I :itff* •»;?> r*- &< Br ffe UA.:i-, HISTORICAL ACCOUNT DISCOVERIES AND TRAVELS IN AFRICA. VOL. II. Published bjA CZratatle r Cc.Zdirt.V819. HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF ®tjeto>bem£ anir ©rabelg IN AFRICA, FROM THE EARLIEST AGES TO THE PRESENT TIME; INCLUDING THE SUBSTANCE OF THE LATE DR LEYDEN'S WORK ON THAT SUBJECT. By HUGH MURRAY, F.R.S.E. SECOND EDITION, CORRECTED AND ENLARGED. VOL. II. EDINBURGH : PRINTED FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY, EDINBURGH ; AND LONGMAN, HURST, REES, ORME, AND BROWN, LONDON. 1818. CONTENTS OF VOLUME II. BOOK II. DISCOVERIES AND TRAVELS IN THE MARITIME COUNTRIES OF AFRICA. CHAPTER I. ABYSSINIA. Prester John. — Covilham — Alvarez. — Bermudez Ovie- do. — Payz. — Fernandez. — Lobo. — Baratti. — Poncet Bruce. — Observations on his Authenticity. — Salt's First Journey. — Second Journey, - - Page 3 CHAPTER II. EGYPT. General View of Egypt. — Alexandria. — Lower Egypt — Isthmus of Suez — Feium — Upper Egypt. — The Sea Coast. — The Oases. — Recent Observations by Denon. — Hamilton. — Legh. — Light. — Belzoni, - - 107 VI CONTENTS. CHAPTER III. BARBARY. First Voyages to Morocco Voyage of the Jesus to Tri poli Captivity of Mouette — Windhus's Journey — Shaw's Travels. — Lempriere. — Recent accounts by Jackson, Keating, Ali Bey, Macgill, Blaquiere, and Tully, .... Page 213 CHAPTER IV. THE WESTERN COAST. Sierra Leone Bulama. — Captain Beaver — The Gold Coast Whidah Dahomy Reports of African In stitution, and Committee on Africa, - - 261 CHAPTER V. SOUTHERN AFRICA. The Cape of Good Hope. — Kolben. — Sparmann. — Vail- lant. — Barrow. — Trutter and Sommerville. — Cowan. — Lichtenstein. — Campbell — Burchell, - - 319 CHAPTER VI. THE EASTERN COAST. . Voyage of Vasco de Gama Description and conquest of Zanguebar. — Settlement of Mosambique and Sofala. — Expeditions to the Gold Mines Hamilton. — Salt, 361 CONTENTS. VU BOOK III. GEOGRAPHICAL ILLUSTRATIONS, AND GENERAL VIEWS OF AFRICA. CHAPTER I. HISTORICAL VIEW OF GEOGRAPHICAL SYSTEMS FORMED RELATING TO AFRICA. Errors of early Geography. — System of Herodotus. — Eratosthenes and Strabo. — Ptolemy The Arabians Modern Geographers during the Sixteenth and Seven teenth Centuries. — Delisle and D'Anville. — Rennell, Page 379 CHAPTER IL HISTORICAL VIEW OF THEORIES RESPECTING THE COURSE AND TERMINATION OF THE NIGER. Herodotus. — Strabo, Pliny, and Mela. — The Arabians. — Leo and the Portuguese. — Delisle and D'Anville. — Moore Major Rennell. — Reichard. — The Congo Hypothesis. — Another. — Captain Tuckey's Observa tions, ...... 4,og CHAPTER III. GENERAL VIEW OF THE NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA. By Professor Jameson. Mineralogy : Primitive Rocks. — Secondary Rocks. — Vol canic Rocks Alluvial Rocks. — Simple Minerals found VM CONTENTS. in Africa. Zoology : Mammalia. — Birds — Reptiles* — Insects. — Zoophytes, ... Page 432 CHAPTER IV. GENERAL VIEW OF THE MORAL AND POLITICAL STATE 0? AFRICA. The population divided into Foreign and Native. — Moors — Native Barbary Races. — Copts. — Abyssinians. — Native Africa. — Negroes Forms of Government. —Arts and Manufactures throughout Africa Com merce. — Caravans — Slave Trade. — Tables illustrative ofthe Trade between Britain and Africa, - - 488 APPENDIX. Description of Central Africa, by Edrisi, - 519 , by Ibn-al-Vardi, - 529 , by Bakui, - 531 Description of Africa, by Scheabeddin, - 532 Description of the Gold Trade of Tombuctoo and Melli, by Cadamosto, .... 533 List of important Books relating to Africa, - 535 HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF DISCOVERIES AND TRAVELS IN AFRICA, VOL. II. BOOK II. DISCOVERIES AND TRAVELS IN THE MARITIME COUNTRIES OF AFRICA. CHAPTER I. DISCOVERIES AND TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. Prester John. — Covilham. — Alvarez. — Bermudez. — Oviedo.— Payz. — Fernandez. — Lobo. — Baratti. — Poncet. — Bruce. — Observations on his Authenticity. — Salt's First Journey.— Second Journey. The view given in a former part of the work, of the progress of discovery along the western coast of Africa, has shewn the anxiety by which the Portuguese monarchs were animated to discover the traces of a Christian monarch, reported to be established in some part of the eastern coast. This anxiety was in no degree abated, when the splendid prospect opened, of circumnavigating the southern cape of Africa, and penetrating, by that route, into the Indian ocean. Both Bartholomew 4 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. Diaz, and Vasco de Gama, when they set sail on this great expedition, received the strictest injunc tions to consider every object of discovery as se condary to that of Prester John. The voyages subsequently undertaken along the eastern coast to Mosambique, Mombaca, and Melinda, had this for their sole object.* Meantime, intelligence was received, by a different channel, of the object so eagerly sought after. In 1499, two Portu guese, Covilham and De Payva, were sent into the Red Sea to collect all the information which could be there obtained. Here they would natu rally receive an account of Abyssinia, and of the circumstances from which it appeared, that this, if any, must be the country of Prester John. De Payva remained in the Red Sea, probably with the intention of. proceeding thither ; while Covil ham made a voyage to India and along the eastern coast of Africa. On his return, he learned the death of De Payva, and immediately determined to penetrate himself into Abyssinia. He succeed ed in reaching Shoa, where the emperor then was, and was received with that favour which novelty usually secures, when not accompanied with any circumstances to awaken dread or suspicion. There was an ancient law of Abyssinia, by which no stranger was permitted to leave the kingdom ; * Di Barros, IV. 1. COVILHAM — MATTHEW. 5 and this, though overlooked in many instances, was enforced against Covilham. He was loaded* however, with lands and possessions ; and being a greater man in Abyssinia than in his native coun try, was not, perhaps, very earnest in his solicita tions for permission to depart. Although, however, the court of Abyssinia would not permit Covilham's return to Europe, they felt every inclination to cultivate the king of Portugal's alliance, hoping, from his pious zeal, for aid in their continual wars against the Moors of Adel. The empress Helena, therefore, who governed the country during the minority of her son David, selected a person named Matthew, an Armenian merchant, who, though not the most dignified ambassador, appeared to possess the qualities which best fitted him for such an office. A young Abyssinian nobleman accompanied him, but died on the voyage. Matthew, after long de lays, arrived in Portugal in 1513. Those who con sider the unbounded veneration which attached to the name of Prester John, will easily conceive the delight felt by the king, on receiving this first embassy from so renowned a personage. Every honour was lavished upon Matthew, and an em bassy, on a great scale, was soon fitted out to re turn with him to Abyssinia. At the head of it was placed Edward Galvan, a man of great abili ties and experience, who had filled the highest oft 6 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. fiees in the kingdom, and was now arrived at the mature age of eighty-six. The embassy was sent with the India fleet, which, under the command of Lopez Suarez, sailed directly for the Red Sea. It touched first at the island of Camaran, where Galvan, who was evidently at too advanced an age for such an expedition, fell a sacrifice to the climate. Here also Suarez loitered through the winter, without any attempt to fulfil the objeet of his mission. He was succeeded, however, in the spring by Lopez de Sequeira, who sailed direct for Massuah, where he arrived on the 16th April 1620. He there landed the embassy, at the head of which was Rodriguez de Lima, accompanied, among others, by Francisco' Alvarez, who acted as secretary, and who afterwards wrote a narra tive of the incidents and observations which oc curred during a residence of six years in Abyssi nia.* His work deserves notice, as containing the first detailed narrative of travels in that coun try, and as he visited the southern provinces of Amhara, Shoa, and Angot, which have not been reached by recent travellers. The embassy was well received by the inhabitants of Massuah, and * Published originally in Portuguese, Lisbon, 1540. There is a Spanish translation, Antwerp, 1557 ; an Italian translation in Ramusio, and an English one in Purchas ; also a French translation, 1558. alvarez's narrative. a deputation of friars from a neighbouring monas tery, called Bisan, or the Vision, waited upon and welcomed them. They were then informed, that this district was governed by a prince called Bar- nagasso, (Baharnagash, or Lord of the Sea), who held it under the emperor of Abyssinia ; and that he was desirous of an interview with them. They readily consented ; but considerable embarrass ment arose from a point of etiquette, which made it appear dishonourable for either party to make the first movement to meet the other. It was agreed that the interview should take place upon the road, and preparations were made by the Por tuguese, at a particular point, for commodiously receiving the Barnagasso. That prince, however, on hearing of such preparation, made a full stop, declaring, that in going thither, he might be con sidered as waiting on the Portuguese. The lat ter, willing to accommodate the " Lord of the " Sea," caused the preparations to be carried for ward almost to the point where he then was ; but his highness insisted, that the principle was still the same, and that he would not stir a foot beyond his actual position. The interview seemed to be broken up, till, after long discussion, it was deter mined, that the two parties, having come within sight of each other, should take their departure at the very same instant of time. A meeting was thus at last effected, without any circumstance 8 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. derogatory to their respective dignities ; and the prince then swore upon a silver cross, that he would aid and favour the Portuguese to the ut most of his power. He was attended by two hun dred footmen, and the same number mounted on horses or mules. So favourable a reception en couraged them immediately to set out for the court of Prete Janni, (Prester John), for such is the appellation which Alvarez still gives to the Abyssinian monarch. They were attended and guided by Matthew, the ambassador sent by that prince. The embassy began to pass that range of high mountains which bars on this side the approach to Abyssinia. The roads are described as " high " and rugged ;" and the wet season having com menced, they were often interrupted by storms of rain and thunder, so terrible as obliged them to seek the shelter of the rocks. Formidable tor rents were then seen pouring down the mountains ; but as soon as these reached the plain, they were soaked and dried up ; nor could our travellers learn, that any part of their waters entered the Red Sea. However, they soon entered upon a scene of much deeper horrors. Here the woods were so gloomy and terrible, " that spirits would " have been afraid to pass them." The mules refused to bear a rider, " and the camels yelled •' as if they had been possessed with devils." ALVAREZ S NARRATIVE^ 9 Wild beasts walked about, without shewing the least discomposure at the sight of the travellers, and appeared the undisputed possessors of this gloomy region. At length they arrived, half dead, at the monastery of St Michael, situated at the top of a very steep mountain. After some stay here, they proceeded to Barua, (Dobarwa), the capital of Barnagasso, and where he then re sided. They reached it through a country of the same description as that they had before travelled, though, the rains having ceased, the streams, which were then great and terrible, were now en tirely dried up. On their banks they saw fine and handsome trees, of which they knew not the name. Apes also appeared in squadrons of two or three hundred, as large as sheep, and hairy like lions ; commonly where there was some large cavity in the mountains. Having arrived at Do barwa, they immediately made their way to the palace, never doubting that they would be imme diately admitted to an audience ; but they were stopped by the intelligence, that the prince was asleep, and while that lasted they could by no means enter. Meantime they were allowed no other accommodation than a house usually appro priated to goats, and so small, that they were una ble to stand upright ; while there was nothing to rest upon besides ox hides, with the hair still on them. After tedious expectation they were sent 10 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. for, but were again long detained under the burn ing heat of the sun, before they could obtain ad mission. They found the prince in a room on the ground-floor, his residence containing no other. He did not receive them very graciously. Though he complained of sore eyes, he rejected their proffered medical aid ; and told them, that he could give them no mules, though he would allow them to buy for themselves. On coming out they were offered a repast of half kneaded barley and a horn of mead, but chose rather to abstain than to accept of such food. The prince's mother, however, moved by a hospitable im pulse, sent after them a supply of more savoury viands. The country for a great distance around Do- barwa is very fertile, abounding in cattle, and crowded with villages. The town itself is agree ably situated upon a rock. Alvarez was particu larly struck with the number of females by whom it was peopled, but whose deportment does not seem to have been very exemplary. This is ao; counted for by the great number of persons who came thither to pay court to the Barnagasso, and who, instead of bringing their own wives or con cubines, chose rather to use such as were already resident. Polygamy here is forbidden by the church, but permitted by the king and the law, and thus liable to no penalty except excommuni- Alvarez's narrative. II cation. A great market is held at Dobarwa, where, as elsewhere in Abyssinia, every transac tion is carried on by barter. If a goat is to be exchanged for an ass, or an ass for a cow, the dif ference of value is made up in corn or salt. Hens and capons form the small coin in this traffic. Priests, friars, and nuns, are the principal dealers. After a short stay at Dobarwa, the travellers set out in the middle of June, a period which only their extreme ignorance could have chosen. It is in this country " the fury of winter," every day being marked by tempests of rain and thunder. They found in their route a still more terrible plague, common to almost all Africa, that of lo custs. These devouring insects reduce the coun try to a more completely ruined state than if it were consumed by fire. If general, they would entirely depopulate Abyssinia ; but, fortunately, their ravages are usually confined to one province in one year. The people, when they see them, " become as dead men," and cry out, " We are " undone, for the locusts come." The embassy met numbers of men and women going to other countries in search of food, which they could no longer find in their native district. The Romish priests, however, undertook to deliver the coun try from this plague. They collected a number of the locusts, and made a solemn adjuration, that, within three hours, they should depart for 1& TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. the sea, the mountains, or the land of the Moors, and should let Christians alone. The locusts pre sent were then dismissed, to carry this admoni tion to their brethren. Accordingly, as soon as the intelligence could be conveyed, the whole body, it is asserted, put themselves in motion, some flying before, and some after the missionaries. A violent thunder storm, which soon after arose, was doubtless more efficacious, and the dead lo custs were soon after seen piled up in heaps along the banks of the rivers. The party, in a short time, arrived at Caxumo, (Axum). They describe particularly its anti quity, its church, obelisk, and other ruins. No thing of consequence thence occurs, till they ar rived at the kingdom of Angot. This region is' described as extremely fertile, being watered by streams almost innumerable, which maintain per petual verdure. Seed-time and harvest continue together without intermission during the whole year. The people, however, are harassed by the vicinity of the Dobas, a Moorish tribe, who hold it unlawful for any man to marry till he has put twelve Christians to death. The travellers were here astonished by seeing churches, often of great extent, cut out of the solid rock. In one of them, called St Saviour, the body of the church is 200 palms long, and 120 broad, with five aisles, an extensive open circuit and entrance, all excavated Alvarez's narrative. 13 in this manner. Alvarez thinks it necessary here to say : " I take God to witness, in whose hands " I am, that all which I have written is most " true." He adds, " that he went to see them " twice, so great was his desire to make their ex- " cellency known to the world." The embassy proceeded now to the residence of Angoteraz, the viceroy of Angot. At a little distance they met a large assemblage of people, coming, as they supposed, to welcome them, and carry their goods ; but were soon undeceived by a shower of stones, thrown, some with slings and some with the hand, so that " it seemed to rain " stones." The motive of this uncourteous salu tation does not precisely appear ; for, on reach ing Angoteraz, they were received in a very gra cious manner. He was sitting with his wife, two pther ladies, and several friends, with four jars of excellent mead standing before them. Of these the travellers were invited to partake, the ladies being particularly urgent. Our traveller had af terwards a long conversation with Angoteraz on religious mysteries, with which the chief seemed particularly pleased. He was thus induced to invite the party to a feast. Here mats were laid down for the company to sit on ; sheep skins were then spread on the ground, above which was placed a board of white polished wood, without any cloth. Water was brought to wash their 14 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. hands, but no towel to dry them. Cakes were then served up of wheat, barley, millet, and taffo, (teff). Next came the Imbandigioni, of which Alvarez dares scarcely speak, consisting of " pieces of raw flesh with warm blood," a dish reckoned so exquisite as to be solely reserved for the leading men in the country. They were de voured accordingly with delight by Angoteraz, and liberally offered to the guests, who, however, would on no account taste them, but adhered to their European cookery. The wine also " walked f about with great fury," and, in this part of the entertainment, the lady ofthe house, though con cealed from view behind a curtain, took a most active share. After this entertainment, the embassy set out immediately for the court of the emperor. In their way they passed the celebrated mountain, on which the younger sons of the royal family are confined. It is described as of vast compass ; so lofty and steep as to resemble a wall, with the sky resting on it. The party approaching too near, were advertised of their error by a shower of stones, which induced a precipitate retreat. They were assured that any one who should at tempt to ascend would have his hands and feet cut off, and his eyes put out. The mountain is said to be of such vast compass, that fifteen days are required to perform the circuit of it On its Alvarez's narrative. 15 summit are other mountains with valleys, rivers, and streams. There is particularly one valley closely guarded by natural barriers, in which the blood royal are confined. Several attempts had been made by those confined to escape, but had always proved unsuccessful. After passing through part of Amhara and Shoa, the embassy arrived at the camp of the emperor, who is still called Prete Janni. The tents and pavilions, seen from a distance, ap peared to be infinite in number, and to cover all the fields. On arriving, they were met by the Adrugaz, or master of the household, who con ducted them to a goodly tent, and supplied libe rally all their wants. On the 28th October, about three o'clock, they were told that the Prete had called for them. They were ushered by a gate, within which they beheld an infinite number of pavilions and tents, like a great city. The tents immediately attached to the Prete were in a field by themselves, and were all white ; but the emperor's tent of state, set up only on great occasions, was red, and before it were two rows of arches, covered with silk cloth. A vast multi tude, which appeared to our author to exceed 40,000 persons, stood on both sides ; the princi pal people, and those most splendidly drest, near to the arches, the rest at a greater distance. In order to preserve order among this multitude, 53 16 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. above a hundred persons carried whips, which they continually lashed in the air, producing a noise which rendered all hearing impossible. As the embassy came within bow-shot of the impe rial tent, sixty porters or macers, apparelled in silk, with skins of lions, and chains of gold, came running to meet them. They parted into two bands, and waited upon them at the entrance to the arches, where the ambassadors also halted. Under shadow of these arches were found the Betudete, or grand captain, and a priest called Cabeata, said to be the second person in the king dom. The Cabeata came immediately from the tent of the Prete, and demanded whence they came. They answered, that they came on an em bassy from the Captain General of India, under the king of Portugal. The Cabeata went to the Prete, and returned three times with the very same question, to which the same answer was always returned. At last he invited them to say what it was they wanted. The ambassador re plied only by a compliment, importing that they kissed his majesty's hand, and felt great satisfac tion at being the first Europeans who had visited him. The priest soon returned, saying, that they were welcome, and might go home to their lodg ing. Nothing was seen of the Prete at this in terview. As the embassy left the palace, a band of alvarez's narrative. 17 thieves carried off a number of valuable articles, while a servant, who attempted to defend them, was wounded in the leg. The ambassadors, in quiring the mode of obtaining redress for this outrage, were assured that these thieves formed a regular part of the court establishment, and that officers were appointed, who levied a pro portion of the articles stolen for behoof of his imperial majesty. It was judged prudent, there fore, to abstain from all complaint upon this head. Soon after, a present arrived of three hundred wheaten loaves, numerous jars of mead, and ten oxen. On the following days similar presents continued to arrive, particularly a calf, dressed whole, in paste, and the belly stuffed with spices and fruits, in a manner which gave extraordinary delight to the palates of the mission. It was hinted, however, that these supplies would cease, unless they delivered to the Prete all the pepper in their possession. They positively denied the possession of any considerable quantity of pepper ; but obtained apparently little credit, and a serious coolness from that time arose. However, on the night of the 1st of November, two hours after sunset, the Prete again sent for them. On com ing to the first circuit or hedge, they were de tained for a " good hour in the cold wind." At length five principal men came and led them in. As soon as they were within hearing, these VOL. II. B 18 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. persons began to call out, one after another, " Sire, those whom thou hast commanded we " bring." In this manner the Portuguese were conducted to the royal bed, which was placed within a large house constructed of earth, and was supported on pillars of cypress. Before it, on each side, was an even row of eighty torches. The bed was adorned with five curtains of fine silk, one of which was embroidered with gold. The Prete was behind the curtains, and imme diately began to hold a conversation with them. He inquired, with evident suspicion, into the mo tives of their journey, and into the want of some presents which he had been taught to expect. He seemed not at all disposed to admit the au thenticity of Matthew's diplomatic character*. The Portuguese endeavoured to satisfy him upon these points, and in the course of the conver sation his mind appeared to be much mollified. Next day provisions were sent, and they were assured of a regular supply. On the 3d his majesty again sent for them, and a conversation was held through the medium of the Cabeata. He asked many questions of a mi litary nature ; such as, how many arquebusses they had brought with them ? — an object appa rently of some jealousy. He asked also, how the Moors and Turks had learned to make fire-arms and ordnance ? whether the Moors were most Alvarez's narrative. 19 afraid of the Portuguese, or the Portuguese of them ? The ambassador assured him, that faith in their religion rendered them quite superior to all dread of the Moors ; an assertion to which the monarch returned somewhat of a sceptical answer. Soon after there was a long conference, and much discussion concerning the respective tenets of the Romish and Abyssinian churches. The emperor made a firm stand for the marriage of the priesthood, and seems to have seriously puzzled the ambassador, by quoting decrees of councils to that effect, of which the latter was obliged to confess his total ignorance. The interview, how ever, passed amicably, and after several similar discussions, the Prete determined to admit them to the high honour of a view of his person. On the evening of the 19th of November, they went to the first gate, where they were detained for a long time, till the night was nearly spent. Then, after many ceremonies, they were brought in view of the first curtains. These being raised, they discovered other curtains richer still ; and behind them thrones covered with splendid tapestry. Behind the thrones were curtains, richer than any of those formerly seen ; which being raised, they at length beheld the Prete Janni. The mo narch was seated on a scaffold, ascended by six steps. He had on his head a erown of gold and 20 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. silver, with a silver cross in his hand ; and wore a rich- dress of silk and gold. He was young, not above twenty -three, of low stature, not quite black, but " of the colour of ruddy apples." The letters of the Captain-General of India were then presented ; and, being translated, were gra ciously ready though- a wish was expressed that they had come from the king of Portugal himself. Points of divinity were then agitated, and the Prete put the question, Whether, if the Pope should order things contrary to the precepts of the apostles, they would think themselves justifi ed in obeying him ? The Portuguese evaded the question ; but his majesty assured them, that, if the Abuna should give any such orders, they would never hesitate to prefer the apostolic au thority. Two days after, when the ambassadors had gone to bed, they were awaked by an order to attend upon the Prete. They were introduced with the usual ceremonies, when, after some con versation, the Prete announced that permission was granted them to leave Abyssinia and return to Portugal. Immediately after this interview the king be gan a journey, in which he was accompanied by the embassy. They came to a great monastery, called Machan Celacen, or the Trinity, where they had an opportunity of witnessing the most alvarez's narrative. 21 august ceremonies of the Abyssinian religion. The first was baptism, which is here annually ad ministered. It was performed in an artificial lake or pond, made of such a depth, as to take grown persons up to the neck. Each individual des cended by steps, till only his head appeared above the surface, when an old priest, who was almost frozen to death by standing all night naked in the lake, came and put it thrice under water, which constituted the ceremony. The king, the queen, and the Abuna, had a piece of cloth round the waist ; but all the others, both men and women, deemed such a covering superfluous. The next ceremony was the admission by the Abuna into priest's orders. The number on whom this honour was conferred amounted to two thousand three hundred and fifty-six. They were first assembled in a large field, where the Abuna, seated on a mule, called out, that if any man had two wives or more, he was excommuni cated if he attempted to become a priest. The candidates were then seated in three long rows ; and three priests went from one to another, and examined them— merely as to their capacity of reading. From the vast number present, this in vestigation was necessarily so short, that several did not read above two words. When the cere mony was over the Prete sent for Alvarez, and asked his opinion as to the mode of conducting 22 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. it. The secretary stated two objections ; first, the vast and " infinite" number of persons thus at once admitted within the pale of the church ; next, the total absence of clothing on the part of those newly created priests, there not being even such a portion as the most common decency re quired. The Prete replied, that as to number, much apology was necessary for its being so small, there being usually not less than five or six thousand on such an occasion : The Abuna not having been expected at this time, had caused so very thin an attendance. With regard to the de ficiency of dress, he allowed, on reflection, that this arrangement was not very decorous, and ex pressed his intention of amending it in future. The next ceremony consisted in the ordination of clerks. There was here no examination, as persons of every age, and even a number of in fants, were admitted. Amid these candidates for clerical dignity, there was a continued lamenta tion, " like the crying of so many young kids," on account of the mothers being absent, and their being left a whole day without suck. The cere monies were here various, but the principal con sisted in pulling out a tuft of hair from the fore head. The most hazardous part of the operation was the swallowing of the host, which, consisting of coarse dough, could scarcely, though accom- ALVAREZ — BERMUDEZ. 23 panied with a large quantity of water, be got over these tender throats without choking. Alvarez and his companions soon after set out on their return to Portugal ; but the season prov ing unfavourable, they found it more comfortable to return to court ; and having made themselves more agreeable than at first to the young mo narch, they remained for several years. On the 28th April 1526 they set sail, accompanied by Zaga Zabo, an Abyssinian, who came as ambassa dor to Portugal. An account of his embassy, and a treatise on the manners of the Ethiopians, derived from his information, were afterwards published by Damian Goez. In 1535,* Abuna Marcos, the patriarch of Abyssinia, being at the point of death, the king prevailed upon him to nominate, as his successor, John Bermudez, a Romish priest, then resident in that country. Bermudez accepted it, subject to the approbation ofthe Pope, which was easily obtained. The secret motive of the honour thus lavished upon Bermudez is not long of appearing. The king, who was hard pressed in war with Zeila, made an anxious application to obtain aid from the Portuguese, with whose military superio rity he had become acquainted. Bermudez him- * Purchas, III. 9. 24 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. self set out for Goa, to second this application by all the powers of his eloquence. The viceroy, Don Stephen de Gama, shewed little disposition to embark in the enterprise ; and expressed a doubt, if the hundred thousand crowns which would be necessary to expend on it would ever be recovered. Bermudez hereupon assured him, that this was a mere trifle compared to the wealth of Prester John, in whose inexhaustible treasury the expenditure of a million would effect no per ceptible diminution. This hyperbolical estimate produced an entire revolution in the mind of the governor, who without delay fitted out an expe dition, and even resolved to command it in per son. On arriving at Massuah, however, he plac ed the military force under the command of his brother Christopher, and returned himself to In dia. Christopher rendered signal services to the king in his wars with Adel ; and though he him self, in an unsuccessful battle, was taken and be headed, his troops continued to fight in the same cause. With their aid the king defeated the Moors in successive battles, killed their king, and drove them out of all the provinces which they had conquered from him. When he had thus attained all his own objects, his respect for the Portuguese, and his deference to the see of Rome, began sensibly to abate. As soon as Bermudez perceived this defection, and that the king was BERMUDEZ. 25 returning with his courtiers into submission to the patriarch of Alexandria, he took a high tone, and threatened, if this conduct should be persisted in, instantly to remove, with all the Portuguese troops, out of Abyssinia. The king warned him, that he would by no means permit such a removal ; that he would compel the Portuguese to continue their services, and would place them under a general of his own appointment. These dissen sions soon broke out into open hostilities, where the superior discipline of the Portuguese gave them the advantage, though they were unable to make any impression on the vast numbers of the Abyssinian army. The king, however, seeing that he could not prevail by open force, resolved to employ stratagem. He sent, therefore, to Bermudez a large present of oxen and sheep, with liberal promises of pay to the men, and of cele brating in person general orders by Christmas next, according to agreement. These tokens of friendship so delighted Bermudez, that he, with the rest of the Portuguese, immediately set out to visit the king in his camp. They were receiv ed with every demonstration of respect and joy ; but, in a few hours after, orders were issued to the respective chiefs to take their departure for different parts of Abyssinia ; the king being re solved to practise the maxim, Divide et impera. Bermudez, however, was sent into quite an 26 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. honourable exile, and was appointed nominal go vernor of the province of the Gaffates (Efat), situated in the southern extremity of Abyssinia. Thither, accordingly, the patriarch was immedi ately conveyed, the chiefs of that country being instructed to shew him every respect, and to pay all the rents of the province into his hands ; but on no account to allow him to depart. What chiefly concerns us is, that, in this unwelcome dignity, Bermudez obtained some information respecting these remote regions, which have not been visited by any other European. The country of the Gaffates is described as en closed within high and craggy mountains, after passing which they went down into a valley, so deep, that it appeared to the patriarch like de scending into hell. This valley proved, however, to be a great and rich country, abounding in fer tile fields, and producing much gold. It contains also a manufacture of fine cotton cloths. The people are described as " barbarous and evil." They were represented by many as Jews ; but it appears that they were Gentiles, and were thus viewed in the same strange and odious light throughout Abyssinia that Jews are among Eu ropeans. . Our author, in this administration, does not appear to have borne his faculties very meekly. He mentions, as a specimen, that one of the BERMUDEZ. 27 Abyssinian captains having displeased him, he caused him to be seized, tied hand and foot, and buffetted ; then making some discharges of mus- quetry over his head, the Portuguese amused themselves with the paroxysms of terror into which he was thrown. This entertainment being found agreeable, they betook themselves to firing a number of pieces at random among the multi tude, who fled with all the terror and precipita tion that could be wished ; but, by mischance, two of them were shot dead. These amusements of the patriarch do not seem to have been ap proved by the Abyssinian monarch ; as, soon after, we find him ordering Bermudez to be ex posed on the top of a precipitous mountain, from which, however, he was rescued by the bravery of his countrymen. A sort of compromise then took place ; Bermudez, though stripped of all power, was allowed an ample portion of lands for his subsistence, and remained patriarch of the Portuguese, while another held that office in re gard to the Abyssinians. Bermudez spent also some time in the provin ces of Bali and Doaro (Dawaro), bordering On Zeila, though he does not give any particular de scription of them. To the south-west lay a Chris tian kingdom, called Oggi, the sovereign of which is tributary to Abyssinia, and received them kindly. This prince had a force of 5000 cavalry, 28 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. 600 of whom rode on steeds harnessed with elk skins, the rest on the bare horse. Beyond them were the Goragues, a people entirely heathen, and among whom all affairs were transacted by divination from the entrails of beasts. The king's tribute is paid chiefly in gold ; it consists of two lions, three whelps, and some hens and chickens, composed of that metal. The people reported that white men came to trade with them, but they knew not who, or from whence. Bermudez mentions Damut, Gojam, and the head of the Nile ; but his account differs in no material degree from that of other travellers. Be yond Damut, however, he describes a territory called Couche. The king was called Axgagce, or Lord of Riches, a title justified by the profusion of gold to be found in his country. He paid al legiance to the king of Abyssinia, but on condi tion of the latter never entering his territory with out his consent. This country is separated from Abyssinia by a broad river, over which the sove reign would never allow a bridge to be built, lest it should cease to be a barrier of his dominions. His army consisted of 20,000 foot and 10,000 horse, for the use of whom he carried constantly in the camp a thousand hand-mills, for grinding flour, worked by women. Being on good terms with the king of Abyssinia, he granted to him, along with Bermudez, the singular favour of shew- BERMUDEZ — BARRET0. 29 ing them a part of his territory. He appears, however, to have given a very exaggerated des cription of its wealth. He asserted, that the soil consisted generally of two parts of gold, and one of earth ; and, pointing to a lofty mountain, which had a glittering appearance, he assured them that all that was gold. Bermudez now returned by Gojam and Dembea to Dobarwa, and soon after left Abyssinia. Although no fruit was thus drawn from the la bours of Bermudez, yet the Portuguese monarch was not disposed to remit his efforts for the con version of Ethiopia. An Abyssinian priest, call ed Peter, having repaired to Rome, asserted, that the failure of Bermudez had arisen entirely from his own absurd and brutal conduct, and that if a man of sense and capacity were sent out, he would soon effect the conversion of Abyssinia. It seems to have been imagined, though probably on very slender grounds, that this person had some autho rity from the emperor to request such a mission. The Pope, and the king of Portugal, determined not to reject this supposed opportunity. Nugnez Barreto was invested with the dignity of patriarch, and sent to exercise that office in Abyssinia. He went as usual by the way of Goa ; but learning that the navigation of the Red Sea was rendered very dangerous by the Turkish fleets, he deemed 30 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. it inexpedient to hazard his own valuable person, and sent forward a secondary character called Oviedo, with some priests of inferior rank. Ovie- do arrived in perfect safety at Arkeeko, whence he proceeded to Dobarwa, and was heartily wel comed by his countrymen there resident. He then set out for the court, but was long detained on the road by the multitude of his countrymen, who crowded to him for the purpose of confession. At length he arrived at the array of the emperor Claudius ; where he met with the most friendly reception. A body of the most distinguished courtiers soon waited on him, announcing the em peror's wish to grant him an audience. He was received accordingly with great pomp and courte sy, and though, on the reading of the letter which announced the object of the embassy, the em peror's countenance suffered some change, : he soon recovered perfect composure. The mis sionary, however, having obtained a private au dience, represented to him the enormous errors under which he laboured, and called upon him to consider the obligation under which he and his kingdom lay, to pay their whole spiritual obe dience to the successor of St Peter. The king replied, that he was exceedingly well inclined to the Portuguese ; that he would grant them lands and settlements to the utmost extent of their Wishes j that they were at perfect liberty to exer- MISSION OF OVIEDO. 31 cise and teach their religion ; but as to compel ling his subjects to embrace the Romish faith, it would cause a great disturbance ; that they had been always accustomed to pay their submission to the patriarch of Alexandria j that they were quiet and content with their Abuna ; and that such a change would require at least serious con sultation with his friends and principal officers. — Oviedo, though highly indignant at this 'perfidy, as he terms it, yet, as some faint hope was still held out, resolved to temporize. He wrote a long letter, however, pointing out to the king the enor mous crime which he committed, in paying the smallest regard, upon such a question, to the opi nion of any friends or counsellors, however inti mate. No result being drawn from this letter, Oviedo next proposed, that a conference should be held in presence of his majesty, between him self and some of the Abyssinian doctors ; which was readily agreed to. ' The missionary being fa voured by supernatural aid, victoriously refuted, in his opinion, all the arguments urged by those personages. Unfortunately their impression was quite opposite, and they loudly exclaimed, that they had gained a complete victory over him. The king also stated, as the general impression produced in his mind by the conference, that he and his people lay under no obligation whatever to pay obedience to the church of Rome. Oviedo 14 32 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. seeing thus that by persuasion he could entertain no hope of making a single convert among prince or people, determined, as he states, to employ force. How he could hope, in the circumstances under which he stood, to wield such an instru ment with success, seems somewhat incomprehen sible. However, on the 2d of February 1559, he issued a rescript, a copy of which is given by Tel- lez. It begins by announcing that the whole na tion of Abyssinia, high and low, learned and un learned, had refused' to obey the church of Rome, which they were bound to obey ; that they prac tised circumcision ; that they used baptism of tener than once ; that they scrupled to eat the flesh of the hog and the hare ; and that they deemed it unlawful to go to church for a certain time after having had communication with their wives. In consideration of these enormities, he delivers them over to the judgment of the church, to be punished in person and goods, in public and private, by every means which the faithful could devise; unless in cases where the rules of the church would allow mercy to be extended to them. — What steps the missionaries took to enforce this curious rescript, is not recorded. It only ap pears, that, very soon after, a most furious perse cution arose, from which they very narrowly es caped with their lives. Unfortunately, about this time the emperor Claudius died; whom, unless MISSION OF OVIEDO. 33 in the perfidy above mentioned, they admit to have been their steady friend, and a most accom plished prince. He was succeeded by his son Manes, who assumed the name of Adamas Se gued, which he conceived honourable, from the illustrious ancestors by whom it had been borne* He little suspected, that he was thus delineating the darkest features in his own character. Ada mas, signifying adamant, expressed his cruelty and hardness of heart ; while Segued, being easily convertible into the Portuguese cego (blind) aptly illustrated his utter insensibility to the mysteries of the Catholic faith. Every action of his future life confirmed the missionaries in the soundness of this interpretation. His first step was to recal the permission which had been granted to the natives of Abyssinia, even those the most intimately con nected with the Portuguese, to profess the Romish religion. He next sent for Oviedo, and, in the course of conversation, burst into so violent a rage, that he drew his sword and ran towards the mis sionary, with the avowed intention of cutting off his head. The sword miraculously dropped from his hand ; but he assured the father, that unless a total change took place in his course of conduct, his life would soon be the forfeit. Oviedo was soon after banished to a remote and desolate mountain, where, it is said, he must have perished, but for the charity of a benevolent lady. During VOL. II, c 34 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. the whole reign of Adamas, the persecution against him never experienced any remission. The Pope, moved by the doleful accounts which he continually transmitted of his sufferings, wrote, proposing that he should leave Abyssinia, and un dertake some less turbulent mission. Oviedo de clined this offer ; but solicited without intermis sion 1500 Portuguese troops, with which he un dertook to convert not only Abyssinia, but all the neighbouring kingdoms. But though the king of Portugal shewed some disposition to adopt this suggestion, his zeal was never sufficiently ardent to carry it finally into effect. Oviedo died at Fra- mona in 1577- The next person who took a lead in the affairs ofthe Portuguese in Ethiopia was Pero Payz, who, along with Antonio de Montserrat, set out from Goa in February 1589. In passing through the Red Sea, he was taken captive by the Turks, and detained in captivity seven years. At the end of that time he was ransomed, and proceeded into Abyssinia. After being well received by his coun trymen at Fremona, he went forward to visit the emperor. Payz appears to have been a man supe rior in every respect to his predecessors in the same situation. Instead of endeavouring to carry every thing by main force, and overbearing inso lence, he sought to ingratiate himself with the emperor ; and his extensive information and ad* MISSION OF PAYZ. ' SS dress supplied him with many means of recom mending himself. Among others which he em- ployed during his residence, it is mentioned, that he superintended the construction of a house built after the European fashion ; an object astonishing to the eyes of those who had never seen houses but of one story, the walls built chiefly of clay, and roofed with grass or straw. Payz found, that nothing would conduce so much to his credit as such an erection, both by the admiration which it would excite, and by removing that spirit of unbelief which the pompous descriptions given of European architecture had excited. The task, however, was extremely arduous, as the Father had first to instruct the natives in the formation of pickaxes, hammers, chisels, and all the instru ments of masonry ; then to initiate them in the use of these, in cutting, shaping, and hewing the stones ; and, when the walls were built, to give similar instructions in all the departments of car pentry, in order that the interior might be proper ly finished. The whole, when completed, might, it is said, have formed a very tolerable country house for an European monarch. In Abyssinia, it was considered as one of the wonders of the world, and persons from the remotest parts ofthe empire flocked to view it. The raising, in parti cular, of one story above another, was considered by the whole nation as little short of a miracle. 36 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. A missionary possessed of the abilities and in formation of Payz, could not be long of gaining an ascendency over a rude and illiterate monarch. By address and persuasion he effected, in a few days, what the threats and violence of his prede cessors had vainly attempted during a series of years. The king not only professed himself a con vert to the Romish faith, but made it the establish ed religion of his dominions, which it continued to be for a long series of years. It is to be regret ted, that we do not possess the journal of a missionary so much superior in intelligence to any of those who either went before, or succeeded him. His manuscripts are said to have been widely circulated among the Jesuits, so that they are probably still in existence, though they have never been published. Some of his observations only are recorded by Tellez, to whom they were transmitted by Almeyda. Payz found the emperor at Ondegere, on the banks of his " celebrated and native Nile," near the place where it falls into the lake of Dembea. Here he held his arrayal or camp, in which con sisted all the court of Ethiopia, and all that could be reckoned a capital. It was enclosed within two large circles, formed by a stone wall, and a lofty hedge ; and within were a number of houses, built partly of stone and partly of clay, with roofs of straw. Herein, says the writer, " consist all MISSION OF PAYZ. 37 " the majestic palaces, the regal halls, the superb " structures, the columns of porphyry, the Co- " rinthian domes which were feigned to exist in " this Ethiopia, whose proudest edifice more re- " sembled the humble abode in which Evander " received the Trojan chief." He admits, how ever, that the Abyssinian monarchs may be ex cused for not building what, from the continual state of movement in which they are kept, it would be impossible for them to enjoy, Payz, during his residence, was invited to dine at the imperial table, of which he has left a description much more detailed than any that has appeared prior to Bruce. The ceremony began by the pages placing in the antichamber two tables, a smaller one for the emperor, and a larger for the fathers. Between these tables a curtain was drawn, as it was deem ed an inviolable custom in Ethiopia, that no one, except the pages in attendance, should see the emperor eat. Ten women then entered, bearing several large baskets, with coverings of straw or junk, resembling hats with very broad brims, so as to spread over the sides of the baskets. Within these baskets were twenty, thirty, or more, very broad and thin cakes of wheat or teff» After these came other women bearing earthen porringers with soups of various kinds. The table consisted of a round plank of five or six palms in diameter, which 38 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. was laid on the floor above the carpets. On this were placed the cakes, so as wholly to cover the whole, and supply the place of tablecloths. Here in, says the writer, consists all the apparatus and regal pomp of the table of the emperor of Ethio pia ; at which there is neither plate, nor knife, nor fork, nor spoon, nor vinegar-cruet, salt-cellar, pepper-box, nor dish for holding sugar, nor indeed any other article than has now been named. And it is worthy of remark, that the cakes, after hav ing served the purpose both of tablecloth and plates, serve next as food ; so that the accident which once happened to the Trojans in Italy, of eating their own tables, was nothing more than is every day seen in Ethiopia. Now, however, arrived the favourite dish;, raw flesh, which was placed upon the cakes. Then his imperial majesty drew out a species of hanger, which he carried with him, and began to cut the flesh into pieces. The pages took these pieces, and having crumbled down a portion of the cakes, formed the whole into mouthfuls so enormous, that it appeared quite impossible the mouth should contain them. They not only thrust them in, however, but continued to stuff them one after another without intermission, as if they had been stuffing a goose for a feast. During this time no mention was made of wine. The Abyssinians Deither drink nor speak in the time of meals ; but MISSION OF PAYZ. 3Q as soon as the table is removed, the cups are in troduced, and a gay conversation begins, which is continued till they are thoroughly emptied. The Abyssinians then rose, and went off abruptly, without noticing their guests or inviting them to remain. Our missionary was not much edified at this last part of his treatment. He rose and de parted ; but judged it advisable rather to shew himself grateful for the honour of being admitted to the emperor's table, than dissatisfied with any want of courtesy which might appear at the close of the festival. Another interesting fragment of Payz, preserv ed by Kircher, relates to his examination of the sources ofthe river, which he, in common with the rest of the Portuguese and Abyssinians, supposed to be the principal head of the Nile. As there seems every reason to believe, that he was the first, and probably, Bruce excepted, the only Eu ropean visitor of these " coy fountains," it may not be amiss to give in full the passage where he describes them. " The source of the Nile is situated in the ele vated part of a valley, which resembles a large plain, surrounded on every side with ridges of hills. While I resided in this kingdom with the emperor and his army, I ascended this place on the 21st April 1618, and took a diligent survey of every part of it. I saw two round fountains, 4(X TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. both about four palms in diameter. Great was my pleasure in beholding what Cyrus, king of the Persians, Cambyses, Alexander the Great, and the renowned Julius Caesar, sought eagerly, but in vain, to reach. The water is very clear, light, and agreeable to the taste ; yet these two fountains have no outlet in the higher part ofthe mountain plain, but only at the foot. In trying their depth, we thrust into the first a lance, which, going down eleven palms, seemed then, as it were, to strike against the roots of the neighbouring trees, entangled together. The second fountain is about a stone's cast east from the first ; to as certain the depth of which we put down a lance of twelve palms, but found no bottom ; then, by joining two lances together, we made a depth of twenty palms, but still found none. The inha bitants say that the whole mountain is full of water, which they prove by this, that all the plain about the fountain is tremulous and bubbling, — -a sure proof of water beneath ; and that, for the same cause, the water does not run over the sources, but throws itself out with greater force lower down. The inhabitants, and the emperor himself, affirmed, that though the ground had trembled little this year, on account of the great dryness, yet that, in common seasons, it shook and bubbled to such a degree as scarcely to be approached without danger. About a league west MISSION OF PAYZ. 41 from the source is a village, called Gulx, (Geesh), inhabited by heathens, who sacrifice many cows. They come to the source on a certain day of the year, with a sacrificer, whom they account a priest, who sacrifices a cow at the fountain ; and, having cut off the head, throws it into the abyss with a variety of ceremonies, which make him pass for a great saint among these people." Payz than relates the early course of the Nile, —the tributaries which it receives, — its crossing the Dembea, with a visible separation of waters, —the tremendous cataract of Alata, — and then the semicircular course round Begemder, Shoa, Amhara, and Damot, till it approaches within a day's journey of its sources. The regions which it next watered were barbarous and almost un, known, so that by an Abyssinian prince, who had lately marched an army into them, they were call ed the " New World." Passing then " through " innumerable regions, and over stupendous pre- " cipices," it enters Egypt, Amid the prosperous state into which Payz had brought the Portuguese affairs in Abyssinia, con siderable difficulty occurred in communicating with the government in E,uroPe- The province of Tigre, by which alone they could reach Massuah, was in a state of rebellion ; and supposingthat dan ger surmounted, the Red Sea was entirely in pos- 42 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. session of the Turks, — the deadly enemies of the Christian name. There seemed no hope, there^ fore, of the object being accomplished, unless by penetrating along the southern frontier of Abys sinia to the Indian ocean, and thence proceeding to Goa. This route, however, being also attend ed with the most imminent dangers and difficul ties, it was determined to chuse by lot the per-? son who was to undertake it. The lot fell upon Antonio Fernandez, a person of sufficient vigour and enterprise, who chose for his companion an Abyssinian convert, called Fecur Egzie. They began by crossing the Nile, at a point where there was neither bridge nor boat, but merely a loose and ill-constructed raft. They came then into the country of the Gongas, and of the peo ple of Bizamo, called here Caffres. These peo ple, heathen, and almost savages, were under a species of subjection to Abyssinia ; yet it was only by the combined application of threats and presents that a passage could be effected through their territory. The travellers passed the Maleg after some difficulty in finding the ford, and ar rived soon in the territory of Narea. This king dom consists of a large plain, surrounded by mountains. It is fertile, abounding in corn and cattle ; and gold, though not produced in the country itself, is brought abundantly from the south and west. This appears to be the highest JOURNEY OF FERNANDEZ. 43 land in this part of Africa ; as the rivers here separate, some flowing to the north, and falling into the Nile, while others, of which the princi pal is the Zebee, flow southwards to the Indian Ocean. The Benero (such is the title assumed by tbe sovereign of Narea) being subject to Abys sinia, the travellers were received with every spe cies of outward courtesy ; but that prince is be lieved to have viewed their mission with great jealousy. He understood it to be sent with the view of bringing Portuguese troops into Abyssi nia, the consequence of which might be, that the whole country would be subject to foreigners, and compelled to embrace the Catholic religion. He called therefore a council of his nobles, to contrive, if possible, some method of arresting their progress, without giving offence to the court of Abyssinia. After much deliberation,, it was determined, that, instead of pointing out the pro per road to the sea coast, they should be directed to one so remote and circuitous, as to make it next to impossible that they should ever reach their destination. With this view, they were advised to go by Gingiro and Cambat to Cape Guardafui ; and as the ambassador of Gingiro happened to be then at Narea, he undertook to become their guide. Their dangers began imme diately. They first entered a countiy entirely possessed by the Galla, and through which par- 44 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. ties of those savages were continually scouring. To avoid them, it was necessary to travel only under night, and to hide themselves during the day in the forests and bushes. In this manner they travelled for four or five days, when descend ing a very steep mountain, they came to the banks of the Zebee, a river which appeared to them to roll a greater mass of waters than the Nile. It was here sunk to a vast depth beneath perpendicular rocks, between which it rolled with prodigious rapidity. To the Portuguese, as they cast their eyes into the abyss, and heard the aw ful roarings of the flood beneath, it appeared as if they were looking down into the infernal re gions. But all their attention was soon drawn to the mode in which this frightful gulf was to be passed. The sole bridge consisted of the trunk of a tree, so long that it reached across from rock to rock. The moment this bridge felt the small est weight above it, it began immediately to quiver and creak, like a green twig. The tra vellers started " with horror backward ;" but the Galla, a worse fear, urged them behind. At length, after much trepidation, the boldest of the party put his foot on this frail support, and treading lightly, reached the opposite bank. The rest then passed one by one, leaving two to guard the cattle, with instructions, if the Galla should come, to save themselves instantly, and abandon JOURNEY OF FERNANDEZ. 45 their charge. Those dreadful enemies, however, did not appear, and a ford was afterwards found in a neighbouring valley, over which the cattle were driven. This danger past, they were not long of arriving at the capital of Gingiro. Their arrival was immediately announced to the king ; but that monarch was so deeply employed in ope rations of witchcraft, which forms here the main engine of state policy, that he could not receive them into his presence for eight days. They were then sent for, and found the king seated on a scaffold twenty-five palms high, and which wa9 ascended by steps in front. His courtiers stood on foot upon the ground, to whom, says the writer, he issued his orders from this lofty height like a thundering Jupiter. As soon as the letter of the king of Abyssinia was shewn to him, he came down from the scaffold, received it on foot, and inquired for the health of the emperor, after which he reascended, and conversed for some time through the medium of an interpreter. This interpreter, whenever the king spake, kissed the tips of his fingers, and then stooping, kissed the ground, and when he had received Fernandez's answer, went through the same salutations before delivering it to the king. That prince made many inquiries about the health of the king of Abyssinia ; said that the object of the letters was to request him to use them well, and to supply 46 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. them with whatever they wanted, which he pro mised to do. Gingiro is considered by Bruce as the entrance into the dominions of the Devil in Africa ; and, in fact, it appears to be the first state, in this quarter, where the system of magic and feticherie, so widely diffused over that continent, begins fully to prevail. The mode of election to the crown is so exceedingly barbarous, that I know not whether to give full credit to it, though it seems confirmed by Bruce. The crown is here ditary in one family ; but, among the sons of the deceased, the election is made in the following manner : As soon as the sovereign dies, these princes run out, like wild beasts, to hide them selves in the bushes and thickets. Presently, all the persons attached to the court set forth in chase of their future sovereign. The flight of a bird of prey is the signal by which they are guided to him. The fidelity of the omen is con firmed by the finding him surrounded with lions; panthers* and other wild beasts. He himself, counterfeiting their nature, resists and attacks those who come to raise him to the sovereignty ; taking care, however, to allow himself to be over come in due time. His accession is celebrated by the death of two persons of distinction, with whose blood the threshold of his door is besmeared. The travellers left Gingiro, and, at the end of JOURNEY OF FERNANDEZ. 47 the first day's journey, came again to the banks of the terrible Zebee. Here they fell into " new " agonies," for while the stream rolled still with tempestuous rapidity, there was not even a plank which could assist them in crossing. Their con ductors, however, lighted upon a contrivance* which Fernandez particularly describes, that, as he says, the mathematicians and engineers of Europe may see, that they do not enjoy a mono poly of the power of invention, but have rivals among the Gingiros, from whom such refinements could be little expected. They killed a cow, and formed the hide into a species of large bladder, into which they put some of their clothes, partly with the view of conveying them over, and partly to serve as bal last. The bladder was then strongly inflated, and to each extremity was attached a piece of wood, like a common walking cane ; to each end of which was fastened one ofthe party, so that four, altogether, were at one time attached to it. The instrument formed a species of balance ; it was necessary that the two sides should be made per fectly equal, and particularly, that the passengers should remain immoveable, and should not stir or bend their body in any direction, otherwise the equipoise was lost, and the machine overturn ed. An able swimmer, before, performed the of fice of a prow, and drew the machine on by a rope S3 48 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. attached to it; while two behind, acting as a stern, endeavoured to direct its movements. Thus they at length reached the opposite shore, though car ried by the impetuosity of the stream far below the point from which they had set out. On land ing, they fell on their knees, and returned fervent thanks to heaven for having delivered them out of this balance. Having overcome these formidable natural ob stacles, the Portuguese now made their way, with difficulty, through the kingdom of Cambat; They then reached Alaba, a Moorish territory, the governor of which judged them persons who ought to be inquired into. There chanced to be at hand an Abyssinian schismatic, who assur ed him that they were on their way to bring from India a body of Portuguese troops, with a view to the total extirpation of the Mahometan faith. He considered himself, therefore, as acting a very lenient part when he spared their lives, and mere*- ly gave them instructions to return as they came; The travellers, accordingly, thought themselves too happy in again reaching Abyssinia alive, without any farther attempt to fulfil the object of their mission.* Jerome Lobo set sail from Lisbon in March, and arrived at Goa on the 16th of December * Tellez Ethiopia a Alta IV. 2—10. LOBO'S JOURNEY. 49 1622. Soon after his landing, intelligence ar rived from Abyssinia of the conversion of Sultan Segued, with many of his subjects, and that a larger supply of missionaries was alone necessary to improve these prosperous beginnings. Eight, therefore, of whom Lobo was one, were chosen for this important mission. Great difference of opinion arose, as to the best mode of penetrating into the interior of that kingdom. Four went by the Red Sea, and after being detained for some time in custody by the Turks, reached their destination. Two went by Zeila, where, falling into the hands of the king, a zealous Ma hometan, they were first thrown into a dungeon, and afterwards their heads were struck off. Lobo and his companions determined, upon some vague information, to seek a route by the way of Me linda. Such a course could only be suggested by the most erroneous views of African geography. Our author, however, after a voyage of eleven days, landed at Pate, at the mouth of the Quilli. manci. At this place he could learn nothing of Abyssinia, but was assured that the country be hind was occupied by the Galies, the most dread ful savages in nature, who laid waste wherever they went, and were the terror of Africa. This dismal intelligence did not deter him from at tempting to explore the country. He set out for Lubo, a large capital, about forty miles dis- VOL. II. D 50 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. tant along the coast, and where he arrived af ter enormous difficulties and hardships. In the neighbourhood of this place were encamped a large body of Galies, whom our traveller had soon an opportunity of seeing. All the accounts before heard of their savage habits were here confirmed. They expose all the children born when they are in a state of war, though they rear them in a settled state. They eat raw cow's flesh, and wear the entrails round their necks as ornaments. They shewed utter amazement at the view of a white man ; and pulled off the shoes and stockings, to ascertain that the whole was of the same colour. Being enraged by the rash speech of a Portuguese, they brandished their swords, and threatened to kill the whole party ; but a seasonable display of the power of fire-arms soon reduced them to mildness and sub mission. Lobo found it necessary, with a view to his ob ject of inquiring the road to Abyssinia, to wait upon their king. He found that monarch in a straw hut, somewhat larger than those of his sub jects. His courtiers surrounded him, all bearing staffs, that were long or short in proportion to their rank. As Lobo entered, these staffs were instantly employed in beating him back to the door ; and on his inquiring the motive of such un courteous usage, he was assured, that this was LOBO'S JOURNEY. 51 the invariable mode in which the Galies receiv ed a stranger, thereby proving at once their resT pect for him, and their own prowess. Our tra veller then thought fit to take it in good part, though he inwardly grieved that he should have placed himself in the power of men, who testified their hospitality by such tokens. He contrived, however, to draw from them an oath, made in their most sacred manner, by placing their hands over the head of a sheep smeared with butter, that no injury should be done to him. Inquiring then the route to Abyssinia, he was assured that that country lay at an immense distance, and that nine barbarous nations intervened, among whom his life would not for a moment be in safety. He gave iip, therefore, all idea of proceeding in this direction. Before leaving the coast, he was seized with a violent fever, which required blood letting, and thus afforded him a specimen of Moorish surgery. The operator laid bare his side, to which he fastened three large horns ; then drawing out a species of rusty poinard, made suc cessive wounds with it, till a sufficient quantity of blood had flowed. Our traveller recovered from that moment ; but whether from the natural effect of the operation, or from the violent agita tion of fear into which it threw him, he was un able to determine. The next attempt was made by the way of Dun- 52 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. cali, a small kingdom on the south-east of Abys sinia, not far from the Straits of Babelmandel. Here Lobo was led, in a few days, though by a somewhat difficult track, to the residence of the king, who had been instructed by the Abyssinian monarch to gave him a good reception. The missionaries found him in his capital, being a village of six tents and twenty cabins. His re sidence, which stood at a little distance from the rest, consisted of a single apartment ; on one side of which dwelt the monarch, and on the other his horse, which, in this country, is considered as al ways entitled to the same roof with its master. He professed the most friendly disposition, and assured them that they might consider this coun try as their own. When they drew forth their present, however, he scornfully rejected it, as inadequate to his dignity ; though, on declaring that it was utterly impossible to give more, he was fain, with a very bad grace, to accept it. From that time they experienced much ill treat ment from the inhabitants, and provisions were even withheld ; all which they easily traced to the king's anxiety to extract from them gifts to the utmost possible amount. They judged it necessary, therefore, to make a warm remon strance, and to threaten making a report of this treatment to the emperor. This produced the desired effect; — they obtained provisions, and LOBO'S JOURNEY. 53 were enabled to proceed on their journey. The track lay, for a great distance, through an arid and desolate plain, where Lobo considers it as solely owing to a miraculous interposition that they did not perish, either by thirst or the bites of serpents. An opening in the mountains then brought them to a delightful and refreshing spot, whence they found cooling breezes, clear streams, and forests blooming with perpetual verdure. This, however, proved only the approach to an other dreary track through the great plain whence Abyssinia is supplied with salt. Our .author gives a very unsatisfactory account of its formation, as derived from the water flowing down from the mountains, and congealing into that mineral. This route also was very desolate, but he became soon insensible to hardship, " fear having entirely " engrossed his mind." It was constantly beset, he understood, by the Galla, with the view of plundering the numerous caravans which carried salt from this plain into the interior of Abyssinia. Accordiqgly, they were soon frozen with horror, by seeing on the road the dead bodies of a cara van recently massacred. Another troop, they had reason to believe, was in search of themselves, whom they missed by little more than an hour. Happily they escaped all these perils, and arrived safely at Fremona, the principal Catholic mon astery in Abyssinia, where every thing was done 54 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. to make them forget the hardships through which they had passed. As soon as the missionaries were recruited from their fatigues, they began to enter upon their spi ritual functions. They soon arrived at a village situated upon a mountain, from the chief of which the known favour of the emperor secured them a hospitable reception. But scarcely were they seated, when the whole neighbourhood began to echo with shrieks and lamentations, like those of persons involved in the most dreadful calamity. On inquiry, they learned that their arrival was the sole cause of this pitiable affliction. The in habitants firmly believed, it seems, that they were the emissaries of the devil, and would certainly entrap a few of their countrymen, whose fate they were thus deploring. They were firmly assured also, that the course of the missionaries was speedily to be followed by clouds of grasshoppers (locusts), the scourge of the country, and the sure precursors of famine. There happened this year to be a peculiar inroad of these terrible insects, which led the people easily to credit the report ; never reflecting, says Lobo, " that the country " was tormented by locusts, before there were Je- " suits in Abyssinia, or even in the world." It was also a firm article of belief, that the hosts administered in the sacrament were compounded of juices strained from the blood of the camel, the LOBO'S NARRATIVE. 55 dog, the hare, and the swine ; being the four ani mals which are held in utter abomination through out Abyssinia. Every protestation to the contrary was in vain ; whenever this symbol of religion appeared, precipitate flight was the consequence. The Jesuits endeavoured to ingratiate themselves with the lady of the village, hoping, through her means, to procure some favour with the people, but in vain ; and, indeed, the fair sex seem to have been invariably their enemies. They paid a visit to some of the neighbouring villages ; but their arrival awakened always the same dole ful concert ; and, as grief turned sometimes into rage, their lives, but for the protection of the governors, might have fallen a sacrifice. They soon therefore judged it most advisable to return to their head-quarters at Fremona. Lobo seems to have expected and wished to have been sent on a mission to court ; instead of which he was appointed superintendent of the monasteries in the province of Tigre. This charge was render ed peculiarly painful by the famine, which the in road ofthe locusts, so unjustly imputed to himself, had occasioned. The monastery was besieged by unhappy persons, whom want had driven from their habitations, and whose meagre forms, and pale aspect, indicated the excess of their misery. The utmost exertions of charity were insufficient to prevent many from perishing with hunger. 5b' TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. About this time a civil dissension arose, in which the missionaries were very nearly involved. The viceroy of Tigre had married a daughter of the emperor ; but that lady, instead of paying any regard to her conjugal duties, abandoned herself to every species of dissoluteness. The viceroy, it seems, " was more nice in that matter than peo- " pie of rank in this country generally are." It would seem as if the father thought the nicety somewhat superfluous ; though he admits, that it requires a considerable degree of patience to en dure such injuries. " The viceroy's virtue," says he, " was not proof against this temptation ; he " fell into a deep melancholy," and made bitter complaints to the emperor of the scandalous con duct of his daughter. That monarch, it appears, treated the affair very lightly, which more and more exasperated the viceroy, till he at length de termined to raise the standard of revolt. In this crisis he applied for the aid of the Abyssinian priests, who readily promised to espouse his cause, provided he would assist them in putting to death all the Romish missionaries. The viceroy, though on a pretty intimate footing with Lobo, listened only to the dictates of policy, and promised every thing to the priests. He used various stratagems and allurements to draw the father into his power, and the latter had even set out to visit him ; but learning fully the course which the prince was LOBO'S JOURNEY. 57 pursuing, he turned back and regained Fremona. The viceroy now raised openly the standard of re bellion, but was soon after defeated by the impe rial army, and put to death. Lobo was now ordered, by his superiors, into the kingdom of Damot, on the south-western frontier of Abyssinia. On his way he crossed the Nile (Bahr-el-Azrek), about two days' journey from its source. There was neither boat nor bridge, and the multitude of crocodiles and hippo potami rendered it extremely dangerous to swim. The only way of passing is on floats, guided by long poles ; and even these are dangerous, as the above mentioned amphibia often cause them to overset. Lobo seems to have felt an extraordinary emotion at the view of this celebrated stream, and to have been highly elated with the idea of being so near that fountain head, which the greatest monarchs of antiquity had in vain laboured to approach. He thus describes the source, in a manner which would lead us to suppose that he had actually visited it : — " This spring, or rather these two " springs, are two holes, each about two feet dia- " meter, a stone's cast distant from each other ; " the one is but about five feet and a half in "depth, at least we could not get our plummet " farther, perhaps because it was stopped by " roots, for the whole place is full of trees ; of ¦¦" the other, which is somewhat less, with a line 58 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. " of ten feet we could find no bottom, and were " assured by the inhabitants, that none ever had " been found." He describes also a little hill at the top of the mountain, where the high-priest annually assembled the idolatrous Agows, and sacrificed a cow, the head of which is thrown into one of the fountains, after which a general sacri fice and festival takes place. The stream is at first so narrow, as to be in danger of being dried up during the hot season ; but being swelled by several accessions, it reaches, at three days' jour ney from its source, to such a breadth, that a mus ket shot will scarcely reach across. Our author next describes its crossing the lake of Dembea, without mixing its waters ; its precipitation down the cataract of Alata, " one of the most beau- " tiful water-falls in the world, where he was " charmed with a thousand delightful rainbows ;" its vast semicircular sweep round Gojam and Da mot, till it returns within a short day's journey of its spring ; and its final course through un known regions to the west. He was ignorant of its farther course, till it arrived on the plains of Egypt. The author represents the part of the province of Damot in which he now resided, as the most charming spot he had ever beheld. The air is healthful and temperate, the mountains shaded with cedars and other trees, which afford refresh- LOBO'S JOURNEY. 59 ment and coolness, without any thing uncouth or savage. The inhabitants sow and reap at all seasons, the ground is always producing, and the whole country resembles a pleasure-garden. It was not, therefore, without regret, that, after a re sidence of several years, he was recalled to Tigre. The concluding part of Lobo's residence was altogether disastrous. Sultan Segued falling into a state of dotage, great part of the power devolv ed upon his son, who, though outwardly a Catho lic, cherished a secret attachment to the ancient faith. Under shelter of his connivance, the great men of Abyssinia gave full scope to that dead ly antipathy which they had always cherished against the Romish missionaries. Lobo was as sured that the viceroy of Tigre had formed a plan to deliver them as prisoners into the hands of the Turks. To avoid this fate, they fled, and put themselves into the hands of a chief who was then in rebellion against Abyssinia. This person re ceived them at first with all imaginable kindness ; but, to their utter consternation, they soon found themselves involved in the fate which they had fled to avoid, and were sold to the basha of Sua- kem. Their apprehensions, on approaching this destination, were very considerable ; as the basha was known to be a rooted enemy to the Catholics, and to have declared, that he would die content provided he had the satisfaction of killing them 60 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. all with his own hand. On their arrival, accord ingly, he for some time talked of nothing but im paling and flaying alive. On finding, however, that a liberal ransom might be obtained, his views changed, and he directed his rigour solely to the object of extorting the utmost possible sum. A high ransom being accordingly paid, they were at length set at liberty, and sailed for Diu. Lobo gives a somewhat particular account of the Abyssinian religion. There does not from thence appear much room for such extreme zeal to convert them to the Catholic faith, as they ap pear merely to carry a little farther some of its superstitions. Their reverence for the Holy Vir gin surpasses even that of the Romish church, and it is their boast, that no nation on earth, ex cept themselves, entertains an adequate sense of the dignity of that sacred personage. Their fasts are much stricter, as they include milk and but ter, and the country affording no fish, they are reduced to roots and pulse. The country is so full of churches and monasteries, that it is scarce ly possible to sing in one without being heard by another. This singing, indeed, is extremely audi ble, for, besides straining their voices to the high est pitch, they fall to leaping, dancing, and clap ping of hands, so that it seems rather a riotous meeting than a religious assembly. The father having reproached them with this tumultuous spe- lobo's journey. 61 cies of worship, they defended it by quoting the words of the Psalmist, " Clap your hands, all ye " nations." In regard to the food of the Abyssinians, Lobo entirely confirms their passion for raw flesh. " When they feast a friend, they kill an ox, and " set immediately a quarter of him raw upon the " table (for their most elegant treat is raw meat " newly killed) with pepper and salt ; the gall of " the ox serves them for oil and vinegar." By those who wished to entertain well our missionary, this treat was liberally offered to him ; and he could not decline it with grace, unless by saying that it was too good for him. Beer and mead are their favourite liquors, and are used to excess ; " nor can there be a greater offence against good " manners, than to let the guests go away sober." The common people are very poorly apparelled ; but the rich use splendid dresses. They love bright and glaring colours, and wear commonly silks covered with gold and silver embroidery. In 1673 there was published in London, by the printer to the Royal Society, a " Short Re- " lation of the river Nile, by an eye-witness, " translated out of the Portuguese by Sir Peter " Wyche." This has been generally supposed to be an extract from Lobo's manuscript, and bears some marks of it ; but it differs from the account found in his travels. In this relation, the two 62 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. springs are compared to two eyes, and said to be each about the size of a coach-wheel. They " rise " in a little field covered with green and thick " wood. Travellers, and especially horsemen, are " easily convinced that this ground stands in the " water, from its trembling and hollow sound. " This field is lost in a lake, where 'tis under water. " This plain is on the top of a high mountain over- " looking many spacious valleys, and from this " height insensibly descends. From the middle " of this descent is seen, near a trench entangled " with shrubs, the bigger of these springs, whose " bottom is not to be reached with a lance of five " and twenty palms, which, by the way, meets " with (as is guessed) the roots of the neighbour- " ing shrubs, so hindering further passage ; the " other spring is to be fathomed at sixteen palms. At little more than two days' journey from its head, the Nile is said to become so deep, that vessels may sail in it. Immediately after, it is so contracted between rocks that it may be stepped over. After treating at length of the grandeur and importance of the Nile, he concludes : " This " secret, with divers others of many parts of the " world, and their discovery, was reserved for the " indefatigable industry of the Portuguese, who " have seen with their eyes what many have de- " sired but could not obtain." BARATTl's JOURNEY. 63 In 1655 an Italian gentleman, Sig. Giacomo Baratti, undertook a journey to the east, and ar rived at Cairo. He met here with the Abuna, who was about to depart, in order to exercise his ecclesiastical functions in Abyssinia. The ad vantage of travelling with a person of such dis tinction, appeared to Baratti a sufficient motive to give this direction to his wandering inclina tions. They set out for Suez, intending to sail down the Red Sea, but the dread of the Turkish pirates induced them to take the very tedious and difficult route by land. It was rendered easier, however, by their joining the retinue of an am bassador from the Grand Signior to the king of Abyssinia. The route lay chiefly over craggy mountains, where they saw only wild beasts, en tirely different from those of Europe. They met a few straggling tents of Arabians, distinguished for nothing but " poverty and misery." Their food was roots, or such wild beasts as they could kill ; their clothing merely the large leaves of a particular species of tree which grows in the forests. These, being fastened to a string tied about their waists, hang down " like pendants," so as barely to answer the call of decency. He remarks, however, that they thus resemble Euro pean nobility, in having every day a change of apparel. On coming to the frontier of the Bar- nagasso, they found a race of people, who, though 64 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. calling themselves Christians, scarcely differed' from the heathens, unless in name. Their houses were fitter for wild beasts than men, the walls being chiefly of mud, the roof of cane and reeds, and the whole fabric supported by a wooden pillar standing in the centre of the hut. In passing through Tigre, they found the coun try dreadfully laid waste by a Turkish invasion. They came then to the residence of the emperor, where the Abuna was received with great pomp, and our traveller admitted to the honour of kiss ing the sovereign's garment. Baratti's intimacy with the Abyssinian clergy, consequent upon his connexion with the Abuna, procured to him a view of the place where the princes are confined. It was shewn to him by the bishop of Amhara. It is a strong castle, about two miles in circumference, containing gardens and walks beautifully watered by artifi cial fountains, which maintain a perpetual ver dure. The place appeared to him as delicious as any he had ever beheld. The princes cannot quit it unless in company with their governors ; and they can in no case leave the mountain, which is approachable only by a narrow pass carefully guarded. He saw the library, compos ed of ten thousand manuscript volumes, some of which he was told were the most ancient books in the world, being written by the Egyptian 25 BARATTl's JOURNEY. 65 sages in the time of Moses. Some appeared to him to be made ofthe Egyptian papyrus. Twenty- three persons were constantly employed in tran scribing such manuscripts as seemed to be falling into decay. The author gives a very favourable view of the Abyssinian clergy, who, both in belief and prac tice, appear much superior to the Romish priests who were so zealous for their conversion. Their monks do not devote themselves to idleness and beggary, like those of Europe ; they employ a great part of the day in moderate labour, visiting the sick, and other charitable offices, and spend the evening in conversation and innocent amuse ments. They live together in the greatest har mony ; so that our author conceives, if there is a paradise upon earth, it is among these monks and friars of Ethiopia. In addition to their old Creed, they have drawn up a new one to guard against the errors of the church of Rome. They declare, that, though the Virgin Mary be worthy of the highest reverence, she is neither to be worshipped nor prayed to ; that the cross is a mere badge of their profession, and possesses no virtue in itself; that* though St Peter was the chief of the apostles, his successors at Rome en joy no authority over the rest of the church ; that the apostles and martyrs are to be reverenced along with the angels, but not to be prayed to, VOL. II. E 66 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. nor their merits imputed to us ; and that priests may be lawfully married, provided it be to one wife only. From these specimens, we may judge how far the religion of Abyssinia would have been improved by the introduction of the Catho lic faith. In 1698, the emperor of Abyssinia being ex tremely indisposed, sent a message, accompanied with liberal promises, to Poncet, an eminent phy sician at Cairo, requesting that he would come and afford him the benefit of his medical advice. Poncet accepted the invitation ; and the opportu nity being judged favourable for making a new attempt to establish the Catholic religion, Xavier de Brevedent, a Jesuit missionary, went along with him. On the 2d October they set out from Siout with the Sennaar caravan. Poncet felt an extraordinary emotion at entering this desert of moving sand, where the slightest breeze raised a cloud that darkened the air. The,danger is here imminent, of separating even for the smallest space from the rest ofthe caravan, as in this case it is scarcely possible ever to rejoin it, or to avoid being lost in these immense deserts. In four days they arrived at Helaoua, (Ellwah), called commonly the Greater Oasis. The name signi fies the country of sweets, and it seemed entirely to answer the appellation. Gardens watered poncet's journey. 67 with rivulets, and the perpetual verdure of palm- trees, formed the most agreeable contrast with the country they had left. All the fields were over spread with senna ; but that shrub* so highly prized in Europe, is never used in this country. They now entered on another desert, much more extensive and complete than the one they had first traversed. Here they could not discover a single spring or rivulet ; neither birds, beasts, grass, nor even the smallest insect ; nothing but mountains, dead bodies and bones of camels, ob jects which struck our traveller with inexpressible horror. After passing Chabba, (Sheb), a region abounding in alum, they came to Selyme, where they found excellent water, and supplied them selves with a stock of that necessary for five days. They did not, however, see a human habitation till they arrived at Machoo, (Moscho), a large town on the eastern shore of the Nile, where that river forms several fertile islands. Their route now lay along its shores, through a fertile and agreeable valley, which did not, however, extend above a league in breadth, and bordered imme diately on the most frightful deserts. Even this limited fertility is not the gift of nature, for, as the banks are high, no inundation takes place 5 but the water is raised by machines drawn by oxen into vast reservoirs, whence it is distributed over the district. 68 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. On the 13th November Poncet arrived at Don- gola, and is, so far as we recollect, the only mo dern traveller who has visited this ancient capi tal of Nribia. His description of it is not very splendid. It stands on the declivity of a dry sandy hill, and the streets are almost choked with sand, which the floods bring down from the mountains behind. The houses ate low and ill built, the streets half deserted. The castle, which stands in the centre of the city, is spaci ous, but poorly fortified, though it is sufficient to keep the Arabs in check. They dined several times with the king, . who was dressed in green velvet, and had a numerous guard, armed with long swords and pikes. Persons of rank here go bareheaded, their hair being disposed in tresses, and their whole attire consisting in a rude vest without sleeves. Their horses are perfectly beau tiful, and the riders very skilful. They profess the Mahometan religion, but know nothing of it beyond the confession of faith* which they con tinually repeat. Their usual course of life is irre gular and dissolute in the extreme. Father Bre- vedent is said to have shed tears on reflecting that they were once Christians, and fell away, merely from the want of missionaries to instruct them. On the 6th January 1699 the party left Don- gola, and arrived at Korti, in the kingdom of Sennaar. The people who inhabit the banks of poncet's journey. 