' army, 214
¦  , situation of the, and distance from
Carsote, 214
Pyldra, now Polior, passed by Nearchus'
fleet, 352
Pyramids, architecture of India similar to
that of Assyria, 34
 , some of the, said to have been built
by the Himyarite king Shedad-ben-'Ad,
80
¦  of Egypt, remains found in the, 88
 of Babylon and other countries, 607
Pyramus (see Ja'ihan), 211
Pyrrhus retreats after the loss of the battle
of Ipsus, 398
 expels Demetrius from Macedonia, 398
Pythagoras acquires knowledge in Egypt,
516, 523
 and countries visited by him in his
search after knowledge, 522, 523
 founded a school of religion and phi
losophy in Greece, 523, 524
 decline of astronomy after the time of,
530
Pytheus' liberality to Xerxes and his army,
192
Rabbah of Ammon, the capital of the
Ammonites, 69
 , the Zamzummims expelled from, 69
Rabiah, Beni, a branch of the Beni Khaled,
represent the Shemitic Chaldeans, 55
Radbertus, ambassador from Charlemagne to
Hariin-el-Rashid, 547
Rafts in Central Asia, 633-636
Ragau, the Rhages of Alexander, repre
sented by the ruins of Kal'eh Erig, 148
Ragonis river, station of Nearchus' fleet at
the mouth of the, 354
Raguel, another name for Jethro, 103
Rahabi castle, pass forced by the ten thou
sand Greeks, near the ruins of, 224, 225
Rai, an emporium of trade, 572
 , routes to, from the Caspian Sea, 573
— ¦ — , route from, to the Persian Gulf, 573
 , centre of Arab and Asiatic commerce,
582
Rakkah, formerly Nicephorium, built by
Alexander, 285
Rakkah, formerly Nicephorium or Calleni-
cum, 434
Ramadan, fast of, 451
Ramah, in Arabia, 50
Rambacia, force left under Leonatus at,
343
 reached by Nearchus' fleet, 347
 , Leonatus defeats the Oritae at, 347
 where Nearchus refits his fleet, 347
Rameses, or Hierapolis, position of, 98
 , the Israelites commence their journey
from, 97
Ramlah taken by the Crusaders, 475, 483
Ramleb, cistern of, 661
Raphia (Rafah), loss of Demetrius' fleet at,
393
 , defeat of Antiochus by Ptolemy Philo-
pater at, 403

Rauwolf's voyage to Babylon, 590
Ravenna, and advance of the Goths and
Franks into Italy, 425
Ravi, Iravatf and Iraotu (see Hydraotes),
330, 371
Rawan Rhud lake, the, four great rivers that
flow from the, 369
Rawf, the, recite tales to Al Mutawakkel,
466
Raymond of Toledo encourages Arabic
literature, 556
Red Sea, the passage of the, by the Israel
ites considered, 99
1  , canal cut to the, from the Nile, by
Ptolemy II, 399
 Ptolemy's fleets on the Mediterranean
and, 400
 , the, crossed by jEIius Gallus, 415
¦ — -, Trajan sails down the Tigris to the,
420
¦  , the, why so called, 420
 , defeat of the Christian fleets on the,
478, 479
Regillianus gains the throne of Rome, 425
Rehoboam, the Hebrew kingdom divided in
the reign of, 132
Rehoboth, built by Nimrud, on the Eu
phrates, below the Khabiir, 24
 , excavations of, 610
~Re\cht,Bander, or Heratemis, and Nearchus'
fleet, 354
Religion of Noah and his family, 13
¦  , traces in Great Britain of the sup
posed antediluvian, 1 5
 , Haik, the first champion ofthe true, 40
 , planet worship, the first departure
from Noah's, 58
 , astrology and image worship, 58, 59
Religions of the Asiatics had a common
origin, 506
Rephaim, the, tribe of, descended from Ham,
21
Resafa, or Sergiopolis, passed by Chosroes I.,
444
Resen, built by Nimriid, position of, 24
 , ruins of, 606
 or Al Resen, probably the Larissa of
Xenophon, and represented by Nimriid or
Aspur, 222, 223
Reservoirs and cisterns, 660, 661
Rhages of Alexander (see Ragau), 148
Rhodainans, Jewish merchants, and their
trade, 584
Rhodes, and siege of, by Demetrius, 394,
395
 , honourable truce obtained by, 395
 , an example of the ancient mode of
attack and defence, 395, 396
 , colossal statue erected from the re
mains of the machines employed in the
siege of, 396
 besieged by Suleiman IL, 396
Rhodian and Dorian commerce to Spain,
Egypt, and Sicily, 573
Rhyme introduced from Arabia, 552
Richard I. reaches Palestine with reinforce
ments, 482

764

INDEX.

Richard I. kills prisoners taken at 'Akk£,
482
 defeats Salah-ed-din at Arsiif, 483
 treats with Salah-ed-din and returns to
England, 483
Richel, one of the six mouths of the Bagar
branch of the Indus, 372
Rigebelus, king of Babylon, 145
Riphath, followers of, from Japhet, 38
 , the territory in which they settled, 38,
43
Rishathaim-Cushan subdues the Israelites,
and rules over Mesopotamia, 106
Rdbbin, Tel, village on the plain of Zakhii,
224
Rock temples prevail in various countries,
612
Rocks destroyed by fire in Egypt and China,
617
Rollers for raising water, 652, 653
Roman wars with the Persians under Hor
misdas, 444
Romans, the, and their power in Asia, 404
¦  , the, enter into a treaty with the
Parthians, 406
>  , the, and their campaign under Lucul
lus in Armenia, 406
•  , the, and their first campaign in Parthia
under Crassus, 407
 , second invasion of Parthia by the, de
feat and death of Crassus, 409-411
 , the, under Antony, invade Parthia,
and are defeated, 413, 414
 , the, and their campaigns in Galilee
under Vespasian and Titus, 417, 418
¦  , the, invade Assyria under Trajan, 419
 , the, descend the rivers Euphrates and
Tigris, 419, 420
 , the, commence the Nahr Malkd, 419
 , unsuccessful expedition of the, against
the Hagarenes, 420, 421
1  , the, under Cassius, defeat the Persians,
421
¦  , the, under Severus, march against the
Parthians, and descend the Euphrates,
421
1  , the, enter the Tigris by the Nahr
Malka, and capture Ctesiphon, 421
¦  , the, ascend the Tigris to Upper Meso
potamia, 421
 , second and third siege of Atra (El
Hadhr) by the, 421, 422
•— — ¦, the, in Great Britain, 422
 , invasion of the territories of the Par
thians and Persians by the, under Ar
taxerxes, 422, 423
•  , the, defeat Artaxerxes, 423
•  , Borani Scythians invade the territories
ofthe, 424
•  , the, defeated by Sapor, and Valerian
taken prisoner, 424
, invasion of the European provinces
of the, by the Goths, &c, 424
 civil war of the, and accession of
Regillianus, 425
¦  provinces of the, in Asia laid waste by
the Persians under Sapor, 425

Romans, the, assisted by Odenatus, defeat
the Persians, 425, 426
¦  , destruction of Palmyra hy the, 428-
430
 , embassies from king Hormisdas, and
^from China, &c, to the, 430
— — , Galerius, Diocletian's general of the,
defeats the Persians, 430
•  , the, enter into a treaty with Persia,
430
 , wars of the, under Constantius with
the Persians under Sapor IL, 430-433
 , retreat of the, commenced from Ctesi
phon under Julian, 439
 , death of Julian, and nomination of
Jovian by the, 439
 , the, retreat under Jovian, 440, 441
 , the, under Belisarius, are defeated by
the Persians, 442
 , Antioch taken by Chosroes I. from
the, 443*, 444
 , the, defeat Chosroes, 444
 , the, assist Chosroes II. to put down
the rebellion of Varanes, 445
 , wars with Chosroes II. , 445, 446
Route by the Nile to India, 580
Route through Barbary, 585
 Aleppo and along the Euphrates,
585
 to Central Asia, from Constantinople,
585
¦  through the Persian Gulf and along
the Euphrates and Tigris, 589
 ¦  Syria to the Persian Gulf, opened
by Queen Elizabeth, 590-593
Routes from Babylonia to Greece, 225
 through Syria and Arabia, 569, 570
 from Tyre, 570
 by sea to China, 57 1
 through Central Asia, 571-573
 India, the Panj-ab, &c, 572
 to India through Egypt, 585
 from Asia by the rivers Wolga and
Don, 587
 , commercial, through Asia Minor,
Sec, by Sfvaz, Tabriz, Khorasan, &c, 587,
588
 (see Caravan Routes), 92, 93, 124,
169
Roxana, her marriage with Alexander, 317
 endeavours to secure the throne, 380,
381
 and her son Alexander are murdered
by Cassander, 391
Ruad, or Aradus, 276
Rudah, an ancient mouth of the Indus, and
now dry, 373
Rudolph of Bruges introduces algebra into
Europe, 560
Riim, or Anaddli, a Seljukian kingdom,
473
 Hulakii extends his dominion over the
princes of, 491
 , Taimiir's campaign in, 494
 subdivided after the time of Malik
Shah, 497
Rum Kal'ah, 610

INDEX.

