. - •¦.; YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY DEPOSITED BY THE LINONIAN AND BROTHERS LIBRARY VIEW OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE, DURING THE REIGN^F CATHARINE THE|^0^; AND TO THE CLOSE OF THE EIGHTEENTH CENTTiR^ ' ' By WILLIAM TOOKE, F. R. S. MEMBER OF THE IMPERIAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES J»ND OF 1BE FREE ECONOMICAL SOCIETY AT ST. PETERSBURG. IN THREE VOLUMES. VOL> III. THE SECOND EDITION. LONDON: Printed by G. Woadfall, Patcreoflir-Roiv ; SOfc T, N. LONGMAN AND O. REES, PATERNOSTER-ROW. l80O. *£>-;-€/' £~ VIEW of itii R t/SS IAN E MP IRE, BOOK X. The •fiijherij.- . S . the fchace has always been the exclusive oc cupation of particular nations of the ruffian em pire; fo .there are alfo tribes who maintain themr.; felves principally or alone by the fishery, and. with whom even the eftabliftiment of this trade Forms a. part of their civil conftitution: It is na turally to. be implied that this can only be the cafe with thofe nations and fwarms whdfe habitations border on the fea, or comprife large rivers abound ing in fiflij and who.fe civilizatioii is as yet by much too little advanced for feledting more pro ductive arid ingenious fources of livelihood. Some of thefe fiftier- nations follow this trade folely for their own fupportj while others, as the Kozaks of the Don and the Ural, and the tribes on the fhores of the Volga, carry on an important and vol. m. b lucrative 2 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. lucrative traffic with the products of their fifhery. With moft of the hordes and fwarms of Siberia the chace and thtvfifhery are equally important as the means of profit ; the former is followed chiefly in fummer, and the latter in the winter months. The fame feverity of frofb which covers the coafts and the risers, vrit^h ice, and tlu^s makes the filher- man idle, fmooths the way to the huntfman through forefls and -over morafles, which in a warmer feafon would be utterly impafTable. For reprefenting the various employments and objects of the fifhery,*, in fome fort of method, we will .treat of them, according to the feas and diftridls in which this trade is principally carried on. Every fea, with the rivers that fall into it, has not only ftore of fifees and aquatic animals; but alfO the methods employed by the people for obtaining this property areas various as the nations and diftridls they inhabit. * The employments of the people; are, fo various, and com- &H?a*sd> that it is not eafy unconditionally to reduce thenv tQ ^ft^^W^ Among tin? bufineffes which I here ftate *s^elp"£*"lj tQ t^.e fi^ery feme might with equal propriety be reckoned' to the chace, as, for example, the capture oftfre large, marine animals, particularly thofe which are fought fer. cfeieayof foiely on account of their furs. Tiefe.pccu- pations I have &m.etimes. comprehended under different terijis. However, this distribution is of fo little confequence, that the reader and myfelf may be fp"ared the trouble of any apology to Ihew why one or the other claffification has been preferred!. We tbE tflSHEftV. $ We (hall make a beginning with the1 Frozest- Odfi as and' its. bays and fivers: All t'hl trades v carried on by the Ruffians On the Northern-ocean are of the greater" eonjfequenee; as the benefit of them extends over the; whole" empire, and beeaule the1 eOftfu#Jptioh of thd produces thence obtained is general. The ardtie waters, it is' w#U knowfti breed the kfg'eft fea-animals of the cetaceous genus, whales oi feveral fpectes, dolphihsy &c~ *. for the Capture of Which (hips are fent out by Various nations. Here, in the extremities of the north; are lik^wife engendered the numberlefs ffioSk of flock -fifbs herrings* and other fmaller kinds, fup- plying food to whole- countries* and by the eap* ture whereof more than one nation has- been en riched s The advantages fifing from the fifhery in thefe fcas are indeed many and greatt, but- the difficulties and perils' attendant on it are not left either in number Or magnitude* as the people here have not only to contend with the ftrengtfe * The whald, the mdrfe, t'fiche'cus rofmaruir, called By the Ruffianis morfch, by the- Germa'ris* wallroTs, by the Sam6yede's thtte, by the French vaehe marine, and by our englifh na vigators mor-fe. See voyages of. capt. Cook. Linnaeus in his fyftema nature denominates them, phoca dentibus caninis exfertis. The natliwal; the fperrhaceti whale" or phy'fetfr iHatrosegrialifs : in" the White--fea- and the Frozen-ocean are alfo the phyfeter catoddn, which about Archangel is falfely called the Beluga; but ought not to be' confounded with the dolphin, the fea-hog, delphinus phocana, &c. B 2 and 4 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. and -cunning of the animals they are in queft of, but &\{& with the terrors of an inclement iky, with raging ftorms and tempefts, and with enormous, maffespfiice^hat.-abftrua their navigation^, and threaten them every moment with deftru&ion. As the huge fea-animals are feldom met with in the White-,fea, and as, by reafon of the inhofpitable climate of thefe dreary fhores. the coaftsof the Northern-ocean are almoft entirely deflitute of human beings, the inhabitants of the. governments of Archangel and Olonetz principally profecute their fifhery on Spitfbergen and Novaya Zem- Jia; thefe iflands, therefore,, as the chief fcene of the northern fifhery, defepye to be briefly cha- radlerifed, in order to render the accounts that follow, more clearly intelligible*. . - yy Both iflands are completely uninhabited If by .misfortune feme poor mariners have been fhip- wrecked on their ,coafts, it is probable, that by the feverity of the climate, againft which they had, not the means of defence, they have prefently after perifhed; Some englifh axid dutch feamen, who in the'firft periods of navigation in the Northern- ocean, wintered on thefe iflands, for the moft.part loft^their lives, or endured iriexpreffible mifery. Yet the abode there is. only dangerous, to thofe ' navigators who have been ufed to a. more genial » Nachrichten ueber.tSpitzbergen, . im journal von Ruff- land, torn. iii. p. 397. £ ,i climate, THE FISHERY. 5 climate, and have not been able by proper clothes,' nourifhmerit, and motion, to refill the attacks of the fcurvy, which are fo eafily brought 'on by an indolent and confined life during the tedious winter. The 'ruffian failors from Archangel and Mefenj who annually Vifit both Novaya Zemlia' and Spitfbergen, are more able to defy the horrors of the climate. They afford frequent examples of avery long fojourn in the polar countries: a feamari from Mefen, Feodor Rachmanin, wintered" fix-and-twenty times on Novaya Zemlia, which he alfo vifited twice in furrimer-time, lived fix winters on Spitfbergen, and failed five years fuc- ceffively from the YenifTey to the fhores of Si beria. The extreme cold which reigns here the greater part of the year is the moft piercing with a north wind; fouth and weft winds bring fhow and rain. For about the fpace of three months, Spitfbergen and the northern parts of Novaya Zemlia are fhrouded in one uninterrupted night. To the Dutchmen, who-in the year 1596 wintered on the north-eaftern coaft of this ifland; the fun became invifible on the third of November, and only ap peared to them again on the four-and- twentieth of January, after having bad-a, fort of- twilight for Upwards of fourteen days. This long night -is, however, fomewhat cheared by the aurora borealis^ which' appears in its full magnificence and fplen- dor only in the polar regions. During the im- 5 3 penetrably 'S PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. .fome fet out at the beginning of fummer, whea the White-fea is free from ice, others not till autumn, especially if "they intend to winter on the yoyage. The greatefl peril to, which they are expofed at fea, is that of being hemmed in by the, driving mattes of ice; in this cafe the ice by its force beats in the fides.. of the yefiel, and the morfe-catchers are then reduced to the dreadful alternative either of being buried in the waves on the fpot, or of getting on the fields of ice floating Qt the mercy of the winds, till cold and hunger put an end to their fufferings. And yet it has happened, though very rarely, that fome of thefe poor fellows have been brought alive to land. on their flakes of ice. When the morfe-catchers are happily arrived at Jhe place of their deftination, the firft thing they. do is to conduct their veffels to fome fafe anchor- , ^ge, where they, generally find feveral little huts .that have' been conftruded by their predeceflbrs in this hazardous warfare, and then commit them- felves to the fmall boats, of which every vefTel takes with it one qr two to proceed to the confli$ with the beafts of the ocean. This is ufuaily. done on the firft fine day, becaufe then the morfes delight in going on tlie land or on the ice to re- .pofe; and befides, they are at times Simulated #> leave their native element for a length of time for the purpofe of copulation, which bufinefs lafts with thefe monfters for a month or two, or to caft their young, THE FISHERY. ~ Q young, or to refcue themfelves from the bites of the fea-lice, by which the morfe in fummer is perpetually tormented, and from which they have no other means of efcaping than by fleeing into an element which •deprives thefe infects of life. All thefe caufes together collect them frequently on the beach or fields of ice in prodigious numbers. When the captors difcover one of thefe multi tudes, they muft have the precaution to approach them againft the wind, becaufe thefe animals have fo fine a fmell, that they perceive the approach of men with the wind at a'great diftance, and then "immediately take to the water ; whereas in the contrary cafe they continue lying undiflurbed, though they even fee the boat advancing to them. Befides, the morfe-catchers by this means. have the advantage of difcovering fooner the place where their prey has couched; for thefe fat ani mals, efpecially in fummer, emit far round them a horrid flench. < When .the captors have reached this formidable encampment, they immediately quit their kar- baffes or boats, armed with nothing but their pikes, Cut off the way to the fea from the morfes, and then pierce thofe animals which come firft to fave themfelves in the water. As it is the way with the morfes to fcramble over one another in their attempts to efcape, from the numbers of the flain there foon arifes a bulwark which effectually choakes up the paffage to the living; and then the captors 10 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. captors proceed with the flaughter till they have left . not one alive. It fometimes happens that after fuch an engagement fo great are the heaps of the dead, that the veffels can only contain the heads or the teeth ; and the people are obliged to leave the fat or blubber and the fkins behind. But, eafy as it is for the captors to conquer the morfe by land, fo dangerous is the conflict with thefe animals in their own element. We have only to recollect that the morfe is commonly of the fize of a large ox, and that, befides their fharp teeth, they are provided with two long flout tufks, for judging how a fea fight of this kind is likely to terminate. When any of the morfes efcape into the water before they can all be killed, the captors leap upon the ice and fall upon the animals with harpoons which they ftrive to ftrike into their breafts or their belly, and to each of which is fattened a long cord. This done, they drive a flake into the ice, wind the other end of the long harpoon-firing round it, and are now drawn about, pn the piece of ice on which they ftand, by the animal till he has loft his ftrength, when they draw him upon, the ice by the cord, and kill him outright. — But when the morfes lie fo near to the water, that they can leap in ere the attack begins, then the captors faften the cord, When they have, thrown the harpoon, only to the head of the boat, which is then drawn by the huge animal fo deep into the water that the failors muft all THE FISHERY. II all run immediately a-ftern. The morfe having*-" fruitlefsly endeavoured to get loofe from the cord, rifes erect upon the furface of the water and makes a furious attack on his perfecutors. In this he is fometimes fo fuccefsful as to fhatter the boat with his tufks, or to throw himfelf fuddenly by a proportionate leap into the midfhips. Then nothing is left to the crew but to jump overboard and to hold by the gunnel, till other morfe-hunters come to their affiftaftce in this defperate filia tion. — To mitigate the danger of thefe mis fortunes the captors not only previously take all proper meafures, but it is. even laid down by laws and regulations what conduct every one is to ob- ferve during the voyage and in the actual encoun ter with the morfes. Each of thefe companies confifts generally of a mailer or pilot, two har- pooners, two barrelling people, a fteerfman, and fever;al rowers, each of whom has- his appointed duty. Though 'the morfes fpread from the Kurilly iflands along all the ruffian coaft of the Northern- ocean, quite to Norway, Iceland, and Greenland*, this * The elder GmeUn has circumftantially defcribed this yaft extent of their haunts, in his travels, torn. iii. p. 165. They begin about the Kurilly iflands, are found in the parts contiguous to Behring's rflaad, and in general throughout the v?hole of the Ruffian Archipelago, proceeding thence to wards the Anadyr and the tfchuktfchian promontory, (where are found an aftonifhing quantity of morfe-teeth, which leads Gmelin 12 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. this trade is the moft productive about Spitfbergen and Novaya Zemlia, cpnfequently the morfe-hun- ters preferably go thither. Many of them pafs the winter on thefe inhofpitable iflands, in order to return with greater booty, as they then may pur- fue the white-bear, the rein-deer, and the ice-fox. In this cafe they build themfelves little huts for the winter, which at times are fo buried in fnow that nobody can come out of them. As no wood at all grows on thefe iflands, the morfe-hun- ters muft inevitably perifh with cold, were not the fea to caft a great quantity of drift-wood on fhore, among which are often found balks fit for building houfes.' From their way of living the fcurvy is not dangerous here to the Ruffians : they drink no fpirits, but merely quas, and •fometimes they have even a vapour-bath in their huts. Befides this, they make ufe of the antifcorbutic herbs that grow on thefe fhores ; they take care to pro vide themfelves with a flock of yellow mulberries; and they find a drink made from the tops of pine- boughs arid of juniper very wholefome. . They drink, likewife, the warm blood, of the rein deer, a remedy which they have probably learned of the Gmelin to believe that they retire into thefe unfrequented regions for fhedding their large old tufts for young ones,) and are found in fwarms all along the coafts of the Frozen- ocean quite as far as Greenland. Herrmann's ftatiftifche fchilderung von Rufsland, p. 254. » Samoyedes. THE FISHERY. 13 Samoyedes. — For the fake of preferving fome fort of focial order among them, which is doubly necef- fary in this dark and dreary abode, and in a ftate of fuch total feparation and helpleffnefs, every company cpnfers upon its fteerfman the right to chaftife. the difobedient and refractory ; in which the reft of the company, or, in cafe of an actual rebellion, all the other winter-huts that may chance to be there, afford him their affiftance. — In fum mer the' morfe-captors employ themfelves very frequently in collecting of eider-down. ;i; The partition of the property, when the1 en- terprifers are returned home, is made in the fol-r lowing manner: the fitter-out of the fhip takes one half-fhare of the whole, leaving the remain der to the fhip's crew, of which each receives his portion according to the agreement previ- oufly made. Difproportionate as this reward may feem to fuch toils and dangers, yet according to the ideas and wants of this clafs of men it is always ample enough to animate others to fimilar rifques; and the ufe which thefe honefl, laborious, and rude people make of their hard earnings, often obtained at the hazard of their lives, clearly (hews that thefe facrifices are of no great value in their eyes. Like the englifh and dutch fai- lors in the eaft india trade, who fquander away in one week the gains of a two-years' voyage, the ruffian morfe-captor refigns his whole booty to Bacchus; and ere the produce of this' hazardous induftry 14 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. induftry is arrived at the neareft market, the1 farmers of the kabaks are fharing the profits ot the man that obtained it* The products which are brought into the chan nels of commerce by the morfe-fifhery are prin cipally the blubber and the fkin of thefe marine- animals. The captors ufualty bring home the fat unmelted, whereby it lofes mufh Of its good- hefs, and confequently of its price ; but this can not, be altered, as both the want of wood in the countries where the morfe is taken, and the hafte" which the men are obliged to employ, allow them to do no better. When the fat is melted over the fire by thefe people at home, they ufually mix" with it the fat of the fea-dog or the beluga," and felt it under the name of vervannoye-falo . > — Of this oil is annually fhipped from the port of Arch angel from- two to ten thoufand tons, the ton at feven pood; the pood at Archangel cofts a- ruble and half and upwards. This oil is employed infoap* boiling, in the preparation of leather, and for the consumption of lamps ; it is likewife employed1 to various other purpofes' by different tradef- men and mechanics; The morfe-fkins are hung upon poles, as they arc taken out of the fea, m the open air till they* are become ftiff, when they are prepared1 for far ther ufe. Of them are made traces for carriages, borfe-harnefles, &C. and< from the cuttings excel lent fizefor the-paper-mamfactorres. A morfe-fkin 3 cofts The fishery. 1£ cofts ufually three, four, or more rubles. — The morfe-teeth are tranfported partly to St. Peterf- burg and Mofco, and partly likewife to Archangel ; where^ and in the diftridts around it, they are wrought up into all the works for which ivory can be ufed» Here are made of them all forts of elegant little boxes and cafkets of open work in a variety of taftes, fan-ilicks, knife-handles, card-counters, chefs- men, &c. which according to the neatnefs of workmarifhip and the whitenefs of the teeth bear a different price. The thick- nefs of thefe teeth renders them fo heavy, that fometimes five of the large tufkswiU weigh more than, a podd : they are as white as ivory, having this-advantage over it, that they are firmer and' will not fo fbon become yellow. A pood of the laa-geft morfe-teeth cofts upon the fpot twenty oc thirty rubles.* Befides thefe marine animals already mentioned, in the capture of which the inhabitants- of the fea-coafts are principally -employed, the Frozen- ocean, Hkewifey ¦¦ teems with the narhwal, the pott-fish, from whofe brain fpermaceti is pre-. * In the year 1793, the export by fea front all the ports amounted to: of train-oil, 43,504 pood in value 106,332 rubles ; of mammolrf's bones and rhorfe-ttfflb, tgo pood, value 6136 rubles. From Archangel in particular : train-oil, 41,830 poods, xalue 10*1,713 rubles ; marnmoht's bones and morfe- tuflw, 45 poods, value 1463 rvrSlesr pared, 16* Productive industry1. pared, the sea-dog** dolphin* sea-ho6"|^ hay-fish j, fea-cow§, the fea-bear ||j the feaj. lion*, the fea-otter9, and many others* which. animals are caught . either for their fkin. or their blubber! The fea->dogs are commonly moft nu merous' in the Frozen-ocean, and. often proceed into the White-fea;-, there are even feveral fpecies. of them, at leaft thofe which are known about the Oby, the Yeniffey, and the Lena, undexthe. ruffian name of viorJJtoie faez (fea-hare), are entirely dirk ferent) from the common fort. Thefe have a> filver-white gloffjrfkin and long woolly, hair.— -?. The Samoyedes watch for the fea-dogs, .orlfeals^. generally. in the fpring-feafon.wheh thefe animals. repair to the mouths of the rivers and get:aut of the: water through holes which they have made in the ice by their breath. . They ufually lay near the aperture a board to which a rope is faftened. The Samoyede, lurking behind a . hlock of ice, as. foon as be fees, the fea-dog fairly out, draws the board over the' opening ; the animal's retreat being thus cut off; he is killed without trouble "• Another remarkable, animal in thefe waters ist theiwhite- fifh tt, known to the Greenlanders under this name, but. to, the Ruffians by that of beluga, and , * Phoca vitulina. f Delphinus phocana, J Squalus carcharias. , § Trichecus manatus. \\ Ehoca urfina. J Phoca leonina jubata. '8 "Lutra marina. ¦n Pallas, travels, torn* Hi. p. 91. r, ... it Phyfeter cantodon. "" which THE FISHERY. 17 which profeffor Pallas, by way of diftinction, calls the fea-beluga. He belongs to the race of the dolphin, is not above three fathoms long, and is everywhere found in the Frozen- ocean. Thefe animals keep together in fhoals, and are driven upon)fhallow places in the White-fea and the gulf of the Oby by the Samoyedes, who afibciate into numerous companies for that purpofe, and , there harpooned. Their flefh is black, but over the whole body, is drawn a white rind, out of which a very pure fat may be prepared *. Ac cording, fo Guldenffoedt's opinion this .fpecies of fifh might be beneficially ufed for obtaining train-oil. That the morfe-catchers employ it in preparing, the train-oil of that animal has already been remarked. The fifhery on the fhores of the Frozen- ocean is, fronv its moftly inacceffible coafts, and from the want of people in thefe wafte regions, not very confiderable. In many places detached fifhing- parties come to fifh with nets at high-water. — Much more productive is the fifhery on the coafts of the White-fea which fkirt the government of Archangel. Among the principal objects of it are ctdd, navaga-J*, plaice, soals, stock fish, .and herrings. The peculiar place where the ftock-fifh and kabelyau J are caught is the left fide of the White-fea, from its junction with * Pallas, travels, torn. iii. p. 84 — 87. f Gadus callarias. % Gadus morrhua. vol. 111. c the 18 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. the ocean to the coafts of Norway. The fifher- men remain from ten to fifty verfts diftant from the fhore ; at prefent, however, as the fifhery here has greatly declined, they are obliged to go out far above Kola*. The herring-fifhery in the White-fea and in the Northern-ocean was formerly a monopoly of the crown ; but by an ukafe of the year 1776, it was laid open to every one. The herrings caught here are moftly tranfported fmoaked, dried, and falted ; but feldom retain fo good a relifh as to be compared with the beft that come from abroad, either becaufe they have not the true method of fairing them, or from the want of good fait. Ruffia buys yearly to the value of more than 100,000 rubles foreign her rings ; the beft of them which are indifpenfable to the luxury of the table, amount however to but a fmall quantity. The greater part of thefe fifh are' but of moderate quality and are imported for the demands of the common people in Livo nia, Ingria, Finland, and the white-ruffian govern ments which might juft as well be fatisfied with home -produce, if, befides feveral other kinds of fifh, they would take the omul-}- of the fou- thern feas, in greater quantities, and fait them properly. This fifh is the native of the Frozen- * Lepekhin's journal of travels through various provinces of the ruffian empire, torn. iii. p. 215. •j- Salmo autumnalus, Pall. Corregonus artedi, Lepe- KHIN. ocean, THE FISHERY. ' ig ocean, where they are found in prodigious quan tities and very frequently taken, proceed not only into the White-fea,' the Yenifley, and the Oby, but alfo go out of the Eaftern-ocean into the rivers of Kamtfhatka. Through the Yenifley they come not only by means of the Tungufka into the Angara, but alfo in the Tuba and the great lake Madfhar on the fayane mountains. Finding in the fouthern lakes a deep and fpacious water, they do not return to the ocean, but multi ply in the vaft pieces of water, and in fo much the greater abundance as here they are not perfecuted' by any fifh of prey. In all the regions lying be yond the Baikal, this fhoal-fifh is in high eftima- tion, becaufe, without it, the inhabitants, whofe ftony rivers have no ftores of fifh, would fuffer from the want, of a fupply for their fafts*. It is alfo reckoned a great dainty by the people who dwell on the fhores of the White-fea. It is caught moft plentifully here in the little lakes which have communication with the rivers. For this purpofe the fi-fhermen make a fort of hedge in them of flakes interwoven with bavins of brufhwood, run ning in a zig-zag direction, and terminating in a deep refervoir. Into this the omuls enter in fucE vaft quantities, that the fifliermen have only to go with their canoe into the pool and fcoop them out with tubs made into ladles -f. * Pallas, travels, torn. Hi. p. 79. 289. •f- Lepekhin's travels, torn. iii. p. 228." C 2 This SO PRODUCTIVE muusxin- This great wealth of the Northern-ocean in, marine-animals and fifh of various forts, allows us to expect not fewer in the rivers which flow into it. Befides feveral of the fpecies we have named, the Dvina and the Petfhora particularly abound in that excellent fifh called by the Ruf fians sighi and salmons, the latter being parti cularly reckoned the fatteft and beft flavoured of all northern Ruffia, and therefore are tranfported frozen or falted to a great diftance round the country. — None of all the ftreams of the empire poffefs fuch hofts of migrating fifh, paffing out of the fea, as the Oby. In this river are not only a variety of fifh known nowhere elfe, but alfo great plenty of sturgeons,, sterlet, white-sal mon, pikes, murjena*, QUOBBE-f, and a mul titude of other fifh, the ruffian or oftiak names whereof without an explanation, would be perfectly unintelligible. The migrating fifh come near Berefof about the month Of June, and then pro ceed higher into the Irtyfh, the Tobol, and the Torn. From thefe expeditions, during which the fifh fhed their fpawn, moft of them return half- grown, and thofe with weakened roes go in Sep tember, when the ice begins to form, into the lower region of the river Oby, and repair again in win ter into the ocean before the rivers become putrid * Murapna Helena, Salmo albula, P*llas. ' f Quappe in german. Gadus lota. under THE EISHERY. 21, under the ice*. The fifhery in the Oby is, par ticularly in the inferior region, chiefly carried on by Oftiaks and Samoyedes, but in the fuperior purfued by every one who choofes. The fpring fifhery commences not till June, when the waters are clear of ice and the fifh come by myriads into the lakes, gulfs, and collateral rivers ; for in the main river itfelf it is impoffible to fifh by reafon of its breadth and depth, or only in very fhallow places. Befides the drag-nets which are of ufe from June till fome time in October, the Oftiaks have ftill various other methods of fifhing: The moft curious is that with a net called by them kilidan, and is drawn like a-purfe. The lower rim of it is extended by a flick, to which in the middle a ftone is tied that it may lie flat on the ground. To the ftone a cord is pre- vioufly faftened, paffing through a ring at the upper rim of the net which has a rope inferted round it, and by which the fifherman fitting in his canoe holds the net. Somewhat above the upper rim feveral firings are fixed to the net which the fifherman takes between his fingers, and by which he feels whenever fifh come into the net. * The putridity of this running-water under the ice pro- teed's from no other caufe than the fwampy quality of the ground and water of thefe rivers, their fluggifh current and their impregnation with terrene fairs. The putrid or dead water does not recover its freihnefs till fpring, when the mafs of it is increafed by the melted fnow. c 3 In 22 PRODUCTIVE; INDUSTRY. In this cafe he immediately lets go the firings, and draws up the net by the rope ; by which action the erofs-ftick fhuts the lower aperture of the fack hanging downwards, and inclofes the fifh. With thefe fack-nets, flurgeon, white falmon, quobbs, and fuch kinds of fifh are caught from June to September. It is eafy to conceive, that a people who make the fifhery their principal occupation muft have con trived a great variety of means, fome of them inge nious, for purfuing this bufinefs at the leaft expence of time and trouble. Befides the purfe-nets juft de- fcribed, and the fifh-weels and wears that are every where in ufe, . the Oftiaks and Samoyedes cuftom- arily go to fifh in (hallow places in the night-time, by the light of burning birch-bark, which they flick on poles. In theh fecondary rivers moft northward, the Samoyedes as fOon as the ice is ftrong make openings in it, over which they build huts, and fink in the water little lure-fifh, cut out of wood, by lines made heavy with ftones, by means of which they eafily pierce with forked- fpears the fifh who are led to them by greedinefs or curiofity. They alfo make little wears acrofs fuch rivers, let through the aperture white tree- bark funk by ftones to the bottom, and fpear the fifh as they play about, which are then plainly vifible. — By thefe and many other inventions the Oftiaks and Samoyedes are enabled to fupply themfelves and the Ruffians their neighbours all the THE FISHERY. 23 the year round with fifh. In fummer they have fuch a great fuperfluity of fturgeon alone, which are often a fathom long, and yield two pood of kaviar, that they throw away the fmaller kinds of fifh. The flurgeOn, therefore, in Bere- fof is never more than forty kopeeks a pood, and the fat fcarcely fifty kopeeks, never above a ruble*. The Irtyfh contains alrnOfl all the fifh which are met with in the Oby, and the fifliery is here likewife very confiderable. Its fterlet, next to that of the Oby, is the largeft of any in the empire, being at times above an arfhine and half in length. Quobbs are likewife in the Irtyfh in furprifing numbers, and they are caught not un- frequently of the length of two arfhines. But fhads, belugas, and fevrugas kinds of frolick- fome play. On feeing thefe gambols, it feems as if they were exercifing feats of wreftling ; one ftriving to give the other a fall ; and if the father comes up growling, he drives the wreftlers afunder, coaxes the conqueror, and even tries himfelf to throw him to the ground : the greater the refiftance fhewn by the latter, the more he gains the love of the parents, to whom, on the other hand, their flothful or timid children, ap pear to give but little joy. Though polygamy prevails among the fea bears, and fome of them have as many as fifty wives, yet every one watches over his offspring with uncommon jealoufy, and is, exceffively furious if a ftranger come too near them. Even when they lie by thoufands on the beach, they are always divided family-wife into companies, and in like manner they fwim .toge ther THE FISHERY. 29 ther in the ocean. The aged, who no longer have any wives, live folitary, and are of all the moft grim ; thefe frequently pafs a whole month on the fhore in fleep, without taking any food : but; whatever approaches them, whether man or beaft, they fall upon with the moft outrageous fury. The fea-bears at times wage bloody wars together, the ufual ground of hoftility being either the females or a good couching place. When two are contending againft one, others come up to affift the weaker party ; and during the com bat, the fwimming fpectators raife their heads above the water, and calmly look on for a length of time, till they alfo find a motive for mingling in the fight. Sometimes thefe conflicting ar mies cover a tract on the fhore of two or three verfts, and all the air refounds with their dreadful yells and growlings. It often happens that the combatants make an amiftice for an hour to re create their forces, during which they lie befide one another without any danger ; then both par ties fuddenly rife up, each takes its place, and the battle begins anew with redoubled fury. This goes fo far, that they purfue one another into the fea, when thofe of the victorious . party drag their - enemies back to land, and put them to the tor ture of their bites fo long, till at length they lie faint and exhaufted, and finally perifh by the talons and beaks of the ravenous birds of prey that are hovering round. — The authority with which 30 Productive industry. which the hufbands rule over their wives and children is frequently difplayed in a very tyran nical manner. When the wives, on being at tacked by the hunters, abandon their cubs from affright, and thefe are carried off, the hufbands immediately ceafe from purfuing the common foe, and turn upon the mother, as if to demand an ac count of what is become of their offspring. Then feizing them with their teeth, dafh them with violence againft the rocks ; the wives, flunned with the blows, creep and crouch at the feet of their delpots, and careffing them, flied abun dance of tears. While the hufband continues to feel his vexation, he goes growling to and fro, and rolling his eye-balls, juft as the land-bears are wont to do ; but when his rage is • abated, he then begins alfo bitterly to weep for the lofs of his young. From June till the middle of Auguft the fea- bears come afhore, in order, like the land-bears in winter, by three months of fleep and faffing to difburden themfelves of their fuperfluous fat. This is the hunting feafon for them. The full- grown and aged are not eafily frightened, but go boldly up to the men to fight them ; yet whole droves of them will plunge all at once into the fea from fear," as if feized by a panic, on any fud- den occafion Of alarm. On land they run with great fwiftnefs ; a man, therefore, who is purfued by them has no means of efcape but by climbing up THE FISHERY. , 31 up a fleep mountain, where they cannot follow him fo faft. The capture of thefe animals about Kamtfhatka is profecuted moftly at fea with the javelins furnifhed with hooks above defcribed, which quit their fhafts. The wounded beaft ftrikes with the fpeed of an arrow through the water, drawing after him the canoe; and rages till he has bled to death. The fkins of the fea- bears are of no great value ; as their hair is black, thick, and rugged, and the hide very thick and harfh, they are only ufed like feal- fkins for covering trunks and boxes. Below the long hair, clofe to the hide, lies, as with the beavers, a fine wool of a black gloffy colour. The fkin of the young that are cut out of their dam, are far more beautiful, and among the Siberiaks are of great worth, as they make their whole drefs of them. The sea-lion is not much unlike in ihape to the fea-bear ; only he is twice as large and heavy : and befides the male fea-lion has a fhaggy mane about his neck. Tremendous as the look of this animal is, and furioufly as he defends him- felf in cafe of need, yet at the fight of a man he takes immediately to flight, and rufhes into the fea. In this his proper element no hunter dares attack him ; the ufual method is to fall upon him when afleep. When a fea-lion in , this condition is luckily defcried by a hunter who can depend upon his own ftrength and fleetnefs 5 in 3£ PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. in running, he approaches .' the fleeping animal againft the wind, in order not to be betrayed, by the fcent, and then ftrikes the before-mentioned hooked fpear through the fore feet, while others are employed in winding the rope to which it is faftened round a poll driven into the ground. This done, the animal, who now cannot eafily' efcape, is (hot with poifoned arrows or knocked on the head with clubs. They frequently do no more than wound him with poifoned arrows, and then leave him to his fate ; as the fait fea- water aggravates the fmart of his wounds, he haftens foon back to the fhore, where, he then, dead or alive, becomes a prey to his captors. The chace of this animal implies fo much cou rage and agility in the huntfman, that a Kamt- fhadale, who has been feveral times fuccefsful in it, paffes for a herd, and all his life after is held in particular refpect. The captors, not unfre- quently go the diftance of five-and twenty or thirty . englifh miles out to fea in their canoes, made of the hides of marine animals and the1 bark of trees, on this perilous enterprife.. - Tenderly as the fea-bears love their young, fo little inftinct the fea-lions feem to have for theirs ; whereas the bloody confli&s of thofe ani mals are alfo cuftomary with them. They couch on the fame place with the fea-bears, who, from fear, refign to them the beft fpot, and never in terfere in their inteftine broils, though the fea- lions THE FISHERY. 33 lions do fo with them as often as an opportunity offers. — The utility of thefe animals is by no means trifling. ' The fat, the fkin, and the flefh of them are generally fweet and well-tafted, and the webs of the feet yield a jelly which pafiesfor a dainty among the Kamtfhadales. Of the hide they make leather and the thorig-ropes which are ufed in the capture of thefe and other marine animals. A third animal belonging to this collection is the sea-cow, called by the Spaniards manati, and is found both on the eaftern and the weftern coafts of America*. The largeft of thefe animals are from four to five fathom long, and about the umbilical region where they meafure moft in girt, four fathom and a half. The head refembles that of a buffalo, and is connected to the t>ody by a fhort neck. The fore-legs confift of two joints, the extremity whereof bears fome refemblance to a horfe's foot, but is provided beneath with feveral fhort briftles, which the animal employs in fcratching up the fea-weeds that ferve him as food from the ftones. His back is like that of an ox ; the great circumference of the belly declines at * Both Pallas and Schreber agree that the fea-cow here defcribed has a great refemblance with the manati of the Spaniards; yet that it ought to be coniidered as a peculiar fpecies difcriminated plainly by various charafteriftics. Neue nordifche beytrsge, torn. ii. p. 292. vol. in. d once, 34 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. once, but the tail is gradually thinner to the fins, wh^ch act inftead of hind-feet. Thefe animals love wet and fandy places on the fea-fhore; they therefore couch in whole drove| .about the mouths of rivers, and are here fo tame that they will fuffer themfelves to be ftroked and even ftruck at. The males feem to cohabit with only one female ; at leaft a herd confifts generally of only a pair -of old ories of different fexes, of one grown up, and a fmall young- one. ' Their appetite is fo infatiable, that to feed it they conflantly almoft keep their head under water, and are little concerned for their fafety. In their conjugal embraces they manifeft an extraordinary tendernefs, on which occafion the female plays the prude, and not till after re iterated importunities at laft yields as if forced to compliance. The attachment of the malas to the females proceeds fuch lengths that they fubmit to the moft certain danger of death*, if the latter be taken; and it not unfrequently happens that they will ftarve with hunger by the fkeleton of their murdered companion. — The manner of taking thefe animals is with large fpears barbed with iron, and faftened to a Ion" flout rope, • The hunters row warily up to a drove, and the markfman, who ftands in the fore part of the canoe, throws the barbed fhaft at the animal, who thereupon is drawn a-fhore" 5 by THE FISHERY^ 33 by. means of the rope, by people placed there for that purpofe. But as1 at, leaft thirty perforis are neceffary for this employment, and the ani mal refilling with the utmoft exertion of his ftrength, the canoe follows him, and the captors endeavOur to harafs him with repeated wounds till he can no longer hold out. As foon as the fea-cows in the vicinity perceive the danger of their aflbciate, they run up to his affiftance. Some ftrive to overturn the canoe with their backs, others' throw themfelves athwart the rope* tiying- by that means to break it afunder, or they beat about with their tails in hopes to draw out the hooks from' the fkin of the wounded beaft, in which too they fometimes fucceed. The thick and ftrong hide of thefe animals is employed by the Americans for fhoe-foles and belts ; the Tfchuktfches ftretch them out by flicks and make ufe of them as canoes. The flefh of the fea-cow is indeed more coarfe and fibrous than beef, hut when boiled it is very like it in tafte, with this advantage, that even in'the hotteft weather it does not eafily fpoil; the flefh of the young calves is, however, far more tender. The fat under the fkin, which furrounds the whole body to a hand-breath, is white and fluid, fmells and taftes very agreeably, and yields, when boiled, a butter refembling in tafte the oil of almonds. As the multitude of thefe animals about Kamtfhatka is exceffively great in general, r> 2 and 36 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. and one of them weighing about two hundred poods, or eight thoufand pounds, this nourifh- ment might be alone fufficient to fupply all the inhabitants the whole year, through with whole: fome and well-tafted meat. ' The sea-otter,- wrongly called the kamtfha- dale beaver, differs from the river-otter only in this, that he lives in the fea, that he is about half as big again, and approaches nearer to the beaver in finenefs of hair. There is no doubt of its being an american marine-animal and only a ftranget on the coafts of Afia, where it dwells in what is called the Beaver-fea from the 50th to the 56th degree of north latitude, It is in length ufually five and its circumference in the thickeft part of the body is three feet ; the largeft of thefe animals weigh from about feventy to- eighty pound. Their fur, in length, beauty* blacknefs, and gloffinefs of the hair, far excels the fur of the river-beaVer. One fuch fur will fell at Kamtfhatka for twenty, at Yakutfk for thirty, at Irkutfk for forty to fifty, but on the chinefe borders in barter for eighty or a hundred rubles. The flefh of this animal is tolerably palatable, and even the flefh of the female is, contrary to the ftated laws of Nature, the heft lhortly before and after the breeding feafon. The food of, the fea-otter is crabs, conchylice, little fifties, fome fea weeds, and alfo flefh. There is no manner of doubt that this ufeful animal, if fome THE FISHERY. 87 Came people of fpirit would go to the expence, might be brought into Ruffia and there rendered tame, fince they are as fond of living in lakes, rivers, and ponds as in the fea. — In point of manners, there is no animal of all that we have. mentioned fo amufing and agreeable as thisr creature, fo much fought after for his fur.- Their favourite manner of lying is family-wife together. The male carefies the female with his fore paws, with which he can do every thing in the moft in genious ways ; and the female plays with her young, and rejects the dalliance ,of the father with an affected coynefs. Their love for their young is fo great that they not only rufh into ex* tremities for their deliverance, but not feldqm grieve to death at the lofs of them. On their flight they carry their fucklings in their mouth, and drive the full grown before them. When they are fo fortunate as to efcape their purfuers, they deride them as foon as they are fafe in the fea with all manner of diverting tricks ; one while keeping themfelves right on end in the water and jumping over the waves, at the fame time holding the fore paw over the eye as if to fhade it from the fun while narrowly looking out for fomebody ; then lying flat on the back and ftroking their belly ; then throwing their young into the water, and fetching them out again. When a fea-otter is clofely preffed, and fees no means of efcape, he , fcolds and grins like an angry cat ; if he receive P 3 a blow, 38 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. a blow, he immediately makes himfelf ready to die ; he lies on his fide, draws up his hind-legs together, and covers his eyes with his fore-paws. The Kurils in the fpring-feafon go out to fea in leather canoes or baidars the diftance of ten verfts and more for the capture of thefe animals^ Wheri they furprife a fea-otter, they immedi ately fhoot arrows at him ; and, as the animal cannot keep long at a time under water on account of refpiration, he prefents himfelf repeatedly at fhort intervals to the attacks of his enemies. By the bubbles that rife the hunters know which way he turns, and follow him in the veffel. When at length exhaufted and breathlefs, he wifhes to repofe on the furface of the water, they kill him with a lance. — Sometimes the fea-otters run into fixed nets, with which they are likewife caught; and then in defperation it is common for them to bite and tear the flefh from each other. , Nothing can be conceived more terrify-. ing than the chace of the fea-Otters on the floating ice, where the practice is to knock them down with clubs. The departure of the ice from the coafts of the ocean is generally, accompanied with tremendous tempefts and ftorms of fnow ; and yet the hunters do not forbear to go out even in the darkeft nights in this purfuit. They run along the. fields of ice, and jump without fear from one to the other, even when they are in agitation, now lifted up by the waves, and then falling as if going to THE FISHERY. 39 to the bottom,. Every captor has with him a knife, a pole in his hand, and fnow-fhoes at his feet which are furnifhed with hooks, in order' to take hold of the ice, efpecially when it has accu mulated flake upon flake. As the fkins muft b§ immediately ftripped off, the Kurils and Kamtfha- dales perform this bufinefs, encompaffed with danger and amidft the crufhing of the floating1 rnafies of ice, with incredible celerity. When fortune favours them they bring their booty a- ¦fhore ; but they are frequently carried out to fea upon the ice, and then they muft leave it alj behind to provide for their . own falvation. The able practitioners refcue themfelves by fwimming; others faften themfelves by cords to their dogs, by whom they are truftily drawn to land- Thefe misfortunes, however, only befall them when the wind fuddenly changes, for they feldom go upon thefe expeditions except when the ice is driving towards the coaft. In favourable weather they run fo far as to lofe fight of land ; fometimes they even, venture acrofs the channel that feparates the two firft of the Kurilly iflands. Of all the animals of the Eaftern-ocean no one is of greater importance to' commerce than the fea-otter, whofe beautiful fur is everywhere highly efteemed, and in China fells for a very great price. As this animal forms the primary object of the fur-chace on the kurilly and aleuta/i iflands, here will be the fitteft place for ( giving fome d 4 account 40 PRODUCTIVE IXDVSTRY. account of this toilfome and dangerous, but allo_ very lucrative branch of commerce*. This important trade, which has hitherto been almoft exclufively in the hands of the Ruffians, dates its origin immediately after the firft voyage of difcovery by the famous navigators Behring and Tfchirikof in 1741, and has been fo much extended lince, that at-prefent not only moft of the iflands and a part of the continent of America are vifited by ruffian mariners, but even the inhabitants of thefe regions moftly acknowledge the ruffian fovereignty, and confequcntly pay their tribute in furs. The companies that carry on this trade are at the fame time merchants and marine-hunters ; for, as the furs, which are the aim and the emolument of their voyages, cannot be fetched away as from a public mart, the (hips-companies muft partly devote themfelves to this chace, and partly induce the iflanders, by prefents and pledges, to grant them their con currence. One of thefe fhips-companies confifts of from fifty to feventy men, who divide them felves on different iflands in fmaller parties, and therefor* for their fecurity avoid the moft populous diftricls. For the fiune reafon a voyage * Pallas, erlauterungen ueber dk im eeftlichen ox«n awifcheh Sibiricn und Amcrika gefclvehencn entdeckungen;' iiidennelien nord. beytr. torn. i. p. j9,. Account of the ruflian difcoveries between Afia and America, &c. by Mr. COXE. generally The fishery. 41 generally takes up four or five years; that is, till they have got a fufficient quantity of furs for freighting the fliip, and will at leaft doubly repay the fitting out of it, which ufually cofts between twenty and thirty thoufand rubles. Notwithftanding that the expence is fo confider able, the conftrudtion of thefe veflels, which are commonly two-mafted galleots, is managed with fo much frugality, that they are generally built only of fir or birch timber, and put together al- moft without any iron, fo that it is really aftonifh ing how thefe flight veffels can hold out at leaft two voyages in thefe tempeftuous latitudes. They are ufually equipped at Okhotfk, where, on account of the frequent fupplies of ftores and materials, they find it moft convenient. With a very fcanty ftock of provifions on board, the (hip doubles the cape of Kamtfhatka in autumn, proceeding either direct to Behring's ifle and the Copper ifland, or previoufly to one of the harbours on the eaftern coaft. Here the crew, which muft be compofed of at leaft one half Ruffians, ris completed with Kamtfhadales, who can be beneficially employed on account of their dexterity in hunting, and their robuft conftitution, with very poor nourifh- ment. The fliip is laid up during the whole winter on balks, and the people in the mean time are occupied in getting together a ftock of dried fea-cow's flefh and the hides of fea-lions and feals, which they either employ in making themfelves 42 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. themfelves canoes, or trade in them to advantage with the iflanders. When the following fummer is fomewhat advanced the fhip fails to the ifland where they may expect to hunt with the beft fuc- cefs, and where the ftock they have collected, with what they fhall occafionally acquire by hunting and fifhing, will fubfift them for three or four years in this ftate of continual jeopardy and war fare ; where with this wretched fare they muft be every moment on their guard againft the hoftile attacks of the iflanders, provide for the chace, and in cafe of neceffity defend the heartlefs Kamt- fhadales with ruffian intrepidity. — Thofe (hips that proceed ftraight to Behrings or the Copper ifland, winter there likewile, and wait for the droves of fea-bears and fea-lions. The flefh of the latter, as well as of the fea-cow, is collected as a ftock of provifion, and the fkins are carried with them to the iflands. As foon as the mariners are come hither, they endeavour either by good words or by force, to get poifeffion of the children of the inhabitants, particularly the chiefs, as hoftages ; and when by fo doing they think themfelves late, they diftri- bute among the natives fox-traps, nets for catch ing the fea-otters, and fea-lion fkins for making canoes, in return for which they muft find them in victuals and furs throughout the winter. One part of the furs they endeavour to keep as tribute, for which they give them a receipt ; for the reft they -THE FISHERY. 43 they compenfate the hunters with glafs corals, falfe pearls, goat-hair, copper-kettles, hatchets, needles, and the like. In the fpring they take back their traps and nets, and reftore the ho- ftages. The animofity of the iflanders is fuch, that they can only venture to hunt or to go in fmall parties, in places where they are fure of their majority in numbers. • The main objects of thefe expeditions are the beautiful and coftly furs of the fea-otter, the black-fox, and the blue rock-fox ; but befides thefe many other furs are obtained. The greateft part of the fea-otter fkins go to China, the reft are brought to Ruffia, and the crown, befides its tribute in natura, receives the tenth of the value of the furs brought away. When a (hip fafely returns from a voyage of four or five years, the profit is ufually twice and often thrice as much, as the cofts of the enterprife. For gaining a competent idea of the great profits made by thefe voyages we have only to perufe the accounts by profeflbr Pallas of fome of thefe maritime expeditions*. Ivan Solovief, with his fhip's company, failed in the year 1770 for the cape of Alafka, belong- * Vid. Aufzug aus dem tagebuch einer feereife, welche Jvan Solovief in den jahren 1770 — 1775 bis an die zum feftenlande von Amerika gehcrige landfpitze Alaika ver- richtet ; jmd beritht von einer im jahr 1 772 angetretenen vierjahrigen feereife zu den zwifchen Kamtfchatka und Amerika gejegenen infill n. ing 44 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. ing to the continent of America, and returned the 16th of July 1 775 in the harbour of Okhotfk. Of the people that accompanied him, feventy-one in number, Ruffians, Kamtfhadales, andYakutes, only nine-and-thirty were left. Of the furs they brought, with them, they deliveied into the im perial caiffe 89 fea-otters, 104 black, 56 black- bellied, and 8 red-foxes. The company received 1833 fea-otters of different qualities, 10 foxes killed in the fpring, and 30 in autumn, 10 young rock-foxes, and 12,04 red-foxes. The fecond (hip's company eaft anchor in the river Kamtfhatka the 15th of September 1776. The tribute collected for the caiffe during- the whole voyage confided of 79 old and 15 half- grown fea-otters; moreover, 3 quite black, 16 dark-grey, 23 black-backed, 1 7 grey-bellied, and 6 common red-fox fkins. The furs brought for the company, collected by the chace and by barter, amounted -to 1S90 large and half-grown fea-otters, 220 quite young, 15 17 beaver-tails; 319 black and deep grey, 431 grey-breaftedj 198 common red-foxes, 901 blue rock-foxes, and 1430 young fea-bears, which were all, ac cording to cuftom, divided among the proprie- • Jors, and the tenth of them delivered into the caiffe. From thefe flatements is fhewn, 1 . The pro- ' portion wherein the feveral fpecies of animals there mentioned, are found on the iflands, and may THE FISHERY. 4J may be collected by the chace ; it appears, that the elfewhere fo uncommon black and deep grey foxes, compofe nearly one-third of the whole number. 2. The profit arifing from one of thefe voyages, as each complete fea-otter fkin, in the way of barter with the'Chinefe, is worth at leaft from 90 to 100 rubles, half-grown 40, a beaver- tail 2 to 4, a black or dark grey fox fkin 5 to 40 and more, an Ordinary fox fkin 1 to 5, arock- fox if, and a young fea-bear if to 6 rubles. Though the Eaftern-ocean, befide the above- v mentioned fpecies, contains a multitude of other marine-animals, as, the fword-fifh, the morfe, the feal, the fea-beluga, &c. the capture and ufes whereof are of no fmall confequence to the inhabitants of its coafts ; yet, to avoid repetitions*. we fhall pafs them by in filence. Ere we quit, however, thefe diftant regions, we muft take notice of the amazing abundance of fifh, with which nature has endowed Kamtfhatka ; and by which fhe has in fome meafure atoned for her unkind dealing with the defart and unfruitful foil of that peninfula*. Here, where the agri culture might as well be called gardening, and where they have not the moft common domeftic and country-animals, the inhabitants maintain , themfelves almoft folely by fifhing, which affords them in general a great abundance, though nei ther the rivers nor the lakes have any peculiar * Steller's befchreibung von Kamtfchatka, p. 141 — 175.forts 46 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. forts of fifh. All the fifh of Kamtfhatka come in the fpring from the fea, and proceed up the rivers in fuch inexpreffible multitudes, that they , are fwelled by the great influx^ and overflow their banks with living waves. Towards evening, when ihe fifh make a halt in tn^jr progrefs upwards, or on. the falling of the' water, the fhores on both fides are covered with the dead, diffufing fuch a flench that epidemical diftempers might enfue were it not for the beneficent winds which are> inceffantly purifying the air. At the mouths of the rivers they are ufually taken out with tubs, and, inftead of purfe-nets, which the firft draught would tear to pieces, they make ufe of a fort of bird-net. Even dogs and bears go fifhing here, by placing themfelves on the margin and feizing the fifh as they pafs by with their mouths or their paws. All the fifh that advance far up the rivers are of the falmon kinds, of which more varieties are found at Kamtfhatka than the natural hiftory of the reft of the globe can produce. The falmons and trouts are indeed generally admired for their excellent flavour, but the feveral fpecies that are taken' on 'this peninfula are preferred to all others in that particular. A remarkable circumftance in the ceconomy of thefe animals is, that they are begotten and born in the rivers, but are brought up in the fea,- and afterwards die in the rivers. Incited by the inftinct to propagate their kind, THE FISHERY. 47 kind, they toil up the rivers in fpring, burdened with milt and fpawn, where they confummate the bufinefs of multiplication and depofit their eggs in the. fand. This done, they purfue their voyage, and having lived upon the provifion they brought along with them, till it is all confumed, they die*. The young fry fwim in autumn to the fea, remain there till their organic conforma tion is completed, and in the third year take their courfe up. the fame rivers in which they were engendered, in order to accomplifh the intentions of nature by their propagation and their death. Particularly interefting is the remark which atten tive naturalifts have made, that feveral kinds of fifh take with them into the rivers one of their family begotten in the former year, who keeps them company, till they have performed the work of procreation and emitted their fpawn. ;They then proceed on, while the little 'one-year-old guide remains till November with his untutored brothers and fillers, whom he protects againft other fifh, and conducts into the fea. — Each * This is the cafe .only in countries like Kamtfhatka, where the rivers are frozen for the greater part rof the year, and do not afford the fifh fufficient nourifhment ; whereas in- warmer ftreams, the remoter fources having a muddy and deep bottom with numerous water-infedls, they live there many years and propagate their fpecies ; only with this difference, that they come up from the deeps in fpring, -go farther up the- rivers, and procreate at the mouths of other rivers and brooks. fpecies 48 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. fpecies of fifh has a particular and ftated time fof afcending the rivers from the fea, and one emi gration is followed by another ; only in Auguft three or four kinds go up at once, but thefe never mix with one another, each keeping together in clofe parties. As the fifh of- Kamtfhatka are only caught for the confumption of the inhabitants, and have never hitherto been made an object of trade, it would be needlefs to fpecify the numerous kinds and fpecies. of them by name*. Nowhere is this plenty more beneficial than here, where the fifh almoft every where fupply the place of bread, and, in various forms of preparation, conftitute the whole ftock of provifions. for the long winter. To prevent the diftafle that might enfue upon the uniform continuance of the fame diet, the Kamtfhadales have found out various means, fome of them curious enough, of procuring them felves a change by a diverfity in the mode of preparation. The ftock of provifion moft com monly as well as moft eafily procured confifts of * Amongft them, however, is the herring, which is ex ceedingly plenty in the kamtfhadale fea, andfo violently per fected by the whales, as to be obiged frequently to take re fuge in the lakes and rivers. Thefe fifh traverfe the bays and gulfs in fuch amazing fhoals, that at one draught, with a net of fo.ur-and-twenty fathoms, as many are' taken as will fill four tons. They are as agreeable to the tafte as the dutch, and when falted keep as well. The Kamtfhadales sever eat them, ufing them only to boil blubber from thenu- 3 four THE FISHERY. , - /4fi four fifh : they fill a large hole in the ground with them, ftrew them over with wood afhes, or lay them firft in a fharp alkaline lye, and cover the hole with leaves and earth. In this manner, which is cuftomary with the Samoyedes and the Yakutes, they keep the fifh the whole year through without putrifying; but the Kamtfha dales, thinking this method much too complex, generally leave their' s to corrupt without lye, and yet find it delicious. The fifh are almoft as often dried in the air, to which end they are cut length- wife in firings, cleared of the bones, and hung up under a fhed made for that purpofe. This way of dreffing their victuals recommends itfelf particularly to the flothful Kamtfhadales by the facility with which it is performed. Fifh dried in this manner are the fole provifion which the Kamtfhadales carry out with them, and when it is pounqed it affords a nutriment fimilar £o that of bread; Again, the fifh are chopped fo a kind of meal, with which they thicken their foup and make it more nourifhing; the ordinary method of preferving them falted, fmoked, and frozen, is, however, only in ufe among the Ruffians who live at Kamtfhatka. We proceed now to defcribe the fifhery on the Caspian, the moft important branch by far. of this bufinefs in Ruffia. Nowhere in the whole circuit of the empire is the fifhery carried on fo much in the grofs as here, and nowhere does it vol in. e afford >:5T> PRODUCtWe INDUSTRY. 'afford ;fo many objects of -confumption and com merce. This is not only in a great' meafure 'owing fo its extraordinary wealth in excellent kindsof fifh, but alfo to its commodious fituation :i'n the centre of the empire, facilitated by water communication's, and the good method in' which this trade is profecuted. In fact, the fifhery on the Cafpian, as Pallas obferves, is in fome Tefpects as important to Ruffia, as the herring, the cod, and the whale fifhery, are to other ! maritime "powers of Europe. . 'The fifhery on the northern or ruffian' fhores of -the Cafpian, is ' partly Jlet out to aftrakhan merchants, whofe great opulence is chiefly founded •on it-; ?rr partly belongs, in virtue of antient privileges,' to' the uralian 'Kozaks, who not only ckirh'J thai right on the rivet jUral, but alfo ona tract 'of coaft extending feventy verfts in length, from the mouth of the Tjral, to what ivcalledthe wealthybay, in which the fouth-weftenr collateral 'arm bf that fiver falls.X-' Of this latter we fhall afterwards fpeak in mentioning the Ural ; at pre- fent'burbufinefs is-only with the fifhery in general on' the Cafpian, and particularly with the portion belonging to the crown, and let out to others*. The Cafpian is ufually free from ice towards the latter end of ]Vlar6h,' which ufually covers the fea vto a 'great diftance from the fhore, and then im mediately with April begins the fifhery. This is * Pallas, travels, torn, ii, p. 333 — 349. undertaken THE FISHERY. 51 Undertaken by feveral contractors, every one tof whom has his particular ftation or vataga in a different place, which commonly bears the name of the proprietor. At all thefe vatagas no care at all is taken about the fmaller fpecies of fifh which are caught here as well as in the V®Iga and the Ural, and tranfported both dried and falted, to the inland parts of the empire; here, on the fea, are only taken the feveral kinds of fturgeon, namely, beluga*, sturgeon, and SEvRUGA-f-, and next to thefe shads§, and barbel. Every vataga is occupied by fifty or eighty, or up to a hundred-and-twenty men, moft of whom carry on a feparate trade : here are alfo 'pilots, fifhermen, falters, preparers of ifinglafs and kaviar, &c. The vatagas have alfo their own veffels of various dimenfions and conftruction, in which they may venture out to fea Without the neceffity of taking with them a great number of hands; again, at each of them is a galleot, for fetching proviflons and fait from Aftrakhan, and for fending away the fifh they have taken. Adjacent to the buildings in which the people are quartered, feveral fheds are built,- where the roes are prepared, the ifinglafs dried, and the ftock of fifh orderly kept. For preferving the falted fifh, deep and well-fecured ice-cellars of -Confiderable magnitude are dug under ground; * Accipenfer hufo. f Accipenfer. ftellatus. PaU. § Silurus glar.is., e a thefe 52 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. thefe are floored with thick deals, and have large refervoirs lined with planks, in which the frefh fifh are pickled in a ftrong brine. At the two fides of thefe brine-vats are parts divided off, in which the fifh, on being taken out of the pickle,' are placed in layers and fprinkled with fait ; behind the compartments in which the fifh are thus laid, the fpace to the fide of the cellar is rammed full of ice, for the better prefervation of this eafily perifhable commodity. The diftance of one vataga from another is indefinite; as are alfo the bounds in which neighbouring vatagas may fifh. Only it is not allowed for diftant fifheries to approach any other than their own contiguous borders. The taxes paid by the vatagas to the crown, are rated according to the quantity of, prepared roes and ifinglas, and for every pood of ifinglas five rubles, but for a pood of roes two rubles eighty kopeeks are paid into the caiffe. v The capture at thefe vatagas is not profecuted the whole year through, but only in fpring, au tumn, and winter, when the fifh repair to the lhores in greateft numbers. In fpring all the bays fwarm with belugas, which are then without roes, and come hither only in queft of prey ; not lefs numerous are then Ihe fevrugas, which about this time fpawn and do not return during the reft of the year. In autumn and winter only the beluga is caught, which then collect in the bays, either for paffing the winter or to fpawn. Thefe two fpecies THE FISHERY. ; 53 fpecices of fturgeon, from the ahbve-mentioned caufes, feek frefh or moderately fait: water, and to that end repair not only to the rivers, but alfo to the gulfs and bites of the fea, where they find this advantage and convenient places for laying their fpawn : whereas the real fturgeon proceeds direct to the mouths of the rivers with; out tarrying in the bays. Thefe fifh therefore are only caught at thofe vatagas which are at the mouths of the Volga and on the river itfelf; and a fturgeon is fuch a rarity at the fifheries on the bays of the fea, that by a very antient cuftom, it is the property of the individual who draws him out of the water. The fpring-capture begins as foon as the fea is free from ice, which frequently is about the mid dle of March. Then come firft innumerable myriads of little fifh driving towards the fhore, of which particularly the obla, a fort of fcale-fifh, is caught and kept alive in wells, in order to have always a fufficient quantity for baiting the hooks while the feafon lafts. This little fry is next fol lowed by prodigious fwarms of ravenous belugas ; the feafon for taking which, however, feldom con tinues two full weeks, for which reafon the fifher men are obliged to work day and night. In good years, a veffel, while the fwarming lafts, may bring up within four-and-twenty hours fifty and more of thefe large fifh. The capture of the beluga is generally pradifed in the fame method at all the E 3 vatagas, 54 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. vatagas, with a machine confifting of a rope, .fe ven ty ells in length, to which a hundred-and>, twenty-five lines ii fathom long each, wkh as many large angling hooks, are tied. This rope,; with the faid number of hooks is technically termed aneft; and thirty of thefe nefts tied together commonly belong to a machine, which is therefore: feveral liundred fathoms in length. • Between every two nefts a ftone is tied of fome pounds, weight, and the two ends of a whole machine are furnifhed with wooden anchors. Becaufe the machine yields, and yet floats with a great weight in the water, even the ftrongeft fifties cannot efcape ; but the anchors prevent the machine from being put out of its fituation, either by the mo tion of the fifh or by the agitation of the fea< The machine when laid is vifited twice a day, and the hooks cautioufly taken up along the rope. Paffing a rope through the gills of the fifh brought up, they let them down again into the water in. order to bring them on fhore alive. Here they are dragged with hooks to the beach, which is laid with planks, and cut Up in the fol^ lowing order: The lower part of the ftomaeh, with the guts are thrown away ; the flefhy gullet is falted for eating. The roe lies through: the whole body adjoining to the entrails ; this is taken out with the hands and eaft into tubs, in which it is carried away by the kaviar-makers ; then fol* lows the float or founds which runs along the whole THE FISHERY, « whole back,, and is given to the ifinghfs.makers,. Laftly, they cut off the cartilage of th,e Jqack, in order to extract the dorfal fi-news? which are wafhed hung upon poles, and dried in the air. The, fifh being cleared of its entrails, the fat adhering about the milt and tq, the fides is fcraped, away with knives, and collected into tubs, boiled down, a,nd eleanfed. As this frefh fat is of a good, tafte, it is ufed during the falls inftead of butter or oil. The eleanfed fifh are at laft brought into the cellar above defcribed, where they are firft laid to pickle in brine, and then, ftrewed with fait, are laid up in courfes on, each other. — The belu gas not unfrequently are of a prodigious fize ; in the year 1769. one was caught in the wealthy bay,, which meafured eight and a half arfhines in length, and weighed feventy pood, or two tlioufand eight hundred pound, and out of which twenty pood of roe was obtained. They are fometimes taken in. the Volga of a tlioufand or fifteen hundrecj pounds weight. ' When the fhoaling of the beluga has ceafed, immediately comes on- the train of fevrugas, which happens only once a year, and alfo lafts riot much, above two weeks ; but during this fhort fpace is fo much the more numerous. At one vataga:, with a favourable fea-breeze, it is ufual fo catqli fixteen and fometimes twenty thoufand of thefe fifh- The nets made ufe of for this purpofe are fo thick that the machines are only a fpan wide. e 4 Five- 56 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. - . / ' '-¦ - Five-arid-twenty of them are tied together and laid at the depth of one fathom at moft on funk pofts, as the fevrugas go to fhallow places and among the fhilf. The largeft of triefe fifh are never above fbur.arfnin.es and a half in length, but their roes, as well as' their founds, are much more efteerned than thofe' Of the beluga, and confequently bear a greater price. ' The flefh is partly falted" down and partly dried in the fun.1 About the middle of May the fpring- capture on the fea-coaft is' over, and then 'the fifhermen repair with the good's' they have got to Aftrakhan," where it is all agairi laid up in ftofe-cellars and fhence ' difpofed of wholefale to the merchants of that city.. - — The autumn-capture begins in the middle' of Septerhber, and continues through all October! In the mode of proceeding there is no difference between this arid the former, only at this' feafon no other fifh than beluga arid,»where there is frefh water, fturgeon are taken. — The winter-capture begins as foon as theice is fet inon fhe fea, arid lafts the whole winter ; then, likewife, only beluga are caught. For this purpofe the fame machine' with the angling-hooks is fet, "only it is now under the ice. Apertures are cut through the ice at the diflance of every eight paces, through which the rope, by means of long poles, is intro duced. Where two nefts are tied together, the machine is; faftened to a crofs pole which refts on the brink of the aperture. For the bait theyhave a ftock THE FISHERY. 57 ftock" 'to laft the winter of obla-fifh, which they have previoufly falted for that purpofe. When they would take up the fifh that are caught they loofen one fingle net,, faften to one end of it a fuffi- cient length of rope for enabling them to draw it back without delay, and haul it out at the other end through the aperture. The fifh are con veyed over the ice on fledges to the vataga, and - about this time immediately frozen frefh and car ried to Aftrakhan. Befides the great vatagas the proprietors of them hive fifhing-huts here and there on thefea-coafts, where there is no capture of flurgeons, at which, moftly in fummer, fhad and barbels are taken with- drag-nets. Thefe two kinds of fifh go not into the rivers in fummer, but keep about the fea- ftiore, as they find there a better nourifhment. The fhad here ufually weigh eight pood, and the barbel a pood and a half; the former are extremely fat in fummer.- The roes of this fifh are thrown away, but of its founds an ordinary fort of fifh- glue is made. Of all the rivers that devolve their ftreams into the Cafpian, none more teems with fifh than the Volga *, which, not only fupplies the parts adja- cerit * The feveral fpecies of fifh, and the various methods of taking them in thefe rivers, are particularly defqribed by feveral authors in the german language. At Aftrakhan : tra vels of the younger Gmelin, torn. iL p. 199— 247. Falk's beytraEge, 58 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. cent but the greater part of the empire with the feveral forts of flurgeons, with kaviarand an incre dible quantity of various, kinds of fmaller fifh. This ftore of wealth, which no other river in Eu rope poffeffes in an equal degree, is alfo the caufe that the countrymen living about the Volga neglect agriculture' to devote themfelves to the fifhery. Among the fifh peculiar to the Volga, which feldom or never come into the collateral rivers, are the beluga, the fturgeon, the fterlet, the fevruga, the falmon, and white falmon *. Some what more common are the barbel,' the fhad-f, the fchellefnitza %, and what is called the tfche- chon ^. Still in greater plenty in the fubordinate ftreams are the || fudak, pearch, and innumerable* kinds of fcale-fifh. Only the eel is neither in the Volga, nor in any of the rivers that fall into it, nor in any of the neighbouring lakes, neither is it known farther on through all Siberia. Inftead of it there is the greater abundance of quobbs, and alfo crabs are extremely numerous and of extraor dinary fize, but bad tafted. betrjege, torn, i- p. 13S. Ozeretzkoffkoi's defcriptian of Aftrakhan, in the journal von Rufsland, torn. iii. p. 47-^* l$3. — At Saratof : Lepekhih's travels, torn. i. p. 224— 228. — At Simbirfk: Pallas, travels, torn. i. p. 131 — 140. — In the Kamma : Pallas, travels, torn, iii. p. 488, &c. * Salmo nelma. f Silurus glanis. J Clupea alofa. Pail. § Cyprinus eultratus, Pail. ||/Lucio perca. Of THE FISHERY. $& Of all the fifh of the Volga, the feveral kinds of sturgeon and the white salmon are the beft. The beluga is fometimes caught of twenty but never of more than five-and-twenty fpans in length, and weighing between thirty and five- and-forty pood; the number, however, of fmall, milters, of feven or eight fpans, is incomparably greater. Sturgeons are got from five to eight foans long, and from twenty pound to twq pood in weight The fevruga hslds the middle ftation between the beluga and the fturgeon. The red falmon is only obferved here in the two laft months of the year, and even ,then but feldom j the white falmon fwim againft the ftream in gfeat numbers from the beginning of January to fome time in July ; both are from three to five fpans long, and at moft weigh thirty pounds. The barbel is often larger and heavier, and the fhad grows the largeft after the beluga. — Of all the fubordinate rivers that fall into the Volga, the Kammais the wealthieft in fifh ; and the fifh of the Kamma are held to be the beft flavoured of all ia Ruffia, at leaft its fturgeon, fterlet, and white falmon are far preferable to thofe of the Volga. Befides thefe three kinds, a principal fifh of the Kamma is a fmall falmon called in ruf§ krafnaya reba, red or beautiful fifh *, commonly one and a half or two arfhines long, having likewife the bream and the tfchechon. • Salmo eriojt, or falrao alpinui. Scarcely 66 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. Siarcely anywhere in the world is there fuch a variety of contrivances and machines, fome of" them truly fenfible and ingenious, for the capture of fifh as are in ufe on the Volga, and particularly in the confines of Aftrakhan. The feveral inven tions of this nature may be reduced to three claf fes, one comprifing the fifh -wears, the fecond the angle, and tile third the net. As it is impoffible to diverge into a circumftantial defcription of thefe feveral kinds, we fhall entirely pafs over the two latter claffes, of which every one can eafily form fome idea himfelf, and only give a brief ac count of the moft remarkable wears. Thefe are either properly wears*, or fifh-traps-}*. The utfchiugs again undergo feveral variations, but the fort moft in ufe is that called faboika, and is conftructed in the following manner. Right acrofs the ftream ftrOng polls are driven at the diftance of half an ell afunder ; when the current is very rapid, in a ferpentine form, but elfe in a direft line. This done, they build againft the ftream, likewife of flakes, crikmbers fomewhat in the fhape of a heart, in the middle of which feve ral holes are made, and are divided from each other. The flakes at the entrance to thefe com partments are but flightly fixed, fo that they- may give way on the preflure of the larger fifh. The circumference of each of thefe chambers may be * Utfchiugi. -j. Gorodba. about .",-.; THE TISHERY. 6*1 -about fix fathom, and the mouth of it two ells. The interftice between the poles, likewife thofe which form the chambers, is filled by a row of perpendicular flicks, not reaching to the ground, 'but in the greateft depth are only four fathom ¦long, and are connected together by willow twigs. Now, when the fifh come up the ftream, and - prefs in at the entrance to the chambers, 'it is fcarcely poffible for them, by reafon of the fmall fpace in the angular compartments of it, to turn their bodies foas to get but, but they muft remain in that pofition till the arrival of the fifherman. The fmaller fifh, which might perhaps; be able to get through the aperture, are by the force of the .ftream, which as every one knows they drive againft, prevented from it. — Thefe wears have the advantage that they can remain Handing the whole year through, though, they are often in want of laborious and difficult repairs ; but the pereboika, which make a fort of dam neceffary, is only fervice- able for the three months of autumn, and muft every year be built anew. At every time of the breaking up of the ice they are taken to pieces ; by which one half of the materials are loft, and generally nothing is faved *. In the lower regions of the Volga, the before- » For many more particulars concerning this fubjeft, fee " Ruflia, or a complete defcription, Sec." vol. iv. p. 395, 396, & (eq. a mentioned BS PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. mentioned fifh-strap, called gorodba, is generally employed. It confifts likewife of a wear carried acrofs the ftream, provided with feveral chambers, in which the fifh are caught. In winter the ice is conftantly kept open over thefe chambers, and a'hut built having fpace enough for the people, and in which they warm themfelves by a little fire. At the bottom of the chamber lies a frame, the full fize of it, filled with net or bafket work, and may be wound up by a line .fattened to each' of its comers. Over the opening, through which the fifh enter, a trap-grating or net is placed, and be fore it, from a floating crofs-wood to the franie that lies upon the ground, -noofes are fet, which every fifh muft touch on entering the chamber, whereby the crofs-wood is, -put in motion. The people, on perceiving the vibration :of this, let down the trap-fall and wind up the wire grating on which Ue the fifh that are caught. But that the labourers need not be continually on the watch all night, a bellis connected with the noofes before-mentiotfjsd, 'by which every fifh announces himfelf on his entrance, and the trap-fell is fo con-. Jtrived, that on the motion of the fifh it muft drop of itfelf. The utfchiugs are generally conftructed only in the territory of Aftrakhan, where the fifhery on the Volga is fo important and remarkable an object of induftry and traffic, as to merit a rather more circumftantial account. The tartarian word utfchiug THE FISHERY. 6$ utfchiug properly fignifies that kind of dam which has been above defcribed under the name faboika; but at prefent it implies a whole fifhing-ftation, which is ufually much larger than a vataga. .All the utfchiugs are on the arms of the Volga, which at their feveral mouths difembogue into' the Caf pian, by whish its great flore of fifh may be con ceived. Every utfchiug, befides a number of buildings proper to it, has alfo a church, and dwelling-houfes for the labourers and their families. Thefe people, each of whom has his ftated bufi- nefs, are not upon wages, as the fifhermen at the vatagas, but have a yearly penfion foHife, and are inrolled to the utfchiugs ; confequently, they and their pofterity for ever are fixed to. the. fame em ployment." — The utfchiugs at firft, upon the conqueft of the tartarian khanate, belonged to the patriarch or the clergy; in the ye'ar 1704 they became an imperialty, the revenues whereof were obliged to be brought into the exchequer of the empire ; but fince the year 1 763 they have been granted to the merchants of Aftrakhan, in. confi- deration of a fmall tribute, and the revenues are -managed by what is called the fifh-comptoir, the directors -and members whereof are elected froni- the body of aftrakhan burghers. The profits, after deducting the very moderate tribute to the crown, muft be divided in equal portions among the merchants ; but by feveral. reports ; antient and modern, the fifh-comptoir are fo arrogant aad 4 arbitrary' 6"4 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. arbitrary in their proceedings, that the generoui abandonment of her prerogative by the late em- prefs, who intended that the benefit fhould extend over the whole, is only advantageous to certain privileged perfons, who enrich themfelves at the common expence *. No* • * In 1769 Gmelin, and in the year 1785 Oferetzkoffkoi made heavy complaints on this fubjeft. The.latter gives the following account of the then ftate of the aftrakhan fifhery; In that year there were four chief utfchiugs, belonging to' which were 450 inrolled boors and, fettlers of the male fex, befides the church-officers, burghers, and free inhabitants. The annual tribute to the crown amounted to 16,216 rubles; but the aftrakhan corporation was no longer in the exclufive- poffeffion of all the fifheries; for, in the year 1^70 the land-. furveyors fold 5755 defettines of land to feveral noblemen, who with thefe trafts of land obtained alfo fome of the prin cipal fifheries, and the merchants therefore are forced to hire thefe of them at a very high rate, though they pay the faid tribute to the crown. The remaining fifheries are let by the comptoir to aftrakhan merchaiits, who commonly enter into copartnerfhips for that purpofe, of which there were at that time fixty-four. The kantora had entered into an obligation to fupply all Aftrakhan with good fifh, and never to fell it higher than thirty kopeeks the pood : but, as it fells for more than that price even at the utfchiugs, this contract can rfo longer be kept, efpecially as all the officers of the crown have a right to a daily fupply of fifh for their own ufe from the kantora. — Notwithftanding all this, the aftrakhan mer- chants have enriched themfelves confiderably by thefe fifneries, and it is the more to be wondered at, as the kantora which ap» pears to have received, from 1762 to 1785 above a million of rubles, yet was very near being obliged to take up a fum exceeding twenty thoufand rubles of the imperial lombard. BefidC THE FISHERY. 66 Not1 lefs confiderable than that of the Volga is the fifhery on the Ural* as forming the prin cipal fupport and occupation of the uralian Ko- zaks * ; arid nowhere in Ruffia is this trade, by the laws of antient ufage* fo nicely cireumfcribed and fo well regulated as here. Ever fince the go vernment granted the fifhery to the Kozaks, iri return for the payment of the moderate ftipulation formerly annexed to the utfchiug at Gurief, they have completely broken up the faid fifh-wear, and inftead thereof inclofed the whole river about the Befides the a&ual inhabitants of Aftrakhan, who are em ployed in the fifhery, every fpring about 10,000 fifhing-ca- noes come thither having in each at leaft two people, fo that the number of ftrangers who follow- this trade at Aftra khan far exceeds 20,ddo. Some of thefe hire themfelves out to work at the great fifheries ; othersj and that the majority^ buy the permiffion to fifh for themfelves, at feven rubles each canoe for the whole fummer. The rent of a cellar for flow ing and falting the fifh is twenty-five rubles. The feal-capture, which is carried oil by the more opulent part Of the aftrakhan merchants on theCafpian, is likewife very profitable. The feals are killed in fpring and autumn on the iflands, where they are immediately gutted and powdered with fait, and then brought to Aftrakhan, where they are flayed and the tallow of them is melted. The Aftrathaners by falting their feals immediately on the fpot gain this ad vantage, that the tallow is far cleaner and better than that' of the feals taken at Archangel; but in Aftrakhan the pood of fait till 1*785 coft only ten kopeeks; 1 — The fifhermen affirm the Cafpian to be incomparably richer iii feals than any other fea on the ruffian coafts. * Pallas, travels, torn. i. p, 233-*-2a8. Vopi ln« f town 66* PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. town of Uralfk by a permanent utfchiug, fo that though the fifh come freely. out of the Cafpian into the Ural, they cannot advance higher than Uralfk. This river has all the kinds of fifh that are found in the Volga, excepting only the bream, the red falmon, and a fmall fpecies of fturgeon. The firft and moft important capture in the year is in January, with a particular kind of hooks called bogri. ' The fecond, or the fevruga capture, lafts from May till towards the middle of June ; and the third, the leaft confiderable, is performed with nets in October. Towards the latter end of the year, or in the beginning of December, it is cuftomary to fifh in the fecondary rivers and the lakes of the fteppe, below the ice, with nets ; but what they take is. not of much confequence, being only the fmaller forts of fifh for home confumption. Of all the migrating fifh the white falmon firft comes up the ftream, and in March, April, and May, the fturgeon kinds principally advance. The belugas lead the van, then follow the fterlets, and, laftly, during the whole of April come the fevru-, gas, which proceed in the greateft numbers, as the belugas in the feweft. All thefe fifh travel in fhoals, but the fevrugas in fuch aftonifhing mul titudes, that, efpecially near Gurief^ the fwarms of them are plainly feen under the water, and, according to the affirmation of the Kozaks here, thefe fifh formerly by the powerful preffure of their numbers broke through the wear at Uralfk. As THE FISHERY. 67 As it is a tradition of experience among the Ko» zaks, that the fturgeons and belugas remain and winter in the river, but the fevrug&s travel back to the fea in fummerj it is a law with them, that While fifhing for fevrugas, which is always in the month of May, to throw into the water again all the belugas and fturgeons that happen to fall into their nets ; becaufe in winter thefe fifh when fro zen may be tranfported, bear a higher "price, and confequently are more profitable to the commu nity. v The firft great fifhery in January is chiefly for fturgeons and belugas. Thefe fifh in autumn range themfelves in ranks in the deep places of the river, where they pafs the winter not indeed with out fenfation and motion, yet in a continued ftate of reft.. When the feafon for angling is arrived, commonly the third or fourth of January, a gene ral aflembly of the people is held, in which an ataman is elected for this purpofe, to whofe ap-> pointmen feveral aldermen and a yeffaul are added ; and on thefe occafions the common Kozaks enter into artels or companies. The interval till the anni- verfary on which the fifhery begins is taken. up in getting all the veffek and utenfils in proper order ; and among thefe particularly the fifh- hooks, which are of a femicircular form, and faftened by the broad end to a long pole. Then lieenfes with the chancery-feal annexed are given out to all the Kozaks actually enrolled in the fervice, and not f 2 abfent 6*8 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. abfent, of which each Kozak receives one, the members of the chancery excepted, who receive from two to four tickets. Kozaks that have been difcharged, or are not in the fervice, may purchafe thefe licenfes of others, and thus obtain a right to fifh. The day on which the fifhery begins, all the Kozaks having tickets of licenfe aflemble before fun- rife, with their fledges and implements, at a ftated place before the town, ranging themfelves in rows and fedtions according to the order in which they arrive. They are now muftered by the ataman, who diligently inquires whether every Kozak is provided with arms for refift- ance in cafe of an attack from the Kirghifes ; the yeflaul once more exhorts the people to preferve peace and good order ; and, laftly, two cannons are fired as a fignal for breaking up, upon which every one fcampers away as faft as his horfe can run, to the diftrict appointed for fifhing to get poffeffion-of the moft advantageous places. Yet no one may prefume to break the ice till all are affembled at the river, and till the ataman has given the fecond fignal by firing his mufket. The fame order is obferved every fucceeding day as long as the fifhery lafts. Now every Kozak at the fpot where he intends to fifh makes a tolerable round aperture in the ice ; in doing which he is allowed to come as near as he will to another, fo that he does not pretend to take two openings into one. In fhallow places he makes THE FISHERY. feO, makes ufe Of the fhort hooks of which he holds one in each hand, guiding it with the point againft the current, becaufe the fifh when difturbed in thefe flats ufually go downwards. As foon as the Kozak perceives a, fifh at his hook, he draws him in as quick as poffible, and pulls him fo high that he can reach him with his hand-hook and bring him on the ice. In deep places it is neceflary 'to ufe the hook faftened to the end of a long pole, of which on account of its weight every Kozak can only hold one. Thefe being fluck about on all fides, in order to feel for the fifh, it not unfre- quently happens that two Kozaks catch at once the fame fifh, which then according to their cuf- toms, muft be divided between them. — By this curious method of fifhng, a man is often fo fuc- cefsful as to get tenor more large .fifh in a day; whereas others will not be .able to take fo many the whole month through as will defray the ex- pences attending it, or refund the money advanced. The fecond large capture of fevrugas is in fpring, as foon as the guard ftationed at Gurief brings the account that thefe fifh are arrived in the mouth of the Ural, which ufually happens in May. • The order and ceremonial is on this occafion precifely the fame as at the winter fifliery ; and the elected ataman caufes a rope to be ftretched acrofs the river, to mark the boundary within. which it is lawful to fifh. When one compartment begins to get poor in fifh, a fecond ismarked off in the f 3 fame 70 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. fame manner, thus gradually retreating till they- come to the mouth of the Ural and into the open fea. The nights are left to give the fifh time to collect again in the compartments that have been fifhedout; and every morning before fun rife, the Kozaks are again prefent to wait for the fig-. nal of the ataman, on which occafion every one ftrives to place himfelf as low as poffible down the current. The Kozaks while fifhing fit fingly in little canoes, which commonly are made of the trunks of the black or white poplar*, paid over with afphaltus inftead of pitch. The nets are between twenty and thirty ells in length and con- fift of two partitions, one clofef wove and fome- what larger fo as to make a belly when the far ther partition is fpread. One end of the net is kept above water by a float of wood, the other end being held by a KOzak, and it is weighed to the bottom by a ftone. When it is eaft, the fifherman lets his canoe go without guidance with the current ; the fevrugas, which fwim up the river, flip without refiftance through the foremoft and wider fide of the net, but when they are re tained by the hinder and attempt to go back, they remain fufpended by their fins. By the agitation* from the innumerable nets and canoes, the water is fo troubled, that the fifh are no longer able to fee the nets, and are then enfnared in them in greater rtunab.e3js;.u Scared by the noife and buftle of the fifhecmen, the fevrugas-prefs together on the 5 •' : iowef THE FISHERY. 71 lower boundary in the river in fuch manner, that the neareft fifhermen, if they proceed any thing above the mark, are fcarcely able to draw what they have caught out of the water. When this fifliery is over, the Kozaks turn to other bufineffes, make trading journies, and in the latter end of fummer look after their hay- harveft. This being done, towards the clofe of Sep tember the autumnal fifhery commences, which is opened in the order above defcribed, with great cafl- ing-nets, and in which it is permitted, befides the fmaller fpecies of fifh, to take all forts of fturgeons. — Laftly, after a refpite of a few weeks, fucceeds the fifhery under the ice in the feveral inferior waters, but the produce of ft is not very abun dant. The largeft belugas caught in the Ural weigh often five-and-twenty pood, yielding about five pood of kaviar, but on account of its numerous vifcous firings, it is reckoned the worft. The ftur geon are about a fathom in length ; the biggeft weigh five pood, and frequently contain a pood of kaviar, which is much efteemed for its quality. The fifh are here, as at the Volga, moftly falted ; kaviar is prepared from the roes, and fifh-glue made of the cartilaginous fubftances ; but the winter-fifh are tranfported frozen. The Yemba and the Terek, which likewife flow into the Cafpian, are neither of them very rich in fifh ; the latter, however, produces fturgeons and f 4 belugas •72 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. belugas, fevrugas, falmon, barbels, fhads, carp, &c. The draught on thefe rivers affords too little bufi- nefs to demand here any particular account. The fifhery on the Euxine and the sea of Azof, though neither fo important or extenfive as that of the Cafpian, is not deficient in the larger and palatable kinds of fifh, among which are par ticularly to be remarked the various forts of ftur-r geon. — The whole northern coaft of the fea of Azof, from the Don to Perekop, is laid out in fifheries, to which occupation thefe diftriets are extremely favourable. They fifh with nets that have in the middle a conical bag, in which the fifh affemble ; and one finglg draught, which ge nerally lafts only fix hours, yields 60,000 fifh, among which however are found but few ftur geons, fhads, and other large kinds of fifh *. — The moft confiderable fifheries on the peninfula of Taurida are at Kertfh and Yenicaly, where the capture ufually begins in May and continues till fometime in October. Among the moft rer markable fifh of thefe waters are the fturgeon, the fterlet, and the furuk-f; the two firft fpecies are cut lengthwife in pieces, dried and fmoaked, and fent to Turkey, where they find a great demand. Befides, at thefe havens, particularly at Taganrok, a confiderable quantity of kaviar, train-oil, and fifh-glue are fhipped off; and in Feodofia they, * Guldenftsedt's travels, torn. ii. p. 84. f Salmovimba. 4 get THE FISHERY. 73 get excellent prepared roes of the pollard *, but only in fmall quantities -j~. The falted and fmoaked mackarel, called by the Turks fkumri, are an im portant article of trade in the Krim, and are fre quently fent from Feodofia and Balaklava to Con- ftantinople and to all the maritime towns of Na- tolia and Romelia. Thefe fifh are tranfported in tons, and a tlioufand of them are fold on the fpot for three and a half or four piaftres. The capture of the mackarel, which is done with nets, begins towards the end of fummer, and they are loaded .off in autumn. We omit the fpecification of the fmaller kinds of fifh, which are alfo in confiderable quantities fent away dried and falted £. We are now to fpeak of the Baltic, on the coafts whereof a confiderable fifhery is carried on. The gulfs of Riga and of Finland contain gene rally the fame fpecies of fifh, and the employment which the produce of both occafion is nearly equal. The naturalift of Livonia § enumerates in the waters belonging to that province nine-and-forty * P6utargue. Salmo thymallis. + In the year 1793 all the harbours of the Euxirie and the fea of Azof exported : Fifh 6960 pood, value 10,134 ruWes- Kaviar 23,695 - - 93*821 Ifinglafs 6£ - - 16 103,971 J PeyffonePs ftate of the commerce of the Black-fea, p. 176. § Fifcher^ in his natural hiftory of Livonia. different 74 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. different fpecies of fifh, among which the falmon, ftreamlings, pike, and lampreys, if not for home confumption, yet for exportation, are the rnoft important. The falmon is caught in almoft all the rivers, but thofe in the Dvina and the Narova are the beft, though they come far behind thofe of Archangel in delicacy and plumpnefs ; they are exported fmoaked and falted. The ftreamlings, a degenerate fpecies of herring, are everywhere found on the fhores of the Baltic, but efpecially about Pernau, where they are in fuch quantities, that three hundred of thefe fmall fifh are bought for three or five kopeeks ; a ton of them when falted cofts from three to fix rubles. Formerly they were exported ; but the northern herrings have annihilated this branch of commerce, which are at prefent even bought by Livonia, the ftream lings being not fufficient for the home and the foreign confumption. Yet inftances are not want ing of 300,000 of them having been taken at one fuccefsful draught. One fpecies of fifh quite pe culiar to thefe waters is- the kyllo ftreamling, a fmaller and more delicate variety of the true ftreamling caught in great numbers in autumn near Reval and Roggervyk. They are pickled, and form a good fubftitute for anchovies and far- dclles, and are ^accordingly, thus prepared, fent abroad to various parts. Not lefs exquifite are the potted lampreys that come particularly from Narva. THE FISHERY. 