YALE
UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

LIFE

OP

GREGORY THE SEVENTH
peeoeued ey a
SKETCH OF THE HISTOEY OF THE PAPACY
', TO THE ELEVENTH CENTUEY

BT

M. ABEL FEANCOIS VILLEMAIN

OF TliB BaENOH ACADEMY

Translated by James Baber Brooklet

IN TWO VOLUMES
VOL. I.
LONDON
EICHAED BENTLEY AND SON
^ublis^ers in ©rbinarg to Jtr ^ajestg
1874

CONTENTS

THE FIEST VOLUME.

INTBODUGTION.

PABE

Discourse on the History of the Papacy to the time of Gregory VII. 1
First Pbriob. — From the Commencement of the Christian Era to
Constantine  3
Seconb Period. — The Chm-ch of Rome from Constantine to Theo
dosius  33
Third Period. — From the Death of Theodosius to the Fall of the
Western Empire  62
Leo the Great  68
Fourth Pertob.— Progress of the Roman Church under Theodoric
and the Lombard Kings  .78
Fifth Period. — The Pontifical Power from the victory of Narses to
the Expulsion of the Lombards  89
Spread of the Roman Church by its Missions : Enfeeblement of the
Greek Church through the Progress of Mahometanism . . 102
Sixth Period. — Temporal Sovereignty of the Popes . . . 115
Destruction of the Kingdom of the Lombards : Coronation of Char
lemagne  115
The Temporal Sovereignty of the Popes imder the Successors of
Charlemagne  127
From the Accession of the House of Saxony to the Death of
Otho 1  140
Otho II  160
Otho ni  165
From the Death of Otho III. to Gregory VII  198

vi CONTENTS OF
BOOK THE FIRST.
1020—1055.
PAGE
Birth of Hilbebranb— His Education at Rome, in the Monastery
of Saint Mary— His Residence at Cluny— His Journey to Germany,
and his Return to Italy— State of the Roman Church at this
period — Corruption of Manners, Superstitious Beliefs— Hildebrand's
Connection with Gregory VI., who makes him Sub-deacou — He is
suspected of Magic — Arrival of the Emperor, Henry III., in Italy
— Gregory VI. deposed as a Simonist, exiled to Germany, where
he Dies — Hildebrand, who had accompanied him, returns to
Cluny — Bruno, Bishop of Toul, made Pope by the Emperor —
- Influence of Hildebrand over this Pope, who takes the name of
Leo IX.— Hildebrand, as Superior of the Monastery of Saint Paul,
reforms its Abuses — General Endeavour to reform the Church —
Council held at Rheims by Leo IX. — First Appearance of the
Heresy of Berengarius — Return of Leo IX. to Rome — Situation of
Italy — Power of the Normans — War of Leo IX. against them — ^His
Captivity and Death — Hildebrand deputed to the Court of Henry
III. to negotiate the Nomination of a New Pope .... 231

BOOK THE SECOND.
1055—1073.
Victor II. made Pope — Henry HI. comes to Italy — Captivity of
Beatrice, mother of the Countess Matilda — Gottfried goes to Lor
raine; his Opposition to the Emperor — Policy of Henry III. —
Victor II. visits Germany, and is present at the death-bed of Henry
IIL, who confides to him his son, aged five — His Return to Italy ;
his Death — Election of a new Pope adverse to the Empire— The
Position of Germany — Journey of Hildebrand to visit the Empress
Agnes — Death of Pope Stephen X. — Hildebrand, on his return from
Germany, causes a new Pope to be elected — Pontificate of Nicholas
II. — Preaching of Hildebrand — Citation of Berengarius before the
Council of Rome^Disorders in the Church of Milan — Attempt of
Hildebrand to obtain Freedom of the Papal Elections — The Pope
Alexander IT. and Honorius IL, the anti-Pope, supported by Ger
many — Troubles in the Church of Florence — Weakness of the
Empire — Education aud Youth of Henry IV.— Victory of Alexander
II. by the Arms of Gottfried, and the Advice of Hildebrand — Com
mencement of the Reign of Hemy IV. — His Marriage, and Project
for Divorce— Refusal of the Pope — Absolute Power of Hildebrand
—Conduct of Henry IV.— He is cited to appear before the Pope 
Death of Alexander II  285

THE FIRST VOLUME. VU
BOOK THE THIRD.
1073—1074. PAGH
Death of Pope Alexander — Authority of the Archdeacon — He is
proclaimed Pope by the name of Gregory VIL, on the day of
Alexander's Funeral: his Resistance — Zeal of Cardinal Hugh le
Blanc in his Election — Coronation of the Pope: his Message to
the Emperor — Negotiations — Diet of Goslar — Council of Rome —
Affairs of Germany — Affairs of France — the Crusades projected . 341

HISTOKY OF
GREGORY THE SEVENTH.
INTRODUCTION.
SKETCH OE THE HISTOEY OF THE PAPACY TO THE
TIME OF GEEGOEY VII.
At the commencement ofthe eleventh century, the Church
of Rome had widely departed from its own primitive
form, and from that of Christianity as first established.
Long obscure in the midst of the splendour of the
capital of the world, long kept in the background by
the genius of the Eastern Churches, and afterwards
exalted by the policy of the emperors, the division of
the empire, and the fall of Rome itself, it had advanced
towards power under every change of masters. Origin
ally a small religious democracy, like so many other
Christian societies of Greece and Asia, it had, little by
little, extended the power of its chief, first over the
bishops in the neighbourhood of Rome, then over
almost all the bishops of Italy, of southern Gaul,
Spain, and Africa, finaUy, over the barbarian con
querors that came to subjugate it, or whom its mis
sionaries went forth to seek in their native forests.
VOL. I. B

2 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
A rapid review of these various periods should pre
cede the history of him who openly made the Roman
Pontificate the great sovereignty of the Middle Ages.
In the earliest advances of the pontifical power, we
shaU find the principle of all that Gregory VII. after
wards attempted ; and, after the lapse of ages, we shall
see that extraordinary man appear, at the head of that
sacerdotal empire, which, having been begun before him
by the enthusiasm, the fraud, the daring, or the igno
rance, or the wants of peoples, maintained itself, long
after him, by the same causes, strengthened by the
example his genius had left.
It is true of the Roman Church, as of ancient Rome ;
hs feeble commencements — of which, moreover, we know
but little — give no idea of its greatness. Open the
history of the great Christian revolution, search the
records of the early centuries, the bishopric of Rome, at~
first, fills but smaU space in either. All the great men
are elsewhere ; in Asia, in Africa, at Jerusalem, Antioch,
Alexandria, Cesarea, Carthage, Constantinople. In the
fourth century, the chair of Rome appears to possess
less lustre than that of Milan, as shown forth in the
genius of St. Ambrose and the humiliation of Theo
dosius. It was the Bishop of Hippona, not of Rome,
who presided over the Councils of Africa. In these
early times religion governed the world ; but religion as
a popular power, had as its organs, men whose genius
led in the assemblies of the bishops, and determined
the creeds of the faithful. It was the somewhat
tumultuous aristocracy of enthusiasm and eloquence.
Nothing could be more opposed to the despotic unity
which Rome afterwards claimed.

FIRST PERIOD.
FEOM THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE CHEISTIAN EEA
TO CONSTANTINE.
The obscurity of the first pontiff's of Rome is suffi
ciently explained by the same cause which made their
successors celebrated — 'the grandeur of the Roman
name. The Christians were at first, as it were, lost in
that immense city. On the coast of Asia, at Ephesus,
at Smyrna, in some of those Greek cities whose in
habitants had both learning and leisure, the announce
ment of a new religion had .commanded universal
attention. But at Rome, that vortex in which the
wealth, the religions, and the vices of all the nations of
the earth met, a new creed, brought thither by a foreign
and vanquished people, produced no visible eff'ect.
Even while persecuting, the authorities did not en
quire into it. Haughty Rome cared not to examine
the tenets of the religious sects that arose among
the Jews who lived at Rorae, in mean dwellings in a
quarter apart, begging and fortune-telling. We read
in Tertullian : ' Tiberius, in whose reign the name of
Christian was first heard in the world, made a report to
the Senate of the things he had been told in Judea con
cerning the divinity of Christ, and proposed his recog
nition as a God. The Senate, having no proofs of
the facts, refused. Csesar persisted in his opinion, and

4 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
threatened to punish all who should accuse the Chris
tians.' How many impossibilities this tale sets forth ! The
Senate refusing anything to Tiberius ! A Roman
Emperor proposing to the Senate the apotheosis of a
Jew who had been executed as a criminal ! History
tells us, on the contrary, that the Roman tyrant exer
cised an apprehensive severity against all religious
innovations, and any form of worship coming from the
East. Seneca says, that having in his youth, while the
Empire was under Tiberius, adopted the diet of the
Pythagoreans, he, at his father's request, quitted the
city, in order that he might not be confounded with a
strange sect persecuted at that time, and whose members
were known by their abstinence from certain meats.^
Tacitus mentions the promulgation of a decree by the
Senate, under Tiberius, banishing the Egyptian and
Jewish religion out of Italy; and he adds that four
thousand Roman freed men, who were infected with
that superstition, were transported to Sardinia to put
down the brigandage carried on in its unwholesome
climate. The rest were forced either to go into exile
or to abjure; and Tiberius caused their sacred vestments
and all the appliances of their worship to be burned.
Is it not probable that, under the confused defini
tion, ' Egyptian and Jewish religion ' aiming at one
and the same time at Jehovah and at Isis, some leaven
of Christianity lay hidden ? But did this element
" 'In Tiberii Ctesaris principatum juventre tempus inciderat; alieni-
genarum sacra movebantur; sed inter argumenta superstitionis ponebatur
quorumdam animalium abstinentia. Patre itaque meo rogante, qui non
calumniam timebat, sed philosophiam oderat, ad pristinam consuetudinem
redii.' — (Senec. Epist. cviii.)

THE FIEST BISHOPS OF EOME. 5
form a distinct society ? Had the Christian portion
of those who were persecuted, even then a head and a
hierarchy? Had a bishop of Antioch, that city where
these new reformers first took the name of Chris
tianity, come to Rome to be bishop of the Christians?
Had those men, who were accused under Nero of having
set fire to Rome, and who illuminated the Imperial
gardens as they hung blazing, covered with pitch,
from the crosses set up around, a recognised head ?
Were they totally separated from the Jewish sect ?
History gives us no detailed facts on these sub
jects. But, seeing with what rapidity the Christian
society was formed in Egypt and Asia Minor, we cannot
doubt that at Rome, where it was sufficiently numerous
to supply so many victims, it had some chiefs who
governed it, or, at least, preceded it to martyrdom.
As far back as the beginning of the second century,
the general belief of the Christians fixed the death of
the two principal apostles at Rome under Nero; and
herein we see the origin of the veneration with which
the iChurch of Rome was regarded.
The dungeon of the Mamertine was reverenced as
the place whence the two apostles, Peter and Paul, were
taken to execution. These recollections served as the
text of fabulous stories. Pretended letters were pub
lished fi'om Paul to Seneca, and firom Seneca to Paul,
in which, in barbarous Latin, the stoic philosopher
speaks of the Holy Spirit, and Paul announces that he
had softened the heart of Nero. Among these frauds
of ignorance and blind zeal, what was true, and what
made a deep impression on mankind, was the tradition
of a great' iniquity, of a wide and cruel persecution,

6 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
ordered by Nero. Up to that time so many Chris
tians had not anywhere suff'ered ; this blood-stained
supremacy in suff'ering laid the foundation of the
glory of the Church of Rome. In every part of
the world in which followers of the new faith were
found, the great martyrdom of Rome was the subject
of universal lamentation ; and a hundred years after
wards, an African, an inhsibitant of Carthage, ad
dressed to the Pagan governor of the province these
words, in which breathes the fulness of the new faith,
and of all the hopes off"ered to the universe : — ' Con
sult your books, you will there find that Nero first
took up the sword of the Caesars against our sect, then
in its infancy in Rome: we gain glory fi'om a pro
scription begun under such auspices. It is impossible
to know the character of this emperor, and not perceive
that a thing condemned by Nero must needs be a benefit
to the human race.'^
But though this affliction forced itself on the
attention of the Christians dispersed throughout the
world, the lives of the first bishops of Rome remained
almost wholly unknown. The duration of their power,
the order of then* succession, is tinged with some
doubts. The Christians had as yet no temple, no altar
in Rome; they met in some upper chamber in the house
of a brother to pray together. Many of them were
foreigners, Jews or Syrians ; and when they tried to
represent to their imaginations the magnificence of
1 ' Consulite commentarios vestros. Illic reperietis primum Neronem in
hanc sectam cum maxime Romse orientem Csesariano gladio ferocisse. Sed
tali dedicatore damnationis nostras gloriamur. Qui enim scit ilium intel-
ligere potest non nisi grande aliquod bonum a Nerone damnatum.'— (Tertul-
liani Apolog.)

THE FIEST BISHOPS OF EOME. 7
religious ceremonies, their recollections went back to the
temple of Jerusalem. Clement, the third Bishop of
Rome, in an epistle to the Christians of the city of
Corinth, then agitated by some divisions, exhorted
them to peace and obedience, by setting before them
the example of the Mosaic worship, wherein the chief
priests, the sacrificers, and the Levites, each had their
place and their offices clearly marked. Thus, in the
first century, after the cruelties of Nero, idolatrous
Rome possessed a Christian society, whose chief was in
correspondence with other similar Christian societies of
Greece and Asia. The authentic letter of Clement,
under the date ofthe year 69, begins with these words: —
' The Church of God, which is at Rome, to the Church
of God which is at Corinth.' Enthusiasm was the
common law of all these Christian colonies dispersed
over the world. Their members had travelled from
one community to another, bearing such letters as
called forth the hospitality of the days of antiquity.
They then exhibited to each other writings, tokens of
the new faith, that were kept carefully hidden ; and
mutually exhorted each other to combat and to die.
But tn all these things there was no pre-eminence, no
authority of one Church over the other. It appears
even, that at the end of the first century, the Churches
of Greece and of Asia were more numerous, and more
fervent than those of Rome. The letter of Pliny is well
known, m which he informs Trajan of the large number
of Christians he found in his province of Bythinia ; of
the unsuspecting admissions he had received from them ;
and of the punishments he had nevertheless enacted
against them.

8 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
Is it not surprising that the name of the Christians
never reappears in the other letters of Pliny, those
deposits of so many recollections ? and that this man,
so eager to talk of a travelling Greek orator, of a
lawsuit, of a vision, of a ghost story, should say nothiag
of this new religion, which he found again at Rome
after having decimated its professors ir^ Bythinia?
Was it, that in the capital, under the eye of princes
who, fi'om Nero to Trajan, almost all proscribed the
Christians, the professors of the new religion were
more and more careful to conceal their belief? Must
we explain in this way the obscurity of its first pon
tiff's, Linus, Clement, Anacletus, Evaristus? Many of
them doubtless sealed with their blood the faith they
had practised ; but these heroic days of the Church are,
like those of history, enveloped in doubt and untruth.
It is universally admitted that the letters and pastoral
decisions that have been attributed to the greater
number of the ancient pontiff^s of Rome, are pious
fictions, evidently bearing the marks of a posterior
age. There does remain, from the hand of Ignatius,
Bishop of Antioch, an authentic and sublime monument
of the Christian faith at the end of the first century;
but it is no collection of rules and observances, such as
' those that have been publicly attributed to the early
bishops of Rome. It is an artless description of the
ardour that led the first Christians to brave every pun
ishment, and to set at naught every law of the Empire.
The Greek, Lucian, who lived in the beginning of the
second century, has left us a sketch intended to be
satirical, of the care which the Christians lavished on
their persecuted brethren; he speaks of aged women,

THE PRIMITIVE CHUECHES. 9
widows, and orphans, crowding round the prison doors
at break of day ; the most wealthy among them ob
taining, for gold, leave to pass the night inside; and
of the deputies of several cities of Asia bearing
off'erings and succour.
The same story is told in an epistle addressed by the
Bishop of Antioch to the Christians of Rome, whither
he was led from the farther part of Syria, to be thrown
to the wild beasts in the circus. ' The charity of the
Churches,' he says, 'has everywhere welcomed me in
Christ Jesus. Those who came not to see me, for
warded their share of the expense ; every town con
tributed.' We see the Pagan sophist testifies to the
same fact as the Christian martyr. The fact was
then common ; for the Bishop Ignatius, writing to the
Christians of Ephesus, says to them : ' Through your
city pass those who are being led to suffer death for
God.' The only fear expressed by the Bishop of
Antioch is that he should escape the sentence that
awaited him in Rome. In writing from Smyrna to
the Christians of the capital, he exhorts them to make
no attempt to save him from death. ' Even if I should
ask you anything else,' says he, ' when I come, do not
do it ; believe rather what I write to you.' The Chris
tian community had then some interest and some
protectors in Rome. Established in the very place
where the cruel edicts of the emperors went forth, it
was the more spared, perhaps, because it had found
support in the very instruments of the persecution.
During the glorious reigns of Antoninus and Marcus
Aurelius, while the ancient Greek philosophy, having
become the religion of the sovereigns of the world, filled

10 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
them with a spirit of justice and moderation, from which
Christianity alone was excepted, the Christian com
munity of Rome continued to increase under obscure
but zealous chiefs. It possessed from this time great
wealth, which it devoted to relieving the poor, to re
ceiving strangers, and to sending alms, even to the East.
This treasure was formed by the offerings of the prin
cipal converts ; it would appear, in fact, that it was
then customary to bring a gift to the Church on ad
mission into it. At the time of Antoninus, Marcion,
the celebrated heresiarch, paid 200 sestercise on being
received into the Church of Rome, and, when he "was
expelled some time after, his money was returned to him.^
It is easy to see that this general custom of giving to
the Church, on becoming one of its members, must have
ensured to that of the opulent city of Rome, even
in times of persecution, a rapid increase of wealth.
Moreover, the same result has been seen in modem
history. The persecution of the Church was not continual,
because no persecution can be so. It happened in the
pagan world, as it did in Catholic France in the sixteenth
century, when sanguinary laws were enacted against the
dissenting sects. At first these hideous decrees were
executed with horrible exactitude, and numerous victims
perished on the gibbet and at the stake.
Then the rigour of the judges slackened for a while,
either because they thought they had conquered, or
because they despaired of conquering. Fury and false
shame incited to new barbarities, and these in tum died
^ 'Antoniui fere principatu . . . sub episcopatu Eleutherii, ejectus
Marcion cum ducentis sestertiis qux Ecclesiie adtulerat.'— (Tertull. p. 242.)

PEESECUTION OF THE CHEISTIANS. 11
away; and a fit of humanity, the attraction exercised
by new ideas, or the spectacle of a conviction proof
against the terrors of death itself, made an impression
on those even who decreed the punishment.
The Parliament of Paris, which was at first so eager
to bum the heretics, ended by asking toleration for
them ; and during these alternations of cruelty and
justice, the followers of the new religion had increased
in numbers, and their riches had attracted men of in
fluence to their ranks.
In spite of the more ferocious manners and the more
obstinate prejudices of antiquity, in spite of the obstacles
raised by that sublime novelty, the Gospel, so widely
opposed to the practice of the idolatrous world, the
result was similar in some respects.
After a short time, the most cruel edicts of the em
perors against the primitive Church fell into disuse.
Pretexts were invented for evading them ; it was agreed
to make no search for the Christians, but only to con
demn them when brought before the authorities. A
manifest admission that the decrees were considered
disgraceful, and that those who were called upon to
.enforce them recoiled from their barbarity.
The Roman govemment and the magistracy, tired of
punishing and torturing, often relaxed their cruelty for
years together. The fact is attested by the very number
of the great persecutions chronicled in the Christian
annals. Each of these horrible attacks of expn-ing
paganism came after a season of truce and rest, during
which it had lost some of its power.
The Christians, on the contrary, stirred to enthusiasm
by proscription, and emboldened by impunity, gained^

12 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
strength alike from persecution and from repose, winning
over the ardent and generous-minded, attracting even
the weak and timid, and increasing day by day in spite
of laws that were either cried down for their barbarity
or despised for their inefficacy.
Not all the followers of the new faith were wholly
devoted to the pious leisure of a contemplative life.
Many of them were engaged in agriculture, some in
commerce, some bore arms or pleaded at the bar, others
filled appointments even in the palaces of the Csesars.
Sometimes humanity, sometimes caprice, provided them
with defenders. Strange contrast ! The victorious
Marc-Aurelius, inflexible in carrying out the laws,
persecuted the Christians those laws condemned ; and
an infamous courtesan, the mistress of Commodus,
pitied their blood that was shed, and obtained for them
some years of peace, under an emperor who was the
scourge of aU his other subjects !
Meantime, at the end of the second century, the
Church of Rome, which already possessed a numerous
hierarchy, had as yet no temple.^ Face to face with
those imposing sahctuaries, those vast basilicae which
idolatry had embellished with all the resources of the
arts, the Christian's worship consisted of fervent prayer
alone. They even said that the immensity of God
should not be enclosed within the walls of a temple,'"*
but that, wherever they happened to be, in the public
places, in the fields, or on the sea-shore, they felt them
selves stirred to prayer by the contemplation of the
1 ' Cur multas aras habent, templa nulla ? ' — (Min. Felix, p. 91.)
^ ' Intra unam eediculam vim tantse maj estatis includam ? Nonne melius
in nostra dedicandus est mente? in nostro imo consecrandus pectoreP'—
(Min. Felix, p. 313.)

EQUALITY OF THE APOSTOLIC CHURCHES. 13
works of the Creator. This was the text of all their
discourses ; so reasons Minutius Felix, in the eloquent
dialogue which he has devoted to the defence of
Christianity. He therein expresses his disdain of all
exterior forms as idolatrous ; he compares the doctrine
of his brethren to that of the ancient sages, and does
not hesitate to say either that Christians are philo
sophers, or that the ancient philosophers were Christians.
This composition, written at Rome, and the work of a
celebrated advocate, who had been converted, clearly
shows the various aspects which Christianity assumed in
the eyes of its early foUowers. For some it was a liberal
and elevated philosophy, for some a subject of contro
versy ; for others, a series of observances ; and under
these divers forms it had attractions for all classes. It
is the latter of those characters that it appears to have
especially possessed among the priests of the Church of
Rome. As early as the second century, they showed themselves
the severe upholders of discipline. There is not to be
found among them any of those orators, those men of
learning, that shone in the churches of Africa.
The writings of Clement of Alexandria, of Justin,
of Athenagoras, of Origen, of Tertullian, stirred to
enthusiasm the Christian societies in the East. Rome
possessed nothing similar, but its bishops perseveringly
maintained the dogmas and rules of discipline they had
received. The Church of Rome, had not as yet, in the estimation
of Christians, any absolute pre-eminence, but it was vene
rated as an Apostolic Church ; and this title, which was
given to many of the Christian communities, in Greece

14 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
and of Asia, established a sort of equality among
them. ' Go visit,' says Tertullian, ' the Churches of the
Apostles, where their sees still exist, and wherein are
recited then- authentic letters, pictures of themselves.
Are you near to Achaia, you have Corinth ; if Macedonia
be not far fi'om you, you have Philippi and Thessa-
lonica; if you are within reach of Asia, you have
Ephesus ; if you are in the neighbourhood of Italy, you
have Rome, which we ourselves can also consult
easily.' ^
Such was the liberty of the primitive Church, which
believed that the gift of inspiration had descended on all
Christian societies alike. Those suff"erings which fi'e-
quent persecutions laid on all Christians, tended still
more to fortify their spirit of enthusiasm and liberty.
No doubt they looked towards Rome, because she was
the capital of the world ; her church practised a wide
hospitality on account of the great number of Christians
whose sufiferings brought them thither from aU parts of
the Empire, but it had no jurisdiction over the other
Churches. The Pope Victor, having wished to change
the time of the Feast of Easter, m order not to cele
brate it at the same period as the Jews, that innovation
was rejected by the Churches of Africa, and even a
doctor of the Western Church, Irenteus, Bishop of
Lyons, characterised the atterapt as one of pride and
^ ' Percurre ecclesias apostolioas, apud quas ipsae adhuc cathedrae Apos
tolorum suis locis prsesident, apud quas ipsse authenticse litteree eorum
recitantur, sonantes vocem et reprfesentantes faciem uniuscujusque.
Proxima est tibi Achaia ? Habes Corinthum. Si non longe es a Macedonia.
Habes Philippos, habes Thessalonioenses. Si potes in Asiam tendere, habes
Ephesum. Si autem Italite adjaces, habes Romam, unde nobis quoque
auctoritas prsesto est.' — (Tertull. De Praiscriptione Hcereticorum.)

±41VAIjKlJi» JiJiTWJiKJN TME CHUECHES. 15
injustice. The proposition of Victor was not followed,
and the Churches remained in the free exercise of their
ancient customs. The See of Rome exercised beyond
its limits but one kind of power, the same that was
exercised by all the Churches, and which belongs to
every private community, the power of declaring that
it is no longer in communion, that it has broken all ties
with another man or another society.
In truth, this Roman world, formed of so many
nations, containing so many populous cities, peopled
by so many gods, magistrates, philosophers, and orators,
bearing as the ensigns of its legions, on its temples, on its
prefectures, the symbols of paganism, already contained
beneath this idolatrous exterior an entire new world.
There was not a city, hardly a town, of Syria, of Ionia,
of Egypt, the coasts of Afi'ica, of Greece, of Italy, or
of Southern Gaul, where there did not exist, beside
the public Roman society, a secret Christian community,
with its chief, under the name of overseer or bishop ;
its many priests, under the name of presbyters or elders,
and its divers affiliated orders, which maintained its
relations with the Christians, still busied with the cares
of the world, and the duties of active life.
Whenever the violence of an emperor, the rage of a
pagan mob, a public misfortune, or some imprudence
aroused persecution anew, in the name of the existing
laws ; aU those societies, scattered over the erapire, were
as one. But when the storm had passed over, a thou
sand rivalries appeared, a thousand controversies arose
among the Chmrches, and sometimes in each of them.
Those, who in evil days, had exchanged their tokens,
and drawn more closely the, bonds of aff'ection,

16 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
mutually excommunicated each other ; and oftentimes
persecution itself left the seeds of division in men's
minds. In truth, some under the threats of the
prastorium, had shown themselves courageous ; others
had fled ; others had denied their belief, burnt incense,
and eaten of meats off'ered to idols. Thence arose
quarrels in proportion, between the rigid and the weak;
and while in Alexandria, that Babel of Eastern Chris
tianity, the metaphysicians of the Greek schools probed
the new religion by subtle discussions on the diviae
essence, in less learned Africa, and in Italy, they ran
into heresy on points of discipline.
Thus the sect of Montan, whose disciple Tertullian
became, declared certain crimes, such as idolatry, homi
cide, and adultery, unpardonable, and would not admit
those guilty of them to confession. The Church of
Rome, on the contrary, opened her arms to all, and
founded her power on the great number of sinners who
took refuge in her. Montan and his disciples, the stoics
of Christianity, laid down as a principle, not to fly from
danger, but to seek persecution. Zephyrinus, Bishop
of Rome, concealed himself during a persecution ordered
by the Emperor Severus, and does not appear to have
thereby suff'ered any discredit in his Church. He was
even one of the first pontitfs who claimed the right of
absolving or condemning in the name of the Church
Universal. He made use of it by cutting off" from its com
munion Tertullian, whose ardent and impetuous nature
rendered him indocile to the yoke of a foreign pontiff.
'Wherefore,' says Tertullian to him, 'dost thou
usurp the right of the Church ? Wherefore changest
thou the manifest intention of the Lord, who only con-

SPIEIT OF THE CHUECH OF EOME. 17
ferred on Saint Peter personally, the privilege expressed
in these words : 'On thee will I build my Church.' ^
Here we see, at the end of the second century, while
Christianity was still palpitating under the axe, what
was the argument of the Roman Pontiff^, and what the
reply of an illustrious Christian of Africa. Tertullian,
as in irony, gives the Bishop of Rome the title of Great
Pontiff" and Bishop of Bishops ; but he refuses to him the
right to remit at his will the sins of men ; 'That is,'
says he to him, ' the right, the authority of the Master,
and not of the servant; of God, and not of the Priest.' *
The rigid African doctor is not less scandalized at the
use the Roman Pontiff" made of this usurped power : he
describes the prisons of the martyrs as the rendezvous
of adulterers and gallants, who made their way in by
a golden key, in order to obtain absolution from the
Pontiff'. While the Church of Rome, by its lenient discipline
and its compassion for frailty, was laying the foundations
of its power, the fury of persecution had declined ; the
sufferings of the martyrs, their courage under torture,
the explanations of some of their defenders, and more
than all, the decline of polytheism, brought to the
Christians long intervals of tolerance and security.
Dion, who was the governor of that same province of
Bythinia, where the younger Pliny had caused Chris
tian slaves to be put to the torture, says, speaking of
the Christians in the beginning of the third century ;
' 'Qusero inde hoc jus Ecclesiaj usurpes? Qualis es, evertens atque
commutans manifestam Domini intentionem, personaliter hoc Petro confer-
entem, super te, inquit, aediflcabo Ecclesiam tuam.' — (De Pudicitia.)
* 'Domini enim, non famuli, est jus et arbitrium; Dei ipsius, non sacer
dotis.' (Tertull. De Pudicitia, p. 744.)
VOL. I. C

18 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
' Their number has so greatly increased, that they have
succeeded in obtaining liberty to worship according to
their belief.' These words no doubt apply to the time
of Alexander Severus, under whom Dion was consul.
We know, indeed, that this prince, reared in the
purest maxims of the antique philosophy, and possessed
of a humane and generous disposition, left the Christians
in peace. In his palace at Rome, he had a kkid of
sanctuary devoted to the reception of the statues of
great men. There, in the early hours of the morn
ing, the young Emperor, (when he had abstained from
visiting his wife,) came to render a sort of worship to
these revered images, arnongst whom, and side by side
with Orpheus and AppoUonius, were placed Abraham
and Jesus Christ. This was a kind of philosophical
polytheism, the result of the studies of fanciful enthu
siasts during three centuries.
The habits, the customs, the maxims, and the lan
guage of the Christians began to spread among those
who considered theraselves still attached to the old reli
gion of the world. This innovation had extended to
paganism, as elsewhere. Alexander often repeated this
Christian sentence : ' Do to others as ye would they
should do unto you,' ^ and by his orders it was inscribed
in his palace and on many public buildings.
Burdened with the despotic powers, of which the em
perors were the recipients, and seeking to modify them hy
submitting to public controul the nomination of the
governors and lieutenants of provinces in cities, he cites,
' 'Clamabat saepius quod a quibusdam, sive Judaeis sive Christianis
audiera,t. Quod tili fieri non vis, alteri ne feceris; quam sententiam usque
adeo dilexit, ut et in palatio et in publicis operibus prsescribi juberat.
(Hist. Aug. Script.')

PEOGEESS OF CHRISTIANITY. 19
as an example, the raanner in which the Christians elected
their priests. There is no doubt, that under this em
peror the Christian community had churches at Rome.
The Christians even pleaded publicly for the possession
of a place, a dependency of the public lands, and which
was claimed against them by some wine-shop keepers.
The emperor decided the cause in favour of the Chris
tians, and his rescript bore : ' It is better that this
spot be devoted to the honour of God under any
form.' There, we are told, was built by Calixtus,
Bishop of Rome, the first Christian church that could
be compared with the heathen temples for the pomp of
its decorations. A vast cemetery, near Rome, beside
the Appian Way, also bears the name of Calixtus, and
is ^ often named in the records of the martyrs whose re
mains were laid there.
The gentle reign of Alexander was followed by the
accession of a cruel tyrant, who was more merciless to
the Christians than to his other subjects. Two bishops
of Rome, successors of Calixtus, are numbered among
the martyrs who perished under Maximin; the numbers
of the Christians continually augmented nevertheless
in all parts of the empire. The internal liberty which
was enjoyed by so many mysterious and scattered
Churches, favoured their rapid increase. The heresies
that arose, almost all of thera in the East, found their way
to the cities of Spain, Italy, and Gaul. Alexandria con
tinued to be a great arsenal, furnishing a thousand
mystic beliefs, a thousand varieties of Christianity.
There was brought up, in the midst of persecution and
controversy, the most eloquent apostle of the third cen
tury, Origen, whose genius, at the same time Oriental
c 2

20 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
and Greek, united the platonic philosophy to the enthu
siasm of the prophets. In his writings the new religion
was set forth as a profound science and a popular truth.
With that force of allegory natural to the Oriental char
acter, he interpreted the scriptures to the philosophers
of the Greek schools, and devoted the deepest erudition
and the most subtle eloquence to the triumph of that
faith that was first preached with so much simphcity.
After the two Philips, who allowed the Churches to
breathe freely, came Decius, who rekindled the persecu
tion. The first effbrts of those princes, who had anything
great in them, was to restore the ancient Roman discip
line ; the innovation of Christianity was hateful to them
as one of the causes of the decay of the empire, and in
consequence of this strange error they were as cruel to
the Christians as were the wickedest princes. Decius,
during the first years of his reign, put to death Fabian,
then Bishop of Rome ; and in this circumstance we per
ceive the earliest indications of the internal constifaition
of the Roman Church. Whether it were that the Chris
tian society could not act or dared not act, no successor
was named to Fabian for more than a year ; but the
priests and deacons of the Church of Rome wrote to the
other Churches to animate and sustain them.
The Church of Carthage was then governed by
Cyprian, who, originally a celebrated orator, devoted
to the cares and pleasures of the world, had, like most
of the ardent spirits of the time, embraced the Christian
faith. At the outbreak of the persecution ordered by
Decius, Cyprian left Carthage, and sought concealment.
Then the priests of Rome, who had no bishop, wrote of
those of Carthage, who seemed to be forsaken by theirs:

POLICY AND DISCIPLINE. 21
' They did not,' they said, ' blame the holy Pope
Cyprian, but they exhorted the Church of Carthage to
fight courageously against idolatry, and according to
their own example, as having before their eyes the fear of
the Lord rather than the fear of the threats and injustice
of man. We have,' they wrote, ' brought back many of
those who had already gone up to the capitol to sacrifice.
Our Church remains strong in the faith, though many
have yielded either for the sake of their dignities, or
because they were filled with the fear of men. We
have separated those from us, but we have not
abandoned them, exhorting them, on the contrary, to
do penance, if so be they may obtain pardon of Him
who can grant it. Ye see, then, brethren, that ye
should do likewise.'
We can trace in this letter, the spirit of Christian
policy that was already familar to the priests of the
Church of Rome, and we can evolve thence the germ
of their power.
The purity of the earliest enthusiasm was already
greatly altered ; the intervals of rest and toleration that
had been granted to the Christians, had favoured the
progress of vice as much as the progress of the faith.
We may believe the testimony of contemporaries and
martyrs on this subject. Cyprian regards the persecu
tions of Decius as sent by God to chastise the world
liness of the Christians- In the lively picture he gives
us of their manners, he not only complains that the
laity devoted themselves wholly to amassing riches ;
that the men shaved their beards ;^ that the women
' ' Corrupta barba in viris, in foeminis forma fucata . . . jungere cum
infidelibus vinculum matrimonii.^ — {Liber de lapsis.)

22 HISTOEY OF GREGOEY VII.
painted their faces and dyed their hair, and united
themselves to infidels ; he addresses graver reproaches
to even the heads of the Churches. ' Many bishops,' he
says, ' despising the divine commandment, burden them
selves with worldly aff"airs, and leave their sees and
forsake their flocks, to seek in distant provinces oppor
tunities of engaging in profitable commercial specula
tions; while their brethren are dying of hunger in the
Church, they seek to gorge themselves with gain, they
acquire lands by fraudulent tricks, and increase their
revenues by usury on usury.' ^
The persecution of Decius, directed against a society
whose chiefs were thus corrupt, found many weak and
timid. At Rome, and throughout the empire, a great
number of Christians sacrificed to idols ; others, think
ing to preserve at the same time their faith and their
lives, purchased false certificates of idolatry, just as in
modern times people have been known to procure false
certificates of confession. Others either fled or perished
in torments, or were cast into dungeons or made
slaves in the mines rather than deny their faith. The
persecution, which spread from Rome to all the other
parts of the empire, ended only with the death of
Decius, in the year 252. He left men's minds divided
by a debate regarding those who had suffered and those
who had yielded.
This was the origin of the first glaring schism that
had hitherto agitated the Roman Church. Cornehus, a
* ' Episcopi plurimi, divina procuratione contempta, procuratores rerum
Sfficularium fieri, derelicta cathedra, plebe deserta, per alienas provincias
oberrantes, negotiationis qusestuosas nundinas aucupari, esurientibus in
Ecclesia fratiibus, habere argentum largiter velle, fundos insidiosis fraudibua
rapere, usuris multiplicnntibus foenus augere.' — {Liher de Lapsis.)

SCHISM AT EOME — CORNELIUS. 23
Roman priest, having been chosen to be Bishop of
Rome, Novatian, who had been a candidate for the
election, accused him of having procured a certificate
of idolatry from the prefect of Rome, and of having
corresponded with bishops who had off'ered incense to
false gods.
At the same time Cyprian, accused of having fled
before the persecution, found an opponent ready to
dispute the see of Carthage with him. The two bishops
had a common interest. Cyprian supported the election
of Cornelius, and Cornelius anathematized the adversary
of Cyprian. Thus the Church of Rome, scarcely
breathing from persecution, already exercised au
thority. But this power, which was not acknowledged
by the learned Churches of Egypt and Asiatic Greece,
was warmly disputed even by the Latins,
In the West, as in the East, there existed as yet only
a great federation of secret societies, at some times
oppressed, at others enjoying more liberty, governed by
chiefs, who occasionally met to regulate points of belief
or discipline, but who owned no superior but God.
Hence the resistance that the see of Rome experienced
on its first attempts to bring the foreign bishops under
subjection. The Bishop of Carthage, who was the metropolitan
of three great provinces, Africa, Mauritania, and
Numidia, would not give way to the Bishop of Rome.
The belief of the two Churches diflPered as to the
validity of baptism given by heretics. The doctors of
Africa averred a second baptism was required ; the
Church of Rome, in accordance with Scripture, admitted
but one ; and Stephen, one of the successors of Cornelius,

24 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
promulgated this decision. Cyprian then convoked a
council at Carthage, at which sixty-seven bishops from
the three provinces were present. ' Not one amongst
us,' says he, ' assumes to be the bishop of bishops, nor
seeks to force others to obedience by tyrannical
menaces.' ^ This council decided against the opinion
of the Bishop of Rome, that a second baptism was
necessary. Stephen upheld his decree, calhng Cyprian
a false prophet, and a worker of lies.
But during these disputes, a new emperor. Valerian,
had re-commenced the persecution of the Christians.
Stephen perished at Rome, and, a few years afterwards,
Cyprian, whom the people had often demanded as the prey
to the lions in the circus, was beheaded at Carthage.
The intestine disputes among the followers of the
new creed were silenced by these courageous sacrifices ;
and the belief of the people was strengthened by seeing
that those who did not agree in their teaching were so
well agreed to die. The Church of Rome, which al
ready laid claim to such power, and whose letters,
according to Cyprian himself, were found in all parts
of the world, suff'ered new persecution under Aurelian,
who so greatly increased the glory of the empire. There
was then a revival of pagan superstition that was fatal
to the Christians. An irruption of barbarians into
Italy had excited general alarm ; the long neglected
sybilline books were again consulted ; the ancient
ceremonies, processions, and sacrifices of all kinds were
revived. From the midst of his camp Aurelian thus
> ' Neque quisquam nostrum episcoporum se esse episcoporum constituit
tvraunico terrore ad obsequendi necessitatem collegas suos adigit.' — (Co'ncU.
Carth.)

PERrfECUnON UNDEE AUEELIAN. 25
wrote to the senate : ' I wonder, conscript fathers, that
ye should have delayed the opening of the sybilline
books, as if ye had been deliberating in a Christian Church,
and not the temple of all the gods. Haste ye, and by
the chastity of the pontiffs and the holy ceremonies
succour the emperor, weighed down by the public
danger.'^ The persecution of Aurelian passed over,
and the Christian Church, fortified by the blood of its
martyrs, continued to increase. It is an incontestable
fact, that in the first years of Diocletian the Christians
enjoyed almost full liberty. The prohibitory laws, the
edicts which ordered the off^ering of incense to the gods
still existed, but favour insured exemption from them.
Christianity had penetrated into the palace of the em
perors. Many of his high officers were followers of the new
religion, or, at least, permitted their wives, children,
and slaves, to practise it openly. Many new churches
were built, and were crowded with worshippers. In
the provinces, the governors honoured the bishops ; and
as Eusebius tells us, ' the Christians were even sum
raoned to' the government of provinces without being
obliged to sacrifice.'
We behold in this toleration the eff'ect of time, and
the policy of a prince who, being forced into distant
wars with barbarous tribes, and fully occupied with
the cares of a great empire, desired not to make
enemies of any portion of his subjects.
The laws of the empire had been foiled by the perse-
' ' Miror vos., p. c, tamdiu de aperiendis sibyllinis dubitasse libris, perinde
quasi in Christianorum Ecclesia, non in templo deorum omnium, tractaretis.'
— (Hist. Aug. V. i.)

2G HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
verance of the new faith. According to the ancient
pontifical register, so sterile in facts, Caius, who filled
the see of Rome under Diocletian, was a feUow-country-
man and relation of the emperor. The empress Prisca
was a Christian. Thus the new religion, though dis
avowed by the laws and the public worship, insensibly
became the mistress of society at large. In that world
where despotism holding under one yoke a score of dif
ferent nations, had trampled all things to dust, Chris
tianity was the only vital force.
The only other existing power was the army. Dio
cletian had said, that all that was necessary was to pre
serve from the new religion the legions and the soldiers
ofthe Guard.' But he was deceived in his calculation;
however heavy be the military yoke, the army can
never long escape the opinions that dominate society in
general; and this explains the massacre of the Theban
legion, and other facts of that epoch.
Another cause of the new persecutions and of the
approaching triumphs of Christianity, was the division
of the empire. Diocletian, whose mind was rather
lofty than ambitious, formed the idea of creating sove-
reigns under his authority, instead of governing alone
like Trajan, from the banks of the Rhine to the
Euphrates, An old soldier, long used to the toil and
hardships of war, he was tempted by oriental pomp
and indolence. This was the first move in the great
revolution that was soon to be accomplished. The
chief of the empire, Diocletian, withdrew eastward;
Rome was no longer a capital. On quitting it, DiO'
' ' Satis esse se palatinos tantum ac milites ab ea religlone prohiberat.'
— (Laet, De Mort. Persecut.)

DIOCLETIAN — DIVISION OF THE 'EMPIRE. 27
cle tian would not leave it to another, and he sent his
colleague, Maximian, to reign at Milan, while Con
stantius fixed himself at Treves, thence to rule over
Gaul, Spain, and Britain, while Galerius, the sovereign
of Illyria and Thrace, took Sirmium for his capital.
In this division of the empire, the inevitable rivalry
of the new princes was the protection of the Christians.
It was not only the circumstance that Galerius was a
man of obscure birth and ferocious and cruel dispo
sition, and Constantius a man of polished education
and gentler temperament, that caused the difference of
treatment experienced by the Christians at their hands ;
it arose from political instinct. Christianity had reached
to that point, that power and dominion were henceforth
certain to be theirs who should espouse its cause and
free it from its trammels.
For twenty years Diocletian held off from the solu
tion of this problem, and perhaps often lost sight of it
in the midst of his triumphs and conquests. Powerful
enough not to be obliged to take any decisive line of
conduct,^ he tolerated the Christians. Galerius and
Maximian desired their extirpation. Constantius pro
tected them. This secret division of opinion maintained
the balance between these princes whose admirable
union has been the theme of orators. And when the
failing powers of Diocletian, grown old before his tirae,
yielded to the terrors constantly represented to hira by
Galerius, and he granted to him the blood of the
Christians, this union was ended, and after a brief
and final experiment, the empire itself was Christian.
Asia was the principal theatre of this persecution;
^ Laet. De Mort. Persecut.

28 HISTORY OF GEEGOEY VII.
it was there that polytheism still drew some life from
mystical philosophy.
We sometimes behold the ruins of an ancient edifice
whose stones are disjointed and tottei-ing, overgrown by
the ivy that fills up the cracks and keeps together the
wall that it has already undermined. Such may be
said, was the effect of the Greek philosophy, clinging to
and incorporating itself with the old polytheism it had
formerly endeavoured to shake. But this last sup
port of which idolatry availed itself attests its
weakness. Its only friends were the sophist and the
executioner. The edict of persecution was issued in Nicomedia,
and w^s executed in Rome and throughout Italy. But
Latin Christianity was not, like that of Greece, opposed
by allegorical philosophy; its only adversaries were the
customs and ceremonies of the public worship. The
spirit of the Latin nations, ever less subtle than that
of the Greeks, does not appear to have produced any
reformers of polytheism. We see that when, later on,
a religious restoration was attempted by Julian, it was
wholly Greek in ideas and language, so that the proper
name of the Greeks, the word Hellenism, was the style
it assumed.-^ In the West, Christianity being less exposed to these
philosophical disquisitions, and being rarely attacked
except through popular prejudices or by the edicts of
.the emperors, was established on a firmer basis.
Nevertheless, the persecution was so violent at Rome
under Maximian, that even the bishop of the city,
• ' EWtiviaiibi^ oi-rrui wpciTTH Kara \6yof );/jii>/ 'iviKa rail' furwvTiuv.' — (JuliaW
Epist. xlix.)

CONSTANTINE  MAXIMIAN. 29
Marcellinus, gave way, and offered incense to idols.^
Many Christians copied his example, others suffered
death with constancy, and others fled to the territories
of Constantius, who only partially carried out the
decrees of his colleagues; for though he threw down the
walls of some of the churches, he respected the property,
the persons, and even the assemblies of the Christians.
The flatterers of Diocletian proclaimed, all the same,
that he had extirpated Christianity; and this victory
was inscribed on medals and monuments. But Diocle
tian was weary of the sanguinary struggle, into which
he had been drawn with regret. His abdication, and
that of Maximian, the sickness of Galerius, the edict
that he promulgated in the East, restoring permission
to the Christians to hold their assemblies, are the last
signs of distress exhibited by Roman polytheism.
Vainly did Maximian, leaving the privacy which he
had sought, after the example of Diocletian, resume the
imperial purple and share it with his son Maxentius.
During these changes of power, Christianity had made
such progress, that Maxentius, at first, feigned to be
willing to embrace the faith his father had persecuted.
But he was forestalled.
The Csesar who had always protected the Christians,
Constantius, had just died at the head of his legions in
Britain. His son, Constantine, was chosen his suc
cessor by the suffrages of the army; he passed into
Gaul, treated with Maximian, who bestowed on him
the title of Csesar and the hand of his daughter Fausta.
Constantine at this period was still in the habit of
' 'AiSaaKS yi Ka'i avv(iir(pkptiv rove 'EWriviarUg ilf rdg^ roiaiirag \tiTovpyia<;.
'XpioTtavuij' ovTur i^a/iiWiuv tOi nXriBii EWrjvaiv.' — (Julian! Epist. In.)

30 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
bestowing gifts for the ornamentation of the temples
of the gods. The pagan orators of Gaul complimented
him on his piety; the deputies of the city of Autun
entreated him to enter their walls and visit their
magnificent Temple of Apollo. But the eyes of the
Christians were fixed on hira, and frora the borders of
the East to Rome, his arrival was awaited by an expec
tant people.
A jealousy of power that arose between Maximian
and his son hastened the impending revolution. Maxi
mian, expelled by Maxentius, fled for protection to
Constantine, conspired against him, and was slain by
his command. Master of Italy, Maxentius, at a loss
how to deal with an empire that was slipping frora
his grasp, recommenced a persecution of the Chris
tians. He reduced to slavery Felix, the Bishop of
Rome, and set him to work in a stable. The vices
of this wretch joined other horrors to his tyranny : the
purity of the Christian women was an attraction for
him. One of these, of a senatorial family, whom he
had dishonoured, having, contrary to the Christian
precept, killed herself, recalled to the remembrance
of Romans the example of virtue, equally famous and
fatal in their history.
Constantine, certain of the support of Italy, partly
Christian and wholly oppressed, passed the Alps in spite
of the 'advice of the aruspices still attached to his
camp, and who were doubtless at this moment en
lightened by the very instinct of paganism.
Behold, then, the accomplishment of the great
revolution begun three centuries before ! — the day that
shall avenge the blood of the victims, and range the

TEIUMPH OF CONSTANTINE. 31
oppressed in the ranks of the masters — the retribution
that is sometimes committed to iniquitous hands, but
that is accomplished by the eternal laws that govern
human society.
The attention of Rome, drunk with the blood of the
martyrs, of Italy with its population of Christians, of
the provinces of Africa full of flourishing Churches,
and all of the West, was alike aroused. Miraculous
stories were in circulation in Gaul; the superstitions
common to both faiths believed that celestial assistance
had been visibly promised to Constantine. Maxentius,
feeling his own weakness, sought likewise help from
Heaven, opened the sybilline books, and consulted the
magicians ; but he remained inactive at Rome. His
tory makes no mention of the deeds, the hopes, or the
prayers of the Christian community at this fatal crisis,
but they may easily be imagined : it was oppressed ;
it was about to command.
Constantine, having rushed from the summit of the
Alps, rapidly carried Turin, Cremona, and Mantua,
and marched upon Rome, the prize of the victor.
At some leagues from the city, on the banks of the
Tiber, was fought the battle that changed the fate of
the world ; the old legions of Gaul and Britain, though
less numerous, vanquished the army of Maxentius,
and he himself perished in his flight.
In an erection of these ancient days, we may discover
something of the impressions, or rather of the uncer
tainties, of the Romans, divided between two religions,
delivered from a tyrant, receiving a new master, hoping
in him a liberator. Constantine, as he entered Rome
with his victorious legions, preceded by the head of

32 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
Maxentius borne on a pike, passed under a triumphal
arch that was decorated with this ambiguous inscrip
tion : —
¦^THE SENATE AND THE EOMAN PEOPLE
' To the Emperor Caesar Augustus,^ who, under the
inspiration of the Divinity, by the greatness of his
own soul and the help of the army, has at one blow
avenged the republic on a tyrant and all his faction,
' HAVE EEECTED THIS TEIUMPH AL AECH.'
As we see, Christianity is not yet named, but is about
to show itself, and to reign.
' ' Quod iustinctu divinitatis, mentis magnitudine, cum exercitu suo, tam
de tyranno quam de omni ejus factione . . . arcum triumphis insignem
dicavit.' — (Baron, vol. iii.)

33

SECOND PERIOD.
THE CHUECH OF EOME, FEOM CONSTANTINE TO
THEODOSIUS.
Thus is completed the first revolution of the Roman
empire. The ancient fables, the temples of the gods,
the popular sacred rites, the old-world prejudices,
mingled with its monuments of art and its records of
learning, are all about to crumble away, and the time
draws near when all that shall remain of the former
state of society is its despotism; of the new, Chris
tianity and the barbarians.
Many things, however, in this great change, changed
but slowly and by degrees ; and just as in the last
period of the pagan persecution, Christianity was in
every place, so, after the conversion of Constantine,
paganism retained some partisans and some power.
Rome was the principal seat of this resistance. The
city of the two apostles was at the same time the city
of the gods and the senate. Its antique souvenirs, its
public buildings, the names of its streets, the learning
of its lawyers, those traditions and that pride of the
sovereign republic that had survived even the empire,
were aU linked with paganism.
Constantine does not appear to us under the aspect
of an enthusiast or a sectary. His conversion displays
VOL. I. D

34; HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
al!*the patience of a politician. He found events ripe
for his ambition. For more than a century, the Chris
tian religion, strengthened by many persecutions, had
become the most powerful element of the empire; it
alone prospered, while everything else was dropping
into decay. Every new persecution left it stronger ; it
opposed at the same time the ancient faith and the
ancient power. In vain had the imperial authority
rigorously prohibited all assemblies and all private
societies ; half the empire was united by religious
bonds: another sovereign, far more powerful — obedience
far more boundless, arose in the Roman world. The
Christians did not conspire, did not employ force for
their defence, but their countless numbers rendered
their victory certain. Sometimes, it is true, during the
first fury of a new edict barbarously executed, after a
few striking martyrdoms, many fled, many concealed
themselves ; and adroit emperors were thereby deceived,
or pretended to be so. The inscription of Diocletian,
wherein he congratulates himself on having everywhere
extirpated the Christian superstition and spread the
worship of the gods, is well known.^ Eight years after
the inscription of this lying epitaph, Christianity dis
posed of the throne of the West.
Constantine fully understood that in order to de
throne the Csesars of Asia, to form an empire of which
he should be the chief, it was necessary to change the
religious laws of the world. The legend of the
Labarum helped him to do what none had ever thought
of doing before; he armed Christian soldiers in his
• ' Superstitione Christi ubique deleta, cultu deorum propagate. '—(Baron.
anno 304).

POLICY OF CONSTANTINE. 35
cause, and rendered warlil^e and powerful the religion ot
suff'eruig and humility. Diff'ering in this from so many
other chiefs who had been raised to the supreme power by
the transient and changeable attachment of the praetorian
guards and the legions, he was supported by the
faith and interests of a large portion of the empire, and
had an army, not only ofhis party, but ofhis faith; he
had partisans and allies in the kingdoms of rival princes.
Already emperor of Italy and Gaul, the Christians of
Greece and of Asia hoped to find in him a protector.
We cannot say that in these fortunate circumstances,
Constantine, born of a Christian mother, threatened in
his youth by the persecutors of the Christians, and
stirred by the fancies inseparable from high hopes,
did not believe himself an instrument appointed by
Providence to reach the summit of power. Every
really ambitious man has faith in his own destiny ;
but Constantine manifested his with a prudence that
savours not of enthusiasm,
A triumphant victor in the name of the Cross, he
still follows pagan customs, admitting every servile
pretext, he allows one temple to be consecrated to
him by the Romans, and himself consecrates another
in the city of Rome. Finally, it was not at Rome,
in presence of a senate still attached to the ancient
faith, but at Milan, the now imperial residence, that
he promulgated his first edict in favour of Chris
tianity, in concert with Licinius. He therein disguises
the greatest revolution the world has seen under
an act of toleration. He accords the faculty of
freely following either Christian observances or the
religion that each one shall prefer. He reiterates this
d2

;36 HISTOEY OF GREGOEY VII.
promise of allowing equality between the religions; but
at the same time he prescribes to the public treasurer
and to private individuals to restore without interest
and without delay the proceeds of all that had been
confiscated, belonging to the Christians, by former
edicts. He orders to be given up to the Christian
body, not only its places of assembly, but all the pro
perty belonging to it, and holds out a hope of the
imperial indemnity to such as shall have complied.^
By these means, the Church of Rome, as weU as the
"Other Christian communities, recovered rich domains in
Italy, in Greece, and even in Asia. Such was the
ascendency of Constantine's genius and the power of
the lever he applied, that Licinius and Maximian, the
emperors of the East, were carried away by them. Per
secution ceased throughout the Roman world. The
execution of the new law was carried even into Nico
media, it was the triumph of Latin Christendom. Soon
Constantine exempted its priests from all public con
tributions, and by an edict, published at Rome,
authorised all to leave to the holy and venerable Council
ofthe Catholicity such portion ofhis goods as he pleased.
Thus, under an emperor who was still an unbaptised
neophyte, Christianity already dictated the law.
' 'Dare et Christianis et omnibus liberam potestatem sequendi religionem
quam quisque voluisset . . . qui eamdem observandse religioni Christia
norum gerunt voluntatem, citra ullam inquietudinem . . . contendant etiam
aliis religionis suae vel observantiae potestatem similiter apertam in liberam
concessam esse . . . loca , . . a flsco nostro vel ab alio quocumque videntur
esse mercati, eadem Christianis sine peounia et sine ulla pretii petitione,
postposita omni frustratione atque ambiguitate, restituantur . . . Corpori
Christianarum . . . non loca tantum, ad quae convenire consueverunt, sed
alia, quae habuisse noscuntur . . . reddi jubebis . . . supradicta ratione
servata, ut ii, qui ea sine pretio reatituerint, indemnitatem de nostra
benevolentia sperent.

DEFEAT OF LICINIUS  CONSTANTINOPLE, 37
Meantime, in the East, Licinius, the ally of Con
stantine, and his sister's husband, had conquered and
dethroned Maximian, The erapire was divided between
the two rivals. Licinius then repealed the edicts of tole
ration, and fled for help to the ancient idolatry of the
world, and the images of the gods once more decorated
the ensigns of the legions. Constantine set out to
oppose him, amid the prayers of the Christians ; he
conquered him under the walls of Byzantium, and
pitilessly caused him to be put to death. And thus
uniting under his sway more nations than either
Augustus or Trajan had ruled over, the protector of
the Christians found himself the master of the world.
Rome was no longer the object of his ambition. He
felt attracted to the East, as Diocletian had been, and,
having changed the religion of the world, he resolved
to change its capital. That city that lying at the limit
of Europe, touched Asia, that Byzantium, which had
been the witness of his victory, wooed him with her
lovely port, and her cosmopolitan position.
He set to work in haste to build streets and palaces,
and temples. The imperial precipitation, natural to
conquerers, appeared in his labours ; while he issued
decrees for founding schools of architects in the East,
he built with the marbles tom from the temples of
Greece, and columns transported from Egy^t.
At the same time he employed himself in endeavour
ing to establish unity in the religion he had rendered
triumphant, and which was tom by so many opposing
sects. Leaving his labours at Byzantium, he went to
the Council of Nice, whither he had convoked all the
bishops of the three parts of the world, and where he

38 HISTOEY OF GREGOKJt vii,
took his seat in their midst. It was in this council, he
tells us, that he first beheld the power of Christianity ;
he promulgated its decrees by his letters, and may be
said in a manner to have made himself the first pontiff
of the new faith.
Constantine would not adjudge the primacy to any
bishop in particular. He nominated three bishops to
judge Donat, who had been condemned as a heretic by
the Churches of Asia, and to those three he afterwards
added the Bishop of Rome. Donat, not submitting
himself to their sentence, was cited to appear before a
council over which he himself presided in the city of
Aries. Constantine did not preside over that of Nice ; we
are even told that he took his place on a lower seat
than the bishops ; but it was the triumph of the entire
priesthood, not of the Roman Pontiff^. Sylvester,
Bishop of Rome, was detained there by his advanced
age, and did not appear in that assembly, in which the
Patriarch of Alexandria was declared his equal in rank
and dignity. It may be that the jealousy which Con
stantine entertained against Rome, extended to the
head of that Church. But the removal of the Prince
did more for the Bishop of Rome, than his highest
favours could have accomplished.
The eternal city, forsaken by the sovereign, becarae
the city of the Pope. The donation of Constantine,
an invention of the cunning ignorance of the middle
ages, is a palpable fable doubtless ; but which involves
a real truth — the foundation of Byzantium gave Rome
to a new master.
The year after the Council of Nice, Constantine re-

COUNCIL OF NICE. 39
turned to Rome, but only to horrify the city by the
bloody scenes enacted in his palace. It was at Rome
that Constantine sentenced his son to death, and caused
his wife, Fausta, to be suffocated in a bath. The
Romans, in some verses which were found affixed to
the gates of his palace, lamented the retui'n of the age
of Nero ; but no voice came from the pulpit ; there
was no Saint Ambrose in Rome. A legend of the
fifth century only relates that the Pope Sylvester cured
Constantine, by baptismal immersion, of an inveterate
leprosy, but whether we take this anecdote in its literal
or figurative sense, it is equally untrue. Constantine,
who, as was customary, deferred his baptism, and
reserved it as a resource against his crimes, only re
ceived this Christian rite on his death-bed, and from the
hands of Eusebius, the abettor of Arianism,
The fate of this prince was strange. He died out of
the pale of the faith he had caused to triumph ; the first
Christian emperor, he stained with cruelty the throne of
Marcus Aurelius. A conqueror, a legislator, and a con
troversialist, there was in him something great, some
thing of the barbarian, some of the ijispirations of
genius, and some of the subtilty of the theologian. The
pure religion he adopted did not alter his ferocious dis
position, but it ameliorated his edicts. The man remained
barbarous, the emperor appears at times humane. He
forbade that crirae tolerated by antique legislation, -the
exposure of infants ; encouraged the manumission of
slaves, and improved the condition of women. The
author of the greatest revolution the world ever saw,
he re-established unity in the empire, and gave it
Christian laws.

40 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
From the time that Constantine founded his new
capital at the limits of Europe and Asia, and assembled
within its walls a court, a senate, and a population,
ancient Rome, having nothing left but her souvenirs,
necessarily looked back to the paganism whose monu
ments filled her wide circumference. The sentiment
of liberty, or the regret for its loss, which was pre
served by the Roman senate, was confused with the
prejudices of the ancient faith ; and patriotism kept
some heathens at Rome, while platonic philosophy still
had its followers in Greece and Asia.
But the greatness of the Church of Rome gained by
that very national jealousy that appeared contrary to the
interests of Christianity. The rivalry of the Roman
with the Greek encouraged the claims to religious
supremacy put forward by the Bishop of Rome. The
pagans themselves thought it natural and just that the
head of the Christians in the Eternal City should have
some pre-eminence over the other Churches, and Chris
tianity adopted this pagan tradition, as it borrowed in
its ceremonies several of the customs of the antique
f^tes. In Rome, abandoned by the emperors, there was
from this time forth only a prefect — a magistrate who
was powerless to eclipse the splendour of the head of
the Church ; thus the power of the Popes was founded
by the same events that mutilated the empire and
humbled Italy. This result was soon visible. When
ever a celebrated bishop of the East was either opposed
by his compatriots or oppressed by the emperor, he
hastened to Rome to obtain approbation and protection.
The Council of Nice, at the direction of Constantine,
who was willing that the Church should have. its

SAINT ATHANASIUS AND THE CHUECH OF EOME. 41
assemblies, but no head but himself, had declared the
Patriarch of Alexandria the equal in honours and
privileges of the Bishop of Rome. But a few years
afterwards the Bishop of Alexandria himself, Athana
sius, secretary of the Council of Nice, being banished
by Constantine, came to Rome to ask hospitality and
communion at the hands of its bishop. Welcomed
by this Church, it appeared as though he had fought
only for her, and he did for the greatness of the See
of Rome all that he had done for the faith of Nice.
After the death of Constantine and the division of
the empire between his two sons, Constans and Con
stantius, Athanasius, persecuted anew by the Arians,
and condemned in a council at Antioch, returned to
seek an asylum in Italy, and brought his cause before
the Church of Rome. The quarrelsome and sophistical
spirit of the Orientals served the Romish Church in
this. Paul, Bishop of Constantinople; Marcel, Bishop of
Ancyra ; Asclepias, Bishop of Gaza ; and Lucius,
Bishop of Adrianople, all driven from their sees by
various causes, appealed to the Roman tribunal at the
same time as Athanasius.
The Bishop of Rome, Julius I., profited by this
opportunity of increasing the power of his see. He
convoked a council of the bishops of the West at
Rome, brought the Eastern refugees before them, and
wrote to their persecutors, blaming their conduct.
These first encroachments by the Roman pontificate on
the liberty of the other Churches are curious to follow.
The Bishop of Rome always attempts them with the
support of a council. It is always a theological con-

42 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
test of the West against the East, The Church of
Rome, devoting itself to the defence of the refugees,
and constituting itself the court of appeal of those who
have complaint to make, speaks with more authority,
and the language of Julius is not unworthy of the
mission he undertook, ' Oh, my friends,' he writes
to the Eastern bishops who had proscribed their col
leagues, 'the sentences of the Church are no longer
according to the Gospel: they point henceforth to
banishment and to death. If, as ye say, these bishops
have been blameworthy, ye should have judged them
according to ecclesiastical rule, and not as ye have
done. Ye should have written unto us, so that what
was just may have been decreed by us all.' Thus
the Bishop of Rome laid claim to the Primacy, not for
himself, but for the council general of Christians,
The Synod which he held at Rome decreed the
reinstatement of the Oriental bishops who had been
deposed by their colleagues. The Emperor Constans,
who was reigning in Italy, wrote to his^ brother ap
proving this decision. We may easily iraagine how
ready the Emperor of the West must have been to
favour the first attempts at supremacy claimed by a
bishop, who was his subject, over the Eastern prelates.
Thus the ambition of the civil power aided that of the
Church. Constans and his brother, after mutual embassies,
agreed to convoke a general council, which should
pronounce on the complaints made by Athanasius and
the other deposed bishops. This solemn assembly,
which met at Sarvick, in Illyria, referred the question to
the Bishop of Rome. The genius of Athanasius gained

BNCEOACHMENTS OF THE CHUECH OF EOME. 43
this victory for Rome. Soon afterwards Athanasius
was re-called to the See of Alexandria, but the Church
of Rome, proud of the power she had acquired in
defending the greatest man of the Eastern Church,
began to think she might exercise it against him,
Julius I., having died in 352, was succeeded by
Liberius, who, on new complaints being sent fi'om the
East against Athanasius, summoned him to appear at
Rome. The Patriarch of Egypt ignored the jurisdiction he
had formerly invoked : Liberius anathematised him ;
but the Egyptian bishops having met together pro
nounced him blameless. Liberius then convoked a
council at Rome, but he was forced by the common
opinion to retract his first sentence. Strange spirit of
the age! Athanasius, the defender of the faith at
Nice, was accused of divining the future by the flight
of birds and the help of sorcery. ^
The Emperor of the West, the young Constans, was
assassinated by Magnentius, one of his officers, who
succeeded. The Emperor of the East took up arms to
avenge his brother ; and, having vanquished the usurper,
he once more united under his sway the empire of
Constantine, Alexandria, Constantinople and Rome.
But his first endeavours after his victory were directed
to obtaining a new condemnation of Athanasius, He
called a council at Milan, exiled some bishops who
were favourable to the man he was bent on destroy
ing, and extorted the votes of the rest. The temper,
^ Dicebatur fatidicarum sortium fidem, quseve augurales portenderent
alites, scientissime callens, aliquoties praediscisse futura.' — (Amm. Marc.
a.c. 355.)