765

Russia, and Batu's territories in, named the
Kiptshak, 490
 and the proposed combined march to
India, 536, 537
Russian wars with the Turks, 502-504
 trade with Persia, 595, 596
 with Central Asia, 596
 exports and imports to aud from Asia,
596
Russians, the, encourage trade, 596
SaM, the name of Meroe, 47
 , or Mareb, 50
 , Ard-es, locality so called, 83
 , afterwards Meroe, probably identical
with Sheba, 123
•  of Yemen probably identical with
Sheba, 123
 , or Mareb, probably the Marsyaba of
Mtius Gallus, 415
 , a nomad tribe of Arabia, 448
Sabacus, or So, king of Egypt, 140
Sabaeans and Berbers of Abyssinia, 456
Sabean followers of Cush, called Chaldeans,
53
Sabaei and Homeritae one people, 46, 47, 123
 and the Himyarites the same people,
73
 , caravan routes ofthe early, 124
Sabaism, probably existed previously to the
deluge, 15
 , said to have been founded by Cain,
Seth, and Enoch, 9, 20
 , at one time general in the world, 57
 , Abraham's conversion from, 63
 of the shepherd race of Egypt, 74
 ofthe Persians, 184
¦  ¦, the ancient religion of Greece,, 517
Sabatha captured by Julian, 438
Sabbas or Sambus, king of the territory,
now called Sinde, submits to Alexander,
338
Sabektekin, a Turkish leader", 469
Sabtah, in Arabia, 50
Sacea, festival held at Babylon the night of
its capture by Cyrus, 166
Sadder, the compendium of the Zend-avesta,
183
Safet, or Jotapata, formerly Bethuliah, 151
Saihiin (formerly the Sarus), crossed by
Cyrus, probably near Adanah, 210, 211
Sa'i'n Kal'eh, 413
Sakiil Tiitan (Beard Catcher), Cyrus at,
211
Sakala (see Sangala), 330, 331
Salaam, 'Abd-Allah Ibn an instructor of
. Muhammed, 452
Salagassians subjected by Alexander, 267
Salah-ed-din's early campaigns against the
Crusaders, 476
 assumes the chief command in Egypt,
476
 takes Gaza, and becomes viceroy of
Egypt, 476
 , distribution of Al 'Adbed's treasure
by, 477
 , change of his character, 477

Salah-ed-din, proceeds against Damascus,
&c ; returns to Egypt, and assumes the
title of sultan, 477
¦  unsuccessful against the Crusaders in
Palestine, and retreats to Egypt, 478
 's campaigns in Mesopotamia, Syria,
and Yemen, 478
 's brother destroys the fleets of the Cru
saders on the Red Sea, 478, 479
¦  gains possession of Aleppo, 479
 takes Tiberias, and defeats the Cru
saders near Hattin, 479
 takes Jerusalem, 479
 improves the condition of Jerusalem,
480
 besieges Tyre ineffectually, 480
 withdraws from 'Akka to defend Con
stantinople, 481
 defeated by Barbarossa, 481
 throws reinforcements into 'Akka, 480,
482
 surrenders 'Akka to the Crusaders,
482
 is defeated on the plains of Arsiif, 483
 retires to Damascus, and his death,
483
 's origin, and character, 483
 , extent of the empire of, 484
Salamis, Xerxes' fleet defeated by that of the
Greeks at, 195
Salatis, the first of the shepherd kings of
Egypt, 73
 , Memphis the seat of government of,
73
Salem, the seat of government of the early
Shemites, 26
 , Melchizedec's government at, 26
Salmonte, where Alexander" meets Nearchus
on returning from India with his fleet,
351, 352
Samarkand, the capital ofthe empire founded
by the Himyarites in Bactria, called after
Shamar, an Arab prince, 8 1
 , inscriptions on the gates of, resemble
those found at Yacuta, 81, 84
 , once Maracanda, the capital of, 312
 taken by Genghis Khan, 489
 Ta'imiir's capital, 492
 , trade with, 581
 and Kashmir, manufactures of paper,
583
Samaritans interrupt the rebuilding of the
temple, 172
Samarrah, probably near the ruins of
Opis, 361
 ruins of, supposed to represent Sam-
bana, 364
 once the capital of Masabadan, 364
Sambana, Alexander's army on its march to
wards Media, halt at, 364
 supposed to be represented by the ruins
of Samarrah, 364
Sambatae of Ptolemy, situation, &c. of the,
147 (note)
Samius, admiral of the Lacedaemonian fleet,
sent to assist Cyrus, 204
Sammarrah, military station at, 465

766

INDEX.

Samos, Darius' expedition to reinstate Sy-
loson on the throne of, 178
Samsiin, port, and trade of, 595 (and Ap
pendix JY.)
San'a, Himyari, inscriptions near, 81, 82
 , and inscriptions from Mareb, 83
Sanam Jebel, near the site of Teredon, 355
Sanc'ha-dwfpa, the last place to which the
name of Cush was applied, 46
Sandarion proposes to Aurelian the surren
der of Palmyra, 429
 murdered at Palmyra, 430
Sandracottus opposes the advance of Se
leucus beyond the Indus, 397
Sangala, or Sakala, capital of the Cathaei
of India, 330, 331
 now the ruins of Haripa, 331
Sarii-Khan, a Seljukian district, 497
Sanpoo, or Brahmapootra, sources of the,
369
Sanscrit, the, Pehlavf, and Greek, from one
root, 84-86
Sapan Tagh, the ten thousand Greeks pass,
228
Sapor I. succeeds Artaxerxes on the throne
of Persia, 423
•  captures Antioch, defeats the Romans
near Edessa, and takes Valerian prisoner,
424
 lays waste Mesopotamia, 425
 , indignity offered to Odenatus by, 425
¦  , campaign of the Romans and Palmy-
reans under Odenatus against, 425, 426
¦  succeeded by Hormisdas, 430
•  ,11., wars between Constantius and,
430-433
 , Julian's invasion of Persia in the reign
of, 433-439
 , the Romans under Julian and Jovian
retreat before, 439, 440
Saracens, or Sharkeyn, people so called, 76
 , or- Hagarenes, Trajan's expedition
against the, 420
— — , Moors and Arabs, so called, 456
Saracus (see Chinilidanus), 151
Sarah, or Iscah, wife of Abraham, death of,
70
Saranga country, and Nearchus' fleet, 346
Sardanapalus, supposed to have been Esar-
v haddon, 146
 founded Anchialus, 269
Sardinia conquered by the Arabs, 457
Sardis burnt by Aristagoras, 182
¦  , the winter quarters of Xerxes' army
before the invasion of Greece, 192
 , advance of Cyrus from, 205
 , distance of Thapsacus from, computed,
207
 and its treasure surrendered to Alex
ander, 265
¦  , temple of Jupiter erected at, by Alex
ander, 268
 taken by Antiochus the Great, 403
Sardochaeus (vide Sassduchinus), 146
Saree, formerly named Sadracarta, 305
Sargon, of Isaiah (see Sennacherib), 141
Sarmatians, the, descended from Gomer, 44

Savmatians, the, invade the Roman provinces
in Europe, 424
Sar-piili-Zohab, once Calah, built by Nim
riid, 24 (and note)
Sarus, now the Saihiin, crossed by Cyrus,
probably near Adanak, 210, 211
Sasanian remains at Shapiir, 607, 618
Sassduchinus, or Nabuchodonosor, son of
Esarhaddon, carries the king of Judah
captive to Babylon, 146
 succeeds Esarhaddon, 146
 conquers Phraartes, and takes Ecba
tana, 146-148
 march of the army of, under Holo
fernes, to Cilicia, 149-151
 succeeded by Chinilidanus, 151
Satibarzanes invades the territory of the
Indi, 308
 is defeated and slain, 308
 , one of the satraps who caused the
death of Darius, 304
 pardoned by Alexander, and sent to
his seat of government with distinction,
306
 , the treacherous conduct of, towards
Alexander, 306
 is deserted by his followers and flies
from his capital, 306
Saturn, the Cronus of the Greeks, 58
Saul, accession of, 119
 , wars and death of, 119, 120
Scandinavians, the, supposed descendants of
the Trojans, 512
Scharbabil, a king of the Himyarites, 80
Sclavonians, the, descended from Japhet, 83
 , the, and trade along the Black and
Caspian seas, 582
Scott, Michael, a pupil of the school of
Toledo, translates Aristotle and other
works, 562, 563
Sculpture derived by the Greeks from
Egypt, 516
 , architecture, Sec, of I'ran, 604
 of the ancient Persians, 621
Sculptures, and other remains, found at
Khorsabad and Nimrud, 136, 137 (note)
 , connexion of with the history of As
syria, 136
Scuthai, the Cushites, so called, 37
Scylax despatched by Darius to navigate
the Indus, 180
•  , the voyage of, furnished additional
knowledge of the east, 340
Scythia invaded by Darius Hystaspes, 180,
181
Scythian invasions of Media aud Assyria, 152
 wars with the Parthians, 405
Scythians, the, descended from Magog, 44
 , the, conquered by Sesostris, 108, 109
 , the, invade Persia and slaughter the
Magi, 183
 defeated by Darius' son, 186
 , or Scythinians, march of the ten thou
sand Greeks through the country of the,
232
 send an embassy to Alexander in
Sogdiana, 313