75 Narva *. The greateft ftore of the gulf of Fin land confifts in fterlets, falmon, and carp ; even fturgeon are found in the gulf of Cronftadt, and likewife at times in the Neva. Of the fmaller forts of fifh with whieh the government of Vyborg is provided to a great fuperfiuity, an exceed ingly great quantity are brought alive in pierced veffels to St. Peterfburg, and there fold cheap at the water-fide in the barks which form a fort of fifh-market, and others that lie in various parts of the canals. In winter the tranfport of frozen fifh from the remoter parts of the empire is alfo very confiderable -j~. Next to the feas that encompafs the ruffian empire and the great rivers that difembogue into thofe feas, feveral lakes in Ruffia yield a plenti ful fupply of fifh. Among the chief of thefe is the Baikal, which is already remarkable for its ex traordinary magnitude. The fifhery on this lake is profecuted the whole fummer through with large* .drag-nets, above two hundred fathom long, let down into the water by a ftrong rope, and may be drawn in again by a windlafs. In winter, as foon as the ice is broken up, the beft draughts are afforded by what are here called the devil's lam- x * HupePs topographifche nachiichten von Liefland und Ffthland, torn. ii. p. 462 — 469. f Georgi's abrifs der naturlichen und oskonomifchen be- fchaffenheit des St. Peterfburgifchen gouvernment, p. 540 —543- PREYS, 76 ' PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. prey's*, and the lenkit, which then come to the fhallow'1 fhore to fpawn. But in the fum mer, when the fifh feek the deep water, they can only be taken off the fleep coafts where there is depth of lake enough. A primary object of this fifliery is the omul, with which we are al ready acquainted from what has been faid before, and which in fummer croud in great abundance about the fouthem fhore, but in autumn feek the mouths of the rivers On that fide. One very re markable phenomenon of the Baikal is the seal, which never ufes to remove far from the ocean into rivers, and therefore by fome great revolution in the furface of the earth, or by fome other extra ordinary and rare accident muft have been brought into this vaft lake. This animal here is of a filver- grey hue, and not fewer than two tlioufand of them are killed annually. Still more curious is a fort of fifh entirely pecu liar to the Baikal, denominated by the ruffian in habitants golomy ank a £. Thefe fifh are of fuch an oily fatnefs that theydiffolve over the fire quite to the bones. They have never yet come within fight alive ; and it is conjectured that they confine themfelves to the deepeft pits of the Baikal. After violent ftorms, dead, they cover large tracts of the * Salmo oxyrrinchus. f Salmo falvelinus. X To which Pallas has given the name of Callyonymus Baikalienfis. i furface THE FISHERY. 77 furface of the water, and in fome years they are ejected by the lake in fuch numbers as to lie upon the beach heaped up like a rampart. Thefe aquatic animals, which on account of their dif- gufting fat are never touched by the gulls or crows, are however fubfervient to human induftry. An oil is extracted from them by boiling, which the Ruffians fell to the Chinefe with great profit *. Among the other fiberian lakes the Tfchan is particularly prolific in fifh ; but among the euro- pean the Ladoga is reckoned the moft remarkable in this refpect. In it are found not only fturgeons, falmon, the knife-fifh, or thin-belly ¦f, &c. but likewife feals ; and nearly the like kinds are caught in the Onega. The Peipus yields extremely fat mullets, barbel, pikes, large quobbs,. eels, rebs, and others. The rebs, or the marena, is a fpecies of herring, found in feveral lakes, efpecially in* the Peipus, and they are bought from thirty to ninety kopeeks the thoufand. They are confumed either frefh or falted ; and, in the latter cafe, fupply with the country people the place of herrings, which are become a necefiary. Formerly the fifhery on the Peipus gave occupation and bread to 17,000 perfons ; but lince the fifhermen have taken to the ufe of nets with fmall mefhes, ,by which the young fry are carried away, this fupply has fenfibly declined. In the lake Ilmen are caught fhad, * Pallas, travels, torn. iii. p. 288 — 291, f Cyprinus cultratiy, Pali.. Tfchechon and fabla, in rufs. perch, 78 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. perch, mullets, fudak, karafs §, tench, and th* beloye; the fmaller european lakes are likewife proportionably productive. We fee then from all thefe facts, that the occu pation occafioned by the fifhery in the ruffian empire is great and various, yet it bears no pro* portion to the produce of the waters. In vain does Nature prefent her ftores in the greateft fu- perfluity, if there be a want of hands to collect her proffered bounty, or if prejudice and indolence contract the fpirit of induftry. Ruffia has not only numerous waters that fwarm with finny tribes, the products of which are left utterly unexplored, but fhe imports annually from the foreigner a very confiderable quantity of falted fifh; a defi ciency which might be- eafily fupplied by her do- meftic projduce. The whole amount of what fhe got by the fale of her fifh, particularly the ftur geon, at the foreign markets, was in 1768 no more than Sooo rubles, and in the year 179-3 only fomewhat above 10,000 rubles. Whereas in the laft-mentioned year, ifinglas to the value of 452,000 rubles, and kaviar amounting to 188,000 rubles were fent abroad, the exportation of which toge ther in 1768 had amounted only to 120,000 rubles. A better regulation of the fifhery at the mouth of the Dniepr might contribute much to the increafe of this exportation,- as the feveral kinds of ftur geon are there in great abundance. The fame § Cyprinus earaffus. product THE FISHERY. 7$ product might alfo be obtained -by the navigation of the Cafpian, if fifheries were eftablifhed at the bays formed by the mouths of the Agrakan, the Kur, and the Svidura, which the Perfians, who eat no fturgeons, would eafily allow. The mouths of the Yenifley, the Oby, and the Petfchora might alfo be made to yield great quantities of thefe products, and the tranfporting them acrofs the fea to Archangel would be attended with no difficul ties, as the ruffians have already at various times vifited the coafts of the Frozen-ocean. But it would in a' particular manner tend to increafe the profits arifing from kaviar, if, befides the black roes of the feveral kinds of fturgeon, the yellow of other large fifh were likewife employed to that purpofe, as for example that of the pike, the -fu dak, the carp, the fea-bream, and many other fpe cies of the cyprinus, which fport in abundance in numberlefs ftreams of fouthcrn Ruffia. The Greeks and Armenians about the Euxine are particularly- fond of this yellow kaviar. — . The export of fifii-oil in 1768 amounted to upwards of 80,000, and in 1 793 to above 106,000 rubles. This article of ex portation might likewife be greatly increafed if the fat of the fea-beluga were more generally employed ; and then the whale-fifhery ought certainly to be purfued with greater activity and diligence. — Ac cording to flatements that have been communi cated the value of thefe products, obtained from the fifhery and confignedto the foreigner, amounted in 80 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. in the year 1 768 to 208,000, and in the year 1 jg$ to more than 756,00c rubles. This rife of the exportation would doubtlefs lead us to conclude that there was an increafe of activity and induftry ; but the importation has augmented in an equal proportion. In the port of St. Peterfburg alone, to the value "of above 246,000 rubles in products of the fifhery were inn ported in the year 1793 ; of which the fingle arti cle of herrings came to 228,000 rubles, whereas the whole importation of them in 1768 amounted only to 107,000 rubles. As this fifh likewife forms in the reft of the harbours of the Baltic and of the White-fea one of the chief articles of im portation, it is furely worth while to confider a little on this fubject, and to endeavour to find out how this needlefs and burthenfome expence may be leffened. Befides the herring which Ruffia herfelf poflefles, and befides the omul, of which notice has been taken in fpeaking of the Frozen- ocean, that patriotic academician Guldenffcedt*, in this view particularly recommends, the ftream lings -j~, the knife-fifh £, and the chalcoid §, which in tafte very much refemble the herring, and are found plentifully in the Euxine, the fea of Azof, and the Cafpian. The fhad, which at Tfcherkafk is called feldetz, at Aftrakhan fhelenitza, and in * Academical difcourfe, p. 40. f Clupea alofa, Pall. % Cyprinus cultratus, Pall. § Cyprinus chaicoides, Linn. othef THE FISHERY. 81 other parts of the Volga reba veflelaya, is very common in the lower Volga as far as the mouth of the Oka* and even in that river and in the Kama, and alfo in the lower Don. Here they generally fwim in flioals, but in the Dniepr they are not in fuch numbers. The knife-fifh, as it is called by the Germans, tfchekon by the inhabi* tants of the Volga, and by the Ruffian fabla, is found with the fhad in particular places, and is alfo not unfrequent in the gulf of Finland. The chalcoid paffes from the Cafpian only into the Terek, .and is there called tfchernaya reba ; but from the Euxine they afcend the Dniepr, where they bear the name of fcabria ; and they are not wanting on the coafts of the fea of Azof. This fifh by its delicate texture even excels the herring. A better regulated fifhery on the coafts of the Euxine and the fea of Azof might yield abun dance of other fifh of moderate fize, which would render the herring not fo necefill^. The abolition of all monopolies, the low price of fait, and the fupport afforded by government to every ufeful undertaking, are fufficient encouragements to the adoption of thefe propofals, and would affift in relieving the country from a confiderable yearly expence. If we may truft the calculation of an author already feveral times quoted, the whole value of the produce of the fifliery in one year may be vol. in. g eftimated "82 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. eftimated at fifteen millions of rubles.*. Without vouching for the accuracy of this ftatement, we may admit with great probability that it is not much exaggerated, if we confider the extent of this branch of induftry, the diverfity of its objects, and the prodigious confumption which muft arife from fuch a number of faft-days among thirty millions of people. But the greater the demand for this kind of food, fo much the more would it repay any pains that might be neceffary for dif- covering the defecls that have hitherto flood in the way of the beft and fitteft means of fupplying it, and which are only cherifhed by floth and pre judice. With a great part of the ruffian peafantry fifh is a prime neceffary of life, and the confump tion of it is in many places greater than that of flefh-meat ; which, partly from a lefs inclination for it, and partly from the rites of the church, is but in very little requeft with the nation at large, when compared with other countries. Nothing then would be more meritorious than to eradicate that baneful prejudice which the common people of Ruffia entertain to this day againft feveral -wholefome and palatable kinds of fifh that abound in fuch multitudes as to fupply the greater part of the nation with. food. Of the fhad, for inftance, which from the beginning of May to the end of fummer travel up the Volga in amazing fhoals, * Herrman ftatift. fchild. von Rufsland, p. 456. the THE FISHERY. 83 the vulgar have the foolifh and ungrounded no tion, that it renders thofe who eat of it mad ; of courfe it is never eaten by the Ruffians, but either thrown away, or difpofed of at an extremely trifling price to the Mordvines and Tfchuvafches, who by their daily experience refute the idle notion. It is, moreover, well-known to be a fifh which bears falting and fmoking excellently, and would prove a great relief to the lower orders if they could be perfuaded to lay afide this incomprehenfible prejudice. The tfchechon is likewife very little efteemed, and only eaten from neceffity by the very pooreft of the people. Lampreys are in the fame unfortunate predicament, which are plenti fully found in the Volga; and crabs are in utten abhorrence with the country people, which they only learn to conquer when they come into large towns*. The fifhery at the mouths of the rivers that fall into the Cafpian is of fuch confequence that it is much to be wifhed fome alteration were made in the manner wherein it is conducted. The utfchiugs were contrived by the aftrakhan Tartars, to whom it being naturally a matter of very great indifference whether by thefe wears they flopped up the paflage to the fifh in their migration to the fuperior regions of the rivers, they might perhaps invent them on purpofe to deprive the Ruffians of the benefit of fo rich and perpetual a fource of livelihood. Now, * Pallas, travels, torn. i. p. 132—134. G 2 that 8^ PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. that the Volga and the Ural, from their heads to their other extremities flow only over ruffian ter ritory, it would be but juft and equitable to de- ftroy that memorial of the Tartars, and to let the upper inhabitants of thefe rivers participate in the enjoyment of the valuable kindsof fifh, of which there would be far more throughout Ruffia if the paflage from the Cafpian were' not fo entirely flopped. The ufe of nets too might be prohibited, or at leaft confined by certain reftridtions, becaufe a fufficient quantity of fifh might be caught by angling, and becaufe the nets prevent the fturgeons, barbels, falmons, and belugas from going up the ftream, and frequently compel entire fhoals of thefe fifh to go back into the fea*. — But, when the patriotic obferver forms his projects he has only the benefit of the whole in view ; it behoves a juft and prudent government not to lofe fight alfo of the advantage of the individual, and to make the claims of all upon the general welfare coincide with the rights of each. ,* Oferetzkoflkoi'sbcfchreib. von Aftrakhan, &c. p. 103. SECTION C 85 ] SECTION III. The Breeding of Cattle. Ihe third divifion of productive induftry com prehends the breeding of cattle, a bufinefs which in the ruflian empire is purfued in a variety of ways. In the feveral regions where agriculture is the prime fource of livelihood to the inhabi tants, the breeding of cattle can only be confidered as a collateral branch of rural osconomy ; but with thofe tribes who confine themfelves folely to that employment, it obtains the character of a mode of living, and by its influence on the focial and moral condition of mankind, is at the fame time a fubjett for the hiftory of the progreffive culture of the human race. On the fcale of civi lization the herdfman flands above the fifherman, and the huntfman, as his ftate is more permanent, and leads him from a rude and laborious to a milder and more commodious way of life. If the chace or the fifhery more quickly expand the na tural and intellectual faculties of man, the paftoral life binds him more to the foil on which he tends his droves and irtfpires him with that fociability which is the germ of civil conjunction. The lonely huntfman may eafily difpenfe with the advantage for which in fociety he barters the lofs of his natu ral liberty ; he is contented with an imperfect g 3 connexion 86 productive industry. connexion with other men to promote a fingle end, which immediately ceafes as foon as that end is obtained. But feldom fhall we hear of a paftoral people that without' a focial conftitution attained to any duration and grandeur ; a manner of life which cannot fubfift without fecufity of property, nor be accomplifhed without reciprocal aid, con ducts meit foon to the only method of enfuring to themfelves thefe advantages ; and when they have once adopted it, they pufli forward on the line of improvement with infinitely greater fpeed than the fifherman or the hunter, whofe talents and capa cities are only exercifed on , the refiftance or the cunning of brutes. The nations of herdfmen in the ruffian empire are the Kirghifes, the Kalmuks, the Bafchkirs, the Burats, and feveral others lefs numerous; the breeding of cattle is a principal trade with the Kozaks of the Don, the Nogayans, the Bara- binzes, and fome others ; with moft of the nations of hunters it is a very confiderable collateral means of profit, and as an important branch of rural ceconomy it flourifhes in many diftricts of proper Ruffia. On the whole, the bufinefs of the erafier is profecuted in the ruffian empire to a greater ex tent, but alfo far more negligently than in other countries of Europe. Without reckoning the great droves from which the nomadic tribes derive their fupport and their wealth, almoft every boor, even he who is accounted poor, has his little cow-houfe, and even the beggar, . who literally lives THE BREEDING OF CATTLE. 87- lives upon alms, is generally, however, poffeffed of a cow or a goat. But if we except the fmall number of -enlightened hufbandmen, and the co- lonifts and burghers in fome provinces, it cannot be denied, that the breed of cattle is almoft every where very carelefsly managed ; and that the culture of this important branch of induftry in general, notwithftanding fo many natural ad- Vantages, is ftill far fhort of its perfection. As we fhall have occafion in the fequel to touch more elofely on the peculiar excellencies and defects of this bufinefs among the Ruffians, we fhall here omit the general fpecification of them, in order at once to make ourfelves acquainted with the main objects of the prefent article. The foremoft of thefe in the ruffian empire is the neat-cattle, the culture of which is of the utmoft confequence both to home confump tion and to foreign commerce. Almoft every where, where the climate and the foil are fa vourable to this branch of hufbandry, large droves of horned cattle are kept, and the chief wealth of many of the nomadic tribes confifts in thefe ufeful animals. The malo-ruffian and newly-acquired polifli provinces particularly poffefs a fuperfluity of them, efpecially the former polifh Ukraine; alfo in the regions of the Don and in the govern ments of Kharkof, ' Kurfk, Orel, Kazan, Ufa, Saratof, &c. as well as in feveral governments of the northern territory, they abound in fuch num bers as to admit of exportation ; and the Kirg- g 4 hifeSj 88 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. hifes, Kalmuks, Bafchkirs, and feveral branches of the Tartars even fupply a great part of the empire with this neceffary. From the Ukraine riot only fome thoufands of live oxen are every year driven to St. Peterfburg, Riga, and Reval, but even to Silefia and Germany. In many regions of this favoured country the breed of cattle is far fuperior to the agriculture, and the land-owners there make more account of oxen than of horfes, as. they ufe the former at the fame time for draught. In what was formerly Little Poland, the breeding of cattle is favoured by the uncommonly rich paftures, on which the grafs grows fo high that the grafing beafts are frequently concealed in it to the very horns. The podolian oxen have long been famous among the grafiers of every country, and if the fraudulent tradefman did , not fometimes at tempt to fell foreign horned-cattle under this name, we fhould juftly be aftonifhed at the fertility and abundance of that province. With the Kozaks of the Don the breeding of cattle is a primary bu- finefs, arid their fine horned-cattle, in no refpecf inferior to the malo-ruffian, vfi nd excellent pafturr age in the graffy fteppes and on the banks of the rivers luxuriant in the choiceft herbage. The nurture of them is fo much facilitated by the fhort and mild winter, that individuals among the Kozaks poffefs khutores or farms, on which are fifty to two hundred head of horned cattle. In the government of Archangel', particularly in the fouthern. THE BREEDING OF CATTLE. 89 fouthern circles, the breeding of cattle is carried on with great fuccefs. The fine cattle of Khol- mogor, known over all the north of Ruffia, attained that high degree of excellence by the'wife meafures of the late emprefs, who upwards of thirty years fince caufed a breed of dutch cows to be diftributed among the inhabitants of thofe fertile meads. The calves of Kholmogor are in parti cular efteem for their excellent veal, and are brought in large numbers to St. Peterfburg, where they are fold to great profit. The fattening of them indeed takes up forty weeks, but then one fuch calf will weigh 680 to 800 pound. The far greater part of all the governments breed a fuffi- cient quantity of horned cattle for their own con fumption, and many of them difpofe of their fuperfluity to the poorer provinces. Among thefe the two governments of St. Peterfburg and Mofco ftand foremoft on account of their ,great population and the difproportionate con fumption of their capital towns. The breeding of cattle in the government of Mofco is by no means inconfiderable, and yet a great number of horned- cattle are annually brought in. In that of St. Peterfburg it can be but fcanty by reafon of the unfavourablenefs of its local fituation, efpecially as the oxen here are not ufed for draught, and as the calves are bought up as luxuries for the table; yet every boor keeps a few cows, as they bring hi si .90 productive industry. him good returns. Live oxen fit for daughter and frozen beef are brought hither every year from the Ukraine and from the Kalmuk-horde, a diftance of more than two tlioufand verfts ; and, befides the calves which this refidence receives from Archangel, confiderable numbers of them come from the upper and the middle Volga. As thefe beafts by the long way they are obliged to- travel commonly lofe much of their fat, the farm ers in Livonia and Efthonia take them into feed the winter through ; whence arifes to thefe pro vinces a regular and important hranch of trade. Many a proprietor keeps in this manner at his diftillery three hundred head of oxen ; by each of which he gains from eight to fourteen rubles, be fides the benefit of their labour in cultivating his corn fields. Neat -cattle with almoft all the paftoral nations compofe the leaft part of their ftock, as the breed of horfes and iheep is their principal object. The Kirghifes have fine unhorned cows; among the Kalmuks only the poorer fort keep horned-cattle and horfes in equal number : the opulent herdf- man ufually pofTeffes far more of the latter. All the kalmuk herds remain the whole winter on the fteppe, and neverthelefs thrive' well. The chief wealth indeed of the Nogayans confifts in beeves, but this fluggifh people are fo poor, that the owner of five hundred oxen pafles for a very rich man. THE BREEDING OF CATTLE. Ql man. ' In general the breeding of horned-cattle is the moft attended to by thofe nations who make ufe of them for draught and as beafts of burden. The method in which the breeding of neat- cattle is carried on in Ruffia, differs immenfely from that purfued in other countries of Europe. 1 What was before mentioned of the defects of cattle-- breeding in general is particularly applicable to. this branch of it ; for nowhere can careleffnefs i.n the management of thefe beafts be carried to greater lengths' tlian here. Immediately as the fnow is melted from the ground, the horned beaft muft feek his own nourifhment, on frequently very poor and diftant paftures, and from this period he is not to expect a handful of provender at home till the winter again renders it impoffible for him to graze. In that feafon indeed he is foddered in the flail, but fo penurioufly that his bones feem ready to flart through his hide, and he fre quently cannot raife himfelf without the help of bis keeper,- as not feldom dry ftraw and cold water are the whole of his nourifhment. Only the cows when they have juft calved receive a little hay and meal, and yet they fuckle their calves, and here and there, e. g. in the provinces of the Baltic, yield during the fummer forty pounds of butter and more. Even the practice of foddering and having warm hovels is not in ufe though in the moft woody diftricts, and to all thefe deficiencies, fo baleful to the profperous nurture of cattle, muft a ftill 52 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. ftill be added, particularly in Siberia, frequent dif- tempers. It is fcarcely neceffary to remark that this de fcription only in general holds good ; and that par ticular diftricts, as well as particular farmers, form many advantageous exceptions to it.- Yet for the |ault that is in general fo ftriking, fome apologies are to be found grounded in the phyfical and civil ftate of the ruffian empire, and againft which little or no reply can be made. The proper feeding, for inftance, with fuch large droves as are in Ruffia, is perhaps not practicable ; in the governments where the rearing of cattle is purfued not as a principal trade but only as a collateral branch of hufbandry, it might' certainty be more general'; but in thefe there is no want of diligent country men who take great care to fatten the neat-cattle. In this regard the governments of Riga, Reval, and- St. Peterfburg have been already brought as inftances, and befides thefe feveral others might be named. The herds of the nomadic nations fatten themfelves on the rank fteppes, and in- duftrious peafants in many parts of the empire follow the gfafier's bufinefs as a trade or for their proper ufe. Carelefs country-people and herdf- men indeed leave Uieir cattle to feek their provifiofi during the winter under the fnow, efpecially in fuch parts as feel a want of fodder ; but who can blame them for it, When it is confidered that the low price of cattle affords the owner but a very mo derate THE BREEDING OF CATTLE. 93 derate profit, and that this circumftance jointly with the total want of a demand, or the difficulty of obtaining a vent for them, holds out no en couragement to care and laborious attendance. - — The arguments brought againft common paftures and for their inclofure, as well as for houfe-feed- ing, may be completely juftified in other countries by experience : but they do not everywhere, except under certain limitations, fuit the ruffian empire, in which are excellent pafture-grounds in abundance, but proportionately few people. The fhort ^fummers in the northern diftricls may be employed in more profitable occupations than hay making, as the multitude of field labours fcarcely allow time to the inhabitants of the country to gather intheir miferable crops. The richeft common paftures confift of monftrous large ftjppes, thepai- titioning of which would be attended with infinite difficulties, and how could the nomade without the ufe of them maintain his droves which he numbers by hundreds and thoufands, and which muft be attended without hired people ? Thefe and many other circumftances here unnoticed fhew that the methods of breeding of cattle in England, ' Germany, and Holland can only be very condi tionally applied to Ruffia. With all the real or imaginary defects to which it is here expofed, it however affords the inhabitants many and in fome diftricls all the means of livelihood, and yiejds £ befides 94 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. befides to commerce a multitude of important products for exportation*. Here firft prefent themfelves to our notice hides and tallow, two main articles of ruffian commerce. Of the latter in the year 1793 above 1,035,000 poods were exported, and the value of that quantity amounted to 4,279,600 rubles, not including the tallow-candles, the exportation of which came in value to 170,000 rubles. Yufts and leather in the fame year were fhipped off to the amount of 2,249,000 rubles, and the other exports in the products arifing from the breeding of horned-cattle, as live oxen and cows, falted beef, tongues, and butter, made a fum of more than 163,000 rubles. ' The whole value then of all thefe articles in one- year was upwards of 6,862,000 rubles, for the moft part, or^ entirely gained from the breeding of neat cattle, and in which the wrought-up materials, as foap, &c. are not mentioned. So aftonifhing an exportation as this confutes all theo-r retical objections, which entirely lofe their force if we obferve the rifing proportions of the exports we have juft been naming-f-. Yet, great as the benefit is which Ruffia receives from this branch of her induftry, it is not to be * Hupel's ftaatfverf. des. ruff, reichs, torn. ii. p. 250—517. f In the year 1768 Ruffia fold to the value of 1,115,00a rubles in hides andleather, and tallow amounting to 750,000 rubles. The furplus of the exportation, of thefe two articles amounted in the year 1793 to 4,563,000 rubles. denied THE BREEDING OF CATTLE. <)5 denied that it might be greater. All the diftricts that are adapted to the breeding of cattle are not by far employed to that end ; this may particularly be affirmed of the fpacious plains of fouthern . Ruffia in which very numerous herds might be fupported with the utmoft convenience. The breeding of neat-cattle would be the propereft employment for the fcanty population of thofe diftricts where the paftures are richly furnifhed with fpurry and golden-clover, and the winters are fhort, and where the falted beef, by the navi gation of the Euxine, might find an excellent market at Conftantinople*. Such an increafe of the horned-cattle would likewife augment the pro duction of hides and tallow, which at prefent is infufficient for the demands of the foreigner, and the preparation of thefe articles would be fo much " the more facilitated, as the former imports on tanneries and tallow-melters have been abolifhed fince the year 1775. — An important object of national concern is alfo the increafe of the buffalo, of which there are already confiderable numbers in the governments of Caucafus, Ekatarinoflaf, and * , We are affured by profeffor Pallas, that a good beginning has already been made with this increafe on the ifland of Taman, and in the confines of the river Yey. The Kozaks of the Euxine have introduced here the large Ukraine race of horned-cattle, which thrives fo excellently that the new breed will fhortly excel their parents, and bid fair to become in time a great relief to the capital towns. Tableau de la Tauride, p. 43. Taurida, 96 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY". Taurida, where the breed of them ought to be encouraged by all-poffible means. This animal is not only much ftronger and better calculated for labour than the ox, but his hide forms an im portant article of commerce to Smyrna* and yields the beft materials for fole-leather, which Ruffia annually imports. Cheefe likewife made from buffalo's milk is excellent ; and it would be well worth while to make this commodity in the country, rather than continue to pay confiderable fums for it abroad *. — By the introduction of the tangutan horned cattle -f the ruffian breed might likewife be confiderably improved. This beaft, who lives wild in the foongarian mountains, and is a domeftic animal in Thibet and the Bukharey, affords good beef, yields a good deal of tallow, and gives plenty of rich milk ; their calves are eafily tamed, but the full-grown refufe to mingle with the common herds. This fpecies might even become a domeftic animal in the lower regions of the Don and about the Terek, or perhaps may_ be fo al ready, if according to the fuppofition of Pallas, the buffalo which is kept (here be only a degener ¦ racy of the tangutan neat-caftle or become more domeftic |. * Guldenftsedt's akademifche rede, &c. fe£t. z% — 38. f Bos grunniens. ' % Falk's beytrag, torn. iii. p. 293. A£la acad. Petrop, ann. 1777. torn. ii. p. lo. The THE BREEDING Ofr CATTLE* Qf The breeding op sheep is in the ruffian empire proportionably much greater even than that of neat-cattle; but this department toos of produdive induftry is far fhort of that perfection, to which, by nothing more than ari enlightened guidance and a more active exertion of the art of hulbandry, it might attain. Almoft everywhere fhe attention is only directed to increafe the breed of this ufeful animal, without thinking of its im provement, and the immerife paftures of Ruffia that are covered with flocks of fheep do not fup ply wool enough to enable the country to difpenfe with the importation of that neceffary arid moft common material of manufacture. Yet the no- rnades are richer in fheep than in any other fpecies of cattle, and even the boors and Kozaks in fouthern Ruffia and Siberia poffefs flocks of hun dreds and thoufands. The ordinary ruffian fheep, particularly in the northern regions, are hot very large, are fhort- tailed, and bear a coarfe and harfh wool, which however is fometimes intermixed with finer; fome few provinces are an exception to this, in which attempts have been made to' im prove this fpecies by croffing the breed with better races and by greater care and attendance. The long-tailed tfcherkaffian fheep* kept by the Ko zaks of the Dorl and in fome diftricts of the Ukraine, yield a better Wool : as alfo do the breed found in the governments of Kharkof, Kurfk, Orel, Tambof, Kazan, and fome others from vol. in. h which 98 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. which the greater part of the wool for the inland cloth manufactories is fetched. The attempt made by Peter the great to improve the malo-ruffian flocks by filefian fheep and goats has not been attended with any great confequence ; however the beneficent views of that prince have fucceeded better in the prefent government of Viatka, where german breeds are ftill kept by german fhepherds; The owners of eftates likewife in the provinces of the Baltic cultivate at leaft for their domeftic confumption a better race ; but this breed thrives excellently on the iflands of QEfel and Dagho, where the abundance of nutritious herbs and the fait fea-water are liked by them. The fpecies found .on the laft-mentioned ifland yield a wool in equal eftimation with the englifh, and the half-cloth which the land-owners there Weave themfelves is frequently finer and of a clofer fubftance than what ufually comes from abroad. In the white- ruffian governments they feem to have fallen upon a better method of culture ; and it is hoped that thefuccefs which has attended fome folds of foreign races will operate as an encouragement to the farmers of thofe parts. Lithuania and Little Po land have for a long time paft delivered a con fiderable quantity of half-fine wool for exporta tion, and in trie governments of Ekatarinoflaf and Vofnefenfk the pafture of fheep forms a main branch of fuftenance to the inhabitants. Taurida is .fo. rich in fheep, that common Tartars poffefs 1000, The breeding Of cattle. 99 tooo, and rich ones 50,000; and at the firft enumeration, notwithftanding the preceding war, there were found to be upwards of feven millions of that animal on the whole peninfula. Their mut ton is every where of excellent tafte ; but in regard to the quality of their wool, it is very different according to the feveral places in which they have been reared. In the plains they are larger ; but here they have a coarfe wool mixed with hair ; whereas the lambs of this fpecies give a curled fur of fuch value that the fale of them alone forms an important branch of trade. The fheep in the mountainous part of the peninfula are indeed fmaller, but they bear a long, even, filky kind of wool, which, if this race were croffed by foreign rams, muft in quality be at leaft equal to the englifh *. The kirghifian and kalmukian fheep, which with the horfe compofe the principal wealth of thefe nations, are entirely different from the ruffian. The former in fize and uglinefs are not excelled by any wool-bearing animal ; they are higher than a new-born calf, and fo ftrong and heavy, that the full-grOwn ufually weigh between four and five pood. In fhape they refemble the indian * Statiftifche ueberficht der ftaathalt. des ruffifchen reichs. Aufwahl cekonomifcher abhandlungen der freyen cekonom. gefellfchaft in St. Peterfburg, torn. i. p. 205. Friebe. bemerkungen ueber Livland und Efthland, 157. 298. Pallas, tableau phyf." et topogr. de la Tauride, p. 41. h 2, fheep } fOO productive Industry. fheep ;; they have the arched front of the old bat tering ram, prominent underlips, and large pen dulous ears. Inftead of a tail they have a rhori- •ftrous round lump of fat like a cufhion, weigh ing between thirty -and forty pound,, and yielding -between twenty and thirty pound of tallow «{%;. by this extrefcence they are generally diftinguifh- -^blefrOm the indian fheep. Their wool is coarfe, "entangled together'and ftrongly mixed with hair : the rams are univerfally and the wethers generally horned ; 'fome are even feen, like the icelandic, with four, five, or fix horns. — Thefe fheep the whole winter through feek their own fodder under the friow, which at the fame time ferves them for drink, without -becoming lean upon it. To this the fhortnefs of that feafon much- contributes, as- well as the circumftance that the fnow pafles away more rapidly on the falt-places of the fteppes, and the animals are in a manner fattened by feeding On the vegetables of the faline foil. It may, per haps, be owing to the fame circumftance that this oriental race of fheep is become gradually de- -f Wild rove ihe flocks, no burdening fleece they bear - , In fervid climes : Nature gives nought in vain. Carmenian wool on the broad tail alone Refplendent fwells, enormous in its growth : As the fleek ram from green to green removes, On aiding wheels his heavy pride he draws, And glad refigns it for the hatter's ufe. Dyer's Fleece. generate THE BREEDING OF CATTLE. 101 generate among the Kirghifes by the fuperfluity of fat, and inftead of a tail have got the clumfy fat lump; which, being now become inveterate, fhey retain even in other countries. The kirghifian fheep generally bring forth two lambs ; and,' as they live in the fteppes entirely left to nature, and are confequently vifited by no difeafes, they mul-* tiply exceedingly, and the flocks of the Kirghifes are therefore very numerous. — The kalmukian fheep differ from the kirghifian in their fmaller fize; they prefent likewife not fo curved a front, leffer though pendulous ears, a lefs hairy wool, and are feldom horned. This race is kept up alfo among the baptized , Kalmuks, who live among the Ruffians, as in all places where there are kal-r muk rams, and where the flocks graze at . full liberty, and even in winter are left to nibble the fnow without watering them *. As it is fcarcely to be hoped that the Kalmuks will accommodate themfelves to agriculture with a good will, the eafieft and moft natural method of making thefe people ufeful to the empire, at leaft fuch as are converted, would be to introduce among them, inftead of their wretched fheep that are only fit for flaughter, flocks of a good breed, and try to entourage this paftoral nation to the fhearing of wool. The polifh colonifts in the felenghinfkian circle of the goverment of Irkutfk keep a number of * Pallas, travels, torn. i. p. 325. %g%. H 3 fheep 102 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. fheep of mongolian race, with little fat tails, but aire not much larger than the ruffian. Many of the lambs that are dropped here have fine curled furs, which are fold to the Chinefe dearer than the famous bukharian. It is the practice with the Poles to wrap up, the new-born lambs in linen, which they moiften every day with warm water, and in this ftate leave them for a fortnight or a month under the mother, till the tender wool be crifped into little curls. Thefe larribs are im mediately killed when the wool is fine enough *. As the management of fheep in all countries forms fo material an object of political oeconomy, it will not be improper here to make a few obfer- vations on the means by which this branch of the national induftry might be affifted and promoted. In this we muft look either merely to the augmen tation of the numbers of the flocks, or at the fame time to the improvement of the wool. In Ruffia the latter ought to be particularly the care of every enlightened and patriotic landlord, as the quantity of fheep feems to be fufficient for the prefent ftate of population and the national in duftry. Yet in this too the national wealth might be greatly increafed; among the tracts of land that are confpicuoufly adapted to this culture, the mountainous fteppes along the Sok and the Kinel hold a diftinguifhed place. Even the ordinary ruffian fheep are here much larger and acquire a * Pallas, travels, torn. iii. p. 168. cleaner THE BREEDING OF CATTLE. 203 cleaner wool *. The gentle elevations, likewife, of the valdayan ridge of mountains and the fouthern uralian and altayan chain, as well as the high and faline ground of Caucafus, Ekatarinoflaf, and Tau- rida are in a Angular manner adapted to the mul tiplication of this fpecies of animals; and in the laft- mentioned province the exportation of the falted flefh fo much admired by the Turks would be likewife iiicreafed-f. — But the moft material ob ject of attention is the improvement of the inland wool, a product which Ruffia imports annrially, raw and wrought, in fo prodigious a quantity, that the furplus of the commerce is Very much leflened by it J. From the experiments of a fagacious practical landlord §, who works up the wool produced on his eftate, genuine ruffian fheep, unmixed with foreign races, befides the coarfe hairy wool, yield a fine filky fort, which with young or full-grown fheep is equally fine and ferviceable with the wool ~ of fpanifh fheepf The malo-rriffian border near * Pallas, travels, torn. i. p. 97, f Guldenftsedt's akademifche rede, &e. p. 36. % In the port of St. Peterfburg alone, the importation of woollen articles in the year i794amounted to above 3,1 14,000 rubles. — Yet of the ruffian wool no inconfiderable quantity is every year fhipped off. In the year 1793 this export was 23,797 pood, the value whereof was rated at 45,805 rubles, § Lieut. Col. Ofotkin on the improvement and increafe of She ruffian wool for fabrics. Aufwahl cekonom. abhandl. torn. iy. p. 145. • H 4 upon 104 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. upon it; but as the filky wool from all thefe fheep is fuperior in foftnefs, it is at leaft prefer able to the turkifti and polifh. According to the ftatement of the abovefaid land-owner, it is there fore of not fo much confequence to improve the ruffian fheep by foreign races as to feparate the filk-wool by carefully cleanfing it from the hair- wool, fince the former as it is, and without mix ture with foreign kinds of wool, is a very ufeful material for the. weaving of cloth. But becaufe there is a great difference even among the ruffian fheep, it would be not lefs important, to employ the beft kind of them efpecially to the multipli cation of this breed. This difference appears not only in the greater or fmaller proportion between the filk and the hair-wool, but alfo in the dif ferent lengths of them. A wool in which, both are of equal length may be eafily feparated by culling out every hair apart ; but the profits on this produil would not correfpond with the ex- pence, and as little would this employment repay the trouble, if the quantity of the filk were too fmall in proportion to the hairs. — The beft kind of ruffian fheep are in the fouthern regions of the Kama and in the territory of Kazan. Here the wool of this animal poffeffes every quality requi- fite to the being wrought into the cleaneft and fineft filk wool ; with young grown fheep this grows about the neck and on the breaft without any mixture with hairs ; and even in regard to growth THE BREEDING OF CATTLE. 105 growth the fheep here are larger than ufual in Other ruffian provinces, as in this refpect they are nearly equal to thofe of the Ukraine. But, though this ruffian wool, after a careful feparation, be proper for weaving cloth, yet it is not fit for fine, unfilled fluffs, as cambletSi cha- longs, and the like, for which there is no doing without the fine long wool of -foreign fheep, par ticularly the fpanifh. The introduction and pro pagation of thefe foreign races is, therefore, a very defirable object in the general improvement of the country, to which, befides the reafons already given, may be added this circumftance, that by that means the production of this indifpenfable commodity would be greatly increafed. A good fpanifh fheep of large growth yields four times as much fine wool as the beft ruffian will afford by the moft careful forting. For the tranfplantation of foreign races into Ruffia the englifb. and the fpanifh breed, which have already been naturalized in Sweden and Ger many, will be found to be the fitteft. The genuine fpanifh and englifti wool is only of ufe in making fine fluffs ; from their unctuous quality they can not well be employed in weaving ftockings and fluffs, and as the climate of Sweden and Germany comes neareft to that of moft parts of Ruffia, thefe races, already enured to the northern fkies, would hold out and thrive the better here. Be fides, the price of thefe animals in thofe countries is -106 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. is far lower than that they bear in their proper native country. The principles on which fuch a tranfplantation fhould be effected are delivered in a very inftructive manner by the oeconomical fociety of St. Peterfburg, and by the writings of that ufeful body are brought into circulation throughout the empire*. In the remoter governr ments,, where the introduction of foreign kinds of fheep would be attended with too many diffi culties, the native fpecies might be improved by greater attention and care. The miferable ftate of flieep-breeding in Ruffia is owing certainly in fome meafure to the feverity of the climate and the bad pafture grounds. But in far the greater number of diftricts it is the neglect of proper management that leffens the value of thefe animals and their products. Goats are a very common domeftic ariimal not only with the ruffian country-people, but alfo with the nomadic nations, though the herds of them are but fmall in comparifon with thofe of other kinds. The goats of the Kirghifes are of a An gular figure; being moftly unhorned, prettily hung with long hair, generally variegated in fpots, and having pendulous ears. They are only kept for their milk and their furs. The Kalmuks like- wife have goats among their herds, but in no . * Befides the before-mentioned tradls, fee particularly the prize-paper : von der fchaafzucht in Rufsland, in the Auf» wahl cekonom. abhandl. torn. i. p. 293, ".*" 3 great THE EREEDING OF CATTLE. 107 great number; they are entirely like the kirg hifian. — As the fur of thefe animals is profitably manufactured, and partly even exported, the breed of them is no infignificant object of traffic. It would be of more material confequence to induftry if the goat of Angora, whole fhaggy hair, partly fpun, and partly wove into fluffs and ftockings, forms a confiderable article of importation, could be gradually propagated in Ruffia. Thefe animals are natives of Natolia; it would therefore be no difficult matter to bring them over the Euxine, and it is highly probable that the}' would thrive excellently in the elevated paftures about Tagan- rok, Mofdok, &c. Confiderable profit might likewife be derived from the hitherto unemployed flue or down-wool which the goats in Taurida fhed every fpring, and which might be got in the win ter by combing without any trouble. This down, which for finenefs and elafticity exceeds the very beft wool, is the chief material of which the coftly fliawls are wove which are obtained from Kachemir and Thibet. This raw material would find an eaiy fale in England, where it is in much requeft and fetches a higher price than filk*. A very ufeful object of ruffian farming is the hog, whole confumption is everywhere extraordi narily great. Though there is fuch good feeding for this animal either in the forefts and on the fat • Guldenffcedt's akadem. rede, p. 37. Pallas, tableau de la Tauride, p. 4;. meadows. H)£ PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. ' meadows, or in the cow- yards and diflilleries, yet .they never grow to any confiderable fize, which perhaps is to be accounted for from the climate; In winter the frozen pork and bacon are a main article Of food in the northern diftricts, whence it is alfo tranfported to parts very remote. — The briftles conftitute an important article of export ation; in the year 1793, for example, to the value of 742,000 rubles of them were fhipped off. We pafs by the other fpecies pf common do meftic animals and poultry which ferve only as eatables and are reared for inland confumption alone. A more remarkable and interefting object invites our attention, the beasts of draught and burden, of which there is a great and curious variety in the ruffian eriipire. The moft common as well as the moft ufeful animal of this clafs is the horse, a creature that by its ftrength and patient fortitude, under every region of heaven, feems deftined to mitigate the effects of that curfe which the levity of the firft mortal i.s faid to have drawn down upon his whole pofterity. With almoft all the nations of the earth this animal is the plodding participator in the labours of agriculture, the faithful and bold companion in the fports of the field and in the perils of war; and in the lefined nations of our quarter of the globe is become indifpenfable to the purpofes of convenience and luxury. The ruffian empire produces and feeds great numbers of them ; $ in THE BREEDING OF CATTLE. 105 in the vaft and fertile fteppes, which human penury or avarice have not yet made tributary, they ftill live in the primitive ftate of nature, in perfect freedom; and even among the nomadic tribes, where they are collected in whole troops, their fervitude is as light as their flavery in polifhed countries is commonly great. In the proper ruffian provinces this breed is fb general, that we feldom fee a peafant, however poor his condition, who does not poffefs a horfe or two ; and, excepting in the Ukraine, this animal is univerfally employed in the works of the field. It is fbmewhat curious that the genuine ruffian horfe, notwithftanding the great diverfity of cli mate, of nurture, of attendance, of provender. &c. is almoft everywhere uncommoniv alike; have all ram-like heads, long and meagre neck, a broad breaft, and are verv compadr.. There are excel lent runners among them ; they are indefatigable and hardv, but not handfome, and withal ex tremely obftinate and fliy. In feveral regions of the empire this native race lias been ennobled bvforeign ftallions, and the governments of Mofco, Tambof, Kazan, Simbirfk, with feveral others, produce large, beautiful, and ftrong horfes. — Lithuania has always fupplicd the cavalry with this neceffary; a good kind of poney is found in the diftricl of Archangel, and for their fleetneis and lafting powers the livonian nags are very famous ; but the genuine breed of them begins to be fcarce. Tr.e 110 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. The tartarian horfes are of fuch known excellence^ particularly for the ufe of light cavalry, that this fpecies needs here no farther defcription. But the improvementsthat have been made in Taurida in fome of the fluds by the commixture with turk ifti and arabian horfes, fo as greatly to improve the native breed, deferves to be particularly noticed. The race which the Kozaks of the Euxine have introduced into the ifle of Taman and along the river Kuban will far excel the tartarian. The cau- cafian horfes are but little inferior to the arabian jn regard of beauty, fpirit, and docility, but the bukharian pye-balls will difpute the palm with them in regard to the firft of thefe advantages*. . — To thefe moftly native races, the catalogue of which might be eafily lengthened, may ftill be added fome foreign breeds, particularly the danifh and englifh, the propagation of which is greatly attended to in the numerous fluds belonging to the crown, and in thofe of wealthy landlords f. Among * Falk's fieytrag. torn. iii. p. 290. Pallas, travels, torn. i. p. 6j. 74. 140. Hupel's topogr, nachr. torn. ii. p. 247. Pallas, tableau de la Tauride, p. 41. Ruffia: or a complete Defcription of all the Nations, &c. f Of the governments in which the breeding of horfes is principally attended to, or where they areJcept in fluds, the principal are Mofco, Kharkof, Kursk, Orel, Nifhney-Nov- gorod, Simbirsk, .Tambof, Voronetch, Kief, Ekatarinoflaft Vofnefensk, Bratzlau, &c. Formerly the large horfes fpr the cavalry were fetched from Pruffia, Denmark, and other coun, ' tries ; at prefent they are taken out of the fluds or brought up THE BREEDING OF CATTLE. Ill - ' Among the nomadic tribes the Kalmuks, Kirg- ., hifes, and Bafchkirs poffefs the greateft numbers of thefe animals, doubly neceffary to them in their rambling mode of life. The kalmuk horfes are high, light-limbed ; and, though not beautiful, are not of a difagreeable form. In point of fleet- riefs they by no means yield to any other fpecies ; but they are not ferviceable as draught horfes, being deficient in force, and by far too furious. Being accuftomed only to graze upon the fteppes, it is not poffible in general to fucceed with them without regular foddering, but it is difficult to make them take to it ; and there is great hazard that, in proportion as their ftrength increafes, their furioufnefs fhould alfo increafe. There are Kal muks who poffefs feveral thoufand horfes ; moft of the ftallion-colts they make into geldings, but the ftallions are never kept apart from the mares, that ' the proprietor may at no time be in want of milk. — The horfes of the Kirghifes differ but little from thofe of the Kalmuks, yet they are ufually of fomewhat higher growth. Alfo in impetuofity and fleetnefs they are equal to the latter, and like- wife accuftomed to fcrape up their fodder the whole winter through from under the fnow. They are divided into troops by their owners, to each of : ! i . . up in the country. A ruffian cavalry horfe muft not, accord ing to the difference of the corps, be under two arfhines two verfhoks, or two arfhines. In fome of the cuiraffier-regiments we may fee horfes two arfhines five verfhoks in height. which 112 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY.1 Which is affigned only one ftallion, who plays the fhepherd as it were overhis flock. — But among none of the nomadic people are bred better and larger horfes than by the Bafchkirs, particularly thofe who dwell eaftward of the Ural along the river Ifet. The noble herbage of the fteppes in thefe regions affords fuch" encouragement to the breeding of horfes, that many individuals among the Bafchkirs poffefs from two to four thoufand of thefe animals. The horfes here are doubtlefs Very fine, yet the excellent paftures would greatly im prove their fpecies, if thefe fliepherds did not de prive the colts of the mare's milk which they convert into an intoxicating liquof; and if they were not too lazy to provide a fufficient winter ftock of hay, as the poor beafts in fpring, when the melted fnow freezes again, are almoft deflitute of food*; • Amidft all this actual fuperfluity which Ruffia poffeffes in horfes, the importation of thefe animals yet forms no incOnfiderable rubric in the cuftom- boufe lifts of the Baltic-ports. In St. Peterfburg alone are brought in of them annually to the amount of 120,000 to 130,000 rubles; to what then may it not amount through the whole coun try? If, however, only the half of them were adapted to, improve the native breeds, this efti- mafe would require no animadverfion,- as the benefit that might thus accrue to Ruffia would * Pallas, travels, torn. i. p. 325-^396. torn. it. p-75- far THE BREEDING OF CATTLE. 113 far outweigh the difadvantages arifing from a luxury eafily pardonable as proceeding from a ufeful tafte. It would be difficult to point out a people that underftand how to manage horfes fo well as the Ruffians. Almoft every boor is at once carter, driver, and horfeman ; and the care of the poft, as well as the vehicles for the purpofe of -conveyance, conftitute a .primary bufinefs and an important branch of gain to the country people in moft dif tricts. In the common Ruffian the love for his horfe forms a curious contrail with his feverity in the treatment of him. Accuftomed himfelf to harfh demands, he never fails to make the fame upon his horfe, and in cafe of need to enforce them with unmerciful feverity. The rapidity with which they travel in Ruffia is become proverbial even in other countries ; but when we are informed that the poft-ftations here are very far afunder, and that it is exceedingly common to pafs two or three of them with the fame horfes with unabated fpeed, we may reafonably be aftonifhed at the fturdinefs of the ruffian horfes and the infenfibility of their owners. In the hard works which ufually fall to the lot of thefe animals, their provender is often very fcanty, and on violent exertions in per forming a day's journey, a bit of black bread or a hard 'bifcuit is their only refrefhment. But the Ruffian likewife knows how much he can put upon his horfe, without entirely exhaufting his ftrength, vol. in. i and 114 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. and the providing for his health and attendance is of the greater confequence to him as frequently he is the whole of his property. The cattle of the nomades confifts chiefly in horfes, as moft of their neceffaries are fupplied by this animal. They obtain from them not only meat, milk, and cheefe, but even fpirituous liquor, fkins for their clothing, finews for fewing, &c. In thefe large droves the horfes are moftly half-wild; they keep together in troops, each of which having feveral mares under one, at leaft one paramount ftallion, who feems the guardian and protector of the whole multitude, keeps the droves together, is attentive to every danger, notifies it to them by neighing, and in cafe of extremity, while the drove prefs quietly together, goes forth to meet the foe, and begins the fight in defence of the company under his protection *. There are diftricts in Ruffia where this fervice- able fpecies is even found wild; though pro bably the horfes running about at large in the donfkoi, the uralian, and the barabinzian fteppes do not form a peculiar race, but have arifen from ftrayed ftallions belonging to the paftoral nations, who have either feduced fingle mares or whole droves, and propagated in the uninhabited wilder- nefles. In their prefent favage ftate, though they refemble on the whole the little ruffian horfes, yet they have thicker heads, more pointed ears, a fhort * Falk's beytr. torn. iii. p. 280. - - curly , THE BREEDING OF CATTLE. 115 curly- mane, and a fhorter tail. Their ordinary colour is light bay, others area-are. They affociate in companies from five to twenty together, ufually confifting of a family of one ftallion with feveral mares and colts. When the young male colts are grown up, the old ftallion drives them from the herd* following them however, for fome time till they are ftrong enough to get themfelves a retinue of young mares. Thefe wild horfes keep the whole year round to the well-watered mountainous fteppes ; in winter feekirtg their food on the heights where the flormy winds prevent the fnowfrom lying deep. From all the attempts that have hitherto been made, to tame them is utterly impoffible; on being confined, they either effect their efcape, or ftarve themfelves to death. The Tartars and Kozaks therefore confider them in no other light than as objects of chace, and kill them for the, fake of their flefh, which is a choice difh with moft of the nomadic tribes. The chace of them, how ever, is very difficult, as they are not only excef- fively fleet, but have withal fo nice a fcent, that under the wind they can fmell the men at the diftanceof feveral verfts, and then immediately take to flight *. The ass, that creature endowed with ufeful though not fhining qualities, and decryed for de fects of little confequence, is a domeftic animal in very few parts of Ruffia, but one of tho'e i_> Tau-; # Pallas, yavels, torn. i. p. 211. torn. iii. p. 510. 1 2 rida. 116 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY^ rida. The great utility of the afs, whom modernT prejudice has undervalued in the eftimation of mankind, would well repay any attempts that might be made to extend the breed of this con tented animal, at leaft in thofe tracts where the Want of pafture is in oppofition to the multiplica tion of the horfe. — The zoology of the ruffian empire has two remarkable animals to produce, both apparently belonging as well to the equine as to the afinine races and yet effen.tially diftinet from the mongrel breed of mules. The firft, which by the Mongoles is called dshiggetei, or long-ears, roams troopwife in the mongolian fteppes, about the lake Ural and in Taurida; but within the ruffian borders, finee the conftrudtion of the fron- rier-pofts, is become much more rare. In beauty of form he far exceeds the afs and even the mule ; being of flight make, flender limbs, a beautiful colour, and a wild lively look. The ears too, which are in jufter proportion than thofe of the mule, and which he bears brifkly erect, become him much ; and, with fo many outward advan tages we are almoft inclined to overlook his. rather clumfy head and hfe little afinine hoofs ; only the ftraight angular back and the ugly cow-tail, which he has in Common with the. afs, disfigure this elegant animal. The fwiftnefs of the djhigr. getei, which by undeniable accounts, tranfcends: *U defcription, is proverbial among the Mongoles. No horfe, how fleet foeyer he may be, has ever yet been. THE BREEDING .OF CATTLE. 117 t been able to overtake the dfhiggetei in the courfe, and there is no other way of taking him than by fttatagerh, or by lying in ambufh for him. Were it poffible to tame this animal, there could riot be found in the world fo excellent A hag , but they are faid to be unconquerably -wild. Indeed it would . be ftirprifing if the Mongoles arid other afiatie nations in fo many centuries mould riever have fal len on the thought of fearing young colts, which often enough come into their power, arid getting out. of them abetter breed. In the meantime it would be worth, the pains to make a ufeful and not entirely hOpelefs trial with very young foals, which fhould be caught within a few days after their birth. If the government gave orders to this effect, it would be art eafy matter to have lfome Caught in the fteppes by the Tungufes oh the frontiers; and fhould by this means a hew arid by their fleetnefe fo ufeful a fpecies of dorheftic animal be obtained, the trifling rewards that might be bellowed for the advancement of this project, would not certainly be thrown away. — One other animal which feems to form a middle fpecies between the herfe and the afs, is the khulan, Which Pallas holds to be the onager of the anfients, arid Which is exe-eedingly fleet, arid likewife of an untamable ferocity.- The khularts go in ffionf- tfous- droves, efpecially iff fpring, when they take their migration northwards from the Ural, referring to open and cool mountains ; or in autumn, when * 3 the7 118 productive industry. they return to the warm regions of Perfia and India *. In fome provinces of the ruffian empire the camel is likewife of the number of domeftic ani mals: among the european governments this is particularly the cafe in Taurida. Here is found the two-humped camel, which the count de Buffon improperly terms the dromedary, and his breed might be cultivated to great advantage in the fa- line plains of this peninfula, efpecially if the white fpecies were to be introduced, whofe wool may be better and more eafily coloured. Befides, this animal may be of ufe to the army, for transporting the artillery in the heavieft roads, and if it were thought expedient to employ them in battle, there would be no difficulty in putting cavalry of the enemy to flight, it being a well known fact that the horfe, if not accuftomed to the fight of the camel, immediately turns tail and gallops off at full fpeed -j-. The nomadic tribes, by whom this ferviceable animal is kept in herds, are the Kirghifes, Bafch-r kirs, Burets, Kalmuks, and Mongoles. As this is the laft time that we fhall have occafion to fpeak of the Kirghifes, we will here ftate the proportion in which the feveral kinds of animals are found among the nomades. A common herdfman keeps not often fewer than thirty to fifty horfes, half as * Pallas, travels, torn. iii. p. 217. 511. f Pallas, tableau de la Tauride, p. 40, many the breeding of cattle. llg many neat-cattle, about a hundred fheep, feveral camels, and frofn twenty to fifty goats. Yet there are men, particularly in the middle horde, who poffefs as far as ten thoufand horfes, three -hun dred camels, between three and four thoufand head of horned cattle, twenty thoufand fheep, and above a thoufand goats*. The camels thrive in the warm and fait fteppes of. the Kirghifes uncom monly well, and they are either of the fingly gib bous or the doubly gibbous kind ; the former can endure thirft longer, and are therefore fitter for diftant journies, but the latter yield more and better wool. As thefe. animals multiply but , flowly ¦fj and moreover are very weakly, the breed ing of them requires a particular care and atten tion. In winter they are fewed up in felt-cover- * Ruffia : or a complete defcription of all the nations that compofe the ruffian empire, art. Kirghifes. 'Pallas fays that in general horfes and fheep are the moft numerous part of their ftock ; that they poffefs camels in a far lefs number, and are the worft provided with horned-cattle, as they cannot well fupport themfelves on the fteppes in winter without regu- 1 lar provender ; torn. i. p. 396. This feems in fome mea- fure to contradift the above ftatement. f It is ufual to couple the camels in February, about which time they are moft in heat. The female is habituated to fall on her fore-knees ^t the word, " Tlhuck L." whereas the male feats himfelf on his hinder knses. When a female camel is, pregnant, fhe no longer admits the male; and, as fhe goes with young twelve months, and fuckles her foals two years, it is very natural that the multiplication of this animal ftiould go on but flowfly. Pallas, travels, torn. i. p. 397. 1 4 ings ; 120 productive industry. ings ; or, if the cold be fevere, rufh mats are ex tended about them and between the tents for their protection. The foals are very early taught, at the fpeaking of a certain word, to fall down on the fore-knees, and at the fame early age the partition of the noftrils is pierced, through which a cord is paffed for the purpofe of guiding them. The camels are exceedingly ufeful to the Kirghifes in their houfekeeping. On removing the camp they are the beafts of burden ; on them, the yourts and furniture are packed, the load whereof however muft not exceed thirty, and when the journey is long, not fixteen pood. A two-bunched camel yields annually ten or twelve pounds of wool, which is partly wrought up by the Kirghifes themfelves into fluffs and ropes, and partly fold into Ruffia and Bukharia. From .the milk of thefe animals, which is very pleafant to the tafte, the Kirghifes make their butter, cheefe, and fpirituous extract, which they call kumifs. The flefh is eaten, and the fkins ferve for leather veffels to keep their milk in *.Among the Kalmuks and Mongoles likewife are both one and two-humped camels ; and, as the fteppes' in which thefe people at prefent nomadize^ on account of the variety of faline herbs, are very favourable to the breeding of cattle, in fo great, a number, that they not ©nly have enough for their * Ruffia: or a complete defcription, &c. art. Kirghifes. own THE breeding of cattle. V2l own confumption, but they frequently bring them to Orenburg, and barter them to the Bukha- rians. Among the Bafchkirs and Buraets thefe animals, in confequence of frequent difeafes, are greatly diminifhed, and likewife the fevere winter in the regions inhabited by thefe tribes is prejudi cial to them *. The rein-deer, which we have already fpoken of as an object of chace, is as a domeftic animal a very ufeful creature among the Laplanders, the Samoyedes, the Oftiaks, the Koriaks, the Tfchuk- tfches, the Tungufes, the Yakutes, and with feveral tartar ftems in Siberia, and in this twofold character perhaps the moft ufeful of all that we have hitherto mentioned. The breeding of thefe animals conftitutes not only the main employment but even the whole Wealth of the above-named tribes, and the Ufes to which they are put are fo extenfive and various that no other tamed animal can be brought into comparifon with them. Befides that they are the only cattle for draught and bur den made ufe of by the riorthern nomades for riding, carrying, and drawing, their flefh is alfo the ordinary food, their milk the moft nutritious beverage, and the cheefe prepared from it the beft relifh to the tafte of thefe people. The hides fur- nifh the chief material of clothes and of covers to the yourts, the fur is made into warm clothes and mattraffes, the horns and bones into houfhold * Pallas, travels, torn. i. p. 326. tonrii. p. 76. utenfils, 123 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. uterifils, and the finews into twine. But what in-» finitely enhances the utility and the local value of thefe animals, is their contentednefs, and the little attendance neceffary to their prefervation. With out being houfed they thrive in clima'tes where no other domeftic animal can fubfift ; without be ing foddered they maintain themfelves on a foil, which for ten months in the year is covered with fnow and ice ; a little mofs, which they fcratch up from below this frofty mantle of the earth, is their ordinary food, and the fnow that they lick up allays their thirft. Endowed with fuch proper-: ties as qualify the rein-deer to be the fole nurfe and companion of man in thofe rude regions where the whole creation feems to refufe him fuc- cour, they all would have been of no avail but for the benign inftind to the greater multiplication of his fpecies, without which this ufeful animal would perhaps long ago have been extinct. Accordingly, from the indifpenfable fuccours he affords, he is held in fuch high efteem with the "nomades^' that they borrow their nobleft fimilies from him; no thing, for example, can more honour a Samoyede than to call him a rein-deer gelding: The herds that are kept by thefe feveral tribes are confidera-. bly various according to the 'proportion of their induftry and their wealth. Among the Laplanders fix hundred to a thoufand rein-deer compofe the Ordinary fortune of a fingle herdfman : with the Samoyedes that man is already rich who pofjf fles 4 from the breeding of cattle. 123 from a hundred to a hundred and fifty of them. A fanning Tungufe keeps a thoufand perhaps ; a Koriak feveral thoufands ; but among the Tfchuk- tfches there are herdfmen who have herds of ten to fifty thoufand rein-deer *. In concluding this fection let us not omit a race of animals, which, though forming in all countries a part of the domeftic animals, yet in Ruffia alone js applied in an extremely curious manner to the fervice and accommodation of mankind , It is the dog, of whom numerous packs are found with almoft all the nomadic nations, and are ufed for draught particularly by the Kamtfhadales and the Oftiaks, by the eaftern Samoyedes, the Tungufes, and by fome ftems of the Mandfhures : an em-- ployment to which they are deftined even among the Ruffians in the government of Irkutfk, where in fome diftricts they fupply the place of poft- horfes. But no-where is the breed of this animal of fuch importance and neceffity as in Kamt fhatka -K where they conftitute the only fpecies of tame domeftic animals, and where it is as im poffible to difpenfe with them, as in other coun tries with horned cattle or the horfe. The kamt- fliadale dogs are in fize and fhape little different from the large ruflian boor-dog ; but their man- * Ruffia: or a defcription, &c. under the feveral heads. f Steller's befchreibung von Kamtfchatka, p. 132—140. P- 37°r-374- ners ldi PRODUCTIVE-. INDUSTRY. ners are almoft totally changed by their courfe of training, diet, arid treatment. They are held to be the beft and moft long-winded runners of all the fiberian dogs, and their fpirit is fo great that they frequently diflocate their joints in drawing, and their hair is often tinged with red from fhe extra- vafation of blood occafioned by violent exertions. They poffefs fo much flrength that four of them, which are commonly harneffed to a fledge, dfaW with eafe three full-grown perfons with a pood and a half of - baggage. The ordinary loading Of four dogs amounts to five or fix poods, and a fin gle man can in this manner, in bad roads, go thirty or forty, but in good roads eighty to a huh-' dred and forty verfts a day. The deep fnow which the dogs run over without breaking in ; the fteep mountains and narrow paffes in the vallies ; the thick impaffable forefts ; the ntfmer*- ous ftreams and brooks that afe either not At ail or but HJghtly frozen Over ; the florins which drift the fnow and efface every Veftige of a f rac/fc : -*- all thefe circumftances together would' prevent! the travelling with horfes, had they ever {a marry1 of them, in winter at leaft ; and it is therefore very probable that the dog, even under the hrgbeft pitch of civilization to which Kamtfhatka can ever attain, would be aiways the principal and moft ferviceable animal for draught. Accordingly the tafte for dogs is here as great as elfewhere it is for TEE BREEDING OF CATTLE. 12j for horfes, and confiderable fums are not unfre- quently expended in the purchafe of them and on the elegance of their trappings. The manner in which thefe animals are trained to their Angular employment has fo powerful an influence on the individual properties of the whole fpecies, that the defcription of it will not be un- interefting even to the philofophic reader. For proper draught-dogs the choice is principally made of fuch as have high legs, long ears, a fharp muzzle, a broad crupper, and thick heads, and difcover great vivacity. As foon as the puppies are able to fee, they are thrown into a dark pit, where they remain fhut up till they are thought fufficiently ftrong to undergo, a trial. They are then harneffed with other trained dogs to a fledge, with which they fcamper away with all their might, being frightened by the light and by fo many ftrange objects. After this fhort trial they are again confined to their gloomy dungeon, and/ this practice is repeated till they are inured to the bufinefs of drawing, and are obedient to their driver. From this moment begins their hard and miferable courfe, only alleviated by the fhort re creation the fummer affords them. As in this feafon they are of no fervice, nobody cares about them, but they enjoy a perfect liberty, which they- principally employ in affuaging their hun ger. Their fole nourifhmen': confifts of fifh, which they watch for all this time by the brinks 3 of 125 tftODUCTIVE INDUSTRY*. ' of riverg, and which they catch with great dex-% terity and cunning. When they have plenty of this food, like the bears, they devour only the heads, and leave the reft behind. This refpite, however, lafts only till October, when, every proprietor aflembles his dogs, and ties them up in a place adjoining to his dwelling, where they muft be kept on fpare regimen to bring down their fuperfluous fat, that they may be rendered more fit for running. With the firft fall of fnow commences their time of torment ; and then day and night is heard their dreadful howling, in which they feem to bewail their mi- ferable fate. With the hard lot thefe animals have to bear the winter through, their food con fifts only of foured or dried fifh in a ftate of cor ruption, and even this they are only allowed as the better diet, to refrefh and invigorate them, as it is obferved that they become nice and more eafily tired on receiving this delicacy fhortly before they fet out on a journey. Their ordinary fuftenance is mouldy dried fifh, a treat at which they can feldom fatisfy their appetite without bleeding jaws, as the greater part of it confifts of bones and teeth. This hard ufage, however, they ge nerally revenge by their amazing voracity, which fpares no object on which they can lay hold. With thievifh artifice they mount the ladder to the aerial cupboard of ¦ their tyrannical mafter; with unnatural greedinefs they prey, upbn his thongs, THE BREEDING OF CATTLE. 127 thongs, ftraps, and leathers, wherever they find them; and the depravity of their tafte is fuch, that rarely can a Kamtfhadale incline in obe dience to the ignobler calls of nature, without firft arming himfelf with a whip ; as at all times a ravenous pack is , ready to contend even to blood for his loathfome leavings. Not only in their voracity, however, but in the whole individuality of their brutal behaviour this depravity ' is ever confpicuous. Inftead of the vigilance, fidelity, and attachment which the dog everywhere fhews for his feeder, and therefore has in all nations been made the fymbol of thefe vir tues, the kamtfhadale dog has affumed the cha racter of a crafty flave. Sly and unfriendly he fhuns the look of his mafter; unconcerned about the fafety of his property, he will not flir to de fend it againft a ftranger. Timid and fullen, he foeaks prowling alone, ftill leering on every fide from fufpicion. It is only by artifice and deceit that they can be harneffed to the fledge ; while this is doing, they all ftretch their heads upwards, and fet up a melancholy yell, but as foon as the fledge is in motion, they are fuddenly mute, and then by a hundred artful tricks feem to vie with each other to weary the patience of the driver, or refolved to bring his life into jeopardy. On com*' ing to a dangerous place they redouble their fpeed ; where, to avoid being precipitated down a. fteep mountain, or plunged into a deep river, he 138 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. he is commonly forced to abandon the fledge, which feldom fails of being broken to pieces, and he only finds it again at the next village, if the dogs have not been fo lucky as to fet themfelves free outright. Yet the dog of Kamtfhatka, though fo dege nerate from the reft of his kind, is not deficient in qualities by which he may be ferviceable to man when he pleafes. Befides the advantage of being able with thefe light creatures to traverfe the tracklefs mountains, and proceed along the furface of deep ridges of fnow, they are alfo ex cellent guides on the dreary way ; as in the moft pitchy darknefs, and in the moft tremendous florms of fnow they find out the place for which their mafter is bound. If the ftorm be fo violent that, unable to proceed, they muft remain on the fpot, as not unfreque'ntly happens, the dogs lie by the fide of their mafter, and preferve his life by their natural warmth. They likewife give infallible no tice of approaching florms, by fcratching holes in the fnow and endeavouring to fhelter themfelves in them. By thefe, and many other good quali ties, the kamtfhadale dogs by far overbalance the mifchiefs they do by their perverfity; and to what other caufe than the tyrannical treatment they receive from hard-hearted man is the blame of this perverfity to be afcribed ? Great as their rogueries may be, they fcorn comparifon with the cold and felfifh ingratitude which thefe degraded animals, AGRICULTURE. \og animals, chained to perpetual bondage and ftripes, endure from mankind. Scarcely has the kamt fhadale dog, worn out by the weight of his bo dily fufferings, arrived at a premature old age, in which he is unfit any longer to draw, than his inexorable mafter exacts of him the laft furrender he is able to make — his fkin ; and the fame cruelly treated flave, who, during his fhort and painful life, has fo often imparted his animal warmth to his mercilefs tyrant, affords him the fame fervice and in the fame manner even after his death. SECTION IV. Agriculture. JTIaving in the former fections delineated the mode of life, and branches of bufinefs which are common to all the tribes of the ruffian empire, and in which chiefly the rude and half-favage of them participate ; we now proceed to thofe em ployments which belong exclufively to more po- lifhed nations. — No period in the civilization of a people is more important and decifive than that of their tranfition from the paftoral life to agri culture, or from the wandering nomadic to the fedate civil conftitution, which determines the boundary between civilized and barbarous na tions. Nay, it is agriculture that fixes man to vol. in. k the 130 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. the portion of earth which- he has moiftened with the fweat of his brow- and has been rendered fer- viceable by the labour of his hands ; by it man kind are brought together, and held in a nume rous and lafting connedion ; it is the fruitful bud whence are unfolded the praifed and difputed advantages of the focial ftate and fuperioa culti vation. Property now, by the increafed difficulty of acquifition, obtains a higher value ; and the fecuring of it againft the attacks of artifice or violence gave birth to laws. Inftead of. the infu- lated and independent exiftence of the herdfman, who receives from his flocks all the neceffaries of life, the hufbandman enters into the ftate of mu tual dependence with others, whofe fuperfluity muft fupply his deficiency. Hence arifes barter, the confequences whereof have incalculable in fluence on the civilization of mankind ; and thus agriculture is the fource of the civil conftitution, without which the nations would be called favage,.' —and commerce, without which they might be deemed barbarous. Of the multitude of nations which the ruffian empire numbers as its inhabitants, are feveral flill far diftant from this degree of civilization, and fome whofe inhofpitable foil and brazen fky rejed the hopes of their attaining it for ever. In this latter cafe are particularly the Laplanders, the Samoyedes, the Oftiaks, the Tungufes, the Kamt fhadales, the Koriaks, the Tfchuktfches, and the. eaftern AGRICULTURE. 131 eaftefn iflanders. Not much better provided for by nature are a great part of the fiberian Tartars ; and even the warm, but arid and faline fteppes of fouthern Ruffia oppofe infurmountable obflacles to the intrOdudion of agriculture among the no-1 madizing nations there. This alteration of man* ners has been more fuccefsfully brought'on among the european and fouthern fiberian Tartars, the Tfcheremiffes, Tfchuvafches, the Votiaks, the Mordvines, the Bafchkirs, the Mefchtfcheriseks, and other nations of the middle regions, who for the moft part only forfook the nomadic way of life on their fubmiffion to the fovereignty of the ruffian empire. This has been the cafe from time to time with feveral detached ftems, efpecially lince the government endeavoured by fuitable meafures to encourage the diflemination of the pradice of agriculture, and fince the partitioning of the former large governments has limited the governors to a fphere of operation more contraded, and of courfe more eafily to be infpeded. Ac cordingly fometimes we fhall fee tribes, of which feveral ftems are entirely devoted to agriculture, while Others are ftill attached to the chace, or to the nomadic mode of breeding cattle : others again halt in a middle ftate bdrdering on both thefe ways of living ; in winter, for inftance, in habiting permanent villages, but dwelling in fum mer in moveable yourts, with which they roam about the moft excellent pafturages. Where the K 2 foil IS(2 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. foil and the climate are favourable to agriculture, even nomadic people accuftom themfelves fome times, as excited by example and encouragement, to. this laborious but fecure branch of fuftenanee, and feveral of them, who lefs than a century ago were indolent herdfmen, have formed themfelves now into induftrious and diligent farmers. There are few diftricts in Ruffia where agriculture is more feduloufly profecuted than in the tracts about the Kama arid the Volga, inhabited by Tartars, Votiaks, and Tfcheremifles,. who feem to contend in a laudable emulation to outvie one another in the culture of their grounds; and deem it an ho nour to poffefs a ftore of corn untouched*. Of the nations who have followed agriculture from time immemorial, though in various ways and with different fuccefs, the principal are the Ruffians, the Poles, the Lithuanians, the Lettes,, ' the Finns, arid Efthonians. As the firft of thefe compofe the chief and the moft numerous part of the inhabitants,, we fhall in the prefent fedion make ruffian agriculture the bafis of our defcrip tion, and only notice by the way the moft ftriking; differences that appear in the other tribes*: and, as fo confiderable and cornprehenfive a. fubjed: cannot be treated without a certain attention to: method, our inquiry fhall firft be direded to the adaptation of the foil to the purpofes of agriculture; * Pallas, travels, torn. iii. p. 491. then AGRICULTURE. ' 133 then to the manner in which it is generally carried on ; and, laftly to the principal produds accruing from it either for home confumption or for the ufes of commerce. The refult of thefe feveral fads will fupply us with matter for general re- fledions on political oeconomy, the combination whereof will form the conclufion of the prefent narrative. The ftate of agriculture in all countries, alike depending on the nature of the foil and climate as on the diligence and induftry of the inhabitants, the natural disposition of the country for this fpecies of culture is properly the firft object of our inveftigation. The great expanfe of the ruffian empire, and the diverfity of climate and territory thence arifing, caufe fuch a variety in the employments of rural oeconomy, that in this re- fped we can only adopt a very general diflribu- tion for our rule, if we would not lofe ourfelves in boundlefs details, fince almoft every govern ment in its natural quality is fubjed to very great, and fometimes extremely ftriking, variations. Totally unfit for every kind of oeconomical culture are the moft northern and eaftern diftrids of the empire, of the former particularly in Sibe ria. Here we may regard the fixtieth degree of latitude as the boundary beyond which no agri culture is pradicable. According to Pallas's ac count, to the north of Demianfk, (a borough in the government of Tobolfk, lying in about 59J k 3 deg. 134 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. deg. north lat.), hardly anything is raifed but barley and oats ; at moft a little fummer grain. Hemp or flax are feldom fown, and in three years they fcarcely have once a tolerable crop : the cab bage here produces no head, but fpends itfelf in Joofe green leaves*. Farther to the ' eaft the parts lying under the fame latitude are flill more unfit for agriculture. The repeated attempts that have been made about Okhotfk (between 59 and 60 deg. north lat. and' 160 deg. eaft long.) and Udf- koy-oftrog 550 20' lat. 1500 40' longit.) iri the government of Irkutfk, fhew, that the fummer is here too fhort, that the earth remains too long frozen in fpring, and that the night-frofts in au tumn come on too early for allowing us to hope - that the culture of corn will ever be introduced to effed : even in Kamtfhatka, where the fouth- ernmoft cape, however, runs out to 510 north, lat. fimilar trials have been made, but with very poor and precarious effeds -f. In the european or weftern parts of the empire, indeed, the fruits of the field and the orchard have been -produced in the fixr tieth degree of latitude by a laborious and difficult procefs ; but the, circles in the, governments of Olonetz and Archangel, which lie from .two to three and a half degrees higher to the north, have likewife no agriculture ; and, " even in fome dik * Pallas, travels, torn. iii. p. 15. ' •J- Aufwahl, cekonom. abhandl. torn, iii, p. 15. tri&s AGRICULTURE. 135 trids of Vyborg, St. Peterfburg, Novgorod, Vo logda, Perme, and Viatka, it is attended with great and deterring difficulties. Now, by fetting off thefe differences of the weftern and eaftern parts of Ruffia againft one another, and confe- quently admitting the fixtieth degree of latitude as the general boundary of the foil fufceptible of cul ture to the north, it follows, that the ruffian em pire contains about 162,000 fquare geographical miles of land totally unferviceable to the purpofes of agriculture. Befides the foregoing northern governments, fome of the fouthern diftrids of Caucafus, Saratof, Ufa, Kolhyvan, Ekatarinoflaf, and Taurida, are of a serviceable eut poor foil, where the natural impediments are very difficult to be con quered, and perhaps never can be entirely fur- mounted. The former, befide great bogs, mo- raffes, and forefts, have generally a moift and fandy foil, the flender fertility whereof is flill more impeded by the long hard winter, and by the frequent and fudden changes of weather. In the latter are generally feen large plains or fteppes, which being alfo of a fandy or faline foil, are not feldom entirely deftitute of water and wood, and therefore juft as little fuited to the culture of corn. — To the fertile regions belong moft of the governments of the middle, and feveral of the northern trads ; but the best and most pro- PUQtive foils fire chiefly found in Little-Ruf- K 4 fia, 136 productive industry. fia, Kazan, Sirhbirfk, Kharkof, Kurfk,'Orel, Nifh- ney-Novgorod, in the fouthern part of Taurida and Caucafus, in the newly- acquired portion of the polifh Ukraine, and particularly alfo in fome of the fiberian provinces. That even here the fertility is not everywhere alike, is as little in need of a remark as the circumftance, that there are particular diftrids, befides the faid governments, which for quality of foil by no means fall fhort of them; but the circumftantial defcription of which would lead us far beyond the prefcribed limits of our plan. The natural riches and great fertility of the dif trids bordering on the Volga, the Kama, the Dniepr, the Terek, and the parts about the Eux ine, &c. have long been experienced over all Europe ; yet the prejudice entertained in other countries againft the natural quality of Siberia is fo general, that it will excite no fmall furprife in many of our readers at feeing the following de fcription of the fhores of the Yenifley, fupported upon very fubftantial authority. In the territory of Krafnoyarfk, a circle-town of the government of Kolhyvan, between the 55th ,and 56th degrees of north latitude, the fertility of the foil, notwithftanding the rather fevere and continued winter, is fo great that no inftaoce has ever been known of a general failure, and that it is a very ordinary harveft when the fummer-rye yields tenfold, the winter-corn eightfold, and the barley agriculture. 137 barley twelvefold. It is ufual for the wheat only in bad years to yield the fixth grain, and the oats give an increafe rarely fliort of twentyfold. The buck-wheat muft only, on account of the richnefs of the foil, be committed to hungry lands, as otherwife it runs into flalk, and yet yields a reap ing of twelve to fifteen fold. This quality of the ground, which is generally a black and light mould, both on the elevations and in the flat vallies, abfolutely rejeds the ufe of manure, which would only corrupt the feed, as has been found by experience. And yet the generality of the fields, if they are only left fallow about the third year, continue fit to bear ten or fifteen years and more; if then the fertility declines, the Jboor in that cafe finds excellent mountain-flats and fteppes enough, where he can lay out new fields, — In confequence of this exuberance provifions are here in great plenty, and probably in no pro vince of the empire are they at fo low a price. When Pallas was at Krafnoyarfk, a pood of rye- meal fold for two or three, and a pood of wheaten flour for four and a half or five kopeeks ; a whole ox was bought for a ruble and a half, a cow for a ruble, and a good ferviceable horfe for two or three rubles at moft; fheep and hogs fetched from thirty to fifty kopeeks a-piece*. In the fpace of five-and-twenty years that have elapfed * Pallas, travels, torn. iii. p. 5 — 7- fince 138 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. fince that period, the prices have indeed confi- derably altered, yet this country is ftill one of the' cheapeft as well as one of the moft rich and plentiful of all. — Though thefe inftances of fruitfulnefs are amortg the moft ftriking, yet proofs are not wanting in other trads of Siberia, that this country, fo amply and fo varioufly endowed by nature, only requires a larger population for enabling it to produce from itfelf moft of the neceffaries of life in the greateft abundance. As Nature,' with fuch maternal care, comes in aid of the ruffian countryman, in by far the ge nerality of the trads of country that are fufcep- tible of culture, it is no wonder that here as much is done with little pains and imperfed imple ments, as in other countries can be obtained by a laborious tillage and with artificial means. In fad, the MANNER IN WHICH AGRICULTURE IS CAR RIED on in Russia, taken in, the whole, is fo artlefs and fimple as to need no prolix defcription for communicating to foreigners a competent idea of it. But, ere we can explain the procefs of the countryman himfelf, we muft briefly take notice of the IMPLEMENTS OF HUSBANDRY of which he principally makes ufe*. * Hupel's ftaatfverf. torn. ii. p. 560. kepekhin's travels, torn. i. p. 40. Georgi, befchreib. des St. Petersb. gouvern, j>. 576. Guldenftasdt's travels, torn. ii. p. 480 — 493. The AGRICULTURE. 139 The commoneft kind of plough is the light fork -plough or hook-plough, called in rufs focha, which is employed not only in moft of the great- suffian and fiberian provinces, but alfo in the go vernments fkirting the Baltic*. It is without wheels, has two fliort plough-fliares, which are faftened to a forked board, and is ufually drawn by one horfe or by two oxen ; it is fo light that it can be conveniently held by a lad of fifteen ; and the horfe, whofe exertion in general is but fmall, goes commonly without reins, and thus leaves the lad with both hands free. This plough bites not deeper than fomewhat about a verfliok, or if. englifti inches, in the ground, and is therefore only employed in ploughing the old arable lands ; turf and new grounds are turned up by what is called the knife-plough, koffulia, chiefly differing from the hook-plough by bearing half a verfliok ' deeper into the earth, and is fitter for cutting the little roots. In fome parts for the fame purpofe they fix, inftead of the two irons, a knife-blade in the plough-frame, cutting with it firft the turf through, and then, by means of the proper forked- plough, turning it up, at which time the plough- * A defcription and drawing of this fork-plough, which Pallas calls, the hook-plough, may be feen in Guldenftaedt's travels, torn. ii. p. 490 ; and, as it is ufed in Livonia, in Hupel's topogr. nachrichten, tom. ii. p. 275. In fome of the ruffian provinces, though it is fomewhat differently con- flrufted, ye^ the differences are not material, 4 man 140 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. man muft turn it over with his foot, as the plough does no more than raife it. For all other kinds of ground, even ftony or full of tree-roots, the fork-plough is very ufeful. — This implement of hufbandry has found as many advocates as difap- - provers, fince farming has been treated theoreti cally in Ruffia, and the fuffrages on its utility feem ftill to be* divided. On one hand it is cer tainly clear that the hook-plough, by not going deep enough, does not fufficiently turn over the large clods, nor thoroughly deftroy the -roots of the weeds ; but this advantage is only in clayey and loamy foils, whereas in fandy ground the hook- plough is for that very reafon particularly ufeful. As no mechanical ingenuity is neceffary for the making of it, and in ufing it only one, and that not a very ftrong horfe, is wanted, it is befides a o-reat relief to the poor peafants, and it is hardly poffible for another plough to have been invented fo adapted to the feveral kinds of foil, and at the fame time fo light, commodious, and cheap, as the fork-plough. A fecond fort, the heavy plough, is com monly ufed not only in all Little-Ruffia, and the governments adjoining to it, but alfo among the Tartars, Moldavians, Tfcherkaffians, Georgians, and Perfians, in rufs called faban, refembling in foriie meafure the ordinary german plough, and in the ufe whereof from two to four horfes, or fouf to fix oxen and fometimes eight are required. 5 In AGRICULTURE. 141 fn the number of variations which appear in the competition of this plough*, one deferves parti cularly to be remarked, where, before the tranf- verfe plough-iron, the knife-blade is fixed, for cutting the turf, which afterwards is raifed and turned over by the plough -fhare. — Likewife the german, particularly the mecklenburg plough is ufed in feveral ¦ diftrids, efpecially among the fo reign colonifts ; it is not however frequently feen, as the foreign ruflks eafily quit their country cuftoms, and adopt the ruffian hook-plough, which they find more convenient. The harrow confifts almoft always of nothing more than fliort wooden pegs, driven into thin • laths woven together with willow-twigs. In Li vonia they at leaft give themfelves the trouble to faften thefe pegs in narrow logs furnifbed with holes and conneded by joints, fo that fuch a har row can be drawn- over field-Hones without de triment. ; Still- more fimple is the branch-harrow in ufe among the Lettes, Efthonians-, and Finns, and is made of branches of bruftl-wood twilled to gether,, of which fome ftrong ends are left pro minent. This kind has the advantage of being extremely light ; it is employed not only in clean grounds, but' particularly for bufh-lands, on * Mod of the ploughs ufed in Little-Ruflia are circum- ftantia-Hyr d'efcribed' and delineated in Guldenftaedt's travels, tom. ii. p. 480—493.; where there is alfo a figure of the georgian plough. > aI account- £42 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. account of its elaftic teeth, as on fuch fields trig harrow with pegs would foon become unferviceable. The german harrow with iron teeth is only feen in particular places with the colonifts, or on eftates where the proprietors pay extraordinary attention to tillage. — The ufe of the roller is known in very few parts ; rior is it perceived even that a field yields a lefs crop for negleding the roller J however here and there the boors employ this inftrument, and there are even feveral kinds of it. The utenfils for reaping the corn are different in different parts. In the great-ruffian provinces the fickle is in ufe, which is alfo introduced into Livonia, and inftead of which the efthoniari boor employs the ordinary fcythe. In the Ukraine the large german fcythe is generally employed. The Lette cuts all kinds of corn with a little fcythe faftened to a fhort handle, which he works in his right-hand; holding in the left a fmall hook*. with which he gathers as many, flraws as he intends to cut at once. The Tartars ufe fhort but very arched fcythes to a fhort handle, with which, without flooping, they cut to the right and left. — Among all thefe the lettifh fcythe feems to deferve the preference. It is proved by experiments, that one man with this inftrument can reap as much as three people with efthonian fickles ; befides, this fcythe has the advantage that in the ufe of it the labourer needs not ftoop, that no long ftubble is left Handing, and confeqUeritly not fomuch ftraw is loft, AGRICULTURE. 