69 the river, above this place, are in a lawless state, and plunder all the caravans that pass ; travellers are therefore obliged to take their course through the desert of Bahiouda. This desert, however, is less frightful than those of Libya, and not desti tute of herbs and trees. After some days they arrived at Derrara, (Derri), on the banks of the Nile ; and some time after, at Guerri, (Gerri), they crossed that river. The goods and passen gers were conveyed in boats, but the cattle were fastened with ropes, and made to swim over. After travelling through some fine forests of aca cias, they arrived at the city of Sennaar, the situ ation of which appeared enchanting. Poncet describes it as large, containing 100,000 souls. The houses are poorly built, though the flat roofs form agreeable terraces. The king's palace is surrounded with a lofty brick wall, but the edi fices which compose it are not arranged with any degree of order or taste. The apartments, how ever, are richly adorned with carpets. They were introduced to the king the day after their arrival. After passing through a spacious court, paved with a kind of delft ware, they found the monarch seated cross-legged on a Very neat sofa, surrounded by about twenty old men. He him self was only nineteen, well made, of a majestic stature, and, though black, had neither the thick lips nor flat nose usually found in the negro race. 7(5 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. He was dressed in a long silken vest embroidered with gold, having over it a kind of scarf made of very fine cotton. Before entering, they were obliged to pull off their shoes ; and on being ushered into the presence, did homage, by falling on their knees, and thrice kissing the ground. The king shewed great pleasure at the view of the glasses, curiosities, &c. which were offered as presents, and put many questions, which shewed an intelligent and inquisitive turn of mind. The chief amusement of this monarch was to make an excursion twice a-week into the country, with a numerous cavalcade of courtiers and attendants. Most of his time there was spent in seeing his nobles fire at a mark. On other days he devoted himself almost entirely to public business, parti cularly to the administration of justice, which is performed in the summary manner usual over all the east. On the death of a king of Sennaar, the great council assembles, and having fixed upon the heir, immediately takes measures for putting all his brothers to death. One brother of the reigning monarch, however, had escaped this barbarous precaution, and was now in Abys sinia. Poncet was much struck with the cheapness of all commodities at Sennaar. A camel cost only seven or eight livres, an ox two and a half, a sheep fifteen pence, and a hen a penny. The poncet's journey. 71 market was held daily in an open square, in the centre of the city. There was also a slave mar ket in the square before the palace. An exten sive trade was carried on by way of Saquem, (Suakem), on the Red Sea. The exports were ivory, tamarinds, civet, gold dust, &c. ; the im ports very various, chiefly spices, hardware, toys, particularly a species of black beads made at Venice. Our traveller, for what reason we know not, spent three months at Sennaar, during which time he was treated with the greatest honours. It then appeared time to proceed on his destination. He was delayed nineteen days at Geasim, (Gie- sim). Here the plain terminating, and the coun try rising into mountains, they were obliged to sell all their camels, as unfit for travelling over rough and uneven ground. After passing for some days through vast groves of tamarind trees, they arrived at Serka, the frontier town of Abys sinia. The route lay now over mountains, culti vated to the summit, and covered with fine trees unknown to Europe. On the road Father Breve- dent died, an event deeply lamented by Poncet, who, besides various other eminent qualities, ascribes to him the gift of prophecy, and the power of working miracles. On the 21st July he arrived at Gondar, and the very next day re ceived a private visit from the emperor, whom. 72 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. he continued to see almost daily ; but it was not till the 10th of August that he was able to attend a public audience. He found the emperor seated on his throne ; it was a kind of sofa, the feet of which were of solid gold, and was covered with a carpet and cushions richly ornamented with gold. It was placed in an alcove at the upper end of the hall, under a dome glittering with gold and blue. The monarch's head was bare, with a large emerald above the forehead. The rest of his dress consisted of a vest and sash, both richly embroidered with gold. Poncet made three low bows to the emperor, and kissed his hand. The usual previous cere mony of a triple prostration, and kissing the feet, was dispensed with in bis case, out of very pecu liar favour. The never-failing ceremony of pre sents passed in a satisfactory manner ; the doc tor was then made to sit down, and a magnificent collation served up. The emperor immediately placed himself under the course of medicine prescribed by our traveller, the effect of which was so happy, that in a short time he was perfectly cured ; a result which add ed greatly to the favour which Poncet had previ ously enjoyed. The monarch, being extremely devout, determined now to take the sacrament according to the rites of his country ; and our traveUer was invited to witness the ceremony. poncet's journey. 73 It was. celebrated with a profuse display of world ly pomp. Twelve thousand men were drawn up in the court of the palace, through whom the emperor marched in his most splendid attire, pre ceded by the sound of fifes, kettle-drums, trum pets, hautboys, and other instruments. His crown, adorned with a cross of jewels, was car ried before him, and his led horses, covered with immensely rich trappings, closed the procession. On the entrance into the church two cannons were fired, and two more when the sacrament was administered. The emperor dined that day in public. Our traveller's account of the dishes coincides precisely with that pf Lobo, with the addition, that every thing which the monarch eats is previously tasted. A little brandy, fol lowed by mead, were the only liquors used by him. Poncet was s rprised at the absence of wine, considering the admirable grapes which the country produced. He was told, however, that the heat prevented wine from keeping ; and, on tasting the mead, he found it delicious, though not very salutary to the stomach. Gondar is three or four leagues in circumfe rence, and contains a hundred churches. It ex hibits nothing, however, of the splendour of an European city. The houses are only one story high, and there are no shops. The trade, which is extensive, is carried on in a vast open space, 74 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. where the goods are daily exposed on mats. The current specie consists of gold and salt. Poncet was prevented by accident from visiting the sources of the Nile, but gives an account of them from report, nearly similar to that of Loboi His view of the political state of the country also differs in no material respect from that of other travellers. Finding his health injured by the cli. mate, he determined, notwithstanding the urgent entreaties of the emperor, to return to Egypt. He went by the common track through Tigre, so that little of novelty occurs in the remainder of his jour ney. He embarked at Messua (Massuah) on the 58th October 1699. After the time of Poncet, a long period elapsed without any journey deserving of notice being un dertaken into Abyssinia. That country became almost forgotten in Europe, when it was again brought into view by the exertions pf one indivi dual, Mr Bruce. This new traveller embarked in the dangerous enterprise, without any motives of fanaticism or ambition, but solely to promote his own reputation and the interests of science. His journey formed the first in a series made with this enlightened and liberal view, into the interior of this vast continent. After his consulship at Al giers, Mr Bruce seems to have determined upon undertaking some important expedition, though he bruce's travels. 75 hesitated for some time as to the direction. At length he fixed upon Abyssinia. His imagination was peculiarly fired by the idea of penetrating to the sources of the Nile, which appeared to him yet undiscovered, though they had long excited the curiosity ofthe most celebrated philosophers, and even conquerors. On this subject, he laboured under some errors. The object at best was a very secondary one to that which he really accomplish ed, of exploring the physical and moral character of a region so vast, and presenting so many inte resting features. Mr Bruce was aware that the journey was dangerous. He fortified himself, therefore, by a firman from the Porte, and by let ters from the sheriffe of Mecca, and his minister, Metical Aga. He was warned that all these would but imperfectly protect him against the Naybe of Arkeeko, a stupid and blood-thirsty wretch, who, in the confusion of the country, had rendered himself nearly independent, and made it a regular practice to rob and murder every stranger. Our traveller, however, was not to be easily intimidated. He had been preceded by his guide, Mahomet Ghiberti, who spread the report that a great prince, son or brother to a king, was soon to arrive at Massuah. This boasted extrac tion did not prevent the Naybe from proposing in council that he should be put to death, and his effects seized upon. His nephew Achmet, how- 76 TRAVELS Itt ABYSSINIA. ever, strongly objected to such a measure, not on the ground of honour, which would have made little impression in such a quarter, but in consi deration of the danger of committing this out rage upon so mighty a prince, at the very time when an English vessel was lying off the harbour of Jidda. The Naybe thereupon half consented to spare this victim. Mr Bruce arrived at Massuah on the 20th of September, and immediately waited on Achmet, whom he found sitting in the market-place dress ed in a large white muslin frock, similar to those worn in Europe by children ; an attire neither suited to his figure nor character, but which form ed his full dress. Mr Bruce saw him afterwards at his house in undress, when he wore only a pair of calico drawers. He questioned him strictly if he really was of that exalted rank, reported by Mahomet Ghiberti. Our traveller frankly told him the real state of the case, which did not cause any coolness in Achmet?s friendship. On the 21st, the Naybe arrived at Massuah, and Mr Bruce was introduced. He found him sitting in a large wooden elbow chair, at the end of two files of naked attendants, and with no other dress than a cotton shirt, so dirty, that all hope of its ever again being clean seemed at an end. The letters were presented, to which he paid very lit tle attention, but merely laid them beside him, bruce's travels. 77 saying, that it would require a month to read them all. On receiving the presents, there ap peared a gleam of satisfaction, which he did not* however, deign to express. Mr Bruce retired, on the whole, very little content with this interview. He soon after received an immense list of pre sents, which were to be given to the chief in his various characters ; as Naybe of Arkeeko, as a Turkish Aga, and as having abstained from searching the baggage. Mr Bruce, emboldened by Achmet's protection, peremptorily refused to give any thing in any of these capacities. He was immediately sent for, and a violent alterca tion ensued ; though, at the end of it, the Naybe, learning that he had letters to Michael Suhul, governor of Tigre, growled a species of consent to his departure. He afterwards, however, again attempted, by the most violent threats, to extract presents and sums of money, and attempts were even made by his emissaries to break into the house in the night time ; but Bruce being sup ported not only by Achmet, but by the Sardar of the Janissaries, at length succeeded in effecting his departure. Our traveller now ascended the vast chain of mountains, over which the road into the interior of Abyssinia is conducted. The pass of Taranta was particularly formidable, from the difficulty of conveying over it the quadrant and other astro- 78 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. nomical instruments. Mr Bruce does not agree, however, with those who represent the mountains qf Tigre as loftier than the Alps or the Pyrenees. A mountain, near St Jean Pied de Port, appeared to him higher than Lamalmon, and the St Ber nard than Taranta. The most striking circum stance consists in their forms, some being flat, thin, and square, like a hearth-stone ; some re sembling pyramids, and others obelisks or prisms ; some even, he asserts, being like pyramids pitch ed on their points. The party then arrived at Dixan, a considerable town, forming the frontier between the Naybe's territory and that of Abys sinia. A little beyond* he came up to the Ba- harnagash. The first sight of this prince im pressed him with little reverence, as he and his seven followers had an appearance equally beg garly. He proved, however, to be a person of greater consequence than might at first sight have been supposed. After spending two days with him, Mr Bruce went on and arrived at Adowa* the capital of Tigre. From thence he went to see the monastery of Fremona, which had always been the chief establishment of the Jesuits. It was about a mile in circumference* surrounded by walls flanked with towers, and pierced for musquetry. It appeared to him by much the most defensible place he saw in Abyssinia, and to have more the air of a castle than a convent. bruce's travels. 79 Mr Bruce next visited the ruins of Axum, which will be noticed more particularly under Mr Salt's travels. After leaving that place, he overtook three soldiers driving a cow, which they suddenly stopt, and threw down upon the ground. Mr Bruce supposed they were about to kill the animal ; but was much surprised, when, having cut out two beef-steaks from the buttock, they applied some clay to the wound, and again drove her before them. This appeared to him the most soldier-like and commodious mode of carrying provisions that he had ever seen. He was not yet aware, that food in this live state was the common and favourite banquet of the country. Bruce now passed through the province of Sire, and crossed the Tacazze, the banks of which ap peared to him very beautiful, from the number of fine trees with which they were covered. Before reaching Gondar, he had still to cross the lofty mountain of Lamalmon. He did not, however, experience any inconvenience in the passage ; on the contrary, the cool air proved a restorative both to his spirits and appetite. On its top is a large plain, where corn is produced abundantly. In de scending, he came in sight of Gondar, in which the king's palace only was visible ; the rest was so involved in trees, that it appeared merely like" a dark grove. Abyssinia was at this time convulsed by violent 80 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. civil wat. Ras Michael, the governor of Tigre, had assassinated the late king Joas, and had placed on the throne Tecla Haimanout, a youth of fifteen, who acted entirely under his direction. To consolidate this usurped power, he endeavour ed to secure an aUiance with the queen-dowager or Iteghe, by marrying her daughter Ozoro Es ther ; and he courted Powussen and Gusho, the governors of Amhara and Begemder, who were in the queen's interest. All these persons mere ly temporized with Michael, till they could find an opportunity of overthrowing his power. Be sides this internal source of dissension, Fasil* the chief of the Galla, had seized the fertile southern provinces of Damot, Gojam, Maitsha, and Agou- midre, and* with a view to extend his footing in Abyssinia, had declared his determination to avenge the murder of the late king. When Mr Bruce arrived at Gondar, the prin cipal persons to whom he was recommended hap pened to be absent. An accident, however, soon introduced him at court. Two young princes,* the grandchildren of the Iteghe, were seized with the small-pox ; and Mr Bruce, who, during his stay at Tripoli, had acquired a slight knowledge of medicine, which rendered him much superior to the Abyssinian physicians, was sent for to at tend them. Their mother, Ozoro Esther, was then assiduously nursing them ; a circumstance BRUCE. 81 which threw her and Mr Bruce constantly toge ther. Our traveller, besides the care he bestowed upon the children, was calculated, both by person and manners, to render himself agreeable to the fair sex ; so that, with these opportunities* he soon made great progress in the good graces of the princess, who, from that time, did every thing in her power to render his residence in Abyssi nia agreeable^ Mr Bruce saw Ras Michael, for the first time, on his return from a campaign against the Galla. He appeared lean, old, with sore eyes, and had merely a dirty cloth wrapt about his person. On our traveller being introduced, he gave the usual salutation, but took no farther notice of him. Afterwards, when Mahomet Ghiberti requested protection for him, Michael protested the extreme difficulty he found in protecting himself, and his consequent total inability to protect any other person. When, however, he was told that Ya- goube (the name borne by Mr Bruce) excelled all the Abyssinians in riding and shooting ; and when his skill in the latter exercise was proved by his piercing a shield with a candle, Michael's neglect ceased, and he appointed him to an office near his person. Mr Bruce was now admitted to a share in the scenes of coarse and brutal festivity with which Gondar was then filled. Michael was marrying one of his grand-daughters to Powussen, VOL. II. F 82 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. governor of Begemder. A vast number of cattle were slaughtered every day, and the meat distri buted raw through the town ; while hydromel was drunk in immense quantities. Mr Bruce was obliged to dine every day with the king, and to drink copiously of that favourite liquor, to the great injury of his health. In the evening, he re paired to parties given by married ladies, who ate, drank, and smoked like the men ; and whose whole conduct was, if possible, still less under the guidance of order and decorum. Our traveller's health was soon so much injured by this course of life, that he was forced to retire for some time to a house in the country. These festive scenes were the forerunner of an entire change of affairs. Gusho and Powussen, the friends of the Iteghe, and of the late king, formed, in conjunction with Fasil, chief of the Galla, a plan to surround and cut off Michael. The latter gained intelligence of their design, but could escape its effects only by retiring into Tigre. The confederate chiefs then marched upon Gon dar, where they set up a youth of the name of Socinios as king, and themselves exercised the whole power of the state. Mr Bruce now retir ed to the Iteghe's country-house at Koscam, were he was in safety, though he still continued attached to Michael. During an interval of amity between that prince and Fasil, Mr Bruce had in- BRUCE. 83 sinuated himself into the favour of the Galla chief, and had obtained a grant of the village of Geesh, for the purpose of visiting the sources of the Nile which lie in its vicinity. This having been always the grand object of our traveller's ambition, he determined, in its pursuit, to brave the imminent dangers arising from the barbarous people by whom this district was now occupied. He departed accordingly, without regard to the earnest advice of his Abyssinian friends, or to the fears with which they endeavoured to inspire him. He visited first the great cataract of Alata, down which the Nile falls, after passing through the lake of Dembea. He describes it as the most magnificent Sight he ever beheld. The whole river fell down in one sheet from the height of about forty feet* with a force and noise which made our traveller dizzy. A thick haze covered the fall, and spread over the course of the stream both above and below. The water seemed re ceived into a deep and capacious basin, and, at the same time, tortured into twenty different eddies. Mr Bruce declares, that, while in view of this stupendous scene, his mind was in a sort of temporary alienation ; — it seemed as if the fountains ofthe great deep were once more broken up, and this mighty element was again to over whelm the world in destruction. No length of 84 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. life, he says, can ever efface from his memory the impression of so magnificent a spectacle. Bruce had not yet seen Fasil, but at Bamba had an interview with that personage. He was sitting, wrapped in a lion's skin, with another as a carpet under his feet, and a piece of dirty cot ton cloth wrapt round his head. After the com mon salutation, he said no more, and seemed disposed to take no notice of our traveller ; but the latter pressing upon him his object of visiting Gojam and the sources of the Nile, Fasil, without absolutely refusing his request, allowed clearly to transpire the utter contempt in which he held him as a Frank and white man. Mr Bruce on this occasion burst into a violent rage, and threw out the bitterest taunts at this barbarous chief tain. His wrath so agitated his whole frame, as to cause a violent bleeding at the nose, which oc casioned him to be carried home to his lodgings. On beginning to cool, he was much discomposed on considering the effects which Fasil's resent ment might produce ; and particularly, in think ing that all prospect of visiting the Nile must certainly be over. He was much surprised to learn, that Fasil, without discomposing himself, had given the necessary directions for forwarding him to the spot which he wished to visit. This intelligence, which he could scarcely at first cre dit, was next morning fully confirmed ; and by a » BRUCE. 85 display of his powers in riding and shooting, he removed the contempt with which the Galla chief had at first viewed him, and they parted on good terms. He was accommodated with two necessary companions ; one of which was Woldo, an inferior chief, whose character was marked by all the savage eccentricities of his nation ; the other was Fasil's horse, given, not for the purpose of riding, but of driving before him. This horse, it seems, was viewed with such profound respect by every Galla, that, preceded by him, they were in as perfect security as if Fasil himself had ac companied them. They soon accordingly met a chief, with a party under his command, who scarcely spoke to Bruce, but addressed the horse in terms of the deepest veneration, and held with him a conversation of some length, in which he lamented his fate in being delivered to a white man, who could never entertain an adequate sense of his worth. Our traveller, therefore, proceeded in full confidence with Woldo and the horse, though he found great difficulty in restraining the rapacious disposition of the former. At length he reached the district of Sacala, a green and fertile region, in which these long sought for fountains were to be found. His emotions were first raised to the highest pitch, by arriving at a portion of the infant stream so narrow that it could be step ped over, which he did in triumph fifty or sixty 86 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. times. Then, at his eager desire, he was led by his guide to the principal fountain. He now bursts into raptures similar to those of Payz, at having arrived at an object which the most power ful sovereigns of ancient or modern times had sought in vain to explore. These ecstasies were very suddenly interrupted by gloomy reflections on his situation, and on the dangers by which he was surrounded. He soon recovered his cheer fulness, however, and spent some days in ex amining the appearance of all the places around. He then left Geesh, and went to the house of Welled Amlac, an intimate friend of Fasil, with whom the wife of that chief was residing, and where he was received with ample and very pe culiar marks of barbarous hospitality. Meantime Michael, having assembled a large army in Tigre, marched upon Gondar, when the confederates being unable to maintain that city against him, re treated and left him again in possession of it. This was a revolution entirely acceptable to Mr Bruce, who had always continued attached to Michael. He was mistaken, however, in supposing that his residence at Gondar would now be agreeable. Michael came breathing vengeance upon all who had taken part against him in his recent reverse ; and his own austere character heightening the ferocious temper ofthe nation, drove him and his adherents into the most furious extremities. The BRUCE. 87 streets of Gondar streamed with blood ; and the dead bodies being left unburied, were devoured by the hyenas, who came down in large herds from the neighbouring mountains. Mr Bruce could not stir abroad without meeting spectacles which froze his senses with horror ; while his sensibility to them, being considered as a proof of effeminacy, tended to lower his estimation in the eyes of the Abyssinians. Meantime, new re volutions were abroad. The confederates had again reinforced their army, and were in a con dition to resume the offensive. Michael marched to meet them, and a great battle took place at Serbraxos, in which, though claiming the victory, he sustained so immense a loss of officers and men, as left him soon unable to make head against the increasing power of the enemy. He retreated upon Gondar ; and retreat, to an un disciplined army, is the sure forerunner of dis persion. The confederates marched to the capi tal, which they quickly subdued, and reduced Michael to the state of a prisoner. Mr Bruce now felt his stay more than ever irksome ; he therefore solicited, and at length obtained, per mission to depart. Our traveller had determined to return home wards by the route of Sennaar and Nubia. This introduced a new region to his view ; but it was accompanied with dangers which were very formi* 88 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. dable. The first which he encountered were at Teawa, the residence of Fedaile, Shekh of Atbara. That chief had transmitted the most ample pro mises of favour and protection, but with the de termination of following an entirely opposite course. Soon after the arrival of the party, he sent a peremptory demand for a large sum of money. This being refused, he immediately with held every accommodation for their journey, and soon after evinced his intention of attacking them by open force. Mr Bruce, with his little band, was for some time kept in a state of siege ; but their resolution and superior skill in fire-arms, en abled them to set the chief at defiance. Fedaile having then, by fair promises, induced our tra veller to pay him a visit at his own house, attempt ed to assassinate him ; but the intrepidity and bodily vigour of Mr Bruce rescued him from this danger. Next day, a Moullah, or holy man, arriving from his friend tbe Shekh of Beyla, Fe daile durst not make any farther attempts. Mr Bruce, therefore, set out, and passing through Beyla, crossed the Nile at Basboeh, and arrived at Sennaar. The government of that kingdom was in a condition to which such barbarous states are extremely liable. The hereditary monarch retained the pomp and shadow of sovereignty; while the real power resided in the commander of the army, who was called Shekh Adelan. It BRUCE. 89 was to the latter that our traveller was first in troduced. He received him in a very blunt and soldier-like manner, bordering on roughness ; but finding that he replied in his own style, and that he understood horses, which were his own favour ite passion, he soon became his friend, and engaged to protect him. Mr Bruce did not succeed so well with the king, and during his stay several plots were formed against him, from which, how ever, he succeeded in extricating himself. His most critical situation was when he was sent to act as physician to the king's wives, whom he found, to the number of forty, assembled in one room. These ladies, in order that he might judge the more thoroughly of their situation, im mediately began by unveiling, without reserve, all the charms which nature had bestowed upon them. These appeared to our traveller so exceed ingly small, as to be incapable of exciting a single idea which could give offence to the royal hus band ; yet he did not the less tremble for the con sequence, should he be discovered by that mo narch in such a situation. Sennaar is a very populous town, and the houses, though only of clay, are well built, ac cording to the fashion of the country. Since Poncet visited it some have been built of two stories. It is raised barely to such a height above the river, as to prevent the danger of being over- 90 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. flowed. The soil of the district immediately ad joining is fat and rich to an extraordinary degree, and produces vegetable food in the greatest abun dance ; but no domestic animals can live upon it. These can only be reared upon the sands, which begin at two miles distance from the river. It is there, accordingly, that Shekh Adelan keeps his cavalry, while the king, confined to the city, can not maintain a single horse. The kingdom is hereditary, and descends to the eldest son ; and all the rest of the royal family are put to death, What is more singular, the grandees claim a right of putting an end to the life of the sovereign, whenever it seems to them expedient. There is an officer regularly appointed, whose duty it is to put this sentence into execution ; and who, in the meantime, fills the place of master of the household, and is closely attached to the person of the king ; nor is there said to exist any grudge between the two individuals on account of this extraordinary relation in which they stand. After leaving Sennaar, Mr Bruce came in a few days to Halifoon, near which the Bahr el Abiad falls into the Bahr el Azergue. The last of these rivers our traveller uniformly considers as the Nile, though he observes, that the Abiad rolls three times the quantity of water, and is con stantly full, while the other is a very great stream only in the rainy season. He proceeded thence BRUCE HIS AUTHENTICITY, 91 to Chendi, where he found extensive ruins, which he conjectures might be those of the ancient Meroe. Soon after the party lost sight of the Nile, which here takes a great bend to the west. They entered then upon the desert of Nubia, where, for five hundred miles, they travelled without meeting a human habitation. Only a few watering-places interrupted the expanse of naked rock and burning sand. The travellers had nearly sunk under this journey, especially as, towards the close of it, the camels lay down, and were unable to proceed. They made, however, a last effort, by which they at length came in sight of the Nile near Syene, which proved the termin ation of their sufferings. After following Mr Bruce through this train of adventure, it may not be uninteresting to take some notice of those very warm discussions that have arisen relative to the authenticity of his narrative. There exists in all common read ers an unwillingness to believe whatever passes the limits of their ordinary observations. The strange and uncouth manners described by our traveller, the bloody feasts of the Abyssinians, the savage wildness of the Galla, appeared to such persons altogether incredible. So short is the memory of the reading public, as to make it be wholly forgotten, that all former travellers in Abyssinia, who were numerous, had uniformly 92 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. described the very same things. That the judg ment pronounced by such readers was rash, seems now pretty generally admitted. Good materials of judging upon the question have been furnished by Mr Salt, whose cool good sense and strict veracity make him form an excellent check to the rapid imagination and etourderie of his pre cursor. The following are the chief points of discrepancy : — Mr Salt, in his first narrative, denies the cut ting off flesh from the living animal ; but, in the second, he very candidly admits, that the obser vations of a fellow-traveller proved this savage practice to exist, and to be distinguished by a peculiar name, that of cutting the shulada. But Mr Salt still disputes the statement of Bruce, that the animal is alive when the brinde, or raw flesh, is cut out. As he admits, however, that it is brought as close as possible to the place ; that the moment the mortal blow is struck, the slices began to be cut, and are brought to table still warm, with the fibres quivering ; the difference between the two travellers is reduced to a very narrow compass. A very slight want of precise observation might lead Mr Bruce to overlook the distinction ; not to mention the possibility, that in this case, as in the other, Mr Salt's scepticism might arise from his shorter opportunities of ob servation. Mr Salt confirms the irregular con- BRUCE — HIS AUTHENTICITY. 93 duct of the Abyssinian ladies, but not those open indecencies which are described by Bruce. It is observable, however, that the present Ras, ac cording to Mr Salt's statements, entertains views upon this subject quite uncommon in Abyssinia, and exacts a degree of outward decorum to which the court had never before been accustomed. Mr Bruce, on the contrary, saw it in a state of pecu liar license, so that an actual variation in the state of manners at these different periods is exceed ingly probable. The other contradictions are trifling, and, except the jeu d 'esprit about the eclipse at Teawa, rest on rather defective evi dence. The charges connected with Mr Bruce having referred the head of the Egyptian Nile to the river of Abyssinia, instead of the larger stream of the Bahr el Abiad, appear to have still less foundation. When that traveller left Europe, all modern geographers and travellers, without a single exception, had considered the Abyssinian river to be the Nile. To arrive at its source, which he supposed had never been visited by any European, had become, in preference to all others, the object of Mr Bruce's ambition. It was his thought by day, and his dream by night. Through immense hardships, and at the hazard of life, he accomplished the favourite object. After all this it cannot be a subject of wonder, scarcely even 94 Travels in abyssinia. of blame, if his mind was not very open to the nice train of investigation by which D'Anville had proved, that the river visited by him had no claim to be considered as the Nile. This, how ever, was an opinion, not a fact, and it cannot be wondered that Mr Bruce should have a pretty strong bias upon one side. It would appear by a notice of Mr Pinkerton, that the historian and geographer, neither of whom were much in the habit of tolerating opposite opinions, met at Paris, and that a violent collision took place. Several passages in Mr Bruce's writings bear traces of the profound indignation which he felt at this sup posed attempt to rob him of his fame. It is re markable, that he never makes the most distant allusion to the existence of any opinion different from his own ; which doubtless implies a certain degree of disingenuity. Yet the fact, that the Abiad, at the point of junction, is three times larger than the Azergue, is expressly stated in the printed text of his Travels, and it is one for which, so far as I know, we are exclusively in debted to him. There is no small glory, I think* in recording this fact, knowing it, as he did, to militate so strongly against his own most fondly cherished hypothesis. But this was not the only mortification which Mr Bruce had to encounter in returning to Eu rope. The passage in Kircher, already noticed* BRUCE— HIS AUTHENTICITY. 95 was pointed out to him, where Payz reports the visit made by himself to those sources ; so that, even if they were the real fountains of the Nile, Mr Bruce was not the first European by whom they had been explored. This charge he openly meets, and endeavours at great length to prove that the narrative of Payz could not apply to the spot which he pretended to visit. These argu ments do not seem well founded ; but Bruce no where misrepresents facts in order to support them. On the contrary, his opponents have con tested these arguments chiefly by a comparison of his description with that of Payz. Hartman thinks it sufficient to print the two in parallel columns, in order to shew their correspondence. Now, I think it is dealing rather hardly with Bruce to accuse him of positive falsehood, merely for forming erroneous opinions ; when, instead of disguising the truth in order to support these opinions, he furnishes himself the facts by which they have been refuted. A heavy charge yet remains. There are two journeys which Mr Bruce professes to have made ; one from Badjoura up the Nile to Syene ; the other from Loheia to the Straits of Babelmandel ; both of which, there is much reason to suspect, never were performed. There is no mention of them in his own journey ; none in those of his companion Balugani; none in a letter to Mr 96 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. Wood, where he gives a general summary of his early travels. There are also astronomical obser vations taken at Loheia, on a day when, accord ing to the Travels, he ought to have been absent on the voyage to Babelmandel. The combination of all these circumstances certainly gives the affair a very unfavourable aspect. Yet I know not if it be so wholly impossible, as even his editor seems to conceive, that he really performed these journeys. Should we suppose Balugani to have remained behind, and to have made the observa tions, some of the difficulties would be solved. The circumstances which might induce us to grasp at any possibility, is the want of all con ceivable motive for these gross and scandalous fictions. Had the feigned excursions been made into some yet unknown region in the heart of Africa, where no other traveller had penetrated, the case would have been very different. On the contrary, they were voyages made quite in the common and beaten track, in the performance of which there was neither glory nor difficulty. The one up the Nile, in particular, carries him over the very same ground which he afterwards really traversed in his return from Abyssinia ; so that it made no addition to the sphere of his tra vels. These considerations cannot, indeed, weigh against positive proof; but they make us require a higher degree of evidence, and more strictly SALT. 97 scrutinize any deficiencies, if they really exist. It can only be added, that if, from some absurd and inconceivable caprice, Mr Bruce has really feign ed these voyages, he has at least not made them the vehicle of any erroneous information as to the countries or their inhabitants. This was indeed precluded by his choosing a theatre, where he was checked by other travellers of good authority. He appears, in fact, to have at all events used the best materials that were to be had at the time ; and his descriptions of the places are good, whe ther he visited them or not. I am far from insi nuating that such forgeries are not highly culpa ble, under any modification ; but they certainly hold a very different place from those of Psalma- nazar or Damberger, who, having chosen for their theme regions where neither they themselves, nor any one else, had ever travelled, described coun tries and scenes which never existed. Lord Valentia having Occasion, in 1805, to make a voyage in the Red Sea, Mr Salt, a very well informed and intelligent gentleman, attached to his suite, determined to undertake a journey into Abyssinia, which, since the time of Bruce, had remained entirely unexplored by Europeans. Mr Salt was sent also on a mission in 1809 ; and as, on both occasions, he went nearly over the same ground, we shall incorporate together the infor- VOL. II. G 98 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. mation which he collected during these different excursions. Mr Salt first landed at the port of Massuah. Here the usual conflict began with the Nayib, as to the amount of the presents to be given, in re turn for protection granted. Five hundred dol lars, though very inadequate to the original de mand, were at length reluctantly accepted. Ex cept this extreme anxiety to extract as much as possible, the party had no particular cause of com plaint against the Nayib. Mr Salt spent two days at Arkeeko, of whose inhabitants he draws a most unfavourable picture. They seem to unite the worst vices of civilized and savage society. Even those of Massuah, who are far from ranking high in the scale of morality, view with abhorrence the people of Arkeeko. After dark, while they were retiring to bed, the Nayib came to warn them of the absolute necessity that the door should be carefully fastened ; and the sentinel who guarded it put on his hat and shoes, lest they should be stolen from him in the night time. Mr Salt felt' therefore considerable satisfaction in being able to commence his journey. It lay for some time over that chain of lofty and barren mountains which separates the province of Tigre from the sea-coast. The most difficult part of the track was through the pass of Taranta, which Mr Salt did not find quite so formidable as Mr Bruce's narrative had SALT. 99 led him to expect. Dixan is a considerable town ; the houses are flat-roofed, and without chimneys, having merely two pots of earthen ware set up as vents. The people here are of a dark complexion ; they are idle, ignorant, and dirty. All the labours of agriculture are devolved upon the females, who are obliged to go out to the fields with their chil dren on their backs. Their music was found by Mr Salt to be quite intolerable. There are no schools for instruction in reading ; not one in twenty possesses that qualification ; so that the small number who do, consider themselves fully entitled to rank as priests. The commodities for which there was most demand in the market of Dixan, were white cloths, tobacco, pepper, look ing-glasses, and spirits. Mr Salt was introduced to the Baharnagssh, and tolerably received by him. He was a tall el derly man, with a mild countenance. He had a single garment round his body, and an ensign was borne before him, consisting of a peeled staff six feet long. His jurisdiction extended only over six or seven villages. He was chief priest as well as first magistrate, and read prayers morning and evening to a numerous assembly. Passing through Abha, Agouma, and some other villages, Mr Salt arrived at Genater, where he was invited by the chief to a splendid enter tainment. Here, for the first time, he saw the 100 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. brinde feast in all its glory. The hall contained ninety-five persons, who* with their long knives, contending for pieces of raw flesh* from which the blood was dripping, presented a truly savage spectacle. The ladies sat behind a half-drawn curtain, and seeing probably that their visitor did not much relish his actual situation, invited him to seat himself along with them. Mr Salt found this change very agreeable, as the lady of the house was young, pretty, and even gentle in her manners. Leaving Genater, our traveller came to Abuha- subba, a large church entirely cut out of the solid rock : One of the rooms was fifty feet by thirty ; another had a dome forty feet high. The walls were carved, adorned with crosses, Ethiopic in scriptions, and paintings which represented Christ, the Apostles, and St George. They then arrived at Antalo, which is now the residence of Ras Welleta Selasse, the viceroy of Tigre. Antalo is a town of about a thousand houses, all, except the king's residence, mere hovels of mud and straw. Its situation is not agreeable ; but its vi cinity to the frontier, in the present disturbed state of the kingdom, has made it be chosen as the most convenient seat of government. Mr Salt was soon introduced to the Ras, whom he found a fine old man, with an animated and in telligent countenance. He was invited to break- SALT. 101 fast, where brinde was copiously served up. Our traveller declining this food, was supplied with curry, and with round balls made of wild celery, curds, and ghee. The Ras, in sign of peculiar fa vour, fed him with his own hand, thrusting the balls into his mouth in the same manner as boys among us feed their magpies. In the outer hall, meanwhile, the attendants were scrambling vio lently with drawn knives for the pieces of brinde. Welleta Selasse, in Mr Bruce's time, was a young man about four or five and twenty ; he was of some consequence at court, and is enu merated by that traveller among his friends. The first important place to which he was appointed, was that of protector of the salt caravans. Hav ing quarrelled with Ras -Michael, he was obliged, on that chief's return to power, to take shelter in the mountainous districts, where he maintained a predatory warfare. At this time he challenged any two chiefs of the army to fight him in single combat ; and two of distinguished bravery having presented themselves, -he killed them both with his own hand. This exploit, which was rendered more conspicuous by his slender and delicate form, raised him to high consideration throughout all Abyssinia. On the death ofthe " old lion," as Ras Michael was called, he openly contended for the government of the provinces east of -the Ta- cazze, of which a succession of victories render- 102 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. ed him completely master. It was considered now a regular system that the governor of Tigre should supply a king to Abyssinia, and Welleta Selasse readily undertook that office. It was ne cessary to select one who should be of some per sonal talent and consideration, and, at the same time, entirely subservient to himself. The latter object being more carefully attended to than the former, the Ras found his kings unable to sup port the dignity to which he had raised them. After successive trials, he found it prudent to make a compromise with Guxo, governor of Be- gemder, his rival in king-making ; and a joint one was appointed between them, a species of neutral substance, which interrupted neither in the uncon trolled exercise of their respective authorities. Even this arrangement, however, could not long preserve harmony between these rival chiefs ; and when Mr Salt was last in Abyssinia, they were again preparing to take the field against each other. All Mr Bruce's great friends, Ayto Aylo, Ayto Confu, Ozoro Esther, and Tecla Mariam, were dead. The family of the last, however, was living in splendour at Gondar. From Antalo Mr Salt set out on an excursion to Axum. In his way he passed through Adowa, a large town, and the capital of Tigre. It con tains an extensive manufactory of coarse cotton SALT. 103 cloths, which supply nearly the whole of Abyssi nia, and even circulate as money. All the com merce between the sea and the interior of Abys sinia is carried on through this town. The inha bitants are said to be more civilized and polished than those of the other cities of the empire. Its situation is uncommonly pleasant, and commands a magnificent view over the vast range of the mountains of Tigre. Mr Salt proceeded next to Axum, the celebrat ed capital of ancient Abyssinia, whose former grandeur is still attested by magnificent ruins. The great obelisk, which remains entire, is fully sixty feet high, and appeared to Mr Salt to sur pass in elegance all that he had ever seen of Grecian, Roman, or Egyptian architecture. The order being decidedly Grecian, it could not pro bably be prior to the age of the Ptolemies. Many other obelisks, one of them larger than that now described, are lying broken on the ground. The church is modern, but superior to any in Tigre, except that at Chelicut. Mr Salt was particularly careful in examining the inscriptions, both here and on the obelisk, and was enabled by them to throw some light on the early history of this part of Abyssinia. Our traveller now returned to Antalo. In passing again through Adowa, he was entertained with lavish hospitality by a princess of high rank, 104 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. called Ozoro Tishai. Maize, the liquor of the country, was copiously circulated, the lady en couraging Mr Salt both by invitation and exam ple. The second interview was so long protract ed, that our traveller could conclude it only by administering to his interpreter so copious a liba tion, as to render him unfit for longer discharg ing his functions. Mr Salt arrived at Antalo in time to be present at a grand review of the troops of Tigre, which were just returned from a campaign against the Galla. The chiefs, with their men, came succes sively for this purpose into a large circular enclo sure. The commanders were mostly in rich dresses, ornamented with gold and silver ; the men wore only skins, commonly of sheep, and had a fillet of skin round their head, with the hair standing up. After going seven or eight times round the enclosure, they rode up to the king, and, in a menacing attitude, threw down those shameful and barbarous trophies, by which the Abyssinians are accustomed to prove the number of enemies whom they have slain. The meanest soldier had an equal right to make this display as the highest chieftain. Their horse manship was admirable, fully equal to that of the Arabs. Only 1500 had matchlocks ; the rest were armed with spears only. SALT. 105 The review was followed by an exhibition equally characteristic — the brinde feast in full glory. Mr Salt describes, as usual, the table covered with cakes of teff, serving at once as tablecloth and food. Near the Ras are laid a number of wheaten rolls, for his own use and that of his favourites. By breaking them, he gives the signal to begin the feast ; female slaves then take the teff, dip it into the dishes of curry, a row of which stands in the centre of the table, and serve it to such of the guests as the Ras has not chosen to supply from his own store. Next come balls, composed of teff, greens, and curds. Meantime, the grand operation, that of killing the cattle, is carrying on in the court adjoining. The animal is thrown on the ground, and its head separated from the body by a Jambea knife, an invocation being at the same time pronounced over it. The skin is immediately stripped from off one side ; and, while the fibres are yet quiver ing, large pieces are cut out, and carried into the dining-room. The chiefs then, with their large crooked knives, cut them into steaks, and after wards into long stripes, about an inch in diame ter, which having wrapt up in teff, they thrust it into each other's mouths. Should a chief be dis satisfied with the piece presented to him, he hands it to an inferior, who, perhaps, transfers it to another, and it passes from hand to hand, till it 106 TRAVELS IN ABYSSINIA. reaches one whose situation obliges him to remain content with it. The table is occupied by suc cessive parties of a descending scale of rank ; and when the last cakes are to be shared, a violent scramble usually arises. Mr Salt, in his second journey, was instructed to proceed to Gondar, on a mission to the king of Abyssinia, for which the most splendid of his presents were to be reserved. The Ras, however, on this plan being mentioned, first advised against, and at length positively interdicted it. He, at the same time, expressed his own perfect readi ness to receive all the presents destined for that monarch. Although this arrangement did not accord with Mr Salt's wishes and intentions, yet the situation in which he stood appeared to leave him no alternative but to yield. He, therefore, delivered the presents, and set out for Massuah. CHAPTER II. EGYPT. General Vietv of Egypt. — Alexandria. — Lffwer Egypt. — Isthmus of Suez. — Feium. — Upper Egypt. — The Sea Coast. — The Oases. — Recent Observations by Denon.— Hamilton. — Legh. — Light. — Belzoni. * From the narrow isthmus of Suez, consisting of barren sand, sprinkled at intervals over a low rocky base, expands the fertile valley of Egypt. With the name of Egypt are associated so many proud ideas of remote antiquity, and colossal grandeur, that no inconsiderable effort is required to discern the features of identity in the relations of modern travellers, and the descriptions which * This chapter is written by Dr Leyden, and appears now for the first time. It was intended by him to form part of a larger work on Africa, the completion of which was prevented by his departure for India. It does not, according to the ge neral plan of this work, exhibit the adventures and successive discoveries of travellers, but condenses into one view all the information which can be collected from them. This difiFerence did not appear as a sufficient reason for withholding from the public so interesting a piece ef descriptive geography, especial ly as the narrow track, within which travellers in this country are confined, renders their story usually little eventful, and confines the interest of their works to the description of the superb monuments by which Egypt is adorned. 108 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. occur in the historians of Greece and Rome. Since the days of Herodotus, till that period when the philosophers of France, under the auspices of a great and daring military chief, surveyed its plains and sandy wastes, Egypt has been describ ed by numerous historians and travellers with every diversity of colouring and style. If the portrait, therefore, is dissimilar to the original, it is not because the lines are feebly marked, but because the diversity of tints obscures the delinea tion. In order to acquire a general idea of this singular country, " a stranger in the place of its " situation," we must represent to ourselves an immense valley, six hundred miles long, descend ing from the heights of Syene, between two grey ridges of sandy mountains, that frequently ap- . proach within five miles of each other, till towards the sea it terminates in a vast plain, the extent of which is above three hundred miles. Through this valley flows the majestic Nile ; — now calm and tranquil, it retires within its ancient banks ; now reddened with the sands of Ethiopia, it overflows the plain, and sweeps the base of the mountains. From this periodical inundation, the country as sumes in succession the appearances of an ocean of fresh water, of a miry morass, of a green level plain, and of a parched desert of sand and dust. Along the Mediterranean the shore is flat and low, nor is it till the mariner has approached within PHYSICAL STRUCTURE. 109 three leagues of the coast, that the palm-trees of Egypt, and the sand-hills on which they grow, seem to emerge from the waters. Advancing from the shore, a vast plain, naked and unbounded, opens to the view, under a horizon flat and unva ried, where the eye, searching in vain for an inte resting object, wanders among the slender date- trees and thinly scattered palms, or rests on groups of huts composed of brick and mud. Such is the vast plain of Lower Egypt, which comprehends all the country bounded by Cairo, the Mediterra nean, the isthmus of Suez, and the Lybian desert. Upper Egypt, or the Sahid, commences at Cairo, and extends to the cataracts of Syene, between two chains of mountains which run from north to south. The western range, which separates Egypt from Libya, terminates near Alexandria, and consists chiefly of hills of sand piled on a base of calcareous stone. The eastern range, which verges towards the Red Sea, is more elevated and rocky, though, from its naked and barren aspect, it may be properly denominated a desert. The basis of Egypt, from Syene to the Mediterranean, is a continued bed of whitish, soft, calcareous stone, containing such shells as are found in the conti guous seas ; and of the same stone the mountains are composed. Beyond these mountainous ridges, arid deserts expand on every side ; but though the fierce and wandering tribes which inhabit 110 DESCRIPTION OF EGYPT. them have often been subject to Egypt, their ter ritories at an early period formed no part of its proper domain. An ancient quarrel between Egypt and Libya, concerning their boundaries, was referred to the decision of the oracle of Am nion, which restricted the Egyptian territories to the region inundated by the Nile. The autho rity of the oracle, however, has passed away, and as the Libyan tribes have dwindled into insigni ficance, the name of Egypt may with propriety be extended to those sterile districts which on the east stretch along the Red Sea as high as the lati tude of Syene, which extend towards Nubia on the south, and Cyrene on the west, and acknow ledge a very precarious subjection to any power. Egypt lies between the 48th and 53d degrees of longitude, and the 24th and 33d degrees of north latitude. The bare and unsheltered sur face of the country, and its small elevation above the level of the sea, combining with its exposure to the rays of a vertical sun, render it much warmer than many countries in the same lati tude. The hot season continues from March to November ; and during this period, while the sun remains above the horizon, the atmosphere is inflamed, the sky is cloudless and sparkling, and the heat is rendered supportable only by the pro fuse perspiration which it excites. In summer the medium heat at Cairo is from 90° to 92°, and CLIMATE. Ill in winter from 58° to 60° ; the difference between the greatest degrees of heat and cold seldom ex ceeding thirty degrees of Fahrenheit's thermome ter. On some occasions, however, it has been known to rise to 112° ; but such an uncommon heat is generally of short continuance, and occurs most frequently in the Sahid.* At sunset the winds fall, the temperature of the air becomes cooler, and the superabundant humidity, which the heat exhaled, but could not elevate in the at mosphere, is again desposited in the form of dew. As the evening descends, a thin mist veils the ho rizon, and broods over the watery grounds, but in the darkness it becomes scarcely perceptible, and in the morning, when the sun rises, quickly dis perses in flaky clouds. Nor are the clouds always dispelled by the action of the sun's rays ; for the atmosphere sometimes appears loaded, and exhi bits all the meteorological symptoms which indi cate rain in other climates, without any altera tion of weather ensuing. The phenomena of the * The mean heat at Cairo, during the different months, is thus given, according to Reaumur's thermometer, by Cotte, an accurate meteorologist : number of observations in the day, three. January 11° 0'— February 10° 9'— March 14° 5'— April 16° 5'— May 20° 5'— June 22° 7'— July 23° 7'— August 24° 2'— September 21° 6'— October 19° 4'— November 17° 4' — December 12° 5' Mean heat of the year 17° 9'. — Jour- nal de Physique, July 1791. 25 112 DESCRIPTIONS OP EGYPT. winds, so variable in our climate, are in Egypt regularly periodical. In point both of duration and strength, the northerly wind predominates. As it blows about nine months in the year, the branches of the trees, and the trunks themselves, when unsheltered, assume its direction. It con tinues with little intermission from the end of May till the end of September. About the end of September, when the sun repasses the line, the wind returns to the east, where it fluctuates till November, when the northerly winds again pre vail. About the end of February, the winds as sume a southerly direction, and fluctuate exceed ingly till the close of April, when the east wind begins to predominate. The southerly winds are the most inconstant, as well as pernicious ; tra versing the arid sands of Africa, uninterrupted by rivulets, lakes, or forests, they arrive in Egypt fraught with all the noxious exhalations of the desert. At their approach, the serene sky be comes dark and heavy ; the sun loses its splen dour, and appears of a dim violet hue ; a light warm breeze is perceived, which gradually in creases in heat, till it almost equals that of an oven. Though no vapour darkens the air, it be comes so grey and thick with the floating clouds of impalpable sand, that it is sometimes neces sary to light candles at noon-day.* Every green * Ante's Observations on Egypt, p. 94. Climate. 113 leaf is soon shrivelled, and every thing formed of wood is warped and cracked. The effect of these winds on animated bodies is equally pernicious, and when they blow in sudden squalls, they some times occasion immediate death. Respiration becomes quick and difficult* the pores of the skin are closed, and a feverish habit is induced by sup pressed perspiration. The ardent heat pervades every substance, and the element of water, di vested of its Coolness, is rendered incapable of mi tigating the intolerable sensation excited. Dead silence reigns in the streets ; the inhabitants, by confining themselves to their houses, vainly at tempt to elude the showers of fine penetrating dust, which, according to the Oriental expres sion, will enter an egg through the pores of the shell. These are the hot winds of the desert, termed by the Arabs simoom, and by the Turks samieh They are frequently denominated the •winds of fifty days, because they prevail chiefly between Easter and Whitsuntide, or during the fifty days at the period of the equinox. When they continue longer than three days, their heat becomes insupportable, and peculiarly injurious to persons of a plethoric habit.* These winds, in spring so destructive by their heat* are in win ter, from the beginning of December to the end * Volney's Travels in Egypt and Syria, Vol. I. p. 62. VOL. II. H 114 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. of January, distinguished only by their intense and penetrating cold. While the sun is in the southern tropic, his rays fall more obliquely on the desert, and the current of air which descends on Egypt is tempered by the snowy mountains of Abyssinia. Sudden or violent squalls are unfre- quent on the coast, from the regularity of the temperature, which prevents any rapid rarefaction or condensation. The northerly and westerly winds, denominated by the Arabs the fathers of rain, notwithstanding the humidity with which they are impregnated, seldom or never produce copious rains in Egypt. When this phenomenon occurs, it continues only a few minutes, and even then the rain seems to be obstructed in its des cent. In the Delta it occurs only in winter, and above Cairo it is considered as a species of mira cle. The phenomena of thunder and lightning are still more uncommon than rain, and so far divested of their terrific qualities, that the Egyp tians are unable to associate with them the idea of destructive force, or to comprehend how they are ever productive of injury. Slight showers of hail, descending from the hills Of Syria, and pass ing along the plains of Palestine, sometimes reach the confines of Egypt. The production of ice is so extremely uncommon, that once, when it ap peared in Lower Egypt, the Arabs collected it from the ditches in the vicinity of Alexandria, THE NILE. 115 and brought it for sale to the European mer chants. Though the clouds which sometimes float over the level plain of Egypt never deposit a quantity of rain sufiicient to fertilize the soil, yet, in a different form, they produce a luxuriant vegeta tion. Gliding over the flat country, from the surface of which they are repelled by the current of rarefied air, they are accumulated by the west erly winds on the lofty mountains of Abyssinia, where, refrigerated and condensed, they form the tropical rains, and, descending with the Nile, inundate the plain of Egypt. Upon this perio dical inundation depends not only the annual fer tilization of the soil, but the physical and politi cal existence of the country. Were it not for this regular supply of water, only a very small quantity of land could be cultivated; and the failure of this source of fertility would quickly convert the rich valley of Egypt into a desert, marked only by its more horrid desolation. From the waters of the Nile, the soil not only imbibes the quantity of moisture necessary for vegetation, but is richly manured by the sediment which they deposit. Hence the veneration of the Egyptians for the sacred river, " which is blest in the morn- -" ing, and favoured of Heaven at night, which " rises and falls according to the course of the ''sun and moon;" hence their extravagant praises 116 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. of its beauty, and their enthusiasm, which in every age has degenerated into a species of religious adoration. An European, however, will not com pare the thick and muddy waters of the Nile to the limpid streams of his native country ; nor will he who has seen the majestic rivers of the East be impressed with the grandeur of the greatest stream in Northern Africa. When the inundation subsides, the greatest breadth of the river of Egypt is about 2000 feet, and its motion exceeds not three miles in the hour. The inun dation commences about the 17th of June ; the waters, which gradually rise, overflow their banks in the middle of August y they attain their utmost height in September* and from the end of that month gradually subside to the following solstice. The commencement of the inundation is extreme ly regular, but the period of its duration is more capricious, and the waters sometimes subside be fore the ground be thoroughly' soaked. After the annual inundation, the soil of Egypt is covered with a stratum of pure black mould of different degrees of density, proportional to the column of water by which it is deposited. This mould, or rather slime, is of an adhesive and unctuous quality, has a strong affinity for water, and suffers contraction in the fire. By desicca tion in the air, its colour is gradually changed from black to a yellowish brown. When subject- THE NILE. 117 ed to chemical analysis, it is found to consist chiefly of alumine or pure clay, with a small quantity of silex ; but the proportions of these in gredients vary according to the place where the slime is collected.* In the immediate vicinity of the Nile, it contains a considerable quantity of siliceous sand, which, being most ponderous, is soonest deposited. This mud is so tenacious, that a considerable intermixture of sand increases its fertility ; and hence the soil derives some ad vantage from the rapid winds of the south, which convey the sand in immense clouds from the desert to mingle with the slime of the Nile. As the waters of the river recede, the cultiva tion of the ground commences. If it has imbibed the requisite moisture, the process of agriculture is neither difficult nor tedious. The seed is scatter ed over the soft mould, and vegetation proceeds with extreme rapidity. To the activity of vegeta tion, the air, which is strongly impregnated with saline particles, contributes in an eminent degree. If the ground has been only partially inundated, recourse is had to the process of irrigation, by which many species of vegetables may be raised * According to Regnault's Analysis, the slime of the Nile, in 100 parts, contains 11 of water, 9 of carbon, 6 of oxyd of iron, 4 of silex, 4 of carbonate of magnesia, 18 of carbonate of lime, and 48 of alumine Memoirs on Egypt, p. 391. 118 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. even in the dry season. Winter, or the cold sea son, extends from the end of November to the end of January. Spring commences about the beginning of February, when the fruit trees be gin to blossom, and the atmosphere becomes gra dually warmer. The period of summer is from the middle of June to the end of September ; during the greatest part of which time the heat continues regular, the fields when not watered are parched like a desert, and no green leaf is seen, which is not produced by irrigation. Au tumn, which may be considered as a continuation of summer, commences about the middle of Oc tober, when the intense heat begins to decrease, the leaves fall, and the Nile retires to its channel ; and it continues to the end of November, when the country resembles a beautiful meadow, diver sified with lively colours. Such are the principal phenomena which cha racterize the climate of Egypt, a country in the very atmosphere of which nature seems to have adopted new and singular arrangements. In this country, distinguished by an uncommon regu larity of the seasons, and of all the changes which a climate presents, these atmospherical pheno mena were first investigated with philosophical accuracy. But though the observations of the ancient philosophers of Thebes and Memphis, engraved on immense masses of granite, have de- SOIL. 119 fied the ravages of time, and the still more de structive hand of man, we can only view the char acters with regret, and lament that a wise and learned nation may perish before the monuments of their existence pass away. The external soil, or vegetable mould of Egypt, exhibits no similarity to the soil in any of the con tiguous countries. Herodotus remarked, that the soil of Egypt was fat, black, and crumbling, though the earth of Libya was red and sandy, and the mould of Syria a strong clay intermixed with stones. Such is the physical structure of Egypt, where the Nile, as if fatigued with the boundless solitude. of the Nubian deserts, seems to have se lected a sequestered valley, more savage than the rest, to adorn it with the richest gifts of nature. The rich black clay of Abyssinia being transport ed thither by the river, a fertile island arose in the midst of deserts, and the sediment accumulat ing in a narrow gulf of the Mediterranean, at last created an impenetrable morass, covered with canes and reeds. This is the Egyptian Delta, concerning the origin of which so many disputes have been agitated, and which, as it involves a difficult geological problem, will probably con tinue a subject of discussion for many centuries. The names of the cities of Egypt, of its lakes, and of the branches of the Nile, have been so frequently altered and corrupted by the different 120 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. nations who have conquered the country, that it is impossible to recognize any certain traces of their ancient denominations. The cities which flourished during the different periods of Egyptian glory, during the Persian, Grecian, Roman, Chris tian, and Saracen dynasties, have not only been erected on the ruins of more ancient edifices, but, in the Turkish and Mameluk periods, their sites have been partially changed, cities celebrat ed in history are buried in their own ruins, and the traveller searches for them in vain within the circuit of their ancient walls. The proper sea coast of Egypt, reaching along the Mediterra nean from the Plinthine bay to the lake Sirbonis, in the vicinity of Mount Casius, comprehends aii extent of 201 G. miles.* In the vicinity of the Pliqthine bay is, the position of Taposiris, the tower of the Arabs, or Abusir ; the Niciae Pagus of Strabo was placed a little to the east ward, and between its position and Alexandria was the site of the Chersonesus Parva of Ptolemy. Mareia, the Palaemaria of Ptolemy, placed by Herodotus on the confines of Egypt and Libya, coincides with the modern Mariout on the north of the lake Mareotis. The lake Mareotis, proba bly at fitst an arm of the sea, occupied, in the time of Strabo, Pliny, and Ptolemy, an extent of * Rennell's Geograph. System of Herodotus, p. 5.22, LAKE MAREOTIS. 121 60 miles in circuit, and extended towards the south-east more than 30 miles. Its banks were once covered with populous towns and villages ; it communicated by different canals with the Canopic branch of the Nile, and in its vicinity was produced the celebrated Mareotic wine ; but these canals have been long interrupted, the lake itself has disappeared, and instead of its ancient vines, its place is only marked by some scattered palms, and a degree of verdure slightly superior to that of the desert. To the eastward of Mari- out lies the bay of Alexandria, about three leagues in breadth, and separated into two ports by the island Pharos, which is now connected with the continent. The country between the Plinthine bay and Alexandria has relapsed into its primitive sterility, and in various places exhibits the ruins of ancient cities, partially covered with sand, among which Taposiris, the Bosiri of Marmal, was, in the time of that author, distinguished by the superior grandeur of its remains. The geo graphical position of the Pharos, as determined by Quenot, is N. L. 31° 13' 5". From the en croachments of the sea on this island, the site of the modern tower does not indicate the situation of the ancient structure, which was supported on pillars of marble, the successive stories of which rose to an elevation of 400 feet. The ruins of this magnificent pile, the origin of which is en- 122 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. veloped in the same profound darkness that in volves the monuments of the Thebaid, and which was reckoned one of the seven wonders of the world, may be seen when the sea is calm immers ed in the waters.* The Pharos has been repeat edly destroyed and repaired, and its restorers have often aspired to the glory of the original founders. In the year 1320 it was overturned by an earthquake, and its place has been supplied by a square tower, equally devoid of ornament and elegance. Alexandria exhibits no vestiges of its former magnificence, except the ruins which sur round it. An extensive plain, furrowed with trenches, pierced with wells, and divided by mouldering walls, is entirely covered with an cient columns, mutilated statues and capitals, and fragments of decayed battlements, which lie strewed amid modern tombs, and shaded by scat tered nopals and palms. These ruins, which pro bably occupy a much greater space than the city of Alexandria at any particular period of its most flourishing state, are of very remote antiquity, and greatly anterior to Alexander, as the hiero glyphics, with which they are covered, demon strate. The magnificence of Alexandria under the Grecian dynasty was worthy of the fame of the * Pocock's Travels, Vol. I. 3. ALEXANDRIA. 123 hero from whom it derived its name. It was built in the form of a long square, or, as it is termed by Strabo, a mantle or toga, and occupied a space of four leagues in circuit. As the long sides of the square were protected from the sea and the lake Mareotis, it presented such a narrow front on the sides accessible by land, that it form ed a position of great strength. The buildings were grand and stately, their arrangement was strictly regular, and the great streets, which in tersected each other at the central square of the city, were the most magnificent in the world. Under the Arabian dynasty its splendour gra dually declined with its commerce, to which the genius of fanaticism is always hostile. Though its population rapidly diminished, though its an cient walls were demolished, and contracted to half their original dimensions, it still preserved a part of its superb edifices and monuments, and its former opulence was evinced by the slowness of its decay. At the period of the late French in vasion, the walls of Alexandria were of Arabic structure, formed of the ruins of the ancient city ; they exhibited fragments of monuments and con creted stony masses, consisting chiefly of fossil and sparry shells irregularly united by a common cement.* From the neglect of the canals, and * Sonnini's Travels, 4to. p. 77. 124 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. the encroachments of the sand, the city is now insulated in a desert, and exhibits few vestiges of those delightful gardens and cultivated fields, which continued even to the time of the Arabian conquest, and are described with such enthusiasm by Abulfeda. A few stunted sycamores mark the course of the canal of Lower Egypt, but the eye searches in vain for " the banks covered with " perpetual verdure, and the stately date, whose " pliant head, crowned with pendent clusters, " languidly reclines like that of a beautiful wo- " man overcome with sleep."* The soil becomes sterile and sandy, in proportion to the distance from the canal ; and the district between Alex andria and Rosetta retains the same general cha racter of barrenness, though interspersed at inter vals with villages and cultivated spots of ground. Various magnificent ruins are scattered over this arid track, formerly adorned with populous cities, where we must look for the site of Nicopolis, of Zephyrium, and probably of Thonis, at an early period of history the only port in Egypt open to commerce. Thonis is generally supposed to coin cide in situation with Canopus, on the ruins of which is raised the village of Aboukir, at the dis tance of 14 miles from Alexandria. The site of Canopus, formerly as famous for the dissolute * Abulfedas Descr. ./Egypt, a Michaelis, p. 6. / / CANOPUS"— ROSETTA. 125 manners of its inhabitants as the Italian Sybaris, is marked by majestic ruins. It seems to have been founded later than the reign of Darius Hy- staspes ; for by Scylax, his contemporary, it is described as a desert island. It is said to have derived its name from Canopus, an ancient Egyp tian king, who died there of a loathsome disease.* He is represented in a black shroud, with a cap closely fitted to his head. About three miles to the east of Aboukir, a lagoon of fresh water, which communicates with the Nile only at the time of the inundation, indicates the termination of the ancient Canopic branch of the river. Heracleum, as appears from its ruins, was situat ed about half a league to the east of the Canopic mouth. The Nile of Canopus, when it varied its original channel, and approached nearer this city, was sometimes termed the Heraclean branch. Verging more and more towards the east, it form ed at last so deep a curve, that a canal was open ed to the sea, for which the river soon deserted its more westerly channel of Canopus. From Bolbitinum, a city mentioned by Stephanus By- zantinus, the ruins of which exist a little above Rosetta, this artificial channel derived the name of the Bolbitine branch of the Nile. By Ptolemy it is denominated Tali. Rosetta, according to * Etymolog. Magnum, ap. 'UAshhov. 126 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. Niebuhr, situated in N. L. 31° 24', is of Arabic origin, oblong and irregular, without walls or for tress. It was founded, according to Elmacin, in 870. The Nile of Rosetta is about 16 miles dis tant from the Canopic mouth, and is threatened with a similar fate, as its channel, from the accu mulation of sand, is very dangerous to mariners, having scarcely six feet of water on the bar. The position of the ancient Metelis is about eight miles above Rosetta, at the separation of the Bol- bitine and Canopic branches of the Nile. The country in the vicinity of Rosetta is the most beautiful and fertile in Egypt, and exhibits con siderable diversity of scenery, considering the uniform aspect of the soil. No romantic views, no sublime mountains, no picturesque declivities, relieve the uniformity of the plain ; but the red desert on the west, with the barren hillocks of sand, is finely contrasted with the green rice fields, the tufted sycamores, the orange groves, and the yellow flowers of the cassia. Twenty miles above Rosetta, ori the banks of the Nile* is situated Fouah, which rivalled Rosetta in com merce, and was superior to it in wealth, so long as the Canopic branch continued navigable. In the fifteenth century, when the naturalist Belon travelled in Egypt, it was inferior only to Cairo ; but it now yields to Rosetta, both in size and LAKES OF NATRON. 127 population. On the western bank of this branch are situated Deirut, Rahmany, and Terane. The district on the west of the Canopic branch of the Nile, partakes of the character of the Li byan desert, and is inferior in fertility to the Delta. The soil is more parched and sandy, and the fields of beautiful vegetation, covered with the blossoms of the bean and cotton plant, gradually mingle with the sands of the desert. Receding from the Nile, the regions of sand and rock, entire ly devoid of vegetable earth, commence, and the ground rises, by an easy ascent, first into acclivi ties, then into hills, and at last terminates in mountains. A level but elevated plain, of nearly thirty miles in breadth, separates the valley of the Nile from that of the lakes of natron. The west wind, which blows here with great violence, has driven the loose sands of these eminences into the valley of the Nile. At the distance of four leagues from this ridge, another chain of emi nences runs parallel to the first, forming in the intermediate space a deep valley, furrowed with narrow and savage ravines. The declivity of the eastern ridge, which descends into this valley, is in some places abrupt, and in others covered with loose sand. The watery expanse of the lakes, the vivid green colour of the plants which grow on their banks, and the reeds which wave on their surface, are finely constrasted with the dazzling 128 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. white of the masses of natron, and the grey dusky gravel of the desert. These lakes are frequented by the cameleon, the antelope, and vast numbers of aquatic fowls, among which the flamingo is re markable for the brilliancy of its plumage. The natron lakes, which are seven in number, are separated by banks of sand. In the dry sea son, they shrink into small detached ponds, but when the water rises highest, they are united in one great lake, which occupies a space of six leagues in length, and covers the whole breadth of the valley. , When the water retires, and the lakes separate, the ground which is exposed is covered with a saline sediment, which hardens in the sun, chrystallizes, and forms the natron. The thickness of the saline stratum varies with the period of the inundation, and where it is of short continuance, the natron appears only as a slight efflorescence, like flakes of snow. The water is sometimes covered with this saline substance ; and Granger relates, that at the end of August, when he visited these lakes, the superficial crust was sufficiently consolidated to allow his camels to pass over its surface. In this immense natural laboratory of soda, the original substance from which the natron is formed, according to Berthol- let, is common sea salt. According to the Arabs, the soil impregnated with natron extends to the distance of twenty days' journey into the desert. N1TRIA — BAHAR BELA MA. 129 The season of collecting this substance is in the month of August, in the interval between seed time and harvest. The natron trade was former ly engrossed by the inhabitants of the canton of Terane, who annually collected about twenty-five thousand quintals, the greater part of which was exported to Venice, France, and England. The use of natron ascends to a very high anti quity. Pliny, who prefers the Macedonian to the Egyptian, on account of its superior purity and clearness of colour, celebrates its numerous medi cal virtues, and relates, that, when liquified with sulphur, it was formed into vases. Near one of the lakes, the vestiges of a manufactory of glass may still be traced, by the fragments of scoria, and the ruins of its furnaces. Perhaps a more favourable situation could not have been selected for procuring the two materials of glass, soda and verifiable sand. To the west of Nitria, and extending in the same direction, lies the valley of the river with out water, denominated by the Arabs, Bahar Be- la Ma, which is conjectured to have formed the' communication between the lakes Mceris and Ma reotis, and is separated from the valley of Nitria by a ridge of calcareous stone, covered with sand. As this valley forms the western barrier of Egypt, all vegetation is choked, and the soil is encumber ed with banks of the sand which it intercepts as VOL. II. I 130 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. it is drifted from the interior of Africa. By im peding the progress of this moving desolation, and rendering the incessant agency of the wind less dangerous, it has preserved the cultivated banks of the Nile from destruction, and permitted the natives, who attribute this effect to the talismanic power of the Sphinx of the Pyramids, to enjoy their dreams of superstitious credulity. In some places, however, the progress of the sands is marked in a picturesque manner, by the large and beautiful sycamores, originally rooted in the allu vial soil, which wither in solitary grandeur on the arid downs, now covered with sand. In the val ley of the dry river, various kinds of stones are found, which appear to have been brought from the primitive mountains of Upper Egypt ; as silex and siliceous stones, gypsum, quartz, and quart- zose crystallizations, geodes, jasper, and Egyptian pebbles. But the most curious production of the valley is the petrified wood in which it abounds. Andreossi found some entire trees, eighteen paces in length, in a state of petrifaction. In most in stances, the wood is changed into agate ; but where the crystallization is more imperfect, that part which formed the substance of the wood ex hibits a scaly texture, invested with a hard exter nal envelope. Here Andreossi likewise found the vertebrae of a large fish, which appeared to be mi neralized. Sicard asserts, that in this valley he MONASTERIES OF NITRIA. 131 observed entire masts of ships, and the wrecks of vessels, petrified ; but his relation is not confirm ed by Andreossi. The magnitude of the valley of the dry river, its direction towards Feium, and the apparent connexion with the lake Mceris, strongly support the ancient tradition, that the river Nile, or a part of its waters, formerly flowed through these de serts, along the valleys of Nitria and the dry river. The alluvial soil of the district of Mariout, on the west of Alexandria, corroborates this opinion. Beyond the valley of the dry river, the inhabi tants of the district of Terane sometimes advance three days' journey into the desert, to cut a parti cular species of rushes, which are used in con structing the finest mats. The only buildings in the desert of Nitria are a few Coptic monasteries, the recluse inhabitants of which are equally savage with their own solitudes. An enclosure of lofty walls, of red hue and naked aspect* forms the exterior part of the monastery, within which a small fort is constructed, surround ed by a trench, which is passed by means of a drawbridge. Within this fort is a cistern, a depo site of provisions, and a church, which the super stitious monks reckon no less necessary than a magazine for sustaining the blockade ofthe Arabs, by which they are occasionally menaced. On ac count of the roving hordes which frequent the 132 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. desert, the exterior wall of the monastery is con structed with a little wicket, instead of a gate, which is never opened without extreme precaur 'tion. In the upper part of the exterior wall, a platform is constructed, with loop-holes and small masked bastions. Within the exterior enclosure is a small garden, in which the monks cultivate some esculent plants, with a few dates and olives. The libraries of these monasteries contain few va luable manuscripts ; consisting chiefly of ascetic treatises in the Arabic, Syriac, and Coptic lan guages. The frightful solitudes of Nitria have in every age been the chosen retreats of monastic seclusion. The dreary aspect of the desert, and its silent solitude, fostered a misanthropic turn of mind. The sweetest attributes of humanity, and the play of the kind affections, were resigned for a morose austerity, which soon degenerated into a sullen and ferocious gloom. In dreary excavated cells, of so small a size that they were scarcely capable of containing the human body, they lived immured from society, and subjected themselves to the most dreadful penances. Having acquired a slight tincture of Christianity, in the first cen turies after its promulgation, they did not re nounce their ascetic practices, but exhibited the first examples of the spirit of monachism. In the fourth century, the desert of Nitria swarmed with recluse penitents, and received a new appellation THE DELTA. 133 from St Macarius, who fixed his residence amid its solitudes. Acquiring in these dreary wastes the temper of ferocious animals, when they emerged from their deserts at the call of religious conten tion, their excesses filled Egypt with consternation and dismay. Since that period their religious tenets have varied, but their habits have still con tinued coarse and barbarous, and their dispositions have received little amelioration. From the savage deserts of Nitria, we turn with pleasure to contemplate the fertile and beautiful province of Garbie, the maritime part of which extends from Rosetta to Damietta. The soil of this district is not only more fertile than any other quarter of the Delta, but the ground is more level, and more frequently intersected by canals. The vestiges of cultivation are more numerous and diversified in their appearance, and the orange and lemon trees rise in irregular groves by the side of the pomegranate and anana. Through vistoes of palms, which raise their heads above other trees, the slender turrets of cities are dis cerned. The number of inhabitants in this fertile district bears no proportion to its ancient popu lation. Yet the vestiges of ruined cities in the Garbie, are neither so numerous nor important as in some other provinces of Egypt. The dif ficulty of procuring materials for building has induced the natives to deface their ancient monu- 134 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. ments ; many of them are concealed by the ac cumulation of sand and mud, and others are destroyed by the superstition of the inhabitants. From the mouth of the Nile to Cape Brulos, or Berelos, the extreme point of the Delta, the soil is sandy and barren, and it preserves the same character in that low and narrow ridge which separates the lake Butos, or Brulos, from the sea. This extensive lake, near the extremity of the Delta, enclosed within the main land by a long narrow ridge of sand, marks the imperfect con solidation of that alluvial district. Between this lake and the Canopic branch of the Nile, the Mi lesian wall was drawn by the Ionian Greeks who had been permitted to settle at Naucratis. In the city of Butos was an oracle of Latona,* in a temple remarkable for its magnificence. The shrine, composed of one enormous mass of granite, about sixty feet square, was hewn in a quarry in the island Philae, near the cataracts of the Nile, and brought down the river on rafts, to the dis tance of two hundred leagues. This work of im mense labour is characteristic of the genius of the men who built the pyramids. In the time of Herodotus, " the great Butos" stood upon the Sebennitic branch of the Nile. This branch seems either to have varied its course, or to have * Strabo. Casaubon. p. 1154. THE DELTA. 135 been divided into different channels ; for, accord ing to Strabo, it falls into the sea at the extreme point of the Delta, which is about thirty G. miles distant from the Nile of Rosetta. Sais, the Sah of Edrisi and of the modern Egyptians, and for merly the metropolis of Lower Egypt, was situ ated about eight miles from Naucratis. It was celebrated for a famous temple of Minerva. On the eastern side of this province, the more con siderable towns are situated along the Nile of Damietta; but the populous and flourishing cities of the Egyptian, Grecian, and Arabian periods, only exhibit the wrecks of their former greatness. Busiris retains its ancient name, but preserves no vestiges of the splendour it displayed, when the shrine of Isis attracted prodigious numbers of people to celebrate the festivals of the goddess. Sebennytus, the modern Semenud, from which a branch of the Nile formerly derived its name, is situated below Busiris ; but both these ancient cities are eclipsed by the modern Mehalla, the capital of Garbie. To the west of Sebennytus is a large mound, covered with ruins, which D'An ville supposes to mark the site of the city Isis. Among the ruins, the remains of a magnificent temple of Isis are remarkable for the purity of taste which they display, and the elegance of their sculptures. Mansura is situated at the se paration of the Mendesian branch of the Nile 136 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. from that of Damietta. It was originally an in trenched camp of the Arabs, when they besieged Damietta,* and was rendered illustrious by the misfortunes of the crusaders under St Louis. Da mietta, the emporium of commerce between Egypt and Syria, is situated on the Phatmetic branch of the Nile, and, according to Niebuhr, in N. L. 31° 25'. The city is without walls, and is built in the form of a crescent, on the winding bank of the river, at the distance of six miles from the sea. The adjacent country on both sides of the Nile is beautiful and fertile, though it participates in the tameness of Egyptian sce nery. The exuberant soil produces, in lavish profusion, fruits and flowers all the year round. The adjacent villages are surrounded with groves, where the elegant cassia displays its clusters of yellow flowers, beside the sycamore, the date, and the melancholy tamarind. The rivulets which intersect the fields of rice, are lined with different kinds of reeds, whose narrow leaves and white flowers produce a very picturesque effect. In the vicinity of Damietta, the ancient papyrus vegetates luxuriantly, and rises to the height of nine feet. In the marshes and canals, the mystic lotus, wfiich the Arabs denominate Nuphar, raises * Abulfedse Descript. iEgypt. p. 51. Vid. D'Herbelot, Bibl. Orient, ad Verb. Mansoura. DAMIETTA. 