INDEX

767

Scythians, the, of Asia, called Abii, 313
 and Sogdians revolt and occupy their
strongholds, 313
 submit to Alexander, 314
 , Borani, invade the Roman territories
in Asia, 424
 of Herodotus, or Mongols, 487
 affinity of, to the American language
and people, 509
 , early conquests of, their frugality and
martial spirit, 510
 , spread of, to Egypt, 511
 the Kimmerians and Celts spread into
Europe, 511, 512
 worshipped Orpheus and Linus, 518
 mentioned in the inscriptions at Per
sepolis (Appendix B and C.)
Sebaste captured by the Romans under
Balista, 426
Seechoo, or Lingtee, tributary of the Indus,
369
Seetzen and Himyari inscriptions, 81
Sefid, Kal'eh, defile, represents the Uxian
pass and the Persian gates, 299, 300
Sefid, Kal'ah, taken by Taimiir, 493
Sehwan, once Sindomana, 371
Seleucia, afterwards Antiochia Margiana,
and now Merw-el-Rud on the riverMurgh-
ab, 317, 318
 afterwards Alexandria in Margiana,
317
Seleucia, the port of Antioch, constructed by
Seleucus, 399
•  (on the Tigris) built by Seleucus, 399
 , and Surena's triumph at, 412
 taken by the.Romans under Severus, 421
 , tunnel of, 614
Seleucidae, period of the commencement of
" the, 390
Seleucus, governor of Babylonia, Eumenes
advances against, 382
 and Antigonus are defeated by Eumenes
in Susiana, 383, 384
 combines with Ptolemy, &c, against
Antigonus, 389
 flies from Babylon on the approach of
Antigonus, 389
¦  , on the defeat of Demetrius, resumes
his government of Babylonia, 390
¦  , commences the era of the Seleucidae,
390
 proclaims himself king, 392
 extends his territory to India, and
returns to Babylonia, 396, 397
.  defeats Antigonus at the battle of
Ipsus, in Cappadocia, 397
 , extent of the territory of, after An
tigonus' death, 398
.  resigns his queen and a part of his
empire to his son, 399
 , cities built by, 399
 is assassinated by Ptolomy Ceraunus,
399
 , character of, 399
,  Callinicus' invades Parthia, 402
,  Ceraunus succeeded by Antiochus the
Great, 402

Seleucus Philopater successor of Antiochus
in Parthia, 404
Selgae, Alexander forms an alliance with
the, 267
Seljukian dynasty, rise and progress of the,
470
 , separated into four kingdoms, 473
 , divided into several districts, 497
 , conquests by Murad, 498
Seijukians expelled from Karamania by the
Turks, 499
Selim I. reigns over the Turks, 500
 II., his canal between the Don and the
Wolga; 501
Semiramis, wife of Menon, Ninus marries,
115
 , greatness of, after Ninus' death, 1 15
 , conquests,' and public works of, 115,
116, 118
¦  , founds the city of Shemiramgerd, 1 1 6
¦  , remains found near lake Van, relating
to, 116
 , inscriptions at Bisutun relative to, 116,
117
¦  , Bisutun identified as the Mount Ba
ghistane of, 117
 advances to the frontiers of India, 118
 resigns the throne in favour of her son
Ninyas, 118
 II., the queen or mother of Nabo
nassar, 139
 , works carried on at Babylon by, 139,
140
 , successors of, 140
 , the, canal cut by, facilitated the diver
sion of the river Euphrates at the capture
of Babylon, 166
 encounters the fleet of Strabrotatus on
the Indus, 576
Senegal river, Carthaginian voyage to the,
190
Sennacherib, son and successor of Shalma
neser, overthrows Elibus, king of Baby
lon, and places his son Esar-Haddon on
the throne of Babylon, 141
 overthrows the Greeks, 141
 , the first invasion of Judea by, 142
 , the army of, destroyed before Jerusa
lem, 142
¦  , Berossus' and Eusebius' account of the
death of, 142, 143
 , Egyptian account of the destruction
of, by Herodotus, 143
Serpent, the, an emblem of the sun, and
worshipped in Phoenicia and Chaldea, 20
 and the sun, besides the signs of the
zodiac, are supposed to have been repre
sented on the dome ofthe tower of Babel,
26
Sepphoris, or El Buttauf, plains of, 479
Septuagint version of the Old Testament
emanated from the library at Alexandria,
399
Sepulchral excavations near Charmalik and
Narsis, 610-612
Seraf trade of, to China, 577
Serdaubs of Persia, 625

768

INDEX

Sergiopolis (Resafa), Chosroes I. passes,
444
Serica, route to, 572
Se'rt, probably represents a halting place of
the ten thousand Greeks, 227
Seriig, a Shemitic Chaldean, 55
Seriij retaken from the Crusaders by Niir-
ed-din, 476
Sesac, or Shishak, 107
Sesostris, or Sethos, king of Egypt, or Ra-
meses II. , known by many names, 107^
— ¦-, the fleets, armies, and conquests of,
107-109
¦  , works commenced by, after his return
from Scythia, 109
 , left a colony on the shores of the Black
Sea, 109
 is said to have planted a colony in the
Caucasus, 109
 and Armenia dependent upon his go
vernment, 109, 110
, and government derived from, by the
inhabitants of Nysa, 323
 , and Dionysus or Bacchus, 323
 , his voyage threw additional light on
the knowledge of the east, 340
Sessac, king of the Himyarites, 80
Seth, apostacy of the descendants of, 4
 , the descendants of, acquainted with
astronomy, &c, 9
•  , presumed books of, 23
Setharboznai ordered by Darius to rebuild
the temple of Jerusalem, 177
Sethos, king of Egypt, with whom Sen
nacherib intended to wage war, 143
Seuthes, son of Maesades, the 10,000 Greeks
assist, 241
Sevan, lake of, and towns on its borders, built
by Gelam's descendants, 42
Severus, expedition against the Parthians,
and descent ofthe Euphrates by, 421
•  his fleet passes through the Nahr MalkS ¦
into the Tigris, and captures Ctesiphon,
421
 receives the title of Severus. Maximus,
421
 , second and third siege of Atra by,
421, 422
 proceeds to Palestine and Egypt, 422
 dies in Great Britain, when about to
invade Caledonia, 422
Shadarwan, of Shuster, and its construction,
627
Shahri-Zohfik, or U'lan Rob£t, supposed to
have been the capital of the Arachosi, 307
Shah Tamasp of Persia, 497
Shah Rokh, son of Taimiir, and territory
retained by, 496
Shairacuk recovers Egypt from the Cru
saders, 476
Shalmanesser (or Arbianes of Ctesias) in
vades Israel, 140
 , second invasion of, and captivity of
the seven tribes of Israel, 140, 141
•  sends colonies of Assyrians into Sa
maria, 141
 succeeded by his son Sennacherib, 141

Shamanun, or mountain of the eight, 7
Shamar, an Arab prince, and Samarkand, 81
Shammar, the, a nomad tribe of Arabia, 448
Shapiir, or Shawer river, by which Nearchus'
fleet reached Susa, 357
 , remains at, 607, 618
Sharezer, son and murderer of Sennacherib,
142
Shali-in-Shak, the title of Saosduchinus, 149
(note)
Shash, commercial route through, 572
Shayuk, tributary of the river Indus, arising
from the Kara Korum mountains in
Thibet, 369
Sheba, in Arabia, 50
 , Bern, from a son of Joktan, 52
 , inquiry concerning Nthe position of,
123
 , or SabS, names found both in Africa
and Arabia, 123
 is claimed by the Abyssinians, 123
 , journey of the queen of, recorded by
ditto, 123
 , the queen of, was succeeded by her
son, 123, 124
Shechem the capital of the kingdom of
Israel, 132
Shedad, king of the Himyarites, 80
She'hr, Abu (see Bushire), 353, 354
Sheikha vi, Wadi, and Himyari inscriptions,
82
Shem, route of, on separating from Noah
and his brothers, 13
 , chosen high priest, to the exclusion
of his brother Ham, 1 5
 , the descendants of, spread over Baby
lonia, 16
 , his descendants spread westward, 18
 , his and Ham's descendants migrate
about the same time, 21
 , his descendants driven by Ham's from
the plains of Shinar to Assyria, and the
higher parts of Mesopotamia, 23
 , the true worship supposed to have pre
vailed among the descendants of, 25
 , considered as Melchizedec, 27
Shemiramgerd, city founded by Semiramis,
116
¦  , inscriptions found at, relating to Se
miramis, 116
Shemites, the, called Mesopotamjans,
Arameans, and Assyrians, 3
¦  , the Chaldeans descended from the, 3
 , the shepherds who conquered Egypt
probably a mixed race of Cushites and,
73
 , the, of Upper Mesopotamia and seat
of, 77
 , the, and Cushites of Syria and Pa
lestine intermingling gave rise to a mixed
language, 85
Shemitic possessions after the dispersion,
31,44
 people, the, commingle with the de
scendants of Ham and Japhet, 39
 people, two great tribes of the, possess
most of western Arabia, 48, 509, 510

INDEX.