143 i loft, and that the ripe ears are not fo much fhaken as to flied their grains, all which is frequently the cafe in cutting with the fcythe. Inftead therefore of introducing the complete german reaping-fcythe with its wooden guard, as fome livonian landlords have attempted to do, it would be more beneficial to bring the lettifh into more general ufe throughout Ruffia. — For thresh ing the ordinary flail, made very light, is em ployed, or even only long crooked flicks. More fimple and artlefs implements of hufbandry cannot well- be conceived. When the german peafant firft fees the one horfe plough, the little fcythe, the light threftiing-flail, he muft think them to be mere play-things ; and yet the colonifts from that country very foon accuftom themfelves to the ufe of them, as not only favourable to lazi- riefs, but alfo in fome degree adequate to the ex igencies of the country. The fields*, from their effential quality may be reduced to the three following heads ; as either tilth, or, fteppe, or wood-land, in fome diftrids called bufh-lands. By tilth is meant fuch fields as are in continued cultivation, or are tilled every year. In Ruffia it is the general pradice to divide the land into fummer, winter, and fallow fields, in rufs yarovaia, ofimovaia, and yar, to which * Lepekhin's travels, tom. i. p. 42. Hupel's ftaatfverf. tom. ii. p. 526. Georgi, befchreibung des St. Peterfb. gouv. p. 568. fome 144 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. fome add the new- broken, novina, to which we have affigned a particular article. As probably very few readers need an explanation of thefe dif- tin-dions, we will only juft obferve, that the fum-. mer- field is fown and reaped in one year; whereas the winter-field receives the feed in autumn, and keeps it till the following fummer. The former in moft diftrids of Ruffia is fown with fummer- ' wheat, fummer-rye, barley, millet, buck-wheat, flax, hemp, peafeypoppy, heathcorn, and oats : but the latter only with rye and wheat. When the fend has been winter-field, it is left fallow, and lies the reft of the fummer, as well as the autumn and the whole winter, unoccupied; at times, not- withftand-ing, the ruffian boors fow even what has been winter-field in the following year with feeds that do not draw the foil fo much, and leave the ground fome repofe under this change. Entirely to omit the pradice of letting the ground lie fallow, as propofed by agriculturifts of late, is thought even by judicious landlords to be very difficult or' utterly impoffible on account of the fhortnefs of the fummer in moft of the provinces of the ruffian empire. As the fummer corn is not reaped in many parts till Auguft or even Sep tember, neither the time nor weather will allow of the ground being properly tilled for the winter . fowing, and the late-fown rye, by reafon of the night-frofts, will not acquire, the force neceffary ' for AGRICULTURE. 145 for being able to refill the rude blafts of the au tumn and fpring. The steppe-grounds may properly be put in. the fame clafs with the grafs-lands every where Jcnown ; for though there be fome difference be tween them, yet in this they are alike, that they are employed without any fort of manure for a fhort time and then left again to nature. In the .large fteppes that are found within the compafs of the ruffian empire, and where every one that is defirous of purfuing agriculture may appropriate to himfelf any portion- of ground at pleafure, no other culture is known than to plough the grouad once, to harrow, and then to fow it. Even in diftrids where the foil is meagre, this eafy tillage is in ufe, particularly in fowing linfeed ; but ^f the hufbandman wifhes to throw grain into his grafs-grounds, it is ufual to plough them feveral times the whole year through, and to harrow be fore the fowing, that it may be more mellow and better able , to imbibe the frudifying particles of the atmofphere ; and this is called, by a technical term: to leaven the. land. This." careful riianner of proceeding is by no means general on the fteppes. forest grounds, or bufti , lands, laftly, is the name given to fields that require to be fer tilized by fire, which is generally pradifed in two ways. They either cut round a foreft or bring ibrufhwood to the place, and after being prepared and dried burn it upon the ground ; or they clear away the wood from the fpot, plough up the \vol. in. l ground, :l4fj PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. ground, and cover the faggots or fplit logs with ft before they fet fire to them. The former procefs is called rhoedung, and the latter kuttis, but both in the one and the other there are feveral variations according to the different diftrids. In the inner provinces of Ruffia the boors, about Peter and Paul day, or, the 29th of June, content them felves with cutting down a trad of foreft, leaving the wood to lie Upon the fpot, not burning it till 'the fpring of the following year. The firft fowing on fuch a burnt-rhcedung is commonly flax, then in the next year barley or oats, and laftly winter corn. If the foil be good in itfelf, it is employed for conftant tillage ; in the contrary cafe the cul- _ tiVated fhcedungs-groUnd is left for fome years for its gradually growing into foreft again, and after fifteen or twenty years it is once more fit for kuttis or rhoedung. Laborious and difficult as thefe works are, yet they yield a very large and certain profit, and may therefore be recommended under particular limita tions in diftrids where there is an adual fuper1- fluity of wood. In the government of St. Pe terfburg is obtained, even on a tolerable foil, from a rhoedung in the firft four years a harveft from ten to fifteen fold, and from a kuttis-land ten to fiv,e-and-twenty fold. Indeed it has of late been affirmed by fome gentlemens' flewards, that the kuttis renders the ground perfedly unfruitful for a long feries of years : but this aflertipn in many - provinces of Ruffia is refuted by upwards of .a : hundred Agriculture, 147 hundred year's experience. — Of greater import ance than this objedion is the damage, which pari ticularly the rhcedungs or novines do to the forefts; Befides the fpace which the boor, has feleded for arable land, large trads of timber of the beft growth are thus burnt down;. and befides this^ the boor fells all the trees without diftindion,5 and among them even fuch as in time would be ufe ful for fhip -building*; It. would be infinitely * Againft this devaftation of the forefts feveral enlightened landlords have already expfefied themfelves very feelingly; and it certainly were much to be wilhed, that their remon strances might meet with general attention. Not only in lluffia but in Sweden too forelts are laid wafte, for tfie fake 1 of a few good harvefts, which coft ages to produce. — Witli all the advantages that can accr-iie from the rhcedungings, reckoned at the utmoft, it is yet fomewhat furpriling, thai, for example, feveral verfts round St. Peterfburg, where a fathom of birch-wood for fuel in 1795 coft two and a half to three rubles, and in 1798 even fix rubles, a fquare geo graphical mile of foreft was — not felled; that might have been for the benefit of the" eftates, but — burnt. Aufwahi. cekon. abhandl. tom. 1. p. 115. — What havoc the country peoplfe commit in this refpedt, the following inftance from. the government of Olonetz may ferve to evince. Herrf the culture bf the winter^rye in rhcedungs-fields Is accounted the moft profitable, if it be proper to apply the word profit to a fpecies of culture that is attended with the' greateft detri ment to futdrity. However, this procedure might be fuf- fered to pafs if the boors confined themfelves1 to thofe trafls devoted to this ufe, and would only confign to the flames the young wood ahd the bullies ; but they hew down and burn not only the middling fized trees of about fifty years l 2 ' growth, 148 PRODUCTIVE industry. more beneficial, therefore, to'the culture of the country, if inftead of thefe rhaedungings, which help to increafe the ruinous fcarcity of fuel, the morafles were to be drained, the noxious influence of which on the population and the breeding of cattle, and indeed on the culture of grain itfelf, is already but too perceptible, and the extermina tion whereof would, by the acquifition bf fat lands, repay with ufury the labour bellowed upon it*. In growth, but even they fpoil the fined carpentry-timber and excellent mails which have required two hundred years to have attained to their dimenfions. The boor not being able to fell fo many thick trees, he ftrips them only of their bark, leaves them to wither, and then kindles the fmall brufli- wood which he had cut down before. This old ground in good years ufually yields an increafe of forty to fifty fold and upwards, bears two crops of rye, and afterwards two crops of oats. Id. ibid. tom. i. p. 184. * In an extremely remarkable paper, communicated by a very fenfible perfon to the free ceconomical fociety, it is fliewn that in the government of St. Peterlburg alone, by the draining of moraifes, about 500,000 defsettines of excellent arable and meadow land might be obtained. The propofals made by the author to this end are not capable of an ab- ftraft; l>ut probably it will not be uninterefting to the reader to fee here tie collected advantages which muft be the na tural confequence of that beneficial operation of political ceconomy. 1. The relidence, by having a number of rich lands in its vicinity would enfure to itfelf a plentiful fupply of bread-corn, and the price of provisions would of courfe ba AGRICULTURE. 149 In the government of St. Peterfburg, where for fome time paft endeavours have been made to gain be lower. 2. The great multitude of people at prefent oc" cupied in the tranfport of corn tp Peterfburg, might be em ployed id labouring the newly-acquired acres, which would be juft the fame thing as if an equal number of hufbandmen came ^nd fettled in Ruffia from a foreign country, and that without any expence to the governmsnt. 3. In good years a quantity of corn, more or lefs, would be exported. 4. The better praftice of agriculture, in the vicinity of the refidence, where knowledge and improvement are eminently found, would form thefe diftri&s into a fchool of farming for the reft of the empire. 5. By clearing the country that lies pn the fouth fide, where, from fome thoufands of fquare verfts, foul exhalations are conftantly rifing, the quality of air would be ameliprated, whereby the health of the people might be improve^, the difeafes of the cattle diminifhed, and the noxious infefts deftroyed? 6. The carriage 0/ the corn to be expe&ed from the drained fiats, as well as the mills for grinding it, &c. would furnifh employment to the other country-towns of the government ; and even the art of con- ftrudting mills, fo much neglected in Ruffia. would thus be come more general, &c. Aufwahl cekonom, abhandl. tom. i. p. 139. — Gre^t and generally ufeful as fuch an undertaking would be, the execution of it is only to be expected either from the authority of a wife adminiftration or from the jinited energies of all the land-qwoers of the government. In the mean time the attempt is laudable which fome indi viduals have fet on foot to this end, and it is no fmall fatis- fa&ion tq us to be able to adduce one example of this nature Yhich has already found imitators, and in time will probably find ftill more, The deferving perfon who fet this example l j was 150 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY-. gain arable land in this laudable manner, thefe fields of drained morafles repay in the firft crops twenty, thirty, and even five-and-thirty fold; and therefore the produce is not only greater than ic was the late court-banker baron Fredericks, who, at his eftate of Raebova, fifteen verfts from the refidence, converted a large ufelefs and in many refpefts noxious morafs into good corn-land, fihe meadows, and excellent paftures, and occa sionally made good roads through inacceffible bogs. In this view he cut a large canal, in length eight verfts and 300 ¦fathoms, into which feveral little collateral channels were conduced ; altogether forming, according to an aftual ad- ineafurement, an extent of 120 verfts, of about ioq englifh miles. This great work was begun in 1775, and was com pleted in three fummers ; the expence amounted only to fix thoufand rubles; for which, in regard to utility, incon- fiderable fum a fpacious fwampy foreft, into which the fan- beams could fiercely penetrate,* -covered' with perpetual •clouds, oppreffed by intenfe frofts, and inhabited by beafts of prey and noxious infefts, was converted into airy healthy fields and delightful profpefts. Befidesf hcj canals, fourteen viftas, each 1 5 fathom' wide, and from'four to eight verfts long, were cut through the foreft and cleared away : whereby, with' out reckoning the beautiful views, the foreft wairrendered airy and dryand acceffible to the very heart of it, and fo much good building-timber was got out of it, that from the viftas alone 3000 balks were obtained. Aufwahl. cekon. abhandl.'tom: ii. p. 197 How many healthy,' fertile, and ufeful provinces might the ruffian empire conquer from Na ture, in a fimila'r way, by diligence and induftry, by which means the population and the national reyenue, inftead 6f Jofinj*, muft be infinitely the gainers ! t'"/ -''"¦• . . commonly AGRICULTURE. 151 cbmmonly is on an average from the kuttis-fields, but good arable land is obtained in perpetuity, efpecially in the higher diftrids which are of a firm foil. After what has been hitherto faid concerning the quality of the implements of agriculture and of the ground, it will be eafy to form an idea of the countryman's manner of conducting his business.: There is certainly no country in Europe where agriculture on the whole is con- duded with fo much negligence, and. yet at the- fame time yields fo great and important a pro duce; but with few countries has Nature dealt fo. liberally as this in moft of the provinces of middle: and fouthern Ruffia;*. — The feed- time and * How little culture the foil requires in fuch djftri&s may be learnt from a few inftances. Pallas obferved on his travels, that in feveral places the corn fhed from the ears which hac} fown itfelf, flood finer than that on the laboured fields; and he affures us that he did not perceive this merely in particu lar places, but in entire pfovinces. Travels, tom. ii. p. ioo— r- z8o. — If the plough be unneceffary in fome parts, manuring is even prejudicial in others, for example, about the Don, on the Samara, in feveral circles of Ufa, in the barabintzian fteppe, pn the Samara, here and there on the Yenifley, on the Selenga, on the Volga and Rama, &c. where the "corn, by manuring, either fhoots out too rank or is burnt up. Pair las, travels, tom. ii. p, 641 — 650. torn. iii. p. 6 — »68. Here then that refined mode of culture would be fuperfluous, and the boor is therefore in fadl pardonable in fowing his corn, *' as if he were feeding the birds of the air," as Pallas fays. l 4 harveft 1£2 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. hafveft iri fo large an empire cannot be univerfally ascertained. The provinces of the middle terri tory are accuftomed to fow the winter corn from the beginning of Auguft till towards the middle of September, and in July or Auguft of the fol lowing years to reap; confequently thefe kinds of grain are Handing, upon an average, above eleven,, months on the field. The fummer produce is ufually fown in May and cut in Auguft; they are of. courfe only three or three and a half months en the field. In the fouthern diftrids, when the boors reft after having finifhed their fummer-fow- ing, thofe in the northern dung their future winter- field, .and then follow the hay-making and thes harveft. In autumn they are both bulled with the winter fowing ; but the upper hufbandman is entirely flee the whole winter till the fummer, tillage, arid has nothing to mind but his houfe-» hold concerns; whereas the lower is dunging his fields in the great faft before eaff er. The former. is fatisfied with Only ploughing and harrowing it Once; the latter muft perform the fame. labours twice. — In moft parts the boOr fows, chiefly' in fpring, his corn on "the wafte that was fallow the , laft year or feyeral years before, without dunging it exadly every time; then he takes his light plough in hand, breaks up the ground with it, and a fecond horfe, following him with the har-' row without a driver, concludes the whole bufi nefs, , Only for the new-breakings up he employs 3 ¦ th? ' AGRICULTURE. J53 the before-mentioned knife-plough which has a deeper hold on the ground. The fields are only dunged in places where the ftock of cattle allow of it; the boon has nowhere any conception of an af tificial manure with marl, chalk, pond-mud, or even merely with the fweepings of the forefts, Only on the farms of particular noblemen are any, endea vours ufed to improve the ground by fuch means; the boor neither employs nor knows no other compoft than the rhoedungs and muck, and even thefe the ruffian, particularly tin fiberian boor, does not always ufe. The harrows alfo being fo light, there is feldom any clean harrowed land, • efpecially where the foil is loamy and heavy. The corn is partly cut with a fickle and partly mown with , the fcythe. In fome provinces it is threfhed out with ilails or fticks, on others trodden , out by horfes or people ; fometimes it is threfhed wind- dried, but has been on the kiln before *. This general defcription however is only appli cable to the manner in which the boor of Great- Ruflia performs the labours of the field : in the provinces lying on the Baltic, in the white-ruffian governments', in the polifh Ukraine, and even in proper Ruffia on the " eftates of noblemen who carry on the farming bufinefs with fome degree of care, incomparably more pains are bellowed, and * Hupel's llaatfverf. tom. ii. p. 528. Lepekhin's travels, torn. i. p. 38. Pallas, travels, tom. i. p. 163. in 154 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. in general more ingenious implements ufed. As we cannot, without tranfgreffing- the limits of our plan, indulge ourfelves in very circumftantial de tails, we will only endeavour to point out fome eminent inftances to fliew how diverfely this cul- fure is profecuted in different regions of the empire. In the government of St. Peterfburg hufbandry is the bufinefs of the Russians and Finns, who. here inhabit together the open country and the fmaller towns; and though agriculture in this province, as well from natural difficulties as the proximity of the refidence, is not properly the main concern of the inhabitant, yet the account of it will afford an inftrudive example, as both nations condud it generally by - methods handed down to them by their anceftors, arid we are there* fore enabled to fee the variety of their proceedings in a lively contrail. Even in their dwellings a great difference is already apparent, as the Ruffians live together in villages, but the Finns fingly, or by fa? milies, in what are called fcattered crews. The former have the advantage of mutual affiftance and of an incitement to emulation in fkilfulnefs and in duftry; the latter ftate is preferable in this, that the fields lie nearer to the habitation of the boor, which is a faving to him of much time and trouble. Vil lages are feen throughout Ruffia, as among all the nations who have taken their agriculture from the Ruffians ; their magnitude is often very confider able ; AGRICULTURE. 155 able ; and as they confift ufually of only one long ftreet, the fields are frequently at a diftance from them. Whereas the Lettes, Efthonians, and Finns univerfally dwell in difperfed gangs or folitary hovels, of which feveral are rarefy feen together. — If we, farther, take the effeds of national cha- rader into our account, the difference between the ruffian and finnifli agriculture is ftill more ftriking. The ruffian boor generally labours only his old arable lands, , whereas the finnifli peafant ftrives to leffen his work at the expence of the forefts. The finnifh implements of hufbandry are, ' if poflible, more light and fimple than the ruffian. Thus the Finns ufe only the branch-harrow, and not unfrequently nothing more than the rake in ftead of the knife-plough. Their little country carts are not, as with the Ruffians, on two, but only one axletree, the wheels whereof are never fliod with iron; and, inftead of this miferable vehicle, they very frequently employ only a couple of poles faftened at one end to the two fides of the faddle and the two other ends trailing on the ground. Great as the difficulties are, which an inclement fky and the not very fertile foil oppofe to the pro grefs of agriculture in thefe northern provinces, yet they can give no incitement to the adivity of -the nifties of thefe parts, whofe carelsffhefs would announce to the ignorant fpedator the moft benign atmofphere and the moft luxuriant foil. The rural occupations, which here in general demand the greateft ' 150 PRODUCTIVE IXDUSTRT. greateft punduality on account of the rapid vicif- fitudes of the feafons, ufually begin in the middle of April, and laft till towards or perhaps extend; into Ocfober. As the harvefts here without manuring would turn out but very fcanty, this. therefore certainly belongs to the number of agri cultural employments ; but feldom are the little infignificant flocks of cattle fufficient to this pur pofe, though they endeavour to increafe the muck by ftraw, and artificial means of compoft are either not at all employed or onLy on particular fields of the manorial demefne. To fupply the want of this neceffary material, many eftates divide their arable land into four, five, or fix fields, whereof two or four lie fallow, in order to recruit by a longer repofe the vigour which they cannot obtain by manure ; the fallows in the mean time ferving as cow-lares acquire by that means fome degree of manure. In fuch circumftances it is not fur-. prifing, that the boor choofes rather to cujtiva^e J;he foreft-grounds, the profits arifing from which being certain, and the damage only falling on the fucceeding generation ; yet there are alfo landlords, as we have already obferved, who by exterminat ing the moraffes and their wretched growth of1 wood feek to increafe their arable land to their own detriment and for the good of the whole. — Of the feveral kinds of grain that are here culit- yated, the winter-rye is the moft frequent and the fureft, as being feldom liable to a'general failure. The AGRICULTURE. 15? The feed-corn yields, as is the cafe with all the other fruits of the field, the domeftic harveft, and on ordinary grounds repays the fowing' four to feven fold. The rye does not arrive at full matu rity every year, and then it yields meal indeed, but likewife very bad bread. It is neceffary to plough twice for all forts of grain, but for the winter-rye thrice. The harveft commences towards the end of July, and lafts till fome days in Sep tember ; the corn is cut with fickles and bound up in fmall fheaves, which are fet up in circles of 10, leaning againft each other, and covered with one inverted fheaf at top. When they are air- dried, they are put in high fliocks on wooden ftages, where they remain till they are earned to the kiln to be hardened. — As this cuftom of crifp- ing the fheaves previous to the threfhing, is com mon throughout Ruffia and even in Siberia; it will not be fuperfluous to give a fliort idea of that procefs and of its utility. The ruffian corn-kiln, ov/'n, confifts of a wooden fhed made of balks driven together, having a few apertures with fhutters in the fides, and furnifhed within with feveral crofs poles. Adjoining to the flied an oven of brickwork is made in the earth, from which flues run into the kiln. When the corn is to be malted, the fheaves are hung Upon the poles, and a flow fire is kept in the oven, the fmoke of which penetrates into the kiln, making the fheaves to reek ; -the vaporir cfcapes by the fide- ^58 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. fide-holes, which are opened at pleafure. -In fort*tf provinces the kiln is fomewhat differently coh- ftruded * ; but the pradice of malting the corn in this manner is univerfal, and is of great and various utility. The grains are indeed fmaller for the drying, but it preferves them from corn-worms, renders the grain fit for keeping in granaries, and even .incorruptible in long voyages at fea, without rendering it unferviceable for fowing. This ad vantage of the ruffian grain is however procured at a great expence of wood; for which in fome parts perhaps mofs-turf might be employed with the fariie effed. The corn being malted, it is carried by the Finns into the kiln itfelf, but by the Ruffians threfhed out on the floor or on the ice, with fmall light flails, and purged by catling or winnowing. The generality of countryrnen keep their grain in the corn ; only fome of them * In moft parts it is ftill more fimply conftrufted, and commonly confifts of nothing more than a pit in the earth, over which is built a flight hovel of balks wedged together, info which the fmoke and the heat are drawn. The Tartars on the Kama and Volga, inftead of this hovel, only place a pyramidal frame of thick poles over the pit. Thefe corn- kilns in Livonia are on the beft conftruftion ; a defcription whereof, which would be here too long for infertion, may be' feen in Hupel's topographifchen nachrichten, tom. ii. p- 294, & feq. where is likewife a propofal for an improve ment in thefe buildings, which as appears from Friebe's ob servation on Livonia and Efthonia, p, 143, is already in practice with feveral land-owners. g rind AGRICULTURE. 159 grind 'all their rye immediately into grift -meal. — Doubtlefs the cliriiate is little advantageous to agriculture, yet there has feldom been an inftance of general failure ; but every year the harveft falls fhort in one circle or another. A fingle boor can at moft conveniently labour two or three deftet- tines of arable land ; and a numerous grown-up family has work enough with four or five deftet- •tines *. Having given thefe fpecimens of agriculture in the northern regions, we will proceed to deliver a Xhort defcription of the Ukrainian hufbandry, which in many particulars differs widely from that followed in Great-Ruffia. A milder climate, and a more compad and fertile foil, render other cul ture and other implements of tillage neceffary here. The Ukrainian peafantry fow far more fum- mer-grain, becaufe the winter-fowing in their wet and fnowlefs winters is apt to rot and fo to render the harveft doubtful, which in the northern pro vinces is exadly the reverfe. Inftead of the light hook-plough, they ufe the large heavy Ukrainian plough, and for the horfe which in Ruffia is almoft the only beaft ufed for ploughing, here oxen are put to, of which fometimes eight are feen harneffed to one plough. Befides this plough they employ likewife a curious variation of it, called rallo, and which cuts the ground with five or fix iron teeth * Georgi, befchreibung des St. Peterfburg gouv. p. 566 —585. at 160 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. at once. In order to haften the '. fpririg-fowirigf, the boors commonly plough their fields in Odober, and as foon as the ground is thawed, which hap pens in March, the feed is ftrew-n inter the earth without farther preparation ; at firft, poppy and anife, afterwards in fucceflion barley, wheat, oats,- peafe, linfeed, millet, flax, and hemp; the buck wheat is fown on light and dry lands. In diftrids with no wood and few inhabitants, the fteppes or overgrown fallows are repeatedly 'ploughed, and fuch fields again rendered ufeful, receive at then* firft fowing anife or millet, which require a firm foil, or even buckwheat when the, foil is juicy and fertile. In the following year they are fown like- wife with millet or wheat, in the third with oats, in the fourth with rye, and thenthey are left again to lie fallow for a few years. By fuch culture re peated annually for fome -years, the fteppe is com monly changed into a beautiful pafturage, cover ing itfelf with fweet nutritious herbs. Foreft lands, which are fo frequent in the northern go vernments, are here fcarcely ever feen; as thefe fouthern 'regions have not wood enough- for kuttis- burning or for the rhoedings ; inftead of thefe the numerous herds of cattle which pafture on the fal lows, yield far more manure to the groundj than it receives by thefe means in the northern pro vinces which are poor in cattle. .An artificial im provement of the ground is only in ufe- on mano rial eftates, and even there not much, as the har- vefts AGRICULTURE. \Q\ Vefts. are fufficlent for the wants of the inhabitant without it. An indifferent foil will return the fowing Of winter-corn five to feven fold, and of the fummer-corn from five to ten fold. When the corn is reaped, it is not immediately malted, but after it has been ajr-dried on the field in fheaves, firft on floors under the open fky, then eleanfed or wafhed, and laftly dried by the fun or on the oven. As the breeding of cattle forms the moft part of the Ukrainian hufbandry, it is ufual to aflign a quantity of wet threfhed corn for win ter-provender in a proportion of one half to the ftore of hay. The reft of the corn is kept in barns for thg enfuing year, or put unthrefried into earths- holes lined with ftraw and. covered at top with ftraw, bufhes, and earth, for proteding the corn within from damps and frofts *. Thefe examples will be fiaffkieijt for giving a notion of the bufinefs of agriculture as well in the "northern as the fouthern provinces; both alike in this, that in general much is left to Nature, and that her operations are neither feconded by great labour nor by refined induftry. On the whole the agriculture in all the no'rtjheRN provinces is the (ame ; only where the proprietor interefts himfelf in the fuccefs of it, it is managed with greater care, and this feldom happens in Ruffia proper, * Befchreib. der flatth. Kharkbf, im journal von RufMand, torn. ii. p. iqz— 1.06. vol. 111. U whereas 1(52 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. whereas in the white-ruffian and livonian govern* ments it is frequently the cafe. It is true that in the latter the above defcribed fimple inftruments are in ufe, but they are employed with greater induftry and exertion. Here is more ploughing and more manuring, and even artificial improve ments of the arable lands are not unufual. With a moderate degree of fertility of foil, the winter- rye in the government of Riga produces a return of its. fowing from five to twelve fold, the barley eight-fold, and the winter-wheat ten-fold ; and on* rhcedings and kuttis fields the produce is naturally ftill greater *„ In the white ruffian provinces this induftry is ftill farther encouraged by a much more prolific foil ; as here, "for example, in the govern ment of Mohilef, the ordinary harveft with feldom and little dunging is twenty-fold. The country men, according to the teftimony of a farmer of the place -}V are induftrious'and have a turn for agriculture, and the implements of hufbandry are completely adapted to the foil, and admit of no improvement. The laying down the fields, the harvefts, and the keeping of the fruits of the earth are managed with the greateft care ; but a mate rial defed here preffes hard on rural oeconomy, and that is, the cuftom that every proprietor, be fides the land which his boors hire of him with * Friebe's bemerk. ueber Hefland und Efthland,.p. 135. i .Aufwahl cekonom, abhandl. torn. iii. p. 167. money 1 Agriculture. 16*3 money, feudal fervices, or payment in kind, lets Gut the reft to fuch as choofe for the third or the fourth fheaf. Thefe people, who only look to the momentary advantage, never manure, nor ever let the ground have refpite ; accordingly the beft foil is very foon exhaufted : befides, by this method, the cattle lofe their pafture, and the young boor can find no opportunity for fettling himfelf. The defcription which we have given of the Ukrainian agriculture, is fuited in general to all the southern provinces, with this limitation, however, that in moft of them it is far more nesli- gently and imperfedly carried on. The greatef fertility of the foil and a milder fky render many precautions unnecefiary which the ruder climate of the northern governments extort from the floth- fulnefs of the inhabitant. In thefe temperate re gions there is feldom any ploughing and ftill fel- domer or never any manuring: the breeding of cattle forms the chief -part of -their hufbandry, and the methods of culture are generally more digni fied and refined *. — Pallas has given a fample of Siberian agriculture in mentioning the fruit ful diftrids of the Yenifley, which we before ad duced. Here the boor has certainly a light work of it, as he is fo liberally feconded by nature. * Pallas, tableau de la Tauride. Bceber's cekon. bemerk* ueber Ekatarinoflaf, in den preiffchriften der cekon. gefell* fchaft, tom. i. p. 196. Aftrakhanifche landwirthfch. • Auf- wahl. cekon. abhandl. torn. iv. m % There 16*4 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. There is no need of manuring in thefe and fimilar diftrids, fince the ground, if only left fallow the third year, continues, bearing for fifteen years and upwards ; and becaufe there is everywhere frefh and unbroken ground which the boor can always turn up into arable fields unmolefted. The kind of corn moft commonly cultivated here are fummer-corn and winter-rye ; the winter-wheats are not known in any part of Siberia, and befides the above fruits of the earth, the fiberian boor Concerns himfelf but little about Other cultures*. Ere we clofe this article we muft take feme notice of the Tartars, the Votiaks, and the Tfehe- remifles, who not Only inhabit provinces that are partly fhe richeft in corn, but advantageoufly dif- finguifh themfelves from all the hufbandmen in fife ruffian empire by their application and induf try. The Tartars in the governments of Ufa and Kazan are Wont to lay out their grounds in the proximity of every village, and to divide them, in common' into three fields, of which one is left annually fallow, and on it the cattle grate. In this manner the fallow gets a kind of manure, which for thefe generally excellent grounds is fuf- ficient; and by which they are kept for many years confecutively in proper- order for the cultivation even of wheat; If the fertility at length declines, and there is no fteppe in the vicinity fit for tillage, * Pallas, travels, tom. iii.' p. 5. AGRICULTURE. l£5 it not unfrequently happens that the people of a whole village break up their wooden houfes and tranfport them to another place ; a pradice which is imitated even by the ruffian boors, particularly in Siberia. Though the Tartars ftill ufe the heavy plough for breaking up new fteppes, yet they have adopted moreover univerfally the light, cheap hook-plough, which requires fewer draught - cattle ; but they differ from the ruffian villagers in this particular, that they dry by fire the fheaves, not in regular corn-kilns, but in open pits, over which poles are placed together in a pyramidal form. The agriculture of the Tfcheremiffes, Vo- tiaks, and Mefchtfcherijeks on the Kama and Volga, is very like the tartarian ; only they have the cuftom of burning away the ftraw in ftill weather, which they purpofely leave high Handing' at the harveft before they plough for fowing, whereby the ground is both dried and receive? fome degree of manure. In dry fteppes, however, their method is to plough in the feed, or to ftrew it on fhe fallow, ground previous to the plough ing, and they are convinced by experience that it thrives better in this way*. ¦I-n-fpitO-bf all the defeds of ruffian hufhandry, of which, from the foregoing account we cannot form a very high idea, the products o-f th£ agriculture are fo numerous and important, * Pallas, travels, tom. ii. p. ,6. torn. iii. p. 4,92. W 3 that 166 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. that they not only fully anfwer the demands of home confumption, but likewife conftitute by far the moft confiderable article of exportation. - To reduce the great variety of thefe objeds into an order that fha'l render them eafy to be furveyed, we will firft notice the feveral fpecies of corn, then the provender-herbs, and laftly the moft remark able vegetables for fabrication and trade, the cul ture whereof either is adually carried on, or-might be introduced to great advantage. Of the feveral species of corn the rye is the moft generally cultivated, and both the winter and the fummer-rye fucceed equally well in the trads of land that lie not farther to the north than the 6oth degree of latitude ; in which are only to be excepted the particular diftrids that are abfolutely either too wet or too dry. — Wheat is more cultivated in the middle and fouthern go vernments ; the winter-wheat, however, feldomer, and in Siberia not at all. In the government of Ekatarinoflaf they cultivate likewife the arnap- tan wheat, which yields a fine flour tending to yellow, and its produce there is fo abundant, that in good years it commonly returns fifteen corns above the fowing*. As a produd brought hither from -mild climates, it requires a warm and dry foil, and therefore fucceeds only in the fouthern * Preiffchriften und abhandj. der cekonom. gefellfchaft in gt, Peterlb. tom. i. p, 198, provinces, agriculture. 16/ provinces, Turkifh wheat or maize is raifed in the confines of the Terek and in Taurida. — Barley is a main produd in moft governments where the wheat fucceeds, and even in fome others; as the confumption of barley-meal in Ruffia is very great : though it is only the fum- mer-barley that is generally cultivated. — Alfo oats are commonly grown, though they are not everywhere alike produdive ; they are likewife raifed partly for the confumption of the people, in this cafe being prepared into meal, and eaten as porridge. — Of thefe four kinds of corn Ruf fia annually exports to foreign countries a confi derable quantity, efpecially from the livonian ports. In the year 1793 thefe exports amounted, both in corn and meal, to the value of, in wheat 1,490,000, in rye 1,379,000, in barley 236,000, and in oats 17,000 rubles. The remaining forts of corn are generally fuf- ficient for the home demand, are moftly fufcep- tible of a greater culture; and therefore there is no exportation of them. Millet is pretty ge neral; but spelt, or bear-barley, is but little cultivated. Buck -wheat is very plenty both in Ruffia and in Siberia ; and in this latter part of the world is cultivated almoft throughout in a very lingular manner. It is fown here in large fields on a fat fteppe newly broke up, the fowing being thin and rather late, that it may be the lefs injured by the night froftsi After one fuch M 4 flight 168 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. flight fowing the ground is made for five to eight yea; s, and yields all this time above a produce of at leaft ten to fifteen fold. That is, there is fhed at the reaping a fufficiertt quantity of feed upon the ground^ which does not corrupt the whole winter through ; riothirig farther then is neceffary to be done than to harrow -the field once, in Order to be able again to reap at the next harveft, and this, may cdnt'ihue till the fecundating quality of the foil is quite exhaufted-.- Nd "other kind of com, confequeritly; is better flitted to the flUggith fibe rian country-people ; who have at the fame time the additional alleviation of being able to mow the buck-Wheat with fcythes, to threfh it out upon the fpot, and ihftead bf carrying away the ftraw, ; to burn it on the ground. The' wild fiberiari buck-wheat multiplies at fuch an extra- ¦ ordinary rate, that it fprings fporitaneorifly where- ever a 'plot of ground is made barely ufeful ; and in places where corn or hemp is fowh, it often gets the Upper-hand and e-hoaks thofe fowings. Being therefore •edrifidered as a weed by the fibe riari boors it is little or.not at all eaten, though it affords' a very ,well-'tafted food, and is eafily made into grift. Only the Beltirs and Koibals gather it; ; and it is likewife fometimes fown by the Katfchint'zes*; — Man NAf grows almoft every * Pallas, gravels, torn. ii. p.. 365. tom. iii. p. 351. 383. ( f Teftuca H'uitans, '*"^ai ' ¦',¦ M where AGRICULTURE. 16J) where in Ruffia on meadow -grounds overflowed, particularly in the governments of Riga, Pfcove, Polotfk, Novgorod, Tver, Smolehfk, &c. but not thick enough to be gathered in quantities, as, for inftance, in the government of Mofco. The ©eco nomical fociety of St. Peterfburg has therefore offered a premium for an anfwer to the queftion, how the culture of this ufeful vegetable may be* promoted, which not only affords a very white and well-tafted grift, far fuperior to that of tk'e fine wheat ufed in Ruffia, but as a herb is an agree able and wholefome food for mahy of the domef tic animals. The marfhy diftrids of the before- mentioned governments would without doubt be the moft advantageous for. this fpecies of culture. — Rice alfo is among the produds, which the ruflian empire might produce in good quantities. This plant requires a warm climate and a flooded foil, and can therefore only be cultivated in the tooft fouthern provinces. In the neighbourhood of Ritzliar the rice fucceeds extremely well, and probably it would flourifh likewife on the coafts of the Cafpian, between the mouths Of the Terek and the Volga ; the iflands fituate in the mouths of the Don and the Ural are equally adapted to this purpofe,. But for this culture the beft parts of all would be the fhores of the Kuma quite along to its mouth, where the nomadic Tartars, • who well underftand the cultivation of rice, might • bend 170 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. bend their inclination that way*. Hitherto the quantity annually obtained is very trifling, and Ruffia pays for the purchafe of this article of food no very fmall fums. The culture of potatoes, that uncommonly ufeful vegetable, which, from its general fervice- ablenefs, deferves to be mentioned immediately after the feveral fpecies of bread-corn, is employed in Ruffia only in a few governments, and chiefly there among the foreign colonifts. The Ruffians cultivate it but little ; prejudice and plenty of other provifions prevent the progrefs of this new fpecies of culture : yet here and there the intro- dudion of it has been fuccefsfully begun, parti cularly in thofe parts where, from the rudenefs of the climate corn does not always thrive; and namely in the government of Archangel, where they bear the. cold extremely well, and in propor tion to the attendance bellowed on them, yield an increafe of from thirty to fifty fold, when raifed from native feeds-}-. Grasses and fodder of all kinds every where abound in the ruffian empire ; but thefe products cannot ftridly be reckoned among the fpecies of culture. Spacious meads are generally feen in all parts, though here and there particular diftrids * Guldenftaedt's akad. rede, &c. § 54. f Aufwahl. cekon. abhandl.- tom. i. p. 253. may AGRICULTURE. 171 may be in want of them ; but frequently they are totally unoccupied, either becaufe there is na need of hay, (yet this, from the long winters in the northern governments, forms a very import ant and indifpenfable article in a regular and or derly farm,) or becaufe the people are too lazy to get it in. It is precifely the nomadizing na tions with whom the graziers bufinefs is carried on to the greateft extent, who never mow their meadows, but let their cattle graze upon them the whole year round. Even where the meadows are mown, it is ufually done only once ; as the boor feldom thinks of gathering the latter-math or after-grafs, and frequently the labours of the field or the weather will not allow of it. In the neighbourhood of large towns, or in parts where troops of horfe are quartered, the hay is gathered in, however, with greater care, and forms not un- frequently a material branch of fuftenance. Al moft all the meadows are common lands, and it would be of no ufe to inclofe them, while there is fuch a quantity of ground befide unoccupied. — - As fo little pains are taken to colled the hay that grows wild, it is the lefs to be expeded, that in Ruffia artificial meads are made or graffes raifed. Fortunately for her, however, benignant Nature fo amply fupplies this want, that in moft parts no human induftry is requifite. Many of the fiberian fteppes are fo richly clothed with whole fome and nutritious graffes, that the better fort of formers 1/2 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. farmers in the interior of Ruffia, who have been inclined to lay out artificial paftures, have no need to write for foreign feeds, but only to ufe the hay-feed from the latter-math of the fteppes. Spurry, alpine, hedyfarum, numberlefs kinds of cloyer, podded .graffes, ftar worts, &c. are here un-iverfal, and thefe herbs have the advantage that they bear any climate*. In many parts of the empire the poor pafturages might be improved ia this manner by culture ; but the thought of it is ftill fo foreign to the ruffian farmer, that it will require more than one decenniunn at leaft before, we may entertain the hope that any attention to this ufeful objed will become at all more .general. Of the various branches of agriculture none yields more material produds for exportation than the culture of vegetables -for the use of MANUFACTURES AND 'COMMERCE. Out of the multitude of objeds of this nature, -the firft we fhall feled is hemp, the exportation whereof makes by far the moft'confiderable head in .the lifts -of ruffian exports, and is held to be the beft of all the european forts. By Comparing the enormous confumption of this neceftary material in the em pire itfelf, with, the great quantity which is an nually fhipped off, it is-manifefUbeyond-all doubt, that no produce of, farming, excepting rye, is of greater confequence to induftry and trade. Hemp * Pallas, travels, ,tam. ii. -p. 75, is AGRICULTURE. 173 is taifed and managed in Ruffia everywhere in the ordinary methods; the boors are apt to foak it in rivers, lakes, and large ponds, by which pradice the water is fpoiled and the fifhery diminifhed ; a nuifance of fuch importance as to call for the interference of the magiftracy. Even the wild hemp, growing very plentifully in fome parts, e. gr. about the Terek and in the uralian moun tains, is gathered in confiderable quantities. In Siberia it is more rare, but it is found about the Volga, principally in places where towns have formerly flood. The women of the Kozaks and Tartars are wont to gather it in autumn, when it has fhed its feed, and begins to die away ; it being eaten by thefe people as well as by the Bafchkirs, Barabintzes, and other nations, in various ways *. Ruffia exports her hemp partly raw, partly wrought into fail-cloth, facking, cables, and cord age, &c. as alfo the feeds either raw or preffed into oil. In the year 1793 the export of thefe articles amounted to upwards .of 8,808,000 rubles, in which the hemp-oil is not included -j*. * Pallas, travels, tern. i. p. 356. torn. iii. p. 266. f The amount of this exportation more accurately fpeci- fied was in hemp and heads of hemp, 6,066,6 1 5 rubles Sail-cloth, facking, raventuch, 2,408,670 Cables and cordage ----- 259,590 Hemp-feed - - 74*°4I 8,808,91 6 rubles. Not 1/4 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY". Not lefs important is the culture of flax* which likewife is raifed in great quantities, and of excellent quality. In numbers of diftrids the flax-grounds are not inferior in dimenfions to the corn-lands ; the moft and beft flax is produced in the governments of Vologda, Pfcove, Novgorod, Riga, Mohilef, Tver, Polotfk, Viaetka, the confines of the middle Volga, and in the parts about the Oka and Kama, In fome provinces, for ex ample in the diftrids near the Kama, the fine valakhian flax is cultivated, firft introduced by the polifh colonifts; in the borders of that river it grows to the height of feven fpans,, and yields a far better yarn than the common*. A fuccefsful attempt has been lately made with the Italian flax in ihe government of Ekatarinoflaf. The feed for this purpofe is written for to Bologna, and it thrives fo well, that the ftalks rife to the height of more than five arfhiries, and even with very defedive management gave an extremely fine texture-f . Both the common and the Siberian flax are found frequently wild ; the former, e. gr, in the fteppes about the northern Ural, the latter on the fhores of the Volga, near Tzaritzin and in other places^. — Among the plants growing wild, and yielding fibres like flax or hemp, is alfo the * Pallas, travels, tom. iii. p. 492. ¦J- Preiffchriften def cekonom. gefellfch. tom. i. p: 200. % Lepekhin's travels, tom. i. p. 267. Herrmann's beytrsege, torn. iii. p. 140. commoii AGRICULTURE. ' 175 common and the fiberian stinging-nettle*, which are found in great plenty and efpecially on the uralian mountains. The Bafchkirs, the Koi- bals, the fagayan Tartars, &c. prepare yarn and weave linen of them ; to the fame ufe might the hop-bind be employed, which in Ruffia is entirely thrown away. The management of flax has nothing peculiar in it ; it is picked, as elfewhere, cleared from the feeds, foaked in water, and bruifed by beating with wooden beetles. This produd, next to hemp, forms the greateft article of exportation; moft of it goes abroad raw ; a confiderable part is wrought up into linens, diaper, canvas, and the like, and even the feeds are exported partly in their natural ftate and partly as oil. In the year 1 793 this exportation, exclufively of the oil, amounted to 7,220,000 rubles -f. Among * Urtica dioica and cannabin£!"^fl|l T Namely, in flax and flax-heads to the amount of - - - - 4,504,100 rubles X.inen, diaper napkins, Sec. - - 1,678,701 Linfeed - - - - - - 1,037,513 7,220,314 How advantageous the culture of this plant is may be feen from the following inftance. In the year 1788, the owner of an eftate in the government of Pfcove gained from five chet- verts and three chetveriks of feed tVenty-two berkovets of flax, whereof eighteen raw and four wrought were fold; when the net profit, after deducing the fowing, came to 727 rubles, Auf- wahl. cekon. abhandl. tom. iii. p. j 3 1 . — Of all the forts of - flajr 175 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. Among the produds of ruffian agriculture, cotton alfo demands a place ; not fo much from the ineonfiderable quantity that is raifed of this Ijfeful material, as on account of the poffibility of jncreafing the culture of it, to which many parts of fouthern Ruffia are completely fuited. As yet trials have only been made to cultivate cotton about Aftrakhan and Kitzliar, on the Terek; but there are climates and foils likewife in other circles of the caucafean government, in Taurida, in the fouthern part of the government of Ufa, he. not lefs favourable to the culture of this plant. The fhores of the Kuma, of the Kalaus, of the Yegorlik, and of the Pylanytfh, might, with a larger popu lation, produce great ftore of it ; and the wives of the Tartars in the governments of Caucafus and Kazan are very fkilful in the treatment, and the fpinning of cotton. The annual expenditure for this produd,. raw or wrought, is fo confiderable,, that it cannot be th^jght fuperfluous to take no- flax produced in the ruffian empire, the livonian is reckoned the beft. But even there it thrive* not in all parts equally well, but principally in the territory of Marienburg and the furrounding parifhes, wherefore by way of eminence it de rives its name from the former. Several- governments, e. g. PfcoVe, Polotfk, &c. produce a flax of equal quality, which is frequently fold under that name. The method in which it is claffified in Riga,' the grand mart of this produft, accord ing to its packs, may be feen in Hupel's topograph, nachr. torn. ii. p. 335. tice AGRICULTURE. 177 tice hereGfcfome wild-growing silk-plants producing a fimilar. material to cotton, and might be gathered and manufadured to a like purpofe. Here two plants particularly deferve mention, known among the botanifts by the names of cynan- chum acutum and apocynicm maritimum. Both grow wild in the very worft foils, the clayv or luteous fand of the faline aftrakhan fteppe, from Tzaritzin to Aftrakhan, and in breadth from the Don quite to the other fide of the river Ural. The hulks of the former plant contain a filky flofs, which may be eafily cleared from its pretty large feeds by contufion, yielding an excellent delicate flock inferior in no refped to that prepared from the fyrian filk -plant, and may probably- be ufeful to every purpofe, to which the latter is employed. The more this flock is teafed and carded thfc finer and more fleecy it becomes; it yields a good warm down, -and- feems eminently adapted, from its lightnefs and elafticity, for comfortable linings or wadding to furtouts andlcloaks .againft the frofl. In carding it will not eafily mix with cotton* but by this means it at lerigth gets a greater eorifift- ence, and might fo perhaps be fit for fpinnirig. As the feeds of this plant ripen not till late in autumn, of courfe it cannot be raifed in northern climes where the fummer is fhort. But itwould eafily and abundantly multiply in the fouth volga fteppe, where it might be one of the ufeful cultures which fhould be recommended for the employment of all vol. in.' n that. 178 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. .that unfruitful fait fteppe, overgrown with worm wood, and totally unfit for the ordinary ufes of agriculture. — The latter of the two plants .abovementioned grows more fpafingly, and only in. fpot s, but is in particular plenty about the Elton-lake, in fome places on the right fhore of the Volga, and towards Kitzliar. It bears double pods or hufka, full of an. elaftic beautiful feed flofs, which by teafing .is likewife eafily fepara$ed from the feeds. Befides thefe two, .ithe ruflian empire alfo pof feffes feveral. .other: wild-growing filk-plants, ?& holding out to the attentive obferver an ?§y4 .utility. Two ,of them are found in all parts of the temperate region, -as alfo out of Ruffia. and in. the reft of Europe; namely, .that called in englifti! fwallow-wort or filken cicely, afclepias mncetoxicum, Linn, and the afclepias nigra. The latter is indeed fomewhat more rare, though both grow plentifully enough in the herbaceous region! of the Volga- between Simbirfk and Saratof and in the. governments of Kharkof and Ekatafinoflsf. Both*) will j/bear the northern .climate, and evegi flourifh in open air in the gardens of St. Peterfburg. Two other fiik-planls, the, afclepias fibirica and dauaiica, are peculiari to. the middle ternperat* region" of Siberia ; they grow in the confines of the Irtifh, the Oby, and > the Selenga, and are alfo reckoned good in gravelly -complaints. A ftill more extenfive country belongs to the filk-rufh ot 5 meadow- AGRICULTURE. 1/0. meadow-wool *, which covers all the ufelefs fwamps in the northern governments, and is found plenti fully in Siberia. In the month of July an im- menfe crop of this plant might be gathered, the flocks whereof mingled with a fourth part of wool or cotton, produce thread very ferviceable in weaving linen, cloth, or ftockings. — Befides- thefe plants there is ftill a confiderable number of fhrubs and trees, the feeds whereof are clothed in a fub* fiance fimilar to cotton -j- ; but the thread from this material is generally too fhort and too harfh. to be ufed in fpinning and for fluffs. It would neverthelefs be very ferviceable for warm wadding and felt : nay it might be even worked up into hatg by mixing it with wool; or, mixed with rags, would ferve to make paper j. * Eriophorum polyftachium, Linn. f Such as principally: epilobium hirfutwm, the typha, fome fpecies of the poplar, namely, populus tremula, nigra and alba, and feveral oziers, as falix pentandra, cinera, and caprea,LiNK. The«pilobium isfoundin all the northern pro vinces; the little lakes are generally almoft covered with the typha ; the firft kind of poplar abounds over all Ruffia ; the fer cond and third are almoft folely confined to the partsadjacent to the Don and the Terek ; the two firft kinds of ozier are not unfrequent in low and marfhy places ; the third grows only on mountains. Guldenftsedt, ubi fupj-a, feft. 48. f Pallas, ueber die ruff, feiden pflanzen, in den preifTchrif- ten der cekonom. gefellfch. tom. 1. p. l6z. Guldenftaedt's akad, rede, &c. feci. 47. N 2 NOW ISO PRObUCTIvE INDUSTRY. Now that we are on the fubjed of the produds from the" vegetable kingdom that furnifli materials for the loom, it will not be inexpedient to enume rate the plants employed in the myftery of dy ing. Ruffia, as -well as fome other european countries, negjeds the fine dying materials, which are partly procured from remote parts of the world for the fervice of domeftic induftry; but fhe alfo begets a multitude of wild-growing herbs, flowers, roots, and mofles ufed in dying, the more fedulous colledion or proper culture whereof might render unnecefiary thefe foreign produds. Madder, or the red dye, grows wild, but fparingly, on the banks of 'the Oka, near Riafan and Arfamas, on the borders of the Volga, in the confines of Syfran and Saratof, and in great quantities and of fupe- fior quality about the Samara, in Taurida, on the Terek, and in feveral diftrids of the caucafean go vernment. This ufeful plant is nowhere properly cultivated ; but in the regions of the Terek, along the Kura and Kuma, it is gathered in confider able abundance. As this however is not near fuf- ficient for the demands of the inland manufadories, and Ruffia is obliged annually to make confidera ble purchafe of red dyes, it would certainly 'be worth while to attend to the plantation of this vegetable, which in the foregoing diftrids would produce as good a commodity as that procured from Holland and Erfurt, if it were only gathered in AGRICULTURE. Itjl in autumn and not dried in the heat of a fub- terranean oven, but under fheds in the open air. The culture of madder is ftill in another refped of confequence to Ruffia, as in the colleding alone of the wild plants much time is loft that might be mOre beneficially employed. Two men who: fhould cultivate madder in the above-mentioned diftrids, where the foil and the climate are fo pro-- pitious to it, would eafily gain as much by it, as ten do now, who perhaps will fhortly have nothing more to get, as by their prefent manner of pro ceeding this ufeful plant will very foon be entirely eradicated. Likewife in the governments of Ufa, Kazan, Voronetch, Ekatarinoflaf, Kharkof, Brag- laf, &c. as well as in Little-Ruflia, the red dyes would thrive in a moift and fruitful foil. In fe veral of the provinces we have fpecified there are other wild plants refembling madder; but, except the mariona*, fufficiently known among the Ko zaks of the Don, they are not entitled to any par ticular notice -}», After indigo the principal material for dying blue and green is woad; Ruffia buys of both every year to a confiderable amount. The plant * Cruciata paluftris maxima, f For example : galium boreale, mollugo, afperula tinc- toria, &c. The origan, organy, wild, or baftard marjoram, or wild mint, in rufs dujikhz,a, a very common plant, yields alfo a fine crimfon red, which might be fuccefsfully employed in dying. Guldenftsdt, akad. rede, &c. fe£t. 5 1 . n 2 which 185 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. which produces indigo grows only in Indja, and therefore requires a much hotter climate than Ruffia anywhere poffeffes; confequently it is the more neceffary to multiply the woad-plantations, as woad may not only fupply in many cafes the want of indigo, but as the blue of the former in fad de fences the preference. It is the more to be expeded that the culture of this plant muft be attendee! With good fuccefs, as both the real woad*, and a very fimilar variation of it-f- are feen wild -in feveral of the fouthern governments. The former grows fpontaneoufly on the left fhore of the Volga near Syfran, about Penfa, near Omffc in Siberia, but moft plentifully in the Ukraine, and in the territory of Mofdok ; the latter likewife aboundson the Oka, the Sura, and the Volga. In the go vernments of Penfa, Saratof, and Voronetch, con fiderable Woad-plantaf ions have already been made for fome years paft, which therefore probably may afford feeds fuffjeient for their farther propagation \. Saffron, which is, ufed both asa colour and as a drug, and is likewife an article of importation, grows wild about the Terek, in the governments- of Voronetch and Ekatarinoflaf, in Taurida, and efpecially in the caucafean mountains about Mof dok. The fpring-faffron, growing in the firft- * Ifatis tinftoria. f Ifatis lufi'tanica, Linn. X Herrmann's ftatiftifche fchilderung, p. 238. Gulden- ftsdt's akadem. rede, &c. fed. 52. Pallas, travels, tom. i. p. 75. tom. iii. p. 617. mentioned AGRICULTURE. 7 18j mentioned diftrid, is fit for little as a dye, and as a drug for nothing; but the autumrial faffrort, gathered in Caucafus, is ferviceable in both re- fpeds, and bulbs' might therefore be obtained here as well as from Perfia, which there is no doubt would, fucceed in the fouthern circles of Caucafos and Taurida. — The confumption of sa f f l o w e r* is nearly as common, it being employed by the filk-d^ers in preparing the flefh and rofe colours. Ruffia ftill continues1 to buy this commodity from the foreigner, notwithftanding that the plant thrives perfedly well in the gardens at Toropetz,. Mofco, Tzaritzin, Poltava, and other places, fo that, ex cepting the northern provinces, it might be raifed almoft everywhere. Befides thefe four capital fpecies, there is in Ruffia ftill a vaft variety of more vulgar dying plants which might be employed to great advan tage. Thus, for inftance, a blue colour is got from the afh-bark, with which experiments ought to be made, as that tree is in general very plenty, and in fome diftrids there is even a great forplus of it. For red colours the ruffian empire has already many materials, and might have many more ; but in a far greater quantity ftill are the plants for yellow dyes, which moreover moftly grow wild. By thefe materials various fhades,'and by a mixture with the reds even an orange colour might be produced, * Carthamus tin&orius, n 4 which 184 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. which would render numbers.ofexpenfive foreign drugs for dying quite unneceffary*. n Among the vegetables - for fabrication and trade likewife hops and tobacco, from their large and general confumption, hold a very important ftation. Both are raifed in Ruffia, but not in fufficient' quantity to fatisfy the demands of -domeftic in duftry or confumption. The hop is cultivated not only in gardens and fields, but even '-grows wild in moft diftrids of Ruffia and Siberia, par ticularly in Little-Ruffia, on the uralian moun tains, on the Altay, and in Taurida ; notwithi- ftanding; which, V greater or fefs> though always' but a -trifling quantity is imported. — Tobacco, indeed, as yet, according to the cuftoms of the country, is not one of the general neceffaries of the lower claffes of the ruffian people -f ; however, the confumption of it is by no means fmall, and the importation of this produd always by far over-r balances the exports. In the year 1 793 the former at St. Peterfburg alone amounted to upwards of * Guldenftasdt's akademifche rede, &c. § 51 — 54. -j- The practice of fmoking tobacco was held to be' a fin at the end of the laft century in Ruffia, and the clergy looked very grave upon the matter when Peter the great in the, year 1,698, granted the monopoly of the importation of tobacco to the marquis of Carmarthen and comp. In the year 1762 the monopoly that had been granted to count Schuvalof in 1759 was abolifhed, and fhortly afterwards the regulations mentioned above for the farther propagation of this culture were promulgated. Herrmann's ftatiitifche fchild. p. 297. 47,00a AGRICULTURE. 185 47,000 rubles,, and the latter, from all the ports of the empire, barely to 20,000 ; yet there is rea fon to fuppofe that the confumption of the inland tobacco muft have very much increafed, as Gul- denftsedt ftates the exportation of this produd in the year 1768 at 21,000, but the whole of the importation at 108,900 rubles. The culture of this plant, become by our prejudices and habits of fo much confequence to induftry and commerce, has been profitably carried on fince the year 1763 in feveral diftrids of the empire, when the govern ment diftributed the feeds, granted premiums, and publifhed the methods of proceeding beft cal culated to that end*. Moft of the tobacjco is ftill obtained in the malo-ruffian governments, where the firft attempts were principally made to encou rage the cultivation ; but alfo in other, regions, e. gr. about the Volga and the Samara, and particu larly by the Kozaks on the Orenburg and fiberian lines, this plant is much cultivated. The greater part of the ruffian tobacco is derived from ameri- can, but fome from turkifti and perfian feed. In the generality of the fouthern governments, thefe plantations admit of being greatly multiplied. The culture of the oil-plants ought juftly to be an important part of agriculture in Ruffia, as the confumption of oil during the fafts is very great ; but qf the plants adapted to this purpofe • TJkafeofthe nth of December 1763. only 186 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. only hemp and linseed are cultivated fo any competent degree. Ruffia fends annually abroad . a very great quantity of both, partly raw and partly preffed into oil; in ?he year 1793 the ex- portatiori of hemp-oil and flax- oil exceeded in value 697,000 rubles. But as thefe oils, on ac count of their unpieafarft tafte and fmell, can Only be taken as food by the loweft elaflSs-of peo-» pie, arid as the importation of fine oil ftill forms a very confiderable rubric, it .were certainly to be wifhed that the culture of thofe oil -plants could be more ferfoufiy adopted, wh'ieh are either already in Ruffe, and might be employed to this end, or after due trials might be fuccefsfully introduced. To the former belong : the wild almond -fhrub whofe kernel yields a mild fweet Oil, the poppy, the fun-flower*, the rape,- or wild turnep-fs &c. Befides thefe vegetables, feveral kinds of nuts are in fome places ufed for. expreffing an oil from them. Abundantly as thefe and many other plants grow, particularly in the fouthern provinces, the employment of them is yet not by far fufficient to take place of the importation of the olive-oil, * of the better fort of it, the oil of Provence. For fome years pari" indeed feveral attempts have been made in the culture of the olive-tree in Af trakhan ; but, though the hot fummer agrees fo well with this tender plant, the hard- winter is * Helianthus annuus. f BVaffica napus. not AGRICULTURE. 187 not lefs prejudicial to it, againft which it cannot be proteded by the utmoft care ; and it is now re duced to a certainty, that it will not thrive in thefe parts *. Whereas in the confines of the Terek the olive-tree grows wild, and in the fouthern mountainous ¦ part of Taurida it fuc- ceeds fo excellently, according to Pallas's account, that the beft kinds of it may be cultivated there -f. That fpot, however, being too contraded to be ever able, with the greateft cultivation of this ufeful tree, to produce a fufficient quantity of olive-Oil for the whole empire, another plant, therefore, fully capable of fupplying the deficiency of it, is deferving of the greater attention.1 This plant is the sesamum^, known in the north of Peffia by the name of knntfchuk. Its feed-corns are about the fize of muftard-feeds, and yield a very well tailed keeping oil, not inferior to the proveneal. Ruffia has hitherto obtained this oil from Bukharia and Perfia ; but it has been fhewn by experiments, that the fefamum plants flourifh very well in the fouthern governments, and yield there as much and as good oil as in their native foil. As" the culture of this plant, moreover, is very eafy, and Ruffia by that means might fupply * Rading, cekonomiedirektor in Aftrakhan, von der kul- tur des celbaums in Rufsland. Aufwahl cekon. abhandl. torn. iii. p. 305. f Tableau de la Tauride,- p. 35. X Sefain.um-©4en"fa-le,, one. 188 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. one of her great wants, for the means whereof fhe is at prefent dependent on foreign countries, it fhould furely be an objed of public concern to encourage the culture of fefamum by all poffible means. The Armenians and Perfians who refide in Aftrakhan know how to raife this plant pro perly, and a fufficient quantity of the feeds might be got from Schamachy and Glulan, from which places this oil is brought for fale to Aftrakhan and Kitzliar *. 'Ruffia, as well as other european countries, is deficient in spices; but not in an inferior degree^' to them does fhe poffefs feveral fpicey plants, which are as poignant to the palate, and might frequently fupply the place of thofe dear-bought foreign produds. Here may be named, for in ftance, saffron -j-, which, as has been before: obferved, is found of good quality "growing wild in Caucafus, and might eafily be raifed in great quantities; again, muftard, capers, fpanifh pepper,. and a confiderable number of aromatic flowers, herbs, and roots, the defcription of which would be here too tedious. The wild mustard J grows plentifully in the middle and fouthern go vernments ; it would therefore be attended with no difficulty to raife the beft forts of it, and the * Aufwahl cekon. abhandl.- tom. i. p. 14. tom. iii. p. 306. Pajlas, neue nordl. beytr. tom. i. p. 190. Gulden- ltscdt.'s akad. rede, &c. feci. 95. f Crocus fativus. J Sinapjs arvepfis. feeds AGRICULTURE. JgQ feeds might be procured from Germany and Eng land. The caper-shrub likewife grows wild about Kitzliar ; it might be propagated in the fait diftrids between the Kuma and the Terek. The -Armenians of Kitzliar and Aftrakhan are well fkilled in the art of pickling or preferving • the fruit of this plant, and the ruffian capers are of an ex tremely good ; tafte when gathered fmall *. The Spanish pepper is much cultivated about. Af trakhan and in the diftrids bordering on the Sa mara, and it very rarely happens that this fruit is prevented from coming to maturity by a pre mature froft. The ripe pods are dried in ovens, pounded in mortars, and then vended in whole poods as a favourite feafoning with the common people -f . Of the other feeds of this clafs we will only mention the anise and cummin, as of both are exported annually to the amount of fome thou fand rubles. Of medicinal plants of all kinds the ruffian empire poffeffes fo great a flore, that we need only refer to the new Pharmacopoeia Ruffica as a proof of it, .and to the cuftom-houfe lifts, where apothe cary-drugs form an article by no means infignifi- cant. The' trials that have been made at Mofco and in other parts of the empire to rear the genuine or chinefe rhubarb J merit a clofer ob- * Guldenftsedt's akad. rede, &c. 56, 95. f Pallas, travels, tom. i. p. 152. t Rheum compattum, Linn. ferva. 190 productive inbustry. fervation- The fiberian rhubarb * or rhapontic, grows in great abundance wild on the ftiores'of the Ural and the Yenifliey, in the daourian .mountains, and feveral other places ; and though the root of it, in regard to outward properties, is far inferior to the cbinefe rhubarb, yet will not yiejd to it in intrinfic excellence -f . ¦ It is even probable, that the fiberian rhubarb, if planted on mountainous, dry, and warm places,' "would be found equal to the cbinefe. Tea, properly fo called, is -not produced in the ruffian eriipire; but it is by no means deficient in well-tafted and wholefome fubftitutes for it. Among the tea- plants, which may -be adually ufed as fuch, the faflafras J is principally to be re marked which grows abundantly in the fouthern arid lofty fnow-mountains of Kolhyvan, is .gathered in quantities under the name of tschagirian tea, and drank by the common people. Thefe dried leaves are fo like the chinefe tea in tafte, effed., in the gold colour which they impart to the water, in fhort in every particular, that very little felf-denjal is requifite in habituating onefejf to this refrefhing liquor. The rhododendruni dauricum likewife poffeffes fo many qualities in * Rheum undulatum. f Guldenftasdt's akadem. rede, &c. 97* Pallas, travels, . tom. i. p. 15. 380. tom. ii. p. 559. torn. iii. p. 8. 235- X Saxifraga craffifoliat - com- • AGRICULTURE. 1Q1 common with the real tea-leaves, in form, fize, 'arid fragrance, that feveral naturalifts have held it to be the true tea-ftirub. The polipodium fra- grans ailfp deferves; to be noticed here; a curious, beautiful, and exceedingly .odoriferous fern, which is gathered by the Bursets on the fumrniis of rocks, •where it grows out of the crevices, and is taken as 4 wholefome tea againft fcorbufijC and colicky complaints. It may -be drank hkewife for its agreeabknefs, and it improves the common green tea to the utmoft excellency of flavour by putting -one or two leafy -ftalks w,ith it in the water. The odour ; of this herb is fo penetrating and lafting that it pervades whole chefts of clothes and drawers full of paper, which retain it for a great length of time *. Thp laft rubric of this long "roll of mercantile vegetables fhall be the salt-herbs, which are probably nowhere in the world found in fuch large quantities, and in fo great a variety as in the fouthern fteppes of the ruffian empire. If the falt-plants, which nature has produced fo liberally in thefe vaft and wild diftrids of land unfit for agriculture, were to be ufed for the preparation i>f foda, which is indifpenfably neceffary fo feveral manufadures, and forms an important article of commerce, Ruffia, inftead of having this, dear * Aufwahl. cekon. abhandl. tom. i. p. 27. Palla?, tra-. vels, tom. iii. p. 96 — 293. com- 192 PRODlTCTIvfe INDUSTRY. commodity to buy, would be able to fell much of it abroad. Nowhere are falt-plants in greater abundance than on the low grounds about the ffiores of the Cafpian, particularly round the bays and gulfs, and at the mouths of the Ural, the Volga, the Terek, in the neighbourhood of all the falt-lakes, great and fmall, and here and there in the flat part of the tauridari province. The in- exhauftible ftores of thefe regions, with the greateft confumption of it, would always prevent the ne- ceflity of artificially fowing the foda-plants, as in Spain and Languedoc ; the only precaution that muft be obferved in the gathering of them is never to cut them till the feeds are fo ripe as to fall out of themfelves, and to give birth to a new crop. Thefe herbs have hitherto only been ufed by the Kalmuks ahd Armenians for the aforefaid pur pofes ; and Ruffia procures annually from France and Spain a no ineonfiderable quantity of pre pared foda*. The fads that have been now adduced will be fufficient to give an idea of the ftate of ruffian agriculture in general. Defedive as the pradice of farming is in fome parts, it neverthelefs con ftitutes the moft material branch of national em ployment, and its produds the moft important article of annual acquifition. The grand1 objeds of - Pallas, von den ruffifchen fodepflantzeft, im St, Peterfb. journal, 1782, tom. iv. p. 110. agri- AGRICULTURE. 1P3 agriculture, corn, hemp, and flax, are the eflen- tial fourees of the national wealth, as being not Only adequate to the home confumption, but alfo fupply the moft copious articles of exportation. Ruffia is neVer obliged to purchafe corn from foreign countries, though by the diftilleries an enormous quantity of this moft indifpenfable of all the neceffaries of life is detraded from its proper and moft ufeful deftination. The deficiency fuf- fered by fome of the too northernly or unfruitful diftrids is fupplied from the furplus of other more favoured provinces ; and after deduding the two fold domeftic confumption, there ftill remains every year a very confiderable quantity for foreign ^markets. In the year 1793 the exports of the faid raw produds, exclufively of all articles that have undergone any preparation, amounted to up wards of fifteen millions of rubles ; a fum which is to be coniidered as the net produce of agricul ture, and the total whereof is doubled by taking into the account the manufadured objeds. With all the importance that we muft allow to the ruffian agriculture from a view of thefe undeniable fads, it cannot, however, be affirmed to have attained to any great intenfive perfedion. If we reflcd upon the monftrous population exclufively em ployed in rural induftry, and the natural bleffings enjoyed by the ruffian empire in fo many diftrids of its wide circumference, the produce of the huf- bandry, important as it is upon the whole, we vol. in. o fhall 194 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. (hall find not by any means correfpondent with thofe advantages. Agriculture can only then be faid to flourifh, when the greateft poffible number of inhabitants are employed in it, and at the fame time the greateft poffible produdion is obtained. This is only the cafe with fome few particular dif> Iri&s in Ruffia; and it cannot therefore be thought fuperfluous to conclude this head with fome ob- fervations on the general impediments and dif- advantagesfuftained by rural oeconomy in Rufsia. Every country is placed in certain natural and political relations which materially determine the adivity of its inhabitants, and confequently the fources of its national wealth. A fertile foil ex cites mankind to agriculture, rich mines invite them to explore and work the metals, the vicinity to the fea inclines them to commerce ; and where thefe branches of gain are not fufficient to employ the population, there, under certain favourable circumftances, workfliops and manufadories fpring -up. In. almoft all civilized countries feveral of thefe fources of fubfiftence are occupied at once, but the national induftry is generally direded to thofe objeds to which nature has in a manner difpofed them, and v no meafure would be more abluxd than to attempt to divert the great mafs of adivity, by artificial means, from thofe objedsj and dired it to others. The ruflian empire is in its natural fituation and frame fo happily confti- tufed, that its inhabitants are not only by no ; :. .-•-. means Agriculture. I95 means impeded in the free exertion of their adi vity, but on the contrary are routed and encourag ed, by the abundance and diverfity of nature, to all conceivable modifications of induftry. Arid yet agriculture is evefl here the fureft arid befc fource of the public profperity ; arid moft parts of Ruffia offer to this occupation in particular the choiceft means and moft extraordinary advantages. Unadvifeable, therefore, as it would be fo lay down any rule for the courfe of fhe national in duftry, or to confine it in any manner, it is ne ceffary however to affign the firft and moft im portant place among the national employments to agriculture, and to encourage the extenfion of it by all pradicable methods. — The means afforded to this end by theory as well as by experience are ' reducible to two leading principles, the univerfal validity whereof no one will ever doubt : firft, that the greateft poffible number of inhabitants fhould devote themfelves to this adivity ; and fecondly, that, with this adivity, they fhould obtain the greateft produce at the leaft expence of time and powers. The former implies a careful regard to the diftribution of the employment, the lattef a prudent difedion and regulation of it. That agriculture, like every other general occu pation, muft have for its bafis a numerous popu lation *, is a truth that needs no demonftration * By populoufnefs, in contradiftin&ion to population, is jmderftood the proportion the number of people bears to the o 2 furface 196 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. here, but -the confequences of it are of the utmoft importance. As the multiplication of the people can neither be forced by artificial means "nor yet by violent meafures, nothing remains for a wife government to do but to provide that the prefent number of people be as much as poffible employ ed, and in the moft beneficial manner. The whole body of perfons in a country whOfe abilities are applied to unfruitful employments, are exadly fhe fame as if they were not in being ; their negative exiftence is even a heavy burden to the country, as every individual who only confumes requires a p'fodudive individual whofe labour muft enfure the exiftence of the former. It is not the multitude of perfons, but their adequate employment and the produd of their labour" that conftitutes the furface of the ground they live on. A country, therefore, having a great population may yet not be populous, as the reverfe may alfo be the ca'fe. — The word employment is here taken in a political fenfe, denoting that aftivity by which any thing is produced or required. Employment in general is of two kinds : it is either permanent and realizes itfelf to its objeft,_as» for example, the labour of the coun tryman and the manufacturer : or it isnot permanent, realizes itfelf- to no objeft, and leaves behind it no token or value for which at any time afterwards a like quantity of laboflr may be had, as, for example, the employment of a domeftic fervant. The former is denominated productive, the latter unfruitful employment. Farther to unfold this idea would lead us greatly beyond our limits ; what has been faid will probably be fufficient jn explanation of the above remarks. . wealth AGRICULTURE. 1Q7 wealth of the country ; and nothing is more mani- feft, than that of two countries poffeffing an equal number of people, that in reality fhould be called the moft populous which applies a greater part of its inhabitants to produdive employments, and that the equal proportion of the number of per fons in both cannot long remain, becaufe the population in the one will as rapidly increafe as it will decline in the other.. Complaints of the want of a fufficient popula tion are frequently heard in Ruffia, without in quiring whether in many diftrids this defed be real or only a confequence of the proportionately fmall, badly feleded, or unequal adivity. Nobody will deny, that the ruffian empire, even in its moft populous provinces, is capable, of a ftill ftronger population ; but how much greater would be the wealth, how much more flourifhing the condition of this country, if only the adual population were generally employed in the moft advantageous man ner to the welfare of the whole. In vain does nature prefent her copious ftores, if 116th and ig norance refufe to employ tfjjem ; there are always in Ruffia many thoufand and thoufand fquare miles of the fineft and moft fertile foil, not inhabited but lying uncultivated ; again, there are always among its tribes numerous hordes of nomades, who fhun every toilfome culture; nay, even among the paramount nation, whofe elevated and refined ac tivity fhould hold as it were the balance of the 9 3 reft>. 1#S PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. reft, are numerous claffes of .perfons, who. are not only drawn off from agriculture, but whqfe em ployment is entirely loft to the country. We cannot here be thought to fpeak of the armies, as in an empire qf fuch wide extent, whofe borders touch on fo many foreign countries antf feas, and whofe relations are implicated in the, fates of two quarters of the globe, muft- be kept; up an armed force proportiqnate to its magni-: nitude andinternal ftrength to defend its vaft pof- feffions againft attacks from within and., without^, and to be able impreffively to aflert its honourable ftation in the general political fyftem. The mo- naftic ftate, likewife, . which is fo. highly injurious to induftry in fouthern- Europe, by enlifting 'un der its banners fuch numerous hofts ; of lidferSa has^ been rendered fo harmlefsfand even benign,- by the; wife limitations of the great. emperor.and his, illuf- trious fucceffor, that . we cannot reckon its exift-; ence among the obfta.ql.es to focial. adivity. Inftead, of thefe two. difadvantages,. which in Ruffia; are proportionately of fmaller influence than, in moft; countries of Europe, the employment, of , the na tion here fuffers under the preffure of two. adverfe. circUmftances which bear particularly hard, on agriculture and greatly leffen'the produd of that induftry.. We have here .chiefly in view, the prac tice of keeping fuch a gre.at number of domeftic., fervants by almoft every land-owner both in town , and. country. The number of boors that are thus drawn AGRICULTURE. 199 drawn off from the moft ufeful of all occupations, and employed in unprofitable houfehold fervices exceeds every idea that can be formed of it iri other countries, as here the ftate of vaffalage fa vours this fpecies of oriental luxury as well- as lef- fens in general the value of men and their labour! In a country where every one is obliged to hire perfons for his fervice, this kind of luxury can never rife to fo high a pitch as here, where the lord of an eftate, by converting his boor into a lacquey, makes a grand figure at the flight ex- pence of a trifling tribute in money' or fome in eonfiderable feudal fervice, and where the main tenance of him feldom exceeds the fcanty gratifi cation of the primary wants of life. It may be affirmed, without exaggeration, that in the-houfe of a ruffian nobleman five or fix times as many domeftics are kept as in families of equal rank in any other country in Europe, and the retainers of both fexes in fome of the great houfes in Peterf burg amount to a hundred-and-fifty or two hun dred perfons ; and that of Leof Afex&ndrovitch Narifhkin might be mentioned as an inftance. All the out-houfes and offices of perfons of quality fwarm with what are called dvortzoviye leudi, whofe numerous pofterity feldom or never go back to the plough; but, grown up in idlenefs, increafe and multiply for the fame deftination. In the country thefe noxious canker-worms of the ftate are indeed of fome ufe to their owners by the o 4 mechanical £00 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. mechanical arts which the mafter has occasionally caufed them to be taught, and by whom the want of town artifans and manufadurers is intended to be fupplied ; but in the larger towns this is very feldom the cafe, and even at the houfes of the quality there is always befides a great multitude . of loitering fluggards. in the ftrideft fenfe of the term. If it were poffible to make out an accurate lift of all the unneceffary domeftics and retainers at the houfes of the nobles in the whole circuit of the empire, we fhould fband amazed at the lofs fuftained by the produdive induftry of the country through this wanton prodigality, the confequences whereof to the country and even to individual proprietors are of the utmoft importance and de- ferve to be earneftly confidered by . every en lightened and,unbiaffed patriot. Another abufe by which agriculture is deprived of a multitude of laborious hands,1 is the frequent migration of country-people to towns where they find an eafier and more " commodious means of gaining their bread. Not only on aft the eftates belonging to the crown, but likewife on moft of them 'that are the property of noblemen, the boot pays his impofts 'not in natural produds, but in money. This annual pecuniary tribute, which is called obrok, as we have fhewn before, is levied on every male head, and is rated to the boors of the crown generally at three, but to the boors of the nobility on an average at about five rubles ;. ' , in AGRI-CULTURE. £01 m the worfe diftrids not unfrequently lefs, in cr00d often much more. In the country it is fometimes very difficult for the boor to raife this fiuh#Dy*huf- bandry and from the fale of the furplus of his pro duds ; whereas in the towns he is certain of earn ing that and even more in a fecure and eafy man ner. The landlords are, therefore, not difpleafed when their boors have an inclination and an op portunity for fo doing ; they grant them without difficulty paffports or permits to leave their homes and feek a livelihood in the towns. Here the boor in a fliort time becomes any thing, in which he can find employment : pedlar, footman, me chanic, artift, merchant ; he always takes care to have good profit, and not unfrequently by induf try and frugality, or by lucky adventures he foon is a fubftantial man. In the fame proportion as his income rifes, the revenues of his owner ufually increafe; and the very boor, who in the country could only by fevere exertions pay his fmall obrok, pays in town five or ten times more, and fome times lays up confiderable fums befide. True, the countryman feldom entirely forfakes his home . but during his long abfence the population fuf- fers as well as the culture of his fields; the ac quired property with which he returns is an addi tional incentive to his remaining acquaintance to feek in the fame way an eafier fubfiftence, and the aged boor, perhaps alfo grown infirm and dif- accuftomed to agriculture, becomes, in the gene rality 202 Productive industry. rality of inftances, an ufelefs confumer. — This pradice, wfeich, after all, is agreeable to the con- ftituti©%of the country, and as long as the feudal fyftem fubfifts is in fome degree neceffary, in order to fupply the want of free people in the towns; is not upon the whole deferving of cenfure; but the abufe it begets has in general very pernicious effeds on the cultivation of the country.' Of the boors who migrate to the towns, many of them are indeed as ufeful in another way ; yet a very great part of them here wafte their time and abili ties in utterly unprofitable employments. Larger ftrong, and healthy people, who were habituated to the heavieft labours of the field, are feen by hundreds in the refidence and the government towns, hawking about eatables, figures of faints and other articles for fale, which might as well be done by boys at a cheap rate, or employed in the culture of' culinary vegetables, which would be a fitter bufinefs for women, while the moft excellent lands in the heart of the empire are lying- fallow or only laboured by children. — Generally {peak ing, there is no civilized country in the world where there is fuch a wafte of the time and the abilities of mankind; and it would not be difficult to prove, that Ruffia, with the whole mafs of its human powers, partly not at all and partly un- profitably employed, might convert one of the moft. defert regions of the, empire into t'he moft flourifh ing province. This great difad vantage, was 3 above AGRICULTURE. 303 above five and twenty years ago a fubjed of deep concern to the late emprefs, as fhe declared from the throne ; and we cannot give a better fandion to thefe fhort remarks, than by concluding them with the very words of her Inftrudion*. " Ruffia has not only an infufficient number " of inhabitants, but comprehends large trads *' of country, which are neither cultivated nor " inhabited. — In what a flourifhing ftate would " this empire be, if by wife inftitutions we could, " obviate or prevent fo deftrudive an evil ! — " It feems that, together with other caufes, the- " method lately introduped, in which the nobles " receive their impofts. from the boors is detri- " mental to the increafe of the people, and to the " culture of the earth. Almoft all the villages " pay their lords certain imports in money. The "- proprietors, who, feldom or never vifit their vil-, " lages, rate each perfon at one, two, to five " rubles, without concerning themfelves how their " boors1 are to get together this money. — It " would of;all things be. extremely neceffary to " prefcribe laws to the nobility, enjoining them " in. determining the, impofts to be paid them to " aft with more confideration, and to demand " fuch impofts from, the boor as fhall be leaft u likely. to remove him from his houfe and from " his family. By this means agriculture would * * Ca^x. xii. feft. 265 — 271. " become £04 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. " become general, and the. people in the em- " pire would increafe. But at prefent a coun- " tryman -^remains perhaps fifteen years abfent' " from his houfe, goes to diftant towns and places " to feek his bread, and pays his impofts every " year." To the general obftacles to rural oeconomy in the ruffian empire muft be added the lazy vaga- ' bond way of life of moft of the nations inhabiting' the fouthern part of it, and particularly the larger'- half of Siberia fufceptible of culture. It is natu-' * rally to be underftood that we are not here fpeak- ing of thofe particular races, whofe inclement'- abodes feem rather to have been formed by Na ture for the refort of favage beafts than for' the' habitation of mankind; but even in the moft' • favoured regions there are tribes to whom the arts • of agriculture are as yet entirely unknown, and'. who derive their fuftenance folely from the woods - and waters, oj? from the rearing of cattle. N'e-' ' ceffary as the procuring of thefe objeds is, it is no lefs prejudicial that the induftry of a numerous population fhould be confined to the mere accep tation of the fpontaneous gifts of Nature. A peo ple maintaining itfelf by the chace, the fifhery, or the breeding of cattle, requires not only a much ' ¦ larger- furface of country for its fupport, but it mult choofe out the place of its abode according' to the advantages which it offers them for thefe occupations, and it is not unfrequently obliged to remove. AGRICULTURE. 