137 its lofty stalk above the waters, like the king of aquatic plants, and expands its large calyx of an azure blue or brilliant white colour. The Nile of Damietta, at its greatest breadth, seldom ex ceeds seven hundred yards, and sometimes con tracts itself to one hundred, while its depth varies from three to twenty-four feet. Though situated on one ofthe chief branches ofthe Nile, Damietta is not mentioned by any writer of high antiquity. Tamiathis is indeed mentioned by Stephanus Byzantinus, as the name of a city of Egypt ; but it is conjectured that he applied this denomina tion to the district of Tamieh in Upper Egypt. It is, however, certain, that the modern town is built at a greater distance from the mouth of the river than the ancient city, which was the scene of so many obstinate conflicts between the crusaders and the Arabs. After the departure of St Louis, the Arabs being menaced with a new invasion, apprehensive that the city was fated to be the constant scene of war, razed it to the ground. A new city arose at some distance, and was af first termed Manchie, but afterwards ac quired the ancient appellation. The mouth of this branch of the Nile is rendered dangerous to mariners by sand-banks or bars, which are deno minated bogas. The Phatmetic mouth of the Nile is distant from the Sebennitic about thirty- two G. miles. 138 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. The province of Sharkie, adjacent to the Nile of Damietta, is rich and fertile, but not so uni form in the quality of its soil as the district of Garbie. Towards the shore, the consolidation of the alluvial territory appears to be incomplete, and the surface consists of a series of ridges, in tersected with marshes and lagoons. The great lake Menzala, the Tanis of the ancients, extends about sixty miles, between Damietta and Pelu- sium, either as a continued surface of water, or. as a morass, intersected with banks and ridges. The water of the lake is fresh at the period of the overflowing of the Nile, but during the rest of the year is rendered salt or brackish by its com munication with the sea.* It contains various islands, which still exhibit the ruins of towns and cities, and Edrisi mentions- the names of Nable, Tuna, Samna, and Hesn-Almai, all of which could only be approached by water. As these ruins emerge considerably above the level of the sur rounding water, the natives in the vicinity of the lake give them the appellation of mountains. The isles, which are nearly level with the water, are barren, uncultivated, and void of every species of vegetation, except marine plants. The water of the lake is extremely phosphorescent ; the bot tom consists of clay, mingled with sand, mud, * Geographia Nubiensis Edrisii ; Paris, 1619, p. 103. LAKE MENZALA. 139 slime, and shells ; and, in some places, is covered with moss and reeds. As it communicates both with the sea and the Nile, it abounds with sea and river fish, and is the resort of innumerable aquatic fowls. The lake Menzala, towards the land, assumes the form of two large gulfs, divided by a promontory, while their basins are separated from the sea by a low and narrow bank, which seems to have been accumulated by the lateral action of the current that sets along the shore of the Delta. The lake communicates with the sea by two channels, which are supposed to represent the Mendesian and Tanitic mouths of the Nile. The first is situated at the distance of twenty-one G. miles from the Phatmetic mouth, or that of Damietta ; while the Tanitic or Sai'tic mouth lies about seventeen G. miles beyond it. The Mende sian branch of the Nile, which enters the lake, is supposed to correspond to the canal of Man- sura ; and Andreossi imagines, that the canal of Moez, which overflows the province of Sharkie, represents the course of the Tanitic branch. The openings of the lake which communicate with the sea are shut up by shallow bars, which are only pervious to light vessels. Andreossi ob served two other communications with the sea, which were closed by factitious mounds. The narrow bank, or stripe of land which separates the lake from the sea, and extends from Da- 140 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. mietta to Pelusium, lies extremely low, remains uncultivated, and, like the shores of the lake, is in some places covered with marine plants. Menzala, from which the lake derives its name, is a small ruinous town, situated on a promontory which projects into the lake from the Delta, be tween the two semicircular gulfs which it forms towards the land. At the extremity of this pro montory lie the populous islands of Matharia, in habited by a ferocious race of fishermen, who form a separate class, and have little intercourse with the other Egyptians, whom they prohibit from fishing in the lake. The ruins of San, or Tanis> are situated upon the canal of Moez, about two leagues before it falls into the lake. The terri tory adjacent to Menzala is fertile and populous on the side of Damietta, but towards Pelusium becomes gradually sterile, till it runs into a bar ren desert. The Pelusiac outlet of the Nile lies about twenty-three G. miles to the east of the Tanitic opening. The ancient city of Pelusium was situated in a marshy district, which, at an early period, was notorious for being the haunt of robbers. As it commanded the entrance of Egypt on the Syrian side, it was strongly forti fied by the native Egyptian kings; and, at the time when Egypt was conquered by Cambyses, a strong rampart extended between this city and Heliopolis over a space of nearly ninety miles. EAST OF THE DELTA. 141 The extremity of the lake Menzala consists of a series of shallow and impervious marshes* similar to those jungles of reeds which are so frequent in eastern countries. The Arabian Farama was situated below Pelusium, at the mouth of the river, in N. lat. 30° 48'. It was destroyed in the wars of the crusades. The Coptic name of this city is Baram ; in which appellation we may per* haps recognize the Paremphis of Stephanus By- zantinus. Catieh* the ancient Casium, situated under Mount Casius, at the distance of about twenty-nine G. miles from Pelusium, forms the extreme boundary of Egypt. The eastern divi* sion of the Sharkie is arid and sterile, having been gradually reduced to a desert by the ne glect, and the consequent failure of the Pelusian branch of the Nile. At the most early period of history this eastern branch appears to have been the most considerable ; and, by its waters, ferti lized the sandy districts which border on the Red Sea. Assuming an eastern direction at the head of the Delta, its stream, descending to the sea, supplied numerous canals ; but, through a long series of ages, it has been gradually becoming shallow. Except at the period of the inundation* it has now lost the appearance of a river ; and the green districts of Goshen, in ancient times so abundant in pasturage, are converted into parch ed and sterile wastes. The principal towns in the 142 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. eastern part of the Sharkie are Belbeis and Sala- hia, the first of which contains about five thou sand inhabitants, and the other is supposed to ex ceed it in population. Suez, from which the narrow isthmus that connects Asia with Africa derives its name, is situated in N. lat. 30° 2', near the extremity of that shallow gulf in which the Red Sea terminates^ Though the emporium of Arabian commerce, the difficulty of procuring subsistence has prevented it from attaining im portance as a city, and reduced it to a mere mili tary station. It is supplied with water from a brackish spring on the Arabian coast, situated at the distance of three hours' journey, in the small Oasis of Honareb. Fuel, and every kind of pro visions,, are brought from the fertile districts of Egypt. The gradual retrocession of the sea, which has rendered the harbours accessible only to small boats at high water, deprives Suez of the only advantage which could compensate so un favourable a situation. The character of the surrounding scenery is of the most dreary and savage kind. Not the smallest appearance of Verdure can be observed from the terraces of the city, but the eye travels heavily over the yellow sands and the pools of green water, to rest on the white rocks of Arabia. Adjacent to Suez, on the northern side, a heap of mouldered ruins marks the site of the ancient Clysma, the Kolzoum of ISTHMUS OF SUEZ. 143 the Arabs, from which the Red Sea has received its Arabic appellation. At the northern extre mity of the gulf is the position of Arsinoe, which has long been rendered inaccessible to mariners, by impervious shoals formed in its vicinity. The loose texture of the low and sandy soil of the peninsula combines, with the action of the waves, to aid the formation of salt morasses ; and the accumulation of sand on the banks of coral, which are numerous in the Red Sea, forms the most dangerous shoals. When the sea is unruffled, the coral banks, particularly on the Arabian shore, exhibit such appearances of beauty, as rival the splendid fictions of the ancients con cerning the palaces and groves of the Nereids beneath the waves. The promontory of Tor, a continuation of the ridge of Sinai, divides the ex* tremity of the Red Sea into two deep gulfs. At the extremity of the eastern or Elanitic gulf, Aila, from which it derives its name, was situated. Kolzoum is situated near the extremity of the larger gulf, which, in ancient authors, is com monly denominated that of Heroopolis. By the Arabic authors, both the cities of Kolzoum and Aila are included within the boundaries of Egypt. The retreat of the Red Sea, on the Arabian side, gradually increases the breadth of the isthmus J though the inaccurate accounts of the Grecian and Arabian geographers seem to support the 23- 144 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. opinion, that it has rather encroached upon the land in that quarter than deserted it. Misled by the opinion, that Mount Casius and Heroopolis, a city near the bottom of the gulf, lay under the same meridian, though there be almost a degree of longitude between them, Herodotus and Pto lemy have extended the distance between Mount Casius and the head of the Arabian gulf to eighty-three instead of sixty -four G. miles. From the respective latitudes of Suez and Farama, the ancient Pelusium, the nearest distance between the Red Sea and the Mediterranean appears to be about forty-eight G. miles. The intermedi ate space is a level plain, covered with shifting sand, which the eye traverses without interrup tion from sea to sea. The advantages which this situation presented for commercial pursuits did not escape the observation of the ancients* and, at a very early period, a canal was con structed, which connected the Red Sea with the Mediterranean. As the loose and sandy soil of the isthmus rendered it impracticable to form a permanent canal across its narrowest part on the western side, they availed themselves of the navigable channel of the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, which they ascended towards the head of the Delta. On the eastern side, a canal was conducted from the gulf of Suez to the Pelusiac channel, from which it derived a stream of water. CAIRO. 14-5 This was probably the river Ptolemacus of Pliny, that passed by Arsinoe, and was denominated Cleopatris by Strabo. From the circuitous direc tion of this line of inland navigation, the voyage, according to Herodotus, occupied the space of four days. The canal seems never to have con tinued permanently open for any considerable space of time, but to have been restored at inter vals by different princes ; and hence a confusion in the various relations of historians, has been produced. CairO, the capital of Egypt, which the natives denominate Misr, the Mistress of the World, and Misr without an equal, is situated on the eastern side of the Nile, which it touches by its suburbs Fostat and Bulac. Though the ex tent of Cairo, its vast population, and the diver sity of dress, language, manners, and features which its inhabitants exhibit, cannot fail to pro duce a powerful impression upon the mind of an European ; yet this impression cannot be com pared with the idea of its ancient glory, when it was the metropolis of Africa, the second capital of the east, the scene of the wonders of Arabian romance, and of the real incidents of Arabian his tory, scarcely more credible than those of Orien tal fiction. From the castle of Cairo, founded on Mount Mokattam, the eye, at one view, com mands a prospect of the immense crescent which the city forms. It surveys none of those public VOL. II. K 146 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. or private edifices which display the genius of the architect, none of those regular squares or uni form streets which mark the taste of a polished people ; but, amid the confused multitude of houses, it attempts in vain to trace the direction of the streets, which are crooked and narrow. Vacant spaces appear at intervals, which are lakes at the inundation of the Nile, and gardens during the rest of the year. In September, the natives sail over the ground which in April is covered with flowers and verdure. The city is surround ed by a multitude of tombs; it is without a pave ment, and without walls j and the rubbish which has accumulated during a series of ages, rises in hillocks around it. The lofty minarets of the numerous mosuues, are the only objects which interrupt the uniformity of the flat and terraced roofs. The houses, which consist of two or three stories, are for the most part composed of earth and brick, though, in some instances, a soft spe cies of stone, of a fine grain, is employed. As they receive no light from the streets, while the windows, even of the inner courts, are of small size, and few in number, they are, for the most part, dark and gloomy as prisons. The castle of Cairo, situated upon a steep and inaccessible rock, is about a quarter of a league In circumference, surrounded by strong walls, but commanded by the adjacent mountain. The two great suburbs CAIRO — FOSTAT. 147 of Cairo, which may with propriety be reckoned detached towns* are Bulac and Fostat, which is likewise denominated Misr Elattike, the Ancient Misr, of Old Cairo. Bulac, the port of Cairo, is a long irregular town, on the western branch of the Nile. Fostat, or Old Cairo, is the port of Upper Egypt, and situated on the eastern bank of the Nile, near the site of the ancient Babylon. On the western bank of the river, Giza, former ly a suburb of Fostat, is situated. Cairo lies in N. L. 30° 3', and E. Long. 31° 20'. Fostat was founded in the twentieth year of the Hegira, by Amrou the conqueror of Egypt, on the place where he pitched his camp, before advanc ing to the siege of Alexandria. According to Elmacin* it derived its name from the tent ofthe Arabian general* which he left in the spot where it had been pitched, that he might not destroy the young of a pigeon that had formed its nest in it. The origin of Grand Cairo is comparative ly modern^ It was founded in the year 969, by Jauhar, general of Moaz, sovereign of Barbary, a prince of the Fatimite race. As the foundation of the town happened during the ascension of Mars, from the Arabic name of that planet it was denominated Kahira, the Victorious. About two hundred years after its foundation, its population was increased by the addition of the inhabitants of Fostat, which city, on the approach of the cru- 148 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. saders, was set on fire by its weak prince Shuwar. The renowned Saladin* who retrieved the disas ters of the Arabs, founded the castle of Cairo, and the walls which surround the city, about eight years after the destruction of Fostat.* Though Cairo has lost its former splendour, and the opu lence it enjoyed before the discovery of the pas sage to India by the Cape of Good Hope, its population is still considerable, and, in 1785, was estimated by Volney, at two hundred and fifty thousand inhabitants. It is still the emporium of the trade of Eastern Africa, and maintains a considerable intercourse with Arabia, Morocco, and various districts of the Levant. The traveller, ascending the Nile, soon after his departure from Cairo, approaches the narrowest part of the valley of Egypt, where the Arabian and Libyan mountains seem closing to prevent his farther progress. At the intervals of the palm- trees which cover the banks of the river, he is struck with the regularity of the immense rocky masses which emerge, in detached spaces, from the sandy plains of Libya, and is astonished to perceive that they exhibit the vestiges of human art. As he observes the solitary desert stretch ing beyond the Plain of the Pyramids, he seems * Abulfedae Excerpt. Hist. Univ. p. 23. ad fin. Bohadini Hist. Saladini a Schultens. PYRAMIDS. 149 to stand upon the confines of nature, and to con template the ruins of a former world, which the waters have spoiled. The enormous size of these ancient monuments, and the solidity of their structure, promise an eternal duration, an exist ence coeval with the everlasting mountains. They are visible at a great distance, and, as the traveller advances, seem to retire into the recesses of the desert. Their stupendous height, prodigious sur face, and enormous solidity, strike the spectator with reverence and awe, as they recal the memory of distant ages. The situation of the principal pyramids is at the entrance ofthe Plain of Mum mies, where the sepulchres of the ancient Egyp tians, hewn out of the solid rock, are closed with stones of a large size, and covered with sand. The pyramids are distinguished by the names of the villages in their immediate vicinity, as Giza, Sakkara, and Dashur, and they extend, at inter vals, along the sand-hills which skirt the banks of the Nile, from Giza to Medum, over a space of twenty-six G. miles. The rocky base on which they are founded, is elevated about fifty feet above the level of the plain. On the western bank of the Nile, between the river and the line of pyra mids which shuts up the entrance into the desert, the villages of Metrahenny and Mohanan mark the site of the ancient Memphis. These villages lie about nine G. miles above Fostat, in N. L. 150 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. 29° 53'. They are surrounded by groves of palm- trees, which conceal from observation the remains of that great city, of which the very ruins have almost perished, Besides the name of Menf, or Menouf, given by the Arabs to a position at which the ruins were visible to a late period, some vast shapeless mounds of rubbish, where the thistle springs luxuriantly, and canals lined with stone, but choked up with earth, are the only re mains of the ancient Memphis, a city which was once about fourteen miles in circumference.* In these mounds, which chiefly appear on the ex tremities of the plain, some fragments of sculptur ed stones have been found ; but there are no obe lisks, no hieroglyphics, no superb monuments, no ruins of temples or public buildings, to mark the site of former magnificence. In a small lake, however, which contracts its surface when the waters of the Nile, in years of extreme drought, rise not to their ordinary height, more perfect and magnificent ruins have been discovered.t The ancient history of Memphis is not less obscure than its modern situation, Though inferior to Thebes in the fame of antiquity, its origin ascends to a very remote period beyond the limits of au thentic history. Whether it was founded by * Diodorus Siculus, 1. 1. § 2. f Maillet's Description of Egypt, p. 274. MEMPHIS. 151 Menes, as Herodotus relates, or by Uchoreus, according to Diodorus, it seems to have been the most ancient city of Lower Egypt. The Nile, emerging a little above Memphis, from the nar rowest part ofthe valley, seems originally to have poured its stream into the vast morass of salt water which occupied the place of Lower Egypt. Before its waters had formed to themselves a channel in this waste and unsteady plain, many ages probably elapsed ; but soon after the ground began to assume a durable solidity, Memphis ap pears to have been founded. Situated at the head of the Delta, it was nearly surrounded by the Nile, which, dividing its stream above the city, passed to the east and to the west of its walls. At this period, the most considerable branch of the Nile seems to have flowed on the west of Memphis, towards that sterile district which lies on the west of Alexandria, where it was partly lost in brackish lakes, and partly dissipated in the deserts of sand, without contributing much to the fertilization of the country, Menes, accord ing to Herodotus,* the first sovereigr of Egypt, by erecting an immense mound on the west of Memphis, forced the waters of the river to aban don the western, and occupy the eastern channel. The remains of this mound were observed by * Herodot. Euterpe, 99. 152 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. Pococke, who describes a great causeway of one thousand yards in length, and twenty feet wide, formed of hewn stone, which extended across a hollow part ofthe country, and terminated about a mile to the N. E. ofthe pyramids.* The Nile being excluded from one of its chan nels, did not long contain its waters within the other, but following its ancient tendency towards the west, which it derived from the inclination of the soil, again separated in the vicinity of Helio- polis, where it formed a new Delta, stretching farther to the east, but on the western side infe rior in extent to the ancient Delta. This varia tion of the apex of the Delta, from Memphis to Heliopolis, introduced such a degree of confusion into the relations of historians, as has rendered it difficult to ascertain the position of Memphis, though that city flourished to a late period. From its central situation, it was equally adapted for becoming the capital of a powerful kingdom, and the emporium of an extensive commerce. The ancient monarchs of Egypt deserted Thebes, and her hundred gates, to reside in this new capital, around which soon arose the pyramids, the proud est monuments of antiquity. Memphis flourish ed for many ages, and even survived the ravages of the Persian Cambyses. The founding of Alex- * Pococke's Travels, Vol. I. p. 42, MEMPHIS — FEIUM. 153 andria was the first incident fatal to its greatness, and the capital of Middle Egypt began to experi ence the fate of Thebes. In the reign of Augus tus, Memphis, though deserted by many of its inhabitants, still continued the second city of Egypt, a rank which it seems to have maintained till its final destruction by the Arabs under Am- rou. After a long and obstinate defence, it was taken by storm, rased to the ground, and the name of Misr, by which it was known to the Arabs, transferred to Fostat.* At some distance above, the province of Feium, the ancient Croco- dilopolis, afterwards denominated Arsinoe, com mences. Here the western mountainous ridge, which accompanies the course of the Nile from the cataracts, suddenly bends towards the desert, and returning, fcrms in its bosom an immense basin, containing the lake Mceris, which Strabo des cribes with a degree of enthusiasm, as resembling the sea in its extent, in its colour, and in the shores by which it is surrounded, t This province is celebrated by the ancients as surpassing the rest of Egypt in beauty, in riches, and in the va riety of its productions. It was the only district which produced the olive. Feium still displays traces of its ancient fertility, though, by the ne- * Abulfeda? Descript. iEgypt. p. 23. f Strabo a Casaub. p. 1163. 154 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. gleet of its canals, and the encroachment of the sands of the desert, the arable soil is reduced to a third of its original extent. The climate, the soil, and the waters of the river, are the same, but the works pf human art have changed. The soil produces various kinds of grain abundantly, and the olive and the vine are not quite extirpat ed. Groves of fruit-trees and rose-bushes line the banks of the river ; and it is from this province that the immense consumption of rose-water by the Egyptians is supplied. When the waters of the river were regulated by canals, and the industry ofthe inhabitants aided the natural fertility of the soil, the province of Arsinoe, with its grey wastes of sand, and lofty rocks, which stretch with nu merous intersections far into the desert, presented the appearance of " beauty smiling in the lap of " horror ;" but since the canals have been ruined, agriculture neglected, and paltry cottages of mud formed out of the ruins of its ancient cities, the dreary aspect of desolation has predominated over the features of beauty. The cities of Crocodilo- polis, Heraclea, and Ptolemais, are destroyed, and Feium itself, in the time of Abulfeda a consider able city, has dwindled almost into insignificance. The bed of the lake Mceris, now denominated Cairun, is much inferior to its ancient size, though it is still about thirty leagues in circumference. The length is between thirty and forty miles, and LAKE CAIRUN — THE LABYRINTH. 155 the greatest breadth about six miles.* The shore towards Feium is flat and sandy, and various islands are comprehended within the circumfe rence of the lake. Towards Libya, at a small dis tance from the western extremity of the lake, are the ruins of the town and palace of Caroun, from which the lake derives its Arabian name. These are supposed to mark the site of the Labyrinth, that extraordinary and magnificent edifice which Pliny regarded as the most amazing monument of human genius ; which was the prototype of similar structures in Crete, in Lemnos, and in Italy, and for the erection of which it is almost impossible to assign any satisfactory reason. Ac cording to Herodotus, the subterraneous apart ments of the Labyrinth contained the bodies of the ancient Egyptian kings, and of the sacred crocodiles ; but Pliny mentions it as an opinion generally received, that the edifice was erected in honour of the sun. The canal which descends from the Thebaid to the lake Cairun, is still deno minated the canal of Joseph. Between this arti ficial derivation and the bed of the Nile, a long narrow lake, termed Bathen by the Arabs, is in tercepted. Above Feium, the mountains which accompany the Nile from the cataracts approach nearer its banks, and the dimensions of the fertile * Browne's Travels, p. 169. 156 , DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. valley of the river are contracted, particularly on the eastern side, which is naked, rocky, and bar ren. Towns and villages become less numerous, while the ruins of ancient cities abound more and more. Amid the paltry cottages of the Copts and Arabs, the traveller discerns the vestiges of mag nificent edifices which seem to have been the ha bitations of Genii. In sailing southwards occur the considerable towns of Benisouef, Monfalout, Assiut, and Girge, the capital of Upper Egypt. All these places have ruins in their vicinity ; but none of peculiar splendour occur till we arrive at Dendera. Dendera, the ancient Tentyra, lies on the western bank of the river, near the extremity of a fertile plain, bounded by an extensive forest of palms and dates, which furnishes the greater part of Egypt with charcoal.* The ruins of ancient Tentyra, which lie a little to the west of the mo dern town, are of considerable extent. The re mains of three temples, the largest of which is in a high state of preservation, still exist. Two of these, one of which is the largest of the three, are dedicated to Isis ; the third seems to have been consecrated to Typhon.t The execution of the * Sonnini's Travels, p. 589, 4to. * f Ripaud's Report on the Antiquities of Upper Egypt, p- 49- DENDERA — KENE. 157 sculptures in these temples exhibits a degree of purity and delicacy which the Egyptians seldom attained. The principal subjects represented in the porticos are of an astronomical nature. The inhabitants of ancient Tentyra are famous for their enmity to the crocodile, over which they exhibited a power similar to that of the Psylli over serpents. Opposite to Dendera, on the eastern bank of the Nile, lies Kene or Giene, the ancient Ccene or Ccenopolis, situated on an eminence. Since the decline of Coptos or Keft, the Sanscrit Gupta, its ruins lie about four leagues above Kene, on the same bank of the river. The ruins of this city, which occupy an eminence of two miles in cir cumference, are marked only by a few fragments of granite and mutilated sarcophagi, sunk in the elevated soil. In the reign of the Ptolemies, this city was the mart of Indian commerce ; it was watered by a canal of the Nile, and inhabited by Egyptians and Arabs. By this route the produce of Arabia, Ethiopia, and India, was introduced into Egypt from the port of Cosseir, which lies at the distance of three days' journey. The city retained the opulence it derived from this trade till the reign of Dioclesian, by whom it was rased, and the inhabitants extirpated on account of their adherence to Christianity. In the time of Abul- feda it was reduced to a hamlet. Cous, the Apol- linopolis Parva of the ancients, succeeded to the 158 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. Commerce and opulence of Coptos, and possessed it during the dominion of the Arabs. Abulfeda t.elates that it was the emporium of the commerce of Aden, the capital of Yemen, which, during the 13th century, monopolized the trade of India and Egypt. When Egypt was conquered by the Turks, and the Indian commerce, after the circumnavigation of Southern Africa, declined, Kene succeeded to the remains of this trade. At Cous no remains of antiquity exist, except the entablature of an Egyptian gate, on the cornice of which a Greek inscription is engraved.* The soil of Upper Egypt seems to increase in fertility as the traveller approaches the site of the ancient Thebes. The cultivated fields produce luxuriant crops, in the proportion of thirty and fifty for one, while several crops succeed one another in the same year.t In that fervid atmosphere, which renders flowers more fragrant, fruit trees of every species are constantly covered with fruits or blossoms, and equally delight the senses by their variegated foliage and odoriferous shade. The acacia, which produces the gum Arabic, abounds in the sandy plains. The appearance of this tree is stunted, the stem crooked and low, * Ripaud's Report on the Antiquities of Upper Egypt, p. 48. f Sonnini'e Travels, p. 619, 4to. RUINS OF THEBES. 159 the branches long and naked, the leaves narrow, and the flowers minute and white, sometimes tinged with yellow. Its bark is rough and brown, and the branches are armed with long white spines.* Were extensive forests of the acacia diffused over the sandy plains of Egypt, the basis of the soil of which consists frequently of vegeta ble mould, it is probable that extensive arid dis tricts might be reclaimed from desolation to their original fertility. The ruins of the great Thebes, the ancient ca pital of Egypt, the city of Jove, the city of the hundred gates, from each of which issued two hundred warriors, with their horses and chariots, overwhelm the mind with astonishment, by their magnitude aad magnificence, while they, at the same time, exhibit the most melancholy picture of the instability of human greatness. When the Scythians invited Darius to follow them to the tombs of their ancestors, we accompany their dreary route through the desert, and contemplate the solemn visit of the pastoral tribes to the ve nerable graves of their fathers. It is with feel ings such as these the traveller should tread on the ruins of Thebes, and contemplate the cradle of the human race. If ever a nation aimed at immortality of fame, and sought to astonish and * Sonnini's Travels, p. 637, 4to. 46 160 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. eclipse succeeding generations by the monuments of their grandeur, it was the nation which built Egyptian Thebes ; yet their antiquity is buried in the obscurity of ages ; their history, -their man ners* and their laws, are forgotten, and their name has hardly survived the revolutions of cen turies. The grandeur and beauty conspicuous in the venerable ruins of this ancient city, the enor mous dimensions, and the gigantic proportions of its architecture, reduce into comparative insigni ficance the most boasted monuments of other na tions. The ruins, which occupy both sides of the Nile, extend for three leagues along the river ; on the east and west they reach to the mountains, and describe a circuit of twenty-seven miles, covered with prostrate columns of immense mag nitude, colossal statues, lofty colonnades, avenues formed by rows of obelisks and sphinxes, and re mains of porticos of prodigious elevation. Kour- na and Medinet-Abu on the western bank of the river, Luxor and Carnac on the eastern, mark the extent of the ruins, the greater proportion of which exist on the eastern bank of the Nile. The river is at this place about three hundred yards broad. At Kourna are the ruins of an Egyptian temple, constructed on a different plan from that of the edifices at Thebes.* The roofs * Ripaud's Report on the Antiquities of Upper Egypt, p. 48. RUINS OF THEBES. 161 are vaulted in a peculiar manner, and the hiero* glyphics accurately engraved. The inhabitants of this district are a ferocious race, dark in their complexion, and different in their features from the other Egyptians, while the greater part of them, like the ancient Troglodytes, inhabit the caverns of the mountains. When Browne visited Kourna, a female inquired, " Are you afraid of " crocodiles ?" and added laconically, " We are " crocodiles ;"* a denomination which applies accurately to the inhabitants of all the villages of the Thebaid. The ruins On the western bank of the Nile are not only less entire, but piled in greater disorder than on the eastern side of the river. The most entire are the Memnonium, or palace of Memnon, the palace of Medinet-Abu, and two colossal statues, celebrated for their pro digious height. Some of the columns of the Memnonium are still about forty feet high, and ten in diameter. In one of the courts are frag ments of an immense statue, one of the feet of which is entire, and almost eleven feet long. A colossal statue of granite, of smaller proportions, placed at one Of the gates, exhibits an admirable specimen of Egyptian sculpture. The body is black, but the head is formed of rose-coloured granite. The peristyle of the palace of Medi- * Browne's Travels in Africa, p. 138. VOL. II. L 162 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. net-Abu is sixty-five feet in length, and fifty- five in breadth. It is forined by four ranges of columns, forty-five feet in height, and seven in diameter. The execution of the sculpture is su perior to that of the Memnonium. The smaller hieroglyphics are hollowed in the stone, from the depth of one to that of six inches, while the larger figures have two inches of relief. The two colos sal statues, generally denominated Shaama and . Taama, are placed between Memnonium and Medinet-Abu. They are about fifty-eight feet in height, and in a sitting attitude^ Their bases are about eleven feet high, but immersed nearly six feef in the earth. The southern colossus is en tire, but the northern is mutilated. Its base and legs are covered with Greek and Latin inscrip tions, which commemorate the emission of sound from the vocal statue of Memnon. The interval between Memnonium and Medinet-Abu is occu pied by the continuous ruins of magnificent edi fices and colossal statues, the sculptures of which, representing battles and sieges, seem to indicate the remains of the tomb of Osymandyas, proba bly the same personage with Memnon. Diodo- rus has left us a description of this astonishing edifice. The vestibule* of coloured stone, was two hundred feet in length, and sixty-eight feet in elevation. The peristyle was of a square form, each of its sides was four hundred feet long, sup" RUINS OF THEBES. 163 ported by columns sculptured in the form of ani mals, while the roof, of an azure colour, was varie gated with stars of gold. Beyond this peristyle, another portico, more highly ornamented with sculptures than the former, introduced the spec tator to the view of three statues formed of one stone, not more remarkable for their gigantic size than for their exquisite workmanship. On the largest of these statues was the following proud inscription : " I am Osymandyas, king of kings ! " Let him who would know how great I am, and " where I repose, surpass my works."* According to the same author, the sculptures on the walls of this monument commemorate the triumphs of this prince over the insurgents of Bactria. The most celebrated monuments of ancient Thebes are situ ated on the eastern bank of the river, and extend from the Arabian village of Luxor or Aksor, men tioned by Abulfeda, to Carnac. Luxor is probably the Diospolis of the Greeks, but Carnac may like wise be included in Ptolemy's Great City of Jupi ter. In approaching the ruins of the palace of Luxor from the river, two immense obelisks appear in the front, and between these and the edifice two colossal statues of black granite, about thirty-eight feet in height. Of the palace, various magnificent colonnades still exist, but some of the wings are * Diodorus Siculus a Heyne, Vol. I. p. 145. 164 DESCRIPTIONS OP EGYPT. greatly dilapidated, so that it is difficult to trace the form of the building. It is at Carnac, how ever, that the finest ruin exists. Four avenues, three of which are formed by rows of sphinxes, lead to four magnificent porticoes. The. middle consists of a grand saloon, formed by ranges of columns of prodigious magnitude. The ruins of this edifice are surrounded with the remains of sphinxes, obelisks, statues, and mutilated columns, all of which are sculptured with hieroglyphical figures. The Libyan mountain, on the west of Thebes, contains numerous excavations, which oc cupy nearly three-fourths of its elevation, but the entrances of many of which are now filled up with sand. The most spacious and most ornamented of these caverns are those which are lowest on the mountain ; those which are formed in the more elevated parts, though similar in plan, are more rude in construction as well as execution. A passage of considerable length, cut in the free stone, leads to the anterior chamber, from which another passage* winding abruptly to the right, leads to the great sepulchral chamber, in the middle of which is placed a sarcophagus of red granite. * In the least decorated caverns, are represented the arts which flourished* and the trades which were practised* at the epocha of * Browne's Travels^ p. 137. RUINS OF THEBES. 165 their construction. The subjects which relate to funeral ceremonies, the occupations of the hunter and the fisher, the duties and the punishments of military life, the employments of the husband man, the potter, and the artisans which first ap- pear in the progress of civilization, are in these caverns sculptured in basso-relievo, or painted in fresco.* The sepulchres of the kings are carved, in their whole extent, with pictures and hiero glyphics, and exhibit many specimens of the gro tesque style similar to that employed in Herculane um. t The unintelligible characters inscribed on the walls of these caverns, are supposed to conceal the history of a very Gbscure period of the reign ofthe ancient Theban monarchs, whose authority extended from Ethiopia to India. In one of * Rhpaud's Report on the Antiquities of Upper Egypt, p. 44. -j- " In some places of the Mummy Pits," says Vansleb, <( are great tombstones, full of cyphers and enigmatical fi- " gures, which represent something of chemistry, and of " other sciences and mysteries, and full of strange charac- " ters that are no hieroglyphics."—— Vansleb' s Travels in 1672-3,^.91. The sepulchres of the kings are denominated Biban-el- Moluk, the Ports or Gates of the Kings ; and hence, Bruce thinks, was derived the epithet ixxTepirvXii;, having a hundred gates, which is employed by Homer. Volney conjectures, that the term signified a hundred public porticoes. Bruce's Tra vels, Vol. I. p. 136. Volney 's Ruins. 166 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. these caves are found the representations of the two harps and harpers described by Bruce, which are supposed by Browne to have been delineated from memory, rather than from the figures them selves, but which the French philosophers who visited these excavations in a more secure man ner than former travellers had done, do not ac cuse of inaccuracy. In many of these subterra neous recesses, the sculptures represent human sacrifices. Strabo relates that the sepulchres of the kings were forty in number, while Diodorus Siculus, from the ancient Egyptian records, enu merates forty-seven, though he adds, that, during the reign of Ptolemy Lagus, only seventeen were open,* the Egyptians having probably concealed them, to prevent violation. At present only nine are accessible. The mummies are now procured from the excavations in the more elevated part of the mountain.t The pensile gardens of Thebes are mentioned by Pliny,! but no particular descrip tion of them has been preserved. The origin of this city ascends to a period of unfathomable anti quity. The ancient city was destroyed before the era of authentic history, and its power and magni- * Diodor. Sicul. 3. Heyne, Vol. I. p. 142. f According to Norden, grottos or excavations of this kind in the vicinity of Assiut are denominated Sababinath. Norden's Travels, Vol. II. p. 35. % PKn. Nat. Hist. 1. xxxvi. c. 14. RUINS OF THEBES, 167 ficence are described by authors who only beheld its ruins. The opinions of the Egyptians them selves, as we are informed by Diodorus, were divid ed concerning the founder of Thebes, though, by the voice of the majority, that honour was ascrib ed to Osiris. By others, however, the claims of the second Busiris, a character whose history is scarcely less obscure than that of Osiris, were ad mitted to be preferable. The signification and etymology of the name of the city likewise forms a very perplexing, though not very important, sucject of inquiry. From a celebrated temple dedicated to that luminary, Thebes is sometimes denominated The City ofthe Sun. The original decline of Thebes was caused by the building of Memphis. It was sacked by Salatis, and afterwards by Sabacon, kings of the Ethiopian shepherds ; and it was probably the vicinity of this rapid and feroci ous enemy which induced the ancient Egyptian princes to remove the seat of their empire down the Nile to Memphis. The mutilation of the ancient monuments of Thebes was completed by the indiscriminate rage of Cambyses, after whose invasion this city never recovered any part of its ancient splendour. It may be noticed as a cu rious fact, that Ammianus Marcellinus mentions the devastation of Thebes by a sudden incursion 168 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. ofthe Carthaginians, prior to the expedition of Cambyses into Egypt. In the vicinity of Thebes, in a large island formed by a branch of the Nile, which separates from the principal stream at Ermenth, and unites with it again at Memnonium, ought probably to be placed the Tathyris of Ptolemy,* the Pathuris of Pliny, Pathros of the Hebrew monuments, and Pathures of the Septuagint. The change of P into T is conformable to the Ethiopic pronuncia-, tion. Ermenth, the ancient Hermonthis, lies about twelve miles above Thebes, and exhibits the ruins of a magnificent temple. In this city, according to -3Clian, The Good Genius was wor shipped under the symbol of a bull, and denomi nated Onuphis.t Between Ermenth and Isna lies Asfun, a small town founded on the ruins of Aphroditopolis, sometimes denominated Asphy- nis, as Wilford thinks, from the Sanscrit term Asusini. Esne, or Latopolis, is still a considera ble town, and since the persecution, of Dioclesian has been revered as a place of peculiar sanctity by the Copts. An ancient temple is still in a state of considerable preservation. According to Norden, the capital of one column never resem bles another. The sculptures represent the cere- * Ptolemaeii Geogr. a Bertio, p. 12,2. f JElian. Hist. Animal. 1. xii. ESNE. 169 monies of worshipping the ram, the crocodile, and the Nile. In the vicinity of this city are various ruins of temples and large buildings, that appear from the sculptures to have been conse crated to the crocodile, which is sometimes re presented with the head of a hawk. The inhabi tants of this district, if they have not retained their ancient veneration for this animal, still pre serve many superstitions concerning it. In the vicinity of Esne the king of the crocodiles is said to reside, who, unlike the rest of the race, is de void of a tail, but, as a compensation for this loss, he is adorned with ears. Among the qualities of this royal crocodile, is that of never doing any harm, a circumstance which is extremely proba ble. This superstition resembles that which the negroes in the West Indies entertain concerning the cayman. Beneath Esne there appears, from Strabo, to have been an ancient city, denominat ed Crocodilopolis. The situation of the EileiT thyia of Ptolemy, or the city of Bubaste, on the eastern bank of the Nile, is indicated by an enclosure containing various ruins, at El Kab.* The mountain in its vicinity is pierc ed with numerous sepulchral excavations, on which are sculptured the details of rural and * Ripaud's Report on the Antiquities of Upper Egypt, p. 25. 170 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. domestic economy, navigation, religious and fu„ neral ceremonies. The process of embalming is minutely described ; the male figures are painted red, and the female yellow. Edfou, the ancient Apollinopolis Magna, was formerly celebrated for the temple of Orus, the Egyptian Apollo, and was one of the places where the grand mysteries were celebrated. This temple, though it has suf fered considerable dilapidations* is, after that of Dendera, the mOst perfect specimen of Egyptian architecture. A few leagues beyond Edfou, the channel of the Nile is contracted by the Moun tain ofthe Chain, or Gebel el Silfili, which pro jects into the stream from the western bank. This mountain is supposed to have derived its name from a chain, which, at an early period of the Egyptian history, was drawn across the stream, to prevent the incursions of the Nubians, who were accustomed, in their boats, to descend the river, and ravage the plains of the Thebaid. The rock, which consists of freestone, is at this place hollowed into sepulchral excavations. Be yond this narrow pass ofthe river, the ruins of Ora- bos, now denominated Koum Ombu, or the Heap ofOmbos, are discovered, the structures of which seem to have sunk beneath the enormous weight of the materials with which they were construct ed. The remains of two temples, which, from the sculptures, seem to have been devoted to the EDFOU — SYENE. 171 united worship of Osiris and the crocodile, still displayed the faded aspect of ancient grandeur.* In the temples of Ombos, the malignant Ty- phon is represented with the head of a crocodile and the body of a bear, and offerings are present ed to the figure of a man with the head of a cro-f codile. As the banks of the Nile are in this dis trict almost deserted, the crocodiles which swarm on the isles of sand, and swim in long lines along the river, seem to have fixed their residence, in a peculiar manner, in the vicinity of a town in which they were formerly venerated. Ascending be yond Ombos, we arrive at Syene or Assuan, Ele phantine, and Philae, by Tacitus denominated the barrier of the Roman empire. Syene has thrice varied its position. The present town is built on the banks of the river, according to the observa tions of Bruce, in N. L. 24° 0' 25" and E. long. 33° 30'. t The Syene of the ancient Egyptians, of the Greeks, and of the Romans, appears to have been situated on the heights which command the modern town. It was taken and destroyed by Caled, named by Mahomet <' The Sword of God." The Arabian Syene, though it occupied a part of the site of the ancient city, was situated in a more * Ripaud's Report on the Antiquities of Upper Egypt, p. 22. f Bruce's Travels, Vol. I. p. 160. 172 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. southern position than either the ancient or the modern town. The isle of Elephantine is situa ted opposite to Syene, and has been apparently formed by the accumulation of the sediment of the Nile. It is about three hundred fathoms long, and four hundred broad. It contains the ruins of a small temple consecrated to Orus, the figures sculptured on which have the characteristic features of negroes.* The modern inhabitants of this isle exhibit considerable resemblance to the negro race in features, hair, and person.! Ter- missi and Marada, small villages which lie on the first cataract of the Nile, are about six miles above Syene. At this cataract, or rather rapid, by the Arabs denominated Shelal, the Nile, which is scarcely half a mile in breadth, is divided into a number of small channels by numerous isles and rocks of granite that run across the bed of the river. The face of the country is peculiarly rough and irregular, being formed of a confused mass of naked precipices and sandy declivities. The fall of the Nile itself appeared to Norden to be only about four feet in height. Pococke, who seems to have observed it at a more favourable sea son, mentions three different falls ; the first three * Ripaud's Report on the Antiquities of Upper Egypt, p. 22. f Browne's Travels, p. 141. ELEPHANTINE— CATARACTS. 173 feet in height, the second five, and the third, which is situated lower on the river, of still greater height.* The boats of the Arabs both ascend and descend these rapids, which do not corres pond to the magnificent descriptions of them left by the ancients. Among the ancient poets, who, in their descriptions, have depicted it as a scene of sublimity and grandeur, Lucan deserves to be particularly mentioned, t But even the historians and naturalists have caught the enthusiasm, and describe, in the most brilliant colours of fancy, the roaring, dashing, and foaming of the agitated stream, the tremendous whirlpools it forms, and the rapidity of the current, which is compared to the velocity of an arrow. The Persian garrison are described by Seneca as stunned by the loud and dreadful echos ofthe waterfalls, and retreat ing from its vicinity to a more quiet station.^ * Pococke's Travels in Egypt, Vol. I. p. 121. f Quis te tam lene fluentem Moturum tantas violenti gurgitis iras Nile, putet ? Sed cum lapsus abrupta viarum Excepere tuos, et precipites cataracts, Ac nusquam vetitis ullas obsistere cautes Indignaris aquis ; spuma tunc astra lacessis ; Cuncta fremunt undis, ac multo murmure monteS Spumeus invictis canescit fluctibus amnis. Lucan, Pharsai. 1. x. 315- % Seneca? Nat. Quaest. lib. iv. c. 2. 174 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. From these relations, we figure to ourselves the stupendous precipices of Niagara, the vast un broken flood which agitates the air to a whirlwind in its fall, the thundering reverberation of the rocks, the white cloud of spray, and the prostrate Indian adoring the awful divinity of the waters. If ever these ideas were applicable to the water falls of the Nile, that period is long past. From the relation of Diodorus, however, who describes the regurgitation of the river as inundating the plains of Nubia, it may be Conjectured, that, in the lapse of time* through the constant attrition of so considerable a body of water* the fall of the river has been gradually rendered less precipitous, and the chasm of the rocks more considerable. About four miles beyond the cataract of the Nile lies El-Heiff, the ancient Philae. In this isle, or rather rock of granite, which is only one hundred and fifty fathoms long and seventy broad, are con centrated some of the most curious and pictu resque remains of Egypt. Three entire temples, the ruins of a Roman fort, and the vestiges of two other temples, are here discernible. The plan of the temples is very irregular, probably from hav ing been the work of different periods. The exte rior part of the building is adorned with colossal sculptures, and the ornaments and capitals of the columns are exquisitely finished. The capitals are of four kinds, representing the calyx of the lotus, PHIL/E. I75 the flower of the lotus, the head of the palm-tree, and the branches of the fan palm-tree united with the bark of the lotus. One of the colossal sculp tures represents a giant, who seizes in his left hand thirty men by the hair, while in his right he brandishes a battle-axe over his devoted vic tims. From the figure of the hawk sculptured on the walls* the great temple appears to have been consecrated to Osiris, whose sepulchre was in this island. By Osiris in Philw, was the most solemn oath of the ancient Egyptians.* As many of the monuments in this island are constructed of masses of stone, sculptured with hieroglyphics, the French philosophers, by whom they were ex amined, conjecture that they indicate a class of monuments anterior to those of the Thebaid or of any other district of Egypt.t Norden sup poses Philae to be excavated into subterraneous recesses and passages, a conjecture by no means improbable, as it was the exclusive habitation of the priests, every other Egyptian being prohibi ted from entering it under the penalty of death. From this circumstance, it seems to have receiv ed from Seneca the epithet of The Inaccessible ; and we are informed by Norden, that its rocky * Tzetzes in Lycophron, Alex. 212. + Ripaud's Report on the Antiquities of Upper Egypt, p. 20. 4« 176 • DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. banks are cut in the form of a wall. An island of still larger size than Philae, and in its imme diate vicinity, is probably the Tacompsus of Ste- phanus Byzantinus, which that geographer men tions as adjacent to Philae. From the name it may be inferred that Tacompsus was devoted to the worship of the crocodile, since kamsa or kompso, according to Herodotus, was the name of that animal in the ancient Egyptian language. About a league above Philae, the village Deboude exhibits the remains of various ancient structures, with a ruined canal, lined with stone, and forty feet in breadth ; and at Hindau, about two leagues higher on the Nile, similar ruins become still more numerous.* As the traveller advances he still recognizes the vestiges of ancient gran deur ; magnificent ruins emerge from the sands, and he often finds large stones covered with hie roglyphics, though unable to discover the edifices from which they have been taken. The valley of the river is confined by sandy declivities and precipices of granite, till it reaches the village of Teffa, about nine leagues beyond which it is crossed by the imaginary line that divides Egypt from Nubia. After entering Nubia, the valley preserves the same aspect, and the breadth of the flat country between the mountains and the Nile * Norden's Travels, Vol. II. p. 130. NUBIA. 177 seldom exceeds an hundred paces. In some places* the declivities of the valley are cultivated to a considerable height, and thickets of acacia flourish on the tops of the hills. The rocks of granite do not extend far beyond the cataract, but are interrupted by strata of sandstone, which contain numerous nodules of silex. The valley widens as it, ascends, and ruins of considerable edifices are still apparent, particularly at Den- dour, Dikka, and Sabua. Dendour is equally distant from the cataract of Syene and Deir or Derri, one of the last Egyptian stations in Nubia. This station was visited in 1737-8 by Fred. L. Norden, who attempted to penetrate as far as the second cataract, but was unable to surmount the difficulties which he encountered at Deir. These difficulties did not consist so much in the nature of the journey, as in the rapacity and jealousy of the inhabitants of this frontier post. Their chief declared to Norden, that one of their prophets had announced, " That there would come Franks " in disguise, who, by presents, by soothing and " insinuating behaviour* would traverse the coun- " try, examine its situation, and afterwards re- " turn with a great number of other Franks to " conquer the country, and exterminate the in- " habitants."* We have lately seen the conjec- * Norden's Travels, Vol. H. p. 150. VOL. II. M 178 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. ture of the prophet fulfilled in its most essential circumstances. The station of Ibrim, termed Efrim by Maillet, lies above Deir. Sicard terms it the capital of Nubia on the south-east.* At some distance beyond Ibrim is the second or great cataract, denominated Mahaslas, and Ge- nadil. The course of the Nile in this tract has been so little explored* that it is impossible to as sign the modern stations which correspond to the places mentioned by the ancient geographers. Pselchis and Metakompso are placed by Ptolemy 25' to the south of Philae, a distance which cor responds, in some degree, to the Tachompso of Herodotus. The Stadisis of Pliny, founded near a cataract of the Nile beyond Pselchis, and des troyed by Petronius the Roman praefect of Egypt, seems to have been situated in the vicinity of the second cataract. From the topography of the valley of the Nile, " that land, whereof the air is pleasant, the waters " sweet, and the valleys green, which is adorned " with a river of paradise, on which the eye of the " Almighty watches night and day," we turn to describe the eastern desert of the Thebaid, a dis trict whose horrid aspect nurses misanthropy in the breasts of the wretched, and invites them to pine in its savage solitudes. In this vast expanse * Sicard Relation ap. Lettres Edifiantes, Vol. II. p. 186. EASTERN THEBAID. I79 of naked rocks and burning sand, we search in vain for the ruins of temples, ancient monuments, and superb edifices like those which cover the val ley of Egypt ; we discover no remains of a city, no remains of a village ; but if a solitary fountain have fertilized a small circle of sand in the desert, if a lonely tree have extended its shade over the path ofthe traveller, he seems to have given it a name, as if it had been a city. This region exhi bits the form of a triangle, the apex of which is placed at Suez, while the two sides are formed by the Red Sea and the Nile. In the parallel of Cairo, the Nile is scarcely three days' journey distant from the sea ; at Keft the distance is con siderably increased ; in a higher parallel it be comes nine days' journey, while at Syene it is computed to be about seventeen.* This district, which, from its eastern situation, is denominated Sharkin, a word Latinized Saracene* is, by the ancients, frequently termed Arabia, from the si milarity both of the country and of the inhabi tants. It is also termed Asiatic Egypt. The chain of mountainous ridges which confine the eastern bank of the Nile is so steep and precipi tous, that it frequently exhibits the aspect of an artificial wall, interrupted at intervals by deep and rugged ravines. But as if this natural defence * Maillet's Descr. de l'Egypte, p. 318. 180 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. had not been sufficient, the remains of an exten sive artificial wall, about twenty-four feet thick, formed of huge stones, and running from north to south, is asserted to have been discovered in this desert.* This the Arabs suppose to have been formed by an ancient Egyptian king, and term it The Wall of the Old Man. In the cells of this arid region, the ancient Ascetics, equally igno rant and uncivilized as the savage Troglodytes who preceded them, lived a life, according to the expression of Sicard, more angelic than human. The monasteries of St Anthony and St Paul are still inhabited by Coptic monks, who, while they claim an absolute power over daemons, serpents, and wild beasts, are unable to protect themselves from the Arabs of the desert. In the vicinity of these monasteries the only partridges in Egypt are found.t To the east of Syene, at the distance of about forty miles', Mount Baram indicates the situation ofthe Basanites Lapis Mons of Ptolemy, from the quarries of which a hard black stone, often employed in forming domestic utensils, has long been dug. The Roman station, Castra La- pidariorum, is supposed to have been situated in its vicinity. The city Alabastron lay much lower in the desert of the Thebaid, and almost in the * Maillet, Descr. de l'Egypte, p. 321. f Granger, Voyage en Egypte, p. 400. EASTERN THEBAID. 181 parallel of the ancient Oxyrinchus : its ruins may be observed on the north of Mount Calil. The greater part of this arid desert exhibits no traces of animal or vegetable life ; the birds shun its tor rid atmosphere, the serpent and the lizard aban don the sands, and the red ant, which resembles in colour the soil on which it lives, is almost the only animal which seems to exist among the ruins of nature. At an ancient period, however, these deserts were productive both of precious stones and of the precious metals. The Arabs still re tain many traditions concerning the famous mine of emeralds, and both Agatharchides and Diodo- rus mention the mines of gold. In barbarous countries, the route ofthe wander ing savage is sometimes across the pathless desert or the forest, but his constant residence is by the river, or along the shore of the sea. In the east ern desert of the Thebaid there are no rivers, though the surface of the ground is furrowed by torrents, and we must descend to the shore of the Red Sea to look for the habitations of men. The flat country along the shore seems to have been formerly denominated Hor or Horeth, signifying a valley or stripe of ground furrowed by torrents, and was the residence of the Horites or Troglody tes : Hence probably Pihahiroth, The Mouth ofthe Valley, the name of the station of the Israelites before they crossed the Red Sea, and situated at 182 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. the narrowest part of the Gulf of Suez, where it does not exceed four leagues in breadth. The me mory of this remarkable event was preserved by tradition among the inhabitants of this coast at so late a period as the days of Diodorus.* The African coast is naked and rugged ; the water is so deep as frequently to afford no soundings along the shore, but it is interspersed with con cealed rocks of the hardest texture, and sharp as spears. Towards Suez the shore is skirted by some small islands, or rather rocks, which are as barren as the main land. The principal of these are the Jaffateen islands, which are four in num ber, and lie in the form of a semicircle, con nected by shoals and sunk rocks. After pass ing to the south of Gebel-el-Zeit, or the Mount of Petroleum, Myos Hormus, the harbour chosen in preference to Suez by Ptolemy Philadelphus, is the first station which presents itself. It is cover ed by the Jaffateens, and lies in N. L. 27° 0\ The name of this harbour was afterwards chang ed to Aphrodites Hormus. For a considerable period this city was the emporium of the Arabian trade, but after it fell into the hands of the Ro mans, it seems to have been supplanted by Bere nice. Old Cosseir, which lies about six miles to the north of the modern town, is the Leucos Por- * Diodor. Sicul. 1. iii. c. 3. COSSEIR. 183 tus of Ptolemy, being surmounted by two white chalky mountains, from which its former name was derived. The modern Cosseir, which is built on the shore among the hillocks of moving sand, lies in N. L. 26° 7' 51", and E. long. 34° 4' 15". The houses of the town are built of clay, and the inhabitants, in their manners and features, have a. greater resemblance to the Arabians of the eastern shore of the Red Sea, than to the native Egyptians. The port is formed by a rock, which projects about four hundred yards into the sea. There is no cultivated land in the vicinity of the town, and the water is so brackish, that the in habitants are forced to procure it from Terfowey, which is a day's journey distant. Cosseir ex hibits no vestiges of antiquity, and is as little distinguished by modern grandeur as by ancient fame. Though more accessible than Suez, the only other Egyptian port on the Red Sea, it de rives more advantage from lying in the route of the pilgrims of Mecca, than from its trade. The Maadan Uzzumurud, or Emerald Mine, visited by Bruce, to the south of Cosseir, is probably the Smaragdus Mons of Ptolemy. Bruce observed five pits sunk at the foot of a mountain, a few miles from the shore, but did not explore the mineralogy of the district. Tracing the same bold, naked, and almost inaccessible coast, after doubling Ras-el-Ans, a large promontory, which 184 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. corresponds to the ancient Lepte, we reach the Sinus Immundus of the ancients, an extensive bay marked with shoals and breakers, which, in our modern charts, still retains the appellar tion of Foul Bay. In the bottom of this bay is a small creek, denominated Mine or Belled^el- Habesh, which is supposed to correspond with the ancient Berenice. It is situated in N. L, 23° 28', extending more than a degree beyond the parallel of Syene, in which Berenice is placed by the an cients ; but from the inaccuracy of their astrono mical calculations, it is sometimes better to trust their itineraries and remarks. on the curvature of a coast than their celestial observations. The port of Habesh is marked by small rocky islands, but these have been too inaccurately observed for determining the positions of the ancients to which they correspond. The ancients mention a Sapph ire, a Topaz, and an Emerald Isle in the. Red Sea, but seem to differ from each other concern ing their position, Berenice was built by Ptole my Philadelphus, a little after the establishment of Myos Hormus. Situated in a lower part of the Arabian Gulf, it facilitated navigation, by render ing it practicable to mariners to take advantage of the regular winds. The inland route between Coptos and Berenice was opened with an army by the same prince, who established stations along COAST OF RED SEA. 185 it for the protection of travellers.* This relation, which is given by Strabo, accords with the Adu- litic inscription preserved in Cosmas, which re cords the Ethiopian conquests of Ptolemy Ever- getes, who seems to have adopted the commercial plans of his father, and to have endeavoured to extend them. The Romans, when they conquer ed Egypt, immediately perceived the importance of these arrangements ; Berenice became the em porium of their eastern trade, and Myos Hormus sunk to a subordinate station. The only Greek author who gives an account of this emporium is Strabo. All the details concerning the inland route from Coptos to Berenice are Roman. This route occupied twelve days, and is estimated at two hundred and fifty-eight miles by Pliny and the compiler of the Peutingerian Tables. The Antonine Itinerary gives two hundred and sixty- one miles. The Port of Habesh, the name which the harbour corresponding to Berenice now ob tains, is derived from the appellation of Habesh, which the African shore, in the parallel of Syene, often receives. Though the Egyptian power has frequently extended beyond this position on the coast of Africa, the site of the ancient Berenice may still be regarded as its proper boundary. Suakem, a small government similar to Cosseir, * Strabo a Casaub. p. 1169. 186 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. which has been commonly dependent on Egypt, is situated in N. L. 19° 20', and seems to corres pond to the Soter Limen of Diodorus. The har bour of Suakem is safe and capacious. The name is probably the same with the Suche of Pliny, placed on this coast, and seems to be derived from the Sukim or Troglodytes, its ancient inhabi tants. Perhaps all these terms are connected with Suah, a characteristic name ofthe shepherd tribes. The Ptolemais Epitheras, or Ptolemais in the country of wild beasts, was the last station on this coast founded for the protection of the elephant hunters of Egypt. It appears to have been si tuated on a promontory, which projects into a bay of the Nubian forest, about N. L. 17° 6'. These extreme stations on the African coast are rather to be regarded as frontier posts, than as forming any part of the proper territory of Egypt. They have in every age been occupied by a race distinct from the inhabitants of the valley of the Nile, in features, in language, in customs, and in manners ; but they have been subject to Egypt whenever the government of that country pos sessed either energy or stability. The fervid imagination of the Orientals, always fond of conferring life and motion on inanimate objects, compares Egypt to their fabulous bird, the great Rokh, the valley of the river representing its body, and the deserts of the east and west its. ex- OASES. 187 panded wings. After delineating the course of the Nile and the eastern desert, another wing, if it may be allowed to adopt the metaphor, still re mains to be described. Behind the western ridge of mountains which confines the valley of the Nile, a vast desolate tract extends, which the Arabian geographers assign to Egypt, and denomi nate Al Wahat, the desert of the Wahs or Oases. The boundaries of this tract are quite imagin ary, but it is described as extending about three hundred and fifty G. miles from N. to S. and one hundred and fifty from E. to W. Ibn al Wardi, and Leo, by whom it is termed Alguechet, class this district as a separate division of Africa be tween Barca and Egypt. In this region of steri lity and desolation, where the burning and verti cal sun seems to survey only the ashes of a world destroyed by fire, or the sands of a vast sea from which the waters have retreated, the green and fer tile Oases, the islands of the desert, emerge on the delighted eye of the traveller, like visions of en chantment. The contrast of the waste and deso late sea of sand with which they are surrounded, enhances the idea of their beauty ; and so power ful was its impression on the ancients, that they denominated them the Happy Islands.* The vi cinity of the mountainous ridges by which these * Herodotus, Thalia, 26. 188 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. islands are generally surrounded, suggests the ob vious manner of their formation. The copious dew which condenses on the tops of these moun tains, after filtering through the rocks, emerges in springs amid the valleys beneath, and produces a luxuriant vegetation. The Egyptian Oases, which are two in number, consist of a long range of iso lated spots of verdure, in the low and s,andy de sert which lies beyond that western range of mountains, and runs parallel to the course of the Nile- These fertile tracts are separated by sandy plains of various extent. The distance between the nearest extremities of the two Oases is about forty miles, an interval greater than that winch separates any of the other islands, and which, as Rennell conjectures, has caused the division of them into two great clusters, denominated the Greater and Lesser Oases.* The Greater Oasis, commonly termed El Wah, is by Leo named Eloa- cath or Eloacheth, while the Lesser, termed El Wal-el Gerbe, receives from that author the ap pellation of Gerbe.t The Arabian Jacuti, includ ing Siwah or Ammonia, enumerates three Oases, which he arranges in three distinct lines, separat ed by ridges of mountains parallel to the course of the Nile, like the continents of the earth in * Rennell's Geography of Herodotus, p. 564:. f Leo Africanus, p. 10. OASES. 189 Indian geography. The Oasis Parva, which lies remote from the course of the African caravans, has never been visited by any modern traveller, and is almost unknown to the Egyptians themselves. It is placed by Ptolemy in the parallel of N. L. 28° 45', about seventy-five G. miles to the west of Bahnasa, the ancient Oxyrinchus, a position which nearly corresponds to the distance of Bah nasa from Cairo, estimated at seven journeys by Edrisi. Bahnasa of Al Wahat is distinguished from the Egyptian Bahnasa, or Oxyrinchus, by Abulfeda, who places it towards Nigritia. Mail- let, in his map of Egypt, places a district named Bahnasa to the west of the lake Cairun ; and we are informed by Browne, that the Arabs of the Lesser Oasis occupy the western shores of this lake ; a circumstance which demonstrates the proximity of the district they inhabit. Lucas, in the province of Feium, was informed of an inha bited spot of considerable extent, a few journeys to the west of that district, which abounded in dates and palms, though devoid of springs ; a position which can only correspond to the Lesser Oasis.* Browne was informed, that various ruins still exist in this Oasis.t The Oasis Magna, which lies in the route of * Lucas, Voyage Third, Vol. II. p. 206. f Browne's Travels, p. 132. 190 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. the Abyssinian, Nubian; and Darfur caravans, is much better known, and its position is more ac curately determined than that of the Oasis Par va. It is placed by Ptolemy in N. L. 26° 55', by which he probably intended to mark the site of the principal town. Strabo places it seven journeys from Abydus, and Herodotus seven journeys from Thebes. The latter distance is nearly correct, but that given by Strabo is too great, as the site of Abydus is only ninety-five miles from the nearest point of the Oasis. Ac cording to Herodotus, it was inhabited by a Sa- mian colony when visited by Cambyses ; a cir cumstance the more probable, as, at that period, Samos flourished as a maritime power, and enjoy ed particular immunities from Amasis of Egypt. According to Strabo, it abounded in springs, and was fruitful in vines and other productions. It was traversed by Poncet in 1698, on his way to Abyssinia. Maillet, who resided in Egypt about the beginning of last century, imagined that this territory was fertilized by the waters of the Nile, conducted across the hills by an ancient canal. He places very justly the nearest point of the Oasis to Egypt, in the direction of Manfalout, from which Poncet commenced his journey. Browne, who traversed this Oasis on his journey to Darfur, has contributed most to the illustration of its position and topography, as well as the na- OASES. 191 ture of the soil. He determined the geographical position of Charje, its principal village, to be in N. lat. 26° 25', E. long. 29° 49', and that of Mughess, its most southern village, to be situat ed in N. lat. 25° 18', E. long. 29° 34'. He gives the names of three other villages, Aine Dize, Bulak, and Beiris.* The fertile tracts, interrupt ed by sandy plains, extend over a space of one hundred miles in length, are productive of dates, and watered by excellent springs. The largest of the intermediate sandy plains is about twenty- eight miles in breadth. The descent of the Egyptian mountains is steep and rugged, and the hills are chiefly composed of a coarse species of tufa. From the top of the declivity which de scends into the Great Desert, the view extends over an unbounded plain covered with rocks and sand, but in the vicinity of the springs diversified with stunted shrubs and scattered date trees. The mountain, down the declivities of which the caravans of Egypt descend into the valley of the Oasis, is named Gebel Ramlie, and forms a part of that extensive range which runs parallel to the general course of the Nile, and bending to the west after it passes the Lesser Oasis, terminates on the shore of the Mediterranean, about forty miles to the east of Paraetonium, in a position * Browne's Travels, p. 186. 192 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. corresponding to the Lesser Catabathmus. No part of the Greater Oasis approaches nearer the valley of Egypt than seventy-eight or eighty G. miles. During the domination of the latter Greek or Constantinopolitan monarchs in Egypt, the Greater Oasis, as well as Ammonia, was con sidered as a great state prison, to which illustri ous exiles were banished. Of this punishment Athanasius complains in his Apology, and in the Digest it is mentioned as a particular species of exile.* Nestorius appears to have been an exile in this region when the Oasis was ravaged, in the fifth century, by the Blemmyes, an Ethiopian tribe. The Arabians have preserved a tradition, that the district Al Wahat, which contains these Oases, was once populous and full of cities ; and Edrisi asserts, that the vestiges of trees, and the ruins of deserted habitations, were often in his time discovered amid its deserts. After comparing the ancient and modern po pulation of Egypt, it may be proper to consider its comparative population. The ancients, Hero dotus and Diodorus, estimate the number of cities in Egypt at 20,000 ; and Maillet, who was ac quainted with the country, absurdly adopts this computation. As the utmost efforts of industry " could not have put in a state of cultivation more * Digest, 1. xlviii. tit. 22. POPULATION. 193 than 2250 square leagues, comprehending both the Oases, so extravagant an exaggeration, which allows nearly ten towns to every square league, must be admitted to betray the features of orien tal fiction. Nature will not make her ancient mountains and deserts of sand recede to confirm the romances of the historian or the traveller. The calculation of the ancients will appear still more incredible, if we reflect, that from the culti vated land must be deducted the site of so many cities, the ground occupied by that " street of " magnificent edifices," which seems to have ex tended along the banks of the Nile from Syene to Alexandria and the harbours ofthe Delta. From an authentic Arabian document, D'Anville esti mates the number of towns and villages at 2696, and of these many were situated beyond the pro per limits of Egypt.* An Arabian geographer enumerates only 2495 towns and villages, at a period when Egypt still flourished under the Arabian government.t Thus the application of geographical science assists us to correct the in accuracy of ancient writers, separates truth from the exaggerations of vanity or the fables of tradi- * D'Anville, Memoires sur l'Egypte, p. 29. — Mr Browne reckons two millions and a half for the population of Egypt. — Ed. f Jacuti ap. Indie. Geogr, Bohadini, ad verb. ./Egyptus. VOL. II. N 194* DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. tion, and reduces the science of history itself tor a species of experimental knowledge.* The expedition undertaken by the French into Egypt, although its object and conduct cannot be justified, deserves praise on account of the care which was taken to render it subservient to the interests of science. A body of those eminent learned men, who compose the Literary Society of Paris, was attached to the army, and availed themselves of all its movements, to obtain an ac cession to knowledge in their various depart ments. Denon, as an artist, had, for his pro vince, to examine those gigantic monuments which form the peculiar boast of Egypt. Al though he is not the most solid or sober-minded of observers, and though his operations were much obstructed by following the rapid move ments of the army, his narrative still contains many things deserving of notice. Denon did not bestow any particular attention on Alexandria, nor did he minutely examine any object till he arrived at the pyramids, He made a very anxious effort to explore the contents of the great pyramid. The only passage is by three long galleries, two of which are ascending, and one descending. At the end of each there are, * The remainder of this chapter is by the Editor. DENON. 195 immense blocks of granite, so placed as to bar all further approach ; but these have been cut through by the industry of former inquirers. At the end of the second gallery is a small apart ment, called the Queen's chamber, supposed to have been destined for the spouse of the monarch by whom the edifice was built ; but it contains neither ornament nor sarcophagus, nor any thing else to confirm the supposition. At the end of the third gallery is found a larger chamber, with in which is seen the sarcophagus, for the recep tion of which this immense structure is supposed to have been reared. This chamber is only one hundred and sixty feet above the basis of the pyramid ; and no higher excavations have been made ; but as the entire height is four hundred and forty-eight feet, it is impossible to determine whether farther apartments might not be found in that immense portion which is yet unexplored. The length of the base is seven hundred and twenty feet. This is called the pyramid of Cheops. That bearing the name of Cephrenes is six hundred and ninety-three feet in length, and three hundred and ninety-eight in height. The pyramid of Miserinus is two hundred and eighty feet long, and one hundred and sixty feet high. The pyramids are merely monuments of Egyp tian labour. The first object which gave our tra- 196 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. veller a full idea of Egyptian art, was the temple at Dendera. It is in the purest style of the archi tecture of that ancient people, which is peculiarly characterized by the walls sloping inward ; a structure which Denon extols as at once the most natural and durable, though it seems doubt ful if it does not rather recal the infancy and debility of the art. The aspect of the whole is remarkably simple ; for, though it be entirely covered with hieroglyphics, these, at a little dis tance, do not break the unity of the general effect. Some of these hieroglyphics are large, represent living objects, and may rather be con sidered as sculptures ; others are smaller. They are generally divided by Denon into three kinds. The first are merely incisions without relief; the second is in relief, but slight ; the third in full relief, on a lower level than the general outline of the building. These last, undoubtedly the most perfect, are nowhere seen in such perfec tion as at Dendera. The capitals ofthe columns consist of a head of Isis, surmounted with hiero glyphics, which is said to produce a very beauti ful effect The next great ruins surveyed by Denon were those of Thebes. The whole army is said to have made a pause at the view of the stupendous mo numents of this " city of the hundred gates." The two great masses of ruins are on the sites of DENON. 197 the villages of Carnac and Luxor. The temple at the former place is undoubtedly the largest in Egypt, and its piles suggested the idea of sculp tured mountains. The portico, attached to a very inferior part of it, contains a hundred co lumns, from seven to twelve feet in diameter. Its architecture, however, is very inferior, in point of elegance and beauty, to that of the tem ples at Dendera and Edfu. It appears to have been built at that early period when magnitude was considered as the sole constituent of subli mity. From Carnac to Luxor there extends, for about half a league, a road, both sides of which are covered with statues, of which the sphinxes are by far the most numerous. The temple at Lux or, though large, is considerably inferior to that of Carnac, but built in a much better taste. The entrance is particularly beautiful, being compos ed of two obelisks seventy feet high, and covered with hieroglyphics. At another visit Denon examined excavations near Carnac, which were used as houses by the Arabs, but which appear to have been tombs of Egyptian kings. He found them variously adorn ed with painting and sculpture, and exhibiting in the latter art a perfection far exceeding what he had seen on any of the temples. The figures were not formed on so stiff a model ; they pos sessed more of ease and nature ; and groups 198 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. were often placed agreeably to the laws of p'eiv spective. It is remarkable that they did not, as their destination might lead us to expect, repre sent always solemn, or even serious subjects. They exhibited often pompous and shewy pro cessions, sometimes even rope-dancing, and ani mals placing themselves in ludicrous attitudes. At Medinet Abu, in the neighbourhood of Carnac, Denon examined those two colossal sta tues which bear the name of Memnon. So gi gantic is their height, as to make them be disco vered at the distance of four leagues. Their atti tude, however, is not graceful, and they are en tirely destitute of expression. The next ruins, very deserving of attention, are those of Edfu, the ancient Apollinopolis Parva, of which drawings had already been given by Pococke and Norden. Our traveller viewed them with very particular admiration. Though not so vast as those of Thebes, they appeared superior in elegance to any, except those of Tentyra, and in some respects even to them. The progress of the French army carried our traveller to the island of Philae, which he had an opportunity of minutely examining. The sur face, about six hundred yards in length, and one hundred and twenty in breadth, is almost entirely covered with the remains of ancient edifices. Denon conceived that he discovered the remains DENON^-HAMILTON. 199 of eight temples, erected at different periods, and in different styles of architecture. Each succes sive edifice had been built so as not to injure those previously standing ; but, at the same time, without any attention to make it harmonize with them. An extreme confusion of styles was thus produced, which, however, produced often pic turesque and striking effects. From the observa tions here made, Denon inferred, that the ancient Egyptians first built their walls in a rude state, then smoothed them, next added the hierogly phics, and finally adorned them with stucco and paint. He found parts of edifices in all these ] successive stages. He observed also nine species of capitals, all which* to his true Egyptian taste* appeared beautiful. As the French army did not extend its head quarters to the southward of Syene, our traveller had no opportunity of tracing higher those won ders of antiquity, which the banks of the Nile everywhere presented. In 1801 Mr Hamilton Set out from Cairo with the view of examining the antiquities of Upper Egypt, and, if possible, of penetrating into Nubia. He did not, however, make his way beyond Philae, and his tract did not thus extend farther than that of Denon. His descriptions of the same objects, however, are good, and may be consulted 200 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. with advantage by the antiquary ; but, from the minute details of which they consist, do not easily admit of abridgment. Mr Hamilton's admiration of Philae seems to have fully equalled that of Denon. He remarks, that the sculptures have evidently been studiously defaced, probably by the fanatical zeal of the early Christians. Near Syene Mr Hamilton particularly examined a temple supposed by Pococke to be the celebrat ed observatory of that place. He employed a number of men and boys for several days in digg ing, with the hope of discovering the well, where, at the summer solstice, the sun's disk was said to be reflected entire. He was obliged to leave the place, however, before arriving at any object which could reward the investigation. The tem ples of Edfu, of Thebes, and of Dendera, are particularly described by Mr Hamilton. He ad mired much also that of Esne, commonly sup* posed to be the ancient Latopolis, a derivation, however, the correctness of which he is inclined to doubt. That spirit of enterprise by which English tra vellers have of late been so remarkably distin guished, has extended itself to the course of the Nile above Egypt ; a tract which has been proved to exhibit a continuation of that series of wonders which mark every part of its progress from Cairo LEGH. 201 to Philae. Of this spirit of inquiry, the only de tailed result which has yet been laid before the public, consists in the recent narrative of Mr Legh. We shall take it up at the cataracts above Syene. Mr Legh confirms the report of all mo dern travellers, that these cataracts present no thing of the grandeur which some passages in the ancient writers would lead us to expect. It may perhaps be a question, whether these writers did not confound this with the yet unexplored catar act of Genadil ? Those of Syene are formed mere ly by the river forcing its way in a contracted channel among rocks of granite, or rather syenite, which form several ledges across it ; but boys, for a trifle, will swim over them. The aspect of the scene, however, is very imposing. " The wild " disorder of the granite rocks, which present " every variety of grotesque shape, the absence of " all cultivation, the murmur of the water, and " the savage and desolate character of the whole " scene, form a picture which exceeds all power " of description." On passing this cataract, the aspect of the country is entirely changed. The valley of Upper Egypt, which had not before ex tended above a few miles in breadth, is entirely closed in, and the mountains scarcely leave a few patches on which dates can be planted. The va ried population of Egypt disappears, and is sup planted by a native race called Barabras, the same 202 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. which, on Atlas, are called Brebers or Berebbers ; for the tribe of Nuba, who have given name to this portion of Africa, are situated much farther up, and to the west of Abyssinia. The Barabras are described as rigid Mahometans, yet a harm less, frank, and honest people. At Siala, Mr Legh met a chief, called the Douab Cacheff, from whom he met a hospitable reception, and ready permission to proceed up the river. Passing Deg- himeer and El Umbarakat, at which last place there are considerable ruins, the travellers arrived at Kalaptsh, situated three miles above an island of the same name, and which presented a magni ficent temple, though in a state of great dilapida tion. Soon after* they came to a still more re markable object, the excavated temple at Guerfeh Hassan, which appeared to Mr Legh superior to every thing else he had seen both above and be low Syene. The outer court is sixty-four feet in length, and thirty-six in breadth. The interior consists of three chambers, the largest of which is forty-six and a half feet in length, thirty-five wide, and twenty-two in height. The entrance into the chambers is formed by three immense columns, to which are attached double the number of co lossal statues, each eighteen and a half feet in height. The whole is cut out of the living rock, and forms certainly a work of immense labour, though, in comparing it to the general scale of LEGH. 203 Egyptian architecture, the praises of Mr Legh may appear somewhat extravagant. These exca vations bear such a resemblance to the Indian ones of Elephanta and Ellora, as may indicate an early communication between the two nations ; unless we suppose, that the same state of govern ment and society might in both cases produce similar effects. At Dakki, nine miles above Guerfeh Hassan, was found a temple, in very fine preservation. The height of the propylon is fifty feet, the front ninety, and the depth at the base eighteen feet. The temple itself, sixty-six feet distant from the propylon, is eighty-four feet in length, thirty in breadth, and twenty-four in height. The hiero glyphics are almost quite entire, and many Greek inscriptions are cut on the propylon. The next remarkable temple is that at Sibhoi, which pre sented a specimen of pure Egyptian architecture. It appears, however, to be of an earlier date, and built in a ruder style, than those below the catar acts ; but it is much better preserved. This is imputed to the mild and equable climate. The only source of destruction to which it is exposed consists in the accumulation of sand, which is wafted by the winds of the desert, and which seems gradually encroaching on all the cultivated districts in this part of Africa. On the ninth day after leaving Syene, Mr Legh 204 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. arrived at Dehr, the residence of Hassan Cacheff, the sovereign of this district. The Cacheff, a tall handsome young man, was half drunk when they were introduced. He asked them roughly what they wanted, and why they came to Dehr ? On coming to particulars, it was intimated, that a fine Damascus blade, worth 500 piastres, would secure permission to proceed up the river. This arrange ment had not entered into Mr Legh's contempla tion ; in lieu of the sword he proffered a watch, being the present destined for the Cacheff; but it was contemptuously rejected, as an article of the use of which he had not the remotest idea. Mr Legh was, therefore, finally obliged to pro duce the sword, and he then received permission to proceed in any direction he chose. The next stage was Ibrim, about half a day's journey be yond Dehr ; but it had been entirely destroyed by the Mamelukes. The recent communication with the Cacheff, however, seems to have cooled our traveller's zeal for proceeding farther ; he re turned to Dehr, and from thence again descended the Nile. Mr Legh was followed in 1814 by Captain Light, who, though he did not penetrate farther up the Nile, appears to have surveyed the remains of antiquity with more minute attention. At Gar- taas, he found architectural ruins scattered at intervals for nearly two miles. They consisted LIGHT. 205 chiefly of masses of masonry, with hieroglyphics and statues coarsely sculptured. One temple, however, exhibited six beautifully finished co lumns, with capitals of the lotus form, and heads of Isis. A few huts scattered among the ruins afford shelter to the miserable inhabitants. At Galabshee there occurred a shellaal or cataract, formed by a grand amphitheatre of rocky preci pices, but which does not impede the progress of the river. This place presents also a considerable temple much defaced, and the interior courts and apartments of which are strewed with broken shafts, capitals, and immense blocks of stone. There are scriptural paintings in the inside of the portico. At Garsery and Dakkey there appeared also highly finished remains of ancient architec ture. At Dehr, called here Deir, there were some remarkable excavations, and these, with hierogly phics sculptured on the rocks, were said to conti nue all the way to Dongola. At Ooffeddounee and Taeefa, Captain Light discovered the remains of Christian churches on the primitive model. In deed, he was throughout surprised to observe the numerous monuments of this religion, almost eve ry temple being more or less adorned with scrip tural paintings ; and these traces became more fre quent the higher he ascended. This, however, was reasonably to be expected ; for, according to the unanimous testimony of the Arabian writers, 206 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. Nubia continued Christian down to the 12th and 13th centuries, and long after the Moslem faith had been established in Egypt.