769

Shemitic race, the, on the steppes of Mesopo
tamia, spoke the Babylonian or Chaldean
language, 53
 people, the, also the Sabean followers
of Cush, were designated Chaldeans, 53
 people, the, called Chasdim, 55
 Chaldeans, the, represented by the
Beni Khaled, 55, 509
 the philosophy like that of Aristotle,
526
Shems, 'Abd-el, the worshipper of the sun, 52
Shepherds, sabaism of the, 74
 , the sixth king of the, added five in
tercalary days to the year, 74
•  , kings of Arabia, or Hyk-sos, time of
the inroad and departure from Egypt of
the, 74, 75
 , the, settled in Phoenicia, 112
 , the, assist in founding the city and
kingdom of Tyre, 112
 , the, become a maritime people, 112
 , the, led by Arcles or Certus into
Phoenicia, 112
Sheri'at al Be'idhd, the presumed site of
the Sitace of Xenophon, 221
Sherkat, Kal'ah, also called U'r, 37
Shesh-bazzar (see Zerubbabel), 171
Shi'ah, sect, the, founded by 'All, 456
 struggles for power, and division
caused by the, 463, 475, 476
 , the, separate from the Sunnies and be
come a distinct empire, 487
Shikoftehf-Sule'iman, the ruins near, pro
bably represent the Uxian city taken by
Alexander, 299
Shinar, plain of, 13
 ¦, and Eusebius statement regarding the
sons of Noah, 18
 , the Hamites drive a portion of the
Shemites into Assyria, and inhabit the
plain of, 23
 ¦, remarkable places within the limits of
the land of, 24
Shipping from India to the Persian and
Arabian gulfs (Appendix H.)
Shiraz, a commercial city, taken by Ta'imur,
493, 581
Shishak, king of Egypt, invades Judah, and
carries off treasure, 132, 133
 , or Amenophis, the Bala of the Arabs,
132
Shiz, Canzaca (the Atropatanian Ecbatana),
183
 Zerd-husht (Zoroaster) commenced his
ministry at, 183
 , fire temple of, 608
Shur, desert of, 98
Shushan, the residence of Cyrus the Great,
172
 rebellion of the Babylonians during
Darius' reign, on account of the Court's
removal to, 178
 Artaxerxes, or Ahasuerus' banquet at,
198
Shuster, caves of, 607
Sibae, Sivi, or Saivas, on the Akesines, 335
Siberia, partly subjected by Ta'imur, 492
VOL. II.

Siddim, destruction of the cities in the vale
of, 67
 , the formation pf the lakes of Sodom
and Gomorrah in the vale of, 68
Sidodone and Nearchus' fleet, 352
— — , probably Duan or Mogoo, 352
Sidon, the northern limit of Cauaan, 21
— — taken by the Crusaders, 475
Sidonian settlements in the Archipelago, 94
Sieges of fortresses, comparison of, in ancient
and modern times, 396
Sfglstan, subjected by the Arabs, 457
Signets of stone and metal numerous at Ba
bylon, 630
Sikkar, and changes in the estuary of the
Indus, 373
Silk from China, 583
Silks, pearls, &c, exported by the Arabs, 583
 and porcelain from China, 583
•  , manufactory of, at Amasfyah (Ap
pendix N.)
Silys, the, called the Jaxartes, Araxes, Sec,
312
 Alexander wounded near the, 312
 , the, mistaken for the Tanais, 312
Sin, Sinim, or China, 30, 33
Sinaar, also called Kusdi Nimrud, 18
 took the name of Babel after the dis
persion, 18
Sinaar, Cush, or Cutha, was king of, 1 8
Sinai, Mount, convent of, and the Koran, 452
Sinde, Alexander receives the submission of
Sabbas, king of, 338
Sindomana (see Sehwan), 371
Sindus, Sinzing-kampa, or Eckhung-choo,
names of the Indus, 36S, 369
Singara, defeat of the Romans by the Per
sians near, 431
 taken by Sapor II, 433
 restored to the Persians by the treaty
of Jovian, 441
Sing-he-tsiu Chu, branch ofthe Indus, 369
Singiticus Sinus (see Monte Santo), 191
SiDJar, the presumed seat of the descendants
of Seth, 5
Sinope, a Milesian colony, 574
Siolki mountain, a part ofthe Paropamisus,
309
Sippara, or Hippara, mentioned by Beros
sus, 5
 search for the writings left in, 7
 , proof that Sabaism existed before the
flood, 15
 , or Sepharvaim, colonists sent by Shal
maneser, 141
Sir, estuary ofthe Pinyarf river, 372
Sir wan, or Keiliin (see Celonae), 364
Sisac, from whom the Sisakans or Seunics
were named, 42
Sisakans, or Seunics, 42
Sisibranum, fortress in Persia, taken by the
Romans, 443
Sisygambis made captive, and honourably
treated by Alexander after the battle of
Issus, 275, 276
 intercedes with Alexander in behalf
ofthe conquered Uxians, 299
3 E

770

INDEX.

Sittace, the, 10,000 Greeks encamp near,
221
Sittacene, village passed by Alexander's
marching towards Media, 364
Sitha, Julian's army reach, 436
Sitakus, a station of Nearchus' fleet, 353
 , now Bushire, 353, 354
Sivas besieged and taken by Ta'imur, 494
 , proposed depot of trade, 601
 , trade through, 589, 395
 , articles in demand at (Appendix iV.)
Siyah, Diz, or Kiih Siya, now Khorran-abad,
365
Sfyahan (see Hajamarf), 372, 373
Skythinians. or Scythians, 487, 510, 511
Smyrna taken by Taimiir, 495
Smerdis (see Bardeus), 175
Smicres, the Thracians defeat the Arcadians
under, 238
Sochi, Darius halts at, 269
 possibly Ukuz-Suzle on the Afrfn,
269
Sodom and Gomorrah, Strabo's account of
the formation ofthe lakes of, 67, 68
 , scriptural and profane accounts of, 68
Sogd,1^, and Alexander's halt at Samarkand
for supplies, 312
Sogdi, royal palace of the, 338
 , the, 'and Alexander's march agamst
King Musicanus, 338
Sogdiana, Bessus retires into, before Alex
ander, 311
 , the satrap of, delivers Bessus to Alex
ander, 312
 and Scythia revolt against Alexander,
313
— — conquered on the fall of Cyropolis, 314
 again revolts against Alexander, 315
 , Peucolaiis appointed satrap of, by
Alexander, 315
 , AlexanderYplan of operations against,
315,316
 , capture of the hill fort of Oxyarta in,
316, 317
Sogdianus murders his brother Xerxes and
ascends the throne, 200
 deposed and succeeded by Darius
Nothus, 200
Sole taken by Alexander, 269
Soleiman, successor of El Walid, 457
¦  , a learned Persian from whom Mu
hammed derived knowledge, 452
Soli, or Pompeiopolis (see Pompeiopolis),
209
Solomon succeeds David, extent of his king
dom, 121
 , foreign artizans, &c, invited to Jeru
salem by, 121
¦  , the court and royal establishments of,
121, 122
 , materials, Sec, collected for building
the temple of, 122
 , the idolatrous temple of, for his Egyp
tian queen, 122
 , store cities, and other great under
takings of, 122
 , the queen of Sheba's visit to, 123, 124

Solomon, the Ophirian voyages in the reig
of, 124-127
 , people who traded with, 128 (note)
 , causes of discontent among the Israel
ites towards the close ofthe reign of, 132
 introduced idolatry, 132
 , the cisterns of, 661
Solon studies in Egypt, and visits Croesus in
Lydia, 520
Solyma, Melchisedek king of, now Jeru
salem, 66
Sonmeany reached by Nearchus, 346
— — poverty ofthe people of, 346
Sophanetus, one of the generals of the
10,000 Greeks, conveys the sick from
Trebizond, 235
Sophene ceded by the Persians to the
Romans, 430
Sophi dynasty of Persia, 497
Sophir, the Egyptian name for India, its re
semblance to Ophir, 126
Sorlings, or Cassiterides, known to the
Phoenicians, 575
Sosarmus, (see Pul), 138
Souterazi of the Turks, 659
Spain, early Phoenician and Egyptian colo
nies established in, 114
 , Hispal left in charge of a colony in,
128
 , Cadiz was the principal port of the
Phoenicians in, 128
¦  ¦ invaded by the Goths, 424
 invaded by the Moors under Tarikh
Ibn Zerka, 457
 , attempt of the Normans to expel the
Moors from, 465
 , Asiatic origin ofthe people of, 513
 , colony supposed to have settled in
Ireland from, 514
 , Arabic literature and schools, &c, 555
Spaniards, the, infatuated with Arabic litera
ture, 553
Spartans, the, descended from Lelex, an
Egyptian, 112
Spasinas, friendly reception of Trajan at,
420
Spitamenes, saixap of Sogdiana, retires with
Bessus across the Oxus before Alex
ander, 311
 , and the satrap of the Daae, deliver up,
Bessus to Alexander, 311, 312
 and the Sogdians are blockaded in their
strongholds, 313
 , activity of, against the Macedonians,
314-316
 defeated by Caenus, and his head sent
to Alexander, 316
Sru and his followers proceed to Spain and
Ireland, 511
Starki, Cape, 393
Statianus, Roman general under Antony in
Parthia, 413
 defeated by the Parthians, 413
Stations recommended for the Euphrates,
Tigris, and Kariin (Appendix N.)
Statira, or Barsine, wife of Alexander, 359
 , murdered by Roxana, 380

INDEX.