2Q5 remove to another. Befides the difadvantajres that hence arife to agriculture, the population is likewife in a very confpicuous manner impeded. — In fad, the government has been as intent on converting the nomadic tribes to agriculture as to chfiftianity, or rather the former is. not unfre quently a confequerice of the latter ; accordingly thefe endeavours have happily fucceeded with fe veral nations and ftems : others again obftinately perfift in bidding defiance to all attempts that can be made to wean them from their extremely injurious floth. , As fiich. a... transformation. is not to be effeded by violent means, and the feveral meafures that were adopted in the mild fpirit of the late reign having apparently proved in- effedual, it becomes a queftiori highly deferr ing of inveftigation : what is the proper .method of leading thefe tribes to more ufeful occupations, and how they may (gradually be habituated to a more toilfome and permanent adivity ? Perhaps the fureft way would be to elevate their prefent employments by imperceptible degrees^ and in endeavouring to introduce other branches of them with which thefe people are hitherto unacquainted. •It would, for inftance, be infinitely" more eafy to encourage the paftoral people to a more careful attention to the breeding of fheep, and to fhear them for their wool, inftead of forcing on them in the room of this badly managed mode of gain ing their fubfiftence, fome other in dired ¦ oppo sition 20S PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. fition to their prefent fnannef of life. By feted- ing and gathering the wild-growing plants that are ufeful for manufadures and trade,' the h'oiria- dic people might likewife be very ferviceable, "Without being under the neceffity of abandoriirig their main occupation. As the iriipulfe to adi vity can only be roufe'd by the fenfation of warits, the increafe of thefe is the firft thing that fhould be aimed at, and it would therefore be a wife po litical meafure to affift the trading intercourfe of the nomades With more pOlifhed tribes, in order ¦ to bring them more acquainted with the accom modations of an improved way of life, arid to in troduce amorig them a fort of luxury which might Simulate them to greater induftry. It is plain from the foregoing fads that the ruffian empire lofes a very confiderable portion of its inhabitants partly by idlenefs, partly in ufelefs ^employments, whofe abilities might be applied to the advantage of culture; but even if all the peo ple it has — after deducting the numbers requifife for the fervice of the ftate, and for other appoint ments of equal Weight — were to devOte them-' felves to 'agriculture, the whole of them together- would riot ftill be fufficient to cultivate iri the moft' "beneficial manner the fuperficies completely ca pable of culture of this prodigious empire. Under thefe circumft'ances, Wliat rarely is the cafe, colo- ' nizings are really advantageous, and they may be conduded with very gfeaf fuccefs, if the means are not AGRICULTURE. QO? not wanting which a found political oeconomy pre- feribes to that end. The reign of" Catharine the fecond was in this refped of eminent confequence to Ruffia. Many thoufands of foreigners du ring that period came and fettled as well in the northern as the fouthern provinces, and the por pulation, the induftry, and the produdion of the ruffian empire have received a fignal increafe fince that . memorable sera. The defeds which muft; naturally have accompanied the firft attempts of that nature, will be from experience more eafily avoidable in future, if, as perhaps it may be ex- peded, the government fhould not henceforward lofe fight of this important objed*. The fecond principal means for bringing agri culture into a flourifhing ftate, is a fedulous and enlightened diredion of this induftry. On the fuppofition that the whole mafs of people in a country that are able to' work,. and are not em ployed in other equally ufeful occupations, were addided to agriculture, it would not thence fol low that agriculture there was carried on in great1 perfedion. The refult of this employment depends- * The ceconomicaj fociety at St. Peterlbnrg have unfolded- the principles upon which people ought to proceed in laying- eut new villages or colonies in uncultivated diftri&s, in 3 found and well-digefted treatife highly deferying to be read by all who are likely to have any concern in the matters to which it relates. See Aufwahl. eefcon. abhandl. tom. iii/ p. 27. fo SOS PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. fo much on the procedure of the countryman, or! his fupplies, on the conftrudion of his imple- ments,on the choice of his culture, and on a hun-* dred . other circumftances, that it would not be: furprifing if the confequences of fimilar" exertions fhould turn out very differently. A foil tilled by poor, unpradifed, negligent boors, furnifhed with badutenfils, can proportionately yield only a' far inferior crop to that of another of equal extent, quality, and population, inhabited by fubftantial^ • induftrious, and careful" people. Nothing there fore is of greater confequence than a rational di- redion arid regulation of this moft ufeful of all profeffions, for. eradicating prevailing prejudices, for the encouragement of application and induf try, and for promoting the diffemination of agri cultural knowledge. Nowhere is this guidance arid infpedion more needful than in a country* where the fyftem of vaffalage, at leaft in many cafes, cripples the fpirit of induftry, where of courfe the countryman feels but little incitement to re-- fine upon the means of'perfeding his bufinefs* and where, even- if he fhould difcoyer an inclina tion to it, it would be difficult for him to pro cure the neceffary knowledge and helps. Ere we . proceed" to a more accurate detail of thefe impe diments, it will be neceffary to give a general de lineation of the manner in which the eftates of land in Ruffia are tenanted and managed. The AGRICULTURE. §09 The Value of an eftate is eftimated partly by the fituation and quality Of the lands, andpriri^ cipally by the number of male boors belonging to it. At the fate or mortgage of a piece of ground; the latter forms the bafis whereupon the price of the eftate is calculated, in proportion to which the other natural , advantages are taken into the ac count *, and even the magnitude of an eftate is in common * This practice differs fo.much from the ufages of other countries, that what has been faid above, without fome far ther explanation, would with difficulty be underftood. The price of a single man is naturally very different, according to his greater or fmaller utility, his phyfical properties, his acquired abilities, and even according to the place where he is to be fold. Thus, a1 young fellow is bought dearer than an old man : a girl that knows how to handle her needle and to do the work of a houfe, or a footman who can drefs hair, will often coft twice or thre'e times as much, &c. The only equality in this matter is the pecuniary compenfation which the crown has fixed for each recruit to be raifed ; and this fince the year 1786 amounts through the whole empire to 360 rubles. In many diftri&s the boors have to pay as far as 700 rubles for an able-bodied recruit j whereas a fingle fellow is not unfrequently fold for 100 to izo rubles, and girls at 25 to 50 rubles. -=- But,- on the other hand, with whole' eftatds, wher6 the boors are sold with the la^td, and whef'e old and young, gfey-beards and children/healthy, and infirm, in fliort, all the people of the male fex, are in cluded, the price of them upon an average is fomewhat more determinate ; though here too, much depends on the nature of the foil, the fituation of the eftate, and" other cir cumftances. The national lombard, in all mortgages which it accepts, takesthe boor at 40 rubles ; but in the fale of an eftate they are feldom or never eftimated at fo low a price. vol. in. ~ ? In CIO PRODUCTIVX INDUSTRY. common occurrences never otherwife determined than by the number of the fouls, by which term only the boors of the male fex are underftood. By thefe likewife the income arifing from the eftate is generally fettled. Some proprietors diftribute all the referred land among their boors, taking from them only the^obrok ; others retain, befides the obrok, a part of the lands to their own ufe, which the boors are obliged to till by feudal fer vice ; others again take no obrok, but deliver to the boors only fo much land as is neceffary for their fupport, and caufe all the reft to be la boured for their own immediate benefit. Though- the difpofition of the eftates is reducible to thefe three main kinds, yet in real pradice a great dif ference obtains, as the fixing of the obrok, the feu dal fervice, the proportion of the manor-grounds and peafantry-lands, &c. depends occafionally on the will of the proprietor, who in this matter is limited by no law. A great part of the nobility never live on their eftates, and confequen tip; never addid themfelves to farming. Where merely an obrok is to be colleded, the perfonal prefence of the owrier is unneceffary, as every village pays its tribute yearly to its ftahroft or alderman, who In the government of St. Peterfburg every foul is paid for, according to the quality of the eftate, from two to three hundred rubles ; in other parts of the empire the price is commonly much lower, but at prefent hardly anywhere under a hundred rubles. tcanfmits AGRICULTURE. * QH tranfmits it to the feudal lord ; in the two other cafes, the eftates, in the abfence of their proprie tor are managed by what are called difponents, or even only by prikafchtfchiki or clerks, with full powers, which latter are cliofen. from the vaffal fervants, in whom fome confidence may be repofed *. Having o * This general defcription, however, principally fuits the great-ruffian provinces, and on the whole fa many variations are feen hi it, that we muft run out into a very prolix detail if we would treat this fubjett to its full extent. In feveral go vernments, e. gr. in Livonia, Efthonia, Courland, die obrok is not at all in ufe, but every farm is managed by ferfs 5 in the Ukraine , in Finland, in Ekatarinofkf, Vofnefenlk, &c. the boors are partly gleba: adfcripti, and partly quite free people who hire their land of the proprietor, paying for it either money and produces, or undertake feudal feivice. The odnodvortsi or petty freeholders, the number of whom in Ruffia proper is extremely gfeat, either perform their agri culture themfelves, or have it done by hired people ; befidesi; there is a multitude of free boors, fubjeft to no vallklage, a?, the Tartars, the foreign colonifts, Src. among whom neither feudal fervices nor any other perfonal duties are in pr.ifticc. — On the la,rge eftates, for example of count Razumofiky in the Ukraine, all the boors-have their own parcels of land, which they ufe at pleafure, but are not allowed to fell. They are at liberty even to remove from the manor, but in that cafe their lands and tenements fall to the lord. The lord has his particular lands, confiding of arable, meadow, and foreft, and lie difperfed in one part and another of the domains. Part of thefe are laid out in farms, as convenicncy may fuit with diftilleries and brew-houfes, in one place agriculture is pur fued, in aaothcr is the ftud of horfes, in others again cattle y 2 are 21<2 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. Having premifed thus much, we may now form fome judgment of the impediments which the feudal fyftem oppofes to agriculture and its far ther progrefs. In the firft cafe, that is, when the boors are only put upon the obrok, and have the free occupancy of all the trads of country, as they have on all the eftates of the crown, and on moft of thofe belonging to the nobles, the pref fure of vaffalage is in fad but very flight,, if the tribute only be proportionately fixed. It being perfedly indifferent to the owner of the eftate, in what manner and by what means the boor pro cures his livelihood, fo he do but regularly pay his obrok, it follows that the latter, under this adjuftment is in fome fort his own mafter, as being free to difpofe of his adivity, as well as of the fhare of the foil committed to him. Under fuch allowances, efpecially with a people fo alert, fo fpeculatihg, and felf-interefted as the Ruffians; induftry already receives, without any encourage ment, a powerful impetus ; and it would perhaps are kept, and fome are pafturages for fheep, " For all thefe feveral bufineffes the boors iriltft find labourers, or do it as feudal fervice themfelves ; each perfon commonly working two entire days every week for the lord of the manor. Gul- denfta;dt's travels, tbm. ii. p. 382. On n.any eftates the boors work three or even four days in every week for the lord. — As the civil'relation in whicl the feveral claffes of people ilaiil to each other has been reprefented in a former part of this work, to dilate any farther on that matter here would be needlefs.' ¦ ¦« be AGRICULTURE. O j g be .very defirable, that this method of farmino- fhoufd be rendered general throughout, if it were not attended with the above-mentioned difad- vantage, that the boors negled hufbandry to feek an eafier profit by other profeffion's. The blame of this, however, lies principally with the cove- toufnefs of the proprietor in purfuing his mo mentary private intereft to the lafting injury of the whole, and therefore is too ready to grant a pafs to the boor, becaufe by this means he per ceives the poffibility of railing his obrok. At the fame time it is not to be denied, that the ruffian boor himfelf is ever ready to exchange his plough for another bufinefs whenever he has an oppor tunity to take it up. It is therefore thought, and probably not without reafon, that agriculture has fuftained a confiderable injury by the feizure of the eftates of the clergy, as the monafteries caufed it to be conduded chiefly by feudal fervices, whereas the boors, fince they belong to the crown, pay only their obrok, which they colled by other means of profit. Eftates naturally bring in the greateft revenue, when they are neither let out, nor placed upon the obrok, but when the owner himfelf ex.ercifes farming, upon them. As the proprietor of an eftate. can take every advantage and iorpafe on his boors what feudal fervices he pleafes, it is pro bable, that culture on the whole is the greateft gainer by this method of farming; but it is no lefs p 3 probable, 5214 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. probable, that the boOrs are thus lefs fparcd, than if they were rated at a certain pecuniary tribute or put under a contrador, to whom limits are- ufu ally prefcribed in regard to feudal1 fervice. Far be it from us to wifh to aggravate the lot of a clafs of people already oppreffed, by tyrannical pro- pofals, or to build the profperity of agriculture on the ruin of the peafantry ; but, in corifidering objeds of fuch importance in a general point of v view, we are not to be ftartled at mere epithets. Having delineated the advantages and difad van tages of the obrok, we will now, with the fame _ impartiality, examine into the benefits and detri- ¦ ment of the feudal fervice, particularly in reference to the conftitution of the ruffian empire. By feudal fervices it is well known are meant the feveral kinds of labour which the ruftics are obliged to perform to their landlord, or to the feignorial pro prietor of the manor, either entirely for nothing or- for a very difproportionate reeompenfe. In a coun try where not only the earth and foil, but alfo the boor himfelf belongs to the freeholder, the deter mination of thefe fervices depends on the will of the latter. As^the1 owners do not always perceive or rather but rarely perceive their true intereft fo clearly as to proceed in this matter with due difcretion, it is not to be expeded but either the magnitude or the kind of thefe fervices fhould in mOft cafes fall heavy' on the countryman, becaufe the feudal fervice always takes, precedence of the private AGRICULTURE. gl^ private induftry of the boor, and confequently hinders him and puts him back in his own employ ments. In fhort, it is eafily imagined that ftie feudal fervices, as compulfory tafks, are never per- ' formed with the fame induftry, the fame exertion, and the fame nicety with which the boor would freely work for his own immediate benefit. Thefe general difadvantages which arife entirely from abufes, and, can only be; termed general under that fuppofition, are however in many cafes overbalanced by the utility produced by the feudal fervice under certain limitations. In the firft place it is clear, that in this manner far more land is cultivated, and confequently the produdion is far greater; again, the boor is under the neceffity of employ ing his time and abilities in the moft ufeful man ner, in lieu of the money-dues which he otherwife muft pay, and which he would provide for perhaps in a manner more convenient to him.; and the feudal fervices are not unfrequently a fchool of agriculture for the country people, as by them they learn inventions and improvements in huf- bandry, which otherwife perhaps would never1 come to their knowledge, - — In application to the prefent ftate of the ruffian empire thofe difadvan tages are of lefs, and thefe advantages are of greater, confequence. Here thefe feudal fervices are properly not performed for nought, as, when there is no obrok to be paid befide, they are in, lieu of a rent for the lands held by the boor, and p 4 when 216 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. when they are not fixed by ;tha didates of infati- able or tyrannical avarice, they are, for the fore going tfeafons, far preferable to the money-tribute alone. As, moreover, the fale of the country-pro-, duds is in feveral parts of Ruffia attended with difficulties which it is beyond the power of the boor to remove, he would either purfua agrieultura merely as a means of fubfiftenGe, or^negted it altogether, were he not by the feudal fervice com pelled to a greater produdiou. All this being calculated and weighed together, it appears, that no kind of farming, in tha pxsfent ftate of things, and without building on idle ex- pedations, could be better fuited and more advan tageous to the whole and to the individual, than a ftated proportion of the obrok and the feudal fervices fixed and eftablifhed by law. A moderata money-tribute ftimulates the countryman torin- duftry and traffic, that he may turn his produds into cafh, and begets in the proprietor a certain intereft in the welfare of his boors, as the fecuri.ty of- his receipts is dependent on their fuccefs^ at the fame time that it facilitates the profecution of other collateral means of gain.. Afcertained and reafonable feudal fervices prevent the negled of agriculture, help to increafe the produdion, and, as examples' of improved culture, may. uncom monly contribute to the advancement- of hus bandry. For- favouring liberty- and induftry. ftill mo#e, it might, be left to theopiioiv of the lord' •:- " to ¦ AGRICULTURE. gl7 to take payments in kind of his boors in lieu of feudal fervice, ftill on the fuppofition, however, that the proportion here likewife fliould be fettled by law. Any plans for rendering this matter pradicable will certainly not be expeded here; they can only with propriety be framed after due trial, by honeft and enlightened land-owners inti mately acquainted with the local relations, as they can only be enforced, and the difficulties tlley will have to encounter can only be furmounted by the ftrenuous exertions of the legiflative authority. In the mean time, however near or remote the hope of fo beneficial and important a reform may appear, it may not be in vain to remark the con fequences which would thence enfue to the im provement of agriculture. The countryman, who would then have no arbitrary impofirion of bur dens to fear, would pay his dues and perform his feudal fervice, as equitably afcertained by law, with, greater fatisfadion ; and, as he-could employ the remainder of his time and abilities as his own free property, he would feel more inclination and fpirit toa better application of them. Farther, as the generality of proprietors would be induced to eulti-r vafee a portion of their lands on their own account and to their own benefit, the produce of them would no longer be fo indifferent a concern as it is at prefent to all thofe who^are content with the bare receipt of the cuftomary- obrok. The nobles would naturally then be more fedulous than they 5 have 218 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. have hitherto been to acquire a knowledge of the; farming bufinefs, the diffemination whereof would not only, by means of the feudal fervice, be more general among the country-people, but the nobility themfelves would promote it, for the, fake, of be coming, by the greater profperity of the boors, more fure of their pecuniary income. ' The riieans to this end would be facilitated in feveral ways, fince it has been cuftomary with the ruffian no bility to travel into foreign countries, and to learn foreign languages, and fince the free ceconomical fociety at St. Peterfburg have with fuch an honour able zeal, and fo difinte'reftedly and beneficially anfwered the purpofes of their inftitution. The. writings of this fociety, which have appeared du ring the laft thirty years in the ruffian language, contain a good fund of pradical maxims and pro- jeds, moftly adapted to local exigencies, for the improvement and extenfion of liufbandry. In them may be feen directions how the methods of culture now in ufe may be multiplied and elevated, or new ones be introduced; they furnifli means for preventing, the failure of crops, for repairing the devaftations of the maggots in corn, and for curing the difeafes of cattle ; they recommend a multitude of tried projeds for improving the. prefent (Jefedive and inadequate implements of hufbandry, &c. Sooner or later, perhaps, their patriotic endeavours may attain their end; but certain it is that it woVud be more fpeedily'and effedually AGRICULTURE. ojq effedually done in the beforementioned circum ftances. We have touched upon fome of the general defeds and impediments which retard the progrefs of agriculture in Ruffia;- we have even prefumed to deliver an opinion how thefe defeds might be remedied, and thefe hindrances removed or dimi nifhed. Though it be the common fault of pro- jeds, that they are always well intended but feldom pradicable, outs at leaft muft efcape the cenfure of being founded only on an ideal bafis. Convinced that the entire abolition of the ftate of vaffalage would be at prefent accom panied with infurmountable difficulties, and that fuch a beneficial reform is not fo likely to be ef- feded by laws and imperative commands as by a change in the general way of thinking and by a greater degree of intelledual improvement, we have all along taken the prefent condition of the people as our leading principle, and only endea voured to call the attention of thofe whom it may concern to this important truth : that the moft: infallible method for making agriculture flourifh is by relieving the countryman and fecuring his exiftence by law againft the arbitrary power of his manorial lord. What member of the community, what truly enlightened land-owner will deny or fufped the truth and general foundnefs of this maxim ? Who would not wifh to fee it put into execution ? Indeed 220 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. Indeed farming in general did receive during th^, late reign fo many and powerful encouragements that its progrefs in that period was very -confider able. Numberlefs trads of wafte lands were, oc-, cupied by colonifts and hufbandmen, or granted to individuals for rendering tfeenvufeful*; attempts were made to gain an accefs for agriculture among feveral nations or claffes of people hitherto idle, and to attach the countryman to it by various means and inftiturions. *. By the eredion of new towns, by the, eftablifhment of public' granaries, by making rivers navigable, by the encouragement of trade and manufadures, the barter and f$le of the country-produds have been facilitated to an uncommon degree. The foundation of the ceconomical fociety has been of great importance to hufbandry in more than, one . refped ; not only by diffeminating through the papers of its members a variety of , ufeful information, but alfo by propofing/ pre miums it has excited the induftry and application of the countryman. Freeholders of all ranks have taken upon them to try and to execute their pro- jeds, and- a fpirit of adivity and diligence has-, by thefe exerripns. been diffufed to the rernoteft re- * Among the later ordinances promulgated concerning agriculture, two principally were, of great conference. By one of them a corn-tax wasimpofed in moft of the govern ments, and the other ordered the s^le or all the cr&wn-. LANDS THAT ARE UNOCCUPIED. .."'...¦ . , gions. Agriculture. q%\ gions. Among the more wealthy proprietors there are perfons who have qualified themfelvesfbr farm ing their own eftates, and, there are now feen in many parts of Ruffia eftablifhed farms which might vie with, the beft in feveral other countries,. To defcend to particulars would occupy more room than we can fpare from the feveral fubjeds we have yet to treat of; and indeed, we may have already from the importance of this article, been tempted to dwell too long upon it, at leaft in the opinion of fome of our readers, with whom it may not excite- an equal intereft ; but feveral of the fads here mentioned will be feen confirmed as we proceed. SECTION V. Horticulture. ,The remaining branches of produdive induftry can properly be coniidered as -no more than col lateral employments of agriculture; and, as the produds arifing from them form no part of foreign commerce,, and confequently have no ftatiftical importance, we may comprife the following fecr tions of this book in fo much- the narrower com- pafs. None of thefe employments is. fo nearly related to the culture of fields as the culture of gardens, as the two; fpecies of induftry not unr frequently have for their- objed the raifing of 'the fame 2.22 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. fame produds : the 'latter, however, differs in thisy that it is chiefly employed for mere confumption-,' and demands a more confined but more careful* culture. The fcene of this adivity we muft prin cipally. lay in middle and fouthern Ruffia. If, as we. have heretofore feen, a great part of the ruffiaiti empire be unfit for producing the commoneft* fruits of the earth, it may be expeded that a ftill greater part by far of its furface is loft to garden ing; and if there be tribes who uniformly rejed;. the fimple and lucrative bufinefs of agriculture* it is natural that there fhould likewife- be' thofe. to whom the more artificial and lefs profitable cul ture of gardens is utterly unknown. On the whole it may be even faid of this induftry, that it correfponds but very- imperfedly with the riches and liberality of nature ; and thOugh the majority of its objeds are here and there even wild and in plenty, yet human induftry has done but little either to diffufe Or to improve it. We may fpare ourfelves the needlefs trouble of fpecifying by name all the culinary vege tables that are cultivated in Ruffia; it will be better to confine ourfelves to the mention of fome fpecies, which are worthy of our notice as articles of food. Of this fort are, for example, the cab bage, the confumption whereof in all poffible forms, but chiefly as four-kraut, is immenfe ; and for the greateft part of the year fupplies a daily difti to the lower claffes. In no lefs general ufe * are HORTICULTURE. are onions, garlic, and cucumbers, which are fre quently eaten raw by the common people, with whom they almoft everywhere fupply the place of a fallad. With the country-folks of Finland tur nips are not unfrequently a fubftitute for bread, but in proper Ruffia they are not very commonly eaten. — Moft kinds of pulfe grow there, but the cultivation of them is not in all parts alike- Turkifti beans, as they are called here, and by us french -beans, are frequently found, in the gardens of the fouthern diftrids, but in the northern pro- ¦ vinces of Siberia they feldom ripen. Beans and peas are generally very common ; lentils, on the contrary, are rarely cultivated, and in Siberia not at all. — Carrots, parfnips, chicory, truffles', and other roots are fpontaneoufly produced by nature in the regions to the fouth ; in the middle and northern they are pretty frequently raifed in gar dens. — Thefe latter alfo contain a great variety of edible mufhrooms, which at leaft fhould be mentioned, becaufe they are not eafily gathered and eaten elfewhere in fuch numbers. Thefe then are nearly all the objeds cultivated by the countrymen in kitchen- gardens. The cul ture of the finer vegetables is only carried on in the neighbourhood of large towns, but there with fuch fuccefs that the ruffian gardeners are univer fally allowed to poffefs a peculiar talent that way, and it is feen by numberlefs examples, that the Ruf fians only want a few diredions and more encou ragement . ,- .. 4 224 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. ragement for excelling in every kind of culture, In fpite of the difficulties attending horticulture about St. Peterfburg, from the rudenefs of the climate, yet the choiceft culinary vegetables are raifed fo early, in fuch perfedion and in fo great abundance, that they are to be' had at every fea fon of the year, and generally cheaper than in many parts of northern Germany. As an inftance of this induftry we will only mention afparagus, which in the government of Mofco and fome others is fo much cultivated, that they are fent round the country far and wide as an article of trade. The fame may be faid of artichokes and other tender ^vegetables, which in feveral places the country men not only underftand how to cultivate, but alfo to keep for every feafon. — On the whole^ however, kitchen-gardening, particularly in the interior provinces, is but very miferably- managed, though in many diftrids it might be made a pro fitable branch of bufinefs, efpecially for the fe male fex. Habituated to a fimple manner of liv ing, and attached to his national cuftoriis, the common man contents himfelf with 'cabbage, oni ons, and cucumbers; and, as the ruffian cufto mary meals render no great change of vegetables neceffary, we therefore fee, even at the tables of the higher claffes, thofe of the great cities ex cepted,, feldom any other than the ordinary kinds of them. So HORTICULTURE. 223 * So much the richer is Ruffia in fruit-bear- ing shrubs and wild berries of every fpecies; the latter are therefore gathered in incredible quantities, and eaten either raw or preferred with honey and fugar. It would not be eafy to point out a country where this confectionary is more current than here. Among the countlels multi tudes of wild and planted berries, the cranberry * at leaft deferves to be particularized, as fupplying the want of lemons in the northern diftrids by its falutary acid juice, and is even not unfrequently ufed in St. Peterfburg for fimilar purpofes. The other excellent berries, likewife, are Chiefly pecu liar to the north of Ruffia as well as to all Siberia ; the large garden-ftrawberry or hautbois are even found wild in the. territory of Irkutfk. . On the altayan mountains the red currant grows to the fize of an ordinary cherry, and ripens in large bun ches which are of an excellent flavour. The con fumption of all thefe little wild growing fruits is exceedingly great. Befides the prodigious quan tities which are generally eaten raw or preferved in fugar and honey, they are ufed in preparing feve ral cooling and fpirituous liquors -f-. — The hazel- bufh is found over all Ruffia, as far as the Kama ; but not in Siberia; ii is particularly plenty in the region between Simbirfk and Kazan, where it gives * Vaccinium oxycodcos. In rufs, klukva and fhnravika. f Herrmann's ftatiit. fchilder. p. 227. VOL. ui. q life 226 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. rife to a branch of trade not ineonfiderable, as a great part of Ruffia and all Siberia are hence fup plied with a fweetmeat in very general ufe, eaten in the falls with nut-oil. As in all the towns and villages whejever we go, we fee the common peo ple eating nuts by way of paftime, we may thence form a conclufion of the vaft. confumption. of them. A few years ago in the aforefaid part of the coun try a weight of four pood at the firft hand was worth about a ruble, and no farther off than the next towns, the price was already one and a half or two rubles *. — The well-flavoured eedar-nuts are found about the Ural in great plenty. A Culture entirely peculiar to the fouthern pro vinces of Ruffia is that of the sugar-melons and Water-melons, or arbpufes, which only thrive in the open air to the 5 ad degree of lati« tude. In moft parts of this region* particularh/ towards the Volga, the Don, and the Ural, thefe; fruits are raifed in furprifing quantities, as the Culture requires but little trouble. The melon- gardens, which from their fize might rather be called fields, are ufually furrounded with nothing more than a flight fence, juft fufficient to keep off the cattle, and divided into long beds, between which, in the oriental fafhion, little channels are raifed or cut in the clay, for properly watering the plants. For this reafon thefe gardens are always * Georgi's travels, torn. ii. p. 798. 5 laid =** HORTICULTURE. 22? laid out contiguous to a ftanding or running water, which fometimes is brought into the channels by an engine worked by a horfe. The melons re quire a more careful culture, efpecially the fupe- rior forts, as cantaloupes and the like ; whereas the arboufes more eafily come forward, and with little pains they are brought to an extraordinary bulk. In the government of Ekatarinoflaf they are treated with fcarely more care than the moft vulgar field-fruits ; and yet on every field there are arboufes weighing thirty pounds, that in point of fucculence and mild flavour cannot be ex celled*. Thecommon orchard-fruits fiiCceed every where in the middle and fouthern part of Ruffia ; and on the Volga and the Oka, in Little Ruffia, Caucafus, Taurida, &c. really large orchards are feen : nevertfrelefs thefe diftrids do not by far produce fruit fufficient for fupplying the whole empire, and particularly north Ruffia and Siberia. As there feems to be but little difpofition to mul tiply and improve the prefent kinds of fruit, or to dry and preferve what they have, it need not excite our furprife, that Ruffia, notwithftanding the prod udivenefs of its fouthern provinces, fhould import a very confiderable quantity of foreign fruits. In the year 1794 only at St. Peterfburg * Pallas, travels, torn. i. p. 301. Preiffchriftcn und ab handl. der cekon. gefellch. tom. i. p. zoo. q 2 were 228 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. .were brought in to upwards the value of 636,000 ^rubles, among which however were feveral kinds which either could not be raifed at all in Ruffia or only in infufficieht quantities. . Wild apples and pears >grow as far as the 49th, but wild, plumbs and cherries to the 55th degree of north . latitude. In the lefs favoured regions; where thefe fruits' do not come forward in the open air, art is fometimes, in an admirable man ner, employed to the ajfiftance of nature : but this induftry, the child of opulence and . luxury, is only exerted in the vicinity of great towns, or at fome few country-feats, and then moftly by fo reigners. Of all the fpecies of fruit produced by ^the. ruffian empire, apples and pears are the moft abundant, and - it is almoft of them alone that there are feyeral improved forts, and the cul ture whereof is purfued in the grofs. All the •villages on the Volga and the Oka have their( orchards, or more properly apple-gardens, , and numbers of boors live here without hufbandry, merely by horticulture, in good circumftances. Jn profperous years it is not uncommon for a countryman to, take from three to four hundred rubles of a chapman who agrees for the fruit on the trees, and gathers them himfelf; and many villages get fometimes above ten thoufand rubles for the fruit they have raifed themfelves. ' All the -kinds of apple growing here are originally from Aftrakhan, Perfia,.and theKabardey; the euro- -•••¦' - ., pe'an HORTICULTURE. ' 22f?- pearr forts, rerinets, pippins, : codlins, &.c. are feen hefe nowhere. The: moft remarkable of thofe: that thrive' in thefe, part&'is the kireffkoi apple,-. which often "grows folarge'as to weigh four, pounds* having an agreeable acidulaus'"flavour> and keeping a long time*/— In other diftrids alfo the-apple- is cultivated with great fuccefs, as, • for example, about Mofco- and fome of ' the adjacent go vernments, where they produce particularly a. tranfparertt fort, brought originally from/ China, full; of juicey and extremely, well-tafted, called nalivui, full-meltirig, as, in fad, it is fo- full of juice as to be ready tO burft. Their'flavlout is a pleafant.acid ; and, on holding: them up to the light, the core'is-diftindlydeen, and the pips, may be counted. Tn feveral of the governments'. great returns are made with orchard fruits, and the ap ples in particular %rm no trifling branch of inland traffic : m the government-towns, Kaluga and , Simbirfk, for inftance, thefe returns amount one year with another to eighteen or twenty thoufand- rubles *. At the fame time, plentifully as thefe kinds of fruit are produced, yet they are not by any means adequate to the demands of' the whole empire, and particularly Siberia. The european governments lying to the north, therefore, receive * Georgi's travels, torn. ii. p. 836. 1 * Statift. ueberf. der ftatth. des ruff, reichs, xvi. xxr. xxxi. q 3 by 230 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. by the ports on the Baltic confiderable cargoes" of foreign apples and peats, partly frefh and, partly dried ; whereof at St. Paterfbufg alone in the year 1 7 94 were imported to the amount of more than 122,000 rubles. Befides the propagation and ira* provement of the prefent kinds, which are capabfe of being far more diverfified, it would therefore be iieceflary to render more common the pradice of drying thefe fruits and the making of paftry. Cherries, efpecially of the fpanifh fort, are not only very frequently produced in orchardSi but in fouthern Ruffia are even whole forefts of cherry- trees. In fome diftrids the culture of this fruit is carried to fuch an extent, that it conftitutes the main branch of fubfiftence to the inhabitants, as in feveral circles of the government of Vladimir; and yet fo little is it here thought of improving it, that there are nowhere any more than two kinds, and they not much bigger than: the ordi nary carroons*. The fteppe-cherries, which grow wild in the governments of Ufa and Caucafus^ are Chiefly ufed in making cherry-wine, which is diftributed throughout the country, and alfo yield an excellent aromatic vinegar. In the confines of the Terek grow cornel-cherries, which, pre ferved unripe in vinegar, are equal in flavour with the veronefe olives -f. — Plumbs are very pleif * Pallas j travels, tom. i. p. 19 — 153; f Falk*s beytraeg. torn, ii, p. {17. tiful HORTICULTURE... ¦ : @3i tiful in feveral parts, particularly in kJttk-Ruffia, on the Terek, in Taurida, and atjc-ut Mofco. . In the government of Vofnefenfk they are frequently dried in ovens and tranfported in that manner. — The importation of dried plumbs and cherries .amounted in the aforefaid year at St, Peterfburg to upwards of 3^,000 rubles; an expence, which might eafily be faved, if the countrymen would accufbam themfelves to th^ preparation of baking? fruit. Neither is Ruffia entirely deftitute of the fupe- rior kinds, of tree-fruit, though the limited circuit in which they flourifh in open air cannot furnifli enough of them for the demands of the whole empire. Apricqts and peaches fucceed in moft parts of Taurida and Caucafus, and in the fouthern circles of Kief, Ekatarinoflaf, Vpfrjefenfk, and fome other governments without much tend ing ; but in the middle regions they require green- houfes, in which, however, even in St. Peterfburg they are raifed in the greateft perfedion. The cherries of Kitzliar, Aftrakhan, and Taurida are excellent ; but in all other places they are fmall, and feldom come to full maturity ; whereas the apricot-trees are not fo fenfible, and thrive very well even in fome parts of kittle-Ruffia. — The quince-tree grows wild and plentifully in the forefts about the Terek ; they would .probably fucceed too in other fouthern provinces. -?- Cjies- nut-trees are only found fingl-y in. Taurida, q 4 Kief, 232 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. Kief, and Voronetch : as they fucceed in the latter governments,1 there is no doubt that they 'might alfo be raifed in all the fouthern. — Wal nut- trees' are1 feen in moft' diftrids' of fouthern Ruft fia[ and generally in great abundance; but the almond-tree grows Only in the provinces that lie moft to the fouth. Probably the culture of it might be tried With fome fuccefs even more norths- wards, at leaft it is here in fome degree compen- fated for by a fhrub, called by the botanifts amygdalus nana, and is found in abundance in the open fields of middle: Ruffia and the fouth of Siberia. This fhrub would thrive in more northern diftrids, as it fucceeds very well, even in St.' Pe tersburg: Its fruit yields in no refped to the bitter almonds, and they can even be deprived of this bitternefs by fleeping them for a few days in brandy, whereby the almonds become fweet and the brandy gets the agreeable tafte of perfico. -r- Figs and pomegranate-trees are feen fingly near Kitzliar and in Taurida; but lemon and orange-trees are everywhere raifed only in hot-tioufes, -though Pallas aflures us that they would" very well'bear the whiter in Taurida, with fome attendance*. — Certain it is, that all thefe cultures might be generallypfopagated and even tranfplanted into more northern diftrids ; and if \t be confidered that Ruffia would thus be a gainer of "above half a million annually, which at * Qnldenftsdt's akad, rede, &c. 90^-95. prefatf- CULTURE OE THE VINE;- 233 prefent goes abroad for thefe articles that are now "become neceffary, no farther remark is requifite for rendering the importance of this kind of inf duftry comprehenfible. SECTION VI. Culture of the Vine. X he fame obfervatipn with which we concluded the foregoing fedion holds good to a ftill greater extent of the culture of the vine, to which the fouthern regions of the empire offer lingular advantages, but which have hitherto been fo ex ceedingly negleded, that Ruffia is obliged, to ob tain its whole fupply of wine from foreign count- tries. From Q-uldenftagdt's ftatement we learn that about thirty years ago Ruffia purchafed wine to the amount of 445,000 rubles, brandy to that of 207,000, and wine-vinegar to fhe wprth of 11,000 rubles; for dried fruits of the , vine fhe paid 27,000 rubles for raifins, and 7000 rubles for currants. This importation, which has coa- fiderably increafed fince the year 1769*, might at leaft be diminifhed by one half if only the com- * In tlie year 1 794, at a time when by the prohibition of vfr"erich wine this article of public expence was greatly lef- fened, the importation at St. Peterfburg alone amounted to 734,000 rubles in wine, 7000 rubles in brartdy, in vinegar 43,000, in raifins 60,000, and in currants 15,000 rubles. The fmaller coftfumpwo^. of (h,e foreign brandy js therefore much 234 PRODUCTIVE -INDUSTRY. moner fort of table-wine, the confumption of which is the greateft, were produced in the' coun try, whereby at once both the induftry and the population of the fouthern provinces would ac quire a very important fource of encouragement. — The parts in which the culture of the vine is at prefent carried on are the governments of Cau cafus, Taurida, Ekatarinoflaf, and Vofnefenfk, and the country of the Don- kozaks; in the mah> ruffian governments, and fome other provinces of the fouthern regions, the vine-ftock, indeed, here and there fucceeds, but the produce of it is gene rally fo fmall as not to merit particular notice. In the government of Caucasus, and parti- . cuiarly the territory about Aftrakhan and on the Terek are diftrids where the vine is cultivated with fome fuccefs on the large fcale. The cul ture of the vine at Aftrakhan took its rife in the laft century, when an Auftrian monk became the Triptolemus of that country*. This man, who much overbalanced by the larger demand for the other ar ticles. In the year 1768 the whole amounts of the products "of the vine imported. were 697,000 rubles ; in the year 1794 at the port of St. Peterfburg alone w'ere entered to the value of 859,000 rubles of them. * Olearius, travels into Perfia. Weber's verandertes Ruff- land, tom. i- p. 156. Gmelin's travels, tom. ii. p. 115. . Befchreibung und gefchichte des weinbaus in den fudlichen gegenden Rufslands, von Rading, cekonomia direktor in Aftrakhan; in der aufwahl eeko'a. abhandl. tom. iii. p. 291. was CULTURE OF THE VINE. 2S5 was brought ..to Aftrakhan as a prifoner, and, here adopted the greek -religion, planted in the vici nity of his monaftery perfian vine-ftems,v which fucceeded fo well, that in the year 161.3 he re ceived orders from tzar Mikhaiia Feodorovitch to lay out a regular vineyard in that city. Several of the inhabitants foon followed his example, and: in 1640 they, took into their fervice a, german vine-dreffer named Bothmann. Peter the great, to whom no objed of general utility was indiffe rent, caufed feveral forts of vine-Hocks of the moft celebrated european vines, and a vinetdreffer be-. longing to each of them to be written for, who was to treat and to tend the vine-ftocks accord ing to the pradice in his own country. Almoft all of them throve, and in a fhort time Aftrakhan was in poffcffion of a variety of fine grapes, of which at prefent are reckoned no fewer than twenty different forts. Nothing is more to be lamented, than that thefe vine-dreffers were no: fo expert as wine coopers, and had not the art of making good wine. The vineyards were now in the beft condition poffible, but the wine turned out badly, and from all the, various kinds of grapes only one fpecies of wine was produced, namely, what is called the tfchichir, which,, on account of its tart and unpleafant tafte, is ftill, notwrthftanding. the improvements it afterwards had, in very bad reputation. The culture of the vine now by infenfible degrees declined fo much, that 236 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY." that' even the vineyards" belonging to the crown were fuffered to go, almoft entirely to ruin, till under the reign of the emprefs Elizabeth, a Ser vian, of the name of Parobit-ch, was appointed di- redor of them. This- ingenious and adive per- fon not- only reftored *he imperial vineyards, but raifed the culture of the- vine in general into fuch repute, that it began to -be an important and gainful bufinefs. The wine was now .-indeed drink' able; but the want of good- wine-coopers ftill continuing, it did not attain, to its due perfec tion j and the honeft Pardbitch dying after hav ing . faithfully and ufefully difcharged his office for. fifteen years, the crown vineyards fell -again into a ftate of decay. On the eredion of the mu nicipalities in the year 17^86 thefe vineyards were relinquifhed by grant to the corporation, on condition that the imperial court, as .; heretofore; fhould be fupplied with fruit from them-; and the" boors 'belonging to the vineyards obtained per-' miffion to infcribe themfelves as citizens or td choofe fome other ftarion, and follow any other trade. As all the work, muft now be done by hired people, and the town finding it occafioned more lofs than profit, leave was granted them on their petition to fell all the crown-vineyards ; and the culture of the vine, which from" its origin, for a fpace of a hundred and feventy-five years;" had been chiefly a concern of the government; is ¦ >¦'¦ <--< • • -, become v CULTURE OF" THE VINE. 237 become, fince that period a mere objed of private induftry. For all this however it is not the lefs profecuted with confiderable benefit, though not fo much in the view of obtaining wine, as for raifing good grapes, which are hence diftributed over all Ruffia and even beyond. A pood of thefe grapes coft- ing on the fpot between two and three rubles, and this profit being much eafier and furer than that on the making of wine, it is not to be wondered at that the owners of vine-yards confider the wine- prefs as a mere collateral concern, .aridi only con vert into wine fuch clufters as remain upon their hands unfold, that they may not be entirely loft, •The fmall quantity of it made at Aftrakhan finds a certain fale, as muft or ftum, among the common people ; and to thefe feveral caufes it is to be af- cribed that good old wine is fo feldom to be'Jiad here by wholefale. The culture of the vine-flock is therefore here rather a fort of gardening than the proper bufinefs of the vintager, and accord-i ingly the principal concern is to raife thick-fkinned grapes, which are fitter for tranfport, but by no means juicy enough for yielding much wine. For the fame reafon too they force the grapes by copi ous irrigations to a prejudicial magnitude *, and inftead * " As in Aftrakhan they have the bad habit of watering " the vineyards to an immoderate degree fo as to make " almoft- bogs of the vine-beds, it is no wonder that the juice from 238 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. inftead of ftripping off fhe leaves, as is generally done to expofe them more to the fun, they are carefully fliaded by the aiftrakhan vine-gardeners, that they fhould not get fpots from the fun-beams. Both give the grapes a beautiful look, but it would be impoffible to ad more abfurdly, if they wanted to get good wine. On the Terek near Kitzliar, and on the Don in the territory of the Kozaks likewife a great many vines are reared ; in the firft-mentioned diftrjd they frequently even grow wild. Though the foil is here far more adapted to the culture of the vine than about Aftrakhan, the wine notwithftand- ing fucceeds no better, becaufe the carelefs and inexperienced inhabitants have no notioa of im proving it. The hiftory of this culture is un? known ; probably it might have its-origin from the wild vines growing in feveral parts of the cauca- fean diftrids, as both the wild and the reared vine- flock alike bear purple clufters. Not only the " from thefe watery grapes turns out poor of vifcous and " faccharine parts, and can afford no good and fpirituous " fermentation. It feems to me that the bad quality of the " aftrakhan wine is more owing to the watering than to the " faltnefs of the foil, and then perhaps infome meafu-re to the *' carelefs manner of preffing. — If it be intended to have " regular vineyards, and to obtain' in the country a good *' wine that will keep, that continual pouring of water on " the roots of the vine-ftocks muft be avoided as a material ** injury." Pallas, travels, tom. iii. p. 627. foil, CULTURE OF THE VINE. .239 foil, which is here little faline, but alfo the wea ther is more favourable to the cujfure of the vine than at Aftrakhan, as fhowers of rain are more fre quent, and confequently the expence there occa- fioned by the watering is avoided. Befides, the inhabitants of the parts about the Terek and fhe Don convert almoft all their grapes into wine, of courfe the obtaining of it is a great objed with them ; it is therefore indeed to be lamented, that it fhould turn put ftill worfe if poffible than the common aftrakhan wine. The example of feveral proprietors of thefe vineyards fufficiently proves, that even without art or diredion, but with fome care, a good potable' wine may be got, from the vines ordinarily growing there *. The manner in which the culture of the vine is profecuted both in Aftrakhan and at Kitzliar ¦f, * An example of this nature highly worthy of- imitation has been given by lieutenant-general von Beketof in Aftrak han. As foon as he had laid out his vineyard and put it in order, he wrote for a wine-cooper from Germany, and caufed feveral pupils to be taught by this man. By the improved procefs now adopted, the wine was fo much the better that the owner fome time ago had from twelve to fifteen thoufand calks of wine lying in his cellar, the oldeft of which had been there feventeen years, and by feveral good judges in Mofco was taken to be mozelle or claret. — By the fame method another land-owner on the Terek obtained form the common grapes there a well-flavoured wine. See Aufwahl cekon. abhandl. tom. iii. p. 295. 302. f Rading, in -der aufwahl cekjn. abji. tom. iii. p. 300. JFalk's feeytra>ge, torn. ii. p. 136. approaches, 2"40 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY". approaches, as we obferved before, to gardening. •The vine-ftoeks are not reared on vine-mounts-, but in gardens cbt into trenches, with floping banks on which the ftems are planted in rows. In Kitzliar every ftem is faftened to a flake, but in Aftrakhan to lattices and efpaliers. After the vintage they are lopped quite to the eyes, then in Odober bowed down to the ground and covered with hay and earth. In fpring they are freed from their winter covering and faftened to their flakes or efpaliers, where they are fcreened as much' as poffible from the fun-beams, and watered without intermiffion for accelerating their maturity. The weeds are carefully hoed from about them, and for guarding the ripe clufters from the injuries of rapa cious birds, boys are hired to ftand on high fcaf- folds, where they keep up an inceffant fhouting, and continually pelt them with ftones. The vintage lafts from the end of Auguft to the end of September, yielding generally four forts of grapes, namely large white and purple, fmall oval and fmall round purple grapes without ftones." Moft of the large grapes are packed up and fent in jars over the whole empire, for which purpofe in Sep tember carriers come from all parts to Aftrakhan. The Bukharians kindle a little ftraw under the cluf ters after hanging them up, fmoking them as itwere, by which the fkin gets, tougher and the fruit keeps' better. The grapes which* cannot be fold.frefh are. fqueezed; for which purpofe they are colleded into CULTURE OP THE VINE. 241 into canvas bags, then laid in troughs and trodden with the feet, after which they are brought under the wooden prefs. 'The juice fqueezed out by treading, as it is drawn from the ripeft clufters, yields the beft wine. - The muft is poured into veffels of forty or fifty vedros, in which it falls into fermen tation, and after three weeks it is marketable wine. The hufks are thrown away in a very unthrifty manner. — The white wine is almoft the colour of water, and the red is but flightly tindured with that hue. Both, when fomewhat properly ma naged, are light. fweet table- wines, but in lefs than two years lofe all their pleafantnefs and even turn four ; they are then ufed for diftilling brandy or making vinegar. The aftrakhan grapes are inferior to thofe of Kitzliar by reafon of the faline foil and the artificial irrigation ; but the aftrakhan wine, with careful management proves the better of the two, and accordingly, bears a higher price. To preferve an uniformity in the price of wine, which is afcertained by the vintage, no one may fell hie wine till that price is fixed. Formerly in Kitzliar a runlet (of 16 pound) of new wine fold for 28 to 35 kopeeks; whereas the aftrakhan on the fpot coft a ruble and a half. At prefent the price is much raifed; and . the latter, particularly in Ruffia and Siberia, is fold not much cheaper than other foreign wines. — The wine which the Tavlintzes or mountain Tartars bring to Kitzliar, excels that of the Terek both in flavour and body, therefore vox. 111. r it .p'ROD'UCtl'VE TtfDWTftY". ,ft k"e%ps much better and is drunk by people of 'condition. The caucafean Tartars, though mo- ham'medans, not Only drink wine publicly-, but make it ftill more inebriating by -hanging ih it, "while the fermentation is going on, the unripe lleads of poppies. The large purple gfapes arid the two fmaller forts are, on- the Terek as well as at Aftrkkhah, converted into raifins.; of the ripeft and fweeteft & fyrup is' prepared, which is of an agreeable tafte and ufed for various purpofes of houfekeeping1; and ifi -the aforefaid diftrids frequently fupplies fhe place of fugar. In Taurida 'the vine-ftdck has been lonp- do- mefticated and rJerhaps may be even a relid of ^recian culture. There axe- feveral excellent forts of it, and irr the diftrid of Feodofia 'and Afinei'ft yields a wine vefy pleafarit to the palate, :ri6f niucn unlike to Champagne. - Among the beft known kinds -©figf-ape itftre ^re-fome that to the view may be compared with"the;beft'of thofe produced abroad, for inftance, wifhthe fapillier/therifslirig from tfie \Rheirigau, the rriufcadel, the chardenet ffdm' Champaghe, the huffgarian white lagler, rft chaffefas rouge1, Brc. All ' thefe fpecies 6f vine's, •which grow in the fouthern dialf of the penihfufe, (partly even wild',) would produce rhoft e'Xc'etie'lft: •red and white wihe,'if mbrexaftehrion were paid to :the culture 'of them, and particularly to'the ma nagement- of fhe rrmfl:. At prefent the "vine -'ftbcfe 'have CULTURE ft* -ME yiNE. 243 rhave. but little, nurture and care bellowed upon .them j they [are likewife feldom planted on.terraces, ,and are generally left to nature*. The vine is cultivated to a certain degree in the government of Ek a tar i n o s l a f, and it cpmprife s diftrids.where this culture rrught be introduced with .good hopes- of fuceefs. t It is_ chiefly purfued on the trivers,.Bpgue, Ingul, Inguletz, and on; the Dniepr, likewife here and there,bythe Kozaks. The grapes are not bac), kut from- the wretched management, .which is carried fofar that;they,even ,pour water to the ,rnuft, --the wine; will -. not keep, and there- , fore caiinotf.be tranfported. — Alfo in the^govern- .mentrof Vosnesensk the vine-ftock fucceeds ad- ..mirably; but, as the- people here underftand -no thing of' £he art of making wine,j it is but little -.{Cultivated. , In thofe circles i-which. formerly cen- .ftituted the fteppe %ol ¦ Otchakof there tafe: feven : forts of vines, * and' this culture has been here .fong ,in vogue; but it is ufual only, to dry the grapes, in which manner they yield a petty branch :pf .trade -f -Befides , thefe provinces, , where the culture of the- vine is in fome meafure carried o„n ,in the, grots, „thete ; are particular diftrids in the bordering governments, where the vine-ftock, wirii. .averyqlofe^titenition, might thrive ;. arid it is even ^a&uflly found hejrer and there ijnJbMenRuffia and ' » ^Defcription phyf. de la' Tauride, par Hablizl. Pallas, tableau de la Tauride. f Statift. ueberfichtder ftatth. de3 nifT. neichs,xl. $7- ,'¦•'¦_- r a on £44 TRODUCTIVB INDUSTRY. on the Volga. Near Kief it is however only reared as an objed of gardening : the vines bear both the white and the purple grape j butthe latter feldom come to maturity, and even when they' do ripen, they are ftill very four *. The culture of the vine feems to fucceed better on the Volga in the go vernment of Saratof. Here Pallas, found in the Colony bf Galka a german vine:dreffer who had planted upwards of three thoufand bearing vines, from which he gathered in one year twenty pood weight of clutters. This man never watered his vines at all, though they flood on pretty dry foil, and though his grapes were not equal to thofe of Aftrakhan either in fize, beauty, or tafte, yet they afforded a much better muft, which, when it was fuffered to ftand, became a ruby-red wine very like the french, and in comparifon with that of Aftrakhan, might pafs for nedar *. It would be very interefting to learn Whether the example of this german Noah has found any imitators among the colonifts Of thofe parts, or whether fo promif- ing a commencement has been attended with no • farther effeds. From what has been faid it is manifeft that the ruffian empire is in reality not deficient in diftrids > where the culture of the vine might be carried on with the greateft fuccefs, though from the prefent ftate of this culture it fcarcely deferves that ap- * Guldenftaedt's travels, tom. ii. p.. 346. f Pallas, travels, torn. iii. p. €27, pellation. CULTURE OP THE VINE. g4£ pellation. The negled of fo important a branch of induftry, amidft fo many advantages which Na ture freely offers to that end, is fo ftriking a breach in the national employment, as to merit a very ferious contemplation. A few years fince, a mem ber of the ceconomical fociety brought this mat ter forward, and offered a premium of a hundred ducats for the beft anfwer to the queftion : How the culture of the vine-ftock and of the olive-tree could be beft encouraged in the ruflian empire ? — Since that time, propofals and fchemes have in deed been delivered in to that purpofe, but as yet none of them have been brought to effed. The paper that obtained the prize and was publifhed by 'the fociety *, contains, however, fuch found and inftrudive arguments, and propofes methods fo eafily pradicable and fafe, that we fhall give the reader a fenfible gratification, and perhaps do the caufe itfelf fome fervice, by extrading the moft material refults of that paper, and thus doing wh^ we can to bring it into greater circulation. As in making plans for introducing and per- fedionating the culture of the vine, it is not in tended fo much to raife many forts of wine, as that the wine produced fliould be good, it is ne- ceffary to fix the limits beyond which no great fuccefs can reafonably be expe&ed from that ipe- * Friebe, von der kultur des weinftocks in ruffifchea pra- vinzen. In der aufwahl cekon. abhandl. torn. Hi. p. 215* R 3 C«S 24'& pTaotiudWW in^dusTrv, cies of .'fjfiduffry: We-bWe1 indeed' feen that the' vine-ftSc-k' thrives neair Kief' and iri- the territory Of S^tfcfiri' the' (Spin air, though the' flrft-m'en- fioned-place lies in $o9 &f&Wi thelaft'er in- 5 1" 45' of 'north latitude; but ftotn1 all the experiments* that have^ b'eeri made, the culture1 of the vine would never futfceed here iri: tfie grofsy di* wOuM yield only a batpprodud;- though Gerfnafty in-ffhe* Wry- Mae Mrtude produces- t'be e'xquif?fief r%lehrl!n' orfio<§k;, tfie rriozelle vrffre aMfhe-'fteih^wfe1 tTWs? diffeft'fiee 'fPmihg to thelocWfoTiriolS df HtadiiS tt*S arM the diredfen Of the mourrraifl§r;cI The STRY\ fagacity. and inclination of the officers .and. free holders, the appropriation of them is ?.fubjed' but to few limitations. The government inter-1 meddles not at all with ihe management of pri vate forests, as every nobleman . has the entire lordfhip and the free .arbitrary enjoyment of the, produds of £is ground; on extremely ; few eftates therefore is: there any kind of foreft-poliee, fince the very firft principles of foreft-culture, ,. as the allotment into falls, the replanting and fowing are utterly- unknown even by name to the generality of land-owners. Their care j at moft extends to an adjacent park or piece of pleafure-ground, .which ferves as an ornament to : the manor-houfe or. is favourable to hunting. The boor is licenfed al-i moft everywhere to take from -the foreft, what wood he wants, when and how he pleafes, and he: ufually employs' this licence as fuits his own temporary convenience and advantage, but in a manner, very deftrudiveto the Whole.- The foreft is often the refo'ur-ce" to which Jie applies forj-aifing the. money he has to pay his lord as obrok; and the latter never once dreams that he is purchafing . this tri fling advantage at the expence of a ten times greater damage to his woods. As it is feldom refufed.to the boor to choofe out a rhcedungsr-place wherer ever he thinks proper; it likewife follows,' that the owner perhaps pays for the better harveft of his vaffal with the moft valuable of his timber. Inftead pf ufing the branches, broken off or the trunks thrown 3F0REST-CULTURE. - tlGS thrown down by the wind, the aftermath, the roots, the flumps, and other relidsof the felled timber, the boor culls out exadly the fined, trees, not merely for the fake of getting pitch and tar, or for burn ing into potafhes and charcoal, but for his ordinary firirig. — ¦ Prejudicial as this careleffnefs is to the forefts of priyate proprietors, it would be ex- - tremely difficult, in the prefent ftate of the boors, to introduce a general reform in regard to the forefts. , Being unable, as valfals, to poffefs any -immoveable property, they muft be allowed; for their fupport the free ufe of the forefts, which by immemorial cuftom they treat as they think fit. tertainly however fome Hop might be put to ' thefe exceffes ; for example-,- by . obliging the boor to fetch his. neceffary wood: only from the falls that are from time to time marked out; but then it could, not be afcertained how much fliould be al lotted to each boor i at the annual fall, as his ne- ceffities are. not always alike, and can feldom or , .never be accurately calculated. Even in cafe he -fliould cut down more than he has occafion for, and only that he may fell the wood, this need not everywhere be denied him, as then fome towns would be -left entirely without provifion, and the boors themfelves would be deprived of a refource in cafe of neceffity, which in times, of general dearth or in other diftrefies, would proted them from total deftitution. In the diftrids where the country man chiefly lives' 'by the products of the forefts, 266" Productive industry. forefts, as in the governments of Archangel arid Olonetz, fuch a reftridion would turn out to be highly detrimental. The propofal for Obviating thefe difficulties by affigning to every cottage the fee-fimple of a trad of foreft, might not be in all places practicable, as it would excite juft eaufe of apprehenfion, that the poffeffor'for the time being would foon lay wafte his portionfor the fake of feem* ing a prefent. advantage, becaufe the ftate of vafial- age binds the lord to provide for the maintenance of his boors *. For all thefe reafons k is not per haps poffible to introduce the foreign management of timber into Ruffia : it neverthelefs remains cer tain that a greater faving to the forefts might be effe&ed without difficulty; as is even fhewn by the example of feveral ruffian land-owners. The forests of the crown are treated with fomewhat more care, and though even for thefe there are, no foreft-regulations fubfifting, yet there is no want of laws committing the guardianfhip of them to proper officers, and forbidding the wafte of them under fevere penalties. The ulo- fheniye had already regard to this important -ob jed, and feveral ukafes of Peter the great affign particular punifhmertrs to the felling: of the forbid den timber, for which purpofe the foreft-officets of that time were provided with peculiar inftruc- tions. In the fequel, and after the wardens were abo- * Lepekhin's„- travels, torn. i. p. j8. Hupel's ftaatfver- 'iaffimg, torn, ii-p- '393- ¦ ¦ " V - lifted FOREST-CULTURE. %6f Hfhed as uttrieceffary, the land-furveying chancery received ftill more circumftantial precepts relating to the culture and fparing bf the forefts, and the forefts of the cfown are now under the guardian- fhip of the cecoriomy-diredors and the finance- chamber of every government *. One of the lateft Ordinances concerning this matter, is a ukafe of the.26th of March 1786, in which we. find' the following remarkable order : that all the crown- forefts in the government fhall be circumftantially defcribed, furveyed, furfounded with ditches, and partitioned into timber-falls; and again in December 1791, the fenate iffued a precept to the governors-general arid their deputies, fhewing in what manner the faid orders and inftrudions were to be put in execution. - As the fcarcity of wood is continually increafing even iii diftrids where are eftabrifhments for work ing the mines, it becomes neceffary that more ef fectual meafures fhould from time to time be adopted to put a check to this,profufe diffipation * Some ©f the moft remarkable of the laws delating heretd are the following : Of ruining, cutting down, and felting fire to th« forefts: Ulofheniye, cap. x. fed. 218 to 224. Pa- nimments for felling the forbidden wood : Ukafe of Feb. 9, T 720. Jftftruftifln for the warden concerning the fhip-timber, Feb. 9, 1 722. For fhe- chief rariger : xji^. InftrucUonfor jhe landrfurveying chancery; cap. iv. feSt. 12. and 64; alfo cap. 6. fefl. 20. What wood fhall not be ufed for making pitt Nov. 3, 1 jn56. The foreft* aise reliwjuifhed to the ab-~ folute difpofal of the owners of eftates, Sept. 22, 1782. of H6S PRODUCTIVE IN-DDSTRV. of the treafures of the forefts. The general means by which g, better management might be brought - about in this material department of political oeco nomy, are for the moft. part fo plain and fimpfej that the applicatiori of them can be attended with no great difficulties. The chief would be to in-r troduce a good foreft-regulation fuited to each particular government,, and to fee that it were duly obferved. A double attention in this refped ought to be paid to the forefts which fkirt the Dvina and the Dniepr, from which the fine mails and other timber are. obtained for the Riga trade ; again, the oak-forefts about the Inguletz, the Donetz, and about the little rivers Mius and Krinka in the territory of Taganrok ; in fine, the forefts which border the Don in the diftrids of Pavloffk and Voronetch confift ing of oaks and firs, the pre fervation of which is of great confequence to the navigation of the Euxine. The forefts. in the vi* cinity and, on the margin of the Volga, in the go vernments of Kazan and Nifhney-Novgorod, are ufeful for the navigation of the Volga and the Cafpian. From the immenfe forefts of -firs which furround the head of the' Volga, perhaps might be obtained maft- timbers, the tranfport of which along the Pbla, and by.the Ilmen-lake to St. teterf- Durg, might be eafijy effeded. Of nearly as much impqrianee are the- forefts on the Oka,/the Mokfbar, arid* the Kama, moftly confifting of lindens, the fparing whereof would be very definable, as' well in regard ,/rr eorest-Culture. " o69 regard to the trade in bark-mats as on account of the honey and wax. Laltly, the forefts in the governments -of Archangel, Olonetz, and Vyborg demand the ftrideft oeconomy, in order to derive from them a conftantly equal utility ; and the fame may be faid of the diftrids of Nertfchintik, Kolyvan, Perme, Ufa, &c. for having always a flore of charcoal fufficient for the fmelting of metals *. The additional wealth in forefts, which Ruffia has acquired by the late annexation of the polifh pro vinces; fhould likewife be . faved from ruin by a better management. — For the attainment of thefe important purpofes, however, the mere foreft-' polite is not always fufficient, if it be not conneded with a careful nurture of the forefts. Nature pro vides not, at leaft not at every feafon and in every diftrid, fo amply and rapidly, for the multiplication of the various, kinds of trees, as human induftry, even with the moft frugal procedure, advances their deftrudion. It would, therefore, be neceffary to have recourfeto the method of fowing and plant ing woods, univerfally known and pradifed in other countries, and to introduce this artificial culture, where the fcarcity is become fenfible. Generally fpeaking, the ruffian countryman has no idea of what is properly called wood-fowing, endeavours fhould therefore be ufed to teach him, by pradi- cal diredions, the time when every fpecies of tree- feed is at ' its maturity, the^beft feafon for fowing * Guldenitadt's akad, rede, § 27. it,. g70 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. it, and the nioft approved manner of treating thefe objeds *. In regard to the forefts belonging to the crown* fuch an improved foreft-culture as this, and grounded upon principles,' might be univerfafly introduced; but as to the forefts that are private property, it would be difficult to reduce the detail into method, and ftill more difficult to put it in pradice ; as on one hand the crown has granted to the owners gf eftates the complete occupancy of their lands, and on the other hand the ftrid exe cution of the foreft laws would be liable to infinite difficulties and expence. For thefe forefts then it would be fufficient to deliver certain genera} regulations in the ufing of them, conformable to the relations of the proprietors and the boors, and confined fbfely to the prevention of the great da mage which may accrue to the country in general from a thoughtlefs and profufe expence upon the forefts. If it were poffible, for example, to con fine the drawing of tar and the burning of pot-alh; to the broken branches and unferviceable trees, not only a great deal of fine wood would be faved, but * A very practical direction for fowing the forefts in tjie northern regions of the ruffian empire has been pablifhed by the epconomieal fopiety in the xxviith part of their ufeful tranfa actions. In the circle and the government of Vyborg have been fown fince 1788, at the inftance of the admiralty at St- Peterfburg, great numbers of larch trees, of which 1 2,000 are in the moft flourifhing condition. Probably this food begin ning may be productive of more general effects. the forest-culture. g7i the forefts themfelves would be cleared and bet tered ,by it. The ufe of bark-fhoes and lath-lights, in a nation poffeffing a furplus ,of hides, oil, and tallow, fliould by degrees be entirely abolifhed, as it begins already to be lefs frequent in fome dif trids ; the building of brick-hpufes fhould be en couraged, the rhoedungs fhould be confined within fome reftridions, and the planting of live hedges be brought into pradice. Nothing is impoffible to a wife and adive adminiftration, if the peppfe be but properly made acquainted with their true in- terefts ; and how eafily might it be proved to land owners, that their private advantage as well as the benefit of the whole is conneded with ceconomiz- ing and preferving the forefts ! SECTION VIII. The Management of Bees. 1 his, which in moft countries of Europe forms but a very infignificant branch of hiffbartdry, is in Ruffia an important bufinefs ftrenuoufly car ried on, as the chief means of fubfiftence to fome -nations, and as it obtains a produd which is even not indifferent to foreign commerce. So confi derable a quantity of wax is produced in the ruffian empire, that, after deduding the home confumption, about 12 to 15,000 pood of it are exported only front the ports of the Baltic. ,.Ho- -ney likewife -forms an important article of inland confump- iirO PRODUCTIVE iNDUSfRY. confumption, as alrrioft all Siberia is provided with this neceffary from european Ruffia. The beft fort is the white linden-honey, principally obtained from the hives of tame bees in thofe parts where the linden-forefts moft abound, as on the Oka, the Don,' in White and Littfe-Ruffia-, in fhe newly-acquired polifh provinces, and in the weftern trads of the fouthern Ural. Of both produds Ruffia exported in the year 1793 to the amount of upwards of 383,000 rubles'* whereof the export in wax and wax- candles alone amount ed to 378,000 rubles. The culture of bees is profecuted in Ruffia in a way peculiar to itfelf, and more than anywhere elfe in the grofs. Bees are kept, indeed, in moft of the governments, but the wild culture is by far more vigoroufly purfued, and particularly in the uralian forefts in the government of Ufa, whereas beyond the uralian mountains and throughout Sibe ria there are not any bees. The nations which chiefly devote themfelves to this bufinefs are the Baffikirs, the Tartars, the Tfchuvafches, the Tfclieremiffes, and the Mefchtfcheriseks, particularly in the go vernments of Kazan and Ufa. Among the Bafh- kirs are individuals who poffefs, befides their bee- gardens, fome, hundreds, nay fome thousands of wild beehives in the forefts, and obtain yearly from forty to a hundred pood of honey. The maimer of proceeding with the bees, is, with all , thefe nations, like that in ufe among the Bafh- 4 kir» THE MANAGEMENT OE BEES. 273 kirs, accordingly we will give a brief account of only theirs*. Moft~ of the bee-ftages are in the forefts, where thefe infeds fpontaneoufly enter the hives pre pared there for them by the people. To this end the Bafhkirs look out for the ftrongeft. and ftraig-hteft trees of the hardeft kirids of timber, on Which, at the height of four, five; and more fathom above the ground, they conftrud the bee-houfe, by hollowing out the trunk plain arid fmooth, with a tool refembling a duffel, clofing the aperture with a board, in which are left little holes for the bees to enter and come out at. The dexterity with which the Bafhkirs perform this work, and climb up the loftieft and fmootheft trees is truely furprifing. A fharp hatchet and a common rope is all that they require. The workman places himfelf againft the tree, fattens the rope round his. body and the trunk, makes with his hatchet at a certain height a notch in the tree, and fet- ting his feet againft the tree, fprings, by the af- fiftance of the rope, up to that height, whence he makes another notch as high as fie can reach, andy.proceeds in this manner till he has attained the proper elevation. Here, where he muft tarry longer,, he makes his ftep more commodious, and refting in the rope performs' his neceffary ^ork, for which he has brought up the tools in his * Pallas, travels, tom. ii. p. ifc. vol. iii. T girdle- 2-7 i productive industry. . girdle> Below the bee-houfe all, the branches are carefully cut away, to render the tree more diffi cult for the bears to clirnb. Notwithftanding which "thefe animals, ftill pretty frequent in the - uralian forefts, are the moft dangerous enemies to the culture of bees ; and therefore the moft arms and othef means are employed againft them.. The moft ufual of thefe is the contrivance of furnifhihg the whole trunk of the tree with knives or iron fpikes crooked upwards, which the bear indeed in clambering up is cunning enough to avoid with great dexterity, but in Aiding down they generally coft him his life ; yet there have been inftances that old thieves of this fpecies even in Climbing up have loofened and deftroyed thefe weapons with their paws. 'With furer fuc cefs a thick block of wood is employed, by being fufpended before the aperture to the hive, which as often as the bear, with increafing fury, throws from him, fwings back, and hits him on the head oil rebounding from the tree. At length ir ritated to the utmoft he increafes the 'violence of his efforts, and at laft exhaufted by rage and exer tions, he falls upon the fpikes that are planted on the ground to receive him. But the moft inge nious method is a trap of the fimpleft kind, by a fquare board with a rope at each corner united at top, (like a large fcale which we fee in a whole fale Jhop,) and fattened to a branch in fuch man-, Her that the board is on a level with the door of THE MANAGEMENT OF BEES. Q75 of the hive, The bear, finding this feat fo con veniently placed to receive him, gets into it, and begins tugging at the flight fattening to the trunk of the tree, which hinders him from get ting at the hive ; having loofed the catch, the board fwings off with him to its perpendicular diredion on the branch to which it is fufpended, where he is either obliged to fit in the air, till his purfuer arrives to fhoot him, or to throw him felf down on the pointed flakes that are planted round the foot of the tree. — Another foe to the beehives is the wood-pecker, who is kept off by thorns and twigs tied round the hive. It has been affirmed by Maraldi and other Writers, that in one hive there are feldom more than 18,000 bees. Counfellor Rytfchkof at Oren burg weighed in an accurate balance dead bees, and found that feventy-five went to a folotnik, but for greater certainty reckoned only fifty to the faid weight. A good fwarm contains in thofe parts from ten to twelve pounds, and the very worft, of which they ufually bring two or three fwarms into a hive, three or four pounds ; yet there are . even fwarms of eighteen fo twenty pounds. According to. the forementioned- weighty therefore, the bees in twelve pounds muft be reckoned at leaft at 57,000, and. in nineteen pounds at leaft 111,000 bees. If this Obferva- tion do not refute the calculation of the french author, it at leaft fhews, that the bees in Franca t 2 and 37<5 Productive iNbusTRf. and thofe in Orenburg muft be of very different kinds. It has been farther afferted, that the bees, as v ery cleanly infeds, colled f heir honey from trees and flowers alone. But in the diftrid of Oren burg it is uniformly maintained, that likewife blood, flefh, and other lefs cleanly fubftanCes are of fervice to them. Rytfchkof, defirous of know- , ing from his own -experience "whether his bees- would feed On flefh, caufed a fowl to be killed and drawn, and put ; it in a hive, which remained three or four days untouched ; but as foon as it began to putrefy, it was devoured to the- very bones*. SECTION IX.' The Culture ef Silk. Oilr is now become a neceffary of fuch import ance, that endeavours have been ufed to intro duce and to encourage as much as poffible ths culture of it even in the countries lying, to the north. The luxury of wearing filk articles of drefs, has found fuch general admiffion into Ruf fia, even among the lower orders of people,, efpe cially of the female fex, that the fums annually * Von der bienenzucht in der kazanifchen und o-r-enburgif- chen gegend ; im St. Feterfb. jo'ufn. tom. i. paid THE CULTURE OF SILK. "277 -paid for filk and filken goods caufe an enormous •expence, at which we fliould doubtlefs be aftor ini ftied, if it were to be accurately calculated. Ac cording to Guldenftaedt's ftatement Ruffia paid in the year 1768 for raw filk 343,000 rubles, and 671,000 rubles for wrought filk; but in thefe fums it is fcarcely probable that the importation of per- flan filk by land is comprifed, and as all the articles of import have confiderably arUen fince that time, it is to be fuppofed, that this expence alfo muft be much greater. — So material a rubric of the general neceflaries confequently demands the at tention of the political occonomift, as it is almoft entirely fupplied by foreign induftry, though the ruffian empire comprehends within its pale large trads of country which offer all poffible advan tages to the culture of filk. The white and black (or tartarian) mulberry-tree, the leaves whereof are the only food of the filk-worm, are found very plentifully in feveral parts of fouthern Ruffia, e. g. in Taurida ; on the fhores of the Terek, between Mofdok and Kitzliar; on the fhores of the Kuma, near Madfhar; on the fhores of the Sarpa, about jthirty. verfts from Sarepta ; on the fhores of the Don, at Azof, and Tfcherkaik ; on the fhores of >fhe Volga, at Aftrakhan, near Tzaritzin ; on the borders of the Achtuba, at Saratof; and on the fliores- of the Khoper, near Novokhoperfk. In the Ukraine and in the government of Ekatari- lioflaf we find them likewife in abundance ; name- T 3 h\ 278 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. - ly, at Beloffkaiya, Kofloffkaiya, near the foxtrefs of St. Elizabeth, near Poltava, Staroi-fenfharof, about Mirgorod and Lubni, at Nefhin, Baturin, Podlipnoye, and Glukhof, and laftly in the greateft multitudes about Kief. In all thefe places the mulberry -tree thrives excellently in open air; fo that plantations of this ufeful tree might every where be boldly undertaken in the regions be tween the Dniepr and the Ural, within the 53d degree of north' latitude; namely,' in the govern ments of Caucafus, Taurida, Ekatarinoflaf, Vofrie- fenfk, Kief, Tfchernigof, Kharkof, Saratof, Voro netch, Simbirfk,, and in the milder diftrids of Kazan arid Ufa^. Hitherto the culture of filk has been confined to. the parts adjacent to the Terek, .near Aftrakhan,. on the borders of the Achtuba, neap Tzaritzin in the government of Saratof, at Beloffkaiya and Kief, and a few other • places, but not by far with that fuccefs which the importance of this branch of induftry demands, - and which the natural advantages of the country , feem to promife. Befides the wild mulberry-trees which, grow plentifully in the caucafean territory, the tartarian and the white, the. feeds whereof are brought from Perfia, are planted in all the vineyards,^ particu larly about the Terek. There 'is no doubt that $hefe plantations might be carried on to armich * Guldenftsedt's akad. rede, 43. greater THE CULTURE OF SILK. 279 greater extent here, where the culture of filk would furnifli a. fuitable employment particularly for the Tartars on the terekian and kubanian lines. As the Kozaks are difpofed to marry early in life, perhaps the plantation of a certain number of mulberry trees might be made ¦ a condition for obtaining the permiffion neceffary to that end, or accepted as one ftipulation- for exemption from the fervice. — The filk-wormS are fonder of the leaves of the white than of the black mulberry- tree; but, it having been difcovered that, after feeding on the latter they fpin a ftronger filk, they are at firft kept on the leaves of the white and afterwards on tartarian trees. The mulberries which are not confumed raw are generally made into a fpirituous liquor by fermentation', fome what refembling cherry-wine, and is fold by the cafk very cheap*. Along the Achtuba, in the tzaritzintfian circle of the government of Saratof, the mulberry-tree begins firft to mingle among the commoner forts of trees; though it -is here but of very inferior growth; and, being alfo expofed to. the inunda tions of the Volga, and to the fire of thofe mighty hunters, the Kalmuks and Kozaks, it naturally cannot flourifh in thefe parts to any great degree without particular attendance. For fome years paft, therefore, ' regular plantations have been laid out * Falk's beytra?ge, tom. ii. p. 354:. t 4 . 9n 280 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY., on flat elevated fpots of the low-lands, where the foil is moift enough, without being expofed to the inundations ; the wardens appointed oyer the (ilk-culture here have likewife caufed fheds to be built, in which the' filk-worms are conveniently bred. — ¦ Thefe plantations nfight be infinitely extended the whole length of the Achtuba,. and - indeed upon the high places of the iflands ; and all along the lower Volga, on the Kuma, and •quite to the Terek, fo rich, a filk-culture might be introduced, that thefe hitherto unfruitful and arid regions would become one of the moft po- pulous and beneficial countries of the empire,, fo as to be the ruffian Ghilan. This bufinefs has till now been carried on, properly fpeaking, by only two villages fituated on fhe Achtuba, the people of which are called Befrodniye, parentlefs,. becaufe the firft inhabitants were run-aways who either could not or would not tell whence they were fprung. In both of them, befides their wretched agriculture, the breed of cattle and the fifhery are fo produdive, that fhe inhabitants cer tainly would, not addid themfelves to the culture of filk if they Were not compelled to it by the officers who have the fuperintendance of it, who oblige them to deliver annually, in lieu of the ca pitation-tax, a ftated quantity of filk in confidera- tion of a ftipulated payment *. So early as the year 1720 a ruffian merchant, named Ducliof^. } *• - * Pallas, travels, tom. iii. p. 659. made. THE CULTURE OF SILK. ggl /rnade a fmajl beginning in this culture on the Achtuba; however it came to nothing, till it was fet on foot, again in 1756 at the expence of the crown. Neverthelefs the profits arifing from it are fo trifling, that, according to the account of one of the lateft travellers, only three or four pood of filk are annually obtained there ; and even the climate is fo unpropitious to this fpecies of in duftry, that fometimes all the filk-worms are killed by the froft*. — - On account of the overflowings * The teftimony given by this traveller (the academician Pferetzkoffkoi) of the ftate of the filk-culture on the river Achtuba, is by no, means favourable. From his account we learn that the number of thefe ftragglers enrolled to this bu- v finefs amounts to upwards of 7000 perfons of both fexes, and the overfeer of the inftitution receives with open arms aU comers who cannot exaftly call to mind their pedigree, as they are very ufeful to him in his fabric, (in which annually . three or four pood of filk are fpun!) One of the officers belonging to the fabric every year fetches tiie filkworms'- eggs from Kitzliar, but which do not always fucceed on the Achtuba; in the year 1782, for example, all the worms were frozen, and not a thread of filk coald be lfpim. " If " even it be trae," adds our traveller, " that the overfeer " of this fabric has the art of giving a particularly good " quality to his filk, and if even this particularly good filk " be fent henceto Peterfburg, it yet always remains a doubt ' " whether even this filk was got at the achtuban fabric, and " it is more than probable that it properly owes its origin " to warmer climes than Aftrakhan and Kitzliar ; which ii " even confirmed by the inhabitants of thefe towns." Bef chreibung von Aftrakhan; ' im journ. von Rufsl. 2weyter jahrgang, torn. i. p. 41. Of {282 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRiF. of the Volga, the mulberry leavps, as the worms ufually. creep out about the middle of May, are obliged to be gathered in canoes. In the territory of Kief the mulberry1- trees are fo numerous that they not only compofe 'a little wood in the imperial gardens, but they are found, ampng almoft all the inhabitants and about every houfe : they are moreover fo large, as, ordinarily to meafure a foot and a half in diameter. In Podol; a fuburb of Kief, is an imperial mulberry- plantation, containing five hundred large mul berry-trees, and a building for breeding of filk- worms ; and yet the management of them is here carried on as nothjng more than an amufement, and which the inhabitants care but little about^ though it might be rendered fo profitable*. Not much better is this bufinefs managed in "Aftrak han and the other places abovementioned ; fo that what is procured ' by this induftry fcarcely merits a place among the produds, of the ruffian empire. As, the great benefit which Ruffia might derive from the culture of filk is not to be doubted, and as there are alfo diftrids enough where it could be carried on to the beft advantage, it is not fo neceffary to recommend it in general as todifcover the means of procuring admiffion for fo defirable and lucrative an occupation among the inhabitants. i * Guldenftaedt's travels, tom. ii, p. 34.5. of THE CULTURE OF SILK. '233 ..ef the fouthern provinces. The: imperial efta- blifh ments which have been made to this end, have not as yet been attended with the expeded effeds, and will perhaps never produce any better. In order to raife this branch of induftry, endea vours fliould be ufed to excite a fpirit of enterprife in private perfons, by convincing them of the ad vantages that would, accrue to them from it, and . furnifhing them with the beft means for carrying it on. A comprehenfive fet of diredions for the . culture of filk, backed by the example of experi enced foreigners, premiums for the planting of mul berry-trees, fuitable rewards for the produdion of a certain quantity of filk, provifion for the com modious and fafe difpofal of the filk produced, . and a hundred other means of. like nature might be put in pradice by the government and even . by the proper officers on the fpot. How much might be done by thefe and fimilar methods was exemplified in Pruffia by the late minifter of ftate, count Hertzberg, which highly deierves imita tion, and by which particularly are refuted the .miferable objedions which the great multitude from ignorance and floth are apt to bring againft every ufeful undertaking. Since the year 1751, when Frederic II. formed the refolution to introduce the culture of filk into his dominions, this fpecies of induftry has had fuch fuccefs, that* in 1784, they already counted upwards of a million of full-grown mulberry-trees, and 2B4> PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. and in the fame year the amount of the filk ex- • ceeded 14,000 pounds, which was wrought up in in© manufadOries of the country into pieces of extraordinary quality. This inftance fhews, that the pruffian dominions, though tying fo far to the north, are not ill-fuited to this culture, as from inveterate prejudice, it had been conftantly aflerted. The patterns of the pruffian filk that were fent to Italy were efteemed equal to the beft filks of Piedmont and Lombardy, and fince the pruffian manufadurers have got the better of their former notions, they find it not only very fervice able, but even prefer it to the foreign, particu larly for ftockings and ftrong goods. — The methods employed for diffeminating the culture of filk, and which in general are ftill employed, coafifted in confiderable advances of money, to which the king appropriated the fum of a hundred thoufand dollars, in obliging the farmers of the royal demefnes to plant a certain number of mul berry-trees, in the diftribution of prizes, in ap pointing infpedors, in diredions fent to the coun* try-clergy and village-lchoolmafters, &c. When, in fpite, of aa" thefe efforts this culture from the year 1784 began to decline, , the king in 17SS ereded a particular department with a fund of 12,000 dollars, {he prefidence and diredion whereof; was undertaken by count Hertzherg without any •gratuity. Since .which time the culture of filk in the pruffian dominions has gone on with increaf ing MIXES. ggj ing fuccefs, and it is not improbable that in a fhort time it will be naturalized with as beneficial effeds, as it is now in the countries whither Juf- tinian tranfplanted it from China, and Henry the fourth, notwithftanding the remonftrances of Sul ly, from Italy *. SECTION X. Mines. XV ith the vaft ftores which Ruffia poffefles of animal and vegetable nature, fhe would be deemed extremely happy, were fhe even obliged to dif penfe with the fubterranean treafures which the earth inclofes in her bowels. A fertile foil and a fky propitious to the greateft variety of produc tions are to a numerous and laborious people the moft infallible fources of profperity, .efpecially if the difpofition to culture be encouraged by a fitua- tion favourable to commerce. The ruffian empire produces the prime neceffaries of life in the greateft abundance, and in fome meal*ure fpontaneoufly ; and whatever is wanting to the inhabitants in more refined and artificial necefiaries is procured to them by the exchange of their natural .produds which are everywhere neceffary and as univerfally * Recneil des deductions, manifeftes, &c. rediges et pub- lies par le eomte de Hertzberg, torn, ii. p. 495. 3 demanded. 286 productive iXDUStitf; demanded. In this enviable condition, which 13 ever more flourifhing as the population and the induftry increafes, Ruffia at the feme time enjoys the important advantage of having mines in her poffeffion, which may be matched with' the richeft and moft produdive of thofe in any quarter of the globe ; the working whereof fof a century paft has created a new national occupation with ample re turns, and the aftonifhing fpoils whereof have afforded the means to a beneficent adminiftration for the moft exjtoordinary undertakings. — For enabling us to give a view of the prefent ftafe of fo important a branch of induftry with fome de gree of precifion, it will be neceffary to preface it with, the principal lineaments of the history of the Russian mines, a hiftory, which from its very late origin is indeed of no great compafs, but not the lefs abundant in curious and remarkable tranfadigns. The principal fcene of thefe tranfadions lies irt the' cold metallic regions of Siberia, the acquifi tion whereof, after the lapfe of a hundred years, unexpededly became of fuch great importance to the ruffian empire ; for' though the foil of this enormous country is almoft everywhere pregnant' with ores and noble as well as ufeful minerals, the' european part however is herein by no means to be compared with the afiatic. The largeft works are at prefent carried on in the uralian, in the altayan, and in the nertschinskian mi neral , MINES. 287 neral mountains ; of lefs importance are fome iron and copper mines in thofe of olonetz, and in feveral other parts of the empire. In the uralian mountains are gold, iron, and copper mines, which latter are fome of the moft important in the em pire. The altayan mountains -contain the richeft gold and filver fliafts, alfo veins of lead, copper, and iron, impregnated with gold and filver. But in the nertfchinfkian mountains are very rich mines of lead containing gold and filver *. The difcovery of thefe fliafts, as well as the origin of the proper mine-working in Ruffia is of no older a date than the beginning of the prefent century, as the fingle attempts that were; made prior to that period for finding and working the metals, were but very infignificant. The nation has poflefied iron-ore from times immemorial. The boors formerly colleded it themfelves, fnielted it and made iron of it. When they were deficient in this metal, inftead of it they had recourfe to hard wood, which, in order to .make ftill harder for their own ufe and for pofterity, they laid in bogs ; both methods are pradifed ftill in fome parts of the empire -f . — In Siberia, at a time * See the charafterillics of thefe and the other mountains, in our firft volume, p. 84 & feq. f Schlcetzer * (in his Muntz, geld, und bergwerks gef- chichte des ruffifchen kaiferthums, p. 94.) from von Haven, Nye og forbedrede efterrietninger om det ruffiika. Rige, p. 270 — 383. reach- 285 Productive industry1. reaching back beyond all hiftory, mining was fo vigoroufly pradifed by a nation who now bear the name of Tfchudes, that their various and large Haldes ftill fubfifting have given rife to a great number of newly adopted and in part very rich mines *. Of proper mining, however, hiftory fays no thing previous to the time of Ivan Vaffillievitch. This prince, in the year 1491, fent two Germans to the river Petfchora on mineral difeoveries, who were fo fortunate as to find filver and copper ore ; but of the farther progrefs of this bufinefs no ac counts are extant. During the reign of Ivan Vaffillievitch the fecond, the Englifti, by a treaty concluded in the year 1569, obtained the privi*r lege of finding out and tmelting iron ore, on con dition that they fhould teach the Ruffians the art of working this metal, and pay on the ex portation of every pound one denga or half penny Jf. Under tzar Alexey Mikhail ovitch, was eftab* lifhed the firft regular mine-work in Ruffia, at>out ninety verfts from Mofco, where it is ftill going * Concerning the mine-works pf tins nation, whom Georgi. takes to be the antient Mandflmres,. an interefting account may be read in Pallas, travels, tom. iii. p. 608-^ 610. f Of the firft arrival of the Engliih and the origin of theif commerce in Ruffia, -in the St. Feterfturg journal, tom. ix. p. 149. on MINES. 289 on at this day. Two foreigners* the one, a Dane; the other a Dutchman, who were at Mofco oil affairs of commerce; and had found ore in that territory, requefted and obtained permiffion to Work it. The moiety of the works. ereded by them lapfed, on the death of the Dane, to the tzar, who granted it to a Narifhkin," to whofe family it ftill belongs, as the heirs of the Hol lander are in poffeffion of the Other hajf. The miners and forgers . at thefe works are Germans^ who fettled and propagated there 'Upwards of a century ago. ,.. Thefe works, the firft and only ones in Ruffia prior to Peter the great, were vifited by that mo narch* who wrought in them himfelf; ere he fet out on his firft journey into foreign countries'; -Iri 1,698, remaining fome time in Saxony; he not only made himfelf acquainted with the art of min ing there, but requefted the king of Poland to give him fome workmen ; and in the following year twelve of them, with a mafter at their head* and the aflayer Bluher, went to Ruffia; where they found ore in the diftrid of Kazan and Kalu-, ga, and began to work. The emperor, however; finding that with thefe two eftablifhments he fhould be in want of people, fent Bluher in 170! again to Saxony, who returned in the fame year with feveral perfons fkilled in mining, and re paired immediately to Olonetz, where they opened a mine of copper-^ore. The fubfequent journies vol. in. tt of &9(i PRODUCTIVE industry. of thts man gave the- firft occafion to the diftovery of the fiberian minerals, for in the year 1703, he was' difpatched "to the permian* mountains - near Solikamfk, where he found an old mine, whence he' proceeded farther along the Kama, and foon after his'-retiirn to Mofco, making a frefh journey in -the diftrids of Azof and Aftrakhan, he pufhed forward to Caucafus. In the- mean time the emperor had appointed lieutenant -colonel Menflulg to be diredor of the mines of Olonetz; a foreigner ' of great adivity, who reftored the old ruinous iron works, and put thefctarin a condition to furnifh the new-created navy with large and fmall- cannon and other irdft ammunition-. -In the' yeafr 17/ 1'£; Helming travel* led over feveral countries of Europe for colleding information concerning the ' ftate cf mines and fouiKkrieSj and on his return got together, by permiffiva'n of the kings of Poland and Pruffia, a confiderable nuftiber of ^afer- workmen, by whofe 'affiftance he fet up feveral wire-manufadories., forges for fteel; hammers for tin plates and mak- ieg iroto b^rs, fteel-furiiaees, anchor-fm-ithies, and various 'machines, all -worked by water. As it appeared frorii the accounts delivered in, that ore was to be found .in almoft every part of the empire, Peter the great in the. year 17 19 eon- ftkuted ar peculiar mine-college,- and fhortly after fent major general Henning, whom the -empero* had -promoted for his vfef-ul fervices, in quality of MINES. 201 of diredor to Siberia, for the purpofe of complet ing :- the . works there, already begun. Helming eftablifhed a Chief mirie-Ofice at Ekatarinenburg* and a fubordinate Office in the territory of Perme, built feveral workshops, furnaces, forges, fouri' deri'es, arid .mills for flatting and flitting, and within the fpace of fix year's had made fuch progrefs in all thefe works that the various expences attending them were paid with ufory by the metals Obtained. In the years 1726 and 1727 he fent anriually 9 or 10,000 pood of copper and 146 to 150,000 pood of bar- iron, befides a great quaritity of wrought iron and copper, by means of the water-commu nication, from Siberia to Mqfc that of beresof near Ekata- rinenburg on the Ural is by far the moft material. Here annually is obtained about 400,000 pood of ove, which on an average yields from every ioqo pood 40 to 60 folofniks of fine gold. . To thefe mines belong three lavaderos'on the Pyfchma, on the rivulet Berefof, and Uktus, together having 8^i troughs. The whoje number of men employed in thefe works amounts to up wards of" 2000, whereof about 1200 are in adual employ daily. ' No enrolleq!. boors are any longer allowed to them. The mines of Berefof have afforded annually three, four, five, or fix, but in later years feven or eight pood of gold. From the commencement of the wOrks here in the year 1754 till the year 1788, therefore in 34 years, generally about 12,0 pood has been gained, which' in value is eftimated at 1,198,000 rubles, and, after dedudbg the cofts, have yielded above 480,000 net profit. If we take the gold and filver here obtained, as it pro ceeds from the feparation, according to its ftandard in coinage ; "and balance it with the expencqs, which are paid in copper money, accordingto the true value of it, then a profit of near 800,000 rubles will appear. The Voytzer gold-mines in the mountains of Olonetz, which annually afford only a few (from 1/44 to 1770, in general 57) pounds of gold, have MINES. 29/ have, on account of the fmallnefs of their produce, been fome years fince abandoned. The moft important silver-mines are thofe .of Kolhyvan in the mineral mountains of Altay, which were undertaken by the crown in the year 1745. The main fhaft is theSchlangenberg,~one of the richeft ever known in the world ; the Semeon- of fkoy, in point of confequence holds the next fta- tion. Befides thefe -two there are ftill others, of lefs importance, alternately or conftantly worked; and from a new fhaft, Filipoffkoy, on the Ulba, it is expeded that the produce will in time equal that of the Schlangenberg. From all thefe mines together are at prefent annually obtained upwards of two million pood of ore, the contents whereof have of late years become poorer by one half. At firft. the pood of it contained five or fix folotniks of auriferous filver, fince only four, and latterly, efpecially fince 1785, it contains not above two and a half. Here are five founderies, and the head quarters are at Barnaul. The workmen employed m 1786 were all together 54,000. The whole expenditure amounts yearly to 400,000 rubles, of which one half is paid in copper coined on the fpot, the other half in bank-affignments. From the year 1745, when the crown took thefe mines into pofleffion, to the year 1787, therefore in 42 years, -they have afforded 24,460 pood of fine filver, and above 830 pood of fine gold, which together amount in value to upwards of thirty '¦ millions 298 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. millions of rubles. The expences for this whole time, even including the charges of feparation at St: Peterfburg, come to not above feven millions; confequently here is a pure gain of 23 millions of rubles, which is very much increafed if we eftimate the copper coin, in which this expence is paid, at its real value, and confider, that even this is got and coined at the mines themfelves. The filver, or rather the auriferous and argenti* ferous lead-mines of uert.schirsk have been in conftant work ever fince their difcovery in the year 1704, but with alternate fuccefs. Here, from the feveral fhafts, more or lefs rich, are ob tained annually about two million pood of ore, which however is very poor, and at prefent on an average fcarcely contains, a folotnik or one and a half .in' a pood. Here are five founderies, of which Staroi-Nertfchinfk is the chief; which is alfo the head-quarters. The workmen are about; 2000, and the boors inrolled to it for cutting of wood, about 13,000. The annual expences amount to about 200,000 rubles in copper coin and bank-affignments. From 1704 to 1787, therefore in 81 years, thefe mines produced 1 1,644 P°°d of filver, from which fince the year 1752' about 32 pood of gold has been feparated. Both together amount in value to about ten millions of rubles. According to the foregoing ftatements, there fore, in the interval between 1704 and 1788, at all 3 the MINTE3. 