44 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
already matured, of the Church of Rome, now again
showed itself. That Liberius who had formerly ex
communicated Athanasius, would not subscribe his
condemnation. He determined to utilise the powerful
name of the Romish Church for the defence of an
eminent man ; Constantius pressed him all the more to
recognise the Council of Milan. The pagans, even,
have noted the struggle. ' Liberius,' says one of them,
' notwithstanding the orders of the prince, refused to
subscribe, exclaiming that it was abominable to con
demn a man without seeing or hearing him, and
openly resisting the Emperor's will ; for the latter,
who had always been the enemy of Athanasius,
though he had obtained his end, still ardently desired
to have his sentence confirmed by the authority
specially possessed by the Bishop of the Eternal City.
He could not obtain it, however, and Liberius was
carried off from Rorae in the night with great diffi
culty, because they were afraid of the people, who
loved him greatly,' ^
Such, then, according to the testimony of a pagan —
a soldier and philosopher — was the power that was
exercised by the Bishop of Rome in the middle of the
fourth century against the will of the Emperor. Being
brought before Constantius, and remaining inflexible in
his refusal, Liberius was banished to a village of Thrace,
and Constantius caused another bishop of Rome to be
1 ' Nee visum hominem, nee auditum, damnare nefas ultimum, saepe ex-
clamans, aperte scilicet recalcitrans imperatoris arbitrio. Id enim ilie
Athanasio semper infestus, licet scire impletum tamen auctoritate quoque,
qua potiores aeternae urbis. Episcopi, firmari desiderio nitebatur ardenti:
quo non impetrato Liberius aegre populi metu, qui ejus amore fiiagrabat,
cum magna difficultate noctis potuit absportari.' — (Amm. Marc, book xv.

DEPOSITION OE POPE LIBEEIUS. 45
elected in his own palace. The docile bishops of his
court anointed him, and a few eunuchs represented the
assembly of the people.
But some time after, Constantius, having come to
Rome, the first women of the city magnificently clad,
presented themselves before him, entreating him to
restore their lawful pastor to his flock. Constantius
would only consent on condition that Liberius should
adopt the doctrine he had opposed, and even then he
would only allow him to share the government of Rome
with Felix. The firmness of Liberius had vanished in
exile, for he agreed to everything demanded of him.
A new council, held at Sirmium, having put the
doctrine of Arius and the proscription of Athanasius
into other words, Liberius subscribed to them, and in
a letter to the Emperor he declared that he did not
defend Athanasius, and that he heartily accepted the
new formula proposed by his adversaries.
Once more restored to the see of Rome in the midst
of the enthusiasm of the people, who soon drove away
the other pope, Felix, Liberius, it is said, repented of
his complaisance, and rejoined the party of Athanasius,
These frequent changes do not surprise his con
temporaries. Nobody then considered the Bishop of
Rome infallible. Athanasius, whose mind and genius
were of such a high order, speaks with contempt of the
weakness of Liberius ; and a GauHsh bishop, Hilary of
Poictiers, while transcribing, in his history, the letter
at the price of which that pontiff had obtained his
liberty, leaves off at every line to exclaim : ' Anathema
unto thee, Liberius! Anathema, I say, unto thee,
again and again, thou prevaricating pontiff.'

46 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
The duration of the resistance of Liberius to Con
stantius, and the zeal of the people in his cause, may be
taken as an explanation of one of the strange things of
this period. Constantius, who, in his laws, strictly
forbids the predictions of the aruspices and other pagan
ceremonies, always bestowed the office of governor of
Rome on a pagan. Soon after the triumphant return
of Liberius, during a famine which excited riots in
Rome, the prefect, Tertullus, went to the gates of the
city and offered sacrifice in the temple of Castor and
Pollux, to obtain a favourable voyage for the corn-laden
ships coming from Egypt. It was the imperial policy
to provide a counterpoise to the power of the bishop,
who obtained authority over the minds of the rich
women by his counsels, and over the poor by his alms.
But soon these remains of paganism, spared by Con
stantius, were to be revived for the last time by Julian.
As we have already said, this religious revival was
wholly Greek, and almost foreign to the Latin genius.
While Christendom was engaged in blood-stained
disputes, the young prince, whose father and brother
had been put to death by the cruel Constantius, and
who had been brought up by force in the rehgion of
his persecutors, devoted himself, either through enthu
siasm, or perhaps through ambition, to every memory
connected with the faith they proscribed.
Having received the tonsure to quahfy him as reader
in the Church of Nicomedia, he obtained permission to
go and study in the schools of Athens, where philosophy
and liberty, banished from the rest of the world by
Christianity, conspired together in favour of the ancient
religion. Julian was summoned thence by Constantius

THE BMPEEOE JULIAN. 47
himself to take the command of the Roman armies in
Gaul and Germany. He did great things; defeating
the barbarian chiefs and equitably governing the con
quered provinces, whUe Constantius was either buried
in Oriental voluptuousness or busy with theological
controversies. In the midst of victory, under the inclement skies of
Gaul, the young Caesar's imagination wandered to the
gods and the arts of Greece. Enthusiastic and aus
tere, he was in the habit of arising in the middle of
the night to adore Mercury, who, in his allegorical
polytheism, was regarded as the very intelligence of the
universe. He had around him some of those Greeks
and Easterns who dreaded being accused of magic,
under Constantius, and who thought themselves pro
phets when they promised the throne to Julian. With
an imagination excited by these hopes, the young Csesar,
in his dreams and in his vigils, thought he beheld the
genius of the empire speaking to him thus : ' Juhan, I
have waited long at thy gates, desiring thy greatness.
Spurned by thee more than once, I have gone away,
and if thou dost not now receive me, when all the
world would have it so, I shall retire weary and sad.
Remember, moreover, that I shall not long abide with
thee.' The dissatisfaction of two of the legions on being
recalled by the jealousy of Constantius from his young
colleague, ripened all his vague projects of ambition.
Juhan revolted, as Csesar had done, rather than give up
the soldiers at whose head he had conquered. But so
great was the power of Christianity throughout the
West, that Julian feared, at first, to abjure publicly.

48 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VH,
At Vienne, on the Isfere, in order to win over the
people, he affected to be attached to the Christian form
of worship ; and, as a pagan tells us, 'he went, on the
day they call Epiphany, into their church, and remained
there praying to their God,' ^
Whether it was out of respect to a widely-spread
belief, whether it was out of uncertainty as to his own
plans, it was not till after he had entered Constanti
nople, and was master of the East,^ that Juhan laid
bare the secret of his soul, and issued his decrees,
ordering the temples to be opened and sacrifices to be
offered. The Church of Rome was not affected by this
transient and useless attempt. While Julian, sur
rounded by Greek sophists and hierophants, celebrated
f&tes,^ offered victims, and composed hymns to the
mother of the gods, the Christian Churches of Italy,
Africa, Spain, Gaul and Germany remained free and un
molested. The decree itself by which Julian interdicted
the disciples of Christ from the teaching of letters and
eloquence, affected scarcely any except the learned
schools of the Christians in Greece.* The writings on
which Julian relied for the support of his religious
revival were not known in the West ; he never even
came to Rome, and appointed as its governor a pagan,
who was a sceptic and a man of moderation. The East
attracted him, and having left Antioch for the Persian
' ' Adhaerere cultui Ohristiano fingebat . . . et feriarum die quem Chris
tiani Epiphania dictitant, progressus in eorum Ecclesiam, solemniter
Numine orato, dicessit.' — (Amm. book xxi.)
" Ibid, book xxii.
^ ' Innumeras sine parcimoniS, pecudes mactans.' — (Amm. book xxv.)
^ ' Docere vetuit magistros rhetoricos grammaticos Christianos.'— (Ibid.)

JULIAN. 49
war, Rome received the intelhgence of his death before
experiencing any of the effects of his paganism. His
successor, Jovian, proclaimed the liberty of Christianity
afresh, and Valentinian soon after brought it the support
of his edicts and his arms.
This phantom of mystic paganism evoked by Julian,
served then only to animate the ardour of the new faith.
Julian had hastened during his brieT reign to restore
to the pagan temples the domains that had been con
fiscated by the first Christian emperors, Valentinian,
by a rescript dated 364, abolished the decrees of his
predecessor, of holy memory, as he says, and united
the domains of those temples once more to the imperial
property. The courtiers and the Christian priests were
enriched with these spoils of paganism, and the Chris
tian altars were decorated with new splendour. For a
long time the memories and the monuments of perse
cution had been the whole pomp of the new faith at
Rome. Men came thither to visit the tombs of the
martyrs; the churches could boast of no magnificence.
' When I was at Rome in my boyhood, studying the
liberal sciences,' says Saint Jerome, ' I used to go
with my companions on Sundays to visit the tombs of
the apostles and martyrs, I often went into those
caverns that extended far under ground, where, when
we came to think of it, our path lay between two rows
of the buried dead, I crept forward slowly, in com
plete darkness, and recaUed to my mind the line of
Virgil —
Horror ubique animos simul ipsa silentia terrent.'
But after Julian, when polytheism was powerless,
when all the wealth and aU the favour had passed over
VOL, I. ' E

50 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
to Christianity, there was no longer the same simplicity
in the public worship. The virtues of the primitive
Church had been under the safeguards of persecution
and poverty ; she grew weaker in the day of triumph.
Enthusiasm was less pure, existence less self-denying-
and among the ever-increasing number of proselytes
were many vicious men. They became Christians out
of ambition, for interest, to please the Court, to appear
faithful to the emperors. The Church, enriched at the
same time with the spoils of the temples and the gifts
of the Christians, decked herself with a magnificence
truly profane. The ecclesiastical cupidity of which
the Bishop of Carthage complained in the middle of
the third century, was carried much further, especiaUy
in the principal cities of the empire.
At the death of Liberius in 366, they fought in arms
for the dignity of the bishopric of Rome, notwithstand
ing the intervention of the prefect, who was obhged to
quit the city on account of these disorders.^ Two
Christian factions had been formed, one in favour of
XJrsino, the other of Damasus, both priests of the
Roman Church. ' Damasus,' says the pontifical book,
innocently, ' carried the day, because he had the greater
number on his side.' The churches of Rome were
stained with blood. Damasus being elected by his
party, in the Basilica of Saint Lucia, besieged his
opponent in the Church of Sicininus,^ where one
hundred and thirty-seven men were killed in one

' ' Nee corrigere sufficiens nee moUire, coactus in magna seeessit in sub-
urbanum.' — (Amm. Mare.)
' ' Constat in basilica Sicinini . . . uno die centum triginta septem
reperta cadavera peremptorum.' — (Id.)

WEALTH OF THE CHUECH. 51
The populace of Rome rose in revolt, and were tran-
quUlised with difficulty. A pagan, who agrees with
the ecclesiastical writers in his account of this scandal,
is not much surprised at it, when he considers the
dignity thus contended for. ' Those who obtain it,' says
he, 'are sure to be enriched by the offerings of the
Roman matrons, to be borne in chariots, to be mag
nificently clad, and to sit at tables whose profusion
exceeds the feasts of kings. Happier would they be in
point of fact if, disdaining the grandeur of Rome, which
is their pretext for these excesses, they were to copy
the example of those provincial bishops whose rigid
sobriety, poor dress, and humble looks, bent on the
earth, glorify the Divinity, and all his true wor
shippers.' ^ These riches of the Church excited the
raiUery of the idolaters. One of them, whom Valen
tinian, following the policy of the emperors, had
nominated prefect of Rome, often said to the Pope
Damasus, ' Make me Bishop of Rome, and I will be a
Christian directly.' ^
The same love of show and the same abuses descended
from the bishops to the simple priests. They were
accused of leading captive the minds of the most
' Cum id adepti, futuri sint ita securi, ut ditentur oblationibus matron-
arum, procedantque vehiculis insidentes, circumspecte vestiti, epulas
curantes profusas, adeo ut eorum convivia regales superent epulas. Qui
esse poterant beati revera, si magnitudine urbis despeeta, quam vitiis
opponunt, ad imitationem antistitum quorundam provincialium viverent,
quos tenuitas edendi potandique parcissime . . . perpetuo Numini verisque
ejus cultoribus  commendant — (Amm. Marc, book xxvii.)
^ Miserabilis praetextatus, qui designatus consul est mortuus, homo
sacrilegus et idolorum cultor, solebat ludens beato Papae Damaso dicere,
' Facite me Eomanae urbis episcopum et ero protinus Christianus.' —
(S.H. Epist. ad Pammachium adversus Errores Joan. lerosolymitani, p. 310.
Paris edition, 1706, vol. iv.)
e2

52 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
wealthy women' in Rome, and thus obtaining their in
heritance. In defiance of the severe rules of the ancient
gyneceum, more than one priest found means to in
troduce himself there in the morning hours, and by his
flatteries and entreaties, obtained from the wives and
widows of the senators, the very fumiture of the palace.
Valentinian, the Emperor ofthe West, though zealous
for the Christian faith, which he had confessed under
Julian, determined to put a stop to this cupidity of the
Christian priests. He promulgated and caused to be
read in the churches of Rome a decree, whereby he
forbade the ecclesiastics and those who had taken the
name of continents, to visit the houses of widows and
orphans. The same decree forbids them to receive
aught soever from the women with whom they have
relations in the name of religion, and annuls any gift or
will in their favour, though made through a third party.
At this period, however, the pagan priests and the
vestals stUl enjoyed the right of inheriting. The same
Jerome, who in his boyhood wandered in such pioup
horror through the catacombs of Rome, celebrates the
justice of this decree — 'I am ashamed to say it,' he
exclaims, ' but idolatrous priests, players, charioteers
of the circus, and prostitutes receive legacies. They
are only forbidden to be left to priests and monks, and
the prohibition comes, not from persecutors, but from
Christian princes ; I do not complain of the law, but I
grieve we should have deserved it. The remedy is a
good one, but what must have been the wound that
needed such a cure ; the measure is prudent as severe,
and even v.'ith aU those precautions avarice is not sup-

MANNEES OF THE CLEEGY. 53
pressed ; by the favour of the clerks we elude the
law.' Elsewhere, Saint Jerome caUs the Roman clergy a
Pharisaical senate, an ignorant faction, ' Read,' he
exclaims, ' the Revelation of John ; read what is fore
told of the woman robed in scarlet and of the blasphemy
written on her forehead ; of the seven hUls, the great
waters, and the ruin of Babylon, There is figured,
doubtless, a holy church, with the triumphs of the
apostles and martyrs, but ambition and power pervert
many.' Saint Jerome speaks like Luther. It is re
markable that this same saint, though attached to the
faith of the Romish Church, and even during a long
time secretary to Pope Damasus, did not admit the
supremacy of the Roman pontiff. ' If we seek authority
says he, 'the universe ought to prevaU over a city.
Wherever one is bishop, be it Rome or Eugubia,
Constantinople or Rhegium, Alexandria or Thanis, one
holds the same rank in the priesthood. "^
Such were the ideas of the fourth century.
Damasus himself was not beyond the reach of the
accusation, made against the Romish priests of his time.
Being exposed to the attacks of the party who had op
posed his election, he was accused of adultery and ac
quitted in a council. Saint Jerome, who was also
calumniated, celebrates in his writings the innocence
and purity of life of the Roman pontiff, Damasus
appears, moreover, to have kept his place by the same
violent means he had used to gain it. He rigorously
' 'Si auctoritas quaeritur, orbis major est urbe. Ubicumque fuerit
episcopus, sive Romse, sive Eugubii, sive Constantinopoli, sive Khegii, sive
Alexandrise, sive Thanis, ejusdem meriti, ejusdem sacerdotis.' — (S. Hieronymi
Epid, ad Evagrium.)

54 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII,
persecuted the partisans of his former rival Ursino, and
obtained against them a decree, whose execution was
confided to the pagan governor Pretextat, who drove
them out of their church by force. On another occasion
the pontiff himself attacked them at the head of a great
number of the people, and many were killed. He
punished with the same severity the Donatists, and
another sect that also came from Africa.
But these quarrels and insignificant persecutions
were smaU things corapared to the great struggle of
Christianity at large, still distracted by the doctrine of
Arius. Valens, the brother of Valentinian, who had
been placed by him on the throne of the East, adopted
the opinions of this sect, and persecuted the foUowers
of Athanasius. The most eminent doctors of the East,
thus oppressed in their own country, turned their eyes
towards the Bishop of Rome. In so doing they did not
recognise a supreme jurisdiction, but they invoked
alliance and support. It was in a council in which the
oriental bishops predominated in numbers, that the
dogmas which were disputed by the Arians had been
proclaimed. Rome had received the faith from Nice.
Nevertheless, Damasus, animated by that spirit of
authority which appears in his Church like a tradition
of the Roman policy, received the complaints of the
Orientals with the haughtiness of a judge. He an
swered them by sending to them a formula of faith.
Saint Basil exclaims in his letters against what he calls
the extreme ostentation of the Westerns. He accuses
Damasus of ignorance and prejudice, and regrets havmg
written to him. 'I now remember,' says he, 'the
words of Diomedes m Homer ; thou shouldst not have

SAINT JEROME AND DAMASUS. 55
entreated AchUles, he is too proud.' We can perceive
that the Greek Church, with its vivid imagination, proud
of its great men, of its subtle learning, of its very dis
putes, revolted at the idea of receiving instructions
from an Italian bishop. But the continual divisions
among the Easterns prepared the way for their falling
under the yoke they so disdained. The bishops of
Egjrpt, of Achaia, and of Asia, driven from their sees,
repaired to Rome for refuge ; but no bishop of Italy
ever carried plaints to the East or ever sought protection
there. Faithfully attached to the doctrine of Nice, which
rendered the Christian religion more mysterious, more
elevated, more distinct from the phUosophical theism,
the Church of Rome was to increase its power by the
victory which this doctrine obtained, by the genius of the
bishops of the East and the protection of Theodosius.
It may be said that this prince did for the doctrine of
Athanasius, what Constantine had done for Christianity,
From Jerusalem to Lutetia, the Roman world had for
half a century been divided into Catholics and Arians ;
and each party triumphed in turn, according to the
chances of a reign, the caprices of the princes, their
ministers or their eunuchs. Then appears Theodosius,
that great and victorious captain who had been sum
moned to share and defend the empire by the choice of
Gratian ; he receives baptism from the hand of a Catholic
priest, and proclaims the doctrine of Nice the law
of the empire. ' We vnll,' he says in a memorable
decree, ' that all the people governed by our clemency
hve in the rehgion which the divine Apostle Peter
transmitted to the Romans, and which is followed by

56 HISTORY OF GEEGOEY VII.
the pontiff Damasus and by Peter, Bishop of Alexan
dria, a man of apostolic holiness. We decree that aU
those who follow this faith shall take the name of
CathoUcs ; for the rest, esteeming them blind and in
sensate, we will that they bear the disgraceful name of
heretics, and that their places of assembly be no more
called churches. We leave their punishment, in the
first place, to divine vengeance ; and further we shaU
move ourselves, as we may be moved of God.' ^
This edict, which was first issued at Thessalonica, and
rigorously carried out in Constantinople and all the
East,, was doubtless dictated as much by policy as reli
gion, Theodosius, already the sovereign of the East,
was anxious to secure the fidelity of the most powerful
of the Western Churches, The protector of the youthful
Valentinian, who then reigned in Italy, Theodosius, by
practising one only form of faith, whose supreme organs
he recognised in the Bishops of Rome and Alexandria,
established the most powerful tie between the two ex
tremities of the Roman world.
But it happened, at this period, as it always does in
violent disputes on matters of opinion, partial dissent
inspires more violent hatred than total disbelief,
' ' Cunctus populus, quos dementias nostrae regit temperamentum, in tali
volumus religione versari, quam divinum Petrum apostolorum tradidisse
Komanis, religio usque nunc ab ipso insinuata declarat ; quamque Ponti-
ficem Damasum sequi claret, et Petrum Alexandriae, virum apostolicse
sanctitatis ; ut secundum apostolicam disciplinam evanglicamque doctrinam
Patris, et Filii, et Spiritus Sancti unum Deitatem sub parili majestate et
sub pia trinitate eredamus. Hanc legem sequentes Christianorum Catho-
licorum nomen jubemus ampleeti ; reliquos vero dementes vaesanosque
judicantes, hseretici dogmatis infamiam sustinere; nee coneUiabula eorum
ecclesiae nomen accipere : divina primum vindieta, post etiam motus nostri,
quem ex coelesti arbitrio sumpserimus, ultione plectendos.' — {Cod.
lib. xvi. vol. i. eh. 1. p. 2.)

THEODOSIUS PEOSCRIBES AEIANISM. 57
The Arians, who refused some dogmas of the vic
torious creed, were more persecuted than the pagans
who denied it all. The office of Roman prefect was, as
before, filled by one of the sect of the polytheists,
Symmachus by name, who was renowned for an
oratorical talent that passed for eloquence.
Many heads of the senatorial famUies held the same
opinions as Symmachus, and the Christians of the time
agree in saying that some Ulustrious men were included
in the nuraber. This party, though small, was in a
manner the refuge of the ancient Roman aristocracy.
Its zeal for the worship of the gods was rather a reli
gion of souvenirs and patriotism than a positive behef
in confused and doubtful fables. For that reason it
was less displeasing to the Roman Church than the
audacity of the Christian reformers who separated
themselves from her. The obstinacy of the pagans
was in some sort an idle error which was the less
odious on account of its powerlessness. Shut up within
the waUs of the studies of a few lawyers and men of
letters, this speculative attachment to the ancient faith
did not act on the masses, who were attracted by the
ceremonies, the prayers, and the alms of the Christian
worship. A poet of the time describes the conversion
of the common people of Rome with that truth of
detail we seek in history.^

' ' Post hinc ad populum converte oculos. Quota pars est
Quae Jovis infeetam sanie non disputat aram ?
Omnis qui eelsa scendit ccenacula vulgus,
Quique terit silicem variis discursibus atram,
Et quem panis alit gradibus dispensus ab altis :
Aut Vaticano tumulum sub monte frequentat.
Quo cinis iUe latet genitoris amabilis obses.

58 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
It was in the height of this popularity of the new
faith, that paganism, favoured by the changes that dis
turbed the West, made a feeble effort.
The young Gratian had been assassinated in Gaul by
one of his generals, who then assumed the imperial
purple, and appeared prepared to threaten both the
power and the life of Valentinian. The pagan senators
of Rome chose this moment of danger to prefer a
request that the statue of Victory should be replaced
in the senate-house. The Prefect of Rome, Symma
chus, at their entreaty, addressed a report to the
Emperor, in which it is easy to trace the adroitness
of a pagan but patriotic philosopher, who regrets the
loss of a thing in which he does not believe, and inge
niously discusses souvenirs in default of convictions.
Meantime, the Christian portion of the senate applied
to the Bishop of Rome, Damasus, to prevent the
granting of a mischievous request. The pontiff was
now aged, and though he had with him the young and
eloquent Jerome, he caUed in the aid of one whose
opinion would claim more respect from Valentinian.
Ambrose, Bishop of Milan, was then the foremost
individual in Latin Christendom, whether by his ser
vices, his genius, or his virtues. His skilful negotia
tion had been the salvation of Valentinian, and had
retarded the invasion projected by Maximus. He
opposed a most eloquent reply to the petition of Sym
machus, and secured its rejection.
Coetibus aut magnis Lateranas currit ad aedes,
Unde sacrum referat regali chrismate signum.
Et dubitamus adhuc Romam tibi, Christe, dicatam
In leges transisse tuas ? '
(Prudentii Contra Symmachum, lib. i. verse 579, page 277.)

TOLEEATION AS EEGAEDS PAGANS. — SYMMACHUS. 59
The attempt of Symmachus made him enemies, and
he was accused at the Court of Theodosius of having
taken advantage of his office at Rome, to put Chris
tians to the torture, and to imprison bishops. The
defence of Symmachus is remarkable ; he cites in his
favour letters written by Damasus, whom he styles the
honourable bishop of the Christians, and which de
clare that not one of the followers of his rehgion had
sustained the smaUest injury by the prefect's orders.^
We see by this example, and many others, that the
eminent men of both faiths had ended by living in
peace, and doing justice to each other. Many Christians
wrote earnestly against the restoration of the altar of
Victory ; but they all mention Symmachus honourably,
and praise both his virtue and the gravity of his
manners, Damasus died after a pontificate of eighteen
years, and left his Church already free and respected.
Damasus cannot be compared for talent with the
gifted men who filled the Christian sees of the East,
of Greece, and even of some of the Western cities. He
was far from exercising over his contemporaries the
authority of a Chrysostom or an Ambrosius ; but we see
in him something of the tenacious and active ambition
which increased the power of the Roman Church.
The residence of the Emperors at MUan completed
what the founding of Constantinople had begun.
If the sovereigns of the West had dwelt at Rome,
the Pope would have been, like the Patriarch of Con
stantinople, feared and persecuted by turns, but always
dependent on the intrigues of the palace. But when
' . . . . Sane laudabili viro episcopo .... litteris, ejusdem religionis
assectatores negavit ullam oontumeliam pertuUsse, — (Epist. 34.)

60 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
Milan was chosen as the capital of Italy, Rome be
longed wholly to religion.
A circumstance to be remarked is, that Ambrose in
his see of MUan, being too near the Court, was, not
withstanding his value and his virtues, more than once
assailed by the violence of imperial power : Damasus
remained powerful and respected at Rome. The
Churches of the West grew accustomed to looking on
this Church as the religious metropohs ; it had a school
of priests less learned, less ingenious in arguments than
those of the East, but careful to preserve ancient customs,
uniform in their practice, and admitting no innovation,
except the incessant extension of their privileges.
The change of masters passed over it without dis
turbing it. Maximus seized on Italy; Theodosius van
quished Maximus, and replaced Valentinian on the
throne of Milan. Valentinian was slain by Abro-
gastes, who invested a phantom of an emperor with
the purple, and in order to form for himself a party,
restored idol worship.
Theodosius, once more summoned fi'om the East,
delivered Italy, and restored in his person the empire
of Constantine. The Church of Rome, ever the same
in the midst of these shocks, was extenduig its invisible
power under its obscure chiefs.
Syricius, the successor of Damasus, in his reply to
the bishop metropolitan of the province of Tarragona,
regulates various questions of discipline, and notably
forbids the marriage of monks, priests, and bishops,
contrary to the custom practised in the East, and even
in the Church of Milan. Here begins clearly to appear
the spirit of the Church of Rome, and its intention

PEOGEESS OF THE CHUECH. 61
to separate priests from the ordinary conditions of
humanity, in order to render them more docUe under
a chief. What that great legislative senate of Chris
tendom, the Council of Nice, had chosen to leave
undecided, what was not obligatory on the Churches of
Asia, and of Greece, the celibacy of priests, was made
so by this letter,
Theodosius then completed the triumph of Chris
tianity over the ancient faith, and the doctrine of
Athanasius over all Christian sects. In every part of
his vast empire, he caused to be destroyed all the
remaining temples and idols ; and when he was dying,
he entreated some senators, who were stUl pagans, to
renounce their reUgion, and adore the God who had so
often led them to victory.
However, the active protection of this emperor
advanced rather the entire Christian priesthood, than
the Church of Rome in particular.
Syricius, Bishop of Rome, banished at his will
Manicheans, Jovinians, and other sects, against whom
the rigorous edicts of Theodosius took effect ; but this
same Syricius, having desired to bring before him, at a
CouncU of Rome, Flavian, Bishop of Antioch, obtained
only a refusal. The prelate would not recognise this
foreign jurisdiction, nor submit to the see of Rome, a
city which claimed the title of metropolitan of the East.
Theodosius did not insist, out of respect, no doubt, to
the vhtues of the pontiff who had formerly won from
him the pardon of Antioch.

62

THIRD PERIOD.
FEOM THE DEATH OF THEODOSIUS TO THE FALL OF
THE WESTEEN EMPIEE.
On the death of Theodosius, the empire was once more
divided, and this disunion kept up that between the
Churches. While the Christians of the East were tom
by the schisms and quarrels that banished even the
great Chrysostom from the see of Constantinople, the
Church of Rome, under less celebrated chiefs, continued
to extend its power in the West. Still the authority
of the see of Milan almost equalled that of Rome ; and
each Christian society had its particular rule in regard
to many points and customs. ' My mother,' says Saiat
Augustine, ' having joined me at MUan, found that
Church did not fast on Saturdays, and was at a loss
what to do. I consulted on the matter Saint Ambrose,
of holy memory. He replied, " When I am at Rome,
I fast on a Saturday. When I am at Milan, I do not ;
do the same. Follow the custom of the Church where
you are," ' ^
A council, held at Carthage, at the beginning of the
' ' Mater mea me Mediolanum eonsecuta, invenit ecclesiam sabbato non
jejunantem, coeperit fluctuare quid ageret. Tunc ego consului de hac re
beatissimae memoriae virum Ambroaium. At ilie ait : ' " Cum Eomam venio,
jejuno sabbato ; eum Mediolanum sum, non jejuno. Sic etiam tu, ad
quam forte ecclesiam veneris, ejus morem serva.'" — (August. Epid. «»
Januarium, p. 118, cap. 11.)

INVASION OF ITALY. 63
fifth century, consulted at the same time, both the
Bishop of Rome, Anastasius, the successor of Syricius,
and the Bishop of MUan, Venerius, the successor of
Saint Ambrose. Those two Churches were, neverthe
less, divided on questions of greater importance than
fasting on Saturdays. The Church' of Milan allowed
its priests to marry, only prohibiting them to marry a
second time. The Church of Rome, on the contrary,
strove to establish a uniform rule in this respect
throughout the West. In 404, Innocent I., the suc
cessor of Anastasius, prescribed it to a Bishop of
Rouen, in Gaul.
His letter is remarkable, because therein, for the
first time, the Church of Rome appears to claim the
judgment in the ecclesiastical matters reserved, in the
Council of Nice, for the consideration of a meeting of
bishops in each province.
Innocent I., himself, refers to this fundamental article
of the early Christian constitution, but he adds, ' With
out prejudice always to the rights of the Church of
Rome, which must have great weight in all causes.'
Under these vague and timid words, we may already
read all the future claims of Roman supremacy. The
misfortunes of the empire were to favour them.
While under the feeble reigns of Honorius and
Arcadius, the Roman world was plunged either in the
fury of controversy, or the apathy of the cloister, the
barbarians made irruptions on all sides, and then began
a new order of things for the Roman Pontificate ; and
even as its first grandeur was due to the abandonment
of Rome by the emperor, so the height of its power
was prepared by the wreck of the ancient state of

64 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
society, the invasion of Italy, and the fall of the empire
of the West.
Alaric, King of the Goths, who had long been in the
pay of Theodosius, having taken up arms against the
weak inheritor of the empire, came down upon Italy,
bringing in his train the barbarian hordes from the
banks of the Danube,
The Emperor of the West, Honorius, not daring to
inhabit either Rome or Milan, as being too exposed to
the barbarians, had taken refuge in Ravenna, on the
shores of the Adriatic, so as to be all the more ready
for flight. Italy possessed no means of defence, but
there were still Roman legions in Gaul and Germany,
and, as it happened, a great man at their head. StUicho
conquered Alaric near PoUentia, Strange was the
influence of religion, that at this period entered into
everything !
In Greece, Alaric besieged, and destitute of provisions
on the heights of Foloe, had escaped from the Roman
army whUe StUicho was present at some pagan ceremony,
revived by the patriotism of the Hellenes. In Italy,
Alaric was defeated because his soldiers, recently con
verted to Arianism, were, in their untaught faith,
afraid to fight on Easter Day.
StiU terrible, even in defeat, Alaric forced Honorius
to purchase his retreat from Italy ; and, having soon
after raised new legions of barbarians, he reappeared
on the banks of the Po, and, proceeding to Rome, laid
siege to the city. Terror then made many of the
Romans regret their ancient gods. The expiring Roman
empire was like those sick men who, when their Uves
are despaUed of, fly to any impostor for succour.

ALAEIC — INNOCENT I, 65
There were at this time in Rome some men who had
come from Tuscany, the native land of the aruspices.
They boasted of having, by their prayers and cere
monies, preserved the little town of Neveia from the
assault of the barbarians, by causing a storm of thunder
and lightning to burst over them. The prefect
of the city was anxious to make inquiries as to
this extraordinary succour, but, being a Christian, he
dared not authorise the celebration of ceremonies taken
from the ancient worship, without consulting the
Bishop of Rome, Innocent I, The latter, out of
deference to the public apprehensions, consented to
allow the ceremonies to be performed in secret. But
the Tuscan impostors declared that their sacrifices
could not profit the city unless they were public,
unless the senate came to their offering at the capitol,
and thence went in procession through the places and
streets of the city. The success of the experiment was
not put to the proof, and the fears of the Romans led
to the adoption of a more efficacious expedient. Their
bishop undertook to negotiate for the ransom of, the
city with Alaric. The barbarian received as the price
of his retreat, 5,000 pounds weight of gold, 3,000 pounds
weight of silver, 3,000 silken robes, 3,000 pieces of
scarlet cloth, and 4,000 pounds of pepper. In order
to furnish a portion of this tribute, some of the statues
of the gods that still remained were melted down.
By a noticeable clause, the Bishop, Innocent, had
stipulated that the city of Rome should be the mediator
between Alaric and Honorius. But the latter, shut up
in Ravenna, and weak as he was, refused to give the
command of the imperial armies to the barbarian
VOL. I. F

66 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
general. Alaric, in displeasure, returned towards Rome.
The Pope Innocent set out at the head of an embassy,
composed of the principal inhabitants of the city, to
stay the march of the conqueror by entreaty; but
being unsuccessful, he joined Honorius in Ravenna.
Alaric received a second ranson, and amused himself
by creating emperor of the Romans one Attains, a pre
fect; but not satisfied with this, he returned a third
time to Rome, and finally took it by assault. This great
city, still rich in public monuments and in wealth, was
given up to pillage during three days. Alaric, however,
spared the Christian churches; they saved from dis
honour and death all who took refuge in them, and
thus the power of the priesthood is seen to increase in
the country's humiliation.
After having partly destroyed Rome, Alaric with
drew, loaded with immense booty, to carry his arras
into Sicily and Africa. But he was seized with a
sudden illness, and died near Consentia. The chiefs of j
his army, fearing that his ashes would not be respected
by the vanquished, buried him in the bed of the river
Busentinus, which they turned from its course for this
purpose ; the river, returning afterwards to its bed,
hid the conqueror's grave with its waters; and we are
told that all the prisoners that had been employed in
the work, were slaughtered by the barbarians as a
measure of precaution.
The theological disputes were more violent than
ever; the empire fell amid the din of. controversy.
After the retreat of the Goths, the Pope Innocent
returned to Rome, to find it half destroyed and half
depopulated. In reply to the application of the bishops

THE POPES AND THE LAST EMPEEOES. 67
of Africa, Innocent declared that he cut off from his
communion the heresiarch Pelagius.
Not long after, a Christian poet celebrated this con
demnation, saying : ' Rome was the first to strike the
monster ; Rome, the see of Saint Peter, which, having
become the seat of pastoral dignity for the whole world,
conquers by religion all that she has not won by arms.' ^
Thus the conviction of the religious pre-eminence of
Rome grew stronger in the midst of the misfortunes
of the empire, and another domination was substituted
for that of victory.
Yet further, in the midst of the frequent invasions
that wasted the West, the provincial councils of the
bishops became less frequent, and, consequently, appeals
were more often made to the Bishop of Rome. He
claimed to give rules to the councils, and sometimes
supported his pretensions by imposture. Zozimus, the
successor of Innocent, displayed before a council as
sembled at Carthage, pretended articles of the Council
of Nice, which submitted all the other Churches to the
Church of Rorae. The African bishops protested that
they could find nothing of the kind in their reports of
the Council of Nice ; they gave way notwithstanding.
But the dispute was renewed afterwards, and was only
terminated at last by the imperial power.
Zozimus having died after a pontificate of one year,
the clergy, and the leaders of the workmen's quarter,
were divided as to the election of his successor between
the archdeacon Eulalius and the priest Boniface. The
' ' . . . . Pestem subeuntem prima cecidit
Sedes Roma Petri, — quse pastoralis honoris
Facta caput mundo quidquid non possidet armis
Religione tenet.' — (Sanct. Prosper.)

68 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
prefect of Rome favoured Eulalius. However, the
Emperor having summoned the two competitors before
him at Ravenna, approved the election of Boniface.
He next issued an edict to the effect that if two bishops
of Rome should be chosen at once, both should be
banished from the city, and that the Holy Apostohc
See should only belong to him who, in a new elec
tion, should be chosen by the judgment of God and the
consent of the people.
But these imperial decrees did not impede the rise of
the Roman Pontificate. It would seem, rather, that the
feeble emperors of the West, shifting their courts from
Milan to Ravenna, and conscious that their power was
slipping fi'om their grasp, then conceived the idea of
providing a support in the extension of the Roman
pontificate. This is the spectacle which the fifth cen
tury offers to our view; but in order to comprehend it
we must pause for a moment.
Leo the Geeat.
in 440 the Roman see was filled by a man of superior
ability. Nearly all the popes have received the surname
of Saint, but Leo appears to be the first who merited
the name of Great. During a pontificate of one and
twenty years, he rendered more strict the rules of
discipline, the foundation of the ecclesiastical power,
contended with opposing sects, governed and defended
the people of Rome, abandoned by its master, and
treated with the barbarians. But what it is more
important to notice, is the advance he made to the unity
of power by the assistance of the emperors of the West.

LEO THE GEEAT — VALENTINIAN III, 69
The Churches of Gaul were then numerous and flou
rishing, more especiaUy in the southern provinces,
which had long ago been civUised by the Roman arms ;
Christianity there numbered eloquent apostles among
its members ; the metropolitan see of Aries derived
honour from the virtues and talents of Saint HUary,
The disputes of these Churches were judged in the
national councils, which considered themselves inde
pendent of the Roman Church, though they had more
than once consulted it, A Gaulish bishop, deposed in
one of these synods for having before his ordination
married a widow, and pronounced sentences of death,
carried his appeal to Rome, Saint HUary came, too,
to defend the sentence pronounced by the. councU, but
being censured by the Roman pontiff, he withdrew
suddenly and returned to his Church, Leo then, in a
synod which he held in Rome, commended the reinstate
ment of the deposed bishop, and complained that Hilary
would not submit to blessed Peter, and that he arrogated
to himself the management of all the Churches of Gaul,
and despoiled the Church of Aries of its title of metro
politan to transfer it to the Church of Vienne, We
cannot doubt that this powder was excessive, and still
new, for Leo took care to obtain the support of a
rescript of Valentinian IIL, Emperor of the West.
The wording of it is curious, and clearly shows to what
extent the Roman pontificate was already master of the
civU power of whose assistance it avails itself
' The decision of the Pope of Rome,' says the Em
peror, ' ought to be powerful enough in Gaul without
our imperial sanction; for what rights has not this
great pontiff over the Churches. But we have a reason

70 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
for making this decree; which is, that Hilary, who by
the goodness of the Pope alone still bears the title of
bishop, may not, he nor any other, trouble by arms the
order of things ecclesiastical, nor resist the orders of
the Roman pontiff. We forbid, henceforth and for
ever, the bishops of Gaul and the other provinces to
undertake anything against established custom, without
the authorisation of the venerable Pope of the eternal
city. Let them receive as law, they and all others,
whatsoever has been decided or shall hereafter be
decided by the apostolic see; and let every bishop, who,
being summoned before the tribunal of the pontiff of
Rome, shall neglect to appear, be forced to attend there
by the governor of the province. Given under the
Emperor's divine hand the eighth of the ideg of June,
445.' Doubtless these words were not dictated solely by
religious respect. At a period when the episcopal
power was everywhere rising on the ruins of society,
when many bishops even treated with the barbarians,
the Emperor of the West must have thought it good to
bring them under obedience to a pontiff residing in
Italy, the centre of the erapire. Christian Rome
seemed to have becorae the last and only link of society
that was crumbling to pieces and dissolving in all its
parts. The feeble Emperor, in his retreat at Ravenna, would
never have dared to say, that the bishop of that obscure
and recent capital, ought to give laws to all the bishops
of the empire. He sought then elsewhere the means of
uniting them and restraining them, and therefore he gave
to Rome that immense power he did not himself possess.

NESTORIUS — EUTYCHUS, 7 1
But this liberality was of no advantage to the empire,
and served only to strengthen the authority of the
Church under one head.
While the Church of Rome was consolidating its power
in the West, the lively imagination of the Eastern fur
nished it with opportunities of exercising its influence.
The theological heresies engendered by the Greek spirit,
and often turning on the gramraatical sense of a word
or phrase, sought at Rome either partisans or judges.
After Nestorius came Eutychus, and the question of the
twofold nature of Jesus Christ, Eutychus being con-
denoned by a •council held at Constantinople, under its
bishop, Flavian, instantly appealed to the Church of
Rome. The natural leaning which the bishops of Rome
had in favour of those who had been condemned by the
bishops of Constantinople, caused the complaints pre
ferred of Eutychus to be at first willingly received.
At the same time, Leo wrote to Theodosius, the Em
peror of the East, demanding that the question should
be judged in a council asserabled in Italy.'^' But the
intrigues of the eunuchs in the palace of Constantinople
favoured Eutychus. A new council was assembled at
Ephesus: the partisans of Eutychus formed the majority;
and this council, known as the Brigand CouncU of
Ephesus, proceeded to violence. Cudgels were used
and. swords drawn, and in the midst of this scene the
absolution of Eutychus and the exile of Flavian were
proclaimed. Leo, in a council held at Rome, formaUy
condemned these acts of the council of Ephesus, and
by the influence he had with the wife and the sister of
Valentinian, he caused letters to be written to the
Emperor of the East, who persisted in supporting the

72 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY Vll.
decision of the council of Ephesus. But, Theodosius
dying, Marcian, his sister's husband, was raised to the
throne, and took measures for convoking a general
council at Nice.
While the attention of mankind was fixed on these
disputes, the Franks, the Vandals, and the Huns deluged
one half of the empire. The terrible Attila, who had
met with a temporary check in Gaul, having directed
his march eastward by way of Illyria, the place of
the council was changed to Chalcedon in Asia, But
it lost nothing either in pomp or earnestness by the
alteration, •
In this great assembly, the Church of Rome received
homage that testified to the progress of its power. On
the reading of a letter from Leo to Flavian, the bishops
present all exclaimed, with one accord, ' Peter hath
spoken by the mouth of Leo; it is the doctrine of
the apostles,' The council then pronounced the union
separate, unchangeable, and indivisible of two natures
in Jesus Christ, and took measures to reinstate or to
depose a great many of the bishops who had been
engaged in this debate ; thus complete was the au
thority then exercised by the councils alone, in deciding
questions of dogma and of discipline ! The Bishop of
Rome, however, protested against a decree of this as
sembly, which placed the see of Constantinople next
after that of Rome, thus giving it pre-eminence over
the, bishoprics of Antioch and Alexandria, We see
in this the views of Roman ambition ; it would not
admit Constantinople even to the second rank.
While the civilised world was thus busy with theo
logical debates, Attila, having recruited his forces

INVASION OF ATTILA. 73
among the barbarians, came down upou Italy. He
sacked and burned Aquilea, Pavia, and Milan, and
marched towards Rome with the intention of ex
terminating the very genius of the empire that seemed
stUl to linger in the eternal city. Fortunately,^ the
superstition that instigated the conqueror, also made
him hesitate. The recollection that Alaric lived but a
shoj't iime after the sacking of Rome, came to his mind
as an evU augury. In the midst of the universal terror
the Pope Leo came forth from Rome with two senators
(one of whom was the father of Cassiodorus, the his
torian of those wretched times), and repaired to the
barbarian camp near Ambuleium, on the banks of the
Mincio, The sight of the pontiff, the idea of that un
known God whose rainister he was, and possibly, too, a
rich ransom, influenced the barbarian king; he consented
to forego his march on Rome, and even withdrew his
forces to beyond the Danube.^ The contemporary
writers relate prodigies in connection with these
events ; they say that the Apostle Saint Peter appeared
in the air with a flaming sword, ^ and this terrified the
King of the Huns, while the Pope was entreating hira.
It would seem, however, that the pagan superstition
still remaining in Rome laid claim to the honour of
this event. We may infer as much from the words
of Leo, in a discourse pronounced by hira on the anni
versary of the deliverance which Rome owed to him.
He reproaches the people with being attracted by the
' ' Alarici objicientes exemplum, quia ilie post fi-actam Romam diu non
supervixerat.'— (Jornand de Reb. Get. cap. xiii.)
'^ ' Leo papa ad eum accedit in agro Venetum Ambuleio . . . rex . . .
mox deposuit excitatum furorem . . . et ultra Danubium discessit.' — (Idem.)
' ' Evaginato gladio . . . mortem minitantem.' — (Hist. Miscell.)

74 HISTORY OF GREGOEY VII.
games in the circus instead of thronging the churches.
' And yet,' he says, ' what was it that delivered this
city from captivity? What saved it from carnage — the
games of the circus, or the protection of the holy
apostles wljose prayers softened the justice of heaven?
Come, then, to God, acknowledging the wonders He has
done through us ; and attribute your deliverance not
to the influences of the stars, like the pagans, but to
the mercy of God, who deigned to touch the hearts of
those barbarians."^
Soon after his retreat from Italy, Attila died, and the
West breathed for awhile. But the ruin of the Western
Empire was not stayed. One barbaric conqueror came
after another. As soon as Alaric was dea(^ Genseric
appeared in Italy.
Valentinian had just been assassinated in Rome hy
Maximus, one of his generals, who took possession of
his throne and married his widow. We are told that
she, to revenge herself, summoned the King of the
Vandals fi'om Africa, But the rich prey of Italy
invited hira sufficiently,
Genseric's fleet appeared suddenly at the mouth of
the Tiber, The new emperor was powerless to defend
what he had acquired by crime; no attempt was even
made to offer resistance to the Vandals. Leo, followed
by all his clergy, came out of the city gates, entreating
' ' Quis hanc urbem a captivitate emit ? Quis a caede defeudit ? Ludus
circensium, an cura sanctorum, quorum utique precibus divinae censurse
flexa sententia est ? Revertimini ad Dominum, intelligentes mirabilia
qufe in nobis dignatus est operari, et liberationem nostram, non, sicut
opinantur impii, stellarum eifectibus, sed inefFabUi omnipotenlis Dei miseri-
cordias deputantes, qui corda barbarorum mitigare dignatus est.'— (S. Leonis
Sermo Ixxxi.)

EOME PILLAGED BY GENSEEIC. 75
Genseric to promise at least neither to burn the city
nor slaughter its inhabitants.
The barbarian invader promised that no blood should
be shed, and that the churches should be spared, but
he insisted that the city should be given up to pUlage,
The Emperor was kUled, and the widow and daughter
of Valentinian, as well as a great number of citizens
and noble ladies, were carried into slavery, Genseric
having thus spoiled Rome, returned to Carthage with
his great booty.
Leo, in the midst of the sacked city, devoted himself
to alleviate the public misery. He had saved three
great basUicse from the pillage; they contained many
massive sUver vases, the gift of Constantine, The pontiff
had those melted down, to distribute succour to the
various parishes of the city. Thus by the anarchy and
miseries of conquest, the Bishop of Rome became insen
sibly its temporal chief.
He continaed also to extend his jurisdiction over the
foreign Churches ; we find in his last letters, instructions
given to the bishops of Friuli and of Narbonne, as to
the Churches of Italy, Leo ruled them all by his coun
sels and authority. He imposed on them various rules
of disciphne; but one thing to be remarked is, the zeal
with which he interdicted the practice of public
confession, then common, to substitute for it pri
vate confession, more favourable to the power of
the priest.
Leo died after a pontificate of twenty-one years, leav
ing the Church as powerful as the Erapire was weak.
Ihat power was already at this time not only based
on the genius of the man who held it, but on the

76 HISTORY OF GEEGORY VII.
maxims of religious submission that day by day ob
tained in the West,
Tinder Hilary, the successor of Leo, the bishops of
the province of Tarragona came to the see of Rome to
obtain its approbation of their acts. Their language
seems to prefigure aheady that chimera of infallibility
which the Christian world was as yet far from recognis
ing, ' Adoring God in you,' they wrote, ' we fly to
that faith glorified by the lips of an apostle and we ask
an answer from that chair, where nothing is taught by
error and presumption, but where all things are decided
by a Pontifical examination,'^
The Vandals, Arians in rehgion, had conquered Spain;
and the Churches of the ancient inhabitants, oppressed
by these victors, were drawn thereby closer to the
Roman Church. Meantime the Empire of the West was
about to pass into the hands of the barbarians, who
had invaded, pillaged, or served it for the last three
hundred years; and, strange sight! while Rome sum
moned the Patriarch of Constantinople to its tribunal,
Rome herself received her sovereign at the hands of the
Emperor of the East, The Church had gained in power
all the Senate had lost. At length a chief, the son of
a former secretary to Attila, Odoacer, King of the
Heruli, overthrew Augustulus, the last Emperor of the
West, Rome fell into his power on the 23rd of August,
476, The work of Alaric was finished, the Roman Em
pire was no more.
Odoacer continued nevertheless to respect the su-
' ' Proinde Deum in vobis penitus adcrantes, ad fldem recummus
apostolico ore laudatam, inde responsum quasrentes, unde nihil errore, nihil
prsesuniptione, sed pontificali totum deliberatione prjecipitur.' — (Pagi|
p. 211.)

ALLIANCE OF THE CHUECH WITH ODOACER, 77
premacy of the Empire of the East, He received from
it the title of patrice, which he united to that of king,
bestowed on him by his victorious soldiers. For the
rest, he neither wore the purple nor bore the sceptre,
but, by distributing amongst his troops one third of the
lands of Italy, he reaUy founded a new state and a new
nation. The bishops of Rome, by reason of their
jealousy of the Greek Church, all the more readUy ac
knowledged a master who dehvered them from the yoke
of the East. They continued to govern the churches of
Italy, and to excommunicate those of Constantinople.
Odoacer reserved to himself the right of approving
their election. At the death of the Pope Simplicius, a
deputy from Odoacer came to be present at the election
of his successor; but, at the same time, Odoacer increased
the power of the Church, by a law which forbade the
alienation of any domain or any sacred vessel belonging
to the Roman Church, Thus, while the ancient uihabi
tants of Italy were partially despoiled of their posses
sions, the clergy, enriched by inalienable gifts, ever
acquiring, never losing, found their power increase
under a prince who was an Arian and a barbarian.

78

FOURTH PERIOD,
PROGRESS OF THE ROMAN CHURCH UNDEE THEODORIC
AND THE LOMBAED KINGS,
Odoacee ruled btit a short time ; he paved the way
for the founders of Hew monarchies in Italy, as Alaric
had done for its conquerors, A chief of the race ofthe
Ostrogoths, in a district of Pannonial, Theodoric, who
had been brought up as a hostage at the Court of By
zantium and who had afterwards been its ally and its
enemy by turns, offered the Emperor Zeno to go and
take Italy from the Heruli, ' If I cotiquer them,' said
he, ' the glory will be yours; if I perish, you WiU no
longer have to pay me my pension, and yoU wiU be rid
of my nation, which is a burden to you.' Zeno con
sented, and thus himself brought new barbarians into
Italy, Theodoric and all his people set out from Pan-
nonia mounted on chariots of war, entered Friuli in 489,
and defeated Odoacer' s troops. Italy then became a
battle-field for the foreign conquerors who fought for
the possessions of its inhabitants. Odoacer, repeatedly
defeated, fled from one city to another. Rome shut
her gates against him ; and the bishops of Milan and
Pavia hastened to treat with Theodoric. What
strikes us most in this rapid revolution, is the intel
ligence and promptitude which the clergy exhibited
in allying theraselves with the new master, and thus

alliance WITH THE BAEBAEIANS. 79
securing for themselves more favourable conditions.
Having withdrawn to Ravenna, where he defended
himself for three years, the unfortunate Odoacer
capitulated at length by the advice and mediation of
the bishop of the city, gave himself up to the conqueror,
and was put to death by his orders, Theodoric, though
belonging to the Arian sect, continued greatly to favour
many bishops of Italy whose zeal he had proved. Pro
tected by the prince, they were the intercessors of the
conquered people, obtained the redemption of captives,
the diminution of taxes, and some relief for the provinces
that had suffered most by the war, Epiphanius, bishop
of Pavia, was especially venerated in these times; but
the Bishop of Rome always held the highest rank, on
account of the dignity of his see. Humble under the
power of Theodoric, he affects in his letters great
haughtiness towards the Emperor of the East. It would
be a curious study to compare the letters written by
Anastasius II. , bishop of Rome, to the Emperor of Con
stantinople, and to the barbarian chiefs of a Frank
tribe at Cludoec, recently converted to the Christian
faith. In writing to the Emperor of the East, from whom
he had no longer anything to hope or to fear, Anastatius
speaks only of the obedience that is due from kings to
bishops, and especially to the Pontiff of the Roman
Church; to him whom the Almighty had placed above
all other priests, and whose pre-eminence has been con
stantly extolled by the Church. But in the letter of
the pontiff of Rome to the young barbarian chief, we
find none but alluring and flattering expressions,
' We congratulate thee, glorious son, in that thy con
version to the Christian faith should have commenced

80 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII,
with the commencement of our pontificate. The chair
of Saint Peter cannot, on such an occasion, help express
ing its joy at* seeing many nations coming to it and fill
ing the net which the fisherman, the door-keeper of the
heavenly Jerusalem, was ordered to let down into the
great deep.
' We have desired to let thee know this through the
medium ofthe priest Eumerius, so that thou mayest com
plete the measure of our joy, that thou mayest be our
crown, and that the mother Church may rejoice in the
good works of so great a king, whom she has brought
to God. Rejoice then, glorious and noble son of thy
mother, and be thou for her a pillar of iron.
' We hope in thee against aU hope, and we render
praise to God, who has brought thee out of the power
of darkness, and given to the Church, in the person
of so great a prince, a defender to become her protec
tion, and a shield of salvation against all the foul attempts
ofthe wicked. Go on, dear and glorious son, so that
the Almighty God may surround thee and thy kingdom
with his protection, that He may give his angels charge
over thee, to keep thee in all thy ways, and to give thee
the victory over all thine enemies.' ^
' ' Tuum, gloriose fill, in Christiana fide, cum exordio nostro in pontifieatu
contigisse gratulamur. Quippe sedes Petri in tanta occasione non potest
non laetari cum plenitudinem gentium iutuetur ad eam veloci gradu con-
currere, et per temporum spatia repleri sagenam, quam in altum jussus est
mittere idem piscator et ccelestis Jerusalem beatus claviger. Quod sereni-
tati tuse insinuare voluimus per umerium presbyterum, ut cum ^udivens
laetitiam patris, creacas in bonis operibus, impleas gaudium nostrum, et sis
corona nostra, gaudeatque Mater Ecclesia de tanti regis, quem nuper Deo
peperit profectu. Laetifica ergo, gloriose et illustris fill, matrem tuam, et
esto ilii in eolumnam ferream. Sed speramus in spem contra spem, et
Dominum collaudamus qui emit te de potestate tenebrarum, et in tanto
principe providit Ecclesi®, qui possit eam tueri et contra occurrentes peati-

SCHISM IN ROME — SYMMACHUS. 81
Does it not appear, as we read this letter addressed
to Clovis, who in all his conquests treated with the
bishops, that the Church of Rome, so humble under the
hand of Theodoric, sought to secure for itself another
protector more distant?
On the death of Anastasius, Theodoric exercised the
right, which had been the emperor's, of confirming the
election of the Bishop of Rome. Two powerful parties
disputed the possession of the pontifical dignity by
force of arms. Theodoric declared for Symmachus,
who, it is said, had the greatest number of votes. But
his opponent, Lawrence, continued to disturb the
Church, and an end was only put to these troubles by
the presence of the Emperor, who came to Rome in all
the glory of his triumph. Theodoric, though an Arian,
went first to the basilica of Saint Peter, to offer his .
devotions, and then repaired to the senate, where he
promised to observe the laws of the empire ; and
finaUy, he distributed corn to the people, and ordered
games in the circus. Theodoric was, we know, the
most enlightened of the barbarian conquerors; he
governed the vanquished according to their own laws.
Restricting to the people he had brought with him the
exclusive use of arms, he maintained civU equality
amongst aU; he was equally tolerant in religious
matters ; and far from forcing conversions, he punished
the apostasy of a courtier with death.
The Church of Rome resisted Theodoric, as it had
ferorum conatus galeam salutis induere. Perge igitur, dilecte et gloriose
fili, ut Deus omnipotens serenitatem tuam et regnum protectione coelesti
prosequatur, et angelis suis mandet ut custodiant te in omnibus viis tuis et
det tibi in circuitu de inimicia tuis vietoriam,' — (Rer. Gallic, et Franc.
'tores, vol. iv.)
VOL. I. G

82 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII. t
resisted the Greek emperors. Symmachus called a
councU, whicjj. decreed that the election of the Bishop of
Rome ought to be made without asking the opinion of
either prince or prefect.
Theodoric then permitted the renewal of the dispute
he had himself put down. Symmachus was master of
the Vatican, his opponents of the Lateran palace. They
each possessed some of the churches, and contended
with violence for the rest. Theodoric at last
ordered the assembling of a councU to judge Sym
machus, who was accused, as the prince says in his
letter, 'of horrible things.'
In these circumstances was displayed the influence
which the pontifical power had gained over many minds.
At the news, the Churches of the West were moved.
Avitus, Bishop of Vienne, in Narbonese Gaul, wrote to
the Senate of Rome, to teU them how great was his
grief. ' Let not,' he says, ' the hierarchy of the
Church be of less value in your eyes than that of the
republic. If the Pope of Rome be in perU, it is not a
bishop, it is the whole episcopate that is attacked. The
bishops of the council followed the advice of the Bishop
of Vienne; they aU declined to vote unless the Pope
they were to judge presided over the assembly. Sym
machus triumphant, purged himself by oath of the
accusations that had been brought against him; and
the councU placed in the rank of the apostolic decrees
a writing published by Ennodius, deacon of the Church
of Pavia, wherein it was said that an individual became
impeccable^ on being caUed to fill the chair of Saint
1 The doctrine of Papal infellibility is not impeccability ; the Pope is
held infallible in matters affecting faith and morals only. — (Translator.)

EMBASSY OF POPE JOHN I. 83
Peter, and that God only called to that dignity such as
should be saints. This strange, and, tUl then, unknown
dogma, appears to be an invention of the vanquished,
to enable them to resist an all-powerful foreign master.
Thus the presence of a conqueror, who was an Arian
and a barbarian, added strength to the Church of Rome.
Can we, then, be astonished at the problem which
the life of Theodoric seems to offer ; who, having
become Roman in his manners and his laws, relapsed
into barbarism in his old age, and stained by his
cruelties the latter years of a glorious career? The
cause is found in the power already possessed by the
Church of Rome. Ever impatient of the masters of
the hour, it regretted the Greek empire as much as it
had desired the barbarians. Hence the conspiracy,
real or pretended, of Symmachus and of Boece, of those
learned Romans whom the barbarian king had taken
for his ministers and confidants, and to whom is,
perhaps, due all the glory and moderation of his
reign. At this period, the Emperor of Byzantium was
furiously persecuting the Arians in his dominions; it
was a token of alliance which he gave to subjugated
Italy. Religious zeal and a common hatred of the
Arians might possibly once more bring together the
two portions of the empire, and cement their union.
Theodoric perceived the danger, and armed himself
with cruelty, in order to prevent it. He endeavoured,
at first, to force the Emperor of Constantinople to cease
his persecution of the Arians, which was, in fact, the
beginning of a war against himself; and by a haughty
policy he entrusted this embassy to the Bishop of
a2

84 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
Rome, the Pope John I. It was a triumph for the Roman
pontificate and a sentence of death for the Pope. AU
Constantinople came out to receive him; the Greek
emperor feU at his feet, as of a man who could give
him back Italy. Soon afterwards, at the feast of
Easter, the Pope placed the imperial crown on his head,
and then, not having succeeded in his mission, as may .
be supposed, he set out for Ravenna, where the offended
Theodoric put him to death, as guilty of treason ; but
in the estimation of Italy, throughout its length and
breadth, he was a martyr. It is, nevertheless, pro
bable, that the Greeks and Italians, though highly
exasperated at his death, would not have dared to make
a move during the lifetime of Theodoric. But his
death left the throne of Italy to his grandson Athalaric,
a child of ten years of age, under the guardianship of
his daughter Amalassonte ; while Spain, that had also
been conquered by Theodoric and governed by his
lieutenants, passed into the hands of another of his
grandsons-. A weak regency was favourable to the
power of the Church of Rome. One of the last acts of
Theodoric had been to choose, by his wdU alone, a suc
cessor to the Pope John. Felix, who had been thus
nominated, continued to extend the privUeges of his
Church. On the occasion of some proceedings having
been enforced against some priests, either for offences
or for debt, he obtained from Athalaric a rescript
which ordered that all demands upon, and complaints
against, a clerk of the Church of Rome, should be
brought before the Pope ; and condemned all who
should refuse to recognise him as arbitrator, to pay a
fine of ten sols of gold for the benefit of the poor, and

BELISAEIUS. 85
forbade them, moreover, to be aUowed to plead their
cause before the civU tribunals. The King retained no
power over the episcopal elections, but that of a casting
vote, and in that case, there were to be paid into the
treasury three thousand gold crowns, if the election
were that of a Pope, and two thousand if of a metro
politan. Thus the powerfiil monarchy of the Goths was
weakened by the privileges it granted to the Church.
It is ' plainly to be seen in their legislation, which
became thoroughly monkish. At the same time, the
warlike energy of the conquerors seemed to waste
itself in those vain studies that were then followed. It
happened to this people as it has happened over and
over again among Tartar conquerors of China. Having
adopted the manners and the arts of the vanquished,
they copied, too, their faults and their vices, and thus
became only fit to be subjugated in their turn. Mean
time the Emperors of Byzantium, ever sensible of this
degeneration, and of the fearful barbarism of their
conquerors, sent embassies of congratulation to every
new pope, and watched for the moment when they might
again take possession of Italy by force of arms. A
singular revolution was needed to accomplish this —
that each of the two nations should, as it were, play the
part of the other. Athalaric being dead, his throne
was filled by a nephew of Theodoric, a prince of a
barbaric race ; but wholly given to letters and the
sciences, having, moreover, the vices common to a
vulgar and cruel mmd.
At the head of the armies of the empire, there
appeared, on the contrary, a man of heroic proportions ;

86 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
reminding us, in his person, of the virtues of the ancient
Roman commanders ; generous, intrepid, adored by his
soldiers, and disinterested enough not to care to keep
for himself the kingdoms he conquered. Belisarius,
having raised the throne of Byzantium to the level of
its own glory, drove the Vandals out of Africa, seized
on Sicily, and prepared to dethrone the degenerate
Goth (become a Greek sophist), who then reigned
in Italy. If we contemplate the condition of the
Church of Rome during this mutation of empires,
we shaU see the genius of the Popes ever treating and
struggling to free themselves from a present master, at
the risk of finding an older, or enduring a new one.
The Pontiff Agapetus, being sent by the cowardly
Theodat to avert a war, pawned the sacred vessels ;
but as soon as he reached the East, he caused the
Patriarch of Byzantium to be deposed by his influence.
Meantime Behsarius passed over into Italy, took pos
session of Naples, Cumea and Rome. An anecdote
gives us an idea by what holy souvenirs the Roman
pontificate was then shielded. Behsarius having made
himself master of Rome, was soon after besieged by a
numerous army of Goths, and prepared to repair a
breach in that part of the walls that formed the basilica
of Saint Peter. The Romans dissuaded him, saying
there was nothing to be feared from that quarter, for
that Saint Peter would defend it ; and, in fact, the
Goths, whether it were superstition, or whether it were
negligence, did not profit by that advantage, and
Zozimus, a pagan writer, relates the fact as marvellous.
This credulity, then shared by all parties, rendered
the Bishop of Rome formidable to whomsoever should

NAESES. 87
rule Italy ; as was soon proved. Silverius being elected
Pope, was accused to Belisarius of corresponding
secretly with the barbarians and .seeking to deliver
the city to them. Belisarius having sent for him to
his palace, caused him to be clad in a monk's habit,
and ordered him to choose his successor. He named
Vigihus, who was a proteg6 of the Empress Theodora,
The very first care of Vigilius was to transport Silverius
to the desert island of Palmaria, in charge of two of his
sateUites, to whom he gave the name of defenders of the
Holy Church. Having been thus raised to the see of
Saint Peter, VigUius none the less resisted the Emperor
Justinian, and secretly invoked the help of new bar
barians against the Greeks, once more become masters of
Italy. ' As we know,' wrote he to Aurelian, Bishop
of Aries, ' that King Childebert has a great veneration
for the Holy See, pray him to help the Church in its
perU.' ^
The Court of Byzantium, uneasy at the power of the
Bishop of Rome in the then disturbed state of Italy,
invited him to the Eastern capital, and threw him into
prison, where he lay for seven years, while Italy was
contended for by Greeks and Goths, and a new con
queror of a barbaric race, Totilia, took Rome, and
appeared prepared to emulate the genius and the
fortune of Theodoric,
But the Empire of Byzantium had still one great
captain, and, strange to say, he was found among those
men degraded from their sex, which form the disgraceful
retinue of Eastern despotism, TotUia perished in an
encounter with the old eunuch Narses ; another chief
' D. Bouquet.