771

Statue, colossal, at Babylon, 631
Steam vessels and locomotive engines, 565
Steamers, the, removed from the Euphrates
to the Indus, 600
 , commercial, on the Euphrates, and
calculation of the outlay and returns
(Appendix N.)
Steel of Khorasan and Damascus, 631
Stephanus translates astronomical and philo
sophical works into Arabic, 544
Stonehenge, the priucipal structure of, 15
Stone tower, route by the, to the country of
the Seres, 572
Stratonice, resigned by Seleucus to his son
Antiochus, 399
Strymon, river, Xerxes' army advance to
the, 194
Strymonicus Sinus (see Gulf of Contessa),
191
St. Gallen, abbot of, encourages Arabic lite
rature, 551
Suania invaded by the Persians under
Veranes, 444
Succoth, the first stage of the Exodus, 98
Suda Island, 367
Sudrakas (see Oxydracae), 330, 331
Suez, position of the sea of, as regards the
passage of the Israelites, 99
Suez canal commenced by Pharaoh Necho,
153
 completed by Darius Hystaspes, and by
Ptolemy II, 154, 189 (note), 579
Sukkims of Scripture, the, supposed to have
been Ham's descendants by the African
negroes, 46
¦  , the, one of the branches called Shep
herds, 74
SuleimSn Ibn Hesham, khaliph, defeated by
Constantine, &c, 458
¦  , ruler of the Seljukian kingdom of
Rum, 473
 , Nebf, canal, 612
Sultan Oni, the tract allotted to Ertoghrul,
498
 Suleiman, successor of Selim I. over
Turkey, conquests in Europe of, 500, 501
 , his unsuccessful attack on the island
of Diu, 501
Sumatra, the name of Ophir still preserved
in the island of, 126
Sumeisat, Julian's fleet collected at, 433
 , caves at, 610
Sumera (probably Samarrah) reached by the
Romans when retreating from Persia, 440
Sun and fire, only symbols of the deity
among the Magi, 171, 185
Sunnies opposed to the Shi'ahs, 457
 , the, and Al Mamiin's attempt to unite
the two sects, 464
 , the, celebrate at Baghdad the extinc
tion ofthe Fatimites, 477
,  , the, separate from the Shi'ahs and
form a distinct empire, 487
Sura taken by Chosroes I, 442
Surena, person and character of, 408, 409
 recovers Mesopotamia, and advances to
meet Crassus, 409

Surena destroys Crassus and his army, 411
 , probable situation of the battle-ground
of, 412
— -, triumph at Seleucia, and fate of, 412
Suri, or Syrian, the written character of the
Tobbai, 81
 , specimens of, found in Yemen, 81
Suriani (see Syrians), 31
Siis, bilingual inscription at, 628, 630
 , mound once pyramidal, 606
Susa, and its treasure surrendered to Alex
ander, 298
 , probable course of Nearchus' fleet
from Dirodotis to, 355-357
 , Alexander's march from Pasagardato,
358
 , Nearchus and Onesicritus join Alex
ander at, 358
 , the satrap Abulites and his son ex
ecuted by Alexander at, 358
 , Alexander's route to, from Opis, 364
 , the treasures of, seized by Antigonus,
388
Susia, a city of Aria, visited by Alexander,
306
Susiad rocks, the, separate Susiana from
Persia, 299
Susiana, Darius quells a rebellion in, 1 78
•  , the satrap of, surrenders to Alexan
der, 298
 , the Uxian territory added to the sa
trapy of, 299
¦  , difficulties encountered by Nearchus'
fleet, when coasting, 354
 , a separate independent government,
354
•  , occupied by Eumenes, 383
¦  , commerce of (Appendix N.)
Sutf, branch of the Hydaspes, source, &c, of
the, 371
Sutlej, source and course ofthe, 369, 370
 , the, or Hesidrus, also called the Ghara,
370
Swaupan, calculating board of the Chinese,
34
Syennesis, satrap of Cilicia, 209
 , visit of, to Cyrus at Tarsus, 210
Syloson, Darius' expeditiou against Samos,
to reinstate, 178
Symbra (Nacumbra), Julian's army retreats
towards, 439
Synea, 439
Synnada in Phrygia, and Hesham's defeat
at, 458
Syria, our knowledge of, before the flood, 4
 , the Assyrians subject, 65
¦  ¦ invaded by Shalmaneser, who sends
colonies of Assyrians into, 141
¦  taken by Parmenio, 276
 , war of Antigonus in, 402
 submits to Ptolemy Philopater, 403
¦  , the progress of the Roman power in,
404
 , Demetrius Nicator, as ruler of Syria,
invades Parthia, 404, 405
¦  becomes a Roman province, and Crassus
is appointed governor of, 407
3 e 2

772

INDEX.

Syria, means taken by Crassus to increase
the revenue of, 407
 invaded by Orodes' son, Pacorus, 412
¦  , the Persians under Sapor invade, 423,
425
 invaded by Zenobia, and Abii Bekr,
427, 452
 retaken by Salah-ed-din, 480
¦  places in, ceded to the Crusaders by
the treaty of Frederick II, 484, 485
 . and Palestine united to the Ottoman
empire, 486
•  , Taimur's conquests in, 495
 partly subjected by the Turks under
Selim I, 500
 , commerce through, 594 (and Appen
dix N.)
Syriac, derived from the Chaldaic, 31, 84
 characters resemble the Chaidee, He
brew, and Phoenician, 629
Syrians, the, (Suriani) or Assyrians, called
also Arameans, &c, were descended from
Shem, 31
 gates, description ofthe, abandoned by
Abrocamas, at the approach of Cyrus, 211,
212
 trade, and its decline, 594, 595
Syrians, Leuco-, also called Chrysor, 36
 , territory of, arts, &c, 36
 , the, or Assyrians of Trfik Arabi, iden
tical, 52
Sysimithres, or Arimazes rock, the hill fort
of Oxyarta captured by Alexander, 317
Tab river, or Indian, 354
Tabariyeh, the Karismians raze the forti
fications of, 485
Taberistan, formerly Tapuria, 305
 ¦, the chiefs of, transfer their allegiance
to Alexander, 305
Tabol, river in Siberia, crossed by Taimur,
493
Tabriz, routes from and to, 573
Tachos, satrap of Egypt, 249
 , Artaxerxes' reception of, 249
Tadmor, caravan routes through, 93
Tadmor built by Solomon, 122
 , caravan routes to the Persian Gulf,
&c, passing by, 124, 125, 570
Taim, in Egypt, captured by Al, Mainiin,
460
Taimur-Bec, Ta'imiir-Lenk (the lame), or
Tamerlane, 491
 conquers Turkistau, Persia, and Ar
menia, and massacres the inhabitants of
Ispahan, 492
 's campaign against the Kiptshak, &c,
493
 invades India, Sec, 494, 495
— defeats and captures Bajazet, 495
 , death of, 495
 compared with Alexander, 496
 's descendants, were the great Moguls of
northern India, 496
Tajah, Himyari tablet in her sepulchre in
Yemen, 90, 91
Takhti Suleiman (see Phraata), 413, 608

Takhti Solei'man, ruins of, probably the Me
dian Ecbatana, 147
Takti-Bostan, ruins of, 608
Taimona, haven and station of Nearchus'
fleet, 349
 , the bay of Charbar, or Choubar, 349
Tamberan, a town built by Shem, 13
Tamerlane, Taimur-Bec, or Taimur- Lenk
(the lame), titles and early history of,
491, 492
Tanais, the Jaxartes mistaken for the, 312
Tangier, Africus, king of the Himyarites,
extends his conquests to, 80
Tanjus, or Khan, emperor ofthe Huns, 468
Tanka, or egg boat of the Chinese, 648
Tanks, Moorish, at Gibraltar, 628
Taoce, station of Nearchus, near the mouth
of the Granis, 354
Taochians, the Greeks plunder the country
ofthe, 230
Tadk (see Tuchf) 230
Tapuria (see Taberistan), 305
Tarabuzun (Trebizond), halt of the 10,000
Greeks at, 235
 , port and trade of, 573, 589
 , entrepot of Persian commerce, 595
(and Appendix G.)
 and Tarsus proposed places of trade,
601 (and Appendix N.)
Tarichea taken by Vespasian, 417
Taron, son of Shem, left by his father at
Tamberan, 13
Tarsias, now Cape Certes, or Ras Jerd, a
headland passed by Nearchus, 353
Tarsus plundered by Menon, 209
 , Cyrus halts at, 210
 plundered by the Persians under
Sapor, 425
 taken by the Crusaders, 475
Tartan, Sennacherib's general in Judaea,
142
Tartars, and the use of pyramids, 607
Tartary subjects Iran, 133
Tartessus, a Phoenician settlement, 96
Tashkend and Khiva, 596
Tasim and Beni Tasim, lost tribes,"45
Tatnai, governor of Syria and Palestine, 177
Taulantians, the, invade Macedonia, 259
- — — , the, defeated by Alexander, 259
Tauric chain, the, the water-shed of Arme
nia, 2
Taurus, Cyrus' army rounds the, 206
 turns the pass ofthe, 209
 , one name ofthe Paropamisus, 308
 , the, crossed by Taimiir, 495
Taxila, the capital of Taxiles, probably
Manikjala, 324
 , Alexander's winter quarters, 324
Taxiles, and other Indian princes, send pre
sents to Alexander, 319
¦  , or Mophis, assisted in preparing the
bridge over the Indus at Attock, 323
 and other Asiatic satraps retain their
governments after the death of Alexander,
380
Tchildir district, the Chalybean country
probably a part ofthe, 231

INDEX.