* When or how its conversion was effected, we are not informed. Captain Light found the Cacheff of Nubia at Ooffeddounee, where he had come to visit two of his thirty wives. He received our traveller on a carpet under a shady palm-tree, surrounded by some dirty half naked attendants. He shewed a friendly disposition, and instead of that avidity for presents usual with African princes, shewed even surprise at receiving any. His son did the ho nours at Deir, which was found a long straggling village of mud cottages, with a considerable po pulation. Ibrim, the highest point to which Cap tain Light ascended, presents only a castle which is considered strong against the Arabs, but would be demolished in an instant by artillery, as it is commanded by the neighbouring mountains. The inhabitants of the district through which Captain Light travelled are under nominal sub jection to the Pacha of Egypt ; but the authority of the Cacheff, being present, is more felt. In fact, however, the country exhibits few traces either of law or government. The Arabian sys tem of revenge, or blood for blood, is fully esta- * Hartman's Edrisi, p. 72. Notices des MSS. du Roi II. 38—396. LIGHT — BELZONI. 207 Wished, and the feuds thus generated are so nu merous and violent, that labourers following their daily employments, and even boys, go constantly armed. They profess the Mahometan religion, but are by no means assiduous in the performance of its rites : almost the only instance of it observ ed by our traveller, was when they quoted the Koran to justify their right of private revenge. , From Cairo to Deir there is a gradual but conti nued change in the complexion of the inhabitants, from white to black ; and the Nubians, to their co lour, add a considerable share of the Negro fea tures. Yet, between Dakkey and Deir, there is a sudden reappearance of the Arab language, and even aspect. From some valuable communications recently made to a periodical work,* we are enabled to give a view of the researches made in Egypt and Nubia by an Itahan gentleman of the name of Belzoni, under the auspices of Mr Salt, who now fills the place of British Consul at Cairo. M. Bel zoni set out to examine the temple of Ipsambul or Ebsambul, situated about two days' journey beyond Ibrim, and forming the most extraordi nary excavation yet discovered in this part of the j world. Mr Bankes had already brought an ac- * Quarterly Review, June and September 1818. 3 208 DESCRIPTIONS^ OF EGYPT. count of four colossal statues, 6Q feet high, which are placed in front of it, in one of which, that had been thrown down, he could barely reach from the tip of the ear to the foreheajj^ The front was nearly covered beneath a bed of. sand, 50 feet deep, which M. Belzoni succeeded, byjjie most extraordinary exertions, in clearing ;away. * The excavation was then found to contain four teen chambers and a great hall ; the last of which contained eight colossal figures in an erect posi tion, each thirty feet high ; the walls and pilas ters were covered with hieroglyphics and statues, the sculpture of which was, in several respects, superior to any thing that has yet been foundrhji Egypt. Generally speaking, the grand specimens of the . architecture of Egypt are above ground, those of Nubia beneath it. The temples in tlie,, latter country, constructed of masonry, are com paratively small and ill built; while its, excava tions seem almost to rival the grandeur of Thebes^ and Tentyra. M. Belzoni, however, made his most remark able discoveries within the limits of Egypt, on. ground trodden by numerous travellers, but the objects, of which had evaded their researches, as well as those made by the French Savans, withj every advantage of power and numbers.. He succeeded in carrying down to Alexandria, and transmitting to the British Museum, a colossal BELZONI. 209 bust, erroneously named " the younger Mem- " non," but which is generally allowed to be the finest specimen of Egyptian sculpture yet known. It is formed of a single block of granite, about ten tons in weight. The French engineers were unable to move it, though, to facilitate the ope ration, they had attempted to blow off the hair with gunpowder ; an operation which seems little consonant with their boasted reverence for Egyp tian antiquity. M. Belzoni uncovered the front of the great sphynx, and discovered objects as unexpected as extraordinary, which had not for ages been exposed to human eyes. There ap peared a monolithic temple of very considerable dimensions between the legs, and another in one of the paws. The ground in front was covered with the remains of buildings, probably temples, and several inscriptions by Roman emperors, recording their visits to the sphynx. While en gaged among the ruins of Thebes, he discovered a clue to the Egyptian catacombs, and accord ingly succeeded in opening his way into six im mense tombs, situated in a spot which would never have excited the attention of an ordinary observer. These appear to give a higher idea, than any thing yet discovered, of the posthumous splendour of the Egyptians. The most mag nificent is one which, from containing the em balmed carcase of a bull, is supposed to be the vol. n. o 210 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. depository of the remains of Apis. It has a pas sage 309 feet in length, with numerous apart ments and galleries, all cut out of the living rock. The sides of the rock are perfectly white, and covered with paintings in complete preservation, the tints of which are so brilliant, that they can scarcely be imitated by the best water-colours made in England. But the most extraordinary remain here discovered is a sarcophagus of ala. baster, above nine feet long and three broad, transparent, and sounding like a silver bell. It is covered both within and without with hieroglyphics and figures which are nearly entire, and make an extraordinary display of taste, delicate work manship, and skill in cutting so fragile a material. It is hoped that, through the exertions of Mr Salt and M. Belzoni, this extraordinary monu ment may find its way to the British Museum. But the most splendid, perhaps, of all M. Bel- zoni's discoveries consists in opening the second pyramid of Ghiza, commonly called that of Qe- phrenes. Many attempts had been made by mo dern travellers, and pretty extensive labours, un dertaken, but without any result. M. Belzoni accordingly was for a long time involved in pas sages, which proved to be only forced ones made by his predecessors, in their vain attempts to reach the interior. At length he discovered a block of granite, inclined in a similar manner to that in BELZONI. 211 the passage of the pyramid of Cheops, Follow. ing this indication, he at length, about noon of the 2d March 1818, discovered the true opening of this great pyramid. Proceeding along a nar row passage, upwards of 100 feet in length, he reached the great chamber, 46 feet long, 16 wide, and 23 high, chiefly cut out of the rock. The most conspicuous object was a large sarcophagus of granite, half sunk in the floor, and containing a small quantity of what appeared to be human bones. On the walls was an Arabic inscription, importing that this pyramid had been opened and inspected in presence of the sultan Ali Ma homet ; a remarkable fact, which is known now for the first time. The discovery of this sarco* phagus with human bones appeared to confirm the belief, that these stupendous monuments, as had been asserted by Strabo and Diodorus, were merely destined to contain the mortal remains of the kings of Egypt. But Major Fitzclarence, happening to pass through Cairo, went to see the new discovery, and used the freedom to carry off a few relics out of the contents of the sarcopha gus. Among others he brought the fragment of a thigh-bone, which he presented to, the Prince Regent ; and which being examined by the Col lege of Surgeons in London, proved to be not human, but belonging to a cow. This extraor dinary discovery leads to the suspicion, that this 212 DESCRIPTIONS OF EGYPT. singular people reared these amazing structures solely in honour of the brutal objects of their worship. It is suggested, indeed, that the mo narchs may have merely chosen to sanctify their own remains, by mingling them with those ofthe bestial divinities, to whom Egypt paid its adora tion. This would seem to be confirmed, should human bones also be found within the sacred circuit ; a point which will doubtless be the ob ject of careful investigation. CHAPTER III. BARB ARY. First voyages to Morocco. — Voyage of the Jesus to Tripoli.— Captivity of Mouette.—Windhusrs Journey.— Shaw's Trar ryelsvr-rLempriere. — Recent accounts by Jackson, Keating, Ali Bey, Macgill, Blaquiere, and Titllj/. Under the name of Barbary has been included, in modern times, the long tract of sea-coast, ex tending from the western frontier of Egypt to the extremity of Morocco. The whole of this region was subdued by the Saracens during the first era of their power ; and the Mahommedan faith, in its most bigotted form, has ever since been fully established throughout it. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the Barbarians were truly formidable to the states of Europe, by their naval power and piratical disposition. It was chiefly from the wretched captives whom they dragged into bondage, that any accounts of their internal constitution was obtained. The narratives of these persons were, at the time, very numerous; we shall only select a few which appear curious and authentic. The first English voyage to Barbary, of which 214 TRAVELS IN BARBARY. there is any record, was performed in 1551. The master was Thomas Windham ; but Hackluyt* has preserved a letter from one James Alday, who asserts that he was the first contriver of this branch of trade ; but being seized with the " great " sweat," was obliged to devolve the execution upon another. No narrative is preserved of the first voyage ; but Windham set out on the second in May 1522, and on the Monday fortnight there after, arrived at Saffi ; he there took in refresh ments, and proceeded to Santa Cruz. A French vessel was lying in the harbour, which, " not " knowing whether it were war or peace," shew ed some hostile symptoms, but desisted, upon proper explanations being given. The English were then welcomed on shore by the viceroy, and spent three months in unlading the cargo, and taking a new one on board. Their import cargo was composed of woollen and> linen cloth, coral, amber, jet, and " divers other things well accept- " ed of the Moores." They received in return sugar, dates, almonds, and molasses. Touching at Lancerotta, they were attacked by the Spa niard's, and did not make off without considerable loss.' In 1583, a voyage was undertaken to Tripoli * Vol. II. Part II. p. 7, 8. THE JESUS AT TRIPOLI. 215 by the ship Jesus.* The master's name was Hel- lier ; but Romane Sonnings, a Frenchman, was to have the chief management of the trade. They arrived there, discharged their cargo, and took in a lading of oil. Their first ground of dissa tisfaction arose from the king, as the basha is here called, demanding custom for the oil, after having promised to deliver it custom free. Such, however, was the treachery of infidels, that, " al- " beit he was a king, he caused the said Sonnings " to pay the custom to the uttermost penie." But this was only the dawn of their affliction. There was an Italian, named Patrone Norado, who remained in pledge to a Turk for a certain sum of money. This person made an arrange ment with the French factor, that, as soon as the vessel had left the harbour, he should come on board and make his escape ; which was accord ingly effected. The Turk, to whom Norado was pledged, having preferred his complaint, the king sent out a boat, desiring Sonnings to come on shore, without specifying the cause. Sonnings refused, upon which the Turks immediately be gan to fire. As they were unable to make any impression on the English vessel, the king went to the Banio, or slave prison, and proclaimed, that any slave who could point a successful fire against * Ibid. Vol. II. Part I. p. 18*. 21Q TRAVELS m BARBARY. the vessel?0 should receive his liberty and a hun dred qjjowns,;,.-} A Spaniard undertook the task, and, with three shots, reduced the ship to such a condition, that she had no alternative but to re* turn info the (harbour., * The Spaniard, however^ received .neither his liberty nor his crowns, but was forthwith remanded to his prison, " whereby '^majr appear the regard that the Turke, or in- *f' fide), hath of his worde, though he be a king." The English w,ere immediately led before the royal tribunal, and after a very short examination, the master and factor ..were condemned to be hanged, one over the eastern, and the other over the western bulwark. The English, however, by earnestentreaty, procured the life of their master, and he was sent to the Banio along with the rest. Meantime, some of the king's officers represented to him, that, unless the master were hanged, the vessel. could notMby law, be made prize, nor thes crew converted into slaves. The king, therefore, , sent for him again, opened a new trial, and pro nounced the sentence of death, by which, says the author, ,*' all true Christians may see what trust " to put in an infidel's promise, who, being a king, " pardoned a man now, and, within an houre after, "hanged him for the same cause before a whole "multitude." The master, however, resolved to save his life by .^ecoming a Mahometan. ^Pro ceedings were immediately stopped, and all the THE JESUS AT TRIPOLI. SlJ requisite ceremonies were performed for his com plete abjuration of the Christian faiths Instead, however, of being dismissed, as he expected, the king only congratulated him on the felicity he en joyed, of dying in the true faith* and going direct into paradise ; upon which he was immediately suspended over the bulwark. The English were now doomed to meet all the horrors of Moorish slavery. They were carried in a galliot to attack a Greek vessel, which was kftowri to be at the distance of 240 leagues. They were chained three and three fo ah oar, naked above the waist, while the master and boatswain stood, the one afore and the other abaft, with huge whips, which, " when their devilish "choler rose," they employed with or without reason. On returning* the captives were employ ed to hew and carry stones for the building of a church. Three times a week they went to the distance of thirty miles to bring fire-wood to the city. They set out at seven at night,, and arrived next morning at the same hour. The writer was surprised to see nothing like a wood, but " a stick " here and a stick there, about' the bignesse of a " man's arme, growing in the sand," ' The party, however, began to pull np these twigs by the roots, and by taking " a little at one place and a "Tittle at another," at length succeeded in load ing 'their camels. * 218 TRAVELS IN BARBARY, The captives having succeeded in conveying intelligence of their situation to their friends.in England, Queen Elizabeth, on the 5th September 1584, wrote to the Grand Signior, who sent in structions to the Basha to liberate the men, and restore the merchandise. The Basha, who. was then subject to the Porte* did not venture to dis« obey. . On the 31st July I67O, a vessel, on board of which was the Sieur Mouette, set sail from Dieppe for the Caribbee Islands. They spent some time in an English port, which they left in the beginning of October. On the 16th they came in sight of two vessels bearing Turkish co lours. These vessels having come within speak ing distance, assured them that they were Alge- rines at peace with France, and therefore French subjects had nothing to fear ; they only wished to send two or three of their people on board, to ex amine if any of the crew belonged to other na tions. The moment the Moors came on board, they drew out their concealed weapons, and at tacked the French. Our author was immediately seized by " a devil of a black," who held a battle* axe over his head. In this predicament* he did not deem it prudent to offer any resistance, but quietly yielded himself. They were immediately carried in to Sale (Salee), the centre of the pira- MOUETTE. 219 tical trade of Morocco. They were then con ducted to the slave market, and exposed bare headed to public auction. The purchasers di rected their chief attention to the hands, in order thence to conjecture the quality of their purchase. A knight of Malta, with his mother, were sold for 1500 crowns. Mouette, after being well walk ed about, brought 360. His master, Maraxchy, then carried him home, and shewed him to his wife, who gave him a good meal of bread, butter, honey, and dates. His master then took him aside, exhorted him to keep up his spirits, and in quired what were his relations, and his means of ransom. Mouette, in hopes of obtaining libera tion at an easy rate, pleaded the most entire po verty ; declaring, " if a penny were to purchase " his liberty, he could not give it." Maraxchy then warned him, that he must write to his rela tions, and endeavour to raise something by way of alms. " For if you will not, we shall load you " with four chains, beat you like a dog, and starve " you in a dungeon." This information put an end to the author's protestations of absolute want, and he immediately wrote to his brother, whom he addressed as a cobbler, imploring him to beg as much as forty or fifty crowns, to relieve him from captivity. Mouette had no reason to complain of his treat ment in this house. His hardest labour was to 220 TRAVELS IN BARBARY. grind corn with, the hand-mills used in this coun try ; and " misliking this occupation,", he pro duced such unsavoury flour, that hjs functions. were soon confined to the keeping of ^single child. He acquired completely the favour of his mistress, who npt only shewed him every kind of good treatment, but offered him, if he would be- come a convert, a rich and beautiful niece of her own in marriage. Mouette declined it, on the polite plea, that had she herself been the prize he would not have hesitated. Unfortunately, our author did not belong to his present master alone, but was a joint concern of four persons. One of these, Hamet Ben Yencourt, began to make strict, inquiry as to fhe measures taken for turning the, property tp accpunt. The master replied, that he had npf been able to extract from him any far ther ^information than has been already here men* tioned. Yencourt declared, that if the captive! wer^put into his hands, he would employ effec? tiial means of rendering him more communicative^ This proposition being acceded to, our author experienced a most doleful change. He was re- duced to hrown bread, and, obliged to lie at night in a mazmorra, or diingeon, so dismal, that the gloomiest prisons; of Europe seemed luxurious in comparison., -These dungeons were dug under ground four or five fathoms in diameter, with a narrow opening at top, which is shut in by an MOUETTE. 221 iron grate. Into this abode they were let down by a ladder of ropes, and, when within it, lay in a circle, with their heads to the sides, and their feet in the centre. As fhe place became warm ed, and the damp began to exhale, the atmosphere became quite intolerable. Their labour consisted chiefly in masonry, which was peculiarly laborious* as the walls Were built of earth, dragged up by puUies alone, without any other machinery. If ever a moment's remission took place, a discharge of stones immediately warned them of the neces sity of proceeding. Time was not even allowed to eat their morsel of bread ; they were expected to eat with one hand, and work with the other. When illness was complained of, there was one only remedy, which was conceived to be equally salutary and cheap. It consisted iri heating att iron rod, and applying it red hot to the part af fected. Many of the slaves 'consequently 'chose rather to conceal their sufferings, than to enjoy the benefit of this cure. This state of affairs induced our captive, as his master had calculated, to abate somewhat in the reports of his own poverty. He enlarged his offer of ransom successively to four hundred, to five hundred^ and to six hundred dollars ; Which last sum was1 at length acceded to,1 Unfortunately, the communication with Europe was so imperfect, thathe was not able to obtain its remittance.' 222 TRAVELS IN BARBARY. Meanwhile his master was called to Fez by the emperor Muley Semein. Suspecting that this command boded him no good, he vented his chag rin upon the slaves, and immediately began to deal blows among them without mercy. Some were killed, and our author thought himself to have escaped well, in having merely his head battered, and his whole body bruised. They were then con veyed to Fez, where the master, though suspected of treason, was pardoned ; but he soon after en gaged in a revolt raised by Muley Hamet against Muley Semein. Hamet being defeated, all' the slaves belonging to himself and his partisans were forfeited to the emperor. Mouette being of this number, was carried to Mequinez, where exten sive works were carrying on. Here he found himself i in a worse situation than ever. They were met at the castle gate by a black " of a pro- " digious stature, a frightful aspect, and a voice as " dreadful as the barking of Cerberus." He had a staff in his hand entirely proportioned to his own size, from which each* as he entered, receiv ed a salutation. They were then furnished with enormous pick-axes, to pull down old walls, where they were kept at work incessantly ; and, if any one took a moment's respite, " he received his " reward immediately." Whenever this personage went away, he left substitutes, who were anxious to prove their zeal by the blows they inflicted, MOUETTE. 223 and made besides large reports to him on his re turn ; none of which were thrown away. His voice, calling in the morning Come, quick, " put such life into them," that every one strove which should be foremost, knowing how surely the last would feel the weight of his cudgel. One day, as the king was passing, they took the opportunity of throwing themselves at his feet — many of them with their wounds yet bloody. The monarch shewed some signs of compassion, but did nothing in consequence ; and their tyrant, exasperated at this appeal, redoubled his fury, and " never " gave over till he had sent above twenty to their " graves." They at one time had determined to kill him when he made his nightly survey ; but " when it came to the point, no man would " strike first ;" and he, suspecting somewhat of their intention, never again returned by himself. They next attempted to poison him in brandy, which they were obliged to furnish ; but he obtain ed a scent of their intention, and these abortive efforts, by the exasperation which they produced, inevitably rendered their bondage more dreadful. Their only deliverance arose from the plague, which began to rage in Mequinez, and swept away a large pioportion of the inhabitants. It first made an end of their tormentor, and then, by the general disorganization which it produced, enabled them to obtain a greater portion of liberty. They 46 224 TRAVELS IN BARBARY. began to manufacture brandy, which they sold to the Moors ; they even set up a table for cards, and another for dice ; and, from the profit of these institutions* established a fund for the rehef of their sick. At length, in 1681, a body of Fathers MercenarianS arrived from France, and obtained their ransom. Some particulars are given of the modes in which the slaves attempted to escape. The re gular mode was to bury them in a ditch, leaving only the head above ground, then covering it with weeds, and surrounding the place with ordure. This took place on the Friday afternoon, when the Moors were all engaged in prayer, and only one keeper left, whom the captives kept close en gaged in conversation till the burial was effected. The fugitives then set out when it was dark, and had the advantage of travelling all night, till their flight was discovered. At one time they undermined their dungeon, and seventy-five made their escape at once ; but all, except twelve, were overtaken and brought back. Mouette, when in Barbary, heard of the trade to Sudan and Tomboutou, exchanging salt for gold dust, which was called Tibir. He says that several Moors of Dras and Tafilet described it" to him as carried on in the manner so often report ed* by the parties laying down the commodities in each others absence, and departing without being WINDHUS. 225 spoken to or seen. When the Moors arrived at the spot, they found a single Arab, there station ed by order of the Alcair, who alone spoke and arranged the manner in which the transaction should take place. Severe punishment is said to be inflicted upon those who are guilty of any ir regularity in the conduct of this business. In 1721 Commodore Stewart, who was com manding a squadron off the coast of Morocco, was instructed to proceed to the residence of the emperor, to demand the redemption of captives, and conclude a permanent treaty. Mr Windhus, : who accompanied him, has written a very good account of this embassy. They landed at Tetuan on the 6th of May. The Basha, who did not expect them so early, was not arrived ; but they found a number of handsome tents pitched for their accommodation. A liberal entertainment was soon provided, con sisting, besides abundance of cuscusu, of a sheep roasted whole, upon a spit the thickness of a man's leg, and which was set down, " spit and " all." The Basha having arrived, gave a very courteous welcome, and entertained them with a charge of cavalry. The movements were irregu lar, but the horsemanship admirable. The Basha was soon after invited to sup with the. ambassa dor ; on which occasion he was led to transgress vol. 11. p 226 TRAVELS IN BARBARY. the Mahometan law of abstinence from strong liquors. In such cases the Moors have no idea of any moderation, but empty whatever is placed before them. They in consequence replenished so copiously, that some could not go home with out help ; and the Basha began to draw his sci mitar, and lay about among his people, proceed ings very contrary to his usual mild disposition. A more serious disturbance soon after occur red. The Moorish privateers had been instruct ed to commit no farther depredations on English vessels ; but two from Salee, having been long at sea, and meeting none except English, " grew " very hungry, and made bold with two of them." The ambassador absolutely refused to proceed farther, unless reparation was made for this out rage, upon which he had the satisfaction of see ing the ships released, and the privateers punish ed. The houses of Tetuan are good ; but the streets are extremely narrow, with no appearance of win dows, except some small holes to look out at. They are lighted from a square court in the in terior. They are generally only two stories high. The roofs are flat, and the Moorish women, who live in the upper apartments, walk and pay visits along them. Their mode of building is to make a large wooden case, into which they put the mortar ; and when it is dry, take away the case. WINDHUS. 227 The Basha is quite absolute in the province, and can take from any one houses, lands, horses, or whatever he pleases ; so that every one conceals any portion of wealth which by trade or industry he may have acquired. The females, as in all Mahometan states, are most rigidly confined. Many Moors, when their wives were at the greatest extremity, rather suf fered them to die than send for a Christian physi cian ; even those who did so, delayed till they were at the point of death, when no remedies could avail. The ladies, however, when they met Europeans in the fields, or saw them from the tops of the houses, very readily took the op portunity of favouring them with a view of their persons. They were in general enormously fat, but had very fine eyes, and many of them beau tiful skins. The cheeks were painted with co chineal, which at first was yellow, but on being rubbed, soon became red ; with this they made a great round spot on each cheek. Their eye brows and eyelids were painted black, while black patches and lines were drawn in various directions over the face and breast. In eating, the Moors make use neither of tables nor chairs. The dishes are placed on a piece of greasy leather, round which they sit cross-legged on the ground. Their dishes are made of pewter or earthen ware, narrow below, and wide at top, 228 TRAVELS IN BARBARY. almost like a high crowned hat, turned bottom up wards. The favourite dish is cuscusu. In kill ing any animals, they turn its head towards Mec ca, make a short prayer, and then cut its throat. Their hatred of Christians is unbounded. They have three gradations of reproach ; the first is " cuckold ;" the second " Jew ;" and the last "• Christian." None, who have not witnessed the utter abomination in which the Jews are held, can feel the full force of this preference. All games of hazard are prohibited ; " eating, drinking, " sleeping, women, horses, and prayers," engross nearly the whole of their time. This author agrees with all others, as to the veneration in which saints are held in Morocco. It is difficult to say how men are raised to the character of saints : any extraordinaiy qualifica tion, any remarkable crime, sometimes pure idiot- ism, raise them to this rank. Several of the em peror's horses were saints ; one in particular was held in such reverence by that monarch, that any person who had committed the most enormous crime, or even killed a prince of the royal blood, if he took hold of the sainted horse, was perfectly secure. Several of the captives had saved their lives by this manoeuvre. It is judged a pecuhar favour, if, after the emperor and the horse have successively drunk, the bowl is handed to any third person. The superstitions prevalent in this WINDHUS. 229 country are extremely various. One of the most general is that of " evil eyes," which seems, in deed, to exist more or less in almost every nation. The emperor of Morocco is said to have kept a favourite son constantly shut up, lest he should be exposed to this fatal influence. When rain is wanting, they endeavour to extort it by pure cla mour and importunity. The children run about the streets, often for eight successive days, scream ing with their whole might. If they fail, the saints and learned men join in the cry, and at last the emperor unites his voice. Should all these vociferations fail, they then thrust the Jews out ofthe town, with injunctions not to return, unless accompanied by rain ; arguing, that their impor tunities will be so noisome, as must compel the Deity, out of pure self-defence, to grant the boon required. On the 13th of June the embassy set out for Mequinez, where the emperor then resided. On their way, they saw a number of dwaries (do wars), or moveable villages of the Arabs. These vil lages are built in the form of a ring, leaving a large vacant space in the inside ; the shiek's house stands in the centre. In the plains of Fez, there are said to be three hundred thousand of these people ; in Morocco only a hundred thousand ; but in Suz a very great number. When they wish to remove to another place for the convenience of 230 TRAVELS IN BARBARY. provisions or water, they load all their goods on their camels and oxen, on whose backs they also place their wives and children in large wicker baskets, and thus journey till they have found a convenient settlement. On the 3d of July, the embassy arrived at Me quinez, and, on the 6th, it was announced that they would see the emperor. They entered the outward gate, and, passing through four large court-yards, came to some piazzas, where they sat for about half an hour. The monarch then ap peared on horseback, with an umbrella over his head, and his guards behind, ranged in the form of a half-moon. When they came within four score yards of him, he alighted, and prostrated himself to the earth in prayer. He remained for some minutes in that posture, with his face so close to the ground, that, in rising, the dust ad hered to his nose. The ambassador bowing as he approached, the emperor nodded his head, and said several times Bono, When the letter from the king of Great Britain was taken out of a silk handkerchief, and presented, the prince declared his love of the English, and his readiness to grant every request made by them. He spoke so much himself, "that it was difficult to bring him to any precise stipulations ; but when the treaty of peace was at last laid before him, he declared his satis faction with its contents, and that though his WINDHUS. 231 word was sufficient, yet he would sign it for their satisfaction. The emperor, Muley Ismael, was eighty-seven years old, and bore traces of the infirmities natu ral to so advanced an age. He had lost all his teeth, breathed with difficulty, and had a severe cough. His beard was thin and very white ; his eyes much sunk. He was still, however, very ac tive, and his eyes had not lost all their fire. He had reigned fifty-three years, having, in 1672, succeeded to his brother, Muley Arschid, of whom he was not the rightful heir ; but being governor of Mequinez, and having thus a considerable force under his command, he dethroned and put to death Muley Hamet, his nephew. The cruelty of this extraordinary barbarian soon began to ma nifest itself. It produced at first some salutary effects ; the laws were vigorously enforced ; the roads were cleared of banditti, by whom they had been infested ; travelling was rendered secure, and the kingdom preserved, during his long reign, in a state of tranquillity. His executions, how ever, were not confined to those who had given just cause of offence ; he retained always the habit of putting to instant death all who became the objects of his capricious resentment. The instruments of his violence were a body of eight hundred negro guards, who formed his chief con fidants, and were carefully trained to their func- 232 TRAVELS IN BARBARY. tions. He tried their temper by furious beating, and sometimes laid forty or fifty at his feet sprawl ing in their blood ; when such as shewed any sen sibility to such treatment, were considered wholly unworthy of being attached to the person of his majesty. These negroes, on the slightest signal, darted like tygers on their victim ; and not con tent with killing, they tortured him with such fury, as reminded the spectators of " devils tor- " menting the damned." A milder fate awaited those whom the emperor killed with his own hand. He merely cut off their heads, or pierced them at one blow with a lance, in the use of which instru ment he was very skilful, " seldom letting his " hand go out, for want of practice." When he came out in the morning, an awful observation was made of his aspect, his gestures, and even the colour of his clothes ; yellow being his " killing " colour." When he killed any one through mis take, or momentary gust of passion, he made an apology to the dying man, saying, that he had not intended it ; but that it was the will of God, and that his hour must have been come. Those, how ever, who had an opportunity of closely observing him, reported that he was agitated by frequent and terrible remorse ; that in his sleep he was of ten heard starting wildly, and calling upon those whom he had murdered. Not unfrequently, even when awake, he would ask for persons whom he WINDHUS. 233 had put to death only the day before ; and, on being told they were dead, inquired with emotion, " Who killed them ?" — when the attendants, un less they felt an inclination to follow, were care ful to answer, " they did not know, but supposed " God killed them ;" after which no farther in quiry was made. The greatest favourite he ever had was a youth of the name of Hameda, son of the guardian of the slaves, whom, when a boy, he distinguished for his spirited conduct at the siege of Tarudant. This youth, being of a gay disposi tion, was soon admitted to the greatest familiarity, and was even allowed the singular privilege of en tering the gardens while the emperor was attend ed by his women. He was jocularly called Basha, by way of pre-eminence to all other Bashas. All this did not prevent the emperor, in a fit of pas sion, from beating him so violently, that he died soon after. He expressed deep regret, however, at this event, and was often heard, when he be lieved himself alone, calling on the name of Ha meda. This extraordinary personage made high pre tensions to sanctity, and was an eminent expoun der of the Mahometan law. Whenever he was to do any thing extraordinary, he held his face close to the ground, in the manner already described, when he was believed to be in conference with God or Mahomet, and to act entirely by their ^34 TRAVELS IN BARBARY. direction. For these pretensions he is said to have obtained full credit from his subjects, who believed him a descendant and peculiar favourite of Mahomet, and incapable of doing any thing amiss. His great delight consisted in building and throwing down ; which was carried to such an extent, that if all his erections had stood they would have reached from Fez to Mequinez. This course he defended, by the necessity of keeping his subjects in perpetual occupation, in order to preserve them from mischief. He com pared them, by an odd metaphor, to rats in a bag, who, unless they were perpetually shaken about, would speedily eat the bag through. On the arrival of the embassy at Mequinez, the whole number of Christian captives was 1 100, of whom about 300 were English, 400 Spaniards, 165 Portuguese, 152 French, 69 Dutch, 25 Ge noese, and 3 Greeks ; there were besides nine teen English, and a few of the other nations, who had become Mahometan. All the English who still adhered to their religion were now liberated. About the year 1720 Dr Thomas Shaw was appointed chaplain to the factory at Algiers, in which capacity he resided there for about twelve years. During this period he made frequent ex cursions through the interior of Algiers and Tu nis, a region which the jealousy of the natives shaw. 235 has, in almost every other instance, shut against Europeans. His travels do not contain any no tice of his own adventures ; but they relate, in- a very minute and detailed manner, all the leading objects of nature and art which these two king doms present. Dr Shaw's attention was peculiarly drawn to wards the remains of Roman art and magnifi cence, with which almost the whole of this region is covered. Carthage, indeed, the greatest name in ancient Africa, presents no ruins that are not subterraneous. Among these, the most remark able is the great reservoir for containing the wa ter conveyed into the city, consisting of twenty contiguous cisterns, each one hundred feet in length, and thirty in breadth. There are, be sides, numerous private cisterns. But the most splendid monument connected with Carthage is the great cistern, by which water was conveyed from the mountain of Zowan, a distance of fifty miles. At the village of Arriana, near Tunis, a long range of its arches may be seen in an entire state, seventy feet high, and supported by columns sixteen feet square. The channel, through which the water passed, lies along the top of the arches, and is of sufficient dimensions to allow a person of ordinary size to walk through. It is discolour ed to the height of three feet, by the passage of the stream through it. 236 TRAVELS IN BARBARY. Constantina, the ancient Cirta, in the eastern part of the Algerine territory, has its site entirely covered with broken walls, cisterns, and other ruins. The aqueduct and cisterns are particularly sumptuous. Shaw mentions also an altar of white marble ; a bridge with various sculptured orna ments ; and a large gate, built of a beautiful red dish stone not inferior to marble. Shershel, the ancient Julia Caesarea, inspires also a high idea of its ancient magnificence, by the fine pillars, capi tals, capacious cisterns, and beautiful Mosaic pavements, that are everywhere remaining. The aqueduct, by which the water of the river Ha- shem was conveyed into this city, appears by the fragments scattered in the neighbouring valleys, to have been little inferior to that of Carthage. The ancient harbour appears, by some revolution of nature, to be now sunk under the waves ; as, when the water is low, the remains of its numer ous pillars and massy walls are discovered. Spa- itla, the ancient Suffetula, contains remains of ex traordinary beauty, among which are distinguish ed a triumphal arch of the Corinthian order, and three temples, the greater part of which is entire. Bruce mentions here a composite temple, which appeared to him the finest specimen of that order existing. El Gemme is distinguished by the re mains of an amphitheatre, consisting originally of sixty-four arches, and four orders of columns SHAW. 237 one above another. The upper order has tum bled down ; and Mahomet Bey, in using it as a fortress, blew up four of its arches ; in other re spects this magnificent edifice is nearly entire. At Kairwan is a mosque, the most magnificent as well as sacred in Barbary, composed, in a great measure, of the remains of ancient edifices. The number of granite pillars was reported by the natives (for no Christian is allowed to see it) to amount to five hundred. Shaw, who did not observe the most westerly ranges of the Atlas, conceives the elevation of that chain to have been exaggerated. In skirting the territories of Algiers and Tunis, it does not rise above the loftier eminences in our own coun try ; and the greater part of its declivity is plant ed with vines and olives. On the southern side it slopes downwards into a region, called the Bled-el-Jereede, or Dry Country, unfit for grain, and almost solely employed in the production of dates. It is remarkable, although the want of water be so characteristic of this territory, that, on digging to a certain depth, that element is al ways found in such abundance, as to be called the " sea under ground." The inhabitants con sist of various tribes of Arabs, who are but half tributary to the neighbouring governments of Algiers and Tunis. The cultivated land of Bar bary, called commonly the Tell, does not usually 238 TRAVELS IN BARBARY. extend more than a hundred miles inward from the sea. It is most exceedingly fertile, being well watered by the numerous streams descending from the Atlas. The soil is of the same sandy character as over all northern Africa ; but this quality, amid such copious irrigation, does not diminish its fruitfulness ; it serves merely, by loosening its texture, to make it easily worked. The soil is everywhere impregnated with saline particles. Few countries abound to such a de gree with salt. Almost all the lakes, and many of the springs, are equal in this respect to the sea ; and in the territory of Tunis there is not a single spring of fresh water. The salt found in the interior of Morocco, though abundant, is red, and of a coarser quality than that which is pro cured by evaporation from the sea coast. The wild animals of Barbary are the lion, the panther, the wild boar, the hyaena, called here the dubbah, and the antelope. The domestic animals do not materially differ from those of Europe. Barbary horses have been highly esteemed, but the practice prevalent among the chief men, of seizing the best of them by violence, has much discouraged the breed. The cows are bad ; the ass and mule are chiefly employed in labour. The noxious tribe of serpents abound in an ex traordinary degree. The boa constrictor, that enormous species, before the view of which armies SHAW. 239 are reported to have fled, makes its appearance on the borders of the Sahara. The chief annoyance of the inhabitants is from scorpions, which swarm to such a degree as to fill even the houses. Their bite, however, though poisonous, is not mortal ; not at least in those which occur in the cultivat ed tracts on the sea coast. The most terrible scourge which the animal creation presents are the locusts. They are common, indeed, to all Africa ; but the desert seems here to pour them forth in extraordinary multitudes. They move in vast bodies like armies ; and every attempt hitherto made to stop or to divert their progress has proved completely abortive. Shaw was peculiarly struck by the total down fall of those sciences, of which Barbary, at no dis tant period, had been the favourite seat ; particu larly the various branches of mathematics and chemistry. He saw quadrants, astrolabes, and other mathematical instruments, constructed with very considerable ingenuity ; but they were mere ly kept as antique curiosities ; neither the mode of their construction, nor their actual use, being at all understood. Of arithmetic, which has been said to be invented by the Arabs, not one in twenty thousand can now perform the most ele mentary operations. Medicine and chemistry are in a state of equal depression ; nor do there appear to remain even any traditionary practices 240 TRAVELS IN BARBARY. to attest the period when these sciences formed the glory of the Saracen name. In 1789 a request was transmitted to Mr Matra, British consul at Tangier, from Muley Absulem, the favourite son of the emperor of Morocco, that an English medical man should be sent, to relieve, if possible, the precarious state in which his health then was. Liberal promises were made to the person who should undertake this journey. Mr Lempriere, surgeon, then resident at Gibraltar, was induced to consent, and obtained thus very intimate views of the manners and interior ar rangements of this barbarous court. The prince being resident at Tarudant, Mr Lempriere travelled in the first instance along the coast of Morocco, but, till his arrival at Tarudant, nothing particularly novel occurred. This city, formerly the capital of a kingdom, is now only the chief place of the province of Suz, and a great part of the space enclosed within the ancient walls is unoccupied. The houses have apartments only on the ground floor, and as each is surrounded by a garden and wall, with numerous palm-trees in termixed, the whole has the appearance rather of a collection of hamlets, or even of country houses, than of a city. It lies twenty miles south of the Atlas, and may be considered as the frontier town of this part of the emperor's dominions ; for the LEMPRIERE. 241 tribes of the Sahara pay a very nominal and im perfect obedience to him. Lempriere was well received by the prince, and immediately began to exercise his medical func tions. The patient's complaint was in his eyes, the sight of which he had almost entirely lost ; one of them being affected by a cataract, and the other by a gutta serena. The prospect of a cure did not appear to Mr Lempriere very favourable ; es pecially as there were many obstacles to the ad ministration of the requisite medicines. First, it appeared impossible to the prince, that any thing received into his stomach should produce any ef fect upon his eye ; then he was assured that Euro pean medicines would produce some pernicious, and even fatal effects on his constitution. How ever, upon being persuaded to make a trial, he found such benefit, as not only induced him to persevere, but raised Lempriere to great favour. Meantime the ladies of the harem Avere also anxious to receive the advice of an European phy sician ; but it was with the utmost difficulty that Lempriere could obtain the means, either of gra tifying his curiosity, or of forming a correct judg ment of their situation. The first lady to whom he was introduced had a curtain drawn quite across the apartment ; from under which, having placed him on a low stool, she put out her hand, in order that her pulse might be felt. It was ex- VOL. II. Q 242 TRAVELS IN BARBARY. pected, that by it he would at once discover the nature of the disease, its seat and various symp toms, and the means of cure. She was much sur prised, and even indignant, when questions were put to her upon these topics. The doctor, how ever, insisted that an examination of the tongue was absolutely necessary, expecting that he would thus at least behold the face of his fair patient. After much hesitation, however, she caused a slit to be made in the curtain, through which the tongue was thrust, without any other part of her person being at the same time exposed. The next patient was one affected by a scrofu lous complaint in the neck. He soon persuaded her of the necessity of shewing him the seat of the disease. He found her very handsome ; and she offered him large presents, with still more liberal promises, on condition of his curing her. She was much surprised when he spoke of this as at all a doubtful event, saying she always understood a Christian physician could cure every disease. As our physician advanced in favour with the prince, the same reserve was no longer enforced, and he was frequently admitted while the ladies were present. He found them uninformed, awk ward in their manners, and vain of their persons to a childish degree. They expressed the utmost amazement at learning that he could read and write, and observed thereupon, that the abilities LEMPRIERE. 243 of the Christians appeared almost miraculous. None of themselves possessed such a measure of learning, and they were equally destitute of ele gant accomplishments. They received, indeed, daily lessons of music ; but noise, in this perform ance, was viewed as the principal requisite. After a residence of five weeks, and before the prince's cure was completed, Mr Lempriere re ceived an order to repair to the court of Morocco. The road led him over one of the loftiest branches of the Atlas. He found it composed of rocky cliffs, perpendicular and tremendous precipices, with deep and beautiful valleys intervening. In these valleys were numerous huts of the Brebes or Brebers, a hardy native race, who inhabit nearly the whole of this mountain chain. Their habita tions are rudely built of earth and mud, and wall ed in ; and some, in the highest parts of the mountain, make their abode in caves. Their fa vourite instrument is the musket, and they are excellent marksmen. Each village chooses its own sheik, so that they exhibit the only trace of a republican constitution that exists in northern Africa. On Lempriere's arrival at Morocco, he soon learned the cause of his abrupt removal from Ta rudant. The emperor was dissatisfied that the young prince should have sent for him, without any authority from himself; and he was also as- 244 TRAVELS IN BARBARY. sured, that European medicines were too violent, and would have a pernicious effect on his son's constitution. He deferred seeing him, however, until he could obtain precise accounts of the state of the prince's health. His mind, meanwhile, being occupied with other matters, Lempriere fell into total oblivion ; and as he could not stir from Morocco without the emperor's express permis sion, the period of his detention there appeared altogether indefinite. Luckily, he performed a cure upon the wife of a Jew, whose wealth gave him great influence at Court, and whom he in- treated, in return, to procure him, if possible, the desired interview. To his great surprise, the very next day, three negro soldiers appeared with enormous clubs, and informed him that the em peror must see him instantly. Lempriere entreat ed a few moments to adjust his dress, but they warned him, that if he delayed an instant, they would return and report him as having refused to obey his majesty's orders. They then set off, running at full speed, and Lempriere was obliged to follow at the same pace. After all this furious haste, he was kept standing five hours at the outer gate, without being called. He was then sent for, and hurried through several courts in the most rapid manner. He found the emperor sitting in a European post-chaise, with a body of troops drawn up in a half-moon behind him. He LEMPRIERE. 245 addressed, with a haughty air, a series of ques tions, which evidently shewed the suspicious light in which he viewed our traveller. He inquired, by what authority he had come into the country — where he had learned his profession — whether the English or French surgeons were best, ob serving, that a French surgeon had killed a num ber of people — why he had forbid Muley Absulem the use of tea — and, if tea was unwholesome, why the English drank so much of it ? Satisfactory answers being made to these interrogatories, his majesty softened, and began to converse pretty familiarly. He pointed to the snow on the Atlas, observing, that any one who should go to the top would die of cold, and that beyond was a fine and fertile country, named Tafilet. In the course of conversation it transpired, that he had caused Lempriere's medicines to be privately examined by his Moorish physician, who had found nothing improper. He concluded, by saying, that he would send him home to his entire satisfaction. Lempriere now conceived, that his prospects had at length cleared up ; and the attention which he met with from the principal persons connected with the court, tended to confirm this belief. But the emperor, whose faculties began to be im paired, seemed again to lose sight of him ; and Muley Absulem, who happened to come to court, treated him with neglect and ingratitude. He 246 TRAVELS IN BARBARY. began to lose hopes of ever escaping from Mo rocco, when a message arrived from the emperor, desiring him to repair to the harem, and attend one of his sultanas. All deliberation on the sub ject was superseded, by considering, that the em peror's request had the full force of a command. He was immediately conducted to the harem, that sanctuary which no European had ever be fore entered, The door being opened, presented a wide court, filled with a motley group of concu bines, domestics, and negro slaves, all seated on the ground, some conversing in circles, some em ployed in needle-work, others in preparing cus- cusu. A general alarm spread through the whole group at the appearance of an European ; some fled precipitately to their apartments, others cla morously demanded the cause of his entrance. The moment, however, that they learned who he was, and that he came by the emperor's permis sion, they all emerged from their hiding places ; the words " Christian doctor" resounded through the hall, and a close circle formed round our tra veller, all at once enumerating complaints, real or imaginary, thrusting forward their hands to have the pulse felt, and even pulling him by the coat to attract his attention. Far from deporting them selves with that awful reserve usually ascribed to Mahometan ladies, they did not even confine themselves within the limits of common decorum. LEMPRIERE. 247 It seemed, at first, vain to attempt moving for ward ; but the eunuch, by employing the most violent measures, effected a passage, though the crowd still followed to the door of the apartment. The Sultana, whom they found sitting cross-legged on a mattress, was named Laila Zara, and was in a very melancholy situation. Some years ago she had been extremely beautiful, and the favour ite wife of the emperor ; when her rivals, moved with envy, formed the detestable plan of destroy ing her by poison. It was accordingly adminis tered ; and though the strength of her constitu tion enabled her to resist its mortal effects, they entirely ruined her health, and with it that beauty on which her influence depended. Her complex ion was entirely altered, her countenance ghastly, her teeth spoiled, and her skin changed to a sickly brown. Lempriere's, humanity struggled with his desire to depart, which would be opposed by en gaging in a cure that threatened to be tedious. He resolved, however, to make a trial for a fort night, and prescribed the requisite medicines. On departing, he was called to the apartment of the first wife, Laila Batoom. This proposal was startling, as no permission was given, or could be intended by the emperor, thus to perform the cir cuit of the seraglio. Curiosity, however, prevail ed. He found Laila Batoom a model of Moorish beauty, about forty, immoderately fat, with round 248 TRAVELS IN BARBARY. cheeks, painted a deep red, small black eyes, and a countenance entirely devoid of expression. Her complaint was a cold, brought on solely by the vehement desire of seeing an European physi cian. When the prescriptions were over, she im mediately proceeded to examine minutely his dress, and make particular inquiries as to his per son and country. Tea was then served, and he departed, but was immediately called in to Laila Douyaw, at present the favourite wife. This lady was a native Genoese, and being shipwrecked on the coast of Barbary at the age of eight, was intro duced into the emperor's harem, and compelled to change her religion. Her beauty and accom plishments soon raised her to the rank she then held. As she could write and read, she was viewed by all the rest as a sort of superior being. She retained so much of her European recollec tions as to observe, that " she was among a very " uncouth and ignorant people." The number of females composing the harem were from fifty to a hundred, besides domestics and slaves. They lived in about twelve squares, each consisting of four rooms, surrounding an in terior court. The two principal wives had each an entire square, the rest only a single apartment. The rooms were ornamented with beautifully carv ed wood, the walls hung with rich damask, and the floors covered with beautiful carpets. The RECENT NARRATIVES. 249 salary allowed by the emperor was very slender, that of the principal wife not exceeding halfa- crown a day ; the deficiency was made up, not very creditably, by presents from foreign ambas sadors, or other persons who had favours to ask from the emperor. Lempriere, seeing no prospect of effecting his departure, thought himself justified, by necessity, in having recourse to stratagem. He informed his patient, that he could not complete her cure without going himself to Gibraltar for the neces sary medicines. The lady gave into the snare, and solicited the emperor so earnestly, that he at length granted our traveller permission to depart. From the time of Shaw and Lempriere, Bar bary was visited by very few travellers, till the interest, excited by recent political events, drew forth a series of narratives, which have again brought us well acquainted with this quarter of the world. Colonel Keatinge has published " Travels in Europe and Africa, comprising a " Journey through France, Spain, and Portugal, " to Morocco."* This journey, however, being performed in 1785, does not bring down the in formation much later than Lempriere. A Spa niard, travelling in the character of a Turk, and * 4to, London, 1816. 250 TRAVELS IN BARBARY. assuming the name of Ali Bey, has published " Travels in Morocco, Tripoli, &c."* He land, ed at Tangiers, where he saw the emperor ; then passed through Mequinez to Fez, in which last place he resided a whole winter ; after which he returned to the coast, and embarked at Larache for Tripoli. His subsequent travels, and his visit to Mecca, though the most curious part of the work, it does not enter into our plan to notice. Mr Grey Jackson, after residing for some years in a commercial capacity at Santa Cruz, publish* ed an account of the empire of Morocco,! but without any narrative of personal adventures.—- Mr Macgill, having visited Tunis as a merchant, has given a description of the city and govern ment.t In Mr Blaquiere's letters from the Me diterranean, § the second volume is devoted to an account of the present state of Tunis and Tripoli. A lady, who resided in the family of Mr Tully, ten years consul at Tripoli, wrote a journal of her residence there, II which is exceedingly inte* resting, and gives a very intimate view of Maho metan manners. From these copious sources, it will not be difficult to extract a satisfactory view of the recent changes, and present state of Bar bary. * 2 vols. 4to, London, 1816. t 4to, London, 1809. X 8vo, .Glasgow, 1811. § 2 vols. 8vo. || 4lo, London, 1816. RECENT NARRATIVES. 251 The reigning emperor of Morocco is named Muley Soliman. He is about forty ; is in his ap pearance rather handsome, and possessed of a quick comprehension. Ali Bey saw him first in his camp, which he makes his constant residence, neglecting the palaces of Morocco and Mequinez, and despising all the pomp with which his ances tors were accustomed to surround themselves. Like his predecessors, he pretends to high emi nence as a doctor and expounder of the Maho metan faith ; but is exempt from the cruelty so characteristic of Moorish sovereigns. He viewed with great interest the philosophical apparatus, and particularly the electrical machine in the possession of Ali Bey, and made curious inqui ries into their structure and use. That traveller was much surprised when he received a present wrapped up in a cloth, which, on opening, proved to be merely two black loaves ; but he was as sured that this was the highest testimony of re gard which the Sultan could bestow, and amount ed to declaring him his brother. Fez was supposed by Ali Bey to contain one hundred thousand inhabitants. It exhibits a sin gular mixture of splendour and ruin. The walls to the street are built of earth, and in many places cracked and tumbling down. All the magnifi cence, as usual in Mahometan countries, is spent upon the interior. Here are found spacious 252 TRAVELS IN BARBARY. courts ; and the apartments are painted, adorned with arabesques, and often decorated with gold and silver. The markets of Fez are immensely crowded, as there is no other place which can be called a town in this part of the kingdom ; and the wandering inhabitants of the surround ing districts resort thither to purchase every arti-. cle of which they stand in need. Fez retains also some shadow of that fame for learning which was once so eminent. The studies are confined to the Koran and its commentators, to a slight tincture* of grammar and logic, and to some clumsy astro nomical observations, for computing the time of their religous exercises. They have Euclid in great folio volumes, neither copied nor read. The teacher sits cross-legged on the ground, and sings or cries, in a lamentable tone, words which the scholars, sitting round him, repeat. Anato my is prohibited by their religious prejudices, and medicine, as a science, is totally unknown. The two most eminent saints at present in Morocco are Sidi Hamet and Sidi Alarbi ; and scarcely any thing is done throughout the empire without their being consulted. The character of saint is not understood to imply any measure of austerity or self-denial. It is solely supported by the power of foretelling the future, and of work ing miracles. The districts which these saints inhabit pay no tribute unless to them -7 and the RECENT NARRATIVES. 253 revenues, as well as the ample offerings poured in from all quarters, are employed in supporting an armed force, by whom they are constantly surrounded. They keep wives and concubines, in as great number as their revenues will main tain, without any apprehension of their sanctified character sustaining thereby the smallest injury. Ali Bey saw, and was on an intimate footing with Muley Absulem, the prince whom Lempriere was sent for to attend. He was now entirely blind. Mr Jackson has given a statement of the popu lation of Morocco, said to be extracted from the Imperial Register, which makes it amount to 14,400,000. This seems a very great exaggera tion. When we consider that the dOuars, or vil lages, are all migratory ; and when they have ex hausted one spot, find, without difficulty, another in which to establish themselves, it must be clear how inadequate this state of culture is to support such density of population. Perhaps even Che- nier's estimate of six millions may be somewhat overrated. The commerce of Morocco, particu larly with Europe, is severely fettered by the bi gotry of the reigning emperor. It is now strictly confined to the port of Mogador ; and the expor tation of grain, though the most abundant pro duct, and indeed a complete drug, is entirely pro hibited. This impolitic restriction is become al- 254 TRAVELS IN BARBARY. most general through the Barbary states, arid is, I suspect, a measure of state policy employed by the rulers, to give satisfaction to the soldiery and the inhabitants of the towns, on whose good dis position they depend almost entirely for continu ance in power. The sovereign of Tunis is called Hamooda Bey, and is a person of extraordinary vigour of charac ter. He has now reigned twenty-nine years, with out any attempt being made to shake his autho* rity ; a circumstance almost unique in a Moorish reign. It is the more singular, from his not be ing the legitimate heir to the throne, which, ac cording to the regular order of succession, ought to have descended to his two cousins ; yet he not only allows them to live, but continues on habits of intimacy with them, without any dread of the consequences. He superintends himself all the departments of government, and decides, in per son all the questions of civil or criminal justice. He has entirely thrown off the yoke of the Turks, and extends the protection ofthe law to Christians and Jews, who before were considered as entirely without the pale. Tunis has, therefore, under his government, assumed a much more mild and civilized aspect than formerly. His chief fault, as a sovereign, is boundless avarice, which, in the administration of justice, makes his hand ever open to bribes, and, in commerce, leads to the most RECENT NARRATIVES. 255 oppressive monopolies. His ministers and favour ites, as happens usually in such barbarous despo tisms, are drawn from the very dregs of the peo ple. The Zapatapa, or keeper of the seals, and the commander of the army, are both Georgian slaves ; and the guardian of the captives, a post of great profit and dignity, is a Neapolitan rene- gado. Tripoli groans under a much severer tyranny. At the commencement of the present century* Hamet the Great freed that state from the Turk ish yoke, by an indiscriminate and barbarous mas sacre of all the chiefs of that nation. His vigor ous and active administration not only rendered Tripoli independent, but established its power over the neighbouring tribes. The crown became no longer elective, but descended in a regular line through his family. At the time when Mr Tully and his family resided there, the Basha had reign ed in a very mild manner for nearly thirty years, and Tripoli had assumed, in a great measure, the tranquil and orderly aspect of an European state. The seeds of disorder, however, were already at work. The Basha's eldest son, called the Bey, was of a mild and respectable character ; but a younger brother, Sidi Useph, or Jussuf, was deep ly stained with all the vices of treachery, avarice, and cruelty, which spring so copiously in this re gion. He rendered himself formidable, byselect- 46 256 TRAVELS IN BARBARY. ing from among the wild Arabs of the neighbour hood, and the negro slaves, a band, who were ready to second him in every desperate enterprise. A violent dissension, fostered by opposition of character, had long reigned between him and his eldest brother. At the entreaty of the relations, an apparent reconciliation took place, and Useph himself proposed to seal it by a solemn vow, at an interview which should take place in the apartment of their mother, Lilla Halluma. They met there accordingly, when, after some ami cable conversation, Useph called loudly for the Koran, " which was the signal he had given his " infernal blacks to bring his pistols, two of which " were immediately put into his hand, and he " instantly fired at the Bey as he sat by Lilla " Halluma's side on the sofa. Lilla Halluma, " raising her hand to save her son, had it most " terribly mangled by the splinters of the pistol, " which burst, and shot the Bey in his side. The " Bey rose, and seizing his sabre from the window " where Lilla Halluma had laid it, he made a " stroke at his brother, but Sidi Useph instantly " discharged a second pistol, and shot the Bey " through the heart. Sidi Useph, on seeing his " brother fall, called to his blacks, saying, ' There " is the Bey, finish him.' They dragged him " from the spot where he lay, yet breathing, and " discharged all their pieces into him. The Bey's RECENT NARRATIVES. 257 " wife, Lilla Aisher, hearing the sudden clash of " arms, broke from her women, who endeavoured " to restrain her, and springing into the room, " clasped the bleeding body of her husband in " her arms, while Lilla Halluma, endeavouring to " prevent Sidi Useph from disfiguring the body, " had thrown herself over it, and fainted from the " agony of her wounded hand. Five of Sidi " Useph's blacks were at the same time stabbing " the body of the Bey as it lay on the floor ; after " which miserable triumph, they fled with their " master." Whether from favour or fear, the Basha made no attempts to avenge this horrible crime ; and soon after its commission, Useph celebrated a splendid festival, " where the sound of music, " firing, and of women hired to sing and dance, " were louder than at the feast of a wedding." Some years after the Basha died, and was suc ceeded in the first instance by his son Sidi Ha met ; but Useph, taking advantage of his absence, seized upon the city, and shut the gates against his brother. This wretch, therefore, now tyran nizes over Tripoli. Some curious particulars are given by Mr Tul* ly's female relation respecting the manners of the Moorish ladies, which she had peculiar opportuni ties of observing. They are generally Georgian or Circassian slaves, purchased at an early age, VOL. II. R 258 TRAVELS IN BARBARY. and trained in all the arts and accomplishments which can render them objects of attraction. They are kept in a state of the strictest seclusion, and never go out unless rarely by night, attended by a numerous train, who announce their ap proach by shouting and lights, when no one must meet, or even look at them, under pain of death. They do not, however, spend their time in that supine indolence which has been often imputed to them. They knit, weave, and embroider ; they pay particular attention fo cookery, in order to guard against the danger of poison ; and they find much employment in superintending the labours of their numerous slaves. On some, their confinement seemed to weigh heavily ; but in general, they were far from melancholy. The toilet is an occupation in which much time and expence are employed, though natural charms are rather obscured than embellished by it. The lady of rank in dressing is attended by a number of female slaves, to each of whom a parti cular department is assigned. One plaits the hair, another perfumes it ; a third arranges the eye brows, a fourth paints the face, and so on. Per fumes and scented waters are lavishly poured upon the hair, and a vast quantity of powder of cloves is stuffed into it ; the eye-brows, besides being painted black, are shaped by having a num ber of the hairs pulled out. Even the fingers and RECENT NARRATIVES. 259 feet are blackened with henna. In short, the full dress of a Moorish lady employs several hours, and forms then so complete a disguise, that her nearest relations cannot recognize her. On great occasions, the display of jewels, and of gold and silver ornaments, is very profuse. A bride is des cribed to have received company, so loaded with them, that if she had attempted to rise, she could not have supported their weight. The same narrative gives some striking parti culars of the ravages committed by the plague at Tripoli. At first, only an obscure rumour of its existence began to be circulated, and the Euro pean residents were earnestly entreated by. the Basha not to augment the alarm by shutting their houses. The deaths, however, multiplying, they determined upon that step. It consisted in the entire exclusion of the natives, unless at one par ticular time of the day, when a person, hired for the purpose, came in, placed provisions in the lobby, with a note of the value, and immediately departed. The plague now raged more and more, and the funerals became daily more numerous. At first they were conducted with order, and with all the splendour which the relatives were able to afford ; but as the malady became universal, all distinction ceased ; the Cologli, a species of mili tia, went round once a day for the dead, fastened their bodies to the horses, and carried them to a 260 TRAVELS IN BARBARY. common place of sepulture. A full third of the inhabitants died, and as a great number fled, the place appeared, on the cessation of the plague, to be a complete wilderness. All the cities of the east, commonly at no very distant periods, are, laid waste by a similar desolation. CHAPTER IV. THE WESTERN COAST. Sierra Leone. — Bulama. — Captain Beaver. — The Gold Coast. — Whidah. — Dahomey. — Reports of African Institution, and Committee on Africa. The first person in England who proposed a specific plan for the colonization of Africa, upon hberal and philanthropic principles, was Dr H. Smeathman, in his letters to Dr Knowles, in 1783, who conceived the design during a residence of some years in that country. This plan he origin ally designed to submit to the respectable society ofthe Quakers, who, in an hour of real inspiration, had first emancipated their slaves in North Ame rica. Before this period* indeed, Dr Fothergill had suggested the propriety of cultivating the sugar-cane in Africa, where it is indigenous, and thrives luxuriantly. In 1784, the Rev. James Ramsay published an Essay on the Treatment of Slaves in the British Sugar-colonies, which alarm ed the planters so much, that, by maliciously en deavouring to ruin the reputation of the author, THE WESTERN COAST. they excited that investigation which they feared* In 1785, the University of Cambridge proposed a question concerning the slavery and commerce of the human species ; to a Latin Essay on which , subject, by Mr T. Clarkson, the first prize was adjudged. An English translation of this Essay was soon after published, which was followed by other two, at different periods, " On the Impoli- " cy of the Slave-trade," and " On the Inefficacy " of its Regulation." By means of these publica tions, such horrid mysteries of iniquity were un veiled, that the friends of human nature caught the alarm, the Society for the Abolition of the Slave-trade was formed, and Wilberforce in troduced the subject into the British Parliament, and prosecuted his design with such disinterested zeal and indefatigable perseverance, as must not only endear his name to the virtuous of every age, but class him with the great benefactors of hu man nature. During the American war, many negroes, (according to the humane maxims of war), who had been invited to take up arms and massacre their masters, had entered on board the British ships of war, or repaired to the British standard, where they had been formed into re giments of rangers. At the termination of the war, in 1783, they were dispersed, with the white loyalists, among the Bahama Islands and Nova Scotia, while many were conveyed to Great Bri- SIERRA LEONE. 263 tain, especially to London. There, indigent and idle, despised and forlorn, they were soon vitiated by intercourse with their profligate countrymen, who, having contrived to convey themselves from the West Indies, infest the streets of London. As this evil had acquired considerable magnitude, a Committee was formed for the relief Of the black poor, at the head of which appeared the benevo lent Jonas Hanway. With this Committee Mr Granville Sharp, the indefatigable benefactor of the Africans, and Dr Smeathman, zealously co operated. In 1786, the latter published his " Plan of a Settlement to be made near Sierra " Leone, on the Grain Coast," for the establish ment of blacks and people of colour, as free men* under the direction of the Committee for reliev ing the black poor, and the protection of the British Government. To this plan the Commit tee annexed a hand-bill, inviting all persons of the said description, who were willing to become colonists, to apply to Dr Smeathman, to whom they had entrusted the formation of the settle ment. In consequence of this measure, above four hundred blacks, with about sixty whites, but who were chiefly women of abandoned character, debilitated by disease, were embarked on board the transports furnished by Government, with provisions, arms, and instruments of agriculture, and conveyed to Sierra Leone, where they arriv= '264 THE WESTERN COAST. ed on the 9th of May 1787. As the exertions of Dr Smeathman had been terminated by his dis solution, and the cause of humanity had been de prived of an active and intelligent friend, whose benevolence and generosity were only equalled by his capacity and perseverance, the formation of the settlement was committed to Captain Thomp. son of the Nautilus, by whom a district of land, about twenty miles square, for the establishment, was purchased from king Naimbanna, and the chiefs his vassals. The site of a town was imme diately chosen, on a rising ground fronting the sea, a store-house was founded, and land distri buted, by lot, to the colonists. But the imme diate prospect Of labour, instead of producing that harmonious exertion which their situation required, only excited turbulence and licentious ness ; indolence and depravity so generally pre vailed, that hardly a man could be induced to labour steadily in erecting the hut by which he was to be sheltered, or in unloading the provi sions by which he was to be supported. Their constitutions had been originally weakened by disease, which, during their passage, had been aggravated by intemperance, debauchery, and confinement ; the rainy season commenced before they could be prevailed on to form huts for their shelter, and such a dreadful mortality ensued* that, at the departure of Captain Thompson, on SIERRA LEONE. 265 September 16th, the colony was reduced by death and desertion to 276 persons. As the excesses of the most incorrigible had accelerated their dis solution, the survivors perceiving, at the depar ture of the vessels, that, without industry, their destruction was inevitable, began to plant rice and Indian corn. The sickness, soon after, en tirely ceased, but the habits of many of the colo nists still continued ; addicted to intoxication, many sold their arms and musquets for rum, and afterwards emigrated to the adjacent slave-facto ries. By a slight species of agriculture, and a great increase of poultry, the remainder subsist ed for some time ; but as the most industrious were unable to purchase live-stock, and were dis appointed of intended supplies by the knavery of an unprincipled shipmaster, this partial emigra tion still continued till November 1789 ; when the infant colony was dispersed, and their town burnt, by an African chief, in revenge of some de predations committed by a slave-factor, to whose party two of the colonists had been Compelled to serve as guides. The colonists who escaped found a temporary asylum at Bance Island fac tory, and at the town of a native chief, who, com passionating their distress, received them under his protection. These were collected by Mr Falconbridge, who was employed in the beginning of 1791, by a number of gentlemen, anxious for 266 THE WESTERN COAST. the civilization of Africa, associated under the name of the St George's Bay Company, to carry out stores for the relief of the dispersed colonists, and to form them again into a permanent settle ment. Mr Falconbridge found the original colo nists, though still turbulent and disorderly, warm ly attached to their European friends* and ready to concur in any measures for their mutual secu rity ; but much more formidable obstacles pre sented themselves, in prevailing upon the native chiefs to ratify the surrender of territory which had been formerly occupied. The only proper ty with which the savage is acquainted, consists of the fruits of the earth, his ornaments, arms, and instruments of hunting and fishing. He changes his habitation according to convenience, and never thinks of buying or selling the earth upon which he roams at large. His own possession of territory is temporary ; he cannot therefore be lieve that any cession is perpetual. He admits a colony, because he imagines it consists of his friends, or because the colonists have purchased his friendship ; but as soon as he changes his opi nion, or withdraws his friendship, he thinks him self completely justified in resuming that right which he had abandoned without reflection. Af ter a palaver held for the purpose, and consider able altercation, Mr Falconbridge repurchased the former territory, on condition pf building his SIERRA LEONE. 267 Colonial town in another situation. The restored colony was accordingly placed at Granville Town, which had been deserted by the natives from su perstitious motives, at a small distance from the ruins of Free Town, its former situation. While Mr Falconbridge was attempting to re* trieve the ruinous affairs of the colony, the mem bers of the St George's Bay Association were in corporated by act of Parliament, under the name of the Sierra Leone Company, to continue for the space of thirty-one years, from the 1st day of July 1791. By the act of incorporation, a Court of Directors, consisting of thirteen persons, chosen by the members from among themselves, every year, was to be invested with the management of the Company's affairs ; the Company, its agents, and servants, were prohibited from engaging in the slave-trade, and appropriating, or employing slaves in their service ; and his Britannic Majesty granted to the company an exclusive right to the lands of Sierra Leone, purchased, or to be pur chased, from the native chiefs. The Directors of the Company, conscious of the immediate neces sity of giving a permanent foundation to their es tablishment, despatched five vessels, without delay, to Sierra Leone, to convey stores and articles of trade, artificers, soldiers, and a few select English settlers, with a council for the government of the colony. Considering the stability and security 268 THE WESTERN COAST. which a colony derived from numbers, connected by a common interest, and at the same time aware of the danger that would necessarily result from the intrusion of idle, unprincipled, or extravagant Europeans, impatient of subordination, of despe rate fortunes, or doubtful characters, they deter mined to discourage the promiscuous emigration of their countrymen, and to endeavour to find a class of settlers more able to endure the vicissi tudes of the climate, and the insalubrity of the uncultivated soil. Many of the black loyalists, at the termination of the American war, had been conveyed to the Bahamas and Nova Scotia, where they had experienced a treatment which they did not scruple to denominate a second servitude. In the Bahamas the black code of laws received in the West Indian Islands prevails, according to which every black is presumed to be a slave, un less he can prove his freedom ; and the evidence of a negro is not admitted against a white man. Every free negro, therefore, who cannot produce formal proof of his freedom, becomes ipso facto the slave of any unprincipled white, who chooses to swear that he is his property. Of these laws, the white loyalists, who had found an asylum in the Bahamas, untaught by adversity to sympathize with the unfortunate, availed themselves against the black refugees, with such flagrant injustice, that their conduct occasioned the interference of SIERRA LEONE. fhe governor. In Nova Scotia, where they had been promised lands, the same disposition appear ed, though it did not proceed to such violent ex cesses. The lands allotted them were almost sterile, as the most valuable were engrossed by the whites ; and of the privileges of British sub jects, particularly the trial by jury, they were en tirely deprived. Persons accustomed to the ser vice of slaves, became too effeminate to support themselves without them. In the West Indies, the deepest distress of a ruined planter is expressed by the significant phrase, " Poor man, he has but " one negro left to bring him a pail of water." In these islands, Europeans find the climate too hot to subsist without slaves ; and in Nova Scotia, a chief-justice declared publicly from the bench, that it was too cold. The free negroes, finding that no redress of their grievances could be ob tained, and guessing what treatment they had in future to expect, deputed one of their number to represent their situation to the British ministry. In consequence of his representations, it was de termined, with the consent of the Directors, that all who were discontented with their situation in Nova Scotia, and were willing to fix their resi dence in their native Africa, should be conveyed to Sierra Leone at the expence ofthe Government. Lieutenant Clarkson, brother of Mr T. Clarkson, whpse humane exertions have already been men- 270 THE WESTERN COAST. tioned, was commissioned to repair to Nova Scotia, and propose to the free blacks the terms upon which the Sierra Leone Company was willing to receive them, and afterwards to superintend their emigration. The proposals of the Company were accepted with the utmost eagerness ; about twelve hundred blacks embarked with the greatest ala crity for Sierra Leone, where they arrived in March 1792. This accession of numbers inspired the colonists with additional energy, and induced the Company to exert themselves with redoubled vigour. The Directors increased their capital by subscription, in order to support an establishment proportional to the extent of their plan ; they sent out considerable stores, both to supply the exi gencies of the colony, and to enable their com mercial agent to establish a trade with the Afri cans in the native productions of the country ; they adopted active measures for cultivating the most profitable tropical produce; and, in order to discover new articles for commerce in the dis trict of Sierra Leone and its vicinity, they en gaged Mr A. Nordenskiold, an able mineralogist, and Mr A. Afzelius, an excellent botanist. The original settlement of the free blacks was again chosen as the most eligible situation for the colo nial town, and great exertions were made to erect habitable huts before the commencement of the rainy season. But the exertions of the colonists, SIERRA LEONE. 271 and the precautions of the Directors, in sending out frames of houses, materials for building, and various stores, were insufficient to prevent exces sive indisposition, which occasioned discontent and depression of spirits, suspended labour and aggravated expence, nearly decimated the blacks, and carried off almost the half of the whites living on shore. The increased price of provisions and European goods, occasioned by the Republican war, the unexpected sterility of the soil in the vicinity of the town, with the inefficiency of the original council of government, which occasioned great irregularity, prodigality, and waste, for some time retarded the progress of the colony ; but after Mr Clarkson, whose transactions with the Nova Scotians had given such universal satisfac tion, was invested with the sole power, order and energy were restored, periodical reports, minutes of council, and journals, were regularly transmit ted to the Court of Directors, general harmony began to prevail, new plans of police were formed, the public works were rapidly advanced, and the natives began to divest themselves of suspicious fears, and view the improvements without appre hension or jealousy. After the expiration of the office of Mr Clarkson, the discontent in some de gree revived, and the Nova Scotian blacks, irri- ' tated by the apprehended misconduct of some of the Company's servants, exhibited indications of 23 272 • THE WESTERN COAST. turbulence and disorder, and at last, by means of delegates, presented a spirited remonstrance to the Court of Directors, complaining of the high price of the Company's goods, and the low wages of labour, and that many of the promises made at their emigration had never been fulfilled. These disturbances were, with some difficulty, appeased, and the colony, emerging from its original obscu rity, began to attract the notice of all the chiefs on the western coast of Africa, and to receive ambassadors from nations situated at a great dis tance in the interior parts of thp country, when its prosperity was interrupted by a deplorable re verse of fortune. On the 28th of September 1794 a French squadron suddenly appeared in the river, instigated with the hopes of obtaining an immense booty, by an American slavercaptain, who imagine ed that he had been affronted by the governor ; and, as the colony had been lulled into a fatal se curity by the declaration of the French conven tion, they plundered and destroyed the colonial town without meeting with any resistance. By this attack, the funds of the Company sustained an enormous loss, and the colony was again plung ed into that calamitous situation, which the defi ciency of provisions and the want of proper shelter had occasioned ; but harmony was effectually re stored among the colonists, and by the exertions of the Company, their affairs were soon retrieved SIERRA LEONE. 273 from these complicated disasters. The French squadron, which consisted chiefly of privateers, and had been fitted out against the English slave- factories on the coast, by interrupting the traffic in slaves, increased the influence of the colony, and promoted its commercial views. Soon after the restoration of the colony, in Au gust 1792, Mr Nordenskiold the mineralogist, who had been emaciated with sickness before he sailed from England, and had afterwards suffered severely from the climate to which he was unac customed at Sierra Leone, anxious to fulfil his en gagements with the Company, with too great pre cipitation, before either his health was confirmed or the rainy season terminated, resolved upon an expedition into the interior parts of the country, where he hoped to find an innocent, hospitable people, among whom he might pursue his re searches to his own satisfaction, and the emolu ment of his employers. Having obtained from the governor and council the most proper goods which the stores contained, for his disbursements on the journey, he proceeded up the river to Ro- banna, the island where king Naimbanna resided ; and afterwards embarking in a sloop, commanded by a white slave-trader, sailed up the river Scas- sos. Having landed at the distance of twelve miles from Porto Logo, he attempted to proceed thither by land, but was robbed of all his goods vol. 11. s 274 THE WESTERN COAST. on the journey. At Porto Logo, between seven ty and eighty miles above Sierra Leone, he fell sick, and was conveyed in a canoe back to the colony, where he arrived feverish and delirious, and expired without being able to give any dis tinct account of the expedition. Mr Norden- skiold united undaunted resolution to indefati gable application : Approbation of the colonial scheme, and attachment to his favourite science, induced him to engage in his laborious researches without any stipulated salary ; but to the excel lent qualities of his mind, he did not add that caution which hazardous enterprises demand, that stubborn serenity of soul which accommodates it self to every situation ; and thus the world was deprived of his inquiries in a tract which had never been traversed by the enlightened and scientific traveller. About the same period, a voyage was made by the agents of the Company to the island of Bananas, Camarancas river, and Plantain island ; which was successful in remov ing the prejudices that had been imbibed by the native chiefs, from the misrepresentations of the slave-traders ; and procured such information con cerning the character and political relations of the African tribes as was necessary to direct the intercourse ofthe colony. The fertile region which lies between Rio Nu- BALANTES — PAPELS. 275 nez and the Gambia, is inhabited by numerous independent tribes of Nalloes, Biafaras, Bissagoes, Balantes, Papels, Banyans, and Feloops, which, with a general similarity, exhibit many peculiar ities of language, customs, and manners, while the Fouliconda, or towns of the Foulahs, and Mauracunda, or towns of the Mandingoes, con tinually interupt and intersect their territories. The Biafaras lie chiefly on the northern side of the Rio Grande, and possess the districts of Gin- hala and Biguba. The Balantes, on the banks of the river Geves, possess a territory about twelve leagues in length, and of the same breadth, which is supposed to contain gold mines. They sometimes trade with the neighbouring tribes in rice, maize, poultry, oxen, and goats, but never contract marriages with them, nor permit them to enter their country. They are equally industrious and warlike, and never traffic in slaves. The Papels are an active and warlike people, who possess the island of Bissao and part of the adjacent continent. They speak a peculiar lan guage, and have adopted many customs from the Portuguese, who have been long settled among them. They are reckoned the most skilful rowers on the coast, and are generally at war with all their neighbours. The Banyans, or Bagnons, who are more civi- 276 THE WESTERN COAST. lized than any of their neighbours, are a brave in dustrious tribe. Their women, when at work, are said, by De la Brue, to fill their mouths with water, to prevent interruption from loquacity. If the author was serious, it is a wonderful proof of their industry ! The Feloops, who possess that part of the coast which extends from Rio St Domingo to the Gam bia, are a rude but industrious nation, who have little intercourse with their neighbours. They have always opposed, with success, the attempts of the Mandingoes to subdue them, even when assisted by the Portuguese. Their character dis plays considerable energy, as their fidelity is in corruptible, and their affection to their friends only equalled by their implacable resentment against their enemies. They never forget a fa vour or an injury, and transmit their family feuds from generation to generation. When any per son is slain in a quarrel, his eldest son procures his father's sandals, which he wears once a-year, on the anniversary of the murder, till he can avenge his death. They trade with Europeans in rice, goats, poultry, wax and honey, and, in their transactions, employ a Mandingo factor, who appropriates a part of the purchase, which is termed cheating money, to himself, which he re ceives when the Feloop is gone. In those parts of the conntry, where any ravages have been FELOOPS — BISSAGOES. 