299 fhe gold and filver mines were gained about iooo pood of gold and above 36,000 pood of filver, amounting together in value to upwards of 45 millions of rubles, and on which the expences were not more than fifteen millions of rubles. The 'moft important copper-mines of the ruffian empire are principally in the uralian, al tayan, and olonetzian mountains. The urvalian mineral mountains, which contain by far the richeft mines, and to which belong all the copper-works in the governments of Perme, Ufa, Vistka, and Kazan, had in the year 1779 in all 60 founderies, together containing 229 furnaces, and at which in 1782 above 1,90,752 pood of copper were obtain ed. — In the altayan mountains is likew.le a confiderable copper- mine; befides, there arues from the cupriferous filver-ore a tolerable quantity of copper : at prefent in all annually about 15,000 pood. In the year 1782 here were coined 18,793 pood of copper. — The fpoil got from the olonetzian mountains, and the other feparate copper-works cannot be computed at more than a few hundred poods. The entire annual amount of the copper "ob tained is therefore about 200,000 pood, the value whereof in money, reckoning the pood only at ten rubles, makes a fum of two millions ot rubles. As for fome years paft the cxtraftion of the copper has greatly declined, we can in fad at prefent fcarcely admit more than 200,000 pood as the certain 300 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY." tain yearly total; and the price of that metal has accordingly rifen. The. iron-mines form the greateft of all Ruf fia' s mineral wealth, after the falt-works. It is known to all the world, that this empire has. in all its mineral mountains, and even in many of its plains, a prodigious quantity of iron-ore of all the known forts; but the moft numerous and the richeft mines are in the uralian mountains, where in the year 1779 were generally at work 70 forges and 532 large hammers. There are, befides, two fmelting-houfes in the altayan and fayane moun tains, and feveral in the governments of Olonetz, Vologda, Nifhnei-Novgorod, Koftroma, Kurfk, Tula, Tambof, &c. Without being liable to much miftake^ we may at prefent admit for the whole empire, about 100 forges and 800 ham mers; but befides the iron-works that are' carried on in the gfofs, there are a great number of boor- fmiths who fmelt the ore at home, and of the iron make various kinds of utenfils. Such little fmithies are particularly in the governments of Olonetz and Archangel, in fome regions of the Volga, and in Siberia near Krafnoyarfk," Yeniffeifk, &c. . In the year 1782 were obtained at the uralian iron-works of the governments, of Perme, Ufa, and Vistka 3,940,400 pood of wrought iron; now, as we may allow for all the other ruffian and fibe rian governments at leaft a million of pood, then in the whole empire about five million pood of iron MT.VE.S. 301 iron (the various caft-wares not included) are an nually produced : a quantity which in fpecie ac« cording to the prefent prices, amounts at leaft to four millions and a half of rubles. The generality of the iron-ores yield about fifty per cent, raw iron, but fome lefs. For obtaining five million pood of wrought iron, requires, according to the manipu lation here in pradice, yi to 8 million pood of raw iron, and tor the acquifition of this material at leaft 15 million pood of iron-ore. The political and economical consti tution of the mines underwent a thorough change ^luring the late reign ; as the emprefs in purfuance of the great plan fhe had formed of new-modelling her empire, reduced alfo this department of the public adminiftration by feveral ordinances and precepts to a well-combined fyftem. Not only was the management of the mines greatly Ampli fied, but likewife the privileges formerly granted to miners were confirmed and enlarged by many im portant conceffions, even at the expence of feveral imperialties and prerogatives of the crown. By the prefent conftitution, the mines belong either to the crown, or to public inftitutions, or to private individuals. The firft poffeffes all the before-mentioned gold and filver mines ; the fhare, which it has in the copper and iron mines, cannot be accurately afcertained, though it appears from authentic ftatements to be about one fixth of the former, and of the latter one eighth part, AU 50i PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. All mines were formerly under the fuperinterf-* dence of the mine-college, as before related: thai college' came to an end the ift of May 1784*, and the crown-mines now belong either to the cabinet or -to the fenate. Under the direftion of the cabinet are all the gold and filver mines of Kolhyvan and NertfchinfL — The reft of the crown-mines are dependent '• on the-sENATEi They are managed by -directors and overfeers who deliver their accounts to the finance- office of the government, and thence receive their orders-f. — Befides thefe offices there is alfo a kantora at St. Peterfburg for the feparation of the gold from the filver, over which the general-pro1- cureur bas the infpedioii. The only public inftitution, hitherto in poflef fion of mines is the imperial assignation- bank, which fome years ago purchafed the copper and iron works in the government of Perme of the proprietors Pochadysefchin. For the conduding of them there is an office at the bank; and a direc tion fettled at the Works. The private mines received in the late reign fo many and fuch diverfe grants by law; that it would not be eafy to point ,out a country which can fhew in this refped fimilar privileges, and im munities. According to the former conftitution, the right of \vorking mines properly be- * Ukafe, bearing date Jan. 27, 1783. f Idem. ' longed MINES. SOS longed only to thofe who had (he light tO poileis land; a privilege, it is well known, enjoyed only in Ruffia by the nobility. — - The ordinances of Catharine If grant the right of opening mines and ere ding works at them, 1. to all owners of land; particularly, 2. to the nobility; and, 3. likewife to the therein-named burghers, and the burghers of the firft and fecond guilds*. Yet" from the commencement . of mining there have been unnoble proprietors t>f mines, who belonged to the dais of merchants. But their mines are either in crown-lands, or in the country of the Tartars, Bafhkirs, Vogules, and other fiberian na tions, and in the former cafe the forefts are given them only to cut, (for a ftipulated time or for ever,)with the pea-raiffion to work the mines,but the fee-limple of the land was not made over to them. By the ordinance of Peter the great the freeholders were obliged to pay 3\ of the net profit, which tribute by an cdid of the emprefs Anna was fixed at. 2 per cent, on all the ore obtained. Catharine the fecond abolilhed this hnpoft entirely on all the works ereded on crown lands -j-. Likewife un noble mine-owners might not buy vnflals for work men, though it formerly had been allowed by ano ther ordinance to purciiafe vafials for- momifada- * Ukafe of aS June, 1 7S ;. Ordinance rtfpcrting the • nobility} § xxviii. x\xii. Ordinance for the municipality, § cv. cxi. cx\.\vi. -f UkaiVof May t«, 1 "67. ries 304 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. ries and workfhops,' wherefore many proprietor^ of mines had them at their works. It was the fame' with- the mine-works of the nobles Which lay. ort, fuch lands, only with this exception^ that they had the right- to keep vaflals. 'As to the right of property in mines,' all the privileges granted in the preceding reigns were^ not only fully, confirmed, but- alfo-in many refpeds confiderably. enlarged*. . By this' regulation the, right of property was extended to all produds and minerals concealed in the earth, and even golo and silver were fpecifically by name fe» cured to the undertakers, only fubjed to a tribute. of the tenth. It is, however, furprifing, that fince that time nobody has begun to work gold and filver mines, and that in Ruffia (except a certain Sibiriakof, in the nertfchinfkian mineral mountains ; but they were granted to him prior to the faid ordinance) no private perfon is in pof- feffion of any fuch, though it is certain that there is rich -ore of thefe metals, and known to. the owners of certain works -f. > The tributes or taxes attached to private- mines are the following: of the gold and sil ver, if any fuch be gotten, the tenth part. — Of the copper, i. the tenth part of the rofe- * By the ukafe of the year 1782. f Herrjj^nn's befehreib. des uralifchen erzgebirges, tom.H. ' P- 239- , , copper MINES. 305 copper* in natura. The tenth originates, as we have feen, from the edicts of Peter the great. By an ukafe of the 7th of Auguft 1 762 it was com manded, that it be no otherwife levied than in natura j and in virtue of an ukafe of the 23d of June 1794, all private copper-works that are ereded with the aflxftance of the crown-caiile, or bare received of the crown iands, foreft, or boors, over and above that tenth, ten pound from every hondred — but all the reft, erected without this affiftance, pay frill five pood more. The former therefore pay 20, and the latter 15 per cent of fhe copper they obtain to the crown. 2. Of the remaining copper, after dedudbg the tenths, {now the 15th or the 20th.) one half muft be delivered to the crown at 5 1 rubles. Formerly two thirds were fubjed to.this fide, which is of the nature of a rax. Catharine the' fecond, by the ukafe of June 2.8, 1 7S0, lowered this legal delivery to the half, and in the manifeito for inftituting the im perial lombard, all private proprietors of works in being or to be ereded, who obtained a greater quantity than they had hitherto done, are entirely difcharged from this obligation. The other half may be freely fold or fhipped outwards on pay ing certain ftated low dories. The crown itfelf at prefent pays for the pood of copper, when brought by voluntary contrad, ten rubles. 3. On » * By the Germans called garkapfer. vol. 111. x every 306 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. every furnace for fmelting copper was paid a tax" of five rubles per annum ; but by the faid ukafe of June 23/1 794, this taxis doubled, accordingly each pays now 10 rubles. — Of the iron : 1 . Inftead of the tenths, on each pood of raw iron was paid 4 kopeeks. .Since the 23d of June 1794, all iron works ereded with the affiftance of the crown pay another 4 kopeeks, and thofe without that, affift ance 2 kopeeks; the former pay now therefore for every pood of raw iron 8, the latter 6 kopeeks*. 2. For every forge the owner pays the,crown yearly 100 rubles. Till the 23d of June 1794 only 100 rubles; at that time this tax was doubled. 3. The duty on exportatiori on every berkovetch (10 pood) of bar-iron is 37 kopeeks., — The former obligation on every private proprietor to deliver iron and warlike ftores to the admiralty and artil lery at a price fixed in the years 17 15 and- 1728, was abolifhed in the year 1779. and all other metals and minerals are entirely free from taxes. Confiderable- as thefe taxes are, yet the pro fits arifing from mining are very great j whereby: numbers of proprietprs have rifen from a very low condition to extrerriely great wealth. In the ura lian mountains, for inftance, the ordinary bar-iron at moft- of the private works is below 40, at many of them between 40 and 50, and only at. very few above 50. kopeeks. In fliort, copper and iron mines are fo profitable, that every attention is paid to procuring the metals, and the manufaduring -• - them MINES. 307 them is entirely negleded. — Of the iron, indeed, a Confiderable quantity is difpofed of in the coun try, but by far the greater part is fent abroad, and to1 that end conveyed to St. Peterfburg, which, even from the Ural, . notwithstanding the. great diftance, is done throughout by water. The ex- pence of this tranfport, which is greatly favoured by the rivers and lakes of the uralian territory, from the works to the refidence, comes to, for the greater. part, 1 5 to 20, for fome above 20, for a very ftrialf proportion as far as 25 kopeeks. With the majo rity of the -uralian iron- works, therefore, the pood, of iron, quite to the; delivery of it at St. Peterf burg, comes only to 55, or at moft to 60 kopeeks ; but the fale-price has of late years been 1 10 to 120 kopeeks^ ' — The remainder of the copper for fale is moftly difpofed of at Mofco, Makarief, and St. . Peterfburg, and generally confumed in the country. The market-price of this metal was formerly, even at Ekatarinenburg, nine rubles the pood'; it after wards fell fomewhat, but at prefents on the ex port of it being allowed, is rifen again. It has been already faid, that the, private owners of mines are moftly nobles, but partly are like- wife burghers and merchants.; The richeft copper- mines belong at prefent, fince the family Pochad- yaefchin fold theirs to the bank, to the families Turtfchaninbf, Lughinin, StroganOf, &c. and the largeft iron- works 'to 'the families Demidof, Ya- kovlef, Strogariof,, Tverdifchefj Lazaref, Lughinin; and Batafchef. The family Stroganqf poffeffes in X 2 tlie S6S'- fRODUCTlVfe INDUSTRY. the government of Perme alone 540,0*3© fquar* verfts of iarid, and had on it at the revifion before the laft 83,453 vaflals of the malt fex. Of the private works and village* there are many, which, ift magnitude; in neatnefs of buildings,1 and in the number of their inhabitants, exceed moft of the towns of this government *¦.- In the management of the private mine- works, in purfuance of the afprefaid ordinance of June 28, 1782, no firiance-oflice, nor any court of judicature, is allowed to intermeddle ; but the regulation and condud- of the works are left en tirely to the -proprietor, who generally ttufts the management of them to a prikafcbtfehik- or clerk with full powers, for which office fome clever fel low is chbfon from their vaflats, who undefftands the great arts of reading, writing, and calling ac counts : - many; purpbfely cliOofe perfons of the old faith, a -'fort of fedaries, called by the orthodox fafkohriki or heretics -f>, as-theyarenot (fo much) addifted to drunkerinefs, and fpy out the faults of the orthodox' with Argus-eyes; One of thefe men, for a falary of forty to a hundred rubles, with fome domeftic advantages, fuperintends mines- and founderies, frequently lying Very diftant afun&r, cOndu&s the bufinefs of the compting-houfe, the accounts of Which are Very intricate/ and has the * Befchreibttng der ftatthalterfch; Perme, in Hermann's bey trsegen^ torn. iii. p. 55. . • f For fome account of .thefe people fee th« life ef Cetta* •fin* II. vol. ji. f>. i$6, 4th edit. X • diredion MINES. diredion of fome thoufand vafials and free wprjfo men, looks after the miners and the fmelters>\5ar-» ,< ries on law-fuits concerning bounds and mineV provides for the taxes due to the crown, procures the cheapeft poffible tranfport, and makes his ma fter rich. Though at fome private works likewife free people, fuch as merchants or difcaifled officers* are employed in. this, fervice, yet it -it 'witjh.the. gen* * fality oiily'a vaflalprikafchtfchikiwho, with a few affiftants, direds large concerns of this nature, the produds whereof, as with thofe of Pemidof and Yakovlef, amount to half a million of moriey, and; for the management of which in other countries a, whole board of commiffioners, with councilors, affeflbrs, and fecretaries, would be appointed *. The works at the mines of the crown as well a* at thofe belonging to private perfojis are partly carried on by mafter-workmen, partly by inrofle^ boors, partly hy Vaflals, and laftly alfo by fafl workmen. The clafs of mafter workmen hag fprung from the crown-boors and the people de- figned for recruits, which have been affigned to the works at the mines. They belong, with their whole pofterity for ever, to the works, whether bj* longing to the crown or to private owners, to which they are iorolled, and are entirely maintained al the expence of the crown or the proprietor of th« works. For defcribing fomewhat more diftindly * Herrmann's befchreibung des< uralifch, ersgeb. torn, ii* X 3 the 310 'PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. the fate and performances of this clafs of men, we will borrow a few particulars from the account which Renovantz* has given of thofe at the Kolhyvan mines. -¦•' " The workmen in the mines and the founderies are indeed all called matter-people, but they dif- tinguifh themfelves into mafteis, under- mafters, apprentices, detvers, fervants, carriers, .wafbers, and feparators. In proportion to their ability their wages are regulated, which proceed from 15 to upwards of 30 rubles per annum. The provifions which they receive from the magazines are de- duded from this pay. - The number of themafter-pebple belonging to the kolhyvan eftablifhment is 4186 mfn, but of whom a great part muft be deduded for fuperannuated and incapable, for patients and attendants at the hofpitals, for ©verfeers of the mines and kantoras, for denfchtfchiki to the officers, &c. and are annu ally diminifhed by confiderable defertions. From the remainder are taken all the people wanted for the feveral collateral employments about the works, fo that for the proper purpofe of mining a num ber is left proportionately but fmall ; at the Schlan- genberg, for inftance, not amounting to more than about 600 men. — The children of the workmen and foldiers, to the number of 1029, are partly inftruded in the fchools, or if they be grown up» '-* Nachrichten von den altaifchen gebirgen, p. 174. "puf MiS^s.: 311 put to the laboratories; The increafe of the work men is according to the recruitings; but as all thefe works in the mines and at the founderies are prejudicial to the health arid fhorten life, the- de ficiencies are feldom in this way fupplied. The real increafe is made by the children of the labourers, of whom a boy of fourteen will do more than a full-grOWn fellow from the boors. — The confti- tution, the treatment, and the punifhmehts of the people- belonging to the mines are almoft entirely military. They advance in rank like the fubal- fern officers in the army ; their offences are tried' by military law, at which when neceffary evfln mine-officers are prefent. As in the Altay there are neither markets for pro- vifions nor tradefmen and mechanics ; the work man at the mines muft provide himfelf all his ne ceffaries ; and here the numerous court and church holidays ftand him in good ftead, on which he is> freed from all public labour. His firft care js to have a fmall houfe of his own, to which he lays out a garden and keeps a cow-yard to fecure him a riiaintenance. If new fhafts are opened in feve ral places, at firft he makes fhift for fome time with a hovel compofed of a few flakes, and covered with fods, or he digs himfelf a habitation and a baking-oven in the earth. As foon as the works afford fome profped of fuccefs, he builds himfelf a regular houfe on the fpot, whither he takes with him his cattle and his little property. Thus it not x 4 unfre. 3t$ PRODUCTIVE JffDUSTRY. unfrequently happens, that in the thickeft. and moft inacceffible forefts, or in wild and dreary fteppes, in a few years .whole ftreets and villages arife. If, after trial, the projeded works be aban doned, the labourer lofes nothing, as he eafily feils his houfe to a countryman, who fets it in another place, fometimes twenty or thirtyverfts diftant. The people of the altayan .mines and founderies, particularly fuch as are born of them, are dexte rous and clever, and fit for any thing. Many of them,. without any tuition, very foon and fuccefs fully apply to arts and mechanics. There are boys among them who copy the fineft drawings; com mon fmiths make large clocks which ftrike the hours ; and wherever any opportunity prefents it felf of earning a fmall matter,- the fpirit of induftry is immediately routed, which their hard and tpil-- fome deftiny feems rather to; unfold than to fup- prefs. Almofl every miner of the Altay is more over an excellent hunter, an expert horfenian, and in cafe of neceffity certainly the beft foldier. Something remains to be faid of the boors enrolled to the works, whom we have had fo frequent occafion to mention. The firft and the generality of the mines were originally opened on crown lands, and — excepting the crown—- moftly by perfons not belonging to. the nobility, and confe-> quently not capable of poffeffing vaflals. \In order therefore to remedy this want of workmen* which was at that time the more urgent as at firft no free workmen. MJNES, 313 workmen were to be had for money-, and in order to raife the art of mining, the fovereign ordained that the crown-boors in the neighbourhood of the works fhould work at them for their .head-money, which the owners were obliged to pay in their ftead. .'Moft of the private undertakings that had fuch boors in their environs, obtained therefore a fufficient number of workmen, who, till the year 1779, might be employed at all the works, and at every feafon of the year. The indeterminate manner in which this grant was made gave rife fo a two-fold abufe. The pro prietors not only made very free ufe of the pri vilege to the detriment of the crown, of enrolling the boors, but fuch continued and hard labours were arbitrarily exaded of thefe poor people, that they were at times even driven by defperation to re bel againft their tyrannical matters. "When Cath$- . rine the fecond afcended the throne, flae immediately adopted meafures for checking this flagrant mifde- meanor. In the year 1766 fhe appointed a com- miffion, compofed of the chief officers of ftate, to examine into the matter and to lay before her their propofals for an alteration ; but, as there was no hope of a termination -to this weighty concern, it being delayed by every kind of difficulty that cOuld be thrown in the way, the emprefs iflued fome fpecial precepts from her own hand, whereby the grofleft of the abufes were remedied for the prefent, till at laft the laudable ordinance of the- 23d $14- PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. 23d of May 1779, appeared, by which the fate of the enrolled boors was fixed on a humane and equi table footing. Not only their wages we're raifed, but alfo the time afcertained when and how long they fliould work, and the nature of their work was accurately ftated with penalties annexed. Thefe, boors are therefore now obliged only to do five kinds bf bufinefs, whereby every man muft yearly earn 1 70 kopeeks, according to the ftated price for each day's work; to which at moft four weeks were requifite in the whole year, and with which there fore he'had time enough remaining for managing his hufbandry and his domeftic concerns. Where the nobleman has mines on his own ground he muft carry on all the works by.his vas sals; but if his works be on land not his own, he may, together with thefe, employ the boors affigned him. — The voluntary workmen ge- nenerally compofe the leaft proportion ; and, if the works depended on thefe alone, they would foon grow cold. Yet at many of the copper and iron-works in the Ural the greater part of the ore is brought out by- hired carters, becaufe the en rolled boors can earn their head-money limply by . cutting Wood and carrying charcoal. — As in the neighbourhood of thefe mines all the crown-boors already belong in orie way or another to the works, fo it is now almoft impoffible for any one who does not poffefs vaffals, to profecute mining with advantage; as it is in moft places extremely diffi cult, MINKS. 515 cult, even for the beft wages, to get a fufficient number of voluntary and good workmen ; arid becaufe on the other hand a large capital is wanted, which is feldom within' the compafs of one indivi dual. Thefe may probably be the reafons, that fince the manifefto of the year 1782, by which. the privileges of the miners were fo fecured and enlarged not one new mine adventure has ap peared *. / As we have endeavoured to give an account of the ruffian mines only in a flatiftical regard, it is beyond the limits of our plan to defcribe the manipulation, the fmelting-procefs, or in general the technological operations of them ; which more over would be very uninterefting to the generality , of readers. We fhall therefore, conclude this head with fome general political remarks on the moft remarkable produds of the mineral kingdom, fo far as they, not .merely exift, but alfo are fought out and employed, at the fame time endeavouring to ftate the value of their annual produce, and the export and import of them. Of gold, as has been (hewn, Ruffia obtains, annually , about 40, and of silver near 1300 pood, which, according to the prices of the year 1789, of both amounts to. the value of 1,729^00 rubles. Thefe metals are brought to St. Peterf-- burg and there moftly coined, having been previ* * Hermann's befchreibung des nralifchen erzgebjrges.v t«m. iit p. 237— 239. .. 5 oufly 31 6 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. oufly feparated at the imperial office for that purw pofe, and brought to the perfed flandard. — Be fides the gold and filver got from the mines, Ruffia obtains annually a very confiderable quantity of thefe noble metals by the overbalance of her commerce, as alfo from the duties which inpart inuft be paid in foreign coin *. Of copper is annually gained about 200,000 pood, the value of which muft be eftimated at leaft at two millions of rubles. The copper which the crown receives as well from, its mines as by the taxes from private proprietors, is all coined. The export of. this metal is ineonfiderable (in the year 1 793 it amounted, from all the feaports of the empire only to 187 pood, the value of which was returned to the cuftom-houfe at 2910 rubles); nay,' Ruffia even buys copper wares and verdigris «f. So much the more! important; as an article of » According to TfchulkpPs ftatements, gold and filver in. Specie, either in foreign monies, or uncoined, were imported. in eleven years, from- ' ' '• Rubles'. C' 1758 to 1768 19,219,566 '773 i^5^°6 1774 i>o8z,5}3 1775 1.805,395 1777 1,822,749. therefore annually juft as much as was obtained from the; mines. _-J- Of both, for inftance, in the yeas 1793 were imported at St. Peterfburg to the value of above 42,000 rubles. In the year 17&8 Ruffia fold to the amount of 53,000 rubles in. copper. _ . .- ; - foreign \ \ MINES. ¦>.. SJ7 foreign commerce is the iron, of which annually about five millions of pood are obtained ; the value of which in money, however, on account of the Continual rifing of the price, cannot be accurately afcertained. Befides the prodigious quantity con fumed in the empire itfelf, Where, as may eafily be imagined, it is ufed without much regard to fru gality. Ruffia exports every year fo great a quantity of this metal, that, next to hemp, it forms the moft important article of exportation. In ¦ the year 1793 this export in bar and fort-iron, as well as in caft-iron goods, amounted to 3,033,249 pood, or in value of money as given in the cuftom-houfe books, 5,204,125 rubles*. L£ad is found in all the mines, particularly in thofe of Isfertfehinfk and the Altay ; though but little attention has hitherto been paid to the get ting of this ufeful metal : confequently Ruffia for the moft part fetches what fhe wants of it from the foreigner. Of the galena got at the nertf- chinikian mines about 30,000 pood is annually re vived to lead, which is moftly fent off to,Barnaul ; of the remaining galena millions of poods are left to lie. unufed. Some methods, however, are at pre fent, adopted for fmelting a confiderable quantity * ' Notwithftanding this great wealth in iron, Ruffia buys 'a'hiiually a confiderable quantity of this wrought metal. Iii the forementioned year were imported at St. Peterfburg, in .various forts of veflels and utenfils, lackered iron ware, tin plates, plates, fcythes, &c. to the value of 196,000 ruble* Jchereof 101,000 rubles was for. the article «f fcythes alone. ' Of 318 PRODUCTIVE IttDUSTRT*. of it to lead, and to deliver it at St. Peterfburg for general ufe^ In the year 1793 the importation of lead at that port was 36*000 pood, whichy ac cording to the Cuftom-houfe regifters, was in value 125,000 rubles. — Tin has as yet been nowhere difcovered: in the year 1793 to the amount of 167,000 rubles were imported of it at St. Peterfburg. The semi-metals have not in general been at all produced. Arfenical calx is found indeed' in all the mineral mountains of Ruffia, but in no confiderable quantity. Antimony is pretty plen tiful in the nertfchinfkian mines, and zinc-ore both in them and the altayan. Quickfilver has been hitherto difcovered only in two places, in. the nertfchinfkian mountains and towards Oktiotfk. Nickel, cobalt, and bifmuth, are likewife but fpar- ingly found in the faid mountains. — Of all thefe friable metals Ruffia annually purchafes greater. or lefs quantities. The. moft confiderable impor tation is that of zinc and' quickfilver. The for mer in 1793 amounted at St. Peterfburg alone to 230,000, and the latter, including the zinnober, to 44,000 rubles./ * - In noble, precious, arid durable kinds of stone, either fubfervient to the fine arts, or ufed as building materials, for the decoration of houfes , and for public monuments,' Ruffia likewife has very valuable ftores. Porphyry, jafper, agate, chalcedony, carnelian, onyx, mountain cryftal, beryl, garnet, lapis lazuli, alabafter, in extraordir nary quantities, in the greateft varieties, and of the moft JUNES. ¦ 319 moft variegated kinds and colours. Alfo marble in abundance ; the fineft white; equal to the parian and the karrara, is found in the uralian quarries. There is alfo yellow, grey, and cloudy : moft of the marble now worked in St. Peterfburg in fuch enor mous mafles and quaritities, comes from the go vernments of Vyborg and Olonetz. There too, as well as in moft of the other mountains', is found, granite, from the fineftto the coarfeft granulation, and is much employed as an excellent material for building. For the ufe of the glafs-hqufes and porcelain manufactories there is almoft every where quartz enough. Moft of the argillaceous earths, neceffary in the manufactories, 'Ruffia pofleffes in great quantities ; but they are fcarcely anywhere got out. Turf and coals are found in fome parts, and in feveral diftricts might fupply the want of firewood. Sulphur is in fufficient abundance for rendering the importation of it un- neceffary. Of salts the empire contains ineftima- ble ftores. Without ; reckoning the culinary fait, which we are on the point of mentioning circum- ftantially, glauber and bitter salts, alliim, SAL ' AMMONIAC, VITRIOL, SALTPETRE, NA TRON are found jpartly in exceeding great quanti ties. Of curious petrifactions and MINERAL waters, neither is Ruffia in any want*. Not- * Brunnich's mineralogy, with Georgi's additions. Fallfs beytrnr Orenburg. From 1765 to 1787, (exclufive of the year 17.75, be caufe in it none was dug on account of thedif- turbances there,) therefore in 22 years, 9,770,794 pood were obtained from it : namely, from 1765 to' 1774, in ten years, 2,901,604 pood ; from 1 776 to 1781, fix years, 1,987,457 pood; and from 1782 to 1787, fix years, 4,881,643 pOod. The ruffian empire, farther, comprehends a great number of rich salt-lakes, where the culinary fait cryftaflizes of itfelf without the affiftance of art, forms a thick cruft, and is only broken away*. This lake-falt-f is, however, never entirely pure, but has always a mixture of bitter fait, natron, or * The cryftals of common fait are right-angled fix-fided folids, and aire ufually faid to be cubes. Thefe form at the furface, where the evaporation is the greateft ; and they float by virtue of the repulfive power of their dry upper furfaces, ' which difplaces a quantity of the furrouriding water : a cir cumftance common to all fuch fmall bodies as are not eafily -aretted. When the cryftal becomes too large to be fufjiended in this way it -finks. If two floating cryftals come fo near feach other as that the hollow fpaces may communicate, they fall together into one cavity at the furface, without finking, * and fhe fuccefnVe appofition of other cryftals" often produces " a curious hollow pyramid, whidi is fquare, becaufe theligtire of the cryftals themfelves ocoafrons them to apply to each other only in ihe -pofition required to produce fucha folid« Nicholfon's firft principles of chemiftry, p4 i^z, f In rufs, bufun. earthy SALT-WORKS. $$$ earthy common fait. Among the largeft and moft productive falt-lakes are: the Elton, in the govern* ment of Saratof, the . falt-lakes near Aftrakhan; particularly the inderfkian, and the falt-lakes in the government of Kolhyvan. The Elton pro duced only in the fix years from 1782 to 1787, 33,549,939 pood, therefore yearly on an average above 51 millions of poodsi — The falt-lakes of Aftrakhan yielded from 1765 to 1774, in ten years', 6,766,097 pood. The inderfkian falt-lake is granted to the uralian kozaks for their free ufe, therefore the quantity it yields caiinot be accurate ly afcertained. — From the kolhyvanian lakes; from 1777 to 1 7S6, in ten years; 4,856,312 pood were obtained. — Among the other falt-lakes, the tauridan; caucafean, and irkutfkian; are particu larly productive. The firft yield annually about three millions of poods. The bay-falt is either boiled from the' brine of falt-fprings or from fea-water*; The moft nu merous * The whole art of extracting fait frdm waters which con tain itj confifts in evaporating the water in the cheapeft and boft convenient manner. In England, a brine'Conipofed of fea-wateri with the addition of rock-falt, is evaporated in large fhallow iron boilers; and the cryftals of fait are taken - out in bafkets. In Rijflia, and probably in other northern countries, the fea-water is e.xpofcd to freeze; and the iCe» which is almoft entirely frelhi being taken but, the remaining brine is much ftronger, and is "feVaporated. by boiling. In the fouthetn parts of Europe the fait makers take advantage of 324 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. merous and moft productive .salt-springs are, on the Kama in the diftrict of Solikamfk, on the Lovat near Staraya-Roffa, on" the Donetz near Bachmut and Tor, on the Volga near Totma and Balachna, in Taurida and on fhe ifle of Taman, of fpontaneous evaporation. A flat piece of ground near the fea is chofen,' and banked round, to prevent its being over flowed at high water. The fpace within the. banks is. divided by low walls into feveral compartments, which fucceffively communicate with each other. At flood tide the firft of thefe is filled with fea-water; which, by remaining a certain'time, depofits its impurities, and lofes part of its aqueous fluid. The refidiie is then fuffered to run into the next compartment; and the former is again filled as before. ' From the fecond compartment, after a due^time, the water is transferred into arthird, which is lined with clay, Well rammed, and levelled. At this period the evaporation is ufually brought to that de gree, that a cruft of fait is formed on the furface of the water, which the workmen break, and it immediately falls to the bottom. They continue- to do this until the quantity is fuf ficient to be raked Out and dried in heaps. This is called bay fait. — In fome parts of France, and alfo on the coafts of China, they wafh the dried fands of the fea with a fmall pro portion of water, and evaporate this brine in leaden boilers, , — At feveral places in Germany; and at Montmarot in France, the waters pf falNfprings are pumped up to a large refervoir, at the top of a building or fhed ; from, which it drops or trickles through fmall apertures upon boards covered with . brufh-wood. The large furface of the water thus ex- pofeoVto the air, caufes a very confiderable evaporation ; and the brine is. afterwards conveyed to the boilers for the perfect fe paration of the fait. .Nicholfon's firft principles of chemiftry, p. 170,, fefeq. ^dedit,; _ on salt-works. 325 on the Dvina near Uftiug, on the Angara near Irkutfk, and in other places. The moft important falterns are thofe in the diftrict of Solikamfk in the government of Perme. Thefe from 1765 to 1774 yielded 25,897,815, and in the years 1784 and 1785, 11,361,477, therefore annually above 51 millions of pood of fait; which reckoning by the market price the pood at 35 kopeeks, produces a value of nearly two millions of rubles. The per mian falt-works belong in part to the crown, but moftly to private owners, and principally to the family Stroganpf;. in the years 1784 and 1785 the. produce from the crown falt-works was 2,746,320, and that from the private falterns 8,615,157 pood. The brine here, which unpre pared contains from 10 to 16 folotniks of fait in the pound, is boiled juft as it comes from the fpring; without any kind of preparation whatever; fome few works excepted, in which of late years feveral improvements have-beeri made. The keep- ing of a pan, which on an average produces from 40 to 50,000 pood of fait, cofts at the crown- falterns, yearly, with all requifites, including the falaries of the officers, 2915 rubles 393- kopeeks ; thus, the pood of fait Hands the' crown in 5f to 6 kopeeks. The permian fait is tranfported into twelve different governments of the empire, and to this erid put on board large flat-bottomed vef- fels, which,'without having a fingle iron nail to hold them together, are able to convey from 40 y 3 to 326 PRODUCTIVE industry. to 90,000 pood of fait-*.. Thefo veflels go down the Kama as far as Laifchova, and then up the Volga to Nifhnei-Novgorod, where the principal depofit is kept, and whence it js farther conveyed partly by land and partly by water -f. The falt-works at Staraya-Rofla in the govern ment of Novgorod, from 1777 to 17^7, in eleven years, produced 1,526,778' pood. The conft^- tution of them Was uncommonly improved by the * The expences attending all the permian falbworks be longing to the crown, are, at prefent, for ' Wood -.-1-. - about 27,720 rubles, Materials, implements, horfes - - : 16,000 Salaries and wages - - - — I 3,900 Conftruftion of the tranfport veffekj , twith;,'all neceffaries - - - - 3'>44z Coft of the tranfport - - - - 53,65^ Total 142,720 It is Reckoned, upon an average, that at prefent 3. pood of fait, cofts the crown on. the fpot 5! and at Nifhnei-Novgorod 11. kopeeks. The profit which the crown, after deducting all expences, makes- oh an average, may amount on its own fait 'to about" 15, and oh the fait of private owners to about 4 kbpeeks on'the pood. By this calculation the crown in the years 1784 and 1785, taken together gained from the permian falt-works,, ; , . On its own fait .... 31 1,948 rubles. On the fait of private owners 344,606 Total 656,554 f Herwnann's befchreibung dp uralifchen ersgebirges, torn. ii. p. 143 — 224. late ¦SALT-WORKS. 'i t 327 late lieutenant general Baur, in purfuance of the advice of M. Cancrin, who was afterwards made director of thofe works. The brine here fp'rings from various marflies, is moftly only one ounce and a quarter, and is graduated to eight ounces. This evaporation houfe or gradir-Work, as it is here called, was lately the only one in all Ruffia; but thefe improvements have already given rife to fome beneficial alterations at the permian falt- works. The ovens and feething-houfes are alfo conftructed in the manner pradtifed in moft parts of Germany *, The other falterns in the governments of Vo logda, Koftroma, Vifctka, Nifhnei-Novgorod, Irkutfk, &c. likewife produce annually a con fiderable quantity of fait. — Sea-salt is indeed found in all the feas that furround the ruffian empire (the' Cafpian excepted, which is barely brackifh) ; but only near Archangel and Kamt fhatka is the fea-water boiled to this purpofe. The falt-works of Archangel produced yearly about 150 to 200,000 pood. From 1765 to 1777, by an account delivered under imperial authority, from the magazines of the crown alone 81,046,370 pood 372 pound of fait were fold yearly, therefore on an average, above 8 millions of pood. As fince the laft-men- * Herrmann's befchreibung des uralifchen .erjsgebirges^ torn. U. p. 199. y 4 tidied; 328 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY; tioned year the confumption has very much rifen feveral new falt-works have been fet up and others enlarged, and as the krimean and the inderfkian fait are not included in the above ftatement, we may fairly admit at leaft twelve millions of pood as the annual product and confumption in the em pire. The pood of fait is everywhere fold at a ftated moderate price of 35 kopeeks ; confequent ly, this mineral forms an object of 4,200,000 ru bles, of which however the net profit to the crown is at moft only two millions. Notwithftanding the great ftore of fait pofleffed by the ruffian empire in its inexhauftible falt- mines, lakes, and fprings, the quantity hitherto obtained is not fufficient for the fupply of. all the provinces, therefore foreign fait to a very con fiderable amount is brought every year into the livonian and finnifh harbours ; an import, which according to Guldenftasdt's ftatement in the year 1768, came to 492,000, rubles. On the other hand the tauridan ports fhipped off in the year 1793 to the value of 23,000 rubles in krimean fait. So confiderable an over-balance of the im port, and the daily increafing demands, put it beyond all doubt, that the beft management pof- ¦ fible of the falt-works in being and the employ ment of the fait places as yet unoccupied, is one of the moft important concerns of the internal ceconomy of the empire. How much in this refpedt, notwithftanding the prefent improved manage-, , SALT-WORKS. 329 management and the alterations that have been here and there introduced in the method of pro curing the fait, ftill remains to be done and to be defired, is apparent even from the foregoing con tracted reprefentation. Many excellent fait fources remain untouched in fouthern Ruffia, becaufe wood, in the diftricts where they are, is fcarce, and becaufe by a continual employment of the fait- pans, they would reafonably apprehend a total deficiency. This evil might indeed enfue if we are to expect that all things will proceed as they have hitherto done ; but if the forefts were care fully managed according to the rules of art, if coals or fedge were to be ufed inftead of wood, if furnaces were to' be built in the cottages of the workman, which \vould be fitter for keeping up and invigorating the fire, if the brine were not to be boiled as it comes out of the fprings, but in the evaporating-houfes previoufly deprived of a part of the water, if this were done, certainly the want of wood in thefe parts would be no obftacle. The g£eat advantage of the evaporating-houfes is already confirmed in Staraya-Rotfa, by the moft ftriking experience, at thofe works where they are erected by imperial command : thefe falt-works now -annually produce ioo to 150,000 pood, where formerly fcarcely 10,000 were extracted. This example, and perhaps likewife the adequate and luminous prbpofals of the academician Lepek- hin in the fecond part of his travels, have indeed •raifed 330 PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. raifed a fpirit of emulation among the proprietors? of -the permian falterns, which has hitherto been productive of fevenil improvements ; but at moft of the other falt-works the better proceffes formed Upon the rules of art are not yet even known by name. .In the fouthern regions the effect; of the eyaporat-ton would be beyond comparifon greater, as the air is here drier, the heat more intenfe, alhd the fro-fts in winter fo flight that the evapora tion would ever proceed in an uninterrupted. courfe. It would here even be poffible to- obtain the foring-falt -entirely without- wood and without fire, if the brine, after the evaporation, were to- be expofed to the fun and the wind in large open refervoirs, as is done with the falt-waters on the coafts of France., Even the cold, which in the northern provinces prevents the evaporation in winter, may ferve to free -the brine from a great part of the water if it were left to freeze in broad fhallow vats placed in the open air. Among the large quantities of rock-falt which have hitherto lain unbroken, at leaft were fo fome, few years fince, is particularly to be remarked a mine in' the fteppe between the Volga and the Ural, which the Kalmuks call Tfchaptfchatfchi, and from which may be eafily got as much fait as from the iletzkian mines, if the Kalmuks could be induced to conduct the tranfport from the' •fpot itfelf to the Volga with camels. This road is very fhort and richly provided with paftures and SALT-WORKS. 331 &nd water ; but the conveyance of it on carriages would be extremely difficult on account of the deep fands. The perfectly clean rock-falt yielded by the Tfchaptfchatfchi is far better adapted to the falting of fifh and kaviar than the fait of the Jakes about Aftrakhan, which in a fliort time corrupts thefe commodities. — Among the falt- lakes, on which the fait fhoots into cryftals by the heat of the fun, and which lie chiefly near the Volga in the caucafean government, that called the Bogdinfkoy, forty verfts from Tfchernoyr yar, yiekls the beft fait. For this reafon there fore, as well as on account of its fmall diftance from the Volga, it ought to be at leaft as much worked as the Elton, to which the preference has hitherto unjuftly been given *. One part of thefe beneficial fuggeftions is al ready put in practice fince the ruffian empire has been in pofleffion of a salt-regulation, which isdrawn up with fo much legiflative wifdom that it -may in general ferve as a model for fimiiar objects. In purfuance of this regulation the finance-office muft keep an account how much fait is procured and confumed in each government ; if it contain any falt-fprings, lakes, or mines, hitherto not employed, muft caufe them to be examined by * Guldenftaedt's akad. rede, &c. 1 1 1 . Herrmann proceeds to more particular details on the improvement of the falterns in his Befchreib. des ural. erzgeb. and Lepekhin in the fecond part of -his travels. apothe- 332 PRODUCTIVE. INDUSTRY. apothecaries and chemifts, and if the fait be found wholefome, to inform the magiftracy and the imperial high-treafurer, how much, in what man ner, and at what expence it may be produced and' tranfported. If falt.-places be anywhere found which have been formerly worked and afterwards abandoned, the finance-office is bound to inquire into the caufes of this neglect, and inform them felves of all the particulars. To facilitate this duty to the finance-Offices, the regulation pro ceeds to give an exact lift of all the fait -places at work in the year 1775, with the notification how much was fold of each kind of fait from the crown-magazines from the year 1770 to 1775. The finance-offices have the jurifdiction over all the falt-places and falterns belonging to the crown, but are not allowed in any; way whatever to meddle with the management of private falt- works, which are again fpecified in a miffive from the fenate. Every government has in each. of its circles a fait- magazine, fituated conveniently, for tranfport and fale ; but in every government which has falt-works and obtains more fait than, it wants for its own confumption, are likewife ftore-houfes, whence the governments affigned to it are to be fupplied *. All thefe magazines muft * This diir.ribu.tion was a few years ago in the following order : 1. The governments of Vologda, Caucafus, Irkutfk, Kolhyvan, Tobolfk, ' Ekatarinoflaf, and Taurida fupply themfelves with their own or neighbouring fait. 2. The go vernments SALT-WORKS. 333 be conftantly furniflied with a ftock of fait for two years ; if befides a furplus ftill remain, it may be fent over the borders into other governments, or even tranfported out of the empire. An infpector is appointed to every ftore as well as to every circle-magazine who keeps the necef fary accounts, receives the fait of the contractors and pays them for it, and conducts the fale of the fait to the affigned diftricts. The money ob tained from the fale he delivers weekly to, the receiver-general. This money is divided into two fums: the falt-capital, which is, applied again to the procuring of the fait that is wanted ; and the profit or furplus, which is deftined to defray the expenditure, which, in purfuance of particular orders, is to be paid out of the falt-revenue. vernments of Riga, Reval, and Vyborg import foreign fait. 3. The other governments obtain their fait in the following manner : - The fait from the lake Elton is diftributed in the governments of Penfa, Koftroma, Tub, Tambof, Saratof, Yaroflaf, Simbirfk, Kazan, Kharkof, Voronetch, Kurik, Orel, Risfan, and part of Kief, Tfchernigof, and Nov- gorod-Severfki, whither alfo at prefent a part of the tauri- dan fait comes.' The permian fait goes into the govern ments of Mofco, St. Peterfburg, Tver, Novgorod, Perme, Visetka, Smolenfk, Polotik, Kaluga, Pfcove, Vladimir, and Mohilef; and the iletzkian fait is allotted for the govern ments of Ufa, Nifhnei-Novgorod, and likewife, a part of Kazan. The demand of the laft 31 governments in 1783 and 1784. amounted to 19,719,939 pood. See Herrmann's ftatift. fchild. p. 334. In 334 productive industry". In the governments where the crown has re* ferved to itfelf the falt-trade; private perfons, may not fell their fait; except to the imperial maga* zines. — Any body may buy fait at the crowifc* magazines in large and fmall quantities at the ftated price of 35 kopeeks the pood, and fell it again in retail. Whoever would buy more than ten pood muft«apply for it in writing, and who* ever more than fifty pood muft moreover declare before the magiftrate that he is no ingrofler. We fhall conclude this brief view of the ruffian - mines and felt-works with a few arguments which may make more evident the importance of the! mineral production. Difficult and unauthen* ticated as the calculations may be which are made* as the total product of all national occupations, fo eafy and certain is fuch an account to be made concerning the mineral productions, as thefe are everywhere entrufted to an adminiftration which accurately controls the annual amount of them* According to the facts we have adduced, it may be admitted that at prefent every year there is produced in the ruffian empire of gold about 40 pood, of filver 1300, of lead 3-o,ooOj of copper 200,000, of iron 5,000,009, and of fait 12,000,000 pood; a quantity of mineral products, the value whereof in money may be eftimated by the moft moderate computation at 13 millions of. rubles, and in which the precious ftones, fulphur, vitriol; and other collateral products of mining are not comprifed. salt-works. 335 eonrprifed; Now adding to this tbeCafpian excepted, amounted to, jn produds , Of the chace, viz. fkins and furs; Rubles. caftoreum, feathers, and down - 496,006 Of the, fishery: ifinglafs, kaviar, train-oil, fifh, and morfe-teeth - 762,000 Of the BREEDING OF CATTLE:, tal- IOw, hogs' briftles, butter, fheep's wool, dried flefh, and tongues, horfe-hair and tails, live cattle - 5,276,000 Of agriculture: hemp,£lax,grain, linfeed, and hemp-feed, hemp-feed- oil and linfeed-oil, tobacco, peas, and grift, anife and cummin - - 16,138,000 Of horticulture -' none - Of the vineyard - none - Of the forest-culture: mafts, balks, deals and wood, pot-afhes, mats, pitch, tar, and rofin - - 2,537,000 Of the bee-hives: wax and honey - 384,000 Of the silk-worm - none - Of the mines and salt-works: bar and eaft iron, copper, fait, - - 3,236,000 Total in raw products of productive induftry ,-------- 30,823,000 This, therefore, .is about the capital with which the productive induftry of the nation actually en- ¦ riched the country in that year ; and great as the , fum may appear, it is yet- probably rated too low. 4 For SALT-WORKS. '33/ For, firft, there are not in thefe ftatements the ex ports by fea from the harbours of the Cafpian, and what is more the whole of the exports by land, to gether with all the wrought products, as fail-cloth, linen, tallow-candles, foap, &c. ; and, befides, the - unavoidable incompletenefs of the cuftom houfe lifts muft likewife be in favour of the exports. On comparing thefe circumftances with the in creafing activity of the nation, _ and the extra ordinary increafe of the population by the iate ac- quifitions, it is more than probable that the value of that furplus is near upon fifty millions of rubles. With this calculation, which prefents the thoughtful reader with abundant matter for re flection, we difmifs thefe objects of our view, ia», order to take into confideration a new fphere of fa cial activity. We have purfued the rude and fimple employments of the ruffian countryman through their feveral modifications while they could excite any humane and political intereft in the reader; we will now proceed to trace the progrefs which improving industry has made fince Peter the great, and endeavour to mark the degree at which the ufeful arts arrived under the brilliant fceptre of Catharine the fecond*. • Storch's hiftorifche-ftatiftifches gemslde des rttffifchen reichs, tqm. ii. VOL. III. Z W£ ""©3% PRODUCTIVE INDUSTRY. We will here juft add acomprefled abftraft from fhe memorable ediift, referred to in p. 314 of this ¦volume,- by which the labours of the 'boors are af- certained : 1. The boors enregi'ft-ered to the mines, as well thofe without the jurisdiction of 'the crown ^belonging -to it, and to 'private proprietors, fhall, as before, provide for the -neceffary labours atrtbe 'mines: 1. the falling of timber for burning into charcoal; 2.Lthe breaking up the coal -iheagas, and ( 'earryingjthe coals -to the works; 3. the chopping ef ¦wood for the fufiori of the metals; 4. the "convey- ance of the ore obtained to the works, as alfo the neceffary lands and fufions; 5. the making and re pairing of the dams, but only in cafes when they •ifhall be damaged by inundations or-fixe. II. The ¦boors are not bound to perform any other work whatever; yet neither is it forbidden- them volun tarily to undertake it by agreement. III. They -fhalf be taken on to work at the beginning of the winter-roads, and atthe. going off of the fnow they rfhall be difchargcd, that-they may attend to their agriculture. IV. A labourer with a 'horfe fhall re ceive daily in fummer 20-, in -winter 12, kopeeks: ^labourer -without horfe, in- fummer 10, in winter 8 kopeeks. At thefe wages- they fhall work -out their head-money, amounting to., ,170 kopeeks; but to more labour they .fhall not be required. of obliged ; V. — VII. under penalties, to pay the la bourer, above his daily wages, twice as much again. On account of the rife in the price of labour, the 5 2 (obligation salt-works. 339 obligation on private owners to furnifli the admi ralty andartillery with iron and ftores at a ftated price, was annulled. — The boors belonging to the crown-mines have always experienced a milder lot, as the crown is always interefted in their prefervation. Among the crown-boors are alfo reckoned, Tartars, Bafchkirs, Vogules, &c. who inhabit a great part of the uralian mountains ; but they are never annexed to the mine-works; except a few of the Bafchkirs, who have thus freed them felves from kozak-fervice*. * Herrmann's befchreib. des Urals, tom. ii. p. 238. 2 Z VIEW OF THE RUSSIAN EMPIRE. BOOK XI. IMPROVING industry. Manufactures and Trade> In this Branch> likewife, of political deconomy Ruffia has made figrtal progrefs fince the reforming reign of Peter the great; though it cannot be de nied, that many trades are not fufficiently com plete and extended, and others not yet introduced. We will run over the moft important in their na tural order. I. Oil-pressing. In various parts of the em pire hemp-seed-oil, linseed-oil, hazLe- nut-oil, cedar-nut-oil, and poppy-oil are prepared; of which the two firft are made in the greateft quantities. Hazle-nut-oil is chiefly made in the government of Kazan; cedar-nut-oil (though but little) in Siberia, and poppy-oil in many parts. z 3 —In 342 IMPROVING INDUSTRY. — In Yaroflaf is a manufactory where juniper-oil is made, and inTVer and Vologda are two for the making of turperitlrie-bir anfl cofifonium. About Simbirfk an oil is likewife preffed from the fruit of the wild-almond fhftib: — The hemp -feeds are for the moft part preffed by the boors themfelves, by mentis of little toil-mills* iri- which?lh% feels' We cfufhed by a fmall block-peftle worked by a horfe. ' They are then put. in _a Jaige.pan into an, heated overi, and, when they are thoroughly hot, the ,crufhed feeds' are laicLbetwe^n .coarfe linens in the prefs. Five pood" of feeds -commonly yield one pood of oil. . — The preparation of rljhe linfeed-oil is performed in nearly the fame manner, and af fords almoft a like 'qh&ntftf ' of 'oil. -¦*- In Ruffia during the numerous fafts an incredibly, great quantity of oil. is Gonfumed; arioT ihiere^Deing a conftant fcarcity of Jine oils iri" the country, and particularly of olive-oil,, rhuch of it is imported for the . tables of people . of condition : on the other hand 1-50^,000 pood, of hemp-oil is annually ex ported from St. Peterfburg alorie. ' , ' II. Train-oil.;.., Not to mention the various oils prepared as food, by the Samoyedes, Oftiaks, ,&c. on the. coafts of the Frozen-ocean, we "win* .only take notice, of the blubber of the morfes, .which is boiled in great .quantities on the coafts of. Archangel and Olonetz,., It is commorily meltell at .home in. copper kettles oyer tfie fire, ana! gene rally mixed with the fat of the feal and the beluga, and zsiwgclass. 343 and: is fold in Ruffia under the name of vorvannoy faloc Several thoufand pood of this train-oil is every yeax exported by fea from Archangel : in 1 783 the quantity amounted to 40,248 poodl; —r- On the Cafpian alfo much oil is made from the fat of the beluga ; to this end tile fat in particular, which im the milters Iks; thick about the milft and on the fides, is fcraped away with knives, coir lected into cafks, and again boiled and eleanfed. ¦ — This fat, when frefli, is. well taftedr and may be ufed inftead of butter and. oil in faffing times. -r III. Isinglass, The ifinglafs is a product, the r preparation whereof is almoft peculiar jto R.Uffia> -It is made in all places- where the largje kinds of fturgeon are. caught i-aSi on the Dniepr, the Don, and -efpecially on the Cafpian; alfo. on the Volga, the Ural, the Oby* and idfee Irtyfh. The ifinglafs is prepared from the fo^sd^of thefe fifh;. On the Volga,, that prepared from the fturgeon is Teck- onedthe beft, nejft;tp that the beluga; but- that from the fevruga- is mixed with the; fturgeon. But ifinglafs is; alfo fflei^red^ from fterlets, fhad, and barbel, though not fo good. By fome, how ever, the fterlet-ifinglafs ismuch efteemed as-glue; it is particularly tenacious, and is excellent in inlaid cabinej-work. All thefe kinds are watered while, frefh, afterwards dried, the outer fkin taken off, and the inner, gloffy white, which is properly the: glue; twilled into' various fhapes, and. fp dri^d. The beft is ufually rolled in little ringlets ;.th£ z 4 fecond 344; IMPROVING INDUSTRY. • fecond fort is laid together like leaves of a book, and the moft ordinary is dried without any care. Farther down- the Volga, likewife, a fine glue is boiled and eaft into various forms. On the Okka, where only the fterlet is to be had, the founds are, beat juft as they are extracted frofn the fifh, and dried into -glue. The founds of the fhad are pounded, and as the glue does not entirely dif- folve, it is (trained,, and the filaments feparated' from it. — On the river Ural, where the Kozaks prepare ichthyocolla or fifh-glue in the greateft quantities, the frefh founds are wafhed and laid out in the air to dry, fo that the outer fkin lies undermoft, and the filver white inner fkin up wards. -By which means the latter is eafily fepa rated, then -put into a moift cloth, and forcibly kneaded-with -the. hands. -Then they are rolled one after another, and drawn, to the form of a fnake or a heart, between three pegs, ; on 'a board ftuck full of them ; and, when they are fome what dried in this fituation, they are hung on lines in' the fhade till their moifture is entirely gone. In Gurief a fine boiled fifh-glue is prepared', per fectly transparent; having the colour of amber, and is eaft into flabs and plates. — On the Caf pian, about the Oby, the Irtyfh, &c. the fifh- glue is made in much the fame manner, only that there the founds are cut in ftrips, and. then rolled up. The Oftiaks likewife boil their fifh-glue in a kettle fo long as till it boils over. IV. Prs- Preparation or kaviar. 345 IV. Preparation. of kaviar. Kaviar, it is well known, is -the prepared and falted roes, which are got in abundance from the large kinds. of fifh. The uralian Kozaks are particularly fa mous for making excellent kaviar. The beft is obtained, from the feveral kinds of ' fturgeons, the fevrugas, and the belugas. Moft of the kaviar that is exported from Ruffia goes to Italy. It bapperis fome years that this export amounts to from 15,000 to' 20,000 pood. It is prepared in three "different ways. The worft fort is the com mon preffed* kaviar, payufnaia ikra. To this end. the t roes are eleanfed of the coarfeft fila ments, falted with about two pound of fait to the pood, and then fpreadvupbn mats in the fun to dry, after which it is trodden with the feet, the fellow who treads it having leathern ftOckings. A better fort is that called the grained kaviar, ferniftaia ikra, but is too fait to be agreeable to every, body. The eleanfed roes are falted in Icing troughs with eight or ten pound of fait rb! the pood, well mixed by (hovelling it over and over; then put by portions into fieves or thick nets ftretched out, to drain and to coagulate, on which it is immediately preffed into cafks. The cleaned and beft fort is that which to appearance* confifts entirely of the eggs of the roes, and does not eafily become fetid, termed from its preparation mefchefchnaia ikra. The firft thing done is to get: ready a ftrong brins; then long narrow bags of ftrong 345 txrmsrr&& rsmtrsT**: ftrong linen. Thefe are- half filled with frefh roes, and filled to the top by pouring in the brine. When the brine has oozed through, the ba^ hanging on tranfverfe poles are powerfully wrung with the, bands one after another; and the roes after drying for ten or twelve hours in the- bags* are put into fmall cafks. — From the -Volga in winter large quantities of kaviar unfalted* are fent to all parts. The method here ufed" in falting the roes, is by; putting them, after being well eleanfed and falted, into citterns, with a number of holes in the bottom, through which, they are fet .to drain by weights laid on at top, or are wrung in linen bags, then preffed^ in cafks, with fifh-fat poured over the furface, in order to keep it as much as poffible ;from corruption. In like manner is the. .kaviar prepared in the other parts of the empire, where they have fifh proper for that purpofe. Among thefe are reckoned the white falmon and the pike;- from' the. roes of which; a reddifh kind of kaviar, kraffnaia ikra, is prepared!. V. Soap-roiling. So much foap is made in Ruffia, that fhe: is able to export a confiderable quantity. It is of, two forts,, white, and' black foap, that in which fifh-fat. anil linfeedroif are mingled,, and what i& called the .dutch foap*. * In Aftrakhan they make foap of pot-afhes and feaf- blubber, whkhis faid to be excellent for wool, and is called tartarian foap-. — Black- or brown fijap is, among, others; made very good" in Koftroma. The tai.low-tjhanblerv. 34,7 The foap'-works, which- werd formerly under th* dfreelioh of the college of manufaaares; are on the eftates Of count Scheremetbf in Nifhiiey-Nov- gorod, thofe of count Sdltikof in the infertfkian circle of .the* government of Kaluga, and two in Peterlbdfg belonging to the merchants Meyer and Tfehukiii. But moft of the foap is made by ruf fian burghers, merchants, arid boors. The foaps of Koftroma, Vologda, Kazan, Arfamas, Mofco, Tzaritzin, Murom*, &c.*-are.in high efteem. VL TALLOW-ca-ANfeiv-ERY. The inhabitants of Vologda, the moravfari brefirreti near Tzaritzin and forife other parts are ih good repute for their fine tkllowtca-hdles. Great quantities of monld- caridles are alfo niadef ; yet it cannot be affirmed, that this fedfinefs is brought to any great perfec- * Of the foap-b'oiliig in Murojrf Tee Lepekhin's journal, torn, i. p. zy. ; and of that in Kazan, Georgi's travels,, torn. ii. p". 215. f The whitenefe of the, dandles ' made at Koftroma pro ceeds from this, that it is chiefly the tallow of young cattle that is ufed for making them." The beft turned wicks are procured from fjolland. The fcaii'dw is fhrt*d afnd thrown intt> "kettles iof boiling wateTi far melting ; tlieH fltimmed oft* with a ladlfe, and paflfed through a fieve into a cooler filled with hot watfer. Ere it -be cold it is poured into a clean trough. The unclean refidue is pounded, melted again in a kettle of warm water, .whence as mudl as is neceffary is poured into the ufuai copper-tiriried moulds, and the procefs k conducted in the ordinary way. Th*s price of the beft candles in Vo-- logda is frbm i8o'toz«o kopeeks the pood. tion. 34$ improving industry. , tion, as it is'followed in moft places by old W0« men, who mriderftand little about the matter, ex cept juft knowing how to clean the. tallow. Not withftanding^ this, not lefs thari twenty thoufand pood of tallow- candles are exported every year by fea from St. ^Peterfburg : this article might be ex tended to a .furprifing degree; for the exports in raw tallow amount at prefent in value to far above a million of rubles. *- VII. Brewery. Though a great "deal of beer is brewed in Ruffia; yet every year upwards of a hundred thoufand rubles were paid during the late feign 'for eriglifh ale and porter. It is true that in moft parts only"1 a fad rye-beer is made, which almoft every family brews at home. But likewife very fine beer, is- brewed in St. Peterf burg, Mofco, Nifhney-Novgorod, Riga, and other places. That of Riga is faid to approach very near to the englifh, and would certainly give fa* tisfacf ion to the beer-drinkers, if attention were paid to a few feemingly little circumftances, fuch as, the quality of the cafks, the tranfport by fea, the time ere it be tapped, &c. Ori the Okka, in the government of Nifhney-Novgorod, are fe veral large brewhoufes, in which, with the water of that river, (for the Volga-water is unfit for that purpofe,) an excellent light-brown, bright beer is brewed, little inferior to burton ale. One of thefe breweries, which Mr. Herrmann vifited, had feven large vats with iron hoops, each holding about 2jO brewery. 34.9 ajjevedros; at one brewingfheyufedoneandahalf chetverts of rye-malt, three chetverts of oat-malt, three chetverts of barley-malt, and one arid a half pood of hops, and obtained from this wort 130 vedros of beer, each vedro reckoned at twelve englifh bQttles ; which altogether fold \for about twenty rubles*. — We muft here take notice of the brewing of fome other liquors commonly drank in Ruffia, The moft common of all, . and which every boor drinks daily as his ordinary houf- hold beverage, is quas. Its preparation is as follows: to one chetverik (about thirty -five pound) of barley ¦'¦malt they add two or three1 handful s of ryermalt, and the fame proportion of unbolted rye-meal, throw it all into earthen pans, pouring spn it to the height of four inches boiling water, and ftir it about till it refembles thin porridge On this they fhake about two inches high of oat- • hufks, and fet the pans in the oven, where they * On the Terek a fort of beer is brewed, called terlkaia braga, by foaking millet in warm water, and when it is fwoln like, malt, it is bruifed; boiled foft, and fo poured upon nialted-rye and barley. By the malt' the. brewage is tepid, 'and in this.ftate oats are added ; it is left' to ferment, and the hufcs.being ftrained from the drink, it is' fit for ufe. . It is of good' colour, always turbid, rather clammy, difguft- jng to the tafte and fmell, but very intoxicating. ' Falk. ' tom. i. p. 93. — The ruflian braga is a beer made of wheat, " as bufa is brewed from only millet ; they are turbid, foam ing, mount into the head, and are only drankby the com mon peopled. - .:. « ^ remain 35Q IMPROVING INDUSTRY. remain twenty as quas, and is &oe of the ,moJt ancient drinks in Ruf fia*- Mead is made of two -kinds, white and red. For preparing the former, to two pood of white honey they pour five. ankers of clear river water, .and let it trail in a kettle, conftantly fkim- jning it and taking care that it do .not boil over, till, nearly three.quart.ers of an anker are boiled away. This 'boiled eboney -.water is then ftrained through a fiandTfieve or -a piece of linen into a broad apen veffel, mixing with it a couple of fpoonfuls .of beerrfees^nd abound of -white bread, kalatfch. After it has-ftood in this -manner -co vered in. a moderately warm place and fermented for ilhirtyrfix hours, this fermented honey-water nrimead is poured through a fieve or linen into a cafk, in which has been previoufly put a pound *,"^l,:eft,parlei4e.l'%4romelJ";f4ys Levefque, "dans la plus ahciepne chronique ; c^eft de 1'Hydromel qu' OJga eruvra les princlpaux Drevliens. Elle tenoit les renes du gouyerne- ment de 94.5 jufqu'en .955. Hiftoire de Ruffie., tom. ii. p. 274. bf 352 . niPROVIXG INDUSTRY. of fmall- ihred ifinglafs for clarifying it. — If they would give a great deal of fpirit and a very ex cellent flavour to the mead, they fill it either with good wine lees, the beft are of hungary wine, or add twelve bottles of a tweet wine to it, and then hang in the calk an oblong bag containing half a pound of coriander feeds, a quarter of a pound of cardamums, and three quarters of a pound, of. the roots of the iris, -or fleur de lis. -This done, the cafk is flopped clofe, fecuring the bung-hole with pitch or clay, and leaving it at leaft twelve days to reft, ere they drink of it. #. For making red mead, to one pood of honey put about eight vedros of water, and boil them .together till reduced to fix vedros. When this is cold, prefs about half a chetverik of klukva * through a fieve, and add this juice to the honey- water. After this three fpoonfuls of yeaft are put in 5 laftly, a roll of clean fand and ifinglafs (about four ringlets of it) is thrown into the veffel, to clarify the mead. To give it a fine flavour, they hang in it -fome. cinnamon, cloves, and other fpices. Ere it can be ufed it muft ftand at leaft two weeks, and that in a cool place ; otherwife it will fly all about. This is the moft ufual kind of red mead; but it is likewife made with various other kinds of ber- ries, ex.gr. for preparing rafpberry-mead, put to * Vaccinium oxycoccus, .Cranberries. one 15REWERY. 353 One anker of water half a pood of honey, boil it, as faid above, leave it to ferment, and add about fix pound of rafpberries. To make this mead more excellent, to this quantity pour four bottles of wine, and fufpend in the veffel a bag with one and a half lote of cloves, three lote of cinnamon, and two lote of cardamoms. In the fame manner a cherry-mead is made, by proceeding as before* and inftead of fix pound of rafpberries, tike from fifteen to eighteen pound pf cherries with the ftones broken. Other ruflian liquors are the berry wines which are made in the country in very many houfes, fuch as eherry-wifie, vifchnovka; rafpberry-wine, malinovka; bullace-wine, chernovka, and others. The mode of preparation is not everywhere alike. For making cherry-wine, about five or more ve dros of ripe cherries of the fteppes are crufhed in a wooden tub; fo that even the ftones are broken* To each vedro add one, one and a half or two pound of honey, and a quarter or half a quart of good brandy or wine, and put in fome yeaft to make it ferment. Having properly fermentid, it is cleared of the yeaft and poured into kegi or bottles, then placed in a cool cellar. Wine and brandy are omitted by many botifeWives, pajti-s cukrly when they have no need to be fearing- of their honey, fcy which the wine prove* ftr-omg enough. The fame procefs is ufed wift& *>tfaeT fruits.. — Birch-wkie, from the fap of the tarxbi vol. in. a a tree 354 IMPROVING INDUSTRY. t^eei which with honey or fugar ferments into, wine, is made on feveral eftates.of the nobility in Livonia; in fuch perfect. ion, that it can fcarcely be diftinguifhed from champagne./; The receipt for it is thus: To an -anker of frefh; birch-juice. put feven pound of fugar, and boil it together till, the fourth part is boiled away and. fkimmed off. After, the . fkum is taken, off, and ,the water well boiled, put 'fix lemons , carefully , peeled , into a clean tub, pour fix bottles of .good french white wine, and then the boiling hot water upon it. After it is become barely tepjd, add two fpoon- fuls. of yeaft, let it ftand three or four days, and afterwards Jet the veffel- in the, cellar. , , At the end of four weeks bottle it off, and in the courfe of a. few days this, fine -fparkling birch wine may be drank-.c — -,With birch-juice fome likewife make beer, which; is very, fpirituous, and by which a confiderable faving is rnade in malt. VIII- Distillery. This is one of the moft- extenfive,-; and the moft beneficial of all trades to the crown. Brandy is the, idol of the ruffian ,por pulaee, and the inexhauftible fource, of revenue to the government. But whether it be equally beneficial to .the health and morals of the people, is quite- another queftion. The brandy drank in thej;reateft quantity in Ruffia is diftilled from corn;, and we fhall certainly not be ¦miftake,|\in our calculation, if we fet down, the whole con fumption of the empire at five millions of. vedros: For Distillery, 355 -For producing five millions of vedHs, about one and a half million of chetverts, or ten million poods of corn are neceffary. The fale of it, as is well known, is a monopoly of the crown, and the right to diftil it is confined (with the exception of a few privileged provinces) to the nobility who poffefs landed eftates. The diftricls that abound in corn are therefore thofe which diftil the moft brandy, as,, Little and White R,uffia, Livonia, the governments of Kharkof, Voronetch, Orel, Kurfk, Kaluga, Tula, Tver, Kazan, Nifhney- Novgorod, Simbirfk, &c. • — The procefs in mak ing the corn brandy, however, is not alike in dif ferent diftricls. In Livonia the brandy is com monly diftilled from barley-malt and rye, of each equal parts, or of rye, barley, and barley-malt. It is cuftomary to put to a veffel of 120 englifh quarts 900 pounds of barley. The ufual way of diftilling here is with the worm-pipe, and the ordinary fuel is turf. The procefs is generally as follows : the meal is put in a vat, thoroughly foaked with boiling water, and beaten till not a particle of it is to be feen. In about two hours time it is beaten again but more violently, and then as much boiling water added as is neceffary. Some of this is put into a tub, mixing with it cold water and yeaft that it may ferment.. When a fourifh fmell is perceptible from the vat, cold water and the mixture from the tub are poured in, then covered clofe, and all left to ferment, aaz till '356 IMPROVING INDUSTRY. till the fcui#up6n it falls ddwn, and all is clear at top. Then it is brought iri 'the copper, tend what is obtained from 'that is put into the Tecli- fier. The fign by which expert diftillers know when the fermentation is complete is ;the ftrong fmell they perceive On opening a little the covet of the vat, and by a thin fcuni on the furface refem bling mouldihefs. The vat is clofed -hot only with a lid, but alfo with wet cloths. As a proof that the brandy is of a proper ftrength, not lefs than one half of it muft burn aw&y in a filver veffel*. At a large diftillery -belonging to count Shuvalof on the river Uk in Siberia the procefs is conducted in the' following manner : the prerriifes contain 106 coppers, 28 coolers, and ^6 ftills. To every cooler are reckoned ten chetverts ef rye-malt, with a fifth or a feventh part of oats or barley. The coppers hold forty-two vedros, and are commonly all filled out of one cooler, fo that the feries generally comes -round in four days ; and as the -coolers are "immediately replenifhed, the work may proceed without interruption. At every diftilling-hou-fe is befides a large copper fet in mafortry, from which the hot Water is let into ¦ the cooler by pipes. Here are annually confumed from 30,000 to 40,000 chetverts. of corn ; arid it is reckoned that from one 'chetvert three, and if it turn out well, four vedros of common brandy : * Hupel's topogr. naehijcht. tom. ii. p. 3-11. are r DISTILLERY. '"T "£57 ^re obtained*. But where they pretend to a more methodical procefs, they employ worm-pipes and otherwife act upon- found chemical principles, and confequently regeiye considerably more produce, as, at the diftillery at Mofco belongingto M. Grivt- ?ofc which annually yields 15,000 vedros of bran dy, where from one chetveit five or five and a half vedros ate produced, — At Aftrakhan, in the: fJkraine, See. alfo. brandy is. made ; but fine fpi- ritS; or liqueurs are prepared in great quantities, in St. PeJLerfljjjjpg,. M0&9, Riga, Kazan, &c. At Kamtfhatka a great deal of brandy is diftilled from the herb bear's-breech, or brank-urfine, or fugar- kraut-j-. This, plant is fo fweettliat the Kamt fhadales fweeten their victuals, with it. When the ftalks of that which is gathered in July are ftrip- ped of their outward fkin and dried, they are feen fo thickly covered with afaecharine rime, or a, fort of fugar- flour, that from it, as is with good: rea fon; fuppofed, large quantities of fugar might be eafily prepared with certain and great profit. In the. aforefaid. liqueur- fabrics the corn-brandy is fometimes-. employed, but. more generally foreign wints, raifins* &c. There is a fabric of this fort feven verfts fmm Peterfhuatg, which was firft fet up: in .the year i^Sji, and belongs to JV!L Dolft and company. They have eight coppers and con.-' * Pallas, travels, tom. ii. p. 421. ¦f Heraclium fibiricum. Rufs, flatkai trava, fweet-herb. * y) A a 3 fume 358 improving industry. fume in a year about 1 200 hogfheads of fpanifh wine, and v. 3000 pood of raifins, and produce 80,000 ftoffs of fine fpirits. — - At 'prefent how ever they diftil only from wine, as raifins are too dear. One hogfhead * is put at once into a cop per, from which one and a half anker of fpirit is obtained. This is then fupplied with fugar, fy- rup, or honey, and feeds, &c. and diftilled from the fame copper. From one oxhoft of wine comes one anker of fpirit. Of this. fifty ftoffs make a portion, and is fold for fixty^five rubles. An ox hoft of wine cofts thirty rubles . Here in one year about 1 000 pood of fugar and 1000 pood of fyrup: and honey are confumed. — A- furious kind of fpirits, which we have occasionally mentioned be fore, and prepared in great quantities by the Kal muks and other fiberian nations, is the milk-fpirits. . The Kalmuks diftil this kumifs from mare's milk, in which they proceed in the following manner ; The milk is previoufly foured in large leathern veffels, which is fomer,imes effected by leaven or the. re mainder of the former diftillation, &c. The cream is not taken off from the milk that is to be dif tilled, but all mixed well together from time to time with a fort of churn-ftaff ; and, as in fum mer the milk is collected, in leathern veffels, they require to be thoroughly fhaken twice a day. The ¦ mare's milk thus foured is called in kalmuk * Or oxhoft. One oxhoft contains fix ankers, one anker twenty-four ftoffs. tfchigan, distillery. -3551 tfchigan, biit foured cow-milk organ, and is either confumed as drink, or faved for making fpirits. When a fufficient quantity of fuch milk is got together, and it has been finally left to get completely four for a few days, the converting of it into brandy is begun : the large iron kettle for that purpofe, well rinfed with water or melted fnow, is fet on a trivet over a flow fire, into which. the milk is poured, thoroughly ftirring it all the while, to within two fingers breadth of the briml One of thefe kettles holds about three vedros or upwards. The cover is theri put on, which is fomewhat hollowed and made to fit, compofed of one or two pieces of wood with a couple of fquare holes in it, and well luted about the rim and joints with clay, mortar, or frefli cow-dung *. This done, a fmaller kettle is prepared, with its cover, which has but one large opening and a little vent-hole, well luted, and in a trough full of fnow. To this is added, a crooked wooden pipe, furniflied with two handles and a cock exactly fitted and drawn over with leather or bladder, having one end on the opening of the fmall kettle and the other on one of the apertures in the cover of the large kettle clofely luted, and afterwards another little cover is made of clay or pafte with a conical point, and placed near the other aperture of the large kettle; and frefh fire is added. The uncovered * Flour pafte is likewife ufed for that purpofe. a a 4 aperture 560 IMPROVING INDUSTRY. aperture of the great kettle is watched, till the milk in it is fiercely boiling and a ftrong vapour •is feen' to mount, which, if mare's milk, eafily kindles into a blue flame. Then the aforefaid little cover is put on the aperture, fixed faft, and •jthe fire leffened. The little vent-hole in the cover of the recipient-kettle remains open, notwith* ftanding.nvuch inflammable vapour efcapwes by it; as the Kalmuks fay, that without this vent the diftifiation would not fucceed. In lefs than an hour and a half the vapour dirninifhjps j then th$ brandy is drawn off, and there is obtained, if from cow-milk, about twoTninths, at moft one- fourth, but of mare's milk a full third part of the whole, quantity in bad brandy, which but rarely, and of cow-milk never, is fo ftrong as to be in flammable, unlefs it be done over again*. The Kafchtinzes, Beltirs,. and other Tartars alfo extract a foirituous liquor from milk ; their apparatus for diftillation is however on a better plan. The principal matter is to bring the milk into a fpi-. rituous fermentation, to which their mode of pro ceeding and the uncleannefs of their veflels eon- tribute not a little. IX. Vinegar-making. Beer-vinegar is made, awid, vinegar from the lees in the diftilleries, a little wine-vinegar at Aftrakhan, and fruit-vinegar in feyeral parts. The firft is made in greateft quan- f Pallas, travels, torn. i. p. 31 5. tity, potash-making. 36*1 tity, but almoft everywhere bad enough. The fecond, which is here called white vinegar, mighfe be had in far greater quantity and of a better quality than is actually the cafe. X Aq^a-fortis and Aqua-regia. What is ufed for the feparatiftn of gold and filver at St. Peterfburg is made there. To a pood of falt^ petre and a pood and a half of vitriol, about nine pound of water is put into two recipients ; and from this compound is obtained a pood of aqua-r fortis. Whether anywhere elfe in the empire aqua fortis is prepared is not known to me. Oil of vitriol and all other acids, which are not made in the apothekes, come from abroad. XL Potash-making. This is a very ancient and confiderable trade in Ruffia, to which the nu merous and vaft forefts in many of its provinces have given rife. ' In thofe diftricts it is carried on to fuch extent that every year a confiderable quanr tity is exported. Some of thefe fabrics helong to the crown but more to private perfons. The crown has potafh -fabrics in Murom, Arfamas, Tolfkoi-Maidan, Alatyr, Sviyafk, &c. It is pre pared from oak and all the fpecies of pine ; alfo a great deal of what is called wood-afhes is here made. A confiderable part is made merely of the afhes from the ftoves. — At Tolfkoj-Maidan, 112 verfts from Arfamas is the largeft of thefe works belonging to the crown, at which the procefs is as follows : The afhes delivered by the boors at a 3 ^ certain 302 IMPROVING INDUSTRY. certain price are three times Wafhed out in largeK Vats, "into which the water is let' by cocks; yet fo as to leave the worft lye to be done again with frefh afhes. The faturated lye is boiled in coppers fet in brick, arid the potafh calcined white in an oblong fquare reverberatory furnace, and as foon as it is cold put into cafks. The fabric here has thirty-two afh-vats, four boilers, and a calcining furnace ; and with this'eftablifhment by con'ftant work it is able to produce annually 300 cafks, each at 20 pood, to which upwards of 6000 chet verts of afhes are requifite, becaufe only the beft afhes of each chetvert.. ufually yield' a pood of lixivious falts *. The beft ruffian calcined pot afh is known to merchants by the name of pearlafh. XIL Saltpetre-making. This likewife is a bufinefs much purfued ; and Ruffia now exports faltpetre in great quantities : from St. Peterfburg alone annually about twenty thoufand pood. The falt-petre fabrics are very numerous, belonging* chiefly to the crown -j*. As moft of the faltpetre- * Pallas, travels, tom. i. p. 59. ¦f The principal faltpetre-work is that about fixty verfts above Aftrakhan, at the place where was formerly the capi tal town of the golden horde; it lies on an arm of theYolga, and is carried on by the people of the artillery-corps. They produce fo much faltpetre, that, after dedu&ing what muft be delivered to the powder-mills, they are able to export every year from Peterfburg many thoufand pood on the crown's account. So early as the reign of Peter I. this falt petre-work produced yearly 30,000 pood. 4 earth alum-manufactoRy. 363 earth is found in Little-Ruffia, arid in the territory of the Don, on the Volga, &c. thefe works are therefore generally erecled there. But likewife in other parts, where no manufactories are yet fet up,- there is much faltpetre-earth, as, near Syfran, and about Kafchpur, and in Siberia, on the Yeniffey, the Iyus, the Abakan, &c. But particularly fer tile in it are almoft all the diftricts of the Ukraine, and of the neighbouring governments. Moft .of the faltpetre is here prepared by the Kozaks, in which they proceed nearly in the following manner : the faltpetre-earth is thrown into a kettle, and hot water poured upon it : when the lixivium is' fufficiently faturated, fome lixivious fait (prepared from burnt ftraw and herbs of the fteppes) is added ; it then clears and fhoots and cryftallizes' into faltpetre. The exhaufted earth is then thrown out in thick round lumps and expofed to the effects of the air, and in four, fix, or perhaps ten years it is ufed again to great advantage ; though it has never occurred to thefe people to add to it putrid,; fat, oleaginous, unctuous, and other fubftances from plants and animals, as urine or dung. - — At other places, ex. gr. at Tambof, inftead of the above foda they add the common potafh. XIII. Alum-manufactory. Nothwitftand- ing, as we have before obferved, that in feveral parts of the empire good alum-earth has been difcovered, yet the preparation of this fait fo neceffary to a number of trades, has never rightly fucceeded. Qood §§4 I-MPMYING INDUSTRY. Good alum-earth (to fey nothing? of the gravel) is found in the parts adjacent to the Shilka and the AFgoon, in the nertfchinfkian mountains; about the Yenifley, the Tom, the Ai, the Ifet, and fhe Volga, and in various parts of Little Ruffia. Near Tambof fonje years, ago an alum- work was fet up which is at prefent conducted, though but feebly,, on the crown's account *. For feveral j% ars confecutiyely 34,000 pood and five pound of alum were annually imported into the harbours, of St. Peterfour-g, Arehangelj Rigs, Reval, and- the other ports of Finland. The berkovetch of fwe- difh alum commonly cofts at St. Peterfburg 27 to. 30 rubles; confequently this makes, an objedt of more than 90,000 rubles per- annum. It would therefore be well worth while to confider ferioufly/ of preparing this article at home. XIV r. VlTRIOL-MANUFACTORIES.. Ruffia has. feveral, of thefe in which iron and copper vitriol are prepared. In the government- of Olonetz is. an iron-vitriol fabric carried on by the erown^ ^d * Of the alum-earth there Guldenftxdt thusfpeaks : "The '* vitriolic earths are.here fo rich, "that the native fa,lts bloqm " outwardly upon them. — When, after exhaufting the " earths, the iron-yitriol feparatesby the firft cryftallization- «i and depofes a lixivium,, a pure ajum is generally obtained, ~". the quantity of which would be ftill more confidera,bJe. if " the earth were fet out. in the open air expofed to the wea,- " ther." Travels, tom. i. p. 40. — In one year this manu factory prepared only 984 pood of alum and 82S pood of vitriol. ... obtains SUGAR-WORKS. 3'6*3 obtains annually 2000 pood of vitriol. Of private manufactories there are about eleven : one at Mofco, in the circle of Mofco ; another in the klinfkoi- circle ; one iri Roltof ; One in Kaluga, in the bef- chefkoi '•circle ; one in Yarofiaf; two at Voro netch; and at Putavl likewife a vitriol-manufac tory. XV. Bitter-salt preparation. -The bitter falts * of Siberia and Aftrakhan, which are prepared from the brine of the bitter-lakes, are well-known, and are now in common ufe in the apothekes. Sbmewhat of a fimilar fait Was formerly prepared alfo near Tzatitzin, If a foreign Vent could be expected for it, it might be likewife obtained in great quantities from the native brine at the falt- Works, which is at prefent thrown away. At the fame places much fal-amtnoniac might be gained, and according to Dr. Pallas it may even, be pre pared from the dunghills about Safanfk, 203 verfts from Arfamas. XVI. Sugar- works. Of thefe are four in St. Peterfburg; one in Kaluga,, But, on account of the high price ;of 'the raw material, they ate no longer at work. -^ Befides thefe, there was ano ther at St. PetetfbuTg, which for its magnitude defefves to be particularly -mentioned. The pre-. mifes ftand on what is called the Matifova ifland' at the extremity of the Neva ; and, by this pecu liar fituation, had the advantage Of bringing alt - • *- * * MagHefia Vitriolata. its 36*6 improving Industry. its materials by water. This manufactory, at which annually from 70 to 80,000 poods of fugar were made, was likewife connected with a large diftil lery ; it had alfo fix large breweries, with two corn- mills, and a fpacious orchard, which on the fide towards the Neva afforded a delightful profpecl. Thefe premifes comprifed a fpace of 1980 fquare fathom. The firft proprietor was a ruffian mer chant named Gutuyef, and the works coft him 150,000 rubles; it afterwards belonged to prince Potemkin Tavrichefkoy, and at prefent Michael Godfrey Trozien, a merchant of St. Peterfburg and a very active man, is the owner of it. XVII. Manufactories of colours for dye- houses. Works of this kind, where white- lead, minium, berlin-blue, paint, verdigris, and in fome alfo fealing-wax, are made, are thefe : in Mofco two; at Verea one; at Tula one; at Kof troma three; in Savfk three; in Vologda three; at St. Peterfburg three. Where only fealing-wax is made : in Vologda two ; in St. Peterfburg two ; with a few others of. lefs note in different places. XVIII. Dye-houses. Where filks, cottons, woollen fluffs, and linens are dyed, are : two in Mofco*, and one in St. Peterfburg. Thefe how ever are not to be cpmpared with the large dye- houfes which here belong to the cloth, cotton, and filk manufactories, and where certainly many goods are dyed as well as any that are done abroad. — Befides, domeftic dyeing is a very, cuftomary bufinefs .' DYE-HOUSES; 307 bufinefs with the ruffian houfewives in the country, as well as among the wild fiberian nations, to which- end they generally ufe the plants that grow wild in their diftricts. In moft of the countries bor dering on the Volga, for inftance, where there is a great deal of dyeing,' the ordinary procefs is this : the principal material in thefe dyes is the mofs that grows plentifully in all the marfby pine-forefts of Ruffia *, and is generally known and ufed under the name of felenitza. This herb is pulverized and made into a ftrongly acjd quas in the ufual way with meal, and which . ferves as an infufion to almoft all colours. In. this the woollen, yarn, which is to be dyed, is put to foak for one night or more ; it is then jrinfed and dried, by which it receives a yellowifh hue, and takes the other co lours better and more durably. The common people, who are unacquainted with the properties of alum, practife fcarcely any other preparation than this, and in general for all dyes. The Mordu- anes-f, Tfchuvafches, and Tartars, inftead of this mofs employ fometimes the herbs of the yellow fpring flowers |, fometimes the common worm wood with a little addition of broom §, but moftly, and with the beft fuccefs, the leaves, which dye * Lycopodium complanatum. f Concerning the art of dyeing among the Morduanes, which is nearly the fame with that here defcribed, fee Lepek- hin's journal, torn. i. p. 74. % Adonis verna. § Genifta tinftoria. of MS IMPROVING INDUSTRY. of an agreeable yellow, of a certain thiftle *, and with which they dye green the wool that is previ- Oufly dyed blue with indigo or woad. Some Ruf fians put With the mofs-powder a fmall matter of broom, [drOk,] among the. quas with which the wool is prepared. The moft ufual dyeing herb* are : for a bright yellow, the flowers of the yeilow camomile -f , which in fome places is called pu- pavka ; the broom and the dye-thiftle J. Fof dyeing deep yellow, the water-burdock §: for deep red, the wild-madder or krap ||. For ftaining a bright crimfon the common dufchitza or origa num is taken. Green is beft dyed on blue wool with the forementiOned yellow-dyeing herbs of birch leaves ; but many have the art of dyeing by boiling with an addition of alum from the unblown ears of fedge 9, a deep green, and from the berries of the faulbaum, krafehina, a yellow-green colour. But for dyeing blue no domeftic dye is yet in ufe, excepting that in Little-' Ruffia they dye blue with the woad that grows wild there $. Moreover, the people * Carduus fopterophyllus. f Anthemis tinftoria. J Sewatula ; in -frufs, ferpucha. $ Bidens tripartita ; rufs, tfcheryode. || In rufs, mariona, which is commonly the root of gallium " mollugo, or afperula tindtoria. 6 Arundo calamogroftris ; rufs, mietlika. . 5 A merchant of Novgorod, named Popof, made feveral experiments with indigo prepared from an herb growing very frequently about Novgorod, which was thought by appear ances to be a fpecies of anil. This indigo was found, after repeated DYE-HOUSES. - S6£ people buy woad and indigo, or logwood, and proceed with them in the ordinary method. For dyeing yellow with broom, the, powder is put into the very fame qvjas in, which the ,wool has -been prepared, in fuch quantity as to give the com pound the confiftence of porridge. The wool muft firft lie a w.eek- in the mofs alone, then.a few days .longer in the quas with broom. Tp beautify; the, colour the wool is .wafhed repeatedly in lye, after it has been wrung, and. dripd. The dye-thiftle is boiled in water alone, or at moft with a. trifling. addition of alum, and the yarn prepared with the quas is. dyed in it boiling. Withtthe flowers^of the yellow i camomile, as likewife with almoftsajl the faint-coloured flowers * that, com monly grow in gardens, are dyed both wool and .filk.; but efpecially with the latter, it. requires fonsje m&UL to hit ^exafStly. the . proper addition .of-.*Jjtuaa. The herb of the water-burdock ga thered young yields* in water alone, if boiled with repeated trials, to be in no refpeft inferior to the american. The death of this perfon, which happened foon after, was a check to the fabric, from which it never1 recovered. The experiments -were made in jhe year 1748. Albaum, torn. i. p. 274. — The herb was probably, not anil, but wild woad. >— Another woad fabric near Perifa, belonging to the mer- • chant Tavleyef, is mentioned by Dr. Pallfc, travels torn. 1. p.75 ; bui the dye is faid to be very indifferent, and riot taftiag: • Tagetes. vol. 111. » b a. little 370 IMPROVING INDUSTRY. a little alum, a beautiful deep yellow, which, by a fmall addition of wild-madder, becomes more bril liant, and by frequent dyeing is more and more lively. The wild-madder is, like the generality of plants, pounded in wooden mortars or ground to powder in hand-mills, and made into a thick -gruel with water, and fet to ftand thd whole night in a warm oven. The following.' day more water is added to dilute the gruel, and the madder is ftrongly boiled. Some, for the fake of heightening the colour, previoufly feeth fome young oakJbarkor birch-bark in the water, but the Tfchuvafches put water among it. Ever after the concoction is red enough for them, they dye their wool three or four times or oftener; at firft lukewarm, but the laft time boiling, letting it dry after every repetition. If now the Colour be fine enough for them, the yarn is Wafhed in the river and dried. By an addi tion of the water-burdock-herb, dye-thiftle, broom or carduus heterophyllus, the colour is brighter and pleafanter.- The fineft tincture is given by that black -red powder which firft feparates, on gently pounding, from the root, and is the proper dyeing bark of it. The procefs with the dufchitza or origanum is fomewhat mote prolix. The herb is gathered in bloom and chiefly the fummits of the flowers, which are all dried in the oven and pulverized: In fpring young twigs that have-fallen off the wild or uncultivated apple-trees muft like- wife be collected, and alfo pulverized. Of both they DYE-HOUSES. . -371 they take equal parts j ..others will only allow of one part apple-twigs to two parts of the dye-herb- To the fourth part are added fome grains, guftfcha, ftirring all well together with water, and it is fet by with fome.yeaft to ferment, As foon as the competition is foul, it is preffed out with the hands, and then fpread out the whole. night, in a warm oven> frequently ftirring it about. The dry con> pound is laftly boiled in clean water, and the dye is ready, for which the yarn muft be, already pre- pared in the' ufual manner .