773

Tchinistan, or China, 33
Tchdnik-su (Jorak), or Acampsis, the Har-
piisus crossed by the 10,000 Greeks, 2.31
Tedjen, or Ochus river, Alexander's march
to the, 318
Tehameh invaded by Asuad Abii Kurriib,
king of the Tobbai, 449
Tekrit, the Tigris crossed by Jovian's army
probably at, 441
 stormed by Ta'imur, 493
Tekrova, formerly Phaselis, the principal
city of Lower Lysia, 267
Telane, probably built by Nimrud under the
name of Tunim, 39
Teleboas, or Kara-sii, reached by the 10,000
Greeks, 227
Telegraph, electric, 565
Telmissus (now Makri), taken by Alex
ander, 267
Templars, the, nearly destroyed by the Hos-
pitalliers, 485
Temiigin, original name of Genghis Khan,
487
Terah, a Shemitic Chaldean, 55
Teredon, or Diridotis, the port at which
Nearchus' voyage terminated, 355, 356
— ¦ — , built by Nebuchadnezzar, 578
Terek, Ta'imur defeats the Kiptshaks on the
river, 494
Teribazus induces Artaxerxes to encounter
Cyrus, 216
 , the Greeks enter into treaty with, near
the Teleboas, 227
 , embassies sent by the Lacedaemonians
to, 246
¦  is sent into Cyprus against Evagoras,
247
 recalled and deprived of his satrapy of
Lydia, 248
¦  restored to his government, 248
 joins Darius in a conspiracy against
Artaxerxes, and is put to death, 249
Thafar, the Himyaritic DMfar in Arabia,
49,50
Thais induces Alexander to set fire to the
palace of Xerxes, 302
Thales studied in Egypt and Phoenicia, 519
— •—, philosophy of, and advancement made
by him in science, 519
 and other sages connected with eastern
literature, 539
Thamud, the lost tribe of, 21
 , the destruction of the, agrees with
that ofthe cities ofthe plain, 22
 probably absorbed in the Kahtanites,
51
Thamudite giants, Arab account of the de
struction of the, 68
Thapsacus, its distance from Sardis and Cu
naxa computed, 207
 , its distance from the Daradax, 213
 abandoned by Mazaeus, the general of
Darius, 285
 , Crassus, crosses the Euphrates at,
409
T'hat'hah (Tattah), at the estuary of the
Indus, 372

Thebans, the, request assistance from Persia,
248
Thebes stormed by Alexander, 259
Theches mountain, the, (probably Gaiir
Tagh), reached by the 10,000 Greeks,
232
Themiscyra, from whence came the Ama
zons and Gargareis (or Armenians), 133
Themistocles' reception by Ahasuerus, 199
Theodosia, city built by Seleucus, 399
Theodoras assumes the sovereignty of Bac
tria, 400
Theophilus, campaign of Al Mu'tasem
against the emperor, 462, 463
Theophrastus' work on botany, 531
Thereban (see Apollonia), Tiberias taken
by Vespasian, 417
Thermedon (Thermeh-Su), the 10,000
Greeks sail past the, 237
 , Xenophon's mistake regarding the,
238
Thermopylae, Xerxes gains the pass of, 194,
195
Thesos, excavations at mount, 617
Thilsapheta, Jovian passes, 441
Thilutha, an island fort on the Euphrates,
now 'Anatelbus, resists Julian, 436
Thimbron, the admiral, enters the Lacedae
monian service, .242
Thoth, son of Mizraim, leads the Hamites
into Africa, 46
Thrace subdued by Darius Hystaspes, 181
 , Xerxes' army enter, 193
 , the Greeks assist Seuthes, a king of,
241
Thracians, the, descended from Tiras, 44
Thryaei, Alexander's campaign against the,
319
Thrymbrium, Cyrus advances to, 208
Thummosis, king of Egypt, and his exploits
commemorated at Thebes, 108
Tibarenians, from Tubal, 44
— — , the 10,000 Greeks enter the territory
ofthe, 237
Tiberias, town of, taken by Salah-ed-dm,
479
Tibetan, the, nail-headed letters, derived
from the Sanscrit. 34
Tibhath, a city of Zobah, from which David
brought much brass, 121
Tiglath-Pileser (see Artychus), 138
Tigranes replaced on the throne of Armenia,
406
 , ungrateful treatment of Mithridates II.
by, 406
 , the campaign of, in Egypt, and conse
quent war with the Romans, 406
 , the younger, is appointed ruler of
Syria, 407
Tigranocerta, battle and invasion of, by
Lucullus, 406
Tigris, Naditabirus defeated by Darius on
the banks of the, 178
¦  , the 10,000 Greeks choose the route
along the, 219
— — , the proposed passage of the, near Jebel
Jiidi, declined by the Greeks, 225

774

INDEX.

Tigris, the, regained by the Greeks near the
pass of Chelek, 226
¦  ¦ the Greeks approach the springs of the
eastern, 227
 , the, and Alexander's fleet, 360
 , the, and its connexion with the Eulaeus,
361
 , Alexander sails up the, to Opis, 361,
362
¦  , Antigonus crosses the, when ad
vancing against Eumenes, 384
, the, passed by Xenaetas and Antiochus,
403
 -, Antiochus the Great crosses the, 403
 , Trajan transports materials for a fleet
from Nisibis to the, 418
 , the, crossed by Trajan, 418, 419
 , Trajan transports his fleet from the
Euphrates to the, and his voyage to the
1 Red Sea by the, 420
 , Severus' fleet passes along the Nahr
Malka, from the Euphrates into the, 42 1
 , the army of Sapor II. crosses the, on
three bridges, 431
 , Julian's fleet sail along the Nahr
Malka into the, 438
 , Jovian's army cross the, on rafts, Sec,
441
- — ,. Taimur's troops swim across the,
493
 , bridge built by Ta'imur over the, 495
 , Kariin and Euphrates, navigation of
the rivers, 601 (and Appendix)
Til, an Armenian village near the junction
ofthe Centrites with the Tigris, 226
Tilsit, secret articles of the treaty of, 536,
537
Tiras, from whom came the Thracians, 44
Tirhakah, king of Ethiopia, leads an army
against Sennacherib, 142
Tissaphernes proceeds with Cyrus to Susa,
202 , Cyrus' armaments avowedly against,
203
 , the subjects of, transfer their allegiance
to Cyrus, 204
 informs Artaxerxes of the object of
Cyrus, 205
 , the 10,000 Greeks engaged by the
Lacedaemonians against, 241
•  assists the Greeks against Pharnabazus,
244
 combines with Pharnabazus to expel
the Greeks from Asia, 244
 , insincerity of, towards the Lacedae
monians, 245
 defeated by Agesilaus on the river
Pactolus, 245
 is superseded and beheaded by Arta
xerxes, 245, 250
Tithranates makes a separate truce with
the Lacedaemonians, 245
 supplies Agesilaus with money against
Pharnabazus, 245
Titfyah, one of the six estuaries of the
Indus, 372
— ^, course, &c, ofthe, 372