277 committed by Europeans, they never give quarter to a white man. The Bissagoes or Bijugas inhabit a chain of low islands, which lie off the Rio Grande. They are tall, resolute, and robust, and adorn their houses with the scalps of their enemies. Impatient of slavery, they murder themselves upon receiving an affront ; intrepid in war, they are believed to be sprung from the terrible Giagas or Jagas. They are extremely ingenious, and easily learn whatever they are taught. On Boulama, or ra ther Bulama, which lies in the mouth of the Rio Grande, and is enumerated among the group of the Bissagoes, a colony was planted in 1792, by an association who assumed their name from the island. Bulama is about eighteen miles in length, and in some places almost as many in breadth. The land rises gradually from the shore to the centre of the island, which is about one hundred feet above the level of the sea, and lies in N. lat. 11° and W. long. 15° from the meridian of Lon don. When settled by Lieutenant Philip Beaver, who conducted the expedition, it had been for a considerable time uninhabited ; the Bissagoes having expelled the Biafaras, the former possessors, and only resorting to it themselves to hunt, and plant maize and rice : It had been at three dif ferent times proposed to the French government for colonization ; in 1700 by De la Brue, in 1767 278 THE WESTERN COAST. by Demanet, and in 1787 by Barber, an English man residing at Havre de Grace. The fertility of the soil, its central situation for the coasting trade of Africa, its proximity to the Gambia, Grande, and Nunez rivers, recommended it to the Managers of the Bulama Association as an eligible situation for establishing a colony. As soon as a subscription sufficient to defray the ex penses of the voyage, and to provide necessaries for the colonists, was raised by the Association, three vessels sailed from Spithead on the 11th of April with 275 persons, conducted by Mr Dalrym ple. As the subscription had not only been filled with extreme precipitancy, but the colonists had been engaged as they presented themselves, with out discrimination, the greater number of these persons were unprincipled men, of ruined fortunes and characters, or, as they are described by Mr Beaver, " drunken, lazy, dishonest, impatient, " cowards." They had embarked in this expedi tion, without having considered either the diffi culties or the dangers which they had to encoun ter ; without having reflected upon the difference of the situation in which they were to be placed, from that to which they had been accustomed. The views of the subscribers were partly agricul tural, and partly commercial. The majority pro posed to cultivate cotton, sugar, coffee, tobacco, and indigo, while others expected to establish a EXPEDITION TO BULAMA. 279 lucrative commerce with the natives in ivory, wax, and the other productions of Africa. Some authors affirm, that hope is never so sanguine as when it is without foundation ; but whatever ex pectations were entertained by the colonists be fore their arrival in Africa, it is certain that these were very soon dissipated. The vessel which first arrived at Bulama having neglected to procure an interpreter, or make any propositions to the Bis sagoes, the lords of the soil, immediately landed a party of men to take possession. The Bissagoes of Canabac, who did not clearly comprehend the propriety of this proceeding, surprised this party, killed seven men and one woman, and carried off four women and three children. It is often very difficult to settle the questions of right and wrong between the rude natives of a country, and the colonists who are permitted to settle in their ter ritories. The original planters of New England having discovered a hoard of Indian corn, belong ing to the natives, carried it off for seed, intend ing, as they said, " to pay the Indians when the " soil paid them." The colonists of Bulama, however, can only be charged with want of cau tion, since the vessels which contained the goods for the purchase of the island, and traffic with the natives, had not yet arrived. Instructed by this preliminary error, Mr Dalrymple embarked his men, and sailed to Bissao, where he found the 280 THE WESTERN COAST. other vessels. From Bissao he despatched a sloop, to explain his intentions to the Canabacs, and bring back the women arid children who had been taken at Bulama. The embassy was suc cessful, and on the 29th of June 1792, the so vereignty of the island of Bulama was ceded to the king of Great Britain for ever, by the kings of Canabac. The cession of the island of Areas, and of the adjacent land on the continent, was likewise obtained from the kings of Ghinala, on the 3d of August. Though the success of the expedition had, as yet, exceeded probability, the greater number of the colonists were miserably disappointed. Instead of finding mines of gold ready wrought, or sugar, coffee, cotton, and in digo, fit for manufacture, they had found a soil of surprising fertility indeed, but which it was necessary to clear and cultivate before they could derive any profit from its productions. They found that it was necessary to build houses for their shelter, to plant rice and maize for their subsistence ; and, therefore, dreading the rainy season, and chagrined at the Canabacs, both on account of the courage they had displayed, and of their indolence in leaving the island in so bad a state of cultivation, they all returned in the same ships to England, except a few who sailed to America and the West Indies ; and Mr Beaver remained as chief of the colony, with twenty men, EXPEDITION TO BULAMA. 281 four women, and four children. The judicious discrimination that had been employed in the choice of colonists by the Sierra Leone Company, was one of the original causes which had so ra pidly swelled the lists of the Bulama subscribers ; here, from inattention to this circumstance, the majority of those who went out with Mr Dalrym ple were persons of the most infamous characters and vicious habits. When the numerous convicts of Britain were accustomed to be transported to America, Dr Franklin thought, that the only method by which America could testify her gra titude, was by returning an equal number of rattlesnakes to her mother country. Yet such were the crew of idlers, drunkards, cowards, and assassins, accustomed to live in open violation of law, who were left with Mr Beaver, in a situation where no species of authority could be legally enforced. They had arrived at the most improper season of the year, just before the commencement of the rains ; and, as they had brought no mate rials for building, the timber was then growing in the ground, of which their houses were to be formed. By exposure to the rains, and to the vertical rays of the sun, great sickness and mor tality were produced, before any buildings could be erected. As the situation of Mr Beaver pre cluded every idea of selection, the character of the grumettas, or free blacks, engaged as labour- 282 THE WESTERN COAST. ers, was equally execrable with that of the white colonists : about one-fourth had committed mur der at Bissao, and numbers were discharged for attempting' to stab or assassinate others. This motley and vicious group, not all the fortitude and heroic perseverance of a Beaver, aided by the exertions of some virtuous and respectable colonists, could inspire with a spirit of industry, order, and firmness. Notwithstanding the gene ral sickness and despondency, the blockhouse, for the defence and accommodation of the set tlers, was completed in November, and consider able progress made in clearing the ground for plantations. Immediately afterwards, they were alarmed by the visit of an armed body of the Canabacs, commanded by one of their chiefs, no torious for his treachery, and famous for his ex ploits. He was heard by one of the grumettas declaring to his men, " That the whites were all " dead, or sick, except the captain ; that they " were his people whenever he pleased ; that he " had put them there, and, whenever he chose, " could take them away ; that they were his " chickens," an expression which he commonly applied to the Biafaras, to denote the facility with which they are made prisoners. Though the active force of Mr Beaver at this. period only amounted to four colonists and six grumettas, his activity and vigilance so much disconcerted EXPEDITION TO BULAMA. 283 the Canabacs, that they departed without any act of hostility. The panic excited by this visit did not, however, subside at their departure ; and Mr Beaver was deserted by all the grumettas ex cept two, who were sent to Bissao for a reinforce ment, and by one of the only surviving colonists whom sickness permitted to move. When they left Bulama, there remained only one man fit for duty, and seven that were sick ; so that, while another visit of the Bissagoes was hourly expect ed, the whole colony were hardly able to dig a grave. Before the return of the Canabacs, Mr Beaver had been reinforced by grumettas, and afterwards a much stronger party were deterred from venturing upon hostilities, by the arrival of a British sloop of war in the offing. Till the blockhouse was completed, self-preservation had obliged the colonists to work on the Sabbath, but, from that period, the irregularity was dis continued, and Mr Beaver read prayers at the usual time, and instructed them in the use of ar tillery and small arms in the evening. The Bia faras and Papels, as well as the Portuguese of Bissao, had always exhibited the most friendly dispositions. The Biafaras solicited Mr Beaver to form a settlement at Ghinala, and also at Bu- lola, seventy miles up the Rio Grande ; and the king of the Papels had sent a message to the first colonial vessels who arrived at Bissao, to induce 284 THE WESTERN COAST. them to settle on his territories, engaging to pro tect them against the Portuguese, who wished to engross the trade of the island. In the mean time, the agents of the system of slavery were not inactive. Mr Beaver's despatches were de tained by the captain to whom they were com mitted ; the colony was represented as infected with the pestilence, and new colonists were de terred from engaging in the expedition. As no vessels arrived with supplies of stores, or addi tional colonists, the Association being entirely ignorant of the state of the colony ; and, as the colonists were menaced with a still more formi dable attack of the Bissagoes, Mr Beaver was forced to yield to the repeated solicitations and remonstrances of the remaining colonists, and sailed to Sierra Leone, where he arrived, De cember 23d 1793, and immediately returned to England. Thus, after the expenditure of £. 10,000, the colonization of Bulama terminated in the evacuation of the island, which, when the character of the colonists is considered, can scarcely be reckoned a subject of regret to the friends of humanity. It may, however, be re gretted, that the indefatigable exertions and powerful talents of the gallant Beaver, which en abled him so long to maintain an ascendancy among such an irregular, mutinous, and disorder ly band, in a situation of such difficulty and dan- EXPEDITION TO BULAMA. 285 ger, were crowned with no better success. His conduct continually reminds us of the intrepid courage of Captain Standish, the founder of the colony of New England, the invincible fortitude of Captain Smith, who planted Virginia, and the energy of that Benyowsky, who must be num bered among the most extraordinary characters of his age, whether the variety and danger of his adventures, or the vigour and capacity of his mind, be considered. At his return to England, the Bulama Association, sensible of the value of these exertions, unanimously voted that a gold medal should be given to Mr Beaver, as a testi mony of their sense of the ability, zeal, activity, and perseverance, with which, under many diffi culties, he had conducted the affairs of the co lony. From the discovery of Western Africa by the Portuguese, to the latter part of the 18th cen tury, the same iniquitous commercial principles continued to regulate the intercourse of white men with their sable brethren, to degrade the negro, and to disgrace the European. The im mense edifice of slavery still continued to insult the eyes of the sons of freedom ; and, undeterred by the groans of anguish, the clanking of chains, and the echo of the whip that resounded through the pile, free men violated the liberty of which 286 THE WESTERN COAST. they boasted, by assuming the lash of the task master. Who first attempted to demolish the in fernal prison-house, and to raise over its ruins the temple of freedom ? Who first attempted to vindicate insulted humanity, and to burst the chains which the sanction of ages had rivetted ? The Swedish nation may claim the glory of form ing the first specific plan for alleviating the evils which the inhuman man-trade has occasioned in Africa ; and the Danes of carrying into execution the first agricultural establishment, for instruct ing the negroes in the cultivation of their fertile soil, and teaching them to avenge their wrongs on the abettors of slavery, by rearing a bulwark for freedom in the Land of Slaves. The Swedish design of establishing a colony in Africa, which, by its original organization, might exclude every political, financial, and mercantile principle, that appeared inconsistent with the hap piness of mankind, though it only terminated in exploring a part of that continent, originated in the purest and most disinterested motives. In the year 17995 some members of a society formed for diffusing those principles of civilization which ap peared to be best calculated for promoting social order and general happiness, met at Norkioping in Sweden, toconsiderthe colonizationandcultivation of waste lands in Europe, upon philanthropic prin ciples. What seemed impracticable in Europe, SWEDISH COLONY. 287 from the jarring interests and fluctuating politics of her powers — the erection of a community, who might have the privilege of enacting its own laws, coining its own money, and exempting its members froiri imprisonment for debt — was deemed practi cable on the western coast of Africa. To the exe cution of this plan, which had a more extensive object than even the emancipation of the negro race, the most formidable obstacle appeared to be the opposition which it would necessarily receive from the slave-trade. A specific plan was however formed, and a charter, empowering forty families to settle on the western coast of Africa, under the protection of Sweden, to organize their own go vernment, to enact their own laws, and to establish a society entirely independent of Europe, was procured from his Swedish majesty Gustavus III. through the influence of the chamberlain Ulric Nordonkiold. The only conditions annexed to those privileges were, that the society should de fray the expenses of their expedition and establish ment, and not infringe the territories possessed or claimed by other European powers. The execu tion of this plan was, for some time, retarded by fhe American war ; but, as it was judged expe dient, as a preparatory step, to explore Western Africa, the Association entered into engagements with the mercantile house of M. Chauvell of Havre de Grace, to conduct an expedition of di.«- 45 288 THE WESTERN COAST. covery at their joint expense. In this expedition embarked Wadstrom, who was an enthusiast with respect to colonization ; Sparrman and Arrlienius, who were enthusiasts in natural science ; while the enthusiasm of their joint employer M. Chau vell, coincided entirely with the financial views of his Swedish majesty, who loved gold much bet ter than any other natural production. These adventurers left Sweden in May 1787, on their journey to Paris, where, through the representa tions of Baron Stael von Holstein, Swedish am bassador, they, after some delay, procured from the Mareschal de Castries, minister at war and of the colonies, orders to the superintendents of all the French factories, as well as to their consuls on the coast of Barbary, to afford them every possible assistance at the expense of government. They sailed from Havre de Grace in August 1787» and arrived at Goree about the end of the rainy season, where they were received by the Chevalier de Boufflers with the utmost politeness. His de parture to Europe, soon after their arrival, render ed abortive their expectations of assistance from the agents of the Senegal Company, who refused to furnish them with those goods which were ab solutely necessary for their proposed expedition into the interior of the country. The general war, excited by the rapacious and oppressive monopoly exercised by the Senegal Company, wadstrom's settlement. 289 whose cupidity even extended to parrots and natu ral curiosities, rendered the interior entirely inac cessible. These unexpected and irresistible events obliged AVadstrom and his companions to return to Europe, with the observations which they had made on the coast, and the oral information which they had been able to procure concerning the in terior regions. To these travellers, Cape Verd appeared to be the most eligible situation for a new colony, but it was claimed by the French, who had twice purchased the whole peninsula. Almost surrounded by the sea, abounding in bold elevations, and rich valleys watered with springs, it seemed to be as healthful, fertile, and defen sible, as any part of that coast, within a conve nient distance from Europe. After Cape Verd, the most proper situations seemed to be Cape Monte and Cape Mesurado. These districts have been described by Des Marchais,* Villault, * The voyage of the Chevalier des Marchais to Guinea, the adjacent islands, and Cayenne, in 1725-6-7, was publish ed by Labat at Amsterdam in 1731, in 4> vols. 8vo, with maps . by D'Anville. The Chevalier appears to have been a man of great ability, and an adept in drawing, geometry, and navi gation. His engaging address, and knowledge of the nume rous languages on the coast, enabled him to gratify his curi osity, by applying to the original sources of information, without hazard of imposition. His observations chiefly re late to the Gold Coast, and the kingdoms of Whidah and Ardra. VOL. H. T 2Q0 THE WESTERN COAST. Philips,*, Atkins,, t Bosnian, t and Smith, § as pleasant, salubrious, and fertile. Cape Monte is represented as the paradise of Guinea, watered with rivulets and springs, spreading in vast mea dows and plains, interrupted by groves perpetu- * The Journal of a Voyage along the Coast of Guinea to Whidah, the island of St Thomas, and thence to Barbadoes, in 1693-4, by Captain Thomas Philips, contains many curi ous observations on the country, the people, their manners, forts, trade, &c. but is exceedingly verbose, and crowded with- minute nautical remarks on the winds, and the course of sailing. It is inserted in the 6th vol. of Churchill's Col lection of Voyages. f Atkins' Voyage to Guinea, Brasil, and the West Indies, in his Majesty's ship the Swallow, of which the author was surgeon, was published at London in 1737. He makes many curious remarks on the colour, manners, habits, language, customs, and religions of the negroes, and denies the exist ence of cannibals among them. | Bosnian was chief factor at the Dutch fort of'St'G'eorge D'Elmina, and composed, about the beginning of the present century, a Description of the Coast of Guinea, divided into the Gold, Slave, and Ivory Coasts, in the Dutch language, which was soon translated into English. His observations are generally exact, though never profound, and he often af fects a kind of broad Dutch, humour, which bears, however, little resemblance to genuine wit. § Smith's Voyage to Guinea was printed at London in 1745. It seems to have been compiled from some imperfect materials left by Mr Smith, who was surveyor to the Royal African Company, and the accounts of other authors, par ticularly Bosman, from whom the account of Benin is co pied. WADSTROM's SETTLEMENT. 291 ally green, the leaves of which resemble laurel. Rice, millet, and maize, are produced in greater abundance than in any other part of Guinea ; and orange, lemon, almond, and palm trees, are the spontaneous productions of the soil. It is placed* by D'Anville, in 7° 407 N. lat. Cape Mesurado, which lies at the distance of sixteen leagues from Cape Monte, is a detached mountain, steep and elevated towards the sea, with a gentle declivity on the land side. The summit forms a level plain. It lies in N. lat. 6° 34'. The adjacent country is extremely fertile, producing sugar- canes, indigo, and cotton, without cultivation, with red-wood of the best quality. The natives are of a large size, strong, and well proportioned ; their mien is bold and martial ; their courage intrepid, and they are tenacious and jealous of their liberty. They think justly, speak correctly, and perfectly understand their own interest, and are therefore fond of gain, while they appear very disinterest ed. Their friendship is constant, their affection to their children tender, and they are much more jealous of the chastity of their married than their unmarried women* Their women cultivate the fields in concert, educate their children with great care, and exert themselves to acquire and retain the affection of their husbands. More happy than many of their neighbours, they unite ele gance with convenience in the construction of .292 THE WESTERN COAST. their houses, their furniture, and domestic uten sils, as well as their manner of eating. ..The po verty of their language, and the paucity^of their ideas, deprive them of the pleasures of lively and variegated conversation, and this deficiency will not be supplied by the prevalent practice of poly gamy. The purity of the air, the goodness of the water, the fertility of the soil, and the aversion of the natives to war, and to the slave-trade, render the country extremely populous. Their religion is a kind of idolatry, confused, and void of re gular principles. Their fetiches change with their caprice, and seem to be regarded by many as a mere species of household furniture. A negro told Villault, that white men worshipped God, but black men prayed to the Devil, to avert the evil which he caused. When Snoek inquired what religion the inhabitants of Cape Monte pro fessed, they answered, that it consisted in obeying their chiefs, without troubling themselves about what was above them. The sun is the general object of their adoration, but their worship is voluntary, and unaccompanied with magnificent ceremonies. This description of a people is fa vourable, if compared with some of the adjacent regions, " where," to use the plain expressions of Loyer,* who visited Issini, on the Gold Coast, in ''I ¦/ ; . * Godfrey Loyer, apostolical prefect of the Jesuit Missions to the Coast of Guinea, published at Paris, in 1714, a Relation WADSTROM — ISERT. 293 1701, " we meet with kingdoms whose monarchs " are peasants, towns that are built of nothing " but reeds, sailing vessels formed out of a single " tree : — where we meet with nations who live " without care, speak without rule, transact bu- " siness without writing, and walk about without " clothes : — people, who live partly in the water " like fish, and partly in the holes of the earth " like worms, which they resemble in nakedness " and insensibility." The length of the river Mesurado is unknown, but it originates in a rich country^ which the negroes term Alam, or the Country of God. What the benevolent Wadstrom was unable to accomplish, was effected by the Danes, through the indefatigable exertions of Dr Isert. The mass of information concerning Africa which he had accumulated, appeared to be so interesting to the Danish minis' y that he was directed to return, to make observations on the country. His report was so favourable, that he was then empowered to pitch upon an eligible situation for a colony, and to mike the experiment, if he should deem it to be practicable. Dr Isert in tended to have made his first attempt on a large and beautify island in the river Volta ; but, of a Voyage to thekingftom of Issini, or Assinee; on tiie Gold Coast of Guin 5* ' * " "'- defcription ofthe cguntryj th^femper, manners, aud f^.on ^f the Natives. 294 THE WESTERN COAST. being opposed by the natives, through the ma chinations of the white slave-traders, he fixed upon the mountains of Aquapim, sixty miles above Acra, at the same distance from the western bank of the Volta, which is navigable to the lati tude of the colony, and about thirty miles from the river Pony, which is navigable for canoes. The situation is reckoned disadvantageous for commerce, but more salubrious than any other part of the coast. Dr Isert, in his letters to his father, published in 1788, declares, that the na tives of Aquapim live in a state of social harmo ny, which inspired him with the idea of paradi saical happiness and simplicity, and that the soil yielded the most luxuriant crops with very little labour. Guinea corn, millet, and cotton, have been cultivated by the colonists with great suc cess, and the Danish government sent out a skil ful farmer to introduce the plough. The exer tions of Dr Isert having terminated in his death, Lieutenant-Colonel Roer, who, to great botanical knowledge, added much experience in West-In dian cultivation, was apppointed to succeed him. Mr Flint, who superintended the infant colony till his arrival, founded another at the foot of the mountains, nearer Acra, where the soil was ex tremely fertile, but where the wet and dry seasons were not so distinct as at Aquapim. The sister of this gentleman, with that humanity which dis- ACRA — AQUAMBOE. 295 tinguishes the softer sex, accompanied her brother to Aquapim, for the purpose of instructing the natives in needle-work, cotton-spinning, and other branches of female industry. The district of Acra, which contains Aquapim, is subject to the king of Aquamboe, whose mari time territory is very inconsiderable, though one of the most powerful princes on the coast of Gui nea. The Aquamboans are a bold martial race of men, and, like the other Coromantyn negroes, as the natives of the Gold Coast are denominat ed, extremely addicted to war, in which, from the fluctuating nature of their government, they are continually engaged. Their chief exercises unlimited despotism, and hence the proverbial saying on the coast, that at Aquamboe there are only two classes of men, the royal family and the slaves. The Aquamboans are formidable to all their neighbours, though frequently engaged in intestine dissensions. The Acranese formerly composed an independent state, but were con quered by the Aquamboans in 1680, when the greater part ofthe nation, with their king, emigra ted to Little Popo. On the west of Aquamboe lies the powerful state of Akim, sometimes deno minated Akam, Achem, and Accany, which oc cupies almost all the interior of the Gold Coast, and is supposed by the natives of the coast to extend to Barbary. Akim, or Accany, was for- 296 THE WESTERN COAST. merly a monarchy, but being involved in domes tic factions, its power was diminished, and its government changed to the republican form, It frequently, however, asserts its supremacy over the kingdoms on the coast ; and the king of Aquamboe can only avoid subjection by exciting civil dissensions among the Accanese. The Ac- canese are represented as carrying on an exten sive commerce with the interior kingdoms of Af rica, particularly Tonouwah, Gago, and Meczara, by which Muzzouk, the capital of Fezzan, seems to be intended. They are a bold intrepid nation, much esteemed as well as feared by their neigh bours, for their honesty and fair-dealing in com merce. The northern border of Akim extends to Tonouwah, denominated also Inta, Assiente, or Assentai, from its capital city of that name, which stands about eighteen days' journey from the Gold Coast. The inhabitants of this city are reported, by Mr Norris, to have often attempted, without success, to open a communication with the coast through the territories of the Fantees and their confederates. The different nations of the Gold Coast resem ble the negroes of Acra and Aquamboe in their manners, customs, and religious opinions. They all believe in one supreme God, the creator and preserver of all things. But in order to fix their ideas, they require some definite figure, and gene- RELIGION. 297 rally invest him with the human form, as the most perfect. To believe in a Being devoid of form, seems to the negro a belief in nothing, for his only test of the truth of an idea is the liveliness of his conception. To this supreme Being prayers are often offered, when his worshippers turn their faces towai'ds the sun, as the most glorious emblem of his majesty. Loyer gives us a formula of morn ing prayer used at Issini. " My God, give me " this day rice and yams ; give me gold and " aigris ;* give me slaves and riches; give me " health, and grant that I may be active and " swift." The same inaccuracy of thinking, the same vague manner of expression, the same ob stinate adherence to propositions, the terms of which are indefinite and obscure, that have occa sioned so many incurable religious dissensions among civilized nations, have produced a diversity of sects among the negroes. The chief of these sectaries are the believers in two principles, the evil and the good, the African and the European ; but as the negroes seldom disturb themselves about the inconsistency of their opinions, it isim- * The Aigris is a stone of a greenish blue colour, supposed to be a species of jasper ; small perforated pieces of which, valued at their weight in gold, and used for money, like the cowry shells which pass current in the countries along the Niger, from Bambara to Cassina, at ten times-their value in Bengal. 298 THE WESTERN COAST. possible to give a clear statement of their doc trines ; for they express their sentiments as they occur, and generally have the seeds of contradic tion lurking in their minds. The Africans seem originally to have represented their deity as black like themselves ; but they have been informed by Europeans, that this black deity is the devil of the whites, and essentially evil. Where they are contented with the productions of their soil, and their own manner of life, they represent the evil deity as white, the protector of white men, and the cause of all the evils which the white men have brought upon the negroes ; and the good deity, the protector of the Africans, as black. But where the negroes are discontented, they represent the black deity as mischievous and cruel, taking pleasure in tormenting them with nume rous evils ; and the God of the whites as benevo lent and kind, bestowing upon them, in abun dance, fine clothes, silks, and brandy. Artus told them, that their deity did not neglect them, who furnished them with gold, palm-wine, fruits, cows, goats, fowls, and fish ; but he found it impossible to convince them that these were derived from the Deity. " The earth,w said they, " gives us " gold ; the earth yields us maize and rice ; the " sea affords us fish ; but if we do not labour our* " selves, we may starve, before our God help us. " Our cattle produce young without the assistance RELIGION. 299 " of God ; and for fruits, we are indebted to the " Portuguese, who planted the trees ; so that we " have no obligation to our God, as the Europe- " ans to their benevolent Deity." They admitted, however, that the rain descended from God, to render the earth fruitful, the trees productive, and to wash down gold from the mountains. The latter effect of rain is common in the gold coun tries. An inland negro being sold to a slave-ship, prayed fervently for rain ; and being interrogated the cause, answered, that it might wash down gold to his friends, and enable them to redeem him. This idea of partiality in the Deity has induced some to believe, that, after (death, the virtuous will be transported to the lands of the whites, and be changed into white men. Others, by a fiction more honourable to themselves, sup pose, that, in the beginning, God having created black and white men, gave the former their choice of two gifts, gold, and the knowledge of the arts and sciences : the blacks having chosen gold, and left learning to the whites, God, offended at their avarice, condemned them to be slaves to the whites for ever. Concerning the creation of man, however, different opinions prevail ; for, besides those who attribute his creation to the Deity, there are some who believe that he was formed by Anansie, an enormous spider, and others who pre tend that he emerged from caves and holes in the 300 THE WESTERN COAST. '¦¦' ' ->' earth. Their notions • fluctuate in the same un certain manner with respect to a future state, which the majority believe, though some admit their ignorance concerning it. Others suppose, that the deceased are immediately conveyed to a famous river, named Bosmanque, in the interior of Africa, where God examines their past lives, and inquires whether they have observed the religious festivals, abstained from forbidden foody and kept their oaths inviolably ? If the result of this exami nation be favourable, they are; gently wafted over the river to a land of pure hairiness, resembling the Paradise of Mahomet ; if unfavourable, the Deity plunges them into the river, where they are drowned, and buried in eternal oblivion. This is obviously an imperfect representation of the Ma hometan doctrine. Others believe in the trans migration of souls. The ideaof ghosts is extreme ly common =; and, like the vulgar opinion in Britain, the mexpiated crimes of the deceased are supposed to cause their souls to wander after death, Atkins relates, that it is a common saying among the negroes, who are able to speak English, that, " after death, the honest goodee man go to Godee, " livee very well, have a gOodee wife, goodee " victuals, &c. ; but if a rogue and cheatee, he " must be tossed here and there, never still." The negroes regard death with the greatest hor ror : According to Bosman, no person, on pain of RELIGION. 301 death, durst presume to mention death in the presence' of the king of Whidah. The opinions concerning fetiches, termed Obi by the Africans in the West Indies, are extreme ly obscure ; but if we may trust Loyer, who at tended particularly to the subject, they are not worshipped as deities, but regarded as charms. The negroes are taught, by tradition, to regard them as the dispensers of good and evil, by means of some occult qualities, which they derive from God, who is the creator of fetiches, which he has sent upon the earth for the good of mankind. The word fetiche, or feitisso, is Portuguese, and signifies a charm ; and the supposed power of the fetiche is precisely similar to that occult virtue of charms, lucky and unlucky numbers, and other superstitious ceremonies and observances, which has such general influence on weak and unthink ing minds, and to which the greatest unbelievers- often attach implicit credit. Gamesters, sailors, aWnothers, who, according to the vulgar opinion, jjkre under the domination of that occult power iftjfmed chance, or who are placed in situations ¦ W which it is impossible to calculate, or even to vonjecture, the future event from the number of circumstances by which it is influenced, are ob served to place the greatest confidence in charms. For the same reasons, the negroes, whose whole life, from the unsettled nature of their govern- 302 THE WESTERN COAST. ments and the number of accidents to which they are exposed, resembles a game of hazard, ought to be more superstitious and addicted to charms than other men. This is what really happens ; and the negroes not only believe in charms, but days and periods are reckoned lucky and unlucky. They choose their fetiches according to their fancy ; one selects the teeth of a dog, tiger, or civet-cat, an egg, or the bone of a bird ; while another pitches upon a piece of red or yellow wood, the branch of a thorn, the head of a goat, monkey, or parrot. From the fetiche thus chosen, they expect assistance on all occasions, and vow to perform some kind of worship to it. In honour of it, they deprive themselves of some pleasure, commonly abstaining from some particular kind of meat or drink ; so that one man eats no beef, goats' flesh or poultry, and another drinks no palm-wine or brandy. From the opposition of per sonal interests results the opposition of charms or fetiches ; and the virtue of a fetiche is always de termined by the success of its possessor. A negro who is unsuccessful, or who suffers any great mis fortune, attributes it to the weakness of his fe tiche, and has immediately recourse to another, or applies to afetissero, or priest, to procure him one more powerful. They believe that the fetiche, by the presiding intelligence that resides in it, sees, speaks, and narrowly inspects all their ac- RELIGION. 303 tions, punishing the vicious,* and rewarding the virtuous. For this reason, they cover it careful ly, or place it out of view, whenever they perform any improper action. This office of the fetiche is supposed by the negroes of Benin to be per formed by the shadow of every man, which they believe to be a real being, that in another world shall give a true account of ail his actions. These fetiches, when remarkably successful, become the tutelary guardians of families, and are transmitted to the descendants of their original possessors, like the Lares and Penates of the Romans, and the Teraphim or household gods of the Aramceans, which they frequently resemble in form. At Elmina and Acra, they often consist of a piece of wood, on which is carved a human head, without body, arms, or limbs. Besides private fetiches appropriate to individuals, there are others of a more public nature, whose influence extends to particular cantons or districts. These are fre quently remarkable mountains, rocks* trees, lakes, and rivers. The Acranese attributed the con quest of their country by the Aquambrans, to the conversion of one of these sacred lakes into a salt-pit by the Portuguese. Of this species seems to have been the Snake worship of the Whidanese, who believed in one supreme God, though they worshipped one species of serpent as the most powerful fetiches, especially one of immense size, 304 THE WESTERN COAST. which they termed the Grandfather of the snakes. With the discovery of this snake at some fortu nate period, the snake-worship probably originat ed ; for the ancient Whidanese related, that they found him when he deserted another country on account of its wickedness. This snake-worship, therefore, presents no inexplicable phenomenon in the history of the human mind, for it resolves into the more general doctrine of fetiches, which is only a species of the common belief in the vir tue of charms. Dahomy is a fertile and cultivated country ; the soil is a deep, rich, reddish clay, intermixed with sand, scarcely containing a stone of the size of an egg in the whole country. It is extremely pro ductive of maize, millet, beans, yams, potatoes, cassada, plantain, and the banana ; indigo, cotton, tobacco, palm-oil, and sugar are raised, as well as a species of black pepper. Bread, and a species of liquor, or rather diluted gruel, are formed of the lotus berry. Animals, both wild and tame* are numerous, and the lakes abound in fish. The maritime districts of Whidah and Ardra, before they were ruined by the Dahomans, were highly cultivated and beautiful. " The vast number " and variety of tall and spreading trees," says Smith, " seeming as if they had been planted for " decoration, fields of the most lively verdure, al- " most wholly devoted to culture ; plains embel- 55 DAH0MY. 805 " lished with a multitude of towns and villages, " placed in full view of the surrounding district ; " a gradual and almost imperceptible ascent to " the distance of forty or fifty miles from the sea, " which terminates the prospect ; — formed the " most picturesque scene imaginable, unobstruct- " ed by hill or mountain." The Ardranese had attained such a degree of civilization* that they were able to correspond with each other by a species of quippos, similar to the Peruvian, and formed by the combination of knots upon a cord, to which particular significations were attached. The character of the Daumanese, orDahomans, is original and strongly marked ; they have retain ed peculiar manners, and have had little inter course with either Europeans or Moors. They exhibit the germ of peculiar institutions and mo difications of manners, that have appeared incre dible to modern nations when they perused the ancient records of the Egyptians, Hindus, and Lacedemonians. Like the Lacedemonians, they display a singular mixture of ferocity and polite ness, of generosity and cruelty. Their conduct towards strangers is hospitable, without any mix ture of rudeness or insult. Their appearance is manly, and their persons strong and active ; and though they are less addicted to the practice of tattowing than their neighbours* their counte nance rather displays ferocity than courage. VOL. II. u 306 THE WESTERN COAST. Their government is the purest despotism : every subject is a slave ; and every slave implicitly ad mits the right of the sovereign to dispose of his property and of his person. " I think of my " king," said a Dahoman to Mr Norris, " and then " I dare engage five of the enemy myself. My " head belongs to the king, not to myself: if he " please to send for it, I am ready to resign it ; " or if it be shot through in battle, I am satisfied " — if it be in his service." This attachment continues unshaken, even when their nearest re lations become the victims of the avarice or ca price of the king, and his enormities are always attributed to their own indiscretions. With this devoted spirit, the Dahoman rushes fearless into battle, and fights as long as he can wield his sabre. In 1775, when the viceroy of Whidah was dis graced, one ofthe military officers declared, " that " it was his duty to accompany the general to the " field ; and if ever he betrayed the least symptom " of cowardice, or shewed the soles of his feet " to the enemy, he hoped the king would have " his cutlass ready to behead him, at the moment " of his return. But this," said he, " will never " happen ; for, should I ever suspect that I am " accused of treachery, of turning my back on " the foe, or giving cause of complaint, I shall " never afford the prime minister an opportunity " of asking impertinent questions, or of interfer* DAII0MV. 307 " ing between me and my sovereign : I prefer " death at any time." Soon afterwards, this officer found himself left almost alone in his post, after detaching the flower of his troops to the as sistance of his companions. Perceiving that it was impossible to retrieve affairs, at the approach of the enemy he called for his large stool, or chair, dismissed his attendants, sat down, and singly awaited the attack. When the enemy advanced, he stood up and fired his musket till he was surrounded, when he drew his sabre, and rushed into the thickest ranks, where, after kill ing numbers, he was overpowered and taken pri soner. The king of Dahomy, who highly ap proved of his conduct, paid his ransom, but he refused to return, and observing to the messenger, that, " though he might perhaps be the most ugly " of his majesty's subjects, yet there were none " more loyal," — stabbed himself with his sword. Another Dahoman general, being about to en gage the Popoes, with a very inferior force, drank success to the arms of his king, and, dashing the glass to pieces, wished, " that if he was unsuc- " cessful, he might not survive the disgrace, but " perish like the glass which he broke." The metaphors and idiomatical expressions of this na tion have generally a reference to their bodily strength and the sharpness of their swords. The significant titles which the king assumes, are 308 THE WESTERN COAST. termed his strong names.* When the king pro hibits the minstrels from entering upon a disagree able subject, he announces that the topic is too strong for him. The modern history of the Da- homans Tealizes all that history has recorded of ancient Lacedemon, and of those Lacedemonians of the north, the inhabitants of Jomsburgh, who were forbidden to mention the name of Fear, even in the most imminent dangers, and who proudly declared that they would fight their ene mies, though they were stronger than the Gods. Saxo relates, that when Frotho, king of Denmark, was taken prisoner in battle, he obstinately re fused to accept of life, declaring, that the re storation of his kingdom and treasures could never restore his honour, but that future ages would always say, Frotho has been taken by his enemy. The palace of the king of Dahomy is an extensive building of bamboo and mud-walled huts, sur rounded by a mud-wall about twenty feet high, enclosing a quadrangular space of about a mile square. The entrance to the king's apartment is paved with human skulls, the lateral walls adorn ed with human jaw-bones, with a few bloody heads intermixed at intervals. The whole build ing resembles a number of farm-yards, with long thatched barns and sheds for cattle, intersected with low mud-walls. On the thatched roofs, numerous human skulls are ranged at intervals, DAHOMY. 309 on small wooden stakes. In allusion to these, when the king issues orders for war, he only announces to his general, that his house wants thatch. In this palace, or large house, as it is termed by the Dahomans, above 3000 females are commonly immured, and about 500 are ap propriated by each of the principal officers. From this injurious and detestable practice, origi nates many flagrant abuses ; the population is di minished, the sources of private happiness destroy ed, and the best feelings of human nature being outraged, the energies of passion are converted in to bitterness and ferocity. The first of these evils is the establishment of a legal system of prostitu tion, as a considerable proportion of the inferior classes are unable to procure wives. As children, whether male or female, are considered the ex clusive property of the king, they are separated from their parents at an early period, and receive a species of public education, by which means fa mily connexions are annihilated, and the insulated individual becomes a passive instrument of tyran nical power. When an individual is able to pro cure 20,000 cowries, he prostrates himself at the gate of the king, or his vicegerent, presents the money, and begs to be favoured with a wife, when, instead of having the opportunity of selecting a natural friend, suited to his taste, and adapted to gratify the affections of his heart, he must take 310 THE WESTERN COAST. the female assigned him, whether she be old or young, handsome or deformed. Sometimes, out of malicious sport, a man's own mother is handed out to him, so that he both misses a wife and loses his money. In 1775 the viceroy of AVhidah was disgraced and punished with death, for the following speech, extorted by indignation at a procession of the king's women. " Ah ! see " what a number of charming women are devot- " ed to the embraces of one man ! while we who " bore the dangers of the siege of Whidah, and " defeated Abavou and his army, have been pre- " sented with such as are hardly good enough for " house-sweepers. It is ungenerous, but we are " Dahoman men, and must submit." The king's female guard seems in some measure to explain the origin of the ancient opinion concerning the Amazons. Some hundreds of the king's women are regularly trained to the use of arms, under a female general, and subordinate officers appointed by his majesty. They are regularly exercised, perform their military evolutions with as great dexterity as any of the Dahoman troops, and parade in public with their standards, drums, trumpets, flutes, and martial music, It is crimi nal for any Dahoman to assert, that the king is so similar to other mortals, as either to eat or sleep. At his accession, he proclaims that he knows nobody, and is not inclined to make any new ac- DAHOMY. SI I quaintance ; that he will administer justice with a rigorous and impartial hand, but will listen to no representations, nor receive any presents, except from his officers, who approach him grovelling in the dust. The Dahomans maintain the true doc trine of passive obedience, and the divine right of kings, in the utmost purity ; and their history exhibits no example of a deposition. At his ac cession, the king walks in blood from the palace to the grave of his predecessor, and annually waters the graves of his ancestors with the blood of human victims. The death of the king is only announced by fearful shrieks, which spread like lightning from the palace to the extremities of Dahomy, and become the signal for anarchy, rapine, and murder, which continue till the new king ascends the throne. The religion of Dahomy is vague and uncertain in its principles, and rather con sists in the performance of some traditionary ceremonies, than in any fixed system of belief, or of moral conduct. They believe more firmly in their amulets and fetiches, than in the Deity; their national fetiche is the Tiger; and their habitations are decorated with ugly images, tinged with blood, stuck with feathers, besmeared with palm-oil, and bedaubed with eggs. As their ideas of Deity do not coincide with those of Euro peans, they imagine that their tutelary gods are different. " Perhaps," said a Dahoman chief to 312 THE WESTERN COAST. Snelgrave, " that God may be yours, who has " communicated so many extraordinary things to " white men ; but as that God has not been pleas- " ed to make himself known to us, we must be "satisfied with this we worship." The Daho- mans manufacture and dye cotton cloth, and form a species of cloth of palm-leaves. They are tole rably skilful in working in metals. The bards, who celebrate the exploits of the king and his generals, are likewise the historians of the coun try. Their historical poems, which are rehearsed on solemn occasions, occupy several days in the recital. These may probably compare with the legends of Ossian, and of the Irish, Gaelic, and Welsh bards. It is probable that the legends of Dahomy are equally authentic with these ; for, in every rude age, it is the interest of the bards not to touch upon subjects too strong for their respective chiefs. The Persian Hafez would have been put to death by Tamerlane, merely for preferring, like a true inamorato, the charms of his mistress to the gold of Bokhara, and the gems of Samarcand, had he not saved himself by an ingenious quibble, to prove a various reading. How much authentic history may we then derive from oral and poetical legends ! The Dahomans, though they do not use human flesh as an article of food, yet devour the flesh of human victims as a religious ceremony, at their solemn feasts ; and DAHOMY. 313 their ancient practice seems to be marked by their ordinary phrase of eating their enemies, by which they denote taking them alive. Though the mar tial genius of the Dahomans remains unaltered, their military exploits have not been remarkable since the reign of Guadja Trudo, the conqueror of Whida Ardra, Torree, Didouma, Ajirah, and Jacquin, who died in 1731. Guadja Trudo was almost as good a conqueror as any barbarian that was ever dignified with that appellation. He waded to glory through seas of blood, I am not sure if we may call it innocent ; if he did not exhibit true magnanimity, he always displayed what is equally good for a conqueror, a true belli gerent insensibility to the miseries of his own, and of every other nation ; and, when he could not lead the Dahomans, he drove them to victory. His policy was that of an ambitious savage, who sought to retain the territory he had conquered, by burning the towns, and massacring the inha bitants ; but his views were more extensive than those of his countrymen, and the character given of him by Snelgrave appears to be just ; who de clares, that he found him the most extraordinary man of his colour with whom he had ever con versed. His fame still remains in Dahomy, where his memory is revered, and where, in the most solemn oaths, they swear by his name. Bossa Ahadee, and Adahoonzou, the son and 314 THE WESTERN COAST. grandson of Trudo, possessed the same restless ambitious spirit, without his martial talents. The above summary of information relative to the western coast of Africa was drawn up by Dr Leyden, upon the materials then in possession of the public. Since that time have appeared the Reports of the African Institution ; of the Select Committee on the African Forts -} and Mr Mere dith's interesting " Account of the Gold Coast of " Africa." From these sources a considerable amount of new information has been obtained. The affairs of the Sierra Leone Company, ac cording to the usual fate of such establishments, having gone into disorder, and the profits being inadequate to cover the expenses, an arrange ment was made, by which their property was transferred to the hands of Government, and Sierra Leone was placed on the same footing as other colonies. At the same time, a Society, un der the title of the African Institution, was form ed by a large body of the most virtuous and res pectable individuals in this country, with a gene ral view to the improvement and civilization of the African continent. Sierra Leone, which ap peared the best centre whence such efforts could issue, was placed under their management and direction. There can be no doubt, notwithstand ing the charges brought by a person who held for SIERRA LEONE. 315 some time an office in the colony, of the zeal with which the Institution have pursued every object tending tp the improvement of this colony, as well as the general benefit of Africa. Of this, the character of its members would be a suffi cient pledge ; but it is farther rendered evident by the statements which they have chosen to sub mit to the public. They very candidly, however, admit the circumstances which have obstructed the accomplishment, to the full extent, of the objects for which it was founded. It has been found impossible to preserve a uniform good un derstanding with the native powers, whose vola tile and turbulent habits render them prompt to embark in hostilities. The abolition ofthe slave- trade also has caused the colony to be viewed by no means with a favourable eye by the native chiefs. The wars in which it was repeatedly in volved with them, gave a very serious check to its improvement. The management also of the negroes captured on their route to the West In dies, is attended with considerable difficulty. The plan of making them purchase their liberty by a temporary bondage, under the name of in denture, though it cannot deserve the epithets which have been applied to it, seems yet to have been very properly discontinued. The motley and equivocal character, however, which neces sarily attaches to a great part of the population, 316 THE WESTERN COAST. renders it very difficult to preserve the degree of order and propriety necessary to render it useful in itself, and creditable in the eye of the Africans. The introduction ofthe English forms of law has produced a most violent spirit of litigation. The suits for petty assaults and defamation are almost innumerable, and the plaintiffs are usually in the proportion of four women to one man. The dis tance from Britain, besides the unhealthy nature ef the settlement, and the very moderate amount of the salaries, make it scarcely possible to pro cure respectable and duly qualified persons to fill the different official situations. Notwithstanding all these obstacles, a sensible improvement has taken place, and more may be expected, as experience shews the best modes of conducting such a colony. According to a survey in April 1811, Sierra Leone contained three hundred and seventy-one houses, chiefly of wood, some wattled, and only three of stone. The population was one thousand nine hundred and seventeen ; of which number, twenty-eight were Europeans, nine hundred and seventy*two Nova Scotians, eight hundred and seven' Maroons, and one hundred Africans. * The political state of the Gold Coast has been * Report of Select Committee on the African Forts, (29th June 1816), p. 133. ASHANTEE. 317 chiefly marked by the decline of the power of Aquamboe, which, instead of ruling over all the neighbouring states, now scarcely maintains its own independence. The predominance is at pre sent indisputably possessed by Ashantee, a power which was barely beard of by the early travellers under the name of Asiente. It appears to be situated two or three hundred miles in the inte rior from the sea-coast ; the capital is reported by Governor Dawson* to be four hundred miles from Accra. Every account represents the coun try to be fertile, extensive, and populous. The number of people is clearly attested by the large armies which the king brings into the field. Mr Dawson conceived that, in case of emergency, he could assemble 150,000 men. Most of the com modities, gold, ivory, palm-oil, &c. which form the objects of trade upon the Gold Coast, are brought down from the Ashantee territory. Zey Coomah, the king, has been seized with an ardent desire to open a communication with the sea, and with the British ; but his subjects are liable to be obstructed and maltreated by the turbulent tribe of Fantees, who occupy the intermediate space. This has necessarily given rise to quarrels, which have terminated in war. The king of < Ashantee * Report of Select Committee on the African Forts, (29th June 1816), p. 192- 318 THE WESTERN COAST. has within the last few years made three several inroads to the coast, in which, by the superior numbers and bravery of his troops, he carried all before him. The first was in 1808, when he des troyed the fort of Anamaboe ; the second in 1811 ; and the third in 1816. On these occasions our countrymen had an opportunity of communicat ing with the Ashantees, and found them to be much more courteous and civilized, every way superior in intelligence and moral feeling, to the natives upon the coast. The Ashantees, in their turn, shewed the most amicable disposition towards the British ; and the king even requested, that a resident of that nation might be sent to his court. Since that time, an expedition to Cummazee, his capital, has been undertaken by a consider able body of the British residents at Cape Coast Castle. As the chief object in view was the ex ploration of the interior of Africa, the particulars are given at the close of the last volume. The British have forts on this coast at Apollo- nia, Dixcove, Succondee, Commendo, Cape Coast, (the principal one), Anamaboe, Tantumquery, and Accra. Those at Winnebah and Whidah, the latter of which places is still in the power of the king of Dahomy, have been given up. CHAPTER V. SOUTHERN AFRICA. The Cape of Good Hope Kolben. — Sparmann. — Vaillant « Barrow. — Trutter and Sommerville. — Cowan. — Lichlenstein. — Campbell. — Burchell. The discovery of the Cape of Good Hope by Bartholomew Diaz, and its subsequent passage by Vasco de Gama in 1498, formed one of the grand eras in modern navigation. Although, however, the Portuguese touched on this coast for provisions and water, they do not appear to have ever formed any permanent settlement. But the Dutch, a prudent and considerate peo ple, soon discovered the advantages which might be derived from the possession of this half-way house to India. Early in the 17th century they formed a settlement there, which being gradually strengthened and extended, ranked at length with the most important of their colonial establish ments. Some accounts of it were published in 1681 and 1686, by Dutch writers of the names of Breyer and Fen Rynne. The first detailed narrative, however, was given in 1718, by Peter Kolben ; which, after being for nearly half a cen- 320 SOUTHERN AFRICA. tury received as perfectly authentic, has for some time past fallen into total discredit. This last judgment is perhaps somewhat too severe. It will not, perhaps, on examination, appear to ex hibit much more than those exaggerations and mistakes, to which a traveller is always liable at the first view of an unknown country. He saw the colony, besides, in a very different state from that in which it has been viewed by recent tra vellers. Its limits were then comparatively nar row ; and the tribes, who have since been either extirpated or reduced to slavery, were then un broken and independent. This might naturally produce a discrepancy between his reports and theirs ; and it gives a considerable value to his narrative, as painting the manners of savage com munities which are no longer in existence. The colony, it appears, did not, at this time, extend beyond the narrow plain, included be tween the sea and the two mountain chains of the Zwarteberg and the Bokkeveld ; nor was there an accurate knowledge of any thing farther. On the north, the boundary appears to have been formed by the Berg, or Mountain River, which falls into the Bay of St Helena. Pretty accurate notices, however, had been obtained of the Na- maquas, and even of the deserts of sand which lie beyond them. On the east the limit appears to have been Mossel Bay. Kolben's map pre- KOLBEN. 321 sents here a remarkable feature, called Endless River. It is represented as rising near the Bay of St Sebastian, and directing its course south east, without any known termination. It is some what difficult to say what river it is, of which the course has been so egregiously mistaken. The Great Karroo, and, much more, the regions of Sneuwberg and Kaffreland, appear to have been entirely unknown. The Hottentots are described by Kolben as living in kraals, which seldom contained less than twenty huts and a hundred inhabitants. In ge neral, they contained from three to four hundred inhabitants, and sometimes five hundred. The huts are ranged in a circle, in a commodious situ ation, generally along the bank of a river. Their form is oval, the largest diameter being generally fourteen feet, and the smallest ten ; and they are too low to render it possible to stand upright in them. The walls are formed of twigs, and the roof of mats woven from oziers and junk, so close that neither rain nor wind can penetrate. The whole wealth of the Hottentot consists in his cattle, and to defend these against wild beasts is the continual object of his care. With this view, the young animals are enclosed at night within the circle of the huts, the older ones being tied to the outside, while the lambs are lodged in a large house or shed. During the day, three VOL. II. x 322 SOUTHERN AFRICA. or four of the kraal guard them in turn. The pasture ground is entirely common, and after having exhausted one spot, the kraal removes to another. They possess considerable ingenuity in several trades. The smiths are particularly skilful, and are able to fuse and fashion iron in all shapes required, without any other instrument besides stones. They also know how to tan, dress, and even sew the skins. In sewing, they use as needles the small bones of birds, and the nerves attached to the back bones of animals for threads. Mats, strings for their bows and musical instru ments, and some articles of pottery, are also manufactured with considerable skill. It has been reported, that the Hottentots exhi bited no vestige of religion ; but Kolben asserts that they believe in a God. They say, " that he *' is an excellent man, who does no ill to any one, " and lives far beyond the moon ;" but they consider him as placed out of the reach of any worship which they could pay to him. When the moon is at the full, they make sacrifices to her, accompanied with prayers for good weather, with dancing, leaping, and violent contortions. They have also a malignant divinity, little, crooked, and ill-natured, whom they endeavour to soften by offerings. They shew no direct signs of any belief in the immortality of the soul ; yet the KOLBEN. 323 honours which they render to the dead, and the dread of ghosts, shew some secret belief of it. The Hottentots, in Kolben's time, were not en tirely without government. A hereditary chief, called Konquer, commanded in war, negociated peace, and presided at the public assemblies. A second officer, also hereditary, called Captain, judged the people in peace, and, in war, com manded under the Konquer. Both these func tionaries, at their accession, came under an oath to attempt nothing against the rights of each other, or of the people. The Hottentots were then a warlike race. On the slightest injury they flew to arms. Their wars, like those of all savages, were short, tumultuary, and irregular. They form ed alliances with each other, and seemed even to study a sort of balance of power. The Dutch were frequently called in by the weaker party ; an occurrence which they always succeeded in turning to their own advantage. Kolben gives many particulars of the natural history of the Cape, though they cannot now be considered as of much value. He notices the species of sheep with tails of extraordinary mag nitude, composed entirely of fat, and weighing often fifteen or twenty pounds. He describes particularly the elephant, the rhinoceros, the leo pard, and the buffalo. But the most beautiful animal he saw was the zebra, which he knows •324 SOUTHERN AFRICA. under no other name than the wild ass, though he joins with Ludolf in lamenting, that so elegant a species should not be honoured with a name more worthy of his appearance. About 1760, the Abbe Lacaille, an eminent French astronomer, and member of the French Academy of Sciences, made a journey to the Cape, with the view of making some important observations. To these his attention was chiefly confined ; but he wrote also a short journal, con taining some curious remarks. He criticises very severely some of the statements of Kolben, who, he asserts, never travelled beyond the colony, nor even visited the remoter parts of it. In 1772-6, Dr Andrew Sparmann of Stockholm made a variety of excursions in the vicinity of the Cape. His observations are chiefly confined to the natural history ; in which view they are valu able, though not easily admitting of abridgment, and we can only-select a few of the most remark able features. The lion appears less ferocious here than in Asia. It here seldom attacks any of the stronger animals, unless when provoked, or severely pressed by hunger. It displays then astonishing strength, and has been seen to leap a hedge holding an ox in its mouth. Dr Sparmann agrees with the other SPARMANN. 325 reports, in noticing that it makes only one great spring, and if that fails, follows up the attack no farther. There are, properly, no tigers in this part of Africa, but only panthers and leopards. Elephants are hunted by the Hottentots in the same manner as in Asia, by digging pits. The colonists, however, employ always fire-arms against this animal as well as the rhinoceros. The gnu, which appears to hold a middle place between the horse and the gazelle, was first noticed by Dr Sparmann. The same may be said of that beauti- tiful antelope called the spring-bok. Of hippopo tami he could only kill one, too young to afford a full idea of the species. He gives a very full description of the termites, which appear to be as numerous here as they are over the western coast. The agreeable species of Cape wine, called Con- stantia, is stated by Dr Sparmann to be tbe pro duce of two farms only ; and it appeared to him, that no cause, except some peculiarity of the soil, could be assigned for its superior excellence. The annual produce of these farms is sixty liggars of red, and ninety of white wine ; each liggar containing six hundred French pints. If the smallness of this quantity appears surprising to the reader, he may consider, that much of what is sold as Constantia, has nothing in common with that celebrated wine except the name. 326 SOUTHERN AFRICA. During the years 1772-5, Thunberg, who after wards visited Japan, resided at the Cape of Good Hope, and made several excursions to different parts of the colony. In 1777-8, also, Mr Pater son accompanied Captain Gordon in an expedi tion, in the course of which he penetrated to the Sneuwberg, or Snowy Mountains, and into the country of the Bosjesmans. The narratives of both these travellers, as well as that of Sparmann, contain many interesting particulars ; but as they went over the very same ground which was after wards traversed by Mr Barrow, whose report is generally allowed to be the most valuable and au thentic yet published, it appears more eligible to make it known to our readers through his medium, than to incur a series of repetitions by minutely following those who preceded him in the same tract. Between the years 1780 and 1785, Mr Vaillant performed his well-known travels. Few writers have so well succeeded in making their narrative lively and entertaining, in which respect it is little inferior to the most interesting works of fiction. These, indeed, it has been strongly suspected to resemble in other respects. The French, how ever, maintain that the imagination of Vaillant has operated, not in materially altering the truth of facts, but merely throwing over them a colour- VAILLANT. 327 ing and embellishment which may amuse and flat ter the fancy of his readers. This " petite foi- " Hesse," as M. de la Richarderie calls it, cannot, it is said, affect the general value and authenticity of his narrative. In consequence, however, of the " little weakness" now alluded to, M. Vail- lant's account of this country cannot be compar ed, in point of authenticity, to that of Mr Bar row ; and, as the charm of his style could not be preserved in a short analysis, there seems no room for departing, in his case, from the plan which we have proposed to follow in that of his prede cessors. It is certain that Vaillant made important addi tions to African ornithology. He brought home also to Paris the skin of the Giraffe, or Camel opar- dalis, a rare species, which, till then, had scarcely come under modern observation. He seems to have first ascertained, that what has been called the apron of the Hottentot females, is merely the prolongation of a particular membrane, which he supposes to be artificially produced ; but Mr Bar row seems to have ascertained it to be a natural excrescence. In 1797> the territory belonging to the colony, as far as the Orange river, was traversed by Mr Barrow. Few gentlemen have possessed in so eminent a degree, all the most important requi- 328 SOUTHERN AFRICA. sites of a traveller. The care and accuracy with which his observations are made ; his attention to study man in his political and social capacities ; and, at the same time, his intimate acquaintance with the different kingdoms of nature, enable him to exhibit a complete view of all the relations under which any region can be considered. He was assisted by all the means of information which government could supply ; so that, with regard to the tract over which he travelled, his informa tion may be considered as superseding all prior narratives, and forming the basis of those which are to succeed. Mr Barrow begins by giving a view of the ex tent of the colony, as fixed by official survey in the course of the journey which he narrates. The greatest length, from Cape Point to Kaffreland, is 580 miles ; its smallest length, from the river Koussie to Zuureberg, is 520. The greatest breadth, from the river Koussie to Cape Point, is 315 miles ; its least breadth, from the Nieuweldt mountains to Plettenberg bay, is 160. These measurements give a medium length of 550 miles, and a medium breadth of 233. This immense, tract is occupied, exclusive of Cape Town, by not more than 15,000 white inhabitants, so that each individual may be considered the proprietor of eight and a half square miles of ground.. A very great portion of this space, however, seems doom- BARROW. 329 ed by nature to perpetual sterility. It is travers ed by chains of vast mountains, rising one behind another ; and, except one, which runs northward along the Atlantic ocean, extending all in the di rection of east to west. The intermediate plains are in a great measure covered with a hard impe netrable clay, sprinkled over with crystallized sand, and condemned to perpetual drought. The first great chain runs parallel to the coast from east to west, and encloses, between it and the sea, a belt of land, varying from 20 to 60 miles in breadth. This district is fertile, well wooded and watered, and enjoying a more mild and equal temperature than the rest of the colo ny. Behind this chain rises, at some distance, the Zwarte Berg, or Black Mountain, considera bly loftier and more rugged. The belt enclosed between these two is partly fertile, but inter spersed with extensive tracts of arid clay land called Karroo. A third chain of mountains is called the Nieuweldts Gebirgte, and is greatly elevated above the Zwarte Berg. Between these two chains is situated the Great Karroo, an im mense tract of parched desert, nearly 300 miles in length and 80 in breadth, which forms the third step or terrace of Southern Africa. Cape Town, the capital, and the only place in the. colony to which the name of a town can be applied, consists of about eleven hundred houses, 330 SOUTHERN AFRICA." regularly built in straight lines, and intersecting each other at right angles. Between the town and the Table mountain are situated- a number of neat country houses, with gardens and plantations. Most of the European and tropical fruits are cul tivated with success, and the market is tolerably supplied with vegetables. The chief want is tim ber, either for building or firing. Most families are compelled to keep a slave for the sole purpose of climbing the neighbouring mountains in search of faggots. To purchase these in sufficient quantity to maintain a fire in the kitchen alone, costs forty or fifty pounds a year. The botanical produc tions ofthe Cape district surpass, perhaps, in va riety and beauty, those of any other part of the world. In the bulbous rooted plants, particular ly, it is quite unrivalled. The Dutch inhabitants of the Cape display the phlegm and apathy of their countrymen in Europe, without their persevering industry. They de volve all labour upon the slaves, and spend their time in eating to excess of high seasoned dishes, drinking raw ardent spirits, and smoking tobacco. As they carefully avoid every species of bodily exertion, their health inevitably suffers, and few exceed the age of sixty. The ladies do not share this phlegmatic character ; they are pretty, lively, and good-humoured, easy in their manners, and fond of social intercourse. They are allowed an BARROW. 331 unusual degree of freedom, which they seldom abuse. The mode Jn which journeys are performed in Southern Africa is by hiring large waggons, drawn by a team which consists of ten or twelve oxen. These travel from five to fifteen hours a-day, generally at the rate of three miles in the hour. After passing the Table moun tain, Mr Barrow and his party came to the isthmus, which consists of a sandy flat, not more than twenty or thirty feet above the level of the sea. Here, along the eastern coast, are found numerous shells, several hundred feet higher, and accumulated chiefly in the caves of the moun tains. Mr Barrow is of opinion, that they have been conveyed thither by the myriads of sea-fowl that frequent the African shores. The travellers next entered into an extensive valley, bordered by detached mountains, called the Tigerberg, Paarl- berg, Simonsberg, and by a very lofty range, which shuts in its eastern extremity. The most copious and most profitable produce is wine. An acre of ground will yield five pipes of one hun dred and fifty-four gallons each, which will sell from L. 10 to L. 30 a-pipe. The grapes raised at the Cape are equal to those of any other coun try ; the inferior quality of the wine, therefore, can only be imputed to the imperfect fermenta tion, and to the practice of pulling the grapes before they are ripe. The brandy also, being 332 SOUTHERN AFRICA. distilled with too much rapidity, imbibes a strong empyreumatic taste. The Dutch peasant shews here more than the usual apathy which characterizes his nation. He has no idea of what an English farmer calls com fort. His apartments are almost destitute of furniture ; the windows are without glass ; the floors are dirty, and swarm with insects. Even wine, milk, vegetables, and roots, though easily procured, are despised by him ; his sole enjoyment is in the pipe, which never quits his mouth, un less to take his glass of brandy, or to eat his meals, served up three times a-day, and consist ing of mutton swimming in fat. The mistress of the family, in like manner, remains a fixture in front of the table, on which stands her coffee pot constantly boiling. She and her daughters continue seated the whole day, with their hands folded in the most listless apathy. They have no meetings for diversion, fairs, balls, or musical parties. The history of one day forms that of their whole lives. That such-a-one is going to town, to church, or to be married, or that the Bosjesmans have stolen some cattle, form the only incidents by which life is diversified. Though each occupies a farm several miles square, at the rate of a farthing an acre, no two neighbours can agree about the limits of their respective pos sessions. This dissension is much promoted by BARROW. 333 the system of measuring the fields, according to the length of time spent in walking across them. There is indeed an officer, whose express function it is to pace the territory ; but it is often alleged, that the extent of his strides is modified by his good or evil inclination to the tenant of the ground. Reading and writing are very imper fectly taught ; even those who employ a school master, cannot carry the division of labour so far as to allot that for his sole function ; he must make himself serviceable in other capacities. Our traveller saw one, who was driving a plough, which a Hottentot was guiding. Hospitality, however, is a virtue which they eminently possess. With the exception of his next neighbour, with whom he is probably at variance, no farmer ever passes the house of another. He enters without ceremony, salutes the family, and seats himself, as if the house were his own. The party now entered the Karroo, or great desert, through which they travelled eastward for nine days without meeting a human habitation* They only met a grazier from the Sneuwberg, driving a large herd of sheep and cattle for the Cape market. The sour and acrid plants on which these cattle are obhged to feed in their passage through this desert, appear to Mr Barrow the chief cause of the bad quality of animal food at the Cape. Their course lay between the two 334 SOUTHERN AFRICA. great ranges of the Zwarte Berg and Nieuweldt, both of which were then covered with snow. The latter range, so far as could be judged, ap peared not less than ten thousand feet in height. On the Sion river, they found, in an opening of the Zwarte Berg a farm-house, with a few habi tations, which formed a species of oasis. Here having stopped to refresh themselves, they again launched into the desert, and, in seven days more, arrived at the village of Graaf Reynet, which borders immediately on Kaffreland. Graaf Reynet is 500 miles from the Cape. It is an assemblage of mud huts, and exhibits an ap pearance more miserable than the poorest village in England. The walls and floors are in a great measure undermined by the termites. There is a jail, but so little tenable, that an English desert er being confined in it, went out the first night through the thatch. Although the country is fer tile, the indolence of the inhabitants is such, that the most common necessaries can scarcely be pro cured. There is neither milk, butter, nor cheese ; neither butcher, chandler, grocer, nor baker. The whole district, with the neighbouring one of Bruntjeshoogte, breathed then nothing but war against the Kaffres. This last people seemed, in deed, to have passed their limits ; but the real motive, it was supposed, of this eager desire to repel the encroachment, was the hope of plun- BARROW. 335 dering a portion of the herds belonging to them. Accordingly, all the hostile preparations were or dered to be discontinued, and the party deter mined to proceed into the Kaffre country, to ac commodate matters, if possible, in an amicable manner. Before proceeding on this embassy, they made a short excursion to Zwartkops or Algoa Bay. The most remarkable object on their route was a salt lake, the largest in Southern Africa, where such lakes are very common, and are called salt-pans. The water was salt as brine, and the bottom co vered with a sheet of that mineral resembling ice in appearance, and hard as rock. The dry winds produce a fine powdery salt, like flakes of snow, which is much valued. Lions are very numerous. Mr Barrow controverts strongly the common idea of the courage and heroism of this boasted lord of the forests. He describes him as cowardly and treacherous, never attacking unless in am buscade. Zwartkops Bay affords good anchor age, but no shelter. Fish, particularly black whales, are very abundant. The country is fer tile, and contains fine forests ; but the want of a market renders the farmers miserably poor. On returning to Graaf Reynet, Mr Barrow had an opportunity of observing the small remnant of the native Hottentots. Twenty years ago, their kraals were said to have been numerous ; now 336 SOUTHERN AFRICA. they were nearly all either extinct or reduced to slavery. Only one of their old captains, called Haasbeck, survived. As slaves, they are. treated with extreme cruelty. Whipping with heavy leather thongs forms the lightest part of their punishment. Firing small shot into their legs is not unfrequently practised ; and instant death is sometimes the Consequence ofthe master's bruta lity. The lashes are inflicted, not by number, but by time ; they are continued till the master has smoked a certain number of pipes. This sys tem of " flogging by pipes" has been so much approved of, as to be introduced into several others ofthe Dutch settlements. The Hottentot is described by Mr Barrow as mild, quiet* timid, perfectly harmless, honest, and faithful. He is also kind and affectionate, and ready to share his last morsel with his companions. Indolence is his disease, which nothing but the most extreme terror can overcome. The calls of hunger are insufficient; which is the more re*- markable, as they are the greatest gluttons on the face of the earth. Ten of them ate a middling sized ox in three days. " The word with them " is to eat and sleep." The grease, which forms a thick black coating over their skins, however little ornamental, is conceived to be a salutary precaution against the influence of the sun's rays in so parched a climate. In the females, the ex- BARROW. 337 change of dried skins for beads, metal buttons, and other such ornaments, is considered as by no means a prudent alteration. The Hottentots, of both sexes, when young, are by no means defi cient in personal appearance ; but as they grow old, the two sexes, females especially, lose their shape, and become immoderately fat. The num ber of Hottentots in the district of Graaf Reynet is estimated at 10,000. The mission now set out for Kaffreland. A party of armed colonists offered to accompany them, solely, it was suspected, with a view to amusement, and secretly perhaps to plunder ; but the party courageously resolved to trust to the good character of the Kaffres, and shew no symp toms of fear. They soon arrived at a party of about three hundred. The men appeared the fin est figures they had ever seen, tall, robust, and muscular, with a firm carriage and an open manly countenance. The women were of low stature, strong limbed, and by no means handsome ; but their extreme gaiety and good humour, without any mixture of immodesty, prepossessed our tra vellers much in their favour. The habitations were merely twigs bent into the form of a parabola, covered with grass and branches of trees, and were evidently built only for temporary use. The mis sion having complained of the inroads made into the colony, the chiefs stated, that these were vol. 11. y 338 SOUTHERN AFRICA. prompted solely by the example set first, and on a greater scale, by the colonists. This, it seems, was an undeniable fact, so that the British could only stipulate for the good conduct of their sub jects in future, provided the Kaffres observed a similar procedure. Nothing, however, could be concluded without the king Geika, with whom these chiefs happened to be somewhat at variance. To Geika, accordingly, the mission set out, and arrived in a few days. They found him absent at a neighbouring village, on an alarm that the wolves were threatening his cattle ; but he soon appeared, riding on an ox at full gallop. He shewed pleasure at seeing them, and proceeded without ceremony to business, causing them to sit in a circle for the convenience of conversation,. He observed, that no encroachments had been committed by any of his immediate subjects, but by those of chiefs who owned indeed his supre macy, but had given him much cause of complaint. He readily agreed to all the conditions proposed, which, besides the maintenance of peace between the districts, included the affording relief to such vessels as should be shipwrecked on their coasts. In fact it appeared, that, on such occasions, the shipwrecked mariners had been treated in the very best manner in every respect, except that, metal buttons being an irresistible temptation, BARROW. 339 those ornaments had been severed from their coats. The Kaffres are entirely black, but bear no trace of the negro features. In the form of their skull and face they differ little from the most perfect Europeans. Mr Barrow saw few traces of agri cultural industry. This was explained by the king to arise from the constant state of warfare in which the nation had for some years been en gaged. Pasturage, however, is their chief and favourite occupation. The game being now nearly exhausted, there is no longer room for hunting, which otherwise might often be preferred. Their cattle are under the most perfect command ; a slight whistle, differently modified, causes a large herd either to go out to graze, or to come to be milked. They subsist chiefly on the milk ; it is only on great occasions of festival that a cow is killed. It is remarkable, however, although they live on a coast swarming with fish, that they make no use of that food, and do not possess a boat or canoe of any description. They are ingenious in several arts. Though they cannot smelt iron, yet, with one stone serving for a hammer, and the other for an anvil, they fashion it into almost any required shape. They prepare calfskins also very skilfully for dress, their bodkin being of polished iron, and their thread the muscular fibres of wild animals. Marriage is invariably conducted by 340 SOUTHERN AFRICA. sale, an ox or two cows being the common price of a wife. Polygamy is permitted, but, from the difficulty of purchase, is confined to the chiefs, ¦who seek helpmates in preference from among the Tambookies, a neighbouring tribe. Conjugal infidelity is rare. On returning from the Kaffre country, it was resolved to undertake an expedition over the Sneuwberg, or Mountains of Snow, to the north, with the view of observing this almost untrodden region, and the Bosjesmans, its savage inhabitants. The travellers, in their ascent, soon came to a ca vern which had been inhabited by these people. Mr Barrow was much surprised to find here draw ings of animals executed with an accuracy, as well as force and spirit, which would scarcely have disgraced an European artist. The materials were charcoal, pipe-clay, and the different ochres. Soon after, at the house of the Commandant of Sneuwberg, he saw a Bosjesman prisoner, who described his countrymen as a truly miserable race, suffering indescribably from cold and want of food, knowing every nation around to be ene mies continually planning their destruction, and never hearing a bird scream, without apprehend ing danger. The Sneuwberg presents an aspect of nature very different from the other tracts bordering on the Cape. This region is entirely destitute of BARROW. 341 trees, but produces in abundance grass and corn, though this last is liable to that great scourge of Africa, the locust. The sheep are the best which the colony produces. The situation of the in habitants is peculiarly hard, from being perpe tually exposed to the attack of the savage Bos jesmans. The farmer can neither plough, sow, nor reap, unless armed. He dare not even go out to gather a few vegetables, without a gun in his hand. This perpetual danger gives them more hardy and active habits than the other co lonists. The women even possess more anima tion ; some even have taken up a musquet, and attacked the assailants. The party, proceeding with an advanced guard for the purpose of observation, succeeded at length in surprising a kraal of Bosjesmans. Contrary to express orders, two of the guides fired; upon which the whole of the kraal set up frightful screams, and ran to the top of the neighbouring rocks. Finding themselves not pursued, and presents offered, the children first came down, then the women, lastly, three or four men ; but no more could he induced to approach. They are perhaps the ugliest race in nature ; though, if the letter S be considered as the line of beauty, it might be presented by a section from the breast to the knee. The protuberance behind consisted of fat, which, in walking, had a quiver- 342 SOUTHERN AFRICA. ing and tremulous motion, like masses of jelly. The Bosjesmans are gayer, more active, and more ingenious, than the Hottentots of the colony. In the enmity between them and the colonists, augmented by a long series of mutual ill offices, Mr Barrow imputes the chief blame to the latter. After returning to the Cape, Mr Barrow under took by himself a journey along the western coast, into the country of the Namaquas. The soil on this part of the coast is almost pure sand, but pos sessed of an adhesive quality, which renders it surprisingly fertile. Immense crops of wheat and barley, besides all sorts of vegetables, are produc ed with Httle culture. Sometimes ploughing is unnecessary from the loose character of the soil. The mountains are composed of sandstone, and often tower to an immense height, in columns, pyramids, and other forms, which give them the appearance of works of art. The whole of this coast, to a vast^ extent northwards, is composed entirely of sand and sandstone. The Namaquas do not materially differ in ap pearance from the other Hottentots, though their language is entirely distinct. Beyond them, on the other side of the Orange river, are the Da- maras, who inhabit a very poor country, and sub sist entirely by manufacturing and selling to their neighbours the copper with which their moun tains abound. BARROW — THE BOSHUANAS. 343 Mr Barrow undertook another excursion into the country ofthe Kaffres ; but as it led him over nearly the same ground, our present limits will preclude our following him. Mr Barrow, in his second journey to the coun- try of the Kaffres, obtained some intelligence re specting the nation of the Boshuanas. No steps, however, were taken to follow up this informa tion, till an accidental combination of circumstan ces brought that people fully into notice. In 1801, as the colony laboured under a scarcity of cattle, Messrs Trutter and Sommerville, ac companied by a draughtsman, secretary, several Dutch boors, and a body of Hottentots, were sent to find, if possible, a supply in some of the remote parts of the settlement. After passing the Great Karroo, they came to the country of the Bosjesmans, a few of whom they saw, exhi biting those symptoms of extreme poverty which all travellers have remarked. Beyond them they came to the banks of the Orange river, which they found to be inhabited by a tribe of Hotten tots, called Kora, or Korana, much superior to the Bosjesmans in circumstances and appearance. Though entirely unacquainted with agriculture, their flocks were tolerably numerous, and they were more cleanly, active, and intelligent, than the more southern tribes. Here they met a Bo- 344 SOUTHERN AFRICA. shuana, and received from him such an account of his country and nation as tempted them to ^proceed. Under his guidance they reached the frontier, and sent forward one of their guides to Leetakoo, the capital. He soon returned with four deputies from the king, who brought full assurance of a welcome reception. Next day four more arrived, one of whom was the brother of the king. They immediately, therefore, began their journey through a fertile and finely watered country, and in a few days arrived at Leetakoo. They were surprised to find it a large town, con taining from two to three thousand houses, and from ten to fifteen thousand inhabitants. They were received in a most friendly manner by the king, a venerable old man, who immediately in vited them to his house, and introduced them to his two wives. A very great measure of curio sity, as might be expected, was excited by their appearance, more particularly among the female inhabitants. The bag in which their hair was tied up caused peculiar wonder, and was suppos ed to be the tail of an animal fastened to the. head. The Boshuanas display considerable ingenuity in the construction of their houses. Each is built within an enclosure, containing apartments for the different branches of the family. The ground js raised so that the water may escape out at the THE BOSHUANAS. 