88 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII,
succeeded him, and assembling the remains of the
Gothic army, encamped at the foot of Vesuvius ; he
too, was killed, with his bravest soldiers. The Goths
then acknowledged God was against them, and asked
permission to lay dov^i their arms and retire to their
own lands as subjects of the empire.
Thus feU the empire of the Goths in Italy ; but in
order to conquer them, Narses had assembled under
his banner the Huns, the Gepidse, and the Lombards —
savage peoples who had quitted Scandinavia a century
before — and advancing graduaUy, had spread from the
banks of the Danube to those of the Tiber, Thus
Rome shook off the feeble yoke of Byzantium only to
fall once more under that of the barbarians.

89

FIFTH PERIOD.
THE PONTIFICAL POWEE, FEOM THE VICTOEY OF NAESES
3?0 THE EXPULSION OP THE LOMBAEDS,
During those great revolutions which changed not
only sovereigns but the races of men in Italy, through
aU the vicissitudes of that holy city of Rome, which
was piUaged oftener than a frontier town, the clergy
alone increased their power. During the sieges of
Rome by TotUia, a deacon of the Roman Church had
fed the people out of the riches he had amassed in
repeated embassies to the Court of Byzantium. After
the victory of Narses, the return of the Greeks, the
ahnost entire conquest of the Goths, and the settlement
of the new barbarians under the name of aUies, the
smothered hatred of Rome against Byzantium, of Italy
against the East, revived. Narses, who had fixed his
residence at Rome, with the title of Duke of Italy, did
his best to concUiate the clergy. He despoiled the
Arian and vanquished Goths of their churches, and of
the property belonging to thera, in order to enrich the
Catholics ; but they, nevertheless, detested the Greeks,
as being new masters.
In 567 the senators and leading men of Rome wrote
to the Emperor Justin, complaining of the severity of
Narses, and declaring they were more miserable than

90 HISTORr OF GREGORY VII,
under the rule of the Goths. The accusation was grave
enough to induce Narses, who in his advanced age still
retained his youthful activity, to set out for Byzantium,
in order to exculpate himself. But the Pope, John IIL,
hastened after him, and brought him back to Rome,
taking on himself the office of mediator between the
dissaiiSisfied people and the aged general, who very soon
afterwards died.
After the death of Narses, it would appear as if the
Greek emperor prematurely despaired of maintaining
his power in Rorae. The new governor who came
from Constantinople, took up his residence at Ravenna,
and assumed for the first time the Greek title of exarch;
and a lieutenant, with the title of Duke, was appointed
at Rome. But a storm, which had been long threaten
ing, was ready to burst over Italy. Those barbarians
who had been enrolled by Narses, and who, after the
war, had returned to their own countries or then"
wandering tribes, had aroused among them a longing
for that Italy, which after so many Uls and such re
peated pUlage, was stiU, after Byzantium,^ the richest
country in Europe.
The Lombards, having foUowed the banks of the
Danube, had pitched their camp in Upper Pannonia,
whence Theodoric had set out for conquest.
In the month of AprU, 568, their chief, Alboin,
began his march to Italy, with all his nation, recruited
by some other barbarian tribes. He entered Venetia,
took possession of Aquilea and Mantua, divided the
lands among his Lombards, and founded a new mon-
' This name is applied by the author to Constantinople and to the
Byzantine Empire indifferently. — (Translator.)

CONQUESTS OF THE LOMBARDS. 91
archy in those provinces, which thenceforth bore the
name of Lombardy. The Greek emperor made but
feeble efforts to stem this terrible invasion. Rome,
besieged by the Lombards, elected a new pope, without
consulting the Emperor. There were not even any
imperial officers in the city. The new pope, Benedict I.,
wrote to the Court of Byzantium : ' If God does not
move the Emperor to send us a captain for our soldiers
and a duke, we are utterly forsaken. We have no
garrison in Rome, and the Exarch of Ravenna has
written to us that he can give us no assistance, not
having sufficient troops to guard his own neighbourhood.'
The Emperor of the East could devise nothing better
than to pay the Franks to attack the Lombards ; or, in
other words, to summon new invaders to assist in the
dismemberment of Italy. He sent to this end fifty
thousand sols of gold to Childebert, King of Austrasia,
who wUlingly took up arms, crossed the Alps, ravaged
the country, carried off the flocks and herds, and without
giving a thought to the Greek emperor, sold a peace to the
Lombards. Thus Italy, stUl retaining a portion of the
Gothic nations whose yoke she had shaken off, was
now contended for by the Greek sovereignty, instaUed
at Ravenna, and the Lombards, who held the country
from Turin to the Po.
At this period of national calamity, the see of Rome
was fiUed by a man who was superior to the age he
lived in, and who must be ranked araongst the boldest
founders of the pontifical supremacy.
Gregory, who earned the surname of Great, and who
was, five hundred years later, the chosen model of
Gregory VIL, was born at Rome, of a rich senatorial

92 HISTORY OF GEEGOEY VII.
famUy. He had even been educated wdth a view of
filling the prgefecture, the only dignity which retained
its name at Rome under the authority of the dukes
deputed by Constantinople. He early quitted the world
for a religious life. His great wealth enabled him to
found monasteries in Sicily, and in his own country.
He was most zealous for the preaching of the gospel.
It is related that, seeing some young slaves of great
beauty exposed for sale in Rome, he shed tears on
hearhig that they came from Britain, a land that was
still heathen. He soon afterwards prepared to go
thither as a missionary, but was withheld by the people
of Rome, who loved him for his charities.
On the death of Pelagius II. , in 590, the clergy and
people chose him as pope ; he sought to evade the
honour, and wrote to the Emperor, to beg him not to
ratify his election ; but he finaUy gave way, and was
consecrated by order of the Emperor Maurice.
Once raised to the see he had so humbly refused,
Gregory was not slow to oppose the Emperor of the
East; but timidly and respectfully at first. The Em
peror Maurice, desirous of ameliorating one of the
scourges of the empire, monastic apathy, and the
weakening of the civil and mUitary power, had for
bidden, by an edict, the entrance of any magistrate or
soldier into the religious orders. Gregory wrote to
the Emperor, censuring this edict, as soon as he re
ceived it.
' What am I,' he says, ' who speak thus to my
master ? A worm of the earth. Yet can I not with
hold myself from speaking, seeing that this law is
opposed to God. For power is given to me from on

GEEGOEY THE GEEAT. 93
high, over aU men, that the earthly kingdom may be
the servant of the heavenly. In obedience to your
orders I have sent this edict to all parts of the world,
and have shown you that it is not in accordance
with the law of God, I have, then, doubly fulfilled my
duty. I have obeyed the Emperor, and pointed out
what is due to God,' ^
But the inability of the empire to defend Italy was
soon to embolden the claims of the Church. All that
now remained to the exarchate of Ravenna was Naples,
Gaeta, Amalfi, Sorrento, Salerno, and a few other mari
time towns, with the city and province of Rome, All
the rest was occupied by the new principalities and the
armed bands of Lombardy. War and pillage every
where. Gregory himself has left us a vivid picture of
this state of things.
' The towns,' he says, ' are dispeopled, the fortresses
destroyed, the churches burnt, the monasteries
plundered, the lands are deserted, and there are none
to tiU them, and wUd beasts dwell in the places where
multitudes of men did once inhabit,'
Meantime the Lombards, being firmly settled in
Italy, began to be less rude and savage. They were
insensibly influenced by the manners and the religion of
the vanquished. The vast number of Catholic priests
and bishops which Italy contained was continually en
gaged in opposing Arianism; and what was done for
faith served the cause of liberty. The Lombard king,
Otharic, foreseeing this danger, had forbidden, under
severe penalties, the baptism of any Lombard child in
the Catholic faith; but his wife, Theodelinda, had herself
' S. Greg. Opera.

94 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
embraced that religion, and a great many of his subjects
had followed her example.
From that time the Church of Rome hoped to do by
persuasion what the Byzantine empire could not accom
plish by arms. Heedless of the jealousy of the Exarch
of Ravenna, the Pope began to negotiate on his own
account, and to make truces and alhances with the
Lombard princes settled at Spoleto and Boneventum ;
but the atrocious perfidy of these barbarians often out
witted the pontiff, Arnulph, Duke of Spoleto, knowing
that Rome had no garrison, pillaged the country round.
The queen, Theodelinda, being left a widow by the
.death of Otharic, was compelled to take a husband from
among the Lombard chiefs, and chose Agilulph, Duke
of Milan, who re-commenced the war, and besieged
Rome. Gregory kept up the spirits of the inhabitants :
but while he was expounding a chapter of Ezekiel, he
stopped short, to give vent to his grief for his country's
misfortunes :
' The sword,' he says, ' is against us everywhere.
Some of our fellow-citizens come in with their hands
lopped off, telhng us that others have been taken into
slavery, and others slain, I cannot expound the pro
phet to you : my soul is weighed down with heavi
ness.' ^
The city was defended bravely, and the Pope
succeeded m raising the siege. And it is obvious, that
from that time the popes sought to secure for them
selves and for Rome, a position independent of the
Greek empire. 1 S. Greg. Op. lib. ii. ep. 7.

GEEGOEY THE GEEAT. 95
Maurice, iU-pleased, treated Gregory in his letter as
a simpleton, and reproached him with allowing himself
to be 'deceived by the promises of the barbarians; but,
on the other side, we have in the letters of the Pope
to a bishop bitter complaints against the exarch and
the Greek government. ' His Ul-will to us,' he says,
'is more dangerous than the arms of the Lombards.
The enemies who kill us outright seem, in our eyes,
less cruel than those ministers of the government who
kill us with grief at their injustice, and robbery, and
fraud. What an overwhelming load it is, to be burdened
at one and the same time with the care of the bishops
and clergy, the monasteries and the people, to watch
against the attacks of the enemy, and guard against
the wrong and robbery of our governors.' ^
The glorious life of this Pope is figured in these
words ; but we see in them also the natural opposition
between Rome and Byzantium. This rivalry, which
had subsisted through all the misfortunes of Italy,
was reanimated by a claim put forward by the Patriarch
of Constantinople, John, surnamed the Faster, on account
of his austerities, who arrogated to himself, with the con
sent of the emperor Maurice, the title of Bishop Universal.
We shaU see with what vehemence Gregory inveighed
against this usurpation ; much less in the name of the
Roman primacy than in that of sacerdotal equality.
And, strange to say, the arguments he uses, the vehe
ment expressions that escape him, are precisely those
adopted by the reformation nine hundred years later, to
deny and combat the pope's supremacy.
' The days pf Antichrist are come,' exclaims Gregory ;
' S. Greg. Op. lib. ii. hom. 10.

96 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
' this proud bishop is hke Lucifer, who, disdaining the
happy society of the angels, desired to attain a height
of solitary greatness, saying, " I wUl fix my throne
above the stars ; I shaU be like unto the Most High." '
He addresses Maurice in language no less forcible:
' The care of the whole Church was given to Peter, the
Prince of the Apostles, and yet he did not style himself
Apostle Universal; and a mere holy man, a priest like I
am, wants to be caUed Universal Bishop! 0 tempore!
0 mores I AU things in Europe have faUen under the
power of the barbarians. The cities are ruined, the
country depopulated, the lands have none to till them,
and yet the priests, who should be cast down in tears,
vsdth their faces to the earth, seek surnames of vanity,
and take pride in new and worldly titles.' ^
It is obvious that the feeble policy of the Court of
Byzantium thought by favouring this pretension, to
balance the power exercised by the Bishop of Rome in
Italy. But the Pope none the less contiuued to treat
on his own account with the Lombards, and to offer
himself as mediator between them and the Exarch of
Ravenna. In order to obtain, now a few months' truce, now
the dehverance of a few captives, now the right to
consecrate a bishop in some town occupied by the
Lombards, he sought the assistance of the queen,
Theodelinda, sending her presents and amulets for her
children. She had a son, whom she had baptized in the Cathohc
faith. Gregory, in writing to her says : ' We send to
our very excellent son of the King Adalanade, some
1 S. Greg. Op lib. v. ep. 21.

GEEGORY THE GREAT — SAINT AUGUSTINE. 97
holy preservatives, a cross made of the wood of our
Saviour's Cross, and a lesson of the holy gospel enclosed
in a casket of sandal-wood. I send too, to his sister,
my daughter, three rings, two of hyacinth, and the
other set with a brilliant. I beg you to give them
these tokens, so that our affection may be commended ,
to them by your excellency.
' We entreat you to offer our thanks to the King,
your husband, our very excellent son, for the peace
that he has made, and to move his soul according to
your custom, to keep this peace in time to come.'
While Gregory, by a mixture of policy and entreaty,
thus preserved the Roman territory from invasion by
the Lombards, he was making preparations for carrying
his religion info netv lands. He had bought several of
the slaves brought from Britain, and had them carefully
instructed in the Roraan faith and tongue, and sent them
to preach the gospel in their own country in company
with some Italian priests, and under the guidance of
Saint Augustine.
With the aid of Bertha, wife of the King of Kent,
this mission effected the conversion of great num
bers of the Saxon idolaters, who had established
themselves in the island, to the destruction of Roman
civilisation. The directions given by Gregory to the missionaries
were the same as were followed by the Jesuits in China,
in the seventeenth century. We see the same com
phance with the habits and customs of the people who
are to be converted, the same policy, more intent on
attracting converts by the exterior forms of worship
than on cultivating their intelligence.
VOL, I. H

98 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
Gregory's missionaries to Britain complained to him
in their letters of the people's persistence in some
idolatrous ceremonies. 'Tolerate these customs,' wrote
Gregory to them, ' and on the feast of some blessed
martyr allow them to set up bowers of the branches
of trees around theh temples, let them celebrate their
religious feasts there ; let them not sacrifice victims
to the devil, but allow thera to kill them, to eat with
thanksgiving to God ; for we must leave them some
material enjoyments, in order that they may be the
more disposed for those of the soul.'
Elsewhere, Gregory, writing to a bishop of Sardinia,
where the Roman Church had large possessions, tells
him to ' force the inhabitants of its domains to be con
verted by continually increasing their rent till they
should be Christians, The faith is seldom taught by
force,' says he, ' but the children of those who have
embraced it for their teraporal advantage will be
baptized in innocence, and be better Christians than
their fathers.'^
Gregory divided Britain into bishoprics, just as
ancient Rome established pro-consulates in the king
doms she conquered. Nothing, in fact, could be more
favourable to the authority of the Church of Rome
than this preaching of Christianity to nations still
uncivilised. By its diligence, the Church of Rome daUy enlarged
her borders, while that of Constantinople was engaged
in theological bickerings ; Gregory troubled himself but
little about these disputes : his attention was wholly
directed to the maintenance of the hierarchy and the
^ S. Greg, op, Ep. ad Episc. Sardinas.

POLICY OF GREGORY THE GREAT, 99
enforcement of discipline. The Cliurch of Rome grew
daily less learned. The influx of so many barbarous
peoples, a succession of miseries and invasions, had
plunged Italy into ignorance. At Rome scarcely any
one could be found who understood Greek, When
Gregory was consulted by the Patriarch of Alexandria
in regard to a new doctrine called the heresy of the
Agnoites, Gregory replied, ' I warn you that we have
here no good interpreters — none who are capable of
rendering the sense ; they can only translate word for
word, and we have great difficulty in understanding
what they mean,'
Gregory did not think learning was required to rule
the barbarians of the West : it would even appear as
though, animated by religious zeal, he really detested,
as being tainted with paganism, the slender remains of
the ancient Greek and Roman civUisation that were
left. Some learned men of the seventeenth century
have accused him of having caused the manuscripts of
Livy and many Latin poets to be burnt. This has not
been proved ; but we see in one of his letters that he
sharply reprimanded Didier, Archbishop of Vienne, for
having permitted the teaching of grammar in his
dioceses. ' The sarae lips,' he says, 'raay not pronounce
the names of Jupiter and Christ.' ^
Gregory had but one thought, but one design : to
extend the knowledge of Christianity and the power of
Rome. When the Emperor Maurice was assassinated,
and replaced by Phocas, he only saw in this event an
opportunity of obtaining from a tyrant what he had
been refused by the legitimate prince ; and, with thanks
' Epist. ad Desiderium, vol. ii., p. 1139.

100 HISTORY OF GREGOEY VII.
to that God who governs courts and transfers empires,
he offers his felicitations to Phocas, a murderer and
usurper. In the midst of these priestly flatteries, we
see, however, some remains of independence. ' Under
thy pious dominion,' writes Gregory to Phocas, 'let
liberty be restored to all; the difference between the
kings of nations and the emperors of the republic is,
that the kings of nations rule over slaves — the emperors
over men that are free.' ^
Phocas, during the first month of his possession of
an empire acquired by crime, did, in fact, grant some
favours to the provinces of Italy,
When Gregory died, he left Italy divided between
the Lombards and the Greek erapire, which purchased
peace of them by truces that were renewed year by
year. All the bishops of the cities of Italy that still
owned submission to the empire, acknowledged the
power of the Pope. The Catholic bishops of the
Lombard cities were subject to the Patriarch of
Aquilea, and this schism alone retained Rome in the
party of the empire. Gregory's memory was cherished
in Rorae, and his name and writings were afterwards
cited by Gregory VIL, who carried on the work he had
begun. Ever busy in negotiations with the emperors,
the bishops, the Lombards, and with foreign princes,
he governed at the same time the property of the
Church, without neglecting the smallest detaUs. He
writes to a sub-deacon, manager of the patrimony of
the Church in Sicily : ' You have sent me a horse that
is good for nothing, and some asses that are good
enough. I can make no use of the horse, because he
' S. Greg. Ep., lib. xiii. ; Ep. xxxi., vol. ii,, p. 1238.

ALLIANCE WITH PHOCAS, 101
is worthless ; nor of the asses, because they are asses,' ^
He always had at Rome vast granaries full of corn, and
distributed their contents gratis to the people in time
of famine. The Romans were so accustomed to this
hberality that they took a dislike to his successor,
Sabinian, because he laid a tax of thirteen sols on every
measure of corn, Rome, in spite of so many changes,.
was still the home of that idle and hungry population
who had created the empire. The Christian ceremonies
had replaced for them the games of the circus, but they
belonged to a new master, who fed them, and that
master was the Church !
Sabinian did not live long : they accused him of
suppressing the papers of his predecessor, out of
jealousy, and declared that to punish him Gregory had
appeared to him in a dream, and had inflicted a mortal
wound on his head.
He was succeeded by Boniface IV., who, like himself,
had been the apostolic nuncio at Constantinople. He
obtained from Phocas what Gregory had solicited.
The Emperor issued a decree forbidding the Patriarch
of Constantinople to take the title of fficumenic, and
proclaiming the exclusive pre-eminence of the Roman
Pontiff. ^ Thus grew the Church of Rome, benefiting
by tyrants and barbarians alike. This good under
standing lasted during the whole reign of Phocas, who
was too much detested at Constantinople not to cede a
great deal to Rome. '
' Pagi, vol, i., p. 380.
' Epist. ad Petrum.
The famous pantheon, formerly dedicited by Agrippa, still remained
adorned -with all the statues of the gods. Phocas gave it to Boniface IV.,
who consecrated it under the name of Saint Mary.

102 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
Extension of the Church by its Missions. — Decrease of the
Greek Church by the Progress of Mahometanism.
Meantime the Church of Rome continued to send its
legates all over the West, and to extend its missions into
the raost barbarous parts of Britain and Germany, and
this was doubtless one of the causes of the greatness
of this Church, Stationed in the centre of Italy, it
had the north of Europe to convert, and was daily
adding to the number of its faithful, while the Eastern
Church, shut in by the Persian empire, whose kings
were enemies to the Christian faith, was soon to
experience a check frora a new power, armed with
proselytism more ardent than its own, and with a faith
more congenial to the manners and the climate of Asia.
No one event has more conduced to the independence
and power of the Roman pontificate ; and, in the order
of those secondary causes which affect the world at
large, the victories of Mahomet added to the spiritual
dominion of the Bishop of Rome as much as they took
from the power of the Greek Church.
When, in the seventh century, Mahomet appeared hi
Arabia with his Jewish theism, his code of morals —
partly Christian, partly sensual- — preaching and con
verting, sword in hand, Christianity died out in the
East. The heutenants, or the successors of the Prophet,
invaded Palestine, Syria, Egypt, and the provinces of
Asia Minor, then inhabited by Christians. Those Greek
Clmrches so proud of their ancient traditions fell under
the yoke of the barbarians. In many places the succes
sion of the bishops was interrupted, and the people
either exterminated or carried into slavery. That

MAHOMET. 103
proselytising energy, that force of action which Latin
Christianity exercised over the barbarous nations who
inhabited or invaded the West, was exercised over
Greek Christianity by the sword of the Mahometans.
Under Herachus, the successor of Phocas, the Greek
empire, threatened by the rapid advances of the
Mussulmans, and obliged, as one may say, to fight
incessantly for its very existence, had no strength to
spare to keep Rome in obedience. On the other hand,
the knowledge that the East was invaded by the
armies of the false Prophet, necessarily grouped all the
West around the chair of the first Apostle. Face to
face with that martial pontificate which grew daily more
mighty in Asia, the peoples of the West had need
likewise of a recognised supreme authority in the
person of the pontiff; the Papacy took something of
the character of the caliphat, and if Providence had
then led to the see of Saint Peter some man with
political genius and warlike tastes, perhaps the resem
blance would have been more complete, and the Popes,
uniting the conqueror wdth the pontiff, would have
founded a great sovereignty in Europe ; but, not being
equal to this, they were obliged, while claiming the
most unlimited spiritual power, always to seek some
exterior support — some foreign defenders to arm in
their cause. It was this material weakness which kept
them under the yoke of the Greek empire longer than
they desired, and only enabled them to throw it off
through the invasion of Charles Martel.
The heresy of the Monothelites — that is to say, the
opinion that Jesus Christ, though two-fold in his
nature, had but one will — was not the true cause that

104 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
divided the emperors and the popes in the seventh
century. The Pope Honorius had himself adopted
this doctrine as theological ; but a quarrel was necessary
between Rome and Byzantium, and the decision of
Honorius was anathematised by his successors. On
the other hand, the Emperor of Constantinople dictated
a Monotheletic formula, which he desired to impose on
the Churches of Italy more as an act of obedience than
an act of faith. Many popes who succeeded each other
at short intervals rejected this injunction, and Martin I.
condemned it at the Council of Lateran, notwithstand
ing the efforts of the Exarch of Ravenna, who came
thither for the purpose of arresting him, but who dared
not carry out his intention when he saw the zeal of the
people and of the soldiery of Rome. The Pope soleranly
excommunicated the Exarch, and sent him away.
Another and bolder Exarch came to Rome, complaining
that the Pope had collected stores of arms in his
palace. Martin, sick and aged, had himself carried in
his bed to the basilica of the Lateran, and there
received the Exarch, followed by his troops. The
Greek governor read out the order which directed the
clergy to elect a new pope ; and, in spite of the indig
nation and murmurs of the priests, the Exarch caused
the aged Pope to be seized by his soldiers and carried
to Miseno, where he embarked with him for Constan
tinople. Martin was accused of having conspired to give up
Sicily to the Saracens. His letters prove that at least
he had secret treaties of alliance with the Frank kings,
Clovis II. and Childebert I. Monothelism, whether
defended or condemned, was but a pretext in all this.

MONOTHELISM — HONOEIUS  MARTIN I. 105
What the Romans wanted, was to shake off the yoke
of the Byzantines. However, the cruel treatment of
the Pope, who was led through the streets of
Constantinople with an iron collar round his neck,
excited pity for hira ; the Patriarch of Constantinople
himself expressed his horror at the sight, and the
Church of Rome, which had obeyed by electing a new
pope, was more fixed than ever in its dissent and its
hatred of the Greek Erapire. One would alraost say
that its princes, despairing of keeping Italy theraselves,
looked on it only as a prey to be rifled in all haste
before it escaped.
The Emperor Constantius having come to Rome in
663, after a disastrous expedition against the Lombards,
was present at a mass celebrated by the Pope, and
afterwards carried off all the chief ornaments of the
city, and even the copper sheeting that covered the
churches. However, the emperors, still masters of Ravenna
and Naples, retained great power in Rome, even after
this disgraceful proceeding. Their policy was directed
to endeavouring to lessen the dependence of the other
Churches on it. The Archbishop of Ravenna obtained
a rescript by which he was exempted from aU jurisdic
tion, even that of the Patriarch of old Rome. Another
decree, dated twelve years later, ordered that when the
Archbishop of Ravenna should go to Rome to be
consecrated, he should not be kept there more than
eight days.
The ferocity of the Lombards, and the extortion
they practised, for a long while kept the Romans under
the yoke of the empire. The emperors, on theic side,

106 HISTOEY OF GEEGOEY VII.
and in order to lessen the independence of the Church
often raised to the see of Rome Greeks, whom they
thought would be more zealous for their cause. But a
priest, and especially a pope, has no country but the
Church. The succession in the Byzantine empire was
so uncertain, the revolutions of the palace so frequent,
that there was no lasting fidelity. The Pope Con
stantine — a born Greek, and a creature of the Emperor
Justinian II. , became the enemy of Phillipicus, the
murderer of Justinian, the usurper of his throne, and,
moreover, a Monothelite, for these sophistical heresies
entered into everything, and served as instruments to
ambition as well as to independence.
Meantime the Church of Rome happily continued her
missions in the kingdoms of the North ; whUe the em
pire was losing Sicily to the Saracen arms, she was
gaining new nations in Germany; her neophytes were
already missionaries, and in their simple faith, they
looked to Rome, from which they had received the
gospel, and to Rome only. Under Gregory II. , in 720,
Winfred, a British monk, came to Rome to receive in
structions and relics for the conversion of the idolatrous
inhabitants of Thuringia. His name, of barbaric origin,
was changed to Boniface. He went to preach to the
uncivilised peoples who dwelt on the eastern banks of
the Rhine, the truths of the gospel and the supremacy of
the Pontiff of Rorae. Other Roman priests founded
Christian Churches in Bavaria.
The powerful mayor of the palace, Charles Martel,
who then ruled the kingdom of the Franks, protected
the Roman raissionaries. Soon the glory he acquhed in
the West, his great victory over the Saracens, to whom the

STEUGGLES BETWEEN ROME AND BYZANTIUM, 107
feeble Byzantine Empire had left Europe a prey, pointed
him out to the Roman Church as the liberator it had so
long awaited, Rome, with that divine right it claimed
by general consent, was subjected both to the vexations
of the Greek Empire, and to the extortions of the Lom
bards, and had no real strength , Charles Martel, reduced
to inaction while upholding the throne of the slothful
descendants of Clovis, possessed rather the power than
the right of reigning. A treaty seemed natural between
these two powers, who could each give what the other
wanted. As soon as the Church of Rome saw it might
hope for the succour of Charles Martel, all its efforts
were directed to shaking off the yoke of the Greek Em
pire it had so long borne with impatience. The
quarrel about images furnished the pretext and the
opportunity, which some other heresy would have been
found to serve if that had not offered.
Leo, a soldier of fortune, who was seated on the throne
of Constantinople, having strengthened hiraself by his
victories over the Saracens, made an endeavour to bring
the distant provinces into closer obedience. He sub
jected Calabria and Sicily to a capitation tax, and insisted
on imposing the same on Italy, and Italy would, per
haps, have submitted; but Leo raised a theological ques
tion at the same time. The use of images, impossible
or disdained in the early days of faith, and in presence
of polytheism, had insensibly grown into a custom in
the Church. But that veneration for insensible objects,
which would have shocked the enthusiasm of the first
disciples of the gospel, excited still more violent feel
ings among the Jews and Mahometans. It was, no
doubt, under the influence of these ideas, then comnion

108 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
in Asia, that Leo, the Isaurian, suddenly proclaimed
hiraself the uncomproraising proscriber of images ; but
we cannot doubt that with this proscription was linked
the intention of oppressing and humbling Rome. The
text of the Six Councils, displayed in the Lateran, had
been a kind of declaration of independence. In pro
hibiting entirely the use of all images, he thought to
strike a decisive blow at the Roman Church : but such
was the ascendant of that Church, that the Patriarch of
Constantinople declared himself in favour of the use of
images, and had recourse to the Pope against the Em
peror. Gregory paid no respect to Leo's decrees, and
opposed both the imposition of the new tax, and the
abolition of images : clearly it was the cause of all
Italy.i It was reported that the Emperor of Constantinople
had endeavoured to procure the assassination of Gregory
II. , at the altar ;^ whether the accusation were true or
false, it raised the indignation of the Romans. The
Exarch of Ravenna ordered his troops to march on
Rome ; the inhabitants of Tuscany and Spoleto opposed
their passage, and the towns of Italy in the neighbour
hood of Ravenna rose against the Exarch, who was ex
comraunicated by the Pope. Rorae took up arms ; the
governor of the city was obliged to fly, and the Exarch
was slain in Ravenna. Such a general rising would
not have broken out if Gregory had not made use of
the alliance and help of the Lombards. The Roman
Church thought it had tamed these northern conquerors;
it had detached them by degrees from the Arian belief,
• Pagi, vol. i., p. 525.
^ Brev. Gest. Pontif, Rom., vol. i., p. 525, Pagi.

LEO THE ISAURIAN — GREGORY II. 109
whose reception they had at first joined with some
remains of gross idolatry: it had recently obtained from
their King, that the Archbishops of Aquilea should sub
mit to the Roman Church, and receive the pallium from it.
In its confidence it did not hesitate to ally itself with
them against the Greek Empire. Still the Pontiff
made a show of mamtaining a kind of nominal obe
dience to the Emperor. Some of the leaders of the in
surrection proposed the election of an Emperor of the
West; but the Pontiff moderated their ardour, under
the pretext of awaiting the conversion of the prince,
but in reahty, not to set up a present and popular master
over himself.
The Lombards, however, did not limit themselves to
supporting the independence of the Pope; they seized
on Ravenna, Clasa, Imola, Cassarea, and Sutri in the
duchy of Rome, Leo then tried to mollify the Pontiff
by proposing the assembly of a Council General,
Gregory answered with disdain :
' Thou art,' he wrote, ' the enemy and the persecutor
of the holy images. Be silent thou, and the world will
be at peace. When the Churches of God were in the
enjoyment of perfect peace, thou hast stirred up wars,
and enmities, and scandals; keep quiet thyself and there
will be no need of synods. Write unto all lands that
thou hast sinned against the Patriarch of Constanti
nople, and against the Pope of Rome, Gregory, in re
gard to the images, and we, who have received from
God power to bind and to loose, in heaven and on earth,
will make peace with thee and pardon thy .fault.'
We should be wronjr, however, to conclude that this
quarrel was wholly a religious one, Gregory adds :

110 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
' Thou canst not intimidate us by saying, I will send
to Rorae and break the image of Saint Peter to pieces,
I will carry off thence Gregory loaded with irons
as formerly Constantius carried away Martin. Know
that the Popes are the mediators and arbiters of peace
between the East and the West.' ^ Elsewhere he writes to
him, ' Thou ^rt a tyrant, that pursuest and persecutest
us with a mUitary and carnal force : we, naked and de
fenceless, and possessed of no earthly army, invoke the
Prince of the Armies of Heaven, Christ, praying Him to
send to thee a devU, and as the apostle says, deliver thee
unto Satan, to the destruction of thy body and thy
soul's salvation.'
Leo then atterapted to reduce Italy by arms. A
fleet, under the coraraand of the eunuch Eutychius,
besieged and took Ravenna, and the other towns of the
Pentapolis. The Greeks even succeeded in making a
treaty with the Lombards, and the united armies of the
two peoples laid siege to Rorae. Gregory II. gave in,
and acknowledged the authority of the Exarch Euty
chius; peace was raade on that condition, and only the
head of one insurgent leader was sent to Constanti
nople. Thus was suppressed the first great attempt ofthe
Roraan Pontiff for the liberty of Italy. But the ex
ample had been set, and as the Greeks could not subjugate
Rome without the help of the Lombards, they could not
keep it much longer. Notwithstanding, on the death
of Gregory II., his successor, elected by the votes of
the people, asked the approbation of the Exarch of
Ravenna, according to custora ; but the quarrel of the
images still went on, and was sufficient to serve the
' Pagi, vol. i., p. 529,

ALLIANCE WITH CHARLES MARTEL. Ill
purpose of a people weary of the yoke of the empire.
Gregory III. called a council in Rorae, which anathema
tised all who should oppose the use of images. But hardly
had the Bishop of Rome thrown off the yoke of Byzantium,
by favour of this theological discussion, than he found
himself embarrassed by the ambition of the Lombards,
In vain did he raise dissensions among their chiefs;
their King Luitprand laid siege to Rome, under the pre
text that the Pope favoured the Dukes of Benevento and
Spoleto, The Church of Rome, in revolt against the
empire, and menaced by the Lombards, had recourse to
Charles Martel, and despatched an embassy to France,
bearing rich presents to the Mayor of the Palace, and
also the chains of Saint Peter, and the keys of his
tomb. The chroniclers speak moreover of a decree of
the Roman Senate, conferring on Charles Martel the
title of Patrice; but this document does not exist; we
do not even know what this senate was, which ap
pears in the. histories of these times, as if it were a
rehc of ancient Rorae, The Church alone seems
to have inherited the power the empire had lost. It is
the Pope who makes war and peace, and who treats
with the emperors and the barbarians. Charles Martel
received the embassy of the Pontiff with great triumph,
and replied by an embassy and rich presents. Had he
heen a younger man, he would have done what his
children afterwards did; but he was growing old, and
his name alone sufficed to protect the Roman Church,
and to dehver it, for a time, from the Lombards. Luit
prand retired, satisfied with having taken from the
duchy of Rome, the towns of Horta, Polymarti, Ameria,
and Bleda,

112 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
Strong in the foreign protection that was assured to
the Church, Zachary, the successor of Gregory, made a
new treaty with the Lombards, and by it recovered
the towns that had been conquered, and also consider
able possessions at Narni, and in the march of Ancona.
Meanwhile the slender power uf the Greek Emperors,
at Ravenna, grew daily less and less. Zachary was
invoked as a protector by the inhabitants of that city,
and he undertook an embassy in person to the Lom
bard King in Pavia, to obtain the restitution of some
towns belonging to the exarchate. This confidence is
sufficiently explained by the progress pontifical power .
had raade ; the popes alone could in these ages of bar
barism and violence thus interpose between nations;
thus go and reproach a kingly eneray with perfidy, in
his own palace. Religious inviolability created for them
a public right which none other could claim.
A natural instinct, raoreover, led them to strengthen
this right by allying themselves with the strongest; the
attention of the Roman Church was steadUy fixed on
the house of Charles Martel.
Pepin was grateful to Pope Zachary for keeping his
brother Carloman at Rorae, and for leading his inclina
tion to the religious life. Freed from a rival in his own
family, Pepin, the raost powerful of the Frank nobles,
had then only to depose the weak descendant of Clovis,
and take the title of king himself. His ambition
powerfully seconded that of Rome. The Frank nobles
longed to be free from the oath that bound thera to
Childeric, They resolved to consult the Pope; he
replied that it was just that he who had the power of
king should have the title also. In virtue of this de-

CORONATION OF PEPIN. 113
cision, Pepin cut off the long locks of the last of the
line of Clovis, and shut him up in a cloister; and the
monks wrote down that the Pope Zachary had, in the
name of the Apostle Peter, deposed the king Childeric,
While the Church thus seemed to set the line of her
protector on the throne, the power of the Greek em
perors disappeared in Italy.
In 752, the Lombards took Ravenna by assault, and
aU the other towns of the exarchate. Soon afterwards,
their King Aetulphe advanced towards Rome and en
deavoured to levy a poll-tax of one sol of gold per head
on the Romans. The Emperor of Constantinople, too
weak to despatch a fleet to Italy, hoped that the perU of
the Pope, and of the Roman Church, would bring them
back to his cause. He charged the former then, in his
letters, to treat with the Lombard King ; but after
vain endeavours, the Pope, Stephen IL, quitted Italy in
disguise, crossed the Alps, and arrived, with a few priests,
in France. It was then that, in the Church of Saint
Denis, he solemnly crowned Pepin and his two sons,
and forbade the French princes, under pain of excom
munication, to choose their kings from any other race,
Pepin, in return, gave him the province of Ravenna,
which he promised to go and deliver out of the hands
of the Lombards. He soon after, in fact, crossed the
Alps, and laid siege to Pavia ; and Stephen returned
triumphant to Rome to await the effects of this victo
rious alliance.
The consequence of the first treaty of peace was the
withdrawal of the French King, and very soon after the
Lombards again desolated the Campagna of Rome.
Then it was that the Pope conceived the idea of ad-
VOL. I. 1

114 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
dressing to Pepin a letter, in the name of Saint Peter,
and which professed to be miraculous. The French
King crossed the Alps once more, and appeared under
the walls of Pavia. Two ambassadors from the Greek
Emperor were then at Rorae claiming the Exarchate
of Ravenna. The Pope embarked them for Marseilles,
with one of his legates, and sent them by this round
about way to seek the French King, whose arrival m
Italy he was awaiting. They came at last to the French
camp, before Pavia, and claimed the Exarchate of Ra
venna, as a property stolen by the Lombards. But
Pepin, who was ready enough to conquer for the
Pope, but not for the Greek emperor, told them they
were too late, that he had given everything to Saint
Peter; and this time the donation was realised. The
Lombard King, closely besieged in Pavia, agreed to
all demands. He gave up Ravenna and twenty-two
towns and castles taken frora the Greeks. The Abbot
of Saint Denis was sent to take possession of the pro
vince in the presence of Astulphe's officers, then came
to Rome, accompanied by the principal inhabitants of
each city, and laid, on the altar of Saint Peter, the
donation of the conqueror, and the keys of Ravenna,
Rimini, Sinigaglia, Urbino, Narni, and other towns, the
last spoils of the empire. Thus, in the eighth century,
was extinguished in the West, that ancient sovereignty
of the Ctesars; Christian under Constantine, and wholly
Greek since Augustulus; precarious, yet entailing all
the evils of absolute power, hateful to Italy, treating her
with the severity of a rebel colony, and leaving her a
helpless prey to the barbarians, and thus, for her, only
a foreign dominion, and one invasion the more.

115

SIXTH PERIOD,
TEMPORAL SOVEREIGNTY OF THE POPES,
Overthrow of the Kingdom of the Lombards. — Coronation of
Charlemagne.
Meantime, the sovereignty of Rome remained, we may
say, vacant, Pepin had only the title of patrice ; the
pope only that of bishop ; and, in some of his acts, he
seems stiU to recognise the nominal authority of the
Greek emperor, Paul I., the successor of Stephen IIL,
had his election confirmed by Pepin, but fifteen years
afterwards Adrian referred to the Emperor Constantine
Copronymus, the judgment of a crime committed in the
duchy of Rome, The power of the Lombards, more
over, in Italy, kept Rome in continual peril. In 767 an
insignificant Duke of Nepi, near Rome, took possession
of the Lateran by force, and caused his brother, who
was a layman, to be named pope. This election was
annulled at the end of a year. The Roman party
nominated a new pope, Stephen IV., and the Roman
Church now desired nothing so much as to free itself
from the Lombards, as it had previously freed itself
from the Greeks,
Under the influence of this wish, Stephen IV. did all
he could to dissuade Charlemagne frora marrying the
daughter of Didier, King of the Lombards. ' What
madness,' he wrote, ' for your noble nation and your
glorious race, to think of staining itself by an alliance
X 2

116 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
with the perfidious and tainted nation of the Lombards,
who have certainly brought us the leprosy.' ^
Charlemagne gave no heed to this singular accusation;
but he repudiated Didier's daughter after a year of
marriage, and was ready to seize any pretext for
attacking the Lombards. The see of Rome was then
filled by one of those priests that seem destined to be
the aUies of conquerors. Adrian I. entered into all
the views of Charles, and unceasingly encouraged his
ambition. Charlemagne had deprived his brother Car
loman of the crown. Carloman' s widow, with her two
sons, had taken refuge at the court of Didier, King of
the Lombards. This monarch, who had for a long time
been quarrelling with the Pope about the restitution of
some towns, determined to march to Rome in order to
force the Pope to crown the two fugitive French princes,
that he might oppose their claira to the pretensions of
Charleraagne. But Adrian, faithful to the fortune of the
strongest, asserabled his troops, raade preparations for
sustaining a siege, and threatened the Lombard King
with excommunication if he set foot on the territory of
Rome. While that prince was hesitating, Charlemagne,
after having kept his attention occupied for some time
by an embassy, prepared to cross the mountains. Adrian
and all the Roraan clergy laboured in his cause. Many
of the Lombards forsook that of their king. The inha
bitants of the duchy of Spoleto were seen to come to
Rome, entreating the Pope to admit them into the rank
of citizens, and ready to cut their hair and beards in the
fashion of the Roraans. The towns of Fermo, Osimo,
and xVncona submitted also. During these proceedings
* Op, Banquet, ad arm, 770,

DIDIER. CHARLEMAGNE. 117
Didier, having posted troops at the issues of the moun
tains, took his station near Aosta, and awaited the French.
It is remarkable that the conqueror availed himself
in this expedition rather of the craft and assistance of
priests than of the force of arms.
After having continued a negotiation, that was
managed, so it is said, under the guidance of a deacon
of Ravenna, he crossed the mountains and surprised and
dispersed the camp of Didier, who fled to Pavia, while
his son Adelkis took refuge in Verona, These two
cities were all the Lombard monarchy then possessed,
Charlemagne, after having invested Pavia, hastened
to Verona, where he pressed the siege vigorously.
The widow and sons of Carloman were shut up there,
and they fell into the power of the victor with the
city. Adelkis had left it some days previously and
embarked at Pisa to take service under the Greek
empire. The chronicles do not tell us what Charle
magne did with his brother's widow, and two children :
we nowhere find mention of any monastery to which
they were sent, according to the custom of the time.
This silence is an imputation on Charleraagne and the
Church of Rome. As soon as he had become master of
Verona, Charlemagne went to Rome, attended by a
numerous escort, and surrounded by French bishops,
abbots, and nobles. The magistrates of the city and
the chief nobUity carae two days' journey to meet him.
At a mUe from Rorae he was welcoraed by the children
of all nations, Britons, French, Greeks, and Germans,
who were being educated there, bearing palms and
ohve branches. The clergy followed these, with their
banners and crosses. At this sight Charleraagne

118 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
alighted, gave his horse to one of the Pope's attendants,
and proceeded on foot to the basilica of Saint Peter,
without the walls of Rome, at the entrance of which
the Pope was awaiting him. He ascended the steps on
his knees, and kissed each step. The Pope and the King
then embraced and entered the church, followed by all
Charles's suite, in the midst of the acclamations of the
people, who joined their voices to those ofthe choir, as
they chanted ' Blessed is he who cometh in the name
of the Lord.' Before entering the city, Charlemagne
took an oath not to violate the privileges of the Romans.
He then visited the churches and confirmed, it is said,
in the Basilica of Saint Peter, the donation of Pepin, a
deed which has been continually appealed to by the
popes, but the original text of which has not been
handed down to us. After a sojourn of a few days,
Charles quitted Rome to continue the siege of Pavia.
As soon as he was master of the city, he banished the
King Didier to France, appointed captains of his own
nation to command the fortresses in the place, and
assumed the title of King of the French and Lombards,
and Patrice of the Romans. A revolt of the Saxons
having obliged him to recross the Alps in haste, per
mitted some of the Lombard chiefs to retain possession
of Benevento, Spoleto, and Friuli ; but from this time,
nevertheless, must be dated the establishment of a new
domination in Italy. Charlemagne did really retain,
with the possession of Lombardy, the sovereignty of
all the territory of Ravenna, The bishop of that city
once more assumed to be independent of the Church of
Rome, and forbade the inhabitants of the ancient ex
archate to receive any appointment firom the Pope.

CHARLEMAGNE AT ROME, 119
Charlemagne did not censure this resistance, and did
not seem in any hurry to fulfil all the promises claimed
by the Roman Church. Adrian entreated hira to return
to Rome, to put down the enemies of Saint Peter, the
Church of Rome, the Roman people, and the Roman
republic. ' Give really and truly,' says he, ' to him
that which you have promised to the apostle of God,
for your soul's salvation.' ^ Adrian then cites the
fabulous donation of Constantine, and promised Char
lemagne the surname of a second Constantine, if he
increased the grandeur of the Church of Rome.
In 780, Charlemagne, with his two sons and all his
court, paid a second visit to Rome. The pope Adrian
baptized the young prince Carloman, and anointed him
King of Italy. From this time it is, that the Pope
appears to have been put in possession of the govern
ment of Ravenna, under the sovereignty of France.
The Pope exercised a much greater power in Rorae, and
was responsible to the prince for all that passed in that
city. Such was the wretchedness of Italy, that the sale
of the natives for slaves was a general practice. Greeks
and Saracens carae to its coasts to buy men who were
sold to them by others, or who were forced by starva
tion to sell themselves. When Charlemagne heard of
this he gently reproved the Pope ;_ Adrian's reply at
tests the power, or at least the right, which he enjoyed.
'We have,' he says, 'given orders to the Duke of
Lucca to arm a number of vessels, and to take prisoners
the Greeks engaged in this trade, and to burn their
ships ; but he has not obeyed us. But we take God to
witness that we have fought a great fight in the port of
1 Lett. Ad. 59.

120 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII,
our town of Centuracelle. We have burnt many ships
belonging to the Greek nation, and have kept the Greeks
themselves in prison. As to what those slanderers have
dared to insinuate before you, taking no heed of God or
their own salvation, against our priests, iniquity has lied
unto itself. There is, God be praised, no stain on the
Roraan clergy, and your subliraity ought not to believe
such things.' ^
Charleraagne continued to add to the power and pos
sessions of Adrian. Having subjected the duchy of
Benevento, he gave the towns of Capua, Sora, and Arpi
to the Pope, and added to these, several sraall towns of
Tuscany, among others Viterbo and Soano, but re
serving to the citizens the rights of a municipal govern
ment. The ambitious Adrian was not satisfied with
this donation. He was ever seeking to add to the gifts
conferred by the conqueror. His letters are full of
reproaches on this subject. He bitterly complains at
one tirae of the inhabitants of Ravenna, who go, without
his permission, to France to demand justice. ' As,' he
says, ' bishops, counts, and other subjects of the King,
do not leave France for Italy without a passport from
the King, so the subjects of the Pope, whatever be their
reasons for going to the Court of France, ought not to
quit the States of the Church without a passport from
the Pope.' At another he compares with the patriciate
of Charlemagne, 'the patriciate given,' he says, 'by
blessed Peter, to the Lord Pepin, the great king your
father, of blessed memory.' ^
Charlemagne was very tolerant to these ecclesiastical
J Lett. Ad, 75.
2 Code Carol., Ep. 85.

AMBITION OF ADRIAN I. 121
pretensions. He even ceded to them sometimes ; and
the ruler of the warrior peoples of France and Ger
many, allowed hiraself, on occasion, to be vanquished by
the obstinacy of an aged priest. This complaisance was,
however, a matter of calculation ; Charlemagne's design
was to build up the empire of the West. With that
view he revived the quarrel of images, that first pretext
of division between Italy and the East, After having
proclaimed in a council of the German bishops, at
Frankfort, the reverence due to the holy images, he was
preparing to go to Rome when he heard of the death of
the Pope Adrian. He regretted in him the loss of a
useful seconder of his designs, and in the sraall learned
court he had asserabled round him, some Latin verses
were made in his name, expressing his grief, and the
praises of the Pontiff. On the day of Adrian's funeral
the clergy and people of Rorae elected a successor, who
took the name of Leo IIL, and was consecrated the
next day, without waiting for the consent of any power.
But the new Pope immediately despatched legates,
loaded with presents, who bore to Charlemagne the
keys of Samt Peter's tomb and the standard of the
city of Rome ; accompanied by a request that he would
send one of the great raen of his carap to receive
the oath of obedience and fidelity frora the Roraan
people. By this phrase he substituted the subraission
of the people for that of the Church, and without
offending the King, he avoided subraitting the pontifical
election to his approval. Charlemagne, in his reply,
congratulated himself on the assurance of the fidelity
promised by the new Pope ; and sent hira, at the sarae
time, magnificent gifts by Anguilbert, one of his confi-

122 ¦ HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
dants, a meraber of his councU and of his academy,
where he bore the narae of Homer, because he made
verses in Greek. In a private letter, Charlemagne
charges Anguilbert to seize every opportunity of
speaking to the new Pope of his duties, of the ob
servance of the holy canons, and the pious government
of the Church. ' Remind him often,' says this letter,
' how few years the enjoyment of the dignity he now
possesses will last, and how enduring is to be the reward
reserved in eternity for hira who shall worthily have
fulfilled his appointed duties. Persuade him to ex'tir-
pate the heresy of siraony which disfigures in so many
places the body of the Church, and talk to him fre
quently of all those things that you remember our
lamenting over together. May Almighty God guide
and direct you, and may He dispose to all goodness the
heart of Leo, so that he. may serve the holy Church m
aU things, and be a good father and useful intercessor for
us, so that the Lord Jesus Christ may send us prosperity
in the execution of His will, and mercifully grant that
we may so spend what remains of our mortal life that
it may lead us to eternal rest, I wish you a good
journey, my dear Homer, and a happy return,' ^
For all these pious words, we cannot doubt that the
chief object of Anguilbert's mission was to procure for
his master the title of Emperor of the West, by which
Charlemagne was desirous of strengthening and con
solidating his conquests and his power. For a long time
the prince had made no secret of his aspirations ; he
spoke of them in his donations to the Churches. Many
of his acts comraence thus : ' Charles, by the grace of
' D. Banquet, vol. v., p. 525,

LEO III. ANGUILBERT. DIPLOMACY. 123
God, King of the French and Lombards, Patrice of the
Romans, if our liberality is exercised in favour of the
priests of God, if we wilhngly defer to their wishes, we
hope thereby to be raised to the height of the Imperial
dignity.' But, apprised of this ambition, the Church of
Rome delayed complying with it, in order that her in
tervention might be the raore highly valued. With this
idea, Leo thought it well to recal the memory of the
Greek emperors by a Mosaic which he placed in the
Lateran, and which represented Constantine Porphyro-
genetes receiving one standard from the hand of Jesus
Christ, and another frora Saint Peter, who at the sarae
time gives the pope the pallium.
But Leo, who meant to keep Charlemagne waiting,
was forced to ask his assistance. A conspiracy was
formed at Rome, among the officers of the pontifical
palace. Leo was attacked in the midst of a procession,
dragged from his horse, despoiled of his ornaments,
and wounded. Being rescued by some friends, he first
retired to Spoleto, under the protection of a feudatory of
Charlemagne, and went thence to. seek the King himself
near Paderborn, in Germany. Charles received him,
dismissed him with an escort, and with commissioners
to judge the conspirators, and speedily followed himself,
into Italy, at the head of a numerous army.
The arrival of Charles in Rome, and the events
which followed, mark the period . of the highest power
hitherto attained by the see of Saint Peter.
,The men who were accused of conspiracy against
the Pope, charged him of crimes and injustice ; but
an assembly of the bishops and priests of Italy, to
whom were joined the Frank captains and Roman nobles.

124 , HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
declared that nobody could accuse the Pope, because
the apostolic see was the head of all the Churches,
and could not be brought to judgment. At the same
time, it was decided, in this asserably, that Charles,
King of the French, being ra aster of Rome, the city of
the Cajsars, and of all the other cities of Italy, Gaul,
and Germany, which had been at divers tiraes part of
their erapire, it was just that he should receive the title
of emperor, and be crowned by the Pope Leo. Nothing
could have been, at the same time, more formal, and
better planned, than the coronation of Charles, by which
he feigned to be greatly surprised.
Christmas Day was chosen, according to the spirit of
the age, to bring together the birth of Christ and that
of the new erapire.
An immense multitude had asserabled from all parts.
Charles came to perform his devotions on the 25th of
December, 800 ; and the Pope then invested him with
the imperial purple, and placed on his head a crown of
gold, while the people shouted, ' Long life and victory
to Charles Augustus, crowned by the hand of God.'
Charles afterwards promised by oath, in the name of
Jesus Christ, in presence of God, and of the blessed
apostle Saint Peter, to be the protector and defender
of the Church of Rome. Then Leo, pouring the holy
oU on his head, anointed him emperor, and his son,
Pepin, King of Italy. At the same time Charlemagne
received from the Caliph of the East, Haroun al
Raschid, a sort of power over the city of Jerusalem.
There were brought to hira at Rome, the keys of the
Holy Sepulchre, and of Calvary; and also the banner
of the holy city. This homage, which was insphed

CORONATION OF CHARLEMAGNE. 125
by the glory of the French monarch, and the desire of
humihating the Greek empire, constituted Charlemagne
the great protector of the Christians. Rome profited
by his grandeur, and the Pope who crowned him, was
associated with his glory, or rather was elevated above it.
Thus, from this time is to be dated the great power
of the Roraan pontificate. As long as Charlemagne
hved, this greatness was hampered by active super
vision. The prince had enriched the basilica of the
Vatican with many precious gifts, with vases of gold,
and an altar of sUver ; but his commissioners carefuUy
circumscribed the claims of the Holy See over the
domains forming part of the private property of the
former exarch, and over the fines imposed by the Roman
tribunals. They vigorously disputed the possession
of certain farms, vineyards, and flocks, and claimed for
the imperial treasury the confiscations levied by the
ofiicers of the Pope. We are told that Charlemagne,
in his capitularies, gives orders for the sale of the
herbs in his gardens, and the eggs in his poultry-yard ;
the same attention to details appears to have been ex
ercised, inhis name, in the supervision of that Church
which he had loaded with so many gifts. In appear
ance, he granted it everything ; but his favours were
restricted, in his name, and it was he who was reaUy
obeyed in Rome. And thus his powerful hand, ex
tending over every part of his vast empire, held all
things in obedience and in order, till the moraent when
he ceased, at once, to govern and to exist.
In the last year but one of his reign, whether he dis
trusted that Roman Church he had done so much to
magnify, or whether he thought he could do without

126 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
it, he determined to associate with himself, his son,
Louis, afterwards surnamed the D^bonnaire. After
having proclaimed him in a diet of bishops and nobles,
he ordered hira to take the crown from the altar, and
set it on his head with his own hands. He died, and
among the treasures which he bequeathed to the one-
and-twenty great cities of his empire, the Church of
Rome received, as its share, a great sUver table, on
which was graven the city of Constantinople. Italy
was so completely severed from the Greek empire, that
the representation of Constantinople was given to
Rome, as a curiosity, by the conqueror who had parted
those two cities for ever.
The death of Charlemagne, by dividing those vast
possessions which no hand but his own could keep
together, favoured the Roman Pontificate, as much as
his reign had done. The pope had been the first
bishop of the great empire, and, so to say, the first
ecclesiastical feudatory of a master, who ruled the
Church as well as the world. But by the dismember
ment of Charlemagne's empire, and amid the wars of his
weak or unworthy successors, the Church of Rome was
to become a mediating and sovereign power. It was very
soon seen, to what an extent a change of men, changed
the rights of the erapire, and of the priesthood.
The Pope Leo did not long survive Charlemagne,
and the new pope, elected under the name of Stephen
IV., had obliged the Roman people to renew their
oath of fidelity to the Emperor ; and then, excusing
himself by his legates, from being consecrated till his
election had been confirmed by the prince, he hastened
to France. When he drew near Rheims, Louis the

DEATH OF CHARLEMAGNE, 127
D^bonnaire, foUowed by great numbers of the clergy,
came out to receive him ; prostrated himself three
tiraes before him, and only embraced him after having
offered this lowly homage, so different from the re
ception accorded by Charlemagne to Stephen III,
The next day, the Pope crowned the Emperor Louis,
and the Empress Ermingarde, in the Cathedral of
Rheims ; and, eluding by this example the last inten
tions of Charlemagne, confirmed the Church of Rome
in the privilege of making emperors.

Progress of the Temporal Sovereignty of the Popes under the
successors of Charlemagne.
The Church of Rome was destined to profit by the
weakness that caused the name of Debonnaire to be
given to Louis, and that armed all his sons against
him. We must not, however, believe, that it obtained
the gift of the isles of Corsica, Sardinia, and SicUy, for
they did not belong to Louis ; but we know very well,
how in these ages of ignorance, fictitious gifts, and false
title-deeds, in favour of the Roman Church were mul
tiplied. A spiritual power, contending by the force
of religion alone, against the brute-force of the middle
ages, it constantly sustained its temporal power by
fabricated deeds, from the time of the donation of
Constantine, alleged in the eighth century, to that
of Louis invented at a later date.
However, the power of Rome increased by the
weakness of the empire. Charles, in bestowing so
many titles on the Pope, had only the intention of
setting up a golden statue that should place the imperial

128 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
crown on his own head. After Charles, when his
erapire was ruled by a feeble hand, and divided by
factions, the pontifical statue became animated, and
sought to rule. But there were serious obstacles in
the way. When Lothaire, the son of Louis, and whom
he had taken as his partner in the empire, came to be
crowned at Rome, he formally judged a law-suit
between the Pope, and the abbot of the monastery of
Forfa, in Sabinia, and, after hearing the Pope's advocate,
he decided against hira. Some time after, he annuUed
the appointment of the ecclesiastical judges nominated
by the apostolic chamber, and decided that some
members of the council of the Emperor should be sent
to exercise judicial powers in Rome. At the sarae
tirae he published some constitutions which take the
forra of a first treaty with the pontifical power, and
differ widely frora those pious and often illusory donations
of which Charlemagne was so lavish. In this deed, the
Pope is recognised as having the power of nominating
the dukes or governors, judges, and other officers. The
Pope is judge, in the first instance, of all complaints
made by them, and must either attend to them through
his commissaries, or inform the Emperor of them.
After the promulgation of this edict, the clergy and
people took the oath of fealty to Louis and Lothaire,
always excepting the fidelity proraised to the lord
apostolic. Thus power seeraed already to be divided
between the Emperor and the Pope. And, under the
young and ardent Lothaire, the pontifical city even
obtained real independence ; he compromised with her,
while he ruled all the rest of Italy.
Soon we see the empire of Charlemagne broken up.