Titus, siege and capture of Jerusalem by,
417
 succeeds his father Vespasian as em
peror, 418
 , the successors of, 418
Tobba'i, Yemen became the seat of the, 52
 (see Himyarites), state of Arabia under
the, 80
 , existence of the, in Arabia, and their
language still spoken at Mahrah, 81
 , written character of the, caljed Suri,
or Syrians, and inscriptions found in
Yemen, 81
 , settlement of the, in Yemen, &c, 449
 , conquests of the, &c, 449
 , Christianity and the Mosaic law intro
duced among the, 449
Tobit carried captive to Nineveh, 141
 , the purveyor of Enemessar, 141
Togormah, the descendants of, 38, 41
Togormeans, or Ha'ikanians, 41
Togrul Bei, or Miihammed, founder of the
Seljukian dynasty, 470
Tokat, British articles in demand at, (Ap
pendix iV.)
Toktamish Khaii, founder of the dynasty of
the White Horde, 490
 , the conquests, and defeat by Ta'imur
of, 490, 493
Toledo, archbishop of, and the translation
of the Koran, 557, 561
 , the seat of Arabic literature, 560,
561
Tomb, the Little (island), and Nearchus'
fleet, 352
 of Cyrus and its inscription (Ap
pendix A.)
Tomerus the (Tonderan), reached by Near
chus' fleet, 347
Tomyris, queen of the Massagetae, 173
 , Cyrus the Great said to have been
slain when fighting against, 173
Toucoush, or Tatash, takes Jerusalem and
Antioch from the Christians, 473
Tour or Keturah, the descendants of, 70,
71 (see Keturah.)
Trade between China, Thibet, and India, 571
•  through Persia from Central Asia, 571
 in the time ofthe Argonauts, 573
 with the Massagetae, 573
 along the Black and Caspian Seas, 582
 of Constantinople with Central Asia,
586
 of England commenced by Edgar, 586
 of Venice and Genoa with the east, 587
 , foreign, favourable to England, 588
 of France with Barbary, 589
 to the Crimea and Danube from India,
590
 of England at the accession of Queen
Elizabeth, 590
 of Bokhara^ Khiva, &c, with Astra
chan, 592
— — with Sigistan, Tartary, &o, 592
 with India through Syria becomes very
advantageous, 593
 with India by sea from England, 594

INDEX

775

Trade of Britain in 1354 compared with
1845, 594
 of Russia with Central Asia, 595-597
(and Appendix N.)
¦  with Babylon in the time of Queen
Elizabeth, 592, 593
 of Syria, and its disadvantages, 596
 • of the Kirghis Kazaks with Russia and
China, 596
 of India with Arabia, &c, in 1831 and
1836, 598, 601
 of the Persian Gulf, and its decline,
598, 599
Traesi, Nearchus' fleet arrives at the country
of the, 349
Trajan, the wars of, against the Dacians,
Armenians, and Arabs, 418
 advances against Parthia, and descends
the Euphrates, 418, 419
 , commencement of the Nahr Malka,
by, 419, 420
 transports his vessels to the Tigris, and
captures Ctesiphon, 420
 , Assyria, Mesopotamia, and Arabia
declared Roman provinces by, 420
 descends the Tigris to the Red Sea,
420
 , expedition of, against the Hagarenes,
and siege of Atra, 421
 dies in Cilicia, and is succeeded by
Adrian, 42i;
 , the throne of, at Zaragardia, 436
Trankeys, or batillas, 645
Transoxiana, or Sogdiana, Alexander's cam
paign in, 312
•  subjected by Genghis Khan, 489
 , retained by Taimiir's descendants, 496
¦  , silver mines and fruit of, 583
Trapezus plundered by the Borani Scythians,
424
Trebizond (see Tarabuziin), 235
Triballians, the, or Bulgarians, defeated by
Alexander, 258
Tripoli taken by the Crusaders, 475
 taken from the Crusaders, 486
Troja forest and Troja-mala in Sweden, 512
Trojan war, period and cause ofthe, 119
Trojans, the, sons ofthe Argonauts, 119
¦  ¦, people descended from the, 512
Trojenburg palace in Sweden, 512
Tropina, port of India, trade to, 576
Troy, an Armenian contingent employed at,
119
,  , an Assyrian contingent employed at,
134, 135
 , Alexander's sacrifices at, 263
Tuatha De Danann, the, settled in Ireland,
513
Tubal and the Tibarenians, 44
Tuchi, or Taoutchie (the Tadk of the
Turks), 230 (note)
Tufukat, or code of laws of Taimiir, 496
Tunim, probably Telane, built by Nimrud,
39
Tunis, Louis IX. of France dies at, 485
Tunnels at Babylon, Samos, and in Greece,
614,615

Turahi, a people settled on the Don, 511
Tiiran, people of, the ancient Scythians, 510
Turkey, and war against Russia and Eng
land, 503
 , and effects of the reforms of Mah
miid II, 503
 , or Levant Company, charter to the,
590-593
Turkish political and commercial relations
with Europe, 501
 empire in the time of Muhammed III.,
502
 wars with the Russians, 502, 503
 territory in Egypt and Syria invaded
by Napoleon, 503
 territory ceded to Russia by Mah
miid II, 504
Turkistan conquered by the Arabs, 457
 conquered by Ta'imur, 492
Turks, expedition of the Arabs against the,
458
 serving in the Muslim armies, 464
 , the, become powerful in Arabia, 467
 , or Tartars, origin of the, 468, 469
 , campaign of the, under Mahmiid
Ghizni, 469
 or Tartar branch of the Huns, or Mon
gols, 487
 and Mongols under Taimiir, 491-495
 , origin of the Osmanli branch of the,
497
 , the, under 'Osman, the first sultan, 498
 , the, coin money, 498
 , the, conquer European Turkey, 498
•  , the, conquer Karamania, 498, 499
 , wars ofthe, under Murad II, 499
 , the, capture Constantinople, and use
gunpowder, 499, 500
 , the, under Bayazid, 500
¦  , conquests of the, in the reigns of
Selim I. and Suleiman, 500
 , expedition of the, to India, 500, 501
 , navy of the, in the reign of Suleiman
and Selim II, 500, 501
 , the subdue Yemen, Cyprus, Georgia,
and Daghestan, 501
¦  , the, under Selim II. and Murad III,
501
Tuthmosis, king of Egypt, 75
 , the shepherds quitted Egypt during
the reign of, 75
Tiiz taken by Genghis Khan, 489
Tyana, the supposed Dana, 209
 submits to Aurelian, 427
 , the Khaliph Hesham at, 458
Types, moveable, supposed to have been
used at Babylon, 628
Tyre, the kingdoms of Phoenicia dependent
upon, 93
 , the situation, rise, and prosperity of,
93-95
 , or Tzur, and settlement of the shep
herds, 112
 extends the Phoenician trade to Africa
and Europe, 128
 , Abii Ba'al, the first sovereign of, 129
 colonies sent from, 129, 130

776

INDEX.

Tyre, the capture of, probably represented at
Khorsabad, 137, 517 (note)
 besieged and taken by Nebuchadnez
zar, 159
¦  -, Alexander determines to reduce, 278
 , or Palae-Tyrus, the ancientc ity of, 278
 taken, and the people sold for slaves,
279
•  , Alexander returns to, from Egypt, 284
 besieged by Antigonus and Demetrius,
389, 390
 besieged by the Muslims under Salak-
ed-din, 480
 relieved by an army of Crusaders, 480
¦  , an emporium of trade, 569
 , routes to, from Mesopotamia and Asia,
570
Tyriacum (probably I'lghun), Cyrus' army
reviewed at, 208
Tyrian temples dedicated to Hercules and
Astarte, 129
Tyrians, Solomon employed the, 127
 , Arcles the leader of the, 128
 , the, and commerce on the Red Sea, 129
 , the, founded Carthage, 129, 130
Tyriaspes appointed satrap of the Paro
pamisus, 319
Tyrrheneans, the, descended from Ham, 18
U'lan Robat, or Shahri-Zohak, supposed to
have been the capital of the Arachosi,
307
U'r, Aiir, or Our, the Orchoe of Ptolemy,
identical with the mound of Mujayah, 37
 , three places so called, 37
 , the, kingdom of, the principal seat of
the Shemites, 48
 , the country of Job, 48
 , Abraham's departure from, 61, 62
 of the Persians, probably the site of
Caenae, 222, 441
Ural mountains, the, crossed by Taimiir, 493
U'rfah, also called U'r, 37
Urhu district, once the country of the
Horites, and Oritae, 343-347
Urklan, son and successor of 'Osman, 498
 , conquests of, 498
Urumfyah, the, birth-place of Zerd-husht
(Zoroaster), 183
Uxians, the territory of the, added to the
satrapy of Susiana, 299
Uxii, the, subdued before Alexander's ad
vance to Persis, 299
Uz, probable situation of the land of,
climate, &c, 77, 78
Uzal, son of Joktan, territory of, 51
Uzbecks, the, expel the descendants of
Taimur from Khorasan, &c, 496
Uzun Hazan, chief of the Turkoman race of
the White Sheep, 496
Valerian, Roman territories invaded by the
Persians in the reign of, 424
 defeated and taken prisoner by Sapor,
near Edessa, 424
Van lake (Ackthamar sea), inscriptions re
lating to Semiramis found near, 116