345 door ; and an open space in front being employed for cooking, the interior is kept free from the in convenience of smoke. Coolness is maintained by a species of large mimosa, with which every house is overshadowed, and the branches of which are preserved with religious care. The people are not entirely black, like the eastern Kaffres ; some are of a bronze colour, and others of a brown, approaching to that of the Hottentots. They have not the fine athletic figure of the Kaffres, but have made greater progress in civili zation and the arts. Though pasturage be their chief occupation, they also cultivate the ground, and raise different species of seeds, of which the principal is the Holcus surgum, commonly boiled with milk. This labour, however, as in all rude states, is entirely devolved upon the female sex. They have an eager passion for tobacco. They eat without distinction the flesh of all the wild animals whom they kill in hunting, even that of wolves, leopards, and hyenas. The party offered knives in barter, which were rejected with con tempt, as they had knives of their own made to cut with two edges, and of much superior quality. Cattle, knives, and beads, were their standing commodities, and circulated as money. The government of the Boshuanas is patriar chal. The old men form a council, without whose advice the king undertakes nothing of im- 346 SOUTHERN AFRICA. portance. They decide, also, the differences which arise among the members of the commu nity ; though, from the gentle and peaceable dis position here prevalent, quarrels are few and of little importance. The mission had determined to proceed north- wards, in order to visit the Barroloos, a tribe of whom they had learnt some particulars. The king of Leetakoo, however, drew such an unfa vourable and alarming picture of that nation, that they were deterred from advancing. But, on their return homewards from Leetakoo, they met a Hottentot who had been in the country of the Barroloos, and assured them that they were a milder, more civilized, and courteous people, than the Boshuanas ; that their cities were larger, their houses better built, and their fields more highly cultivated, and that their capital was only ten days' journey distant from Leetakoo. The king of the Boshuanas appeared, therefore, to have been swayed by the jealousy usual among neighbouring states ; though, from subsequent accounts, it appears doubtful if his report was so wholly unfounded as was at one time supposed. Soon after the report of Messrs Trutter and Sommerville was received at the Cape, the go vernment of the colony felt a laudable desire to follow out this interesting train of discovery. COWAN AND DONOVAN. 347" Lord Caledon, therefore, fitted out an expedition of twenty persons, whom he sent under the com mand of Dr Cowan and Lieut. Donovan, with instructions to cross the African continent as far as the Portuguese settlements of Mosambique or Sofala. They, accordingly, penetrated beyond Leetakoo ; and a letter, dated the 21st of De cember 1808, was received from Dr Cowan,* who was then at the residence of Makkrakka, a chief who had separated from the king of Lee takoo. They were in about 24° S. lat. which would make them nearly eleven days' journey beyond that city. The country was described as more rich and beautiful than any they had yet seen in Southern Africa ; it was watered by the river Meloppo, which rose out of a large lake, and flowed in a north-west direction. Nothing could exceed the kindness which they experienc ed from Makkrakka, who even sent his brother to introduce them to the Wanketchies, the tribe whom they were next to visit. Unfavourable rumours, however, arising, Lord Caledon sent a vessel to Sofala to make every possible inquiry. The intelligence there received was, that the travellers having arrived in the dominions of the king of Zaire, between Inhambane and Sofala, that prince made a demand of one of the boat- * Quart. Rev. July 1815. 348 SOUTHERN AFRICA. shaped waggons in which they conveyed their baggage ; — that this being refused, he set upon them in the night, and cut the whole party to pieces, except two, who escaped. The governor of Mosambique having sent some trusty negroes up the country, received nearly the same infor mation. Mr Campbell, whose travels we shall presently notice, received at Leetakoo information some what differing from the above. The catastrophe, he was told, happened in the country of Wanket- zens, the same doubtless which Cowan calls the Wanketchies. They were at first well received ; but that treacherous people were only watching the opportunity of attack. The two chiefs im prudently went to bathe, leaving one party at the waggons, and another to guard the cattle. The natives successively attacking these three parties, cut them all off except one person, who also was afterwards taken, and put to death. ' Mr Camp bell saw the bugle which Mr Donovan, who be longed to the hght infantry, wore in his cap ; and some other fragments of dress and ornament. The difference of place and circumstance may have arisen from the number of hands through which the reports passed ; and no doubt can -unhappily remain of the deplorable issue which attended this expedition, LICHTENSTEtN. 349 In the years 1803-6, Dr Henry Lichtenstein visited the different countries of Southern Africa. The greater part of his journey coincides with that performed not long before by Mr Barrow ; in con sideration of which, and of our limits, we shall confine ourselves to that part of his narrative which relates to the residence among the Boshu anas. That people is so interesting, and yet so imperfectly known, as to render it desirable, in their case, to collect all possible information. In entering the country of the Boshuanas, the first persons whom they met were some shepherds lying under the shade of a lofty Giraffe tree. They immediately went to meet the travellers, and addressed them with Morra, borrowed from good-morrow, which they had learned from the missionaries. At sight of Kok, a native who ac companied the party, they testified their joy by loud laughter and clapping of hands. M< Lich tenstein, who, we know not why, had conceived the most dreadful apprehensions respecting the character of the people, was much reassured by this interview, and still more when they met ano ther party, whose tender inquiries after some of their countrymen that had accompanied Kok, and pathetic lamentations over two who had died, gave the most favourable impression of their gentle and humane dispositions. Our travellers, therefore, proceeded without apprehension, and 350 SOUTHERN AFRICA. soon came to a village, where they were received with the same frankness and cordiality. The natives, and particularly the females, shewed here peculiar readiness in helping themselves to to bacco, and to the provisions which the travelling party spread out for dinner. Soon after their departure from this village, they crossed the river Kuruhman, and by a winding path through a wood of fine trees, arrived at Leetakoo. They were conducted to a spot shaded by three Giraffe trees, of which the middle one was particularly fine, and said to be the favourite tree of the king. An immense crowd soon assembled, and blocked up the passage of the waggons. Kok expressed a wish to see the king, who quickly appeared ; an old man about sixty, of a serious aspect, with a mantle over his shoulders, and a cap on his head. He approached slowly, followed by a number of men of his own age, who formed a semicircle be hind him. He welcomed them cordially, and pro mised soon to pay them a visit at their own resi dence. After some conversation, a pipe of to bacco was presented to his majesty ; who, having lighted it, immediately began to inhale the smoke by large draughts after the African manner. He then handed it over his shoulder to the prime minister, , who, having imitated his master's ex ample, transferred it to another, and it thus pass ed from hand to hand, till it reached the lowest LICHTENSTEIN. 351 of the train. As evening approached, the mo narch took his leave. From this time, visits were frequent ; and on one occasion, the king brought his two wives to see the strangers. One of them was called Ma- kaitschoah, about twenty-two years old, and of extreme beauty. This quality had led the king to raise her from the lowest rank, and make her his principal wife. The other was Marani, only fifteen, not nearly so handsome, but an agreeable little girl. Their rank was indicated by a profuse display of ornamental dress. Their mantles were trimmed with the most valuable furs, and on their left shoulder was fastened a bundle of cats' tails, which hung down before and behind. A variety of necklaces, composed of plates of copper, bone, and coral, were worn very wide, and hanging down upon the breast. Makaitschoah had fas tened on her arm no less than seventy-two copper rings, which she seemed to view as affording the fullest indication of her rank, and took peculiar delight in having them examined and counted. Tea, which was first offered, appeared very little acceptable ; wine was greatly preferred, and bran dy proved still more acceptable. After some conversation about their children and families, they began to inquire particularly into the condi tion of their sex in Europe. On being told of the regulations with respect to marriage, Makait- 25 35% SOUTHERN AFRfCA. schoah observed, that such laws might be there very proper, but would never suit a country hke theirs, in which so large a proportion of the men were cut off in time of war. The wine and con versation caused the ladies to prolong their visit somewhat beyond what was expected or wished ; and it was dark before they took their departure. Dr Lichtenstein's residence was interrupted by an unwelcome request from the king. That prince was then about to engage in war against his neighbour Makkrakka, to aid him in which, he asked the travellers to follow with their fire arms. Dr Lichtenstein excused himself from complying ; but a serious consultation then arose among the party as to the course they were to follow. It was their wish to have prosecuted their journey in a south-westerly direction, avoiding the scene of hostilities ; but an examination into the state of their equipage left no doubt as to the expediency of returning homewards. The Boshuanas, whom Dr Lichtenstein calls in preference Beetjuanas, Sihtjuanas* or Muhtjuanas, consist of a number of tribes belonging to the same race, who extend from thirteen to eighteen days' journey north from the river Kuruhman. The Matchapins, the possessors of Leetakoo, are a comparatively small tribe, numbering not more than five thousand fighting men. Ten days' jour ney to the east are the Tharamacha, a much more LICHTENSTEIN. 353 numerous tribe, and who dwell in a greater num ber of villages. North from these are the Chojaa and Muchurutzi, the latter of whom are reckoned the bravest of all these tribes. Three days west from them are the Wanketsi, described by Lich tenstein as the weakest of the Boshuanas. Be tween them and the Maatjapings are two tribes of Muruhlongs (Barroloos of Trutter), one of whom, under Makkrakka, was formerly united with Lee takoo, but has since separated. It numbers ten thousand fighting men. The Matsaroqua, a friend ly people, lie to the west. The most numerous of all, situated in the remotest north-east, are the Macquini. They are remarkable for their skill in working metals ; and from them the arms, nee dles, rings, and other metallic instruments and ornaments used by the Kaffres and Maatjapings, are derived, after passing through four or five hands. They are reported to have in their coun try a large mountain, one side of which is com posed of copper, and the other of iron. From Mr Salt's report, afterwards to be noticed, there would appear to be a mistake in ranking this peo ple among the Boshuanas. The Boshuanas are proved, both by their lan guage and appearance, to be of the same original stock with the Kaffres. They are less vigorous and athletic, and do not, in the male sex, present such fine and handsome forms; but, in return, VOL. II. z 354 SOUTHERN AFRICA* the women possess a much larger share of beauty. They are also more industrious and civilized, con struct their houses with greater skill, and culti vate agriculture with much more diligence. The tending of cattle, however, is their main employ ment, and some of the rich possess from eight to ten separate herds. The men carry on this branch of industry, while the cares of agriculture devolve entirely upon the females. They share, however, with the Kaffres, the entire rejection of fish as an article of food, though several of their rivers pro duce it of excellent quality. The most barbarous custom is that of their war feasts, held on their return from any military expedition. Each war rior, who has slain an enemy in battle, produces a piece of his flesh, which he has cut off, roasts, and eats it. The priest then makes an incision along the whole length of his thigh, the scar of which remains ever after as a testimony of his prowess. The sovereign in these tribes is very absolute, and treated by the subjects with marks of profound reverence. He seldom, however, undertakes any affair of importance without calling a council of the chief men ; nor does he, unless invited, inter fere in the private quarrels between individuals, though they should fight with, or even kill one another. When he is called in to decide, his CAMPBELL. 355 sentence is absolute, and usually executed with his own hand. The next journey into the interior of this part of Africa was undertaken by Dr Campbell, at the request ofthe Missionary Society. Whether there was much prospect of success to this benevolent object on the theatre of Southern Africa, it is needless here to inquire. It may only be observ ed, that geographical knowledge, though consi dered by this traveller as a very secondary object, received some accessions from the journey which he performed. Our traveller proceeded through the Karroo wilderness and across the Sneuwberg, by the same route that had been taken by Messrs Trutter and Sommerville. After proceeding through the Bos- jesman, which he calls the Bushman's country, and then through that of the Coranas, he arrived at Leetakoo. The king happened to be absent, and the party were surprised, in passing through the place, by an uncommon stillness, and by no inhabitants appearing. On arriving, however, at the great square before the king's house, they found two or three hundred men armed, and ar ranged in regular order ; and the place was soon filled with men, women, and children, to the number of about a thousand. At first, however, evident marks of shyness and suspicion appeared, 356 SOUTHERN AFRICA. which were found to arise from the dread that they were coming to take vengeance for the death of Dr Cowan and his party. When they were found to have no such object in view, the natives immediately thronged around them with the most eager wish, both to gratify their curiosity and to obtain presents. The party were thus obliged, by drawing their waggons round in a circle, to form a space within them, in which they might be sheltered from these solicitations. Tobacco and snuff were the objects in most eager demand. One of the king's wives having asked Mr Read for a supply, was answered, that he did not take snuff; on which she observed, that he would on that account have the more to spare. Soon after, Mateebe, the present sovereign, and son to the king who had received the former party, arrived from a hunting expedition. He marched through the town with numerous attend ants, bearing spears and poles dressed with black ostrich feathers. He passed through the square without taking any notice of the strangers ; but after having spent about ten minutes in conver sation with his ministers, he called them in. His first reception was not extremely courteous, and he rather declined the proposition of a permanent mission being established at Leetakoo, urging that the people were so much occupied with their cattle, planting, and other branches of industry, CAMPBELL. .. 357 that they could have little time to receive in struction. Mr Campbell, however, urging that the Europeans, though Christians, were much more industrious than the Boshuanas, as might be judged even by the specimens which he brought along with him, the king at length agreed that missionaries might be sent, and that he would treat them well. It appears, that since the visit of Messrs Trut- ter and Sommerville, Leetakoo has been moved sixty miles from its former situation, in conse quence of a schism in the ruling powers. It ap pears now consequently smaller than before, con taining only fifteen hundred houses, and between seven and eight thousand inhabitants. Mr Campbell agrees with former reporters as to the gay, gentle, and peaceable demeanour of these people. The labours were not only per formed by the women, but the queen herself worked at their head. Reason was found to be lieve, that the tranquillity was internal only, and that the Boshuanas carried on war as fiercely as all other barbarians. The usual object of their expeditions is to plunder the cattle of their neigh bours. Mr Campbell having, in the course of re ligious instruction, asked one of them " for what " end man was made ?" the answer was, " for " plundering expeditions." Materee, one of the chiefs, had recently made a long excursion to the 358 SOUTHERN AFRICA. westward, over extensive deserts, till he came to a great water, probably the Atlantic Ocean, where they found a harmless people, many of whom he killed, and carried off their cattle. The stand ard of excellence is formed by the number of men whom each individual has killed ; and in this scale, one white man is considered equivalent to two black. The two tribes immediately to the north of Leetakoo are the Morolongs (Barroloos of Trut- ter) and the Wanketzens ; concerning the precise situation and distance of whom, Mr Campbell seems to have received somewhat contradictory information. Moosso, the capital of the Moro- longs, is much larger than Leetakoo, and contains ten or twelve thousand inhabitants. Melita, the chief place of the Wanketzens, is somewhat smaller than Moosso. Farther to the north are the Macquanas, the most populous and civilized of all these tribes, and whose capital was describ ed as three times larger than Leetakoo. Mr Campbell's party, in their return south wards, took a somewhat more easterly direction than their predecessors. This enabled them to observe the junction of four great rivers, the Malalareen, the Yellow river, the Alexander, and the Cradock, which concur in forming the Great or Orange river, a stream which runs here near ly across the continent, and falls into the Atlantic. CAMPBELL— BURCHELL. 359 The party wishing to reach a mission in Nama- qua-land, went eastward across the continent, and along tlie banks of this river, a tract not before visited by any traveller. The whole extent of it is a complete desert of sand, into which the wheels of the carriages sunk so deep, that they could with the utmost difficulty be dragged along. The sand-stone rocks rose in perpendicular walls, often prolonged to an immense extent, so as to remind the travellers of the " wall of China." The western coast, for a great distance north from the Orange river, and south as far as the Kamiesberg, is of the same dreary character. At one place the heat rose as high as 101° ; the ink grew thick, the water warm, and the butter was converted into oil. When the Hottentots find the heat in crease to an alarming degree, they dig the earth or sand till they find it cold, and rub themselves over with it, so as to afford a temporary relief. Mr Campbell visited Pella, the principal mis sionary station in Namaqua-land, containing six hundred and thirty-six people, who are represent ed as harmless and honest. He then turned his steps towards the colony, where he arrived on the 31st October 1813, after an absence of nine months. About the same time with Mr Campbell, Mr Burchell traversed the country of the Boshuanas, 360 SOUTHERN AFRICA. chiefly with a view to observe its natural history. Only a short notice of his journey has appeared in the Journal ofthe Royal Institution. On cross ing the Orange river he found the aspect of na ture, and of its productions, entirely changed. In zoology, he observed the manis ; a new species of rhinoceros ; several of the dog genus and of the feline tribe ; a lynx ; many of the genus viverra ; several of the murine kind ; the camelopardalis ; five of the horse genus, &c. New birds, lacertae, and serpents, were also found in great variety. Botany presented entirely a new aspect. The surface was commonly flat, and presented often plains of apparently boundless extent. In one place there was an immense forest of acacias, of which the inhabitants know not the termination. He penetrated one degree beyond Leetakoo to the frontier of a country which he calls Karrikarri ; but there his guides and attendants refused to pro ceed any farther. CHAPTER VI. THE EASTERN COAST. Voyage of Vasco de Gama. — Description and conquest of Zan- guebar. — Settlement of Mosambique and Sofala. — Expeditions to the Gold Mines. — Hamilton. — Salt. There is no part of the African continent which has been less explored, or which, in fact, has ex cited less interest in Europe, than the eastern coast. This may be, in a great measure, imputed to the jealous care with which the Portuguese guarded its approach, and withheld all informa tion respecting it. The only details of its early discovery are found in the narratives which the Portuguese historians have given of the exploits of their countrymen in India. The first and most interesting voyage is that of Vasco de Gama, who was obliged to sail along the greater part of this coast before he could procure a guide across the ocean. In detailing his progress, we shall take De Barros* as our best and most authentic guide. On the 20th of November 1498, Gama passed the celebrated boundary ofthe Cape of Tempests, * Da Asia, Lib. IV. 4-, 5, 6. VIII. 4, 5. 7, 8. 362 THE EASTERN COAST. with much less danger and difficulty than the crew had apprehended. Finding the coast now bend inwards, he kept carefully out to sea, lest he should be entangled in the depth of some large bay ; and by this means he missed Sofala, the great emporium of those seas. He touched. however, at the mouth of a large river, where the sailors, who were tired of seeing nothing but ne gro visages as black as jet, recognized with plea sure a mixed colour, and found some individuals who were understood by their Arabic interpreter. The intercourse was amicable ; and they were assured, that, on proceeding to the eastward, they would find civilized nations who navigated in large vessels, and could easily furnish the pilots required. Having arrived accordingly at Mo sambique, they cast anchor at some islands near the mouth of the harbour. Three or four boats soon came out, having on board white men dress ed in caps and cotton robes, and who were sing ing and playing on musical instruments. These boats having come up, a leading man on board inquired in Arabic who they were, and what they wanted. On being informed that they were sub jects of the king of Portugal, a cloud came over his countenance, which was supposed to arise from learning that they were Christians. They afterwards learned that he was a native of Fez, and, consequently, deeply imbued with the en- VASCO DE GAMA. 363 mity of his countrymen to the Portuguese name. However, he studiously dissembled, — received graciously their presents, — undertook to report their wishes to his sovereign, who was called the Xeque, — and assured them that there could be no difficulty in procuring pilots to convey them to India. At his return he shewed equal outward courtesy. The Portuguese were much surprised when three of his attendants, on seeing the image of the angel Gabriel on the stern of the admiral's ship, fell down and worshipped it. On inquiry, they found that these were natives of Abyssinia, or ofthe dominions of Prester John, who, though now converted to the Moorish faith, felt an instinctive reverence at the view of the objects of their early adoration. The deep veneration which every true Portuguese felt for the name of Prester John made the intelligence be received with extraordi nary emotion, and they eagerly sought to con verse with these persons. This was observed with visible jealousy by the Moors, who took im mediate care to withdraw the Abyssinians, and to prevent their returning. Grounds of suspicion continued to increase, till at length they broke out into open hostility. Some boats, which the Portuguese had sent on shore, were attacked by twenty of the enemy's vessels, which they beat off, not without considerable loss. Upon this unequivocal proof of the hostile disposition of the 364 THE EASTERN COAST. natives, De Gama judged it most advisable to set sail. The force of currents, however, obliged him to anchor at some islands near the shore. Being again obliged to land for water, the crew were met by a body of two thousand men, who poured in upon them clouds of arrows. The first discharge of artillery, however, put these assail ants to flight, and caused such terror, that the Xeque immediately sent to make an apology for what had passed, and to offer a pilot, who, he assured them, was every way qualified to be their guide to India. This pilot was accordingly re ceived on board, and the expedition set sail ; but they soon found, says the writer, " they had with " them a mortal enemy rather than a pilot." It was not long till he embarrassed them among some islands, from which they could with diffi culty extricate themselves. There was no pro spect of reaching India under such guidance ; and Gama therefore readily listened to his pro posal of touching at Quiloa, which, he was assur ed, contained a great number of Abyssinians and natives of India, and where there could be no difficulty of procuring a proper pilot. The cur rents carried them beyond Quiloa ; and it was then determined to touch at Mombaca, which was asserted to contain an equal proportion of the subjects of Prester John. In a few days they ar rived at Mombaca, the view of which affected the VASCO DE GAMA. 365 armament with singular pleasure. The houses were built of stone, with terraces and windows in the Spanish style, so that it appeared to them as if they were entering a port of Spain. Their sa tisfaction was greatly augmented, when a boat came off with several leading men on board, who welcomed them, and assured them of being sup plied with every thing they wanted. It was only added, that, according to the law of the place, it was necessary that the vessels should first come into the harbour. The admiral was by no means gratified with this condition ; but in a day or two, the necessity of his situation, and the earnest en treaties of his men, induced him to consent. The ships therefore began to move, to the equal joy both of Portuguese and Moors, one imagining that they were at the end of all their troubles, and the other that their prey was finally secured. In this crisis the expedition was saved by an in terposition, which the historian hesitates not to consider as miraculous. The admiral's vessel being in danger of running into shallow water, a loud cry was raised for an anchor ; and as the casting one, at this era of nautical science, was a complicated operation, the Portuguese ran from all quarters to the spot. The Moors, imagining that these symptoms indicated the discovery of their treacherous design, hurried to their boats, and some even leaped into the sea, and gained 366 THE EASTERN COAST. them by swimming. This extraordinary panic opened the eyes of the Portuguese, whose move ments into the harbour were immediately stopped. They defeated an attempt made by the Moors during the night to cut their anchors, and next day set sail for the northward. Their next trial was at Melinda, where they were more success ful, the king being induced by liberal presents to receive them well, and to grant them a pilot, under whose guidance they reached safely the coast of Malabar. In giving a general description of the coast of Zanguebar, De Barros observes that the wThole ex tent from Cape Guardafui to Mosambique forms an immense bay, extending about fifteen hundred and sixty leagues ; not so deeply indented as it is described by Ptolemy, but rather resembling the rib of a quadruped. That from Mosambique to the Cape of Corrientes is a hundred and seventy leagues, and describes a curve which may be com pared to an elbow ; while the line of three hun dred and forty leagues, from thence to the Cape of Good Hope, is likened to the loin. The whole of this coast is low, marshy, covered with a thick underwood, like thorns, which scarcely allows a passage beneath. The air is still more corrupted, and the situation consequently more unhealthy than on the opposite shore of Guinea. The coast was entirely in possession of the Arabs, who had ALMEYDA. 367 settlements at Magadoxo, Melinda, Quiloa, Zan zibar, Mosambique, Sofala, and various other points. The capital of all these dominions, and the centre of commerce, was Quiloa, a large city situated on an island close to the main-land. It was built chiefly of stone and lime, with terraces, and gardens agreeably planted with trees, though the streets were very narrow. In 1505, a large fleet, under Don Francisco de Almeyda, arrived before this city. The com mander soon succeeded in procuring a quarrel with the king of Quiloa. He landed in the night, attacked the city at two points, and though the natives were enabled, by the narrowness of the streets, to make a vigorous resistance, at length carried the place, the king flying into the interior. He next proceeded to Mombaca, where the re sistance was still more obstinate. After a com bat of two days, he made himself master of the town ; but having sustained a severe loss, con soled himself by laying it in ashes ; " when," says the historian with true Catholic zeal, " was con- " sumed the greater part of that city of abomina- " tion." Almeyda then sailed to Melinda, which did not offer any resistance. The southern part of this coast, however, finally became the chief object of attention to the Portu guese. Besides affording stations of refreshment for the vessels bound to India, it presented that 55 368 THE EASTERN COAST. object of supreme attraction — gold. The stores of that metal, which came down the Zambese, and were exported from Sofala, soon excited their eager avidity. In 1505, permission was obtained from the king of Sofala to build a fort, which they were soon able to maintain by force. In 15Q8, they erected another at Mosambique, which soon became the capital of all their settlements upon this coast, and the point where the India ships stopped for refreshment. De Barros, however, regrets the choice of a situation so extremely un healthy, that fleets, which an unfavourable mon soon obliged to winter in it, were often left in spring without men sufficient for enabling them to proceed on their voyage. The ambition of the Portuguese now involved them in a long train of hostilities, both with the Arabs and with the na tive inhabitants. In the year 1769, the Arabs were entirely expelled from Mosambique and So fala, and, at the same time, from all their settle ments on the river Zambese. The Portuguese now began to attempt penetrating into the inte rior, in search of the mines containing the gold that was brought down to the coast. Don Sebas tian, immediately on his accession, sent out a for midable expedition under Francis Barreto, for the purpose of penetrating into the territories of Monomotapa and Manica. Barreto seems to have possessed all the vigour and enterprise requisite EXPEDITION TO MANICA. 369 for so arduous a service. The sovereign of Monomotapa, called the Quiteve, being exceed ingly dubious as to the object and issue of this expedition, resolved to oppose it with his whole force. He soon found himself unable to cope with the Portuguese in the open field ; but he began a concealed and harassing warfare, by sud den attacks and cutting off their supplies. Though the Portuguese suffered dreadfully, they still per severed, and, at length, through a thousand diffi culties reached Manica, where the principal gold mines were situated. These were found in no degree to correspond with the magnificent expec tations formed of them, or the labours and dangers through which they had been reached. They appear, by the description of Santos, to be simi larly situated with those of Bambouk, in alluvial earth, which is collected by digging deep pits, and from which the gold is separated by long agi tation in water. The Portuguese, in viewing the process, felt no inclination to dispute with the na tives the performance of so long and laborious an operation. Barreto judged it expedient to con clude a treaty with the Quiteve, by which the monarch granted a free passage to the Portuguese through his dominions, in return for which a tri bute of two hundred ells of linen cloth was stipu lated to be paid to him. Barreto, meantime, was not discouraged} he vol, ii. a a 370 THE EASTERN COAST. resolved to search in the more remote country of the Mongas for other gold mines, which he hoped might prove more productive. The Mongas op posed a still more formidable resistance. A great battle was fought, in which, though the sorceress on whom they placed their main reliance was early slain, they long maintained the field. At length they were defeated, and had recourse, like their neighbours, to irregular and protracted war fare. Barreto at length fought his way to the mines, but found their appearance equally unsa tisfactory as those of Manica. Reports, how ever, reached him, that the silver mines of Chi- cova would prove a much more productive source of wealth ; and of these he immediately set out in search. He appeared at one time on the eve of discovering them; an Indian having under taken, on the promise of a magnificent reward, to lead him to the spot.. This personage then contrived to collect a quantity of silver, which he secretly buried at a certain depth in the earth. Pretending fear of his countrymen, he led them, at dead of night, to the spot, where, by digging, they soon came to the silver there deposited. Barreto's joy was unbounded ; he appeared to himself to have reached the summit of wealth and fame, and immediately delivered to the Indian the promised reward. That personage, in the course of the night, found it convenient to disap- EXPEDITION to chicova. 371 pear, and was never again seen. The Portuguese at first apprehended that he had fallen a sacrifice to the vengeance of his countrymen, for having opened to them this splendid discovery ; but on continuing to work, without finding another par ticle of silver, they soon became sensible how the affair stood. Barreto's credulity, however, was not exhausted. The king of the country having undertaken to lead him to the much sought for mines, he set out with the bulk of his troops, leaving a detachment to defend the fort. The Portuguese being then conducted into a narrow pass, were suddenly attacked by the natives, who were posted on all the neighbouring heights. The situation was so disadvantageous, as to render skill and valour of no avail ; and very few of the party escaped.. The fort, having then no garrison ade quate to defend it, was attacked, carried, and all the troops put to the sword. This was not the only reverse which the Por tuguese sustained. They had a series of terrible wars to sustain, from an inroad of the Mumbos or Zimbas, a tribe described as resembling the Giagas ; as eating human flesh, destroying their new-born infants, and living in a continual state of wandering and plunder. Being conducted with equal valour and skill by their king Muzim- bas, they cut off repeated expeditions sent against them from Mosambique. At length Muzimbas 372 THE EASTERN COAST. was totally defeated in an attack against Mom baca. Upon the whole, the Portuguese appear to have been merely able to maintain, with diffi culty, a chain of forts along the Zambese, for the protection of their trade with the district in which the gold mines are situated. In 1720, Captain Hamilton sailed along the eastern coast of Africa. At that time Mombaca and Patta had been wrested from the Portuguese, and were in the power of the Arabs of Muskat. Mosambique was, as it has always been, the prin cipal Portuguese settlement. He agrees, how ever, with De Barros in describing it as unhealthy in an extraordinary degree. Criminals condemned to death at Goa were, as a punishment nearly equivalent, sent to this settlement, where five or six years were accounted a long life. He was told that the gold and ivory obtained in the in terior were purchased at a very easy rate. The natives, on receiving a certain quantity of toys and glass beads, dug a hole in the earth, into which they put these articles, then taking them out, they filled the same hole with gold dust, and gave it in exchange. Ivory was given for its bulk in a certain species of Indian cloth. The author, however, does not pledge himself for these terms of trade. The slaves brought from Mosambique were highly esteemed in India. Pe- HAMILTON — SALT. 373 culiar care was taken to convert them to the Christian faith, in the profession of which some of them became eminent, and were even raised to the character of priests. Mr Salt, who visited Mosambique in 1809, has favoured us with the only recent description of this part of Africa. This settlement retained few traces of the strength and importance which once distinguished it. The fort was indeed advanta geously situated, and defended by eighty pieces of cannon ; but these were in a state of total neglect, and covered with the rust of antiquity. Some of them were dated 1660, and one, calcu lated for throwing balls of 100 lbs. weight, ap peared to be of Turkish origin. The garrison consisted merely of a few sentries, some confined felons, and two or three old women. In short, the state of defence was such, that a trader of Mocha undertook, if he were furnished with a hundred good Arabian troops, to drive the Por tuguese at once out of this metropolis of Eastern Africa. In the interior of the government house, there still appeared traces of the ancient vice-regal mag nificence. Tea was set out in a service of pure gold, and the negro attendants were profusely loaded with ornaments of that metal. According to an ancient custom, the governor's house was 374 THE EASTERN COAST. open in the evening to all the principal inhabitants of the place, who waited upon him, and were en tertained with tea. The population is reckoned by Mr Salt at five hundred Portuguese, eight hun dred of Arabian extraction, and fifteen hundred negroes. The trade, now much reduced, consists in gold, ivory, and slaves, the number of which last annually exported does not exceed four thousand. Gold and ivory sell at high prices, the former at ,£.3.58. the ounce, the latter at <£.22 to ,£.25 the hundred weight. The profits of this trade must be very great, as the articles taken in ex change by the natives are exceedingly simple ; such as salt, shells, tobacco, coloured handker chiefs, and coarse cloths. Mr Salt was even as sured that, high in the interior, articles of the value of two dollars would purchase either a slave, or from sixty to eighty pounds of ivory. Mosambique is built upon a small island at the mouth of a_deep bay. Immediately to the north is the peninsula of Caboceiro, nine miles long and four broad, and connected with the continent by a neck of land about a mile in breadth. In it are situated the country-houses of the governor and principal inhabitants ; and most of the provisions consumed at Mosambique are raised here. It forms, in fact, the limit of Portuguese dominion, and is frequently itself exposed to attack from the native tribes. SALT. 375 - The gold and ivory exported from Mosambique is chiefly brought from the mountainous tract near the head of the Zambese, and the preserva tion of the settlements on that river has always been the main object of Portuguese policy. At its mouth, about three days' sail to the south of Mosambique, is the port of Quihmanci, where there is a depot for merchandize. About 247 miles above Quilimanci lies Sena, the principal settlement on the river. Twenty days' journey inland lies Manica, the great mart for gold, where an annual market is held, in which that commo dity, with ivory and ghee, is bartered for Surat cloths, beads, coarse silks, and iron. The coun try is mountainous and fertile ; but it is in the power of native chiefs, whom the Portuguese are obliged to conciliate by presents, as well as to pay a regular tribute to the Quiteve. About sixty leagues above Sena is Tete, a well regulated set tlement, where there is also a depot for merchan dize. Beyond Tete the Portuguese are permit ted to maintain a small factory at Zumbo, a place which can be reached only by a difficult and cir cuitous route, requiring nearly a month to accom plish. The jurisdiction ofthe Portuguese extends now from Cape Delgado on the north, to Cape Cor rientes on the south. Sofala is reduced to a mi serable village, but the country round is extreme- 376 THE EASTERN COAST. ly fertile, and supplies rice and fruits to the inha bitants of Mosambique. The principal native race, immediately behind Mosambique, is the Makooa, or Makooana, whose tribes extend from the neighbourhood of Melinda to the mouth of the Zambese. They are a strong athletic race of people ; their aspect deformed and ferocious. They ornament their skins by tattowing, an operation often executed, so rudely, that the marks rise to the eighth part of an inch above the surface. They file their teeth { to- a point, so as to give to the whole set the appear ance of a coarse saw. They wear their hair in various fantastic shapes ; sometimes shaving one side, sometimes both sides, with a crest extending across from the brow to the neck ; sometimes leaving only a tuft on the crown. Their enmity against the Portuguese is inveterate, and not ex cited without just cause. They fight chiefly with spears, darts, and poisoned arrows ; but they have procured also a considerable number of muskets. There seems little doubt that these are the nation reported by Campbell and Lichtenstein under the name of Macquanas ; though, in that case, they are erroneously stated to belong to the Boshuana race, as they are negroes. Their females, how ever, have, in some degree, the curved spine and portruding hinder parts of the Hottentot women, whom they appear to rival in ugliness. SALT — QUILOA. 377 Behind the Makooa, and upwards of forty days' journey in the interior, are situated the Monjou, from whom seems derived the appellation of the empire of Monomuji, which, in our old maps, fills all the interior of this part of Africa. The Mon jou are negroes of the ugliest description, of a deep shining black, with high cheek-bones, thick lips, and small knots of woolly hair on their heads. Their weapons are chiefly bows and arrows, which they manage with considerable skill. They have a mode of exciting flame by rubbing two pieces of hard wood against each other, similar to that described by Mr Bruce, as practised by a tribe of Nuba near Sennaar. They appeared milder than the Makooa, though this might arise from none of their nation being seen except traders. In 1812 Quiloa was visited by Captain Beaver.* This ancient capital of Eastern Africa retained no traces of its former splendour. It was reduced to a number of scattered huts, and the export of slaves had fallen from ten thousand to a few hun dreds, The Imaum of Muskat maintains here a fort mounting three guns, and defended by half a dozen soldiers, with which he keeps the king of Quiloa in awe, and levies a considerable tribute. By a similar display of force, he holds in subjec- * Quarterly Review, July 1815, 378 THE EASTERN COAST. tion the neighbouring islands of Pemba, Zanzibar, and Monfia. The coast of Africa, from Cape Guardafui to the Straits of Babelmandel, was found by Lord Valentia and Mr Salt to be inhabited by the tribes of the Somauli, who are an uncommonly active, industrious, and commercial race. Berbera is a large town situated upon this coast, where an ex tensive fair is annually held, and resorted to by caravans from a great distance in the interior. Lord Valentia saw some who came from the coun try in which the Bahr-el- Abiad takes its rise, and conceives that this would be tbe best channel for exploring the source of that great river. Gum arabic, myrrh, and frankincense, are the principal exports from this coast. BOOK III. GEOGRAPHICAL ILLUSTRATIONS, AND GENERAL VIEWS OF AFRICA. CHAPTER I. HISTORICAL VIEW OF GEOGRAPHICAL SYSTEMS FORMED RELATING TO AFRICA. Errors of early Geography. — System of Herodotus. — Eratos thenes and Strabo. — Ptolemy. — The Arabians. — Modern Geographers during the Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries. — Delisle and D'Anville. — Rennell. There are few sciences, of which it is more curious to trace the origin and early progress, than that of geography. There is none to which the attention of mankind must have been earlier attracted, none more constantly pursued, and none which includes a greater variety both of moral and physical elements. Few sciences, therefore, are so well calculated to illustrate the difficult and devious course by which the human mind proceeds, from its first state of glimmering 380 GEOGRAPHICAL SYSTEMS. uncertainty to the attainment of extensive and accurate knowledge. Africa having at all times presented the grand field for speculation and opi nion, is peculiarly calculated for illustrating these early steps ofthe science. In an inquiry, all the objects of which are ob vious to the senses, it might at first sight be ex pected, that man should be liable to imperfection only ; that, having explored to a certain extent the world around him, he should tranquilly await the results of further discovery. Such a course, however, is ill suited to the active impatience of the human mind. Besides the natural effects of exaggeration and poetical illusion, sources of error arise from operations of the mind that are strictly scientific. One deeply rooted principle is the love of completeness, which causes the mind to feel always a painful void when its survey over any subject is visibly broken and imperfect. This, which in itself is a noble principle, and highly instrumental in carrying forward the hu man mind in the career of science, is, in the earlier stages of its progress, pregnant- with per petual error. To relieve the uneasy feeling which it occasions* the geographer seeks,' with the most imperfect means, to fill up the whole of that space of which he conceives the habitable world to consist. Yet will it not be found, on examination, that these delineations were made; EARLY ERRORS. 381 wholly without some guiding principle. In ge neral, every geographical feature was extended in the direction which it followed, when it first merged into the unknown space. In some cases, indeed, a certain flexure is necessary, in order to complete the figure of a continent, an ocean* or other grand geographical feature. Such was the line by which, in the system of Ptolemy, the African continent was carried round till it met the farthest extremity of Asia. The estimate of distance was also a point on which the early geo graphers were naturally liable to much error. The most usual was that of exaggeration. As tronomical observations were yet rare, and very imperfect. The materials were derived almost entirely from travellers employed on mercantile or military objects. The difficulties and dangers of an unknown tract, the windings of the road, and the disposition to magnify their own achieve ments, combined in inducing such persons to form a high idea of the space which they had travers ed. Sometimes, on the other hand, rumour con* veys the knowledge of a grand remote feature, while the intermediate space is but imperfectly known. That space then appears less, and the distant object nearer, than it really is. The pil lars of Hercules, made known to the early Greeks by the exploits of that celebrated, adventurer, were placed by them very little beyond Sicily. 382 GEOGRAPHICAL SYSTEMS. Thus, in the system of Eratosthenes, a full third was cut off, both from the length and breadth of Asia, and the northern and eastern oceans sup posed to be proportionally at a smaller distance. The first geographical system which can de serve the name is that of Herodotus. In the nar rative of this father of history7, is found a pretty full description of all those regions of the globe which were then known ; and the accuracy of his reports, after having once appeared somewhat problematical, has risen in estimation with the more extended discoveries of modern times. To him, as to other ancients who sought to explore the interior of Africa, the Nile formed always the leading object and guide. The singularity of its phenomena, the mysterious grandeur of the re gions which it traversed, and the unknown foun tains whence its long course was derived, caused it always to be viewed with deeper interest than any other object presented by ancient geography. Herodotus shews himself to have known its course higher, probably, than it has been traced by any modern European. From Elephantine, at the southern extremity of Egypt, to Meroe, the capital of Ethiopia, was a journey of fifty- two days, and from thence an equal distance to the country of Automoles or Exiles ; making in all a hundred and four days' journey. The pre cise point is difficult to fix ; but the belief that HERODOTUS. 383 this great river came from the west, seems clearly to point it out as the true Nile, or Bahr-el- Abiad of the moderns. Proceeding westward from Egypt, Herodotus* knew with very tolerable pre cision all the nations who inhabited the coast of the Mediterranean, as far as the Straits. He knew also the line through the Libyan desert, by Amnion (Siwah) and Aegila (Augila) to Fezzan, which Major Rennell has clearly recognized in the country of the Garamantes. From thence a chain of positions seems to carry us to that lofty point of the Atlas, which separates the plains of Morocco from Tafilet. Africa, to a certain depth, was therefore pretty fully explored. His char acter of its three successive belts ; the first fertile and cultivated ; the second rude and inhabited by wild beasts ; and the third an expanse of sandy desert, is perfectly correct and appropriate. The regions deeper in the interior were known to him only by the very short narrative of the ex cursion of the Nasamones, which we have already reported, t There seems considerable presump tion, that the river flowing to the eastward, to which these travellers were carried, must have been the Niger. It has been suggested, indeed, that it might rather have been one of those rivers which descend from the Atlas, and water the * Lib. IV. f Vol. I. p. 301. 55 384 GEOGRAPHICAL SYSTEMS. plains of Tafilet or Sigilmessa. But if, as the localities render probable, the travellers directed their course through Fezzan, they would, on emerging into the desert, be considerably to the south of those rivers ; and to direct their course northwards, would have been in direct contra diction to their original object. Their travelling westward puts Bornou out of the question ; so that, though the distance be somewhat great, I do not well see to what other river their course could carry them, except the Niger. These data being established, Herodotus, as usual, proceeded to complete his system by arbi trary suppositions. The Nile coming from the west, it appeared very natural to conceive, that the river of the Nasamones might fall into, and form the main branch of that greatest of the streams of Africa. The opinion, in fact, has not been controverted by actual observation j though Major Rennell's learned arguments seem to have left it destitute of all shadow of proba bility. * It appears, however, by the testimony of recent travellers,t that the same belief, founded on very nearly the same data, is still prevalent in Northern Africa. Herodotus evidently considered Africa as sur- * Geographical System of Herodotus. •j- Jackson, Horneman. ERATOSTHENES. 385 rounded on all sides by the sea, unless at the isth mus of Suez or the Nile. When, however, he states Arabia* as the country in the world which extends farthest to the south, he manifestly be trays his very inadequate conceptions, as to the extent, in that direction, of the African conti nent. The next system generally adopted in the an cient world was that of Eratosthenes, librarian at Alexandria, during the time of Ptolemy Philadel phus. His system is explained to us by Strabo, who adopted it under some modifications ; it was also fundamentally that of Mela, Pliny, and gene rally of the Latin classic writers. Eratosthenes, like his predecessor, conceived the southern coast of Africa to be washed by the ocean, and also, like him, supposed it to ter minate north of the equator. It was supposed, that, after passing the Straits, it very soon began to take a direction to the E.S. E. which it followed till it joined the eastern coast near the foot Of the Arabian Gulf. It was compared to a trapezium, or irregular four-sided figure, of which the Medii terranean coast formed one side, the Nile another, the southern coast the longest side, and the west ern coast the shortest.! So little were geograph- * Lib. iv. f Strabo, Lib. xvii. princ. VOL. II. B b 386. GEOGRAPHICAL SYSTEMS. ers of this school aware of its extent, that Pliny pronounces it to be the least of the three conti nents, and inferior to Europe.* Another hypothesis, eminently characteristic of this school, was probably suggested by African phenomena. This was the existence of an unin habitable torrid zone. To those who saw this continent, even north of the tropic, spread into an expanse of burning sand, which reflected a heat scarcely compatible with animal life, it naturally appeared that an exposure to the sun's still more powerful influence must be inevitably fatal. The borders of the desert would probably have been fixed as the point beyond which life could not pass. But the long course of the Nile, and the celebrated kingdom of Ethiopia, proved the ne cessity of looking still higher. Upon the Nile, tlierefore, they measured the habitable world of Africa, and fixed its limits at the highest known point to which that river had been ascended.. This is assigned about three thousand stadia (three or four hundred miles) beyond Meroe,* which does not give the fifty-two days' sail of Herodotus ; so that it would appear as if the Nile had been traced to a higher point in his time, than in that of Era tosthenes. The latter, however, shews himself intimately acquainted with the details of its early * Lib. vi. 33. f Lib. ii. p. 65. (ed. Casaubon). . ERATOSTHENES — PTOLEMY. 387 course ; its reception, on the eastern side, of two great rivers arising from lakes, and called the Astaboras and the Astapus, of which the latter flows from lakes in the south, is swelled to a great height by the summer rains, and forms then almost the main body of the Nile. He describes also the bend which it makes in its passage through Nubia. The source of this great stream being conceived to lie in these regions rendered inaccessible by extreme heat, was considered as beyond the reach of discovery. The idea, how ever, of its coming from the west still prevailed ; and Strabo mentions a report of its flowing from the remote boundary of Mauritania. This idea is followed at greater length by Mela and Pliny, whose speculations on the subject will find a place in the following chapter. Equal in fame with the geographical school of Eratosthenes, was that of Ptolemy, who did not, however, flourish till the second century of the Christian era. This school displays a great acces sion of actual knowledge with regard to all the remote quarters of the world ; yet this, in many instances, was by no means accompanied with sounder views as to those parts which lay still beyond the sphere of observation. It was ascer tained, that the bounding ocean of Asia did not exist at the point fixed by Eratosthenes ; hence it 388 GEOGRAPHICAL SYSTEMS. was rashly inferred, that Asia was not bounded by an ocean, but stretched on every side into an expanse of unknown continent. The enterprise of the Alexandrian merchants made them ac quainted also with a large extent of the eastern coast of Africa, the farthest explored portion of which took an easterly direction. This direction was hypothetically extended, till it was made to join the eastern extremity of Asia. Thus the Indian, or Erythrean sea, was enclosed as in a vast basin ; and in Africa, as in Asia, an expanse of Terra Incognita became on every side the limit ofthe known world. This school, however, shook off entirely the previous belief of an uninhabitable zone. Ptolemy gives numerous positions under and beyond the equator, and even approaching to the southern tropic. Admitting that many, or all of them, are extended too far to the south, this does not the less indicate his own conviction, that the region immediately under the line could be passed through and inhabited. Ptolemy appears to have been the first who formed a correct idea of the whole course of the Nile. He throws up entirely its western deriva tion, and assigns to its fountains their proper place in the vast range of the Mountains of the Moon. He represents also, like Eratosthenes, the rivers Astapus and Astaboras, (the modern Bahr-el- Azrek and Tacazze), as falling into it from the PTOLEMY. 389 east, and only errs in making them, by their junction, form Meroe into an island. Westward from the Nile, he describes the vast range of Libya Interior, watered by the great rivers Gir and Niger. It had been generally understood, that this tract comprised the modern Nigritia ; that the Niger was the great river so well known in Europe under this name, though it is not so de signated in any part of Africa ; and that the Gir is the river of Bornou. M. Gosselin,* however, and some other French geographers, have recently maintained that the tract of Nigritia was wholly unknown to Ptolemy ; that the countries and rivers of his Lybia Interior were merely those of the tract lying to the south of Atlas, known by the name of the Bled-el-Jereede. Paradoxical as this opinion may at first sight appear, I do not appre hend that it can be wholly rejected. The Gir, in particular, has so many points Of relation with the combined streams of the Adjidi and Blanco, that it seems impossible not to recognize some mea sure of identity. 1. The Gir rises on the oppo site side of the same chain of mountains which gives rise to the Bagrada, the modern Mejerdah ; so does the Adjidi ; but the rivers of Interior Africa are at an immense distance. 2. If the rivers of Interior Libya be not the rivers of the * Geographie des Anciens, Vol. iv. 390 GEOGRAPHICAL SYSTEMS. Bled-el-Jereede, then these last rivers must have been wholly unknown to Ptolemy, which is very improbable. 3. The two northern branches of the Gir bear a strong resemblance to the combin ed streams of the Adjidi and Blanco. We may add, that the name Gir is native in this part of Africa, and is applied to a river of Sigilmessa ; also that the name of Libya suggests the region south ofthe Atlas, much more than the depths of the interior, which were always designated by the appellation of Ethiopia. While it seems impossible to resist the force of these arguments, there are other circumstances in Ptolemy's description, which would lead us to look in Nigritia for the country which he here describes. The Nuba Palus is a name belonging to quite a different part of the continent from that watered by the Adjidi. Mount Mandrus, as the western termination ofthe Niger, suggests in the strongest manner the territory of Manding. Panagra agrees almost equally with Wangara, and Caphas with Kaffaba. The description, both by Ptolemy and Agathemerus,* of the Niger and Gir, as [Myigrot iroruf/jot, " rivers of the greatest magnitude," and the placing them on a level with the Nile, agrees very ill with any streams which descend from the -: Atlas. The same may be said ofthe direction of * Geog. Gr?ec. Mjnor. II. 49. PTOLEMY. 391 the stream of the Niger east and west, while all the rivers of Sigilmessa run from north to south- Finally, unless some communication had been opened in that age with this part of central Africa, it seems difficult to discover how the Roman em pire could have been supplied with the precious commodity of gold, which must have been in ex tensive demand, and of which no peculiar want seems to have been felt. The Periplus * proves it to have been obtained neither in the Red Sea, nor in any of the ports of Africa situated on the ocean ; while in India it was so far from being an object of import, that money is stated as a copious import from Europe. There does not seem, there fore, to have been any quarter, besides the golden streams of Wangara and Manding, from which an adequate supply of this precious metal could have been poured into the empire. We thus find circumstances, which seem to make it impossible to place the Libya Interior of Ptolemy elsewhere than in the Bled-el-Jereede ; and others, nearly as strong, fixing it in central Africa. How shall this discrepancy be reconcil ed? If the Egyptian traders, in the time of Ptolemy, really penetrated to the banks of the Niger, it must have been westward from the Nile, by the way of Darfur and Begherme. They thus * Geog. Grsc. Minor. I. 4. 10. 31. 392 GEOGRAPHICAL SYSTEMS. reached that destination without having encoun* tered any portion of the great African desert; tlie extent of which, it is evident, was wholly un known to Ptolemy. His informants could fur nish no astronomical observations, nor accurate data of any kind, by which to fix the position of the countries through which they travelled., In such cases, the ancient geographers, to gratify the natural love of completeness, had recourse often to very arbitrary delineations. Instances haves occurred, and will again occur, in which very re mote objects were brought into contact. It ap.,, pears to me then, that Ptolemy has linked toge-t ther the geographical features of central and northern Africa ; that in the Gir he linked the head of the Adjidi to the head of the Misselad ; and, though no part ofthe Niger can be referred to the north, its tributaries from that quarter are probably the rivers of Sigilmessa, hypothetically united to it. I doubt, however, if the Daradus and Stachir can be viewed as the Gambia and Senegal. Every remote space actually traversed,] is/ exaggerated, instead of being so remarkably 4 diminished, as, in the present instance, that ber ¦ tween Mount Mandrus and the sea. Besides,. from the Fortunate Islands, or Canaries, being placed opposite to these rivers, it seems clear, however far Carthaginian discovery may have: penetrated, that Ptolemy.'s knowledge of the PTOLEMY. 393 western coast expired on the borders of the de sert. It appears, therefore, that he knew nothing beyond the Niger in central Africa, which, in his system, locks in with the southern extremity of the Atlas ; the rivers flowing from which are thus brought into almost the immediate vicinity of the Niger. Ptolemy had finaMy to dispose of the route of three months from' the country of the Garaman- tes, and of four months from the Leptis Magna, made by Flaccus and Maternus into the country of the Ethiopians.* The suspicion and dissatis faction which he shews on the subject of their statements, concurs to prove the inadequate idea which he entertained ofthe breadth ofthe desert. which they must have traversed. Such marches must evidently have carried them far beyond the limits of Libya Interior, placed as it was by him almost in contact with Northern Africa. He, therefore, places his Ethiopia Interior much far ther south, beyond the equator, nearly in the latitude of Raptum ; although there is no reason to suppose that the expeditions in question could have passed the Niger, if they even arrived on its shores. The decline of the Roman empire was followed * Lib. I. 8. 394 GEOGRAPHICAL^SYSTEMS. by the irruption of a new power, which chang ed entirely the aspect of this continent. The descendants of Mahomet spread their empire as far as the ocean, and established one of its grand seats in Northern Africa. This remarkable peo ple, accustomed in their native seats to all the modes of carrying on trade over-land, and through deserts, were well calculated^jBovercome the ob stacles which nature here presented on a still greater scale. Their caravans soon formed routes across the wide expanse of the African desert ; the banks of the Niger were not only explored, but colonized ; and the whole tract of central Africa, so far as known, became subject to Ma hometan masters. The geographers, therefore, who arose during the flourishing era of Arabian science, had very ample opportunities of becom ing acquainted with this part of the continent. They have left, accordingly, fuller descriptions than the ancients of the known parts, and have adopted, with regard to the unknown, an entirely different train of hypothesis. While Herodotus, Mela, and Pliny, made the central river of Africa run towards the east, and fall into the Nile, the Arabians, on the contrary, supposed it to flow westward from a common source with that river. To both they applied the common name of Nile ; one being the Nile of Egypt, and the other the Nile of the Negroes. Gana, situated upon the B^MR .iJ.^IODJB^lJLJ^J.M Sea of Dark A.CCOJll>IJy~G TO EBSISX THE ARABIANS. 395 Nile of the Negroes, nearly midway between its point of separation from that of Egypt and its termination, was the metropolis of all the Maho metan kingdoms, the main channel of communi cation with Northern Africa, and, consequently, the grand source from which information was drawn. At the distance of forty days' journey westward from Gana this river fell into the sea, and near its mouth was Ulil, resorted to by all the states along the Nile for a supply of salt. If the position of Ulil could be fixed, it would afford a key to the whole system of Arabian geography ; but the investigation is attended with Considera ble difficulty. The distances of forty days from Gana, and of one month from Agades, seem to place totally out of the question the idea of its being situated on the ocean, unless we suppose their measures erroneous in an enormous degree, and of which there is no other instance. The terms used by Edrisi render it possible, that by sea, he might merely mean an inland lake. Yet, from the general scope of his work, I rather in cline to suspect that he mistook the lake for the sea, and some point on its opposite shore for an island. It appears, however, to have been better understood by subsequent geographers. Thus Ibn-al-Vardi describes Ulil as a great city, situ ated on the shore of the Bahr, (sea or lake).* * Notices des Manuscrits du Roi, II. 35. 39^ GEOGRAPHICAL SYSTEMS. Probably the information of subsequent travellers, who had performed the circuit of the lake, shew ed him the error of Edrisi in mistaking it for the sea. A still later geographer (Scheabeddin) says expressly that the branch of the Nile which flows through Djenawa (Gana) does not reach the sea.* Major Rennell has traced the following etymolo gy : Ulil, Oulili, Oualet, Walet. If Walet, or any part of its territory, be Ulil, then the sea of Edrisi could scarcely be any thing else than the Dibbie. His measures, however, seem hardly to extend so far, but to agree better with another lake to the east of Tombuctoo ; the existence of which has been reported by recent travellers. Additional information, it is to be hoped, may soon be obtained, which will determine this curi ous point. To the east of Gana, Wangara rests entirely upon the authority of the Arabians. Their des cription of Cauga agrees very well with the no tices of Horneman and Browne, so ably com bined by Major Rennell. t But the space which fills up the interval between Cauga and the Nile, is involved in considerable obscurity ; nor does it appear to me that it has been very correctly understood by modern geographers. * Notices des Manuscrits du Roi, II. 156. f Illustrations of Horneman, ch. 3. THE ARABIANS. 397 Among all the states in this part of Africa, Kuku is represented, by the Arabian writers, to have held a high pre-eminence ; nor does any other appear to have rivalled it in power and splendour. According to our present maps', Kuku occupies a tract quite unexplored by mo dern travellers, between the north of Bornou and the part of Nubia which borders on Egypt! In this case, it would remain a very importarit dis covery yet to be made. The position, however, thus assigned to it, seems to me wholly incompa tible with the data of Edrisi, which are as follow : — From Gana to Cauga, he gives nearly a month and a half s journey east ; from Cauga to Kuku, twenty days north ; from Kuku to Gana, a month and a half. The triangle is thus completed ; and, in attempting its construction, it will appear that Kuku, in our maps, is both placed too far north, and also that, instead of being north-east from Cauga, it ought to have a certain declination to the westward. In short, it will fall very precise ly upon the position of the modern capital of Bornou. That Kuku is "Bornou, is further ren dered probable by the character of extraordinary magnitude* ascribed to both, much more than to * Celeberrima et magnitudine prsstans, — Edrisi. The pa pulation of Bornou is described as a countless multitude. — . Association, (1790), p. 144. 398 GEOGRAPHICAL SYSTEMS. any other city in this part of Africa. Dar Cooka is mentioned by Browne as a country near Cauga or Fittri ; and it is not difficult to suppose, that, at the period in question, the name may have had a greater extension. With regard to the interval between Kuku and the Nile, the following appear to be all the data afforded : — Kuku to Tamalma, east, 12 days' journey. Tamalma to Matthan, 12 days. Matthan to Angimi, 8 days. Angimi to Zaghara, 6 days. Zaghara to Matthan, 8 days. Matthan to Tagua, 13 days. Tagua adjoins to Nuba. I must own, that I have in vain attempted to disentangle this labyrinth of distances without bearings. Zagara (Zagua, Abulfeda) seems to be the modern Zeghawa, a dependency of Darfur. Angimi (Begama of Ibn-al-Vardi) may be consi* dered the modern Begarmee, or Begherme. Fur ther than this I doubt if any of the above posi tions could be fixed with much confidence. During the flourishing era of Arabian science, Europe was sunk in darkness and lethargy ; and its inhabitants, far from knowing or studying the geography of the remote parts of the world, were ignorant probably of that of the province imme- THE EARLY MODERNS. 399 diately adjoining to them. About the end of the fifteenth century, however, under the patronage ofthe Portuguese princes, a series of extraordinary exertions were made, which soon raised Europe to a high pre-eminence over the other parts of the globe. Although India was to the Portuguese the grand theatre of prowess and enterprise, yet in their route thither, they also explored and settled a large portion of Africa ; and the geography of that continent, during the 16th and 17th cen turies, was constructed almost entirely from the materials which they furnished. This people pe netrated into the interior chieflyr by the side of Congo on the west, and Abyssinia on the east, and, falling into the usual error of exaggeration, they extended these two countries in such a manner, as to fill nearly the whole continent, and to hide en tirely from their view that immense space which re mained still unknown. The accompanying sketch exhibits the manner in which central Africa is delineated by all geographers, from Ortelius to Sanson inclusive, and down to the time of Delisle and D'Anville.* Sanson's map of 1696 does not exhibit the smallest improvement over the earliest delineations. The exaggeration of half-known * See the maps in Ortelius's Theatre of the World, in Dapper's Description of Africa,— in Purchas, Vol. I. and II. —and all Sanson's maps. 26 400 GEOGRAPHICAL SYSTEMS'. distances, and the annihilation of the unknown interval between distant objects, combined in leading to these remarkable errors. Abyssinia, above all, was extended in the most extraordi nary manner, being made to reach as far as the southern frontier of Congo and Monomopata. Here was placed the great lake Zaire or Zembre, from which was supposed to flow not only the Nile, but the Congo, and, according to some, though not universally, the Cuama, or Zambezi. That this lake was at bottom the Dembea, ap pears from the Abyssinian provinces of Gojam, Damut, Bagamidri (Begemder), and the Cafates (Efat), being ranged around it. The name Zaire is evidently derived from the river of Congo ; and Zembre, which has no authentic origin, appears to be a transition-step from Zaire to Dembea, form ing a sort of alliance between two names which, in themselves, are perfectly dissimilar. In all the early delineations of newly discovered countries, exaggeration is a prominent feature ; but I know of no instance in which it has taken place to so ex travagant a degree. From Massuah, to the south ern extremity of the lake of Dembea, the actual distance does not exceed four hundred miles ; in the maps alluded to, it scarcely falls short of two thousand. It is difficult to account for so enor mous an error in a country which was traversed, at different times, by so considerable a number of SI*' ¦c= j* — < *s EARLY MODERN IDEAS. 401 missionaries. The only cause which it seems possi ble to assign is, that, as they followed a very ir regular and winding course, for the purpose of visiting, sometimes their own scattered establish ments, sometimes the court ofthe king or princi pal lords, their unskilfulness might lead them to extend, in a straight line, the whole of this de vious tract ; which, combined with the natural propensity to magnify their own deeds, might lead to this enormous amplification. The Nile was also made to issue from the northern side of the lake, so that all the windings of its semicir cular sweep round Gojam, were extended in a straight line from south to north. This immense extension of Abyssinia brought it to the frontier of Congo, without the latter making a step to meet it. The magnitude of Congo, in fact, is scarcely at all exaggerated ; a very rare case in such circumstances, and which, perhaps, could only have happened, because geographers found the interior so blocked up by Abyssinia, that they. had not space in which to exaggerate. The river Congo, in particular, by being derived from this much misplaced site of the Dembea, had a course assigned to it, totally inadequate to their own mag nificent descriptions of its magnitude. In regard to the modern geography of Western Africa, as it hinges almost entirely upon the course of the Niger, which forms the subject of vol. ii. c c 402 GEOGRAPHICAL SYSTEMS. the following chapter, it will be more convenient to reserve, till then, our observations upon that subject. The first half of the eighteenth century was the era of a signal improvement in the science of geography. For this we are mainly indebted to France, and to the very liberal patronage which its administration extended to the cultivation of this science. No one who compares the maps of Delisle and D'Anville, with the materials then published, can doubt the excellent means of in formation with which they must have been sup plied, both by government and by private indi viduals. Under their hands, the geography of Africa, in particular, assumed an entirely new aspect. Delisle began his labours with the commence ment of the century. In 1700 he published his map of the world, stated to be drawn up from observations made by the members ofthe Acade my of Sciences. It exhibits a signal reform in African geography. The frontier of Abyssinia was brought from ten degrees south of the line, to ten degrees north ; and this immense change placed it at once in its true position. The source of the Bahr-el-Azrek, and all the details of its early course, are given with very great precision. This river, however, is still represented as the Nile, DELISLE— D'ANVILLE. 403 while the Abiad, confounded with the Maleg, ap pears as a much inferior stream. This delineation is preserved in all his subsequent maps. While, however, Delisle had made this remark able correction upon the position of Abyssinia, he had not lost that abhorrence of a vacuum which had ever been prevalent in the minds of geogra phers. He could not reconcile himself to acknow ledge his ignorance, as to the contents of the space out of which he had withdrawn Abyssinia. He filled it up, by extending, far eastward, the frontier of Congo. In particular, the large branch of the Congo, which flows from south to north, is made by him to flow from east to west, and thereby reaches across more than half the conti nent. All the other features being stretched in like manner, the vacant space was filled up, and the dreaded appearance of a void effectually co vered. In consequence of these erroneous views, De lisle lost on one side a part of what he had gained on the other. It was D'Anville who first " laid " the axe to the root of the tree." In his map, (1731), prefixed to Labat's Ethiopie Occidentale, he boldly exposed to the world the vast extent of that Terra Incognita, which occupies the whole interior of this part of Africa. The public hav ing recognized the correctness and fairness of this proceeding, geographers were no longer afraid to 404 GEOGRAPHICAL SYSTEMS'. leave void those spaces which science afforded no materials for filling. In Abyssinia also, although his predecessor had done much, D'Anville found some important additions to make. On a dili gent comparison of ancient and modern materials, he ascertained, that the river, which all modern geographers had considered as the Nile, was not the Nile of the ancients ; that it was merely the tributary to a larger stream, which alone had been, and ought to be, regarded as the river of Egypt. Subsequent observation has fully confirmed this discovery. In Western Africa, the reform effected by these two great geographers was equally important ; but for reasons already assigned, it will be more con venient to reserve the consideration of them till the following chapter. From this time, the investigation of African geography was conducted upon sound principles, and proceeded in a regular train. There remain ed only the inevitable evil of imperfect knowledge; but this was no longer combined with systematic error ; it was not that hopeless ignorance which is unconscious of itself. It has prompted to vast exertions for the extension of discovery in this part of the world. In Major Rennell, too, the materials thus collected have happily found an illustrator, who, in the precision of his data, and the accuracy with which he applies them, is scarce- RENNELL. 405 ly equalled by the most illustrious of his predeces sors. His maps of Africa, which form the basis of the present geography of that continent, are rendered doubly valuable by the copious and in structive manner in which he unfolds the princi ples upon which they are constructed. CHAPTER IL HISTORICAL VIEW OF THEORIES RESPECTING THE COURSE AND TERMINATION OF THE NIGER. Herodotus. — Strabo, Pliny, and Mela.— 'The Arabians. — Lea and the Portuguese — Delisle and D'Anville. — Moore. — Major Rennell. — Reichard. — The Congo Hypothesis. — Another. — The Mar Zarah. The course and termination of this celebrated stream is now the most interesting problem which remains to be solved, not only in Africa, but in any other portion of the globe. Hoping still, notwithstanding one failure, that this great dis covery may not be far distant, it is not proposed to enter into the elaborate illustration of any one view of the subject ; — but rather to exhibit the succession of reports and opinions, which, from the earliest ages, has prevailed among curious inquirers relative to the course of these celebrat ed waters. Whatever may be the present opi nion of the reader, or the final result of the in quiry, this will, it is conceived, form an interest ing chapter in the history of human speculation. To the earlier geographers, the Nile, and the mystery of its distant springs, formed the leading HERODOTUS — STRABO. 407 object of curiosity and inquiry. It was with refe rence to it only that the western waters were brought into view. We have already seen the opinion of Herodotus, that the great river, seen by the Nasamonians, rolling from west to east through the country of the Ethiopians, was the remote head of the Nile. He endeavours to sup port this opinion by a very ill-founded analogy with the Danube, alleging that, in the same man ner as that river divides Europe, the Nile ought to divide Africa. Upon the whole, there seems nothing to add to what was observed on this sub ject in the preceding chapter. Strabo did not enter deep into this speculation. The belief that the early course of the Nile was directed through the uninhabitable torrid zone, appeared to place it altogether beyond the reach of mortal discovery. He merely mentions, with out any discussion, as an opinion entertained by some, that the Nile rose at a spot not far removed from the extremity of Mauritania. This idea is touched upon at much greater length by Pliny and Mela. Pliny had obtained notions, extensive probably, though confused, relative to this part of the world, from the conversation of Roman generals who had penetrated into the desert, and from the works or traditionary information of Juba, king of Mauritania, a prince eminent for 408 THEORIES RESPECTING THE NIGER. learning. Pliny mentions,* that a Roman com mander, Suetonius Paulinus, whom he had him self seen, reported himself to have crossed the Western Atlas, which he described, as modern travellers have done, to be of stupendous height, and covered with snow during the whole year. Beyond, through deserts of black dust, which, even in the depth of winter, were uninhabita ble by the heat, he came to the river which is called Niger. There is nothing in this passage to suggest the immense space which must have been traversed after passing the Atlas, in order to arrive at the river of Soudan. This may give rise to the doubt, whether the river, supposed by him, at least, to be the Niger, might not rather be one of the streams of Tafilet. On the other hand, the deserts of sand, and the intensity of the heat, do not agree with the idea which we have ofthe Country of Dates. Pliny, however, enters into much greater detail in that extraordinary passage, where he traces the origin of the Nile, and its various transformations.! First, he in forms us, that it springs from a mountain in Lower Mauritania, and issues out of a stagnant lake, called Nilis. Indignant, however, at flow ing through rugged and sandy tracts, it hides itself under ground for several days, after which * Hist. Nat. V. i. f Ib. V. 9. PLINY — MELA. 409 it issues anew from another lake in Mauritania CaBsariensis. Finding itself again among sands, it plunges a second time beneath them, and con tinues hid during the whole extent of a desert space of twenty days' journey. On reaching the country of the Ethiopians, it again emerges, and* as Ptolemy supposes, from the fountain Nigris ; when, continuing to flow, it divides the Africans from the Ethiopians. In a subsequent part of its course, it assumes the name of Astapus, evidently the river of Nubia. In this succession of rivers, so fancifully united to form one Nile, it seems clear that the two first are streams of the Bled-el- Jereede ; but in respect to the other, situated on the other side of an immense desert, and in the country of the Ethiopians, whom it separates from the Africans, there seem fair grounds for believing it to be the Niger itself. We then find Pliny to be the strenuous advocate for the ancient system, by which the Nile and the Niger were viewed merely as successive portions of the same great river. Mela leans to the same opinion.* He describes very distinctly, to the south of Mauritania, the great desert, and beyond it the country of the Ethiopians. There rises the river Nuchul, on which he makes the striking remark, that, " while * Lib. iii. 9. 410 THEORIES RESPECTING THE NIGER. " all others direct their course towards the ocean, " this one flows towards the east, and the centre " ofthe continent ; and whither it goes is quite " uncertain." It would be difficult to express, in more accurate terms, fhe actual state of our knowledge in respect to the Niger. Mela men tions then as-a plausible conjecture, that this river may end in being the Nile ; but he positively re jects the hypothesis of its sinking under ground, very reasonably ascribing such a report to the long tract of unknown territory through which it flows, and where, not being seen, it is supposed not to exist. The Roman writers appear, from the sources above mentioned, to have derived somewhat more extended ideas with, regard to Western Africa than were attained by the Greeks. Ptolemy, however, generally speaking, obtained a much more correct view of the courses of the African rivers than any of his predecessors. He, first among the ancients, rejects wholly the idea of the identity of the Nile and Niger, lays down the sources ofthe former in theirfrue position, and ex hibits the latter as a distinct and separate stream. If we are asked, however, in what direction he represents it as flowing, the question is exceed ingly difficult to answer. The following extract includes all he communicates on the subject. After remarking, that " in the interior flow PTOLEMY, 411 " mighty rivers, the Gir and Niger," he proceeds to describe the latter by his usual mathematical mode of enumeration. " And the Niger, which joins together the " mountains Mandrus and Thala. It also forms " the lake of Nigritia (Nigrites Palus), which " lies in lat. 15°, long 18°. " And has formed two derivations* to the " north, viz. to the mountains Sagapola and " Usurgala, — and one to the east upon the lake " of Libya (Libya Palus), which lies in lat. 35°, " long. 16° 30'." Never, perhaps, has a more singular and unap- propriate description been given of a river, than this of its joining two mountains together. Pto lemy seems evidently to have considered merely the geometrical line described by the river course across Africa, without viewing it as a body in motion. His description can be correct only on one supposition ; that of two rivers meeting in a common receptacle. With regard to the direc tion of the streams, the only ground on which an inference can be made seems to be the following. * £xTg«7ru, divertigia. It deserves notice, that this term, though it seems to convey an opposite idea, has merely the common signification of a tributary stream. Thus (Lib. iv. c. 16.) we have " divertigium ad Emodos mantes. Fons vero " in iis," and similar instances in the same and other chapters. 412 THEORIES RESPECTING THE NIGER. There is no lake or other receptacle in the whole line of stream, except that of Nigritia (Nigrites Palus), for the Libya Palus is represented as situ ated in one of its tributaries. As it is placed very near the western extremity, the greater por tion, in order to find in it a receptacle, must flow westward. This is corroborated by the expres sion, that the Niger forms (xont) the Nigrites Palus. The opposite branch, flowing into it from the west, must in this view be very much under rated ; which may be easily accounted for from its remote situation, and the line of communica tion by which Ptolemy obtained his knowledge of this part of Africa. The next geographical system was that of the Arabians, in whose opinion, with regard to the course of this river, there is nothing dubious or equivocal. They all identify it with the Nile, but only in its source and earliest course, borrowed apparently from Ptolemy. But they conceive that, at a particular point, this primary Nile sepa rates into two branches, or Niles ; of which one, the Nile of Egypt, flows northward through Nubia, and falls into the Mediterranean ; the other, the Nile of the Negroes, takes its course westward, and traverses the vast range of central Africa. According to Abulfeda and Edrisi, the most emi nent Arabian geographers, it continues to flow ARABIANS — LEO. 413 till it is received into the Atlantic, or " Sea of " Darkness," as they term their supposed circum ambient ocean. This system, to the extent in which it has been applied, is no doubt quite er roneous. But as Gana was the capital of the Arabian settlements, and the centre of their com munications, it may deserve consideration whether there do not arise a probability, that, at Gana, the course of the river was such as these writers have universally described it to be. A more recent writer, and a native of Western Africa, (Schea- beddin,) states, that this branch does not reach the sea. The receptacle is not specified, but a lake must necessarily be supposed. We shall find occasion hereafter to touch again upon this sub ject. The information and ideas of European geo graphers during the sixteenth century, were de rived from two sources ; the description of Africa by Leo Africanus, and the early settlements of the Portuguese on the western coast. Leo agrees with the Arabians in assigning a western course to the Niger, but he does not, like them, derive it from the Nile. It takes its rise, according to him, from a lake situated to the south of Bornou, pro bably the lake of Cauga, and thence flows west ward till it reaches the ocean. Leo, indeed, had heard it asserted, at Tombuctoo, that it rose in 414 THEORIES RESPECTING THE NIGER. a mountain, flowed eastward, and fell into a lake 9 but this he asserts to be contradicted by his own actual observation ofthe navigation from Tombuc too to Ginea (Jinnie). Upon this extraordinary statement, an opportunity will occur of making some farther remarks, at the close of the chapter. The above observations of Leo entirely con curred with those which the Portuguese them selves bad an opportunity of making. The coast of Western Africa presented to them a succession of great rivers, all running westward, and falling into the ocean. None of these seemed alone en titled to the honour of forming a termination to the great central stream ; the Senegal, the Gam bia, and the Grande, were therefore viewed in ge neral as the Deltaic estuaries, by which it poured its waters into the ocean. Even the Faleme was supposed to be a branch first separating from, and then uniting with the main trunk. On viewing these maps, it is impossible not to be struck with the proximity of Tombuctoo to the sea, from which it is placed at not much above a third of its real distance, and so as not to extend beyond the actual course of the Senegal. Combining this circumstance with the narration of De Barros, the question may arise, what Tombuctoo it was which lay adjacent to Manding, which was liable to be overrun by an invasion from Foota Jallo, and to which the Portuguese sent repeated em* EARLY MODERN IDEAS. 315 bassies, without learning the existence of Bam- barra, or of the Niger, as a separate stream from the. Senegal?* We have already seen how early the first discoverers began to consider as Tom buctoo, every town which bore the slightest re semblance to it in name and situation. I strongly suspect, therefore, that this Portuguese Tombuc too was some town situated on the Upper Sene gal, perhaps Tamboucanee, mentioned by Saug- nier as a great mart for slaves and gold. A diffe rent conclusion might indeed be suggested by the mention of Zimbala, which, from name and situa tion, can scarcely be any other than the Jinbala of Park. But it seems not difficult to conceive, that reports applicable to the real, might come mixed with those of the imaginary Tombuctoo, especially as the former was known, not through this channel only, but also through that of the Barbary traders. In all these maps, a prominent feature consists in a lake called Guardia or Sigesmes, with an island in the centre, and situated at some dis tance to the east of Tombuctoo. I have never been able to meet with any description of this lake, or any notice of the authority upon which it is laid down ; nor does it seem very easy to de- * See above, Book I. Chap. I. 55 416 THEORIES RESPECTING THE NIGER. termine whether it be the Dibbie, or another lake lying really to the eastward of Tombuctoo. The French geographers, Delisle and D'An ville, employed very peculiar diligence in improv ing the geography of this part of Africa.1 It is true, that in Delisle's map of the world, (1700), and in his map of Nigritia, (1707), he assigns to the Niger the same long course, from east to west, as his predecessors had done. He makes it, how ever, enter the sea only by the channel of the Senegal. The rivers Gambia and Grande he re presents truncated, and carried up only as high as they had been ascended by Europeans. He also removes Tombuctoo eastward to its true dis tance from the sea. He retains the lake of Guardia, and endeavours to form a most extra-.' ordinary alliance between it and the system of the Arabian geographers. He makes it stand for all the lakes described by them in the different parts of Nigritia. On the east side of it he places the city of Gana, and round it, all the cities of Wan- gara, which became thus west of Gana, instead of several hundred miles east. But in the map ofthe world, on a polar projection, published in 1714, though composed with a different object, he alters entirely his construction of this part of Africa. The Niger and Senegal are there repre sented as separate rivers ; are made to arise from two lakes near to each other, and to flow, the one d'anville. 417 east and the other west. The lake bf Guardia is obliterated, and the eastern part of Nigritia de lineated according to the data of Edrisi. This reform was followed up by D'Anville, who, in 1755, communicated to the French Aca demy a treatise " On the Rivers in the Interior " of Africa."* Here, instead ofthe single stream of the Niger rolling across nearly the whole breadth of Africa, he distinguishes three rivers. 