LOUIS LE DEBONNAIRE. 129
The feeble Louis, by dividing his possessions among
his sous, had raised them in arms against him. The
ambitious Lothaire was anxious to obtain the assist
ance of the Pope in his undutiful enterprise. In 833,
he induced Gregory IV. to follow him to France. The
French bishops of Louis' party declared, that if the
Pope came to excommunicate them, he should return
excommunicated himself.
The Pope only acted as meditator ; visited the King
ra his tent, bearing rich presents, and received others
in return. During the negotiation, the sons of Louis,
having gained over their father's array, that unfortunate
prince was obliged to surrender at discretion, and it does
not appear that the Pope censured the treason which
his presence had helped to promote. One thing to be
remarked, however, is, that, notwithstanding the com
plaisance of the Pope towards these sons in rebellion
against their father, it was not he, but a council of
French bishops who sentenced the King Louis to per
forra penance. And, when afterwards, the unhappy
King, with one of his sons, resumed the government of
the empire, and desired to be absolved, it was not to
the Pope he addressed hiraself, but to a councU of
bishops opposed to Lothaire. Yet raore, after his
victory, as though to free hiraself frora the excommu
nication he had incurred, he caused hiraself to be
crowned anew in the Church of Metz. Thus it was a
synod of bishops that first exercised the power of
deposing jind reinstating kings, but every advantage
acquired by the episcopate, tended to that of the
Church of Rome.
Louis le Debonnaire died in the midst of the
VOL. 1. K

130 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
troubles of his kingdom, and when he was makino'
preparations for going to Rome, to seek there a re
newed consecration of his feeble power. Lothaire, who
succeeded to the erapire, iraraediately sent his eldest
son, Louis II. to Rome with an army. A new pope,
Sergius, who had just been elected, presented himself
to the young prince in front of Saint Peter's, whose
gates were shut. ' If thou art come,' said he, ' with
purity of heart and good- will for the welfare of the
republic of the world, and of this Church, enter its
doors by my permission, but, if it be otherwise, they
will not be opened by me, nor by my leave.' ^ The
young prince protested his good intentions, and entered
the church amid the acclamations of the people, ' Blessed
be he who cometh in the name of the Lord.' A few
days afterwards the Pope anointed him King of Italy
in the basilica of Saint Peter's, but he declined to
take the oath of fidelity which the French nobles of
his suite desired. ' I agree, and I promise,' said the
Pope, ' that the Romans shall take this oath, to the
Emperor Lothaire, but neither I nor the Roman nobility
will aUow them to take it to Louis, his son.' ^
At the same time, a Prince of Beneventum came to
Rorae to pay homage to the Pope, and kissed his feet,
then quite a new ceremony. The duchy of Bene-
vent/um was, at that tirae, exposed to the incursions
of the Saracens ; for, after the death of Charlemagne,
the barbarians renewed their invasions — the Normans
in the north, the Saracens in the south. That semi-
civilisation, which Rome had preserved in Italy, and
which Charlemagne had scattered here and there within
¦ ' Breviar, p. 5G. ^ Bremar. p, 58,

LOUIS II. AT ROME. POPE LEO IV. 131
his extensive empire, was threatened with extinction.
In truth, the Saracen pirates who pillaged the coasts of
Italy, bore no resemblance to those accoraplished Arabs
who were distinguished, in the tenth century, by their
advancement in civilisation and the arts, in Spain, after
they had conquered it. They were daring robbers,
and history has preserved the name of the pontiff who
taught the Romans to defend themselves against them.
In 847, Leo IV. succeeded Sergius without consult
ing the Emperor Lothaire, The policy of the Roman
clergy had pleaded the inroads of the Saracens, as the
reason why they did not wait for the Emperor's orders ;
but once appointed, Leo found means to dissipate the
danger, by which he had profited. He protected Rome
by a new wall, enclosing within its circumference the
basilicEe of Saint Peter, and Saint Paul, and the whole of
a newly-built quarter, which long bore the name of the
Leonine city. At Porto, near the mouth of the Tiber,
he built two fortified towers, one on each side of the
river, which were connected by iron chains, that barred
its entrance to the barbaric flotillas. He treated, as a
sovereign, with the towns of Naples, Gaeta, and Amalfi,
formerly dependencies of the Greek empire, and, re
pulsing the Saracens, by their help, he took many
prisoners, and made them labour on the improvements
and fortifications of Rome.
Rome had been, since the death of Charlemagne, the
only spot in the West, w^here any of the learning and of
the souvenirs of antiquity were preserved. The succes
sion of barbarian invasions, that had ravaged Italy, had
greatly changed the manners, the customs, and the
language of the land. "With the old leaven of the Latin

132 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
nations, the Greeks, the Herulii, the Goths, the Lom
bards, and the Franks, had been mingled ; and every
successive addition, had left, on the soil of Italy, sorae
new element of manners or language. Religions were
confused, and races raixed. Arianism disappeared
in the Catholic faith before the Goths, who had
brought it ; the Goths themselves were lost, either in
the mass of the ancient inhabitants, or among the
new peoples, Lombard and Frank, who came after
thera. At what date, in all this medley, began to
be formed a common language, new to the people
who had become settled in Italy ? It cannot be
fixed precisely. The earliest monuments of it which
remain, are long posterior to the time at which it
must have been first in use. But, however that be, its
formation, stamped with the impress of the Latin, is
one of the marks of the power of the Roman Church.
The Latin tongue which this Church spoke, survived,
so to say, the language of the Lombard and Frank
conquerors, and formed, almost alone, the Italian of the
middle ages. That rule which lays down that the
portion contributed to the population of a country by
different people is represented in its language, does not
apply to Italy: the Latin element was always dominant
there. That Latin language which remained almost
the sole foundation of the vulgar tongue, was, through
out the West, the sacred language of the priests.
Through it they all belonged to the Roman Church.
The schools which the popes had established in Rome,
for foreigners, brought up men who carried the lan
guage and religion of Rome back to their own
countries ; and there was no celebrated man in those

DEGENERACY OF THE HEIRS OF CHARLEMAGNE. 133
times who had not studied at Rome. That faraous
Alfred, who appears such a phenomenon of learning
and humanity in the Anglo-Saxon chronicles of the
ninth century, came to Rome, under Leo IV., with a
numerous suite of his nobles. The adroit pontiff seized
the opportunity of anointing a king, and bestowed on
him, with the holy unction, the name of son.
Meantime the weakness of the heirs of Charlemagne
had reached such a point, that they feared even the
Greek Empire and its former claims on Rome. The
Popes who succeeded Leo, though they had not his
genius, skilfully took advantage of this fear to claim
the right of bestowing the empire. Even the princes
of the time adopted this idea. Louis II. wrote to the
Greek Emperor, Basil, who accused him of having
usurped the sovereignty of Rome : ' If we had not
been Emperor of the Romans, we should not be Em
peror of the French. It was from the Romans that we
received the title and dignity of emperor.' At the
same time, Adrian IL, writing to Charles the Bald,
says: 'If the Emperor Louis were to die, I have
resolved to recognise none but you as emperor, even if
any other prince should offer me bushels on bushels of
golden pieces.'
Nothing could be more rapid than the spread of
these pretensions. A few years afterwards, when
Charles the Bald was in fact crowned at Rome by the
Pope John VIIL, the successor of Adrian, a diet
assembled in Pavia, bestowed on Charles the title of
King of Italy, in virtue of the title of Emperor which
he had received from Saint Peter by the ministry of
the Lord John, Sovereign Pontiff, Lord Universal.

134 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
Thus the new independence which Italy recovered by
substituting the right of election for the law of conquest,
rested for support on the pontifical supremacy.
We are a long way from the empire founded by
Charlemagne ; but the change in men was greater still
than the change in things. The hero's race seemed
about to end in individuals suffering from some in
firraity. To Charles the Bald and Carloman succeeded
Louis the Stammerer ; to Charles the Fat, Charles the
Siraple. The spectacle of this weakly posterity was
sure to embolden the ambition of the Popes. John
VIIL, after having opposed ¦ Carloman, got himself
named his vicar in Italy, and Carloman having fallen
ill of languor, the Pope convoked a council at Rome to
elect a new King of Italy, whom he afterwards meant
to create emperor. The enterprise failed. Charles the
Fat, being appointed King of Italy, carae to Rome in
881, and it was indispensable to crown him emperor.
But Charlemagne's family was its own ruin. Arnault,
who was descended from him through a concubme,
seized the German dominions, which were thenceforth
separated from France, and caused Charles the Fat to
be deposed in a diet held at Tribur. There was no
longer an emperor, and the Kingdom of Italy was
contended for by the great lords of the country,
Berenger, Duke of Friuli, and Guy, Duke of Spoleto.
In the course of five years, five emperors visited Rome :
Guy, his son Lambert, Arnault, who came thither from
Germany, Louis, King of Burgundy, and Berenger,
who remained master of the field.
During these changes, Rome became a sort of
theocratic democracy, governed by women and priests ;

THEODORA. — JOHN X. 135
a state of things which, in the barbarism of the middle
ages, was only possible at Rome.
Theodora, a woman of patrician descent, equally
celebrated for her beauty and her daring, obtained great
power in Rome, which she prolonged by the charms of
her two daughters. The city of Saint Peter was ruled
by this trio of courtesans.
The mother, Theodora, by her famUiar commerce
with several of the Roman barons, had obtained pos
session of the castle of Saint Angelo, at the entrance of
Rome, on one of the principal bridges over the Tiber ;
and she had made it an abode of pleasure, and a fortress,
whence she corrupted and oppressed the Church. Her
daughters, Marozia and Theodora, disposed of the
pontificate by their own arts, or through their lovers,
and occasionaUy bestowed it on the lovers themselves,
Sergius IIL, after a contested election and seven years'
exile, was recalled to the see of Rome by the interest
of Marozia, by whom he had had a son, who afterwards
became Pope. The younger Theodora was no less
ambitious and influential than her sister. She loved a
young clerk of the Roraan Church, for whora she had
first obtained the bishopric of Bologna, and then the
archbishopric of Ravenna. Finding it irksome to be
separated from him by a distance of two hundred
miles, she procured his nomination to the papacy, in
order to have hira near her ; and he was elected Pope
in 912, under the title of John X.
If this favourite of a courtesan was a bad priest, he
proved a courageous warrior. At this period the
" Church of Rome, though free from all foreign domina
tion, was not the less exposed to irarainent danger.

136 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
During the anarchy which reigned in the Italian pro
vinces, the Saracens had raultiplied their invasions
and renewed their pillages. For raany years they had
been masters of Garillan, at the raouth of the river
Ijiris. They held the neighbouring villages in sub
jection, and pushing their expeditions thence to the very
gates of Rome, they either carried off the pilgrims or
made them pay enormous ransoms ; and in this way
they obtained possession of the offerings which the
pious still continued to send, to that Rome stained with
so many vices. As soon as John had become Pope,
he formed the project of driving away these barbarians.
He resolved to summon Berenger, who had just con\
quered a portion of Northern Italy; and in 916, \
Berenger carae to Rorae, to receive the iraperial crown.
His entry was not like that of the Gerraan conquerors ;
he was mounted on a white nag, which the Pope had
sent him. On his approach, the people and the schools
of the various nations went out to meet him, according
to custora ; but raingled with them were many banners
carried by various bodies of. Romans, and surmounted
by the heads of wild beasts. It seemed as if Rome had
once more becorae martial. After the ordinary cere
monies, and when Berenger had promised to confirm
the donations of the emperors, he was crowned, and
among his offerings to the Church of Rome, were sorae
suits of armour. Shortly afterwards, John, having
obtained the assistance of a fleet from the Greek
Emperor, marched against the Saracens established in
Calabria, and defeated thera.
After a pontificate of fourteen years, John was dis
placed by the same means to which he owed his

MAROZIA. JOHN XI. 137
elevation. Marozia, Theodora's sister, having married,
as her second husband, Guy, Duke of Tuscany, con
spired against the Pope's life, under the pretext that he
allowed too much influence to his own brother. An
armed band, secretly asserabled by the orders of Guy
and Marozia, surprised the Pope in the Lateran palace,
assassmated his brother before his eyes, and threw him
into prison, where he was stifled with pillows a few
days after. Marozia allowed the election of two Popes
successively, whose pontificate was obscure and short ;
and then she raised to the papal see, a natural son of
hers, it is said, by Pope Sergius IIL, her former lover.
This 'young man took the name of John XL, and
Marozia, his mother, having soon after lost her
husband, Guy, was sought in marriage by Hugh, King
of Italy, and his brother by the mother's side.
But it wcfuld appear that the people of Rome were
growing weary of the tyranny of this shameless and
cruel woman. They were especially indignant against
her for having brought more foreigners to Rorae, the
barbarous Burgundians. Besides her bastard son,
whom she had made pope, she had a legitimate son by
Alberic, her first husband. This young man being
ordered by his mother, at a banquet, to present the
ewer to King Hugh, acquitted himself of this duty
awkwardly, and the exasperated Burgundian struck
the young Roman in the face. The latter immediately
left the hall, assembled the heads of the nobility, and
raised a revolt against Hugh, who took refuge in the
castle of Saint Angelo, whence he escaped with great
difficulty in the night, by a ladder of ropes. Alberic,
the leader of this popular rising, was proclaimed consul

138 HISTORY OF GREGORY VIL
by the Roraans, who still clung to the traditions of the
republic; he threw his mother, Marozia, into prison,
and set a guard over his brother. Pope John ; and
thus, invested with the popular power, he prepared
to defend the independence of Rorae against the pre
tensions of Hugh and the forces of Lombardy.
Alberic, master of Rome under the title of patrice
and senator, exercised, during twenty-three years, all
the rights of sovereignty.-^ The money was coined
with his iraage,^ with two sceptres across ; he made war
and peace, appointed magistrates and disposed of the
election and of the power of the Popes, who, in that
interval, filled the See of Rome, John XL, Leo VIL,
Stephen IX., Martin IIL, and Agapetus II.
The name of this subject and imprisoned papacy was
none the less revered beyond the liraits of Rome.
Frora it the bishops iraplored the pallium, as the sign
and seal of their consecration ; and the only ad
vantage a Greek Emperor derived from the rule of
Alberic, was the obtaining from hira, in exchange for
rich presents, a pontifical brief which conferred that
precious pallium upon the Patriarchs of Constantinople
in perpetuity.^
From all parts of Christendom, which was daily
' * Quandoquidem Albericus omnia imperatorum jura, praeter nomen
Augusti, consentientibus Romania, sibi vindicaverat, patricium eum vocare
assueverunt ; . . . . prseses vero senatus universse urbi praefectus fuit, et
hinc omnium Romanorum senator vocatur,' — (Michel. Cour. Cnriii De Smatu
Romano Commenir. lib. vi. ch. iv. pp. 169 and 170.)
^ ' Habet ex altero latere effigiem Alberici cum sceptro cruciati, in altero
verba " Albericus P. Consul." ' — (Michel. Cour. Curtii De Senatu Romano.
Commentr. lib. vi. ch. iv. p, 172,)
' ' Jussu igitur Alberici, Pontifex Maximus patriarchis Constantinopoli-
tanis pallii usum perpetuum, absque prsevia Sedis Romanse venia, indulsit
— (Michel, Curtii Comment, ut supra, p. 171.)

ALBERIC, PATRICE AND SENATOR. 139
extending its bounds araong the pagans and barbarians,
came applications from the Pope for grants of briefs
for the foundation of monasteries and the formation of
new bishoprics; and the fixed conviction of aU men
was that Rome was the fountain of religion and the
depositary of the empire. But that empire, which had
belonged to so many unworthy claimants since the
time of Charlemagne, found none who dared to put
forth a hand to lay hold on it. The King Hugh, at the
head of the forces of Northern Italy, frequently ravaged
the Roman states and besieged Rome. He could
neither reduce it by force nor obtain an entrance by
alliance, though he ended by making peace with
Alberic, and giving him his daughter in marriage.
Alberic preserved the independence of Rorae ; and
Hugh, who was hated by his own vassals in Lombardy,
was obliged to fly before a fortunate competitor,
Berenger, Marquis of Ivray. The latter, suddenly
making his way through the Tyrol with some German
and Piedmontese troops, carried everything before him ;
he fixed himself at Milan, as the guardian of Lothaire,
the son of Hugh, twenty years of age, who was acknow
ledged king in his father's absence, and was married to
a daughter of the King of Burgundy, Rudolph II. , who
had himself aspired to the crown of Italy. The speedy
death of Lothaire left this crown vacant, and Berenger
took possession of it with the consent of the diet of the
' Cumque eum cupiditas Alberici non lateret, missis eo muneribus satis
magnis, efficit ut et Papfe nomine Theophylacto patriarchse litterse mitter-
entur, quarum auctoritate tum ipse, tum successores, absque Paparum
permissu, palliis uterentur. Ex quo turpi commercio vituperandus mos
incoluit, ut non solum patriarchfe, sed etiam Episcopi totius Grsecise palliis
iitflntur.'— (Luitprandi, Relat. Leg. siue.)

140 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
Italian lords, who elected him King of Italy in union with
his son Adalbert. But a more powerful master than this
was preparing to contend for the possession of Italy.

From the Accession of the House of Saxony to the Death of
Otho I.
The race of Charlemagne, which still continued to
languish on the throne of France, had failed in the
land whence it took its rise. Louis IV., King of
Germany, died twenty years before Charles the Simple;
but the vigour of the North, of which this degenerate
race no longer retained any trace, raised up successors
to it in one of those provinces beyond the Rhine, which
Charlemagne had by force incorporated with Germany.
Saxony, which it had cost so much labour to conquer
and convert, had become the raost powerful of the
Teutonic states, and on the death of Louis IV., in 909,
it was a Duke of Saxony, Otho the Great, who, by his
authority over the diet, disposed of the crown; refusing
it for himself, he obtained it for Conrad.
After a reign of ten years, employed in endeavours
to humble Saxony, to keep Lorraine, and to defend the
rest of Germany against the Hungarians and Sla
vonians, Conrad died, having pointed out Henry, the
son of Otho of Saxony, as the king the German states
should choose.
This first monarch of the famUy of the Othos was
bold and warlike, without being barbarous, and once
more united his kingdom beyond the Rhine to the
duchy of Lorraine, repulsed the Hungarians, sub
jugated Bohemia, took Misnia frotn the Slaves, am

THE HOUSE OF SAXONY. 141
Sleswig from the Danes ; but during a reign of seven
teen years, either passed in war or in preparations for
it, he does not appear to have turned his thoughts
towards Italy ; so much was there to be done before
the foundation of the empire of Charlemagne could be
laid anew.
On the death of Henry, Otho, his son, whom he had
appointed to succeed him, carried his conquests further.
In spite of the revolts of the two powerful feudatories,
and of the various peoples that formed the unquiet
kingdom of Germany, and though subject to the plots
of the Saxons themselves, Otho succeeded in ruling
at home and remaining victorious abroad.
Henry had never crossed the Elbe, Otho subjugated
all the Slavonic tribes as far as the Oder; carrying
wherever he carried his arms, that only civilisation of
the age, Christianity, founding bishoprics in still
heathen Brandenburg and in Jutland, the ancient
stronghold of the Norman invaders.
Otho, with less power and less genius than Charle
magne, attempted what Charlemagne had accoraplished.
Like him, he aspired to the title of emperor, which,
conferred at Rome by the Pope, seemed, in the con
fused imaginations of the middle ages, the investiture
of God himself, transmitting the inheritance of the
Csesars. But before this, it was necessary to get
possession of that kingdom of Italy, that had so long
ago slipped frora the hold of the two feeble branches
of Charlemagne's descendants. Events happened as
if to aid his wishes, and gave to Otho's ambition the
appearance of generosity.
Berenger, not satisfied with being chosen king on

142 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
the death of Lothaire, wished also to dispose of
Adelaide, the widow of his unfortunate predecessor,
by constrauiing her to marrj'- his son Adalbert.
Adelaide refused, and already famous by her rank and
beauty, ^ becarae still more so for her misfortunes.
She was arrested in Pavia, where she had reigned ;
robbed, beaten, and dragged by the hair of her head,
so we are told, by order of Alberic's cruel mother, and
then iraprisoned in a tower on the shore of Lake
Guarda, A few months after she escaped with her
waiting-woman, by the assistance of a priest, who
opened a subterranean passage for them under the tower.
Being parted from her hberator, who set out to claim
protection for her from the Bishop of Reggio, Adelaide
wandered about for several days, and was fed by the
charity of a poor fisherman. It was afterwards told in
all Italy that she had reraained for many hours con
cealed in a corn-field, and that the King Berenger
passed along in pursuit of her, striking his lance through
the tall corn. But he did not harm her who was
protected by the grace of Christ, to use the words of
the nun Hroswitha, in the verses in which she has so
vividly described the anguish of the young queen. ^
^ ' Regalis formse preeclara decore
Ingenio prselucida tanto
Ut posset regnum digne rexisse relectum.'
(Hroswitha, De Gestis Oddonumi)
^ ' Ipseque cum fortis sequitur turba legiones
Et rapido segetem cursu peragravit eamdem,
In cujus sulcis latuit tunc Domna recurvia,
Ha3C quam quserebat cereris contecta sub altis. . . .
Et quamvis circumspeotos disjungere culmos
Nisibus extenta cunctis temptaverit hasta,
Non tamen invenit Christi quam gratia texit'
(HroswithEe Historia apud Meibomium, vol. i. ch. v, p, 721,)

ADELAIDE. OTHO IN ITALY. 143
The bishop came himself to seek her; and, having
managed to avoid meeting Berenger, he conducted her
into the mountains of Reggio, to Canossa, a fief of his
bishopric, built on the summit of an isolated rock, and
defended by a triple wall , and of which we shall hear
again in the course of this history. Having soon
learned the place of her retreat, Berenger hastened to
besiege Canossa ; but Adelaide had made still more
haste in despatching her faithful priest to Germany,
to implore the assistance of the powerful Otho, who
had just returned from a victorious expedition against
Bohemia.-^ It would appear that all was in readiness for the
granting of this prayer, and Otho instantly despatched
his son Ludolph to Lombardy with some troops, and in
less than two months after the escape of Adelaide he
himself entered Pavia at the head of his Saxons. A
promise which had distanced even this rapid succour
had already soothed the alarms of the besieged lady at
Canossa. An arrow, it is said, was shot into the place
by a skilful archer, having suspended to it the reply
and the nuptial ring of the King of Germany.^
A few days after, the siege being raised, Berenger
fled ; and the good priest, who was sent by Otho to
Adelaide, came to Canossa, attended by a numerous
escort of German knights, to take her in triumph to
Pavia, where Otho, without having stricken a blow, and
^ ' Prseses Adhelaidus mox advenit venerandus.
Induxitque suam gaudente pectore domnam
nio tempore rex profiscitui in militiam
Contra Boleslaum regem Bohemarum. (Witk. Corb. Ann.), book iii.
' ' Litteras et annulum quem a duce detulerat, callidus clam sagittas
inseruit, ac nemine id suspicante, in arcem ilium trajecit.' — (Chron. xx.)

144 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
who already issued his decrees under the title of King
of Italy, made all haste to espouse the young and
beautiful widow of its last king, Lothaire.
Having secured by this alliance all those Italians who
detested Berenger, and who sympathised with the
persecutions he had inflicted on Adelaide, Otho was
anxious to push on to Rorae, to assurae the imperial
crown, which he asked at the hands of the Pope
Agapetus II. , whose apostolic approbation he had
already obtained for the new bishoprics founded in the
North through his victories.
But the patrice Alberic, stUl master of Rome, did
not care to see an emperor crowned there; and Otho,
being recalled to his territories on the other side of the
Alps, by the jealousies excited in his own family by his
choice of a new wife, deferred for a tirae his ambitious
views on Rome.^ He, however, left sufficient troops
in Lorabardy to maintain order in his absence, and the
duration of his troubles which kept him in Germany
can alone explain his consenting to restore the king
dom of Italy to Berenger and his son, only retaining
the suzerainty of it hiraself Berenger, re-established on
his throne, forgot the oath he had taken to obey Otho
as a faithful vassal, and to govern his subjects as a
good king; and, while Germany was distracted by the
revolt of Ludolph, Otho's son, who had attacked his
uncle, the Duke . of Bavaria, and opposed even his
father hiraself, Berenger once raore laid siege to
Canossa, the forraer asylura of Adelaide, and extended
his depredations to the Roman States, where a new
revolution had taken place.
^ 'Ludulphus tristis a rege discessit.' — (Witk, Corb. Ann. lib, iii.)

OTHO RECALLED TO GERMANY, 145
Alberic died lord of Rome, and had bequeathed his
power to his son Octavian, who, two years afterwards,
on the death of Agapetus II. , caused himself, young
as he was, to be named Pope by those who already
acknowledged him as patrice. Thus, in one and the
same man, were united the civU and the religious
power — ^the sword and the tiara — a revolution which,
in these times, was esteemed so important, that a Greek
emperor designated it as the date of the legitimate
separation of Rome, and of its constitution as a regular
power under a pope.
But to the fulfUment of such a task as the united
duties of king and pontiff^ John XII. brought only
his inexperience and his vices; and, too feeble to
defend himself against Berenger, he took the course of
caUing into Italy a more formidable master.
Ludolph, being pardoned by his father, was sent
by him against Berenger, whom he conquered and
spared, and had died in Lombardy in the flower of his
age, leaving the two children, whom Otho had had by his
new wife, heirs to the throne. Being most desirous of
having the elder of these children, who was scarcely
seven years old, crowned King of Germany, Otho
determined, immediately on his son's death, to secure
possession of Italy once more himself He had long
been invited thither by the bishops and nobles, who
were either dissatisfied with Berenger and his son,
or jealous of them ; and the new Pope, John XIL,
had just sent him an embassy begging him, in the
name of God, to deUver the Church of Rome out of the
' Octavian was the flrst •who changed his name at hia consecration. —
(Translator.) VOL. I. L

146 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII,
hands of these two monsters, and to restore it to its
pristine liberty.
Otho, at peace in Germany, thought the moment
favourable for recovering Rome. Having entered Italy
by way of the Tyrol, he dispersed, by his appearance
alone, the numerous army which Adalbert had assembled
by the VaUey of the Adige; he caused Berenger and
his son to be deposed in a diet he held at MUan, and
taking anew the title of King of Italy for himself, he
was crowned in the basihca of Saint Ambrose by the
Archbishop Walpert, a German ; then, after having
celebrated the feast of Christmas ui Pavia, he advanced
towards Rome with his army and the principal bishops
and nobles of Lombardy.
Nothing could stop the progress of this conqueror, to
whom John XII. had himself appealed ; but an ancient
deed exists which seems to prove that conditions and
reservations were made with him. The unequal power
of the two contracting parties is not a sufficient argu
ment against the authenticity of this memorable docu
ment; if we remember that Rome had recovered her
independence half a century before, that she conferred
the empire, we shaU easUy conceive that in order to
enter within her walls without striking a blow, and to
receive from the hands of the Pope that imperial crown
which had been so raany years without an owner, Otho
should have consented to take this oath:^ — 'To thee,
the Lord Pontiff, John, I promise and swear by the
Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost, by this wood of
the lifegiving Cross, and these relics of the Saints, that
if, by God's leave, I enter Rome, I wUl exalt, according
' Michael, Cour Cm-tii de Senatu Eomans, lib, vi. cap, v.

CORONATION OF OTHO. 147
to my power, the Holy Roman Church, and thee, its
head, and that never thy life, nor thy members, nor
thy dignity shall be taken from thee by my will, my
advice, my orders, or my consent ; and that I will hear
no pleadings, nor issue no law in things that concern
thee, without thy consent.' On these conditions Otho
was admitted into Rome, amid the acclamations of the
senate and the people ; and, in the basUica where
Charlemagne had been crowned, he took his seat on the
imperial throne, and was blessed and crowned by the
Pope under the titles of Augustus and Emperor. The
Pope, on his side, took an oath on the relics of St.
Peter to hold no communication with the deposed
princes ; ^ and Otho, after having given him magnificent
presents, and lavished his liberality on the barons, the
clergy, and the people of Rome, took his way through
Tuscany towards Lombardy, there to complete the
overthrow of Berenger and his partisans, who stUl held
some of the fortresses of the Duchy of Spoleto and
Lake Guarda.
But that reaction which always took place in the
Itahan mind after every invasion of the Germans, had
already operated. Those who had caUed for their
assistance were already tired of them — the Romans
especiaUy — and they cursed a protection which was
purchased with their independence. The young Pope
John XIL, though licentious in his life, and though he
had invoked the assistance of Otho against Berenger,
stUl possessed that Italian patriotism which had come
' ' Jusjurandum ab eodem papa Johanne supra pretiosissimum corpus Petri,
atque omnibus civitatis proceribus, se nunquam Berengario atque Adel-
berto consiliaturum.' — (Luitprandi Hist. lib. vi. ch. vi.)
l2

148 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
down from the nobles of Rome, and which had
animated even Marozia' s lovers and her bastards.
When there was no longer anything to fear from the
tyranny of Berenger and Adalbert, John was ready to
favour their resistance as a counterpoise to the power
of Otho. He complained haughtily that that prince
had besieged places stUl occupied by them, but which
were dependencies of the Roman Church.
Otho was wrath, and reproached the Pope with the
irregularity of his life and the scandal he gave at Rome.
He accused him, at the same time, of having sent an
embassy to Constantinople, with having a secret under
standing with the Hungarians, and with having recently
consecrated a bishop, whose mission was to stir up a
war in Hungary against the Emperor; and when the
Saxon Emperor sent these ominous complaints by two
bishops, he commissioned the knights who were to
escort them, to confirm their words if the Pope denied
the truth of them, and to offer to prove the same in
the lists. John XII. received the two bishops with aU
ceremony, but he took no oath, and accepted no com
bats, and a few days afterwards he openly made an
aUiance with Adalbert, who had got together a few
troops in Corsica and Calabria, and received him in
Rome in the summer of that same year, the second of
Otho's sojoum in Italy.
At the news, Otho, as soon as the termination of the
great heat of summer allowed him to march his troops,
moved to besiege Rome. But John XIL, after having
raade preparations for war, and shown himself armed
with casque and cuirass, crossed the Tiber, and effected
his retreat with Adalbert.

REVOLT OF POPE JOHN XII. 149
Otho, who had encamped under the city walls with
out opposition, exacted a new oath of fidelity from the
people. The principal men in Rome swore never to
elect nor ordain any pope without the consent and
approbation of the Emperor Otho, Caesar Augustus,
and his son. King Otho ; and three days after, a councU,
composed principally of German and Lombard prelates,
held an assembly in St. Peter's, at which many bishops
of the neighbourhood, the priests and dignitaries of the
Roman Church, the Roman nobUity and some of the
people, guarded by the Roman soldiers, were present.
But the German army was under the walls, and Otho
presided over this council, which he opened by asking
why the Pope John was not present in that holy
assembly. Many voices were raised in accusation
against the pontiff: one cardinal-priest declared he
had seen him celebrate mass without communion ; a
cardinal-deacon that he had seen him ordain a deacon
in a stable, and not at the appointed season. Several
accused him of having conferred episcopal ordination
for money, and especially of having consecrated a boy
of ten years of age. Bishop of Todia. Others accused
him of adultery with his father's concubine, with a
widow and her niece, and of having turned the pon
tifical palace into a place of prostitution, sparing
neither wife, widow, nor virgin, nor those who go
bare-foot, nor those who ride in their carriages. Great
cruelty was also laid to his charge, notably the death
of his godfather, whose eyes he had put out, and of a
cardinal whom he had caused to be mutilated. Finally,
he was accused of having ordered places to be set on
fire; of having borne the sword and worn the cuirass ;

150 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
of having drunk to the devU ; and of having invoked
Jupiter, Venus, and other demons whUe playing with
dice ; of not having said his matins and hours, and of
not having made the sign of the cross.
The Empei^or, whose presence let loose this torrent
of vituperation, spoke only his native language, and
therefore ordered Liuthprand, Bishop of Cremona, to
say for him in the asserably, that men in the enjoyment
of high dignities were often calumniated by envious
tongues ; that he therefore entreated them, in the name
of God, whora none can deceive, by the holiness of the
Mother of God, and by the most precious body of the
Prince of the Apostles, not to allege anything against
the Lord Pope but what was true, and had been seen
by witnesses whose testiraony was unirapeachable.
His flatterers raised a great clamour, and in proof of
the accusation that the pope had taken arms in his
hands and worn the cuirass, they invoked the testimony
of the emperor's soldiers. But those witnesses were
the very evidences of the oppression of Rome, and of
the violence that was done to her. To paUiate this
violence, the members of the council who were the
partisans of the emperor, desired to have their juris
diction acknowledged by the accused pontiff. Otho, at
their request, subscribed a letter couched in words
which proved the respect which clove to the papal
dignity in the midst of this fury against the Pope
personally. ' To the sovereign pontiff and universal Pope, Otho
by divine mercy. Emperor Augustus, and the Arch
bishops of Liguria, Tuscany, Saxony, and Franconia,
in the name of the Lord, greeting:

COUNCIL SUMMONED BY OTHO. 151
' Having come to Rome for the service of God, we
inquired the reason of your absence, of your sons, the
Romans'; that is to say, the bishops, cardinals, priests,
deacons, and all the people, and we asked, wherefore
you would not meet us, we, the defenders of your
church, and of yourself; and they have told us such
obscene things, that if they were related of stage
players they should make us blush. In order that
your greatness may not be ignorant of these accusations,
we write you some of them, in few words ; for if we
should particularize them distinctly, a whole day would
not suffice. Know then, that by the mouth of not a
few, but of aU, by your order, as well as by laymen,
you are accused of homicide, perjury, and sacrUege,
of incest in your own famUy, and with two sisters.
They say further, a thing horrible to hear, that you
have drunk wine to the honour of the devil, and that
at dice you have invoked the help of Jupiter, Venus,
and other demons. We therefore earnestly entreat you
to appear, and clear yourself of aU these things. If
so be you fear any violence from the mob, we affirm to
you upon oath, that nothing shall be done contrary
to the rights laid down in the holy canons. Given the
Sth of the ides of November.'
John XII. was at his camp, a few miles from Rome,
when he received this letter. If he had chosen to
argue with his enemies, it would have been easy for
him to reply that, admitting the jurisdiction of an
oecumenical council over the Pope, a few bishops of
Lombardy, Saxony, and the suburbs of Rome under
the presidence of a foreign king, did not form such a
councU, and had no right to judge the head of the

152 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII,
Church ; b\it he contented himself with writing to them,
in these words : —
' John, bishop, servant of the servants of God, to all
the bishops :
' We have heard you mean to elect another pope.
If you do, by God, I will excommunicate you, so that
you can no longer have liberty either to ordain any
priest or to say a mass,'
The council, which in the meantime had been joined
by the Archbishop of Treves and some Lombard bishops,
answered by pointing out derisively a grammatical
error in the pope's threat, and retorted his excom
munication by this cutting taunt : " Judas the traitor,
who sold our Lord Jesus Christ, had received from the
master the power of binding and loosing in common
with the rest of the disciples. As long as he was
faithful among them, he could bind and loose; but
when, by the love of gain, he became a murderer, and
ready to take the life of Him who was life itself, he had
nothing more to bind or to loose but himself, and he
tied the knot in the cord that hanged him,'
This second letter, having been brought back to the
council, because the Pope in the interval had quitted
the campagna of Rome, the emperor, by his interpreter,
made a final complaint of the perfidy of John, who,
he said, had sent his legates to him in Saxony, be
seeching his help against Berenger and Adalbert, and
afterwards, in contempt of his oath of fidehty, sworn
on the body of Saint Peter, had sent for Adalbert to
Rome, and defended him against the emperor by
exciting revolt, taking the lead himself in casque and
cuirass. The councU left it to the emperor to have

JOHN XII. DEPOSED. LEO PROCLAIMED, 153
elected in his place ' another pope of good example ;'
and in that very assembly, Leo, the head keeper of the
records of the Roman Church, and one of the legates
whom John had sent to Saxony, was proclaimed Pope
with the emperor's approval, by his name of Leo.
However great may have been the apparent unani
mity of this council, that was either iutimidated by
the presence of the conqueror, or composed of his
creatures, the Roman party, to which foreign rule was
still more hateful than the vices of the popes, soon
showed itself. The emperor, in order not to produce
faraine in the city, having dismissed a large number of
his troops, the Romans grew bold ; and, whether
John XII, stirred them up by his emissaries and pro
mises, or whether, rather, there was in the people
themselves a never-failing readiness to shake off a
foreign yoke, a rising took place, the bridges were
barricaded, and the emperor attacked in his quarters,
where the Pope of his choice had taken refuge.
But the Roman soldiery, that marched in such good
order to the sound of trumpets and with banners dis
played, could not stand their ground before Otho's
men of arms ; whom the chronicler likens to hawks
scattering a flock of timid birds. The intercession of
the Pope Leo alone stopped the pursuit, and spared
the city, which gave hostages. We may be sure that
the dissatisfaction of the Romans was a thing to be
dreaded even after their defeat; for we see that the
emperor exercised moderation, restored the hostages,
and soon after raised his camp, to march in pursuit of
Adalbert, But he had scarcely departed, before Rome, once

154 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
more in arms, drove away Pope Leo, and opened its
gates to John XII, ; and though a historian of the
time attributes this rising to the influence of some
ladies of the nobility, who had yielded their honour to
John's solicitations, it is difficult not to perceive ia
these rapid changes an awakening of Itahan patriotism,
and its resolution to struggle against Germany and the
emperor. This feeling survived the head of the party who
had excited it. As soon as John was re-estabhshed in
possession of the See of Rome, he satisfied his revenge by
punishing his enemies, and was soon after murdered in
an adulterous rendezvous, and died without communion,
so say the Germans,^ Rome, none the less, persevered
in maintaining the independence of which the im
penitent pontiff had set the example ; and without
caring for the emperor or his pope, she made all haste
to elect a successor to John XII.^ But meantime, Otho
had increased his army, returned to Rome, and in
vested it ; and after a siege, during which no man who
came out, passed the German lines without being
mutilated, he took the city by force and by famine, and
re-established his Pope Leo ; then, in a councU com
posed of submissive German and Italian bishops, he
had the other pope brought forward dressed in his
pontificals. The cardinal-archdeacon, who had sold
himself to the emperor, interrogated him whom the
Romans had elected; and addressing him as an usurper,
he asked by what right he had assumed the tiara during
the lifetime of Pope Leo, and if he could deny that he,
like the other Romans, had sworn to the emperor here
present neither to elect nor ordain any pope without
> This is not disputed.— Tr. " Benedict V.

LEO AND BENEDICT V. 155
the consent of that prince, and his son Otho. Benedict
humbled himself, and replied, ' If I have sinned, have
pity on me.' The emperor was touched even to tears,
and prayed the council to give Benedict a hearing, and
to deal mercifuUy with him.
The latter threw himself at the feet of Leo and the
emperor, exclaiming, that he had sinned by usurping
the Holy See, and laid down, at the same time, the
pallium and the pontifical crosier, Leo, leaving him
seated on the ground, took off frora him the chasuble and
the stole, and declared him deprived of the pontificate
and the priesthood, allowing him only to retain the
rank of deacon, because of the pity the emperor had
taken on him, and concluded by exiling him from Rome.
This is also the date assigned to two celebrated and
doubtful decrees, according to which the Pope and the
Church must have put themselves entirely into Otho's
power. In one, the Pope, with the consent of the Roman
senate and people, gives to Otho and his successors
all the domains of Saint Peter, In the other, the
Pope, together with all the clergy and people of Rome,
concedes to Otho and his successors in the kingdom of
Italy, the right of choosing their successor, of or
daining the sovereign pontiff, as well as the archbishops
and bishops, by giving them the investiture. This
decree further says, that for the future, no one, how
ever high he may be, shall have the right of electing
the Pope or any other bishop without the assent of the
emperor ; but that this assent shall be gratuitous, and
that in order to give it, the emperor must also be
patrice of Rome and King of Italy.

156 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
The authenticity of these acts has been fiercely
debated by modern erudition on either side ofthe Alps;
and it is certain that wrong dates and signatures,
and titles, to which history gives the lie, appear to
indicate one of those forgeries so common in the naiddle
ages, both among the partisans and the adversaries of
the Church. But it matters little, it appears, whether the
victorious Otho imposed these decrees, or whether, at a
later date, one of the Teutonic chanceUors' clerks forged
them upon confused hearsay, but in conformity with
the real power the emperor exercised at Rome. Whether
true or false, these acts could confer on the emperor no
other right than that of force, nor alter the right
which the Romans had to throw off a foreign yoke
whenever they could.
However it be, Otho, having confirmed his power in
Rome, turned his steps towards Lombardy, with his
court and his troops, decimated by that contagion
so formidable to the natives of the north under the
skies of Italy ; he soon afterwards re-crossed the Alps,
dragging with him the faUen pope, whom he kept in
exUe at Hamburg, to the grief and horror even of the
German clergy, who deplored that the emperor, in his
might, should have deposed the sovereign pontiff, whom
God only may judge.^
The year after, his competitor, Leo, died, and a
Roman deputation came to the emperor, to beg him to
give them back their exUed pope ; but Benedict, too,
' ' Romanorum praepotens imperator Augustus, valentiorem sibi in Christo
dominum apostolicum, nomine Benedictum, quem nullus absque Deo judicare
potuit, injusti, ut spero, accusatum deponi consensit, et quod utinam non
fecesset, exilio ad Hamburg relegari prsecepit.' — (Dithm. Chronic, lib. ii.
p. 22.)

DEATH OF BENEDICT V. 157
had just died under the inclement skies of Hamburg.
The emperor sent two prelates of his court, Audger
and the famous Liuthprand, to be present at the election
of a new pope.
John XIII. was chosen, doubtless through the
influence of the two German bishops, and soon after
wards he was overthrown and driven away by Peter,
the prefect of the city, and one Count Rofred, who
were supported by a pdrty of the Roman nobility.
At the same time, Adalbert raised new disturbances
in Lombardy, and though he was conquered by a body
of German troops, he retained partisans among the
bishops and the people.
Otho re-entered Italy by way of Switzerland, and
marched on Rome, which hastened to recall the pope,
and received the emperor without offering any re
sistance. Under these circumstances, we learn that Rome had
either always preserved or else had renewed the ancient
titles of her magistrates ; but none of those titles were
any protection from the conqueror. The consuls were
exiled, the tribunes hanged, and the former prefect
beaten with- rods, after having been taken through the
city mounted on an ass, naked, and with a wine-skin
on his head. Other of the Roman nobles were either
beheaded or deprived of their eyes ; and these punish
ments were pronounced in the form of sentences under
the emperor's authority, and according to the laws of
Justinian and Theodosius, as Liuthprand, Otho's am
bassador at Constantinople, declared in face of the
Emperor Nicephorus, when he complained of these
cruelties.

158 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
Otho's aim, as Charlemagne's had formerly been,
was to succeed the ancient Csesars, and to inherit their
power ; accordingly he assumed the title of Emperor
of the Romans, and his ambition was to drive t;he
Greeks out of their remaining possessions in Calabria.
His first step was to endeavour, in some wise, to
unite a claim to both empires in his son, by obtainiug
for him the hand of a Greek princess, Theophania, the
daughter of the late emperor, Roman the younger,
whose widow Nicephorus had married, and whose
children he had dethroned. But in spite of the
address of the negotiator Liuthprand, and the pressing
letter sent by the Pope, John XIIL, Nicephorus per- '
ceived the snare, and preferred fighting with the
Germans in Calabria, to bestowing Theophania on them.
After several campaigns, with varied success, a con- ¦
spiracy in the palace changed the face of affairs. -
Nicephorus was assassinated by his general, John of
Zimisces, who succeeded him, and renounced Italy in
order to establish himself securely in Greece. He '
made peace with Otho, and granted him the hand of '
Theophania for his son, having taken her brothers under •
his guardianship.
So ends, with Nicephorus, the last attempt of the
Greek empire to contest with Germany the suzerainty j
of Rome ; and the pohcy of Otho appears to be justified
by events, and by the great influence which the young
Greek, when she became the widow of a king of Ger-K
many, exercised over both Germans and Romans. •'
Theophania seemed, in truth, to bring with her some- ,
thing of the ancient sovereignty which the Caesars of
Constantinople had claimed over Italy, and when she

MARRIAGE OF OTHO'S SON WITH THEOPHANIA. 159
came from Calabria into Rome with aU the pomp of an
Oriental cortege, and when, on the Sunday after Easter,
she was wedded to the youthful Otho, in the Church of
Saint John Lateran, and received, as she knelt under
the same veil with him, the holy anointing and the
crown, her beauty and grace, joined to the renown of
the Greek empire, as represented in her person, must
have raised in the eyes of both peoples, the German
conquerors, to whose famUy she thenceforth belonged,
and have endowed these rude masters with an additional
claim on Rome.^
^ This marriage and coronation put an end to Otho's
.prolonged stay in Italy. He returned to Germany after
six years' absence, and died the same year, in the town
of Memel.
His son then became the inheritor of the power and
dominions he had acquired. The nobles and captains
immediately took the oath of fidelity to the young
prince, who had been already crowned by the Pope,
and designated as the successor to the empire. But he
was, moreover, elected by the people, or at least by the
Diet, before the funeral of his father at Magdebourg.
Thus clear it is, that in the formation of this kingdom
the elective right of the people and the religious in
vestiture were confusedly entangled. The religious
investiture began what the voice of the people com-
^pleted ; but this example sufficiently indicates what
importance the Teutonic monarchs attached to holding
and keeping Rome, as the source of power for them and
for their sons.
' ' Celebratie magnifice nuptiis.' — ( Witehind, book iii.)

160 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
Otho II.
On succeeding his father, Otho the Great, Otho the
Second was immediately obliged to repel the Danes,
who, poor and rapacious, were barbarians in the eyes
of the Germans, just as they themselves were in the
eyes of Italians. He was next engaged in a struggle
to establish peace in his own family, between the Dukes
of Bavaria and Suabia, who, though his own nephews,
were not much more docUe than the great vassals his
father had formerly despoiled ; and lastly, he was forced
to maintain a war for the possession of Lorraine, against
Lothaire, King of France, that last of the Carlovingians,
save one, who alone seeraed to struggle against the
degeneracy of his race, and who might, perhaps, have
prevented its fall, if there had been no Hugh the Great
to watch over the throne, and no Hugh Capet ready to
ascend it.
During these embarrassments, and while young Otho,
having been surprised even in Aix-la-ChapeUe by an
attack of Lothaire, ui his turn pursued his assaUants
to the very walls of Paris, the Italians had again
taken courage to rise against the men of the North.
The towns of Lombardy emancipated themselves,
appointed their own consuls, and buUt fortified towers
for their defence.
The same spirit of independence showed itself at
Rome. The pope, Benedict VL, who had been forced
on the Romans during the lifetime and under the
power of Otho L, was imprisoned in the Castle of St.
Angelo, and put to death by order of Crescentius, who, j
being a son of Theodora, belonged to that portion of the

otho the SECOND. 161
jiUty that was distinguished by its licentiousness and
courage.
There was, nevertheless, an imperial party in Rome ;
i in the shock of the two factions the Papacy was
posed to plunder. A new pontiff, Boniface VIL,
ing attacked by the Counts of Tusculum, who were
3 partisans of the empire, fled after the expiration of
nonth, to Constantinople, taking with him the sacred
ssels and ornaments of the basUica of the Vatican.
e was succeeded by another, who very soon died.
Detained far from Italy, but ever watchful of the
.anges at Rome, Otho, in accordance with the advice
Adelaide, his mother, would have been glad thence-
rth to seat in the pontifical chair, some holy and
mous priest, chosen in his possessions beyond the
Ips. He cast his eyes on Maieul, abbot of the
onastery of Cluny, in the kingdom of Burgundy,
immoned him to his court, and, in presence cf the
isembled bishops and nobles, pressed him to become
candidate for the pontifical see. Either from prudence
' timidity, Maieul declined, and as Otho was, doubtless,
3t then in a position to take hira to Rome himself, he
lowed the Counts of Tusculum once more to dispose
' the tiara.
It was not till five years later, that Otho, having
mcluded a treaty with Lothaire, which gave Lorraine
) Germany, was free to cross into Italy, and came, at
le head of a numerous army, to re-assert his rights of
inquest in Lombardy, the duchies of Spoleto and
ermo, and in the States of the Church, and Calabria.
fothing retarded his raarch to Rorae, where Benedict
'^n., a creature and relative of the Counts of Tusculum,

162 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
filled the pontificate. Otho stayed some months in the
city, in the early part of the year 983, and in the first
place, regulated raany matters concerning the Church
in Germany, by those Roman judges who, says a bishop
ofthe time, were at all times ready to sell their decisions.
The Archbishop of Magdeburg, Adalbert, having died,
the clergy and people had met, according to custom,
and had chosen as his successor, a learned and eloquent
man, the Canon Autrick, who had long managed the
Cathedral schools. A deputation, accompanied by
Autrick hiraself, imraediately set out to Italy, to
obtain the Emperor's approval, but all the merits of
the newly-elected archbishop could not prevail. In
vain did he for a whole day sustain a learned con
troversy with the celebrated Gerbert, before the Em
peror and his court at Ravenna.^
A favourite of the Emperor's, Gesler, Bishop of
Merseburg, desired the vacant archbishopric, and while
promising to support Autrick in his rights, he sup
planted him with his master. The pope, Benedict VIL,
having been consulted, decided that the bishopric of
Merseburg should be abolished, and merged in that of
Halberstadt, and Gisler, having thus lost his episcopate,
received in lieu of it the archbishopric of Magdeburg,
in contempt of the election the diocese had made; and
of the rights of a Church,
This example, araong many others, demonstrates the
interest the empire had in acknowledging and increas
ing the power of the Roman Pontificate, in order after
wards to control it and use it as an engine against the
liberty of particular Churches.
1 Hug. Flav, Chron. pp, 137, 138.

OTHO II. AT ROME. 16

o

The Court of Rome, nevertheless, though it was
sometimes influenced by threats and by gifts, did not
fail to denounce corruption in its own members.
Benedict VIL, in a synod held in the Church of Saint
Peter, in presence of Otho, caused to be read and con
firmed the ancient anathemas against simony,
' ' If anyone,' said he, ' whether priest or deacon, has
been refused by his bishop or metropolitan the
gratuitous gift of the Holy Ghost, let him come to our
Holy Mother the Catholic Apostolic Roman Church,
and he shall there receive the episcopal benediction,
without heretical simony,' But in this same synod
the Pope accorded the pallium to the rich and powerful
favourite of Otho, while the man who had been elected
by the Church of Magdeburg, rejected and despised,
died obscurely in an Italian town. Gisler went to
take his place at Magdeburg, and not content with that
extensive diocese, he further took possession of several
towns in that bishopric of Merseburg, 'that he had
caused to be divided and obliterated,' says the chronicler,
'like a Slave family that is sold and dispersed,'
These bishoprics in the north of Germany were, it is
true, but the advanced posts on the domains of bar
barism. The Slavonic tribes who bordered on Saxony,
and whom the predecessors of Otho had often subjected
to tribute and the nominal acceptance of the Christian
faith, were all idolaters at heart, and still followed, in
their villages in the depths of the forest, the observances
of a sanguinary paganism.
During the stay of Otho at Rome, they, being ex
asperated by the severity of the Margrave of Saxony,
m2

164 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
rose, and committed frightful ravages from Havelburg
to Hamburg.
Their bands having become very nuraerous, were
attacked by Gisler, who marched against them with the
margrave and the principal seigneurs of the province,
and their dispersion after a great battle assured security
for some time to come to the frontiers of Saxony. Othto,
easy as regarded Germany, remained in Italy, where
his wife, Theophania, who had just given him a son,
stirred hira up to claim, sword in hand, the rights which
she had promised him over Apulia and Calabria, then
occupied by the Greeks. In this contest, in which the
Greeks of Constantinople had as their allies the Saracens
of Sicily and Africa, Otho, young and ardent, took
towns, fought battles, and ran the most romantic risks;
and possibly he would have achieved much had his hfe
been prolonged. The design of more closely uniting all
the parts of the empire is apparent in the diet which
he held at Verona, and in which . he caused his son,
four years old, to be acknowledged King of Germany
and Italy, by the votes of the Italian seigneurs. In
the same assembly, Otho's Italian vassals, and Conrad,
King of Burgundy, his vassal on the other side of the
Alps, proffered help to carry on the war against the
Saracens and Greeks*
But a few raonths afterwards Otho, consumed by
languor, died at Rome, on the 7th of December 983,
without having secured anything but his son's succes
sion. Conscious that his end was approaching, Otho,
after the Diet of Verona, had sent the child to Germany
in the care of Warin, Archbishop of Cologne, to be by
hira taken to Aix-la-ChapeUe, and there, on Christmas

OTHO TH, 165
Day, eighteen days after the death of his father at
Rome, the baby-prince was crowned, by the hand of
Wilheghise, Archbishop of Mayence, King of Germany
and Italy, Otho III.
'At Rome, Theophania retained the title of empress,
which she had received at her husband's coronation ;
but the strength to support this title was to be
sought in Germany, Leaving, then, the chief autho
rity in the hands of the pope, John XIV., a crea
ture of Otho the Second, under whom he had been
Bishop of Pavia and ChanceUor of the Kingdom of
Italy, she went to rejoin her son, and claim the guardian
ship of him. The kingdom of Italy, of which the prin
cipal fiefs and the chief dignities of the Church were
in the hands of men of German extraction, remained
under the influence of Adelaide, then at Pavia. ' The
faith I kept with the son I will keep with the mother,
ray sovereign, Adelaide,' wrote Gerbert, Abbot of
Bobbio; and most of the Lombards shared his senti
ments. And thus, in these rude and turbulent times,
it was given to two women to maintain the rights of a
child, over Italy, which he had quitted in his infancy,
and over Germany, which was not his native land.
Rivals in power, these two women, mother-in-law
and daughter-in-law, may each have contended for the
guardianship of the infant Otho, but Theophania ob
tamed it; and though her Grecian elegance and her
luxury in dress caused her to be charged with corrupt
ing the simplicity of the German court, she succeeded
m assembling around her the most valuable counseUors,

166 history of GREGORY VII,
and in overcoming great difficulties. The flrst of these
difficulties arose from the conduct of the Duke Henry,
who, having been let out of prison on the death of
Otho II.,took possession ofthe young king, and claimed
the right to the protectorship, or rather to the crown.
But, as Gerbert says, it was fitting to give the lamb to
its mother, not to the wolf.
Henry had already usurped his ward's rights by
taking possession of the crown at Magdeburg; and in
a second diet, assembled at Quedliraburg, under the
very eyes of Matilda, the daughter of Otho the Great,
he had received the oaths of allegiance of the vassals;
but the Archbishop of Mayence, who had crowned the
young king, the Dukes of Bavaria, AUemania, and
Franconia, ranged themselves round the Empress, and
swore to maintain the rights of her son.
Both sides negotiated in arras, and Henry, in a diet
held at Worms, finaUy consented to restore the young
king to his mother, and in return he was re-established
in his Duchy of Bavaria, with additional territory east
wards ; and the last possessor of this country, the Duke
Henry, who had taken up arras for the infant Otho,
received in exchange the Duchy of Carinthia, formed
out of a portion of Bavaria, and extending to Verona,
In virtue of these arrangements the young child, who
was haUed king in Quedliraburg, was served at table
by the dukes, his great vassals, and received the oaths
of the Dukes of Bohemia and Poland,
The first care of Theophania was the education of
the young king. But whatever advantage was gained
by a season of internal peace, the conquests of Germany
were adjourned, and its power in Italy diminished

THEOPHANIA, CRESCENTIUS. 167
during the troubles and embarrassments incident to a long
minority. From Verona to Pavia, and as far as Ravenna,
the German domination was maintained, but Rome had
again fallen into a state of anarchy. The pope, Boniface
VIL, having returned from Constantinople, whither he
had carried, and where he had sold, the most precious
ornaments of the Roman Church, had again obtained
possession of the pontificate, by stirring up a party of
the people, and had thrown his successor, John XIV,,
into a dungeon of the Castle of St, Angelo, where he
soon afterwards died of starvation. Boniface VII, him
self died after a few months, and. was succeeded by
Pope John XV., a Roraan by birth, who held his dignity
but a short time, a Roman faction having been raised
against him ; so true is it, that in the continual revo
lutions in Rome, in the middle ages, there co-existed
the rising of the natives agamst foreigners, and the
struggle between the nobles against the priests.
This state of things gave prorainence to an individual
whose memory still lives in Italian tradition, and who,
whether from ambition or patriotism, under the title of
Patrice and Consul, defended the liberties of his country
in the tenth century. This raan was Crescentius, who
was descended from an ancient faraily of Rome. Being
dissatisfied with the pope, John XV., in the second year
of his pontificate, Crescentius took up arras against him,
and forced him to fly frora Rome, He took refuge in
Tuscany, under the protection of the Margrave Hugh,
a faithful vassal of the Court of Germany, and solicited
through his legates, and by his letters, the succour
of the empress. On hearing this, Crescentius, bearing
ni mind the vengeance taken on Rome by Otho II. ,

168 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
hastened to negotiate with the Pope, and to open the
gates of the city to him.
The wished-for succour was still far off. Everythino-
contributed to retain Theophania in Germany, though
she was diligently fitting her son for Rome and the em
pire. As soon as the young prince had attained his
seventh year, still under the eyes of the Empress and
Wilheghise, Archbishop of Mayence, his education had
been confided to the care of a young and estimable
cleric, of the Church of Ildelsheim, by narae Bernoard,
the grandson of the Count Palatine, Adalbert, and re
nowned for his learning and his proficiency in the
various arts of drawing, architecture, and goldsmith's
work, which he practised with rare skUl. In the school
of such a master, the young Prince made rapid progress
in Roman literature and accomplishments, while con
tinuing these warlike exercises of his own nation, with
which he was familiar from his childhood. Another and
raore celebrated master, Gerbert, who since the death of
Otho had resided on the German side of the Alps,
seems to have assisted in the Eraperor's education at a
subsequent period. There exists a letter, signed with
the narae of Otho, addressed to Gerbert,, the most accom
plished of all philosophers, in which the young prince
congratulates hiraself in that such a very learned teacher
should have condescended to instruct his ignorance, and
in which he asks for further information, both by letter
and by word of mouth. ' We trust,' he says, ' you will
not refuse our desire by reason of our Saxon rusticity,
but rather that you will exercise our Greek subtilty
on this study; for if anyone would take the trouble to
jarouse it, he would assuredly find in us some spark of

EDUCATION OF OTHO III. 169
Grecian fire. We humbly pray you, then, to bring to
our feeble ray the brilliant light of your learning, and
so, by God's help, to arouse in us the genius of Greece,
and to write for us a little treatise on arithmetic, that
being enlightened thereby, we may be able to under
stand something of the subtilty of the ancients. We
trust, moreover, that your paternity will not delay to
inform us by letter what it may please you to do or not
to do in this matter.'
The following year, 989, the Empress crossed the
Alps to pass the feast of Christmas at Rome; nothing
either interrupted her journey or disturbed her stay.
The reason was that all the principalities near Rome
were held by chiefs of the Teutonic race. Tuscany, in
particular, was governed by the Margrave Hugh, a mar
tial and popular chief, whose power Theophania had
increased by the investiture of the duchy of Spoleto.
After having rendered his homage, Hugh accompanied
the Empress through Italy, and on her return to Ger
many, as far as Nimeguen, where she died, leaving her
son Otho, twelve years of age.
Adelaide, the grandmother and last stay of the young
prince, having then quitted Pavia to go to Germany to
take care of his interests, Italy, we may be sure, would
free herself to some extent from the foreign power
which she lay under. The consequences were felt from
the foot ofthe Alps to Rorae. ^
In Lombardy, war broke out between the people and
the bishops, who were supported by the nobility. The
' ' Quod cum inclyta imperatrix Adelheidis comperiret, tristis protinus
affecta, regem tunc vii. annos regnantem visitando consolatur, ac vice matris
secum tam diu habuit. Quod ipse protervorum consilio juvenum tristem
illam dimisit.'— (Ditm. Episc. Chronic, lib. v. p. 38.)

170 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
prelates, Landulph, Archbishop of Milan, Olderic, Bishop
of Cremona, were foreigners, Germans, on whom Otho
had conferred, with the ecclesiastical power, seigneurial
rights over the towns. They were supported by nobles,
foreigners like themselves, on whora they had bestowed
rich abbeys or fiefs dependent on the Church. Their
adversaries were the dwellers in the country, the shop
keepers and workmen in the towns, and often, even the
vassals of the monasteries, as we learn from Gerbert,
the abbot of Bobbio, who has left a letter expressing his
fear to set out on a journey with the Italian men-at-
arms of his abbey.'-
These popular risings were frequent in Lombardy
during the rainority of Otho IIL, and led to violent en
counters at Milan and its neighbourhood, in which the
archbishop was conquered and his palace forced. Peace
was made, however, and Landulph built a new mon
astery in the city as an expiation of the discord of which
he had been the cause. But the moveraent of which the
Lorabard States set the example in the middle ages, was
none the less a fact which time was to develop. At the
same period, an ancient dependency of the empire,
Venice, whose lagunes protected it frora the barbarians,
had grown rich in commerce, having obtained from
Adelaide privileges which were nearly equivalent to
complete independence. The authority of the imperial
seigneurs and judges continued to govern in the prin
cipal cities of Lombardy, and in Ravenna. In Tuscany
the German conquests were maintained by the Margrave
Hugh, whose power extended into Apulia, where he
' ' Credere me non auaum fidei meorum militum, quia Itali sunt.'—
(Gerbert. Epist. xci.)

RISINGS IN LOMBARDY. 171
executed justice, in the name of the empire, on the mur
derer of a prince of Capua, the assassin being the
prmce's brother. But at Rome all power was in the
hands of Crescentius. If he did not drive out the Pontiff
as before, he appeared to lord it over him, and this sub
jection was doubtless held sufficient to justify the resist
ance that there appeared beyond the walls of Rorae,
against the sovereignty of the Roman Church. The
objection was not put forward in the tirae of Charle
magne, and the liberty of the Church of Rome had, so
to say, shone out in the very grandeur of the master on
whose head it set the crown. But when it becarae
common talk in the various Churches of Christendom,
that the Pope was under the power of a Roman Baron
who had made hiraself Consul, the religious respect,
already diminished by the remerabrance of the shame
less reigns of Marozia and her sons, received a new and
violent shock. The example of this was given in that
very kingdom of France which the interests of the
kings of the first arid second race had so closely united
to the Holy See of Rome, and who had done so much
to exalt its power and glory. The accession of a new
royal family was the cause.
At the death of the young king, Louis V., the crown
of France, claimed in vain by his uncle, Charles of Lor
raine, had been seized by the most powerful seigneur
in the kingdom, Hugh Capet, a celebrated warrior, de
scended from the two princes Robert and Eudes, who
had governed during the interregnum ofthe second race.
Though Hugh put aside Charles's claims to the throne,
he proved himself generous to the rest ofthe dispossessed
family. On the death of Adalbert, Archbishop of

172 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII,
Rheims, who, by the advice of the prudent Gerbert,
had abandoned the cause of the ancient kings, ^ and
bestowed the holy unction on their successor, he
allowed to be elected in his place, Arnulph, the natural
son of the last but one of the Carlovingians, Lothaire.
He forced him, however, to subscribe a most strict and
binding oath of fidehty, confirmed, moreover, by a
prayer that Jf ever he broke it, the benediction he
received should be turned into a curse, that his days
should be cut short, that his friends should become his
mortal enemies, and his bishopric another should take.
But once anointed, and Bishop of Rheims, the bas
tard of the ancient kings, soon forgot his oath, and
delivered up the important city to Charles of Lorraine,
who had suddenly appeared with an army before it.
Rheims was then besieged by Hugh, who burned to
deprive an enemy and a traitor of the sacred dignity
he had abused. Meantime Arnulph, being summoned
to defend his conduct before a council of French
bishops, refused to appear, and the Pope's seemed to be
the only authority by whora such a high dignitary
could be judged. Hugh applied then to Rome, and in
a letter to Pope John, he vividly recounts the birth of
Arnulph, his elevation, his promises, and his treason,
and calls upon the Pontiff not to let the royal authority
be trampled on, and to decide on the fate of a second
Judas, ' lest,' says he, ' the name of ' God be blas
phemed, and that we, being moved to just resentment
by your silence, may not consuramate the ruin of the city
and the desolation of the province. You will then have
' ' Lotbarius rex Franciae prolatus est solo nomine, Hugo vero non
nomine, sed actu et opere,' — (Gerbert. Epist. lib, iv,)

HUGH CAPET. COUNCIL OF RHEIMS. 173
no excuse before God, for not having at our desire and
in our ignorance pronounced judgment.' A short time
after, another letter from the bishops of the diocese of
Rheims denounced the crime of Arnulph in yet stronger
terms, entreating the Holy Father to issue the sentence
they seem to dictate. ' Let us find in you,' said the
letter, ' a second Saint Peter, the defender and stay of
the Christian faith; let the Holy Roman Church pro
nounce condemnation on a criminal whom the whole
Church condemns ; let your authority maintain us in
deposing this renegade, as in the ordination of a new
bishop, to preside over the household of God and its
affau-s, with the help of our brethren; that we may
thereby understand wherefore we should place your
apostolate first before all others.' ^
Whether Hugh Capet omitted to interest the Consul
Crescentius, then master of Rome, in the success of his
request, or whether, rather, the Pope, in conformity
with the feeling of the Roraan Church, stUl retained
some affection for the descendants of Charleraagne, and
so, was httle disposed to receive with favour the haughty
entreaties of bishops who were all partisans of the new
king, the two letters remained unanswered. Hugh
Capet, who, in the meantime, had re-taken Rheims, and
made Arnulph prisoner, had hira tried in that city by
a provincial councU, of whose proceedings Gerbert has
left us an account. In this council there were produced,
m disproof of the claim of the Pope alone to judge a
bishop, ancient canons ; and it was alleged that a Pope
' 'Ferat sancta Ecclesia Romana sententiam damnationis in reum, univer
salis damnat Ecclesia' (Synodus Remensis & Francofurti M, D. C.) ' ut
sciamus cur inter cseteroa apostolatum vestrum prseferre debeamus.'