\ Some, not fo circum ftantial, take equal parts of the herb and the apple- twigs, and boil them both together, with a fmaU addition of alum ; but by this method the red ob tained is by no means fo fine *, The colour af forded by this herb is the fineft of all the dyes which the country-people know how to prepare. In general the colours prepared by, thefe feveral * The Xozak-women on the Samara dye red, alfo with the polifh cochineal, tfcher.vetz. They lay the yarn which they - intend to dye in a thoroughly four quas, then add alum, and let the veffel with it ftand 24 hours in the oven. Then it is wrong out and dried; but the tfchervetz is grated in a pan, boiled with water, and when all- the dyeing particles are thoroughly extracted, the yarn is put in and boiled once more. With one handful they dye about as much as is neceffary for two of the fames, which they wear, or about a pound of wool.' The dolour, however, looks no better than that ob tained by the common dufchitza, or origanum, only that it is more permanent. Pallas, travels, tom. i. p. 206. b b 2 means til 'IMPROVING IHDf STRY. means fook ' well to the eye, and many of therri ftand w&fhing without belrig fubjedt to fade *. The genuine dye that -is- giVen to Cot-tori at Aftrakhan with madder, a bufinefs moftly carried On by tht Armenians, deferVfes to be noticed here. They get iht madder from Ghilan artd about the Terek; where it grows wild. It is put in a brick ftven funk in the groundj heated Very hot, and covered with earth, where it muft life fvveating Hill the oVeh is cold, when the roots are taken out the feedrid Of 'third day arid fpread afiindet iri 6fd$r to dry. Tftef are theri dried in the fun and ground to a fine duff In a horfe-mill, as well as the leaves-, neteflary to this dyeydf the frihiack-tfee -f . befides thefe two materials this rgd dye req>oiri& galls, -a-ruthy domeftic foda, which is burht iri the fteppe's of Kitzliar and Aftrakhari; and fifh*grea#. This latter is prepared -from the befwga; -the ftur geon, and the fudak. The cotton yarn is firft clean-rinfed in a running ftream, and hung out on a fine day tO dry on poles. If it be riot dry by the Evening, it is taken in to avoid, the nitrous dew, arid the following morning it is busig out again. The yarn is theft kid iii a tiib; and flftfi- grea'fe poured on it till it is quite cbveYed' wftli it. Here it' muft lie the whofe night ; but in the morning it is luang acrofs- polesfor the entire, day-, * Pallas, .travels, tom. i. p. 103., -J- Rhus cotihus. / and DYE-HOUSES. ' *3,73 and this is repeated for a wgek, that the cotton may lie feven nights in the greafe, and feven days imbibe the greafe in the air, and can be properly ven tilated. The yarn is now brought again to the river, eleanfed thoroughly, and left to get com pletely dry on clean poles. After this preparation they make ufe of the following infufion : they firft boil the pulverized leaves of the fumack-tree in copper-kettles, and when thefe have fufficiently difcharged their colour, pounded galls are added, with which the compofition muft be boiled again, and thus acquires a turbid dirty colour. When fufficiently boiled the fire js taken from under the kettle, and, while the concoction is ftill hot, aham. is thrown in, which immediately diffo.lves. Galls and alum are in proportion of five pound to every pood °f cotton. The compofition muft be fufficiently, yellow, ftrong, and aft.ringent. When the alum is once diffolved no time is to be loft. For imbuing the yarn with it hoj.fowe4 blocks of. wood or mortars ftand r$ady; in each of which a good lad^rjfoil of the conco&ion is poured, tuffi? cient for a piece of yarn to imbibe, without leavr ing any to remain. A* the wprkman pours tb* concodtion in,to the rnpr.t/ar, he at the feme time pjats in a. piece of the yarn, pjnefles it down with his hand till it is uniformly wet and b#s forked uj> all the concoction ; paving fqueezed \t out, he l§y.$ it afide, and proceed*; iri likj? m^ner with anol&ej pje.ee, . t#l a]l the cotton yarn fefts, jfcjhj Ji^upx. Ij b b 3 receives ^74 IMPROVING INDUSTRY. receives :fforn it only a pale yellow colour, but /which is not tranfient ; and, having this, it is -hung out to dry in the fun on poles, then clean- rinfed in the river and dried again. By this yel low dye, that of the madder is more bright and lively ; but the, galls-damp the fuperfluous yellow, and prepare with the alum the yarn for dyeing* Some manufacturers', however, omit entirely the fu- mack leaves, and make the concoction only of galls and alum, in fuch manner that the galls firft boil in-due -proportion with the neceffary quantity of water, and the alum diffolves in a feparate veffel with boiling water, when both waters are -poured together into a tub, and the cotton laid in it for an hour or an hour arid half, whereupon it is gen tly dried, wafhed, and dried again. By which treatment the yarn gets a dirty reddifh colour. Now the madder-dye muft be prepared. Large troughs are placed ready, into which the madder, crufhed to a fine red-brown duft, is fcatered, and in each trough a large bowl of fheep's blood, which the dyer may have in plenty, is poured. With this ' the -madder is well worked together by the hands* and muft ftand thus for a few hours, that it may be thoroughly Wet, as then this mixture acquires a dark -red appearance,- and the madder yields more red by boiling. After this preparation, water is made hot iri a large kettle fet in mafonry, and as foori as it is warm, the prepared madder is irifufed in fuch proportion, : that for ¦ each pound ¦vr'-y:.:. :', k - ,0f DYE-HOUSES. 375 of cotton, one pound of madder enters the kettle. With this the dye muft be made to boil ftrongly ; arid when it is fine, enough, which may be tried upon the cotton-threads, the fire is removed from beneath, and all -the prepared cotton is brought to the kettle. The dyer feats himfelf on the brick-work brink of the~ kettle, dips the cotton- yarn by pieces in the dye, waving it about' to and fro, preffing it fomewhat with the hands, andjays it piece after piece in troughs ftanding by. When the cotton has got the firft dye, it is hung out to dry : but, as the red is ftill too dingy, the yarn now once dyed and dried, is put in the dying-kettle and muft boil in it over a ftrong fire for three hours, by which it then acquires that beautiful deep red fo particularly admired in the turkifti yarn. It does not however always turn out equally -fine. The yarn is now taken with fticks out of the dye, the adhering madder is fliaken' off, the threads are difentangled, reduced to order, and hung piece by piece to dry. When thoroughly dried it is all wafhed clean, in the river, and again dried. The whole operation terminate^ by dif- foiving the above-mentioned, foda, kolakar, with boiling. water in tubs prepared for that purpofe, of which to a pood vof cotton twenty pound, and therefore half the . weight, is ' ufually reckoned. Then they have pans of an enormous fize, which in Perfia are made of a very good ftrong clay, above one and a half arfhines in height, in the taelly about b b 4 five 376 IMPROVING INDUSTRY. five fpans over, and terminating at top with a neck' of only about a fpan and a half: thefe are kept over a furnace inclofed in brick, or done round with mud, fo that only the neck is to be feen. They are then filled with the coloured cotton yarn ; and the lye of the diffolved foda, which is blackifh arid very acrid, is poured in till the jar is filled, in the mouth of which clean rags are ftuffed, that the u'ppermoft pieces of the yarn may not mifs. This done, the fire- is kindled below, and kept under the jars for 24 hours, on which the fteam rifing from the jars is feen to collect in the rags in red drops, By this boiling the dye is heightened, foaked in, the fuperfluities removed, and all the greafe adher ing' to the1' yarn lixiviated from it ; and nothing farther is neceffary to the perfection of the yarn, than once more to. rinfe it clean in the river, and to dry it Well *.¦"¦;' Another kind of dyeing practifed in Ruffia is the dyeing offues. The great quantity- of animal fkins arid furs, produced every year in Si beria and other parts of the ruffian empire, are moftly bought "up by the dealers untanned and Unprepared, and in that ftate brought to the towns, particularly to Mofco^where they firft receive the neceffary preparation; and the Ikinners there have the art of dyeing the hair in various ways, and efpe* cially of giving the ordinary or decayed fables a fine black -^offy hue, which however thd Greeks, * Palfas, in Pet. journ. tom. ii. p.. 1 8. ' ' ' who dye-houses. 377 who live in Mofco, and deal largely in furs, under- ftand ftill better than the Ruffians; but both make a myftery of it. Notwithftanding which, we have been able to procure the following account of it : " For killing 2 lotes of litharge, take i j lote " copper-afhes, i lote of fal-ammonicic, i handful " of afhes of brazil, fib. of lime and -human- turned inwards, muftundergo for " 6 hours the killing-compound, and then the dye " is for' the laft time painted on and dried. Be- " tween the alternations of the laying on the dye, " the 378 IMPROVING INDUSTRY. " the fur, as always after colouring, is turned " and ..trodden with feet ; laftly the fur is rubbed " againft the hair with faw-duft." — The ufual compound for dyeing the fables at Mofco is not fo compofed. Litharge, green vitriol, nutgalls and alum are almoft the only ingredients. The cbinefe coloured fables, which are feen in Siberia, • are incomparably finer and more lafting than the ruffian. But both are often fo artificially coloured, that it is with fome difficulty they can be diftin- guifhed from the natural. The white ice-fox is even at prefent in Mofco coloured an uncommonly fine black. XIX. Pharmacy. This bufinefs is here not fo new as fome perhaps may imagine. So early as during the reign of tzar Borice: Godunof, there fore nigh two hundred years ago, there were apo- thekes in Ruffia*. Neverthelefs, in refpect to the great range of territory in the empire and its numerous population, there were then but few in the country. The principal apothekes belonging to the crown are : in St. Peterfburg 6, Cronftadt i, Reval i, Riga i, Archangel 2, Mofco 3, Lubna 2, Aftrakhan 1, Orenburg! 1, Saratof 1, Tobolfk 1, Smolenfk i,Ekatarinenburg 1, Kherfon 2, Khar- kof 1. — Private apothekes: in St. Peterfburg 6, in Mofco 5, in Riga 8, Reval 2, Dorpat 1, * See Bachmeifter's verfuch ueber das naturalienkab.' der kaiferl akad. der wiffenfch. , Narva PAPER-MANUFACTORY. 379 Narva i, Vyborg i, Yaroflaf i, Glukhof i, Kief i, Kazan i, Nifhney-Novgorod i, &c. XX. Tobacco-manufacture. ' Since the culture of this plant has been fo much extended, ' there are alfo a number of eftablifhments, where the leaves are manufactured for tobacco and friuff. In Mofco alone are four confiderable works of this nature. But, as they were not reckoned properly manufactories, they were not entered in the books of the manufactory-college. XXI. Paper-manufactory. There are three manufactories of paper in Mofco, and two- and-twenty other in various parts of the empire. Befides thefe there are (even in Siberia) a few others,, which have either been lately erected, or, like the livonian and Ukrainian, are not regiftered at the college of manufactures. They in general make only common writing and printing-paper, and even them neither in fufficient quantity, nor of prime quality j accordingly a confiderable quan tity of paper is imported every year. XXII. Paper-hanging manufacture. As thefe hangings are greatly ufed in Ruffia, they are therefore made- in large quantities. There are feveral manufa&eries where this work is carried on to a great extent. Cere-cloths are likewife pre pared at fgme of them. In Mofco are five of thefe manufactories, and their paper is of different qualities. XXIII, Play-card manufacture. The S^tefr 38d IMPROVING, industry. greateft is at the foundling-hofpital at Mofco, which' likewife* has the ftamp-duty on thofe made at other places. Of thefe are three at Mofco and one at St. Peterfburg. — Though fo much paper is made, in the ruffian empire, yet, as far as our knowledge reaches, no boxes or other things are made of papier mache. XXIV. Printing-offices. In St. Peterf burg are printing-offices belonging to the crown, at the fenate, the college of war, the academy of fciences, the mine cadets corps, the land-cadet- corps,- and. the artillery-corps; in Mofco at the univerfity, and at the fenate, and for the church- character at the fynori in St. Peterfburg and in Mofco, and at the academy in Kief. Befides thefe > there is one- belonging likewife to the crown at Krementfchuk (or Ekatarinoflaf) and another at Aftrakhan*.. Private printing-offices are : in- St. Peterfburg 3, in'Reval 2, in Riga 1, in Dorpat 1, in Oberpalilen . 1 , . and in Mofco 1 . Printing is * performed in , the ruffian, german, french, greek, flavonian and arabic languages ; but moftly the three firft. At all thefe however but little is printed, either at the expence of the crown or of occafional writings, unlefs of fijch as it may reafon-* ably be expected will have'a rapid and numerous 'fale. It may indeed.be affirmed, th|t almoft al| the ruffian writings are printed at the expence of the crown, which in one way or another has fur- niftied the money for ihe®,. It as rarely happens that SAIL-CLOTH, &C. 'T, 38:1 that works in foreign -languages are printed in Ruffia at the charges of the publifher., becaufe from the high price of the paper, ihe great wages of compofitors and prenlnenj and the diftant tranf port of the books to the Leipfig fairs, they would not anfwer. The preffes, however, at Riga and Reval in fome degree form an exception. In fhort, printing and bookfelling were declared fome years ago by the late emprefs to be a free trade, which any one might follow ; and it was doubtlefs the intention of that fagacious monarch in thus farther extending this art, to infpire her fiibjects with a greater lote for the fciences and all ufeful arid or namental knowledge; but various impediments remain to be removed ere that defir-able end can be fully attained. — There is nothing here peculiar in the practice of the tjrpographical art, excepting that the' eompofitor's upper and lower cafes are both in one piece, and that the prefTman's heap of white paper Hands on the off-fide of the prefs, Whence he draws the flieet to him on the tympari, Which When printed he brings to the bank on tht? near fide. — The firft book printed in Ruffia is The Acts of the Apoftles, &c. bearing the date 1564. It was ten years in printing, and was exe cuted by the printers Ivan Feodorovitch, arid Pietre Timofeyef. XXV. Sail-cloth and cordage' manu facture. In Ruffia are many large works of this kind. Some very confiderable are maintained 4 by 382 IMPROVING INDUSTRY. by the crown, particularly at the admiralty it Archangel, St. Peterfburg, &c. At Novgorod likewife is a large manufactory of fail-cloth, be longing to tfie crown. Of private works of this nature there are: in Archangel 9, one in each of thefe towns, Kolomna, Tambof, Yelatma,. Brianfk, Nifhney-Novgorod, Saratof, and 11 at St. Peterf burg. Befides thefe there are feveral other rope- walks; one of the moft confiderable is in Kaluga, belonging to the rich merchant Luginin ;. another is near Narva,' &c. XXVI. Linen-manufactories. Thefe are very numerous, and fome. of them great., and im portant. They generally confine themfelves to. coarfe, and for the moft part ftriped. linens; next to thefe, table-cloths, and extremely "fine ories, rich napkins, much printed linen, naboika, &c. fine linen but very little, and cambrick not at all*. The fineft and be'ft ruffian linen, which may be compared with the filefian arid warenfdorf, comes from the government of Archangel^: and is called gorodfkoi polotno; it is likewife as broad . * However, a cambrick manufactory was fet up at Yam- burg at the expence of the late emprefs.. It employed the. Uax of the country, and the: fpecimens that I have feen of .it, fays Mr. Albaum, were equal to the beft flemiih cam brick ; but it is aftoniftiihgly difficult to accuftom the girls and the women to fine fpinning. All the fp.ecies that have been hitherto made there are confumed by the court alone ; none is fold. as "SILK-MANUFACTURES. 3S3 as the foreign,: but by far not fo finely bleached and got up. Befides, tolerably fine linen is made by the boors in feveral other parts, as at Lifkova on the Volga, but not above half an arfhine wide, though Peter I. fo long ago as 1718, ordered that all linen fhould be woven as broad as -the foreign. — In 1 764 the export ofruffia linen was about 30,000 arfhines*; but in the year 1784 of various forts greatly exceeded 3 millions of arfhines, and from 1758 to 1778, in 20 years 260,909,180? arfhines. In the feveralparts of the empire are 64 linen manufactories. XXVII.. Cotton-manufactories. There are fome very confiderable;. about 8 in number. One at Krafnoe-felo and ^nottier at Schluffelburg make chintzes, but moftly half-chintzes, bivoika, and common cotton ; alfo ranitkal, coarfe muffin, manchefter, barchent, ftockings, &c. ,; XXVIII. Silk-manufactories. Thefe are not lefs important than numerous. '' There are at leaft 40 of them in various parts of the empire. Belonging to the foundling-hofpital at Mofco. is alfo a filk-ftbcking -manufactory. The oldeft and, ftill the moft important and beft conftituted is that of M. Lazarof in the village Frenova, 60 verfts from Mofco. It has generally 1.1 o frames at-work, with 500 workmen, and works up about 200 pood ¦of raw filk per annum. The wages of the people * Kilburger von ruff, handel. alone 384) IMPROVING; INDUSTRY. alone come to 1 500 rubles a month. It has three filatories, each of ,640 reels, which are fet in mo tion by a water-wheel; and befides a fmall filatory,. turned by men. Here are made velvets, atlaffes, gros-de -tours, taffety, gold and filver tiffues, Pe ruvians, brocades, and various kinds of fafhion- able fluffs, and efpecially very fine hangings like thofe of Lyons. , Of the latter upwards of 10,09,0 arfhines were put up in the new palace of the -'late , emprefs at Mofco, which are of uncommon fele-. gance. For the peruvians a loom. is kept, which has only one ftool and a cylinder, and the fafhiort is given to the ftuffs by means of pegs. * A man can weave five arfhines in a day at it. Here, as well as at feveral othej; manufactories at Mofco. 'and Yaroflaf, is iikewife'a machine at which feveral ¦ ribbons can be wove at the fame time. — Thefe manufactories work up perfian, itafian,- bukharian, cbinefe; and fome ruffian filk, ^of which they make taffety, chalons, damafk, gros-de-tour, velvet, ftufie, ftockings, cloths, hangings, arid- various .kinds of half-filks. - XXIX. Gold and silver lace m.anueac- 1 Tories. In St. Peterfburg are about five of thefe, where this bufinefs is carried on in the grofs. XXX, Cloth and stuff manufactories- In Ruffia are 56 of them, but making only coarfe ' cloths for the army and others all-.of home-fpun wool. — It is feveral centuries ago that the cloth- rnaaufacture has been introduced into Ruffia, fince CLOTH AND STUFF MANUFACTORIES. 385 fince the old year books fay exprefsly, that on the incurfion of the Tartars they pillaged in 1382 the manufactories of cloth at Mofco. — Neverthelefs there is ftill annually imported to the value of upwards of two millions of rubles in fine cloths and fluffs. — The cloth-manufactory at Yamburg was inftituted by Catharine II. prefently after her ac ceffion to the throne, under the direction of a M. de Valier, on account of the crown. It contains1 36 looms, and has above 600 work people. By means of a machine annexed to every loom, only one man works at each. The cloths are fold at St. Peterfburg at a proportionately low price. — *- In the territory of Orenburg- and- in Kazan fome cloth is alfo made of goat's wool; for in March, when the goats begin to change their winter hair, it is the practice to comb them with large wooden combs, by which a wool is obtained, which has ferved them for a winter-garment, and which is fo fine that it yields in no refpect to the fineft fur of the beaver. But the hair muft. be carefully picked. It is then combed on fpinning-combs and the fine wool drawn out with the fingers ; but which with a great ftore may be more advantage- oufly done with good, combs "contrived for that purpofe. The wool thus drawn out is laid. layer-: wife in flocks, is loofely wound up, and then fpun like other fine wools on fpindles. The heedes are particularly fpun, of which night -caps, .ftockings, &c. may be made. But the fpun-yarn of the fine vol.' in. cc wools 386 IMPROVING INDUSTRY. wools is wove into cloth, which to feel i* as faft and fine as that made of vigogna wool ; and may be employed in making hats, which turn out as fine as thofe of real caftor. The . natural colour •of this wool is more or lefs white and bay; but takes all dyes. Only the collecting of it is fome what difficult, as from 100 goats not much abovo 20 pounds of wool are obtained. — The crown- manufactory at Yamburg, and another on the eftates of prince Potemkin, make alfe fine cloths, moftly of fpanifh wool. — The private manufac tory at Kazan likewife. makes a fine ftrong half- cloth of. camel's wool, which is left of its natural colour *-. - XXXI. Carfet-MAnufacture. At St. Peterfburg is a carpet-manufactory^ belonging, to the crown, and the work which it turns out is excellent. It has copied many of the fineft pic tures in her majefty's collection fp accurately as to excite the amazement of all beholders. — Manufactories of this kind are -alfo on the eftates Of the Vorontzofs in the government of Penfa. Others are frequent in different parts, and even in Siberia near Tiumen, where handfome carpets are made in the perfian manner, and are bought at two or three rubles the arfhine. * More circumftantial accounts of it are given by profef- fot Georgi in his travels, torn. ii. p. 817. XXXII. LEATHER MANUFACTURES. 587 XXXII. Hat-manufactories, "of thefe there are very many, and a multitude of common haf-makers ; the fineft of their hats, however, are not remarkably good. The beft are made in St. Peterfburg and Mofco ; but the largeft fabric is at Smolenfk. — Under this head muft likewife be added', felt-makintg, which is profecuted to a great extent, efpecially in Siberia. The Tartars and. Bafchkirs, &c. are very expert in this bufi nefs. They make felts, voiloks, of fuch a fize that the floor of a whole room may be covered with them. Many of thefe felts are exported. So long as forty or fifty years ago, in one year up wards of 168,500 arfhines were fhipped off from the port of Archangel. The beft felts were then made at Kaluga. XXXIII. Leather-manufactures. No trade in Ruffia is of fo antient a date and fo ex tended as this. The excellent yufts which are peculiar to Ruffia, are everywhere fufficiently known*. They have alfo the art of preparing feveral other forts of leather of extraordinary qua lity. The chief products of the tanneries of this country, as before obferved, are the yufts. In * The principal places where, nex$ to Mofco and Peterf- bturg, the moft yufts are prepared* are : Arfaaas, Koftroma, Yaroflaf, Pfcqve, Kazan, Vologda, Niftmey-rlSrbygorod, Vla dimir, Ekatarinenburg, Sec. In England they go under the general name of ruffia leather. C C 2 the 388 improving industry. the preparation whereof they proceed in the fol lowing manner : the raw ox-hides are firft laid in running water, or in large tan-pits full of water dug in the earth for that purpofe, to foak for a whole week ; but in fummer not fo long. Dui ring this time they are daily taken out of the water, and fcraped at a fcraping-bench or wooden horfe. Having now been duly fteeped, they are put into a lye, thus prepared : In other vats, like- wife dug in the ground and under cover, they mix two parts of good afhes with one part of unflacked lime, in boiling water, and fink the wet hides in this lye on i. grating,' which being fufpended by cords, can be raifed or let down at pleafure. In this vat the hides are laid again for about a week, though in warm weather lefs, in cold perhaps even longer. The fign that they have lain long enough in the lye is, that the hair can without difficulty be rubbed off with the hand, fo that none remains. If the hides, after the ex piration of a week, are not in that condition, frefh afhes are put into the lye, and the fkin funk in it. But if at length the hair be fufficiently loofe, the hides are entirely taken out of the lye, and all the hair fcraped off on a ftretching-block by means of blunt iron fcrapers with two han dles. The hair is wafhed clean and fold for do meftic ufes. The hides, thoroughly eleanfed from hair, are fufpended in vats of clean water on a running ftream, where they remain three days, di- ligenly LEATHER MANUFACTURES. 389 ligently turning them to and fro, in order to purge them from the afhes and lye ; afterwards they are hung up and left to drain. The hides muft now be'fcraped on the flefh fide. To this end they em ploy either the aforefaid - fcraping-iron, or others fliarper in various degrees. After this. treatment the hides are trampled. But calves-hides have another fort of preparation, which the yuft-tan- ners in the interior towns of the empire, who moftly practife it, call rakfcha. This preparation is performed with the white excrement of dogs dried, which is diffolved in boiling water, and to a hundred hides about four vedros full of excre ment, is the rule. If hem the right proportion with the water be not found, the hides corrupt in this flime, the object whereof feems to be the complete freeing of the fkin from the falts that adhere to it from the lye. The hides are left to lie twice twenty-four hours. With this is ftirred a four gruel of oatmeal with warm water, and to three ofmics, or eighths of a chetverik, three or four vedros of dregs of the common quas which the people make pf meal and a fmall portion of malt, put in the thin gruel that it may quickly four with the hides. To ten hides the tanners yfually reckon, forty pounds of meal *, * A circumftantial accQunt of the yuft-tannery in Murom (which agrees in the main with what we are here defcribing) is given by profeflbr Lepekhin, in the journal of his travels, tom. i. p. 24. and of the tannery of the Bafchkirs, tom. ii, p. 24.. c c -3 After 3Q& IMPft&VfNG INDUSTRY. , After the hides have foured, which is done in large vats, they are laid in other vats and well fteeped for two or three days in a ftrong tan-juice, fbk, thoroughly boiled from good bark. " When this is done they are brought ftraight to the tan, In the tan-pits, in which often fome hundreds of hides are lying, is poured half water and half tan, or water boiled with tan, and a grating is hung in with cords, having one hide after the other fpread upon it, thick ftrewed with good fine-pound ed tan, and the grating conftantly let deeper into the pit, till it be nearly full ; yet fo that the tan- liquor is always above the- hides, which are then again fprinkled over with tan. In this tan the hides continue to lie a week; thole* of full-grown animals longer. -On being taken out, they are wafhed and trampled on,- which two workmen in a fummer's day can perform with three hundred hides. The next day they are laid; in the fnan- nef above defcribed, in frefh tan. Thus they generally get four times fucceffively frefh tan, and are every time rinfed clean. In the laft tan they lie three weeks or longer, are then finally wafhed, hung up, and, when they have tolerably drained, delivered to thofe workmen whofe bufinefs it is in particular workfhops to dye, drefs, and wax the yufts, and to deliver the goods finifhed. It is to be obferved, that the ruffian- yuft-taiiners fel dom ufe'oak-tan, and never willingly. The choiceft and beft tan is that of the tfehernotal, as they * call LEATHER MANUFACTURE'S. 391 call it, or the bh~;r. v.iilow, and ' alfo the young back peeled off from other .fhrubby willows, which are collected by the boors, dried in bundles, and brought in cart-loads to market. To ten hides the tanners compute one and a half fathom of thefe bundles of willow bark as they are laid one upon another for fale, through all the tans. It muft not however be imagined that the excel lence of the ruffian yufts depends on this ; for in Siberia, where are no oaks, and but few willows of any fize, they tan yufts with only birch-bark, which are not much worfe than the ruffian. The bark is made fmall by either ordinary tan-mills, turned by horfes or -by water ; or the tanner himfelf in many towns where are no mills, caufes it, at unneceflary expence and labour, to be pounded in wooden mortars or excavated blocks, with peftles, almpft like thofe in the tan- mills, by day,-labourers. — The dyeing of the yufts is performed in two ways and of two colours. The commoneft and moft natural cuftoxn of giv ing the colour to the hides, is, by fewing them together in pairs, -the hair-fide inwards, while they are yet moift, round the edges, with rufhes or ftripes of bark, thus forming them into a bag or fack ; into this fack the colour, is put, the fack we'll fti-ook and the fuperfluous dye let to run out, - whereupon the fkins are dried. From this method of dyeing them, it feems to pro'ceed that the yufts are -called and taken by pairs. The c c 4 other 392 IMPROVING INDUSTRY. - other, procefs, whereby much ' trouble, time, and colour are faved, and the edges of the fkin en tirely preferved, is the . following ; Each fkin. is hung upon a horfe over a long trough, fo that the . hair fide, which muft be ftained, appears out wards, pouring the dye upon it out of the dye- kettle, till the whole fkin is dyed. The two colours given to the. yufts are red and black, The red dye is thus prepared : Pound brazil wood (fandal) in the pqunding-mill, or with hand- peftles, as fine as the, tan, and boil it in kettles. Previous to the dyeing, fteep the fkins in alum- Water - It is calculated, that to each fmall yuft- fkin a half, and to a large one a Whole pound of logwood is put. But the latter are moftly coloured, black. To a hundred yufts to be dyed red, four pounds of alum is fufficient. For dyeing black the brazil-wood is likewife ufed; but in the red dye to a hundred fkins three pounds of good iron vitriol is diffolved. After the firft tinCr ture the fkins are dried, and afterwards on tables done over again with the fame dye and rolled up, that the,y may thoroughly imbibe the, dye. For heightening- the colour this tincture is fometimes thrice repeated. When the fkins are now tolerably dried, by hanging, that the colour may not fade, with the flefh fide outwards, the yufts, ftill fome what moift, are fmeared over on tables that have ledges^ There was a time when it was com manded by authority to ufe nothing but dolphin and LEATHER MANUFACTURES. 393 and feal-blubber for fmearing them ; but by that the yufts are haifher and have not that yuft-fmell, which foreigners prize fo much, unlefs the birch- tar, deggot, prepared in Ruffia, at leaft be mixed with it. At prefent this ' birch-tar alone is ufed for fmearing. This done, the fkins are eleanfed from any impurities that may remain, and are, fent to the dreffing-houfe, where' fkilful workmen forape them firft with fcraping-irons having two handles with the edge crofs-wife on a ftretching-. bench, that a foft thin leather remains with a clear gloffy furface free from all impurities. Other workmen then take the clean-fcraped yufts on large clean tables, fprinkle them on the flefh-fide with a gentle fhower of frefh wrater from their mouths, and lay them flightly rolled up to moif- ten. This done, the fkins are taken feparately one after another, folded together, and worked and calendered in all directions to make them foft and pliant. They are then curried with a kind of wooden curry-comb, with fliarp irons fixed in leathers, like a card for carding wool, the fkin being folded with the hair fide outwards, by which the whole furface of the yufts acquire the crofs ftrokes or trellis-like marks they are al ways feen to have*. Some work the fkins with * Others think this chequered impreffipn is communicated by a fteel cylinder, a foot long and three inches in diameter, wound round with a multitude of wires, and in weight 300 or 4.00 pounds. Vide Beaufobre, finanzw. tom. i. p. 246. the 39i , IMPROVING INDUSTRY. the hand? -firft dry, not fpririkling them till they are mangled with the card. Laftly, thofe fkins which are too harfla and ft iff to the feeling,- are more or lefs fprinkfed with linfeed oil, and thus are ready for the merchant*. Another tannery of great importance is that of the saffian^ or maroquin, which is carried on to a great .extent" in feveral towns of the empire, but particularly in Aftrakhan, and in which they proceed in this manner : The faffians are dyed in Aftf&kfaaai of three colours, red, yellow, and black; but only in the two firft colours, and efpecially in the red is the aftrakhan faffian-work famous,' and next to the turkifh excelling all others. Wherea-s the black faffians which are there pre pared, are not better than thofe wrought in Ka- .zan or elfewhere in Ruffia ; and for that reafori in Aftrakhan no more are made than fuffice for the demands of the town : while, on the other hand, great quantities of red and yellow . faffians go to all parts of Ruffia and out of the country, and likewife form a confiderable article in the afiatic commerce. No other fkins are taken for making faffians than thofe -of bucks and goats, and the prepara tion for each of the above-mentioned favourite colours is fomewbat different : the red faffians de manding more labour and expence than the yel- _ * Pallas,- Peterfb. journ. torn. i. p. £i. low ; LEATHER MANUFACTURES. $95 low ; they are, therefore, alfo dearer in price. The treatment Of the red faffians is ufually in the 'fol lowing order: the raw hides -are firft laid in large vats, and have, river water poured upon them, in which they are left to foak for three or four times twenty-four hours. They are then taken out, the water is drained and fqueezed from each fkin, and are fcraped one by one on the ftretching-bank with fcraping-irons, uraki, quite gently on the flefrrfide, in order to take away the groffer impuri ties, but principally for opening the fkin and to qualify t it for the enfuing operation. They now proceed to make the hair fall clean off chiefly by the application of lime. To a hun dred hides is .ftirred in about half a bufhel of unflacked lime in vats with river water, and the hides are laid in fo as that the lime may as much as poffible be equally diftributed over all of them. The aftrakhan ' Tartars let the hides lie in this lime-pit frequently three weeks ; but it is welt- known, that their faffians are fo harfh and liable to crack, and even fcorched-by it, that they are fit for nothing, and can only impofe upon an inexperienced purchafer. They then take out the" fkiris, wafh them and carefully fcrape off the hair, now become loofe, with wooden fcrapers. It often happens, that the hair is not perfectly loofened by the firft lime-lye, but that many tender ftubbles and fmall hairs are left remaining. •jn this cafe the hides muft be put into frefh 4 lime' 396 IMPROVING INDUSTRY lime-lye, and be left perhaps two weeks in it ; the ¦ hair then comes off, and the hair fide of the fkin gets a green and very white appearance, but the fubflance is then alfo veiy foft, and the faffians, by this corrofion of the lime, are very. little du rable in comparifon of other kinds of leather. The method now for taking the lime again 'out' of the hides, is the fecond treatment with dog- eXcrement or white gentian, which is carefully collected for this purpofe. This excrement, which is indifpenfably neceffary, is pounded, put into a narrow not very large vat, warm- water poured upon it, the mafs thoroughly ftirred, and the eleanfed hides are put with it into another vat, fo, as that the diffolved album grecum is fpread and jnfinuated over and between every fkin. In thefe ingredients the. fkins muft fie only twenty-four hours, or if the quantity of album grecum prove pot rich, fomewhat longer. The proportion here to be obferved cannot be accurately afcertained ; for the faffian-rnakers are guided generally by eye-meafure, and obferve only that the water be very thick and turbid, and confequently acrid enough. The hides come out of this corrofive muchfofter and thinner than they were^ and are now freed from the force of the lime ; but no time muft be loft iii endeavouring to extract the corrofive likewife,' that the hide may not be even more ruined by it than by the lime. They are generally very careful, that the hides. lie not too long Leather manufactures. 397 long in this corrofive, which they judge of by their eye from the pliancy and fupplenefs of them. As foon as, the fkins are lifted out, the unclean moifture is carefully and forcibly preffed out, and they are laid without lofs of time in a vat, wherein wheat bran is ftirred to a tolerably ' thick gruel with warm water, in this they lie again about thrice twenty-four hours, whereby all the former defects are completely remedied, and the fubftance of the fkin is fofter and mellow. — AH, thefe par ticulars are in fome meafure of no other fervice than to bring off the hair thoroughly clean from the fkin. Now follows the proper preparation of the fkins taken out of the wheat-bran. This is done chiefly- by honey. To. eighty hides they take about twenty-five pounds of raw honey, boil it in a kettle, pour as much water to it as is neceffary for giving it a due confiftence, and ftir it for a pretty long time boiling on the fire. They then let the kettle cool, till they can but juft bear the hand in it, and then pour the ftill-hot honey- water on the hides lying fingly in little trays by ladle-fulls till they have thoroughly imbibed the honey-water. When all the fkins are duly drench ed, they, are thrown into a , dry vat all together, laying at top a board with weights upon it, and covering the whole vat with felt, carpets, or furs, that the vapour during the fermentation may not efcape; and in this manner the fkins muft ferment once $98 IMPROVING INDUSTRY once more. thrice twenty-four hours. By this means they acquire the grain. From the honey-vat they , are rinfed clean in lukewarm water, wrung as dry as poffible, and fteeped immediately in a mode rately ftrong pickle or brine made of common fait, in which they muft be left five or fix days. This time being elapfed the fkins are taken out of the pickle and hung upon clean poles that the brine may drain out,, as it would be thought -in jurious to fqueeze it out with the hands. This done, the fkins have received their whole prepa ration, and may now be dyed red, but not yellow; becaufe for the yellow faffians, as was faid before, the preparation is of another kind. For givipg the red faffians the colour, nothing is ufed but cochenille, or as the Tartars call it kir- mifs, and that in the following method : firft, they boil a quantity of the herb falfola ericoides, by the Tartars called tfchagan, plentifully growing on the arid Aftrakhan falt-fteppes. To about four ruffian vedros of water is put of this dried herb fomewhat lefs than a pound, and it is fet to. boil for a whole hour, whereby the water acquires a dark-greenifh. colour, but betrays no acrimony to the tafte. The faffian maker only takes care that the water be not too deeply tinctured, and that when dropped on the thumb-nail fhews only a fcarce perceptible < green ; and in cafe it have adopted too many particles of the colour, it is drawn off, and frefh water put, in which the herb muft LEATHER-MANUFACTURES. 3yO. muft boil again, till the decoction lias received the due degree of faturation. , The herb is then with a. fcoop taken clean ..out of the kettle, and then the previoufly nicely powdered cochenille thrown into a kettle of four ruffian vedros. to about half a pound, well ftirred and frefh. fire added, in which great attention muft be paid, that the red fcum, which arifes from boiling, does, not boil over^ therefore conftantly fome is taken and again poured' in, in order hy this refrigeration to prevent the over boiling and. to allay the foam. After boiling for about an hour and a half, the water has obtained a ftrong tincture; but, as much of it is boifed away, the kettle is filled up again with the remain^ ing decoction of the herb tfehagan, and % thus attenuated colour boiled afrefh, till it is feen- that the cochenille is perfectly diffolved and the colour become thoroughly bright. Upon this, to the whole kettle is put about two lote of pounded and .burnt alum into the dye, with which it is to boil about a quarter of an, houu, and then the fire is taken from under the kettle, leaving only fome hot - embers, that the dye may retain as much heat as the hand can but juft bear. This done, the fkins prepared for dyeing are taken in hand, the dye- poured by, ladles into trays, one fkin folded toge ther after another with the- hair fide outwards, and then are worked in their portion of dye fo long, till they have uniformly abforbed all the dyeing particles, and only fomewhat of a pale moifture ' -i - remains. 400 IMPROVING INDUSTRY. remains. The leathers being thus for the firft time- ftained are quickly fqueezed out, hung up fingly acrofs poles; and when they are all done* they are directly taken for the fecond time and imbued in the fame manner with dye, and this treatment is repeated for the third and the fourth time ; fo that each fkin gets four ladles of the dye, From the fourth dye the fkins are no more preffed out, but hung up entirely wet to be ventilated upon poles. After the.dye the fkins are once more curried with the leaves of the tan-tree*, which the Arme nians call beige. The crufhed or pounded dry ' leaves, which the aftrakhan faffian-makers get from the Terek, are ftirred in broad troughs to a thick gruel with river water, and the coloured fkins laid in it, .between each of them leaving a fufficiency of the leaf-ooze; the; tanner then goes barefoot into the troughs upon the fkins lying on one another. In this tan or quas, as the workmen call it, the faffians' lie eight days and nights, adding frefh tan eyery other day; fo that four tans are neceffary. ' Here it muft be obferved that fome .Armenians who prepare 'faffians, for enhancing the quality of the red colour of tfieir faffians, to half a pound of cochenille add two lote or rather more of forrel (or lutor or lotef as they call -it) in the dye-kettle, but it is ufually omitted in Aftrakhan on account of * Rhus cotinus. its LEATHER-MANUFACTURES. 401 its high price ; for which reafon the aftrakhan faf fians are excelled by the turkifh in tieauty of colour. Secondly, it is to be known, that inftead of the leaves of the tan-tree bruifed nut-galls are held to be ftill more ferviceable for giving the faf fians the tan. By this means the colour is fo du rable as never to pafs away but with the leather j whereas the faffians prepared with the tan-tree be gin foon to be difcoloured. But the nut-galls are likewife too dear in Aftrakhan to be cuftomarily ufed by the faffian-makers. The kazan Tartars colour their faffians with red wood and tan them with the fhrub uva urfi, but it makes the worft faffians of all, as they prefently fade. When the faffians are lifted out of the tan, ftill the laft work remains. They are firft left fome time in the air to dry, they are afterwards fcraped on the ftretch-bank with fharp fcrapers on the flefti-fi.de quite frnooth and clean, then wafhed in running water, each fkin duly ftretched with pegs all round the edges, and thus left till they are dry. The fkins muft now be fmoothed on the hair- Me with a wooden inftrument for that purpofe, and laftly they are laid on' a thick felt, where, with an iron heckle that has blunt points, thofe little pittings, which the faffians are generally feen to have, are impreffed on the fame fide. And thus they are ready for fale, without being fmeared with linfeed-oil as is mentioned in Gmelin's tra vels, which would infallibly fpoil them. vol. in. d d The 40'3 IMPROVING INDUSTRY. The yellow faffians are little made in Aftrakhan, as the demand for them is much lefs, and there are but few faffian-makers who know- much of the matter. The dye which they make ufe of for this purpofe is of the berries of a fort of rhamnus (perhaps lycioides) which are brought from Perfia under the name of ulofcharr, and ufually bought for fix to nine rubles the pood. The kazan Tartars Colour' their ordinary yellow faffians with the flowers of the yellow camomile *, which they gather under the name fare tfchetfchiak, i. e. yellow- flower. In preparing the yellow faffians, they obferve in Aftrakhan the following difference of treatment: i . They make no ufe whatever of honey in the preparation. , 2. They never at all put the hides into the fait brine. 3. Inftead of the honey-pre paration and the pickling, they lay the hides before the dyeing, in the foregoing manner, in the tan ¦of the leaves of the kitzliar tan-tree, leaving them •in it eight days. 4. For preparing the dye they have n'o need of the herb tfchagan, but the berries alone are boiled in clear water, of which to four ruffian vedros of water about ten pounds are requifite, and heighten the colour afterwards .with three lotes of alum to every pound of berries. The dyeing is performed in the fame manner as has been related with the red, and after the dyeing there is * Anthemis tinftoria. no LEATHER-MANUFACTURES. 403 no need to lay the faffians in the tan, as having before received it. Nothing more is neceffary than to fcrape them clean, to work them thoroughly, to polifli and to ornament them. The yellow faf fians ufually are fold at one ruble 20 kopeeks; but the red- at fomewhat more on account of the dear- nefs of the dye, generally one ruble 80 kopeeks *. Shagreen, which is likewife "prepared in Af trakhan, moftly by Tartars and Armenians, is alfo a very valuable kind of leather, the preparation whereof is not in ufe with the other nations of -Europe. The procefs is as follows: For making fhagreen, horfe-hides and afs -hides are taken; but properly no more than the hinder back-piece are ufeful for this purpofe, which is cut off immediately above the tail in nearly a femi circular form about an arlhine and a half upon the crupper, and rather lefs than an arfhine along the back. The reft of the horfe-hide, from long experience being reckoned unfit for fhagreen- making, is thrown away. The back pieces thus cut out are laid in a vat filled with clean water, and left in it feveral days fucceffively, till they are thoroughly foaked and the hair comes freely off. Then the hides are taken one by one out of the vat, fpread againft a board fet flanting * Pallas, Peterlb. journal, tom. vi. p. 20. Concerning the faffian-tannery in Kazan fee Georgi's travels, torn. ii. p. 816. d d 2 againft 404- IMPROVING INDUSTRY. againft the wall, one corner of it reaching over the edge of the board where it is faftened ; and in this pofition the hair is fcraped off with a blunt fcraper, urak, and witli the hair the upper pellicle; and the eleanfed fkin is laid again in clean water to foften. This done, they take it a fecond time out, fpread one piece after another in the manner before de fcribed, fcrape now the flefh-fide with the fame fcraping-iron, and the whole fkin cleaned again on the hair-fide with great care, fo that nothing now -remains of the foftened fkin but the clean finewy web, which ferves for parchment, confifting of thick fafciculi of mellow fibres, refembling a hog's bladder foftened in water. After this preparation they immediately take in hand certain frames, pasltzi, compofed of a ftrait piece and a femicir cular, bow, forming therefore nearly the fhape of the fkin, which is ftretched in it with firings as> feven and uniform as poffible; and during this operation is fprinkled between whiles with fair water, that no part of it can dry and occafion an unequal extenfion. In like manner they finally wet them when all the ftoek of fkins are ftretched, and carry all the thoroughly wetted fkins into the work-room. There the frames are one by one laid flat on the floor, fo.that the flefh-fide of the ftretched fkins is turned undermoft. The other fide is now thick ftrewed over with the black, very fmooth, and hard feeds of a fpecies Of the herb 5 goofe- LEATHER-MANUFACTURES. 405 goofe-foot, or the greater orach * which the Tar tars call alabuta, and which grows in great abund ance and almoft to man's height about the fouth ern Volga in farm-yards and gardens ; and that thefe may make a ftrong impreffion on the fkin, a felt is fpread over them, and the feeds trod in with the feet, by which means they are impreffed deeply into the very yielding fkins. Then, without flia- king off thefe feeds, the frames are carried again into the open air, and fet leaning againft a fence or a wall to dry, in fuch manner that the fides covered with the feeds face the wall and cannot be fhone on by the fun. In this fituation the ftretch ed fkins muft dry for feveral days fucceffively in the fun, till no trace of moifture is perceptible in them, and they may be taken out of the frames. Then, when the impreffed feeds are beaten off from the hair-fide, it appears full of little pits and roughneffes, and has got that impreffion which the grain of the fhagreen ought to produce when the true polifh has been given to the fkin by art, and the lye now to be mentioned has been ufed pre vious to the ftaining. The polifh is done on a ftretching-bench or a board on treffels, fumifhed with a fmall iron hook and covered with fome thick felts or voiloks of fheep's wool, on which the dried fhagreen-fkin may lie foft. This is hung in the middle, by a * Chenopodium album, d d* 3 hole 406 IMPROVING INDUSTRY. hole which has been occafioned by the firing in the ftretching, to the hook, and faftened at the end by a firing with a weight or a ftone, by means whereof the fkin is allowed to move to and fro, but cannot eafily be fhoved out of its proper fituation. This done, the polifhing or rafping is performed by two feveral inftruments : the firft is called by the Tartars tokar, being an iron, crooked at one end like a hook and fharpened. With this the furface of the fhagreen is fcraped pretty fharp- ly, in order to remove the moft prominent rugo- fities, which from the horny hardnefs of the dried fkin is no eafy matter, and in which great care muft be taken not to (have away too deeply the impreffions of the alabuta-feeds, of which there is imminent danger if the iron be kept too fbarp. As the blade of this iron is very narrow, it will make the fhagreen rather uneven, and therefore after if, muft be ufed the other fcraper or urak, whereby the whole furface acquires a perfect equa lity, and only a flight impreffion remains of the feeds, exactly as it ought to be. After all thefe operations the fhagreen is laid again in water, partly for rendering it fupple and partly fo make the elevated grain appear: for the feeds having caufed pits in the furface of the fkin, the inter- ftices of thefe pits have loft their prominent fub ftance by the polifhing or fhaving, and now the points that were preffed down, having loft nothing bf their fubftance, fpring up above the fiiaved places, a LEATHER-MANUFACTURES. 407 places, and thus form the grain of the fhagreen. - To this end the pieces of fhagreen are left to foften twice 24 hours in water, and are floated feveral times afterwards in a ftrong and hot lye, which is obtained by boiling from an alkalefcent faline earth, fchora, found about Aftrakhan. From this lye the fkins are bundled warm one on another, and thus fuffered to lie foffie hours, whereby they fwell up and are foftened in an extraordinary manner. Again, they are left to lie 24 hours in a mode rately ftrong brine of common fait, by which they are rendered fine and white, and excellently adapt ed to receive any agreeable colour, which the work man haftens to give them as foon as they are come out of the pickle. The colour moft commonly communicated to the fine fhagreen, is thefea- green as the moft beautiful. But the expert fha- green-makers have the art of making alfo black, red, blue, and even white fhagreen. For the green dye nothing more is neceffary than fine copper filings and fal-ammoniac. As much of the latter is melted in hot water as the water will admit. With this fal-ammoniac-water the fhagreen fkins ftill moift from the brine are brufhed over on theungrained flelh-fide, and when they are thoroughly wetted, a thick layer of cop per-filings is ftrewed over them, the fkins doubled together, fo that the ftrewed fide lies inwards, then each being rolled apart in "a little felt or voi- Ibk, they lay all thefe rolls orderly on one another, d d 4 afid 408 IMPROVING INDUSTRY. and prefs them equally by a confiderable and uni formly preffing weight, under which they muft lie 24 hours. In this time the fal-ammoniac-water diffolves enough of the cuprous particles for pene trating the fkin with an agreeable fea-green colour ; and though it be not ftrong- enough the firft time, yet a fecond layer of copper-duft wetted with fal- ammoniac water, with which the fkins muft lie again 24 hours will be quite fufficient for ftaining them thoroughly ; when they may be properly cleaned, fpread out, and dried. For giving the blue colour to fhagreen they ufe only indigo, which to this end is not fo prepared as for the filk and Cotton dyers, but entirely without bones, only by ftrenuous friction, is mingled and diffolved with the other ingredients. They put about two pound of finely grated indigo in the kettle, pour cold water on it and ftir it till the dye begins to diffolve. They next diffolve in it five pounds of pounded ajakar, which is a fort of barilla or raw foda-falt, burnt by the Armenians of Kitzliar and a worfe kind by the Kalmuks, adding two pounds of lime and one pound of virgin honey, all tho roughly ftirred and fet in the fun for feveral days, during which the ftirring is frequently repeated. The fhagreen fkins which are to be made blue niuft be put only in the natrons lye, fchora, but not in the brine madg of common fait. They are figain folded up wet, and fewed clofe together round the edges with tfie flefh-fide turned inwards and LEATHER-MANUFACTURES. 409 the fhagreened hair-fide outwards, upon which they are three times dipped in fucceffion in an old ftore-dye kettfe, at every time preffing out the fuperfluous dye ; laftly, they are all brought into frefh dye, which muft not be preffed out, and with which the fkin is hung up in the fliade to dry; they are for the laft time cleaned, ornamented on the edges, and reduced to order. For the black fhagreen they employ nutgalls and vitriol in the following manner: the fkins ftill moift with the brine are thick ftrewed with finely powdered nut- galls, folded together and laid one on another 24 hours. In the meantime a new lye of bitter earth- falts or fchora is boiled and poured hot in little troughs or trays. In this lye each fkin is waved to and fro feveral times, is again ftrewed with pul verized nutgalls and again laid in heaps for fome time, that the virtue of the galls may thoroughly penetrate the fkins, which are then fuffered to dry, and are beat out to clear them from the galls. When this is done, the fkin is fmeared on the fhagreen-fide with mutton fuet, and laid a little in the fun, that it may abforb the fat. It is the cuftom likewife with the fhagreen-makers to roll up each fkin apart, and to fqueeze and prefs it againft fome folid body, in order to promote the abforption of the unctuous particles. The furplus is again fcraped off with a blunt wooden fcraper, This being done, and the fkin having lain a little while, a fufficient quantity of iron-vitriol is dif- folved 410 IMPROVING INDUSTRY. • folved in water, with which the fhagreen is rubbed on both fides, whereby it foon acquires a beautiful black-colour: and now the edges and other de fective parts are dreffed. To obtain white fha green the fkin muft firft be fteeped in ftrong alum- water on the fhagreened fide. Having imbibed this, the fkin is well rubbed on both fides with a pafte of wheaten flour, and left to dry. with it ; then all the pafte is wafhed away with alum-water, and the fkin fet to dry completely in the fun. As foon as the fkins are dry, they are gently fmeared over with clean melted mutton fat, leaving them in the fun to imbibe it, and are worked and preff ed with the hands to promote this effect. After wards the fkins are faftened one by one on the above-mentioned ftretching-bench, warm water is poured over it, and the fuperfluous fat fcraped off- with obtufe wooden inftruments; to which the warm water juft poured on has much affifted. By this procefs the fhagreen receives a fine white colour, and needs only in conclufion to be' dreffed and rubbed. This whitenefs, however, is given to the fhagreen, not fo much that it may continue in that ftate, but in order to impart to it a beautiful high red hue, as this end could not be obtained to fuch perfection without that prepara tion. But the fliagreens intended to be ftained red muft not be brought out of the natrous bitter fait lye into the brine, but muft be made white in the manner above defcribed, and afterwards fupplied with LEATHER-MANUFACTURES. ' 411 with the brine, in which they are left to lie- about 24 hours, or lefs, from the dye. The dye is made with cochenille or kirmifs as the Tartars call it. The operation is begun by boiling for a full hour about a pound of the dried herb tfchagan, which grows plentifully on the fait fteppes about Aftrakhan, and is a fort of kali*, in a kettle large enough to contain about four common vedros of water, whereby the water acquires a greenifh colour. The herb is then taken out and about half a pound of grated cochenille put into the kettle, with which the above decoction muft boil another full hour, diligently ftirring it on the fire that the kettle may nof boil over. Laftly, to this are added 15 or 20 grains of the material which the dyers call tutter (perhaps orpiment), kt the dye boil a little more, and then take the fire from under the kettle. Then the fkins taken gut of the brine are laid feparately in trays, pouring the dye upon them four times, rubbing it in with the hands, that it may be equally fpread and imbibed, preffing it out every time; which dope, they are ready for drying and orna menting, and fell much dearer than the others -f. The feveral nations dwelling in Siberia employ alfo various methods in the preparation of leather. The Kalmuks, for example, tan their leather with the dregs of their -kumifs or with four milk, fmoke * Salfola ericoides. f 'Pallas, neue Nord. Beytr. tom. i. p. 325. it 412 IMPROVING INDUSTRY. it a little, and afterwards rub it with foaped chalk. But the moft laborious and ingenious of their pro ductions are the leather vessels which they make in the following maner: the hides, as they come out of the water, are fpread in the fun ; then the women who are fkilled in the bufinefs pro ceed to cut out pieces of the fhapes neceffary for the veffel to be made, fowing them together with the finews of animals, and then drying them well in the fmoke of a fire. In this manner they pre pare not only veffels with large mouths to which thev give the form with their hands as the fkin is drying, but alfo big-bellied leathern bottles for holding the kumifs, and faddle-flafks with a narrow neck, which for giving them their fhape, they keep inceflantly blowing up with great patience, at firft over the fire, and then filling them with fand or afhes, and ornament them on the outfjde with a variety of ftrokes and lines. They even have the art of making large leathern tea-pots with a narrow fpout, fhaped like thofe in common ufe with us, in a very ingenious manner. In order to prevent the leather from becoming flaccid and likewife dirty by the hot water, thefe pots are fmoaked more ftrongly and for a longer time ; an operation which lafts for feveral days, till at laft they are as tranfparent as horn and almoft incorruptible. There are of the foregoing leathern bottles that hold five pr fix runlets*. — All kinds of good leather is * Pallas, travels, tom. i. p. 3ZI. likewife CABINET-MAKING, &C. 413 likewife prepared in various parts of Ruffia ; and the white-tanned leather made at Mofco from elkfkins, buckfkins, goatfkins, &c. is very much elteemed. — The principal fkins that are tanned into white-leather, are: fea-lions*, fea-bears-f', fea-otters J, red^, crofs and black foxes, fteppe- foxes||, lynxes, rock-cats, blue houfe-cats, black cats, fifh-otters, and little otters^, gluttons, mar tens, iltiffes, fables, ermines, fnow-weazles, red weazles, white and grey hares, red and black moles, grey fquirrels, black fquirrels, ftriped fquir rels9, ziefel-mice, fine curley black kirghifian lambfkinsl, Crimean grey lambfkins, &c. XXXIV. Wax-bleaching. What a great quantity of wax is annually produced in Ruffia is well-known : there are however but few eftablifh ments for bleaching the raw wax. Moft of it is exported in its natural ftate, and partly confumed. , in the country. Dmitri Andreef indeed fet up a wax-bleachery at Mofco ; and there is one at Pe terfburg on the Petroffkoi oftroff and another on the Peterfburg-fide. XXXV. Cabinet-making and coach- making. Thefe are here introduced merely for the fake of an opportunity for mentioning that ¦the Ruffians have made very great progrefs m thefe mechanical arts; the extraordinary number * Vufchka. f Morfkoi-kot. X Morikoi-bober § White, blue pefstzi. || Korfaki. , 2 Norka. 6 Burunduki. £ Baranki. or 414y IMPROVING INDUSTRY. of coaches and chariots ¦ built at St. Peterfburg, Mofco, Kazan, and even in Siberia, make no fmall parade; and in the durability and elegance of the workmanfhip they vifibly improve from year to year. The ruffian joinery and cabinet work is always at leaft one third cheaper than that done at St. Peterfburg or Mofco by german mechanics. What the Ruffians fail moft in, in regard to thefe works, is the fine varnifhing and polifhing which art however is of late years pretty nearly attained. — In Tobolfk are made japanned arti cles in the chinefe tafte, and truly elegant. XXXVI. Glass-houses. Of thefe here are not a few; yet not fufficient for fupply ing the. home confumption, and therefore every year con fiderable plackages of glafs, -bottles', &c. are im ported. — Glafs houfes are in the governments of Vladimir, Riazan, Tambof, Kazan, Penfa, Mofco, Vologda, Archangel, Peterfburg, and others ; in Livonia, Little and White Ruffia, and about fix in Siberia. In the neighbourhood of Mofco alone are five, and in St. Peterfburg is a very large concern of this kind lately belonging to prince Po- temkin, and another not far from Schluffelburg. XXXVII. Plate-glass manufactories. Near Peterfburg is one belonging to the crown, and another to a private proprietor. The' former was eftablilhed during the reign of the emprefs Elizabeth, and works only for the court. XXXVIII- STONE-CUTTING. 415 XXXVIII. Stone-cutting. For this pur pofe are three, works maintained at the expence of the crown. One of them fituate two verfts from Peterhof, another in Ekatarinenburg, in the go vernment of Perme, and the third at the quarries of Loktevfk in the province of Kolhyvan. At all the three the cutting-mills are turned by water. At Peterhof are cut agates, porphyry, jafper, garnets, amethyfts, &c. which come partly from Siberia, partly from the mountains of Olonetz, and fome from abroad. At Ekatarinenburg are made moftly on the crown's account, fmall vafes, chiefly of amethyft, jafper, garnet, quartz, marbles, &c- and the mafter artifts there alfo cut a variety of trinkets and other trifles for fale, fuch as fleeve- buttons, rings, hair-pins, ear-rings, bracelets, croffes, feals, fnuff-boxes, cane-heads, knife- handles, &c. But at Loktevfk are cut very large vafes of porphyry and jafper, fome of them two arfhines in height, likewife pedeftals weighing 300 pood, table-flabs, chimney-pieces, &c. Both the ftone and the workmanfhip are here equally elegant. — At all- three of them partly foreign, but at Loktevfk moftly domeftic emery is ufed ; and the greater part of the tripoli is of that found in Siberia, The numerous architectural pieces in marble that are employed in the new magnificent buildings at St. Peterfburg, are moftly wrought la Finl and, in St. Peterfburg, and at Ekatarineii burg, where they are alfo fplit and polifhed. 3 XXXIX. 416 IMPROVING INDUSTRY. XXXIX. Earthen-ware manufactories-. Of thefe there is a confiderable one near St. Peterf burg condu&ed on the crown's account ; and two belonging to private proprietors are at Mofco. — Blade earthen pans are in general ufe throughout Ruffia, and are made at feveral places; but glazed veffels are rare, though in many parts there i& abundance of good clays. I fhall juft mention a few places where a great deal of earthern-ware is made: Conftantinova on the Kliafma, Arat on the Piana, and Vaffiliieva on the Volga, &c. The ware made at Mofco is not durable ; and the fame may be faid of the cream-coloured ftone- ware which is defigned to imitate the englifh, but without the defired effect.. Another fabric of this kind, which produces a tolerable commodity, is at Reval. XL. Porcelain manufactories. Ruffia has at prefent three. The grand imperial manu factory at St .'Peterfburg, that belonging to M. Volkof at Savfk, and that fet up by our country man Mr. Henry Gardner at Dmitrof, with a capital of 50,000 rubles, in 1766. That at Pe terfburg works chiefly for the Court, cofts annu ally above 1 5,000 rubles and has 400 work-people belonging to it. Their ware has been gradually improving, and not till about 15 years ago has it been of eminent quality and beauty; the latter is to be particularly underftood of the elegant modelling of the pieces in groups. But it muft ftill yield the palm in regard to whitenefs, dura bility, and painting, to marry of the manufactories abroad PITCH-DRAWING. 417 abroad. That at Peterfburg formerly obtained its clay from the uralian mountains, but at prefent it , is got from the Ukraine, whence alfo Mr. Gardner fetches it. The quartz is brought from the moun tains of Olonetz. The produce of Mr. Gardner's -manufactory comes at prefent tolerably well into commerce, and he has even made a complete fervice for the court : his porcelain is cheap, has a pretty white glazing, but is not particularly fubftantial, and the painting will admit of im provement. — : None of thefe manufactories have fucceeded in imitating, either in quality or cheap- ruffian- company of merchants, can-only trade hy eQmnwtffioni. The Rufjans very rarefy deal with foreigners- otherwife' tha.ro one twelve months, time ; which eon-traelr they term barak ;, but they are cuftomarily even, paid beforehand;. Foreigners likewife can only trade in the gr.ofs or wholefale, and are obliged to depofit their commodities in the ware- houfes beloaging to she ererwn, aad to pay w-arehQufa dues. Ail merchants who are imfoibedi in the guilds, and? confb- craently are ruffian fuhje&s, were heretofore even liable to the capitation-tax ;. but, in virtue of an. ukafe of th» 17th o£ March, 17755 they are exempted from it, and now in lieu thereof pay a percentage and a tax on their capital. The whole body of merchants- is at prefent divr'dfed! into three guilds. To theftrft belonged1, till- T785, fuch- as ftated them felves as poffeffing a trading capital of above ro',000 rubles ; t» the fecond thofe who- deelared to between 5 and r0,t!OO, and to the third- whoever gave lrinrfelf in- as- poffibffing from ' 500 to 3000 rubles. But in purfvtanee of the- municipal re-" gulation I ...43.1 J SECTION I. Of the Commerce by the Baltic. .Navigation and cornmerce were purfued on the Baltic in the middle of the fixteentb century,. only from the (now ruffian) ports of Finland and 'Livonia. But about the year 1553, in the reign of king Edward the fixth of England, a fliip was fitted out at London, at the inftance of the famous navigator Sebaftian Cabot, for the purpofe of dis covering a north -eaft paflage to China and india, and the chief command of it given to fir Hugh Willoughby, and after him to Richard Chancellor, gulation bearing date the 24th of April 1785, thofe now belong to the firft guild who declare to a capital from 1 o to 50,000, to the fecond thofe who make return of a capital from 5 to 10,000, and to the third all who acknowledge their capital to be from 1000 to 5000 rubles. Capitalifts,- who deliver in their ftatement at upwards of 50,000, and bankers as having 100,000 to zqo,ooo rubles, belong to the clafs of what are called nominal burghers, and is endowed with fignal privileges. On all thefe capitals only a certain per centage is annually paid ; but on a requisition of recruits, the merchants are no lefs obliged to furni.ih their quota to the general levy, than the boors and the burghers ; only with' this difference, that the merchants have the liberty of paying a certain fine inftead of delivering the recruits, which was formerly fixed at 360, but by a later regulation is now 500 rubles per head. the 432 COMMERCE BY THE BALTIC. the former, with all his company, having perifhed miferably by the froft, and the latter was loft in the haven of St. Nicholas, in the White-fea, where at that time was only a monaftery. ¦ Thus failed the firft enterprife of the Englifh for opening a trade with Ruffia. Soon after this tzar Ivan Vaffil lievitch caufed the harbour of the archangel Mi chael to be conftructed, granted feveral privileges to the englifh nation, and thereby at length grew up the trading port of Archangel, fince become of fuch confequence. The commerce here foon increafed ; arid in 1655 the exports from this port alone to England were to the value of 660,000 rubles; from 1691 to 1701, on a yearly average, to the amount of 1 1 2,25 1 pounds fterling; whereas the imports from England were eftimated at only 58,884 pounds fterling. The revenue of the crown at Archangel amounted annually to about 100,000 rubles, a fum, which, according to the then value of money, may be deemed very confiderable. The principal articles of export at that time were : pOt- afhes, caviar, tallow, wax, hides*, hemp, feathers, tar, yarn, beef, rhubarb, filk (probably chinefe or perfian), cork, bacon, cordage, furs, briftles, &c. all rough commodities -j-. — But during the reign * In the year 1674 the total amount of the exportation of yufts was fomewhat above 100,000, but at prefent is'near upon 200,000 poods. f Bachmeifter, on the arrival of the Englifh in Ruffia, Peterfb. journal, 1780, p. 248. 1 ¦'¦ , of COMMERCE BY THE BAZTlC. 433 pf Peter I. a great revolution took place in this trade ; for, having built the city of St. Peterf burg, he drew thither the commerce of Arch angel, and it became thenceforward the chief mart of the ruffian empire. However, the com merce of Archangel has not entirely gone to ruin ; nay, fince the alteration and debafement of the tfalue of money, it amounts at prefent to a far greater fum than formerly, as we may fafely ven* ture to ftate the exports at two millions, while we can only reckon the imports at one fourth of that fum, or half a million of rubles. To the farmer articles of exportation, others of various im portance are now added, as corn *, linfeed, iron, flax, train-oil, fail-cloth and other coarfe linens, tobacco, &c. The commerce of St. Peterfburg began in a fhort fpace of time to be of great confequence. Even in the year 1 742, the exports amounted to about two millions and a half, and the imports to two millions of rubles. At prefent the former are eftimated at from 32 to 37, and the latter at from 19 to 26 millions of rubles. The chief articles of the Peterfburg exports are : iron, hemp, flax,' yufts, tallow, tobacco, wax, kaviar, cordage, foap, * Corn is indeed not properly a new article of exporta* don from Archangel j for even fo early as the reign of tzar iran Vaffillievitch, rye was carried from that port to Eng land, Holland, Sweden, Denmark, and France. vol. 111. f F < tar, 434 COMEERCE BV* THE BALTIC. tar, hemp-oil,- fail-cloth and coarfe linens, furs, falt-petre, &c. The commerce of Riga is likewife of no flight confequence, amounting, if we include that of Arenfburg and Pernau, as belonging to the fame government, with it, to an objed of between fix and feven millions of rubles, whereof the exports may be. between four and a half and five,- and the imports one and a half or two millions an nually. The chief articles of export are, hempj 'flax, cordage; pot-afh, linfeed, hemp-feed, fhip- timber, tobacco, corn, brandy, &c. The imports in the year 1 793 were here, as well as throughout the whole empire, much di minifhed by the ukafe prohibiting, the importa tion of french goods, and all other : articles of luxury, and which is ftill in full force and effect, fo that at Reval a great variety of thofe commo dities, have, been burnt as contraband. .'By a new ukafe-of Dec. ¦ 1 6, 1793, , the price of brandy. has been raifed, -as well as the. import duties on fo reign fpirits-, whereby- it is afferted, that the reve-' mie wjlfgain an annual increafe of five millions pf rubles* ¦• . Mr. Herrmann in 1790 calculates the total of the exports from all thefe ports to amount annu ally to, frpnrfour and a half to five millions, . and the imports from one and> a half to two mil lions of rtibles : and the whole- of the commerce, active COMMKRCfi BV THE BALTIC. 435 active arid paflive, of that government might then amount annually to between fix and feven mil lions *. At that time the ctiftoms in all the above-men tioned ports amounted to upwards of 800,000 ru bles. From the above author wo learn, that, " In the year 1 779 were brought into Riga alone, in fpecie, 241,809 holland-ducats, and 634,214 albcrts-dollars, which in ruflian coin amounts to 1,501,543 rubles nnd 40 kopeeks. " Reval and Habtal exported annually together for 600,000 rubles, and import for 800,000 ru bles ; of the former the principal articles arc, corn, brandy, hemp, flax, wax. &c. " The principal articles of importation are tot about 50,000 rubles in.ialt, coffee, fugar. Sec thole of exportation, rye, brandy, linfeed, flax, hemp, Sec. The corn alone in many years amounts to 300,000 rubles. The prolan commerce at th«r two ports amounts annually to about 1,400,960 rubles, of which #00,000 are fet down to tl>6 im ports, and to. the exports nearly 600,000 rubles. The duties in lf&$ exceeded 182,000 rubles; but in 1775 were but little more than 45,000. * The trade of the place is fomeiimcs alio very contider- uWy incrc.iiVd In- orders from the government : for inllance. in ]anvtary i*0+. an order tame from Court to deliver within two months, from the nth of February to the i.nh of April, ij.;05 poods of frelh beef, 0.502 poods of frefh butter. $753 poods of buck-wheat-grits, for the fupply of the imperial fleet, then lit ting out. F F 2 " N.uva 43/> COMMERCE BY THE BALTIC: " Narva exports annually for more than 500,000, rubles, in wood, hemp, flax, &c and imports in all kinds of commodities for about 50,000 rubles. -."" Vyhorg and Friederichfhamm trade chiefly in deals ; the annual exportation amounts to nearly 100,000 rubles, and the importation to full aoo,ooo rubles. .*? The ruffian commerce, in all the ports, which may generally be termed the Baltic trade, amounts ' at this time, therefore, to a fum of 35,750,00,0 rubles j of which the exports make 21,200,000, and the imports 14,550,00.0 rubles. ;..i'J]t.is faid that the ruffian furs are dearer in Peterfburg than in Dantzic, Hamburg, arid Leip-; fic;; and this is, becaufe fo many furs are fmug- gled out of the country. " Though Ruffia has '.' a furplus of furs,, yet fome forts are brought v thither from America, which, becaufe fat-fetched '?- and dear bought, are preferred to the fiberian *." fa 1775, 46,466 american beave£&*and- 7143 otter ? feiris-were imported at Peterfburg. >¦*»¦». No fpecies of commerce requires fo much fpetulation as that in furs. Whenever a pope or. .a; king of England dies,' this, trade all at orice undergoes, a complete revolution, by taking a new courfe, which lafts a tw^lye,. month, and then returns to its former chan nel On fuch an event, the cardinals at Rome and the nobility at London want fo much ermine * Beaufbbre, finance, part ii. p. 450; for OOMMEficE BY flit BAI/TIC. 4§f for their robes, that fhe whole ftock in Norway, Sweden, and Ruffia, is imriiediately bought up and ferit to London and Roriie, for which reafori all other kinds of fur corifidef aHly rife in value *. The trade in potafh, rhubarb, tar, traiii-oil,; to» baccb, caviar, &c. was forrrierly a monopoly of; the crown. But ait prefent, fait, brandy, falt-petre, and gunpowder are the only products it referves to itfelf. Under Peter I. the trade iri yufts, together with all fiberian and chinefe cofhmodities, were likewife included in this rfioriopoly. FfOiri* the following ftatement of the exports and imports valued iri rubles, the PeferiBufg commerce will be more accurately viewed. In the year Exports amounted to Imparts. 1742' £,479,656 2>°3°'337 *749 3', 1 84,3 2 2 2,942,242 J753 - 3A$*4h ' 3",220-623 1754 - 3>$7f>939 - 3~,2 79v,o97 J755 - 4>55°>o6° 3",32i,^7j r757 - 4,598,120 3.193,375 *759 - 3:,53°>6l4 - not- procured 1764 . - 5>88f>:M3 " 5>459>52Z »775, - 8,299,584 - &,892,'833 1776- - not procurecf - 5,2.56,^1 r777 #2,96*0,000: - 8,640,006 1779 - not procured - 8,856,80* 1780 - 10,941,12-8 #,65*6,379 * Taube, account of the englifti trade and manufactures, p. if z. HefrAariri/ftatift. fchild. p. 429-^4-J4. 438 COMMERCE. BY THE BALTIC. In the year Exports amounted to Imports, ' "178 1 12,954,440 n rRo ~> •* 5 I782 11,467,347 - 12,204,482 I/S3 " 10,098,797 11,674,120 I784 - ?2»94i?5T3 - 12,172,345 . ?785 r 13,497,645 " 10,033,785 1786 13,360,011 - ll>775>577 *787 - not procured - 15'564»553 17S8 - 2°>35I>937 •• I5>474>396 *786^3 - ?5»3?I>IP5 1790 - 21,641,779 - 22,964,618 ?79r ~ 20,040,697 : 25'?4°'63I 1792 - 21,694,667. - 22,262,738 J793 - 23>757>954 - 14,580,569 1794 - 25>5,65>767 - 21,741,176] 1795 - 31,767,952 - 2^,019,175 S796 - 57>IIO>333 - 26j>355*89° l797 : 32,450^911 ^ - 19,366,059 1798 "- 365552»476/* ' - 25,936,020 1799 - 38,169,925 - ig>2 99,7 7 9 1793. Imported by ruffian Rubies. Kopeeks, J fubjedts,. for - - IO>339>659 0 By the Englifh,. for - 2,879,100 69 : - By the Danes, for .- 53&576 25 Excels of the exports over 1 the jmport£ this year - - 9>*77>385 H 1793. The receipts of go- ,M.. vernment from the cuftoms, excife,and confifcated goods - 2,795,941 47i j^.92. Thefe receipts Were 4,109,079 36 *- The COMMERCE BY THE BALTIC. 439 The diminution of the year 1793 in thefe receipts by 1,313,132 rubles 88| kopeeks was a neceffary confequence of the new regulations in regard to the importation of foreign commodities. For the fame reafon the number of the fhips arrived was 148 lefs than in the year 1792. The fum of coined gold and filver brought into the port of St. Peterf burg in the year 1793, is eftimated at 57,600 rubles. It muft here be remarked, that thefe amounts of the imports, as well in the port of Peterfburg, as in the other fea-ports, exceed not a little the true value ; for, as,, in order to prevent, as much as may be, all frauds at the cuftom-houfe, a law has been made to oblige the importer to difpofe of the commodity which he has eftimated at this or that value, to the cuftom houfe officers, for the fame value, with an allowance of fo much per cent, profit, when thefe officers have reafon to believe that he has rated the value below the truth, fo, it not unfrequently happens, that the merchants enter their commodities above the price they paid for them, and pay the duties accordingly. Hence is evident that the true balance is more in favour of Ruffia than appears from the cuftom-houfe lifts. In the year 1778 there arrived 602 fhips. 1779 7°5 1780 554 1781 783 1782 - 634 1783 632 FF4 1784 44« eOWMSKC!!. Of TBE euxins j 7g4 _^ 89o J7&5 — 679 1786 — 856 1787 — 783 r ... . ' < ' . rof which 58a 1792 606 | wer« Eng. aloaei, 1793 ^ Eng. 536. 1797 - — 874 En6- 44«- I798 1053 Eng. 619. I799 t-t 771 Ertg. 456. The receipts at the euftom houfe at St. Petetf* burg and Cronftadt amounted, Rubles. Kopeelrs. I,, .„ r n /- /• 1 1n 5 years, from 1773 n the year 1775 to «,698,62» 14 I to »779, there re. n ^ I ceipts amounted- fa I78Q - 2,077,430 16 J $,5*50,838 r. 4? k. 1781 - 2,374,300 9f 1782 - 2,670,798 42* I783 - 2,966,188 2§ I784 - 3,109,385 I785 - 3,082,698 — * I786 - 3,278,050 60 J798 - 4,219,325 — <799 - 4,684,184 — « SECTION II. Of the Commereer of tfie Euxine and- the Cafpian, X he commerce of the Euxine;, or Black fea, fince its revival, is, in a manner, ftill in its in fancy. However, we may eftirnate the export-* y; ¦ atioJOs AJSTD THE flASffjtir. Mt *t ion, front all tfie ports there belonging to Ruffia, at about- one million; and the importation at one million and a quarter. The principal articles that find a vent here are, cannon, furs, falted beef, but ter, cordage, fail-cloth, kaviar, corn, and a variety of ruflian manufactures, efpecially iron, linen, cdf* fon fluffs, &C. The imports are, wine, fruit, coffee, filks, rice, and all kinds of turkifti commodities-. ' Over the Cafpian, commerce, indeed, is of a very ancient date; but at prefent is not fovery confiderable as it might be made. The exports amount to fomewhere about j;to<5,opd, arid the imports' to i,Ooa,oo'OOf rubles. The articles of exportation here are *early~ the fame with thoie that find pusf chafers on the* Euxirte", Whereas we take in return fcarcely any thing but filk. * As early as the fourteenth century the Venetians and the Genoefe,by the way of the Cafpian, brofigrft the indian, per fian, and arabian commodities, wiffc which they fupplied the foutberii parts of Europe over Aftrakhan, to their magazines at Azof and Keffa. From Aftrakhan the goods went up the Volga, then by land as far as the1 Don, on whica river they Were next forwarded to Azof, EVen the" northern" parts of Europe were ftirnithed with the fame afiatie commodities; by the rtrman, traders, over Aftrakhan, who fent them to- their principal magazine at Vifbey, a hanfe-towri on f h« jfle of Gothland. The devastations occafioned fey the wars of Timur, towards' thfe end of the fourteenth century, caufed. the transfer of thistratfe , ftom 442 COMMERCE OF THE EUXINE from Aftrakhan to Smyrna and Aleppo ; and the arabian commerce, for which thefe places, befides, lay more convenient, never returned again to Aftrakhan; but a part of the perfian trade was, fome time aftervyards, turned into its former chan nel. The rnoft confiderable harbours and places of trade on-_,the Cafpian, lie partly on the ruffian, partly on the perfian, and partly on the arabian -coafts. The ruffian are,, i. Aftrakhan, the grand mart of the cafpian commerce. 2. Gurief, at the exit of the Uralj but few merchants, however, refide here, for the fake of carrying on a little. trade with the Kirghiftzi, &c, 3. Kitzliar, at the.dif- emboguing of the Terek. The fhips bound for this place ufed formerly to run into the fouthern ,iriouth of the Terek ; but, becaufe the mouths of -that river are now'choaked up with fend, the goods are landed in a lijitle bay about 60 englifh miles from Kitzliar. This latter place draws from Aftrakhan the european. commodities wanted for the perfian trade ; as alfo corn and other neceffa ries of life for the ruffian colonies on the Terek, and for the inhabitants of the neighbouring chain of mountains of Caucafus. Befides the goods which are ordinarily fent from Kitzliar into the perfian harbours,, the inhabitants carry on a fmug- jgling trade to Shamachy, Derberit, and even as far as Teflis in Georgia, but is extremely infe- .cure, as the caravans are frequently plundered by bands of robbers that infeft thofe parts. — .The perfian AND THE CASPIAN. 443 pprfian, havens are, i. Derbent, in the province pf Shirvan ; but veffels can rarely approach the fhore, on account of the lands and fhoals, and are pbliged to lie at anchor two or three miles off. Therefore not more than three or four ruffian fhips come annually to this place, which, are ufually laden with corn, bringing with them likewife iron, fteel, and lead for the Lefghis and other tartarian nations dwelling on this fide Caucafus. 2. Nief- covaia priftan, or Nifebad, is a haven formerly much frequented by the Ruffians ; the merchants particularly from Shamachy came hither in great numbers, with european commodities. — 3. Baku js reckoned the fafeft harbour of the Cafpian, be caufe fhips may lie at anchor in feven fathom water; yet in fome places the entrance is danger ous on account of fhallows, iflands, and fandbanks. Baku, like Derbent, is inhabited by Perfians, Tar tars, and fome few armenian merchants. The principal articles of export by which the traffic of this place is chiefly fupported, are the naphtha, and the fine rock fait, both of which are collected on the eaft fide of the bay. The inhabitants indeed cultiyate faffron and cotton, but not with any confiderable advantage. The trade of Baku is doubtlefs of more confequence than that of Der bent, though in fact but very confined, and is moftly carried on with Shamachy, whence it gets filk and filk -fluffs. A ruffian con ful. ufually refides here. —7 4. Sinfili, or Enfeli, is truly but a wretched 3 place, coMMERCi Of The euxine place* yet it is the moft frequented of all. For-j ftierly veffels entered the bay by the canal ; but^ astllat-paffage is now obftructed by accumulated fands, they remain at anchor ift the road; Enfe'ti lies at the diftance of only a few Verfts from Refht, the chief town of the province df Ghilan, which produces the beft filk" and the fineft filk-ftuffs of ill thefe parts. . At Enfeli there is alfo a ruffian' eonful ;: and the Ruffians trade here to great advan tage. Commodities go from henceto Refht, which fOwn fupplies the bordering provinces , of Perfia, and the neighbouring independent ftates as far a$ Georgia1, with european commodities; thofe goods excepted which go immediately from Aftrakhan, through Kitzliar and Mofdok, into the adjacent diftricts of Georgia and the neighbouring moun tains. — 5. Farabat, and 6. Medfhetizar, on the fouthern coaft, in the province of Ma-zanderart, 4fe mere villages. In the latter,- however, a con fiderable trade is carried on, on account of its vici- ibrty to Balfrufh, the chief town of the province^ whither the Ruffians and the Armeniaris bring their Wares. Hither come likewife merchant's- frofri Kifean, Jfpabany Schiraz, Korazan, &c. bringing with them perfian and Indian products. The pro vince itfelf exports fiik (which, however, is far inferior to that of Ghilan), arid- rice and cotton*. — • 7. The bay of Aftrabat, where" the Ruffians tori and then travel fo the capital town of that fosme. The f&to&l oi this ptfoviifcie,, and their exports AND THp CAS?IAN. 445 exports and imports, are nearly the fame with thofe of Mazanderan. Aftrabat trades moftly with Kan dahar. — The tartarian havens are, j . The baf- kanfkoi bay ; and, 2. Mangufhlak ; both of which, but efpecially the latter, have a very fecure road- ftead. The Ruffians vifit the iflands in tfie bal-. kanfkoi hay, which are moftly inhabited by pirates of the race of the turkoman far^ajs ; thefe ifland? yield rice and cotton* and one of them, named ]NIaphthonia, has. a great ¦ f7-6,jo4 5* qg a Therefore. '452 COMMERCE OF TJI E. EUXINE s Therefore at that tjme the whole commerce of i1 one year amounted to about 300,000 rubles; but ¦in the years 1785 and 1786 already to a million rand a.tialf; and, if we add to this the contraband -trade, it amounted previoufly to the breaking .out of. the war, . certainly to above two millions: * whence ut appears how , greatly . this commerce has :: increafed-fince the taking pofleffion of the Krim. I Yet it will neyer attain to aiiy vaft importance till - Ruffia, by bne way or another, has got a power . fuperior to. that of the Turks' on the Euxine- l Mr, Soimonof has pointed out the harbours -where, in bis. opinion, and indeed from actuaj ex- perirrierit made: by[ himfelf,. fhips may nioft coci- lyenientlycturn in, deliver their ^cargoes, and take' a frefh freight on board; , Nifovaia priftan, or the coaft of Nifabat, is riot proper for fhips of the -conftruction he propofes; but if" the merchants .mean to continue their .trade to that place, and for that . purpofe prefer the old buffes, to hukers and galleots, experience may fhew them, that his veffels will not be lefs ferviceable to them, and at fome diftance from the. coaft may ride fafely at anchor. It would be of great advantage to form a harbour and eftablilh a place of trade at one of the mouths of the rivers Kur, as it was the inten tion , of Peter the" great to do. Thither all : the commerce of Georgia and Shirvan might be drawn; and this place, in time, would become a. confi derable mart for the whole weftern coaftof the "¦-''-' '-^- '" .; •„ s Cafpian. AND the Caspian. 456 Cafpian. Even if fhips were to lie in the Apfheron canal, as they may do in great fafety ; their cargoes might be carried thither over land from Sha* machie. Though the diftanCe be greater- than from Nifovaia priftan, yet the way is not fo mountainous. Another harbour, in the gulf of Sinfili, would be very commodious for Ghilan, and for the tranfport of commodities to and from Perfia.. However, Mr. Soimonof does.^not infift upon this, becaufe in his time the trade was al ready, eftabllfhed there, and Ghilan was under. the ruffian dominion. Thirdly, the city of Aftrabat lies very convenient for a harbour, and for trade to the eaftern diftricts of Korazan, Bukharia, Samar kand, Balch, and even to India, for which pur pofe, if this placd be: not ceded to Ruffia, as it ought to be in conformity with the treaty con cluded with Ifmael-Bey, a frefh treaty fhould be made with Perfia. -— The eaftern coaft of the Cafpian is not taken into confideration by Mr. Soimonof, on account of the faithlefs and piratical Trughmenians, and hecaufe the neft of robbers at Khiva preclude all poffibility of trading thither. Only to Tuk-karagan the trade might be carried on in the fame fort of veffels as formerly, for which the harbours, in the ifland, of Kulali lie commodioufly enough, and, would fave them the neceffity: of expofing themfelves to dangers on the coafts of the firm land. — Mr. Soimonof then propofes to eftablifh a magazine ¦ on the ifle of ...., g g 3 Shilot 4S4 COMMERCE OF TItE EUXINE Shite* in- the Apfheron-canal ; and there to keep 4 poft-boat, with an under officer, a cook, and fix failors, to vifit all the havens, and bring intelli gence from them to Aftrakhan. Permiffion, he thinks, fliould be granted to fuch perfons as wifh to maintain themfelves by catching fifh and feals, to build houfes and fettle there. There would be no want of people who would gladly avail themfelves of fuch a licence. In the va rious arms of the river Kur they might lay the feme fort of uftiugs, or fifb-fnares, as are ufed on the Volga, as the beluga, the fturgeon, and the fevruga of the Kur, ftrive upwards as they do in the Volga. Thefe fifh are at fome feafons in fuch abundance, that one may hook them out of the water with nothing but a boat-hook, as Mr. Soimonof himfelf often has feen done in the canal ef Sinfili. But the people there only take them when they are in want of glue for their own ufe. •For the purpofes of this fifhery particular veffels touft be kept, as well to go from the Apfheroh- canal to the Kur, as alfo to bring the falted or dried fifh to Aftrakhan, or to other ruffian fettle- ments on the Cafpian. Mr. Soimonof thinks the culture of the filk-worm and of faffron might be managed to much greater advantage than they are at prefent. Although it is the Angular and unprecedented good fortune of Great Britain, that her empire jn India ftands unrivalled amidft futrounding and contending cpjitefidi&g nationjs — although Sweden, Denmark, Holland, France, PortugaJ, and Spain, have in a great meaftire failed in fupporting rival eftablifh - jnenjt.s. in Iridi§, we ftill may receive a fatal wound firona the bold and enterprifing fpirit of Ruffia, who has now acquired fo much weight in the por ljtica) balance of £,urpp§, that we regard her af- pi.ring a.ixd, umbitfouj genjus with wonder and afto- nifhment ! Enlightened b.y fcience, improved by arts-r-and by an extenfive and lucrative commerce, rijng faft to opulence, fhe i? now become a iSJghfty nation ; and it may be confidered. as cerr taJ», that in the period of a very few years fhe flrift greatly injure the britifh trade to Indian— for it i$ known to be a fact., that the Ruffians carry .on a very lucrative trade on the Cafpian- For a long time, indeed, it fuffered very ferious loffes from the kpzak h at 7>20O>o0° guldens, (above four millions of rubles.) Travels,"vol. i. p. 181. and in his other work, Discoveries ¦of the Ruffians, at four millions of rubles. SECTION [ 46i ] SECTION" IV. Of the whole Commerce in general. x or convincing the reader of the round accu racy of the fums ftated in the preceding lection, • the annexed ftatement may fuffice, as it reprefents the whole account of the commerce in 1775. At the Sea-ports. . Imports. Exports- Duties. Rubles. Kop. . Rubles K:>p. Rubies. Kop. *' St. Peterflrarg . 6,892,833 54J 8,299,584 95 i 1,696,829 96J 37,848 0 458>