1st, The Senegal, flowing westward, and falling into the ocean. 2d, The Niger, flowing eastward, and terminating, as he supposes, at the lake of Reghebil in Wahgara. 3d, Another river, still farther east, and flowing in the opposite direction to the Niger. Although I incline to think D'An ville radically correct as to the existence of this last river, yet he runs into a manifest error, when he makes it at once the Gir of Ptolemy, the river of Bornou, and the Nile of the Negroes of Edrisi. The last is clearly the same river as the Niger, upon which, in fact, he himself has placed all the positions which Edrisi placed on the Nile of the Negroes. The main point, however, is the se paration ofthe Senegal and Niger, and the eastern course of the latter. Excellent, certainly, must have been the information upon which Delisle and D'Anville made this construction, since Labat, * Academie des Inscriptions, Vol. xxvi. VOL. II. D d 418 THEORIES RESPECTING THE NIGER. who collected all the narratives of travellers in this part of Africa, declares himself unable to determine from what sources it was drawn. In the detail, however, a capital error was committed. The point of separation was made at the lake Dibbie, called by them Maberia, which, for this purpose, was split into two lakes, from one of which flowed the Niger eastward, and from the other the Senegal westward. The consequence is, that all that part of the Niger which flows through Bambarra, which was travelled by Park, or accurately known to Europeans, was added to the Senegal, and, like it, made to flow westward. This^ error was never discovered till the journey of Park. These discoveries were generally adopted by geographers of the first rank, and passed into all the good maps of Africa. Yet so slow, is the progress of knowledge, that in 1756,- Adanson, though a man of science, and in 1767> Demanet, who had resided for some years at Senegal, adhere to the old hypothesis, use indiscriminately the terms Senegal and Niger, and seem unconscious that any one had ever represented them as diffe rent streams. Golberry, even after the perform ance of Park's journey, affects to consider the point as not perfectly ascertained. The truth is, that all who placed their ambition in the exten sion of these settlements, leaned to this hypothe- MOORE* > 41^ sis, which alone afforded the prospect of raising them to the first rank among colonial establish ments. Golberry also makes no secret of his feeling of national jealousy, that the Enghsh should have been the first to make so important a discovery, which would have fallen so much more naturally to the share of his own country men, had they availed themselves of the oppor tunities afforded by their settlement on the Sene gal. The English geographers were far from pos sessing, at this period, the same intelligence and activity as those of France. The only person who seems to have taken any deep interest in the present question, was Francis Moore, the travel ler. He had adopted, with enthusiastic zeal, the derivation of the Niger from the extremities of Africa, while, as an Englishman, he held the Gambia* the seat of the English settlements* to be the main channel by which it entered the ocean. Upon this river* he finds all the princi pal positions mentioned by Edrisi. Ulil is Joally, an island at the mouth of the river, whence its banks, it seems, are actually supplied with salt. Sala is Bur-salum, and Gana is Yani. Unfortun ately there is no name which can be tortured into Wangara ; but this might arise from Europeans not having penetrated so high. These specula tions were much discomposed, by the arrival of 420 THEORIES RESPECTING THE NIGER. Captain Stibbs, from his voyage to the upper parts of the Gambia. This personage' reported, that " its original, or head, is nothing hear so "far in the country as by the geographers has " been represented ; nor does it arise from 'any " other lake, nor hath it a communication with " any other river ; — that the natives say the "Gambia comes from near the gold mines, " twelve days' journey from Barraconda, and " that there fowls walk over it." He admitted, indeed, " that the Gambia is a river of the long- ** est course of any that falls into the Atlantic " Ocean, arid that it is the Niger, if any" " But ^ it seems," says Moore, " as if he thought there " was no Niger at all." Upon this ground, he endeavours to overwhelm him, by the testimonies of Edrisi, Leo Africanus, Ludolphus, Labat,' and other learned writers. Stibbs, however, though he did not presume to compare himself, as to learning, with those great, personages, continued not the less to assert the plain facts which he had seen with his own eyes ; so that Moore was left still in a very serious perplexity. In this state of fluctuation the question remain ed, till the truly important discoveries of Park gave" a new face to African geography. This il lustrious traveller finally ascertained, that the Niger was entirely distinct from any ofthe rivers which fell info the Atlantic ; that it flowed east- RENNELL. 1<21 ward into the centre of the continent ; and that to it belonged several hundred miles of the course which the best modern geographers had assigned to the Senegal. Upon these data, Major Rennell founded his theory of its course. It had been traced, indeed, by Park, only about 300 miles from its source ; but concurrent testimonies, an cient and modern, established the existence of a continued stream, upwards of a 1000 miles farther, to the extremity of Wangara. That country is described by the Arabian geographers as entirely surrounded and intersected by branches of the Niger, (Nile of the Negroes) ; as containing, at least, two lakes, and as entirely overflowed dur ing the rainy season. Major Rennell, therefore, very plausibly inferred, that Wangara was the Delta of the Niger ; that its waters, spread out by the separation of its branches, by inundation, and by the formation of lakes, might, under the ( burning rays of a tropical sun, be completely evaporated. This view of the subject, supported by the- learning and ingenuity of Major Rennell, became, for a long time, the orthodox creed withi regard to Africa. M. Reichard, of Weimar, advanced another hypothesis ; according to which, the stream . passed through Wangara, and directing its course to the south-west, poured itself into the '_j * 'iytv ¦ i • _ -. •'¦¦>•-. . '.x :> ¦' ,iru .,. ,.'.-' Gulf of Benin, by a succession of large estuaries, 422 THEORIES RESPECTING THE NIGER, of which the mouths only are known to us. This can rank only as a mere conjecture, which it may be difficult to disprove, but which is supported by no evidence. The author, indeed, endeavours to shew, by a comparative calculation of the waters poured into Wangara, and of the extent of its lakes, that the former cannot be disposed of by mere evaporation from the latter. Without con sidering all the circumstances which must render such an estimate precarious, we may observe, that he brings into Wangara the great western rivers of the Misselad and Wed-el-Gazel, not only with out any proof, but contrary to all the evidence that exists. His calculation from the lakes of Wangara, too, is built entirely upon the space which they occupy in modern maps. But there is nothing in the Arabian writers (our only au thority) which can give the remotest idea of their magnitude. What he has proceeded upon, is the mere arbitrary delineation of modern geo graphers, who, having lakes to delineate, were obhged to make them of some size or other. Upon the whole, however, if the Niger should reach the sea, it does not seem impossible that it may be by this channel. The next hypothesis is that famous one by which the Niger is identified with the great stream which passes through the kingdom of Oorigo. THE CONGO. 423 The extraordinary magnitude of this last river, —the prodigious mass of waters which it pours into the ocean, whose waves it freshens to the dis tance of many leagues — its perpetual state of full ness, or rather flood, to which other tropical rivers are incident only during a few months of the year — the occurrence, at two seasons, instead of one, of a perceptible swelling of its waters — these cir cumstances are supposed to indicate a river, which not only drains a vast extent of country, but is fed by the rains of both the tropics. Both these con ditions are fulfilled, by supposing it to be the hi therto unknown termination of the Niger. Thus too, it is said, will the mystery be withdrawn, which now veils the mysterious course of that great central river. No receptacle hitherto dis covered, or reported, nothing except a great in land sea, like the Aral or the Caspian, could, it is conceived, contain the waters of the vast stream which flows through Bambarra, swelled, as it must be, by continual accessions during an additional course of more than 1000 miles. Considering the plausibility of these arguments, and the enthusiastic zeal with which the system had been adopted by our great African traveller, it cannot be wondered, that a general impression arose in its favour. This was greatly aided by the able manner in which it was supported by the two leading critical journals, which, though sometimes 424 THEORIES RESPECTING THE NIGER. differing in other points, agreed . entirely in this. That in the Quarterly Review, besides- the ability with which it was written, shewed such: an inti mate acquaintance with the subject, that it could not fail to produce a most powerful impression on the public mind. This hypothesis has at all events^ had the happy effect of rousing an increas ed interest in regard to Africa, and of prompting to, high national exertions, which, though their re sult has not yet corresponded to the expectations justly, entertained, will yet, we trust, have the eflect of laying open the secrets of the interior much more fully than had been effected at any former era. , The writer of this was led some time ago to form an hypothesis somewhat differ ing, from any of those above stated ; and though his original confidence in it be somewhat abated, yet, as it may at least serve as a link to combine sonie curious , notices relative to central Africa* he will venture ona short exposition of it. 5 Although the Niger, in Bambarra, carries with it to the past all the waters of, central Africa, it cannot be doubted, that there is a tract on the other side of the continent, where these waters flow in an opposite direction. Without having recourse, to ancient, or more doubtful authorities, we find , Browne expressly stating, that all the livers about and beyond Darfur, were reported to him as flowing to the west and north-west. Some, THEORY OF TWO RIVERS. 425 the Kulla for instance, are so delineated, that they could iscareely continue to flow in that direction without meeting the Niger. That a junction therefore takes place, at some point, of rivers from opposite sides of the continent, can scarce ly; ,be doubted. Whether these rivers terminate there*, or direct their united streams into the ocean, is a separate question. According to the general opinion, this union takes place in Wan gara, ,-, There is, however, a considerable weight of testimony which goes to prove, that much far ther, west, and in passing through the kingdom of Cassina, the direction of the stream is still westward. Abulfeda, Edrisi, and all the Ara bian writers, without a single exception, are well known to have described their Nile of the Negroes as flowing from east to west: Now, as Gana was the centre of their settlements, and the main channel of communication with Northern Africa, it appears very improbable- that they should be misinformed as to how the matter stood there* Nor is it improbable that their knowledge might.terminate with' this westward-flowing river, and- might never reach the stream visited by Park. The next testimony is that of the Shereef Im- hammed, an, eminent native merchant, who cross ed; and recrossed the Niger at least twice: 'He stated to Mr Lucas,* that " its rise and termina- ¦ i -_l: ^ ; ; '^— ^ — * Proceedings of Association, 1790. 4to. 426 THEORIES RESPECTING THE NIGER. '* tion are unknown, but its course is from east to " 'west" He adds, that " such is the rapidity " with which it traverses the empire of Cashna, " that no vessel can ascend the stream ;" that it is crossed on an ill constructed raft ; that its depth is twenty-three or twenty-four feet ; and its width " such, that at the island, of Gongpq, " where the ferrymen reside, the sound of the " loudest voice from the northern shore is scarce* " ly heard." These particulars, and, above all, the rapidity of the stream, make it scarcely possi ble that he could be mistaken as to the direction in which it flows ; nor does there appear any con ceivable motive for mistatement. From these testimonies, it appeared a proba ble supposition, that the long line of river course to which Europeans have applied the Roman name of Niger, (a name not known in modern Africa), consists, in fact, of two rivers, flowing, one from the east, and the other from the west, and falling into some common receptacle. It is objected, indeed, that no such receptacle has ever been reported to exist, But the tract between Cas- sina and Tombuctoo is so entirely unknown, that it might very well contain the feature in question, without such a report having reached Europeans, Moreover, it may be observed, that the most re cent travellers actually report the existence of a great lake, or inland sea, in this quarter. Jack. THEORY OF TWO RIVERS. 427 son particularly describes an immense lake called the Sea of Soudan, situated about fifteen days' journey to the east of Tombuctoo. Park also heard at Sansanding of a lake, called the Ba Sea Feena, incomparably larger than the Dibbie, at about a month's distance from that place ; which Would nearly agree with the measure of Jackson.* The late traveller calling himself Ali Bey, saw an African prince and merchant, who had resided * His expressions are, " One month's journey south of Bae- " doo, through the kingdom of Gotto, will bring the traveller " to the country of the Christians who have their houses on " the banks ofthe Ba Sea Feena; this water they describe as " incomparably larger than the Dibbie, and that it flows some- " times one way, and sometimes another." To conceal nothing, I cannot help entertaining some suspi cion that this report may have referred to the sea in the Gulf' of Guinea, though it certainly was not so understood by Park. The southern direction, the coast of the Christians, the decked vessels, and the motion one way and another (tides), all tend to suggest this idea. To this may be added the etymology of the word Ba Sea Feena, which was obligingly furnished to me by Mr Jackson, who states it to signify the " Sea of Ships." I even used the freedom to ask Mr Jackson, . if he considered it certain, that his Bahar Soudan might not also be the Gulf of Guinea? Mr Jackson observed in reply, that the Gulf of Guinea was universally called by the Arabs El Bahar Ginaiott ; that neither the distance nor direction agreed ; and that the Arabs, who pray daily with their faces turned towards the efes't, can scarcely blunder as to this last point. He is also of opi nion, that Park's Ba. Sea Feena must be the same with the Sea of Soudan. 428 THEORIES RESPECTING THE NIGER. at Tombuctoo, by whom he was assured, that tlie Nile Abid, in flowing eastward from that city^ spread into an inland sea of gfeaf extent. A gi-eat lake, therefore, in this situation, capable of forming a receptacle for both the streams which have been supposed to flow from the opposite sides of Africa, appeared not only possible, but supported by very strong and positive testimonies. ' Some farther notices respecting the interior of Africa have been obtained from Adams and Ri ley ; but as these appear still somewhat doubt ful^* and at best' vague, it would be premature to rest' upon' them any great weight of reasoning. The information of Riley evidently favours the Congo hypothesis, leaving still room for the sup position, that two rivers from opposite quarters iri'ay' have uiiited before the stream took its final direction southwards. It will now be proper to Icbnsidef, how far the question is affected by the ihformatio'h which Captain Tuckey collected in his voyage up the Congo. It has already been observed, that tlie members of the expedition, on their firsfentrah.ee into the * Since the first edition of this work, and even since* re printing the narrative of Adams in the preceding volume, I ha,w seen some strong grounds fori doubting* the authenticity qf.thatpart of his narrative which, relates tp Tombuctoo, Set Edinburgh Magazine for October 1818. CAPTAIN TUCKEY. river, were struck with deep disappointment at its apparent magnitude. Hence they did not conceive that it could be derived from at all so remote a source as their mission supposed. Some particulars were formerly remarked, from which it might appear that this opinion was formed rather too hastily* The river, in fact, after being ascended for two or three hundred miles, was found to spread to a breadth, and to exhibit a grandeur of aspect and dimension, not inconsis tent with its supposed derivation. From thi? and from , other circumstances now to be mentioned, Captain Tuckey seems to have derived a convic tion of its origin in the northern tropic. These circumstances are, " the extraordinary qujet rise " of the river in the beginning of September to " the height of eleven feet, without the occur- " renee of any rains at all adequate to produce such " an effect ;" which he thinks " shows it to have " issued from some lake which had received " almost the whole of its water from the norths °f " the line." This quietness he, elsewhere ex plains by stating, that though the rise is so con siderable, yet the velocity is not at all increased, These facts are certainly strong in favour of the northern derivation of the Congo. Yet we must remark, that the period of the rise, ., considered singly, would lead us to form a very opposite conclusion. The rains of the northern tropic 430 THEORIES RESPECTING THE NIGER. begin early in June. Accordingly the Nile in Egypt, where it is nearly at the same distance from the limit of the northern tropic as the Congo in the higher part of its known course, begins*to swell about the 17th of June^ Neither it, indeed* nor the Niger in Wangara, overflows its banks, and inundates the country, till August ; but this inundation is only the crisis of that constant ad* ditional influx of waters which has been taking place for a considerable time. According to this analogy, the Congo ought to swell nearly about the same time with the Nile, or before the end of June. In fact, however, it does not swell till nearly two months and a half later. A cause for this retardation is sought in the hypothesis of a large lake, situated near the limit of the tropic, which receives the waters of the Niger and its tributaries, and transmits them to the Congo. It would appear, however, that when »the -feeders of this lake are augmented, it ougbt*> in a very short time, to experience a sensible rise, and must then communicate a greater or less increase to any river which flows out of it. It does > not appear, therefore, that the hypothesis of one lake is sufficient ; but the case may be different in re spect to a chain of lakes successively breaking the force of the original current ; and report cer tainly speaks strongly to the existence of such a chain. It is difficult to estimate the precise CAPTAIN TUCKEY. 481 effects of such a combination, as no correspond ing case appears to occur in any other region of the globe. It appears certainly possible, how ever, that the effect may be that of transmitting the rise, after a long delay, from the river which falls into the first lake to that which flows out of the last, so that this great interval may be pro duced between the swelling of the Niger and that of the Congo. On the other hand, should we suppose the Congo to have its source under or near the line, and the rains there to begin earlier than in the regions to the south, we should have a more simple, and perhaps as satisfactory a solution of the phenomenon. Upon the whole, it is by no means meant to be disputed, that this unaccounted rise of the Congo may be produced by its connexion with the Niger ; it is only doubt ed whether it must be so. There would be an error, we think, in supposing that the ques tion as to the termination of the Niger is in any degree solved ; or that a deep mystery does not yet rest over this grand problem in African geography. CHAPTER III. GENERAL VIEW OF THE NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA.* Mineralogy. Primitive Rocks. — Secondary Rocks. — Volcanic Rocks. — Alluvial Rocks. — Simple Minerals found in Africa. Zoology. Mammalia.— Birds. — Reptiles. — Insects. — Zoophytes. In endeavouring to exhibit a general view of the Natural History of Africa, it may be proper to begin with its Mineralogy. The minerals of this great continent are very imperfectly known, and the geognostical relations of its rocks have hitherto engaged the attention of but few observers. The facts we shall now state are given by travellers in the accounts of their journeys, but are in general much less satisfactory than the present state of mineralogical science demands. * I am happy in being able to state, that I am indebted for this chapter to my friend Mr Jameson, the very eminent Professor of Natural History in the University of Edinburgh, and well known to the learned world by his excellent works on Geology and Mineralogy. PRIMITIVE ROCKS. 433 We do not possess any extensive series of ob servations in regard to the general direction and dip of the African strata, and the relative posi tions of the great rock formations have not been much investigated. We can discern, however, in the accounts of travellers, descriptions of species of three of the great classes of rocks, viz. Pri mitive, Secondary, and Alluvial ; and some ac counts would appear to intimate the occurrence of volcanic rocks in this quarter of the globe. Of these rocks the alluvial occupy an uncom monly large portion of the surface of the conti nent, while the volcanic are but of comparatively small extent* The primitive rocks occupy the higher and middle parts of several of the great tracts of mountainous country, but the secon dary rocks which rest upon these, generally occur at a lower level. Petrifactions, or fossil organic remains* are met with in great abundance in some of the newer rocks ; and of these the petrifactions of vegetables are generally imbedded in slate or sandstone, while those of animals are Contained in limestone. Primitive rocks-. The primitive rocks mentioned by travellers as occurring in Africa are granite, gneiss, mica slate, clay slate* quartz rock or sandstone, por- VOL. ii. e e 434 NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA. phyry, syenite, greenstone, serpentine, marble, and conglomerate. 1. Granite. This rock, which is a compound of felspar, quartz, and mica, is met with in Upper Egypt, as near to Cosseir ; also at Tetuan in Algiers, in Darfur, and in the great ranges of mountains at the sources of the Senegal. My enterprising, but unfortunate friend Dr Smith, one of the sufferers in the calamitous Congo expedition, met with granite in different places as he ascended the river Congo. It varied considerably in the size of its concretions ; one variety, forming what is called the Fetische rock, had concretions of felspar from 1 to 200 feet in circumference ; a magnitude far exceeding that of any of the granites hitherto noticed by mineralogists. The Khamkiesberg, to the northward of the Cape of Good Hope, is of a granite, which is disposed in round globular con cretions, often of enormous magnitude. This rock is traversed by veins of different kinds ; some of them are filled with quartz, others with that beautiful mineral named Prehnite, or with ores of various descriptions. Barrow describes a hill under the name of Pearlberg, to the north of the peninsula of the Cape of Good Hope, which is remarkable for i*" ^ape. It has its name from a chain of large r<|L ¦?like the pearls of a neck- PRIMITIVE ROCKS. 435 lace, that pass over the summit, and are very re markable in their appearance. Two of them, placed near the central and highest point, are called the Diamond and Pearl. They are said to be of very coarse granular granite, but the hill is of sandstone. The Pearl rises about four hundred feet above the summit of the hill, and the circumfe rence of its base is fully a mile. The Diamond is larger. The peninsula of the Cape of Good Hope contains a very thick bed of granite, which rises highest at its northern extremity, but be comes gradually lower towards the south. In many places it is covered with clay slate, or it alternates with that rock, and transitions of the one rock into the other occasionally present them selves. Cotemporaneous portions of granite occur in the slate, and if slate in the granite ; veins of granite traverse the granite ; and there are numerous examples of veins of granite shooting from the great bed into the adjacent clay slate strata. Quartz veins, sometimes of considerable thickness, run through the granite ; and veins of greenstone occur in the same situation. It is said that the clay slate alternates in beds with sandstone, and also passes into it. If the sand stone really passes into the clay slate, and even alternates with it, it follows that these three rocks, viz. granite, clay slate, and sandstone, belong to the same class, and have been formed at the same 436 NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA. time, and in the same manner. It is remarked by Professor Playfair, that the penetration of the slate by veins, from the mass of granite which it surrounds, proves that the slate, though the supe rior rock, is of older formation than the granite. The granite, therefore, is a mineral that has come up from below into the situation it now occupies, and is not one of which the materials have been deposited by the sea in any shape, either mecha nical or chemical.* If this explanation be ad mitted, we must maintain the igneous origin of sandstone, limestone, clay slate, and many other rocks, admitted in all systems to be of Neptunian origin, because these rocks exhibit similar pheno mena to those just mentioned, as occurring at the junction ofthe granite and slate.t 2. Gneiss. This rock, which is a compound of felspar, quartz, and mica, with a slaty structure, is met with in Upper Egypt, and probably in some of the other granite districts already mentioned. * Hall and Playfair in Edinburgh Philosophical Transac tions, Vol. VII. p. 277. f The mineralogy of the Cape of Good Hope has lately engaged the attention of my friends Dr Adams and Captain Carmichael, and of my former pupils Captain Wauchope and Clark Abel, Esq. Mr Ahel in his work just published, communicates several curious facts in regard to the minera. logy of this district. PRIMITIVE ROCKS. 437 3. Mica Slate. This rock occurs abundantly on the banks of the Congo, where it appears to contain beds of granite, syenite, and quartz. 4. Clay Slate. This well known mountain rock occurs abun dantly in some districts in Upper Egypt, where it is traversed by thick veins of jasper. Captain Tuckey mentions it as occurring on the banks of the Congo, where it is sometimes associated with beds of bluish grey limestone. It is an abundant rock in the peninsula of the Cape of Good Hope, and also in the great ranges of alpine land to the north of it, 5. Quartz Rock, or Sandstone. This rock is quartz in a massive form, or in distinct concretions. It occurs on the banks of the Congo ; and part, if not all the sandstone of the Cape of Good Hope, belong to this species. 6. Porphyry. This rock, which has usually a red colour, oc curs in Upper Egypt in beds along with syenite, and sometimes also with serpentine,* limestone, and clay slate. Bruce mentions it as forming mountains in Abyssinia. 438 NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA. 7- Syenite. This rock, which is distinguished from granite by the hornblende it contains as an essential in gredient, occurs in beds along with porphyry, granite, and other rocks in Upper Egypt, and extends southward into Abyssinia. Captain Tuckey mentions it as one of the rocks he met with on the banks of the Congo. 8. Greenstone. Greenstone, which is a compound of horn blende artd felspar, occurs in beds in Upper Egypt. It is sometimes porphyritic, and fre quently it has an uniform green coloured basis* in which pale green crystals of felspar are imbed ded, forming a beautiful rock, described under the name green porphyry. It is known to artists under the name antique green porphyry ; and it has been frequently confounded with the verd antique, which is a mixture of serpentine and marble, and therefore a very different rock from porphyry. 9. Serpentine. This green coloured rock occurs in beds in mountains to the west of the Nile, where it al ternates with beds of limestone and clay slate. It is also met with in the mountains that range PRIMITIVE ROCKS. 439 along the west side ofthe Red Sea, where it ap pears to be contained in a clay slate, which alter nates with beds of compact felspar. It is erro neously described by some authors as a green coloured marble. 10. Marble, or Foliated Granular Limestone. Beds of this rock, of a white, grey, yellow, bluish, and red colour, occur in clay slate, and also in serpentine, in Upper Egypt, Darfur, and Abyssinia. In these countries it is occasionally intermixed with serpentine, forming the well known compound rock named verde antico. The predominating rock of the Atlas range as it passes through Tunis, Algiers, and Morocco, is a lime stone, which exhibits many and often beautiful colours. The Numidic yellow, and many of the variegated marbles prized by the ancients, were dug in this range of mountains. 11. Conglomerate, named also Breccia di Verde. This conglomerated looking rock occurs in beds of great thickness and extent, along with clay slate, in the ranges of mountains that extend towards Cosseir. It is remarked, that as we ap proach Cosseir three sets of rocks succeed each other : the first set is small, granular, and grani tic ; the second set is of the breccia di verde ; 440 NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA. and the third of slate, which alternates with and passes into the breccia.* SECONDARY ROCKS. The following secondary rocks occur in Africa : sandstone, limestone, gypsum, salt, coal, and trap, 1. Sandstone. This rock occurs in great abundance in many regions in Africa, as in the mountains leading to Cosseir, at Tetuan in Fez, Tunis, the peninsula of the Cape of Good Hope, and forming great mountains, reaching to a height of ten thousand feet, to the northward ofthe Cape of Good Hope. At Tetuan it is said to rest upon granite ; in many of the mountain ranges in Southern Africa, upon clay slate or granite. It passes into a grey coloured quartz, and does not contain organic remains. It is not improbable, that much of this sandstone may prove, on more particular exami nation, to belong to the species named quartz rock, or primitive sandstone, which occurs in vast beds in primitive mountains. 2. Limestone. This limestone, which has a splintery or con- * The sarcophagus of Alexander the Great, now in the British Museum, is of the breccia di verde. SECONDARY ROCKS. 441 choidal fracture, and grey or variegated colour, contains numerous petrifactions of shells, corals, and fishes. It extends from Syene to the Medi terranean ; and in Lower Egypt reaches from Alexandria to the Red Sea, in the vicinity of Suez. It extends from the westward of the Nile onward to Fezzan, forming single hills and ranges of hills. In the hilly district of Fezzan, near Harutsch, the limestone which still prevails is caped and intermixed with trap rocks. The limestone is generally disposed in horizontal stra ta, but where the trap rocks appear, the stratifica tion is more or less varied in its position. In tra velling from Fezzan northwards towards Tripoli, the continuation of the Harutsch presents ranges of basaltic eminences alternating with rows of limestone hills. A limestone of the same descrip tion appears to view in the mountain ranges lead ing to Cosseir ; and in the same tract of country there are hills of limestone associated with gyp sum. It is also met with in the lower parts of the Atlas range, as near to Algiers, where it con tains petrified fishes ; and it is mentioned as oc curring in the vicinity of Carthage. 3. Gypsum. Gypsum occurs within three leagues of Cosseir, where it is connected with limestone, ' and proba bly also with porphyry ; and it is mentioned as . 44£ NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA. having been found in the valley of Egarement, associated with rock salt. 4. Salt. This mineral occurs in vast quantities in North ern Africa, on both sides of the Atlas mountains. Mr Horneman, in his journey from Cairo to Um- mesogeir, discovered a plain on a limestone range, which bounds the desert of Libya to the north, con sisting of a mass of rock salt, spread over so large a tract of surface, that in one direction no eye could reach its termination, and its width he computed at several miles. To the south-east of Abyssinia there is a plain of salt four days' journey across, whence all that country is supplied. In the val ley of Egarement there are beds of salt resting upon gypsum. At Tegazza, and in several other places in Sahara, large beds of very pure rock salt occur under strata of different kinds of solid rock ; and beds of salt appear in Darfur. Salt is also obtained in quantity from salt lakes of Dom- boo, from similar lakes in Southern Africa ; and it is remarked that beds of rock salt occur under strata of sandstone in Southern Africa, and in beds in Madagascar. 5. Coal. ¦ i Hitherto scarcely any traces of coal have been fnet with in Africa. The only instance I find re- SECONDARY ROCKS. 443 corded by travellers, is the following by Mr Bar row, where coal was found at the Tyger-berg, in the country to the north of the Cape of Good Hope. It is described as a bed of imperfect coal resting upon clay, and covered with clay and white sandstone. The coal is ligneous, or of the nature of brown coal, and contains intermixed iron pyrites, and is probably an alluvial forma tion. 6. Trap. Trap xocks of the nature of basalt occur in some places in the Atlas range, apparently con nected with limestone : rocks of the same descrip tion are met with at Sierra Leone, and abundant ly in the limestone hills of Harutsch in Fezzan. The limestone hills that extend from Fezzan to Tripoli also contain extensive formations of trap ; and it is remarked, that these rocks occasion considerable variety in the position of the lime- Stone strata ; owing to the crystallization of the trap rocks, if they are of aquatic formation, or to the action of the lava, if they are of volcanic origin. Detached hills of amygdaloid, also a trap rock, are found near the clay slate of Gellbock, in Southern Africa, and veins of greenstone traverse granite in the peninsula of the Cape of Good 444 NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA. Hope. Most of the African islands abound in secondary trap rocks, associated with lavas. In some maps of Africa, I observe a range of mountains to the southward of the syenite and porphyry formations of Upper Egypt, marked as composed of basalt. VOLCANIC ROCKS, Travellers mention one volcano in Abyssinia, and two on the coast of Mosambique. The isl and of Bourbon appears to be principally com posed of secondary trap rocks more or less altered by heat, and of true volcanic rocks. The Isle of France of volcanic rocks and limestone. The Isle of Ascension is said to be entirely volcanic, and to abound in obsidian. St Helena appears to be a mass of secondary trap with considerable beds of limestone, or according to some naturalists, of lava. Tristan d'Acunha, like Bourbon, appears to be volcanic with secondary trap rocks. The islands of Goree and Cape Verd are of basalt. The Canary islands are composed of volcanic and trap rocks, with subordinate] beds of limestone and inconsiderable strata of the primitive class. The Azores or Western Isles are of the same general nature, and also the Cape Verd and Madeira isles. ALLUVIAL. The principal alluvial formations are those on ALLUVIAL ROCKS. 445 the shores of lakes and the sides of rivers, and the vast expanse of sand which covers the great de serts. The sand formation is by far the most impor tant of the loose superficial coverings met with in Africa. In some places of the great desert, as Mr Horneman remarks, the sandy waste was covered with innumerable fragments of petrified wood, sometimes whole trunks of trees, twelve feet in circumference, sometimes merely branches and twigs, or even pieces of bark. This petrified wood was generally black, but sometimes ash grey, when it resembles natural wood so com pletely as to be sometimes brought in for the pur pose of firing. It is to be regretted, that we possess no accu rate description of this sand, or of the minerals contained in it. Now, since it appears probable, that some kinds of sand are original deposites, and not formed by the action of the atmosphere and the water on previously existing rocks, it is of consequence to know acccurately the oryctog- nostic and geognostic relations of sands, particu larly those that form the great deserts in Africa and other quarters of the globe. SIMPLE MINERALS FOUND IN AFRICA. 1. Chrysolite. — This gem, described by the an cients under the name topaz, is said to have been 446 NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA. collected by the order of the kings of Egypt, in an island in the Red Sea named Zemorget, or the Island of Topazes. 2. Emerald. — The Romans are said to have procured this gem from the mountains situated on the western shores ofthe Red Sea in Upper Egypt and Ethiopia. Bruce mentions an island in the Red Sea named the Island of Emeralds, but which contains only green coloured fluor spar. 3. Chrysoberyl. — This gem is also enumerated amongst the mineral productions of Upper Egypt. 4. Schorl. — -It occurs imbedded in the granite at the sources of the Senegal. 5. Epidote or Pistacite. — This mineral is found in the valleys near Cosseir, along with actynolite, and also near Orange river in Southern Africa. 6. Precious Garnet. — This beautiful gem is found in Ethiopia and in Madagascar. 7- Quartz. — The rarest varieties of quartz met with in Africa are the Avanturine, which is found in Egypt, and the rock crystal of Tunis and Madagascar. 8. Wood Stone. — This mineral is already men tioned as occurring imbedded in the sand of the desert. 9. Calcedony and Carnelian.-— Both these semi pellucid stones are found on the banks ofthe Nile, in Upper and Lower Egypt. 10. Agate.*— It is found to the eastward of Cairo. SIMPLE MINERALS. 447 11. Common Jasper. — It occurs in veins of con siderable thickness in clay slate in Upper Egypt. 12. Brown Egyptian Jasper.— -This beautiful mineral, which is peculiar to Africa, occurs loose, and very abundantly in the sandy desert between Cairo and Suez : also in other parts of Lower Egypt, where it is said to occur, imbedded in a species of conglomerate. 13. Prehnile. — This beautiful species of the zeolite family is found in veins that traverse granite, in the country of the Namaquas, to the north of the Cape of Good Hope. 14. Actynolite. — It occurs in Alpine valleys in Upper Egypt, along with epidote. 15. Hornblende. ~-lt is abundantly imbedded in the syenite and greenstone of Upper Egypt. 16. Amianthus. — -Beautiful blue and yellow coloured amianthus are found near Hardcastle, on the Orange river, in Southern Africa. Specimens of these and other minerals, collected in Africa, are now in the Museum of the University of Edin burgh, presented by Mr Campbell, the Missionary traveller. I have much pleasure in mentioning this circumstance, as it shews that these gentle men may execute all their important duties, while, at the same time, by their observations and collections, they contribute to the advance ment of Natural History. 17^ Calcareous alabaster ', or calcareous sinter, 5S 448 NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA. as it is sometimes called, is a mineral production of Egypt. The most beautiful calcareous alabas ters, those used by the ancients, are conjectured to have been brought from the mountains of the Thebaid, situated between the Nile and the Red Sea, near the city of Alabastron. In the Natural Museum in Paris, there is a colossal figure of an Egyptian deity, cut in this rare kind of alabaster.* Very lately, that indefatigable inquirer Mr Bel zoni discovered, in one of the chambers of a tomb in the valley of " Biban El Moluck" in Egypt, an exquisitely beautiful sarcophagus of alabaster, which he describes as being nine feet five inches long by three feet nine inches wide, and two feet and one inch high, carved, within and without, with hieroglyphics and figures in intaglio, nearly in a perfect state, sounding like a bell, and as transparent as glass. 18. Fluor Spar.'— A. beautiful green coloured variety of this mineral, which has been confound ed with emerald, is said to occur in the Island of Emeralds, in the Red Sea. 19. Heavy Spar, or Sulphat ofBarytes. — This mineral occurs in small quantity in Lower Egypt. 20. Nitre.— This salt occurs incrusting rocks in Darfur, and in the Karroo deserts in Southern Africa. * Jameson's Mineralogy, vol. ii. p. 173. SIMPLE MINERALS. 449 21. Natron. — Of this salt there are two subspe cies, viz. common and radiated, and both are found in Africa. The common natron occurs in considerable quantity in Egypt, at the town of Nitria, also in the valley of the Natron Lakes, and in Nubia.* The radiated subspecies is found in the province of Sukena, two days' journey from Fezzan. It is found at the bottom of a rocky mountain, forming crusts, usually the thickness of a knife, and sometimes, although rarely, of an inch, on the surface of the earth. According to Mr Barrow, it would appear also to occur in the district of Tarka, in Bosjesman's Land, in South ern Africa. 22. Sulphur. — This substance is met with in Darfur. 23. Graphite or Black Lead. — It is said to oc cur near the Cape of Good Hope, and also in the vicinity of Tunis. 24. Gold. — 'This continent affords a consider able quantity of gold, which is always obtained in the form of dust or rolled masses, and is found in the sand of rivers, or the alluvial soil of valleys or plains. The northern parts of Africa afford but little gold, but in the middle and southern regions there are several tracts remarkable for * Glauber salt is associated in layers with the natron Of the lakes. VOL. II. F f 450 NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA. the quantity of gold they afford. The first is Kordofan, situated between Darfur and Abys sinia. The gold collected there is brought to market by the negroes in quills of the ostrich and vulture. This territory, it would appear, was known to the ancients, who regarded ^Ethiopia as a country rich in gold. The second principal tract lies to the south of the Great Desert of Zahara, and in the western part of Africa. The gold is collected in that ex tensive flat which stretches from the foot of those mountains in which are situated the sources of the rivers Gambia, Senegal, and Niger. Gold is also found in the sands of all these rivers. Bambouk, which is situated to the north-west of these mountains, furnishes the greatest part of the gold which is sold on the western coast of Africa, as well as that which is brought to Mo rocco, Fez, Algiers, and to Cairo and Alexandria in Egypt. The third principal tract where gold is abun dant, lies on the south-east coast, between 15* and 22& of south latitude, and nearly opposite Madagascar. The gold of that country, it is said, is found not only in the state of dust, but also in veins ; and it is supposed, that Ophir, from whence Solomon obtained gold, was a country on the same coast. Nearer to the equator, the Gold Coast SIMPLE MINERALS. 451 supplied the Portuguese, and afterwards the Dutch, with great quantities of gold dust.* 25. Silver. — There are several silver mines in the territory of Tunis ; others are reported to exist in the mountains behind Mosambique, also in those behind Congo. Browne heard that silver abounded in Zanfara, a country to the west of Darfur. He is single in this respect, and I sus pect it is a mistake. 26. Copper.- — Considerable quantities of this metal are found in the western Atlas, also in the territory of Tunis ; and there are copper mines at Fertit, bordering on Fur, to the south. It occurs also in Abyssinia, abundantly behind Mo sambique and also in Madagascar. It is equally abundant in the southern part of the mountains behind Congo, also in the mountains of the Da- maras, north of Orange river. I do not find the species of ore accurately described ; but it would appear, that in some districts in Southern Africa, it is vitreous copper ore. 27. Iron. — 'This metal is found in considerable quantity in Morocco, and in the country behind Sofala, where it is chiefly worked by the Makoo- anas. Mines of iron are said to occur in Abyssi nia. Red hematite, an ore of iron, occurs in veins in sandstone, in the mountains near the * Jameson's Mineralogy, Vol. iii. 452 NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA. Cape of Good Hope ; and micaceous iron ore is met with in the same country, and used by the natives, along with grease, for ornamenting their hair and bodies. Native meteoriG iron has been discovered in several places in Africa. Golberry, in his journey through Western Africa, in the years 1805-7, found a mass of native iron in the Great Desert of Zahara. Fragments of it were brought to Europe by Colonel O'Hara, and were analyzed by Mr Howard, who found it composed of 96 parts of iron and 4 of nickel. Barrow men tions a mass of iron he met with on the banks of the Great Fish River, in Caffraria, which appears to be meteoric* 28. Lead. — We have very few notices of the occurrence of this metal in Africa. Lead mines are said to exist in Tunis and Abyssinia ; veins of galena, or leadglance, intersect the strata of sandstone in the chain of Zwarteberg, in the country behind the Cape of Good Hope; and the same ore is met with in Madagascar. 29. Antimony. — This metal is said to occur in large quantity in the Western Atlas. • ¦ 30. Tin is said to occur in Madagascar. Zoology. The Zoology of this continent is less known * Jameson's Mineralogy, Vol. iii. p. 202, 203. QUADRUPEDS. 453 than that of the other great quarters of the globe. The animals in its interior, those in many districts both on its east and west coasts, are, in a manner, unknown to us. The various journeys of modern travellers, in different directions through Africa, have added many species to its Fauna, and have excited an extraordinary desire amongst natural ists to know more of its zoological productions. Its quadrupeds and birds are amongst the largest and most striking hitherto met with by natu ralists. Its amphibious animals, fishes, and in sects, exhibit phenomena of the highest curiosi ty ; and the few facts that are known in regard to the molluscan animals and corals, allow us to anticipate, from a further examination, numerous important discoveries. In a work like the present, we cannot enter into any particular account of the Fauna of this quarter of the globe ; but must rest satisfied with a short enumeration of some of the animals which are peculiar to it. We shall mention the different classes of ani mals as they are arranged in the zoological system of naturalists, beginning, therefore, with CLASS I. Mammalia. Order 1. Quadrumana. Of all the quadrumanous, or four-handed ani mals found in Africa, the most remarkable is the 454 NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA. Simia troglodytes, chimpanse pongo, jocko, or orang-outang, which in its countenance and gene* rai aspect very much resembles the human species, It was formerly confounded with the orang-outang of Borneo, the Simia satyrus of naturalists ; but the orang-outang of Borneo is brown, and the great toes are without nails, whereas that of Afri ca is black, and the great toes are provided with nails. It is said occasionally to attain a height of from five to six feet, and to be possessed of great strength. Africa abounds in baboons and monkeys. ' Several of the baboon tribe are remarkable for their great size, uncommon strength, disgusting manners, and ferocity"; while the numerous spe cies of the monkey tribe are more agreeably dis tinguished by their lively and playful manners, and their great imitative powers. Order 2. Chiroptera. Several species of the bat (yespertilio) tribes are met with in Africa ; and some species, as the borbonicus and nigrita, are peculiar to this' cbnti- nent. Order 3. Digitata. Several of the squirrel, or sciurus tribe, occur in Africa, and the following species are consider ed as peculiar to it ;— *• QUADRUPEDS. 455 Sciurus getulus setosus Abyssinicus ater. Of the mouse tribe, many species are enume rated amongst the animals of this continent. The black rat (mus rattus) and the common mouse (mus musculus) are abundant ; but one of the most remarkable of the whole tribe is covered with hair and spines, somewhat like the porcu pine, and appears to be nearly allied to the rat epineuoc of Azara. Four species of hare (lepus) are described as peculiar to Africa, viz. Lepus JEgypticus capensis2. species capensis. Some authors mention the common hare as a native of Northern Africa ; but it is probable they may have confounded it with the Egyptian hare (lepus JEgypticus). The crested porcupine occurs in Africa; but hitherto no species of this genus have been ascer tained to be peculiar to this quarter of the globe. Of the hedgehog tribe (erinaceus) there is one species entitled JEgypticus, which is said to be peculiar to Egypt ; and, in the island of Mada gascar, there are four species of a genus very nearly allied to the hedgehog, named by Cuvier 456 NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA. Centetes. The shrew (sores) tribe has also been met with in Africa, for there is a species, describ-: ed as a native of the Cape of Good Hope. , The common mole (talpa Europea) is found in many districts in Africa. Travellers mention an animal as occurring in the vicinity of the Cape Of Good Hope, which has been described under the name golden mole, from the singular appear ance of its fur, which exhibits beautiful changing* iridescent colours, somewhat resembhng those observed in the hair of a South American marsur pial animal. But it differs from the mple in the. form of its skull, and the nature of its teeth ; and hence has been considered as forming a dis tinct genus named Chrysochloris. The civet cat (y'werra civetta), which secretes in a bag under its tad the perfume called civet, is found only in Africa, and the famous ichneu mon (yiverra ichneumon) worshipped by the an cient Egyptians, does not appear to occur in any, other quarter of the globe. Animals of the bear tribe (ursus) occur but, seldom in this continent ; the black bear (ursus niger) is met with among the mquntains of Bar bary. Several species of the dog (canis) tribe are met with in Africa. Vast troops of wild dogs occur in Congo ; these are not the original ofthe com mon dog, but appear to be some variety of that. . QUADRUPEDS. 457 animal which has become wild. It is uncertain if the fox (canis vulpes) occurs in Africa ; but the wolf is common in many places ; and the jackall (canis aureus), which is probably the fox of holy writ; is abundant. The lion, which was formerly an inhabitant of the three quarters of the old world, is now prin cipally confined to Africa, and a few bordering Asiatic districts. The panther and the leopard are also confined to Africa. Several other spe cies nearly allied to those just mentioned, are described as peculiar to Africa, but their history is still involved in much obscurity. The hyama tribe is almost peculiar to Africa. In Southern Africa, we meet with the spotted hyaena (hyama crocuta) ; and in the north, the striped hyaena (hyama striata), which occurs also in the Levant, Persia, and India. That remarkable quadruped, the manis, which is incased in an armour of moveable horny scales, is confined to the old world, and one of the spe cies entitled Manis tetradactyla, or long tailed manis, is found in Guinea, and also in Senegal. The myrmecophaga, or ant-eater, used to be reckoned amongst the native inhabitants of Af rica ; but it has been ascertained that all the species of that genus are confined to the new world, and that the supposed ant-eater of the old world belongs to another genus, or tribe, entitled '458 NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA. orycteropus, which is characterized by its grinders and claws. There is but one species of the genus named O. capensis, which occurs at the Cape of Good Hope. Order 4. Solidungula. Africa is richer in animals of the horse tribe than any other quarter of the globe. In its southern extremity there are two species, the zebra and quagga, both distinguished by the beautiful marking of their skin ; and Northern Africa affords the common horse, and also the wild ass. Order 5. Bisulca. Of all the domesticated animals, not originally natives of Africa, the dromedary is the most im portant and useful to the natives. It is their principal beast of burden, and is by them empha tically named the ship of the desert. If the dro medary did not possess an astonishing degree of temperance,— if it had not the power of support ing thirst for a great length of time, — and of tra versing with rapidity immense distances, over de serts xovered with a deep and burning sand, vast tracts, both of Africa and Asia, would be unin habited and waste. The most remarkable of all the bisulcated, or hoofed animals of Africa, is the giraffe, or came- QUADRUPEDS, 459 lopard, which is distributed through this conti nent from the northern frontier of the colony at the Cape of Good Hope, as far north as Egypt. Its neck is of uncommon length, its head very much resembles that of a sheep, but it is provid ed with two undivided horns, tipped with brushes of hair. It is the tallest of land animals, indivi duals having been measured eighteen feet high. It is a remarkably gentle animal, and lives on the leaves of trees. No animals of the deer tribe (cervus) occur in southern and tropical Africa ; and the small cer- vus Guineensis appears to be a species of antelope. The red deer (cervus elephas) occurs in the north of Africa, but may have been imported from Eu rope. But Africa, although destitute of deer, is abundantly supplied with species of that beauti ful tribe of hoofed quadrupeds, named antelope. There are about thirty species of antelope found in Africa, and most of them distinguished by .the uncommon beauty of their form, the gracefulness of their motions, and their great speed. The most striking species is the A. gnou, a native, of the Cape of Good Hope. It appears to be a very singular compound of animals, uniting the strong head and horns of the bull, with the light ness and skin of the stag ; the beauty of the mane, body, and tail of the horse, and the lach rymal sinus of the- antelope; in short, at first 460 NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA. view it appears to be a mixture of the bull, ante lope, and horse ; and seems more, nearly allied to the bovine than the antelope tribe. It is one of the swiftest and most restless of the antelope tribe, and is about three feet eight inches high, andi five feet eight inches long. It is worthy of remark that the antelope does not occur in the new world. Animals of the goat and sheep tribes (capra) appear to be rare in Africa. The different spe cies mentioned by travellers, as occurring in the northern parts of this continent, are very dubious. The wild goat (capra aigagrus), which is alleged to be the original of the domestic goat, is said to inhabit the north of Africa ; and the mouflon of Africa occurs in rocky deserts in Barbary,. and also in Egypt. The only species of the ox tribe peculiar to Africa, is that named the Caffrarian buffalo (bos coffer), which is of great size, and remarkably wild and ferocious. Fabulous Quadrupeds. The ancients have reported the existence of several animals in Africa, which there is now reason to regard as fabulous. Among these, the most celebrated was the unicorn, on which we shall extract the remarks of Cuvier, in his Theory of the Earth. QUADRUPEDS. 46 1 " The most famous among these fabulous ani mals ofthe ancients was the unicorn. Its real ex istence has been obstinately asserted even in the present day, or at least proofs of its existence have been eagerly sought for. Three several animals are frequently mentioned by the ancients as hav ing only one horn placed on the middle of the forehead. The oryx of Africa, having cloven hoofs, the hair placed reversely to that of other animals,* its height equal to that ofthe built or even of the rhinoceros, t and said to resemble deer and goats in its form ; § the Indian ass, having solid hoofs ; and the monoceros, properly so called* whose feet are sometimes compared to those of the lion, || and sometimes to those of the ele phant, %• and is therefore considered as having divided feet. The horse unicorn** and the bull unicorn are doubtless both referable to; the Indian ass, for even the latter is described as having solid ¦ hoofs, tt We may therefore be fully as sured that these animals have never really exist- * Aristot. Anim.II. 1. and ill. 2.— Plin. XI. 46. f Herodot. IV. 192. X Oppian, Cyneg. II. vers. 551.. § ,Plin. VIII. 53. |J Philostrog. III. ii. ^ «j[ Plin. VIII. 21. '** Onesecrit. ap. Strab. lib.' XV.— 2£lian. Anim. XIII. 42. ft See Pliny and Solinus. 462 NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA* ed, as no solitary horns have ever found their way into our collections, excepting those of the rhi noceros and narwal. " After careful consideration, it is impossible that we should give any credit to rude sketches made by savages upon rocks. Entirely ignorant of perspective, and wishing to represent the out lines of a straight-horned antelope in profile, they could only give the figure one horn, and thus they produced an oryx. The oryxes, too, that are seen on the Egyptian monuments, are nothing more, probably, than productions of the stiff style imposed on the sculptors of the country by re ligious prejudices. Several of their profiles of quadrupeds shew only one fore and one hinder leg, and it is probable that the same rule led them also to represent only one horn. Perhaps their figures may have been copied after individuals that had lost one of their horns by accident, a circumstance that often happens to the chamois and the saiga, species of the antelope genus, and this would be quite sufficient to establish the error. All the ancients, however, have not represented the oryx as having only one horn. Oppian ex pressly attributes two to this animal, and vElian mentions one that had four.* Finally, if this animal was ruminant and cloven-footed, we are * iElian. Anim. XV. 14. QUADRUPEDS. 465 quite certain that its frontal bone must have been divided longitudinally into two, and that it could not possibly, as is very justly remarked by Camper, have had a horn placed upon the suture. " It may be asked, however, What two-horned animal could have given an idea of the oryx, in the forms in which it has been transmitted down to us, even independent of the notion of a single horn ? To this I answer, as already done by Pal-. las, that it was the straight-horned antilope oryx of Gmelin, improperly named pasan by Buffon. This animal inhabits the deserts of Africa, and must frequently approach the confines of Egypt, and appears to be that which is represented in the hieroglyphics. It equals the ox in height, while the shape of its body approaches to that of a stag, and its straight horns present exceedingly formi dable weapons, hard almost as iron, and sharp- pointed like javelins. Its hair is whitish ; it has black spots and streaks on its face, and the hair on its back points forwards. Such is the descrip tion given by naturalists ; and the fables of the Egyptian priests, which have occasioned the in sertion of its figure among their hieroglyphics, do not require to have been founded in nature. Sup posing that an individual of this species may have been seen which had lost one of its horns by some accident, it may have been taken as a representa tive of the entire race, and erroneously adopted 26 464 NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA. by Aristotle to be copied by all his successors. AU this is quite possible and even natural, and gives not the smallest evidence for the existence of a single-horned species of antelope." Order 6. Multungula. Those animals in which the hoof is divided into more than two parts, or what are called mul- tungulated, are abundant, and well characterized in Africa. Of these the following are the most interesting. 1. Elephant. — One species of this genus is pe culiar to Africa, and is named the African ele phant. Its head is roundish, forehead convex, ears large, and the surfaces of the grinders have lozenge-shaped ridges. It appears to have only three toes or hoofs on the hind feet. It inhabits Africa from Senegal to the Cape of Good Hope. It is not known if it extends along the east coast of Africa, or if it is there replaced by the Asiatic species. At present the African elephant is never domesticated ; although it appears from historians that the Carthaginians trained them for war and for various domestic purposes. 2. Rhinoceros. — Three species of this remarkable genus appear to be peculiar to Africa. The most frequent is the Rh. bicornis or two-horned rhino ceros, which has no cutting teeth, two conical horns, and smooth skin. The want of cutting QUADRUPEDS. 465 teeth distinguishes it from the rhinoceros of Sum- matra. The rhinoceros of Abyssinia appears to be a distinct species, but we still want accurate information in regard to that animal. A few years ago Mr Burchell, an English traveller, met with a third or new species of this genus in Africa, in lat. 26. S. It is described under the name R,h. canus or simus. It is principally distinguished by the truncated and enlarged form of its nose and upper lip. It is nearly double the size of the two horned species. It fives upon herbaceous plants, not on trees and shrubs, as is the case with the bicornis. The flesh of both species is a good article of food. 3. Hippopotamus. — This animal is an inhabi tant ofthe large South African rivers, and is some times seen in herds. It was met with in the river Nile in ancient times ; but it has long since dis appeared from that part of Africa. It is almost peculiar to Africa, a few individuals only having been seen in Sumatra. 4. Hog (sus). — There is but one species of hog peculiar to Africa ; it is the African hog of Schre- ber, and which is figured and described by Daniels in his African scenery, as a native of Southern Africa. It is also met with in the island of Mada gascar. The wild hog (sus scrofa) occurs in Northern Africa. vol. 11. g g 466 NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA. 5. Phaco-coerus. — Of this tribe, which is veiy nearly allied to the preceding, there is but one species peculiar to Africa. It is described under the names African and Ethiopic hog, and is met with in different parts of Africa, as Cape Verd and the Cape of Good Hope. 6. Hyrax. — There is but one species of this tribe known to naturalists, which is the size of a hare, and is frequently met with in rocky situa tions in Africa. It is also met with in Syria, and is the saphan of the Old Testament. Order 7- — Palmata. The natural history of the palmated mammi- ferous animals of Africa is still very imperfect. Seals occur on the coasts, and occasionally in considerable numbers. The common seal (phoca vitulina) is said to occur on the coast of Bar bary and at the Cape of Good Hope ; and the phocajubata, or sea lion, is alleged to have been seen on the coasts of the Cape of Good Hope. Another genus of palmated mammiferous ani mals occurs at the mouths of the great African rivers. It is named manatus. It differs from the trichechus or sea horse, or morse of the northern regions, in wanting the hinder feet, and being shaped behind like a fish ; a circumstance which connects it rather more with the whales than the morses. It forms as it were the link by which palmated quadrupeds are connected with the ce- QUADRUPEDS. 467 tacea. The head is roundish ; the body oblong, and ends in an oval fish-like tail ; jaws are provid ed with grinders, of which there are eight on each side, and both in the upper and lower jaws ; but there are neither canine nor fore-teeth. It has two swimming paws, provided with long nails, and the animal uses these paws as hands ; hence its name manatus, which has been further cor rupted into lamantin, another name given to these animals. The mammae are placed high On the breast, and in the female are roundish and pro minent. It grows fifteen feet and more in length. These animals occasionally raise themselves more than half out of the water, when they appear somewhat like the human species, and have been described under the names merman and mermaid. They occur at the mouth of the Congo and other great rivers in Africa. Drawings and descrip tions of the manatus, under the names mermen and mermaids, are given in the writings of early writers, as in the Relation Historique de VEihio- pie Occidental, par L. P. Labat, Tome I. Order S.-^Cetacea. Few species of the whale or cetaceous tribe are met with near the coasts of Africa ; and it would appear that these animals, as well as seals, are less frequent in the warmer, than in the colder regions of the earth. 468 natural History of Africa, II. — Birds. Birds peculiar to Africa* Many more species of birds are found in South America than in Africa ; but the African species are more numerous than those of Australia, if wre except the aquatic birds* that appear to be more numerous in Australia than in Africa. The orni thology of the lakes and rivers of Africa is as little known as that of the rivers and lakes of New Holland and New Zealand ; hence the small num ber of marsh and aquatic birds enumerated in the Fauna of Africa, compared with what is contained in the Fauna of the comparatively small continent of Europe. There are in Africa about 642 species, being a sixth part of the known species of birds ; and of these nearly 500 are peculiar to it. Of 87 genera found in Africa, six or eight are peculiar to it, viz. corythaix, musophaga, buphaga, numida, didus, scopus, and probably also gypogeranus and pogo~ nias. The didus or dodo, so much celebrated in ornithology, was, formerly seen in the island of Bourbon, as well as in some parts of Africa ; but is now become so rare as to be no longer discover able in the regions where it was formerly found ; and has probably, like some other animals, be come extinct, from causes with which we are un acquainted. BIRDS. 469 The Guinea-fowl, or Numida meleagris, is ori ginally a native of Africa, and may be considered as corresponding with the genera phasianus and gallus (common fowl) of Asia, and the meleagris (turkey) and penelope of America. The com mon ostrich (struthio camelus), one of the largest and most remarkable of the feathered tribe, and which has been celebrated from the most remote historic antiquity, is peculiar to Africa, and some districts in Asia. It abounds in the sandy deserts, and attains the height of from six to eight feet. It runs swifter than any other animal. They live in large troops, and lay eggs three pounds weight, which are hatched solely by the heat of the sun in the warmest regions of Africa ; but in less heated regions, the bird occasionally sits upon them. In Africa, as is generally the case in warm cli mates, the insectiverous and frugiverous birds are the most frequent, because insects and fruits are very abundant. And it may be remarked, that the parrot tribe, which is so numerous in the other southern regions of the globe, is comparatively rare in Africa. The following is a general view of the genera and species found in Africa, arranged according to the method of Illiger : — 470 NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA. Order l.—Scansores. 1. Genus, Psittacus or parrot tribe. Sixteen species are found in Africa, and of these twelve are peculiar to it, and four common to other parts ofthe world. 2. Genus, Pogortias. Four species ; of these three are peculiar to Africa, and one common to other parts. 3. Genus, Corythaix. Two species, and these are peculiar to Africa. 4. Genus, Trogon. One species, which is pe culiar to Africa. 5. Genus, Musophaga. One species, which is peculiar to Africa. 6. Genus, Bucco. One species, which is pecu liar to Africa. 7. Cuculus, cuckoo. Of the cuckoo tribe, sixteen species are found in Africa, and of these fifteen are peculiar to it. 8. Centropus. There are three species, all of which are peculiar to Africa. 9. Picus, woodpecker. There are ten species peculiar to Africa. II. — Ambulatores. 1. Alcedo, kingfisher. Thirteen species occur in Africa, and of these nine arepeculiar to it, and the other four species it has in common with other parts of the globe. BIRDS. 471 2. Merops, bee-eater. Eleven species; of these nine are peculiar, and two in common with other countries. 3. Nectarinia. Thirty-one species ; thirty pe culiar, and one in common with other countries. 4. Upupa. Five species ; three peculiar, two common to other countries. 5. Sitta, nuthatch. Two species, peculiar. 6. Buphaga. One species, peculiar. 7. Oriolus. Three species, peculiar. 8. Turdus, thrush. Forty-three species ; thirty- eight species peculiar, five common to other coun tries. 9. Sturnus, starling. One species, which it has in common with other countries. 10. Motacilla, warbler. Fifty-four species ; forty-nine pecuhar, five in common with other countries. 11. Musicapa, flycatcher. Thirty-seven spe cies ; thirty-five peculiar, two common with other countries. 12. Lanius, butcher-bird. Nineteen species ; sixteen peculiar, three in common with other countries. 13. Sparactes. One species, in common with other countries. 14. Parus, titmouse. Five species ; four pecu har, one in common with other countries. 472 NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA. 15. Alauda, lark. Seven species, and all of them peculiar to Africa. 16. Emberiza, bunting. Six species ; four peculiar, two common with other countries. 17- Fringilla, finch. Sixty-seven species ; fifty- three peculiar, ten in common with other coun tries. 18. Colius. Six specieSi; all peculiar. 19. Phytotoma, One species, and that pecu liar. 20. Buceros, hornbill. Four species ; three peculiar, one in common with other countries. 21. Corvus, crow. Nine species ; six peculiar, and three in common with other countries. 22. Coracias, roller. Thirteen species ; nine peculiar, and four in common with other coun tries. 23. Gracula. Two species, which are pecu liar. 24. Hirundo, swallow. Seven species ; five peculiar, and two in common with other coun tries. .,'•-.' 25. Caprimulgus, goatsucker. Four species ; two peculiar, and two in common with other countries. III.— Raptatores. , ; 1. Strix, owl. Seven species ; two peculiar, three in common with other countries. BIRDS. 473 2. Falco. Thirty-three species ; twenty-six peculiar, and six in common with other countries. 3. Gypogeranus. One species, which occurs in other countries. 4. Gypaetus. Two species ; one peculiar, one in common with other countries. 5. Vultur. Three species ; one peculiar, and two in common with other countries. IV. — Rasores. 1. Numida, Guinea-fowl. Three" species ; all of which are peculiar to Africa. 2. Tetrao, grouse. Five species; four peculiar, and one in common with other countries. 3. Perdix, partridge. Fourteen species ; eight peculiar, and six in common with other countries. 4. Ortygis. Six species ; four peculiar, and two in common with other countries. 5. Columba, pigeon. Sixteen species ; fifteen peculiar, and one in common with other coun tries. 6. Didus. Only one species, and that peculiar to Africa. V. — Cursores. 1. Struthio, ostrich. One species, which is peculiar to Africa and Asia. 2. Otis, bustard. Six species; five peculiar, and one in common with other countries. 474 NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA. 3. Charadrius, plover. Thirteen species ; ten peculiar, and three in common with other coun tries. 4. Himantopus. One species, which occurs also in other countries. VI. — Grallatores. 1. Glareola. One species, which occurs also in other countries. 2. Grus, crane. Four species ; two peculiar, and two in common with other countries. 3. Ciconia, stork. Four species ; two pecuhar, and two in common with other countries. 4. ¦ Ardea, heron. Four species ; two pecuhar, and two in common with other countries. 5. Scopus. One species, which is peculiar to Africa. 6. Ibis. Six species ; five pecuhar, and one in common with other countries, 7. Numenius. Four species $ all of which are peculiar to Africa. 8. Scolopax. Three species, which occur also in other countries. 9. Tringa. One species, found also in other countries. 10, Parra. One species, peculiar. 11. Rallus, rail. Seven species ; six peculiar, and one in common with other countries. BIRDS. 475 12. Crex. Six species ; three peculiar, and three in common with other countries. 13. Fulica. One species, which occurs also in other countries. 14. Platalea. One species, which occurs also in other countries. 15. Phaenicopterus. One species, which also occurs in other countries. VII. — Natatores. 1. Sterna, tern. Seven species ; two peculiar, and five in common with other countries. 2. Larus, gull. Two species, neither of which are peculiar to Africa. 3. Lestris. Two species, neither of which are peculiar to Africa. 4. Procellaria, petrel. Six species ; but none of them are peculiar to Africa. 5. Diomedea, albatross. Two species ; but neither of them peculiar to Africa. 6. Anas* duck. Ten species ; five peculiar, and five in common with other countries. 7. Anser, goose. Six species ; three peculiar, and three in common with other countries. 8. Pelicanus, pelican. Two species ; one pe culiar, and one in common with other countries. 9. Halieus. Six species ; three peculiar, and three in common with other countries. 10. Dysporus. One species, which is pecuhar to Africa. 476 NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA. 11. PhaethOn. Two species, neither of which are peculiar to Africa. 12. Plotus. Two species, which are peculiar to Africa. 13. Colymbus. One species, which occurs also in other countries. 14. Aptenodytes, penguin. One species, which is peculiar to Africa. III. — Amphibious Animals. Reptiles. Of the tortoise tribe, the most frequent species is that named Tyrse ( Trionyx JEgyptiacus, Geoff.) which is about three feet long, green spotted with white, and is singularly useful in Egypt by devour ing the young crocodiles the moment they are hatched. The common crocodile, or the crocodile of the Nile, has been long celebrated. It was formerly abundant in Lower Egypt, but at present it is principally met with in Upper Egypt. It is very abundant in all the rivers of Guinea, and also in the Senegal. The monitor of the Nile or Oua- ran, the Lacerta Nilotica of Linnaeus, a species Of lizard three feet long, was much venerated by the ancient Egyptians, because it devours the eggs of the crocodile. In Congo, there is another mo, nitor hzard, six feet long, and which is useful t© REPTILES AND SERPENTS. 477 the inhabitants by devouring vermin of different kinds ; and the terrestrial monitor of Egypt, the ouran el hard, which is common in the deserts that bound Egypt, is the terrestrial crocodile of Herodotus, and the true scinque of the ancients. The common chameleon, so famous on account of the power it possesses of changing its colour, is a native of Egypt and Barbary ; and other species of the same genus are met with in Senegal, and at the Cape of Good Hope. Serpents. The great boa (boa constrictor, Lin.) is by some naturalists said to be a native of Africa, but more accurate observers are of opinion, that no species of the boa tribe occur in the old world. The large serpents of Africa belong to the Python tribe. Jugglers in Egypt train the haje (coluber haje, Lin.) to perform a variety of motions, called by them dancing, as the Hindoos practise with the cobra de capello, (coluber naja, Lin.) in India. The haje erects itself when we approach to it 9 hence, the ancient Egyptians fancied that it guard ed the fields it inhabited. They adopted it as the divine emblem of protection, and we observe it sculptured on the portals of their temples. It ap pears also to be the serpent described by the an cients under the name aspic. 478 NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA. IV. — Insects. Africa affords great variety and abundance of insects, which are not less remarkable for the beauty of their colours, and the brilliancy of their lustre* than for the remarkable forms, and adap. tations of their various parts. Some species we find very widely distributed, and occupying many different situations ; others are much more limi ted, both in their geographical and physical dis tribution. In the vegetable kingdom, we observe the same species under different latitudes, exhi biting different intensities, and even tints of co lour. The same is the case with insects. Even the same kind of colour changes according to the situation, becoming deeper and paler, and more or less metallic or silky. But the habits, man ners* and uses of this wonderful class of animals are those that most powerfully arrest the attention ofthe general observer. We shall now therefore notice a few species in these respects, it not being our intention to enter particularly into the history of African insectsi The migratory locust (gryllus migraiorius, Lin.) is the most formidable insect met with in Africa. Its incalculable numbers, and extraordinary vora city, have, in all ages, caused it to be considered as one ofthe most calamitous visitants ofthe dis tricts where it appears. Whole provinces are ra vaged and destroyed by them ; wherever their insects. 479 myriads spread, the verdure of the country disap. pears ; trees and plants are stripped of their leaves, and reduced to their naked boughs and stems ; and every thing green is as completely destroyed as if the country had been exposed to the ravages of fire. When these clouds of locusts take their flight, the heavens are literally darken ed by them. The celebrated traveUer Barrow gives a very striking picture of their numbers and ravages in Southern Africa. He says, that in the part of the country where he then was, for an area of nearly 2000 square miles, the whole sur face of the ground might literally be said to be covered with them. The water of a very wide river was scarcely visible, on account of the dead insects that floated on the surface, drowned in the attempt to come at the reeds that grew in it. They had devoured every blade of grass, and every green herb, except the reeds. The year 1797 was the third year of their continuance in Sneuwberg ; and their increase, according to Mr Barrow's account, had far exceeded that of a geometrical progression, whose ratio is a million. For ten years preceding the present visit, this dis trict was entirely free from them. Their former exit was somewhat singular. All the full grown insects were driven into the sea by a tempestuous north-west wind, and were afterwards cast upon the beach, where, it is said, they formed a bank 35 480 NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA. three or. four feet high, that extended a distance of nearly fifty English miles ; and it is asserted, that when the mass became putrid, and the wind was at south-east, the stench was sensibly felt in several parts of Sneuwberg, distant fully a hun dred and fifty miles. The locust is an article of food in some districts in Africa. They are dressed in different ways ; some pound and boil them with milk ; others only broil them on the coals; Mr Jackson Says, that, when he was in Barbary in 1799» dishes of locusts were frequently served at the principal tables, and were esteemed a great delicacy. The ant, named by Smeathman Termes bellico- sus, is, next to the locust, one of the most striking and formidable insects of the African continent. They build conical nests of loam and clay, from ten to twelve feet in height, which are divided internally into a variety of cells by thin partitions. These nests are often very numerous, and, when seen from a distance, appear like villages.* The cells of the king and queen ants are in the cen tre ; and around these, in a determinate order, are series of cells for what are called labourers, or * Jobson, in his History of Guinea, says that some of them are twenty feet high, and that he and his companions have often hidden themselves behind them, for the purpose ef shooting deer and other wild animals. INSECTS. 481 working insects ; for soldiers, or those that per form no other labour than such as is necessary in the defence of the nests, and for the young and the ova ; and, lastly, for stores or magazines. These animals destroy furniture, victuals, clothes, houses, and are able to cut through trunks of large trees in a few weeks. And it is worthy of particular remark, that the abdomen of the queen ant, in the impregnated state, becomes of so enor mous a size as to be two thousand times the bulk of the rest of the body. It is then an oblong matrix full of ova. When these are perfectly formed, they begin to be protruded, and they come forth so quickly, that about sixty in a mi nute, or upwards of eighty thousand in twenty- four hours, are deposited. Bruce, in his travels, describes a fly under the name Tsaltsalya, which appears to belong to the tabanus tribe. As soon as this pest appears, and their buzzing noise is heard, all the cattle forsake their food, and run wildly about the plain till they die, worn out with fatigue, terror, and hunger. Camels, and even elephants and rhinoceroses, though the two last coat themselves with a crust of mud, are attacked by this formidable insect. The pain its bite produces is so severe, that even the lion flies its approach. Several species of bee, particularly that named apis fasciata, are extensively cultivated in many VOL. II. h h 482 NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA. parts of Africa, and in some districts affords a particularly delicious honey ; and the wax obtain ed from the hive forms an article of consequence in the trade of Africa. The tarantula spider abounds in Barbary, where its bite is known to produce violent inflammation, and other disagreeable symptoms ; the bite of the solpuga araneoides, a native of the Cape of Good Hope, is often fatal to man and beast ; the com mon scorpion, so well known for the painful, and sometimes mortal wound it inflicts, is also a na tive of Africa ; and the tendaraman, a species of spider, native of Morocco, is said by Mr Jackson to be so poisonous, that the person bitten survives but a few hours. The great centipede (scolopendra morsitans, Lin.), a singularly unpleasant looking animal, which is poisonous, and produces wounds more painful than those of the scorpion, occurs abun dantly in Africa. V. — Molluscous Animals. The coasts and seas of Africa afford many re markable and striking species of this class. The shells of the African coasts, and rivers and lakes, by their forms, magnitudes, colours, and lustres, shew, in an interesting manner, how the forma tion of testaceous productions is connected with, and dependent in some measure on geographical MOLLUSCOUS ANIMALS. 483 and physical distribution. The limited distribu tion of some species of molluscous animals, when contrasted with the extensive distribution of others, excites the attention of the naturalist, and leads him to institute interesting comparisons be tween the external and internal relations of tribes of animals, thus already so strikingly marked by nature in their geographical and physical distri butions. But this is not the place for discussions on these highly curious subjects. We shall now notice a few of the species of this class. Several species of sepia, or cuttle-fish, occur on the coasts of this continent. Some of them ap pear to be much larger than any of those met with on our coasts ; and, if we can credit the ac counts of travellers, some of the African species attain a colossal size. The animals of the Argonaut tribe are nearly allied to the cuttle-fish. The famous nautilus of the ancients (the Argonauta argo, Lin.), which is supposed, in the early ages of the world, to have furnished the original idea of navigation, is found in the African seas, as in the neighbour hood of the Cape of Good Hope. When it means to sail, this animal discharges a quantity of water from its shell, by which means it is ren dered lighter than the surrounding medium, and of course rises to the surface. Here it extends two of its tentacula upwards. These are each 484 NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA. furnished at their extremity with an oval mem brane, which serves as a sail. The other six arms, or tentaculae, hang over the sides of the shell, and are alleged to supply fhe place of oars and rudder. In some places, when the sea is'hot agitated by winds* great numbers of these curi ous animals may occasionally be seen sailing about in this manner ; but as soon as the storm arises, or any thing disturbs them, they retract their tentacula, take in as much water as renders them heavier than that in which they swim, arid sink to the bottom. The Cypria moneta, or money cowry, is a well known species of shell, employed by the natives in commerce, instead of money, about 200u:of them being esteemed equal in value to a fiip'ee. It is a native ofthe Indian and Adriatic seas*1'' VI.-^-Zoophytes. Zoophytes, although the lowest in the scale of animated beings, yet are highly interesting in the grand and sublime plan of creation. Their num bers exceed all calculation — the minuteness' »6f manv species is such, that they are not to be SUs- criminated by the aid of our most powerful mi* croscopes- — they form one extremity of the zoolo gical scale of magnitude, of which the other is occupied with the gigantic whale of the polar re gions. The coral reefs, rocks, and islands ofthe ZOOPHYTES. 485 tropical seas, are formed by very minute zoo phytes. These reefs, in some regions of the earth, have been traced for a thousand miles in length, forty or fifty miles in breadth, and to depths sometimes unfathomable ; yet they are flie work of the most minute animals in the crea tion. We find, too, whole beds of rocks, even entire hills of very old formation, extending for hundreds of miles, characterized by the corals they contain ; thus proving, that these animals also existed in countless numbers in a former condition of our earth, and that then, as at pre sent, they assisted materially in adding to the solid matter of the globe. Zoophytes, from the simplicity of their structure, and the geognostic relations of the rocks in which they are occasion ally found, appear to have been called into ex istence before the other classes of animals. Of this numerous class of animals, many ge nera occur on the coasts of Africa. The Asterias, or star-fish, one ofthe most com mon ofthe zoophytic genera, is met with in many quarters. Of the species, one of the most beau tiful and singular is that named Arborescent ts£ar-fish (Asterias caput Medusa?, Lin.), which is occasionally taken off the Cape of Good Hope, The celebrated Guinea- worm (Filaria medinen- sie, Gm.) is very common in the warm regions of 486 NATURAL HISTORY OF AFRICA. Africa, particularly Guinea. It insinuates itself under the skin of the human species, principally of the arms and legs, and there it attains the length of ten feet. It is said that it will remain there for several years without producing any disagreeable symptoms ; but it sometimes occa sions violent pains, and even convulsion, accord ing to the part of the body it attacks. When it begins to protrude itself, great care must be em ployed in extracting it, as it is very apt to tear and leave a portion behind, which occasions vio lent and disagreeable symptoms. The operation of extraction is one of some time. The Physalia, or Portuguese sailor, met with in the tropical seas, and on the coasts of Africa, is often seen sailing on the surface of the ocean, by means of a particular organ which it uses as a sail, and hence is named by the French le petite galere, and by English mariners the Portuguese sailor. The red coral (Corallium rubrum, Cuvier), so well known as an article of trade, is fished up on the coasts of Tunis, and in the waters of the Red Sea. It grows much slower than the madrepores, and never occurs in such masses. It is found at different depths ; and it is remarked, that light exerts a powerful influence on its growth. Thus, at a depth of from three to ten fathoms, it grows one foot in eight years ; at the depth of from ten ZOOPHYTES. 487 to fifteen fathoms, the same length in ten years ; at the depth of one hundred fathoms, the same length in twenty-five or thirty years ; and, at the depth of one hundred and fifty fathoms, the same length in forty years. It is also remarked, that in gene ral the colour of the coral is deeper and richer in shallow than in very deep water. The coral of Barbary is not reckoned so fine as that of Italy or of France. Many species of madrepores are found on the African coasts, from N. L. 30° to S. L. 30° ; but it is not true, as some maintain, that the same species are distributed throughout the whole range of latitude just mentioned; on the contra ry, each species has its determinate place of abode, and of geographical distribution. The number of species increase as we advance towards the warmer regions ; but to the north and the south of the latitudes just mentioned they occur very rarely, and in but small quantity. Gorgonias, or sea-fans, millepores, corallines, sertularias, cellularias, alcyoniums, and sponges, are, in general, found most abundantly in the wa ters of the oeean, in latitudes to the north and south of the continent of Africa. Yet, on the coast of Africa, as at Tunis, also in the Red Sea, the common officinal sponge (spongia officinalis, Lin.) is fished up in considerable quantity, and forms a regular article of trade. CHAPTER IV. GENERAL VIEW OF THE MORAL AND POLITICAL STATE OF AFRICA. < . The j Population divided into Foreign and Native. — Moors.— Native Barbary Races. — Copts. — Abyssinians. — Native Afri- ' ca. — Negroes. — Forms of Government. — Arts and Manufac tures 'throughout Africa: — Commerce!'— Caravans -Slave . Trade. — Tables illustrative of the Trade between Britain and Africa. ' i • j . i ¦ " ' > A CONTINENT, so extensive as that of Africa,, must neqessarily be inhabited by a great diversity; o^natigns. . There is, in fact, no part of the globe where; the human race appears under such a va-, riety of striking and peculiar forms. It may be divided, in regard to population, into two great portions, , separated from each other, on the west, by((;l;he, river-line ofthe Senegal and Niger, ; and on^he^ea^ by the chain ofthe Mountains of the Moon^^frica, .to the north of this line, is occu pied, or at(l,east ruled, by foreign races, who** tak ings advantage of their superiority in. arts and arms, ^ave occupied. all the fertile districts, and driyen the, original population into the mountains, tl]^ dpserts, and the depths of the interior. On MOORS. 489 the south of this line is native Africa ; the popu lation of which, though originally, it is probable, derived also from Asia, has been so long esta blished as to have lost all trace or record of that derivation ; so that its aspect, manners, and insti tutions, appear now to be wholly indigenous. We shall consider separately^ these two divisions. Among all the aboriginal inhabitants of Africa, the Moors hold the most prominent place. The import of this name, however, though so widely diffused throughout Africa, is exceedingly vague. It is an European term, not recognized by them selves, and is compared to that of Romi or Latins, by which Europeans were wont to be designated in the east. During the middle ages, the profes sors of the Mahometan faith were divided into Turks and Moors ; all who were not Turks were called Moors. At present the name of Moors seems chiefly confined to the inhabitants of the cities of Barbary. These, too, are not a single race, but aggregated from various sources. The ancient Mauritanian and Numidian population, the Vandalic invaders of Northern Africa, the Saracen conquerors (now the most numerous and prevailing), the Brebers, or inhabitants Of the mountain districts ; all these have contributed their share. The constituent parts, however, can now with difficulty be distinguished, so firm ly have they been moulded together by the influ- 490 MORAL AND POLITICAL STATE. ence of despotic sway, and by the minute seve rity of Mahometan institutions. All Mussulman towns exhibit, in fact, an extreme similarity. They all present the same exterior of gravity, stillness, and decorum ; the same absence of all assemblages for purposes of gaiety or social inter course ; and the gloom which necessarily arises from the entire exclusion of female society. Ha bitual indolence is here interrupted only by the mechanical round of religious ceremonies. A total want of all knowledge and curiosity respect ing the arts and sciences, characterizes the whole of this once enlightened region. The outward aspect of the streets is as gloomy as that of the persons by whom they are tenanted. They are narrow and dusty ; the walls of earth, and with out windows ; gloom and nakedness without ; a barbarous splendour within. In general, the Moors, when compared with the Turks, appear an inferior race. They have the same rudeness and austerity ; while piratical habits, and an un settled government, render them more mean, tur bulent, and treacherous. Another class of inhabitants, which has never entered into any species of combination with the general mass, consists of the Jews. These exist in great numbers through all the cities of Bar bary, where they preserve entire their national peculiarities. They are viewed, consequently, ae BARBARY. 