174 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
may err through ignorance, or fear, or cupidity.^ In
the language of the raost pious bishops of this assem
bly, we raay discover how much the oppressions and
scandals of the Apostolic See had, at that time, lessened
its authority. ' 0 wretched Rorae ! ' says the Bishop
of Orleans, ' who after having enlightened our ancestors
by the light of the holy fathers, hast spread over our
tiraes those clouds of darkness that wiU be a disgrace in
after ages ! We have heard of the illustrious Leo, and
of the great Gregory; not to speak of Gelasius and
Innocent, so erainent for their wisdom, eloquence, and
learning. The list of those Pontiffs who filled the
world with their doctrine, is a long one, and justly was
the Universal Church confided to the direction of those
who were superior to their fellow raen in learning and
piety. And still, in so blessed a time, that privilege,
0 Rome ! was contested by the bishops of Africa,
rather, I verily believe, from a dread of the miseries
under which we groan at this present, than from fears of
thy domination; for what have we witnessed in these
latter days ? Have we not beheld John, whose name was
Octavian, wallowing in his vices, conspiring against
Otho, whom he had hiraself crowned Augustus.^ That
John was driven away, and the neophyte, Leo, made
Pontiff ; but the Emperor Otho having left Rome,
Octavian returns, puts Leo to flight, causes the deacon
John's nose and right hand to be cut off, and his tongue
cut out, and after having slaughtered many of the first
men of the city, he dies. The Romans narae as his suc
cessor, Benedict, surnamed the Grammarian; Leo, the
' 'Vidimus Johannem cognomento Octaviano in volutabro libidinum
versatum, etiam contra eum Ottonom quem Augustum creaverat, conjurasse.'

COUNCIL OF RHEIMS. 175
neophyte, and his emperor soon return, attack and
seize him, and send him into Germany for ever,
'To the Emperor Otho succeeds the Csesar Otho
the Younger, remarkable among all princes by reason of
his genius, his valour, and his prudence. In Rome, a
man succeeds to the Pontificate, who is a monster of
vice, and whose hands are stained with the blood of his
predecessors. Driven out in his turn, and condemned
m a Synod, held after the death of Otho of blessed
memory, he returns td Rome, and having, under the
most solemn oath, enticed the holy Pontiff, Peter, for
merly Bishop of Pavia, outside the citadel, he casts him
into a dungeon to die. Is it right, that before such
monsters, covered with ignominy, and void of all know
ledge, human and divine, the priests of God throughout
the world, distinguished for their learning and holiness,
' should bend the knee ? ^ What shall we say, revered
fathers? To what blemish shall we attribute the
fact that the first of the Churches of God, once so lifted
up and crowned with glory and honour, should be
brought down so low and tarnished with shame and
mfamy? If we severely expect gravity of manners,
purity of life, joined to sacred and profane learning, in
every man who is ordained to the Episcopate ; what
ought not to be exacted in the case of him who aspires
to be the teacher of all bishops. How, then, is it that
those have been put in possession of that most high
See, who were not worthy to fiU any place whatsoever
m the priesthood? What, in your eyes, reverend fathers,
IS that Pontiff, seated on a throne, and clad in purple
Num talibus monstris ignominia plenis, scientia divinarum et buman-
Mum rerum vacuis, innumeros sacerdotes Dei per orbem terrarum, scientia
et vitffi mente conspicuos aibjici decretum est.'— (P. 60.)

176 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII,
and gold? If he hath not charitj', and be puffed up
with his learning onlj^, he is Antichrist sitting in
the teraple of God, and demeaning himself as a god;
he is like unto a statue in that teraple, like a dumb
idol, and to ask of him a reply, is to appeal to a figure
of stone.' ^
Further on the orator speaks of Rome as havmg lost
the Church of Alexandria and the Church of Antioch,
and, not to speak of Africa and Asia, tells us to cast
our eyes on Europe. ' For,' says he, ' the Church of
Constantinople has withdrawn herself frora Rome, and
the interior provinces of Spain refuse to receive her
judgments. There is. in the words of the apostle, divi
sion not only araong the nations, but in the Churches,^
because the tirae of Anti- Christ approaches; and, as the
sarae apostle says, the mystery of iniquity is begun. It
is manifest that in the decay of Roman power and the
abasement of religion, the name of God is degraded with
impunity by those who are perjured, and that the ob
servance of His holy religion is despised by the sovereign
pontiffs themselves. Rome, in a word, already reduced
to solitude, is breaking up, and no longer "Watches over
herself or the rest of the world.'
By this language, which was not surpassed in the re
form ofthe sixteenth century, and in Avhich there already
1 ' Quid nunc, reverendi patres, in sublimi solo residentem, veste purpurea
et aurea radiantem, quid nunc, inquam, esse censetes ? Si charitate de-
stituitur, totaque scientia inilatur et extoUitur, anticbiistus est in templo
Dei sedens, et se ostendens tanquam sit Deus. Si autem nee charitate
fundatur, nee scientia erigitur, in templo Dei tanquam statiia, tanquam
idolum est, a quo respousa petere marmora consulere est.' — (Synodus
Remensis, p. 61.)
' ' Fit ergo disoessio, secundum Apostolum, non solum gentium, sed
etiam ecclesiarum,' — (Synodus Remensis, p. 74.)

ARNCLPH DEPOSED BY THE COUNCIL. 177
appear allusions to Anti-Christ and the mystery of ini
quity, we may judge how much Rome had lost in populai*
estimation, and what a task the great Pope of the
eleventh century undertook. The CouncU of Rheims did
not restrict itself, in fact, to contesting both by text and
argument the canonical right of the Pope to judge
bishops, ' In the words of this assembly the Pope and
cardinals have not even the learning necessary for a
door-keeper of a church.^ Rome is a venal city which
weighs her judgments against money in the balance.
Kings ought not to let themselves be deceived by these
delays and ambiguities, nor seek to purchase at Rome
a sentence of judgment against a bishop convicted of
high treason, who will not fail to offer heaps of sUver
and gold to buy himself off,' The council having then
takenuponitself to judge Arnulph, with the reservation
only of not pronouncuig capital punishment, interro
gated, convicted him, and deposed him. Then the same
assembly appointed a successor to the See of Rheims,
and Gerbert, who had early foreseen the fate of the
young Louis, who had lent his efforts to the elevation of
Hugh Capet to the throne, and who had presided over
the assembly that had sentenced Arnulph, was chosen
to fiU his place. But, as soon as the news of these
events reached Rome, the Pope, John XV,, seeing his
rights disavowed in these acts of deposition and election,
excommunicated the councU of Saint-Basle and declared
that he recognised as Archbishop of Rheims none but
Arnulph, then lying in the king's prison. In vain did
Hugh Capet write to entreat hira not to accept as true,
' ' Hoe tempore Romse nullus pene sit qui litteras didioerat, sine quibus,
ut scriptum est, yix ostiarius efficitur.' — (Synodus Remensis, p. 72.)
VOL, I. N

178 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII,
doubtful reports, but to judge all things for himself.
' I and my bishops,' he said, ' are well assured we haye
done nothing against your apostolate. If, in your ab
sence, you do not believe us, come and see for yourself
The city of Grenoble is on the confines of Italy and
Gaul, whither the Roman pontiffs have been accustomed
to advance to meet the kings of France ; if it should
please you to do likewise, be it so. But, if you should
prefer to visit us in our dominions, we wUl receive you
at the foot of the Alps with all honour, and wUl mark
your return by all those tokens of respect which are
due to you. We say this in the sincerity of our hearts,
so that you may possess the assurance that neither we
nor our people, desire to decline your judgment in any
thing.' This letter was not answered, and the ingenious
Gerbert, who had dictated it, then tried to prove by
divers extracts that he had done nothing against the
authority of the Pope, in the condemnation of Arnulph,
since it had been pronounced according to canons de
creed or approved by the Pope.
In forwarding this address to the Bishop of Stras-
burg, who, as a subject of Otho, was in his favour, he
laments that Rome, hitherto the mother of the Churches,
should curse the good and bless the wicked, and abuse
the power to loose and bind which she has received from
Jesus Christ. And in a letter to Seguin, Archbishop of
Sens, one of the excommunicated council, he protests
anew against the uselessness of waiting for the judg
ment of the Roraan pontiff, when the law divine has
been complied with.^ ' Our enemies,' he says, 'may
• Poteruntne docere Romani Episcopi judicium Dei judicio majus esse?

POLICY OF GERBERT, 179
teach that the judgment of the Bishop of Rome is
greater than the judgment of God. But the first
among bishops, or rather the prince of the apostles
themselves, teUs us we should obey God rather than
man. Paul, the teacher of the nations, teUs us, " If
any shall preach unto you that which you have not
been taught, were he an angel from heaven, let him be
unto you anathema," Tell me, then, should all the
bishops burn incense to Jupiter because the Pope Mar
cellinus did so? I say it boldly: If the Bishop of
Rome himself has sinned against his brother, and if
being repeatedly admonished he has refused to hear
the Church, that Bishop of Rome, yea, he himself,
according to the precept of God, should be esteemed a
heathen and a publican.-^ The higher the station the
deeper the fall.' Gerbert concluded by exhorting the
bishops, who had been excommunicated on his account,
to be firm, and not to abstain from' the celebration of
the holy mysteries.^ We raay presume that Gerbert
was not encouraged to write thus boldly by the power
of Hugh Capet alone. The former proteg^ ofthe Othos
was doubtless also upheld by the hope that their in
fluence, which had been checked at Rome by the
troubles incident to a minority, would one day be re-
estabhshed and undo all that had been done in the
ihterval. Meantime,, the Pope without rescinding the
excommunication that had been pronounced, had sent
' ' Num quia Marcellinus papa Jovi thura incendit, ideo cunctis episcopis
ttuiificandum fuit ? Constanter dico, quod si ipse Romanus episcopus
m fratrem peccaverat, ssspiusque admonitus ecclesiam non audierit, bic,
inquam, Romanus episcopus prsecepto Dei est babendus sicuti ethnicus et
publicanus,'— (iSyjjot^Ms Remensis, p, 147.)
' Iterum valete, et a sacrosanctis et mysticis suspendere vos nolite.' —
Symdm Remensis, p. 140.) N 2

180 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
two legates to France to examine, in a new council,
the important affair of Rheims, But that councU was
never held ; and, during the struggles of Gerbert to
maintain possession of his disputed see, the event he
hoped for was accomplished. The young Otho's
presence being invoked, says a chronicler, by the prayers
of the Romans, or, as we must rather believe, pressed by
his advisers to exercise in his own person the power
that was stUl in their hands, he had crossed the Alps in
996 with a nuraerous array, and, after having halted at
Verona, where his uncle, Otho, Margrave of Cariuthia,
coramanded, to celebrate the feast of Easter, had
marched with all his troops on the royal city of
Ravenna. There a deputation of the principal citizens
of Rorae waited upon him to announce the death of
the Pope John XV.
It is evident that the city of Rome, whatever party
of priests or nobles had held sway of late years within
its walls, felt itself powerless to offer resistance to the
young Cassar of Germany and his German soldiers, whose
numbers were swelled by the addition of the troops fur
nished by the Lombard vassals, Crescentius does not even
appear to have made the slightest effort ; and the vacancy
of the Holy See offered to the young conqueror an easy
occasion of immediately re-establishing the power whicli
his ancestors had exercised. He chose the new pope from
those around him, selecting the youthful Bruno, son of
the Margrave of Carinthia and Verona; who, being the
son of a daughter of Otho the Great, was a member of
the Imperial family, and sent him to Rome with two
prelates of his court, Wilheghise, Archbishop of Mayence,
and Adalbold, the learned Bishop of Utrecht. The

CORONATION OF OTHO III. 181
clergy, the nobles, and the people of Rome conformed
to the wUl of the young prince, and Bruno was raised
to the See of Saint Peter before the King of Germany
entered Rome, where, on the 21st of May of the same
year, he was anointed and crowned by the hands of the
Pope he had nominated.
This resumption of German conquest was whoUy
unstained by blood, Otho held a court, over which
he presided as judge, and condemned Crescentius to
banishment ; but, in compliance with the entreaty of
the new pontiff, and doubtless also to conciliate public
favour, he retracted that sentence ; then leaving Rome
at peace, he returned to Lombardy to be crowned at
Monza with the iron crown, and on his return to Ger- ,
many the same year he celebrated at Cologne his
fifteenth birthday.
But when the German army recrossed the raountains,
it took with it aU the terror and docUity of the Roraans,
Crescentius, who, though pardoned by the Emperor, had
lost the patriciate, was not slow in forming a plot against
a pope who was the son of a German margrave. And,
notwithstanding the acclamations which had saluted the
accession of Gregory V,, a revolt against him broke out,
Crescentius, ever dear to the Romans, retook the castle of
Saint Angelo, and the Pope, being forced to fly in haste,
took refuge in Lombardy with his father, the Margrave,
¦¦ Such was the power of this popular rising and of
the ever-dreaded name of Rome, that the Margrave
Otho, on receiviag his son on his expulsion from the
Holy See, dared make no atterapt for his restoration,
Gregory V. contented himself with assembling a councU
of Lombard bishops, in which he excommunicated

182 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII,
Crescentius, whUe the latter proceeded to take measures
m Rorae for the election of a new pope. John PhUi-
grates, Archbishop of Piacenza, but of Greek origin, was
immediately proclaimed. The iraperial chroniclers have
written it down that the Roraan consul sold the papacy
for money; but Crescentius had a better motive in desir^'
ing to see in the pontifical chair a man who, having
been born in Calabria, was a subject of the Greek
empire, and who could bring the Romans the support
of the court of Constantinople, to which, by the favour
of Theophania, he had often been ambassador fi:om
the emperors of Germany, whom he now assaUed by
assuming the tiara. But whatever were John Phili-
grates' designs for restoring Rome to the Greek Empire,
the time faUed him to carry thera out ; the iaclination
of the Romans may too, perhaps, have been wanting, for
they had no less repugnance towards their old masters
than their new ones.
Otho was detained fifteen months in Germany, occu
pied in a martial expedition against the Slaves, and in
the studies proper to his age. At his court were
assembled, not only the eminent bishops who had shared
the duties of his education, but a number of leamed
men, to whom it was his delight to propose such subtle
questions in logic that they sometimes remained iman-
swered. We learn these details from a contemporary
whose varied fortunes just then placed him about Otho,
On the death of Hugh Capet, Gerbert had despaired
of retaining his archbishopric of Rheims. Though
protected by the Othos, he did not find, in the new
German pope of their choice, any more favour than
he had obtained frora the Italian Pope persecuted

REVOLT OF CRESCENTIUS, 183
by Crescentius, Gregory V, persisted in acknowledging
no! other but Arnulph as Archbishop of Rheims ; and
the new King of France, Robert, desiring to obtain
the dissolution of his marriage with Bertha, was con
strained to give way on another point, and to abandon
Gerbert, who took refuge in Germany with the heir of
the kings he had served. There it was, in the year
997,^ between the conclusion of the war with the Slaves
and the approaching retum of the Emperor to Italy,
that, after a discussion as to the means of distinguishing,
according to Aristotle, the faculty of reason and the use
of reason, the young prince, thinking the ignorance on
such a question a reproach to the sacred palace, com
missioned Gerbert to write an exhaustive treatise on the
subject.^ Being delayed by sickness and the care of the
affairs in which he was engaged, Gerbert only fulfiUed
this task some months after, having followed beyond
the Alps, the young prince whom he was to leave no
more while he lived, and to whora he dedicated his dis
sertation, De rationali et ratione uti^ to prove to Italy,
says he, that the sacred palace was not idle, and that
not Greece alone should boast of the philosophy of its
emperors and of their rights over Rome, ' To us,' he
exclaims, ' belongs the Roman Empire, Italy is fruitful
hi corn and wine ; Gaul and Germany fruitful in fighting
men. Thou art our Cassar Augustus Emperor of the
Romans, in whose veins runs the noblest blood of
Greece, superior to the Greeks in power, commander of
the Romans by hereditary right, and superior to. both
m the possession of genius and eloquence," ^ It is in-
' ' Cum in Germania ferventioris anni tempus dimoraremur.' — (Anecdot.,
Thetauri Novissimi, vol. i. part ii. page 140.)
' Vestra quoque divina providentia ignorantiam eacro palatio indignam.

184 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
teresting to note the turn of mind which led the leamed
men of this age to imagine the existence of a Roman
Empire established by the descendants of Herman and
Witikind. The young Emperor was not delayed in this
new progress into Italy, even by the winter. He came
to Pavia, accompanied by his army, to celebrate the
feast of Christmas, and visiting Cremona only, he caused
the disputes between the bishop and the people to be
judged in his presence by the Margrave Otho. He
marched thence to Ravenna, which he found tranquil,
and the archbishopric of which was soon after given to
his faithful Gerbert, Then, after having indulged his
adventurous curiosity by visiting Venice in disguise, and
almost unattended, he arrived under the walls of Rome,
carrying Gregory V, at the head of his array. Whether
the defenders of the other Pope lacked zeal, or whether
the number of the German lances made any attempt on
their part hopeless, the city of Rome made no effort to
resist. Crescentius and his friends despairing of de
fending it, had thrown themselves into the castle of
St, Angelo, and there fortified themselves, Otho was
master of the city.
The Greek pope, who had escaped, was taken in his
flight, shamefully mutUated by the Romans themselves,
and cast aU bleeding at the feet of the Emperor. The
young prince would have spared him, but the German
pope, in his rage against an opponent, tore his clothes
off his body, and had him ignominiously paraded
through the city mounted backwards on an ass, with
the animal's tail in his hand. He was afterwards put
judicans, ea quae de rationali et ratione uti diverso modo a diversis objecta-
bantur, me discutere imperavit.' — (Anecdotorum Thesauri Novissinii.)

SECOND EXPEDITION OF OTHO III, TO ROME. 185
to death. Crescentius, meantime, was closely besieged
in the castle of St. Angelo ; the fortress was invested on
all sides, battered by warlike engines, and frequently
attacked by assault. He gave, in at the end of two
months, vanquished by main force, say the Germans ;
deceived by false promises, and a convention that was
violated, as the Italians will have it, W^hat seems to
give colour to the latter statement is, that the Ger
mans, even in their writings intended to prove the
contrary, speak of a conference, and of a treaty com
menced. According to them, Crescentius, being reduced
to extremity, secretly quitted his tower, and, being, by
the iatercession of some German chiefs, received into
the presence of Otho, fell at his feet, and asked his life
of the conqueror, who, being displeased at the pity
exhibited by those around him, exclaimed, ' How is it
that ye allow the Prince of the Romans, the elector of
emperors, the consecrator of popes, thus to enter the
huts of the Saxon? Lead him back to the throne of
his magnificence, that we may be permitted to prepare
hun a reception worthy of him,' ^ Then refusing to
hear a word, he had him led back to the castle of St,
Angelo, in order to have the satisfaction of taking it
by assault. In this surprising confidence, attributed
to the Roman consul, in this conference followed by a
fight, we may possibly detect the palhated record, the
' ' Quadam igitur die, quibusdam de imperatoris exercitu consentientibus,
egrediens latenter Crescentius de turre, scilicet birro indutus et operto
capite, veniensque improvistus corruit ad imperatoris pedes, orans sibi
imperatoris pietate vitam servari. Quem cum respexisset imperator, con-
versus ad suos, ut erat amaro animo, dixit : " Cur, inquiens, Romanorum
Prindpem, imperatorum decretorem datoremque legum, ordinatorem
pontificum, intrare sinistis mapalia Saxonum ? Nunc quoque reducite
eum ad thronum suae aublimitatis." ' — (Glaber Rodolphus, lib. i. ch. iv.)

186 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
involuntary admission of an ambuscade, into which
Crescentius was drawn, and which is attested by a
grave Avriter of the eleventh century, Peter Damian,
who, charging Otho with perfidy, cites the name of
the negotiator and close confidant of the prince, who
had promised a safe conduct to Crescentius by oath,
and in the king's name,^ However it be, the master
of Rorae was implacable ; and when he had to decide
the fate of Crescentius, who had fallen wounded and
a prisoner into the hands of the Germans, who by
force or fraud had got into his tower, the wrathful
Otho bid his soldiers ' to cast him from its summit
over the walls, so that,' said he, ' the Romans may not
accuse us of steahng their king from them ; ' ^ then,
after his corpse had been fastened to the taUs of oxen
and dragged along the banks of the Tiber, he had it
hung on a gibbet, with twelve of his principal adherents,
in view of the whole city. The ironical and fierce
anger of this prince, the son of a Greek and a bar
barian, may be traced even in the official acts of his
reign. In a charter, a deed of gift to an abbey in
Germany, we read, under the imperial seal of Otho,
these words, ' Done at Rorae, the year Crescentius was
beheaded and hanged,' ^ In this manner of dating

' ' Crescentius namque senator Romanus indignationem regis incunens,
in montem qui dicitur Sancti Angeli confugium petiit, et quia munitio
inexpuguabilis est, obsidente rege ad defendendum se fiducialiter prseparavit,
Cui tum unus ex praecepto regis jusjurandum securitatis praestitit, et ilie
deceptus adnitente Papa, qui urbi inimicus erat, quasi reus maj estatis
capitalem sententian subiit,' — (Petr. Damian Oper. pars. ii. p. 234.)
^ 'Per superiora propugnacula Ulum dejicite, ne dicant Romani suum
principem vos fmatos fuisse.' — (Rodolphus Glaber, Op. cap. v.)
' ' Actum Romae quando Crescentius decoUatus et suspensus fuit.' — (Amon.
Gorhaio. lib. ii. p. 224.)

DEFEAT OF CRESCENTIUS. 187
from an execution, there is something, doubtless, that
marks the importance of the victim, as weU as the
conqueror's resentment.
In re-establishing Gregory V., Otho took care to
strengthen the temporalities of the Church, By an
edict addressed to the Roman senate and people, as
well as to the archbishops, abbots, marquises, and counts,
throughout Italy, he revoked and forbade the ahenation
of ecclesiastical property. At the same time, Gregory
V. obtained a judgment of the senate, in virtue of
which, he obtained the restitution of divers estates that
had been taken from the pontifical possession, during
thfe late disorders in Rome. In a council which he
held this year, he pronounced sentence in the cause of
Eobert, King of France, and annuUed his marriage,
under pain of excomraunication, Gerbert, who had a
seat in this councU, as Archbishop of Ravenna, was
the first who subscribed the King's sentence, who had
formerly sacrificed him, in the hope of mollifying the
court of Rome, A stUl greater compensation was in
store for Gerbert. The chair of Saint Peter became
vacant by the unlooked-for death of Gregory V, in the
flower ofhis age; and the Emperor's favourite, the new
Archbishop of Ravenna, was elected pope, and took the
name of Sylvester II. , evidently in allusion to the young
Otho as a second Constantine, The former secretary
of the councU of Basle, on becoming pope, became
also indued with the spirit of the Roman pontificate.
One of his first acts was a letter confirraing in his see
Arnulph, whose fall he had hastened, and whose spoils
he had won, ' It appertains,' wrote he to him, ' to the
supreme apostolic dignity, not only to watch over

188 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII,
sinners, but to raise up them that have fallen, and to
render to those who have been deprived oftheir rank
the brightness of their forraer dignity, so that Peter
have fuU power to loose, and that the glory of Rome
shine in every place ; wherefore, we have judged it well
to come to thy help, Arnulph, Archbishop of Rheims,
who wert deprived, on account of thy faults, of the
honours of the pontificate; so that thy abdication having
been made without the consent of Rome, it may be
made evident, that thou can'st be re-established by the
clemency of Rome, Such is truly the sovereign
authority of Peter, which no raortal power can equal.
Thus, then, we grant thee, in accordance with this
privilege, and with the crosier and mitre that are
restored to thee, the fulness of the archiepiscopal
ministry, and the enjoyment of all the honours that
belong according to custom to the archbishopric of the
holy Church of Rheims. We bestow on thee the
pallium in all solemnities, that thou bless the Frank
kings and the bishops that are under thy authority, and
that thou exercise by our apostolic authority, all the
powers that thy predecessors have possessed. We further
ordain, that none soever, in synod or elsewhere, shall
dare to reproach ihee with thy abdication, that, on the
contrary, our authority shaU protect thee in all cir
cumstances, even against the accusations of thy own
conscience. We confirm and concede to thee the
archbishopric of Rheims in its entirety, with aU the
bishoprics and monasteries that are subject to it ; the
people, churches, chapels, chateaux, and villages, and
other things belonging to the Church of Rheims, m
virtue of the inviolable testament of blessed Remi, the

SYLVESTER II, 189
apostle of France, decreeing by the power apostolic, in
the name of God, and under threats of excommuni
cation, that it shall not be permitted on account of the
pontiffs my successors, or any other person, great or
small, to infringe the present privUege ; and should
anyone, which God forbid, seek to violate this decree
of Rome, cursed may he be,'
Meantime, the young Emperor, having by the coun
sels of his new pope, and the assistance of the faithful
Hugh, Margrave of Tuscany, re-established order in
the Roman states, visited Beneventum, exiled the
Prince of Capua, who was suspected of murdering his
brother ; replaced him by a vassal of his choice, and
would, doubtless, have undertaken something against
the Greeks, who were masters of Sicily and part of
Auplia, and who were seeking to obtain the friendship
of Venice by alliances and investitures. But Otho
was recalled to Germany by the loss of two great
supporters of his power.
When, accompanied by his most eminent counseUors,
he had set out for Italy, he left the regency to his
great-aunt Matilda, Abbess of Quedliraburg, but who
had, as a worthy daughter of Otho the Great, long
been accustomed to the care of public affairs. Having
acquired very powerful influence over aU by her rigid
rirtue, and great piety, Matilda had just died, with a
reputation for wisdom and almost inspired prescience,
which the Germans were delighted to recognise and
venerate in a woman. Another prop of the imperial
family, Adelaide, the widow of the Emperor Otho,
who had ruled with glory after his death, no longer
cared for the things of the world. Having survived

190 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
her daughter-in-law, Theophania, aU desire for
power seemed to have died with the young rival who
had contended with her for it. In the latter years
of her hfe, she traveUed incessantly, Adsiting monas
teries she had founded, scattering alms, and remem
bering the empire only in her prayers. She went to
the kingdom of Burgundy, her former home, to restore
peace among the vassals of her nephew. King Adolphus.
Then she passed to Valois, to visit the spot consecrated
by the memory of the Theban legion,^ She was still
there, and was praying in the church dedicated to the
great martyr. Saint Maurice, when she received' 4
message from Italy ^ announcing the taking of Rorae,
and, at the same time, the death of one of the prelates
who had crossed the Alps with Otho, the Bishop of
Worms, for whose virtue she had a special reverence.
She was visibly troubled, and called one of her people
to come and pray with her for the departed prelate ;
she exclaimed, wdth an emotion that revealed aU her
thoughts : ' What shall be done, now, 0 God ! for him
who is our lord king, and my grandson? Many shall
perish in Italy with him ; and, afterwards, I fear me,
this Otho, the son of emperors, shall likewise perish;
and I shaU be left alone, and without any human help.
Grant, 0 God ! lord of ages, that I may not live to
see that day,' ^ She went thence to Lausanne, to visit
1 ' Locum Auganensium petiit, ubi rupes felicissima martyrum millia
retinet corpora.' — ( Vita Adhelddes apud Corrisium, vol. iii. p. 78.)
' ' Cum enim ab illo sacro loco egressura, et secum staret in angulo
ecclesiae, orationis gratia, quidam nuncius venit ad eam de Ralia, Francmem
Wangionensem episcopum nunciavit Romae fuisse defunctum.' — (lUd.)
' ' Et quia vir boni testimonii erat, domina Augusta valde ilium diligebat,
sicut et omnes bonos diligere solita erat. Et statim ut ejus obitum audivit,
ex farailiaribus, qui aderant, unum vocavit et ut pro eo Domino preces

DEATH OF ADELAIDE, 191
the shrine of the martyr Victor, thence to Geneva ;
then, remembering Cluny, she gave money to restore
a monastery of Saint Martin, a dependency of that
order, which had been destroyed by fire ; she gave rich
presents too, and added, for the decoration of the altar
of the Saint, half of the royal mantle of her only son,
Otho IL, sending the same to the abbot wdth this
message : " Receive, thou priest of God, and in his
name, these offerings from Adelaide, the servant of
servants and a sinner, empress by the gift of God,
Receive, likewise, a portion of the mantle of my only
son, the Emperor Otho, and ask pardon for him of
Jesus Christ, whom thou hast so often clothed in the
persons of his poor, with whom divide this tunic," ^
Shortly after this, Adelaide having performed her
aiQCUstomed devotions on the anniversary of the death
of this, her son, Otho II,, worn out with languor, died
in an ecstacy of fervent piety, on the Christmas day
that began the year 1000 of our era.
This date of 1000 had been looked forward to
in the middle ages with fear and trembling. New
invasions added to this terror in Germany, Otho,
anxious to put an end to them, quitted Rome on
receiving the news of his grandmother's death, and
re-crossed the Alps, taking with him, as counsellor, or
efiiinderet humiliter rogavit. " Quid faciam, Domine, vel quid dicam de illo
aeniore nostro et nepote mea ? Peribunt, ut credo, in Italia multi cum eo,
peribit post ipsos, ut timeo, heu ! misera ! Augustee indolis Otto : remanebo
omni humane destituta solatio. Absit, O Domine, rex seculorum, ut videam
superstes tam lugubre dispendium." '—(Ibid. p. 79.)
'Obsecro, charissime, obsecro, ut ita alloquaris sanctissimum confessorem
meo obsequio : '' Accipe, sacerdos Dei, parva munuscula, quae tibi delegavit
Adalheida servorum Dei ancilla, ex se peccatrix, dono Dei imperatrix.
Accipe unici mei Ottonis Augusti chlamydis partem, et ora pro eo ad
ipsum quem veste divisa vestiti in paupere Christum." ' — (Dnd.)

192 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
rather as a hostage, the archdeacon of the Romaa
Church, and several cardinals and nobles. The young
Emperor performed this expedition for the security of
his dominions with marvellous rapidity. Descending fi-om
the Alps through Bavaria, to Ratisbon, on the Danube, he
crossed Nordgan, Franconia, and Voigtland, to Zeit, on
the shores of the Elster ; then traversing Misnia to the
Elbe, which he crossed, he advanced to Gnesen, the
capital of the ancient duchy of Poland, into which he
was conducted with aU honours by Boleslas, to whom
he had sent the title of King, from Rorae. The young
Emperor came thither to perform a pious duty, to
venerate the reraains of Adalbert, Bishop of Gnesen,
who had been killed three years before, while
preaching the Gospel to the heathen in the parts
adjacent, and frora whom the mutUated body was
purchased by Boleslas, As soon as Otho came in sight
of the city where rested the remains of Adalbert, he
walked thither barefoot, with all his suite, Saxon and
Roman ; and being conducted to the church by the
new bishop, he wept and prayed long by the martyr's
tomb ; and then, with that kind of religious authority
which the kings of Germany took back with them
from Rome, he changed the bishopric of Gnesen into
an archbishopric, 'rightfully, as I hope,' says the
German chronicler ; and he nominated to this new
archbishopric the brother of the martyr Adalbert, placmg
under his jurisdiction the ancient bishoprics of Colbert,
Cracow, and Breslau,
Then, having received from his vassal rich presents
and the more acceptable offering of 300 horsemen
armed with cuirasses, he returned, with Boleslas in his

EXPEDITION OF OTHO TO GERMANY, 193
train, to Magdeburg, and thence to the town of
Quedlemburg, near the royal abbey where MatUda had
just died while administering the government of Ger
many. Otho there celebrated the feast of Easter,
surrounded by a goodly company of nobles, and there
held a synod to try his father's old favourite, Gesler,
Archbishop of Magdeburg, who had not long before
been worsted in a battle with the Slaves, and failing to
make his way into the town of Bernburg, which they
had set on fire, was called on to vindicate himself
frojn his defeats in war and his encroachments on the
Church of Halberstadt. A languishino; sickness which
attacked the prelate served as an excuse for his
absence, and the enquiry was deferred to the next
sitting of the diet. Otho, then traversing Saxony,
and reaching the left bank of the Rhine, came to hold
this diet in Aix-la-ChapeUe, the ancient city of Charle
magne. The young prince seemed to propose this
great example as his model, while he sought at the
same time to revive the ancient customs and the former
pomp of the Caesars of Rome and Byzantium. These
endeavours were variously estimated. It was remarked
that, instead of the simplicity of the ancient Teutonic
chiefs, who sat at the same long tables as their com
panions in arms, the young Emperor had a semi-circular
table, at which he took his place alone on a raised seat.
When he visited Aix-la-ChapeUe for the first time, he
desired to look on the reraains of Charleraagne, and
caused the tomb to be opened, where was then seen the
body of the prince on a throne, and clad in the imperial
robes. A cross of gold was hanging from his neck ;
Otho took it, with some portion of the royal robe, aud
VOL. I. o

194 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII,
then closed the sepulchre ;^ but this curiosity appeared
to his contemporaries a sacrilege that would certainly
draw down the anger of heaven. And when the
wonders seen in the tomb of the great eraperor by Otho
were related, it was added that Charlemagne had
appeared to him and foretold his approaching death.
That early death was not so near but that Otho had
time to go and seek it in the land of Italy, which
had already been so fatal to his father. Having left
Aix-la-ChapeUe by the South of Germany, and the
Rhetian Alps, he returned to Rorae the same year, to
pass the feast of Christmas, bringing back with him the
Ronian nobles who, following in his train, had, in the
course of a few months, looked on the wUd forests of
Poland, and the distant, and already flourishing, cities
on the banks of the Rhine, On his arrival, the Pope
Sylvester II, held a synod, in which Bernward, Bishop
of Hildesheira, and formerly Otho's tutor, who had
accompanied him on this last journey, caused to
be pronounced as unlawful, the encroachment made on
his diocese by WiUieghese, Archbishop of Mayence, and
the king's favourite counsellor.
While Rome thus echoed to the ecclesiastical trials
of her masters, the native rebeUions that had so
often marked the presence of the Germans with blood,
still smouldered. Never did any emperor, says a chro
nicle, in speaking of Otho, enter or quit Rome with
greater glory. But this glory did not shield him ; the
city of Tibur,^ having once more become, as in the time
' ' Crucem auream, quse in collo ejus pendebat, cum vestimentorum parte
adhuc imputribilium, sumens caetera cum veneratione magna reposuit,' —
(Ditmar, Epis. Chron. lib. iv. p. 44.)
^ The most faithful of all Otho's great vassals in southern Italy was

THIRD EXPEDITION OF OTHO III. TO' ROME. 195
of Aucus or the first consuls, an almost independent and
rival power of the City of Rorae, whose tolls it inter
cepted and whose lands it harassed, was the first to
revolt. Being besieged by the German troops, swelled,
no doubt, by the Roman soldiery, it defended itself
with a degree of vigour that set an example to all Italy,
But the Pope Sylvester II. , having offered himself as a
mediator and made his way into the midst of the people,
persuaded them to subrait. The principal inhabitants,
naked to the waist, with a sword in one hand and a
scourge in the other, went of their own accord to the
Emperor's tent, subraitting themselves to him to be
scourged, or put to death, according to his pleasure,
and promising obedience if he spared their lives. Otho
showed them mercy, and neither threw down their walls
Hugh, Marquis at Tuscany, and grandson of Hugh, who was King of Italy
before Berenger. His father, who had been au object of suspicion to the
conquerors, at the period of Otho the Great's accession, was for a long time
banished from Italy. The son, who had grown up under their sway,
inspired them with more confidence, and Otho II. made bim Marquis of
Tuscany, a powerful fief, to which Theophania added the duchy of Spoleto
and the title of Duke of Ra'me, which appears to have been only nominal
during the duration of the power of Crescentius. Without ever having
risen against the foreign master, by whom he had been invested with his
possessions, Hugh had made himself beloved by the Italians. In these
times, when the military chiefs of provinces, and even the bisboi s, were so
exacting and cruel, he used his power for the good of the people only, and
was constantly occupied in ameliorating their condition. He often travelled
through his principality, sending his escort of men-at-arms forward, and
alone and unknown, he visited tbe labourers and shepherds — putting
such questions to them as these : ' What do they say of the margrave ?
Is he harsh and cruel ? Does he not oppress the poor people, and drain the
country ? ' ' Oh ! no, no ! ' the poor people, who were happier there than
anywhere else in Italy, would reply : ' You speak falsely. There is not to
be found such another good seigneur.' And then they wished him long
hfe for the ."sake of the poor. This popular approval rejoiced the heart of
tlie margrave ; and he used to say, in words that have become proverbial,
' I desire to live on such good terms with the peasantry that what falls
from my horses' manger may go to feed their pigs.'
0 2

196 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
nor revoked their privileges. This moderation seems to
have exasperated the Roraans, who regarded Tibur as a
dependency on the duchy of Rome. A rising imme
diately broke out in the city, which closed its gates ;
many of the Emperor's adherents were slain, and he
himself was assailed in the palace which he occupied,
and which, out of the precaution which had been so often
justified, was chosen without the walls of Rome, In the
surprise of this attack, the Bishop Bernward himself
appeared in the foremost rank, brandishing in a terrible
manner the holy lance that had so long been preserved
in Germany,^ The young Emperor, we are told, ad
dressed the Romans from the battlements of his palace,
reproaching them that, for their sake he had left his
friends and country, forsaken the Saxons and other
Germans, and even his own kindred, ' I have led you,'
said he, ' to the utmost bounds of your empire, whither
your fathers, when the world was theirs, never set foot.
I have adopted you in preference to all, and have
thereby stirred up hatred against myself; and as a
reward for all these things, you have slain my friends,
and me you have shut out.' ^
These singular words wdll be thought, perhaps, to
have been invented by some learned chronicler, who
deluded himself with the idea that the Roman empire
' ' Adversus hostem certamen instruunt, ipso antistiti cum sancta hasta
terribiliter fulminante.' — (Trangman : Vita Bernwardi, iri Leibnitii Scrip.
Rer, Brwistvick. vol. i.)
" ' Amore vestro meos Saxones et cunctos Theoticos sanguinem meum
projeci, vos in remotas partes imperii vestri adduxi, quo patres vestri, cum
orbem ditione premerent, nunquam pedem posuerunt. Vos filios adoptavi,
vos cunctis praetuli. Caussa vestri, dum vos omnibus praeposui, universorum
in me invidiam commovi et odium. Et nunc pro omnibus his patrem
vestrum objecistis, familiares meos crudeli morte interemistis, me exclusistis.
— (Vita Bernward. vol. i.)

REVOLT OF THE ROMANS. 197
still existed ; but they are cited by a spectator of the
fight; and we must bear in mind that the youthful
Otho in some measure believed the fiction they
express, that indeed he believed in it so far as to
wound the pride of his own followers by the adoption
of foreign manners. We cannot be sure, moreover,
what was the effect of Otho's resistance and words.
According to the report of the sarae witness, zealous
probably for the honour of his prince, the repentant
Eomans gave in, and delivered into the Emperor's hands
two of their own leaders, maltreated and half dead.
But other accounts state that Otho was only dehvered
from his assailants by the assistance of the Margrave
Hugh, and Henry, Duke of Bavaria, who, as we shall
see, afterwards succeeded him. What renders this the
more likely termination is, that Otho left Rorae vrith
the Pope, and fixed his residence in the duchy of
Spoleto, where the Gerraan dorainion was firmly es
tablished. But the death of the Margrave Hugh, very
soon after, deprived hira of his most faithful supporter,
and the young prince felt himself languishing even
unto death.
On his first arrival in Italy, he, following his father's
and grandfather's designs, had sent to Constantinople
to ask in marriage the hand of a Greek princess, niece
of the Emperors Basil and Constantine, who then
reigned. He despatched this embassy with the greatest
pomp, confiding it to the Archbishop of Milan, But
the answer carae too late ; whether his natural consti
tution was weak, or whether his early possession of the
erapire consumed his strength, he fell into a mortal
languor, which his contemporaries attributed to a

198 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
poison which the widow of Crescentius, after having
submitted to his desire, gave him, they said, out of
revenge. But he appears to have been, in the latter
years of his life, more especially tried by the auste
rities of penance. He had declared, on visiting
a holy hermit at Ravenna, that he should quit the
empire for the cloister, and when at the last he with
drew to the castle of Paterna, near Spoleto, he took no
other title than that of Servant ofthe Apostles; just as
hurable when near his end, as he had been proud and
enterprising when he first came to the empire.
His death, which took place in the twenty-second year
of his age, unchained all the hatred which the German
dominion had infused into the hearts of the Italians,
and that neither time nor success had been able to root
out. The leading German chiefs who were the wit
nesses of his death, foreseeing its effect on the public
mind, kept it concealed till they had assembled the
greater number of the German troops dispersed in the
neighbouring provinces ; and then began their march
to bear away the body of their king from that land
of Italy so fatal to his race. They were harassed
throughout this retreat^by the Ronian soldiers and
other Italians that rose on their passage, and they had
to fight their way for some days, tUl they drew near
to Verona, where the Margrave Otho commanded.

From the Death of Otho III. to Gregory VII.
There was, doubtless, in the early deaths of the two
Othos, more especially in that of the last, cut down in

DEATH OF OTHO III. 199
his youth, and childless, something that seemed sent
by God to raise the courage of the Italians, to tell
them that the dominion of the men of the North was
drawing to its end, and that a final effort was soon to
crush it for ever. The Germans themselves seem to
have been under the same impression. Though the
Othos possessed, like Charlemagne, the love of glory
and of the arts, they had not, like him, the genius that
founds empires ; besides they died early, and their suc
cessive reigns could not achieve what the powerful
unity of Charlemagne's long reign accomplished. They
had not found raeans either of freeing the Roman
Church and attaching it to them, nor of establishing
near it a powerful sovereignty which depended on
them. On the death of Otho, the kingdora of Italy seemed
again to become free and separated from Germany,
Without waiting to see what would be done at Aix-
la-ChapeUe or Mayence, and while the council of the
young Emperor was wending its way to the Alps, the
bishops and great vassals of Lombardy, in a national
diet held at Pavia, under Otho II. , but without the
Duke of Carinthia, Margrave of Verona, and without
any seigneur from beyond the Alps, elected king of
Italy Ardouin, Marquis of Ivray, of Piedmontese descent,
who was imraediately crowned by Guy, Bishop of Pavia,
twenty-four days after the death of Otho,
The remains of the Emperor were, meantime, carried
by his faithful soldiers to Bavaria, where the Duke
Henry, with his bishops and counts, came out to receive
the body of his seigneur and cousin, and lavished every
care on the little German army, so worn out by their

200 HISTORY OF GREGORY Vll.
long march. He hiraself accompanied the corpse to
Augsburg, where the parts of the body it was usual to
remove, were religiously deposited in the basilica of
Saint Afre ; he then left the procession, which bore the
reraains to Aix-la-ChapeUe,
But while he loaded with presents the seigneurs who
carae back from Italy with the dead prince, he made
them deliver to him the insignia of the empire which
Otho had bequeathed to Heribert, Archbishop of
Cologne, and raade all haste into Saxony to procure
his election in the asserably of that duchy. The blood
of the Othos pleaded in his favour, and he found many ¦
supporters in an asserably that was held at Werla, in
the north of Saxony, and at which Eckart, Margrave
of Misnia, presented himself as a candidate. His
frequent encounters with the Slave nations had dis
tinguished hira as the bravest of the chiefs of the
Gerraanic confederation. But Eckart was not a duke,
and though he had vanquished and reduced to vassal
age the Dukes of Boheraia and Poland, his ambition to
be king created surprise. In a primary assembly of
the Saxon nobles, which was formed under the presi
dency of the Archbishop of Magdeburg, the Margrave
Lotta earnestly begged the Archbishop not to decide
anything before the Diet of Werla; and when Eckart
in an imperious raanner said, ' Count, why do you
oppose me?' the other replied, ' Count, yourself, do you
not perceive that a fourth wheel is wanted to your
chariot?' Rejected at Werla, for the same reason,
joined to the influence of the sisters of Otho, the Mar
grave, who withdrew in great anger with the Duke
Bernard, carried off the princesses' dinners as a joke

RIVALRIES IN GERMANY. 201
and hastened elsewhere to stimulate the people. But
not far from Nordera, where he had been hospitably
received in the Margrave's house, he was assassinated
hi the night by the son of that seigneur, who had
followed in pursuit of him, to avenge, so it is said, the
insult offered to the princesses, by taking his life.
While this rampart of the kingdom on its northern
frontier was thus removed by death, another candidate
for the throne appeared in southern Germany,
Hermann, Duke of Suabia and Alsace, being pro
claimed king by the seigneurs assembled at Aix-la-
ChapeUe, marched forward with an army to bar the
passage of the Rhine to Henry, near Worms. But he,
having made a feint of withdrawing his forces, crossed
the river at another part, and arrived at Mayence,
where he was crowned by the archbishop, Wilheghese,
After his coronation, Henry had still only the votes of
two provinces, Bavaria and Saxony, with Mayence and
sorae towns in the states of his competitors.
But while the Duke Herraann was besieging Stras-
burg and Bressac, which had declared for Henry, the
new king, traversing the devastated district of Alsace,
had been acknowledged in Franconia and Thuringia,
and went to Saxony to have his election confirraed in
a solemn diet at Merseburg, where, in presence of the
archbishop, duke, and margraves of the province,
among whom was the haughty Lotta, he took an oath
to infringe in nothing the laws of the Saxons, and to
govern them with mildness ; thence he repaired to
Duisburg, and procured his election by the Estates
of Lorraine, on making a similar promise to maintain
their rights, and they afterwards accompanied him

202 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
with great pomp to Aix-la-ChapeUe, where he was
seated, on the throne of Charlemagne, and proclaimed
king of the Teutonic nations, seven months from the
day on which Italy, free frora Gerraan doraination, had
crowned a king of her own at Verona. Elected thus,
without the assembling of a general diet, by the suc
cessive votes of five of the Gerraanic states, having had
stiU to obtain either the suffrage or the subraission of
Suabia, his competitor's duchy, Herraann yielded, came
to Frankfort to acknowledge the new king, and died a
few raonths afterwards of grief and shame.
In all the delays and troubles attending his election,
Henry did not lose sight of Italy, and by his orders
Otho, Duke of Carinthia, endeavoured to enter the
country, in order to join the enemies of its new king;
for the Saxons had so long held Upper Italy, which
had been forraerly conquered by the Lombards, that
the two races of the sarae origin had left behind them
many who were favourable to the German dominion;
the superior clergy especially : Arnulph, Archbishop
of Milan, who had returned from his fruitless embassy
to Constantinople, Frederic, Archbishop of Ravenna,
Teuson, Bishop of Verona, and even some prelates who
had at first been favourable to the king,
Guy, Bishop of Pavia ; Sigefried, Bishop of Piacenza ;
Landulph, Bishop of Brescia; Olderic, Bishop of Cre
mona, all Germans in heart and narae, were ready either
to fight or to abandon Ardouin.
But the new king had foreseen this, and, master of
the Adige, he waited for Otho in the plains of Verona,
and falling on the Gerraan army under the Margrave,
with troops superior in number, he put it to flight.

DEATH OF SYLVESTER II. 203
This defeat deferred for a time the enterprise of Ger
many against Italy, A great support was about to be
taken from the forraer. The pope, Sylvester II. , who
had quitted Rome with Otho, and remained with him
till he breathed his last, never returned, according to
all 'appearance, to the city which rose against his power,
and the memory of the young Eraperor, Whether he
remained in Tuscany, or whether he followed the retreat
of the German troops from Lombardy, his days drew
fast to their close, and he Survived his pupil, the Em
peror, but a year.
During his short pontificate, the close of which was
so troubled, Gerbert never neglected his early studies,
not even those which, in the spirit of the time, seeraed
the least suited to engage the meditation of the suc
cessor of Saint Peter, The few men who at that time
Studied some elements of the mathematical science, con
sulted him and received replies. We have still a letter
addressed to the Lord Sylvester, sovereign pontiff, and
great phUosopher, in which Adelbold, who calls himself a
student, asks him what is the diameter of a sphere in
proportion to its circumference ; after some arguments,
he writes : ' If, in all this, I deceive myself, do, I pray
you, lead me back into the way of truth ; if I am
already in it, I entreat you out of the darkness through
which I still stumble, to illuminate my path by the light
of your approbation.' It was, doubtless, the first tirae a
Pope had been appealed to to decide a scientific truth,
Sylvester's solution of this easy problera has not been
preserved ; but another letter from hira to Adelbold
was written to give the causes of inequality in the areas
of the equilateral triangle. These early endeavours to

204 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
revive the taste for this sublirae science, and to recover
possession of its elements, give us the explanation of
the fables invented by Gerbert's contemporaries. In a
treatise on geometry which he wrote, recommending
the use of tha*; science to all the lovers of wisdom, he
says that it has a marvellous power of exercismg the
faculties of the soul, and the mind ; and is full of pro
found speculations, which lead men to understand, to
adraire, and to celebrate, in the wonders of nature, the
power and ineffable wisdom of the Creator, who has
disposed all things according to nuraber, weight, and
measure. But the simple problems contained in this
little work, the instructions for measuring a tower by the
shadow it casts, for calculating the depth of a well, the
extent of a field, and the nuraber of grains in a heap of
corn, were looked on as the inventions of magic by con
temporaries, and frora that impression, joined to the
sudden and obscure death of Gerbert, arose the vague
tradition that he had a demon, by whose assistance he
worked wondrous spells. The party that was opposed to
the Emperor repeated this fable, and we meet with it
again, as put forth by a partisan of the empire itself, who
traces from Gerbert a whole school of magicians, who
had given themselves up to the devil, and places Gregory
VIL, araong them. The Church of Rome, however,
gloried in Gerbert, and did not give him the name of
anti-pope, by which it had so often stigmatised the
pontiffs that were imposed on it by the erapire. Six
years after his death, one of his successors, Sergius, con
secrated a torab to him in the Basilica of Lateran, and
there still rest the ashes of that ancient adversary of
Rome. The epitaph, while it chronicled the celebrity of

HENRY II. IN LOMBARDY. 205
Gerbert and his elevation to the Sees of Rheims,
ilavenna, and finally Rome, said that the sovereign
pontificate was bestowed on him by the Cajsar Otho
ni., whom he only too well pleased by his fidelity.^
He was succeeded within a short space of time by
two pontiffs, one after the other, who were Romans by
birth, and the Church of Rome thought it had recovered
its right to elect its own chief. But this right depended
on the fate of upper Italy, over which a new storm was
gathering, Henry, acknowledged king, and delivered
fi-om his rivals, had to repair the defeat of the Margrave
Otho, and to recover the crown of Italy. Complaints
began to arise against the Marquis of Ivray, made king,
and the absent power was regretted, at least by some
jiobles whom a petty sovereign of their own nation
could not satisfy, and who hoped more from a king of
Germany, Of this number was Tedald, Seigneur of the
castle of Canossa, and his son, the Marquis Boniface ;
others of the great vassals entered into the plot, which
the archbishop fostered with all his power. In the
second year of his reign, Henry, with whom the Bishop
of Verona had taken refuge, and who had received the
messages and offers of the Archbishop Arnulph, and
the Margrave Tedald, marched into Italy by way of
Trent, with a numerous army of Lorrainers, Franco-
nians, and Suabians. But on that side the gorges of the
mountains protecting the Adige were strongly guarded,
and Henry directed his march some leagues further
in the direction of Carinthia, whose heights he manned
with the inhabitants, and passing by difficult but ill-de-
' 'Cui niniium placuit sociali mente fidelis, obtulit hoc Csesar tertius
Otto sibi.'

206 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
fended roads, he suddenly arrived with the elite of his
army on the Brenta. There he stopped to celebrate the
cereraonies of Holy Week; for he would not, he said,
shed the blood of men in the days their Maker had
suffered for thera. The greater number of the bishops
of this frontier, were then either m flight, or assembled
about Henry, and his tents became the place where the
feast of Easter was celebrated with the most pomp and
ceremony. The Archbishop of Cologne gave the com
munion, and Henry, having published his ban royal,
decreeing death to any who should forsake his banner,
crossed the Brenta without opposition, and stopped to
await new defections on the part of the enemy. In
effect, the array of Ardouin, divided by the mutual
hatred of its leaders, dispersed without ever fighting, and
he, seeing himself thus betrayed, and not being able to
count on anything but a few garrisoned fortresses, re
tired without a struggle to his fief of Piedmont. Henry
entered Verona as a conqueror, and the Marquis
Tedald and other seigneurs joined his ranks at Bergamo.
He received the oath of fealty from the Archbishop of
Milan, and still, without fighting, he arrived at Pavia,
where he was crowned by the bishops and nobles, araid
the acclamations of the throng that filled the church.
But outside the same building, hate of the foreigners,
indignation at his easy conquest, the remembrance of
the defeat of the Margrave Otho, were all burning in
men's hearts, and the drunkenness attendant on a fete
added to their rage. When the King and his court had
returned to his palace without the city walls, a violent
sedition broke out in Pavia. The people, armed with
stones and lances, rushed to the palace to break in the

BURNING OF PAVIA. 207
gates, while the greater number of the Gerraan troops
were still dispersed in the town, or quartered with
theu" horses in the castles in its vicinity. The disorder
was great; the attack terrible : a brother of the Queen,
even, was wounded, and the King in the raidst of his
bishops and some few knights would have had his
palace forced in the night, but for the desperate resist
ance of those around him, and the prompt diversion
effected by his troops, who rushed from all quarters tc
defend the palace and to attack the city. At daybreak,
the inhabitants, who had been driven within their walls,
and had been pursued thither, still defended themselves:
but the soldiers, gaUed by the arrows that were shot
at them from the roofs, set fire to the houses, and the
flaraes spread through the city, that was then given up
to murder and pillage. Great part of Pavia was de
stroyed, and the King, who had in vain made some
efforts to stay the devastation, left the smoking ruins,
and awaited, in a neighbouring fortress, the submission
that resulted from the terrors of this example. He,
however, took no advantage of them to advance further
into Italy then ; he only visited Milan, ' whose freedoai
of speech and gentle manners,' to use the singular
phraseology of the German chronicle, he loved ; and
leaving the rest of the inhabitants of the duchy of Pavia
to mourn over the ruin of their city in ashes, he piously
celebrated the feast of Pentecost, at Cremona, and took
the road to Germany, by Mont Cenis ; traversing
Alsace and Suabia, in order to reach Saxony, and to
fight the Slave tribes of Poland and Bohemia.
The expedition,' in which the soldiery of the eastern
Franks took part, was fixed for the middle of August.

208 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII,
after the harvest. While Henry was preparing for the
war, his competitor in Lombardy had aheady been
recalled by the wretched inhabitants of Pavia; and the
hatred which the cruelties of the Germans had excited,
gave him new partisans. Ardouin could not wholly
restore the ruins of Pavia, but he reigned there, and
maintained his power in a portion of upper Italy ; whUe
Milan, Piacenza, Cremona, Corao, in a word all those
places whose bishops were devoted to Henry, continued
to acknowledge his authority ; but they profited by his
absence to increase the municipal liberties which laid
the foundation of the Lombard republics in the middle
ages. The rest of Italy also felt the effects of the ab
sence of the Germans, Though Tuscany had sent an
embassy to do homage to the destroyer of Pavia, it
formed itself into an independent State. Rome, under
the authority of a patrice and a prefect, who was a son
of Crescentius, and bore the sarae name, governed her
self, and had successively, as Popes, freely elected, John
XVIIL, and Sergius. But on the death of the latter,
a new Pope, of German descent, Benedict VIIL, was
elected in opposition to another Roman cleric, Gregory,
who was supported by some Roman barons, and soon
after his exaltation, Benedict was attacked by main
force and driven out of Rorae by his rival.
Then appeared once more the evil of that Roman
anarchy which recalled the foreigner to her walls, when
he dwelt afar or delayed his coming. Eight years had
elapsed since the sack of Pavia, and Henry, satisfied
with taking the title of King of Italy, and with dis
tributing some fiefs in the neighbourhood of the Lom
bard towns, had not crossed the mountains again.

HENRY II, INVITED TO ROME BY BENEDICT VUI. 209
Benedict VIIL, being driven by force from the Papal
chair, came to him for protection, with the offer of the
empire, that object of ambition to every King of Ger
many. The monarch, who was then celebrating the
feast of Christmas at Palitsch, welcomed the Pontiff,
and the foUowing autumn, he moved at the head of a
numerous army, through the Tyrol, and marched on
Pavia, which the King Ardouin raade no atterapt to
defend. Thence, Henry went to Ravenna, whose archbishop,
so faithful to his cause, had died during the inter
regnum, and had been replaced by another. Henry set
him aside, appointing him to an obscure bishopric in
the neighbourhood, and appointed to the important see
of Ravenna a prince of his family, his own brother
Arnold, and then advanced to Rorae, which offered no
more resistance than Ravenna. Whether it were that
Benedict VIII. had treated beforehand with the King
of Germany, and invited his presence by his own con
cessions, or whether he despaired of opposing any
obstacle to his entrance into the city, Henry was
welcomed on his approach to its gates by a procession
of warriors and priests, who went out to meet hini and
offer their homage ; the Pontiff, who carried in his hand
a small golden globe surmounted by a cross, presented
it to the Prince as a symbol of the empire of the world,
Henry received it, saying, that such an emblem was
more fitting for those who cast all worldly grandeur
beneath their feet in order to follow the cross of
Christ, and sent it as an offering to the monastery of
Cluny. But this humility only raade hira appear still
more worthy of the empire, and the Pope, tired, no
VOL. I. p

210 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
doubt, of the turbulent protection of the Roman
nobles, was eager soleranly to confer the title of
Emperor^ which had for twelve years lain in abeyance,
and frora which he intended to obtain new privileges
and new safeguards for the Church.
The ceremony was performed with a strange mixture
of Christian rites and antique Roman observances.
The King of Germany, with his wife Cunegund, came
to the church attended by twelve senators, six of whom
wore long beards, supporting themselves on ivory
staffs as they walked. At the entrance of Saint Peter's
he was received by the Pope, who demanded whether
he would be the faithful patron and defender of the
Church of Rome, faithful in all things to the Pope and
his successors. This he promised. He was then led
into the nave, and he and his wife were anointed and
crowned, and he was proclaimed Emperor and Augustus
by the priests and people. He then quitted the
church, leaving his former king's crown on the altar,
and the pope gave a great supper at the Lateran
palace in the evening. But in the midst of these
festivities, the foreigners were hateful to the townspeople,
and they came to blows on one of the bridges over the
Tiber, and many of both nations were either kUled or
wounded. The Eraperor sent prisoners to Gerraany three of his
own people, who were accused of having been the
cause of this disorder, and we cannot doubt that he
carefully avoided everything that could possibly lead
to a renewal at Rorae of the bloody scenes of Pavia,
His anxiety in this respect possibly accounts for a
memorial of his stay in Rome which has been dis-

CORONATION OF HENRY. CONCESSIONS TO PONTIFFS. 211
puted, a charter which is taxed with imposture, and
contains the most extensive confirmation of all the
claims of the Pope over many towns of Tuscany and
their dependencies, over the exarchate of Ravenna,
and Pentapolis, the Sabine territory, and the towns
belonging to it ; over the island of Corsica, and numerous
possessions in Lombardy, over many towns in Apulia,
over Benevento, and even Naples, and over Sicily,
when it should please God to deliver it into the
Eraperor's hands. A few mistakes in the details of
this deed, and in the names of the Gerraan bishops
and Italian feudatories cited as having subscribed it,
are far from sufficient to disprove its authenticity. The
political interests of the German kings, and the devotion
of the age, abundantly explain the price at which they
purchased the title of Emperor at the Pope's hands.
The concessions they made to the Pontiffs, raoreover,
confirmed and consecrated their own authority, and
substituted a more sacred right for that of conquest.
Further, the Emperor in this deed reserved to himself
an important right over the election of a pope, by exact
ing an oath from all the Roman clergy and nobility, that
no pope who should be elected, should be consecrated,
until he had sworn in the presence of the imperial envoys
and the people to maintain all the Imperial rights as
the Pope Leo had done. Lastly, by the provisions of
this Act, the envoys of the Pope were every year to
make a report to the Eraperor of the manner in which
the governors and judges in the States of the Church
performed their duties; and, in like manner, imperial
commissioners were appointed to render account to the
Pope of all plaints they should have heard, so that

212 ' HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
justice might imraediately be done, either by order of
the Pope, or through new delegates from the Emperor.
The advantages conferred on the Church of Rome hy
this decree, evidence the address with which Rome re
covered by negotiation what had been lost by conquest ;
but this rather forras a reason for considering it
authentic ; and the acts of sovereignty which Henry
perforraed at Rome, a solemn court held by him in the
Vatican, the coining of money with his image and
superscription, did not, in the spirit of feudahsm, mih-
tate against the seigneurial rights which he accorded to
the Pope over a portion of Italy, These rights were
about to be increased.
Henry soon quitted Rome to return to Germany,
leaving behind hira his competitor, Ardouin, who then
carae out of his retreat in the mountains of Piedmont ;
and, seconded by many seigneurs of the country,
retook the towns of Verceil and Asti, without, how
ever, venturing to make any attempt on Milan. A
single example will prove that MUan, by reason of its
hatred of Pavia, and doubtless, also, on account of the
privUeges it had received from the kings of Germany,
was much more in their favour than Rome. Ardouin,
havmg made himself master of Asti, procured the
election of his uncle, who was brother to the powerful
Marquis of Suza, to the bishopric. The Archbishop of
Milan forbade the consecration of the newly-elected
bishop, the Pope conferred it. The Archbishop then
excommunicated the bishop who had been consecrated
by the Pope ; and, raising an array composed of his
own vassals, and those of his suffragans, attacked Asti,
and brought the bishop and his brother, who defende4

DEATH OF ARDOUIN, STATE OF ITALY, 213
the besieged place with him, to terras. Both of them
were forced to walk a distance of three mUes barefoot,
the bishop holding his missal, and the marquis carrying
a dog across his shoulders, to the Basilica of Saint
Andrew, where the bishop laid his crosier and ring on
the altar, while the marquis made an offering of a
goodly sum in golden marks ; they then returned, bare
foot as they had come, to the Church of Saint Michael,
where the crosier and ring were restored to the prelate.
The King Ardouin, too weak to have prevented or to
revenge this affront, had retired to a monastery in
Piedmont, Pie died the year following, and Lombardy,
no longer contended for by two kings, reraained under
subraission to Henry — as far, at least, as could be sub
missive, those prelates who were invested with power
ful fiefs, those Italian and Lorabard seigneurs shut up
in their fortified castles, those populous and already
commercial cities who elected their own raagistrates,
armed their own troops, and made peace and war with
their neighbours at their will.
At Rome, where the Pope was, and where the
consul or duke of the Romans had authority, there
was still a representative of the Imperial power — at
least, in the exercise of criminal jurisdiction. The
decision of civil causes rested, uideed, with the senate,
but criminal inquiries and sentences of death were
reserved for the prefect, who swore fealty and homage
to the Pope, but was nominated by the Emperor, and
received from hira, as his insignia of ofiice, a drawn
sword, which he was charged to use against murderers
and evil-doers. This custom, no doubt, witnesses to
the subjection of Rome to the foreign chief who came

214 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII,
thither to be made Eraperor ; but to it were joined
neither tax nor tribute, and no foreign garrison was
left within the waUs of Rome, In this way we may
easily see how it was that the authority of the
Emperors was never either whoUy established or
entirely crushed. When they were absent its weight
was little felt, and their presence was too transitory to
lay a solid foundation for anything.
This period witnessed the rise of a new power in
Italy, which cannot be passed over in the history of the
Roman Pontificate, It was inaugurated by some
Norman adventurers, who had come as pilgrims to
the Monastery of Mount Saint Michael, Mount Gargano,
in Apulia. An Italian chief, Mello, lord of the canton
of Apulia, who had declared himself independent,
struck by the haughty mien and martial bearing of
these strangers, induced thera to join hira in making
war on his neighbours, by the proraises of booty and
lands. On their return to Normandy they gave a
wonderful account of the rich soU and blue skies of
Italy, and soon reappeared with numerous recruits.
In company with Mello, they conquered the Greeks in
many encounters, and drove them out of nearly all the
towns they possessed ; but the Greek governor, having
received a powerful reinforcement from Constantinople,
they were decimated and vanquished in a final combat,
and took refuge under the protection of the Prince of
Salerno, and the Greeks were, to all appearance, on the
point of recovering their empire in Southern Italy,
as far as Rome itself. On the approach of this danger
the Pope, Benedict VIIL, did not hesitate to go to
Germany, whither he was invited to consecrate the

THE NORMANS IN ITALY. 215
cathedral of Bamberg, in which city the Emperor
habitually resided. He was celebrating the feast of
Easter, 1020, with the Patriarch of Aquilea and the
Archbishop of Ravenna, But the especial motive of
this journey was to invoke the assistance of the
Emperor's arms to repel the Greek dominion, more
dreaded by Rome than that of the German; because,
having been long ago shaken off, it was impossible to
say what evils and what vengeance it would bring with
it. The Pope left Bamberg, having received the
promise of assistance, which was to be some time
coraing; and, just as he returned to Rome, a young
Norman seigneur, whose courage was celebrated, and
who had left his country on account of the animosity
of the Duke Richard, his suzerain, arrived. This was
Godfrey de Ringon, who, accompanied by his four
brothers, and other relatives or vassals, a warlike tribe,
had come to complain to the Pope of the insults they
had received, and to offer him their swords. The
Pope received them well, and sent thera into the
duchy of Benevento furnished with letters to the
primates of the place, who they were commissioned
to stir up against the Greeks. They did, in fact,
raise the country, and repulse the extortioners and
soldiery of the Greek Empire. But, in spite of their
efforts, the Greeks, recruited by their fleet, obtained the
advantage, and, seconded by the monks of Mount
Cassino, and by Pandulph, Prince of Capua, they took
possession of the tower of the Garighano, which was
the property of the Church of Rome. Then it was
that Benedict endeavoured by new messages and
entreaties to hasten the arrival of the Emperor in

2 1 6 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
Italy, and his march to Apulia. Henry crossed the
raountains at the head of a nuraerous army, and,
descending to Lorabardy, he despatched the Patriarch
of Aquilea into the march of Camerino with 15,000
men, and sent the Bishop of Cologne, a martial prelate,
to besiege Capua with 20,000 more, while he himself
went to reconnoitre in Benevento and Salerno, and
pressed the siege of Troia, the strongest city held
by the Greeks, Henry conquered, without fight
ing a pitched battle, and disposed at will of the
petty sovereignties of Apulia ; but sickness having
attacked the Gerraan troops, he lost great num
bers, and, quitting Calabria, he directed his march
through Tuscany, and re-passed the mountains the
same year with the shattered reraains of his brilliant
army. This, the ordinary issue of the German expe
ditions into Italy, explains the weakness of the Imperial
power. That climate, that land, the envy of the
Germans, was dreaded by them, for it seemed to be
fatal to them. Hence, we see brief enterprises aban
doned in their very execution, and when one more
effort would have brought them to an efficacious
termination. Meanwhile, each of these incomplete
invasions left the Italians either new causes of com
plaints, an increased amount of hatred of the
foreigners, or of confidence in their own strength.
They offered little resistance to the conqueror's visits,
but they were ready to revolt as soon as he had left.
The troubles and interregnums attendant on the
elective throne of Germany, still further favoured the
relaxation of its hold on its conquests, and the revival
of Italian independence. Henry died two years after

DEATH OF HENRY. CONRAD ELECTED. 217
«
his return from Italy, ending his days in the practice
of great piety, and on his death the inhabitants of
Pavia rose and destroyed the imperial palace which he
had made them re-buUd within their walls, after the
burning of their city twenty years before. At the
same time several of the principal lords of Italy, the
Marquis of Suza, the Bishop of Ostia, and the Bishop
of Verceil, formed the project of calling a French
prince to the throne of Italy — either the king of
France hiraself or his son Hugh, or else Williara,
Duke of Aquitaine, celebrated for his araiability, his
prudence, the magnificence of his court, and for
his poems in the language of Provence. William
even took a journey into Italy to confer with them, but
they did not agree. Meantime Conrad, Duke of Fran
conia, havmg been elected king of the Germans in the
Diet of Frankfort, a numerous party was formed in his
favour. Among the bishops of the kingdora of Italy,
Aribert, Archbishop of Milan, set the example, and
was seconded, no doubt, by the ancient rivalry between
Milan and Pavia. Accorapanied by sorae Lombard
nobles he went to Germany, to Constance, where
Conrad held his court, and tendered his homage and
fealty, pledging himself to acknowledge him as king
when he should come to Italy. Other deputies came
from the different cities of Lombardy, and even from
Pavia, with excuses for its violence, and offering to
rebuild the imperial palace that had been destroyed, on
^condition that this time it should be outside the walls.
This condition was rejected ; but the other Italian
deputies were sent back loaded with presents, and
Conrad, secure of the peace of Germany, prepared to
pass into Italy with a powerful army.