Vaii, a city built by Semiramis on the shores
of lake, 116
 taken by Taimur, 492
Vannes, the, or Venets, trade with Britain,
576
Varadam, El, one of the names of Evil-
Merodach, 161
Varanes' campaigns against the Romans,
444
 rebellion against Hormisdas and Chos
roes II, 444, 445
Vascape (Varna), the Hungarians defeated
at, 499
Vasco de Gama's voyage to India, 534
Vashti, Ahasuerus divorces, 199
Venice, rise of, a depot of eastern commerce,
and extension of its trade, 586
 and Genoa maintain a trade with the
east, 586
 , and its commercial prosperity, 587
Venetian trade with India by the Red Sea,
534
 trade with Egypt and India, 588
Venetians, the, assist at the siege of 'Akka,
586
 , the, oppose the British trade in the
east, 593
Versification introduced into Europe from
Arabia, 553
Vespasian's campaign in Galilee, 417, 418
 is succeeded by Titus, 418
Vessels trading to India from the Persian
Gulf, and boats on the Tigris and Lower
Euphrates, 645
 and junks of China, 647-651
 kept at Bir by Queen Elizabeth for
trade, 593
Vikkar, Bander, or Barf Gdra, 372
 , trade on the Indus from Shikarpiir to,
375
Wadi El Kari, 21
Walid, Al (surnamed Al Saffah), khaliph and
successor of Suleiman Ibn Hesham, 458
 , El, the Moorish dynasty in Spain
commenced in the reign of, 457
 , conquests of, 457
 (Khalid) causes astronomical and
philosophical works to be translated by
Stephanus and others, 544
Wanyani, another name for the K'he"dfwari
branch of the Indus, 373
War or mandarin boat of China, 649, 650
Waraka, nephew of Khadijeh, and instruc
tor of Miihammed, 452
Wari, a former mouth of the Indus, now dry,
373
Water-courses of Susiana, 612
Water, management of, in the east, 651, 652
 levers and baskets, 652
 raised by rollers and wheels, 653, 654
Wathel, successor of Himyar, 80
Wellsted, Lieut., inscriptions found by, 82
Welsh, sprung from the Celtic tribes of
Asia, 513
Werdf, loss of the Tigris steamer in a hurri
cane near, 436 (note)

INDEX.

777

Wheel, the Persian and Chinese, 654
Wherry, or small sailing boat of China, 648
White Horde, Toktamish founds the dynasty
of the, 490
Wolga river, commerce ofthe, 582
Woollen cloth exported by the Arabs, 583
Woollens exported from England to the
Netherlands, 588
Xandrames, the Indian prince, near the
Ganges, who collected an army to oppose
Alexander, 332
Xathri, the, prepared vessels for Alexander's
descent of the Indus, 341
¦  -, probable position of the country of the,
341 (note)
Xenaetas, general of Antigonus, the war in
Mesopotamia, his defeat and death, 402,
403
. Xenias and Pasion desert Cyrus at Myriau-
drus, 212
Xenophon joins Cyrus' expedition, 204
 , at the passage of the Centrites, 227,
229
 's skill in defeating the Colchians, 234
 extricates the Greeks when pressed by
the Drillae, and declines the sole command,
235, 238
 , gallantry of, in rescuing and reuniting
the Greeks at Calpae, 239
 defeats the Persians, and saves By
zantium, 240, 241
¦  ¦ and the Greeks take service against
Tissaphernes, 241
 captures the wife and family of Asi-
dates, and resigns the command of the
Greeks, 242
 , the tactics of, and those of the Greeks,
242, 243
Xerxes succeeds his father Darius Hys
taspes, 188
¦  recovers Egypt, and prepares for war
with Greece, 191
 orders a bridge to be built across the
Hellespont, and a canal to be cut through
Mount Athos, 191
 proceeds from Susa to Lydia, and
Abydos, 192
 numbers his force on the plain of Da-
riscus, 193, 194
 advances to Thermopylae, and gains
the pass 194, 195
 's fleet defeated at Salamis, 195
 takes and burns the citadel of Athens,
and plunders the temple of Delphos, 195
,  , retreat and privations of the army of,
195,196
 leaves Mardonius to carry on the war,
196
 , flight of, from Sardis to Susa, where
he was murdered, 197, 198
.  , events of the reign of, recorded on the
monuments at Persepolis, 198 (Appen
dices B. and C.)
 succeeded by Artaxerxes, 198
,  , son of Ahasuerus, or Artaxerxes, by
Esther, 200
VOL. II.

Xerxes murdered shortly after his accession
200
 , inscriptions relating to, at Persepolis
(Appendices C. and D.)
—  , at Hamadan, (ditto C. and D.)
Xisuthrus, Oannes, or Noah, 5
Yaafar, a king ofthe Himyarites, 80
Yacuta, the character of the inscriptions
found at Samarkand, similar to those
of, 84
Ya'rab ben Kahtan, probably Jerah, 51
 , 'Abd-el Shems succeeds, 52
Yechil Irmak, or Iris, the 10,000 Greeks
sail past the, 237
Yemen, some of Ham's descendants remained
in, 50
 , the Kahtanites had their principal seat
in, 51
 became the seat of the TobMi and the
Himyarites, 52
 -, advanced state of civilization about
Job's time in, 79
¦  , state of, under the Tobbai', 79, 80
 , Tobbai inscriptions found in, 81
 , Himyari inscription relative to the
agricultural produce of Egypt in, 90
 , the Himyiiri power, and foundation
of the kingdoms of Ghassan and Hii-.ih
in, 449
¦  , Mosaic ritual introduced into, 449
¦  , invasions of, by the Abyssinians, 450
 , the various worships in, previous to
Miihammed's time, 450
 , subdued by Chosroes the Persian, 450
 , campaign of Salah-ed-din in, 478
 added to the Turkish dominions by
Selim II, 501
Yuhannah, Mar, now the seat of a Chaldean
bishop, 225
Yun, Ling Mountains, a part of the Paro-
pamisian chain, 309
Yununui, or Ninavi (Ninevites), tribe of
Syrians, 31
Zab, the hereditary prince of Se'istan, 134
 , Persian treachery towards the 10,000
Greeks at the, 222
 (Great), or Lycus, Darius crosses the,
286, 287
 , the battle of Arbela fought in the
neighbourhood of the, 295
 , the, passed by Heraclius, 445
 , the, crossed by the 10,000 Greeks,
221, 222
Zabdus, general of Zenobia, defeated by
Aurelian, 427
Zadracarta, the modern Saree, the satrap of
Tapuria, and other chiefs of, transfer their
allegiance to Alexander, 305
 , Alexander gives himself up to luxu
rious amusements, &c, at, 305
 , Alexander marches against Bessus
from, 306
Zagros, road through the, 612
Zaitha, Circesium camp and monument
erected to Gordian III., near, 424, 435
3f

778

INDEX.

Zaitha, Julian's army reach, 435
Zakhii, or Zakkd (on the Khabiir), reached
by the 10,000 Greeks, 224
Zamzummim, tribe of the, descended from
Ham, 21
Zamzummims, the, expelled by the Am
monites from Rabbah, 69
Zanzana, Darius defeats Naditabirus at,
near Babylon, 178
Zaragardia, or Ozogardana, pillaged by
Julian's army, 436
 , Trajan's throne at, 436
Zaraka, a town from which the Arabians
were called Saracens, 76
Zarangaei, the, or Drangae, and the route
taken by Alexander, 306
Zariaspa, or Bactra, 311, 312
Zawiijah (in Kurdistan), the Greeks proceed
by the ravine of, 226
Zedekiah (once Mattaniah), king of Judah,
his attempt to throw off Nebuchadnez
zar's yoke, 158
¦  , prophecy concerning, 157, 158
 , Nebuchadnezzar's treatment of, 158
Zend-avesta, the, in which are contained the
tenets of Zerd-husht, 183
Zenobia, on the death of her husband Ode
natus, reigns at Palmyra, 426
 defeats Heraclianus, and subjects some
of the Roman provinces, 427
 is defeated by Aurelian at Imma, 427
 again defeated by Aurelian, and com
pelled to retreat, 427
 's defence of Palmyra, and retreat and
capture, 428, 429
 , town, Chosroes I. at, 442
Zenodotia stormed by Crassus, 407
Zerah, the Ethiopian invasion of Judea by,
134
 , the Cush of, probably in Arabia, 134
Zerdusht, or Zerd-husht, probably Zoroaster,
183
 reforms the Magian religion, 183, 184,

Zerka, Tarikh Ibn, leader of the Moorish
expedition against Spain, 457
Zerrah lake, Alexander's halt at, 307
Zerubbabel, or Zorobabel (Shesh-bazzar),
returns to rebuild the temple of Jerusa
lem, 171
Zhafar, or Dhafar, the Himyaritic Thafar,
49, 50
Z'igani mountain, from which the Euxine is
visible, 233
 Pass, defeat of the Colchians by the
10,000 Greeks at the, 234
Zikr Ismail, 613
Zikru-al-ahwaz bund, 613
Zilleh, commerce of (Appendix iV.)
Zobah (Nisibis) and Haran formed the
Chaldean kingdom of U'r, 48
 , probably Nisibis, 121
 , David defeats the king of, and takes
much brass from the cities of, 121
Zohak, Zohac, or Zohauk, the Nimrud of
the Persians, 24, 58
Zohruy, a boat used on the Indus, and its
construction, &c, 375
Zolakert, a son of Amassia, 41
Zopyrus enables Darius to recapture Baby
lon, 179
Zoroaster, the doctrines of, 170, 171, 183-
186
 (named Archimagus) and the Magi
slaughtered at Balkh by the Scythians,
183
 , four prophets who bore the name of,
183
¦  , the birthplace of, &c, 183, 184
 , the religion of, promoted by Aha
suerus, 200
 , the mythology of, probably that of the
Celts, 513
Zummara, the Romans defeat the Persians
at, 439
Zuzim, the tribe of the, -descended from
Ham, 21

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