491 an outcast class ; are the objects of universal ha tred, contempt, and derision, and may be insult ed and injured by any one with impunity. The immense profits, however, which they make, by monopolizing all the money transactions, which they alone are qualified to conduct, induces them to remain and to endure this oppression. Such are the inhabitants of the towns of Bar bary. The country districts are occupied by the Arabs, a name not perhaps confined to the original conquerors of this region, but applied to all who follow the same rude, simple, and migratory life. They dwell in douars, or moveable villages, con sisting of a number of tents woven of camels' hair and the fibres ofthe palm-tree. These are arrang ed in circles ; the interior of which forms at night a place of shelter for the cattle. Having exhaust ed the territory in which the douar is situated, they remove with their families and all their cat tle to another ; the women and children being con veyed on the backs ofthe camels. The Arabs are of a deep brown or copper colour, which they en deavour to embellish with puncturing and tattow- ing. The females, when young, are handsome, but soon become flabby and overgrown. The in ternal government of these communities is admi nistered by a Sheik and Emirs, who generally own the supremacy of the Moorish sovereign, and pay ¦ a regular tribute ; but on all occasions of anarchy 492 MORAL AND POLITICAL STATE. or weakness, take the opportunity of acting for themselves, and giving a loose to theirf predatory habits. All the Arabs are attached, with bigotted zeal, to the Mussulman tenets. These, which form the mass of the population of Barbary, are all aboriginal races. The moun tains and deserts to the south harbour a number of tribes, whose native valour and inaccessible abodes have enabled them to preserve their dis tinct character and original institutions. The Brebes or Brebers occupy the larger .portion pf the chain of the Atlas. The Errifi, whojinhatfit the mountains between Algiers and Morocco, and the Shelluhs, who occupy the southern part of the latter empire, appear to be merely branches of the same race. It reappears in Nubia, where it borders on Egypt, and where the Barabras, or Berberins, seem merely a branch of the Brebers. To these we may add the Tibbo and the Tuarick, who inhabit so large a portion of the African cjeserf. The radical identity of all these tribes seems established by Adelung,* from the use,pf merely different dialects of the same language, doubtless one of the most ancient in existence. The little that is known of the Tibbo' and Tuarick •will be found in our analysis of the journal of * Mithridates, oder Allgemeine Sprachenkunde, B. III. fh.I. ., ., . BARBARY. 49S Horneman. The Brebers are a brave and hardy people. Their villages occupy the declivities and the deep valleys of the Atlas. They exhibit the only example to be found in Barbary of the re* publican form of government, as they have assem blies of the people, and elect their own chiefs. They pay a nominal, but very imperfect and pre carious obedience to the sovereign of Morocco, and the other Moorish princes in whose domi nions their mountains are situated. They are skilful in the use of fire-arms, and employ them selves much in firing at a mark. These exercises render them formidable to the armies of Morocco, who, in their frequent rebellions, have often found the contest unequal. The most powerful and the fiercest of these tribes is the Errifi. The eye of an Errif has become proverbial for its keen and piercing expression. The Shelluhs, on the other Hand* are less robust in their form, milder in their manners, and more civilized. When offend ed, however, they cherish a resentment equally deadly; nor is it safe to pass through their coun^ try without having secured the protection of one of their chiefs*. Most of the inhabitants of Egypt are foreign ers, who have not become in any degree naturalized to its climate or soil. This celebrated country presents only one native race, whichis' that of the Copts, or descendants of the most ancient inha- 494 MORAL AND POLITICAL STATE. bitants of Egypt. They are a people of mixed origin. The blood of the ancient Egyptians is adulterated by the confused mixture of the Per sian, Grecian, Roman, and Arabian races ; and the motley offspring of these dissimilar tribes have rather inherited the vices than the virtues of their ancestors. Distinguished from the Arabs and the Turks by the profession of Christianity, and from the Christians by their obstinate adherence -fo the heresy of Eutychius, they have been per secuted and despised by Christians and Maho metans ; and this very contempt has tended to deteriorate their national character. Various tribes have preserved their characteristic tenets and customs, in defiance of contempt and perse cution, but none of them have been able to pre serve, in this forlorn situation, the honour and dignity of the human character. The distin guishing features of the Copts are a dusky yellow oomplexion, unlike that of the Grecian or Ara bian tribes, the hair and eyes of a dark colour, the lips thick, the features puffed, and the nose rather elevated than flat, and sometimes even aquiline. The similitude of the modern Copt to the ancient Egyptian, in the more characteristic features, and in the colour of the skin, is evinced, not only by ancient paintings and statues, but also by the appearances still observable in the mummies of Egypt, the bodies of an ancient EGYPT. 495- generation of men, who have been raised from their sepulchres to demonstrate the origin of their descendants. The characteristic features of every race of men, by whatever causes they are pro duced, are difficult to be erased ; and the fea tures of the Copts, which have not been oblite rated by the mixture of so many different races of men since the reign of the ancient Egyptian kings, exhibit an astonishing proof of this singu lar fact. When, however, we turn our attention from the features to the minds of this race, we are mortified to discover few indications of that profound intelligence which marked the wisdom of the Egyptians, or of that brilliant genius which characterized the Greeks, from whom the most considerable mixture of the Coptic blood is de rived. Instructed for the most part to read and write, and possessing a species of hereditary knowledge, acquired from tradition, of the ex tent and value of the cultivated lands in the various districts of Egypt, they have become the depositaries of the public registers, and have almost monopolized those occupations which re quire a superficial degree of learning. From this class of Egyptians are selected the secretaries, the intendants, and the collectors of government. Melancholic in their temperament, and fond of tranquillity,, they distinguish themselves more in situations which require assiduity and attention, 26 496 MORAL AND POLITICAL STATE. than in those which demand exertion and activity. Minute and laborious im-their habits, they often amass large fortunes by indefatigable patience, and they generally use them without ostentation. With such a temperament and with such habits, they are addicted to gross sensuality, and fond of the exhilaration of spirituous liquors ; but avarice is the predominant disease of the race, and among the lower orders, to use the expression of Van sleb, " there are many who for a meidin would " kill their own father."* The Coptic females are generally elegant in form, and interesting in feature ; but their chief beauty, according to Vansleb, consists in their large, black, and expressive eyes. Since an early period of history, the Coptic race have been more numerous in the Said, or Upper Egypt, than in the Delta, which has always been more accessible to the irruptions of strangers. Several families still reside in the Delta* but the mass of their numbers inhabit the country above Cairo. At the period of the Arabic invasion under Amrou, their num bers were estimated at six hundred thousand ; but since that time their numbers have greatly decreased* and melted away amid the influx of strangers. The great empire of Abyssinia appears, from * Vansleb's Travels in Egypt, London, 1678, p. 26. ABYSSINIA. 497 the features of its inhabitants* to have been peo pled from Arabia, but at so early a period, that the population has become almost native. Bruce Seems to have traced very clearly many points of resemblance between their manners and those of the Jews, during the existence of the latter as an independent people. The Arabs represent the age of the patriarchs ; the Abyssinians appear to represent that of ancient Asia, at a period when the states were grown more powerful and cor rupted. All the " corners" of Abyssinia are filled with native tribes* characterized by the ne gro complexion and features, and some of which, particularly the Shankala, or Shangalla, exist still ins the, rudest form of the savage state. , In this quarter an advance has taken place of the native tribes* particularly of the Galla, who have now obtained possession of many of the finest provin ces ofthe kingdom; . In the great empires of Bornou and Cashna, with their tributaries and dependencies of Ber- goo, Begherme* Wangara, &c. a mass of native population, distinguished by the negro features and complexion, is ruled by Musulman chiefs and -monarchs. These states were subjected dur ing the first era of Saracen power, and they have ev^r since continued subject to this foreign race. Their interior organization is very imperfectly iknow^Q. Native rudeness and simplicity in the vol. il i i 498 MORAL AND POLITICAL STATE, mass of the nation seems combined with the dis play of pomp and pageantry in the sovereign and his retainers. There does not appear, since the time of Leo, to have been any extension of Musulman influence in this part of Africa. The example of Tombuctoo might even lead us to infer a tendency in the native tribes to resume the ground which they had formerly lost. When we pass to the south of the central chain of rivers, we find all Africa filled with a popula tion entirely native. Among the tribes belonging to the negro race, a few are found who have been converted to the Mahometan faith. This new profession, however, is always qualified with a large mixture of their ancient superstitions. In particular, it is never accompanied with those recluse and austere habits, which form the es sence, as it were, of a genuine Musulman. Improvidence, gentleness, and the abandon of thoughtless gaiety, appear to compose the lead ing features in the negro character. In a fertile soil, which supplies the necessaries of life with little labour ; with few natural wants, and stran gers to artificial ones, they devote themselves wholly to pleasure. Music and dancing are in dulged in with passion throughout all native Africa. From the period of sunset, says Gol- bery, " all Africa dances." Polygamy is still more characteristic of Pagan than of Mahometan NEGRO POPULATION. 499 Africa ; but it is not accompanied with that jea lous and immuring system which characterizes the Moors. In most parts of Africa, according to the best informed travellers, the sex enjoy nearly the same degree of liberty as in Europe, without in general abusing it. That exemption from labour, indeed, which is enjoyed by the in mates of the Moorish harams, is quite unknown here ; all the laborious tasks are devolved upon the females, as upon slaves. Each, however, has - a house, that is, a small cottage, of her own ; and all which it contains, being the fruit of her indus try, is considered as her property. The negroes appear to entertain some vague ideas of the prin ciples of natural religion ; but, in general, their sole reliance is placed upon charms or fetiches, the use of inanimate and insignificant objects, as a panoply against all the evils to which human nature is liable. An impression so deeply rooted in the human mind as that of supernatural agency, joined to the ignorance which prevails in this state of society, leaves open a wide field to im posture. Numerous, accordingly, in all these countries, are those who, by a pretence to super human powers, maintain an influence, and extort ample gifts from their unenlightened country men. Magic and' feticherie in many countries are viewed as secrets of state, and the main in struments for holding the people in subjection. 500 MORAL AND POLITICAL STATE. Although the character and state df society now sketched be very general among the negro tribes* it cannot, I apprehend, be supposed to arise from any peculiarity of their race, but merely from the state of knowledge, government, facility of subsistence, and other causes, which act on the moral nature of man. Divisions of them are found in various parts of the continent, which present an entirely different aspect. The semi- Mahome tan tribes, the Jalofs, Foulahs, and Houssanians, appear to display a superiority in external figure, as well as a character more energetic and intelli gent. Other tribes display not the smallest vestige of that gentleness, which forms the usual charac teristic of the Negro race. Admitting the picture which has been drawn of the Giagas* the Gallas, and the Dahomeys, to be deformed by some fea tures of exaggeration, still it seems impossible to doubt, that, in rudeness and ferocity, they equal the most savage tribes in other quarters of the globe. The similarity, therefore, observable .among the great mass of the Negro population^ appears to be rather owing to their being placed in the same stage of civilization, and the same external circumstances of soil and climate, thatt .to any original character stamped Upon the race. As we proceed to the southward, the negro , complexion fades gradually into the same brown or copper colour, which distinguishes the inhabi- GOVERNMENT. 501 tants of Northern Africa. The manners and in stitutions, however, of these southern tribes, ma terially differ from those on the opposite side of the continent. The Boshuanas, the Kaffres, and the Hottentots, form the leading divisions among the inhabitants of this part of Africa. Upon the subject of these tribes, there seems nothing to add to what has already been observed under the head of Travels in Southern Africa.* In the political state of Africa, much variety is observable. The profession of Islamism, establish ed over all the northern parts of the continent, is scarcely compatible with any regular and legiti mate freedom. The power of the sovereign is restrained by no fixed laws or institutions ; but it is rendered extremely precarious by the turbulent habits of the people, and the absence of all regard to hereditary succession. A long reign, and a na tural death, are considered as singular phenomena in the history of a Barbary prince. The yoke of the Turks, however, has been entirely shaken off. In Morocco, and, to a certain extent, in Tripoli, the sovereign power is now in a great measure maintained by a military force composed of ne groes, brought as slaves from Soudan. The native tribes, situated in the mountainous and desert tracts, exhibit some traces of republi- * Book II. chap. v. 502 MORAL AND POLITICAL STATE. can institutions. Through the great kingdoms in the interior of Eastern Africa, Bornou, Cassina, Sennaar, &c. there appears to exist an elective privilege, exercised by the chiefs. The sovereign must be of the royal family, but any member of it who is most popular, daring, or fortunate* mounts the vacant throne. Abyssinia is legally absolute ; but the overgrown power of the chiefs and governors of provinces has reduced the royal authority almost to nothing. The king there is now a mere instrument in the hands of any one who has in his hands the chief military power. Among the native powers who form the south ern half of the African continent, the varieties in the forms of government are altogether infinite. They exhibit every gradation, from the pure re publican form to the most complete despotism. Among the Mandings, and most of the other tribes on the Gambia and Senegal, the villages enjoy a species of mixed government, a large pro portion of which is in the hands of the people. Most of the states on the Gold Coast have either a popular or aristrocratic form of government. The great kingdoms in the interior, Ashantee, Aquamboe, and Dahomey, are subject to absolute monarchs. , Whydah and Ardra, while they ex isted, were entirely despotic. Most of the petty states of Congo and Loango exhibit a combina tion of monarchical and aristocratic power, some- ARTS AND SCIENCES. 503 what similar to that which, in Europe, was deno minated the feudal system. If we survey the state of science and of the arts throughout this vast continent, we shall uni versally find them in a state either of infancy or of decrepitude. The latter occurs in Northern Africa, where faint vestiges only remain of the glory which once flowed so copiously from these sources. Yet this faint remnant of ancient know ledge forms the only source whence any know ledge of letters is diffused throughout Africa. The natives are entirely destitute of any written language, besides that which they learn from the Moors ; nor have they attempted to supply the want, even by the rudest hieroglyphical inven tions. Abyssinia, which possesses also a litera ture of its own, derives it equally from a foreign source. Architecture is one of the arts which, contri buting in the most eminent degree to the com fort of the individual, and the splendour of the prince, ranks earliest among the pursuits of civi lized nations. Assyria and Egypt produced edi fices of stupendous magnitude, at a period when other arts and sciences were yet in their infancy. Architecture, as an art, may be said to be wholly unknown in native Africa. But for what has been practised in Egypt, and introduced elsewhere by foreigners, there would not perhaps be a stone edi- 504 MORAL AND POLITICAL STATE. fice in the whole continent. The habitations con sist merely of huts, with walls of earth, and a roof composed of leaves and twigs interwoven. If more accommodation is wanted, a number of huts is built, and a circular enclosure drawn round them. The palaces of African monarchs consist merely of a large collection of such cottages, form ing a species of village, and enclosed with a mud wall. A residence composed of such slight mate rials is easily moved. A week builds an African city, an hour destroys it. Hence, the slightest motives of caprice, the dread of an enemy, or the exhaustion of the surrounding country, are suffi cient to transfer their largest towns from one spot to another. Agriculture forms another art, by which the progress of any people in civilization may be very accurately measured. The natives of Africa, with very few exceptions, cultivate the ground to a certain extent. None of the native races, how ever, are acquainted with the plough, or any cor responding machine ; nor have they skill suffi cient to draw any services from the lower ani mals. The human hand, aided by some rude implements, forms the only power employed in cultivation. Generally speaking, only a certain spot around every town or village is cleared ; the rest belongs to the domain of the forest. There are few districts which do not afford large tracts AGRICULTURE — MANUFACTURES. 505 of unoccupied land, that are considered the pro perty of the sovereign or community, and are readily granted to those who will undertake the labour of clearing and cultivating them. These observations do not apply to the countries on the Mediterranean, nor even to Abyssinia. There the processes of agriculture have survived, in some degree, the revolutions of empire ; and though on a lower standard than in Europe, they are conducted nearly on the same principles. An improved state of manufacturing industry is attached to a still more advanced stage ; we cannot, therefore, expect to find it in Africa. The Mediterranean states, indeed, retain still some branches in which they excel. Their leather, carpets, woollen caps, sashes, and silk handker chiefs, are valued even in Europe. But native Africa, with the exception of leather, scarcely produces a manufacture which can become an object of export. Those carried on for internal consumption are also limited. The smith, who furnishes not only implements to the cultivator, but arms to the warrior, and to the chiefs and the fair sex their most valued ornaments, is a cha racter held in universal veneration throughout the continent. He employs his very simple in struments with considerable ingenuity. Cotton cloths, of considerable beauty, are manufactured in various parts of central Africa. Leather also, as above noticed, is tanned and dyed in a manner 506 MORAL AND POLITICAL STATE. which gives it a value even in the eyes of Euro peans. Commerce forms a more prominent feature. We do not, however, allude to foreign com merce, for which, with the exception of Egypt, no part of Africa was ever distinguished. The want of contiguity to the other continents, of in land seas and large archipelagos, formed insur mountable obstacles to its establishment. But from the earliest ages, and much more since the entry of the Arabians, inland trade has been con ducted on an immense scale. Through their exertions, the remotest coasts, and the inmost depths of the interior, have become pervious to it. Infinite facility has been afforded by the in troduction of the camel, emphatically called the " ship of the desert ;" an animal, whose patience of hunger and fatigue, whose capacity of convey ing water, and whose foot smoothly gliding over the -level sand, seems almost to point him out as an instrument formed by nature for effecting a communication across these immense wastes. The trade is carried on by merchants, trained from their infancy to the hardships and difficul ties of these formidable journeys. To enliven the dreary route, as well as to afford mutual aid in danger, they almost always form themselves into large bodies called caravans, varying in num ber from two or three hundred to two thousand. COMMERCE. 507 The milk of the camel, with barley meal or Indian corn, and a few dates, forms the general food of the members of the caravan. The more opulent, however, have dried flesh and coffee for their pri vate use. Water is carried in goat skins covered with tar, which, however, is often insufficient to prevent its evaporating. At each of the oases, or watered spots, which occur at distant intervals \ along the sandy waste, a stay of several days is made fpr refreshment, and for taking in a supply of water. The most dreadful calamity to which a caravan is liable, is when, from severe drought, one of these springs happens to be dried up. From this cause it is said, that, in 1798, a cara van of two thousand men, with eighteen hundred camels, entirely perished.* Another source of destruction has been supposed to arise from the clouds of moving sand, which sweep occasionally over the surface of this immense plain. Mr Browne, however, is of opinion, that these are never of such density as that a caravan can be buried beneath them ; and that the appearance of such a catastrophe is produced merely by the sand accumulating over the bodies of men and animals, which have perished from other causes.t Cairo sends three caravans into the interior of * Jackson's account of the Empire of Morocco, p. 242. f Travels, Ch. IV. 508 MORAL AND POLITICAL STATE. Africa. One goes to Sennaar, sometimes by the route from Syene across the desert of Nubia to Gerri, which was traversed by Bruce, while at other times it strikes off at Monfalout, and pass ing by El- Wah, Sheb, and Selyme, rejoins the Nile at Moscho. Poncet accompanied this cara van. The second caravan goes to Darfur, and follows the same route as that last mentioned as far as Selyme, when, instead of striking off to the Nile, it continues south, with a slight declination to the west. These two caravans travel only once in two or three years, and seldom exceed five hundred persons. The third caravan, from Cairo to Mourzouk, is on a greater scale, and performs, in general, an annual journey. It forms the channel by which that city maintains its com munications with all the countries, both of Western and Interior Africa. Siwah, the ancient Am. mon, and Augila, form the principal stations up on this route, which occupies about forty days. From Fezzan, two great caravans direct their course to the southward, one to Bornou, and the other to Cashna. The former performs its journey in fifty days, through the deserts of Bilma and Tibesti ; the latter requires sixty days, the route lying through Ganatt and Agades. A great body of the merchants who go to Cashna, continue their journey, cross the Niger on a raft at the ferry of Gongoo, and proceed along the maun- COMMERCE. 509 tains to the south as far as Ashantee. The last, and greatest caravan, is that from Morocco. It holds its rendezvous at Akka, or Tatta, and thence proceeds in a south-easterly direction to Tombuctoo. The journey occupies a hundred and twenty-nine days* more than half of which, however, is spent in rest. A circuitous route along the sea- coast is sometimes preferred. In enumerating the objects of African traffic, it is lamentable that the first place must be held by one equally degrading and disgraceful to human nature, — slaves. Why Africa should, from the earliest ages, have been ransacked for this unfortunate class of beings, is not very easily determined. It is, however, satisfactory to think, that no farther efforts can now be necessary to rouse the public mind to a due sense of the enor mity of this traffic. Splendid orations by the first parliamentary orators, the generous efforts of private philanthropists, and, perhaps more than all, a series of masterly discussions upon this sub ject, diffused through the universally circulated medium of the Edinburgh Review, have ex hausted and rendered superfluous every argument which could be used on the subject. It only re* mains, therefore, to give a rapid, sketch of slavery and the slave-trade, as it now exists throughout this continent. Slavery is general throughout Africa ; but the 510 MORAL AND POLITICAL STATE. slavery of African to African is comparatively of a very mild character. The slave sits on the same mat with his master, and eats out of the same dish ; he converses with him, in every' re spect, as an equal. The labour required in this state of society, is not such as to impose much either of suffering or exhaustion. The Asiatic and North African slave-trade is of a different character. It implies much misery ; it severs the victim from his home, his country, and all ' the scenes with which he had been familiar. He is employed, however, as a domestic slave, some times as a guard and satellite ; he is treated usually with indulgence, often with favour. Some times even the caprice of fortune raises him to the first rank under a despotic sovereign, to whom servile instruments are always agreeable. The other forms, therefore, have nothing to equal the horrors of West India slavery, where the only object is, to extract from the victim the utmost possible amount of labour. The power of pro curing an unlimited supply removed every mo tive to good treatment, which could be derived from the necessity of keeping up their numbers. The abolition, therefore, of the trade by Britain, and, through the influence of its example, by America and France, has produced an immense amount of good. We have been assured, on good authority, that the treatment of slaves in the COMMERCE. 511 West India colonies has, since that era, been greatly ameliorated. It is true that a very great increase has taken place in the Spanish and Portu guese slave-trade, so that the whole annual amount is said not to be very materially diminished. This increase, however, would probably have taken place in any event. Some consolation may even be found in considering, that the Spanish slave- code is conceived in a spirit of humanity not observable in that of any other European nation. We may instance the enactment, by which two persons of different plantations marrying, are di rected, by exchange, to be placed under the same master. The introduction even, by whatever means, of a new race to people the vast solitudes of Maranan and the La Plata, may be viewed as in some respects not altogether adverse to the interests of society. The number of slaves conveyed across the Afri can desert have, on a rude calculation, been sup posed to amount to 20,000 ; but I suspect this estimate to be much exaggerated. Of the Euro pean slave-trade, the following estimate was given in 1788 by Mr Norris : — Gambia, 700 Isles de Los, ... - 1500 Carried forward, 2200 ss 512 MORAL AND POLITICAL STATE. Brought forward, ,, 2200 From Sierra Leone to Cape Mount, 2000 . Cape Mount to Cape Palmas, , - 3000 Cape Palmas to Cape Appollonia, 1000 The Gold Coast, ... 10,000 Quilta and Popoe, - 1000 .'Whydah, - 4500 1 Porto Novo, Eppee, and Bidagry* 3500 ; Lagos and Benin, 3500 , Bonny and New Calabar, .14,500 Old Calabar and Camaroons* 7000 Gabon and Cape Lopez, 500 Loango, Malemba, and Cabenda, 13,500 Mayomba, Ambriz, and Missoula, 1000 , Loango, St Paul's, and Benguela, 7000 74,200 . Of these the British purchased about 38,000 , French, - 20,000 , Dutch* * 4000 ; Danes, - 2000 Portuguese, • - - 10,000 Gold is an article which has always diffused splendour over African commerce. Under the head of Mineralogy, we have already enumerated the principal repositories of this precious metal. COMMERCE. 513 Wadstrom reckons the quantity exported from the Gold Coast, at the commencement of the present century, to be from two to three hundred thousand pounds. From Manding and Bambouk at least an equal quantity may be supposed to be drawn. The gold of Wangara finds doubtless still its way to Egypt and Northern Africa ; and a considerable quantity is exported from Mosam bique. It is moreover employed profusely by the natives in rings, bracelets, and other ornaments ; so that the whole produce can scarcely be esti mated at less than two millions. Ivory is another general staple of African ex port. The vast plains and forest, bordering on all the rivers of interior Africa, are covered with herds of elephants, of which the natives, with a view to the extraction of the teeth, are in conti nual pursuit. Elephants' teeth are brought by all the caravans across the desert, are carried down the Senegal and Gambia, to the shore of the Gold Coast, to Congo, to Mosambique, and are exported from Abyssinia. Ornaments of ivory are also very generally worn by the natives. Other important articles of African export are gums, particularly Gum Senegal, drawn from the part of the desert bordering upon that river, ma nufactured hides and skins, particularly goats* skins, dyed red and yellow, one of the few manu factures of Soudan ; raw hides and skins, bees'- VOL. II. K k 514 MORAL AND POLITICAL STATE. wax, palm oil, ornamental and dye-woods, parti cularly red, or camwood. The following official tables exhibit a general view of the commerce of Africa from 1810 to 1815, inclusive :*-— * Report from Select Committee on papers relating to the African Forts, printed 26th June 1816, p. 219. aow r".OU IMPORTS into Great Britain, from the Coast of Africa. Species of Merchandise. 1810. 1811. 1812. 1814. 1815. Coffee C. qrs. lbs. 166. 0. 12. 148. 3. 2. 46. 1. 10. 525. 0. 4. 590. 3. 27i Elephants' Teeth - C. qrs. lbs. 2,655. 2. 26. 1988. 0. 16. 1784. 0. 10. 2054. 1. 22. 2513. 0. 20. Feathers, Ostrich - Lbs. oz. 1. 0. 1. 11. 5. 3. 8. 14. 11. 13. Grains, Guinea - - Lbs. 14,540. 33,042. - 2376. 24,684. - - . * _ m 109. Gum, Animi - - Lbs. - - ¦ 2999. Copal - - Lbs. 8945. 5580. 3013. 9262. 23,791. Senegal - C. qrs. lbs. 21,759. 3. 5. 16,604. 3. 0. 2679. 2. 20. 9857. 3. 18. 11,175. 2. 4. Hides, Raw - - No. 21,016. 17,924. 14,466. 53,610. 54,002. Ivory - - Lis. - - - - 2361. Oil, Palm C. qrs. lbs. 25,753. 2. 16. 23,537. 0. 7. 11,656. 2. 9. 19,343. 3. 8. 41,277. 3. 4. Pepper, Guinea - Lbs. 5528. 11,837. 1178. 13,171. 16,258. Rice C. qrs. lbs. 109. 5. 10. 3. 0. 16. 58. 0. 10. 720. 0. 20. 199. 0. 12. Wax, Bees - C. qrs. lbs. 1748. 1. 26. 1560. 1. 7. 1446. 0. 13. 1266. 2. 19. 403. 3. 12. Wood, Camwood Tons. C. qrs. lbs. 428. 19. 2. 2. 488. 8. 1. 8. 485. 7. 1. 14. 433. 8. 1. 8. 567. 18. 0. 22. — Ebony Tons. C. qrs. lbs. 34. 19. 0. 14. 57. 8. 2. 22. 79. 8. 1. 1. 36. 0. 2. 27. 130. 14. 1. 12. Redwood Tons. C. qrs. lbs. 651. 9. 0. 24. 1093. 14. 3. 12. 1580. 4. 1. 10. 1566. 5. 3. 0. 2090. 15. 5. 12. Wool, Cotton - - Lbs. 10,213. -, 2006. - . Other Articles - Official vnlue. =£.1229. 2. 4. =£.715. 8. 3. =£.226. 9. 1. =£,360. 2. 8. =£.520. 19. 8. EXPORTS of Foreign and Colonial Merchandise, from Great Britain to the Coast of Africa. Species of Merchandise. Beads of all sorts Bugle, great and small CouriesPiece Goods of India Spirits TobaccoAll other Articles Lis.Lbs. C. qrs. lbs, Pieces, Gallons. Lbs. Official value. 1810. 114. 702. 25,632.3. 16. 41,887.23,932. 43,397. =£.3,682. 7. 5. 1811. 91. 788. 23,668. 0. 10. 27,775.18,328. 69,930. =£.2,541.' 5. 8. 1812. 765. 13,740. 85. 3. 8. 54,982. 50,162. 302,178. =£.2,315. 0. 0. 1814. 1,645. 37,094. 18. 3. 0. 67,359. 85,928. 115,257. =£.2,961. 0. 0. 1815. 525. 33,424. 291. 1. 11. 63,.678. 94,111. 97.S89. =£.3,366. 16. 10. EXPORTS of British and Irish Produce and Manufactures, from Great Britain to the Coast of Africa. Species of Merchandise 1810. 1811. Cotton Manufactures Declared value. ' Guns .... D0. Gunpowder ... Do. Hardwares and Cutlery . Do. Iron, Wrought and Unwrought Do. Linen Manufactures - - Do. Salt Do. Woollen Goods ... Do. All other Articles - . Do. The Records of these years were destroyed by fire. 1812. ;. 46,458. 5,855. 19,550. 1,059. 6,023. 1,566. 2,015. 7,653. 33,541. 1814. =£.27,063. 3,046. 4,522. 2,458.8,973. 1,828. 3,518, 9,581. 33,895. 1815. .14,684. 3,318. 5,762. 3,326. 7,947.2,529. 2,130.5,702. 46,269. Ot I— ' ©5 O>> oO Ct >03 H> COMMERCE. 517 These accounts do not include the gold dust. In 1813,* it was imported into Portsmouth to the value of - - L. 67,908 10 0 In 1814, 80,249 15 0 In 1815, 50,700 0 0 The following is a comparative statement of the prices of the chief articles of African produce be fore and after the peace.t Befot e Peace. After Peace. Palm oil per ton £.60 0 0 £.35 0 0 Ivory cwt. 26 0 0 19 0 0 Guinea pepper, ditto 25 0 0 17 0 0 Guinea grains ori . grains of Paradise J 0 0 5 0 0 Barwood per ton 24 0 0 8 0 0 Camwood ditto 35 0 0 21 0 0 Ebony ditto 50 0 0 15 0 0 Bees-wax ditto 250 0 0 140 0 0 Gum Copal per lib. 0 3 6 0 1 6 Gum Senegal ditto 0 1 0 0 0 2 Hides ditto 0 0 7 0 0 2 Seamorse ditto 63 0 0 0 0 0 Gold per ounce 5 3 6 3 18 0 * Report from Select Committee on papers relating to the African forts. Printed 26th June 1816, p. 10, f Ibid. p. 12. APPENDIX. NO. I. Description of Central Africa, by Edrisi, the most emi nent ofthe Arabian Geographers. He flourished in the middle ofthe twelfth century. CLIMATE I Part I This climate begins on the west, from the Western Sea, which is called the Unknown Sea, or Sea of Darkness, beyond which what may be, geographers have no knowledge. There are along its coast six islands, called the Fortunate Islands, from which Ptolemy began his computation of longitude and latitude ; and it is related, that in every one of the said islands is to be seen a pillar raised of stone, of the length of a hundred cubits, each pillar support ing a brazen image, with its hand lifted up and pointing back wards. These pillars are six, and one of them, as it is report ed, is the idol Cades, which is to the west of Andalusia, and beyond these no one knows of any habitations. In this part of the climate are the cities Ulil, Salla, Toc- rur, Dau, Berissa, and Mura ; all situated in the negroes' coun try of Meczara. The island Ulil stands not far distant from the continent, and in it are found these famous salt pits, the only ones that we know of in all the country of the negroes, whence they are every where supplied with salt ; for men com ing to this island load their vessels with salt, and direct their course to the mouth of the Nile, which is at the distance of one day's sail ; along the Nile they afterwards pass by Salla, 5W APPENDIX. Tocrur, Berissa, Ghana, with the other provinces of Vancara and Caugha, and all the country of the negroes, who for tlie most part inhabit along the Nile itself, or the rivers which fall into it. The rest of the countries lying distant from the Nile,' on each side, are desert sands and solitary wastes, altogether uncultivated : There are indeed wells found in them, but often dry ; and travellers find no water for two, four, five, six, and sometimes, twelve days' journey. Of this nature is the road of Beneser, which is upon the way between Segelmessa and Ghana, where for fourteen days no water can be got ; for which reason the caravans have it carried with them in all such roads on the backs of camels. There are throughout the countries of the blacks many such passes, the soil.. being mostly sand, which, tossed to and fro by the wind, makes it impracticable to find water. Those regions are also subject to excessive heat,, so that the inhabitants of the first and second, and of some parts of the third climate, through the intense heat and burning of the sun, are of a black colour, and have their hair curling, contrary to what happens to those who live in the sixth and seventh climate. From the Isle of Ulil to the city of Salla are sixteen stations ; that city is situated on the north side of the Nile ; it is populous, and abounding with the best merchandises of the negroes,; and the citizens are stout and courageous. This place is in the dominion of the king' of Tocrur, who is a mighty prince, having many servants and sol-' diers, of known fortitude, power, and justice, with a country - well secured, and exposed to no fears : His chief seat and place; of. residence is the city Tocrur, standing on the south bank pf the Nile, two days' journey from Salla, as well by the river as by land. The city Tocrur is larger than that of Salla, and more abounding with commerce : The remotest inhabi tants of the, west bring thither shells and brass, and carry from thence gold and' bracelets for the legs^ The diet at Salla and Tpcrur is a kind of large grained millet, fish, and prepa ration of milk ; their cattle are chiefly camels and goats ; the APPENDIX. 521 eommon people wear hair garments, and woollen caps On their heads ; but the dress of the nobility is a cotton vest and a mantle. From the aforesaid cities to Segelmessa is a journey of forty days, at the rate of the caravan's travelling : The nearest place to this, within the limits of the desert of Lemp- tuna, is Azca, at the distance of twenty-five stations ; and tra vellers carry water with them for two, four, five, and six days. In like manner from the Isle of UliHo Segelmessa are nearly* forty stations, computing by the caravan stages. Berissa lies eastward on the Nile at the distance of twelve stations from Tocrur ; this is a little city, not walled, and seems like a po pulous village ; but the citizens are merchants, trading to all parts, and subjects to the king of Tocrur. To the southward of Berissa, at the distance of ten days' march, lies the land of Lamlam, into which incursions are made by the inhabitants of Berissa, Salla, Tocrur, and Ghana ; there they take numbers of captives, whom they carry away to their own countries, and dispose of to the merchants trading thither ; these afterwards sell them into all parts of the world. In the whole land of Lamlam there are but two small cities, or as it were villages, and those are Malel and Dau, situated at the distance of four days' journey from each other. Their inhabitants, as people of those parts relate, are Jews, and most of them unbelieving and ignorant. When any of all the inha bitants of the kingdom of Lamlam comes to have the use of his reason, he is burnt in the face and temples ; this they do to distinguish each other. All their countries and dominions are near a eertain river, flowing into the Nile. It is not known whether there is any inhabited place to the south of the king dom bf' Lamlam. That kingdom joins on the' west to Mec- zara, on the east to Vancara, on the north to Ghana, and on the south' to the desert ; and its people Use a different lan guage from those of Meczara and Ghana. Between Berissa above-mentioned and Ghana, to the east, is a journey of twelve days ; it lies ia the midway which leads from thence to the 522 APPENDIX. cities Salla and Tocrur. Likewise from the city Berissa to Audeghest is computed a distance of twelve days' journey, and Audeghest is on the north of Berissa. In the negro countries no foreign fruit is seen besides dates, which are brought thither by the people of the desert of Vareclan from the kingdoms of Segelmessa or Zab. The Nile waters that country from east to west, and there on the banks of it grow Indian canes, ebony trees and box, wild vines and tamarisks, and very large woods of similar trees, where the herds lie down and lodge, and shelter themselves in the shades from the scorching heat. In these woods are found lions, camelopards, panthers, stags, debuth, (hycenas), hares, white weasels, and porcupines. There are also in the Nile various kinds offish, as well small as of a large size, on which most of the negroes feed : for they season with salt, and lay up the fish they take, which very much excels in fatness and largeness. The arms of the people of those countries are bows and arrows, in which their force chiefly lies ; they also make use of clubs, which, by a peculiar skill and wonderful art, they make of ebony ; but they make the bows and arrows, also the bow strings, of the reeds of Sciarac. The buildings of this people are of clay, and wide beams, for long ones are seldom found among them. Their ornaments are of latten or copper metal, grana, glass necklaces, and counterfeited jewels, Some ofthe aforesaid things, belonging to the customs, victuals, drink, clothing, and ornaments, are in use among the chief part of the negroes, in all their country, when it burns with the scorching heat. Those, however, who live in cities sow onions, gourds, and pompiqns, which grow there to a wonderful size. Corn, and other sorts of grain, is not so abundant among them as the large grained millet, from which they make their drink. Their greatest dainties are fish and dried camels' flesh. Climate I. — Part II The cities contained in this se cond part ofthe first climate are Malel,.and Ghana, Tirca, Ma. APPENDIX. 523 rasa, Secmara, Ghanara, Reghebil, and Semegda. From the city Malel to the great city Ghana, are about twelve stations, through sandy places and parched plains. In Ghana are two cities, situated on the two opposite shores of what they called a fresh water sea, and it is the largest, most populous, and wealthiest, in all the negro countries ; and thither the rich merchants resort, not only from all the neighbouring regions, but also from the remotest parts of the west. Its inhabitants are Mussulmen, and the king of it (as it is reported) derives his pedigree from Saleh, the son of Abdalla, the son of Hasan, the son of Hosain, the son of Aali, the son of Abu Taleb ; and the king is absolute, although he pays obedience to Abbasasus, emperor of the Mussulmen. He hath a palace, which is a strong and well fortified structure, on the bank of the Nile ; apartments adorned with various engravings, paintings, and glass windows. The aforesaid palace was built in the five hundred and tenth year of the Hegeira. His kingdom and dominions are bounded by the country of Vancara above men tioned, very famous for the plenty and excellency of its gold mines. And from the confirmed reports of the people who come from the remote part of the west, it is certain that there is in the palace of the king an entire lump of gold, not cast, nor wrought by any instruments, but perfectly formed by the divine Providence only, of thirty pounds weight, which has been bored through, and fitted for a seat to the royal throne : And truly it is a most extraordinary thing, granted to no other but to him, by which he procures to himself a peculiar glory, in comparison of all the Negro kings. And that king, as is re ported, is the most just of all men ; no other king has so many captains, who every morning come to his house on horseback, and one of these carrying a drum beats it, nor is he silent till the king comes down to the palace gate ; and when all the captains meet him, he himself gets on horseback, and going before them, he passes through the streets and suburbs of the city. Then if any be oppressed or grieved with any trouble, he 524 APPENDIX. presents himself to the king, nor does he depart from his pre sence till his cause be decided. In the afternoons, when the heat of the sun permits, he gets again on horseback, and goes out guarded on all sides by his soldieus : Then no admittance nor access ig open to any one. Therefore, by a certain and appointed custom, he rides out twice every day. And so much is remarkable of his justice. He generally wears a ha bit of satin, or a black mantle, after the Arabian manner, with drawers, and leathern sandals on his feet: He always goes on horseback. He has abundance of rich ornaments, and horses, with most sumptuous trappings, on solemn days, led before him. He has many troops who march each with their colours, under his royal banner ; elephants, camelopards, and various kinds of animals, which are found in the negro countries, pre cede him. In fine, these people have in the Nile long boats, in which they practise fishing and commerce between one city and the other. The apparel of the people of Ghana consists of cloths to cover their nakedness, and mantles. The coun try of Ghana is joined on the western side with the kingdom of Meczara ; on the east with that of Vancara ; on the north with the broadest desert, lying out between the countries of the blacks and Barban?y ; on the south it joins to the Infidels* country, to wit, that of Lamlam and other inhabitants. From the city of Ghana to the confines of the country of Vancara is a journey of eight days ; and Vancara is most fa mous for the excellency and plenty of gold. It is an. island of three hundred miles in length, and one hundred and fifty in breadth, which the Nile surrounds all the year. But the month of August approaching, and the scorching heat increas ing, and the Nile overflowing, that island, or, at least, the greater part of it, is covered over with water, arid remains so as long as the Nile continues to overflow. But when the waters decrease, and the Nile begins to retire into its proper channel, all who are in the kingdom of the blacks, living-ia those islands, return to their habitation ; and during the whole APPENDIX. 525 time that the Nile- decreases, they slightly dig the earth, and not one of them is disappointed in his labour ; but every one, by digging, finds more or less of gold, according to the gift of God. And after the Nile hath entirely returned to its former bounds, they sell what they have found, and trade among them selves ; indeed, the greater part of the gold is bought by the merchants of Vareclan, and by the remotest western mer chants, and they carrying it into their countries, strike and coin it. into pieces of money; with which they carry on their trade. This happens every year. , Next to tlie cities of the country of Vancara lies the great and populous city Tirca, distant from Ghana six days' journey ; the rqad lies along the banks of the Nile. From Tirca to the city Marasa.is reckoned six days; and from this to the coun try of Segmara is six days' journey. From that to the city Semegda is eight days' journey. This is a beautiful and agree able city, situated on the shore of a fresh water sea, and distant from the city Reghebil, nine days. Also from the city Sec- mara to the city of Reghebil, towards the south, is a journey of six days. The city Reghebil lies also on the shore of a fresh water sea, and is of a beautiful form and magnitude, situated under a mountain, which overhangs it on the south side. Be tween the city Reghebil, towards the west, and the city Gha- nara, there is a distance of eleven days, The city Ghanara is on the bank of the Nile, enclosed with a strong wall, and in habited by.a numerous and robust people. Also from this city tp that of Ghana is a journey of eleven days^ where water is very scarce. All the countries just mentioned are under the dominion of the King of Ghana. Climate I. — Part III, — The most famous cities which are contained in this third, part of the first climate are Kaugha and Kucu, Tamalma, Zaghara, Mathan, Angimi, Nuabia, and Tagua. The city Kaugha, is on the north bank of the fresh water,, from which its inhabitants draw, to drink. This city is 526' APPENDIX. subject to the empire of Vancara; nevertheless, some of the negroes reckon it under the dominion of Kanem. It is a po pulous city, without walls, famous for business and useful arts for the advantage of its people. The women of this city are bo endued with the magic art, that witchcraft is in a peculiar manner attributed to them ; they are said to be very skilful, and their charms effectual. From Kaugha to Semegonda, towards the west, is ten days' journey. Also from Kaugha to Ghana, is near a month and half's journey. From Kaugha to Damocla is reckoned a month's journey. Also from that to Sabia is almost a month. Again, from Kaugha to the city Kucu is twenty days' journey, towards the north, at the rate of the camels' travelling. The city Kucu is famous among the negroes for magnitude ; it is situated on the bank of a river, which flowing from the north part, washes it, and affords drink to the inhabitants ; and although many negroes relate that this city KuCu is situated on the bank of the Nile, others place it near a river flowing into the Nile. It is, however, I apprehend, the true opinion, that that river glides along, till it passes for many days beyond Kucu, and then pours itself out into the desert, through sands and plains, in the same manner the river Euphrates doth in Mesopotamia. Besides, the King of Kucu is absolute, dependant on no one ; he has much attendance, and the greatest empire, sol diers, and captains, armour, and beautiful furniture. The people ride on horses and camels ; they are of a martial dispo sition, and frequently invade the neighbouring nations. With respect to the clothing of this country, the common people cover their nakedness with the skins of beasts, but the meN chants clothe themselves with vests and tunics, wear caps on their heads, and adorn themselves with gold. The governors and nobility are dressed in satin ; the merchants visit, and are conversant with them, and they exchange goods by way of truck or barter. A wood grows in this country, which is called serpentine-wood ; it is said to be of that nature, that, if APPENDIX. 527 -it be put to a serpent's den, immediately the serpent comes out of it : And also, he who wears this wood, can take in his' hand a serpent without fear ; but rather, upon touching them, he shall seem to feel in him a certain courage. However, the truth of this fact is only supported by the reports of the re mote nations of the west ; and it is probable, that they who hold this wood, or wear it about their necks, have not been near any serpent to try. This wood is like pyrethrum or bartram, is of a twisted grain, and of a black colour. The city Kucu is distant from the city Ghana a month and half's journey ; from the city Tamalma, towards the east, four teen days. That is a small city, without walls, frequented by people from the country of Kouar. From Tamalma to the city Mathan, from the country of Kanem, are twelve days* journey : This also is a small city, and none of the usual arts are practised in it, very little merchandise, and the people have camels and goats. From the city Mathan to the city Angimi is reckoned eight days' journey, and this also belongs to the province of Kanem ; it is very small, not inhabited by much people, and those of a mean spirit : They are adjoining to Nuba on the east, and distant from the Nile three days' jour ney, and they have no water but from wells. From Angimi to the city Zaghara is six days' journey : Zaghara has many towns, and populous ; and round about it live a certain people, like those of Zaghara, who hire camels of the citizens ; and they exercise some trade in merchandise of little value, and have some arts among them. These likewise drink well water, and eat large grained millet, and dry flesh of camels ; also fish mingled with myrrh, and milk meats, with which they greatly abound. They cover themselves over with skins, and are the swiftest in running of all the negroes. From the city Zaghara to Mathan is eight days' journey, and the emperor and prince reside there, whose soldiers, as they are for the most part naked, are archers. From this city Mathan to the city Tagua are thirteen days' journey, and this is the metropolis of the 528 APPENDIX. kingdom of the infidels of Tagua, observing no religion. The country of these is bordering to that of Nuba, and to them be longs the little city Semna. And some who have travelled over the cities of Kouar report, that the chief of Jalac, who has his government from the king of Nuba, went into the city Semna, burnt and utterly destroyed it, and dispersed its inha bitants into different parts, and that this was lately ruined. From the city Tagua to this same are six days' journey. And from the city Tagua to the city Nuabia, from whence the kingdom of Nuba has its name, and from thence the Nubitae, are eighteen days' journey. Climate I — Part IV. — In this fourth part of the first climate is contained the kingdom of Nubia, part of Ethiopia, and the rest of the north of Tagua, and the inward part of Vahat. The most famous places and chief cities of Nubia are Cusa, Ghalva, Dancala, Jalac, and Sula; but in Ethiopia-, Marcata and Nagiagha. In fine, in the country of the inner Vahat and upper part of Egypt, are the cities Asuan, Ancava, and Redini. In this part is seen the separating of the two Niles, viz. of the Nile of Egypt, which flowing from south to north, divides our country ; on each shore of which are situated the greatest part of the cities of Egypt ; some others there are in the islands. The other part of the Nile flows from the east to the utmost bounds of the west ; and upon that branch of the Nile lie all, or at least tlie most celebrated kingdoms of the negroes. APPENDIX. 529 NO. IL DESCRIPTIOH OF CENTRAL AFRICA BY IBN-AL-VARDI, [Flourished about 1340, according to D' Herbelot.) Maghrara, a country in the territory of the Soudans, or of the Blacks, of which the principal city bears the name of Ou lili, situated on the shore Of the sea ; there are salt pits, and a great trade in salt, which is carried into the other countries of the Blacks. Sola, a great city, situated on the Nile, where is a great concourse of people ; its inhabitants are brave. Tekrour, a great city, situated to the south-west of the Nile, where there are mines of gold ; all the rest of the country of Maghrara is composed of deserts, where no one passes, be cause there is neither water nor pasture. There is also men tion made of a city called Lamlam, which is inland, and where gold is found. Ouancara,* another country situated to the east of Magh rara ; it is large, and there are many cities, among others, one which bears the same name. It is the country of gold and aromatics, situated on the shore ofthe great Bahr, (sea, lake, or river), in the form of an isle or peninsula. Its length is 300 miles, and its breadth 150 ; the great sea surrounds it on three sides, and the Nile, when it overflows, covers the great er part of the country. When it has retired, the inhabitants search for the gold, and collect it, which renders them very rich. The king of the country has a particular canton, into which none enter except those who go to collect it. This gold is carried to Segelmessa, where it is made into money, a commerce which greatly enriches the inhabitants of that city. * Wangara. VOL. II. L 1 530 APPENDIX. Ghainara, a city situated on the bank of the Nile, sur rounded by a ditch filled with water; its inhabitants are brave, and make incursions into the country of Lamlam, and there carry off men whom they sell to foreigners. Karkar,* a great country, containing many kingdoms, which bear the name of their capitals. The city of Karkar is situat ed on a river which comes from the north, and loses itself in the sands of the desert. These people are black, very nume rous ; they wear ornaments of gold, and of skins well prepar ed. The king is very powerful, and puts great armies on foot ; their country borders on that of the mines of gold ; the earth is covered with them. When the merchants go thither, they draw a line ; on one side the inhabitants place their gold, and on the other the merchants place what they wish to exchange ; both parties withdraw, and do not return till next morning ; then if they are content with the exchange they carry it away, but if they delay, " les habitans y mettent le feu, reprennent " leur or, et massacrent ceux qui se revoltent contre eux."-f- In this country is found a wood called serpent-wood, because it has the property of so far soothing these animals, that they may be taken fearlessly in the hand. Ghana, a country situated to the north of Maghrara. The city, which bears the same name, is one of the largest in the country of the blacks ; it is divided into two parts, situated on the opposite banks of the Nile. All the merchants of the other countries come thither for gold, which is found in the earth j those of Segelmessa go in twelve days through deserts where there is no water ; they bring figs, salt, copper, ouda, and carry back gold only. The inhabitants have boats on the Nile ; the king has numerous armies ; many neighbouring kings are subject to him ; his palace is upon the Nile, and you * Probably the Kuku of Edrisi. f I have given here the words of M. de Quignes's translation, which do aot seem very intelligible. APPENDIX. 531 see there a piece of native gold as large as a rock. This prince is said to be a Musulman. Konem, a large country situated along the Nile ; its inha bitants are almost all Musulmen, of the sect of the Imam Malik. NO. III. DESCRIPTION OF CENTRAL AFRICA BY BAKDI, (about 1400). Belad al Tibri. — Country ofTibr. The country of Tibr, that is to say, of pure gold, is a part of that of the Soudans, or of the Blacks, in the south of Af rica. The heat is so extraordinary, that, during the day, the inhabitants remain in caves under the earth. You there see the gold come out of the sand, as elsewhere the plants from the ground. These blacks live on dorra and on beans, and clothe themselves in the skins of animals, particularly of tygers. From Segelmessa to this country they reckon three months' jour ney ; the merchants who go there suffer much from the heat ; they carry salt, senoubar-wood, bracelets, rings, and necklaces of copper ; they pass along barren deserts, where there are some holes in which bad water is found. When these mer chants have come to a certain place, they beat with a drum to announce their arrival, and when they are assured that they have been heard, they place their goods on the ground, in little separate heaps, and retire ; then the blacks come, place beside each heap the gold which they have, and return ; the merchants come, take the gold, and beat the drum to announce their departure. No one has seen any of these inhabitants. Belad al Soudan, or Country ofthe Blacks. This country extends on the north to that of the Berbers, on the south to deserts, on the east to Ethiopia, and on the 532 APPENDIX. west to, the Ocean sea. It is burned by the sun, which falls on it perpendicularly, and its inhabitants are naked ; spme are Musulmen, the others infidels. Among them are found gold, rhinoceroses, elephants, giraffes, and large trees, on which they place their cottages, and shut up there what they have, because on the ground all would be spoiled and corrupted. Takrour, or Takdour, {Tocrur). A city of the Soudans, or Blacks ; it is large, and without walls. > Its inhabitants are, some Musulmen, and others infi dels ; the former rule, and the king is a Musulman. They are naked, men and women ; but the nobles among the Mu- sulmans wear cloaks. The women of the infidels wear a piece of stuff attached to the girdle. Ghana. A great city in the southern part of Mogreb, or of Africa>, near the country of Tibr, or of gold. There is much gold, be cause it is near the mines ; most of the inhabitants are clothed in the skins of tigers. NO. IV. , DESCRIPTION OF AFRICA, BY SCHEABKDDIN, (about 1400). The isle of Mogreb, (Africa,) is in the midst of (he seas, which water.it on all sides. To the east it is bounded by, the sea of Kolzpm, (Red Sea), to the south and west, by .the ocean, of which God only knows the extent and limits ; tp the north it has for limjts the sea of Kharz, which is that by which the Franks came into the holy land by landing on the coast of Syria. In the midst of the isle of Mogreb are the deserts of the Negroes, which separate the country of the Negroes from that of the Berbers. In this isle is also the souree of that great river, which has not its equal upon the earth ; it APPENDIX. 533 comes from the Mountain of the Moon, which lies beyond the equator. Many sources come from this mountain, and unite in a great lake. From this lake comes the Nile, the greatest and most beautiful of the rivers of all the earth. Many rivers, derived from this great river, water Nubia and the country of Djenawa. It is very remarkable, that all the other rivers have their direction to the east, the west, and the south, and that the Nile alone flows to the north. This river cuts horizontal ly the equator, traverses Abyssinia, the country of Coucou, comes to Syene, cuts Egypt throughout its whole length, and throws itself into the sea between Tunis, and Damietta. The branch which passes through Djenawa does not flow to the sea, but only to the end of the inhabited part of the land of Ghana. NO. V. DESCRIPTION OF THE GOLD TRADE OF TOMBUCTOO ANB MELLI; FROM THE ITALIAN OF CADAMOSTO, (1507.) Beyond Hoden, more than six days' journey inland, is a place called Tegazza, where there is quarried an immense quantity of rock salt, and every year large caravans of camels, composed of Arabs and Azanaghis, carry it to Tombuctoo, and go thence to Melli, a kingdom of the negroes, where having come, the said salt is disposed of in -eight days at the rate of from two to three hundred mitigalli (minkallis) the load, ac cording to its size ; a mitigal is worth a ducat, or thereabouts ; then they return home with their gold. In that kingdom of Melli the heat is very great, and the food is very hurtful to quadrupeds, so that in the greater part of those that go with the caravans, out of a hundred there do not return twenty-five. In the said country they have no quadrupeds, because they all die ; and likewise many' of the foresaid Arabs and Azanaghi 534 APPENDIX. are killed in the same place, and die ; and that from the great heat. They say, from Tegazza to Tombuctoo are about forty days' journey on horseback, and from Tombuctoo to Melli thirty. I asked then what the merchants of Melli did with that salt. They answered, that a small quantity of it is con sumed in their country, because, from being near to the equi- noxial, where the days and nights are equal, they are extreme ly hot at certain times of the year, when their blood putrifies so, that if it were not for that salt they would die ; but they take a little bit of the said salt, and dissolve it in a cup with a little water, and drink it every day, with which they say that they preserve their health ; and what remains of the said salt is broken into pieces of such size that a man can carry it upon his back, and is carried to a great distance. The said salt is carried to Melli by the foresaid camels in large pieces hollow ed from the mine, each camel carrying two pieces. At Tom buctoo the negroes break it into more pieces, so that each man carries a piece, and thus they form a great army of men on foot, who carry, it a great way, and in this way they carry it to a great water, which they could not say if it was salt or fresh, so that I could not know if it was a river or the sea ; but I hold it to be a river, because if it was the sea, there would be no need of salt. Having reached this water, they observe the following method : — All those who have the salt make piles of it in a row, each marking his own, and having made the said piles, they all turn back ; then comes another generation of ne groes, who do not wish to let themselves be seen or spoken to. They come with large barks that appear to issue from certain islands, and land, and having seen the salt, place a quantity of gold opposite to each pile, and then return leaving the gold and the salt ; and when they are gone, the salt negroes come, and if the quantity of gold pleases them, take the gold and leave the salt; and in this manner they make their trade without seeing each other, by a long and ancient custom : and though it appears a hard thing to believe, I certify having had APPENDIX. this information from many merchants, Arabs, and Azanaghi, and likewise from persons worthy of credit. NO. VI. LIST OF IMPORTANT BOOKS RELATING TO AFRICA. There are few ancient works relating exclusively to Africa. The following are the principal sources from which a know ledge of its ancient state may be drawn. Herodotus, Historia iEgyptus et Ethiopia, lib. ii. et iii. princ. — Africa interior, lib. iv. Strabo Rerum Geographic, lib. xvii. in toto, lib. i. et ii. partim. Diodorus Siculus, Bibliotheca Historica. — Mgyptus, lib. i. .^Ethiopia et Lybia, lib. iii. Ptolem^us Geographia, lib. iv. Plinius Histor. Natur. lib. v. cap. 1-8. Mela Pomp — De situ Orbis, lib. iii. cap. 8, 9, 10. Hannonis, Periplus partium Lybicarum ultra columnas Herculis ap. Hudson. Geographi Graeci Minores, tom. ii. Scylacis Caryandrii Periplus. Ib. p. 42-55.* Arriani Periplus Maris Erythrai. Ibid. Agatharchides De Rubro Mari. Ibid. Modern Illustrations of the Ancient Geography of Africa. Campomanes. — Antiguedad Maritima de Carthago, 8vo. — A very learned work, containing a long discussion on the Pe riplus of Hanno. Paris, Abbe — " Que les Anciens ont fait le tour de l'A- frique." Academie des Inscriptions, vii. 79. Bougainvilxe. — Memoire sur les Decouvertes faites le long des Cotes de l'Afrique, par Hannon. Ibid. xxvi. 10. 536. APPENDIX. D'Anville — Memoire sur les rivieres dans l'interieur de l'Afrique. Ibid. xxvi. 64. , D'ANviLLE.-^-Dissertation sur les sources du Nil. xxvi. 46. D'Origny, M — l'Egypte an.cienne, ou memoifes historiques et critiques sur les objets les phis importans de l'histoire du grand empire des Egyptiens. Paris, 1762. 2 vols, in 12mo. D'Anville, — Meraoires sur TEgypte ancienne et rnoderne, suivis d'une description du Golfe Arabique. Paris. Imp. royale, 1766. 4to. Cartes. Rennell, (Major.) — 'Geographical system of Herodotus ex plained and illustrated, 4to. London, 1796. This very learn ed and excellent work contains Dissertations on the circum navigation of Africa, on the Periplus of Hanno. <&c, Vincent, Dr. — On the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea, 2 vols. 4to. London. The first volume of this valuable trea-. tise relates to the navigation along the African coast. Gosselin, (Vincent.) — Recherches sur la Geographie des* Anciens, 4 vols. 4tp. Paris, V. Y. The two first volumes of this very profound and ingenious work relate to questions con nected with the ancient Geography of Africa. Works ofthe Arabian Geographers. Edrisi, Africa Curavit Joannes Melchior Hartman, 8vo. Gottingen, 1796. The notes are very valuable, and include copious extracts from the other Arabian geographers. The arrangement, however, seems objectionable, as he breaks down that of the original author, to substitute another one of his own. For this reason, it may be necessary to join the follow ing. Geographia Nubiensis ; id est, .accuratissima totius or- bis in septem Climata divisi descriptio ; Recens ex Arabico in Latinum versa a Gabriele Sionita et Joanne Hesronita. Pa- APPENDIX. 537 risiis, 1619 — Contains the Arabic original, with a Latin trans lation. The term " Nubian Geography," is entirely gratuitous, and, as Hartman has shewn, adopted without any foundation. Abulfedje Africa, Arabice, et Latine, curante J. G. Eich- horn. Gottingen, 8vo. 1791. A Latin translation also in Busching's Magazin fur die neue Historie und Geographie, Tom. iv. et vi. Scheabeddin. — Excerpta Memoria dignissima ex historia universali. Ibn-al-Vardi. — Unio miraculorum (Continet Geogra- phiam, et Historiam Naturalem). Jacuti melius Bakui. — Expositio rerum memoria digna- rum et miraculorum omnipotentis. The three last works have never been printed entire ; but copious extracts are given by De Guignes, and Silvestre de Sacy, in " Notices des Manuscrits de la Bibliotheque du Roi," Tom. II. Paris, 1789. ABULFEDiE Descriptio /Egypti, Arabice et Latine : a Jo. Dav. Michaelis, 4to. Gottingen, 1776. Abdollatiphi, Compendium Rerum memorabilium M- gypti, Arabice et Latine, ed. Jo. White, 8vo. Tubingen, 1789. An edition 4to. Oxford, 1800. Murtadi. — L'Egypte, ou il est traite des pyratnides, du Nil, &c. Traduit par P. Vallier, 12mo. Paris, 1666. Modern General Descriptions. Leo Africanus. — Africa? Descriptio, ix. libris absoluta, 12mo. Lugd. Batav. 1632. (Elzev.) In Italian (Ramusio Navi- gazione et Viaggi, Vol. i.) Translated into English by Pory, 1600, and inserted in Purchas, vol. ii. init. For Leo's charac ter as a writer, see Introd. ch. 2. Hartman says, Libellus est aureus; qua si caruissem, lumine quasi quam sapissime caruissem. 538 APPENDIX. Description de l'Afrique, tierce partie du monde, escrite par Jean Leon Africain ; plus cinq navigations au pays des Noirs. Lyon, Jean Temporal. 1556. fol. — La recueil est fort curi- eux, et contient, outre le description de Leon Africain, plu sieurs autres traites historiques sur cette partie du monde. Du Fresnoy, meth. pour etud. l'hist. Tom. XIV. p. 132. edit, in 12mo. Marmol (Louis Carajeval), Description General de Africa, 3 Tom. fol. Grenada, 1573-99. French translation by D'A- blancourt, 3 Tom. 4to. Paris, 1669. — Marmol did not visit any part of Africa except Morocco and the borders of the de sert. His Description, therefore, is chiefly compiled from Leo and the Portuguese navigators. Dapper Ol. — Exact description of the countries of Africa, Egypt, Barbary, &c. (in Dutch). Amsterdam, fol. 1668-70. A translation into French, fol. Amsterdam, 1686. — A good compilation, though now antiquated in most of its parts. Ogilby (John), Africa, being an accurate description of the regions of Egypt, Barbary, &c. London, fol. 1670. Little more than a translation from Dapper. De La Croix, Sieur de — Relation universelle de l'Afrique, ancienne et moderne. 4 Tom. 12mo. Lyon, 1688 and 1713. Bruns, Neue systematische Erdbeschreibung von Africa, (New Geographical Description of Africa), 6 vols. 8vo. Nurem berg, 1793-9. — This is reckoned the best general description extant. MODERN VOYAGES AND TRAVELS. 1 To the interior, Senegal, Gambia, 8cc. Cadamosto (Aloysio da), Libro de la primo navigazione per Oceano, a la Terra de Negri de la Bassa Ethiopia, per commandamento del Infanto Henrico de Porto Gallo. 4to. Vicenza, 1507 — Reprinted in Ramusio, vol. i — French trans- APPENDIX. 539 lation. 4to. 1508. Cadamosto was the first traveller who published a regular narrative, and it contains many curious particulars. See the preceding article of this Appendix. Jobson, Golden Trade, or a discovery of the river Gambia and Golden trade of Ethiopians, 8vo. London, 1623. See Book I. ch. 3. Razilly (M. de), Voyages d'Afrique, ou sont contenus les navigations des Francois, entreprises en 1629 et 1630, soubs la conduite de. Paris, 1632. 12mo. Jannequin, Voyage de Lybie, 8vo. Paris, 1645. See Book I. ch. 2. Lemaire, Voyage aux isles Canaries, au Cap Vert, au Senegal, et a Gambie, in 1682. Paris, 1695. 8vo. Labat, Nouvelle relation de l'Afrique Occidentale. 5 vols. 12mo. Paris, 1728. Consists chiefly ofthe narrative of Brue's travels, drawn up from that traveller's notes. Bluet, Memoirs of Job-Ben-Solomon, high priest of Boonda. 8vo. 1734. Moore, Travels im the inland parts of Africa, 4to. London, 1738. 8vo. 1742. See Book I. ch. 2. Adanson, Histoire Naturelle du Senegal, avec la Rela tion abregee d'un voyage fait en ce pays, pendant les annees 1749, 50, 51, 52, et 53. 4to. Paris, 1757. (Book I. ch. 2.) Dumanet, Nouvelle histoire de l'Afrique Francaise, 2 tom. 12mo. Paris, 1767. A good description of the countries upon the Senegal. Description de la Nigritie, par M. P. D. P. enriche des cartes. Paris, 1879, 8vo. Saugnier, Relation de plusieurs voyages entrepris a la Cote d'Afrique. 8vo. Paris, 1791. (Book I. ch. 2.) Durand, J. B. L., Voyage au Senegal. 4to. Paris, 1802. Contains some valuable information. Brisson, Histoire de la naufrage et de la captivite de, avec la description des Deserts d'Afrique. 8vo. Geneve et Paris, 1789 — English translation, 8vo. 1790. See Book I. ch. 4. 540 APPENDIX. Golberry, Fragmens d'un Voyage en Afrique, 2 vols. 8vo. Paris. Proceedings of the Association for promoting the dis covery of the interior parts of Africa. 4to. London, 1790. Contains the information collected by Ledyard and Lucas. See Book I. ch. 5. Proceedings, &c. 4to. London, 1792. Contains accounts from Major Houghton, and from an Arab of the name of Sha- beni. Proceedings, &c. 4to. London, 1798. Contains abstract of Park's travels, with Major Rennell's geographical illustra tions. Park (Mungo), Travels through the interior parts of Africa. 4to. London, 1801. (ed. in. 8vo.) Second journey. London. 4to. 1814. (ed. in 8vo.) Browne, Travels in Egypt and Syria, (and to Darfur), 4to. London, 1799. Hornemann, F. Journal of Travels from Egypt to Fezzan. 4to. 1803. Proceedings of Association, 1804. (Information of Hagi Mahommed, &c.) — 1805. (Mr Nicholls.) All the proceedings of the Association, with the exception of Park's travels, are reprinted in 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1810. Adams (Robert), Narrative of Travels in the interior of Africa. 4to. London, 1816. Riley (James), Narrative by. 4to. London, 1817. Congo. Lopez, Relazione del reaume di Congo e delle vicini con- trade, di Odoardo Lopez Portogheso, per Philippo Pigafetta, con carte geographiche, e designi varie de plante, d'animali, di vestimenti, &c. 4to. Rome, 1591. (See Book I. ch. 1.) The Itahan copy is very rare. There is a Latin translation, APPENDIX. 541 Frankfort, 1598, fol. which forms the first part of the voyages of De Bry. Battell (Andrew), Strange adventures, (in Purchas, Vol. II. liv. 7. See Ibid.) Carli, Viaggio, de P. Michael Angiolo de Guattini, e del P. Dionigi Carli, nei regno del Congo. 12mo. Reggio, 1672, Bologna, 1678. Ibid. Cavazzi (Anton.), Descrizione dei tre regni cioe Congo, Matamba, Angola, fol. Bologna, 1687. Labat, Relation historique de l'Ethiopie Occidentale, 5 tom. 12mo. Paris, 1732. This work contains a translation of that of Cavazzi, with an abstract of the memoirs of a number of Romish missionaries. (Ibid.) Merolla (Padre da Sorrento), Relazione fatta nei regno di Congo. Naples. 4to. 1692. Ibid. 8vo. 1726. (Ibid.) Proyart, Abbe, Histoire de Loango, Cacongo, &c. 12mo. Paris, 1776. Degrandpre, Voyage a la Cote Occidentale d'Afrique, fait dans les annees 1786 et 1787. 2 tom. 8vo. Paris, an. IX. 1801. See as above. Tuckey, Narrative of an Expedition to explore the river Zaire, usually called the Congo, under his direction. Pub lished by permission of the Lords Commissioners of the Admi ralty, 4to. London, 1818. Abyssinia. Alvarez. — Verdadeira Informacaon de Ethiopia, se con tent todos os sitios dos terras, e dos trados e commercios dellas, fol. Lisbon, 1540. —^— Spanish translation, 4to. Antwerp, 1557, 8vo. 1588. Italian translation in Ramusio, Navigazioni e Viaggi, Vol. I. French translation, 12mo. 1588. 542 APPENDIX. Alvarez English translation in Purchas, Vol. II. (See book II. ch. 1.) Urreta, Fray Luis de, Historia ecclesiastica, politica, natural y moral de les grandes reynos de la Etiopia. En Valentia, 1610. 4to. Goez (Damian), de fide, religione, moribusque Ethiopium, 8vo. Louvain, 1540. — English translation in Boemus's Man ners and Customs of all Nations, 4to. London, 1611. — — Legatio Magni Indorum Imperatoris Presbyteri Jo- annis, ad Emanuelem Lusitanise Regem in 1513, 12mo. Dor drecht, 1618 These two works of Goez were drawn up from the information of Matthew, the Abyssinian ambassador. Godigny (Nicolai), Societatis Jesu, de Abyssinorum rebus atque Ethiopiae patriarchis, Joanne Nunnio Barreto, et Andrea Oviedo, libri tres nunc primum in lucem editi, 8vo. Lyons, 1615. Sandoval, il P. Alonzo de, Naturaleza, policia sagrada y profana, costumbres y ritas de todos Etiopes. Sevilla, 1627. 4to. Histoire de ce qui s'est passe es royaumes de Ethiopie en 1626, et de la Chine en 1625, avec une relation du voyage fait a Tunquin. Paris, 1629. 8vo. Tellez, et Almeida, Historia General de Ethiopia, fol. 1650. Another edition, Coimbra, 1660 This work of Tellez was composed from the memoirs of various missionaries, trans mitted to Portugal by Almeida, and is remarkably rare. Lobo (Hieronymo), Historia de Ethiopia, fol. Coimbra, 1559. A French translation by Legrand, with additions, and an excellent map by D'Anville, 4to. Paris, 1728. An Eng lish translation by Dr Johnson, 8vo. Ludolphus, Historia ^Ethiopiae, fol. Frankfort, 1681. An English translation. London, 1682. Commentarius ad suam Historiam iEthiopicam, fol. Frankfort. 1681. ————— Appendix ad Historiam ^Ethiopicam, fol. Frankfort, 1693 et 1694. APPENDIX. 543 These works of Ludolph, though they contain little origi nal information, present a valuable summary of what was known relative to Abyssinia. Wyche, Relation of the river Nile. 12mo. London, 1673. Baratti, Travels in Abyssinia. 8vo. London, 1670. Poncet, Relation du Voyage en Ethiopie in 1698, 1699, and 1700, (Lettres edifiantes 4eme Recueil). An English translation, London, 12mo. 1709. Pinkerton's Collection, Vol. XV. ( See Book II. ch. 1 .) Heyling (Peter), Sonderbarer Lebenslauf und Reise nach Ethiopien durch J. T. Michaelis. 8vo. Halle, 1724. Bruce (James), Travels to discover the Source of the Nile. 5 vols. 4to. Edinburgh, 1788 — French translation, 6 vols. 4to. Paris, 1790 and 1791. — German translation, 5 vols. 8vo. Rinteln, 1791 — An octavo edition, by Dr Murray, in 7 vols. 8vo. Edinburgh, 1805. Reprinted 1813. Observations on Bruce's Travels by Wharton. London, 4to. 1799. Observations on the authenticity of Travels by Bruce. Newcastle-upon-Tyne, 4to. 1800. Valentia (Lord), Voyages and Travels to India, Ceylon, Red Sea, Abyssinia, &c. 3 vols. 4to. London, 1809. (ed. 4 vols. 8vo. ) The second and third volumes consist in a great measure of Mr Salt's travels in Abyssinia. Salt (Henry), a Voyage to Abyssinia, &c. London, 4to. 1814. Egypt. Viagio da Venetia al Sancto Sepulchro et al Mote Synai piu copiosamente descritte de li altri co disegni de paesi : citade : porti : et chiesi et li sancti loghi, &c. Stampato in Venetia. 1523. 8vo This traveller visits Cairo and Tunis. 14 544 APPENDIX. The book contains, among others, wood engravings of the above mentioned cities, which have every appearance of being correct representations. Martyre, (Pedro), Relazione delle cose notabili della provincia dell Egypto. 8vo. Venice, 1564. Greave (John), Description of the Pyramids of Egypt, (at the beginning of Thevenot's Collection). Wansleb (G. Mv), Relazione dello stato presente del' Egypto. 12mo. Paris, 1671. Wansleb (P.), Relation d'-un Voyage en Egypte. 12mo. Paris, 1678. Lucas, Troisieme Voyage fait en 1714. 3 tom. 12mo. Rouen, 1719. Maillet, Description de l'Egypte composee sur ses Me- moires. 4to. Paris, 1740. 2 vols. 12mo. Ib. 1741, An esteemed work. Pococke, Description of the East and some other Coun tries. 2 vols. 4to. London, 1743. A very learned and valuable work. The first volume, relating to Egypt, is re printed in 4to. London, 1748. Granger, Relation du Voyage fait en Egypte en 1730. 12mo. Paris, 1745. Description historique et geographique des pleines d'Helio- polis et de Memphis. Paris, 1755. 12mo. fig. Norden, 'Travels in Egypt and Nubia. Copenhagen* 2 large vols, folio, 1755. English translation. 2 vols, folio, 1757. A French translation, with Notes, by M. Langles. 3 vols. 4to. 1795. Norden's is the first picturesque journey through Eygpt, and much esteemed. S a vary Lettres sur l'Egypte. 3 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1786. An English translation. 2 vols. 8vo. London. This work, which was at first extremely successful, is now regard ed as of dubious authority. Volney. — Voyage en Syrie et en Egypte pendant les an- nees 1783, 1784, et 1785. 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1800 — An APPENDIX. 545 English translation. 2 vols. 8vo. London — An excellent general description of Egypt. Sonnini Voyage dans la Haute et Basse Egypt. 3 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1799. English translations in 4to. and in 3 vols. 8vo. The former is the best. Antes.— Observations on the manners and customs of the Egyptians. 4to. London, 1804. Denon Voyage clans la Haute et Basse Egypte. 2 vols. Gr. fol. 1802. An English translation by A. Aikin. 2 vols. 4to. 1802. Mayer (Luigi.), — Views in Egypt. Fol. London, 1802. Hamilton, Egyptiaca. 4to. London, 1809. Contains a very accurate and valuable description of the antiquities of Egypt. Description de l'Egypte, premiere livraision. Fol. Paris, 1816. — A magnificent work, and containing a number of curious memoirs. Legh. — Travels above the cataracts of Egypt. 4to. Lon don, 1816. Barbary. Torres, Diego de, Relacion del origine y successo de los Tariffos, y del estado de los regnos de Fez, y Marroceros y Tarndente. 4to. Seville, 1586. Hoedo, Francisco Diego de, Topographia y Historia gene ral de Argel. Fol. Valladolid, 1612. Dan, Pierre, Histoire de Barbarie et de les Corsaires, d'Al- gier, de Tunis, de Sale, et de Tripoly. Paris, 1649. Folio. Aranda, Emanuel De, History of his captivity at Algiers, (in Spanish) 12mo. Hague, 1657. Hogan and Robert, Embassies to Marocco, (Hackluyt's Collection, vol. ii.) Tassy, Langier de, Histoire du Royaume d'Alger. 12mo. Amsterdam, 1725. Translation into English, under the title VOL. II. m m 546 APPENDIX. of " Complete History of the Piratical States of Barbary." 8vo. London, 1750. This work was re-translated into French as an original one ; 2 vols. 12mo. Paris, 1737. Brooks, (Francois.) — Navigation faite en Barbarie, traduit de l'Anglois. Utrecht, 1737. 8vo. Frejus, (Roland.) — Relation d'un voyage fait en 1666 aux royaumes de Maroc et de Fez. 12mo. Paris, 1670. — An en larged edition. 12mo. Paris, 1682 An English translation, 8vo. London, 1771. Addison, (Lancelot.) — West Barbary, with a short account of the revolutions of the kingdoms of Fez and Maroc. 8vo. Oxford, 1671. Mouette, Relation de la Captivite de. 12mo. Paris, 1683. Puerto, Fray Francisco de San Juan de el, Mission histo- rial de Marruecos. En Sevilla, 1708. Folio. Voyage pour la redemption des captifs aux royaumes d' Al ger, et de Tunis, fait en 1720, par les P. P. Franca Comelin* Philemon de la Motte, et Joseph Bernard. Paris, 1721. 12mo, fig- Relation du voyage aux royaumes de Maroc et d' Alger, pendant les annges 1723, 1724, et 1725 ; par les P. P. Jean de la Faye, Denis Mackar, &c. Paris, 1726. 12mo. Menezes, D. Fernando de, Historia de Tanger, que com- prehende as noticias desde a sua primeira conquista a te a sua ruina. Lisboa Occidental, 1732. Fol. A very rare book. Olon, (St Pierre.) Relation de l'Empire de Maroc. 12mo. Paris, 1694. Histoire du regne de Mouley Ismael, Roi de Maroc, Fez, Tafilet, &c. avec le recit de trois voyages a Mequenez et Ceuta, par le pere Dominique Busnot. Rouen. 1714. 12mo. Windhus, (John.) Journey of Mequinez. 8vo. London, 1723. Histoire de l'empire des Cherifs en Afrique, avec la relation de la prise d'Oran, par Philippe V. et abrege de la vie de M. de Santa Cruz. Paris, 1733. 2 tom. 12mo. APPENDIX. 547 Shaw, (Thomas.) Travels or Observations relating to several parts of Barbary and the Levant. 2 vols. Fol. Ox ford, 1738 Supplement. Fol. Oxford, 1746 Both to gether much improved. London, Fol. 1737. — French trans lation. 2 vols. 4to. Hague, 1743. These travels are univer sally esteemed for the extent and precision of their informa tion, and for their scrupulous fidelity. Roy, M. le, Etat general et particulier du royaume, cet de la ville d' Alger. Hague, 1750. 12mo. Chenier. — Recherches Historiques sur les Maures, et His toire de l'Empire de Maroe. 3 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1788. An English translation, in 2 vols. 8vo. includes a good description of the empire of Morocco. Hoest. — Efferitningen om Marokos och Fez, Samlete der i landene, fra 1760 til 1768. 4to. Copenhagen, 1779. (Ger man translation.) This work is said to possess much merit. Poiret, I'Abbe, Voyage en Barbarie, ou lettres ecrites de I'ancienne Numidie, pendant les annees 1785 et 1786, sur la religion, les mceurs des Maures, et Arabes Bedouins, avec un essai sur l'histoire naturelle de ce pays. Paris, 1789. 2 vols. 8vo. Lempriere, (William.) Tour from Gibraltar to Tangier, &c. 8vo. London, 1771. Jackson, (J. G.) Account of the Empire of Morocco. 4to. London, 1809. Blaquiere, (Edward.) Letters from the Mediterranean. 2 vols. 8vo. Macgill, (Thomas.) Account of Tunis. 8vo. Glasgow, 1811. Tully, (R.) Narrative of a ten years' residence at Tripoli, from correspondence in possession of the family of, 4to. Lon don, 1816. (Very curious.) Keatinge, (Col.) Travels in Europe and Africa. 4to. London, 1816, 548 APPENDIX. Ali Bey Travels in Morocco, Tripoli, &c. 2 vols. 4to, London, 1816. Western Coast. Voyages by Windham, 1553, by Lock, by Tounson, by Fenner, by Reid, and Newton, (all in Hackluyt's Collec tion.^. Barbot, Description of the coast of North and South Guinea, (Churchill's Collection, vol. v.) Bosman,* Smith, Des Marchais, Philips, Atkins, Loyer. See above, pages 289, &c. Villault, ecuyer, appelle Bejlefond, description des Cotes d'Afrique appelles Guinee. 32mo. Paris, 1669. D'Elbee, Sieur de, Journal d'un Voyage au Royaume d'Ardra. 12mo. Snelgrave, (William) Account of some parts of Guinea and the Slave-trade. 8vo. London, 1727. Lindsay, (John) Voyage to the coast of Africa in 1758, containing an account of the taking of the Island of Goree, by Augustus Keppel. London, 1759. 4to. fig. Isert, New Voyage to Guinea, (in Danish) 8vo. Copen hagen, 1788 — German translation, 1790 French transla tion, 1739. Dalzel, (Archibald) History of the country of Dahomy. 8vo. London, 1789. Norris, (John) Voyage tp the country of Dahomy. 8vo. London, 1790. Mathews, (John) Voyage to the river Sierra Leone. 8vo. Londpn, 1788. Wadstrom, (A.B.) Essay on Colonization. 4to. Lon* don, 1794. k, Winterbottom, Account of the native Africans, 2 vols. 8vo. London. Beaver, (Captain) African Memoranda. 4to. London, 1803. APPENDIX. 549 Meredith, Description ofthe Gold Coast of Africa. 8vo. London, 1812. Southern Africa. Breyer, (Joh) Reise-beschreibung von 1669 his 1677, unter die Africanischen Volken besonders die Hottentoten. 8vo. Leipsic, 1681. Ten Ryne, (Willelmus) Schediasma de promontorio Bonas Spei et ejus tractus incolis Hottentotis. 8vo. Schafhausen, 1686. Kolben, (Peter) Description of the Cape, (in Dutch) 2 vols. fol. Amsterdam, 1727 German translation, 3 vols. fol. Nuremberg. — French abridgment, 3 vols. 12mo. Am sterdam, 1741 English translation, 2 vols. 8vo. London, 1731. La Caille, (Abbe) Journal du Voyage fait au Cap de Bonne Esperance. 12mo. Paris, 1763. Thunberg, (G. P.) Voyage to Japan — English transla tion. 4 vols. 8vo. 1*195. The part relating to the Cape is inserted in Vol. xiv. of Pinkerton's Collection. Sparmann, Voyage to the Cape of Good Hope, (in Swedish) 2 vols. 8vo. Stockholm, 1783. — English transla tion, 2 vols. 4to. 1785 French, 2 vols. 4to. 1787. Paterson, (William) Narrative of a Journey into the country of the Hottentots, 4to. London, 1789. Le Vaillant, Voyage dans interieur de l'Afrique. 4to. Paris, 1790. -2 tom. 8vo. Ibid. 1798. Second Voyage, 2 tom. 4to. Paris, 1795. 3 tom. 8vo. Ibid. ' An English translation, 5 vols. 8vo. V. Y. Riou, (Edward) Journey in search of the Grosvenor, 4to. London, 1792. Barrow, (John) Account of Travels into the interior of Southern Africa. 4to. London, 1801. — French translation, by Degrandpre, 2 vols. 8vo. 1801. 550 APPENDIX. Barrow's Travels, Vol. II. 4to. 1803. — French translation by Walckenaer, 2 vols. 8vo. Paris, 1806. Percival, (John) — Account of the Cape of Good Hope. 4to. London, 1804. Gleanings in Africa. 8vo. London, 1806. Campbell, (John) — Travels in South Africa. 8vo. London, 1815. Lichtenstein, (Heinrich.) — Reisen im Sudlichen Africa. 2 vols. 8vo. Berlin, 1812. An English translation in 2 vols. 4to. Eastern Coast. Santos, Joao De, Ethiopia Oriental, e varia historia de cousas notaveis de oriente. Fol. Evora, 1607. — French tran slation. 8vo. Paris, 1684 English translation in Pinker- ton's Collection, Vol. XVI. Salt, (Henry.) — Voyage to Abyssinia, including an ac count of the Portuguese settlements on the east coast of Afri ca. 4to. London, 1814. Contains much recent and valu able information concerning this part of Africa. THE END. DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER. General Map of Africa to front Title- Page of Volume I. Map of Western Africa to front P. 49. Map of Egypt to front Title- Page of Volume II. Map of Central Africa according to Ptolemy, to front P. 388. ' the Arabians, to front P. 394. . Modern Geographers, to front P. 400. JiruiHyVtBLizariZiijC hthUslitdbyAConjtable'z.Ce UJui • Itilv WORKS recently published by ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE & Co. EDINBURGH. 1. A STATISTICAL, POLITICAL, and HISTORICAL ACCOUNT of the UNITED STATES of AMERICA, from the period of the First Establishments to the present day, on a new plan. By D. B. Warden. With a New Map of the United States, and a Plan of the City of Washington. In 3 vols. 8vo. Price £.2. 2s. 2. JOURNAL of a TOUR and RESIDENCE in GREAT BRITAIN during the years 1810 and 1811. By Louis Simond. Second Edition. Corrected and Enlarged. To which is added, an Appendix on France, written in December 1815 and October 1816. In two vols 8vo. Price £.1. lis. 6d. 3. The HISTORY of the CHURCH of SCOTLAND, from the Establishment of the Reformation to the Revolution ; illustrating a most interesting period of the Political History of Britain. By George Cook, D.D. Minister of Laurence kirk. 3 vols. 8vo. £.1. 16s. boards. 4. HISTORY ofthe REFORMATION in SCOTLAND ; with an Introductory Book, and an Appendix. By George Cook, D. D. Minister of Laurencekirk, and Author of an Illustration of the General Evidence establishing the reality of Christ's Resurrection. Second Edition. 3 vols. 8vo. £.1. lis. Gd. boards. 5. ESSAYS on the NATURE and PRINCIPLES OF TASTE. By Archibald Alison, L. L. B. Prebendary of Sarum, &c. Fifth Edition. 2 vols. 8vo. £.1. Is. boards. 6. SERMONS by the Rev. Archibald Alison, L. L. B. Prebendary of Sarum, Rector of Roddington, Vicar of High Ercal, in the County of Salop, and Senior Minister of the Episcopal Chapel, St Pauls, York-Place, Edinburgh. 2 vols. 8vo. £.1.4s. Volume II. separately. Price 12s. boards. 7. A TREATISE on the EXTERNAL, CHEMICAL, and PHYSICAL CHARACTERS of MINERALS. By Robert Jameson, Professor of Natural History in the Uni versity of Edinburgh. Third Edition. 8vo. -12s. boards. 26 Worths recently Published by A. Constable &¦ Co. 8. MEMOIRS of MADAME MARQUISE LOUISA DE LAROCHEJAQUELEIN. Translated from the Second Edi tion, printed at Paris. 8vo. 12s*. boards. This is a book to be placed by the side of Mrs Hutchison's delightful Memoirs of her heroic Husband and his chivalrous independents. Both are pictures by a female hand, of tumultuary and almost private wars, car ried on by conscientious individuals against the actual government of their country ; and both bring to light, not only innumerable traits of the most romantic, daring, and devoted fidelity, 'in particular persons, but a general character of domestic virtue and social gentleness, among those who would otherwise have figured to our imaginations as adventurous desperadoes or ferocious bigots. While her narrative acquires an additional interest, and a truer tone of nature, from the occasional recurrence of female fears and anxieties, it is conversant with still more extraordinary incidents and charac ters, and reveals still more of What had been previously malignantly repre sented, or entirely unknown;" — Edinburgh Review, No: 51. 9; OUTLINES of NATURAL PHILOSOPHY; being Heads of Lectures delivered in the University of Edinburgh. By John Playfair, F. R. S. L. & E., Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Edinburgh. With Platesw Second Edition. 2 vols. 8vo. Price £.1. Is. boards. *%* Vol. II. separately. Price 10s. 6d. boardsi 10. ELEMENTS OF GEOMETRY AND PLANE TRI GONOMETRY, with an Appendix, and Copious Notes and Illustrations. By John Leslie, F. R. S. E., Professor of Mathematics in the University of Edinburgh. Third Edition. Improved and Enlarged. 8vo. 10s. 6d. boards. 11. The PHILOSOPHY of ARITHMETIC, Exhibiting a Progressive View of the Theory and Practice of Calculation ; with an Enlarged Table of the Products of Numbers under One Hundred. By John Leslie, F. R. S. E. Professor of Mathematics in the University of Edinburgh. Price 8s. in boards. 12. A SYSTEM of MINERALOGY. By Robert Jame son, Professor of Natural History in the University of Edin^ burgh. 3 vols. 8vo. The Third Edition. With numerous Plates, illustrative of the various Chrystallizations that occur in the Mineral Kingdom, of the structure of the Earth, and of the Form and Structure of the Organic Remains which it con tains. £.2. 12s. 6d. boards. 13. ELEMENTS ofthe PHILOSOPHY ofthe HUMAN., MIND. By Dugald Stewart, F. R. SS. L. & Et Fourth Edition. 2 vols. 8 vo. £.1. 8s. boards. 3 9002 00770 YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY HOWELL WRIGHT COLLECTION of Rhodesiana and South Africana .,., evvi