218 HISTORY OF GREGORY VIL
Having entered by the Tyrol, in the spring of 1026,
he marched without impediment from Verona to Pavia.
Repulsed from the walls of that city, he stayed not to
besiege it, but went on to MUan, and was there crowned
by the Archbishop Aribert, and afterwards received at
Monza, from the hands of the same archbishop, the
iron crown that had been worn by Theodoric. At the
same time he carried on a war of devastation and
pillage. The city of Pavia itself, defended by its
strong walls and a numerous population, was not
attacked ; but in the country round the peasants were
killed, the vineyards destroyed, and the churches and
castles pulled down. Conrad inarched his troops thence
to Ravenna, which he entered without any opposition,
and exercised, like his predecessors, all the rights of
sovereignty ; but the antipathy existing between the
two nations, the insolence of the foreign soldiery, and
the despair of the inhabitants, soon produced a serious
outbreak. Conrad himself was obliged to rush armed
into the streets, and after the inhabitants were defeated,
he protected their lives against the fury of his men, who
massacred them in the very churches. The next day
the principal inhabitants came before him barefoot,
imploring pardon, and it was granted. But this miserable
inauguration of royalty did not make hina desirous of
prolonging his stay in Ravenna ; and, as with the heat
of summer sickness began to spread through his army,
he drew back towards Lombardy, and established his
quarters in wooded and salubrious heights near MUan,
where the royal table was luxuriously supplied by his
faithful vassal, the Archbishop Aribert. Conrad having
by a stay of some months confirmed his power in

CORONATION OF CONRAD. 219
the north of Italy, from Ivr^e to Milan, marched upon
Tuscany, whose new duke, Raginaire, the second
successor of the margrave Hugh, had declared himself
independent. Plaving soon reduced and deposed this
vassal, Conrad went forward to Rome, where he was
expected by the Pope, John XIX., the former lay
magistrate of the Roman States, and too prudent a
chief to combat openly the German invasion. Conrad
then came to receive the holy unction and the crown,
as Charlemagne, and Otho the Great, and raany others
had done. A , memorable circumstance added to the
splendours of the ceremony in this instance. Not to
speak of the great Italian vassals in Conrad's suite,
there were then present at Rorae two kings, Rudolph,
king of the two Burgundies, and Canute the Great,
king of Denraark, and the successful usurper of the
crown of England ; corae to Rome, as he wrote, for his
soul's salvation. It was they who conducted Conrad
from the altar, where, with the queen, his wife, he had
been anointed and crowned. The prudent Canute, who
was no less a vigilant king than a pious pUgrira, seized
this opportunity of obtaining from the Pope, the Em
peror, and the asserabled princes and margraves, exemp
tion from all taxes and tribute for all his subjects who
should go to Rome; he also obtained the abolition in
favour of the archbishops in his realms, of the costly
contributions levied on the granting of the pallium.
While the new Emperor was holding his court in the
Lateran palace, a quarrel over an ox-hide which had
been taken by a German soldier, re-kindled all the
animosity of the people against the foreign master they
had just crowned. A revolt broke out ; many of the

220 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
inhabitants of Rome fell under the swords of the
Germans, better armed and raore accustomed to the use
of their weapons than themselves ; and the rest came
to implore the Emperor's clemency, some carrying a
drawn sword in their hands, others with a halter round
their necks, according as they were freemen or serfs.
This fact seems to prove that the rising was very far-
spread, and that many classes of the people were
engaged in it.
Very soon after it was put down, Conrad quitted
Rome, to receive the recognition of his authority in the
duchies of Benevento and Capua ; and returning to
Lombardy, where he at last reduced the city of Pavia
to obedience, returned to his German possessions after an
absence of two years, leaving behind him Italy, filled
with disturbances and private wars between the great
vassals and the castellans, the metropolitans and the
bishops, the bishops and the burgesses of the towns.
The Archbishop of Milan, to whora the Emperor had
granted the right of disposing of the bishopric of Lodi,
had to fight at the same time against the inhabitants of
that city and the Milanese seigneurs, who were leagued
against him. The city of Pavia, though it had at last
made its peace with the Emperor, and re-built his
palace, was still a formidable enemy, and throughout
the rest of Lombardy hostilities and plundering spread
frora town to town and from castle to castle. Ravenna,
under the governraent of the Archbishop Guerard, of
Gerraan descent, reraained faithful to the empire ; so
did Tuscany, which Conrad had conferred by investi
ture on the former lord of Canossa, the Margrave Boni
face, whose daughter was the faraous Countess Matilda.

ANARCHY IN ITALi'. 221
At Rome the Pontificate was retained by the same
family that had displayed its submission to Conrad.
John XIX. had been succeeded on his death by his
nephew, who hved a scandalous and licentious life
under the name of Benedict IX. Southern Italy was
still contended for by the Saracens, the Greeks, the
Duke of Naples, Pandulph, Prince of Capua, who had
been restored by Conrad, and the Normans, whose
martial colony, that defended by turn the feeble states
around, became masters of its most fertile parts, and
founded at three leagues from the indolent city of
Naples, and in view of Sicily, the strong town of Averse.
Detained at home by intestine divisions, by the wars
against the Poles and the Slaves, and lastly by the
difficult and contested struggle to unite the kingdom
of Burgundy to Gerraany, Conrad passed eight years
without re-visiting Italy, and without interfering in its
affairs except by decrees of feudal suzerainty and by
religious donations.
In this interval the Margrave Boniface, Duke of
Tuscany, had become celebrated for- his justice and his
magnificence. He had just married a princess who was
alhed to the Imperial faraily, Beatrice, daughter of
Frederic, Duke of Upper Lorraine, and thus his con
nection with the empire seeraed to be strengthened and
his power increased.
The only opposition against which the Emperor had
to contend was in Lorabardy, against his vassal the
Archbishop Aribert, whose services he had forgotten,
and whose power he desired to abridge. Having entered
Italy with a new array, Conrad went from Brixena
to Milan, where he did not hesitate to despoU the

222 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
Archbishop of the right of investiture to the see of
Lodi, which he had bestowed upon him. Milan mur
mured at this affront offered to her religious head, and
Conrad, fearing the consequences, dragged the Arch
bishop to Pavia, where he had convoked a Diet, caused
him to be put under arrest, refused his liberation to
the deputies sent by Milan, and placed hira in the
keeping of the Patriarch of Aquilea and the Margrave
of Verona. The Archbishop escaped, nevertheless, and
re-entered Milan, where, at the head of the enthusiastic
population, in arras, he from the top of its walls repelled
the Emperor's army, which had been summoned in haste
from Ravenna.
At MUan, as at Pavia, the Germans dared not under
take a prolonged siege; but they fell on the lands of
the ch&.teaux in the neighbourhood, and being worsted
in a vigorous sortie of the inhabitants, they withdrew
to Cremona; while the bold Archbishop, meditating the
deposition of the king he had crowned, made an offer
of Italy to a French prince, Eudes, Count of Cham
pagne, an enemy of the Eraperor, with whom he had
disputed the possession of the kingdom of Burgundy.
Forsaken by Milan, Conrad had a twofold motive for
seeking support at Rome ; but there we see once more
to what extent the servitude or the vices of the later
popes had weakened the exterior power of the Roman
Pontificate. Having been driven from the papal chair
by a conspiracy of sorae Roman nobles, who fell on
hira, armed, at the very foot of the altar, Benedict IX.
had fled to Cremona. The Eraperor gave him welcome
there, and taking him with hira through the subject
territory of Tuscany, he conducted hira without let or

RESISTANCE OF THE ARCHBISHOP OF MILAN. 223
hmdrance to Rorae, to pronounce from the pontifical
chair the deposition of the Archbishop of MUan, and
to consecrate a successor to his see.
But the prelate thus excomraunicated and deposed
by the Pope, reraained, "all the same, at the head of his
Church and people, and the Emperor, master of Rome,
could do nothing against Milan. After a brief expedi
tion into Apulia, where, having protected the monas
tery of Monte Cassino against Pandulph, he bestowed
the duchy of Capua on the Prince of Salerno, and con
firmed the Normans in their possessions, Conrad
returned to Gerraany, leaving to his great vassals in
Lombardy the care of carrying on the war against the
Archbishop of Milan. A German chronicler relates
that Conrad, being repulsed from Milan, had hiraself
crowned in a little church without the city, where the
ceremony was interrupted by a violent storm, and that
in the midst of the thunder and lightning, which struck
terror into the asserably. Saint Arabrose appeared
menacing the Prince, and coraraanding him to quit
Italy, Aribert, intrenched in a strong and wealthy
rity, and surrounded by the nuraerous vassals of the
Church, defended himself bravely. In the frequent
sorties of his men, there was seen for the first time that
warhke symbol winch afterwards became so celebrated
m Lombardy, the Caroccio ; this chariot, whence rose a
mast surmounted by a golden ball, bore suspended two
white banners, with a cross upon them. The arch
bishop devised this gage of battle to increase the ardour
of his people ; and many times during the siege, the
Caroccio was brought back into the city in triumph by
the brave men who had defended it.

224 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
An unexpected event strengthened this resistance, and
delivered Milan. Sudden news came ofthe death of the
Emperor and the succession of his son, who had already
been crowned King of Gerraany and of the Two Bur
gundies. On the receipt of this intelligence,' the
Lombard chiefs who, in order to minister to Conrad's
resentment, had besieged the Archbishop Aribert, dis
persed their troops, and withdrew. The Archbishop
was not the less disposed, in consequence, to acknow
ledge the sovereignty of Henry, and even went to
Germany to offer him fidelity and homage as King of
Italy. But Aribert, reconciled to the king of Germany,
and secure of peace without the city, soon found he had
to face great dangers in the disturbed state of Mdan
itself Up to that time, and during his resistance to
Conrad, he had found his greatest support in the notables
of Milan, that is to say, those who, under the title of
valvasseurs, or esquires, possessed fiefs, great or small,
in the surrounding country. This powerful class, to
which was joined the nobles without fortune, and some
of the burgesses who owned free lands, carried all before
it. The people had joined it ; and the trial it had made
of its own strength in combating for the Archbishop had
given it confidence in itself, and arrayed it against the
domination of the great nobles and the rich.
The traders and craftsmen, of which MUan was full,
united with the raass of the people^ and turned against
the Milanese aristocracy the arms they had used for the
defence of their walls.
The Archbishop endeavoured to interpose in vain.
After sorae serious encounters in the town, the nobles
were forced to fly with their families and supporters,

DEATH OF CONRAD. HENRY III. 225
and to quarter theraselves in sorae of the fortified
castles in the neighbourhood ; and the Archbishop,
deeply deploring this civil war, w^hich it was not in his
power to stem, left Milan with them. They infested
its borders and exhausted its resources by continued
hostilities ; but the city was not discouraged, and held
out against this new siege two years. But one of its
own chiefs, seeing the ruin of his fellow-citizens,
repaired to Germany to ask the assistance of Henry,
and offered to receive a German garrison in Milan.
Henry, who had as yet done little to assert his kingship
of Italy, eagerly seized this opportunity, and promised
to defend the people of Milan against the Archbishop
and the nobles. But the Milanese captain who had
thus negociated for the entry of the foreigners into his
native city, repented before they came ; and on his
return to his own pieople, without waiting for the 4,000
German horsemen that had been promised, he hastened
to treat with the party of the nobles, and opened to
them the gates of the city, when they resumed posses
sion oftheir palaces and their honours, with the consent
of the people, who in their hate, still preferred their
presence to that of the foreign soldiers.
In this mutiny, the nobles and people of Milan . did
not disavow the sovereignty of the King of Germany,
but they maintained the freedom of their city, and
craved the assistance of a foreign garrison. For the
rest, one of Henry's feudatories, a German by descent,
named Albert Ason, held the title of Marquis and Count
of Milan, and came often to hold a soleran court, in which
he inflicted fines, to the benefit of the imperial chamber.
The death of the Archbishop Aribert, a few months
VOL. I. Q

226 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
after his re-entry into Milan, greatly, increased the
authority of the King of Germany. The clergy and
people of the city had, as was customary, selected four
candidates for the succession, from whom the king was
to choose, and who, all being ecclesiastical dignitaries,
even took the title of cardinal, according also to the
custom of the Church of Milan, the rival of Rome.
Neither ofthe four were nominated. The Kingj chose
an obscure priest of the Milanese, Guy of Velata, one
of the secretaries at his court, and immediately de
spatched him to Lombardy, where, with the support i of
the nobles, who were anxious to strengthen themselves
against the people by the help of the royal authority,
Guy of Velata succeeded in taking his place; at the head
of the haughty Chapter of Milan.
The Church of Rome, meantime, under the pontificate
of Benedict IX., was more corrupt and disturbed, than
ever. The Pope, who, to use the expression of one of
his successors, lived like Epicurus, and not like a
pontiff,^ trafficked in the bulls of the Church, in order
to satisfy his pleasures, while, at the same time, he
basely favoured the designs of the King of Germany.
Bribed by the presents of the Patriarch of Aquilea, he
put under his authority the Church of Grado, which
equally enjoyed the title of Patriarchate, and fonned
jjart of the free territory of Venice. The city of Grado
resisted, and the Patriarch of Aquilea, having attacked
it. with troops, established his right of Metropolitan-
only by the pillaging of the lands, and then burning
the churches. The Doge of Venice and the Patriarch
* Voluptati deditus, ut Epicurus magis quam ut pontifex vivere'maluit.
— Victoria Papce Dialog, lib. iii.

THE TIARA SOLD BY BENEDICT IX. 227
of Grado thereupon wrote in the strongest terms to
{Benedict IX, ; and that Pope, in a council held at
Rome, revoked as being surreptitious the decree which
he had sold for money, and condemned the Patriarch of
Aquilea to restore all he had usurped, under pain of
excommunication. A new rising took place in Rome,
Benedict IX. was deprived ofthe Pontificate, and John,
Bishop of 'Sabinum, was elected in his stead, under the
name of Sylvester III. But Benedict, supported by some
of the castellans of his family, carried on war around
Eome, and entered the city by force at the end of a
few months, expelling in his tum his rival, whom the
Church numbers among the anti-popes. Restored to
the Chair of St, Peter, Benedict IX, held his place but
a short time ; and knowing himself to be hated by the
Romans, whether he was influenced by the reproofs of
a holy man, Bartholomew, Abbot of la Grotte de fer, or
whether, rather, he was weary of the perils of the
Papacy, and preferred the pleasures and licence of a
private hfe, he sold the tiara for money, as he had sold
everything else.
A circumstance which proves how deep were the
wdunds of the Church of Rome, is that a worthy
man was ready to make a bargain with him, John
Gratian, arch-priest of the Church of Rome, esteemed
for his piety, and possessing great riches, purchased the
abdication of Benedict IX., with the proraise of his
support in securing the purchaser's succession. So that
simony alone delivered the pontificate out ofthe unworthy
hands in which it was dishonoured. There remained,
it IS true, the imperial power, the German domina
tion, which any day might re visit Italy anew, and
a 2

228 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
either correct or increase the disorder in the Roman
Church. But now, instead of continuing the history of general
events, it is tirae to cast our eyes over the crowd, and
seek the man who is to represent in his own person the
suprerae sovereignty of the Middle Ages, and who is to
be at once the austere reformer of the priesthood and
the ambitious champion of the Church. He has already
been born in Italy ; he has dwelt obscurely under the
shadow of the tomb of Peter ; and his existence is to be
absorbed in the vicissitudes of ttte suprerae pontificate,
to which he has been long and slowly drawing near,
before he fills it, and astonishes the world.
The life of Hildebrand, under that name and that of
Gregory VIL, will comprehend not only the contem
porary history of the Church during half a century, but
the fore-shewing and figure of its subsequent historj^.

mSTOEY'Or GEEGOEY VIL

231

BOOK I.
1020—1055.
The man who became so famous under the narae of
Gregory VII. was, like the greater nuraber of those
who attained eminence in the Church, of obscure
origin. The date of his birth, even, is not exactly
known; but we may place it between the years 1015
and 1020. He first saw the light at Soano, a small
town of Tuscany, where his father, who was named
Bonic or Bonizon, followed the trade of a carpenter.
The son of the carpenter at Soano received at his
baptism the German narae of Hildebrand, raodified by
the Italian pronunciation to Hellebrand, which has
been translated by his contemporaries, ' pure flame,' or
' brand of hell,' according to the affection or detestation
by which the writer was actuated. The admirers of
the Pontiff further related how that the virtue of this
name had been often attested by prodigies, or, as they
called them, visions of fire. According to the legend,
sparks of fire were seen to come frora his clothes when
he was a child, and when older, a larabent flame had
endrcled his head, and he himself relates that he
often saw, in a dream, a flame going out of his
mouth, and setting the world on fire. For our part,
the name of Hildebrand would lead us to suppose that
the powerful avenger of conquered Italy, who was

232 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
to inflict such chastisement on Germany, descended
from the conquering race.
In subsequent tiraes, sorae learned writers endeavoured
to connect the name of Hildebrand with the ancient
seigneurial family of the Aldobrandini. Nothing could
be more futile or less true. In 1073, when Hildebrand,
who had been long great and celebrated in the Church,
at last took his rightful place in the Chair of St. Peter,
Williara Wallon, Abbot of the Monastery of St. Arnulph,
at Metz, wrote to hira these remarkable words: —
' Divine wisdom, so wonderful in all its dispensations,
never more usefully promotes things huraan than when,
choosing a man from the people, it places him at the
head of his nation, as an example whose life and con
duct shew whither their efforts should tend.'^
In this statement and this argument of an unanswer
able witness, addressing Hildebrand himself, we have
the clearest evidence of the opinion of his contem
poraries as to the obscurity of the Pontiff's birth^ and
that this opinion was well founded. We also recognise
in it the fruitful principle of religious democracy which
vivified the Church, and which, as a secondary cause,
was, after faith, the secret of its power.
Its influence is noticeable even in the fables which
long clung round the lowly cradle of Gregory VII.
We are told that when he was a little chUd, not know
ing as yet how to read, he was playing by the side.' of
hie father's work-bench with the bits of wood that lay

' Sapientia Dei nunquam commodius consulit rebus humanis quam cum
oligens virum de 2'l<'be populi eum sui caput constituit, in cujus vita et
moribus quo intendenduni sit plebs inferior valeat intueri. — Aptld Aet.
Sanct. Maii, vol. ^¦i. p. 103.

PARENTAGE OF HILDEBRAND. 233
around, and that he disposed them so as to form these
words of one of the Psalras — ' Dominabor a mari
usque ad mare.' A pripst who was present, immediately
assured the artisan that his son would become pope.
The same legend adds, with more probability, that as
the young Hildebrand possessed remarkable intelligence,
his father was advised to let him follow letters. Letters
in those -days meant the Church.
The carpenter of Soano had a brother, or at least a
relative, who was abbot of the Monastery of St. Mary,
onMount Aventine. Taken thither betimes, HUdebrand
learned in that retreat the liberal arts and moral dis-
dpline, as the phrase was. It was an immense advan
tage to study at Rome, where, in spite of schisms and
disturbances, there existed more learning and refine-
ffient than in any other city of the West. The famUiar
use of the Latin language, the rules of rhetoric and
dialectics, the reading of holy books, including some of
the Fathers, the ritual, and chanting, doubtless comprised
Ihe whole ofthe teaching, in St. Mary's; but it breathed
the very spirit of the Roman Church, and, to use the
words of a pope, Hildebrand was nourished from his
childhood in the house of St. Peter.^ He was the
pupil of John Gratian, an archpriest of the Roman
Church, an eminent and learned raan, who was after
wards pope under the name of Gregory VL, and whom
'he always spoke of as his lord and master.
Moreover, whoever throughout the world possessed
any eminence for learning or holiness, was in communi
cation with liome, and gravitated towards it. Many
Ab ineunte cetate in domo Sancti Petri est enutrilue. — A2nid Acta Sanc-
'"I'liiii Mali, vol. vi. p. 105.

234 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
bishops and heads of religious orders came thither in
turn, and wore hospitably received in the monasteries.
The Convent of St. Mary was thus often visited by
Lawrence, Bishop of Amalfi, a man well versed iii'
Greek, and renowned for his piety, though be was-
afterwards accused of having taught young Hildebrand
the magic arts that had gone down from the Pope
Sylvester II. Another celebrated foreigner, Odilon,
Abbot of Cluny, an intimate friend of Lawrence, also
made a prolonged stay at the Convent of St. Mary, at
each of his visits to Rome, edifying the Roraan monks
by his example. Whether in consequence of the power-'
ful attraction of this example, or of the reciprocS,!'
hospitality existing between the two monasteries,-'
Hildebrand, in his early youth, set out for France, in
order, says a contemporary, to subdue the impetuosity
of the flesh by the fatigues of travel and the eager pur
suit of learning.^
Under the name of France was included the Duchy
of Burgundy, which had become the special inheritance
of the younger branch of the house of Capet, and where
for a century past had flourished the celebrated house
of Cluny.
Founded in 910 by some Monks ofthe Order of St.
Benedict, to whora William, Count of Auvergne and
Duke of Aquitaine, left by will an estate which he
possessed in the county of Macon, the Monastery of
Cluny, exempt by its privileges from all ecclesiastical

' Jam vero adolescentiara ingrpssus, ^rofectus est in Franciam domituru^
inibi cavnis petulantiam et molostia peregrinationis et instantia eruditionis. ,
— Apud Acta Sanct. Maii, vol. vi. p. 113.

HIS EDUCATION AT ROME AND CLUNY. 235
jurisdiction but that of the Pope,^ had risen rapidly.
The fervour of a new foundation was joined to the
at^sterity of the rule • of St. Benedict ; and at Cluny
there ejEisted no trace of the liberty common in many
of the religious ihouses in the tenth century ; prayer
and manual labour succeeded each other so continuously,
that even in the longest summer days the brethren had
scarcely half an hour for rest or conversation.^
Notwithstanding this severity, nearly all the monks
were laymen, in conformity with the spirit of the
fovtjjdation of St. Benedict, who himself was not a
priest, and who says in his rule, 'If a priest shall desire
to be admitted into the monastery, be in no haste to
receive him.' But this exclusion of priests was only
dictated by the high estimate of the holiness of such a
state, and by the desire to carry out the more
rigorously a rule which was so stringent as to the
employment of every moraent, that it could with diffi
culty be followed together with the office of the priest
hood. By a fortunate combination of circumstances, of
common occurrence in the Church, many abbots,
eminent for their zeal and the authority they possessed
over the minds of others, seemed to exercise a con
tinuous attraction on those who subsequently becarae
their successors as heads of the monastery. The work
of ithe sage Otho had been carried out under Aimar,
Sit illud mobasterium cum omnibus rebus immune et liberum a
dominatu cujuscumque legis aut e^iacoTpl—B iblioth. Clunic.
Tanta erat in servandi oixiinis jugitate prolixitas, ut in ipso Cancri,
wve Leonis estu, cum longiores sunt dies, vix per totum diem unius salten^
vacari't bon-c dimidium, quo fratiibus in claustro licuissit miscore colloquium.
—hetri Damiwii, Opera, p. 213.

236 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
who was blind and aged, but whose inteUigence and
will had lost none of their vigour, and who was followed
by Maieul, as successful in winning the favour of kings
as in governing a cloister. Maieul, seeing his monast-
tery well settled in its rule, had sought to extend its
authority over others. The Emperor Otho placed the '
royal monasteries of Germany and Italy under it:
the Emperor Henry I., as we have seen, sent to Cluny
the golden globe, surmounted by a cross of gold,
which he received on the day of his coronation in
Rome, from the Pope, Benedict VIII.
On the death of Maieul, whose obsequies Hugh Capet ;
followed on foot, the monastery had chosen as his
successor, his disciple Odilon, in whom the capacity for
governing was united to the most indulgent disposition,
a man possessed of a lofty nature, severe in judging '¦
himself, tender towards others, and if ever he was taxed
with this, he used to reply, 'If I am to be damned,!
would rather it should be for excess of pity than for
the lack of it.'^
Through all the wonderful stories of the time we can
trace this raan's active and beneficial labours for a space
of fifty years. Age and toil at last undermined his
strength, and he was delayed so long in Rome by a
dangerous illness that he thought he should behold his
beloved monastery no more. But when he did return
thither, he found all things in the raost perfect ordef,'
as though they had been governed by an invisible
^ Tam plus erat, et tanta nioerentibus humanitate compatiens, ut nequa
quam districtum patris imperium sed maternum potius exbiberet aftectuioi:
unde se reprebendentibus hujusmodi verbis solebat eleganter alludere;
Etiam.ii damnandus sum, inquit, malo tamen de misericordia quam et duriua,
vel crudelitate damnari. — Pietr. Damian, Oper. vol. ii. p. 16.

CLUNY. 237
influence, study and agriculture in turn employing the
jbrethren, and a celebrated school attached to the
mpnastery; a,nd, says a chronicler, in that school the
c4ild?^en .received the sarae education as the sons of
kings in their fathers' palaces.
.fiWhatever was the exact age of the young Hilde
brand iftt the time he arrived at Cluny, he could not
lajl to be singularly impressed by the exaraple of
fervour and rigid discipline which this great foundation
offered ; he there saw monastic power at the height of
its glory, and in all its excellence.
The sovereign of a country that had been Christian
ized a. century earlier, Casimir, the son of Mecislas, being
driven out of. Poland, became, in 1034, a novice at
Qlljny. The Polish nobles, having changed their
minds after many troubles, resolved to recall their
king to the throne. Their envoys came to Cluny to
fetch him ; but Casimir replied that he was no longer
his own master, and that so far from being at liberty to
reign, he did not possess even that of speaking to them
without the permission of his abbot. Odilon, being
pressed by the entreaties of the Polish deputies, de-
iQlftred in his turn that he had not the power of per
mitting a professed monk to quit the monastery, and
sent them to the Pope.
, Benedict IX., after much entreaty, authorised Cluny
|q give up their king to the Poles, on condition that
he should continue to wear his raonk's habit, and that
his subjects, which probably meant only those about
the monarch, should have their hair shaven like monks,
and should at all the soleran feasts wear priests' stoles
during the celebration of mass, — remarkable stipulations.

238 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII,
which, in the spirit of the Roman Church, tended less
to make Casimir king, than to keep him a monk la,t
Cluny when on the throne.
Rich presents to Cluny attested the gratitude of the
crowned monk ; and a colony of the Order went to
Poland to found new monasteries there.
According to all appearances, Hildebrand passed
many years from that tirae at Cluny. A contempbra'i'j/
tells us that the abbot applied to hira the words of St.
John, ' This child shall be great before the Lord.'^
There he strengthened hiraself in the severe discipline
of which his ardent soul had need, and there he formed
those intimate ties with the great and powerful Order 'of
St. Benedict, among whose members he afterwards foUlid'
his most faithful allies. We do not know whether he
terminated his noviciate and made his profession, at St.
Mary or at Cluny ; but what is certain from the'
evidence of his whole life is, that from his youth he
was indeed a monk, and that he passed through all the
tests and practised all the duties of that vocation in
which obedience fits for command. We may find
further proof of this in the words of a contemporary,''
who, eulogising his meraory at the end of the eleventh
century, says, 'The monks wept for him; for he was
known to be a monk.'^
It appears, nevertheless, that a restless desire of
activity, and wish to raix in worldly affairs, early led
the young Hildebrand to leave the monastery where
' Scintillarum visionem ssepius ostensam penitus in eo Cluniacensis
monasterii pater fertur adnotasse, atque illud Beatifici Johannis Baptistse :
Iste puer magnus erit coram Domino.
'^ Hunc monachi deflent, monachus quia noscitur esse. — (Doniz, apud
Murat. vol. v. p. 368.) *

JOURNEY TO GERMANY. 239
he .hfd.tjfained his faculties for the encounter; for the
Saxon chronicles relate that while still very young he
came to the German Court; that he was one of
Henry's secretaries ; that he even assisted in his son's
education ; that he often played and often quarrelled
with the royal child ; but that the Emperor, who
was, at first pleased at this intimacy, was warned in a
dream that, it bpded, ill for the future. One night, says
the old legend, he saw in his sleep Hildebrand, out of
whose he^d sprang two horns, pointing to heaven; and
that, be struck with one of those, the young Henry, who
was ,ae^ted at the royal table, and so cast him into the
mire. The Empress being told the dream, exclaimed
that the young clerk would one day be pope, and would
deprive her son Henry of his throne. Whereupon the
Einperor imraediately caused Hildebrand to be im
prisoned in a strong castle, from which he was released^
at the Empress's entreaty after a year of captivity.
¦ This story neither agrees with dates nor facts.
Henry III. was married to Agnes of Aquitaine in
1042.' His son was not born till eight years after
wards, and he died leaving him not quite five years of
age. The child, then, could not, .during his father's
hfctime, have been of an age either to play with Hilde^
brand or to have lessons from hira. This tradition,
none the less, points to a journey taken by Hildebrand
to the German Court, possibly at the time of Henry's
marriage, when that Prince went in state to visit his
Prorince of Burgundy, there to receive his bride
' Henricus imperator duxit uxorem kal. Nov  (Chron. Mon S. Albani
Andoganensia ad aim. 1043). Desponsavit in civitate Chrysopolitana, quse
vulgo Vesontio vocatur,— (G/aiflc, lib. iv. ch. i.) '

240 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
Agnes, whora he soon after caused to be crowned at
Mayence.' hiji i
The Monastery of Cluny, so sedulously protected by
Otho the -Great, Conrad, and Henry IL, could not
possibly have been indifferent to this royal union,
which was celebrated with so much pomp in a neigh
bouring province, a dependency of the erapire. . The
customs of the age aUow us to imagine the young
Hildebrand making one of a deputation to the. Em
peror. The raonks of Cluny preached, though'^ not
priests. Henry IIL, who, according to the pohcy of
the Gerraan Emperors who had become masteriS; of
Italy, was brought up in the familiar use of the
Latin tongue, and took delight in reading holy books,
•must have been desirous of hearing a young monk
from Rome, who was the admiration of Cluny for the
ardour of his faith. Henry did really say that he had
never heard anyone who preached so boldly the Word
of God ; and Hildebrand on his side, when Pope,
declared that he had formerly been distinguished by
special favour among all the Italians received at the
palace.^ We may be pretty sure, moreover, that Hildebrand,
who, like all raen of genius, seeras to have conceived in
his youth the designs to which he afterwards gave
effect, was anxious to draw near the oppressors of his
' Quamvis nunc teneat per te Burgundia pacem, '
Auctorem pads tamen in te cernere queerit,
Et cupit in regis sua lumina pascere vultu.
— Carmen ad Henricttm regem apud Canisiuni.
^ Post aliquot annos Romam rediturus, nioram fecit aliquantum temporis
in aula Henrici III. Hinc ipse imperator aiebat nunquam se audisse
hominem cum tanta fiducifl Verbum Dei preedicantem. — Vita Sanct. Oreg.
Auctor. P. Bern, apud Act. Sanct. vol. vi. p. 114.

CONDITION OF THE CHCRCH OF ROME. 241
Church tod country as soon as he was able, and to
study in Germany what he was one day to fight
against in Italy. From the time the Germans had
invaded Italy, the Itahans under their yoke had been
in some respects like the Greeks under the power of
the Turks, hating them and serving them, and some-
tiines leading them, and all the more easily, because
the conformity of religion, gave Italian address a greater
ascendency over the rudeness of the conquerors.
^'Whatever were the details and duration of this first
journey to Germany, Hildebrand re-crossed the moun-
¦tains, and returned to Rome. Ardent, stirring, zealous
for the reform of manners, he there made himself raany
enemies, and determined to take a second journey to
France or Germany. He set out, but when at some
distance from Rome, at Orvietto, he thought he saw
St. Peter in a dreara, calling him back, and he
returned. The Roman Church at that time had reached the
acm^ of confusion and disorder. Besides Benedict, the
original and, be it said, the legitimate Pope, but
stained with crime, had arisen two unlawful pontiffs,
who divided Rome with him. Benedict IX. officiated
in Saint John Lateran ; Sylvester III. in Saint Peter's ;
and John XX. in St. Mary's.
In spite of the ignorance of the age, the faith of the
people was shocked at this spectacle. The most fearful
disorder reigned throughout Italy ; the roads were in
fested with brigands, and the pilgrims molested and
robbed. A portion .of the possessions of the Church, in the
neighbourhood of Rome, was invaded by the seigneurs
VOL. I. E

242 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
and chiefs of the arraed bands, who professed eitheri to
attack or to defend one of the three popes.) Rome
was daily filled with robberies and murders ; andithe
offerings which from tirae imraemorial had been laid
on the altar, and the tombs of the martyrsy were
instantly carried off, sword in hand, by men who spent
their plunder in feasts and orgies with courtesans. ,
A species of Paganism still existed among, many: of
the ignorant, who readily accepted the numberlesSt
current stories of magic and magicians. The menus
ments, temples, and statues, once dedicated to the
gods, which met the eyes at every step in Rome, and
all over Italy, though powerless to revive the loveiof
the arts, perpetuated a confused recollection of thei
heathen past, and stUl peopled with pagan phantoms
the Christian world of the Middle Ages. Then too,
many priests were set down as magicians, for in the
eyes of the vulgar, learning and magic were synony
mous, and the advanced students of religion necessarily
acquired learning.
Hence many wonderful accounts of extraordinary pro
digies came into circulation in the City of the Apostles.!
Sorae of these polytheistic legends, which have been
-preserved in the old Latin chronicles, offer, by the
licentiousness of their detaUs, the strangest contrast' to
the pure raaxiras of the faith with which they were
contemporary. It would seem that the remains of the
corruptions of the heathen world were stUl seething,
despite the light of Christianity, and became more active
when that light, dimmed by the vices and ignorance
of the clergy, cast but feeble and uncertain rays. This^
was the state of things which, in the interests of society

SUPERSTITIOUS BELIEFS. 243
Mid' religion, imperatively called for the presence ofa
jTsat reformer at the head of the Roman Church. The
following was one of the stories current at the time we
areibpeaking'of : —
, A young Roman, rich, noble, and but lately married,
went to amuse himself with sorae friends in the vast
area of the Coliseum ; they were about to begin to
play at ball, and he, taking off his wedding ring, placed
it on a finger of the statue of Venus.^ When the
game was finished, he went to take his ring, but he
fffliimd the statue's hand closed, and no efforts of his
could either break it or remove the ring. "He said
nothing of this to his companions, and went away very
thoughtful ; but he came back at night with a servant.
The hand of the statue was open, and the finger out
stretched; but the ring was gone.
I He returned home, but when lying beside his young
wife, he found between her and himself a palpable, but
iliiVisible obstacle. He tried to remove it, but a voice
said : ' Thou art mine, for thou hast wedded me ; I am
Venus ; on my finger thou hast placed thy marriage
ring, and I wUl not give it back.' The young man,
night after night, found the same obstacle in the nuptial
couch. The young wife told her parents ; and theyt
related the circumstances to a priest, named Palumbus,
who was a great magician.^ He declined at first to
KomiB quidam juvenis divus valde, nobilis et notabilis, qui noviter
Morem duxerat, &c. &c., annulum suum desponsationis transactas de suo
fligito extraxit et digito imaginis Veneris in statua stantis extento imposuit.
I -^Herman. Comm, Chron. apud Eckard, vol. ii. p. 688.
BpDsit quiddam nebulosum inter se et uxorem suam volutari . . . .
tv^ ^^o^s cujus digito annulum imposuisti, ilium nee reddam.— /6«rf.
ralumbo presbytero, necromantico magtio, negotium asseruerunt.— JZi'rf.
E 2

244 HISTORY OF Gregory vii. '¦
have anything to do with the affair ; but bribed by
rich presents, he at last gave the young man a letter,
saying to him, ' Go thou this night to the great cro^fe
road of Rome, and look on in silence. There will pass
before thine eyes a multitude of women and children,
of aU ages and conditions, some on foot, some on horse^
back, some raerry, others sad ; behind this crowd will
come a car, with a figure of gigantic size seated thereon ;
giver hira this letter, and thou shalt have thy will.'
All happened as the priestly magician had foretold, and
among those who passed by, the young man saw a
woman habited as a courtesan, whose flowing hair fell
from a golden band over her bare shoulders, and she
directed with a golden rod the movements of the milk-
white mule she rode. The towering figure, whose car
closed the procession, fixed his eyes on the young
Roman, and asked what he desired. The young man
handed him the letter without speaking. The demon
(for it was one) knew the seal, and cried out, ' Oh,
Almighty God, how long wUt thou suffer the priest
Palumbus to work iniquity? '^ He then sent one ofhis
attendants to demand the ring from Venus, who relin
quished it with great regret. The young man from
that day forth found no obstacle to his happiness 5 but,
adds the chronicle, the priest magician, being cursed by
the demon, whose rule he had thwarted, died miserably.
This story was credited in Rome in the year 1046. •
Meantime, the pontifical triumvirate, which inflicted
on the Romans aU the evils of tyranny and civil war
united, had becorae so intolerable, that many of them
' Daemon notum sibi sigillum non audens contemnere  ' Dsus
inquit,' omnipotens, quando patieris nequitias presbyteri Palumbi ?—^IHd.

hildebrand attaches himself TO GREGORY VI. 245
cafeti their eyes tQwa>rds those Emperors of Germany,
formerly .so h^^ful. , Existing predictions foretold
their return,. ^.nd, the following, that had been written
byffi holy hernnit : — , .,
, ' Henry, Emperor, yic9,r of the Most High, the vine
ofthe Shun?vniite,;h?is wedded three husbands: come
ithou and dissolve this monstrous union.'
Such was the confusion and opprobrium which young
Hildebrand found in the Church of Rome when he
iquitted the peaceful and pious retreat of Cluny. One
man only, John, Gratian, the archpriest, strove to make
faiiy effort to arrest the tide of evil by his influence
over, the people. As he possessed great' riches, and at
the same time great zpal for the Church of Rome, he
proposed, in order to deliver it from its three tyrants,
.togive.ittem, if they would abdicate, more money than
they could procure by rapine, the resources of which
iwere beginning to fail. By a strange stipulation, he
even promised to Benedict IX. the continuance of the
i right to receive the tribute of Peter's pence, which
Jipgland ,paid to the Holy See. Having, on these
conditions, obtained the abdication ofthe three com
petitors, Gratian was elected Pope under the name of
Gregory yi., and justified his elevation by his vhtues.
• ' The young Hildebrand was destined to be the
prot%e,of this pontiff, who had known him from in
fancy, and who appeared likely to be the reformer of
the; Roman clergy. He was chosen as one of his
chaplains, though he was then only a sub-deacon, and
¦always caUed him his lord and master. In order to
put an end to existing contentions, and to the violence
and robbery committed in Rome, Gregory VL had

246 history of Gregory vii.
re-established the courts of justice, and the infliction
of capital punishment. At the sarae time, in order' to
have the mastery over the seigneurs who had usurped
the lands of the Church, he collected arms and raised
troops, and retook by force all that the excommuni
cations did not cause to be restored. The enemiek
which this firmness raised up, and the people of Rome
also, wfio preferred licence to exercise of authority,
accused the pontiff of cruelty and of consecrating the
host with blood-stained hands.
Meantime the emperor, Henry III., displeased that a
Pope should have been elected without asking" his
consent, crossed the mountains in 1046 and came to
Milan to convoke a council. He went thence to Pia
cenza, where the pontiff presented hunself before him,
and was received with honour ; and he advanced
towards Rome without revealing his designs, assured
beforehand of the obedience of a divided population
taken by surprise.
Having reached Sutri, in the territory of the Church,
Henry obliged the Pope to call a council there, in which
should forthwith sit the bishops of Germany and Lom
bardy he had brought with him.^
It was his own trial for which Gregory was to make
preparation. Accused of simony in this assembly, he
replied that h:s life had been pure, and that his motives
were holy; that, having amassed great riches, bethought
he was at liberty to employ them in taking the ponti
fical election out of the hands of the Roman patriciate

' Quem rex Henricus, collecto episcoporum conventu a pontifieatu pro
nota simonite, ccdere pursuasit. — (Ottonis Frisgentis Chronicon, p. 126.)

CLEMENT II. 247
and restoring it to the people and the clergy.^ But
this excuse could not be accepted in a councU over
which the Emperor presided. The reply to Gregory
Tvas that he had been deluded by an artifice of the
deril, and that nothing venal could be holy. He then
hummed himself, and laying aside his pontifical orna
ments pronounced his own sentence: 'I, Gregory,
servant of the servants of God, . acknowledging the
odious taint of simoniacal heresy which has secured
ray election, declare myself to have forfeited the Roman
episcopate.' J, iThe council confirmed this forced abdication, and
,|Ienry was free to dispose of the tiara. He desired to
];^estow it on a man of his own nation, and a dependant.
The canons forbid the raising to the See of Rome any
iWho had not been ordained priest and deacon in that
Church ; but the Emperor easily eluded that regu
lation. Having entered Rome at the head of his knights, he
convoked to Saint Peter's the cardinals, priests, and
senators, and there demanded whether they knew of
anyone in the Church of Rome that was worthy to
rule over it. Such was the terror of all asserabled
that they dared not reply, and, in the silence that
followed, Henry nominated his Chancellor, Suidgers,
bishop of Bamberg.^
• Suidgers being proclaimed without opposition, was
Nihil melius putabat esse quam electionem clero et populo per tyran-
mdem patritiorum injuste sublatam his pecuniis xesta.uraTe.— (Apud Script.
SmmBoic. lib. Bounonis, p. 802.)
Gratiano rex Henricus Suidgerum Babembergenaem episcopum, qui et
plemens consensu RomaniB ecclesiee substituit. — (Ottonis Frisgens. Cftron.
p.125.)

248 history of Gregory vii.
soleranly enthroned on Christmas Day, in the name of ^
Clement II. , and performed the ceremony of crowding
Henry and his queen Agnes.
After .having made many military expeditions into
the Roman Campagna, confirming the obedience to the
empire everywhere, and exacting from some of the
Roman chiefs in Apulia payment for confinnatipnj of
their investitures, Henry quitted Rome, carrying- with
hira both the Pope he had nominated and the one he
had deposed. Hildebrand who, in the condemna/t^<gi
of Gregory VI. for simoniacal heresy, saw nought but
the oppression of Italy by a foreign master, shared
this Pope's exile. ^ ' You know,' said he, long after,; in
a council of Rome, ' how that, ceding to force, I crossed
the raountains with the lord Pope Gregory.' He did
follow him to the banks of the Rhine, where the
dethroned pontiff died at the end ofa few months.^
Hildebrand then returned to live as a monk at
Cluny, and, in the words of a contemporary, to philo
sophize among the pious sohtaries. According to some
accounts, he became prior of the house, at any rate; he
was held in high esteem there for his zeal and his
talents. Meantime, the new Pope, the emperor's chancellor,
died in his master's palace, about the same time as
Gregory VL, nine months after his elevation.
Henry then selected another prelate of his court,
Pappo, Bishop of Brixena, and despatched him, en-
' Quem secutus est Deo amabilis Hildebrandus volens erga dominum
suam exhibere reverentiam. Nam antea suus fuerat capeUanus. — (Apud
Script Rerum Boic. lib. Bourzonis, p. 862 )
' Antea fuerat suus capeUanus .... ad ripas Rheni morbo
correptus intferiit. — (Bonrz. Sect. Ep. lib.)

NOMINATION OF BRUNO. 249
trusting Boniface, Margrave of Tuscany, with the care
of Conducting him to Rome, and having him enthroned
there. But the new Pope, who was proclaimed under
the name of Damasus II. , died twenty days afterwards
by the judgment of God, said the Itahans ; by poison,
m- the Germans declared ; and this belief gave their
ambition rather a distaste for the possession of this brief
and fatal pontificate.
'¦' The Romans sent a deputation to the Emperor in
Saxony to ask another Pope,* and Henry, finding the
bishops of the North of Germany afraid of the very
name of Italy, determined to consult others on a
Selection of suich importance. He set out then for
Worms, accompanied by the Roraan deputies. Thither,
among many bishops and seigneury of the Rhenish
provinces, he had summoned from Lorraine, Bruno,
bishop of Toul, who was allied to the Imperial family,
remarkable for his piety and possessed of a most
itilposing exterior. . The universal voice hailed him as
Pope. The Bishop, startled by such a proposal, at first
refused the honour, and for three days he fasted and
prayed, and even confessed himself aloud,^ declaring his
unworthiness. But he finally ceded to the Emperor's
will, and on accepting the burden, he looked around
for some assistance to help him to bear it.
Hildebrand had foUowed the Imperial Court. The
superior of Cluny, Odilon, had just died, and had been
succeeded by Hugh, a pious and eminent man, whose
' Saxoniam perguni .... orant sibi dari pontificem.— (^/jwd <Sm><.
Hertm Boiearum, vol. ii. p. 808.)
Spontaneam suam coram omnibus dixit confessionem,— (If^/6ertes,
lib. ii, ch. i.) ^ '

2,^)0 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
name we shall often meet with again in the course oi
this history. The young Hildebrand, who was per^
haps the bearer of some message from the new abbot,
had come to Worms,* where a decision of such irnpoy^-
ance to the Church was to be made. His talents and
piety were already celebrated, and Bishop Bruno
having summoned him to his presence, was struck by
his conversation, and proposed to take him with him to
Rome. 'I cannot go with you,' answered the young
monk. 'But why not?' asked the new Pope. 'Be
cause without canonical institution, and by the royal
and secular appointment alone, you are going to lay
hands on the See of Rome.' Struck by the utteranpe
of this profound conviction, the bishop intimated his
desire of satisfying aU the speaker's scruples, and by
his advice he announced to the assembly at Worms
and the Roman deputies, that he would go to Rome,
but would only accept the pontificate if he were freely
elected by the Roraan clergy and people. Then. after
having celebrated the feast at Christmas in his diocese,
he set out for Rome accompanied by Hildebrand.
Such is the simple and precise account of a contem
porary, who had heard these things from the lips of
Gregory VII. himself'^
Later on the chroniclers added their own colouring
to this authentic fact, and that colouring was generally
accepted. We are told that the Bishop Bruno, having
been overruled by the Eraperor, accepted the ponti-

' Erat ibi monachus Hildebrandus nomine, nobilis indolis adolescens,
clari ingenii, sanctseque religionis. — (Brunonis Astensis, vol. ii. p. 147.)
' Multa nobis Gregorius papa narrare solebat, a quo et ea qusedixi miigna
ex parte me audisse memini. — {Brvnon. Astens, q;; vol. ii. p. 147.)

HUMILITY OF BRUNO — INFLUENCE OF HILDEBRAND. 251
Icate, and set out on his journey with a long train of
attendants, and hiraself carrying the pallium and the
mitre; that passing by BesanQon, he had turned aside to
visit Cluny, where HUdebrand was then prior, that the
latter, fuU of zeal for the honour of God, addressed the
new Pope, reproving him severely in that he had in
the strength and protection of the secular power alone,
t^ken upon himself to govern the whole Church.^ And
that then, he promised so to manage if his counsel were
fdllowed, that the Imperial Majesty should not be
offended, and that the liberty of the Church should be
confirmed anew in the pontifical election. All that was
necessary was, that the Bishop of Toul should go to
Rome without any state, as if to visit the holy places.
The priests and people, impressed by such holiness,
and such respect on his part for the rights of the
Church, would not fail to elect him canonically forth
with. ' That so he should taste with a peaceful con
science the joy of having entered into the fold of
Jesus Christ by the door like the good shepherd, and
not by the window, like the robber in the Gospel.'
' They add, that moved by these words, the new Pope
dismissed his suite, and laying aside his pontifical orna
ments he took the pilgrim's wallet and staff, and so left
the monastery, and went on his way to Rome.^
In all these various histories we find asserted the
' Hildebrandus Leonem adieus, semulatione Dei plenus, constanter eum
inoepti redarguit, illicitum esse inquiens per manum laicum summum ponti-
flcem ad gubernationem totius Ecclesise violenter intrare. — (Otton, Frisgens.
Chrmt. p. 125.)
Inelinatus ilie ad monitum ejus, purpuram deposuit peregrinique
liabitum assumens, ducens secum Hildebrandum, iter carpit. — (Ibid.) '
Episcopus concilio acquiescens papalia deposuit insignia quse gestabat,
eumitque mcdlnm.— (Bonizon. Episc.)

252 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
influence exercised by young Hildebrand, and his belief
in the rights of the Church. Whether the new Pope
went to Cluny or not on quitting Germany, it is certain
that HUdebrand joined him and accompanied him to
Rome. When half way on their journey, which* was
performed slowly, he made known, by letter, the
ficruples of the German prelate to the Roman clergy,
and spoke of the reception he merited on account of
his piety.
Through the whole of this journey, which occupied
two raonths, the pontiff gave hiraself up wholly to
prayer and pious meditation. On one occasion, when
he was deep in prayer, he thought he heard the voices
of angels singing these words of the prophet: ' The
Lord hath said I have laid up things of peace and not
of judgraent. ^ Thou shalt call upon me, and I will
hear thee: and I will lead thee out of captivity.'
In the impression made on the fervent imagination of
the prelate by these words, and in the encouragemerit
his humility derived from thera, we may discover' the
tone of mind of every German prelate that was ever
named Pope ; their joy at throwing off the yoke, and
that they went to Rome with the certainty that' the
power there to be conferred upon them would achieve
their deliverance. In this way, hen, the newly-elected
Pope slowly travelled through Italy, drawing near to
the chair of Peter, as a pious pilgrim, and welcomed in
many places by crowds who came to see him pass by.
When he came near Rome he found the Tiber had over
flowed, and, as in the time of Horace, flooding a portion
\.
' Audivit voces angelorum cantantium : Dicit Dominus, Ego cogifo
cogitationes pacis ct non afflictionis.— (&V?ei. Gembl.)

BRUNO ENTHRONED AS LEO IX. 253
of the Appian way. Being detained for some days by
this circumstance, he consecrated to the Apostle Saint
Jffthna new church which was being buUt in the neigh
bourhood. : Then the receding waters of the flood,
Iwiifmg left a dry passage iwith a rapidity that appeared
like a piiraculous testimony in favour of the holy
bishop, the inhabitants of the city, with the priests at
their head, came out with great pomp and met him
with acclahiations and canticles. Standing by his side,
Hildebrand pointed out the fulfilment of his promise in
these transports of the grateful Church.
M iBarefoot, the new Pope then took his way towards
Saint Peter's, "¦ and on reaching the term of his pil
grimage, wept awhUe in silence ; he then addressed the
clergy and people who crowded around him, and said
in words what his pilgrim's habit and his demeanour
had already clearly told. After stating, that, he had
'been chosen by the Emperor, he begged them to make
known their wiU, for that he knew, by the holy canon,
that the choice of the Roman clergy and people should
take precedence of all other suffrage ; he said he had
ibeen forced to come, but that. he would return willingly
if they did not unanimously approve his election. The
assembly replied with acclamations f the decree of
! election was drawn up, in the usual form, in the name
of the clergy and the people, and, the new Pope,, who
¦was enthroned on the 12th of February 1046, and
under the name of Leo IX., entered on a pontificate
that was to end as piously as it began.
' Cui tota urbs hymnodico cbncentu obviam ire parat . ... sed
ipse pedes longinquo itinere nudis plantis incedit.
' Conalio Hildebrandi ft clero et populo Bruno in summum pontificem
eligitur.— (0. Fresing. Chron. p. 125.)

254 HISTORY OF GREGORY VIL
Leo IX,, in recognition of the prudent counsel of
Hildebrand, conferred on him the office of sub-deadon
and almoner of the Roman Church,^ and soon after,
that of the directorship of the Monastery of Saint Pauly;
an ancient and celebrated foundation at the gates of
Rome; and he then, with the assistance of the new'
abbot, set about the difficult task of correcting the
existing state of things, and restoring the ecclesiastica/L
discipline. ¦ '
The two abuses which had been so long complained
of, and which were now more general than ever, were
the incontinence of the clergy, and the sale of ecclesi
astical dignities. In Germany, France, and Italy, a
great number of priests not only lived with women,
but, what was considered more scandalous, contracted
marriages, and, in conformity with the civil law, settled
property on their wives.'"^
The laxity of discipline and manners existing in the
very monastery that had been conferred on Hildebrand
is cited. The Church of Saint Paul, which retained
the title of a patriarchate, was neglected to such a'
degree that the cattle were stabled in it ; and the monks
were waited on in the refectory by woraen.^
As soon as Hildebrand was appointed superior of the

' Venerabilem Hildebrandum donatorem tam salubris con.silii, quem ab
abbate multis precibus vix impetraverat, ad subdiaconatus provexit hono
rem quem et ceconomum sanctse Ecclesise constituit. — (Scriptorum Rerum
Boic. vol. ii.)
^ Sacerdotes palam nuptias faciebant, nefanda matrimonia contrahebant,
et legibus uxores dotabant 
' In tantum languorem inciderat observantia sanctitatis et regulas ut et
armenta, licenter ingredientia, domum orationis fcedarent, et mulieres, in
refectorio necessaria ministrantes, famam monachorum dehonestarent. —
(Paul Bern,)

HILDEBRAND SUPERIOR OF ST FAUl's. 255
monastery, he restored all the severity of discipline,
and exercised his accustomed influence over the minds
of others. The illusions of the enthusiast added to the
aJdour of his ever active spirit. It is related, that on
his arrival at the abbey, the apostle Paul appeared to
him in a dream, standing in the basUica, and busily
occupied in displacing and casting forth the dung that
lay on the pavement, at the same time inciting the new
abbot to follow his example.' In conformity with this
allegorical vision, Hildebrand put in force the ancient
rule of the house, and corrected with a high hand all
the irregularities of the monks. Careful at the same
time of things temporal and things spiritual, he in
creased the revenues of the abbey by his vigUance, and
augmented the number of the brethren, providing for
them all the necessaries of regular and sober living. ^
His first task was to put down the pretensions and
the plunderings of some of the neighbouring seigneurs,
who laid hands on the tithe on the flocks belonging
to the abbey ,^ and his intrepid firmness, joined to the
respect which constancy of morals always inspires, soon
put an end to, these disorders. The new abbot of Saint
Paul even made them an occasion of assummg increased
authority over the monks, and of strengthening the
rule. Did the monastery suffer any persecution or injury,
' Apparens ei S. Paulus in basilica sua stabat, ac palam manibus tenens
atercora bourn de pavimeutis levabat, ac foras jactabat .... jussitque
eum palam apprehendere et fimum, sicut ipse fecerat, ejicere.. — (Paulus
Bern.) ' Eliminanta igitur omni spurcitiS, et temperata victualium sufficientiS,,
congregavit honestam multitudinem regularium monachorum. — (Paid. Bern.
I Hmsclwnium Maii, vol. vi. p. 114.)
Latrunculis Campanias diripientibus subsidia alimonise. — (Ibid.)

256 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
Hildebrand perceived therein the indication of some
hidden fault, of which he failed not to accuse the
brethren.^ Terrified by his words, some among them failed not
to confess their sins aloud; and thereupon the pene
tration of the abbot in discovering the secrets of men's
hearts was lauded as wonderful.
We can easily conceive how many means and ex
pedients for ruling over the minds of men, were con
ferred by the exercise of monastic government in an
age of ignorance and barbarism ; and we shall not be
surprised to find, that at this period, and long after
wards, the men who exercised the greatest power over
their contemporaries came fi:om the cloister. They
were not only priests, they were monks ; and the life
of the cloister, with its alternation of meditation and
activity, the practice of obedience, and the exercise of
authority among their equals, had invested them with
superior address or greater self-controL
The reform that was accoraplished in the Monastery
of Saint Paul was at the same time atterapted in every
part of Christendom to which the power of the Roman
Church reached. The most eminent of the clergy saw
that the lamentable corruption of the ecclesiastical
orders could not faU to lower its credit, and that its
extortions rendered it odious to the people. They
lamented the disuse of the ancient canons. The bishops
accused the clerks of ignorance and laxity of morals ;
the clerks retorted by reproaching the bishops with
having obtained their sees by shameless simony.
• Si quando non liberaretur ab adversitatibus certissimum ei signum fieri,
alicujus delicti impedimentum esse inter eos. — (Ibid.)