3+7 2| =-M87 351 friedericklhamm 28,939 67 17.574 39 6,77o 18J >' Archangel . . 281,747 63 1,367,926 38f 144,961 84^ 6,289 831 1,164 I0T 10 23a 24,308 6 f Aftrakhan . . 237,224 37$ 56l,327 3i Temernikof . . 79,708 70J 77,545 *i 22'979 39i i Riga .... 1,950,803 25 4.6i9,797 85J 588,496 32 V Reval .... 556,994 50 420,380 47^ 42,667 235 Fernau ... 88,155 '7i 280,674 53J. *9>I97 && Arenfljurg . • , 16,023 51I 55,528 86* . 4,278 7S Habfal .... 13,508 50 33,838 50 . *,8i6 77I At the cuftom- . houfes on the frontiers. Pfcove, towards ¦ Poland - . 323 67I * 94 5»1 Olonetz, towards Sweden • • . 4,587 20 8,821 18 676 301 Neuflilot, ditto . 93 «3 149 95 19 1\ Kitzliar, towards Perfia . . • lo6y888 65 89,666 9 5,374 54 JCrementfliuk, to • wards Poland - *4,734 95 13,166 95 6,725 60 Sekerinik 462 V-HOLE COMMERCE IV GENERAL. At the Sea-ports: * Imports. Exports. Duties. Rubles . Kop. Rubles. Kop. Rubles. Kop, Sekerin/k -- i34.o .... 25 25 Tzaritfhenfk . . 8,491 12J 32 40 7,161 95 Perevolotlk . . 18,161 50 777 ° 3,285 37l 32,209 49 747 52-§ 103 7« Iftomfk . . . 488 — Bachtutflc . . . 4>°45 5° 163 20 857 75 16,785 85 4,775 60 5'« 59? 1,191 4&J Vaffilkof . . . S3,i«9 48 302,395 7i j 1,708 42I terefevl . . . 60 0 695 0 59 75 Staikoflk . . . 303 0 241 25 H 39f Meflugorfk . i 4,029 45 397 8o 1,233 20 Sorokofhiak . . 50,903 21I 43,791 50 6,165 521 Karcen/k . . . 320 — tS,t4i 5 »3° 9| Azof, or Taganrok, towards the Cau- , ea&an nations . 7 20 109 30 ¦ 9 57{ Rogstflief, towards : Poland . . . frTyoz9 68 7,»72 ti{ 10,473 6*l Fakumenik . . 3*2 55 • • 730 60. 151 T.% Med"«! -.. a . . 3.005 51J. 4,27% so 276 36J T«lotfliinlk . . 5Si9si 74 164,693 78 13,204. 10J Ruki-h . . , ¦669 7a 2,223 87 • 67 29J Beleonitflieik . . 1,198 50 95' 33 ' 7«7«i Dbbranjk . . : 4,664 72 22,392 50 5,94° 8Si i3 So ¦ 86 20 ¦ ¦3 i8J 886 3a SMelegoflk . . 5>3o° 49 Jifelditzk . . . 75 45- 54 5° ' 20 41 Sdhenkofik . . 37,830 60J *6,*75 1 • 7,896 fcf Druitzk ... 17,624 56i 1,014 15 2,579 2a Schtfchutfcheffk . 559 53i * • • • J25 29* Epeflk .... 3,241 i6J Orenburg, towards 1,344 3S 729 H the Kirghiftzi ' and Bukharian: 207,242 52I 206,214 67J 48,127 57i Troitzk . . . 34,339 4° 3*,*37 23i 7,208 54 Tatwuflief . . 2,828 6 1 2,464 28| 215 55f Peterpavelflc, or K'iachta, towards China . . . 1,447,45° 48J 1,294,581 2* 4^2,559 35! Zuruchatas WHOLE COMMERCE II? GENERAL. 463 At Bie^Sea-porta Iniports. Exports. Dutiej. Rubles. Kop. Rubles. Kop. Rubles. Kop. Zurutfhstat . . 2,486 i7i 4,029 nf 8,330 4?J Particular receipts . 3s>511 J0j. Total 12,469,3^2 8? J«,557,»79 3°£ 3,3*6,1*2 33: Of gold 4fid fit«&, in Foreign coin, imported by the BUtJc *,8«5,39i 3l Expended in Payment of the dues in dollars 1304 pood 14 pound 26 folotniks ...... 913,049 89 ».. Brought in, therefore, by the duties in ruffian m»ney . 2,377,620 64 The total income by the duties and Cuftoms. of all the ports and frontier-places of the empire amounted, Rubles. Kop, trom 1758 to 1768, in 11 years, to 30,847,440 15I 1762 — 1772, ditto, 33,236,051 66 1764 -- 1775, 4 ditto, 43,791,113 3o£ There comes in annually a confiderable fum in foreign gold and filver : for inftance, from 1758 to 1768, ill 1 1 years, were imported to the amount of iq,'2'iq,j;66 rubles 85I kopeeks. From 1758 to 1768, in 11 years, in dues of all kinds at the feveraj cuftom -houfes of the empire* 10,310,353 rubles 43I kopeeks in filver. From 1762 to 1772, alfo in 11 years, 8,836,326 rubles 98 1 kopeeks ; and from 1762 to I775, in 14 years, 11,584,924 rubles 90 kopeeks. How much the commerce of the ruflian empire has increafed fince the commencement of the late reign may be feen by the following table, after cafting an eye on this fhort ftatement of it a little before that sera; viz. In the year 1758, the exports amounted to 8,150,683 rubles, and the 4 imports 464 WHOLE COMMERCE IN GENERAL.." imports to 5,826,126 rubles: total ;i 3,976,809 rubles. In 1760, the whole trade was 1 8,650,000 rubles, and the profit .3,413,000 rubles. — From 1758 to 1768, therefore in 11 years, the imports amounted to 114,364,661 rubles, 37I kopeeks, and the" exports to 123,658,217 rubles 915 ko peeks. — From 1762 to 177 2, likewife in 1 1 years, the imports, were entered at 115,478,313 rubles 71J kopeeks, and the exports, at 148,065,786 ru bles 8 ji kopeeks; and from 1762 to 1774, in 14 years, the-imports rofe to 155,115,064 rubles ,57 J kopeeks^ and the exports to 202,368,705 rubles, 97! kopeeks*. In. the year Imports. Exports,.; t Rubles. .Kop. Rubles. Kop. 1762 8,725,065 65^ 13,290,030 69I 1763 9,603,984 3.5I 11,536,931 zz* 1764; 9,670,61854 11,493,802 5 1^ 1765 9,226,347 17I 13,161,983 , ,4f , . i 1766 9,175,175 12 11,608,181 — ¦ 1767 9,018,129 23 11,810,-478 58 1768 10,856,161 ¦?-$% 12,971,542 37 1769 11,539,022 14!':.. 14,397*041 23 1770 u,374,\259 30^. .. 14,989,134.754 1771 10,726,897 uf i7'I36,3S3 44s 1772 15,562,653 32 15,670,308 z\ 1773 i3,S7i>433 'oi'' • 18,141,67588^ 1774 i3>595>944 88* 17^03,963 91 1775 12,469,378 87 18,557,279 3of In 1790 the trade of Peterfburg and Riga alone amounted to as much as the trade of the * Tfehulkof, opiffanie roflHkii kommertzii, whole WHOLE COMMERCE IN GENERAL. 465 whole empire had done in the year 1762, which was then more than twice as much, thus, The trade of Importation. St. Peterfburg - - 1 1,000,000 r. Riga, Arenfburg, Per- ") nau* - - - - j 2,000,000 Reval, Habfal - - - 800,000 Narva -.-.*-- 50,000 Vyborg, Friederich- 7 fhamm } 200'000 Archangel, Sec. - - 500,000 Aftrakhan - 1,000,000 Taurida ----- 1,250,000 The land-trade with Poland, Silefia, &c. - 2,000,000 Perfia, Georgia, &c. - 200,000 The Kirghifes and Buk- 7 harians - - - j ^oo.ooo China ----- 2,000,000 Exportation. 13,000,000 r. 5,000,000 600,000 500,000 1 00,000 2,000,000 1,200,000 1,000,000 500,000 100,000 1,500,000 2,000,000 Total 22,500,000 -27,500,000 According to Herrmann, the aggregate of' the commerce of the empire, therefore, amounted'then to about fifty millions of rubles, whereby Ruflia gained near five millions annually -f. The returns- thus * The commerce of the- ports of Livonia and Efthonia, both aftive and paffive, amounted to a fum of nearly ten mil lions of rubles : therefore, as Mr. Bufching obferves, if the commerce of thofe provinces do not profper, it muft be ©wing to the tyranny of the lords. f This furplus comes here partly indeed in foreign coin, with which the duties are paid in filver, and which is occa- fionally applied to other ufes ; but a good part of this furplus vol. in. h h remains 466 WHOLE COMMERCE IN GENERAL. thus made by the ruffian uibjedb, exports and im ports reckoned together, amounted to fifteen mil lions, among which thofe commodities are to be underftood which are imported and exported in fhips either built or bought in 'Ruflia. The fub- jecb, accordingly, have a fhare of nearly one third, and not, as Marshall fays, of nine tenths. Mr. Chalmers has ftill more ftrikinglyreprefented the increafe of the trade of the "Englifh with Ruf fia fince the beginning of the prefent century, in the following manner: Imp. from Ruffia. Exp. to Ruffia- From 1700 to 170Z yearly 124,720 76>78+ 1720 1722 146,219 80,713 1740 1742 3°5>°34 ' .77,553 1750 1752 459'410 116,313 1760 1762 622,520 49,233 1770 1772 1,110,093 145,125* In the year 1784, the ratio of Commodities exported and imported at St. Peterfburg by the undermentioned nations, was as follow: Imports. Exports. Rubles. Kop. Rubles. Kop. Ruffian fubjedls . . 6,958,42822-! 2,841,996 gi\ f remains fafely lodged in foreign banks, and another confi derable portion is fpent in defraying the expences of the crown in foreign parts, particularly in times of war. — M. von Bolrin eftimates this furplus even at five millions. Tom. ii. p. 457. *• In the year 1780 was imported in England from Ruffia to the value of 1,150,4291. and only of 16,1031. exported. , f In the year 1785, the ruffian fubje&t exported for 2,556,307 r. 59} k. and imported for 6,077,938 r. 97$ k. Englifh- WHOLE COMMERCE IN GENERAL. 467 Imports. Exports. Rubles Kop. Rubles Kop. Englifh .... 3,000,935 15J 8,390,755 oj* Danes 37i,235 59 34°,73° 4§ Dutch 363,657 28 J 182,059 4zi Portugueze .... 239,357 — 156,453 2$ tiambnrgera .... 238,208 35 89,752 39 Spaniards ; . . . 158,399 16 *35,476 4I Lubeckers 126,159 29I 42,746 jj| French 90,865 82 181,404 49I Auftrians ..... 89,604 85 5,427 20 Swedes 52,71 1 14^ i57»5J3 33* Wfs . . ' . ... 42,949 35 4-545 491 Italians 85,671 46 33°>554 61 Pruffians J6,354 20 6,389 90J Roftockers '3»753 95 '9,688 — Saxons ...... 12,350 50 Dantzfckters ..... 2,700 20 • r — • Americans 9,787 — Mercht8 and paffengers of various nations . 114,970 60 16,676 59J Ship-mafters .... 168,544 44! 49,387 95^ Commodities not yet made free .... 15,684 50 — ¦ Total 12,172,345 98J 12,941,513 12? The cuftom-hoiife receipts from Kiaehta in 1784, amounted to 700,000 rubles. ' The duties' * In the aforefaid year 1785, the exports of the Engliih amounted to 9,035,846 r. 39 k. "But their imports only to 2,365,909 r. 14! k. In the year 1794, a few engliih houfes in St. Peterfburg made contrl&s for 706,000 poods, or 28 millions of pounds of hemp, to be delivered at the ports of Great Britain alone. Gf fo much confequence is the hemp-trade to Ruffia. H H 2 on 468 INTERNAL COMMERCE. on the chinefe commodities were at 25, on the ruflian 23J per cent. Compare this with the value of the exports and imports, and it will make about three millions of rubles. But the major part of the ruflian articles are in common fold at a price considerably higher than they are rated at in the books : whereas the chinefe goods have generally a fixt taxation, and are entered at the fame value as they are difpofed of at to the traders. Now add to this the fmuggled commodities, which are to a confiderable amount, and -the total of the imports and exports of Kiachta may be fairly ftated at four millions of rubles. — Some ruflian mer chants, particularly M. Shigarof of Mofco, carry on a remarkably great commerce in Kiachta. That perfon alone in fome years deals for at leaft half a million. SECTION V. Of the Internal Commerce. f rom what has been faid it plainly appears how confiderable and extenfive the external com merce of Ruflia is at prefent. But in an empire that has thirty millions of inhabitants, and fuch a prodigious quantity of commodities brought in and • carried internal commerce. 469 carried out, the internal trade muft be ftill more important and valuable. This, for the greater convenience of the 'reader, may be divided into the Siberian, and the domestic trade of Ruflia proper and the newly conquered provinces. — The fiberian commerce is of great confequence; but muft be underftood peculiarly of the govern ments of Irkutfk, Kolhyvan, Tobolfk, Perme, and Ufa. All the produces of thefe parts, not confumed in the country itfelf, or not (as at, pre fent, when the commerce is interrupted) difpofed of to China or to the Kirghifes, go by the interior diftricls and ports of Ruflia. The major part, at leaft of the heavieft commodities, are brought almoft entirely from the eaftern regions of Sibe ria, to St. Peterfburg. This navigation proceeds from the Selenga to the Baikal, and from the An gara into the Yenifley, from that into the Oby, from the Oby into the Tobol; from here over a trad\ of land of about 400 verfts, as far as the Tfhuflbvaia, from this into the Kamma, from the Kamma into the Volga; from this, by thefluices at Vifhney-Volotfhok, into the Volkhof, from the Volkhof into the Ladoga-canal, and from this ca nal into the Neva. The moft of the return or barter of european commodities againft fiberian furs, and againft chinefe commodities, is carried on in the town of Irbit, in the government of Perme, where a famous fair is held annually in the months h h 3 of ¦470 internal commerce. \- .¦ of January and February*. The produds car ried every year from Siberia to Ruffia, may i be nearly eftimated as follow : Rubles, Iron, for the amount pf - - 3,000,000, Salt -------- 2,000,000 Gold and filver - - - - - 1,700,000, Furs and fkins - - - -.. - 1 ,ooo,ooq( Copper money ----- 1,500,000 Copper in pieces ----- 500,00a Tallow and leather - - - - 500,000 Marble, precious ftones, &c, 300,000 Chinefe tea, &c. (or if the com merce be interrupted, fo. much the more furs inftead) - 1,500,000 AH together therefore 12 millions of rubles drawn; * The chin,efe and fiberian commodities come to this fail as well by land as by water. By land they go from the borders and the" remoter diltri&s, by Irkutfk, from thence by Tomfk, thence proceed by Tara, and from- Tiara by Tobetffc, and from thence over Tiumen to Irbit. They, reckon from Kiachta to Irbit j by thislroad, to be 3.914 verfts. T-ke way by water is that fhewn above : namely, at Kiaehta the goods are (hipped on the Selenga, and by that 'brought into the Mare Baikal. Out of this fea they go upon the Angara into the Yeuiffey as far -down as Yenifieiflc, where they are unloaded and carried over a: fhort track of land, into the Ket, a;nd on this river into the Qby. From the Oby they then proceed! up the Irtyfh and the Tobol to Tiumen, where they lie tilt {he feafon ofiledge-ways ; or, if they are defigned for Ruffia, are carried by land to the Tnvuffovaia. annually 3 INTERNAL COMMERCE. 471 annually by Ruffia from Siberia; and therefore it has, not unjuftly, been called the ruflian Peru. But of yet greater importance is the interior commerce of the ruflian provinces interchangeably with each other, and their traffic in the ports and frontier places of the empire, either for bringing thither the commodities defigned for exportation, and for fetching thence the goods imported; or for conveying to each other their reciprocal necef- farieb. The greater part, efpecially to the fea-ports, are likewife here tranfported by water. The Volga, the king of the rivers of Ruflia, which connects the Baltic with the Cafpian, ads a principal part in this bufinefs ; and the lifts of fuch commodi ties as for the laft thirty years have annually pafled the Ladoga-canal, afford a competent view of the quantity and kinds of thofe which come to Peterf burg alone. The many large and confiderable rivers with which the whole empire abounds, are in the higheft degree favourable to a very brifk internal as well as to a foreign commerce. Befides the Volga and the fiberian rivers, the principal are the Dvina, on which the navigation is carried on to Archangel ; the Duna, which carries veffels to Riga ; and the Bogue, Dniepr, and Don, on which articles of commerce are tranfported to the Euxine. Several very confiderable fairs that are held in various towns and cities of the empire, contribute greatly to facilitate the profecution of traffic. The' moft celebrated of tliefe fairs is that at Makarief, H h 4 a mo- 472 INTERNAL COMMERCE. a monaftefy and city in the government of Nifhney- Novgorod, at which the fiberian and ruflian mer chants affemble from all parts of the country. Among the trading cities of greateft note, the principal are St. Peterfburg, Riga, and Mofco. The latter is the central point at which all the affairs of the interior commerce of the empire flow, together and unite. Here likewife is a numerous and opulent body of mercantile men. In the year 1 764 it confifted of 95S2 heads ; paying a capita tion-tax at 120 kopeeks per head, of 11,498 ru bles, 40 kopeeks. But, as acgoxding to the^ late regulations, thofe only carj be reckoned to belong to the body of merchants, who can make it appear that they poffefs a capital prefcribed by law, numbers of them entered into the clafs of burghers. Of thefe there were in 1775 at Mofco 6079 perfons ; of whom were in the firft guild 112 families with 272; in the fecond guild 496 families with 1041 ; and in the third guild 824 families with 1424 perfons. All together have regiftered their capitals at 2,530,6954 rubles, and *pay, in lieu of the heacj-mdney, at the rate of one per cent. 25,396 rubles 95 kopeeks. j; The aggregate national wealth of Ruffia, in its', annually arifing produds, may be reckoned with- tolerable accuracy in the following manner: Thirty millions of inhabitants of both fexes, making about 6 millions of families (each at five perfons) confume monthly at leaft 48 millions, in the INTERNAL COMMERCE. 473 the whole therefore 576 millions of poods of all kinds of meal, grits, &c. each pood, on an average, at 25 kopeeks, makes a fum of rubles 144,000,000* Brandy is made yearly, and its con fumption is about five millions of eymers, each at three rubles - 15,000,0004- Salt, 12 millions of poods, at 35 kopeeks _._.-. 4,2,00,000 Gold, filver, lead, copper, iron, &c. 8,750,000 Fine and coarfe furs, at , leaft amounting to ------ - 5,000,000 Hemp, flax, tobacco, linens, hemp- oil, linfeed-oil, &c. - - - 30,000,000 Fire-wood, timber, charcoal, fhip- timber, tar, pitch, &c. ' - - - 20,000,000 *' Rye-meal, the ftandard by which the valueof all things is regulated in Ruffia, was worth formerly in feveral provinces, particularly in the Ukraine and in Siberia, lefs than 25 ko peeks the pood ; but at prefent there are very few places where it can be had at that price. In moft places it is much dearer, and in many double that price, and even more than double-; accordingly the countryman has greater encourage ment to cultivation. The above-ftated price of 25 kopeeks is then the loweft at which it could be fixed, and, befides, the corn exported is not comprifed. Add this to the account, and alfo what is confumed iri the diftilleries, and the quantity of meal produced in Ruffia will be furely every year 600 millions of poods. f Brandy and fait I have reckoned at the lawful prices ; and ail the reft at fuch fums as come nearefl the truth. Cattle, 474 INTERNAL COMMERCE. Rubles. Cattle, leather, wool, milk, pulfe, garden-vegetables, 8cc - - - 58,050,000 Produd of the fifheries - - - 15,000,000 Total 300,000,000* ¦ ' ' - n' ¦ .. . • Confequently of this capital cOrhes to each in habitant an annual fhare of ten- rubles;' By commerce, every year is exported of thefe - produds, namely, In metal-wares to about :- - - 3,000,000-j" * Marfhall, in his travels, eftimates the annual produce of Livonia alone at 13 millions of pounds fterling ; but that is certainly more than about four fifths too much. f This fum makes almoft the whole of the bar and- eaft iron, which latter is chiefly difpofed of to the afiatic nations. — Sweden exported in twenty years, to the amount of 46,152,962 fwedifh rix-dollars, in metal-goods ; confequently in one year amounting to 2^ millions of dollars. Ruffia has therefore got precedence of them already in that article; which is the more remarkable, as Ruffia ufed formerly to' draw the iron fhe wanted from Sweden. But it is a well- known faft that Sweden has been the means of greatly pro moting the demand for ruffian iron. For, by the iron-comp- toir eftablifhed at Stockholm in the year 1748, the price of this metal was fo much raifed, that the Ruffians could fell their iron with 20 per cent, piofit at Marfeilles, for the price at which fwedifh iron could not be bought in Stockholm. — It is much to be wifhed, for the benefit of the country and of fuch numbers of people who get their bread by the mines, that the Ruffians do not, as may eafily happen, fall into the fame error. In INTERNAL COMMERCE. 475 Rubles. Jn hemp, flax, and all articles pre pared from them - - - 10,000,000 \n leather, tallow, furs, and all . other produds from the animal kingdom - - - - - 8,000,000 |n corn, wood, and other petty ar ticles - . - 4,500,000 * Total 25,500,000 To this the tranfport -article, at - 2,060,000 Which together make out the'above-mentioned fum of 27^ millions of rubles; ; The quantity of money now -j-, circulating in the empire, may be admitted, as in the following ftatement ; * From 1 77 1 to 1773, in three years, from all the ports of the Baltic were exported: 2,089,828^1 chetverts of rye, at ^914,561 r. 48?-k. — 271,631^-^1- chetverts of wheat, at 1,120,041 r. 144k. — 146, 572'! chetverts of barley, at 375,990 r. 835 k. — 102,712 chetverts of oats at 1 38,272 r. 7$ k. and ioi6f chetverts of malt at i866r. 22|k. In the three years from 1778 to 1780, only for 4,598,815 r. but afterwards again more corn was exported. From all the foregoing it is apparent how much the abbe Raynal is miftaken, when he fays : " Toutes les provinces " interieures de la Ruffie font dans un tel etat de pauvrete, " qu'on y connoit a peine ces fignes de convention (1) qui " reprefentent toutes chofes dans le commerce." Hift. phi- Woph. tom. iii. p. izS. t l7$$- (1) L'argent, In 476 DOMESTIC COMMERCE. Rubles. In gold and filver coin, at - - 76,000,000 Copper coin, at - - - - - 54,000,000 Paper money, at - - - - - 100,000,000 Total 230,000,000 Add together this fum, and the progreffive value of tiie produd, and there appears an annual poli tical revenue of 530, or to confine ourfelves to the Joweft, of at leaft 500 millions of rubles. The quantity of fpecie is now every year in creafed : Rubles. By money ftruck of fiberian gold and filver, about ----- 1,700,000 By foreign coinage of various forts 1,300,000 By copper money 2,000,000 Total 5,000,000 From TARIF OF 1797. 477 From the Neiv Tarif publifhed at St. Peterjburg in 1797, by which the Duties on the Impor tation of the principal Foreign Merchan dizes here following are received. x\.LMONDS, with or without fhells, per pood Alum, all forts, per bercovetch - Antimony - Apples and pears, frefh, per cafk of two ankers . falted ... dried, per pood Arack, fhrub and rum, per dozen bottles Beads cf cryftal, per thoufand . glafs, per pood Benzoin, or olibanum, per pood Borax, per pood ... Brandy, common fpanifh, portuguefe, and others, except fweetened, per anker Butter, per pood Cacao, per pood ... untwifted and dyed Cambric and gauSe, plain, ad valorem, per cent. Camels yarn, twilled and dyed, per pood Capers, per pood - - Caps, night, of beaver, wove and fulled, per doz. of ordinary worfted, cotton, and thread - Cardamums, per pood Cheefe, parmefan, per pood _ englifh, dutch, &c. Cherries, dried, per pood Cinnamon, per pood DOT?. R. K. 0 80 I 0 0 20 0 50 I O 0 60 7 zo 0 20 1 85 5 40 1 So 20 0 I 20 2 0 IO 0 0 3° 12 0 I 0 4 80 1 0 12 0 3 0 0 60 0 3° 12 0 Cloth, 4/8 TARlF OF 1797. Cloth, fine broad, per arfhine ¦ broad Cloves, per pood - Coral, beads of, picked or common, per pound < Cochineal, per pood Coffee, 'per-pood - Cork in pieces, per pood •— — for bottles - Cotton, white fpun, and candlewicks Cotton goods, velverets, plufh, thickfets, fuftian^, i baize, and other cotton fluffs, white, coloured, printed, and mixed with thread, per ruble - i Cotton linens, white for printing, not exceed" ing 30 kopeeks the arfhine, per 100 arfhines >w others, white, fit for the fame ufe, not 1 1 exceeding 30 kopeeks the arfhine, and mitcal, per ruble Curcuma, or turmaric, per pood Currants, per pood Dimity of all forts, per cent. • Emery, per pood >• Figs, per pood - Frankincenfe* common-, per pood Galingal, per pood - ¦*¦ Ginger, white, clean, and dried, per pood - ' grey ar,d black Glafs, window of all forts, adval. per ruble - • Gum, arabic, per poed ¦ ' guiacum - Gurfliack, or fchellak — = — fenegal <¦ - Gun-flints, per pood ¦*¦ Herrings, englifh and dutch, per-barrel <•*- »¦¦«-" — fwedifh, northern, and others DW-rVi R. K. O 40 0 3d 0 2-0 12 0 3 0 IO 0 3 23- 0 8 2 0 0 So 0 40 5 0 0 20 0 3<> 0 4° 0 30 0 0 0 4° 1 0 0 8 0 12 0 6 0 30 0 3^ 1 80 1 a 0 30 0 .28 1 80 0 45 Indigo, tarif of 179?; 479 Indigo, of all forts (excepting that of Jamaica) per pood Lace, thread, ad valorem, per cent. Lead, per bercovetch Lemons and oranges, per cheft of 300 each falted, per cafk -f . juice, per anker — peel, dried, per pood Mace, per pood - ' Madder, per pood - Mareafite, per pood ... Maftick, per pood - - Minium, per pood - Mount-blue - Muftar-d, per pood - Muramie, per pood - - Muflin, ad valorem, per ruble Needles, per thoufand " - ¦ Nutmegs, per pood - ' flower of Nutgalls - Ochre - Oil of olives j - Olives Orlean - Orpiment Orfeille - Oyfters, frefh, per barrel of 2 ankers Paper, royal, per ream medium - . fmall poll . * pro patria - ¦ for cards, - - . Paftel, per pood » - DUTY. R. K. S 8 0 10 0 80 0 60 s O 0 60 0 12 20 0 0 60 0 80 1 20 1 0 1 80 1 5° 0 90 0 30 0 30 12 0 20 0 0 40 0 30 0 60 1 0 0 60 1 20 0 3" 5 0 3 €> 2 50 ¦2 O 2 O I 60 I 0 O' 12 Pearl 486 TARIF OF 1797- Pearl barley Pencils, leadi common, per doz. ————— in cedar wood Pens, for writing, by the hundred Pepper, per pood Pottery, as well porcelaine as earthen ware, ftone, and clay, plain-and varnifhed, to ferve as utenfils, ad valorem, per ruble Prunes, per pood - ¦Raifins, per pood - - - Red lead . - Ribbons, filk, of all forts, plain, ad valorem, per cent. ... Rice, per pood - Roots of violets - Saffron, per pound Sal ammoniac Sanguine, or bloodftone, per pood Savonets - - - - Scythes, per hundred Sea-gteen, per pood - Sealing-wax, per pound Silk, gold and filver glazets and zirzak, plain, ad valorem, per cent. Silk, velvets plain and of one colour, per pound - - - - fluff, plain and fingle colour, -per pound - - — gros-de-tours and gros-de-Naples ferge and fattins, plain and fingle Coloured, per pound ... taffetas and perfians, plain and of one co lour, per pound" fluffs of c.oarfe filk and filk baize, per ar fhine - - DUTY. R. K o 20 O 6 0 24 2 0 2 0 O 40 6 o- o 40 o 30 6 40 0 20 0 16 o 60 o 60 o 30 I 0 3 0 o 30 I 0 o 40 5 0 4 0 3 0 3 0 o 40 Silk, TARIF OF 1797. 48 1 Silk, chenille, per pound - r. — plufh, per arfhine — — grifette, mohair, and all fluffs mixed with filk, camel's hair, cotton, and thread, but plain and of one colour, per cent. - Skins, otters and beavers, per piece Slate, white, per pood i Spirit of wine, per anker Spirits, diftilled by fugar and fpices, per anker Steel, per cafk of three poods Stockings for men, women, and children, made of flock filk mixed with cotton, of only one colour, per doz. pair ' filk, white and variegated, of the largeft fize, per doz. pair ¦ ditto, of middling length — — — ditto, for children r run with beaver, for men and women* per doz. pair ¦ ditto, for children ¦ ¦ camel's hair, and run with worfled, large forts, per doz. ditto, ditto, large forts, per doz. for children ditto, mixed with thread dhd cotton, of all colours, the largeft fort, per doz. — — — > ditto, fmaller - .. — — ¦ - thread and cotton, of all forts, large, per doz. ¦ '- ditto, fmallej- , Storax, per pood „ . Succory, ground -i Sugar, raffinade/ per pood — melis " - ?", j •— — — lump .» VOL. III. DUTY. R. K. 5 O 0 5° 0 30 1 0 0 24 40 0 H 0 1 30 IZ 94 6 3 o 60 80 o o 26 60 k 0 0 84 f 40 1 20- 2 0 4 0 2 40 2 0 1 60 1 I Sugar, 482 TAR1F OF 1797- Sugar, »andy - raw ... raw, refined in Europe Sulphur, per bercovetch Sword-blades, per doz. Syrop, white, per pood ." brown - Tartar .... Thread, fine, of all forts, per pound Tiles, per thoufand - - Tobacco, fpanifh, portuguefe, and Italian, per pound - ... '- of Brazil and knafter ¦ in roils and leaves, per pood ¦ cut for fmokihg — ¦ rappee and in carottes T6a, per pound Tools, and inftf Uments for mechanics, per pood Tutenague, per pood Manilla, per pood ... Veffels of all forts, of frfeeftone, glafs, wood, and iron, ad valorem, per ruble Verdegris, common, pel- pood Vinegar of wine and cyder, per hogfHead Vitriol of Cyprus, per pood - — black ... ¦ oil and fpirit of, Ultramarine, per pound Umber, per pood - Wafers, per pound * Wine, champaigne, per bottle ¦ ' ' "- ; burgundy - french wines (indirect), per hogfhead port wine (direfl) fpanifh Dv; [-Y, R. K. 2 40 O 30 1 O 2 40 3 60 2 40 1 O 0 IS 1 20 4 0 1 So 0 60 2 40 4 0 8 0 1 So 0 80 0 24 10 0 0 40 5 40 1 So 1 50 1 0 3 0 3 6 0 10 2 0 0 70 0 60 18 0 4 5«> 6 So Wine, TARIF OF 1797. 483 DUTY, R. K. Wine, rhenifh, mofelle, and other german wines, per hogfhead - 180 Wire, for needles, per pood > - 012 Mercha?idifes, the Importation whereof is pro hibited. Ribbons of all fortsj fpotted and ftriped, except plain and fmgle-coloured. Foreign beers of all forts, porter and mum. Fans. Indigo, common, in balls. All articles of jewellery. Gloves of all forts. Hats. Coffee-mills. Combs. Buttons. Comfits. Knives and forks. Pins. Paper ftained and painted. Parchment. Powder and pomatum. Toys. Ruffles. Furs. Locks. Shoe-blacking. Anife. Indian anife. Looking-glaffes. Carpets. Hangings. Snuff-boxes of all forts. The following Goods are free of Duty. Drugs for apothecaries. Raw cotton. Teazels. Earths and clay. Gold and filver. Wood for furniture, and car riages, unwrought. Mathematical, furgical, and mufical inftruments, but not harpfichords. Mineral and other fpe cimens of natural hiftory. Raw filk. Coals. Mineral wa ters. Raw wool. The duties are paid in dollars of weight, 14 to the pound St trie rate of 140 kopeeks to the dollar, and befides that 2 pet cent, on the amount of the cuftoms. 112 From 484 TARIF OF 1797. From the new Tarif publifhed at St. Peterfburg in 1797, by which the principal ruffian products pay the du^es on their exportation. DUTY. R. K. Anise-seed, per pood ¦> 0 2 Barley, per chetvert - b 12 Briflles, per pood - 0 48 Buck wheat, per chetvert - 0 I4 Caftoreum, per pound - 0 30 Caviar, per pood - 0 8 Cordage, of hemp, per berkovetch - 0 45 cedilla . 0 12 Cow-hair, raw, per berkovetch . 0 3 Crab's eyes, per pood . 1 0 Drillings, per piece of 60 arfhines - 0 60 Fifh-oil, of all forts, per cafk of 7 poods - 0 30 Flax, 1 2-headed, per berkovetch - 3 0 — — - 9-headed . 2 80 — — 6-headed - 2 0 — — codilla - 0 50 Furs, fables, beavers, foxes of all forts, ad va lorem, percent. — — mountain-fox, pole-cats, ermines, martens, and other particular kinds, ad valorem, per cent. - - , Hare hair, per pood - - - Hemp, clean, per berkovetch ¦ outfhot ... ¦ half cleari - - — — — codilla ... 'Hempfeed, ordinary, per chetvert -_, ¦ ' " ' oil and linfeed oil, per pood Hops, per pood - - 0 10 3 0 1 80 1 40 1 0 0 30 0 24 0 20 0 20 Horfetails., TARIF OF 1797. 485 Horfetails, per hundred ¦ hair, raw or boiled, per berkovetch Ir.on> old and broken, per berkovetch — — in bars of all forts — — in lumps not wrought _ Ifinglafs, book and ftaple, per pood Leather, neat's, prepared, by tens horfe, tanned ¦ fheep, tanned on both fides ¦ fheep-fkins prepared red or yufts, per pood - for foles ¦ . - • calf, tanned, by ten? Linen, white, per iooo arfhines Unbleached . bale ... ¦ flems, per pieces of 50 arfhines Linfeed, ordinary, per chetvert Malt, per berkovetch Mats, double, or fingle, old or new, per piece Oats, per chetvert - - - Pearlafh, per cafk Piteh, per pood - Potafh, per berkovetch Raventuchs, per piece of 50 arfliines Rhubarb, per pood - - Rofin, per berkovetch Rye and flout, per chetvert Sailcloth, per 50 arfhines Saltpetre, per pood' ... Skins, lamb, white and motly, per 100 t ¦ ditto black 1 hare; white, per ipoo , grey Spap pf all forts » } 1 3 Soda DUTY, R. K. 0 10 0 5° I 0 0 40 0 80 I So 0 60 0 25 0 8 0 10 0 90 0 zo 0 10 5 p 4 0 1 P 0 5° 0 30 0 12 0 12 0 8 0 So 0 1 1 50 0 40 6 0 0 30 0 6 0 49 0 6e 1 0 2 So 6 0 }7 So 0 ip DUTY. R. K. o 3 4 o o 20 o 3 I 0 I 20 0 40 o 10 ^86* TARIF OF 1797- Soda - Tallow of all forts, per berkovetch . candles, per pood Tobacco, leaf, per pood - , Wax, white and coloured, per pood yellow . candles.. Wheat, per chetvert Goods that pay no Duties on Exportation. Steel. Indian anife. ©own. Pine-apples. Fifh. Honey. Cummin. Printed linen and buckram. Glue. Gunpowder. Sulphur. Tea. Indian ink. Napkins and table-cloths bleached and made up. Chintzes and cottons. Thread. Goods, the Exportation whereof 4s prohibited. Undressed fheep-fkins, feal-fkins, and otter-fkins. Buck fkins, deer-fkins, and calf-fkins dried. Goat-fkins, ox-hides, and horfe-hides, raw, dried, and falted. Gold and filver. Golda filver, and copper coin, and bank notes of Ruffia. These duties are paid in the currency of the country; and befides one per cent, on the amount gf the duties received, Valui { 487 ] Value of the Ruble by the Courfe of Exchange at St. Peterjburg, 1797. DUTCH PENCE . HAMBURGH ST VYVERS. STEALING. SO ILLI.VGS. ::-.-- 2 0 < 1—3' O 1 • 1 Loweft ?. r: 0 January sH 34 3^ 3- 3»i !2? 26| 26i February 3H 32 3i* 32J ,-,1 J-4- 3iii 28 */i 26I March 3-i 3b| — 3-f 31 3oi' 23 27^ 26i April 31 3°5 — 3»f 30f "j 27 26| 26I May 3ci 3°f 3°l 3i 30* 2C-t- 26| z6f June 29? 28| — 29^ 28| _ | 1¦ 26 -. -3 -55 *5* July 29 :S4- 2 3| 29 28A 28 *si *sl Auguft 29J 29l 2SXJ 29i -9 28* 26* 25* *si September 29\ 2Sj 2«fi | 28J 28J 274-1 ' "[ 25! ^5i 25* October 295 23i -8T| 28| 28| 28^ 26i 25I November 30 29J =9l! ;Sj 28f 28|! j -~2 26| 264 December 29f i z9i z9i 28i *7l 271' 26i 1 26 'Si 1 1 4 Valm [ 488 ] Value in rubles of the Merchandifes imported and exported by merchants and other perfons of dif ferent nations at St. Peterjburg and Cronftadt in 1797. Imported Exported Ruffians - 12,359,005 11,827,209 Englifh - 4,936,851 19,749,18a Auftrians - 580,530 370,13J Swedes - 9>3'4 1,870 Danes - 148,288 I3,I2S Hollanders - i,3op Spaniards - 41,451 66,327 Portuguefe - 26p,769 205,46a Pruffians - 14,709 290 Lubeekers - 3z>943 19,623 Hamburgers, - 203,416 12,603 Italians - - - 14,099 Swifs 40,364 French - 3p6,6p2 ip,83i Merchants of other nations i and paffengers 1 284,563 19,893 Captains or mailers of fhips 131*85.5 154,369 - Total 19,366,059 32,45P,gu Thus the exportation exceeds -) the importation by 1 13^84,852 26,355,890 In 1 796 the value was 37,HQ,333 Therefore this year 4797 is a \ decreafe of - i 6,989,831 4,659,422 Amount ' Duties received, 1797. 489 Amount of all the Duties and Impofts received at the Cuftom-houfe in 1797. Duties in dollars 1913 poods ") which make in dollars 1913 poods ") which make in ") ducats 13 poods 3 rubles - j ' '573 jn money of the country - - 1,359,868 Other Duties, viz, from the towns <¦ - 47>59' of different denomination - - 79>°45 Total 3,149,077 In 1796 the amount was - - 3,504,643 Therefore, this year, 1797, there is a decreafe 355>566 Gold and Silver imported. pood lb. folotn. rubles Gold in ducats 7620 -» 1 25 30I 29,500 in different fpecies - — 30 67 11,203 Silver in bars 3 1 - - ' 51 18 — 63,314 in 398,147 Albert dollars 678 26 24! 770,361 in different fpecies - — — . ^42 114 Total 874,492 In 1796 the amount was ... 290,796 Therefore, in 1 797 there was an increafe of - 583,696 Goods 490 IMPORTS OF 1797. Goods iinported at St. Peterjburg, 1 797, with their amount in rabies. Apples and- pears, frefh dried, 5 1 3 pood - - Alabafter, marble and gypfuai, wrought and un wrought - - Alum, 30,012 pood -: . ¦¦- ,.,-'¦ Aloes, 335 pood - Anchovies and fardells, 230 pood ^Animals, horfes oxen, cows, &c. foVls and birds 'Antimony, 383 pood Apothecary-drugs•— medicines Beaver-fkins, 24,367 fkins Beer and porter, 4500 cafks Books, printed Borax, 378 pood Butter, 707 pood Cacao, 327 pood Camphire, 150 pood Capers, 169 pood Cardamums, 340 pounds Cards, for play, 2346 dozen Cheefe, parmefan, 584 pood i- of feveral forts, 7935 poods Cherries, dried, 771 pood Chocolate, 43 pood Cinnaber, 530 pood Cinnamon, 390 pood Clocks Cloaths, old and new •» Rubied 92,685 2,682 248,864 116,822 4,9122,431 140,075 3,8z5 12,330 2,669 2iS,5'3 5,7°< 191,781327,35° 95,696 14,742 6,i75 5,927 10,079 3,747 838 4,823 10,641 57,066 4>647 2,694 33,088 23,125 10,34110,919 Clothss IMPORTS OF 1797- Cloths, fine broad, 522,694 arfhines • fmall ordinary, 1,315,670 arfhines — — edges, 478,984 arfhines — — half or fpagnolets, 35,618 arfhines Cloves, 1147 poods - - - Cochenille, ioop poods Coffee, 22,686 poods Colours, of various forts, 5337 poods > fine forts - . miniature colours Copper and brafs, wrought and unwrought, 364 poods ... . Cork- wood, 9713 poods — — cut for bottles, 1468 poods - --" Cotton-goods, raw, white, and dyed, 174 poods' • . calicoes and mitkal, 2,079,480 arfhines . muflin, 64,986 arfhines . — cambrick and batifte, 3476 arfhines velverets, fluffs ftitched, &c. 313,328 ¦ chintz, 1 1 0,009 arfhines < cannefas, 29,469 arfhines 1. 1 ' — fundry cotton fluffs, 36,066 arfhines Coverlets of various forts Cryftal tartari, 497 pood Crucibles and matrices Curcuma, 2201 poods Curiofities, natural and mineral (Currants, 4207 poods - , - Cummin or caraways, 89 poods Crayons - - Diamonds and precious ftones Fifh, herrings, fwedifh and northern, 23, 8op barrels > englifh and dutch, 475 barrels ¦»-— fundry other kinds fmoked, &c. Flefh, fmoked, dried, falted; tongues and fa u- fages, 947 poods -- 491 Rubles. 2,456,846 2,284,240 9'544 61,309 128,431 287,666 516,764 28,163 5,847 8,705 8,137 46,867 42,011 13,522 738,515 51'723 7=125 170,795 43,6lO 16,69217,852 17,175 9,271 6,354 42,598 38,203 19,383 5ot 3,633 47,z5o 165,833 24,926 2,370 ",355 Furs, 492 IMPORTS OF 1797. Furs of various kinds Gall-nuts, 2314 poods Garden-feeds and plants Ginger, 3233 poods Glafs-ware - window enamel, 157 poods Gold and filver plate and wire Gum, fenegal and arabic, 187 poods — - fundry other forts, 229 poods 1—— frankincenfe, common, 1 1 82 — — benzoin, 224 poods Handkerchiefs, filk 1 1 cotton • linen Hops, 203 poods Indigo, 6305 poods Inftruments for mechanics ¦. . 1 mufical • — mathematical and furgical ; firings for mufical inftruments Jvory and tortoiferfhell Lead, 37,894 poods ' ore — : pencils Lemons and oranges, frefh peel dried, 5064 poods -. — dried, 993 poods — falted, 262 pipes -r— juice, 760 ankers Linen of various forts, 51,181 arfhines Madder, 13,873 poods Maftick, 155 poods IVluftard, 462 poods Nails, brafs,and tin, 266 poods Needles, 58 millions Rubles. 147,606 52,087 13,617 48,371 10,162 8,9462,718 3,34°3,7i8 8,7729,786 11,619 4,5i3 32,627 ^,475 4,392 1,030,029 85,376 49,2 1 4_ i3,95! 1,813 3,614 122,140 2,389 i,437 219,478 29, 1 40 7,388 18,001i3,9S2 67,849 126,564 8,666 6,817 11,828 56,41 ° Nu$s4 IMPORTS OF 1797. Nuts, wallnuts, filberds, piftachio, chefnuts, &c. Oil, fweet, 14,089 poods — — of various forts Olives, 150 poods - Otter fkins, 8517 fkins - Paper, poll, -2950 reams patria, 5861 reams ¦ cards, notes, &c. 1950 reams - royal andmedium, 495 reams — — printing paper, and coarfe - mufic paper, ruled and notes Pearls and corals Pearl-barley, 9871 poods Pepper, 3481 poods - - Pictures and engravings Prunes, io,zop poods Quickfilver, 983 poods Raifins, 313 poods Razors, 5148 dozen Ribbons, plain, of fundry forts Reeds of various kinds Rice, 27,172 poods Sacharum Saturni, 1590 poods Saffron, 466 pounds Sago, 85 poods Sal ammoniac, 1258 poods Saps, fundry Scythes, 288,9iP Sheet-yellow, 322 poods Shoemaker's awls Silk goods, velvets, 13,1 17 arfhines -i ¦ , — , fattins, 13,368 arfhines * ,« — taffety and gros detours 17,366 .¦¦ various other filks, 1,780 arfhines . raw and dyed filk, 1587 poods Sealing-wax, 16 poods - 493 Rubles. 6,602 182,485 11,364 »,955 74,809 25,658 37,5io ip,8i4 8,6475,258 5>543 6,815 35,885 69,604. 115,680 38,989 73,54o 1,932 13,380 14,362i7,P28 100,190 36,850 5,468 1,050 30,417 1,285 135,410 12,833 7,807 92,226 23,590 16,379 1,886 482,695 i,39l Silver, 494 V IMPORTS OF 1797- Silver, wrought Soap, 1 44 poods Spectacles and glaffes Spelter, 9516 poods Steel, 1220 poods Stockings, filk, 363 dozen ¦ ' worried and yarn, 5540 dozen ' cotton and thread, 2250 dozen Stone-ware, veffels of earth and clay — ¦ — porcelaine and potters earth >- quarry, mill, whet and grindftones tripoly, pumice, emery, ferpentin bloodftone — — tiles and bricks gun-flints, 185 poods — — coals amber - - - Storax, 59 poods Sugar, raw, 11,104 poods Sugar rafinade, 139,717 poods ¦ '- ¦ molaffes, 14,360 poods ¦ loaf, 3583 poods ¦ candy, 412 poods Syphons of various forts, 1186 doz. Tartar, 1209 poods Tea, 42 poods Terebinth and varnifh, 3006 poods Tin, 5595 poods — — 389,170 plates Tobacco, fmoking, 532 poods ¦" ¦ ¦ - fnuff, 549 poods ¦¦¦ 1 "¦ roll and leaf, 2330 poods Trinkets ... Verdegris, 8ao poods Vio'-et-roots, galingal, Sic. 853 poods ¦Vitriol, 47.4 poods and Rubles. 47,666 3,062 4,039 58,900 10,143 20,70753,597 32,331 96,250 i6,359 1 1,948 13,423 5.65S 2,7*7 12,600 2,340 4,503 128,653 2,791,845 250,973 56,593 9'493 7,0409,150 4,353 24,478 81,078 44>743 13,653 15,666 H>lS7 47 W 39>254 15,256 1,095 Vitriol, IMPORTS OF 1797. 495 Rubles. Vitriol, oil, 1753 poods - - 17,966 Wares, fundry fhop-wares -, 16,294 ——— not named in the tarif - - 50,467- '—• utenfils of brafs, tin, &c. - - 11,339 Waters, mineral - - 41,717 — — — ¦ fweet-fcented - - 8,986 Wines, french (indirect), 3640 hogfheads 367,223 portuguefe (direct and indirect), 4441 - 319,982 fpanifh (direct and indirect), 1903 118,704 greek and other light table wines, 697 110,404 — — — rh'enifh, mofelle, Sec. 210 hogfheads - 37,544 italian (direct and indirect), 380 hogfheads- 20,770 burgundy, 6140 bottles - 10,784 liquors, ftrong, 3 1 80 bottles 8,680 — — — brandy, 2702 ankers - 46,444 / arrack, rum and fhrub, ,698 ankers - 33,825 ——— fweet brandy, 144 ankers 9,961 Woods, red fandal, 7910 poods - 35»556 blue, 22,949 poods - 60,487 . yellow, 3748 poods - 9,912 fundry other dyeing woods, 3588 -• 27,643 for carriages, furniture, Sec. 88,038 — — - garden and forefl-trees 25,153 wooden-ware - - 851 Woollen and camlet goods, baize, broad, 1 13,708 arfhines - - • 148,180 — narrow, 493,639 arfhines - 352,846 tammies, 265,632 arfhines - 118,937 — — camlets, 39,894 arfhines - 17»705 1 flannels, 57,043 arfhines - 18,672 fundry fluffs, 25,849 arfhines - 20,717 , flag-cloth, 164,655 arfhines - 39,000 carpets and hangings - - 20,160 ¦ wool of feveral kinds, 428 poods 16,671 . . camlet yarn, 182 poods - 19,148 Total 19,367,954, t Products 496 exports in 1793. Products exported from all the Ports of the Ruffian Empire, except thofe of the Cafpian, in the year 1793. Products. Quantity. Value in rubles/ Hemp and heads of hemp 2,774,728 pood 6,066,615 Iron in bars and forted - 2,995,332 5,159,692 Flax and heads of flax 1,146,125 4,504,100 Tallow and tallow-candles 1,069,253 4,449,000 Corn, rye, wheat, bailey, oats, and flour 22,909 laft, 208,526 chetv. - - - 3,123,005 Sailcloth, facking, and'raventuch - - 2,408^670 Yufts and leather - , - 2,249,701 Mafts, balks, deals, and various kinds of wood 1,744,208 Linen and napkin-cloth - - 1,678,701 Linfeed and hempfeed 141,210 ton, 65,721 ch. 1,111,554 Hogs' briftles ^ 36,717 pood 742,513 Hemp-oil and linfeed-pil 235,687 697,366 Ifinglas . 6,221 451,53° iSkins and furs - 396,317 Potafhes - - 114,895 394,438 Wax and wax-candles - 18,874 378,303 Cables and cordage - 103,667 259,590 Mats - - 1,936,126 pieces 248,557 Kaviar - 37,950 pood 188,397 Pitch and tar (with 788 ton of rofln " - 34i'z39 150,581 Butter. - 23,527 120,334 Train-oil - 43,504 106,332 SoaP -" " - 21,489 .JljA/ip Feathers and down - IO,55i 85,168 Corn^brandy and other fpirits 3971 oxh. 9 ankers 66,218 Sundry fhop goods . . 58,865 Sheep-wool - , . 23,797 pood 45,805 Plate exports in 1793. Quantity. 49t Product. Plate iron, kettles, and other caft-iron ware Horfe-hair (with 63,054 horfe- 37,9^ Value in rubles. 44,433 tails) ... 15,456 42,802 Beef (with 33,862 neats-tongues) 7,674 4i,833 Salt - - 168,296 chetv. 23,679 Apothecary's drugs (incl. 22J pood rhubarb 19,871 Tobacco - - 8,924 pood 19,240 Gold and filver ware, 1 3 pood, 29 pound 1 6,005 Glue - - 2,P4i pood 15,184 Caftoreum . - - nf 14,810 Tea - 255 13,404 Peafe and grift, 3084 pood, 695 chetv. 11,072 Shoes, boots, flippers, andkangees 10,625 Fifh, 7073 pood, 70 tons 10,440 Carriages., calafhes, &c. * 9,750 Trinkets - 7,745 Mammoht's bones and morfe teeth 190 pood 6,163 Honey and fyrup » 1,142 5>S72 Anife and cummin - 1,573' 5>53* Raw cotton 93 4,238 Wrought and unwrought copper 187 2,910 Live oxen and cows - 89 head 1,643 Horfes - - 17 1,282 Garden-feeds - 155 tonn. 1,621 Total Export 37,328,192 VOL. III. K K Amort '498 exports in 1793. A more particular Specification of fome of the Products exported in the foregoing Lift, Produ&s. Quantity. V2 ilue in rubles. Hemp, clean - 2,223^65 pood 5,031,270 154,701 324,086 - 248,183 512,576 ¦ codilla 148,779 198,683 Bar-iron 2>5°3>757 4,258,228 Sorted 491,575 901,464 Flax, 12-headed £68,327 3,664,485 9-headed 154,231 556,58® — 6-headed - 83,616 227,039 — codilla - 39»95i 55,996 Tallow 1,035^529 4,279,090 Tallow-candles 33,724 169,910 Rye and rye-flour, 15,858 lafts , and 2 chetv. 1,379,001 Wheat and wheat-flour, 36 123 lafts, & 2p6,I28 ch. 1,490,356 Barley and barley-meal, 3 162 lafts, and 525 chetv. 236,044 Oats, 266 lafts, and 1 87 1 chetverts 17,604 Sailcloth, 50,466 pieces', and - 78 fails 846,351 Coarfe linen for facking 1^7,950 arfhine! •• 9i,I53 Raventuch - 99>575 pieces 1,471,166 Yufts or ruffia leather - 124,340 pood 1,942^984 Leather, tanned, calf, goat, &c 40,965 fkins 56,065 Pump and fole leather - 25,432 pood 250,652 Mafts 891 in numb. 43,063 Spars - 2,158 19,999 Bowfprits and yards - '95 5,830 Balks of various forts - 128,936 163,118 Deals, pine and fir - 2,956,671 1,026,190 Carriage-poles - 26,677 375'967 Lath-wood - H,i3S , 5 1 '775 Pipe-ftaves - 64,981 25*463 Sundry other kinds of wood - 32,803 Fine exports in 1793. 499 Products. Quantity. Value of rubles. Fine linen - - 486,144 arfhines 85,554 Printed linen - 36,154 6,403 Fine diaper, with 280 table-cloths, and 869 nap kins, 3984 arfhines - - 5,586 Ordinary diaper - 608,455 arfhines 123^31 Flemifh linen - 55,853 pieces 1,158,788 Calimanco - 813,872 arfhines 254,520 Bierenzeug - i59>473 44,819 Linfeed, 1 19,939 tonn. and 65, 716 chetverts 1,037,513 Hempfeed, 21,271 tonn. and 1 ch«tvert 74>04i Sables 44 fkins, and 1 fack 442 Fox and marten-fkins 1754 26 facks 8,543 Ermine and rock-fox 7186 29 » 13,309 Wolf-fkins and furs 348 56 - 3>325 Squirrel-fkins 122,810 2,897 26,712 White-hare and cat- ' ftins 98,033 2,113 3i,723 Grey-hare fkins - 509,237 - 266,215 Lambfkins 19,347 5»7 14,864 Bearfkins M ! 3 - 18,013 Sheepfkins 58P - 4,886 Muffs and fundry furs - . 8,305 Duty free, and therefore are exported without declaring their value : Printed books, 8812, and Piftures and copper-plate engravings, 26,178. Few readers need be informed that fome articles which are not permitted to be fent abroad, as fait and fpirits, are not to be regarded as exportation, but only as tranfportation from one port of Ruffia to another. From the foregoing lifts are feen at one view the main arti cles of export, or the fources of the national wealth of Ruffia. They are 50 in number, following each other in regular fuc- ceffion according to their importance. The chief production of the ruffian empire is therefore hemp ; next follow iron, flax, tallow, corn, fail-cloth, leather, wood, &e. — Thefe 8 articles of themfelves make nearly 30 millions. K K 2 Lift 500 exports in 1793. Lift of. the feveral Ports, and the Share which each had in the foregoing Exports, valued in Rubles. Rubles. St. Peterfburg - - - 23,757,954 Riga - 8,985,929 Archangel - - . 2,525,208 Taganrok - 428,087 Eupatoria - - _ 334,398 Narva .... 238,555 Otchakof - . - _ 209,321 Pernau - 189,131 Cronftadt ... 157,365 Kherfon - - -_ 147,822 Vyborg - - - 124,832 Reval - - - - 109,897 Feodofia FriedrichfhammKertfch Onega 54,2813^,374 9,9609,552 Arenfburg ; 0,34.6 Yenikaly .... ^Z2 Sevaftopol - - - 858 37,328,192 Camparijbn EXPORTS in 1768 AND 1793. 501 Comparifon of the Amount of the Exportation in 1768 zvi th that of 1 703 in Rubles. In 1768. In 1793. Increafe of exp. 1793- Iron 1,443,000 5,159,000 3,7i6,opo Tallow 750,000 4,279,000 3,529,00a Hemp 2,795^000 6,066,000 3,271,000 Flax 1,683^000 4,504,pop 2,821,000 Wheat i77,opp i,490,pop 1,313,000 Wood, various kinds 585_,9op 1,744,000 1,159,000 Yufts and leather i,H5,poo 2,249,000 1,134,000 Rye 577,000 1,379,000 802,000 Briftles 88,pop 742,00a 654,000 Linfeed 433,ooo i,037,ppp 604,000 Sail-cloth 2 8 1, poo 846VQOP 5 65, poo Hemp and linfeed oil 25 5, OOP 697,000 442,000 Ifinglafs 79,oop 451,000 372,000 Potafhes 57,000 394,000 337,ooo Wax and candles 77,000 378,000 301,000 Hare-fkins - 58,opp 266,000 - 208,PP0 Mats 59,oop 248,000 1 89,ppp Cables and cord age 85,000 259,000 174,000 Kaviar 41,000 188,000 i47,opp Tallow candles 64,000 169,000 iP5,ooo Pitch, tar, rofin 82,000 150,000 68,000 Soap 48,oop 87,000 39,000 Train-oil 8p,ooo io6,opp 26,000 Small iron wares 20,000 44,000 24,000 2i,i93,oop 63,575,oop 42,382,000 K K 3 Of 502 exports in 1793- Of the following Articles the Export was lower in the laft-mentioned Year: 1768. FunRaw and wrought copper Live oxen Hemp-feed Rbubarb Rubles. 490,000 53,000 31,00093, OOP 8,200 1793- Rubles. 396,000 2,910 1,643 74.00O 2,467 Excefs of 176S. Rubles. 94,00050,090 *9>357 19,000 5-733 675,200 477,020 198,180 The value of the exports of the above 29 articles in the year 1793 exceeded, therefore, the value of the fame arti cles in 1768 by 21,801,820 rubles. Courfe of Exchange at St. Peterjburg in Bank- Notes with 1 per Cent. agio. On Amfterdam On London at 65 days date at 3 months date per ruble. per ruble. Dutch ftuyvers. Pence Sterling. 1790. Dec. 3i- 28| 28i 29I 29f 1791. Dec. 3o- 27! 28 O 29! 1792. Dec. 3i- 26J 26$ O 28 1793- Dec. 30- 255 25! 25l 25f 1794. Dec. 29. O 25f O 28| J795- Dec. 28. 3oi • 30! 33 32i 1796. Defc. 3°- 3i£ 31! 32* 32 •797- Dec. 29. 29 29I 27i *7i Number exports in 1793. 503 Number of BritiJIi and American Ships ari'ived at St. Peterjburg. Britifh. American, In 1791 52S 20 1792 606 24 »793 542 30 1794 S3 3 43 »795 5*9 42 1796 684 59 1797 440 26 1798 619 39 1799 456 62 The following Lift willftieio the Rife in the Price of the Ruffian Exports. In 1767. In 1795. A pood of iron coft 65 to 74 kop. 1 ruble, 40 to 65 A pood of hogs' briftles, beft 5 rubles 20 to 30 kop. A pood of kaviar A berkovetch of flax, beft 21 to 22 . fecond fort — — — — heads A berkovetch of hemp, beft fecond fort _^— third fort heads 2 21 18 4* 15H 12 4 6 i5l 30 '3 4l Fine yufts, the pood 5 55 to 80 Copper, per pood - 7 k k 4 20 to 21 * 6 58 kop. rub. Si S343 6 41 54 8 27 14H 70 28 IS i5f i6i Raventuch, 504 IMPORTS OF 1796". In 1767. Raventuch, per piece - 5! Flemifh linen, per piece 6 75 Sail-cloth, per piece - 5 J Diaper, per iopp arfhines 70 Ticking of Zatrapeznof, per arfhine 50 kopeeks - Hare-fkins for hats, per 1000 140 150 525 In 1795- 12 I4i 18 20 22 26 160 1 ruble 20 to 30 k. 560 Goods imported at St. Peterjburg in 1796, with their Amount in Rubles. Rubles. Alabaster, marble aiyl ftucco, wrought and unwrought - 123,237 Ale and porter, 7033 cafks - - 469,217 Almonds, 9938 poods - - - 124,194 Aloes, 604 poods ... 16,686 Alum, 38,6io.poods ... 192,296 Animals; horfes ... 152,850 ¦ — oxen, cows, Sec. - - 6,-ioa to fluff - - 6,528 — fowls, living - 5 ,024 Antimony, 977 poods t - 7-»404 Apples and pears, frefh - 45 ,890 fundry other fruits, frefh - - 512 Apples and pears, dried, 791 poods - 4»99S fundry other fruits, dried - 921 Arms .... 2,094 Barley, peeled, 7914 poods - - 35,381 Beads, -glafs, 1185 poods - - 13,390 s 5 _ Beaver- IMPORTS OF 179&. 505 Rubles. Beaver-lkins, 9595 fkins - - - 74>zz5 Books, printed ... 47,075 Borax, 475 poods ... 18,552 Brafs furniture for commodes, cabinets, doors, &c. - - - - 30,428 Butter, 652 poods - £,125 Cacao, 377 poods - - - 5,359 Camphire, 445 poods - - 41,361 Canes - - - -. . 5*081 Capers, 643 ^poods - - - J7-»577 Cardamums, -64 pound - - 1,700 Cards, for play, 3337 dozen. - - 6,5.52 Cerufs, 6,701 poods ... 44,025 Cheefe, parmefan, 1251 poods • - 23,370 all other forts, 71 17 poods - 52,729 Cherries, dried, 1.97 poods - - 1,665 Chocolate, 52 poods ... j,6zo Cinnaber, 326 poods ... 20,963 Cinnamon, 200 poods - - 12,671 Clocks .... j 0,478 Clothes, old and new - -31 ,445 Cloths, fine broad, 624,191 arfhines - 3,115,03* • , . fmall ordinary, 1,836,802 arfhines - 3,251,990 half, or efpagnolettes, 64,242 arfhines, 116,866 ¦ — ¦ edges, 843,691 arfhines - 16,750 Cloves, 421 -poods ... 53,657 Cochineal, 1989 poods - - 483,972 Coffee, 39,525 poods ... 833,692 Cc&qiws, divers - . - - 6,500 Copper, 60 poods ... 1,500 Corajs .... 4,67© Cork, in pieces, 9770 poods - - 44,650 v s- cut for bottles, 1859 poods - - 32,410 Cotton- goods ; raw, white, and dyed, 121 poods 10,355 fpun and dyed, -16 pood * - 2,210 Cotton,! 506 IMPtiRTS OF 1796, Cotton, calicoes, white and mitkal, 3,387,977 arfhines - - - - ¦ muflin, 1 36,944-arfhines — — — cambric and bat ifle, 270 arfhines — ¦- velverets, 213,986 arfhines ¦ fluffs, ftitched and quilted, 8548 arfhines ¦ chintz, 35,466 arfhines - fuftian, 3278 arfhines fluffs, fundry, 75,275 arfhines ——— thickfets and-plufh, 16 19 arfhines 1 — canifaffes, 5046 arfhines handkerchiefs, 6430 dozen Coverlets, feveral forts - Criftal-faturni, 910 poods ¦ tartari, 941 poods ... Crucibles and matrices Curcuma, 906 poods - Curiolities, natural and mineral Currants, 7769 poods Diamonds and precious ftones Drugs, raw — — — prepared ... Figs> 3435 Poods ... Fifh; herrings, fwedifh and northern, 35,276 barrels - englifh and dutch, 365 barrels — — — fmoked, falted, and dried Flefh, fmoked, falted, and dried, alfo tongues and faufages, 85 1 poods Furs, various forts - - - Galingal, 397 poods Gall-nuts, 524 poods Garden-feeds and plants Ginger, 1553 poods - - Glafs, window ... Rubles. 1,240,736 135,522 853 136,222 11,272 21,115 1,270 33^65 1,180 5,819 60,876 10,372 19,836 ii,39' 4,227 19,298 146,355 22,733 66,900 313,656 6,206 20,984 275,402 19>°3S 3,4°8 10,288 132,545 9,510 8,3i5 16,222 27,767 3,576 Goods IMPORTS OF 1796. Goods not mentioned in the tarif — — of white iron, japanned Gum, fenega and arabic, 2517 poods — — fundry forts, 65 1 poods — — frankincenfe, common, 2 1 2 poods ———benzoin, 393 poods Hops, 743 poods Indigo, 10,287 poods Inftruments of iron and fteel for mechanics ¦ mufical ¦ mathematical and furgical — firings for mufical inftruments Iron, white, 422,275 plates — — double plates, 16,000 Ivory and tortoife-fhell Lead, 55,473 poods ¦-——ore, red. and black, 433 poods •~ — pencils, common, 5871 dozen ¦ ¦ >¦ fine, 538 dozen Lemons and oranges, frefh ¦ ii. ¦ peel, 1246 poods • dried, 363 poods falted, 59 pipes • juice, 2702 ankers Linen, 64,i5P arfhines Madder, 24,824 poods Maftick, 65 poods Mercety Miniature-colours Minium, 508 poods Mount-blue, 183 poods Muftard, 1026 poods Nails, brafs and tin Needles, 285 millions Nuts; nutmeg, 58 poods 507 Rubles. 92,295 9,326 54,779 19,873 '>9S3 22,139 10,110 1,599,990 81,756 70,853 6,051 3,181 63,230 6,7006,538 174/542 2,610 876 943 238,338 6,405 2,934 3,300 9,623 82,158 241,690 2,640 23,572 2,287 2,608 6,620 18,382 7,895 28,36723,95i NutS; 508 IMPORTS OF 1796. Rubles. Nuts; mace, 300 pounds - - 4,271 — — hazel, wall, cocoa, and piftachio 6,545 Oil, perfumed - 24,710 Oyfters - - 15,301 Orlean, 608 poods - - - 15>3$9- OJive-oil, 24,975 poods - - 250,377 Olives, 653 poods ... 12,710 Orpiment, 207 poods - - 5,110 Orfeille, 223 poods - - 3,651. Otter-fkins, 14,996 fkins - - 105,148 Paper; poll, 4442 reams ! - - 32,880 patria, 3267 reams - - 20,601 « imperial, royal, and medium, 40P reams 9,753 cards, notes, and other forts - 7,720 Pearls - 6,6op Pepper, 6797- poods - - 131,346 Pictures and Sculptures ... 352,712 Pimento, 682 poods - - 7,050 Prunes, 6236-poods ... 27,347 Quickfilver, 308 poods - , 21, 595 Quills, 144 thoufand - - 3,008 Raifins, 13,767 poods - 49,627 Razors, 3590 doz. - - 12,001 Reeds, for weaving - - - 4,525 Ribands, even, fundry forts - - 7,306 Rice, 18,661 poods - - 78,060 Saffron, 610 pounds - 8,375 Sago, 42 poods - - 621 Sal-ammoniac, 2315 pood - - 62,870 Saps, fundry - - 2,491 Sealing-wax, 16 J poods- - 1,452 Shut-yellow, 490 poods - - 4,139 Silken goods; raw and -dyed, 1953 poods - 493,783 ¦ fattins, plain, 26,720 arfhines - 40,440 — —taffety, plain, 11,631 arfhines - ip,88o _Silken imports Of 1796. 509 Rubles. Silken gros-de- tours, plain, 1624 arfhines - 2,403 Velvets, plain, 348 arfhines - . 2,770 handkerchiefs, 1716 - - n,66o half-filk with cotton, 157 doz. - 3,000 Silver, wrought ... 5,635 Siphons, brafs, Sec. .710 doz. - - 4,247 Soap, 984 poods - - 18,840 Spectacles - - - - 6,350 Spelter, 15,430 poods - 132,555 Steel, 1553 poods - - 9,125 Stockings, filk, 561 doz. - - 28,158 cotton and thread, 4157 doz. - 53,995 ¦ worfted and yarn, 4722 doz. - 45,003 Stone ware ; porcelaine - - 8,207 ¦ earthen and ftone - - 68,650 : tiles, pantiles, and bricks 11,280 ¦ 1 quarry,- mill, whet, and grindftone 3,029 marcafite, tripoly, pumice, emery, ferpentine, &c. - - 11,431 ' coals - - 68,250 Stofax, 47 poods ... 2,34S Sugar; refinade, 215,682 poods - 4,107,644 — : melaffes, 36,515 poods - 638,030 loaf, 1 3,920 poods - - 229,660 candy, 910 poods - - 22,216 — ( — —raw, 32,882 poods - 383,558 Scythes, 343,608 - - 151,003 Tartar, 2650 poods - - 20,703 Tea, 56 poods - - - • 5,916 Teazels - - 4,150 Terebinth oil, 2510 poods - - 14,345 varnifh, 596 poods - - 7,635 Tin, 13,775 poods - 191,257 Tobacco; cnafter, 22 poods - 1,607 common fmoking, 1640 poods - 32,420 Tobacco ; 510 IMPORTS IN 179& Tobacco; roll and leaf, 1798 poods ¦ fnuff, 1 265 poods ¦ clay pipes < horn pipes - Trinkets - - « - Utenfils, glafs and cryftal Verdegris, 1090 poods Vitriol, 105 poods - , oil, 1091 poods - Vinegar, 2145 hogfheads Violet-roots, 286 poods Wafers, i62pocds Waters, mineral ... — — — fcented - Wines; fpanifh, 11,679 hogfheads portugueze, 5873 hogfheads ¦ hungary, 405 hogfheads Italian, 715 do. rhenifh, mozel, &c. 332 do. grecian, 423 do. liquors, 21 do. brandy, arrack, rum, and fhrub, 1 1 2 do. Wood; fandal, red, 40,747 poods blue, 1241 do. yellow, 1655 do. ¦ dye woods, 2837 do. — — — faffafras, cedar, &c. ¦' trees, of various forts Woollen goods ; yarn, white, fpun, and dyed, 238 poods - •1 camels hair, 103 do. — — — carpets and hangings " baize, narrow, 618,302 arfliines — — broad, 11 1,762 do. , . — fine, 1766 do. Rubles. 17,297 , »9'257 2,024 2,770 47»7io 10,291 60,977 9°7 18,515 50,9961 2>243 377 14,283 2,386 815,643 522,522 105,650 6i,493 44>63S 18,424 7,902 32,605 111,807 3,854 6,863 23,120 57-974 9,766 10,871 112,112 21,93° 438,922 128,945 4,974 Woollen EXPORTS IN 1798. 511 Rubles. Woollen goods; tammies, 213,601 poods - 91,608 - camlets, 69,136^0. - 31,974 ftamines, everlaftings, barra cans, calimancos, ferges, &c. 70,445 do. - - 29*111 ¦ flannels, 17,659 do. - 7,237 Total 26,355,890 Goods exported in Britifli Ships from St. Peterf burg, 1798. Iron ... poods 2,352,217 Hemp, clean - - 1,510,683 outfhot - T 156,057 half clean - - 35»393 codilla ... 31,660 Flax, twelve-headed - - 469,526 nine-headed . - - 12,645 fix-headed ... 1,907 codilla - - - 35,48i Ifinglafs - - - 5,186 Briflles ... 22,918 Hides - 7 44° Tallow - - '- 1,064,249 Potafh .-- - 79-371 Cordage - - 32,i35 Old iron - - - 24,860 Feathers - 4,49° Linfeed 512 LinfeedBroad diaper Narrow diaper Broad linen Narrow linen Crafh Drillings Flems Raventuchs Sail-cloth Table-clothsNapkinsBalks ScantlingsMafts and fpars Lathwood Pale boards Deals Mats Hoop iron Tallow-candles Linfeed oil Salt beef Horfe-hair Cow-hair Elk-hair Raw filk RhubarbWax GlueCopperRofinOld rope Soap Down Caftoreum fiSPORTS IN 179& chetv. arfhines pieces poods poods 57,116 »57,693 445>978 107,852 5»5»x97 2,110,249 17,273 36,071 m,774 2,440 111 3H 7,937 9P0754 112,701 4,234 3,127,594 1 o, 1 1 9 2,120 2,393 466 9,678 584 2,473 393 18 236i 2,185 1,188 63 1,914 1,688 H 15 27 Wheat EXPORTS IN 1798. 513 Wheat . chetverts 472 Printed linens - arfhines 360 Ticking - pieces 19 Horfe tails - - 286 Deer horns , t 560 Oxen horns * 1000 Ruffia leather - - 7» Calf fkins - - 700 Hare fkins - - 59**56 Bear fkins - r 693 Squirrel fkins - 5 146 Marten fkins - = 37 Sable fkins - - 26 Ermine fkins ¦i s SO Deer fkins - « 13S Cat fkins - - 144 Fox fkins - „ 235 Fox tails i. - 10,770 Tongues - - 13,000 VOL. III. j. j. Merchant' [ 514 ] Merchant-Ships arrived and J.nled 1 797. OF DIFFERENT NATIONS. Ruffian . . Britifh . . American . . Of Bremen . Of Dantzic . Of Hamburg Danifh . . . Courlanders . Of Lubek Of Oldenburg fruffian . . Of Papenburg Rortugueze Of Rbflock . Swedifh . . Hollander, of the year 1796 In all 56 440 26 11 83 104 1 43 9 44 57 54 76 '.V INTER I NS o 56 *3 In all 887 Ships arrived in 1796 . 1,147 failed 1,169 Therefore this year are fewer . 259 Of thefe fhips were full freighted ..... 259 not full . 208 in ballaft 422 889 Burden of thefe fhips in lafts of the arrived 76,584! failed 77,345* Remained to winter from 1 796 . . 8 New built 6 Brought ta Cronftadt by the ice . 1 902 432 26 11 8 4 94 1 36 8 38 5 3 S3 65 8 ' -? I 840329 52 IO Expences {515 j Expences on Goods for Exportation and Impor tation at St. Peterjburg, according to the new Regulation of 1798. Expences on Merchandises ofiExpoHtatiok. Wax candles, per box - — — with package Calimanco, per piece Caftoreum, per pood Kaviar, per barrel z Tallow candles, per box —^ with package Hemp, firft fort, per bundle ¦¦ for the bands ¦ fecond fort ¦ for the bands ¦ third fort for the bands ' " codilla i - ' with the bands Wax, per pood Ifinglafs . . . Horfe-hair, per bale Yufts, or- ruflian leather, per bundle Sole and pump leather, per 20 pieces Bar iron, per berkovetch — - forted and hoop Wheat, per chetvert Hempfeed and linfeed Hempfeed oil and linfeed oil, per barrel L l 2 Common 1 Purchafe in receipt. | winter, more. R. K. R. K. 0 40 0 10 0 60 0 0 0 8 0 3 1 80 0 70 1 5° 0 80 0 20 0 10 0 40 0 d 1 25 0 75 0 1 30 0 0 0 0 60 0 20 0 0 I 0 0 60 0 15 °v. 0 0 0 0 0 0 60 0 40 0 25 0 19 0 50 0 20 2 0 0 70 O 2 25 0 0 0 5 60 O 10 0 5 0 is 0 5 0 'S 0 3 0 10 0 $ I s* 1 0 Hops 51ft PORT-CHARGES, &C. Hops (facks apart) Seal blubber - Flax, ift, ?d, and 3d fort, without the expence of package, by bundle — — for the bands, by berkovetch — in bundles, with package, by bundle - . for the bands, by berkovetch ——codilla, including the expence of the bands, by bundle (For the package apart.) Mats, by the thoufand Goat-fkins, per hundred (; - Elk-fkj.ns in bundles of 20, per bundle Squirrels fkins, per thoufand Hare-fkins, 1050, per bundle Ditto, with package in barrels, per barrel ... Potafh (package apart) Raventuchs, per piece Rofin and coliphonium, per berkovetch Rhubarb, per pood Saltpetre ... 1 Soap in boxes (boxes apart) Barley, per chetvert Briflles, per pood Tallow, per cafk per half-cafk Tobacco in cafks (and for preffing apart) per pood - - . Tea, per pood Linens, white, of various forts, per thoufand arfhines Sail-cloth in fmall parcels, per piece Common receipt. R. O I j Purchafe ih 1 winter, more. Oo' I o K. 105010 8 20 10 80 R. O I O o o o K. 5o 60 o 40 2 0 1 20 O 5° 0 25 2 0 0 80 I So 0 4° 3 50 1 0 4 SO 1 0 1 5o 0 80 0 10 0 3 0 80 0 40 1 0 0 50 0 ip 0 5 0 ip 0 3 0 ip 0 3 0 '5 0 5 1 0 0 50 0 60 0 40 0 5 0 2 1 0 0 25 1 5° 0 50 0 15 0 S Sail-cloth BRACKAGES, &C. ON GOODS. 517 Common 1 Purchafe in receipt. | winter, more. R. K. R. K. Sail-cloth in bales of 20 rouleaux, per roul. 0 25 0 5 — flems, per piece O lo ° J Potafh, per cafk I 50 0 So All forts of wood amounting to 10 pet cent, and the tranfport to Cronftadt apart. Lift of Brackages on Articles of Merchandife for Exportation. J Corn, per chetvert. Kaviar, per barrel Hemp, and heads of hemp, per berkovetch Ifinglafs, per pood Horfe hair and tails Red leather or yufts Hempfeed and linfeed, per chetvert. ¦ oil, per pood Seal blubber Flax, and heads of flax, per berkovetch Hare-fkins, per thoufand Potafh, per cafk Rhubarb, per pood Briftles ... Tallow, per cafk Tobacco in leaves, per' pood * R. K. 1 oo o o o o o 2o 4 oo o o 12 2S 5 4 '£1* 25 o So o 5 7 ¦Z *¦ i. 3 Expences 518 EXPENCE5 ON IMPORTATION. Expences on Merchandises of Importation. < Sale on un- 1 Sale retarded loading. . 1 more. R. K. R. K. Steel, per cafk - 0 40 O 10 Alum, per berkovetch - I Q 0 40 Almonds, per pood - O IS 0 5 Woods, fandal, red, blue, yellow. , per berkovetch - 0 7S 0 45 Corks, by the thoufand - 0 15 0 S Coffee, per pood - O 20 0 10 Camphir - O 60 0 20 Cinnamon, cardamums, nutmegs, Sec. I 50 0 75 Shalloons, camlets, calimancos, Sec. per piece - O 8 0 S Oranges and lemons, per box - o 20 0 10 Lemons falted, per barrel - I 0 0 70 Lernon juice, per cafk (cellarage apart) o 20 0 5 Orange and lemon peel, per pood - o 10 0 5 Cochenille, per pood - I 0 0 5<» Dyes; madder, fafflower, and other common colours, per pood - o 15 0 20 Cloths, fine, per piece - o 30 0 20 20 0 10 10 . o 6 20 0 iart) Pewter, in pigs - o 15 0 S Scythes, per hundred - o 30 0 10 Flannels and frizes, per piece - o 25 0 IS Cheefe, per pood - o 15 0 10 Ginger - o 15 0 10 Cloves - - ', - I 0 0 5° Herrings, dutch, in barf els, \ and £ per barrel" - o 50 0 25 rrel Q 10 p S per barrel - - - o' 40 0 10 Herrings, EXPENCES ON IMPORTATION, 5 IS Sale on un- I Sale retarded loading. | more. R. K. R. 1^- Herrings, (for bracking, per ton 20 per cent, apart for ditto in \, f, ¦§•, and r'-g barrels, per barrel 10 kop. apart.) Oil of olives, in barrels, per pood (befides cellarage and cooperage) ¦ ¦ in flafk, per cafe — of turpentine, Sec. per pood Oyfters, per barrel Indigo, per pood Nut galls - - Pearl barley- Paper, large fize, per ream fmall — — in cards, &c. Beaver and otter-fkins, per 10 pieces Tobacco pipes, per grofs »• Lead, per berkovetch Pepper and pimento, per pood Prunes in cafks, per pood ¦ in boxes, per box Raifins and figs in fmall cafks, per pood in large cafks, per pood —————— in boxes Rice . . . Saffron - - Spelter or tutenague- Silk, raw ... Sulphur and faltpetre, (without ex- pence of keeping, per berkovetch Sugar of ail forts, per pood * —— raw, in cafks •• in boxes * candy o61 o oo ooo o oo oo o o o o o 2 o I o o o o o xo 75 15 50 So >S1020 8 10 So 10 60 '5 10 2P 15 IP 25 IO O 15 SO70 IS 1020 35 L L 4 25 19 O 30 6 5 10 2 5 40 5 IS s 5 10 10 5 10 5 o 10 50 3010 S 5 10 Tobacco oo o o o o op o o oo o o o o o o o I o o o0 o 0 o 520 COMMISSIONS, &C. Sale oft un- I Sale retarded Tobacco in rolls ' fnioking TartarTeaPrinted cottons and perfians, per piece Verdegris and fal ammoniac, per pood Quickfilver, .vermillion, orlean, farfa- .parilla, Sec. Winesuand fpirits, per cafk «. T . per bottle • fine," in bottles, per bottle ordinary in fmall barrels, per barrel (Cellarage of thefe liquors apart.) Vinegar — r— ditto, per cafk: - - - Qlnts «f Bohemia, per- cafe k of Meckleliberg- and Ppmerania lit)! r, 1 more R. K. R. K, O !5 0 5 O 25 O •5 O 7 O 3 I 0 O 23 O '5 0 10 O 20 O 10 o .3° 0 10 I 75 I 0 3 0 1 50 o 3 0 2 o 2 O 1 i 0 O So i 0 O 70 o 75 0 40 0 40 O 20 Commiffions for the Difpatch of Merchant Ships. Rubles. For a veffelnof 25 lafts and under - - 20 -I 25 to 50 lafts - - ,30 r,-. 50 to 75 - -.. - 40 75 to 100 - - 50 iqo to 150 75 , upwards, of 150 lafts - - lpp For packing .the: freight, 3 per cent. ? looking.after the -loading, 2 per cent,. paffports from the cuftom-houfe. and the admi? i. ralty - - - - 15 Church COMMISSIONS, &C. 521 Rubles. Church dues for each veffel, 5 rubles here,, and 2 rubles at Cronftadt - 7 Rivercharges, or ordinary anchorage, for all fhips according to the freight, (eiccept in fpecie) 5 per cent. (However, when the bill of lading mentions an equivalent for the ordinary anchorage, thefe 5 petbCents. are not paid.) Commijfwns, Brokerages, bXc Pr. tent a Commiffion on all merchandizes imported and ex ported - - • - z extraordinary charges for ditto - I on precious ftones 5 for rix dollars, ducats, and other fpecies - 1 for cafing, paying, or remitting monies - I for affairs of exchange and extraordinary charges for the delivery of goods - - - 2 for the adminiftration of a failure r. 3 for the purfuit and recoyery of doubtful debts 5 Brokerage for the purchafe and fale of all merchan dizes - - - -, a- for exchange of all kinds of money, and for letters of exchange - - | on loading and unloading, per laft, 25 kopeeks Cuftom-houfe charges according to the amount of the duties - - "4 Stgipp duties, per thoufynd rubles, 9 rubles. Hftlane 5££ IMPERIAL EOAN-BANK. Balance of the Imperial Loan-Bank for the Year lyg^. DEBIT. To the original capital of the blank, anno 1754 the former bank of Mofco affignations-bank by fupreme command, paid in by the late general-procureur prince Va- femfkoy by the late high-fteward Yelagin the legacy of prince Kantimir- from the. fecurity-barik v from the revenues of the eftates Bo- goroditza and Bobrikovitch the fund for the ereftion of univer- fities and fchools the capital of the St. George's order the college of commerce the artillery cadet-corps the academy of fciences the court-ftable kandora the fchool direftion the general poll direction the magiftracy of St. Peterfburg the college of general concern of do. the provifion magazine of do. the finance-chamber of Mofco of St. Peterfb. the printing-office of the fynod the monaflery of St. Sergius St. Cyril R, K. 404,560 36 1,403,412 io{ 26,447,686 «7* 478,011 35* 9,820 66| 102,834 2i 213382 77 103,425 64 858,587 6.* 5-27.35 8 29| 5.509 S6i 34.774 74i 30,367 5° 121,852 i| 122,856 2 441,247 72f 8,126 43* 90,625 79i 404.532 28| 45,720 22* 2,072 46* 31,230 2,563 75 4,006 50 To IMPERIAL LOAN-BANK. 523 To fundry private performs -i the imperial finance-office, St. Peterf burg - - feveral, for fums fent in without proper explanation. intereft for taxes paid before due the affurance office the capital of the bank R. K. 4,987,249 ii*- 4.955 4H 7.188 7i5 42 5° 56,148 73* 1,782,319 lof Total 38,540,468 39I CONSISTING IN R. K. Gold and filver - 1,273.507 60 Affignats and copper 37,266,960 79 CONTRA By various debtors for 8 years 20 22 the bank of Ekatarinoflaf in caiffe CREDIT,, R. It. - 11,081,140 84. - 17.333.369 5°l 7,841,538 7o£ 1,213,016 19J 1,071,403 90J Total 38^540,468 39f Amount "•"[ 5U"\ Amount of the Goods imported and exported by the following Merchants, at St. Peterjburg, 1797, valued in Rubles. Ambtjrger, Fried. Wilh. Amburger and fon Anderfon, Brown, and Moberley Andry, Michael Arhufen, Adolphus Auld, Robert Bacheracht, Gabriel Balemann, Bernh. Heinr. Barnes, John Samuel Barwick,' William Bayley, Daniel Becker, Cafpar Belenkien, Offip Bellermann, Joh. Chrifl. Bergien, Joh. Chrifl. Bernhardt, Joh. Ludwig Birch, George . Blandow, Joh. Jakob Bock, Hermann Bohtlingk, Heinr. Wilh. Boiffonet, Jean Bapt. Bolien, Johann Bond and Littledale Borel, Jofeph BorifTof, Ivan Brand/letter, Franz. Bremer, J. Erugkner, J. G. Imported. Exported. 242,781 661,719 206,595 Sl3>S3l 368,981 11,44° 564,427 122,8.17 146,806 4.053 77,100 323,880 159,243 8,482 1,104 776 iSS 157,890 — £ ,J i 1 0 0 219,01 1 737,921 6,895 209 229,863 42,878 21,392 76,125 6,410 52,921 3,956 447.584 31S.065 I.137.9*1 346,816 62,464 ,270,605 1,346,918 5,095 25 5,662 4,065 7.770 134.175 17,824 17,489 156.321 28,441 93.417 ' 103,623 25,429 36,115 Bruhn, IMPORTS AND EXTORTS IN 1797- 525 Imported. Exported. Bruhn, Hans Heinrich 30,177 147,769 Bulkeley, John M. 37,116 501,495 Bufk, Brothers 140,789 357,180 Carr and company 7,283 952,977 .Carftens, Johann. 337,378 15,022 Cattleys, Prefcott, and company 73,214 1,628,193 Cavanaugh and company *• 142,249 59.951 Chambers, Anthony 7,960 4,000 Clarkfon, Thomas Cloftermann, Hermann Colombi, Antoine 6,378 I9.17041,251 66,326 Corner, Chrifl. Aug. 36,848 65.778 Cox and company 59.938 , 209,470 Cramer, Bened. 15,260 3?6 Culot, Pafcal Dahler, Chriftian 27,822 187,752 12,551 Danckel, James Danckwerz, Gabr. Ludwig 19,100 1 34.95 3 53,995 Dafer, Johann. 37,586 1,680 Defkien1, Alexey 11,053 Deforge, Barth. 13,446 3,207 Dobolien, Ivan 323 17,284 Dolgof, Afanafi 42,501 74,p6o Drury, Anthony 30,813 200 Duval, Louis David 33,316 Eifermann, Joh. Matth. 47,160 17,817 Eyffel van, Hendrick 380,801 1013,398 Felbinger, Joh. Heinr. 7,462 700 Fiers, Salomon 42'.3°2 14,500 Filippof, Ivan 95.763 96,652 Flury, Friedrich 15,633 3.755 Forrefter, Robert 33,38i 53,307 Forfyth, David Franz, Joh. Friedr. 24,726 126,513 i3'325 Gardner, Francis 65,890 Giers, Carl Ferd. 65,887 329,706 Gilmore 526 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS IN 1797. Gilmore and company Gilmore, Peter Glen and company Gluchof, Martin Giwjtof, Vaffily Graoten, Joh. Philip Gubien, Mikhaiia Gulich, Peter Gunther, Joh. Vine. Ha-wkesford, Samuel Hafeler, Joh. Nicol. Hambecky F. Hamilton, Archibald HafTe, Joh. Heinr. Hekker, Dirk Henly, Samuel Hett, Sebaftian Heyn, Albert Higginbotham, John Hoppener, Thorn. Fried. Holla day, John Hott, Joachim Hoy and Bellis Hulfenbeck, Joh. Fried. Jagodnikof 's fons janfehien's fons Jencquel, Daniel Illien, Feodor Jones and company Irofjchnikof, Vaffily Jvanof, Andrey Kaluftof, Martin Kanzler, J. H. Karaffof, Vaffily Karpof, Feodor &iepper, George Imported. Exported* 1,840 72,915 9,888 37,99° 60,501 537.34$ 42,100 9.835 9,750 ' 172,890 81,740 6,858 2,400 128,727 74.865 8,226 M2S 6,077 1,360 217,993 222,OGO 91,766 90,619 55,588 68,064 23,717 16,109 30,417 87,752 92,717 19,711 7,585 101,045 z6,82I — 13S,25<> 39.5517 49° 8,332 -^™- ¦ r-— 70,154 l82,l64 85,2O0 31,243 I^4,06t 1 4,5-00 > - %•* 51,331 ...>»..-, I9,9l8 I I'8,I43 17,225 -— > 1 66,947 609,662 187,792 ¦ ¦—' 23,964 48,800 1 20,307 3,324 69,662 M. -.1.1 r 4,750 1,7*5 15,425 6.2,518 Kiereikof, IMPORTS AND EXPORT Kiereikof, Gregory Knieper, Peter Knutfon, Detlef Kofchennikof, Peter Krefbsvnikof, Kufmin s in 1797. Imported. 131,185 94,497 155 45,112 16,422 19,829 49,00820,766 269,900303,141 1,079 13,619 151,922 1,992 S25 233.559 67,837 13,600 537 Exported. 20,000 89,818 13,124 Krufchevnikof, Alexey Kumanin, Alexey Kummell ahd Bleffig Kufzof, Ivan Lacofte, Jean - - Lange, brothers Laptief, Ivan Levan-us, Peter Little,- James Livio, brothers Mahs, Joachim Mackintofh, John Marefchal, Philip Marfch, Johann Ernft Marfch, George Meder, ChrifHan Meefe, Heinrich - > - Meibohm and company Mercer, Thomas - Mitropolof, Gavrila Molwo, Jacob Miiller, Cafpar Mullef and Ritter Mufehl, -Friedr. Albr. Newel, Robert- Paris, Warre, Harvey, and comp. Pa-fkof, Ivan Pickerfgill and' company Pipping, Jof. Henry Pittfchalnikof, Peter 4 451,507 71.865 6,295 11,57825.417 100 674,660 , 26,601 7,703 228,706 110,384 250,291 3. '53 21,851 698,905 11,324 197,282 59.547 111,910 1,117,298 ; 5,250 16,135 95.671 256,841 1 0,094 43,000 180,827 137,258 7.933 49,260 93,267 3,910 18,450 5,013,961 . 88 Porter, 5£S IMPORTS AND EXPORTS IN 1797* Porter, Browne, Wilfon, and comp. Pofchegonof, Gregory Preyfler, Gabriel Raikes, Timothy Raimbert and company Rail, Alexander Richter, Joh. Friedr. Ritches, William Rogers and company Saizof, Feodor Samareyef, Borice Schadimirof, Alexey Schapkin, Andrey Scharapof, Gregory Schevaldifchef, Foma Schiele, Joh. Bernh. Scholai, Jean Schroder, Andr. Jacob Schumacher, Herrmann Schvefnikof, Jacob Scougal, George Sera and Ribba Severin, Keinr. Gottfr. Shairps and company Sievers, Thomas - - Sikaar, Peter Ifaac » Simonfen, Afmus Siricius, George Magnus Sittnikof, Simeon and Feodor Slinin, Yephim Smith, Edw. James, and company ¦Smith, Thomas Speder, Chriftopher Steffens, J. C. M. Stuht, Joh. Heinr. Sjindufchnikof, Alexey Imported. Exported. 100,374 44,08426,124 424,877 99,283 382,553 I9>45* 250 75.759 143,276 50,976 5,018 746.095 261,078 234,807 416,157 6,278 75,624 4,616 122,644 154 29,130 3'237 25,120 12,868 2,311 12,021 35.729 19,941 59,010 52,479 3I5.SI2 7H,390 30,604 20 66,951 212,143 119,667 249,483 740,846 163,780 218,011 748,436 21,683 472 66,198 20O 32.354 55^75 48,163 67,791 369,006 , 35.572 4.3°5 119,462 10,452 597'328 17.149 26,686 12,910 3,622 34-381 4L739 7,2P2 Siiva/qf, I-VIPORTS AND EXPORTS IN 1797. 5%9 £uvorof, Alexey Imported. Exported. 65,700 Swan. Tnomn ' In all Ships arrived and failed in 1798 . . Thus this year, 1799, there have befeii fewer Of thefe fhips^ had their full_ cargoes . . ' . '. . . not full . in ballaft .255 373 779 Burden of thefe fhips in lafts- of the arrived . 64,350 of the failed out . 64,567 > Q 0 £3 , o. ID 339 3,050, 23,676 12,383 ¦2,00.0 38,373 r 49,391 11,804 6,368 37,468 5,600 81,351 9,436 30,452 254.113 20,710 563>531' ¦ 122,859 69,605 126,710 25,490 4o,344 53,976 133,659 1,323,172 64,540 2,250 88,849 9,850 G-. <*.fchef, 53$ IMPORTS AND EXfO&TS IN 1799." Gratfchef, Yefime Grand,- A; and C. Gribbanof, Matfey Grooten, J. P. and F. Gubien, Mikhaiia \ Giinther, Joh. Vine. Hasfeler, Joh. Nicol. and comp. Hamilton, Archibald HafTe, Joh. Heinr. Hawkesford, Samuel Hekker, Dirk Heyn, Albert Higginbotham, John Hofffoauer and company Hoeppener, Thorn. Fried. Hoy and Belli3 Hubbafd and company Hulfenbeck, Joh. Fried. Jackfon, John Jagorlnikof, Peter Janfchiens and fons Jan-fen, Jan Jedin, Mikhaiia Jencquel, Daniel Inberts, John Jones and company luefchnikof, Vaffily Kaluftof, Avdote, and M-artin Kammen, yon Karpof, Feodor 'Kieryakof, Gregory Knauf, Andre Knieper, Peter Knutzen, Detlef Kreftovnikof, Kufmin Krehmer, Joh. Andreas Imported. Exported. 13,800 — — 75,760 332,693 12,637 36,483 41,088 27^37 13,450 193>563 l?I.3z3 8,882 182,904 3-8,410 120,765 4,492 24,434 29,980 34'895 17.555 , 17,946 17^730 329.I-99 119,809 17,193 12,347 270,163 : -¦ ••. 489.7-l6 733,367 1^,344 231,405 13,404 r 3*I,7O0 — 8,959 15,523 27,109 14,208 38,374 14,680 I08,175' 28,701 85,570 I,321,88ij. 73,75° ~ 62,790 1,244 15,264 4,50O 203,788 II,30O 2,355 62,564 ! 36,697 2,570 . 47.^84 14,865 ; 104,180 1.5,911 Kofchefnikof, IMPORTS AND FXPOKTS Kofchevnikof, Peter - * Krouk and Kokobus Kumanin, Alexev Kummell and Bleffig Kuftzof, Ivan Laptyef, Ivan Levanus, Peter Livio, brothers, and company Mahs, Gottlieb Marfch, Johann E. Marfh, George Meefe, Heinrich, and company Meibohm and company Mentfhikof, Nicblai Mercer, George, and Thomas Minden, van, Chfift. Arend. Miton, Roman Mitropolof, Alexand and Peter Mitropolof, Gavriefa Mitropolof, Afanafy Molwo, Jacob Molwo and foil Motte, de la, Pierre Mailer and Ritter Mufehl, Friedr. Albr. Noel, Robert Paris, Wane, Harvey, and comp. i Fafkof, Ivan Pflug, Gabriel Pym, Edward Pittfchalnikof and fons Porter, Browne, Wilfon, and comp. Pofchegonof, Gregory Preyfler, Gabriel Raikes, • Timothy Raimbert and company in 1799 Imported. 205,559 1,546 539 Exported. 276,646 278,631 196,518 273-677 20,836 17,869 ipo, 274 554,022 15,14* 289,610 57-33747,987 122,357 216,538 8,5i7 19-336 19,040 9,478 272,916 63,688 103,720 391,491 32,266 27,600 3 1 6,465 52,992 9.450 132,631 50,1 1G 44,045 ,067,216 25,411 17,P28 6,276 44,042 5,082 18,319 3,484,908 104,597 14,809 -¦.i,5°0 96,887 1,137,416 49.745 16,963 79-971 7,400 463,578 3,228 Rail, 540 IMPORTS AND EXPORTS IN 1799- Rail, Alexander Ribienfkoy, Peter Ries, Franz. Ritches^, William Saitzof, Feodor Sanderfon, Robert Samareyef, Boris Schademerof, Alexey Schademerof, Jacob Schambers, Anton Scharples, Thomas Scherapof, Gregory Schiele, Joh. Bernh. Schegarof, Vaffilly Schipof, Ivan Schnackenburg, Joh. Ludv. Schoenbaum, Balth. Schosnberg and company Schrceder, Michael Schumacher and company Schvefnikof, Jacob Scougal, George Serfally, Sebaftian Severin and fons Shairps and company Sievers, Thomas, and fon Sjkaar, Pet.T Ifaac Sirnonfen, Afmus Siricius and fons Sittnikof, Simeon and Feodor Imported. 190,231 74*607 7.0955,110 279,314 "S'll7 . 27,221 156,983 24,500 10,920 127,537 7,opo 7,500 103,685 6,796 19,582 2,171 464,064 22,503 333,052. 13.877 124,924 3,500 483,191 406,715 28,783 76,039 22,85813,446 183,069 47,580 20,919 1,040 14,542 Exported. 165,004 3-IOO 3,260 103,752103,752 l8j02O 21,979 ( 144-973' ,70,377 , 437,157 3.456 471,299 122,540 818,809 1,270 56,28278,301 Smith, Edw. James,and company Stephens, J. C. M. Stuht, Joh. Heinr. Suvorpf, Alexey Talanof, Prokofey 610,317 1,546 124,949 8,909 Tahl, IMPORTS AND EXPORTS IN 1799- 541 Tahl, Chrift. David Taylor, John Thiringk, Anth. Fried. Tnom, Anton Thomfon, Bonar, and company - Thornton and Cayley Thorntons, Smalley, Bailey, and company Uftiof, Peter Uvarof, Jvan Velho, J. P. C. - Venning, William and George Vernon, Thomas, and company - Viazzoli and company Villeneuf de, Charles Vliet van der, Pieter Weber, Leonard Wendt and Cramer, Wehrtmann, J. M. F. Weftley, John Whitaker, James Whitford, Charles Wilkins, junior - Whifhaw and Henley Wittneben, Johann. Wolff, Friederick Wolff and Schluffer Wulffert, Carl Wurm, Johann Guflav. Zanuzzi, Anna Zemfen, Filip Rubles By feveral noblemen By feveral travellers, matters of fhips, and private perfons Total rubles Imported. 44,122 Exported. 2,409 71.OO9 203,935 21,169 75.502 I,J62,4I1 3,919,017 175,921 1,329,100 189,781 1,633,796 22,625 5'»444 93,891 175.932 21,156 236,405 69,783 269,580 68,488 30,589 65,865 32,165 81,990 r1 5>43S 58,590 20,605 245,722 2,770 319,007 188,478 27,084 1 15.957 19,092 6,750 5° 4,700 6,217 33,050 779.098 ^12,465 5,400 28,307 85,406 3,i3S I02,07P 1 20,200 40,544 6,230 8,290 '¦ 1,035 19,694,151 37,663,595 v 476,583 nS,62i ft 2,529 387-714 20,173,263 38,169,925 Prices [ 542 J Prices of the feveral articles of provifion and ne ceffaries at St. Peterjburg, January 1800. Beef. — Frefh beef, 4 rubles the pood; frozen, 2 rubles 80 kopeeks: this article will continue nearly at the fame price until late in June, when it ufually falls to 2 rubles 40 kopeeks or 2 rubles 80 kopeeks. Veal. — Now from 6 rubles to 8 rubles the pood. Mutton. — From 4 rubles 80 kopeeks to 6 rubles. Fork. — From 4 rubles to 4 rubles 8b kopeeks. Ham. — Through the year 4 rubles 80 kopeeks the pood. Tallow-candles. — At this moment high; 8 rubles to 10 rubles. Wax-candles. — Sixty-five kopeeks the pound, or 26 rubles per pood. Soap. — Butter. — Colonift butter from 40 kopeeks to 60 kopeeks the pound; Finn's butter 15 kopeeks to 20 kopeeks; and Ruffian butter from 12 kopeeks to 15 kopeeks. Milk. — Ten kopeeks the bottle. Cheefe. — Twenty rubles the pood englifh : little of any fort for fale. Eggs. — Frefh, 80 kopeeks for 16; but others, from 15 ko peeks to 1 8 kopeeks. Goofe. — Seventy kopeeks, 8© kopeeks, and 90 kopeeks. Duck. — Sixty kopeeks and 70 kopeeks. Chickens. — Seventy kopeeks and 80 kopeeks per pair. Foivls. — One ruble 20 kopeeks, and 1 ruble 40 kopeeks per pair : capons from 2 rubles to 3 rubles per pair, Pigeons.- — Fifty kopeeks and 60 kopeeks per pair, not in full feather. ' Turkey. — From I ruble 20 kopeeks to 3 rubles each. Rabbits. — One ruble 20 kopeeks, or 1 ruble 40 kopeeks per pair ; very fine. Hare. — Forty kopeeks ; very large. IVheat-meal. — Two rubles 60 kopeeks the pood; the very beft. Barley-meal. — None to be had. Oats- PRICES OF PROVISION AND NECESSARIES. 543 Oats-. — Three rubles 80 kopeeks, and 4 rubles 50 kopeekt r per cool ; the very beft. . Bread. — Seventy-five kopeeks the pood, of good rye. Oil. — The Florence flafk 65 kopeeks, or 15 rubles 60 ko peeks the cafe, 24 flafks. Vinegar.— From I ruble to 6 rubles the_gallon. Beer. — From a ruffian brewer 8 rubles the hogfhead, from an englifh brewer 20 rubles the hogfhead ; but the former being generally very foul and muddy, few foreigners ever tafte it. Brandy.-— Sixty-five rubles the anker. &z//.~For-ty-five kopeeks the pood; but raifed to 60 ko peeks lately. Coffee. — Forty rubles the pood. Sugar. — Twenty-two rubles the pood. Tea. — From 3 rubles to 7 rubles; but little of the latter here, it is more plentiful in Mofco. Wood. — From 4 rubles to 6 rubles 50 kopeeks the fathom. Charcoal. — The rufs cool, or mat-bag, 20 kopeeks, or 22 kopeeks. Snuff. — Manufactured in Ruffia very cheap, but foreign the contrary. Tobacco. — From 60 kopeeks to 6 rubles the pound. Servant. — Per month 1 5 rubles, clothes, food. Coachman. — Ten rubles per month, without food, but clothes provided. Cook. — From 10 rubles to 15 rubles per month; but a fo reigner 30 rubles or 40 rubles per month. Maid-ferwas.,in Ekatarinenburg; in the year 1766 another rn/nt for copper was eredted in Sufun at the mineral works of Kolhyvan, and in 1783 one pf the fame kind at Theodofia in Taurida. The late emprefs formed the refolution to erect a cop per-coinage in the environs of Ekatarinenburg on the Ifet (Nifchneifetfkoi-monetnoi-dvor), and an other on the ftream Babka near the Kamma (Bab- kinfkoj-monetnoi-dvor). There are therefore at this time in Ruffia one mint for filver and fix for popper coin. — After the famous battle of Pul>- tava, among the fwedifh officers who were taken prifoners, were fome who underftood the art of coining; the emperbr accordingly employed them in his mint. It was in confequence of this that his imprefs on the coins from that battle till his journey to France, 1709— 17 18, is fo much a la fuedoife with the hair combed back, &c. Peter S8.3 therefore 550 COINS-, MEASURES, &Cv therefore brought fnedailleurs with him from France, and from that time appeared what are tailed the fun-rubles, now become' very fcarce, having on the reveffe a fun in the centre, and in the area his initial in rufs n, juft as the L was ftruck oh the french louis-d'or. Befides the ruble, at the fame time were coined the half and the quarter RUBLte (Pbltiniki and polpoltiniki), alfo with his lifcenefs and the imperial eagle. The grieveft 6r the jpth part bf a ruble, had ten dots with the infcription ©rievenik on one fide and the eagle oh the other. The altinesor 3 kopeeks had on one fide the eagle, and on the Other ftood^ with the date of the year, the word altinik. Thefe were all the filver coins under Peter I. in which outwardly no alteration was made, except ing that for a long time no more altines have been ftruck* and the emprefs Elizabeth for a fhort time caufed five-kopeek-pieces to be coined, but this practice has now long fince ceafed *. -- — The gold coins in Pvuffia have always been ftruck in fomewhat larger forts than thofe of filver. Ducats were coined by tzar Ivan Vaffillievitch, and half- ducats are found "of fzar FeodCr Ivanovitch. A ten ducat-piece is fhewn of the falfe Demetrius^*. * Schmidt's beytr. zur keuhtfiifs der ftaatfverfaflung von Rufslahd, tom. i. p. 50. f J. IVKcehler vollftandig. dukatenkab, tola. i. n. 112— ¦"S' Moft COINS, MEASURES, &C. 551 Moft of the gold coins, however, ftill fubfifting of the antient times, confiH; of very fmall forts. Nay, there are fome that are even called golden kopeeks*. A ruffian ducat was formerly equal to two rubles filver, whence probably the denomi nation golden ruble arofe, which, as. well as the quarter-ruble are now fhevra as curiofities. *— ¦ Under Peter I. the gold coins were either two* ruble-pieces, with the apoftle Andrew on the reverfe, which, however, are very rare; or ducats with latin infcription. On one fide is the buft of Peter with a crown of laurels, on the other the ruffian imperial eagle, on the breaft whereof is the St. George. Both fides have round them, Petrus Alexii I. D. G. Ruff. Imp. M. Dux Mofcoviaj 1 7 1 6. Thefe coins where Peter bears the imperial title, were ftruck long before the peace of Nyftadt, The emprefs Elizabeth firft caufed imperials,, HALF-IMPERIALS, GOLDEN RUBLES, and half-rubles, to be ftruck. — At the acceffion of Peter I. the copper coins were half-kopeeks (denufchka or denga), kopeeks, and five-kopeek- pieces. On the firft, ftands on one fide denga, and on the other 1706. The kopeeks have oa one fide the St. George, and on the other ko- peika. The old ones were called in on account of their deformity, and the kopeeks were now ftruck with only an extremely little chevalier St. George, * Joh. Fried. Joachims unjterricht vom jnunzwefen. n N 4 and 552 COINS, MEASURES, &C. • and the. date 1724 on one fide, and the word ko- peika on the other. Thefe under Peter II. were a great deal fmaller, and the former called back into the mint. On thefe little ones are feen the knight George on one fide with the exergue Mofkva, and on the other the letter n placed in a- -four-fold crofs, having in one interline 1723,* in the other kopeika. The five-kbpeek-pieces were likewife fubmitted to feveral alterations. Thofe. of Peter I. confift of i| lote (4 folotniks) copper, and are on one fide exadly like the old kopeeks, marked with the value and the date in a crofs on one fide, on the other with- a little ruffian eagle* having five dots round, for the benefit of fuch as are not acquainted with cyphers. The emprefs Anna, without recoining them, fixed them at 4; Elizabeth gradually reduced them to 3 and to 2 kopeeks. At laft in 1755 Elizabeth caufed them to be ftruck down, with a new die, to 1 kopeek. An eagle repofing on clouds holding a crowned fhield between his wings', in which on one fide ftood the emprefs's cypher, and on the other 1 kopeika with the date. In the year 1757 thefe very coins got up again to 2 kopeeks, bearing a new imprefs, being on one fide the knight St. Geotge, on the other the cypher of the emprefs; and thenceforward, with precifely the fame die, from .the old dengas or half- kopeeks were ftruck whole kopeeks, from the polufchkas haif-kopeeks, and new polufchkas with the very fame imprefs, - • which COINS, MEASURES, &C 553 which were as fmall and as light again as the former ones of the emprefs Anna. Peter III. ftruck the fame coins again at 4 kopeeks, with a new die, having the St. George on one fide, and pruffian armorial trophies with the number 4 and the ruffian explanation of it on the other. Thefe were afterwards again depreciated to 2 kopeeks. The ^copper ftve-kopeek -pieces that had been ftruck by Elizabeth were fixed by Peter III. at 10, but Catharine II. reduced them again to 5 kopeeks. For the accommodation of the pro vinces of Efthonia and Livonia, the emprefs Eli zabeth in 1757, caufed to be ftruck the livonefes of whole, half, and quarter pieces. A whole piece was in value 96 kopeeks. The coinage of thefe prefently ceafed ; and, as the whole livonefes were of more intrinfic value than the fubfequent rubles, they were almoft all re-melted into rubles*. The coins now in circulation are : GOLD. Rubles. Kop. Imperials 10 o Half-imperials 5 o Ducats, fcarce 2 30 Andrew-ducats, fcarce .... 2 o Two-ruble-pieces 2 o Golden rubles . . . 1 o Half rubles o 50 Quarter-rubles, very rare ... o 25 * Schmidt's beytr. zur kenntn. der ftaatfyerf. von Rufsl. p. 50. SILVER. 554 COINS, MEASURES, &C. SILVER. Rubles. . Kop, Ruble o 100 Half-ruble o eo Quarter-ruble . . . o 25 Twenty- kopeek -pieces o 20 Fifteen-kopeek -pieces o 15 Grievniks o ic\ Five-kopeek-pieces o 5 Al tines, feldom to be feen . . o 3 COPPER. « Grievnik o 10 Pataki, the moft common . . . o 5 Grofch o 2 Kopeek o 1 Denufchka o o^ Polufchka o oz Thefe coins ftand in the following relational value : Ruble, Grievnik, Altine, Kopeeks, Denufchka, Polufchka, I 10 33»- 100 200 400 1 3T 10 20 40 I 3 6 12 124 1 2 As to the intrinfic value of the ruffian coins, concerning the ftandard of the former ducats, nothing more "is known than that 67 of thofe of 1 1 1 2 to 1 729 contained 23 karats 4 grains of fine 4 gold. <5olNS, MEASURES, &C 555 t gold *. Among the merchants 1 17I are equal in weight to a ruffian pound, and they were rated at 94 folotniks affizef. — By the new affay ob ferved under the emprefs Elizabeth, a pound of ducat-gold held 93 folotniks fine gold, and 3 fo lotniks alloy of copper, and out of this 1 1 8 pieces were coined. In a pound of gold for Andrew- ducats were only 75 folotniks of fine gold, and 21 folotniks copper, and out of this 100 pieces were ftruck. The pound of filver for rubles, halves, and quarters, corrfifted of 84 kopeeks. The pound of filver for grievniks held 72 folotniks fine filver and 24 folotniks copper, from which likewife 1 j; rubles 84 kopeeks were ftruck. In denufchkas and polufchkas from a pood of copper 10 rubles were coined %. — An imperial under the emprefs Elizabeth weighed 3|-^ folotniks, and a half impe rial I2| folotniks, and the pound of gold to this purpofe muft be 88 folotniks fine§. The propor tion between gold and filver was at that time as 1=13.^. In purfuance of the edict of the 18 th of December 1763, this proportion was however fixed at 1=15. A folotnik of fine gold had hitherto been coined into 2 rubles 8oTys kopeeks, but from that time forwards into 3 rubles 55I- kopeeks. * Hirfch, in des deutfchen reichs munjsarchiv. tom. vi. f. 242. f Krufe, Contorift, p. 269. J Tozen, ftaatfkunde, tom. ii. p. j66. (, Ukafe pf 23d November 17$$. The 556 COINS, MEASURES, &C, The folotnik of fine filver was till 1762 coined to 207 kopeeks, but at prefent to 23^ kopeeks. •— . Conformably to the faid ukafe, the imperials and half imperials muft be coined according to the 88th aflay, and from each pound of gold of this allay 31 imperials and 2 rubles 881 kopeeks muft be coined, (which renders every imperial 3^ folot niks in weight,) but of half-imperials 62 and 2 rubles 885 kopeeks each weighing i*? folotniks. The large filver coins are coined after the 7 2d affay, that is, a pound muft contain 72 folotniks fine filver, and every pound muft produce in ru bles and half-rubles for 17 rubles 6! kopeeks, in quarter-rubles and double grievniks for .17 rubles J5i!> anc* m five-altines and grievniks for 17 ru bles 25^! kopeeks fine filver*. A ruble according to this ftandard is worth about 23 grofches 7 pfennigs in two-third-pieces by the leipzig ftan dard. But the merchants make a confiderable dif- tinction between old and new imperials and rubles. * The finenefs of the ruffian imperial is of 22 karats, and that of the filver 12 lotes. A pound or 92 folotniks of fine filver is worth 22 rubles 7 5 * -f kopeeks; a pound of coined filver 17 ruble 6|. kopeeks; the difference therefore is 569 kopeeks, or the fine filver is to the coined as 10=7-^-^4. A pound of fine gold is worth 341 rubles 33* kopeeks; but the coined 312 rubles 88| kopeeks; the difference is there fore 28 rubles 44I kopeeks, or as 10=9 !°?*7. — Nine and a half rubles make a mark of Cologne. The new ruble is at Hamburg 2 marks 10 fchilling banko, and an imperial 24 mark 9I fchilling in banko. Old COINS, MEASURES, &C. 557 Old imperials, id rubles extrinfic value, are rated by the german ftandard at n dollars 1 6 grofches, whereas the new *at only 9 dollars 1 8 grofches. And in like proportion alfo old rubles at i dollar 3 grofches, but new ones diverfely at 23 grofches, or 1 dollar, or even 1 dollar 1 grofch *. The fmall forts of coin are according to the convention- ftandard, the louis-d'or at 5 dollars, of "the year 1774, calculated in the following manner: Griev nik at 2 grofches 8 pfennig; altine 91 pfennig; kopeek 9! pfennig; denufchka | pfennig"; mof- Cofca ii. pfennig; piatkopeek (piatak) 1 grofch 4 pfennig, and polupoltinik (quarter- ruble), 6 grofches 9 pfennig. Concerning the Value of the moft antient cop per coins nothing is fatisfactorily known -f. Under the regency of the princefs Anna five-kopeek- pieces extrinfic value were ftruck, which in in trinfic were fcarcely worth 2 kopeeks. The polifli * This diftinttion between old and new rubles appears likewife hence, that an alberts-dollar in, 17 14 was only- worth 80 kopeeks, but now 125 to 130 kopeeks. This however depends much on the courfe of exchange. — A filver ruble of the laft reign contained almoft 375 as dutch; and is therefore nearly worth 37! ftuyvers. Before the late war the courfe of exchange at Peterfburg was 40 ftuyvers- and upwards; in 178911 was down to 30, afterwards even at 28i ftuyvers, and lately 22-J pence englifh. — Between 1758 and 1768 it was from 38J to 45I ftuyvers. f Under Peter I. from 40 pound of copper were ftruck 20 rubles. Weber, p. 52. . •¦- . jews 558 COINS, MEASURES, &C. jews took advantage of this by introducing a pre-- digious quantity of ftill bafer counterfeits into Ruffia, faid to have amounted to upwards of % million of rubles. On this account it was that under the emprefs Elizabeth the aforementioned alteration in the copper coinage took place. But never were matters in fo bad a ftate as under Peter III. He flruck 20, 15, and 10 kopeek pieces, which intrinfically had not a third part of that value. On the acceffion of Catharine II. thjjfe were unconditionally recalled. At prefent all the ruffian copper-money, veil* koroffifkaia moJieta, is coined the pood at 16 ru> bles, in forts of five, two, one, half, and quarter kopeeks*. But at the copper-mint at Sufun, by ukafe, 15 Dec. 1763, grievniks, fiverkopeek* pieces, grofches, kopeeks, denufchkas, and po lufchkas, are coiried by a different proportion. As each pood of copper there contains i§§ folotniks. of fine gold, and 3 igz folotniks of fine filver, it is ordered, that this fhall be coined to 25 rubles, adding, that in order to diftinguifh this money from others, it muft bear the fiberian arms with the chafadteriftic infcription Sibirikaia moneta,. but to be current only in Siberia >f. This, how ever, was in fprce only till 1781; for fince that * A ruble copper-money is, by the price of foreign copr per, worth in Holjand about 20 ftuyvers. f See baron von Praun, GriHidJiche" nachricht vom muntzwefen, 1784, p. 407. time, COINS, MEASURES, &C. 559 time, the gold and filver being extracted from the copper to a very little, • it is likewife coined at i f» rubles with the cuftomary ruffian imprefs, and is current in Ruffia as well as in Siberia*: Befides the hard coin, paper-money is alio current in the ruffian empire under the name of bank-affignations. Till the year 1787 thefe notes of 100, of 50, and of 25 rubles in circulation, were eftimated at the amount of 50 millions of rubles. Thefe were fo readily taken throughout the empire inftead of copper-money, that in many parts of the country one, two, aa far as five per cent. agio muft be given to get paper-money for * Of the fiberian copper-coins containing gold and filver, from the beginning to 1781, were ftruck in all 3,799,6611 rubles 93^ kopeeks, wherein were 14 pood 17 pound 19 folotniks, gold, in value 197,016 rubles 88| kopeeks, and 1228 pood 8 pound 42 folotniks filver, in value 1,117,944 rubles 89 kopeeks, together 2,4 84,700 rubles 15J kopeeks, gold and filver. A queftion arofe how high the expence would rife, if thefe coins were interchanged, in order to get out the two noble metals; and it was calculated, that after deducting the wafte by fire, there might be obtained 7 pood 8 pound 571 folotniks of gold to 98,508 rubles 44 kopeeks, and 1149 pood 2 pound 5 folotniks filver to 1,115,892 rubles 2^ kopeeks, together 1,214,400 rubles 465 kopeeks, and that the coft of extrafting, with the lofs of metal, would amount to 547,034 rubles '95 kopeeks. At the expence therefore of about half a million copper or paper money above 1, 200,000 rubles gold and filver would be gained} furely it would be well worth while to undertake this operation. copper. 560 COINS, MEASURES, &c. copper. In that year 1787 the old ones were liquidated, and a frefh iffue was made of bank notes to the amount of 100 millions*. At pre fent they are of 100, of 50, of 25, of 10 and 5 rubles. The firft three are of white, the ten-ruble notes of red, and the five-ruble notes of blue paper. Of the two laft forts the 10th part of the whole fum of 100 millions, namely 10 millions, were iffued. By an ukafe of the 3d of Auguft 1788, ten and five ruble notes were again made to the amount of 10 millions, at the fame time commanding, that the like fum in hundred-ruble^ notes fhould be extinguifhed, that there might be never more than the ftated 100 millions in circu lation. All thefe papers are immediately converted into copper-money on demand at the affignations- banks. Thefe banks are at St. Peterfburg, Mofco, Yaroflaf, Smolenfk, Veliki-uftiug, Aftrakhan, Nifhnei-Novgorod, Vifchnevolotfchok, Novgorod, Pfcove, Tver, Nefchna, Kief, Kurfk, Kharkof, * Of thefe the new imperial loan-bank or lombard received to the fum of 36 millions, viz. 22 millions for the nobility, 1 1 millions for the towns, and 3 millions for Taurida alone,. — ¦ The affignations-bank was opened in 1769, and is diftinft from the new loan-bank. — Mayer ftates the fixed fum of the bank-notes firft put into circulation at 60 millions of rubles; but I know for certain that this ftatement is confi- derably too high. Abbe Raynal comes fomewhat nearer the truth who fets it down at about 50,000,00$, with whom Mr. Coxe and M. le Clerc agree. Hermann's ftatiftifche fchilderung von Rufsland, p. 474. • ' Tambof, Missing Page Missing Page Missing Page Missing Page COINS, MEASURES, &C 565 Tambof, Orel, Tula, Kazan, Kherfon, Arch angel, Riga, and Reval. Thofe in Tobolfk and Irkutfk have been lately abolifhed. The auriferous filver produced at the fiberian mines is feparated at St. Peterfburg in the labora tory conftrufted for that purpofe in the fortrefs there. From the kolhyvanian mines come annu- nually, as before-mentioned, about 800 to 1000, and from the nertfchinfkian about 400 to 500, of both together about 1300 to 1400 pood. The former contains 3 or 3I to 4 per cent, but the latter only i| to if per cent. gold. — The g&ld and filver here feparated are delivered into the peterfburg mint, which is likewife in the fortrefs; and there, together with the gold from Ekatarinen burg and the german dollars brought in through the cuftom-houfe, are ftruck into the feveral forts of ruffian coins. It is calculated that at prefent there is in circu lation in the ruffian empire at leaft 130 millions in hard cafh; and, if to this we add the hundred million in bank-notes, the whole circulating mafs of money amounts to about 230 millions of rubles. Concerning the ruffian weights and meafures it is to be obferved, that A berkovetch contains 10 pood. A pood 40 pounds. A pound 96 folotniks. A folotnik 96 parts. Three folotniks are one lote. vol. m. o o A cool 566 COINS, MEASURES, &C. A cool (fack) of coarfe meal fhould weigh 9 pood it pound, A cool of rye 8, or 9, or 10 pood. A cool contains 10 chetveriks. fifteen- jchetveriks make about a dutch laft. A chetvert contains 2 ofmin.. An ofmia 2 payoks. A p.ayok 2 chetveriks. The chetvefik, which is the 8 th part of the chetvert, con tains '2 pbrchetveriks, which are in diameter 12 french inches 5 line?,-"' and in depth 1 1 i«ches 9 lines. v The po|cfee(tverik is 10 inches 9 lines in diarneter, and 7 inches 6 lines in depth. , If is 2 chetverks or quarters. The chetverk or quarter, contains 2 garnitzas of 8 inches. 5 liites in diameter, and'4 inches 6 lines in depth. Th6 pdtgariritza: ' has 5^ inches 8 lines in diameter, and 3 inches* 4 lines in depth. -. . ' . A cafk eif brandy, linfeed oil, or hemp oil, caljed rorokoYaia-bptfehka, contains 40 vedros or 13A ankers, which make 53 3 J parifian-rpints, The'anker holds 3 vedros, each containing 40 pints. The vedro has 4 chetverki or quarters, or 13^ pints. The chetverka holds z crfrrmki, which are alfo called krufhki, each holding 3 j piafs. r. Long meafure: A defasttine has 3200 fquare fajenes. That is, a defasttine is 80 fajenes long and 40 broad. A fajene is 3 arfhines. Anarffiine is 16 verfhoks, or 28 englifh inches. A verft is 500 fajenes or 1200 paces. Twenty verfts make 3 german miles. A defasttine is 210 rhenifh feet broad and 560 feet tbagt being 117,600 fquare feet. All thefe weights and meafures are alike throughout Ruffia, excepting Ljvonia and Finland. But in Riga the following is the weight: A laft contains 12 fhip-.pound; a fhip pound 4 lofe; a lofe 5 liefpound; it liefpound zo common pounds. Forty-five pounds in Riga are COINS, MEASURES, &Q. 567 are 46 pounds in Ruffia. A laft of rye contains 22f tons ; a laft of wheat or barley 24 tons ; a laft of malt, peafe, ,or oats 30 tons ; a laft of linfeed or- potafhes 12 tons. A ton contains 12 lofes; a fofe 6 kulmits; a kulmit 4f kans ; a kan 2 ftofes. A fuder contains 6 ohms ; an ohm 4 ankers ; an anker 5 quarts ; a q-uart 6 ftofes. A ruffian vedro holds 10 ftofes. Thirteen ells in Riga make 1 o arfhines in Ruffia. In Riga a laft of rye holds 45, and in-Pernatf 48 lofes. A laft in Reval holds 24 tons, or 72 lofes, and 44 Riga lofes amount to one laft of Reval. The laft of Riga ?uid of Ham- ' burgh agreenearly together. Comparifon of ruffian and foreign long-meafure. If we divide a verfhok or the 16th part of an arfhine into a hundred equal parts, fo that A verfhok- contains 100 fuch parts, An arfhine 1 600, and ¦ . A fajene 4800, then I. The foot of Paris will contain London RhenifhDenmark Sweden Amfterdam - » • LeydenBruffels ^Pantzig - , Augfburg , Brunfwick BavariaCologne - Gotha ,. Gcettingen _ 002 Verfti. ; Parts. ¦ 7 3i . , : ¦¦ 6 ' 86 7 6 7 12 6 69 6 38 -7 6 6 '9 6 45 - 6 66 - 6 39 6 56 6 '9 6 47 6 70 Halle 568 Coins, measures, &c. 0 - i. o i y: Halle Leipzig . Nurenburg => . . . Prague Strafburg s Vienna Zurich «¦. Geneva LyonsLifbon Bologna « Turin = MilanRonie « . ¦ . Venice . r ¦ .. •. - Conftantinople II. Thepalmaof Rome The krama there Naples Genoa . III. The french toife ' IV.\The englifh yard V. The «nglifh fathom VI; The caftilian varre VII.' The -portugueze cavidos VIII. The-portugueze barros IX". The -braccia of Florence Bologna Milan X. The-ell of Paris, in filk 1 ' in cloth -¦ in linen Amfterdam Berlin BrabantBreflau erih. Para. 6 72 7 9 6 83 6 79 6 Si 7 11 6 80 IO 98 7 67 7 4 8 53 ii 54 8 93 6 62 7 82 is 94 5 2 , 5 59 5 93 5 , 64 43 84 20 57 41 is 18 83 »4 53 zj 45 12 33 '3 49 IO 99 26 72 26 7i 26 59 JS 5* is 0 »s 53 12 37 Bruffels, COINS, MEASURES, &C. 569 BrufTels, large ., fmall Copenhagen Dantzig Drefden Frankfort on the Mayne Geneva Hamburg LeipzigLouvaine - r* Nurenburg r *• Strafburg - Vienna Therefore ioo Paris ells in filk make 167 arfhines 16 Berlin - 15 loo Amfterdam - 97 400 Vienna - 437 200 Leipzig, &c. 159 r i Verfh. Parts. - 15 62. - 15 40. - '4 12 - 12 91, ' 12 7-3., - 12 14 * 2S 73 - 12 89 - 12 72 - 26 41 - H 84 - II 48 - 17 48 Comparifon of various Miles. A ruffian verft containing 500 fajpnes, and each fajene 7 foot of London, though here divided into 3 arfhines, the feveral miles are accordingly thus divided into verfts, fajenes, and arfliines j German mile 2 French league Englifh mile * Italian mile - , Spanifh mile - ' Swedifh mile, or 36,000 fwedifh feet - 10 17 9 * Sixty e,nglifli miles are equal to one degree of latitpde, One hundred and four ruffian verfts are equal t9 one degree of latitude. 003 Five Verfts. Sajenes. Arfliines, 6 475 If 4 84 of 1 368 2i 1 368 2f S 396 - -of 670 COINS, mxasuh.es, &C, Five french leagues make 3 german miles; 4 englifh fea miles or Italian miles amount to but 1 german mile; fix fpa-ftifh miles are equal to 5 german miles, and juft fd many make 16 englifh land "miles. Laftly, as 15 german miles compofe a degree of the asquatorj fo to fuch a degree 104 vbrfts, r-31 fajenes, 1 arfhine, 7^ verfhoks are requifite. But 20 french leagues, 60 englifh miles ; likewife 6oitalian miles, and 18 fpanifh miles are reckoned to a degree. Comparifon of various foreign Weights with the Ruffian. A pound at by ruffian weight. Pounds. . Solot. Hun. parts. Aix-la-chapelle. - - 1 33 44 Amfterdam - - I 19 33 Antwerp - - 1 13 44 Augfburg, great weight - 1 18 79 ¦ fm-,11 , H 13 3752 Bafil - =. 1 Berlin - - 1 13 26 Bologna - - c > 84 56 Brunfwick [ 13 3«> Bremen - - 1 19 66 Breflau - - < > 94 62 Bruffels 1 13 44 Bourdeaux - T 1 r 18 - 75 Cadiz » 1 M 31 Cologne _..-.. ' 13 39 Conftantinople 3 9 94 Copenhagen . -. 1 ?3 52 Cracow ? " - 9 .94 52 Dantzig - - 1 5 66 Florence - - < ^ 79 22 Frankfort on the Mayne - i 13 70 Geneva 1 32 80 Genoa i 73 9° Gotha COINS, MEASURES, &C. 571 Pounds. Solet. H\in. parts Gotha I 22 2 Hamburgh I 17 28 Ecenigfbur'g, old weigh! 0 88 1 1 77"9 t '3 z3 Leipzig I '3 66 Lyons I I 7i Lifbon _ -r -.--. I n 20 Leghorn - 0 79 55 London I 9 51- Lubek I 16 83 Lunenburg I 17 55 Magdeburg - 1 13 33 Marfeilles - 1 0 55 Memrhingen 1 23 54 Munich ] 34 •9* Naples ] 3 13 JJ-urenberg ] 2.3 40 Paris J 18 47 Prague - 23 92 Ratifbon -^ ' 34 92 Rome » - 3 79 22 Saltzburg - 1 34 72 Schaafhaufen - 1 11 95 Strafburg - 1 14 73 Stuttgard - I 15 70 Venice, great wei ght - 1 IS 36 . — fmall - 1 3 •45 Ulm - ' 13 44 Warfaw - O , 88 22 Vienna - 1 35 17 Zittau r - 1 13 23 Zurich • 1 27 39 *** For ordinary purpofes the fuble frfay be eftimated at as. durkig the greater part of the 004 reign 5/2 LANGUAGE. reign of the late emprefs — fuch readers as defire a nearer fpecification of its value will fatisfy them felves on its flu&uations from the tables, p. 487, 502. the note on p. 557, &c -L/anguages are indeed properly no objeft of political oeconomy; perhaps, however, the reader will indulge me in a word or two on the Rufe, be fore we conclude. Its beauties, the copioufnefs and, energy of its expreffions, &c. are acknow ledged and celebrated " by feveral philologifts and literary men. Mr. Schlcetzer, whofe judgment in fuch matters will not be queftioned, gives it the preference to almoft all the european languages. It has been much cultivated -of late years; feveral grammars and dictionaries have' been made; nu merous tranflations into it are conftantly appear ing, and the Ruflian Academy is indefatigable in the reftoration of its purity. — A foreigner, with his utmoft efforts, can feldom attain to a pronun ciation tolerable to the ears of a native ; much lefs if he have only books for his guides : innumerable peculiarities and anomalies render it fo extremely difficult. The rufsian grammarians themfelves are not agreed even concerning the number of letters contained in the alphabet. The Elements of LANGUAGE. 573 of the ruflian language, publifhed fome years fince in 48 pages 4to. make the number of letters 41; Charpentier, in his Elemens de la Langue Ruffe, knows of no more than 3 1 ; while Rodde, with greater propriety, fixes the number at 38. Some of them the foreigner rarely learns to pronounce properly, particularly the three diftinft fibilating founds, the felo, the femlia, and the flavo; the two very different fchas, the jevete, and the tfchtfcha; the two mute letters, yerr and yer; but efpecially the yeri, or more properly yery, which is founded neither entirely like u, ui, ue, or e, but requires fomewhat of an intermediate found between them. Not to mention the numerous irregularities of the declenfions and the peculiari ties of thefyntax; the accent alone, which fre quently bounds backwards and forwards from the fyllables, throws the learner into great perplexities. Thus, ruka,the hand, has the accent on the laft; but in the plural number, ruki, the hands, on the firft fyllable. Yet thefe perplexities are nothing ill com- , parifon of what he meets with in conjugating, as almoft every verb has fo many peculiarities that it may be called irregular. Scarcely one can be found that has all the 10 tenfes, namely, the prefent, the imperfecT:, the preterit of unity, the preterperfecT:, the 3 preterpluperfedts, (viz. the firft, fecond, and third, each of which includes in it a particu lar collateral idea), the future imperfedt, and th« future fimple or perfect. It is the fame with the threefold 574 LANGUAGE. threefold infinitive, the threefold imperative, (namely, of the prefent, of the future imperfect,' and of the future fimple,} the threefold participle', (viz. of the prefent, of the imperfect, and of the, perfect,) and the threefold gerund. Add to this, that hitherto no general and certain rules have been laid down for forming thefe tenfes. Thus, for inftance, the prateritum perfectum is frequently diftinguifhed from the imperfectufn, not . merely by prefixing a fingle letter or more, as s* Vs, u, 05, ob, pro, po, is, fa, fo, ras, vos, na, vfo; but it is folely determined by practice, which .of thefe is to be added to every verb. Yet the matter is ren dered ftill more intricate, as it is only with very few verbs that it is poffible to guefs from any one tenfe how the prefent or the infinitive "is made i and the tw6 latter often differ fo widely from one another, in fuch complete irregularity, that the prefent in the firft perfon has fcarcely any fimila- fity with the fecond. One example will illuftrate what is here meant : from briifchu, I fprinkle, the infinitive is brufgat and briifnut ; from volriuyu, J. make waves, volnovat ; from grebu, I row, grefti; from dfemlu, I flumber, dremat; from jivu, I live, jit; from zabivayu, I forget, zabiitj from ifchtfchu, I feek, i"fkat. All thefe are of the firft conjugation. Of the fecond I fhall only mention: lublu, or properly liublu, I- love ; liubifch, thou loveft ; polyubil, I have" loved ; the infinitive is liubit and polyubit : from platfchu, Ipay;.platifch, S ' thou LANGUAGE. 575 thou payeft ; zaplatil, I have paid ; the infinitive is platit, &c. Amidft all thefe difficulties that a foreigner has to ftruggle with ere he can make himfelf but a tolerable proficient in the ruffian language, no grammars have as yet been made for him except by foreigners: no wonder that their productions are not more complete. As a fpecimen of the ruflian character, I ant enabled by the kindnefs of Mr. Fry, of Type- fbreet, to prefent the reader with the Alphabet and Pateraofter from, the types of that ingenious artift, THE 576 LANGUAGE. THE RUSSIAN ALPHABET. A a as a C C Slovo s E 6 Buky b III m Tverdo t B B Vedy V 7yc u u FT' Glagol g&h