HILDEBRAND REFORMS HIS MONASTERY. 257
The Emperor was equaUy indignant at this traffic in
ico'^&cf, of which many of his predecessors had
been guUty. The very year preceding the election of
Leo IX., the prifide, who was present at a councU held
at Constance, had pronounced these words, which were
Mended forsoine of the members of that assembly: —
' Ye who ought to have been a blessing to all around
you, degrade yourselves by covetousness and avarice,
both by buying and selling holy things. My own
father, for whose soul I am in just trouble, was too
often guUty of this sin; but be it known to you all,
that he who shall henceforth be stained with this soil
shall be cut off from the service of God. For it is by
practices such as these that plague, and war, and famine
are drawn down upon nations.'
The council, many members of which had either
bought "or sold benefices, vvas disposed to be raore in
dulgent than the Emperor. But Henry persisted, and
reiterated the declaration, so often made by the Church,
that no' ecclesiastical function should be purchased with
nloney, and that to seek it by such means is to deserve
to be excluded from exercising it. We perceive that
the civU power foresaw the blow which the Church of
Rome was soon to aim at it, by its obstinate refusal to
tolerate lay investiture of reUgious functions, and Henry
eddeavoured to parry the attack by making an accu
sation appUcable to priests and laymen in common,
stigmatising the abuse of the right which he desired to
retaminhis own hands; but in the state of society in
the middle ages, it is plain that the right and the abuse
of it were inseparable as long as the right remained in
secular hands. In order to put an end to the venality
VOL. I. s

258 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
of ecclesiastical benefices, and the accompanying cor
ruption of the clergy, it was indispensable to deprive
temporal princes of the right of investiture. And thus
Henry, in his zeal for reform, laid the foundation of
those anathemas which were to shake the foundations
of the throne of his successors. However, Leo IX,,
with the consent of the Emperor, and by the advice of
HUdebrand, resolved to commence operations by a
pontifical visit.
He convoked in the kingdom of France, and in the
city of Rheims, a council, over which he himself should
preside. The King of France, who at that time was but the
ill-obeyed chief of a number of great vassals and petty
seigneurs, considered that this setting up of a foreign
authority in his dominions was a kind of trespass. He
entreated the Pope to put off his journey, aUeging as
a reason, that he was engaged in fighting some rebel
vassals, and should want to carry with him to this war
the bishops and abbots of France. The Pope gave as
& pretext, his intention to consecrate a new church that
had been buUt by the abbot of Saint R^my; and he
arrived at Rheims in great pomp to make the dedica
tion, and to hold a councU with a score of abbots and
half a hundred bishops who had not followed the king's
banner. Leo IX. set out on his journey to Rheims accom
panied by the Archbishops of Trent, Lyons, and
Besanqon, and some priests of the Church of Rome,
stopping every night in a lodging prepared beforehand.
When he drew near the Abbey of Saint Remy, the
abbot came out to meet him, and a crowd of monks and

VISIT OF LEO IX. TO FRANCE. 259
clerks awaited him at the doors of the church. As he
entered they chanted the words ' Laatentur coeli.' The
pontiff advanced into the church, and having first knelt
Ul prayer at the altar of the Holy Cross, and then at
that of Saint Christopher, he arose, and a multitude of
voices sang the Te Deum. The pontiff then took his
place on a seat that had been prepared for him, and
blessed all present, and afterwards left the church and
proceeded on foot towards the city, while the, attendant
people sang hymns in chorus.
The clergy of Rheims, forming a long procession,
received him at the entrance of the chapel of the
martyr Saint Denis, and conducted him in triumph to
the Church of Saint Mary, where he sat in the Arch
bishop's place, and celebrated mass before all the
people. For several days after they came from all parts of
France to be present at the dedication of the Church
of Saint R^my by the Pope of Rome. A great multi
tude pressed around the tomb of the saint, and those
who could not get near threw their offerings over the
heads of the rest. The Pope had gone privately to a
house near the church; but he could not come out on
account of the immense crowds. He showed himself
to the multitude from the highest point of the roof,
and gave them thence, many times in the day, the
bread of the word and his blessing. At night useless
efforts were made to disperse the people, promising
them that at daybreak they should have their desu^e,
and see the body of the saint exposed in the church.
Almost the whole crowd stayed all night in the open
air, with fires and tapers alight. The next day the
s 2

260 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
Pope," wearing the stole and tiara, came out at last, with
the archbishops and abbots, to go solemnly to the
saint's tomb, and transport his relics to the church
that was to be dedicated.
After much singing of hymns and profusion of
incense, the Pope, assisted by the archbishops, lifted up
the lid of the coffin, chanting the words, ' Behold one
of the blessed of the kingdom of heaven.' The doors
of the monastery were then opened ; the chants of the
priests, the tears and acclamations of the people, the
mingled mass of knights and peasants, of rich and poor,
of citizens and serfs, all moved by the same joy, formed a
spectacle which it is impossible to describe. The Pope,
having delivered the coffin into the hands of the most
eager, retired for awhile to an oratory; and on the
waves, as it were, of this countless multitude, the coffin
was borne towards the city. It was deposited on the
altar of the Holy Cross in the Church of Saint Mary,
and the Archbishop of Besangon celebrated mass. The
coffin was afterwards carried round the city waUs, in
the midst of crowds, who gazed on it insatiably. The
bearers frequently halted and laid down their burden, and
at night the monks watched around it, chanting hymns.
When the coffin had been carried all round the city
and the castle of Rheims, and even into the neigh
bouring hamlets, it was at last borne towards the new
church which the Pope was to dedicate. The crowd
had grown larger and larger by that time, and in spite
of the orders of the pontiff, the church was so full, and
its doors thronged by such numbers, that recourse was
had to a singular proceeding for the termination of the
ceremony. The body of the saint was let down from

COUNCIL OF RHEIMS. 261
one of the windows ; the Pope received it with respect,
and deposited it on one of the altars, and then he
solemnly celebrated the mass of the dedication of a
church. After the reading of the Gospel he addressed
the people, who had not only forced the doors of the
monastery, but had got in at the windows, like the
samt's coffin.
After having enjoined some pious practices, he gave
them absolution, and announced that the synod would
open the following day. That assembly was composed
of twenty bishops and fifty abbots, among whom were
to be noticed those of Cluny, Corbie, and Vezelay, rich
and powerful dignitaries of the Church, who were
seated behind the bishops, but who were their equals in
power. In order to avoid an ancient dispute as to pre
cedence between the Archbishop of Treves and the
Archbishop of Rheims, the Pope gave orders that the
seats destined to the bishops should be disposed in a
circle round the place he was to occupy. The Arch
bishop of Rheims was entrusted with this arrangement,
and had the pontifical throne erected in the middle of
the nave.
The Pope, vested as for the celebration of mass, ad
vanced, preceded by the cross and the book ofthe gospels ;
six priests walked before him, repeating the canticle
' Exaudi nos Domine.' The Archbishop of Treves having
recited a litany, a deacon admonished all the assembly to
offer their prayers to God ; and then from the gospel
was read, ' Jesus said unto Peter : If thy brother hath
sinned against thee, forgive him.' Every one then sat
down, and the Pope having commanded silence, the
chancellor of the Roman Church enumerated the

262 HISTORY OP GREGORY VII.
subjects that would be discussed at the council: the
illicit practices common in Gaul in contempt of the
canons ; simony, usurpation of the sacerdotal functions
by the laity; the scandalous customs that were intro
duced into the courts of the temple; the incestuous
marriages; the desertion of lawful vdves; the adulterous
unions among the people ; the apostacy of monks and
clerks, who, renouncing their holy vocation and habits,
even adopted the profession of arms; spoUation and
imprisonment of the poor ; unnatural crimes ; and
divers heresies that had multiplied in these provinces.
The chancellor then called upon all present to con
sider, and give their counsel to the lord Pope, as to the
best means of uprooting these tares that prevented the
growth of the divine harvest; and then addressing
hiraself to the bishops, told them that if they had been
guilty of reaching their sees through heretical simony, or
had themselves sold any ecclesiastical dignity, they were
now adjured publicly to confess the same, under pain of
pontifical excommunication.
At these words the Archbishop of Treves rose up,
and declared that he had neither given nor promised
anythuig in order to obtain the episcopate, and had
never sold holy orders to any. He was followed by the
Archbishops of Lyons and Besangon, who also stated
that they were guiltless of the aforesaid deeds. Then
the chancellor, turning to the Archbishop of Rheims;
asked him what he had to say on the matter, of which
the others had cleared themselves.
The archbishop, in reply, asked for an adjournment
till the next day, and permission to speak to the lord
Pope in private. The other bishops and the abbots

COUNCn, OF RHEIMS. 263
were subjected to this public examination of con
sciences, and reciprocal accusations ensued ; on the
depositions of the Bishop of Langres, an abbot of his
diocese was deposed for incontinence, and for having
withheld the tax due to the Holy See. The sitting
terminated by a public declaration of the pontiff's
supremacy, and the synod was prorogued till the next
day, with a prohibition to any to absent himself under
pain of excommunication. The Archbishop of Rheims
went early the next morning to make his confession to
the Pope, who had gone into the church to hear it ; but
the accusation against him was nevertheless resumed at
the opening of the public sitting. The deacon of the
Roman Church then called upon him to vindicate
himself of the accusation of simony and other sins
^rith which he was charged by common report. The
archbishop thereupon asked leave to consult some of
his fellow bishops.
After a brief conference, one of those began to speak
in his defence, but all he could obtain was the decision
that the examination of the Bishop of Rheims should
take place at the next councU held at Rome ; the same
course was taken in regard to the Bishop of D61ej the
chancellor of the Roman Church pronounced a more
severe sentence on the Bishop of Langres, who was
accused not only of simony, but of armed violence,
homicide, and adultery. The vritnesses were heard:
one man deposed that the bishop had carried off his
wife, had abused her, and afterwards placed her in a
convent; a priest declared that this same bishop had
caused him to be tortured by his men-at-arms, in order
to extort from him a sum of money.

264 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
The Bishop of Langres, who had been the accuser,
the evening before, and had shown himself so zealous in
upholding the pontiff's authority, was soon sUenced by
this evidence, and asked permission to take counsel, and
retired for a few minutes with the Archbishops of
Besanqon and Lyons, whom he entreated to defend him.
Whether the former was affected by his scruples, or
whether he was embarrassed at having to plead a bad
cause, he lost the use of his voice as soon as he
attempted to speak. The Archbishop of Lyons dis
played more zeal in the defence of the accused arch
bishop. He denied the infliction of torture on the
priest, but admitted the extortion of the money.
The approach of night necessitated the putting off
further discussion till next day; but when the sitting
was opened, the Bishop of Langres was not to be found.
He was formaUy summoned, thrice in the Pope's name,
and sorae bishops were sent to his lodgings to seek him.
While they were thus engaged, the assembly proceeded
to the judgment of those who had not yet purged
themselves frora the crirae of simony. The Bishop of
Nevers, rising, confessed that his relations, unknown to
him, had given a large sum of money to procure the
episcopate for him ; and he added that he had since
done many things contrary to ecclesiastical holiness;
he dreaded divine vengeance ; and that, therefore, if it
so pleased the lord Pope and the council, he would
rather resign his functions than retain them to his soul's
destruction. With these words, he laid the pastoral crosier at the
pontiff's feet ; the latter, touched by this real or affected
humility, only exacted an oath that the money had

COUNCIL OF RHEIMS. 265
been given without his knowledge, and reinstated him
in his holy office, delivering to him another crosier
instead of the one he had reUnquished. The mes-
Bcngers who had been sent to seek the Bishop of Langres
then came in, and announced that the accused had dis
appeared, and had escaped by flight from the scrutiny
of his crimes. Then the Pope caused to be read the
words of the Fathers proper to the case, and the fugitive
was excommunicated by the unanimous sufirages of the
councU. The Archbishop of Besanqon took the oppor
tunity of relating how he had lost his speech the night
before, when he was preparing to defend the accused,
and implored the forgiveness of the councU for having
so long concealed that miracle.
The Pope, as we are told, shed tears on hearing this
confession, and exclaimed, ' Saint R6my still lives ! '
arose, and proceeded, foUowed by all present, to the
saint's tomb, there to sing an anthem.
The examination of the episcopal titles was then con
tinued ; the Bishop of Constance said that one of his
brothers had purchased the episcopate for him, and
then, in spite of his own scruples, had forced him by
violence to aUow himself to be consecrated bishop.
Havuig confirmed this statement by oath, he was pro
nounced not guilty of simony; but the Bishop of
Nantes, having confessed that he had given money to
obtain the succession to his father, bishop of that
diocese, was deposed, and the only favour he obtained
was permission still to exercise the priestly office.
Excommunication was then pronounced against all the
bishops who were absent fi-ora the council in King
Henry's suite. The same sentence was pronounced

266 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
on the Archbishop of Saint James, in Gahcia, for having
arrogated to himself the title of apostolic, which
belonged to the Pope alone. The sitting of the council
closed with the renewal of the ancient provisions of
the Church against various abuses ecclesiastical and
secular. They forbade, as heretofore, that any should
be raised to the dignity of bishop unless he were elected
by the clergy and the people ; that none should buy or
sell holy orders ; and that no layman should usurp the
functions of the priesthood. It was further forbidden
to priests to make any charge for burials, baptisms, and
visits to the sick, to lend on usury, or to bear arms.
The prohibition against the wrong and robbery prac
tised on the poor, and against incest and bigamy, were
reiterated, and some seigneurs, who were accused of
the last-named crimes, were excommunicated ; and
finally, the councU, by a decree more pohtical than
religious, forbade Baldwin, Count of Flanders, to
bestow his daughter in marriage on WUliam Duke of
Normandy, and also the Duke to receive her as his
bride. Thibault, Count of Champagne, who was accused
of having deserted his wife, was cited to appear before
the next councU, as was Geoffry of Anjou, there to
receive sentence of excommunication if he did not
set at liberty the Bishop of le Mans, whom he held
captive. Then the Pope, after having pronounced his anathema
against whomsoever should place any obstacle in the
way of the retum of the members of the council,
caused to be read the brief of the Church of Rheims,
and having confirmed the same, he dismissed the
assembly with his blessing.

HERESY OF BERENGARIUS. 267
The foUowing day he paid a visit to the monks of
Saint R^my, asking their prayers, and promising them
his, and when they aU knelt before him to make their
pubhc confession, he kissed each one of them as he
bestowed absolution. He afterwards went to the
church with the members of the councU who stUl
remained, and heard mass. He then removed the coffin
of Saint R^my, which had lain three days on the altar,
and carried it into the chapel that was destined for it,
and having there prostrated himself before it with
tears, he rose to depart, and was followed to some
distance from the city by the priests and people, to
whom he bade adieu, and went on his way.
From France, the Pope went to Germany, to preside
over another council, at which the emperor Henry and
the great men of the kingdom were present. In this
assembly, which was held at Mayence, the conduct of
some bishops was investigated as at Rheims, and
the rigorous prohibition of simony and the marriage of
priests was resumed.
But whUe these efforts were being made for the
restoration of discipline, and the reform of morals and
manners, a no less important combat was carried on in
regard of the dogmas of the faith. The great change
which five centuries later was to alter the reUgious
condition of a portion of Europe, was attempted in
more than one period in the eleventh. Reviving the
opinions put forth in the ninth century by the bold
John Scott and Paschase Radhert, Berengarius, Arch
deacon of Tours, attacked the doctrine of the real
presence in the Eucharist, reducing the mystery to a
symbol only, and professing to support this interpre-

268 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
tation by the authority of Saint Ambrose and Saint
Augustine. Being a major canon of the church at Tours, he had
the opportunity of freely circulating his opinions, which
were not long in being contradicted by the most cele
brated theologians, among others, Lanfranc, a priest
of Normandy, whom WUliam the Conqueror afterwards
placed in the highest episcopal see of England.
The enemies of Berengarius were not slow iu denoun
cing hira to the Pope, and Leo IX., on his return to Rome
in 1050, caused him to be put on his trial before a
council ; there was no evidence against him but an
intercepted letter to Lanfranc, in which Berengarius
stated to his rival his own behef. Lanfranc was
obliged to vindicate himself from the confidence which
had been addressed to hira ; he did so in a lengthened
disavowal, and Berengarius was excommunicated
unanimously. This affair was stirred up some months
after in a councU at VerceU. Berengarius was sum
moned but did not appear ; and two clerics, who had
come to expound his doctrine in his name, were
arrested, and the assembly condemned to be burnt the
book wherein Scott Erigenus, doctor of Paris, had
announced in the ninth century the sarae opinions in
regard to the Eucharist, which Berengarius had
adopted. Still, the latter, having first withdrawn to Normandy,
and afterwards to Chartres, continued privately to
disseminate his doctrine. Bruno, Bishop of Angers,
was his disciple and defender ; but those of the bishops
who had been present at the Council of Rheims, and
nearly aU the priests, even the most ignorant and

RETURN OP LEO IX. TO ROME. 269
immoral, spoke in terms of horror of the heresy of
Berengarius. They pressed the King to hold a council
at Paris for the condemnation of the new sect. Beren
garius, who did not appear before it, was excommuni
cated anew, and the King, who was titular abbot of
Samt Martin's at Tours, deprived him of his office and
revenues as canon of that church. Thus proscribed, this
opinion was put down for a time.
As we have seen, Leo IX., on quitting France, pro
ceeded to Germany, to hold the Council of Mayence.
He had there obtained from the Emperor the liberation
of Goltfried, Duke of Lorraine, whom that prince had
despoiled of his possessions. The brother of Gottfried
had long before taken the priestly habit, and had
obtained the title of Cardinal of Rome. This was
enough to enlist the Pope in favour of the Duke of
Lorraine, the prisoner of Henry III. But it is sur
prising that the Emperor should have consented to
the Pope's request by setting free a quarrelsome and
darmg enemy, and then allowed him to depart for
Italy, where the Imperial Government was so much
disliked. The Duke of Lorraine, thus deprived ofhis possessions
and transplanted to Italy, was, in fact, the chief mover
of the dissensions which afterwards acquired much
importance by the action of Hildebrand,
On his retum to Rome, the Pope zealously resumed
his projects for the reform of the ecclesiastical order.
He was seconded in this undertaking by the exhorta
tions and lamentations of Hildebrand, who, burning to
free the Church and to render it supreme, saw clearly
that the reform of the clergy was necessary to its

270 HISTORY OP GREGORY VII.
power, and that it ought to merit its advancement by
its virtue.
Another and not less violent accuser was Peter
Damien, abbot of FonteveUana, who afterwards became
Bishop of Ostia.
He was born at Ravenna, of poor parents, and being
abandoned by his mother in his infancy, followed the
occupation of a swineherd when a boy. One of his
brothers, having become an archdeacon, had him edu
cated, and he soon learned and then taught theology.
FuU of zealous fervour, he entered the hermitage of
FonteveUana, one of the raost celebrated in Umbria,
under the rule of Saint Benedict, and he was soon
remarked for his learning and his austerity.
Peter Damien was well acquainted with the ancient
Roman writers ; we leam from the frequent quotations
scattered through his work, that he had read Virgil,
Livy, Tacitus, Phny, and others, but he does not rise
in any respect above the ideas of his time ; he abounds
in marveUous legends, visions and prodigies ; he is a
superstitious hermit, unfit for business, and timid in his
dealings with men ; and he offers a striking contrast on
these points as compared with the indefatigable and
impetuous Hildebrand.
But, at the same time, the ingenuousness of his mind
and the purity of his morals, made the hves of the
priests of Italy hateful to him, and he often attacked
them vigorously. ' The abuse,' says he, ' has reached
such a height that the spiritual fathers commit sin vrith
their children, and so the guilty confess to their accom
plices.' At the same time, he laments the credit given
to the spurious canons which impose on faithless priests

PETER DAMIEN. 271
only very slight punishments for the gravest sins.
' Two years' penance for having sinned with a maid, and
five years if she were moreover a nun.'
In a book specially addressed to Leo IX., he de
nounced stiU more sternly an infamous vice which was
held accursed throughout Christendom, but with which
almost all the Christian churches of the South were
tainted. That vice, with all its refinements, was so common,
that the Pope, while he approved Peter Damien's zeal,
thought it necessary to temper its rigour, and to esta
bhsh strange and obscene distinctions in the various
unnatural crimes of which the priests of Italy were
habitually guUty. These disgusting details fill up a
whole letter of Leo IX., and the forbearance which the
pontiff feels himself obUged to exercise is the clearest
evidence of the horrible depravity of morals then
existuig among the Italian clergy. This letter might
have furnished a specious argument to the German
ecclesiastics, who craved the authorisation of marriage
with one wife. But the Church of Rome was inflex
ible on this point. Moreover, the temporal power
possessed by the Pope over a portion of Italy permitted
him to put down the concubinage of its priests with a
severity that reached to others.
In a councU that was held at Rome under Leo IX., on
his retum from France, it was decided that any woman
who should be convicted of having prostituted herself
to a priest within the city, should be sold as a slave at
the Lateran Palace.^ Th^s fashion of confiscation of
the person, copied ^"om the ancient Romans, was re-
¦ In plenaria plane synodo, Leo papa constituit ut : quaecumqne damna-

272 HISTORY OP GREGORY VII.
produced to the profit of the bishop in raany of the
churches of Italy. The most holy men, with Peter
Damien at their head, gave their approval to this
strange form of justice, which re-established, in the
name of religion, the domestic slavery which religion
had so often and so sternly censured.
Notwithstanding all these severities, Leo IX. was no
more successful than those who had gone before him
in reforming the clerical scandals. The pontifical
power was not yet sufficiently consoUdated and suffi
ciently undisturbed to follow out a persevering plan of
reforra ; and it was under the necessity of standing on
its defence both against the jealousies of the Itahan
seigneurs, and the encroachments of the Normans.
Some of the latter had, on their return from the
Holy Land, saved the town of Salerno from the attack
made on it by the Saracens, and had continued to
attract to the shores of Italy colonies of adventurers,
who were incited by the hope of pillage and conquest.
Robert Guiscard, a son of the Seigneur of Hautevflle,
near Coutance, vvho had begun his career by stealing
horses, had become successively the leader of a band,
a general, a conqueror, and the founder of a town.
He had buUt the town of Aversa, in Apulia, and every
day added to his dominions. He had trader his com
mand some thousands of stalwart Normans, inured to
fatigue, and cased in armour. The natives of Apuha,
at the same time barbarous and effeminate, had neither
the strength nor the courage to contend with the
strangers ; they paid them tribute, sowed and planted
bills feminse intra Romana moenia reprirentur presbyteris prostitube, ex
tunc et deinceps lateranensi palatio adjudicarentur ancillce, — Vol. xvii. p. 59.

POWER OF THE NORMANS. 278
for them, or even enrolled themselves under their
banners. Robert Guiscard thus established his dominion over
a vast extent of territory, and continued to pillage
those whom he had not subdued.
The expeditions of the Normans soon extended to
the march of Ancona, and the lands that belonged to
the Church of Rome. Nay, more ; the Normans made
no scruple of putting to ransom the priests and their
rich abbeys. The only protection the Church of Rome
could appeal to against this fearful foe, was that of the
Emperor.
, Leo IX. made a journey to Germany to entreat
succour. Henry III. gave him five hundred horsemen
experienced in the wars of Saxony and Bohemia, and
who might be considered a match for the Normans.
The Pope made all haste to recross the Alps with his
allies, and joining with them the Italian troops be
longing to the Church, he marched against Robert
Guiscard in 1053.
'¦ It was after the ceremonies of Easter that he took
the field in person against the Normans. Their chief,
in whom cunning was united with violence, offered to
make all submission to the Pope, and instead of con
senting to restore the territory he had taken, proposed
to hold the same by leave to the Holy See, and as its
vassal. But Leo, determined to recover the possessions
in question by force, advanced towards the Normans.
The two armies met on the first day of July, near Civi-
tella, in the duchy of Benevento. The Normans were
under the command of Hurafrey, Richard, and Robert
Guiscard. The Pope took up his quarters in a small
VOL. I. . T

274 HISTORY OP GREGORY VIL
fortress close to the field of battle. The Germans began
the attack with great vigour; but the Italians, who were
fbr the most part an undisciplined rabble, called together
in haste, took flight on the first onset of the Normans.
The Germans, after an obstinate resistance, perished
almost to a man, with their leader, Werner of Suabia.
The Norraans immediately came on, and besieged the
Pope in his retreat. Pressed on aU sides, he raised the
excommunication, surrendered himself prisoner, and
was conducted by the conqueror to the city of Be
nevento. According to the views of the most enlightened con
temporaries, this defeat took place, either because the
pontiff had had recourse to carnal and not spiritual arms
for the sake of worldly goods, or because he had induced
his soldiers to foUow hira by the prospect of licence
and plunder, and so raarched at the head of a worthless
set against those who were no better than they.
During his captivity, which lasted till the 12th of
March of the following year, the -Pope was treated with
great honour, but he would lead only a life of penance.
He wore a hair-shirt ; his only bed was a mat laid on
the ground, and his pillow a stone. ^ He spent a part
of the night in repeating the psalms ; he celebrated
mass every day, and was constant in prayer and alms
giving. This resignation and holy fervour imposed
respect on the rugged companions of Guiscard ; and
the authority of the pontiff, which had been com
promised and lessened by the fate of war, was aug
mented in misfortune and captivity.
' Hermanm Contracti Chronicon., vol. i. p. 233.

CAPTIVITY OF LEO IX. 275
He received addresses from all parts of the world,
and governed the Church from his prison. A patriarch
of Antioch, recently elected, wrote to be admitted to
his communion. The Greek Emperor and the Patriarch
of Constantinople both wrote letters at the same time
to submit to his decision the disputes concerning the
unleavened bread, and fasting on Saturdays; and some
Christian bishops wrote to him frora the shores of
Africa to beg hira to say to what raetropolitan. they
were under obedience, seeing that Carthage was utterly
destroyed.
. The Pope, then a prisoner at Benevento, gave his
orders beyond ; he even sent three legates to Con
stantinople with his replies addressed to the Patriarch
and the Emperor. In his letter to the latter, he repre
sented the Normans as a lawless race, who murdered
the Christians without respect for age and sex, and
pillaged and burnt the churches. He added that he
had collected human assistance for the punishment of
these robbers, but that he had been conquered and
taken. And now, added he, their victory gives them
more grief than joy. He says that he is daily expecting
the Emperor of Germany at the head of an army ; he
expects nothing less from the Greek Emperor, and
hopes to find in those two princes two arms to upraise
the Church.
The Pope, while thus asking the assistance of the
Greek Emperor, maintains his universal primacy in the
most stringent terras ; in a letter to the Patriarch of
(Constantinople he severely censures him for having
sought to bring under his jurisdiction the Patriarchs of
Antioch and Alexandria, and reserves that powder to

276 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
himself alone. Meantime, the Emperor Henry III.,
being detained in Germany by many cares, and being
moreover occupied with the proclamation of his son,
scarcely five years of age, made no attempt to
reach Italy to fight the Normans, as Leo IX. had
hoped. Disappointed in his expectations, and finding his
captivity prolonged, the Pope languished and feU sick.
Still he was able to celebrate mass at Benevento on the
anniversary of his installation ; and the hearts of the
Norman chiefs being touched at last, he obtained leave
to go to Capua in the Roraan States, but under a strong
escort, without any proraise of being liberated. He
obtained his freedora at last by a ransom of price, in
the estiraation of that age. He granted to the con
querors the investiture, in the name of Saint Peter, of
all the lands conquered or that should hereafter be con
quered by thera, in Apulia, Calabria, and SicUy, and
recognised them under these conditions as feudatories
of the Church, which thus gave away what had never
been hers. In consideration of this very easy exercise
of suzerainty, and perhaps, too, because he was dying,
the Pope was at length free to return to Rome. He
had himself carried thither on a litter, which was sur
rounded by a great company of Norman knights, who
were touched by his gentleness and holiness. Return
ing thus from captivity in the raidst of his newly-made
and fierce vassals, he found the people, under the
guiding hand of his faithful Hildebrand, eager to wel
come hira. The memory of his imprudence was forgot
ten in respect for his misfortunes, and because of his
resignation, which the manner of his death was to render

DELIVERANCE OF LEO IX. 277
more holy stUl. He had only just re-entered the
Lateran Palace when he had a vision of his approaching
end, and he desired it should be fulfilled in Saint
Peter's : ' My brethren,' said he, with holy enthusiasm,
to the cardinals and bishops who were kneehng round
his bed, ' the Lord has called rae out of this life ;
remember the words of the Gospel, " Watch, for ye
know not the hour when the Son of Man cometh," and
again, " The glory of this world passeth away." I, who,
though unworthy, have received the dignity of apostle :
I am, as regards the body, no more. This world grows
dim to my eyes, and is no longer aught but a gloomy
prison ; for I have beheld the place whither I go, and
it seems to me that I have already done with time, and
entered into the world I beheld in my vision. There I
rejoiced over my brethren who fell in Apulia — fighting
for God ; for I saw them among the number of the
martyrs.' Their raiment shone like gold, and they
held in their hands branches of flowers that never fade ;
and they called to me aloud, saying, " Come and dwell
with us, for it is through thee we have come to this
glory." 2 Then I heard another voice saying, "In
three days he will be with us, in the place prepared for
him." And my brothers,' added the pontiff, 'ifl sur
vive the third day, look on this as a vain deceitful
vision ; but if, on the third day, I pass away as I have
told you, remember my words. Leave me now, and
return at daybreak.'
'¦ Videor quasi jam non habitem seculum istud, sed potius quod in visi-
one prajvidi ; gavisus sum in nostris fratribus qui pugnantes in Apulia pro
Deo sunt trucidati. Vidi enim illos in martyrum numero.
' Veni mane nobiscum, quia per te banc gloriam possidemus. — Acta
Sanctorum, Vita S. Leonis Papce IX, vol. ii. p. 66.

278 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
The pontiff passed the night in prayer, only a few of
his people being present. When the clergy returned in
the morning, he gave orders that he should be carried
to his tomb in Saint Peter's. When the gates of the
palace were thrown open, and the people saw the pon
tiff borne forth in state, lying on his death-bed, they
rushed forward to pillage the Lateran, according to the
barbarous custora which had been long tolerated in
Rorae at the death of the popes. But this pontiff lived
still, and so the gates of the palace were shut against
the crowd.
Leo IX. Avas, raeantime,' laid in the choir of the
basilica, which was hung with black, and illuminated
with a thousand funeral tapers. As he lay there, weak
and alraost dying, he exhorted the faithful, and gave
absolution to repentant sinners ; and prayed to God to
protect the Church from all her enemies, visible and
invisible ; to reward the Christians who had shed their
blood for the faith ; and to hasten the conversion of all
infidels and heretics. ' Lord Jesus,' he frequently re
peated, ' Thou hast said to Thy apostles, the house or
the city that they should visit should have peace.
Give, I pray Thee, peace and concord to all the towns
and provinces through which I have passed even when a
captive ; may all those that mine eyes have looked on,
and my hands have blessed, be laden with Thy gifts ;
deliver them from all sin, and make my word fruitful.
in them. Bestow on the towns and provinces through
which Thy servant passed, abundance of corn, and wine,
and oil, so that they may acknowledge he walked
before Thee, and in Thy name. I have fulfilled Thy
will, 0 God ; in Thy name I have taught, and eu-

DEATH OP LEO IX. 279
treated, and admonished. Now, as Thou art a merciful
Lord, deign to convert Thine enemies to the faith.'
To these prayers all present responded Amen ; and
the odours that went up from the vessels of incense
burning in the Church, seemed, to their excited imagi
nations, the celestial vapour of that paradise that was
opening to the pontiff.^
He, nevertheless, had the chalice brought, and re
ceived the consecrated bread and wine ; then the bishops
communicated, and many of those present with them.
The Pope then prayed for the conversion of Simonists,
the most dangerous of all the enemies of the Church,
because the result of their traffic was to corrupt it.
Then, speaking kindly to the people who filled the
church, he said, ' Return now each of you to your
home, my children, and come again to-morrow at dawn.'
He arose from his bed while they were still present,
and crept to the tomb prepared for him ; and then,
stretching himself on the marble,^ said, ' Behold, of all
the dignities and honours that have been mine, how
small is the space reserved to rae,' and then, raaking
the sign of the cross on the funereal stone, he con
tinued, ' Be thou blessed araong all stones, that by the-
mercy of God shall so soon enshrine rae. Receive ray
body; and be thou at the great day of recorapense the
couch from which I shall arise,^ for I know that my
Tantus odor procedens ab altari sancti Petri apostoli totam ecclesiam
replevit ita ut nullus putaret ex hominibus nisi paradisi amoenum esse
odorem,— (^c«. S, Leonis, vol. ii. p. 667, Aprilis,)
Surrexit illo in lectulo suo in quo jacebat ; et perrexit ad tumulum sibi
prsBparatum, et incumbens super ilium, cum lacrjniis dixit . . . . — Ibid.
Elevans manum suam signo sanctaj crucis illud signavit : Benedictus
tu inter lapides ! qui non mea dignitate, sed misericordia Dei mecum
sociari dignatus fuisti ; me cum gaudio suscipe, et retributionis tempore
prseseuta me thoro resurrectionis.— /ii'rf.

280 HISTORr OF GREGORY VII.
Redeemer liveth, and that at the last day in my flesh I
shall see God.'
He tottered back to his bed, and when the crowd had '
gone out he reraained with the subdeacon Hildebrand
and a few cardinals alone ; in the silence of the great
temple he continued to pray as he lay dying, now and
then raising his voice to say : ' 0 God ! I pray not that
my narae may be exalted, but that thou wUt be pleased
to magnify the Holy See to Thy glory.'
At the break of day, the bell for matins summoned
to the church the bishops, priests, and people ; and the
dying pontiff, sustained by superhuman strength, arose,
and leaning on two attendants, reached the altar of
Saint Peter, where, being laid on the ground, he wept
and prayed long. He was then assisted back to his
death-bed, confessed himself, had mass celebrated by
one of the bishops, and received from his hands the
communion for the last time. Then, having requested,
silence, he seemed to fall asleep, and gently expired
in the sight of the respectful and motionless as
sembly. We can still realise how the rude and simple minds
of that age must have been impressed by the spectacle
of this public agony ^ in the church. Some vulgar
inventions were mingled with it. The apostles Peter
and Paul had been seen, robed in white, seated by the
bedside of the pontiff, speaking to him, and inscribing
his replies in the Book of Life. But, eliminating these
wonderful visions and fables existing only in the popular
imagination, was not this solemn and public death -bed
' The word ' agony ' is only applied in French, and by the Catholic
Church, to the pains of death. — Tr.

hildebrand's negotiation WITH GERMANY. 281
grand enough in itself? — could those who had witnessed
it ever forget it?
Such was the scene Hildebrand witnessed ; such the
school subhme in which his soul was tutored.
The renown of Leo IX. remained great in the Church,
though he had been imprudent and unfortunate. Hil
debrand, whom he had been the first to promote, and
who was faithful in his absence, and present at his
death-bed, always preserved the greatest veneration for
his memory ; and raany years after, when he had
attained his inevitable place — the pontifical chair, he
loved to speak of the deeds of his saintly predecessor ;
he attributed miracles to him, and charged the bishops
around him not to let so precious a meraory be for
gotten, but to consign the life of Leo IX. to writing ;
a work he would doubtless have undertaken hiraself had
he not been engaged more with the idea of surpassing
him than with that of writing his biography.
On the death of Leo IX. the Roman Church, which
had just proved its impotence against the Norraans, felt
itself too weak to atterapt an election independently of
the Emperor; and HUdebrand^ was sent to Germany
with two other legates, Humbert and Boniface, to con
sult the prince's choice. The ecclesiastical chroniclers
have disguised this forced deference under the ordinary
formula.^ Seeing, said they, that they had not been able to find
' Defuncto Papa Leone, Hildebrandus, tunc ecclesise Romanse subdiaconus,
ad imperatorem in Romanis transmissus est. — Ex Chron. Monast. Cas. apnid
Murat., vol. iv. p. 403.
' Venerunt ad imperatoris curiam tres monachi . . . . et dicebatur
primus Hildebrandus, secundus Umbertus, ultimus Bonifacius. — Benzen. Lib.
de Rebus Henrici apud Muratori, vol. iv. p. 403,

282 history of Gregory vii.
in the Church of Rorae any sufficiently worthy of the
pontificate. Hildebrand was sent to bring frora abroad
him whom he should choose in the narae of the Roman
clergy and people. But we can easily perceive that a
Roman legate arriving at Worms or Mayence could have
no such right as this, in the palace of a prince who had
made and unmade so raany popes. All he could do
was to negotiate skilfully; to offer timely objections in
the name of Rome; and to secure the bishop who,
without being too much an object of suspicion to the
Eraperor, should the raost completely identify himself
with the Church.
The negotiation was a prolonged one ; eleven months
passed away, and a new embassy from the Romans
carae to solicit the prince's decision, and to hasten the
raovements of the first legates. Henry, not knowing
where to choose among those around hira one whom
he could safely expose to the teraptation of so much
power, had asked the advice of the principal German
bishops at his court. Adraitted into their counsels,
the legate Hildebrand soon became a favourite, and by
the ascendancy he obtained, say the chroniclers,^ he
procured the nomination of Gebehard, Bishop of Aisch-
stadt, in Bavaria, a rich and powerful prelate, and a
near relation of the Eraperor. This selection, so the
chronicle of Monte Cassino tells us, was displeasing to
the Emperor, who, being fond of Gebehard, wished to
have one of the other candidates named. But Hilde
brand persisted, and would accept him only.^
¦* Cum Gebehard um Aistetensem episcopum Hildebrandus ex industria et
consilio Romanorum expetivisset. — Benzen. Lib. de Rebus Henrici a]md
Mi/rntoii, vol. iv. p, 403. '
^ Hildebrandus iu sententia persistit, — Ibid.

VICTOR II. NOMINATED BY HENRY III. 283
If the Emperor really felt this repugnance, it was a
presentiment which future events fully justified; but
we see no cause why it should have arisen in his mind,
or that any great effort was necessary to induce the
Eraperor to call to the See of Rome a German bishop
who belonged to the imperial family.
His doing so offered the best chance of securing a
support to the empire ; and the testimony of the
chronicle, which imputes so natural a fact to the in
flexible wUl of Hildebrand alone, seems to us rather
to mark the admiration of lay contemporaries, and their
inclination to attribute to him the direction of every
event and an extraordinary degree of influence over
the minds of others.
However this be, the German bishop, the friend and
ally of the Emperor, once naraed Pope, and on the road
from Mayence with the legates, was to reach Rome
wholly penetrated by the spirit of the Roman Church,
and already ruled by Hildebrand, whether he had been
selected by him or not. Every attentive reader will
discover that the universal key to the historical problems
of this age, is the priority of the religious tie above all
others, of the Church over country, of the priest over the
individual, of the brother in God over the citizen and
the brother in blood; so we see how it is that the
Frenchman, the German, the Lorrainer or the Spaniard,
once raised to the pontifical See, sooner or later sepa
rates himself from his own country and opposes his
own prince. In this way we are come especially to un
derstand the intense enthusiasm and energy which an
Italian become pontiff of Rome displays, for in the
depths of his heart he could only consider the Csesars

284 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
of Germany foreign invaders, whose very title, bor
rowed frora ancient Rome, but awkwardly concealed
their modern barbarism, and whose election, bestowed
on a Roman priest, though it was to give him the tiara,
was but a sign of servitude that was to be promptly
effaced by rupture and anathema.

285

BOOK II.
1055^-1073.
On April 13, 1055, the new Pope was consecrated
at Rome under the name of Victor II. The Em
peror, following close upon the pontiff, entered
Verona the 7th of the same raonth. More than one
pressing interest recalled Henry III. to Italy; he came
not only to visit Rome : he had to keep a watchful eye
over Tuscany, where a new power had arisen that was
to be inimical to the empire.
It was three years since the Margrave Boniface had
been shot by an arrow in a forest, and at his death he
left three children of tender age, under the guardianship
of his widow Beatrice. This princess, having soon
after lost the eldest of her children, Frederick, heir to
the duchy, and also a daughter naraed like herself
Beatrice, was left with only her daughter Matilda, then
eight years old, and destined to inherit aU that had
been her father's.
In the prospect of such a long minority, the hand of
Beatrice was eagerly sought, and it was a foreigner
who won it.
Wc have seen how that Gottfried, driven out of his
duchy of Lower Lorraine, and some time prisoner in
Germany, obtained his liberty by the influence of
Leo IX., and had followed him to Italy in company

286 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
vrith his brother, John-Frederic. Both devoted them
selves to the Holy See : while John-Frederic, become
Cardinal and Archdeacon of the Roman Church, under
took an embassy extraordinary to Constantinople, the
Duke Gottfried, as a champion of the Church, went in
pursuit of sorae heretics and hanged thera.^ His mar
tial farae, his attachraent to the Pope, and the secret
sympathy natural to an Italian princess towards an
eneray of the erapire, deterrained the pious Beatrice in
his favour. She raarried him privately, and gave into
his keeping Tuscany and almost all her possessions.
The Emperor was offended and uneasy when he
heard of this union, and hastened to write to Italy to
the most valiant knights and the richest seigneurs,
entreating them to keep a watch over Gottfried,^ and
announcing that he should soon come and set things in
order hiraself. It was not long before he received a
deputation from Rome frora his partisans, who realised
his fears by denouncing the power and designs of
Gottfried, and declared the duke was ready to seize the
kingdom of Italy on the first opportunity.^ The
prompt arrival of the Emperor put an end to this pro
ject, or rather to the chimerical fear that had been
entertained of it. Henry, finding order and obedience
everywhere on his journey, went to celebrate the feast
^ Hi per Godefridum ducem hseretici deprehensi sunt, et suspensi. —
Lamb. Schafnarburg apud Pisfor. vol. i. p. 161.
^ Datis clanculo litteris ad omnes qui in Italia opibus aut virtute
militari plurimum poterant, deprecabatur eos ut ducem Godefridum, ne quid
forte maii contra rempublicam machinaretur, observarent. — Ibid.
2 Vocatus eo legatione Romanorum qui nunciarent nimium in Italia
contra rempublicam crescere opes et potentiam Godefridi duels, et nisi
turbatis rebus mature consuleretur, ipsum quoque regnum ab eo propedium,
dissimulate pudore, occupandum fore.— Ibid. p. 162.

HENRY III. IN ITALY. CAPTIVITY OF BEATRICE. 287
of Easter in Mantua, the second capital of the pos
sessions of Beatrice.
The lady's new husband, apprehensive of Henry's
displeasure, immediately sent messengers professing
his obedience, and representing that as a banished man,
despoiled of his possessions, he should surely be ex
cused for having availed hiraself of the succour of a
wife whom he had obtained without fraud or violence,
and whom he had wedded according to the rites of the
Church. Henry sent no reply ; but marching into Tuscany he
entered Florence, where, being received by the Pope
Victor IL, he assembled a council for the reform of the
Church. Beatrice, who not being able to offer any re
sistance, had at first quitted the city, returned, and
with noble confidence presented herself before the
Emperor, and told him, with firmness, ' that she had
only done what was lawfuhto all ; that having lost her
first husband, she had given a protector to her
children ; that a woman could not remain alone in
the world without a raan of arms to defend her ;
that she had committed no treason ; and that the
Emperor would not act with justice unless he allowed
her the same liberty which noble women had always
enjoyed.' Henry listened to these explanations, but he kept the
princess as a hostage." In the distrust which he felt of
the consequences of the Duke of Lorraine's establish
ment in Italy, he desired also to assure himself of the
person of the Cardinal Frederick, who had just re
turned from the court of Constantinople, w^hither he
had been sent by Leo IX. ; and he called upou the

288 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
new pope to deliver into his hands this dignitary of the
Roman Church, with the presents that he was supposed
to have brought back with him from his embassy.
Frederick could only shelter himself from the prince's
persecution by retiring to the monastery of Monte
Cassino, where he abjured all his dignities and took the
habit of a raonk.
Having thus abased those whom he raost dreaded,
Henry, after a stay of eleven months in Italy, turned
his steps towards Germany, with Beatrice as a prisoner,
and only halted at Torgau in Bavaria, there to cele
brate the feast of Christraas. Gottfried, reduced to
despair by Henry's treason, by which he had lost both
his wife and his duchy, took flight, and joining Bald
win, Count of Flanders, re-entered Lorraine to recom
mence the war.
In this dispersion of her family, the youthful
Matilda probably remained with her mother, and went
with her to Germany. She had been educated with
the greatest care, and spoke, in addition to her native
language, Latin, French, and German. We are told
too of her beauty and intelligence ; she possessed a
haughty soul, and her mother's misfortunes and cap
tivity inspired her with the deepest hatred of the
imperial family.
On his return to Gerraany, Henry took raeasures for
uniting his son, not yet five years of age, to Bertha,
the daughter of Otho, Margrave of Italy. We may
judge frora this premature alliance how anxious the
Emperor was to strengthen by new ties his suzerainty
over Italy. He next turned his attention to repulsing
the pagan and barbarous tribes who were ravaging the

DEATH OF HENRY III. 289
frontier of Saxony, and had beaten one of the imperial
arraies. It was while thus engaged that we hear of
the invasion of Gottfried in Lorraine, and the revolt in
Flanders. In view of these troubles, and desirous of
procuring the recognition of his son by Italy, as well as
by Germany, he had sumraoned the Pope, Victor II. , to
his side. He received him at Goslar, where the feast
of the Nativity of the Virgin was being celebrated with
great magnificence by a concourse of seigneurs and
bishops. Then, having passed some time at Botfeldein
in the pleasures of the chase, he fell ill, and died a few
days afterwards. The Roman pontiff and the Bishop
of Aquilea were present at his death-bed ; he com
mended his son to their care, and expired in the
thirty-ninth year of his age, leaving Germany powerful,
and Italy submissive.
His widow, the Empress Agnes, undertook the
guardianship of her son, and the government of the
State. She left Saxony in order to transport to Spires
the body of her husband, and convoked an assembly of
the nobles of the empire at Cologne.
The Pope, Victor IL, appeared there as a bishop and
a German seigneur, and he persuaded the Empress to
raake peace with the two revolted vassals, Baldwin,
Count of Flanders, and Gottfried, who had been driven,
first out of Lorraine, and then out of Italy.
The restoration of Beatrice and MatUda to freedom
was the first stipulation of this treaty. Gottfried re
entered peacefully into the dominions of Beatrice, and
soon this hostUe house, which Henry thought he had
banished for ever from Tuscany, became more powerful
there than before.
VOL. I. u

290 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
The Pope Victor II. , having quitted Germany after
the raeeting at Cologne, went back by Tuscany, and
stayed to pay a visit to Beatrice, who owed to him the
restitution of her dominions. The office of abbot of
Monte Cassino had lately become vacant, and the
monks had just elected one of their brethren, venerable
on account of his age and piety. The Pope censured
this election made without his consent, and sent, to
annul it. Cardinal Humbert, a former colleague of
Frederick in the embassy of Constantinople. This car
dinal, who was a man learned in the literature of
Greece, and a skUful negotiator, was at first ill received
by the ignorant monks of Monte Cassino.
They vehemently asserted their privUeges, and had
weU-nigh beaten the legates. But the aged abbot,
who had been elected, terrified at the tumult, abdicated,
and Cardinal Humbert then succeeded in procuring the
nomination of Frederic of Lorraine, the brother of Duke
Gottfried, to the abbacy.
The former, having thus become possessed of the
richest monastery in Italy, immediately hastened to
Tuscany to offer his acknowledgments to the pontiff,
who conferred new ecclesiastical dignities on him in the
Roman Church.
We see frora this exaraple how readUy aU priests of
Gerraan birth, once popes, became the natural aUies of
the enemies of the erapire. HUdebrand was at this
time with the pontiff in Tuscany, and inspired hun
with sentiments of aversion, which were concealed
under very pious protests. He had gained the confidence
of Beatrice, and, as far as we can learn, was thenceforth
her confessor and adviser. The youthful MatUda, who

DEATH OF VICTOR II. 291
was educated under her mother's eye, grew accustomed
to revere him as the wisest and most holy of men, and
thus became penetrated with that ardent zeal for the
Holy See, which was the passion and glory of her
life. About the time when the Cardinal Frederick arrived
at Rome to take possession of his new honours, the
Pope, Victor II. , stiU in the prime of hfe, died at
Florence the same year as the Emperor. This two
fold loss, which an eclipse of the moon was thought to
have foretold,^ emboldened the Roman clergy and people
to attempt a free election. The minority of a king, five
years old, offered an opportunity for the exercise of the
rights of the Church. Instead then of sending to
Germany, as they had done so often in the course of
the last century, to consult the monarch's choice ; the
principal of the clergy and nobility came on this
occasion to Frederick, whose name and services, as well
as the powerful and neighbouring army of his brother,
the Margrave of Tuscany, sufficiently designated.
Frederick passed a whole day and night with them in
deliberating on the election, and, in declining the
honours to which he was destined, he himself proposed
others, and, first, the Cardinal Humbert, his ancient
coUeague in the embassy to Constantinople, and the
Cardinal Hildebrand, who had already taken a share in
so many important matters connected with the Church,
and was even then at Florence, whither he had accom
panied the last Pope. Many of those present approved
' Luna eclipsin passa repente contabuit .... quod profecto nihil
aliud quam vicenum utriusque principis interitum prsesignavit ....
eodem anno uterque defunctus est. — Pet. Damian, vol. i. p. 326.
V 2

292 HISTORY OF GREGORY VIL
of this choice, but HUdebrand, with all his genius and
daring, advanced oiUy step by step to the wonderful
deeds of his life, and was not yet ripe for this elevation.
He was to contend many years yet, and laboriously to
aid many popes before venturing to become Pope him
self He would then have refused the pontificate, and
not only out of humility, but with the deterraination of
a will with an end in view, and that nothing would
have subdued. He was not, however, put to the
proof. In this first atterapt at eraancipation, the raajority of
the cardinals and the seigneurs preferred Frederick,
whora a force, foreign to Rome and independent of
Germany, might be expected to support and defend.
Having concerted their plans, with, or without, his
consent, they went the next day, and, entering his
house, they carried him off by force; leaving him an
excuse to the Gerinan Court, and all the appearance of
having practised the humble abnegation of the early
primitive times. They then carried him to Saint
Peter's, where he was proclaimed Pope by the name
of Stephen IX. He was then conducted to the
Lateran with the acclaraations of the whole city, and
was consecrated the next day in Saint Peter's, amid
the rejoicings of an immense concourse, who thought
that they had recovered their hberty by his election.
Faithful to the designs of his predecessors, the new
Pope determined to secure the reform of manners, and
particularly the celibacy of the clergy ; he summoned
to his aid the most austere, and forced Peter Damien,
the greatest enemy of licence and of the vices of the
Roraan clergy, to accept the bishopric of Ostia. It has

STEPHEN IX. 293
been thought that he at the same time kept in view a plan
for the aggrandisement of his own faraily ; and that he
desired to take advantage of the minority of Henry IV.,
by proclaiming his own brother, Gottfried, eraperor of
the Romans. Whatever might have been his projects in
this direction, he first despatched the sub-deacon
Hildebrand to Germany, no doubt with instructions to
justify to the Empress Agnes the sudden election of
the pontiff, and the equally sudden forgetfulness of the
imperial power.
No one could have been better fitted to succeed.
His pious enthusiasm gave hira an ascendancy over the
female mind, and he exercised as great an influence
over Agnes as over Beatrice. In the widow of Henry
he found a woman who was still young, face to face
with the perils by which a long minority is surrounded,
and through which it was "difficult to steer amid the
conflicts of the German princes ; too proud to accept
the hand of a new husband or the influence of a vassal,
and, for that reason, disposed to seek before all things
the support of the bishops, and, failing that, to leave
everything and repair to Rome. He easily vindicated
in her eyes, the right which the Roraan clergy had
just resumed ; and we cannot doubt that he at that
time laid the foundation of the resolve that a few years
later detached her from Germany, and even from her
son, and transformed the mother of the eraperor into a
hostage and devoted auxiliary of the Roman Church.
During this first negotiation, which lasted some
months, Hildebrand received a reraarkable testimony
to the ascendancy he preserved at Rorae. The new
Pope, that very Frederick who had been so recently

294 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
preferred before him, who had so nobly sent him as the
best advocate of an election made to his own disadvantage,
felt his strength failing under the attack of a languish
ing malady. Desiring still to visit Tuscany, where his
predecessor had died, he assembled the bishops, nobles,
and priests before his departure, and charged them,
under pain of anathema, if he should die on the
journey, to choose no other pope till the return of
Hildebrand. While Stephen was formally providing for the
interests of the Papal chair, he sent for the treasure of
the convent of Monte Cassino, of which convent he
was still abbot, to provide for the expenses of his pro
jected expedition. The monks obeyed in tears ; but
on the relation of a threatening vision, which it was
said one of the brethren had had, the Pope, in fear,
sent back the treasure, but set out for Tuscany aU the
same. Thanks to the faithful provisions of Beatrice
and her husband, he met with no obstacle. But his
sufferings were increased by his journey, and he soon
after died at Florence, renewing with his last breath,
the prudent charge he had imposed on the Roman
clergy. But his wishes were Ul-obeyed.
A few of the castellans of the Campagna joined with
sorae of the rich inhabitants of the city of Rome,
collecting their armed dependants, met at night, and
elected a relative of one of their party, Mincio, bishop
of Veletri. Many of the priests gave their consent
under intiraidation ; but Peter Damien, bishop of
Ostia, who alone had the right to consecrate the new
pontiff, withdrew. The partisans of the bishop of
Veletri then laid bands on the archdeacon of Ostia, an

DEATH OF STEPHEN IX. BENEDICT X. 295
ignorant man, who could not even read, and forced
hun, with a dagger at his throat, to consecrate their
Pope by the name of Benedict X.
He had retained his see some months in spite of the
protests of so many of the bishops, who adhered to the
wishes of the former pope, when the dreaded Hilde
brand returned from the Court of Germany, where the
complaints of those of his own party had already
reached him. He halted at Florence, and wrote
thence to the Romans, censuring thera for having pro
ceeded to an election in his absence, and in contempt of
the decree of the last Pope. It would also appear that
he appealed to the right of the Eraperor in papal
elections. A great number of the bishops repaired to
him at Florence, and elected Guerard, bishop of that
city, but who was born in Burgundy, and for that
reason more acceptable to the empire than an Italian.
Thus the adroit legate employed by turns the influ
ence of the Empire and that of the Church to fulfil his
own will. He pressed Gottfried to support the new
election in arras. A council was held at Sutri, and in
it Benedict X. was pronounced an interloper, and an
excommunicated schismatic, and Gottfried assembled
his troops to carry this sentence into effect. But
Benedict X., being conscious of the weakness of his
cause, laid down the pontificate, and Nicholas II. made
his entry into Rome, with Gottfried and the legate
Hildebrand. By this bold stroke, the nomination of the ponti
ficate was transferred frora the sovereigns of Gerraany
to the princes of Tuscany. The partisans of the
empire saw this clearly, and charged Hildebrand with

296 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
daring, in concert with Beatrice and unknown to the
Roraans, to set up a vain and deceitful idol.^
HUdebrand was the idol's all-powerful minister.
At the ordinary councU of the month of AprU (1059)
which followed the exaltation of the new pope, he
performed the function of archdeacon, and appeared
the very soul of the asserably. He there pursued the
realisation of the two ruling ideas which supported each
other : the reforra of ecclesiastical morals, and the
enfranchisement of the Roraan Church. The heresiarch
Berengarius, who had already been so often condemned,
was cited before this new council, and repeated the
confession of faith dictated by the Church. He de
clared ' that in the Eucharist the true body and true
blood of Jesus Christ are handled and broken by the
hands of the priests, and partaken by the faithful, not
only sacramentally but in substance and reality, and
he anathematized all who should assert the contrary.
And then, himself lighting a great fire in the council
chamber, he cast his books into the flames. But as
soon as he got out of Rome, he retracted his retraction,
and continued to preach a doctrine which he would
neither abandon, nor seal as a martyr with his blood.
Hildebrand, w^hom we shall always find raore indulgent
to Berengarius than other licentious and simoniacal
priests, fiercely attacked in this councU the irregulari
ties of the canons attached to the churches who broke
the vows to live in common, and to possess no pro
perty of their own.
' Great numbers,' said he, ' of these clerics, either by
" Ingressus est Senas, ubi, cum Beatrice, nescientibus Romanis, erexit
novum idolum falaum atque frivolum. — Henrici III. paneg. a Benzone,

NICHOLAS II. 297
reason ofthe ardour of youth, or by the many calcu
lations of age, resume the habits of private life, and so
become apostates.' The same thing was frequent
among nuns; and the custora was founded on two
tolerant edicts adopted by the congregations of both
men and women at an ancient synod held at Aix-la-
ChapeUe, in the time of Louis le Debonnaire. The
archdeacon required the council of Rome to examine
into and conderan these provisions, and deraanded that
the law to have things in comraon should be ex
clusive and irrevocable as in the days of the Primitive
Church. 'Those,' says he, ' who, renouncing their possessions,
and the desire to possess, have entered into a religious
community, must not look back ; and let those who
have not yet put their hand to the plough, learn what
their duty is when once they have done so.' ^
The Pope, Nicholas II. , having approved the words
of Hildebrand, the two regulations authorised by the
Emperor Louis were read, and it then appeared that
the words of Holy Scripture were grossly perverted in
these compUations of some German clerk. There
was, ia fact, no raention of evangelical detachraent
and renunciation of the goods of the world for Christ's
sake ; all who entered into religion were siraply
admonished to enjoy with moderation their own goods
and those of the Church. Some other recommenda
tions that savoured stiU more of the habits of the

' Qui cceperunt in canonica congregatione sine aliqua proprietate vivere,
retro respicere caveant, et qui manum in hujus modi aratrum nondum
miaerunt, quid observandum sit eis postquam semel miserint ediscant. —
Annal. Benedict, vol. iv. p. 748.

298 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
North grievously shocked the Roman synod. When
the article was read out, which allowed to every canon,
four pounds of food and six pounds of drink daUy, ah
the assembly exclaimed that such was not Christian
teraperance, conforraable to monks, but rather to
sailors.^ Some of the fathers added that these provisions had
been introduced by the canons of Rheims, and were
worthy of the gluttony with which Sulpicius Severus
reproached the Gauls. ^
The Pope pronounced his condemnations of these
tolerant edicts, which a lay emperor, he said, however
pious he raay have been, could have no right to issue
contrary to the ancient constitution of the Roman
Church, and without its knowledge. Then, at the
request of the archdeacon, was read and decreed anew,
the ancient formula of monastic enrolment : — ' I . . .
give and offer myself to such a Catholic Church, and
to such a superior, to serve and obey according to
canonical rule, my hands and my offering enveloped in
the altar cloth,^ and I give and offer all my goods for
the use of the brethren who here serve God according
to the example of the Primitive Church, and I vow
from this day forth to conform to the rule.'
The second reform effected by Hildebrand regarded
' Sacer conventus exclamavit : Non ad Christianam temperantiam, sed ad
Cyclopum vitam . . . magis constitua marinariis quam canonicis, scilicet
uti habeant unde sibi concilient greges liberorum. — Annal. £e»c&'ci.,vol.iv.
p. 749. ^ Capitulum illud a clericis Remensibus
Insertum, quod verisimile arbitretur
Qui Gallos edaoitate notatos a Sulpicio
Severo et multis aliis recordetur.
Annal. Benedict., vol. iv. p. 750.
^ Palla altaris manibus involutis cum oblatione (ex codice Ottobomano).

POLICY OF HILDEBRAND. 299
the election of the Popes. While waiting the tirae
when it should be possible wholly to deliver this
election from the influence of the empire, he resolved
to protect it from disorder by placing it in the hands
of the superior clergy of Rome. This was the greatest
revolution that had been introduced into the hierarchy
since the days of the apostles. It put an end to those
popular assemblies that so ill-represented the peaceful
meetings of the early Christians, and that, swayed by
the intrigues and violence of the Roman barons, were
seen now tumultuously to elect as Pope some leader of
the Roman party, and now to welcome with servile
acclamations the foreign nominee of the Emperor.
The comicil, at the dictation of Hildebrand, decreed,
that thenceforth, on the death of a pontiff, the cardinal-
bishops should first meet together and name a successor ;
that they should then summon the cardinal -prie sts and
take their votes; and that, lastly, the people should
give thehs. This pontifical decree was subscribed by
one hundred and thirteen bishops, and a great number
of the clergy of all ranks; the name of Hildebrand
appears first on the list, with the simple title of monk
and subdeacon of the Roman Church.
One clause of this decree, however, seeraed to
recognise the authority of the emperors of Germany ;
but its terms were so skUfully managed, that they
rather indicated the supremacy of the Pope over the
Emperor, than the right of the Emperor over the
election of the Pope, and they reduced this latter right
to a personal privilege, granted as often as it was
exercised by the Roman Church itself ' Our successor,'
said this decree of Nicholas II. , ' shaU be chosen of the

300 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
Church of Rorae or any other, saving the honour due
to our beloved son Henry, now king, and on whom we
design hereafter, if it shall so please God, to bestow
the title of eraperor, and the aforesaid honour shaU be
paid to all his successors to whora the Holy See shall
personally have granted the sarae right.' Thus, the
policy of Hildebrand, as cautious in its first acts as it
was afterwards impetuous, gradually severed the chain
that linked the Church to the Empire, and under
ambiguous forraute, intimating some remains of inde
pendence, foreshadowed what he would one day dare.
The Court of Gerraany was not deceived as to the
nature of the concession raade to it by the new decree.
The Empress Agnes took offence at it as compro
mising the rights of her son; ^ and when the cardinal
who had been sent to Gerraany by Nicholas II. to
transmit it, presented hiraself at the gates of the palace,
he was refused admittance, and, after waiting several
days, was obliged to return to Rome, carrying back the
decree of the councU with its seal unopened.^
But these demonstrations, which, during the minority
of Henry, were followed by no enterprise in Italy, were
looked on at Rome as equally sacrilegious and useless,
and Hildebrand's designs for the independence of the
Church made way daily.

* Ad hoc regise matris impulit imperiale prseceptum. — B. Petri Damiani
Opusc. IV., Disceptatio Synodalis, p. 29.
' Stephanus cardinalis presbyter apostolici sedis . . . cum apostolicis
litteris ad aulam regiam missus, ab aulicis administratoribus non est
admissus: sed per quiuque fere dies ad B. Petri et apostolicse sedis injuriam,
prse foribus mansit exclusus , . . legati tamen officium quo fungebatur implere
non potuit, clausum itaque signatum mysterium concilii, cujus erat gerulus,
retulit, quia regiis eum prseseutari conspectibus curialium plectenda
tempritas non permisit. — Hid.

TEMPORAL WEAKNESS OF THE PONTIFICATE. 301
Notwithstanding this success, the temporal powers
ofthe pontificate were still very feeble. In the neigh
bourhood of Rome, the seigneurs, who acknowledged
no sovereign, pillaged the domains of the Church, and
put to ransom the pUgrims whom they took prisoners.
They dwelt in towns defended by their vassals, and
issued thence, sword in hand, to carry their incursions
to the very gates of the city. The chief of these
marauders were the Counts of Toscanella and Sigici,
who in this way revenged themselves for not having
been able to maintain in the Papal See, their creature,
Benedict X. Their house had formerly given many
popes to Rome; having lost this privilege, partly through
the power of the Emperor, partly by the talent of
Hildebrand, they now ravaged the country they could
no longer govern.
While the States of the Church were thus infested by
sorae captains of thieves, other robbers, who had
become kings, offered the Pope assistance, which he
accepted. The Norman adventurers who had raade
themselves masters of Apulia and Calabria, aspired to
confirra the success of their arms by some titles that
should command respect. Their very power led them
to seek the recognition of the Apostolic Chair. They
would willingly have acknowledged the Pope as the
titular sovereign of all the kingdoms of the earth, pro
vided he would allow them to take them and plunder
them. The accidental community of interest between
the Popes and the Normans, and their need of each
other, was perhaps one of the most active causes of the
pontifical greatness. In 1059, Robert Guiscard sent
envoys to Nicholas II. to ask him to come into the

302 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
territories of the Normans, to receive their homage,
and to admit them into the communion of the Church.
They held out a hope that on these conditions they
would give the assistance of their arms, and restore the
dominions they had taken.
The Pope did not hesitate to undertake this journey.
He had a ready pretext — the irregularity of the eccle
siastical order under the new master of the province,
The rule of celibacy was no better observed there than
in the Milanese : priests and deacons married openly.
He announced then that he should hold a council at
Araalfi, the capital of the possessions of Guiscard, and
arrived there with raore than a hundred bishops. He
was received with all honour; Guiscard abandoned the
siege of a town in Calabria to welcorae him, and came
to meet him at the head of his choicest knights. The
council was held, and the anathema, and interdiction
from priestly functions, pronounced against all married
priests. At the last sitting, Richard Guiscard, the conqueror
of Capua, and Robert, presented themselves before the
Pope, and declared that they put into his hands the
portions of the domain of Saint Peter, which they had
aforetime invaded. Nicholas II. then raised the ex
communication forraerly pronounced by the Church;
confirmed Richard in the principality of Capua; and
recognised Robert as the lawful Duke of Apulia, Cala
bria, and even of Sicily, whose conquest he meant to
accomplish. On these conditions the Norman princes acknow
ledged themselves vassals of the Holy See, and pro
mised to unfurl their banner at the Pope's command.

THE PAFAOY AiND THK NORMANS. OVO
While reconducting their lord Pope out of their terri
tory to his own dominions, they ravaged, in fact, the
lands of the Count of Toscanella, one of the most
rebellious of the Pope's casteUans; and in the canton,
of Prseneste and Nomanto, they destroyed the greater
part of the castles belonging to the Pope's enemies,
and committed many excesses themselves, under pre
text of securing the pontifical authority. They then
returned to prepare for the great expedition they medi
tated against SicUy. The robbers they had dispersed
thereupon reappeared ; one Count Gerard, whose for
tress they had destroyed, continued to infest the place
with impunity.
The Archbishop of York and two English bishops
had come to Rome about 1060, to exculpate themselves
frora the charge of simony, having in their company
the Earl of Northumberland, brother-in-law to the
King. The Pope found the Archbishop guUty, but
dismissed the bishops absolved. They departed from
Rome, but before they had proceeded far, they were
attacked by the band of Gerard, which took from them
a large sum of money and robbed them of all they had
except the clothes they wore.
The Englishmen, being without the means of con
tinuing their journey, returned to Rome, with bitter
complaints. The Earl of Northumberland told the
Pope ' that foreign nations were very foolish to dread
the excommunication from a distance which was set at
naught by thieves at the gates of Rorae ; ' and further
said, with Saxon bluntness, that ' unless the Pope did
not make them give back what they had taken he
should think he was in concert with the brigands, and

304 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
that when the King of England should know such
things he would not longer pay Peter's pence.' In
order to appease him, the Pope in full councU pro
nounced the major excomraunication against Gerard,
and modified his original sentence on the Archbishop of
York; he restored him his palliura, and he and his com
panions left Rorae loaded with presents, and convinced
of the Pope's liberality and justice, if not of his power.
It is certain that the brigandage which had been
formerly repressed by Henry III. was now carried on
with irapunity all over Italy. The property of the
clergy was no safer than the rest. In vain did the
Pope and the bishops, day after day, pronounce excom
munications against the robbers or receivers of holy
things, in which were included the flocks belonging to
the abbeys ; the acts of violence were renewed every
day, the authority of the prefect at Rome was no check
to them, and all the Church could oppose to these
disorders was its threats and its remonstrances.
The priests invented wonderful stories to terrify the
consciences of the laity : they formed the theme of most
of the sermons both in the Latin language and the
vulgar tongue. Hildebrand often took it up in elo
quent terms which were well remembered by his con
temporaries. We possess even a passage they have
noted down from a sermon he preached before Pope
Nicholas II. in the church of Arezzo ; we trace in it
those imaginary terrors which a century later inspired
Dante; and we can easily fancy the fictions of the
' Divina Comedia ' presenting themselves to the fancy of
the poet, in a country where religion constantly brought
similar images before the people.