h S ¦ Yerr Ii i i LI Hh Yerrih i KK Kako k b h' Yere A A Lhidi 1 £ h Yati M' M Muifliete m 9 9 Ye e H H Naflie n K)K) Yu yu O O One o ftfl. Ya ya Iln p^oi P @ 0S Phita th Pp Rtfi r V Y tytza y Is LANGUAGE. 57/ NOTES ON THE FOREGOING PAGE. 8 Is founded as g and as h. * Is founded as the frencl> j, in jour. c Is founded as french ou. d Is founded as fcotch ch, in loch. e Is founded as englifh fh. f Is founded as englifh fch. E Thefe letters are named yerr and yere; they are both mute letters, and ferve only to point out a fall or open, and a foft termination of a word ; for example, the word doll muft be fpelt with ruflian characters, AOAb, and the word gravel thus TPABEAb. b Is named yerrib, and is founded as the englifh fhort or full i, in thz'ck. 1 Is founded both as englifh th, and as f. k Is named ijitza, and is founded as y in fjrnphon?. THE 578 LANGUAGE. THE RUSSIAN PATERNOSTER. Onrae Haini>, me ecn Ha He- Bec?>xb, 4a CBiiniHinca hmh mBoe, 4a npin4enxb nap- cmBie mBoe, 4a By4em;b BOAil, HIBOJI, MOHa HesecH^H Ha seMAH. Xakbk Hami. Ha- cynjHMH 4cL3C4b HaMt 4Hecb. H ocmaBH HaMi> 40Ara Hania, incoace h mh ocmaBAaeM^ 40AMHK0M1> HaiHHM. H He BBe4H Haci> bo HCKymeme, HO H3EaBH HaCl> OUTb XYKZ- Baro. #ko mBoe ecmb napcin- BO H CHAa H CAaBa BO B£KH BfcKOBK AMHHb. INDEX. INDEX. A ABULGASJ, the tartar hi ftorian, i. 442. Ablution, feveral times a day, commanded by the koran, ii. S5. Abfolute government, the proper aim of, ii. 221. , Achtuba, ftate of the filk culture on the, iii. 281. Aconite, highly reputed for it's medicinal virtues, ii. -j._ Acquifitions to the empire made by Catharine II. i. 282. Admirals, rank and pay of, ii. 271. Admiralty at St. Peterfburg, ii. 270. 351. Advocates, Iivonian, ii. 380. Age, advanced, frequently attained in Ruffia, i. 23. Univer. verfally honoured, ii. 53. Aged people, fmall number of, i. 544. Agents, abroad, ii. 349. Agriculture, nations addicled fo, i. 509. Not the fole bufinefs of the peafantry, -ii. 25. Neglefted for the fifhery, iii. 58, 129. Ruflian, 132. None practicable beyond the 60th deg. n. lat. 133. Manner of carrying it on, 138. Nowhere con ducted with fo much negligence, 151. Purfued by Ruffians and Finns, 154. The fame in all the northern provinces, 161. Siberian, 163. When it may be faid to flourifh, 194. Air, fudden changes of, i. 55. Salubrious, 58. Temperature of, in the ifle of CEfel, 179. Akdinghis, the Cafpian fo named by the Tartars, i. 195. Alaborg, in the government of Olonetz, i. 269. Alaijkian mountains, i. 127. Alanes, or Dagheftanians, conquered by Tfchinghis, i. 412 ¦Exterminate the Taurians from the Krim, i. 453. Albanians, Moldavians,. Valakhians, and Arnauts, i. 506. Albrecht of Apelderen, comes into Livonia as an armed apoftle, i. 388. Aldenborg, now Old-Ladoga, i. 269. Aleppo, the Mongoles come to, i. 416. Aleutan iflands, conneft Kamtfhatka with North-America, s. 144. 160. Aleut ans, i. 503. Alexander, grand prince of Novgorod, obtains the furnatne of Nefsky, from a viclory over the Swedes on the banks of the Neva, i. 276. Alexander Nefsky, St. order of, ii. 232. Alexander the Great, aftoniftied at the magnificence of the per fian baths, ii. 9. rfUa-Koola, the chequered mountains, i. 121. Allegiance,- oath of, taken by all claffes of fubje&s, ii, 172?^ Allowance., 580 INDEX, Allowance, annual, of the grand duke, ii. 227. Almanac, annually printed, for th* Ethiopians and Lettifh, i. 181. Almond-tree, in the fouthernmoft provinces, iii. 232. Alobrand, a zealous, aftiye, and prudent teacher, i. 393. Alphabet, ruffian, has forty-one letters, ii. 16. iii. 576. Altars, pagan, ftill remaining in Livonia, i. 374. Altay, produce of the mines of, ii. 312. Altay, mountains, fituation of the, i. 118. Warm fprings in the, 245- Aliines, of copper, ftruck, iii. 548. Altyn-noor, lake,, furrounded by the Altay mountains, i. 209. -a//fta,.;or1Petropavloffky, i. 174. , Aurora borealis, frequent, i. .54, Never obferved in Behripg's ifland, i. 157. Novaya Zemlia) iii. 5. Authority, le-giflative, the, monarch alone, ii. 210. Autocrator,. that title firft ufed, i.,9, And autocratrix, ii. 178. Azof, the fea of, length and breadth of, i. 176. City, of, ob tained by Rujlia, 280. Fifhery on, iii. 72. Surrendered fe)' the treaty of Pruth, 450. AzoJJioi Kozaks, i. 285. vol. nr. r r Saaty, 5*J INDEX. B. Baaty, khan of the Golden horde, ii. 14. Babes, bring the plica polonica with them into the world, i3, " 74- Bacon, lord chancellor, obfervation on baths by, ii, it. Baidars, or little canoes, ufed in fearching for fleeping whales, iii. 24.' By the Kurils, 38. Baikal, lake, earthquakes at the, i.59. Mountains of the, 136. Defcription of the, 203. Warm fprings in the, 245. Naphtha fources on the, 250. Fifhery on the," iii. 75. Baker, every foldier his own, ii. 290. Baku, a ruffian conful refides at, iii. 443. Balalaika, a mufical inftrument, ii. 60. Ballads, among the Livonians and Efthonians, i. 362. Baltic, provinces on the, captured from the Swedes, i. 3. Suf ficiently refute a miftake of Bufching, 21. Anciently called Variatzkoie more, the feaof the Varagians, 177. Water of, continually decreafing, 178. Baltic-port, the fame with Ro- gervyk, .195. Northmanni, from the, 268. Provinces of, permitted to import fait, ii. 214. Re-conquered by Peter -I. 279. Fifliery on the coafts of the, iii. 73. Commerce, by the, 431. Exports and imports of, 436. 475. Bank, imperial-affignation, ii. 316. iii. 302. notes, 560. Baptifm, wafhed away in the Dvina, i. 387. Summary form of, , 397- - Baptized, many of the, relapfe, i. 382. Baraba, that large moor defcribed, i. 149. Barahinzes, come into fubjeftion to Ruffia, i. 462, Bargufn, baths on the, i. 244. Barnaul, or Kolhyvan, mines of, more productive than thofe of Nertfchinfk, ii. 314. Barons, but few in number, ii. 105. Bafchkirs, inhabit a part of the ancient Bolgaria, i. 473. ii. 129. Adopt colonifts, ii. 217. Great proprietors of bee.Jiives, iii. 272. _ Bath, fudorific, in univerfal ufe, ii. 7. Owes its origin to cleanlinefs and convenience, ii. 9. Difmiffion of, from prac tice, 1 3. Account of the ruffian, 55. Devours a monftrou-s quantity of wood, iii. 257. ^Bathing, hot and cold, Ruffians early habituated to, ii. 54. Battogues, ordered, by miftake, to an officer, ii. 258. Bath-room, ii. 42. Balks, on the Terek, i. 242. Hot, much ufed by the Eftho nians and Livonians, 264. Bays, in the Euxine and the fea of Azof, i. 176. Bay fait, iii. 323. Beans and peas, very common, iii. 223. Bear, moft ufual method of killing the, ii. 440. Ufeful after his death in a great variety of ways, 444. Greedy of honey, iii. 274. Beard, INDEX. 583 Beard, of the Ruffians, ii. 3. 17. Many of the Burets never have any, 87. Beafts and birds, abundance of, in the vallies of the Ural, i. 118. Beafts of draught and burden, a variety of, iii. 108. Beaver, in the great rivers of Siberia, ii. 446. Has two kinds of hair, 448. Beech, elm, maple, and poplar trees, chiefly the growth of the fou'thern regions, iii. 256. Beer, metheglin and braga, ii. 45. Bees, reared chiefly by the Bafhkirs, ii. 35. Management of, iii. 271.- Behm\ major, encourages agriculture in Kamtfhatka, i. 156. Behring's ifland, earthquakes iu, i. 59. Behring'sittand, i. 156. iii. 41. Expeditions to begin, 499. Beh- ring and Tfchirikof, the famous navigators, iii. 40. Beketof, lieutenant-general, improves the wine of Aftrakhan, iii. 239. B ells; the Ruffians fond of ringing, ii. 63. Beluga, a large fifh, in the Frozen-ocean, iii. 16. Taken in the Cafpian, 51 '. Prodigioufly large in the Volga, 55. In the Ural, 67, 71. Berefof, gold mines at, iii. 294. 296. Berthold Succeeds Meinard in the converfion of Livonia, i. 384. Beftuchef, the firft count, a Scotchman, ii. 113. Betrothing, ceremony of, ii. 57. Biarmeland, kings of, fcandinavian corfairs, i. 341. Biarmia, where fituate, i. 339. Bible, ruffian, fignification of the word tzar in the, ii. 176. Biclo-ozero, or White-lake, rivers of the, i. 208. Birch, the bark and foliage of, very ufeful, iii. 255. Births, proportion of to the living, i. 535. Births, deaths, and marriages, tables of, for 1799, 551. For the moft part ttappy and eafy, ii. 63. Preternatural, rare in Poland, 72. ' Bifam, or mufk-rat, ^i. 453. Black-rooms, tfhornaia ifba, ii. 41, 42. Blindnefs, occafioned by the reflection of the fun from the ice, ii. 376. ¦B/iWrpeople,no country in Europe has fo many as Poland, ii. 71. Book, general genealogical, of the nobility, ii. 101. Bogdo, one of the higheft points of the Altay, i. 119. Bogue, river, antiently called the Hypanis, rifes in Podolia, i. 24Q. Bolgarians, empire of the Volgars, or, i. 259.. Books, church and fchool, patent for printing, ii. 194. Boars, of Mohn, live comfortably, i. 182. In Efthonia and Li vonia, not rich, 358. Various occupations of the, ii. 37. Malo-ruffian, ii. 131. Belonging to the crown, 135. Of the Black-plough, 137. Belonging to the nobility or gentry, 144, By good-behaviour may rife to be officers, 259. Capitation paid by, 297. Opulence of fome, 375. Their hard manner of life, 388. Pay a tribute or obrok, iii. 200. A boor fells at 100 rubles, 209. On many eftates work three or four days in the week for the lord, 212. Enrolled to the mines,- 311-2. Edict regulating the labour of the, 338. ftvretjk, nourifhing ftate of the village, ii. 145. p P 1 Borka, i'«4 I N D E X. ' Bofka, or Ardu, empire of, i. 359. Bofpborus, the, empire of, comes to an end, i. 45 j. Botbmann, a gerrhan vine-dre(Ter, iii. 235. Bows, taxes levied by the. number of, ii. 322. Boxing, a Ruffian always beats a Burst in, ii. 87. Boyars,. antient, what they were, ii. 94. 112. 162. Senate, ia» (touted in place of the, 343.' Boyarfchtfcbina, the feudal fervice performed by the Boors, ii. -. ll1- Bracidgei cm articles of merchandife for exportation, iii. 517. Brandy,, great confumption of, ii. 215. 304. Diftilleries, iii. 356. Brafs and copper founderies, iii. 425. Bread, fifli a fubftitute for, iii. 48. Bremen, archbifhop of, i. 385. Bretvery, iii. 348. ¦Bf/V^-Duildiirgs, greatly increafed, iii. 159. Bridge, of pontons, at Riga, i. 211. Over the Dnieper, at Kief, 239. Bridges, fences, Sec. made of wood, iii. 257. ¦BriJHes,a.n important article of exportation, iii. 108. Britzanians, from Britzen, i. 258. Broken bones, frequent among ihe Laplanders, ii. 82. •Brokerages? commiflions, &c. iii. 521. Bruce, the firft couht, from North-Britain, ii. 113. Brutes, liable to the plica polonica, ii. .74, Buffalo, multiplication of the, an important objeft, iii. 95. Buibaria; the lefs, fituation of, i. 478. Buktar'minfioi-moxintsm, i. 129. Burats inhabit the north fide of the Baikal, i. 435. Refemble the Kalmuks, ii . 86. Burdens, public, ii. 361. iBurgbers, capitation paid by, ii. 296. Nominal, 414. Burgundtt, mountain,' covered with perpetual fnow, i. 139. Burlais, common mechanics, ii. 37. Bufching, miftaken in his notion that intenfe cold occafions mad. nefs, i. j'ai. Cabbage, confumption of, immenfe, iii. 22a, Cabinet, the imperial, ii. 339. Cabinet-malting and coach-making, iii. 413. ¦Cabot, Sebaftian, the famous navigatior, ii. 475. 490. iii. 431. Cadet-corps, for the navy, founded by Peter the Great, i. 194. Caltrops, ufed in catching the bear, ii. 441, Calves of the buffalo, eafily tamed, iii. 96. Camel, in fome provinces of the ruffian empire, iii. 118. Race of the, confiderably diminifhed, 121. Canada and Siberia, the uninhabited wilds of, reforted to by the beaver, ii. 448. •Canal, of the Ladoga, i. 204. Canals* the confirU«i*o» ofj a prietipal obje£t with Peter the Creat. L251. Cans<»t- INDEX. i^ Ca»«9n-founderies, iii. 425. Canoes, made of 'ihe fealtows hide, iii. 35. Ca_pfr-fhrub, grows wild, iii. 189. ' Capes, in the F^ozenloCean, i. 153. Capital, people living on the intereft of their, pay no income- " tax,ii. 368. '" ' ' ' -.¦>.'..' Capitation-tax, boors liable to the, ii. 98. Capxanns, in the navy, ii. 271. Capture of the fea-cow, iii. 34. Card, playing, manufactory, iii. 379. Carpenter, every villager a, ii. 33. Carpet-rearm fact lire, iii. 3S6. Carrier's trade, very profitable, ;i. 3$. Carrots, parfnips, chicory, truffles, Sec. Hi. 223, Cafpian, anciently called the Hyrcanian-fea, i. ig<. Formerly connected with the Baltic and ihe Euxine, 196. Its length and breaJth, 198. Rivers that fall into the, 230, Naphtha, fources on the, 2jo. F.iliery on the, iii. 49. Commerce oi the, very antienf, 441. Caftor, abounds in Siberia, ii. 452. Caftb'reum,' exported 111 various qiiantities, ii. 452, Cataracts, beautiful in Behring's ifland, i. 157. In the Upper. "Tungufka, 225 Oil the Dnieper, 240. . Catharine II. grfatly promoted the welfare of , fhe country, i. "i'li.' "Profecli ed ihe plans of Perer the' Great, ii. ij. St. crdir of, ii. 232. Cattle, the breeding of, iii. 85. Affprds various means of live lihood, ii. 34. 93. The principal part of Ukrainian h'ufbandry, 161. Cavalry, regiments of, ii. 242. 245. Caaf(2/;««-mou'nt"airi?, i. 107. Caucafus, tribes of moun% 1. 482, Cedar-nat, in great plenty about the Ujraj, iii. 226. The fibe rian cedar, in tHeiiraliah iridunfai'ns,"2j3. Celibacy, the Kozaks enjoined to, i. 291. Celts and Germans, deities and religious rites, of the, i. 369.' Not altogether unacquainted with images, 374.. Had no tern, pies 377-' Chace, followed as a trade, ii, 35. Free throughout the em- Epi'fe, ii.'^ii. Objects 'of the, 425. Of the .fea-otter, tre mendous, iii. 38. Cia^bi-'ead,' eateil by rich and poor in J-ivonia and Efthonia, i. 360. Chalcoid, fifh, excels the herring, iii. 81. Cbalybeate.wa.ters, i. 246. Chancellor, the port of, fometimes left vacant, ii. 341. Characler, influenced by circumftances, ii; i. Depraved, of the Kamtlhadale dog, iii. 127. Charcoal, annual Vo'nfitmptidn of, iii. 259. Kilns, 419. Charles IV. bought Brandenburg of, the elector Otho, ii. 143. Charles V. admits. Plettenburg among the'p'rinces of the german 'empire, i '316, r Chazares, \od all their european pofftfljons,!, 4^. Cheefe, from buffalo'* milk, iii. 96.' ' " '-¦ *•- '¦'-' tt 3 Chemical 86 INDEX. Chemical experiments on the water of the Neva, i. 218, Cherry-trees, whole forefts of, iii. 230. Chefnut-trees, in Taurida, Kief, and Voronetch, iii. 231. Cbevalier-guaxds, ii. 249. Children, ftill born, proportionately not numerous, ii. $. In. firmj rare among the Lettes, 81. China, northern paflage to, i. 153. The trade to, 386. ii. 325. Cbivayans or Chivinfes, i. 479. Chriftianity, the Liefsand Lettes brought to the profeffion of, i. 379. 304. Makes rapid progrefs in Efthonia, 398. C/;r//ZiaK-nanies, ufual among the' Efthonians an.d Livonians, i. 357- Chriftians, a curious way of making, i. 387, Chundurovian Nogays, i. 472. Church, a winter and a fummer, ii. 67. Churches, to build, meritorious, ii. 67. Church-mnfiC, vocal, ii. 59. Circaffians, called by the Ruffians Tfcherkeffi, i. 483, Circle-court, ii. 404. Circulating-medium, of the empire, ii. 316. Amount of sthe, iii. 565. Cities and towns on the fhores of the Volga, i. 232., Principal mercantile, iii. 472. Civilization, in the fcaleof, the herdfman ftands above the fifher-. man and the huntfman, iii. 85. Claffes of the fubjects, ii. 91. Cleanlinefs, a law of the tartarian religion, ii. 85. Clergy, the utfchiugs formerly belonged to the, iii. 63. Clergy, habits worn by the, ii. 48. Held in high honour, 67. Clergy, a diftindt clafs, ii. 114. Number of, 118. Influence and authority of, 161. And boyars aflembled 164. Luthe. ran, good condition of the, 370. Clerks, in the public offices, numerous, ii. 338, Climate of Ruffia, i. 19. Clock-making, jii. 426. Cloth and ftuff manufactories, iii. 384. Coal; found in the mountains of the Baikal, i. 137. In the fteppe of the Don and Volga, 147, Code of laws, nd complete, in Ruffia, ii. 199, Commiffioners fummoned for framing a, 210. National, 357. Coins, meafures and weights, iii, 544. Gold, 550, Now in circulation, -5^3. Intrinfic value of, 554. Cold and it's effects, very remarkable, i. 42, 48, College of general provifion, ii. 401. Colleges fubordinate to the fenate, ii. 219. Imperial 335. De, fcription bf, 336, 348, 354. Colonels; acquire additional afithorityj ii. 261. Colonifls, foreign, ii. 125. Polifh, keep mongolian .flieep, iii. 101. Colours, for dye-houfes, iii. 366. Commerce? college /of, ii. 353. By land, iii. 459. In general, 461. Internal, 468. Commijfions for the.difpatch Bf merchaht-fhips, iii. 520. "' Commodities r N D E X. J87 Commodities, -chinefe and fiberian, progrefs of, to the fair at Irbit, iii. 470. Common-council, larger towns have a, ii. 410. Competence, not difficult to procure, ii. 374. Conftamine Porpbyrogenneta, the emperor, i. 285. Conftantinople, ruffian armies before the gates, of, i. 273. Conftitution, bodily, of the tartars in general,' ii. 8$'. Confuls, in foreign parts, ii. 349. Contractors for brandy, ii. 307. The cafpian fifhery, undw. taken by, iii. 51. Contrails, made with the crown, ii. 99. 222. Contributions, burdenfome and arbitrary, the Kozaks formerly fubject to, ii. 197. Converjions from paganifm, i. 380. Copper, annual amount of, iii. 299. 316. C'e^er-coinage, ii. 317. Co^fi-ifland, vifited in 1755, i. 157. iii. 41. Copper, native, a piece of, weighing upwards of ten pounds, i. 159. Coins, refpedtive value of, iii. 554. Copper und iron mines, revenue from the, ii. 312. Quantity of, obtained in the empire, 315. Co^^r-mines of the uralian mountains, iii. 299. To whom the richeft belong, 307. l Corn, ripens in few places above the 60th deg. i. 25. Manage ment of, ii. 28. Corn, ineffectual attempts to cultivate, in the latitudes about Okhotfk, iii. 134. Different implements for reaping, I42. Corn-land, good, obtained from ufelefs moraffes, iii. 150. Corn- tax impofed iii. 220. Corn-kilns, without the towns and villages, ii. 42. Cotton, produced in Ruflia, iii. 176. Manufactories, 383. Council, the imperial, ii. 339. Petitioned againft a decree of the fenate, 345. • t Country, face of the, 1. 63. Natural difpofition of the, iii. 133. Counts, not fo numerous as princes, ii. 103. Courland, acquifition of, i. 28,1. Court, imperial, ii. 229. Of confcience, 40a. Co356. Fofhion, german, obferved in drefs, ii. 46. Feltmaking, iii. 387^ Female, fex, moft numerous in fome governments, i. 5-9. Ruf- - fian, ii. 3. 18. Employments of, 39. Sovereigns, Ruffia af firmed by fome to have been the happieft under, 136. Feodor Ivanovitch, bequeathed the crown, ii. 167. Fermented liquors, interdicted by the koran, ii. S5. Fertility of the inhabitants of a country, how to judge of, i. 5-3. Ratio of the, 348. Feudal fyftem, an impediment to agriculture, iii. ai z- Examined in regard to Ruffia, 214. Fields, divided into three clafies, iii. 143. Figs and pomegranate-trees, nearKitzliar and in Taurida, iii. 232. Figures holy, or obraffi, ii. 43. Finance-chamber, ii. 401. Finland, gvilfof, heavy gales in the, i. 48. Mountains of, 95. Length and breadth of, 177. Difficult of navigation, 17S. Filh in the, iii. 75. . , Fipmark, always trihutary to the Norwegian?, i. 334, Finns, Sfe INDEX. Finns, and Slavonians, the aborigenes of R-uffia, i. 267. A na tion remarkable for it's antiquity and it's wide extent, 321. Thought to bean european parent-ftock, 337. Finnifli fwarm divided into thirteen tribes, 326. Characteristics of, ii. 81. Fire-arm manufactories, ii(. 423. Firs and pines, the moft common trees, iii. 253. Fifh, plenty of, in the waters of the Ural mountains, i. 118. Of the Cafpian, 202. Of the Baikal, 203. The Dvina, abun dant in, 22°. The Oby, uncommonly prolific in, 222. The Irtyfh fwarms with, ib. The Terek, with all it's collateral rivers, poor in, 233. The Don not to be compared with the Volga in regard to, 238. The Dnieper yields plenty of, 240. Great abundance of excellent in the Yeniffey and the Lena, iii. 23. In aftonifhing quantities at Kamtfhatka, 46. Several kinds of in the Volga, 38. Of the Kamma, the moft excel lent of all Ruffia, 39. Several kinds of in the Ural, 66. Of the Krimea, 72. In the gulf of Finland, 73. Of the Peipus, 77., Of the lake Ilmen, ib. A prime neceffary of life with the peafantry ,> 82. The fole nourilhment of the kamtihadale dogs, 123. Fifheries, very confiderable in the Frozen-ocean, i. 133. In the ports of the Baltic, 177. On the Peipus, 207. Of Dolgoy- oftrof, 217. Fifhery, whole tribes maintained by the, iii. 1. On the coafts of the White-fea, 17. On the Oby, 21- On the Irtyfh, very confiderable, 23. Otj the Cafpian, method of conducting the, 53. On the Volga, extremely productive, 37/ O.i the -Ural, 63. Ceremonies at the opening of, 68. Oi Kertrh and Yeni- kaly, 72. On the Peipu«, 77. Produce of the, 82. Fifbing, method of, among the Oftiaks and Samoyedes, iii. 22. F'fb-oil, an article of exportation, iii. 79. Flatter. ng <:itr>reffions, in great ufe, ii. $$. Fiatting-mtlis, iii. 422. Flax, chiefly produced about Mpfcoahd Kazan, ii. 3Q. Several fpecies of, iii. 174. Fleet of the Baltic, ii. 266, 270. Flefh, bees feed upon, iii. 276. Flock-birds, from the northern climes, ii. 464. Floods at Peterfijurg, moft memorable, i. 30. Riga fubject to, from the Duna, 212. Flotilla, oi the Bogue and on the Dnieper, ii. 269. Fominfn, family-name, originally Thomfon, ii. 113. Fomanka, a river of Peterfburg, i. 2J3. Forces of the empire, ii. 233, Foreign-affairs, college of, ii. 348. . Foreigners, miftaken in regard "to the country of Ruffia, i. 63, And inmates, ii. 414. J^rW^?Tminifters in Ruffia, ii. 330. Foreft-cuhure, iii, 25*. Forefters, excefTes committed by, ii. 176. /Wj?-grounds, or bufh.lands, \\\. 143. ' Scarcely feen in the Ukraine, 160. - - • "-''',' forefts, i. 68. Such as are private property, 70. Very nume rous in the regions of Nertfh'infk, 14X. ' Onthe.fhores of the Don, INDEX. :#j Don, 437. Oh thofe of the Dnieper, 140. Whctle verfts cf, frequently burnt by negligence, ii. 29. Devaftations of the, iii. 147. Belonging to private perfons,' iii. 264. Belonging to the crown, 266. Fortifications not to be confidered as ufelefs, ii. 140. Fortreffes, about the country, ii. 39. Fortunes, large, poifelfcd by the nobility, ii. 377. Foffils of the Ural mountains, i. 117. Foundling-hafo\n\, at Mofco, i. 57S. At St. Peterfburg, 585. Fowls, that frequent the Cafpian, i. 201. Fox, four difiinct fpecies of, ii. 429. Black, great valu; of the, 43°. France, ravaged by the Varags, i. 268. Franks, falique law among the, ii. 200. Frederic II. introduced the culture of filk into his dominion*, iii. 283. Frenchbeans, feldom ripen in the northern provinces of Siberia, ii'. 223. French, difperfed over the country, i. 305. Fries, meteorological remarks by, i. 37. Fricfland and Flanders, the Varags make incurfions into, i. 26S. Frontiers of Ruffia, various, i. 11. Settled with its neighbours by treaty, 1 2. Froft, immenle benefit of, to Ruffia, i. 24. Wfien it feizes the Don, 2.38. Trozeh, or Northern ocean, i. 131. Rivers that flow into the, , 221. .Fifhery on the, iii. 3. Not very confiderable, 17. '•/Va/.r-bearing-fhrubs, iii. 223. fruits, growing on the Mohn, i. 182. fulco, commiffiotied to, convert the Finns and Efthonians, i. 393. Fumigatory powders, againft the plague, i. 607. Funeral's, ceremony at, ii. 65. Furniture, houfhuld, very fimple, ii. 42. 'furs, tribute paid iu, ii. 1S9. 29S. 321. 323. Chace for tlic fake of, ii. 426. Importance of it, 449. Of the fea-otter, extremely valuable, iii. 39. Trade in, earned on by com panies, 40. Of the feveral fpecies of Fox, 43. Of the Goat, 107. The dyeing of, 376. Trade in, requires fpeculation, 435. tfibrdebJis, tfie filherman's god, i. 371. Gahfen, tfie fteppe of the Volga and Ural, fo called by the Kal muks, i. 148. Gait and geflures of the Ruffians, ii. 3. Galdan Zere-n, khan of the Soongares, i. 430. •Cdlleois, equipped 'at Okhotfk, iii. 41. Galley-&eet, ii. 269. Able to bid defiance to Sweden, 283. Came, great .quantities of, in RuRia, -it.' 463. ¦Came-iavis, fiave not as yet been enacted, ii. 423. . Candqvjyk, the Frozen-ocean fo denominated by the Goths, Gartens, 394 INDEX. Gardens, the culture of, iii 221. Ruffians pttfiefs a peculiar talent for, 223. Gardie, counts dela, proprietors of Dago, i. 187. Gjin/on-tioops, ii. 248. Crdcmin, Kief falls to, i. 276. 286. 311. Geefe, wild, manner of catching, ii. 463. Generals in the army, number of, ii. 24I. Genotfe, make Keffa the centre of their commerce, i. 453, Geographers, ancient, little acquainted with the Cafpian, i. 19^. 'Strange account of Lapland given by, i. 331. George, St. order of, ii. 232. Georgians, or Grulinians, the moft numerous of the moun taineers of Caucafus, i. 488. Gepidi, conquerors of the Huns, i. 463, 266. Germans, fettled in Ruflia, i. 503. Gbofts, apparitions, and hobgoblins, believed in, ii. 68. Girls, early maturity of, ii. 3. 18. G/-iiiamifa£tories, iii. 414. Glutton, artifices of that animal, ii. 443. Goats, a common domeftic animal, iii. 106. Godunof, the crown conveyed to, ii. 201. Goitres, common about the upper Lena, ii. 6. Gold, obtained at Barnaul, ii. 314. Quantity of, procured i* the empire, 315. 319. Gold coins, refpettive value of, iii. 3.1:3. Gold, filver, and iron mines, iii. 1S7. Value obtained, 313. Gold and filver imported, 316. Lace-manufactures, 384. Gold and filver working, 426. Imported in 1797, 489. Imported in 1799. 53.1- Golden bull, only a recognition of old laws, ii. aoa. Golomyanka, a fifh peculiar to the Baikal, iii. 76. Gomm, William, judicious financial operation of, ii. 320. (roods imported free of duty, iii. 483. That pay no duties on exportation, 486. Imported at St. Peterfburg in 1797, 490«N Imported in 1796, 304. Value of, exported and imported in, • 1799. 53»- Goranians, from gora, a mountain, i. 270. Gorodba, a machine for catching fifh, iii. 60. Gorodnitfcbey, or mavor, ii. 409. Gofpodi pomiliti ! Lord have merry, ii. 33. Gofudarevui, boors belonging to the fovcrcign, ii. 139. Gofudarftvenniyr, or boors belonging to the empire, ii. 138. Goths, in the weftern regions of the roman empire, i. 457. De- , molifliers of the roman baths, ii. 9. And Greeks pay tribute to the Mongoles, i. 433. Government oi the empire, ii. 133. Form of the, i»o. Govern., ments, conftitution of the, 391. Government, took cognizance ot the baths among the antients, ij.9. Governments, diftributi,on of the, i. 236. Gov emor-genenxi, office of, ii. 396. Grain, the feveral kindsof, cultivated about Peterfburg, iii. 136. Grand-Duke and grand-prince, ii. 4*3. 225. Granite, great quantities of, i. 98. Mountains of the Baikal, defcribed by profeflbr I,,axmanni 137. Grapes, INDEX. - 395 Grapes, raifed about Aftrakhan, iii. 237. four forts produced, 240., Kinds of, growing in Taurida, 242. Grafter, bufinefs of the, in Ruffia, iii. 86. Grafs, a peculiar fpecies of, fatal to horfes, i. 202. Graffman's differtation on the durability of fhip-timber, ii. 280. . Grebenfkoi kozaks, i. 298. Greece, emperors of, flyled tzars, ii.177. Greek religion, fecured iii the free exercife of its rites in the conquered provinces, i. 401. Externals of the, ii. 66. Greeks and Armenians, about the Euxine, particularly fond of yellow kaviar, iii. 79. And Romans, baths of the, ii. ji. Firft fettle in the Krimea, i. 432. Colonies of, ii. 303. Greeting, methods of, ii, 32. Greig, Admiral, the ruffian navy greatly benefited by, i, 193. Grefham, Sir John, ii. 491. Grieven, the tenth part of a ruble, iii. 330. Grivna, grivenka, &c. uncertain what they were, iii. 546. Groves, let apart for holy rites, i. 371. Ground, nature and quality of the, i. 60. Beft and moft produc tive, iii. 133. Guards, regiments of, ii. 248. Guberlinfkoi mountains, i. 1 13. Gudak, a wretched fort of violin, ii. 60. Guilds, merchants inferibed in the, iii. 430/ Guldenftadt's account of Caucafus, i. 109. Gunpovuder and faltpetre, manufactories of, ii. 214. Gunpowder mills iii. 420. Gurgenjburg, a fort built by the Swedes in Dago, i. 188. Gurief, vaft ffioals of fifh near, iii. 66. Gurfen, the Cafpian fo called by the Perfians, i. 193. Gufli, a horizontal harp, ii. 60. Gutjlef, Eberbard, fuperintendant of CEfel, i. 402. Gypjies and Jews, i. 307. H. Haak, hake or hack, a land meafure explained, i. 387. Hadfchy-Gheray, founds the khanate of the Krim, i. 436. Hail, at Peterfburg, i. 55. Hair, of all colours, liable to the plica polonica, ii. 74. Hanfeatic-lcagae, Novgorod and Pfcove, of the, iii. 429. 345. Harbours, only three in the Frozen-ocean, i, 153. Of the Euxine and the fea of Azof, 176, In the Baltic, 177. Of Cronftadt, 192. Of the Cafpian, 20a, iii. 44a. Of the Euxine, moft commodious, 432. Harefkins and catfkins, a confiderable article of commerce, ii. 439.1 Harrovj, feveral forts of, iii. 141. '//flr-manufactories, iii. 387. Havellanians, dwelt near the river Havel, i. 338. Ifazel-aufh, foundas far as the Kama, aa5. Head-drefs of the women, ii. 49. Head-money, or poll-tax, ii. a.96. 323. LofTes by arrears in the, 332. Extended to Livonia, Efthonm, and Finland, 371. Health, j'96 I N D E X. Health, caufes contributing to, ii. 63. , Heat, in the ruffian baths, ii. 10. Sudden tranfition fronl, ta a rigorous froft, 12. Hedges, live, feldom feen, iii. 237. Hellebore, much reputed for its niedieinal virtues, ii. 7. Hemp, indigenous in Ruffia and Siberia, ii. 3O. The production , of, iii. 172. 1 Henry the Lette,' curious particulars from the ancient chronicle . ot, i. 182. ;U4. 380. 393. 'fcraclians, the pontic, and' the Delians build Kherfon, i. 433. '/feraW-mafter, office of, ii. 346. Herdfmen, nations of, iii. S'6. Heretics and heathens, foldiers fent to convert, i. 386. Herodotus, Turks appear in, "under the name of Maflagetes, . i.438. The Uzes mentioned bv, 440. Herring-Rfhery,. in the White-fea, &c. iii. 18. Exceedingly plenty in the fea of Kamtfhatka, 48. Importation of Her rings, 80. Heruli, routed by the Longobards, i. 264. Hertzberg, count, encourages the culture o'f filk, iii. 283. Heftholm, an ifland of the Baltic, 1. ir88. Hides and tallow, main articles.of ruffian commerce, iii. 94. Hierarchy, members of, appointed by the fovereigh, ii. 212, High-roads laid with'timber, iii. 237 , Hindoftan, the ftate of Grand-Mongolia in,- i. 424. Hive, How many bees in one, Hi. 273. Hoar frofts, common, 133. Hochlarid, or Holigla'nd, a confiderable ifland of the gulf of Finland, i. 189. Hog, a ufeful object of ruffian farming, iii. 107. Holidays, jovially kept, ii. 34. Court and church very nume rous, ii. 230. Holmgard, now Kholmogor, i. 269. Holy-v/ater, a remnant of the bath, ii. 8. Honey, an important article of home confumption, iii. 271. Hops, propagated by the villagers, ii. 31. Grow wild, iii. 184. Hop-bind, entire'ly thrown away, iii. 173. Horfe-guards, young nobility enter of the, ii. 249. . . Horfes and fheep compofe the principal wealth of the Kirghifes and Kalmuks, iii. 99. Great numbers of horfes in Ruffia, 168. Importation of, 112. Nomades fupplied with moft of their neceffaries from, 1 14. Found wild, ib. Horfes, ruffian, ii. 34. .Horticulture, iii. 221, Hofpital, marine, at Cronftadt, i. 195. Of St. Peterfburg, 5*9, Ho[pita[*, military, i.'si*. Small-pox, 588. iftf-fprings, i. 241. Houfe, in town or country, ii. 41. Houfes, of the. inhabitants of-CE'fel, i. l8e. And buildings num bered, ii. 416. Hovjard, Mr. John, his account of the hofpitals, i. 576. Hungarians, the' oiily finnifh nation that belongs not to Ruffia, i. 327. ..-¦--- Hung&ry, magnificent baths in, ii, 9. Huns, IN D E X. 597 Huns, fubdue the Oftrogoths and the Slavi, i. t6St Hunters and fifhers, nations of, i. 308. Hunting, everywhere the tint occupation of mankind, ii. 421. Hurricanes, tremendous in Siberia, i. 39. In Novaya Zemlia, iii. 6. Hufbandry, diftricts totally Unfit for, iii. 133. Implements of, 13S. Among the Finns, 133. Ukrainian, 139. Obftacles to, 204. Hu/kind*, behaviour of, ii. 36. Hypanis, river, now the Kuban, i. 236. thperbor.eas, monte.% i. 111. Hypochondria, common with the Laplanders, ii. 82. r, Ice, curious circumftance in its formation in the rivers of Daou- ria, i. 24. Of the Neva, thicknefs of, 42. Of the Ladoga, 43- Utility of, 44. Accumulation of, at the mouth of the Neva, 30. When the Dnieper taken with, 239. Perils from floating, iii. 8. Water putrid, under the, 21. Cafpian, when free from, 30. Apertures made in the, for filhing, 68. /cf-cellars, a neceffary of life, i. 44. iii. 31. Ice-fox, Steller's entertaining Account of the, ii. 431. /ct-hills, conftructc J on the Neva, i. 44. /<*-palace, built on the bank of the Neva, i. 44. Iconium, the Sultan of, reduced to vaffalage by the Mongoles, i. 416. Idolatrous aflemblies, i. 373. Idols, in Liefland, i. 374. Iggaunis, the Efthes or Efthonians fo called in the lettifli lan guage, i. 330. Igures, a polithed nation, who communicated the art of writing to the Mongoles, i. 410. Ikai •¦:.!, one of the Kurilly iflands, i. 162. Ilidfchutsay, a great and noble-minded man, i. 410. 413. Dies of grief, 417. Illneffes, the Kamtfhadales fubjeft to few, ii. 89. Illyria, the eaftern coaft of the Adriatic, i. 309. Iltnen, lake, dimenfionsof the, i. 208. Fifh of the lake, iii. 77, Immennoi ukafes, fuch as are iigned by the monarch's own hand, ii. 1S6. Immcreiia, the kingdom of, i. 488. Imperjtor and imperatritza, ii. 177. Imperatore-'iteb, fon of the emperor, ii. 223. Imperialia, on the mines, relinquiflied, ii. 189. 313. 318. Impcii.ils, firft coined, iii. 351. Standard of, 536. Impojitions, of various kinds, practifed, ii. 279. Impofts, public, ii. 361. Imprecations, among the Efthonians and Livonians, i. 36*. Imruftaceous waters, i. 230. Independent tartarian tribes,- i. 477. Indian commerce finds its way to the Krim, i. 453. Indians, fettlemenls of, i. 507. vol. 111. Q.04 Indigbiria, 398 INDEX. Indighirka, falls into the Frozen-ocean, i. 248. Individual, comforts of the, ii. 361. Induftry, productive, ii. 419. Surplus of the, iii. 333. Infantry^ regiments of, ii. 243, 244. Inflammations of the eyes, the Kamtfhadales fubjectto, ii. 8g. Ingria, and Karelia relinquifhed to the Swedes, i. 279. Named from the Inger, 334. The poll-tax extended into, ii. 372. Boors of, live in~affluence 377. Inhabitants, diverfity of, in the ruffian empire, i. 26b. Phyfical ftate of the, 513. Thirty millions of, iii. 468. Monthly con fumption of, 472. Inoculation, i. 546. Only praftifed in large towns in Poland, ii. 71. Totally unknown among the Lithuanians, 79. An hofpital for, inftituted at Irkutfk, 87. Pradtifed by the Kamt fhadales, 89. Interment, ceremony at, ii. 63. Intoxication, not disgraceful, ii. 33. Inundations of the Neva, i. 49. 219. The Don liable to, 237. Jornandes and Procopius, the firft by whom the Sclavi are dif. tinctly named, i. 264. Irbit, a famous fair held annually at, iii. 469, Ireland, the Varags make their appearance iri, i. 268. Irrigations, too copious, prejudicial to the grape, iii. 237, Irkutfk, observations on the thermometer at, i. 23. Salt-fprings in, 82. The art of inoculation taught at, 392. Iron-mines, ii. 312. iii. 300. To whom the richeft belong, 307. Iron imported, 317. Founderies, 420. Foiges, 421. Irtyfh, river, climate at the, i. 36. Steppeofthe, 148. Its ori gin, 222. Ifc Aim-fteppe, many ancient tombs found in the, i. 1 49, Ifet, a river of fome confequence, i. 224. IJhorki, from the river I fhora, i. 334. Ifinglas, exported in 1793, iii. 78. Preparation of, 343. Iflands between Kamtfhatka and America, i. 171. In the Bal tic, 177. In the Baikal, 203. In the Peipus, 206. Formed in the Yenifley, 223. Italians, fome remains of, in Taurida, i. 303. -Itch, very ufual among the Bursts, ii. 87. Ivan I. reftored the indivifibility of the empire, i. 274. Refufes obedience to the Tartars, 277. Reduces Ahmed-khan to vaf- faiasre, 420. Ivanfka and Pavlofki, opulent villages, ii. 143. Ii'an Vaffllievitch, tzar, privileges and immunities granted to the Eng! fh by, ii.529. 54a. Sets up a regularmint, iii. 345. Iveria, conjectures concerning, ii. 180. Judges appointed, and their duties prefcribed, ii. 358. Jufticr, college of, ii. 332. Adminiftered without fee or re ward, 393. Kabarda, great and little, fubmitted to Ruffia, i.. 3. 278. 486. Kabaks, 1. fences of, ii. 303". Kacbemir, the coftly 1b..y\ Is wove at, iii. 107. 3 . Kaffa, INDEX. 399 KajFa, or KefFa, now Theodofia, i. 176. Flourifhed greatly in commerce, iii. 449. Kalendar, curious, made by the boors of CEfel, i. 181. Kalka, unfortunate battle on the, i. 306. 412. Kalgueva, an ifland in the Frozen-ocean, i. 132. Kalmuks, volgaic, i. 432. Baptized, 433. Skull of, eafiiy diftinguifhable from others, ii. S3. 129. Averfe to agricul ture, iii. 101. Have goats among their flocks, 106. Kammennoi-baran, or the rock-ram, ii. 462. Kamma, or Kama, river, flows through an extent of a thoufand verfts, i. 233. Yields excellent fifh, iii. 39. Kamtfhadales, two carried away by a torrent of melted fnow, i. 135. Account of the, 361. That are fuccefsful 'in the cap ture of the fea-lion, pafs for heroes, iii. 32. Characteriftics of the, ii. 89. Kamtfhatka, though furrounded by feas, yet very cold, i. 20; Earthquakes in, 39. Mountains of, 143. Peninfula of, 154. Mr.Kirwan's obfervations on the temperature of, 174. River, 330. Warm fprings at, 246. The manner of catching fables in, ii. 427. Foxes, 429. Capture of the fea-bear about, iii. 31. Sea-cow, in multitudes at, 35. Endowed with an" amaz ing abundance of fifh, 43. Breed of dogs in, 123. Kanglians, the fame with the Petfchenegrans, i. 411. Kantemir, princefs, fpirited conduct of, ii. 186. Kantora, adopted into rufs from the french word comptoir, ii. 332. Fifh-kantofa at Aftrakhan, iii. 64. Kaptfcbai, khan of, the grand prince of Vladimir does homage to the, i. 273. A large and well-ffompacted empire, 419. Crumbles into four fmaller ftates, 420. Kar, family of, originally from Scotland, ii. 113. Karakalpaks, two hordes of, i. 481. Karakitans, or Karakitayans, i. 40S. Karbajfes, or boats, ufed by the morfe-c'aptors, iii. 9. Karakorum, the capital of Mongolia, i. 416. Karelia, the firft conqiieft of the Ingfians, i. 323. Karfkoc more, the karian-fea, i'. 131. Kartuelia, or Kartalinia, fubmitted to the ruffian fupfemacy, i. 4. And Kakhetty, 282. 489. Kafachia, mentioned by Conftamine Porphyrogenneta, i. 283. Kafimof, near, are the-ruins of a palace and a maufoleum, i. 44S. Kaffar, an ifland of the gulf of Finland, dimenfions of, i. 188. Katarina, canal, at Peterfburg, i. 215. Kaviar, exported in 1793, iii. 78. Preparation of, 345. Kazan, conquered in 1552, i. 3. 278. Empire of, united to Ruflia forever, 421. Built in the year 1257, 45°- Oak tim ber brought from, ii. 277. x Keith, general, a fignal exploit of, ii. 2S3. Keremet, a place of worfhip, i. 346. Kertfii and Yenikaly, confiderable fifheries at, iii. , 2. Kefar, adopted into the ruflian tongue, to figuify a roman em peror, ii- 177. Ketoi, one of the Kurilly iflands, i. 163. Kettler, Gotthard, holds Courland as a fief of Poland, i. 316. (^<^j Ke/tiolm obo. IN D E -X. Kexhottn and Karelia, fubjected to the ruffian empire, i. 280. ' Khatanga, river, whence derives its origin, i. 226. Kbazares, from the Euxine, opprefs the Slavonians, i. 267. Subdued by Ofktold, 272. A bold and powerful nation, 439. Kbazaria, the peninfula of the Krim, i. 134. Kboin-Dababn, a lofty mountain, i. 133. Kholmogor, the ancient city of,, i. 220. The calves of, in parti cular eftimation, iii., 89. Khofchote, Jignifi.es warrior, or hero, i. 429. Khovarefm,, the fultan of, i. 411. Kbrobates, from Khrebet, a mountain, i. 238. Kbulan, that animal thought to be the onager of the ancients, iii. 117. Rhutores, farms of the kozaks, fo called, iii. 88. Kiachta, mart of commerce with China, ii. 24. Amount of the duties at, 302. Cuftom-houfe receipts from, iii. 467. Total of >the imports and exports of, 468. Kief, built by the danubian Slavi, i. 267. Falls under the Mongoles, 275.. Devolves again to Ruffia, 283. The capital of the ruffian ^nation, 286. A fecond time ravaged by the tartars, 287. Falls to Lithuania, 306. United again, with the parent ftate, 308. Surrendered to Tfchinghis-khan, 413. ii. 14. ' \ Kilidan, a curious fiffiing-net, iii. 21. Kimmerians, the firft-known inhabitants of the Krimea, i. 432. Kirghifes, or properly Kirghis-Kaifaki, fubmitted in 1731, i. 4. Whence their name,: 285. Originally Nogays, 473. Have fine hornlefs cattle, iii. 90. Goats of the, io£. Animals' be longing to the, 118. Trade with the, 460. KiJJinians, from the town Kuffin, 1.-238. Kifsly-fchtfchy, manner of preparing, iii. 330. Ki'ftenzians, in the little Kabardia, i. 487. Kitanes, Cathayans, or Chinefe, i. 408. Kitzliar, cold at, i. 37. The grapes of, fuperior to thofe of Aftrakhan, iii. 241. Knighthood, orders of, ii. 231. , Kncepken, or Knopf, Andrew, carries the doctrines of Luther into Livonia, i. 401. Knoiules, Sir Charles, an obfervation of, ii. 278. 280. Rnut VI. king of Denmark, goes on an expedition to Efthonia, i. 3I5-' Koblay, elected grand-khan, i. 417: Koibals, Kamatchifitzes, Karagafles, &c. i. 498. Kola, the capital of ruffian Lapland, i, 328. And Archangel' veffels ufedonthe rivers between, ii. 265. Whales frequent the gulf of, iii. 6. Kolhyvan, annual produce of the mines at, ii. 312.' Silver-I. 1 mines of, iii. 297. Kolyma, or Kovyma, river, i. 228. Kondoidi, Panaiota, prefident of the medical chancery, i. 338. ' Kopeek, derivation of, iii. 545. No more coined of filver, 548, Undergoes feveral alterations, 532. Koran, enjoins" 203 fafi-days in the year, ii. 83. Korbolikinjktip, INDEX. 601 Kertr'-kir/lo'i, mountain, i. 126. Korea, thekmgscf, i. 414. K-oriaki, country of the, i. 133. Account of the, 301. Their method of catching the bear, ii. 441. Koro!. a king, in modern rufs, ii. 176. Probably adopted from ¦ Karoi'is, Carolus quintus. Korole-\!ivo, a kingdom, ii. 176. Korfakof, originally from Corf.ca, ii. 113. Kefag:, a nation called, i. 1^3. Koffuiia, the k.v.fe-plough, iii. 139. Koftroma, whitenefs of the candles made at, iii. 347. Kazai, probably a tartarian word, i. 284. Kozaks, divided into two main branches, i. 2S3. Fifhery on the Ural, granted to the, iii. 63. Ksz~is, difti:ictfrom the peafantry, ii. 21. 12S. 193.116. Good loldiers, 236. 246. Kozaks, of the Don, pav no public impofts, ii. 289. Military fervice of the, 327. Diftil their own brandy, 373. Live ia eafe and nffi jence, 384. Kraft, profeflbr, calculations of, in regard to the extentof the empire, ¦_. 10. 537. Krafnayj reba, red or beautiful fifh, iii. 39. Krafnyyarflt, thermomtfrica! obfervations at, i. 28. The cop- , per-.uir,e3 of, abandoned, 133. Provifions, extremely cheap at. 137. Krafnoyarflian and Kufnetfkian Tartars, i. 462. Krim and the Kuban, united to the empire, i. 3. Mountains of the, 103. A part of, fubdued by the Kozaks, ;8~. Incor porated with Ruffia, 421. 457. Mutton of, excellent, iii. 99. Trade of the, heretofore uncommonly gainful and extenfive, 449. Population of, 457. Kri-Atfcbes, fromkrivi, the upper part, i. 270. Kuban, the river, well adapted to navigation, i. 236. KuU.i, and the Mefe.i, rivers, courfe of the, i. 2:0. Kumani, or Komani, from the river Ku ma, i. 239. Kvmaniarr-uevps, fituation of the, i. 146. Has all the marks of an exficcated fes, 147. Kumifs, made from the camel's milk, iii. 120. Kuneijfyr, one of the Kurilly iflands, i. 167. Kures in Courland, Semigallia and Piker, are true -Lettes, i. 139. Kuriliy iflands, earthquakes in the, 139. Included in the pro vince of Kirr.tfhatka, 144. How fituated, 139. 173. 174. " Firft difcovered, 499. Haunts of the morfe proceed from the, iii. 11. Kuril, t hairy, i. 168. 502. Kurrefaar, derivation of, i. 179. Kurfi, fruits ripen at, in Auguft, i. 23. _ . Kurtfbenkian-lea, the Cafpian fo denominated by the Georgians, i- 195- Kufcbvinfi, medicinal fource at the forges of, i. 249. Kutomarfk, medicinal fprings at the forges of, i. 249. Kutfbuk-Kainardgi, peace of, i. 280. Kuttis, a procefs in agriculture, iii. 146, Q.Q. 3 Kutufsft 6o% INDEX. Kutufof, admiral, fuperintendant of the marine cadet corps, i. 194, Kyrialians, the ruffian Finns formerly fp called by the Nor. wegians, i. 323. Lada, the flavonian Venus, ii. 6%. Ladies, polifh, famed for beauty, ii. 69. Ladoga, lake, dimenfions of, i. 204. Abounds in fifh, iii. 77. Laima, the goddefs invoked by pregnant women, i. 371. fakes, in the fteppe of Petflipra, i, 143. Numerous in the fteppe of the Irtyfh, 149. In Novaya Zemlia, 132. Bitter, in Sil beria, 24a. Lambs, new-born, wrapped iip in linen, iii. 102. lampreys, the devil's, iii. 75. Plentifully caught in the Volga, 83. Lamutes, about the coafts of the' Frozen-ocean, i. 494. 302. Land, greatly rifen in value, in Efthonia and Livonia, ii. 196. 378. To which no valid title can be fhewn, belongs to the crown, 215. Not fubject to taxation, 368. Bcors fold with the, iii. 209., N Land-commerce, principal feats pf, ii. 24. Ldnd-toWs, amount of, ii. 302. Language, ruffian, ao improved dialect of the flavonian,' ii. 16. Languages, moft of the european fpoken by the zaporogia.n Kozaks, i. 292. Of the ruffian language, iii. 572, 573. Lapland, mountains pf, i. 83. Many never entirely diverted of fnow, 96. Little kiioWri till the fixteenth century, i. 331. Firfl occafion of the Ruffians fettling in, 323. > ' Laplander, ftory of a, i. 328. Lappes, or Laplanders, i. 327. Phyfiognomy of the, ii. S,I« Great proprietors of rein-deet, iii. 122. Ldppmark, round Kola, taken by the Kuffians, i. 325. Larcb-tree, in the north of european Ruffia, iii. 234. Lavanfaari, the moft populous of the iiies of the gulf of Fin land, i. 190. Latus, fundamental, ii. 198. Burgundian and Saxon, sop. v Glance at the, 356. The capture of the morfe regulated by, iii. 11. ' Lazarus, prince of Serbia, i. 309. Lead, quantity of, obtained from the mines, ii. 313. Fduadin , all the mines, iii. 317. Importation of, 318. Leal, the inhabitants of, in order' not to be burnt requeft to be baptized, i. 397. L^a/iifr-manufactures, iii. 387. Ledovitoe more, the frozen ocean fo called by the Ruffians, i, 151- ' . Leeches, about the Cafpian, i. 202. ' Legiflation, very much the ftudy of the late emprefs, ii. 338. Lena, and Indighirka, fteppe of the, i. 130. The greateft river ,of eaftern Siberia, 227. , Leprojy, horrible j about the Cafpian, ii, 7. Leflocq, appointed archiater, i. 338. Lettes', INDEX. 6oj Lettes, originally one people with the Lithuanians, i. 312. The country inhabited by them on the Baltic, anciently belonged to Ruffia, 314. Call themfelves Latweetis, 321. Refemble much the Lithuanians, ii. 80. Boors among them, who feel fome confequence from their riches, ii. 383. Levjis XIV. military eftablifhment brought into ufe by, ii: 240. Ligova, canal, fiipplies the fountains of the imperial gardens, i. 218. Liman, fleet in the, ii. 269. Limbs, harmonious proportion of, among the tartar women, ii. 84. Linden-tree, the bark of, put to various ufes, 11, 33. 111.233. Demolifhed falter than it grows, 26.1. Linen manufactories, iii. 382. Liquors, fermented, intemperate ufe of, i. 362. 343. Whole fome, prepared by individuals, ii. 213. Lifts ot marriages, births and deaths, i. 329. Lithuanians, Lettifh, Livonians and Courlanders, defcended from Sauromates and grecian colonifts, i. 237. Lithuania, loft to Poland, 281. A diftindt branch of the Slavi, 310. Re- pulfed by the monk Meinhard, 3S2. Lower in ftature than the Ruffians and the Poles, ii. 79. Little Ruflia, the kozak eftablifhment almoft effaced in, ^289. Litva, the Lithuanians, i. 310. Livonia, fertility of, i. 64. Firft difcovered by fome merchants of Bremen, 315. United with Poland, 316. Greater part of, inhabited by Efthonians, 337. The reformation forces its way into, 401. Every man may follow his own religion in, 4.02. A,nd Efthonia, exempted from furnifhing recruits, ii. 321. Tabtes of the German tradefmen in, 373. Livifh lan guage, words and phrafes of the, 404. Abundant in wild fowl, ii, 469. No obrok paid in, iii. 211. Annual produce of, 474- livonians, become chriflians for fear of flarving, i. 389. Loan-bank, imperial, balance of, iii. 322. Affignations-bank diftinci from, 360. Longevity of the Ruffians, ii. 3. Owing to their baths, 12. Long meafure, comparifon of Ruffian and foreign, iii. 567. Lopari, or Laplanders, i. 328. Lords, in Efthonia, averfe to allow their boors to learn to write, i- 353- Lubras, general, completes the famous canal at Cronftadt, i, »93. . , Lucbinki, ufed inftead of candles or lamps, iii. 437. Lulkis, a kind of fpiritus fainiliaris, i. 371 Lunden, Andrew, archbifhop of, i. 393. Lutitzians, named after Loitz, i. 238. Luxury, generally prevalent, ii. 374. L_v/»^-in.houfes, i, 387. ' ^.Qs.4, Mackarel to* r N D E X, M Mackarel caught in the Krimea*, iii. 73. Madder, growing wild, iii. 180. Madfhares, Magyar, or Ugrians, now called Hungarians,.!, ' 3*7. . Magazines, or ftore-rooms, ii. 42, 1 Magiftracy of the government, ii. 403, Magna charta, a recognition of ancient rights and privileges, ii. 202. Magnejia vitriolata, iii. 36,5. Magtius, prince of Denmark, offered Livonia as a 'kingdom, i, 3*7- . ' Mahjafkungij a fort of houfhold god, i. 370. Mahte, the guardian goddefs of children, i. 371. ¦ Maidh, KurAfley, one of the Kurilly iflands, i. 161. Makarief, a celebrated fair held at, iii. 471. . Males, proportion of the deaths of, to thofe of females, i, ..53». iWa/o-ritffian Kozaks, origin of, i. 286. Put upon a regular mi litary footing by Stephen Battori, 28S. ' Malting of corn, iii. 137. ' Mandfchu, the prefent fovereigns of China, i. 468. Mdhdfhures, account of the, i. 490. Mankai's, or Nogays, a great and numerous people, i". 464. Manku-khan, fubdues all Afia minor, i.417. * Manufactories, firft fprung tip under Peter the great, ii. 24. Manufactures and trade, iii. 341. Mahute, not required by fome lands, ii. 27. Abfolufely un, neceffary in the territory of Krafnoyarfk, iii. 136. Artificial, not known, 133. No need of in tfie confines of the Yenifley, ' 164. Marble, obtained from' the ifle of CEfel, i. 180. Mountain- cryftal, Sec. ii. 313. iii. 319. A curious antique, difcovered on tire ifle of Taman, i. 469. March, the fifhery on the Cafpjan begins in, iii. 33. Mare Saniiaticum, Mare Marufa, and Mare Scythicum, the frozen ocean, i. 151. ' Marine, expence of the, ii. 330, Maritime commerce, principal places of, ii. 24, Markets, in cities, towns and villages, ii. 22. Market towns, ii. 39. Jfarria^jcontraft, made with mercantile formality, ii. 37. Marten, the fineft in Tobplfk, ii. 438. Martyrs, in Livonia, i. 392. Matmai, one of the Kurilly iflands, near Japan, i. 139. 1-68. . Afa/-fhoes, worn by the peafants, iii. 238. Maxims, traditionary, fupply the place of laws, ii. 200. Mozeppq, the rebellious hetman of the Ukraine, i, 293. M?ad, the manner of preparing, iii. 331. Meadoivs,x INDEX. ,«ai; Meadows, i. 66. Meadotu-viooi, growing in ufelefsfwamps, iii. 179. Meafles, not fo fatal as elfewt|ere, ii. 6. Meafures, ufed in the ruffian empire, iii. 565. Medailleurs, brought from France, iii. 330. Medes', northern, Sauromates, i. 237. Medical chancery, endowed, i. 337. College, imperial, 539.' College, ii. 353. Medicinal plants, in great ftore, iii. 189. Medicine and furgery, f'chool of, i. 387. Meehra Deeus, the god of wild beafts, i. 371. 378. Meinhard, an aiiguftine monk, fettles in Livonia, i. 313. 381. Melons, thrive (inly to 32 deg. n. lat. iii. 226. Weighing thirty pounds, 227. Members of the fenate, ii. 344. Of the holy directing fynod, 347. Of the college of foreign affairs, 348. College of war, 350. The admiralty, 331. Merchandifes, the importation whereof is prohibited, iii. 483. Imported and exported in 1797, 488. Merchants, ia maritime towns, opulence of, ii. 382. Goods imported and exported by, in 1797. iii. 524. In the year 1799- 536. Meres, probably the prefent Mordyines, i. 270. Mefchtfcheriieks, an old tartarian hive, i. 472. , . Mefen, good condition of the boors of, ii. 376. Metropolitan and archbiffiop, tithes not attached to the fee, but mere perfonal diftinctions, ii. 67. Meteorological table, for Peterfburg, i. 46. Midivife, the virgin Mary's, ii.-68. Migrations, ancient, a lively image of the, i. 433. Miles, comparifon of various, iii. 369. Milefans, Theodofia, or Keffa, built by the, i. 433. Militia, national, abolifhed, ii. 231. Mineral products, amount of, ii.313. Minerals, {he Ural mountains rich in, i. 117. Of the Altay, 124. Of the Sayane mountains, 133. Of the Baikal •moun tains, 137. Of the Nertfliinfkoi mountains, 141. Of the i mountains of Okhotfk, 143. Mineral works, iiiT 286. Pro digious importation of, 320. Mines, german workmen in the, ii. 123. Boors of the, 14.3. Claims of the crown upon, abandoned, 197. Better regu lated, 295U Belonging to the crown, 312- Product of the, 313. iii. 285. Vifited by Peter the graat, .289. Conftitution of the, 301. Belonging to private perfons, 302. 'Manage, ment of the, 308. Mining, the art of, encouraged and advanced, iii. 291. Profits' arifing from, 306. Minifters in foreign parts, ii. 349. Mint, national revenue from the, ii. 316.319.334. In Mofcq and Peterfburg, iii. 549. 565. Miracles, wrought in the converfion of the Livonians, i. 383, Mitbridates of Pontus, governs the whole Kriinea,-i. 433. fdobammedan religion, eftablifhed in Siberia by Kutfchum-khAri, X Mohn 6o6 I N D E X. Mobn, ifland bf, i. 181. Moika, a river of Peterfburg, i, 214. Mole, of Cronftadt, i. 193; Monarch, concerning the, ii. 133. Abfolute, 220.222. Monafteries, and churches have ftill land belonging to them, »it 39.109. Number pf, 118. Boors belonging to, 140. Monaftic ftate, rendered harmlefs, iii. 198. Moneta dobraya jena, rubel : good filver money, a ruble, iii. 549- Money, copper, coined at Ekatarinenburg, at Sufun, and at j Theodofia, iii. 349. Value of a ruble in," 538. The whole " circulating mafs of,, 473, 363. Mongoles, and Tartars attack fouthern Ruffia, i. 275. Once the terror, and fcourge of more than one quarter of the world, 341. 407. An entirely' diftinct nation from the Tartars, 419. Divided into two leading nations, 423, 426, Referable more the Kalmuks than the Burasts, ii. 87. | Monopolies of. the crown abolifhed, ii. 214. Monfeigneur, the grand duke alone fo addreffed, ii. 224, Montague, lady Mary Wortley, ii. 12. Morajfes, in the empire, i 77. The draining of, iii. 148. Moravians, refided on the banks of the river Moravia, i. 258, Mordvines, a very confiderable nation, i. 346. ( Morfe, voyages for catching the, ii. 437. Called alfo Wallrufs, \iii. 3. jvlethod of taking the, 7. Of the fize-of a large ox, 10. , Morflaie- faez, the fea-hare, iii. 16. Mortality, quantum of, i. 336. Great, among the children of ithe Laplanders, ii. 82. "' Mofco, when the rivers freeze at, i. 56. Founded in 1 147 by Yury, 273. The khan of Turan brought prifoner to, 422. Ravaged by Tamerlan, 423. Plague rages at, 606. The firft ftriking-clock put up at, iii. 427. Mofes of Chorena, the armenian hiftorian, i. 264. Mountains, of the empire, i. 72. 84. in Copper-ifland, very lofty, 158. Mftiflaf marches' againft the Tfchudes and Semgallians, i. 337. Mulberries, yellow, a drink made from, iii. 12. Mulberry-tree, very plentiful in fouthern Ruflia, iii. 277. Muller, his opinion concerning the feveral appellations of Riff. fia, i. 8. ' Munich, count, gives advice to the emprefs Anne, ii. 84. Ex traordinary powers granted to, 188. Municipal conftitution, ii. 408. Muremanfio'i more, the frozen ocean fo called anciently by tfie Ruffians, i. 131. Mufcovy-giafs, famoias pits of, 1. 137. Mufbrooms, edible, a variety of, iii. 223. Mufic, and dancing, in the ifle of CEfel, i. 180, In Livonia and Efthonia, 362. Mufic-mafter, domeftic, ufual falary of a, in a nobleman's man- lion in Livonia and Efthonia, ii. 381.'- Mufk, the beft from Thibet, ii. 434. Seems to have been quite unknown to the Greeks and Romans, 456. Muffyr, INDEX. «07 Muffyr, one of the Kurilly iflands, i. 163. Muftard, wild, grows plentifully, iii, 188. Mutova, one of the Kurilly iflands, i. 163, N. 'Nadir fhah, makes Ivfr. John Elton an admiral, iii. 448. Nags, livonian, famous for fleetnefs and perfeverance, iii, tog. Nail manufactories, iii. 422. 1 Nalivu', a tranfparent fort of apple, iii. 229. Naphtha, fources of, i. 244. 249. Nargon, an ifland of the gulf of Finland, i. 188. Narhiual, or the fpermaceti whale, iii. 3. Abound in the frozen, ocean, 13. Narva, exports of, iii. 436. Narym-Ottid.ks, i. 497. Naryn, (alt-grounds in, i. 83. Nafledmk, an heir orfucceffbr, ii. 224. National contrafts, in the rssffian empire, i. 511. Revenue, ex* ceeds that of other countries, ii. 327. Subject to great draw backs, from negligence and fraud, 331. Nations, uncivilized contiguous to tne empire, i. 13. Of the; Ruffian empire, 255. Of the Finns have no chronicles of their own, 322. Of uncertain origin, 494. European and afiatic, 303. That have followed agriculture from time immemorial, iii. 132. Naturalifts, an intere (ting remark made by, iii. 47. Navy, of the ruffian empire, ii. 264. Expence attending the, ' 275- Neat cattle, large droves of, iii. 87. Southern Ruflia well adapted to the rearing of, 93. , Needle manufactories, iii. 423. Negroes fell for more money than Efthonian boors, i. 333. Nenetfch, the Samoyedes call themfelves, i. 496. Nertfchinfk, annual produce of the mines at, ii.i 312. Induftry and profperity of, 3S5. Nertfbinfkoi mountains, i. 140. , Lead minesof the, iii. 298. > Neftor, the oldeft and moft authentic ruffian annalift, i. 313. De- fcribes the baths exactly as they are at prefent, ii. 8. Nets, for catching the whale, iii. 25. Ufed on the Ural, 70. On the fea of Azof, 72. On the Peipus, 77. Fifli com- pelled by, to go back to the fea, 84. Nettle, fiberian, iii. 175. Neva, ceremony obferved at the departure of the ice of the, i. 47. The only outlet to the Ladoga, 103. 212, The Little Neva, 213. Nevka, bolloaia and malaia, i. ,213. Nevfki monaftery, fo called from the river Neva, i. 312. Nikolai, canal, at Peterfburg, i. 213. Nikolayef on the Bogue, ftate of the thermometer at, i. 37. Nikon, the patriarch; ii. 184. Niniveh, the Mongoles march through, i. 416, Niudfches, $ 13- Olm, or St. Olave's church, at Reval, i. 374. OL-tirius, Adam, quotation from, iii. 347. Ol: -.¦¦¦-tree, cultivated at Aftrakhan, iii. 186. O.'.rr, fuccclfor of Rurik, i. 27,;. Reduces the Severans and the Radimitfches to his authority, i. 439. S Omjk, cold at, i. 37. Omul, a fifli in the fouthern feas, iii. 18. Great quantities in the Baikal, 76. Onega, lake, account of the, i. 203. Fifh of the, iii. 77. Onions, garlic and cucumbers, eaten raw, iii. 223. O/ion, a grand council held at the fources of the river, i. 409. Ora/-court, for petty difputes, ii. 411. Orange and lemon-tives, iii. 132. , Ojv/jarrf-fruits, iii. 227. Great returns made by, 2:9. Orchards, ii. 31. ' Ordinfkoi kozaks, from the great orda or horde, i. 2 S3. Orenburg-koiak*, i. 300. Orenburg, trade of, ii. 302. Origin, nations of uncertain, i. 494. N Orpbo'i-court, noble, ii. 403. Orthodox greek church, the f'ovcreigns of Ruffia always of the, ii. 173. Ofiold and Dir, varagian leaders, founders of the fovereignty at Kief, i. 268. 439. Offetinzians, or Oll'es, i. 487. Ofliaks of the Oby, i. 347. Small-pox not known among them till the arrival of the Ruffians, ii. 83. Of the Yenifley, L. 493.497. Of the Oby, ii. 466. Oftrogs, a fort of prifons, ii. 40. Otchakof, the territory of, a frontier, i; 10. Seven forts of vine* grow in the diftricts of, iii. 243,. Othere of Halgoland difcovered the Permians, i. 339. Otbiii or Odin, the univerfal deity of the Teutons, i. 339. Otter, in moft ot the fiberian rivers, ii. 446. Ovin, a ruflian corn-kiln, iii. 137. Oxen, ufed for draught, ii. 34. Of Podolia, long famous, iii. 88. Oxusf couutriesas far as the, fubmit to Tfchinghis, i, 412. Paga- 610 I N D E X. Paganifm, livpnian, i. 368. Curious remains of, 376. Paint, a neceffafy in female drefs, ii. 50. Palace, annual expences of the, ii. 233. Pallas, profeflbr, his animated defcription of Taurida, i. 30. Settles there, 32., Remarks concerning fait, 80. Panacea, the ruffian, ii.. 7. Panin, family of, originally Genoefe, ii. 113. Count, vicechan- cellor, 342. ¦ Pantikapceum, or Bofphorus, built by the Milefians, i. 433. Paper and paper-hanging manufactory, iii. 379-. Paper-money, orbankaffignations, iii. 539. Parz/5-churches and cathedrals, number of, ii. 117. Parobitcb, improves the culture of the vine, iii. 236. Partition of the ruffian territory, i. 273. Pajion-vieek, kept with great apparent folemnity, ii. 67. faftorates, livonian and efthonian, are real manors, with vaffals upon-ihem, ii. 109. 368. 380. / Pafture-grounds, i. 79. The richeft, confift of prodigious fteppes, or moors, iii. 93. Patents of ftaff-officers, muft be figned by the monarch, ii. 213. Fees paid on making out, ii. 368. Paternofter, in the old vendifh and in the lettifh, i.403. Patriarchal dignity, for a long time interwoven with the confti. tution, ii. 194. Pavlova, induftry of the boors at, ii. 38. Paul Petrovitcb, prefident of the admiralty, ii. 351. Pay, fmall, of the Ruffian foldiers, ii. 253. 263. Peafants, in Efthonia and Livonia, not equal to the Gentians in bodily ftrength, i. 360. Free, ii. 124. 132. Few that do not poffefs a horie or two, iii. 109. Peafantry, diftinftions among the, ii. 20. Livonian and eftho nian, ii.383. Pecuniary penalties, ii. 323. Peipus, lake, always decreafing in breadth, i. 206. Called in rufsTfchudfkoie ozero, 336. Penjinfioye' more, 1.134. Penifaari, an ifland in the gulf of Finland, i. 191. ' People, feveral claffes of the, ii. 19. Percentage, on the capital of merchants, ii. 298. Perme, expence of the government of, ii. 330. Permia, annual expeditions to, i. 324. 340. lermians, a remarkable nation in the Finnifli hiftory, i. 338, In ages very remote traded with the Perfians and Indians-, 34°* Perry, captain, on the inftirution of the fenate, ii. 343. Perfeverance, of the Ruffians, ii. 5. Perfian havens on the Cafpian, iii, 443. Provinces relinquifhed, 447. Commerce by land, 439. Per- INDEX. 611 Perfpiration, natural, promoted by the vapour-bath, ii. 13. Pertnavolok, peninfula, i. 89. Perune, the univerfal deity of the Slavonians and Lettes, i. 339. Peter the great,1; vigorous transformations made by, i. 308. Peterfburg, climate of, i. 36. Expence of the government of, 3?°» Petfbora, the fteppe, or moor of, i. 145. Petjhora, river, i. 221. Petition, prefented to the emprefs Anna, ii. 184. Muft be de livered to one of the minifters, 222. Petrozavodfk, a great cannon-f'oundery at, iii. 420. Petfcbenegrans, a powerful nomadic nation, i. 440. Phanagoria, formerly the ifland Taman, ii. 247. Pbarmacopceia Rofjica, i. 562. Pharmacy, not a novei introduction, iii. 378. Phoenicians early vilited the coafts of the Euxine, i. 467.. Phyjicians, old, employed the bath with great fuccefs, ii. 13-. Rarely applied t6 by the,comnion Poles, ii. 78. And furgeons in Livonia, ii. 381. Phiflognomy, of the Finns, ii. 81. Pillory, a thief obliged to ftand three days in the, i. 292* Pilntbts, the god of plenty, i. 371. Pilten, bifhopric of, obtained by Magnus, Prince of Denmark, •• 3>7- Pimento, much cultivated about Aftrakhan, iii. 189. Pi/fA-drawing, the bufinefs of, iii. 417. ' Placemen, pay no tax on their falaries, iii 368. Plague, inftitutions againft the, i. 394. The Turks take na precautions to avoid, ii. 71. P/aw-^/a/i-manufactories, iii. 414. Plays, biblical, i. 391. Plefcbtfcheyef's remarks on the quality of the foil, i. 60. Plettenburg, Walther von, mafter of the teutonic order, made a prince of the german empire, i. 316. Plica polanica, circumftantial account of the, ii. 73. Pliny, quotation from, i. 349. Plough, the commoneft kind of, iii. 139. In fome parts unne- ceffary, 131. The Ukrainian, 159. Heavy ufed by the Tar. tars, 163. Plumbs and cherries, grow wild to the 53th deg. n. lat. iii. az8. Importation of, in 1794. 231. Pogromna, a fpring at, refembling Seltzer water, i. 249. Polabes, fo denominated from the Laba or Elbe, i. 258. Polacbs, the primitive denomination of the Poles, i. 239. Polanians, from pale, a field or plain, i. 270. Poland, countries taken from, united to theempire,i.3. Slavonian tribes withdrew to, i. 266. Political exiftence of, annihilated, 381. The Malo-ruffian Kozaks a barrier to, 287. Poles, next to the Ruffians, the moft numerous flavonian nation -of the empire, i. 303. Make themfelves mafters of Mofco, -07. In defcent and language related to the Ruffians, ii. 69. vifited by more violent.and malignant difeafes than the Ruf, fians, 70. Poll' 6t2 INDEX. Poll-tax, rendered more general, ii. 295. At a ftated amount, ii. 37°. ¦ Polotzani, lived near the fhores of the Polota, i. 238. Polovtzes, called alfo Komanians, iii. 449. Poltiniki and polpol tiniki, coined, iii. 3.50. Polytheifm, the Livonians unjuftly charged with, i. 368. Pomeranians, dwelt po moru, near the fea, i. 258. Pomponiuf Mela, mentions Albion and Bergion as fons of Hercules, i- 349- Polygamy, allowed by the koran, ii. 83. Poppies, heads of, fufpended in fermenting wine, iii. 242. Population, burdenfome on the ifle of Dago, i. 186. Popula tion and populoufnefs, i. 314. Inftitutions for the preferva tion and increafe of, 533. iii, 156. Pow/a/H-manufactories, iii. 416. Porog, a cataract, i. 291. Poromufhir, one of the Kurilly iflands, i. 160. Ports, from whence goqds were exported in 1793, "'• S00' Pofchlin, or duty on law proceedings, ii. 302. Poftsor offices, military rank annexed to all, ii.213. Potafb-m&kitig, iii. 361. Potatoes, introduced into Kamtfhatka, i. 236. Neither much cultivated nor eaten in Ruffia, ii. 79. Potemiin, prince, hetman of the Kozaks, ii. 237. Forms a large regiment of cuiraffiers, 243. Introduced new regula. tions into the army, 233. Corrected many abufes, 261. Pre- fident of the college of war, ii. 350. Poterpelitz, plenty of iron at, i. 104. Potter's clay, where found, i. 99. Pe//-fi(h, yields fperniaceti, iii. 13. Poultry, in Siberia, ii. 34, ^;. Potuer, fovereign, unlimited, ii. 164. 2O3. Communicated folely by the fovereign, ii. 188. Abufe of, will occafionally happen in all governments, 191. Preftol, a throne, ii. 224. ' Prices of the feveral articles of provifion and neceffaries at St. Peterfburg, January 1800, iii. 342. ; Pridvornaya kantora, ii. 140. 4 Prieft, ceremony on meeting, ii. 67. Pays no capitation-tax for his fons, 113. Priefts, efthonian, ftrange notions of the, i. 383. Princes, number of, extremely large, ii. 104. And princeffes, 224. Principalities, independent, ii. 174. Printing-office, every fuperior college has its own, ii. 338, iii, 1 ,?8p- Prtpifniye, or enrolled boors, ii. 136. Prifons, have their infpedtors, ii. 408. Privileges of the nobility, ii. 96. Enlarged, 100. Chartered, 194. PWtyi-coilnfellor, titular or actual, ii. 213. Procureur, of the colleges, ii. 337. Of the fenate, 346. Produds, natural, revenue arifing from, ii. 320. Siberian, brought into Ruffia, iii. 470. Exported 1111793, 496- Profefftons, INDEX. .«13 ProfcffloHs, learned, exempt from taxes, ii. 368.- PremotioN, open to tailors, ii. 274. Piomuifeblen-iiki, hunters by profetlion, i. 500. \ Prvpeny, confiscation of, abolithed, ii. 40S. In mines, right of, iii. 30+. Piyl'.ii, ufed at taking leave ii. 33. Prtforoftfyi general, ii. 237' Proiopcpe, or archprieft, ii. 34-. Pfcove and Tver, principalities of, fubmitto IvaiiVaffillievitchI. 1. 277. Ptolo'iy's hypothefis concerning the Cafpian, i. 196. Public b.i lis, defcribed, ii. 9. Ptig.itibef, ftmc/y.1*, the famous rebel, i. 301. pinij&iients, capital, extreme!) rave, ii. 408. Puppies, in Kamchatka, thrown into a dark pitj iii. 133, Pu/bkittj, the tutelar deity of forefts, i. 371. Pygmies, race bf, not fabulous, i, 331. <*iuliti,-s, good, of the kamtfhadale dog, overbalance his bad ones, iii. 12S. Qgarrelfems, Ruffians not, ii. 3 3. parries, in the ifle of CEfel, i. 180. ^£ ufeful animal, ii. 43:, 438, 439. Warm Mood of the, vol. in. r r takeu «»4 .INDEX. taken againft the fcurvy, iii. 12. His uncommon Utility, 121. Reinikin, affeffor, encourages hufbandry in Kamtfhatka, i 13$. Religion of the Livonians, i. 366. The ufe of the bath inter woven with, ii. 8. Remedies, domeftic, ii. 7. Remonftrance, concerning a law, may be made, ii. 187. Repaft, evening, 245. Reports, Icelandic, make frequent mpntion of the Permians, »• 339- .Rfipf/2-mafter-general, office of, 246. Reval, the harbour of, ii. 280. Amount of cuftoms at, ii. 300. Revenues from, 326. Expeuce of the government of, 330. Exports of, iii. 433. Revenues of the empire, difpofable at the fole will of the mo narch, ii. 206. Ainount of, 324. Annual, iii. 476, Rhoedung, a procefs in agriculture, iii. 146. Rhubarb, the genuine or Chinefe, iii. 189. Rbymnus, the ancient name of the Ural, i. 231. Riga built, i. 390. Amount of cuftoms at, ii. 300. Muft be jiaid in dollars, 319. Revenues from, 326. Expence of the -goViernment of, 330. Commerce of, iii. 434. Rilek, the common village-lyre, ii. 60. Rifti kirrick, or crofs-church, i. 376.' Rivers, congelation of, i. 23. Of the Altay-mountains, 134. Of the Sayane-mountains, 136. Of the Baikal-mountains, 140. Of the r^ertfhinfkoi-mountains, 141. Of the Okhot- fkian mountains, 143. In the fteppe of the Petfliora, 143. That flow.into the Baikal, 204. That flow into the Baltic, 2:09. That fall into the White-fea, 220. Taken up by the Oby, 222. By the Tungufka, 226. Falling into the Euxine, 236-. Of Siberia, yery commodious for navigation, 233. Rock-falt, from the mountains, i.g 1. Richeft beds of, iii. 32L Roebuck, the flag, and the deer, ii. 436. Roegervyk, a commodious harbour attempted to be made at, ii. 280. Roller, as ufed in agriculture, not generally known, iii. 142. Roth wreft* Normandy from the kings of France, i. 268. Romanof, dynafty of, fucceeds that o'f- Rurik, ii. 134. By elec tion, 163. a04« Romans, had very obfcure notions concerning the geography of the northern nations, i. 349. Roots, wild, ufed by the Tartars, ii.44. Rorich, a Norman, became famous in the hiftory of Holland, i. 268. Koiala, poffeffed by the Ruffians, i. 269. "Rubje, value of the, in 1797, iii. 487. By the courfe of exchange in 1799, 535. Formerly an imaginary coin, 546. Silver, the oldeft, 548, Diftinction between old and new, 537. Rusdana, orroiige, how prepared, ii. 31. RvHic language, ftill fpoken on the ifle of Ruun, i. 184. Rurik, founder of the Ruffian monarchy, i. 468. Dynafty of, becomes extinft, 279. 'ii. 14. 183. Dynafty Qf, reigned in Ruf fia from 862 to 1598. ii. 134. 204, Rujia, INDEX. 6,s- Ruflia, proper import of that term, i. i. Monarch of all, that title firft ufed, 9. Its early ftrength and confequence, 17. Fertility of, 63. Principal plains of, 143. Waters of, 131. Company, ofLofldttri, maintain a chapel, at Cronftadt, 193. Anciently inhabited by Finns, 237. Slavonian tribes with drew to, 266. Aborigines of, 267. Becomes formidable to Afia, 273. Aftrakhan becomes'a province of, 278. The bor ders of, to the fouth, enlarged by the Kuban, 280. Incur- fions of the Mongoles or Tartars into, 341. 416. Or all the Ruffias, ii. 27S. An unlimited monarchy, 183. Army of, cofts lefs than any. other in Europe, 262. Has had a fleet from the beginning of the 18th century, 282. Revenue of, 2S7. 292. Importance of the Cafpian fifhery to, iii. 30. Lakes in, yield plenty of fifh, 73. Quantity of land in, totally unfit for agriculture, 133. Hiftory of the mines in, 286. Confequence of the hemp trade to, 467. Aggregate national wealth of, 472. Kazan and Aftrakhan fall to, 421. Ruflian empire, tfhat that term denotes, i. 2. Extent of, 4, 3. Much weakened, 8. Capable of progreffive aggrandize ment, 16. Seas forming the boundaries of the, 131. Nations of the, n^^. Troubles arifing from partitioning the, 273. Bears the yoke of the Tartars for upwards of two hundred years, 276. Prefent extent of, unparalleled in the annals of the world, 279. Bounded by the caucafean mountains, 4^0. People from all countries invited to come and fettle in; 282. Malo-ruffian Kozaks fubmit to the, 288. Siberia incorpo rated with the, 303. Its independence obtained, 307. The laft remains of Lithuania fall to the, 312. Polifh Livonia, annexed to the, 318. Livonians, at a very early period tribu tary to the, 338. Fourfcore diftinft nations in the, 308. Happily constituted for all incitements' to induftry, 194. Many diftricts, of the fineft foil, not inhabited, 197. Lofes the abilities of a great portion of its inhabitants, 206. No foreft laws in the, 263. Copper mines of the, 299. Cha- raiteriftics of its inhabitants, ii. 1. Its fovereigns have fome times been elected, 137. Vndivided from the time of tzar Ivan Vaffillievitch,1 207. Has no national ftates, 219. Land forces of the, 233. Sufficiently protected by nature on feve ral fides,' 339. Had no maritime force prior to Peter the great, 265. Navy of the, 284. Its revenues differently efti mated, 290. Real amount of, 324. Fertile regions of the, iii. 135. Commerce of the, iri. 429. The Krimea and the Kuban incorporated with the, f. 421. 457- The Tartars be longing, to the, 447. The moft populous diftrift of the, 335. Uuflians, firft mentioned in the Bertinian annals, i. 269. Mix with the Slavonians^ 271. Early conquered the Tfchudes or Finns, 324. Character of thie, ii. z. Collateral branches of, 4. Of flavonian origin, 13. Much hardened by climate, education and habits of life, 51. Excellent foldiers, 256. Can fubfift on lefs pay than any others, 263. Good failorsj, 283. Good managers of horfes, iii. 113. tuftic occupations-, iii. 155-. J r r a R«un, 616 INDEX. Ruun, in ifland in the gulf of Riga,- i. 183. '. Rye-mea\t the ftandard by which the value of all things is regtl. lated, iii. 473. Rymnlkfky, a furname given to general Suvarof, ii. 261, Rymfki tzar, the king of the Romans, ii. 177. Ryffaland or Riifsland, the ancient, fituation of, i. 269. Rytfchkof, counfellor, his experiments to afcertain the number of bees, iii. 273. S. Sable, the moft valuable animal for its fkin, ii. 426. Saboika, a machine for catching fifh, iii. 60. Saffian, or maroquin, iii. 394. j SafflovJer, thrives well in feveral places, iii. 183. Saffron, grows wiid about the Terek, iii. 182. 188. iSaiZ-cloth and cordage manufactory, iii. 381. Sailors, two claffes of, ii. 273. Salaries in the hofpitalsof St. Peterfburg, i. 576. Sales of immoveable property, duty on, ii. 303. Salmon, of the Duna, the moft excellent of all Livonia, i. 21*. Salmons and Sighi, abound in the Dvina and the Petfhora, iii. 20. And trouts, remarkable circumftance concerning, 46. Salt, a monopoly of the crown, i. 80. Salt and' brandy, monopolies retained by the crown, ii. 214. 309. 3"- 373- Salt, uniformly fold at one price, ii. 214. Confumption of, 311. Quantity obtained, 313. £a//-herbs, no where found in fuch great quantities, iii. 191. Xa//-lakes, iii. 322. Salt-vans, attended with great expence, ii. 214. Saltpetre manufactory, iii. 362. Salt places, in the empire, i. 80. In the fteppe of the Dniepr, 146. In the fteppe of the Don and Volga, 147. Salt regulation, wifely framed, iii. 331. Salts, ineftimable ftores of, iii. 319. 320. Importation of, 328. Salt fprings, the moft productive, iii. 314. Same-ednam, Lapland, i. 327. Samoderjetz and famoderjitza, etymology of, ii. 178. Samoyedes, hiftory and origin of the, i. 493. Form parties for the capture of bears and foxes, ii. 437. Characteriftics of the, ii. 88. Their method of taking fea dogs, iii. 16. Of preferving fifh throughout the year, 49. ift Sarepta, a fetid fulphureous fpring at, i. 241. Sajfafras, in the mountains of Kolhyvan, iii. 190. Savings, may be confidered as income, ii. 290. 327. 329. Sauromates, ancient inhabitants of Ruffia, i. 257.. Sqxo Grammaticus mentions the Laplanders, i. 327. Sayane mountains, i. 134. Scandinavia and Ruffia ftored with finnifh nations, i. 323. 5 Scan. I N D EX. 617 Scandinavians, or Northmanni, founders of the ruffian ftate, i. 2-67. School, children of failors, kept at, ii. 273. Schlangenberg, mineral-mountains, iii. 203. Scurvy, not dangerous to the Ruffians in Novaya Zemlia, iii. 12. Scythes, ufed in reaping corn, iii. 142. Importation and price of, 4*3. Scythians and Sarmates, i. 264. Sea-covj, defcription of, iii. 33. Sea-bear, in troops about the eaftern iflands, 111,27. Their pe culiar manners, 28. Sfa-duties or cuftoms, ii. 300. Seal, imperial, ii. 229. Seal, fifli, a remarkable phenomenon of the Baikal, jii. 76. Sea-lice, the morfe tormented by, iii. 9. Sea-lion, methods of taking the, iii. 31. Seamen, the Efthonians have always been able, i. 332.. Englifh and Dutch winter in the Frozen-ocean, iii. 4. Sea-otter, the remarkable manners of the, defcribed, iii. 36, Sea-falt, iii. 327, Security and defence, various means of, i. 13, Seitfaari, an ifland in the gulf pf Finland, i. 191, Sefengbinjk, colonies of the Poles, in the circle of, i. 309, Seleucus Nicanor, attempts an artificial channel from the Caf pian, i. 198. 232. Semenfltoi kozaks, i. 299. Semigallia, acquifition of, i. 281. Semuffyr, one of the Kurilly iflands, i. 163, Senate, not a reprefentative body, ii. 185. The directing, 342. Its functipns, 343, Senator, that word adopted into the ruffian language, ii. 344. Sepulchres, ancient of the Tartars, i. 448. Serfs, emancipated, ii. 131. Servants, menial, kept in too great numbers, iij. 198, Servians, or Serbes, a branch of the illyrian Slavi, i. 309. Service, military, performed in commutation for taxes, ii. 36*9. Sefamum, flourishes in the fouthern provinces, iii, 187, Seftrabek, thermometrical obfervations at, i. 36. Setcha, chief feat of the Kozaks, i. 291. Settlers, who gain their livelihood by trades, ii. 413, Sevaftopole, naval force at, ii. 283. Sevruga, holds the middle ftatioi) between the beluga and the ' fturgeon, iii. 39. Capture of, in the Ural, 69. Sexes, intercourfe between the, ii. $6. Sexton, as a church-officer, exempt from the capitation-tax, ii. 113. Shad, amazing fhoals of, travel up the Volga, iii. 82, Shagreen, how prepared in Aftrakhan, iii. 403. Shamois and bezoar goats, abound in mount Caucafus, ii, 460. Sheep, native ruffian, ii. 34. The breeding of, iii. 97. The fat, tailed breed, 100. Beft kinds of 104. Ships arrived, number of, Britifh and American, iii. 439, 303. Arrived and failed in 1797. 514. Arrived in. 1799, 532. Cleared inwards and outwards, 1799, .534* «»3 Shirinki, «i? INDEX. Sbfriftki, qneof the Kurilly iflands, i. 1.60, SUomtfhu, one of the Kurilly iflands, KY39. Siberia, united to the Ruflian empire, i. 3. Muft fiayp' under gone fome furprifing natural revolution, 26. Weather in, 38,, Defcribed, 61 . Of a good foil, 63. Amazing quantity of fait in, 80. Conquered, 278. 393. Colonies of Bukharians in, 478. ii. 15. An epidemical difeafe in, ii. 6. Agriculture in, 46. No fruit-trees thrive in, ii. 31. Incorporated with the Ruffian empire, i. 303. Only requires a .larger population for enabling it to produce the neceffaries of life in abun dance, iii. 138. No bees in, 272. Commerce of, 469. Tar. tars of, 458. Siberian kozaks, i. 302. Sicily taken from the Arabians, i. 268. Silk,' the culture of, iii. 276. Manufactories, 383. Silk-plants, growingwild, iii. 177. Silver coins, refpective value of, iii. 334. Silver, obtained from all the mines, ii. 313. 315. Purchafed' from abroad, 320. Simeon the Proud, i. 274. Sineus and Truvor, brothers of prince. Rurik, i. 271,, Singing, the Ruffians much addicted to, ii. 58. Sivafh, or the Putrid-fea, length and breadth of, i. 177. Skins, procured by the chace, value of in one year, ii. 43Q, Of the morfe, iii. 14.' Of the fea-bear,' 31. Slaf, a nobleman, i. 237. Slavery, bad effects of, i. 364. Slavi, ancient feat of tlje, i. 263. Slavne, nobles, i, 237. Slavonians, their ufual way of denominating countries, i. 7, The predominant ftock of the ruflian empire, i. 263. Forma. republic, 270. Sledge, dogs harneffed to a, iii. 124. Slobode-kozaks, origin of the, i. 289. Slobodes, Or large villages, ii. 40. Slavonians, on the lake Ilmen, i. 269. Small-pox, ravages of the, i. 346. Not fp fatalasin fome other. countries, ii.'6. Owing to the vapoyr-baths, 13. The Poles take no precautions againft the, ii. 71. Carries off a- whole ge neration at a time among the Kamtfhadales, 89. Smiths, common, ingenuity of, iii. 312. S moating tobacco, formerly held to be finful, iii. 184. SnioUnfk, ' Severia and Tfchernigof abandoned to the Poles, 1.279- Smuggling, fevere Penalties againft, ii. 308. SriakeS', fuperftition concerning, i. 371. Snovj, falls in Novaya-Zemfia, to the height of three or four yards, i. 132. Six or eight feet in Kamtfhatka, i. 174. Re flection from, injurious to the eyes, ii. 89. Soapboiling, iii. 346. Soil; ferviceable to agriculture, but poor, iii, 133. Soldiers, quartered upon the boors, ii. 98. Difbanded, 129. De tached cofps of, 230. Endure'all hardfhips, 236. Allowance • of the,263. 'Contrive to faye a little out pf their pear pay, 377, Solopbol, i nr vr Tt x. 619 Sohmbol, anifland-rn theDvi'nay ii, 281. Solovief, Ivan, his expedition for the cape of Alafka, iii. 43. Solykamfi, thefmonietrieai obfer^vatiofis at, i. 2$. Soongares, lived formerly about the Balkafli-lake, i. 430. ' Soongaria, warm fprings in, i. 243. Songs, fubjects of the ruffian, ii, 39. Sorbs, or Serbs,- a primitive denomination, i. 158. Sovereign, title of the, ii. 174. Power, authority, and prero gatives of, 182. 203. Abfolute, 220. Souls, a term implying male-boors, iii. 210. Spartacus, rules over the towns of the Kuban, i. 467. ... , \ ,¦ Specie, copper, ii. 317. . Quantity of, annually increafed,- mV Specification, particular, of products exported, iii. 498. Spices, fubftitutes for, iii. 188., Spitfbergen, the ifland of, iii. 4. Squadron, confifts of two companies, ii. 234. Squirrel, feveral kinds of, ii. 438.' Stables, of pokleti, ii. 42. Stamped-paper, annual confumption of, ii. 302. Staraya Ladoga, the refidence of Rurik, i. 271. Staraya-Roffa, falt-works at, iii. 326. Staroft, from the flavonian term, ftaffchina, elder, i. 314. Statements concerning the fur trade, refults from, iii. 44. Stature of the Ruffians, ii. 17, Of the Finns, 81. Of the Sa moyedes, 88. Statute-lavj-court, ii.401. Inferior, 405. Statutes, few printed, ii. 344. Stenka Rafin, rebellion of, i. 297. Stephen, bifliop, converts Permia to the chriftian faith, i. 323. 342. His barbarous zeal, 348. Steppe-grounds, or moorlands, iii. 143I Stefpennaia knigi, quotation from the, i. 344. Steppes, of the empire, i. 74. Stone, feveral kinds of, iii. 318. Cutting, 413. Stones, hills, and trees, made choice of as memorials bf fome ftriking tranfaftion; i. 372. Storms. of thunder and lightning, i. 34. 'In Siberia, 59. None in Novaya Zemlia, 132. To which the Cafpian is fubject, 200. Of theBaikal, 203. Of the' Ladoga, 204. Strabo, the epitomiferof, 264. 438. Mentions the Uzeis, 440, Strawberries, wild, in the territory of Irkutfk. iii. 323. Streamlings, a fpecies of herring, iii. 74. Strelitzes, ii. 130. Abolifhed by Peter I. 237. Sturgeons, fterlet, Sec. plentiful in the Oby, iii. 20. In the Cafpian, 31. The beft fifh of the Volga, 39. Of the Ural, 71. Siletnavoloi, i. 94. SufyecJs, five claffes of, ii. 93. Specific obligations and rights in regard of, 208, 209- Condition of the, 360. General wel fare of the, 374. Subtlety, natural, of the Efthonians, i. 333. Succeffion, imperial, ii. 134. Heritable in both fexes, adj. 223. Succeff'ar, appointed by the fovereign, ii. I67. 203. Sugar-v/orksi iii. 363. R R 4 Sugdania, 62Q INDEX. Sugdania, the grecian poffeffions in the Krim receive the name of, i. 454.. Sulphur, {in fufficient abundance, iii; 319. Works for pre, paring, 420. • Sulphureous waters, i. 241. Summer, in many parts, fhort, i. 33. Sun, rifingand letting of the, in various places, i. 60. Sunday; -ithe '.grand court-day, ii. 231. Superfluous, of the Livonians, i. 367. Surnames, honourable, annexed to families, ii, 261. Swedes, the laft who founded a fovereignty in the finnifh parts of the north, i. 326.. Settled in Ruffia, 505. Swimming, much practifed by the Efthonians and Livonians, i. 364. ..-: Swinging, a favourite diverfipn, 1,363. S'tuora'-brethren, order of, i. 316. 389. Syafltutan, one of the Kurilly iflands, i. 162. Synod, a co-ordinate coNege with tfie fenate, ii. 219. Members - of the, never fign a fentence of death, ii. 341. "I"he holy di, refting, 347. Syrianes, call themfelves Komi, i. 343, Table-money, allowed tp officers when at fea, ii. 272. Tacitus, the appellative of the Finns already known to, i. 322. 334- Taganrak, the foundations of, laid, iii. 435. Tail of the kirghifian flieep, a lump of fat, iii. 101. Takavangha, ifland, has a volcano, i. 170. Tallow-chandMery , iii. 347. Taman, ifland of, i, 106. 176. Affigned tp the zaporpgian kozaks, 294. Tangut, the king of, reduced to vaffalage by Tfchinghis-khan, i. 410. Tax, prepared fro in theiirch-tree, ii. 33. Tartar ftock divided into numerous branches, ii. 83. 129. Tartarian, haven? on the Cafpian, iii. 445. Tartars, a diftirift nation^ originally from the turkifti, ftock, i. 436. Coriftitution of the, 446. Conquer Kief, i. 286, Su.ppofed.to have firft introduced coin into Ruffia, iii. 544. Tafehkent,. has a khan of its own, i. 479. Tavaftland, "poffeffe'd by the Swedes, i. 326,. Tavlintzians, in the fummits pf Caucafus, i. 488. Tayrida,- one of the moft mild and fertile regions of ihe empire, i". 30.' , Mountains of, 103. Its ancient name reftored, 280, Principal fifheries in, iii. 72. "Rich in fheep, 98. Revival of the trade pf, 439. • Tayritfcbefiy', furnatne given tp prince Potemkin, ii. 261. Tavroff on the D6n,- dock-yards at,' i. 339. Taxes, the clergy exempt from, ii. 113. In general not opr preffive, ii. 373. On the fifheries in the Cafpian, iii. 32. , Tea, in general ufe, 'ii. 43. Teeth, of the morfe, found in amazing quantities, iii. 11. Ufed, to the fame purpofes as ivory, 14, " Teletzkoi, INDEX. (Sat Teletzkoi, mountain, i. 130. Lake, 222. Teleutes, or Telengutes, i. 473. Temperament, of the Ruffians, ii. 17. Temperature, in the fouthern parts of Ruffia, inequality of the, iii. 246. Tempefts, obfervations on, i, 55. Temple of Yummala, i. 339. Temudfchin, or Tfchinghis-khan, i. 409. Formed the defign of penetrating into India, 413. Tepteri, a tribe compofed of feveral nations, i. 348. Terechtemirof, the capital of the Kozaks, i. 288. Terek, the river, climate of the parts about, i. 56. Takes its fource in the fnow-mountains of Caucafus, 234. Baths on the, 24a, medicinal fpring at the, 248. Naphtha fources on the, 249- Terek, region about the, fertile in fruits, i. 29, Terekfioi-kozaks, i. 298. Tertials, all placemen paid by, ii. 274. Teutonic nations anciently had no other laws than old traditionary maxims, ii. 199, Teutonic order, knight of the, defeated by Alexander Nefsky, i- 276. Withftands the powerof Ivan, 278. Theatricals, chriftian, at Riga, i. 390? Thibet and Bukharia, the buffalo a domeftic animal ia, iii. 96, Thieving, Livonians and Efthonians very dexterous at, i. 363, The Kamtfhadale dogs artful in, iii. 126. Threfbing, the ordinary flail ufed in, iii. 143. Thule, rather Shetland than Iceland, i. 330. Thunder, never obferved in Behring's ifland, i. 137. Thurfday, fuperftitious obfervance of, i. 367. Time and abilitities, much wafted in Ruffia, iii. 202. Title, imperial, at length, ii. 179. Titles, not to be had for money in Ruflia, ii. 213. Of the Im perial family, 223. More conferred than formerly, 343. Timur, or Tamerlan, prince of Kefch, near Samarkand, i. 422, Ttnutaraian, Mftiflaf, prince of, i. 285. The famous principa lity of, 469. 484. Tobacco, abundant in the Ukraine, ii. 31. Little ufed, 46. Profit ably cultivated, iii. 184. Manufacture, 379. Tobol, river, takes its rife in the country of the Kirghifes, i. 223. Tobolfkian Tartars, i. 461. Toleration, religious, unbounded, i. 476. Tollenfians, named after the river Tollenfea, i. 238. Tomfiian-T artars, i. 461. Torgots, fettle on the Volga, i. 432. Emigrate to the Chinefe, '433- „ ,. „ Torropil, 3 mufical inftrument, 1.363. Torture, every fpecies of, abolifhed, ii. 407. Toivn-houfe, every town has its, ii. 409. Towns, good living in, ii. 374. Trade, Ruffians much inclined to, ii. 18. Trades, carried on by the Ruffians, ii. 21. Tradefmen, profits of, in country towns, ii. 382, Train- «**. INDEX. Train-oil, m3nufa6tory of,- iii. 342. Travellers, fome erroneous judgments of, accounted for, ii. 388. Travelling performed with great celerity in Ruffia^ iii. 113. Trevfurer, imperial, office'of, ii. 346. Treatment, medical, of the plica polonica, ii.,76. Trebifond, captured by the Kozaks, i. 287. Trees, a great diverfity of, 'i. 69. Growing on the Ural moun tains, 117- On the Altay mountains,. 134. On the Sayane mountains, 136. On the Baikal mountain^, 140. On the - Nertfhinfkoi. mountains, 141. Of the fteppe of Petfhora, 143. Of the fteppe of the Dnieper, 146. In the peninfula of Kamt- ftiatkai, 133. On the ifle of Hochiandy or Hohgknd,- 189. On the fhores of the Don, 237. None at all oh Spitfbergen and Novaya^Zemlia, iii. 12. Foreft, ii. 32. . . Tribes, had their particular denomination from fome river, town, or diftrict, i. 238. ...-„. Tribute, paid in money, ii. 321. Or taxes on the mines, iit. 304. Troops, irregular, ii. 236. Ttvcbmenieuri, parent .'ftock of the, i.480. Tchan, a lake of Siberia, prolific in fifh, iii. 77. -. : Jfcbetdyit, an ancient town on the Krilva-, r. 341. Tfcberemiffes, i. 343- Tfchefcbengians, or Mikfcheflians, i. 4S7. Tfeberkeffians, or Circaffians, i. 483. Tfehucbantzi, or. Maimifti,. the Finns, i. 334. Tfcbuktfches, in the northieaftern point of Siberia, i. 302. Tfcbuktfchi, greatly addicted to the whale. fifhery, iii. 25. Tfchuktfcbi-nos, known earlier than Kamtfhatka, i. 500. Tfcbulymfkian Tartars, i- 462. Tfcbuvafches, a very numerous nation, i. 343, Tfbany, lake, abounds iri fifh, i. 209- Tfbarifioi mountains, i. 131. Tfbernofofiniye, or boors of the black plough, ii. 139- Tfbikota, one of the Kurilly iflands, i. 167. Tjbirinkutan,. one of the. KurilJy iflands, i. 162. Tfbirpo Oi, one of the Kurilly iflands, i. 163. Tula, great manufactory of fire-arms at, iii. 423. Tungufes, account of the, i. 4901 492. Addict themfelves to ' agriculture, ii. 87. 3S7. Tungufka,. the. upper, middle, and lowers i. 223. Turalinzes, the, i. 460. Turan, the khanate of, i. 438. Turf-moors and kennel-coal;, iii. 237. 3*9. Turkifh war, ftate of the. army during, the laft, ii. 244. Pri. foners offer to ferve in the galley-fleet, ii. 274. Turkiftarn i. 479- Turkifh tribes dwelt in, i. 259. Turks, territory gained from the, in 1774, i. 3. Fall upon Ruffia, 278. The firft-known mother-country- of the, i. 437. Otto man, 506. Turneps, a fubftitute for bread, in Finland, iii. 223. Turpentine, drawn from the larch-tree, iii. 234. Tutor, domeftic, common falary of a, in Livonia and Efthonia, ii. 381. Tyterfaari, an ifland of the gulf pf Finland, i. 190. -< • J Tzarj INDEX. 623 Tzar, title of, when firft adopted, ii. 173, 223. Tzareviteh, fonof'the tzar, ii. 223, Tzaritzin, its warm and genial climate, i. 19. A medicinal well near,, 246. Tzarftvo, kingdom, ii. 176. Tzefarevitcb, fon of the caefar or emperor, ii. 223, Talday mountains, i. 98. Produced by violent inundations, 10.3. The neigbourhood of, inhabited by I'fliorki, 334. Valdimar III. king of Denmark, fells Efthonia to the teutonic knights, i. 31.6. Vallies, adjoining the ural chain of mountains, i. 117, Vallinkq, a diminutive pair of bagpipes, ii. 6p. Valhpea, ruins of an ancient caftle in Dago, i. 187. Vapour-bath, good againft the plica-polooica, ii. 77. Much ufed. by the Lettes, Sol Varages, get the command of the Ruffians, ii. 14., Varagian Rofft, the Ruffians received their appellation from the, i. 259. Varagians, Varingians, or Nortmanni, 268. Varnabi, formerly dwelt near the Varnof, i. 258." Vafemfky, prince, acted as high treafurer, ii. 287. Vaffdlage, whether it would be proper toabolifh, ii. 148. Crip ples the. fpirit of induftry, iii. 208. Vaffal-boors, ii. 133. Pay taxes and furnifli recruits, 369. Vaffals, emancipated, take a family-name, i. 337. Strongly aU tached to their lords, when kind and humane, 366. Employed at the mines, iii. 314, Vataga, a particular ftation for fifhing on the Cafpian, iii. 31, Vaygats-&raights, i. 152. Vegetables of a faline foil, fattening, iii, 100. For the ufe of manufactures and commerce, iii. 172, Culinary, 222. Vehicles, light and commodious, ii. 43. Veitzgants, the patron deity of betrothed perfons, i. 371. Velika iya kn?eghinya, great princefs, ii, 224. Velikie kniaes, great prince, generally tranflated grand duke,, ii, 174. »24- Velitcbeftvo, means majefty in rufs, 11. 182. Vendi, the Lithuanians nearly related to the, i. 310. Venereal diforders, particularly dangerous, ii. 6. In Poland, 72. Venetians, trade to the Krim and to Taman, 1. 453. Verchneturinfkoy-favade, an incruftaceous fpring. near, i. 951. Verchotomjkian Tartars, i. 463. Vermin, houfes much peftered with, ii. 43, Verft, length of the ruffian, iii. 569. Vervannoye-falo, iii. 14. Veffels made of leather, iii. 412. Veffenians, in the diftrict of Novgorod, i. 270. Vefti or faraphan, ii. 48. Victuals, fimple preparation of, ii. 44. Village*, i- 199- Yaiutes, fubmit to Ruffia, i . 476. Their method of preferving fifh, iii. 49. Yam, a place for poft horfes, ii. 139. Yumbtak, one of the Aleutfky iflands, i. 170. Yamburg, cloth-manufactory at, iii. 385. Yamfchtfchiki, boors that are obliged to furnifli poll horfes, ii. 137- 139- Yana, the river, takes its origin out of a little lake, i. 427. Yarinfkian Tartars, i. 463. Yaroflaf, the great, drew up the novgorodian ftatutes, ii. 337. The fecond, i. 274. Yafafhnuiye ,k*fftyani, ii. 141. Yajfak, or the tribute in furs, ii. 141. Yazamates, inhabitants of the Kuban, i. 468.483. Year, new, a feaft then kept, ii. 66. YedifchhtlT a hive of the Nogays, i. 466. Yembd, or Emba, the moft eaft ward of the rivers that run into the Cafpian, i. -230. Not rich in fifh, iii. 71. Yenikaly, in the Krimea, i. 280. Yenifley, the fource of the river, i. 134. And Lena, fteppe of the, 150. Compofed at firft of two rivers, the Kamfaraand the Veikem, 224. Oftiaks of the, 493. iii. 5. Its fhores de fcribed, 136. Yeomanry, or country people, ii. 372. Yepanfa-khan, refided at Turinfk, i. 461. Yermak Timofeiyef, conquers Siberia, i. 303. Defeats Kut- fcljum, khan of Turjn, 421. Yevo imperatorfkoye vuifotfcheftvo, his imperial highnefs, ii. 426. Yeffukai, the. father of Tfchinghis, i.443. Ykefltola, now Uexkull, finiftied, i. 382. Yufts and leather, exported in 1793, iii. 94. The chief product of the tanneries, iii. 387. Exportation of, in 1674,432. Trade in, 437- Yukaghires, Yurales, Sec. i. 498. At the time of their fubjec. tion had never feen a harfe, 500. Yuma, the name of the Supreme Being with the Tfcheremiffes, i. 345- c . Yummal, the one true God worffiipped under the name of, 1. 368. 37.8. Yummala-, the famous idol, i. 339. 340. 344, T«mar, 6*8 INDEX. Yumar, the name of the deity with the Votiaks, i. 344^ Yuratzkoi fhore, between the Yenifley and the Oby, i. 22-3,1 Yurief, Dorpat fo called by the Ruffians, i. 337, Yury, or George, i. 274. Za, at, behind, beyond, i. 291. Zadunaifkii, tranfdanubium, the furname of count Rorhantzof, ii. 180. 261. Zaporogian kozaks, i. 483. Origin of the, 290. Etymology of the appellation, 291. Proved faithlefs in the Turkifh war, 393. Their ftate broke up, 294. Incorporated again in New Servia, 310. Had a permanent right to their territory and peculiar form of government, -ii. 193. Zdravftvui, or Zdarovui, the ufual term of falutation, ii. 32. Zeemjiiks., a kind of dii penates, i. 37P. Zenden, khan of the Derbetans, i. 432. Zeren, Galdan, khan of" the Soongares, i. 430. Ziches, fight bravely for their liberty, i. 469. 483. 487. Zimmerman, Dr. of Hanover, i. 367. Zinc and quickfilver, confiderable importation pf, iii. 318. Zinnober, importation pf, iii. 318. Zinzendorf, count, finds converts in' Livonia, i. 402. Zob-kozel, or craw-goat, ii. 460. Zones, experiments in regard to, i. 10. Zuifioy, articles propofed to, ii. 401. 404. Zuruchaitu, a trade at, with China, ii. 302. A vitriolic fpring near, i. 447. 'iii. 463. FINIS. ERRATA. Vol. I. page 28. line 7 of the note, for Uftfag Veliki lies 154 degrees, &c. read- lifting Veliki lies 54 minutes more to the North than St PeterfbiJirg,. according to the Memoires de 1' Academic, and only 18 mill. 38 feconds according to M. Storch. .Page 152. line 18. for 425,509 read 425.5,09. "Page 199. line 4 of the note, for Poloudinier read Polunin. Vol'. II. page 269. line 10. for the Dniepr, not far from Bender, read tfie Dnicfir, not, &c. Page 551. for overplus of births, malesr255,432read 253,433 ;.and the total , 451,526. Pai;e 352,, line penult, for 31,339,620 read 31,342,620. "Vol. IU. p. 184. line penult.of the text, for 1793 read 1783. Printed by G. Wood/all, No. 22,. 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