BRIGANDAGE AROUND ROME. 305
' In one of the provinces of Germany,' said Hilde
brand, 'there died, about ten years ago, a certain count,
who had been rich and powerful, and what is astonish
ing for one of that class, he was, according to the
judgment of man, pure in faith and innocent in his
life. Some time after his death, a holy man descended
in spirit to heU, and beheld the count standing on the
topmost rung of a ladder. He tells us that this ladder
stood unconsumed amid the crackling flames around ;
and that it had been placed there to receive the family
of the aforesaid count. There was, moreover, the
black and frightful abyss 'out of which rose the fatal
ladder. It was so ordered that the last comer took
his station at first at the top of the ladder, and when
the rest of. his famUy arrived he went down one step,
and all below him did likewise.
' As the last of the same family who died, carae and
took his place, age after age, on this ladder, it foUowed
inevitably that they all successively reached the depth
of heU. The holy man who beheld this thing, asked the
reason of this terrible damnation, and especially how
it was the seigneurs whom he had known, and who
had lived a life of justice and well-doing, should be
thus punished. And he heard a voice saying, 'It is
, because of certam lands belonging to the church of
Metz, which were taken from the blessed Stephen by
one of this man's ancestors, from whom he was the
tenth ia descent, and for this cause aU these men have
sinned by the same avarice, are subjected to the same
punishment in eternal fire.' '
• Petri Damiani Opusc. vol. i. Epist, IX. pp. 13, 14.
VOL. I. X

306 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
Nicholas II. had bestowed the archdeaconate of the
Roman Church on Hildebrand, and he had discharged
its functions in the first council held by the Pope, and
from that tirae, he had had a share in all the transac
tions of the pontificate, and it wUI not be uninteresting
to trace his hand, so to speak, in the most important
acts of this Pope. Independently of some unequivocal
indications, we may always recognise his influence in
the imperious spirit which always marks his councils
and his policy. The domination over bishops, the
intimidation of kings, the using of one to threaten or
keep in check the other, were the characteristics we
remark in a letter of Nicholas II. , beneath whose
name is written that of Hildebrand with a humility that
none the less reveals the true author of this composition
in which the Pope enjoins the Archbishop of Rheims to
keep a check on Henry King of France. This letter is
dated 1059, soon after the schism which Nicholas had
been called on to oppose.
'Nicholas, servant of the servants of God, to the
venerable Archbishop Gervaise health, and the Apostolic
benediction. ' Though there have reached the Apostolic See some
reports unfavourable to you, and which cannot be dis
missed without discussion, as, for example, that you
have favoured our enemies-' and have neglected the
pontifical prescriptions; stUl, as you have defended
yourself by the evidence of a trustworthy person, and
are, moreover, commended for your fidehty to Saint
Peter, we pass over these things, hoping that the testi
mony we have received of you is true. And be you
' Invasoribus.

INFLUENCE OF HILDEBRAND. 307
careful so to live that your enemies may find no oppor
tunity of grieving us on your account. For you well
know how our common raother, the Roman Church,
has favoured you, and what confidence she has in
your abUity to succour the Church, that has been
almost ruined by the French.
'Labour therefore to accomplish what the apostolic
see expects of you, reprove, entreat, and warn your
glorious king, so that he be not corrupted by the
counsels of the wicked, who think under favour of our
discords to elude the censure apostolic, and let him
beware of resisting the sacred canons, or rather Saint
Peter, and of thus stirring us up against him, who
desire to love him as the apple of our eye. For it
would be strange if that on account of some simpleton
whom the bishop of Magon wished to ordain, he should
offend God and Saint Peter, and lightly esteem our
charity and affection for him. Has he about him any
member of antichrist, who thinks the grace of blessed
Saint Peter wiU not profit him more than the perfi
dious fidehty of the vricked ? Let then this glorious
king do as he will as regards us, for we are always
ready to pray for him and his armies.
' As regards the Duke Gottfried, let no one put you
in fear of him when you shall have occasion to corae to
Rome; because, not only will he place no obstacle in
your way, but he wUl render you faithful services.
Our veiy dear brethren, the cardinal bishops, salute
you, and so does, with humihty, our son HUdebrand.' ^
In thus confiding to HUdebrand all the cares of the
' Salutant vos carissimi fratres nostri cardinalis Episcopi, nee non humi-
tas nostri Hildebrandi. — Apud Script. Reritm Franc, p. 492.
X 2

308 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
pontificate, the pontiff reserved to himself only the
works of charity. He still retained the title of bishop
of Florence, and often went to that city to visit his
former flock. He died there on the fourth of June,
1061, leaving as the defenders of the papal see those
very Normans who had kept Leo IX. prisoner. But
Guiscard was the enemy of the Germans and the
Lombards, his newly acquired authority had need of
the Pope, and he must have been wiUing enough to
give his support to a spiritual power from which he
derived advantages.
Hildebrand, fixed as ever in his detestation of the
power of the sovereigns of Germany, had no repug
nance to the alliance that had been formed with Guis
card, and fortified by its support, he proposed, three
days after the death of Nicholas IL, to elect a new
pope, without crossing the Alps to receive the orders of
a king who was still a child.
This idea was in conformity with the wishes of a
great number, not only of cardinals and priests, but of
the citizens of Rome, who fancied they should be free
if their Church became independent of the power of
Henry. There was, however, also a party in the city
who were zealous for the Emperor, and who maintained
that the election would be nuU if Henry were not con
sulted. And here we perceive is the origin of that
gigantic dispute that was afterwards designated the
quarrel between the Guelfs and Ghibehnes.
In the party of the Emperor were many of the
German cardinals, and of the nobles and people who
had not forgotten how they had received Henry III.
on his coronation ; and some seigneurs, castellans, who,

DEPUTATION TO GERMANY. 309
accustomed to violence and disorder, preferred depen
dence on a distant suzerain.
AU these demanded that the election .should be
deferred, and to put an end to the contention HUde
brand and his party consented to send a message to
Germany to the young King Henry and his mother
the Empress Agnes. This delay, however, raised up
new difficulties. In Lombardy, where the power of
the Emperor had many partisans, the clergy objected
to a Pope chosen from the Roman Church. The
greater number of the Lombard bishops, who openly
lived with wives, met, by the advice of GuUbert, arch
bishop of Parma and chanceUor of the King of Ger
many, in Italy, and, in a synod to which many priests
were admitted, it was decided they must have a Pope
chosen in their own province, in the paradise of Italy.,
who would have compassion on their infirmities.
These then, despatched a deputation, charged with
the expression of their wishes, to the young Henry.
The party in Rome which was attached to the Em
peror also sent him deputies. The sovereign of Ger
many was thus solicited by aU sides to. exercise his
right just when he was about to lose it.
These various deputations arrived at the Court of
Germany about the same time. The one from the
Roman clergy was not even received. The cardinal
Stephen, the bearer of the letters from the sacred
college, remained for five days at the gate of the Era
peror's palace without being able to gain admission,
and then left, carrying back his letters, and inveighing
against the haughtiness of the Emperor's ofiicers.
On receiving this intelligence, HUdebrand delayed

310 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
no longer. He pressed the cardinals to exercise their
rights and to secure the liberty of the Church by
electing a pope. At the same time he employed aU
his energy in securing all their votes for Anselm,
bishop of Lucca, his particular friend, a man of an
irreproachable life, and raoreover renowned for his
gentle disposition. He supported this election by a
great number of mendicant friars whose protector he
was at all times. They it was who in sleeveless robe
with a gourd over the left shoulder and a wallet over
the right, carried the new Pope's election. ' Get away,
thou leper ; get away, thiou beggar,' cried the crowd.
But there stood Guiscard, with some hundreds of his
Norman knights, to maintain the election, and the par
tisans of the Emperor dared not offer any opposition
to it.
The Court of Germany meantime was preparing to
raake another choice. The Empress. Agnes had con
voked for this purpose a general diet in the city of
B&le. Henry, who was now twelve years of age, was
there crowned, and assuraed the title of Patrice of the
Roraans, that had been borne by Charleraagne. The
assembly now proceeded to deliberate on the election
of a pope, and guided by the advice of the Lombard
bishops, they chose as sovereign pontiff CadaloUs,
whose hcentious life gave them no fear of finding in
hira a reforraer.
This election was not raore irregular than other pon
tifical elections that had been made in Germany under
Henry III. and had been quietly accepted by the
Romans. But the principle of the independence of the
Roman Church, so constantly preached by Hildebrand,

THE ANTIPOPE HONORIUS II. 311
had taken root in men's minds since that time, and the
election of Cadaloiis was regarded as profanation even
by those who did not absolutely deny the right of
Germany. ' How,' wrote Peter Damien to Cadaloiis, ' could you
allow yourself to be elected bishop of Rome, unknown
to the Roman Church, to say nothing of the senate,
the inferior clergy, and the people ? ' And, at the same
time, he prophesied that he should be killed within the
year. However, Cadaloiis, who, on receiving the announce
ment of his election, had assumed the pontifical orna
ments, and the name of Honorius IL, endeavoured to
obtain the means of securing the papal chair. The
empire of Germany, embarrassed by a minority, could
give him no help, but the zeal of the Lombard bishops
raade up for the deficiency : they furnished money and
troops, and Honorius soon set forward, at the head of
a small army, to besiege Rome.
Alexander had left the city, with HUdebrand and his
most faithful friends, to seek refuge in Tuscany with
Beatrice and her husband. The troops of Honorius
encamped in the place known as Nero's Field. He
had communications in the town with the partisans of
the Emperor, and repulsed a first sortie made by the
Roman citizens, who were the most zealous in the
cause of the Pope Alexander.
But the Duke Gottfried soon made his appearance,
and defeated Honorius. Beatrice accompanied her
husband, and the youthful Matilda, then fifteen years
of age, showed herself in the field, arousing by her
presence the zeal of the defenders of the Church. And

312 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
now the Government of Germany itself was to ex
perience a great revolution ; the authority of the
Empress Agnes began to be irksome to the nobles ;
she had governed seven years.
The death of Henry IIL, in 1054, left, as we have
seen, the succession to the empire to a chUd of four
years old, under the guardianship of his mother, the
Empress Agnes. The nobihty, who had so long been
kept down by Henry, acquiesced in this opportunity of
throwing off the yoke, and parties were forraed on all ,
sides against the young prince. Agnes at first found
means to baflde these intrigues, and sought in the
bishops a check upon the ambition of the great vassals.
She chose as her chief adviser, Henry, bishop of
Augsbourg, a prudent and subtle man, who joined to
the authority of his religious dignity great experience
in the worldly matters of his time. Agnes was
still young and fair, and her confidence in the bishop
of Augsbourg was regarded as a sentimental attach
raent. Some bishops, jealous of the favourite's influence,
joined those princes who thijught themselves deprived
by him of their right to govern the empire. The
Count Eckbert, a relation of the king, and Otho, Duke
of Bavaria, were the chiefs of this party : in their con
ferences they loudly expressed their indignation that a
woman should dare to command so many valiant
princes and holy bishops, or rather that she should/
place them under the authority of a man whose slave
she had become by a disgraceful intimacy, and who
disposed as he would of the revenue and the treasure
of the empire. They declared that the evU left no

EDUCATION OF HENRY IV. 313
room for hope, seeing that the young prince, being
brought up in a woman's apartments, would become a
woman himself ; that he must be delivered from such
thraldom, and grow up to manhood, not within the
walls of a palace, but amid his nobles and in the toils
of war.
Hanno, archbishop of Cologne, and Siegfried, arch
bishop of Mayence, were the most eager for the accom
plishment of this undertaking, and were first to propound
for its success, a plan much more easy of execution than
a ciril war. The malcontent seigneurs and bishops
were stUl visitors at the Court of Agnes and the young
king, and often accompanied them in their journeys.
Having learned that the young prince and his mother
intended to go to Nimeguen to keep the feast of Easter
the archbishop of Cologne had a great barge con
structed : its form was elegant, its workmanship of the
richest, it was ornamented with pictures and hangings
from Italy, and glittered with silver and gold. This
vessel, decked with such unaccustomed luxury, de
scended the Rhine to the Island of Saint Kaiserworth,
where the king was to halt for a little pleasure.
The prince had arrived sorae days previously, and
feastmg went merrily on in this islet, one of the most
charming on the bosom of the Rhine. The archbishop
began to talk of the beauty of his barge, which lay at
anchor near the shore, and his description naturally
\excited the curiosity of the young prince, then just
fifteen. He went on board the wonderful vessel with
some of his courtiers. At the same instant, the sailors,
on a sign from the archbishop, spread the sails, and
took to their oars, rowing with all their strength. The

314 HISTORY OP GREGORY VII.
prince, who at first thought this was done in a joke,
grew alarmed when he observed the precipitation
around him. The archbishop tried to calm his
apprehension by the most plausible pretexts and
the most flattering words ; but Henry, who had
no doubt learned to be distrustful by the perils
of his minority, would listen to no protests, and,
filled with indignation, he leapt into the river. The
Count Eckbert, one of the authors of the plot, who
had been attentively watching the young prince,
dashed into the water, and swimming after him,
brought him on board. Those around, then strove by
redoubled efforts and renewed protestations to calm
Henry's grief, and so brought him to Cologne, where
the archbishop was absolute master. The Empress
Agnes, driven to despair by this act of violence, tried
to excite the zeal of the people, in the hope of making
an attempt for the recovery of her son ; but the power
she had enjoyed was drawing to a close, the party of
the seigneurs and the bishops turned the scale.
The archbishop of Cologne convoked in the episcopal
city an assembly of the nobles and bishops, who gave
their approbation to what he had done, and who pro
claimed that henceforth the archbishop of the diocese
in which the king should be, should be responsible for
his safety and the happiness of the empire.
Hanno afterwards summoned an asserably of bishops
at Augsbourg to enquire into the question of the
schisra. The acts of this council have not come down to us.
Peter Damien has given us an imaginary account of
them in a controversial paper in which he gives before:

ARGUMENT OF PETER DAMIEN. 315
hand the speech of the king's advocate, and that of
the advocate of the Roman Church ; but this Ulusory
style of arguing, that was satisfactory to the Italians,
can teU us nothing of what was really said by the
learned men of the other side of the Alps.
Beneath the pen of a Roman priest the defence of
the rights of the empire dwindled down to little more
than this humble assertion: the Pope being pontiff
universal, not only the Roman people, but the Em
peror, who is the head ofthe people, owes him obedience;
it is then right that the people alone should choose a
Pope, and that the Emperor should obey him whom he
did not choose.
To this feeble argument Peter Damien replies by
citing the names of the many popes who were elected
in the early ages without the Emperor's orders, and
relies especially on the pretended donation of Con
stantine, ceding to the pontiff the Lateran Palace and
the kingdom of Italy.
' But,' says the king's advocate, ' the sovereign pon
tiffs themselves have recognised the right of the
emperors.' ' Is it surprising,' replies Peter Damien, ' that men
dweUing in frail flesh should alter their decrees, when
God, who knows all things, changes his ? ' And there
upon he cites the one hundred and twenty years pro
mised Ul Genesis, and that other promise of God, that
the sceptre should not depart from Judah till Christ
should come, and many others of the words of Scrip
ture, favourable and threatening, that were not fulfilled.
After having justified, in his fashion, the want of
good faith in the popes, he states that Saint Paul him-

316 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
self prevaricated to please the multitude, and that
therefore the Roman Church is not to be blamed for
having done what was agreeable to the people.
We see by these arguments that the Roman Church
did not as yet feel sure of possessing the right it
claimed. Peter Damien particularly complains that
the Emperor should have nominated a Pope, when
Rome had already made a choice. 'But,' he makes
Rome reply to the king's advocate, ' we were driven to
it by the Count Gerard and other citizens, who solicited
us eagerly ; and araong their number was even the
Abbot of the Monastery of Scarius.' 'Well, then,'
triumphantly rejoins Peter Damien, ' you prove that I
am right by admitting that you held communication
wdth Gerard, who is under excommunication.'
The Count Gerard had, in fact, been excomraunicated
by every pontiff who had governed the Church in his
tirae. In the last instance, the sentence was pro
nounced on account of the attack he made on the
English Earl and the Archbishop of York, whom he
assailed on the borders of the States of the Church,
and whom he robbed of all their money.
For this deed, as we have seen, the major excom
munication was pronounced against hira in full synod,
under the presidency of the Pope, Nicholas. IL, the
tapers being extinguished; and so he remained under
perpetual anathema. ' Let the July Council,' says
Damien, 'judge whether they can ratify an election
made by a man, and the accomplices of a man, who has
been cut off by such a terrible sentence from the coni-
munion of the Church, and can never be reconciled to
it, even at the hour of his death.'

THE EMPRESS AGNES AT ROME. 317
Peter Damien terminates this curious account by
attributing the victory to himself, by the admission
of the king's advocate ; and then addresses a prayer to
God for the lasting union of those two poles, the priest
hood and the empire.
We do not know whether, in the Council of Augs
bourg, the cause of the empire was better defended
than in this work of the Roman doctor ; but it is
certain that from the time of the empress's absence and
the increase of the Archbishop Hanno's power, Cadaloiis
seems to have been forsaken by the Germans. He was,
however, stiU supported by the Lombards; and stig
matised Alexander as a false apostle ; he conferred
ordination, and addressed exhortations and letters to
the Churches.
Meantime the Empress Agnes, conceiving a great
disgust at Germany on the loss of her son, went to
risit Aquitaine, her native province, and travelled
thence to Rome, which, in spite of so many troubles,
seemed to be still the most peaceable place in Europe.
When she was at the head of affafrs she had supported
the election of the anti-pope Cadaloiis, but she was
repentant now, and came to implore from Alexander II.
his apostolic forgiveness.
There was nothing more natural for a princess, dis
satisfied with Germany, and with those who governed
it, than to seek an asylum at Rome. Perhaps, too,
there was in this proceeding something of the vengeance
of a queen and an offended mother ; it appeared like a
notable conversion, a grace divine, in which the Church
of Rome triumphed.
Twelve years before, Agnes, kneeling beside her

318 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
husband, surrounded by the nobles and knights of
Germany, had been crowned hi St. Peter's ; but this
time she entered the city as a humble penitent. She
was clad in a black woollen dress, and mounted on a
wretched-looking horse, that was not much bigger than
an ass.-^
Notwithstanding this show of humUity, Agnes still
possessed great riches — hangings woven with goldj
which she gave to ornament the churches of Rome ;
and precious vases and royal ornaments, which were all
consecrated to the service of the altar .^
She offered these gifts with joy ; and the doctors of
the Roraan Church congratulated her, saying, ' Thou
lavishest all thou hast, thou givest aU thou possessest
so that thou mayest come poor and having nothing to
the arras of the heavenly bridegroom.' ^ Agnes did, in
fact, embrace the religious life, after having made a
general confession to Peter Damien in the Church of
the Holy Apostles, in presence of the people gazing on
the princess, once so powerful, and a protector of
schismatics, on her knees before one of the cardinals of
Alexander IL*
Agnes dwelt thenceforth in Rome, practising all the
austerities of fasting and penance. She seldom partook
^ Vestis puUa et lanea, is cui insidebat, non dicam equus, sed potius
burdo, vel burricus, vix mensuram desidis eicedebat aseUi. — Pet. Damien.
FJpist. ad Agnetetn, lib. vii. Epist. v. p. 321,
" Radiantia quteque cum auro vel argento margarita dispergis, auleea tutt
blattina, vel potius deaurata, templorum laquearibus appenduntur ; orna-
menta regalia sacris famulantur altaribus. — Ibid. "
" Cuncta projicis, cuncta dilapidas, ut ad sponsis ccelestis amplexus exono-
rata pro suis, immo nuda pervenias. — Ibid.
* Ut hi, qui ad apostolorum limina confluunt, sanctse devotionis tu»
salubriter exemplum, arcana beati Petri confessione ante sacrum altare me
sedere fecisti. — Ibid,

TROUBLES IN THE CHURCH OP FLORENCE. 319
of the sumptuous meats with which her table was
served, and appeared -to be wholly detached from the
world and its greatness.^ HUdebrand, who had for
merly known her in her own Court, shared the duty of
consoling her with Peter Damien and Raynald, bishop
of Como ; he acquired an ascendancy over her which
he exercised at a subsequent period to avail himself of
this princess as a most docUe instrument in his nego
ciations with Henry.
The mind of Agnes had been cultivated by reading,
and we observe that to console her under her change
of fortune, Peter Damien provided her with the histories
of all the great revolutions that had taken place in the
world, the deaths of all the Roman emperors, and
especially the fall of Cleopatra, so long the queen of the
East. The archdeacon, in the midst of all his power and
grandeur, preserved the austere habits of an anchorite.
He lived on vegetables, selecting intentionally the most
insipid ; he told Peter Damien that he had come to
abstain entirely from leeks and onions because of the
pleasure he took in their taste.
The successful election of Alexander II. soon em
boldened aU the opponents of the imperial investiture.
At Florence the bishop, who had been instituted by
Henry IIL, was very soon denounced as a simonist ;
the cry was set up by the monks of that city. They
averred that the bishop's father, having come to pay

' Quale, rogo, est congestam ante te struem lancium, et renidentium car-
mum epulas per mensas circumquaque transmittere ; et carnium ne ipsam
pinguedinum aliquatenus degustare ? — Pet. Damien. Epist, ad Agnetem,
lib. vii. Epist. v. p. 321.

320 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
his son a visit, was asked, ' whether he had given much
to the king to procure his son's g,ppointment.'
' By Saint Peter,' answered the father, ' you would
not get as much even as a mUl from the king without
paying for it. I gave three thousand livres for my son's
bishopric' This story, repeated from mouth to mouth,
roused the populace and the monks of Florence to fury.
The bishop caused some of the most violent to be
arrested, and they were put to death as public dis
turbers. Some monks then went to Rome ; they accused the
bishop of perjury and simony, and offered to prove their
words by the ordeal of fire. They were admitted into
the presence of a council which Alexander had con
voked to the second year of his pontificate. The greater
number of the bishops who composed this assembly
perceiving ground for apprehension in the intractable
disposition of the monks, were anxious to pronounce in
favour of the bishop of Florence. Hildebrand, ahnost
unsupported, lauded the zeal of the monks in the
punishment of heretical simony. The councU, out of
deference for such a determined opponent, took a middle
course. They forbid the monks to go any more to the
castles or towns.
'We command them,' said the decree, ' how virtuous
soever they may be, to remain in their cloister cou'
forraably to the rule of Saint Benedict.' At the same
time they renewed the former decrees against simony,
and Peter Damien was sent to restore tranquUhty in
Florence. He found the city a prey to all the fury of
schism. The monks, having the mass of the people with them,

ORDEAL BY PIRE. 321
inveighed against the bishop ; they protested that
Shnonists could neither give baptism, nor confer orders,
nor celebrate mass, and that consequently Florence was
deprived of the sacraments as long as her bishop was a
Simonist. The priests were all for the bishop, and were for
bidden by him to communicate with the partisans of
the monks.
The sage exhortations of Peter Damien had but
httle effect ; indeed, he was himself caUed a heretic and
a Simonist. At length the Duke Gottfried, who had not hither
to mterfered in this ecclesiastical contention, put the
decree of the council in execution by threatening to
hang the monks if they did not immediately return to
then" cloister. So they left Florence, but the proposal
they had made before the council of Rome to prove
their accusations was soon noised abroad, and the people
came ia crowds to the councU, calhng on them to
go through the trial that was to prove their words.
The monks did not refuse it, and it should appear that
Gottfried and the bishop of Florence were obliged to
permit it, to avoid a sedition.
At least, we hear nothing of any obstacles put forward
by them. On the pubhc place of Florence were raised
two pUes side by side ; each was ten feet long, five
wide, and four and a half high, and between the two
piles a narrow path was left. On the appointed day the
monk selected by the brethren celebrated a solemn
mass. His name was Peter Aldobrandini ; he was a
man fuU of faith, simple and humble of heart, and his
Y

322 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
employment was to tend the cows and asses belonging
to the convent.
As the mass drew towards its close, four of the
brethren, one of whom carried the cross, another the
holy water, a third the thurible, and a fourth two lighted
tapers that had been blessed, proceeded to set hght to
the pUes.
When the flames arose, and the interval between the
stacks appeared one mass of fire, Peter Aldobrandini,
having finished his mass and put off the chasuble, came
forward clad in the other priestly vestments, with a
crucifix in one hand and his handkerchief in the other.
Following him came many monks and other clerics
chanting the htanies, and all the people pressed around
deeply stirred by expectation and admiration. There
was profound silence while one of the monks read aloud
the formal proraise, in virtue of which, everyone was
pledged to quit the party of the bishop, if their brother
Aldobrandini came unhurt out of the fire.
An universal shout arose, and Aldobrandini chanted a
sort of anthem, wherein he entreated Almighty God to
save him from the flames, as he once saved the young
men in the burning fiery furnace, if it were true that
Peter of Pavia had bought his bishopric. To this aU
present responded Amen, and the monk, having given
his brethren the kiss of peace, entered barefoot on the
path-way through the fire, and, we are told, walked
slowly along ft, whUe the flames enveloped hun on
either side.
The contemporaries, enemies of the bishop, have even
given a most poetical accoimt of this event. They teU
us that Aldobrandini seemed to be treadmg on roses,

DEPOSITION OF THE BISHOP OF FLORENCE. 323
and passing along a path bordered with trees, whose
leaves were strewn by the gentlest zephyrs. They add
that the circhng flames were seen to play harmless in
the folds of his alb, and to stir the fringes of his
maniple and his stole, also his beard and his hair.
Lastly, to complete the prodigy, they say that the
monk, having let his handkerchief drop, went back into
the midst of the flames to pick it up, unscathed as
before. Certain it is that the citizens of Florence wrote a
long letter to the Pope, recounting the whole of this
absurd story. We see in it to what an extent an
entire party may lie or deceive in a season of ignorance
and prejudice.
The letter, moreover, composed by some fanatical
monks, was doubtless not submitted to the inspection
of aU that were present.
However that be, the Church of Rome, always ready
to lend a wUling ear to accounts of miracles, accepted
this story, and no longer refused to depose the bishop.
The monk Aldobrandini was from that time caUed
Petrus igneus, and the Bishop of Florence, some years
after his deposition, became a monk in the convent of
the monks who had been his persecutors.
Though the Pope Alexander II. was then acknow
ledged throughout almost aU Christendom, and sent
his legates to France, Spain, and Epirus, Honorius II.
StiU held his ground in Lombardy. He had in his inte
rest aU the priests who lived with wives, in defiance of
the censures of the Roman Church. The princes, too,
must have been in his favour, because he did not dis
pute their right to dispose of bishoprics.
X 2

324 HISTORY OP GREGORY Vll.
The Duke of Gottfried, who had at first taken up
arms against him, declared for him. The duke had
two chaplains, one an Itahan, the other a German, who
both maintained that clerics might marry, and that there
was no simony in purchashig a benefice or a bishopric,
provided the consecration were given gratuitously. We
do not know whether the duke was carried away by
their opinions, but his defalcation made a great noise
in Rome. Peter Damien thus wrote to him: 'A
thing unheard of has reached our ears ; that has filled
us with grief, and closed our Ups, accustomed to utter
your praises ; namely, that you have opened communi
cations with that rotten member that the Church has
cut off from herself ; that filthy thing named Cadaloiis.
This is why the peasant cries to us from his field, the
dealers in the fairs, and the soldiers in the pubhc streets.^
Nevertheless, the Roman Church, fearful of losmg
its most powerful protector, took the course of caUing
a general council to decide between Alexander II. and
Cadaloiis. Peter Damien wrote letters on the subject
to the prince Henry and the archbishop Hanno: he
congratulated the latter on having rescued the young
prince and restored to him the empire, and entreated
his help against Cadaloiis. ' Even,' said he, ' as Jupiter,
according to the fable, came as a shower of gold into
Danae's bosom, does this man, by the help of gold,
seek to introduce hiraself, as an adulterer, into the
Roman Church.' Hanno, believing his power in
Germany secure, resolved to visit Italy in person, to
terminate the dispute.
' Hunc tali viro vestram communicaase prudentiam, fossores in agro,
mercatores in foro, milites vociferantur in publico. — (Pet. Damien, Epist, ad
Gothfriedum, lib, vii. Epist. x. p. 329).

JOURNEY OF HANNO TO ITALY. 325
When he came to Rome, he said to the Pope Alex
ander, ' How is it, my brother, that you have assumed
the pontificate without the consent of the king my
master, for our kings have held this right long ? ' But
the archdeacon HUdebrand replied, asserting the con
trary, with all the force of argument.
Many of the cardinals ranged themselves on his side,
citing divers decisions of the Fathers, that did not solve
the question. All that was settled was that a council
should be held at Mantua. Hildebrand directed this
matter ; the cardinals, the bishops, and Peter Damien,
the most respected among them, were submissive to
him. He suspected the latter of not having written
his letter to the Archbishop of Cologne in the exact
words he had declared, and reproached him in such
threatening terms, that Peter Damien replied in a
letter, thus couched :
' To the Father and to the Son, the Pope and the
Archdeacon, I, Peter, a monk and a sinner, and their
most humble servant. I send to you the letter, on
account of which you maltreat me, so that you niay
judge whether I have done anything against you. If I
have deserved death for having written this letter, I
lay down my head. Strike : but at the same time
I entreat the holy demon who torments me not to be
quite so cruel towards me, and that his venerable arro
gance chastise me not from a distance, but rather, if only
out of weariness, he should be more gentle towards
his slave.' '
' De csetero sanctum meum humiliter obsecro, ut non adversum me tan
topere sseviat ; nee ejus veneranda superbia tam longis "me verberius atterat ;
sed jam circa servum suum vel satiata mitescat. — Pet. Damien. lib. i. Epist.
xvi. p. 86.

326 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
This humble and bitter irony suflS.cientIy indicates
the yoke which the imperious archdeacon imposed on
his brethren. Peter Damien refused to attend the
council of Mantua. The Pope Alexander went thither
with Hildebrand, the Archbishop of Cologne, and his
party. Alexander II. purged himself by oath of the
charge of simony, and Cadaloiis was condemned. He
stUl had, however, both money and friends ; for soon
after this solemn deposition, he made his way into
Rome, having bribed the captains and the soldiery, and
gained possession of Saint Peter's in the night.
This intelligence produced a rising of the people;
and Honorius found himself abandoned by his party.
But Cinci, son of the prefect of the city, and governor
of the Castle of Saint Angelo, received him into that
fortress, and proraised to defend hira. There were
thus two Popes in Rome, fighting against each other.
It would appear that Cinci, the prefect of the city, had
espoused the party of Alexander and the Roman
Church. He was a holy man, and even preached
sometimes in the churches. But his son, hke those
Roman nobles who foUowed the trade of brigands,
professed attachment to the party of the emperor.
The partisans of Alexander II. besieged Honorius in
the Castle of Saint Angelo ; the siege lasted two years,
during which the council sat in the Lateran.
It was at this very period of intestine warfare that
the pontifical authority signalised itself by one of the
most ambitious deeds it had ever attempted. A feUow-
countryraan of those Normans who had become so
powerful in Italy, William the Bastard, Duke of Nor
mandy, coveted the kingdom of England, which was at

WILLLAM THE CONQUEROR APPEALS TO ROME. 327
that time governed by his cousin Edward, who was old
and chUdless. He feared the rivalry of Harold, one of
the chiefs of those Saxon families that had conquered
England six centuries before. During a visit which
Harold paid to the continent, William told him that
Edward had promised he should inherit his kingdom,
and he asked Harold's aid in case of need, promising to
do wonders for him when he should be king.
Harold gave his word lightly ; and William, in
order to make it binding, convoked an assembly of his
barons at Bayeux, and pressed Harold to take a more
solemn pledge before them.
The ceremony was whoUy a reUgious one. A missal
being laid on a cloth of gold, under which was placed
a vessel containing some relics, Harold placed his hand
on the sacred book, and swore never to claim the succes
sion to his cousin the King of England.
Two years after this renunciation, so solemn and im
posing in the estimation of that age, the aged Edward
dying, Harold allowed himself to be proclaimed king by
many of the nobihty and burgesses of the kingdom,
either considering the oath the Duke of Normandy had
extorted from him' as an empty formality, or that he
was absolved from its observance by the choice of the
English people.
Before attacking him, WUliam as it were denounced
him to the Church of Rome. His statement was heard
before the Lateran councU. HUdebrand, who perceived
in this proceeding a recognition of the supremacy of
the Church, and a step to be gained in the pohtical
power he claimed for it, maintained before the councU
what he caUed the just rights of the Norman prince

328 HISTORY OP GREGORY VII.
against one who was guilty of sacrilege and peijuryi
Llarold was excommunicated, and WUliam declared the
lawful sovereign of England.
Many of the members of the councU, nevertheless,
raised their voices against this decision, which could
only be carried out by a great war. They remonstrated,
in Christian words, against the archdeacon's zeal to
procure the slaying of so many.
Hildebrand endured their reproaches, which he
afterwards utilised to make good his title with WiUiam
the Conqueror, by repeating them in a letter in which he
claimed of that prince the obedience and homage his
predecessors had rendered to the Court of Rome. But,
in the first instance, whosoever had the right in the
opinion of the Church of Rome, it was necessary to
appeal to arms. HUdebrand then sent to WUliam a
pontifical bull approving his enterprise, and a blessed
banner embroidered with an Agnus Dei in gold, and
containing, as it was said, one of Saint Peter's hairs.
Thus the Pope, who was not in undisputed possession
of Rome, disposed of distant kingdoms by sanctioning
the aggressions of the boldest and strongest.
WhUe the Roman banner was borne triumphant by
the vigorous Normans in England, Alexander II. at
length reduced the Castle of St. Angelo. Honorius,
pressed by his enemies, was ransomed by his defenders,
who exacted from him three hundred pounds of sUver
in payment for his escape. Honorius promised them,
and succeeded in getting away in the disguise of a
pUgrim. Reduced to poverty, he died in obscurity in
Lombardy, styling himself the lawful pontiff to the
last, and issuing buUs and canons, which he addressed

DEATH OF HONORIUS. 329
to his partisans. His death gave peace to the Church.
The cardinal Hugh le Blanc had previously passed
over to the party of Alexander ; the other schis
matics foUowed ; and Gottfried, gained over by the
entreaties of Beatrice his wife, appeared more zealous
than ever for the Church of Rome. He took up arms
in its cause, and obtained the restoration of some
places that had been taken by the Norman princes in
Apuha. The Roman Church now seemed, by a decisive act, to
have shaken off the yoke of the Empire and asserted its
own independence. It had rejected the pontiff Cadaloiis
elected by the emperor, and driven him to die in exUe ;
and the pontifical chair was fiUed by a pope of its own
choice. Not satisfied with this, it was not long before
it threatened Henry with its censures ; and the private
life of the young prince and the licence of his court,
probably exaggerated by the reports of the Church
party, furnished but too many pretexts for resisting
the authority of the Empire.
In his twentieth year Henry had married Bertha,
the daughter of Otho, Margrave of Italy. He was soon
tired of this union, and took, we are told, the most
extraordinary means of breaking it.
His enemies relate that, in order to have a pretext
for repudiating the queen, he placed about her one of
his faithful confidants, with instructions to seduce her.
The princess feigned to give a nightly rendezvous, and
the pretended lover came accompanied by the king,
who flattered himself he should thus convict the queen.
At the appointed hour, and at a given signal, Henry
hastened to enter the queen's apartment ; and the door

330 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
was shut against his accomplice ; this was no sooner
done than the king was assailed on all sides with sticks
and stools by the queen's women, who herself, says
the chronicles, urged them on, exclaiming, 'Thou
son of a  , how darest thou come hither?"
Henry endeavoured to make himself known, but she
continued to declare that he was no husband of hers,
but an adulterer who had made his way m by stealth;
and the king, well covered with bruises, was at last put
out of doors. Henry having had this proof of
the queen's virtue, was only the more impatient to get
rid of her, and therefore addressed himself to the
bishops of the kingdom. A councU was convoked at
Mayence. Siegfried, the archbishop of that city, was
favourable to the king's wishes, but Alexander and
Hildebrand dispatched to this council Peter Damien,
whose firmness and ardent zeal they knew well.
On hearing this, Henry IV., who had already set
out for Mayence, turned back, with the intention of
avoiding a meeting with the legate of Rome. En
couraged, however, by the persuasions of his courtiers,
and not to disappoint the expectations of the seigneurs,
he proceeded no farther than Frankfort, where he halted
to hold the council.
Peter Damien, speaking in the Pope's name, up
braided hira with raeditating an action unworthy a
Christian, and more especially a king, and entreated
him not to set such an evil example to Christendom
as to authorise those very crimes which it was his duty
to chastise ; and lastly, he threatened hira with the
censure ecclesiastical, and announced that the Pope
' Fili meritricis, unde tibi hsec audacia ?— Historia Sax. Belli, p. 102.

PROPOSED DIVORCE OF HENRY IV. 331
would never crown him emperor if he persisted in his
criminal intentions.
Almost all the nobles, already unfriendly to Henry,
raUied round the Roman legate. They lauded the
conduct of ,the pontiff, and entreated the king, in the
name of God, not to sully his glory, and to spare the
relations of the queen an outrage which could not
fail to put arms in their hands if they had a spark of
feeling. Henry, conquered rather than convinced,
promised to give up his design ; but, to spite the queen,
and avoid a meeting with her, took his way to Saxony,
in company with some of his knights. The queen,
surrounded by all the seigneurs, followed him to
Goslar, where he finally consented to see her, and
treated her with more gentleness.
WhUe the Roman Church thus gained a sort of
rictory over Henry in Germany, it received from Eng
land the interested homage of the Norman usurper,
whose invasion it had sanctioned. William the Con
queror made all haste to send to Rome much gold and
silver and precious ornaments, together with the
standard of the unfortunate Harold, who was slain on
the field of battle.^
The Pope profited by this opportunity to remind the
conqueror of the ancient tax paid by England to the
Holy See. ' Thou knowest,' he wrote, ' that the
kingdom of England, from the time it learned to glorify
the name of Christ, remained under the guidance of
the Prince of the Apostles, until some men, limbs of
Satan and rivals in pride of their father the devil,
abjured the pact of God, and turned the English people
from the way of truth.'
' Historia Universitatis Parisiensis, vol. i. p. 446.

332 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
After these words, which were made a pretext for
the conqueror's after-proceedings, the Pope added:
' As thou, moreover, well knowest, as long as the
English were faithful, they paid, in acknowledgment
of the blessing of the faith, a yearly tax, part of which
was received by the Holy See, and the rest devoted
to the Church of St. Mary, the English School.' WUliam,
who considered he might require the help of the
Pope against the clergy of the conquered land, was
docile to the Pope's request. ' Every freeman,' said
one of his laws, ' who shall possess lands to the value
of thirty deniers, shall pay the tax to St. Peter, con
formably to the laws of the Danes.' ^
As the reward of his zeal, the conqueror desired to
obtain the aid of the Roman Church in his design
of expropriating the bishops and rich abbots of the
country, and bestowing their sees and benefices on his
Normans. Many Saxon priests had fallen in battle;
but WUliam, far frora asking absolution on that
account, was only thinking how he should despoil those
that remained. The counsels of Hildebrand, which,
by his own adnussion, had seconded WiUiam's murder
ous expeditions, were not less favourable to these
spoliations. Three legates were sent from Rome to
enquire into the conduct of the Enghsh clergy.
Williara, who pillaged without scruple the rich Saxon
convents, sparing neither the vessels of their altars nor
the coffins of their dead, received the Roman envoys
with great respect, ' honouring them and hstening to
their words,' says an old chronicler, 'as if they had
been angels of God.' On their side they publicly
^ Franc-home.

WttLIAM THE CON(iUEROR AND THE SAXON CLERGY. 333
set the crown on WiUiani's head, and confirmed his
title as King of England. The legates then annomiced
that they were charged by letters apostolic, addressed
to the English bishops and abbots, to enquire into their
DEiorals, and to repair the decay of their faith ; and
proceeded, in the presence of WilUam and the principal
Normans, to convoke a council, in which the Arch
bishop of Canterbury, the Bishop of Lincoln, the Bishop
of East Angha, the Bishop of Sussex, the Bishop of
Durham, and many others who were distrusted by the
king, were deposed, and soon after either shut up in
cloisters or forced to fly their country. As successor
to the Archbishop of Canterbury — who had formerly
had a quarrel with the Church of Rome, and was also
guilty in the king's eyes as having been faithful to
Harold — the three legates proposed Lanfranc, the
confidant of WUUam, and his former ambassador to the
Pope. Lanfranc, no less ambitious than able, was no sooner
put in possession ofthe see of Canterbury than he desfred
for it the primacy over aU the other sees of England.
This right was disputed by the Archbishop of York,
who, hke himself, had been newly elected, but whose
predecessors had crowned the Saxon kings. Lanfranc,
having WUliam on his side, procured the decision in
his favour ; he then sent the account of the affair to
Rome, in order to secure the approbation of the
pontiff, and at the same time recaUed to HUdebrand
the old friendship that had existed between them.
* My soul,' ' wrote he to the archdeacon, ' cannot
express in a letter the affection by which it is united

334 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
to you, or with what pleasure I recall all the kindness
which, present or absent, I have received from you.'
He adds wishes that a long hfe may be granted to
the archdeacon, for the honour and stability of the
Church, and entreats him to read his reasons for his
request with attention, and to grant him the privUege
he asks.
Hildebrand replied : ' We have attentively read the
words you have sent unto us ; but we feel a hvely
regret that the rules established do not aUow us to
transmit to you the privilege you desire. But let not
your prudence be offended at this ; for if we could
have found that the same thing had ever been accorded
to any other archbishop of your time, we would have
hastened to confer on you this honour without its
causing you any fatigue. But it is not so ; and there
fore we consider it necessary that you shoiUd visit in
person the city of the Apostles, in order that we may
together examine into this point and others, and decide
what shall be done. Further, if our envoys reach you,
receive them with your accustomed charity ; they wiU
w^hisper in your ear : " Be careful to do that which
beseems a cherished son of the Church and a good
priest." '
We see, from this letter, how careful was the Church
of Rome, while abandoning the unfortunate clergy of
the conquered Church to Williatn, to secure the obedi
ence of the new clergy brought in by the Conquest.
Lanfranc soon arrived at Rome with the Archbishop
of York, who, in deference to William's menaces, had
ceased to dispute the episcopal supremacy of England,
and both received the pallium from the Pope.

LANFRANC. 335
The Pope Alexander II. rose up to salute Lanfranc;
remembering, he said, that he had formerly been his dis
ciple in the abbey of Bee.
Many complaints had already reached Rome of the
great harshness with which William treated the native
clergy. The Church of Rome, and more especiaUy the
equitable and austere Hildebrand, did not intentionaUy
fall in with the abuse exercised by conquest, and
the asserted Ucence of manners ; but the usuaUy
untractable spirit of the Saxon clergy, contrasted
with the eager zeal of the new Norman prelates, had
great influence over the Pope and his counsellors. The
complaints of the weak and the vanquished, the claims
made by the dispossessed prelates, the rich abbeys de
spoUed, were all lost sight of in the consideration of the
good that would accrue to the Church from a more
discreet and more submissive clergy. These conditions,
however, were not always fulfilled, and some of the
wealthy benefices of England passed into unworthy
hands. But these unfortunate instances were redeemed
by the number of those men that were judiciously
chosen, and by the spirit of order and disciphne with
which Lanfranc inspired the priests of the school of
which he was the head. By his unflagging activity,
his austerity, his love of justice, and of the rule of
his order, Lanfranc's nature sympathised with Hilde
brand's ; and that circumstance must have seconded
the pohcy of WUliam, and the execution of his designs
for a total change in the EngUsh clergy.
The Archbishop of Canterbury made but a short
stay in Rome, and, on his arrival in England, he pre
sented a letter to WiUiam from the Pope Alexander II. ,

336 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
reminding the Norman prince that the King of Kings,
the Supreme Arbfter of aU, would surely demand
from him an account of the kingdom he had trans
ferred to him. ' We exhort,' he said, ' your glory to
confide in the counsels and advice of our brother
Lanfranc, Archbishop of Canterbury, one of the most
eminent of the children of the Church, and whom we
grieve is not always with us ; but the good he wiU do
for the Church in your kingdom is a consolation to
us for his absence.'
At the same time he appointed him, in a manner, his
perpetual legate in England, by conferring on him the
right of judging without appeal all ecclesiastical dis
putes in the kingdom.
Invested with this authority, the primate of Canter
bury could the more easUy and more expeditiously
assist the designs of Wilham ; but he was, on that very
account, the more jealous for the Roman Church, from
which he had received such high authority.
At the same time that WUliam consented to pay the
tax claimed by the Church of Rome, the Pope Alex
ander II. made a similar demand on the King of Den
mark. ' We admonish you,' said he, ' to send us on
account of your kingdom the tax which your prede
cessors were in the habit of paying to the Holy Apos
tohc Church.'
In this way the power of the Roman Church spread
and strengthened. Peacefully united to the two most
enterprising sovereignties of the time, the Norman
dukes of Apulia, and the Norman conqueror of Eng
land, it was readily respected by all the rest of Europe.
The legates went in aU liberty into France to hold

POWER OF THE HOLY SEE. 337
councils and to judge ecclesiastical disputes. Cardinal
Hugh le Blanc, the same who had been so zealous in the
cause of Cadaloiis, went, in the Pope's name, mto Spain,
to alter the Mozarabic rite ; Denmark payed an annual
tribute to Rome ; the bishops of Dalmatia and Scla-
vonia came to receive the palliura from the Pope. The
dispute vrith Constantinople, even, seemed to have died
away; and on the accession of the Emperor Michael VIL
Alexander II. sent a legate to him, who returned with
rich presents ; among the number were two brazen
gates of rare workmanship. The Pope placed them in
the Church of Saint Paul, and gave to one the narae of
Hildebrand, and to the other that of the consul for the
tirae being. This is the only fact from which w^e
know that the office of consul stiU existed in Rome.
Thus powerful abroad, the Church of Rome was also
more free at home. She had no longer a prefect
nominated by the Emperor ; Henry not having corae to
Rome to be crowned, had not, so to say, established
his right of sovereignty. No money was coined in
his image, and if there still existed in the city some
offices that had been created by the Emperor, they were
raere titles, conferring no power. And moreover, the
duration and the glory of Alexander's pontificate, and
the firmness of his chief counsellor, the cardinal Hilde
brand, had surmounted the disorders which were bred
in the city, from the audacity and impunity of some of
the castellans. Obedience was established, but to the
advantage of the Church, and without the intervention
of the Empire.
In Germany, meantime, the troubles of Henry were
increased by the violence and avarice of the bishops
VOL. I. z

338 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
around him. Siegfried, Archbishop of Mayence, had
long laid claim to the tithes in Thuringia. Henry
seconded him with all his power, hoping thereby to
attach him more closely to himself; but Siegfried
apphed at the same time to the Roraan Church, he
would be indebted to it alone. He called upon it to pro
nounce its anatheraa on the poor peasants of Thuringia,
rebels as he caUed thera, and against whom he also in
voked the rigour of Henry and his soldiers.
In this matter the archbishop particularly endea
voured to conciliate the favour of Hildebrand, and even
to win him to his cause by very temporal interests.
In a letter which he wrote to him from Mayence, and
in which he styles him archdeacon and archchancellor
of the Roman Church, after having thanked him for
his constant protection, he expresses a lively wish to
be able to make some retum. ' Without doubt,' he
says, 'in the great number of the Church's affairs of
which you are the depositary, you seek only the glory
of God, and you handle earthly things to put them in
order only, not to possess them. StUl, as it is necessary
for him whose pleasure is to give, to have much
of his own to bestow in the name of God, we beg. to
inform your charity that if aught we have would be
agreeable to you, as soon as we shall know it it shall
become yours. Who, indeed, could faU to love so
great a man, or who refuse hira anything ? '
The archbishop at the same tirae craved the
adraission of his envoys to the presence of Hildebrand,
in order that, in a provincial synod which he purposed
holding, he might pronounce the anathema on the
Thuringians, in the narae and with the authorisation of
the See Apostolic.

HENRY CITED TO APPEAR AT ROME. 339
His request was granted without any demur; and
notwithstanding the archbishop's offer, there is no
reason to believe that on this occasion the powerful
archdeacon sought any interest but that of the Church.
But this ecclesiastical tyranny drove the inhabitants
mto revolt. The Archbishop of Mayence held the
council he had announced, and there decided whatever
he and the emperor pleased ; but many of the inha
bitants of the province said they should appeal to the
Pope. Two abbots, those of Fulda and Herfeld, who
considered themselves the lawful recipients of the tithes
claimed by the archbishop, upheld this appeal, and
were equaUy desirous of going to the court of Rome to
state their objections against the council ; but Henry
swore that if anyone should dare appeal, he should be
punished with death, and his lands laid waste.
When this resolution of the young king was reported
at Rome, the Pope and his cardinals exhibited their dis
pleasure.. They had, besides, a weightier reason of cora
plaint against him. They accused Henry of paying his
troops with the moneys of the Church, and with the sale
of benefices. Hildebrand and his most faithful partisans
spoke of this abuse with indignation. Instigated by
their counsels, the Pope wrote to Henry, citing hira to
appear at Rorae, and to vindicate himself of the crimes
of which he was accused before the tribunal of the
Church. This manner of proceeding against a king was hitherto
unheard of Saint Ambrose had shut out frora the
Church Theodosius, stained as he was with his subjects'
blood ; the bishops of France had conderaned Louis le
Debonnaire to a humiliating penance ; but the Pope
z 2

340 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
had never before suraraoned a king to his tribunal.
The undertaking was a bold one, but it was not given
to Pope Alexander IL to carry it out ; he died in the
same year in which he agitated this great question, and
before Henry had deigned to answer him.

341

BOOK IIL
1073-1074
On the 21st of AprU 1073, towards the evenuig, Alex
ander II. expired. Hildebrand was the ruling power
then, as he had been through all his pontificate. Rome
was not disturbed. No move was made by the Roman
nobles, and the people who generaUy, on the death
of a pope, gave theraselves up to licence and pillage,
remained quiet, and under the hand of a present
master. The archdeacon gave the necessary orders for the
pontiff's funeral the next day, and appointed many days
of fasting and public prayer. According to the ca
nons, or at least to ancient usage, it was not aUowable
to elect a successor to the new pope till the third day
after the funeral of the last. A fundamental decree,
given under the pontificate of Nicholas II. by the
advice of Hildebrand, regulates, as we have seen, the
mode of this election, by conferring it on the college of
cardinals, whose choice was to be confirmed by the
acclamations of the people, and the consent of the King
of Germany and Italy. The ardour of the partisans
of Hildebrand did not wait for all these formalities,
which he himself had helped to prescribe. His enemies
have implied that he used many efforts to accomplish

342 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
his election ; they were not required. It would seem
that, after having created and guided so many popes, his
own turn to reign had naturally corae. Besides, for the
simple reason that affairs were becoming embroiled in
the direction of Germany, the boldest defender of the
Church was the head it required.
The recent decrees of Alexander II. summoning
King Henry to the bar of the councU of Rome, made it
impossible to choose any other pope than Hildebrand,
the intrepid adviser of this bold step. He alone stood
on an elevation from which he could strike the emperor.
The people understood this at once. Scarcely had
the body of Alexander been carried into Saint John
Lateran, than priests and people ' pressed to the church,
thronging round the archdeacon, who was engaged in
the funeral ceremony, exclaiming, ' Hildebrand is Pope;
blessed Peter has elected Hildebrand.' ^ Whether it
were dissimulation, or a religious and sincere terror
at the near prospect of this pontifical dignity which he
desired to see carried so high, he resisted, he protested,
he tried to reach the pulpit, so as to address the people
from it. One of the cardinals, Hugh le Blanc, a schis
matic in the time of Cadaloiis, but now a passionate
admirer of the archdeacon whom he was to desert at
a future day, pushed before him, and, taking possession
of the pulpit, spoke as though he already heard the
vote of the sacred college : —
' My dear brethren, you know of a truth that from
the time of the holy Pope Leo, this archdeacon is the
' Dum Hildebrandus, archidiaconus, esset in ejus, obsequiis occupatus,
repente factus est in ip.^a ecclesia maximus cleri ac populi Romani concur-
SU8 clamantium et dicentium : Hildebrandum archidiaconum beatus Petrus
elegit. — Act, Vatic. Baron, vol. xvii. p. 355.

HILDEBRAND ELECTED BY THE TITLE OF GREGORY VII. 343
man who, by his experience and wisdom has most con
tributed to the exaltation of the Church, and that he
delivered this city from great perils. As we cannot
find any other raore able in Church government, we,
the bishops and cardinals have unaniraously elected hira
for ourselves and for you, to be the shepherd and bishop
of our souls.'
All the clergy and people replied by acclamations :
' Saint Peter has chosen the Lord Gregory to be Pope.'
This name was doubtless suggested by Gregory himself,
in memory of the patron he had foUowed to Germany,
alid there beheld him die a captive. By adopting it he
pledged hiraself to merit the same fate, if need were, by
the same constancy ; or rather, he marked the remem
brance he retained of this persecution, and the reprisals
he meant to exact. However that be, he no longer
resisted the wishes of the people ; he allowed the scarlet
robe to be put upon him. He was not yet consecrated,
but he was enthroned in the chair of Peter, wearing the
pontifical mitre with its two golden circlets, one of
which bore the words ' Crown Royal, bestowed by
God,' and the other, ' Crown Imperial, given by the
hand of Peter ' — an expressive symbol, which figured
the quarrel already begun, by proclaiming the subor
dination of the emperor to the pontiff-king.
Nevertheless, by one of those contradictions which
are but traits of prudence joined to the ardour of pas
sion, Gregory VIL, respecting the decree of Nicholas IL,
declared he would not allow himself to be consecrated
without the consent of the King of Gerraany; but
nothing indicates this condition in the decree of election,
which is not even dated in Henry's reign, and specifies

344 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
only the suffrages of the cardinals and the consent of
the people.
' Under the reign of our Lord Jesus Christ, the year
1073 of his rairaculous incarnation, the eleventh indic-
tion, the tenth of the calends of May, second feria,
the day of the funeral of our Lord Pope Alexander II.
of blessed memory, in order that the Apostolic See may
not long weep, being deprived of its pastor, we, having
met in the basilica of Saint Peter in Chains, we, the
merabers of the Holy Roraan Catholic and Apostolic
Church, cardinals, bishops, clerks, acolytes, sub-deacons,
deacons, and priests, in presence of the venerable bishops
and abbots, with the consent of the raonks, and amid
the acclamations of great numbers of both sexes and
divers orders, elect as our pastor and sovereign pontiff
a holy man, learned in raatters huraan and divine, a
lover of justice and equity, courageous under misfor
tune, moderate in prosperity, and, in the words of the
Apostle, an example of good manners, chaste, modest,
temperate, hospitable, knowing well how to regulate
his own house, nobly educated, and taught from his
childhood in the bosom of this very Church, and pro
moted on account of his exemplary life to the honours
of the archdeaconate ; this man is the Archdeacon
Hildebrand, whom we will now and henceforth have, and
whom we narae Gregory and pope. " Will ye have him ? "
" Yea, we will." " Do you approve his electionj-"—
" We approve it." '
Nevertheless, Gregory VIL, swayed by divers motives
and under the influence of a train of pious reasoning and
haughty scruples, which, at the distance of centuries, ¦
seem strange to us, imraediately dispatched a deputation

hildebrand's ACCOUNT OF HIS ELECTION. 345
to the King of Gerraany. lie begged him ' not to ratify
the election.' ' That if he did he would have reason to
repent of it : his sins being too grave and too notorious
to remain unpunished.' However, this message, of
which we first hear two hundred years after the event,
seems very doubtful, and is discredited by known facts.
Far from raising up delays to his elevation, Gregory
neglected nothing that could smooth aU obstacles.
We must read his own account of his hasty and
tumultuous election, in a letter which he wrote the day
after to Didier, abbot of Monte Cassino. It is the
official account, which, with slight variations, was sent
to Gisulph, Prince of Salerno, to Guibert, archbishop
of Ravenna, to the Duchess Beatrice, to Hugh, abbot
of Cluny, to the King of Denmark, and to almost all
the kings, princes, prelates, and superior clergy through
out, Christendom.
' Gregory, elected pontiff of Rome, to Didier, abbot
of the Benedictine Monastery of Monte Cassino, greet
ing in Christ Jesus.
' Our last Pope Alexander is dead; his death has been
a great blow for me, and has shaken my whole being.
On this occasion the Roman people have remained so
quiet, contrary to thefr custora, and have allowed them
selves to be so entirel)'- guided by us, that it was evi
dently the effect of the divine mercy. Taking counsel,
v.'e -def'ided that, after three days' fasting, reciting of
litanies, public prayer, and almsgi^dng, we would, by
God's help, fix a convenient day for the election of
another pope.
' But all at once, just as our lord pope aforesaid had
been laid in his tomb in the Church of Saint Saviour,

346 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
there arose among the people a great noise and tumult;
they rushed upon me like madmen, so that I could say
with the prophet, " The waves have gone over my soul.
I cried aloud till my throat was parched and my voice
hoarse." I can say further " that fear and trembhng
came upon me, and that darkness fell upon me ; " but,
as I am now confined to my bed, worn out with fatigue,
and cannot dictate this letter without difficulty, I defer
the full relation of all I have suffered.'
The pontiff ended this letter by asking the prayers
of the abbot and the brethren, that he raay be protected
in the peril into which he had been cast. He entreated
the abbot to come to him speedily, to help him with his
counsels, and charges him with his salutations to the
Empress Agnes, who had been an inhabitant of Monte
Cassino for some months, and to Raynald, bishop of
Como, who was her confessor. ' Entreat them faithfully
frora us,' he said, ' to prove themselves at this day all
that they have each been in affection towards us.'
Is it not evident, both by the admissions and the re
servations in this letter, that Gregory could not gainsay
the irregular precipitancy ofhis election, and that, under
his feigned grief and humUity, he was endeavouring
to secure hiraself a mediatrix with Henry?
The Abbot of Monte Cassino having arrived at Rome
a few days after the receipt of the letter, it is said that
Gregory saluted hira with the words, ' You have been
a long tirae coming, brother,' and that the abbot replied,
' And you, Gregory, made good haste to fill the apostolic
chair before our lord the Pope was buried.' But this
anecdote, related by an eneray, seems doubtful, and the
constant zeal of Didier in the pontifical cause, as well

LETTER TO GUIBERT, ARCHBISHOP OF RAVENNA. 347
as Gregory's eagerness in summoning him to his pre
sence, ^oes not lend much probability to this epigram,
repeated only long after the interview.
The letter of Gregory to the Archbishop of Ravenna
contains similar politic precautions to those we have
cited. After the same recital of the violence put upon
hun by the people^' I pray you,' he says, ' let the affec
tion that you promised to have for the Church and fbr
me m particular, as you may remember, be, now that
tune and cfrcumstances require it, shown forth, if not
for my merits, at least for love of the Apostles Peter
and Paul. Call on your suffragans and the sons of
Jesus Christ to entreat God for rae, that He may give
me strength and stretch out His hand to help me to
sustain the burden He has laid upon rae in spite of ray
refusal and ray resistance. And, loving you with sincere
affection, I ask of you a siraUar return, with all the good
offices that iraplies. Your friendship cannot doubt our
desire, by God's help, so to unite the Roman Church, and
that over which you preside, by such concord and, in
so far as the honour of each will permit, by so raany
ties of charity, that our souls raay be joined together for
ever by complete affection and peace uninterrupted. I
exhort your prudence to hereunto, and know you fur
ther by this letter of ray wish and desire that we raay
exchange frequent raessages between us, and so enjoy
mutual consolation.'
In this tone of equality, and in these affectionate
words from Gregory VII. to Guibert, we perceive the
importance which the Church of Ravenna still pos
sessed, and the great foresight which enabled the new
Pope to distinguish at that time his future antagonists.

348 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
In conciliating the archbishop thus, Gregory showed him
self none the less resolute to cede nothing to him, nor
less ready to give him to understand his resolutions.
Soon after this letter had been written, Gregory
learned that Guibert had exacted from the inhabitants of
Imola, in the diocese of Ravenna, an oath of fidehty to
himself, very different from that which bound them to
the Roman Church, and he coraplained of this to
Count Guido, the Seigneur of Imola. ' The report of
such a circumstance,' wrote he, ' has astonished us all
the more, seeing that the fraternal charity and sacer
dotal probity we had long remarked in Guibert removed
all suspicion. We cannot believe that a man so
prudent, and who has himself sworn fidelity to the
Prince of the Apostles, should be so forgetful of him
self and of the rank he holds, as to entice to perjury
those who have taken the same oath as he, and to exact
from them oaths prescribed by himself.' Then he
charges and prays the Count Guido, in case the above-
named archbishop or any other person should endeavour
to divert the inhabitants of Imola from their aUegiance
to the Holy See, to take up arms against them pending
the arrival of the legates. ' We ardently desire,' he
adds, ' to be at peace with all the world, if it be
possible. But for those who seek to aggrandise them
selves to the prejudice of St. Peter, whose servants we
are, by the help of God's grace and His justice we shall
not hesitate to oppose thefr endeavours.' Guibert
imraediately gave way; and thus the quarrel, that was
to burst out upon the presence of graver interests, arose;
we note here its earliest origin.
The same caution on the part of Gregory is seen in

LETTER TO DUKE GOTTFRIED. 349
a reply to the Duke Gottfried, who, though attached to
the cause of Henry, had, no doubt out of deference to
the wishes of Beatrice and MatUda, written to con
gratulate the new Pope on his election.
In thanking him, Gregory complains that this pro
motion, which is the joy of the faithful, is for him
only a source of interior bitterness and anguish. ' We
behold,' writes he, ' the cares that surround us, we feel
the burden that is laid on us;' and when our conscience
and our infirmity tremble under its weight, our soul
desires the dissolution of the body, rather than a life
so full of peril. The contemplation of the duty which
is confided to us begets in us such inquietude, that if
we were not sustained by some confidence in the
prayers of holy men, our spirit would faint under the
immensity of the cares which press upon us ; for, by
reason of sin, the world is in this fearful situation, that
nearly aU, and particularly those who are prelates of
the Church, seek to humble it, instead of defending
and honouring it, and, in their greed of gain and
worldly glory, becorae the eneraies of all that regard
religion and the honour of God — a grief aU the greater
for us, having in this difficult crisis been placed at the
helm of the universal Chufch, cannot either direct it
successfuUy or abandon it safely.'
In the midst of these complaints, uttered in such a
tone of conviction and sincerity, Gregory neglected no
consideration of temporal prudence in his manner of
speaking of Henry to the Count Gottfried ; and his
expressions on this head are a further proof that the
message he had just sent to Germany could have had
nothing in it of an offensive or provocative nature. ' We

3,50 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
would have you know,' says he, ' all our thoughts and
wishes in the king's regard. None, as we believe, are more
careful than ourselves for his glory, present and future,
or desire it more ardently. For it is our intention at
the first favourable moment to entertain him by our
legates, with the affection and vigilance of a father,
regarding those things that appear to us to touch the
prosperity of the* Church and the honour of the throne.
If he listen to us, we shall rejoice in his salvation, even
as in our own, and he can assuredly only work out
that salvation by listening to our warnings and our
counsels in the way of justice. But if (which we
desire not) he render us hate for love, and if, despising
the mercy of God, he only repays with contempt the
honour he has received, the sentence " Cursed be he
that turns aside his sword from blood," will not, thanks
be to God, fall on us. For it is not possible for us to
sacrifice the laws of God to personal considerations, or
to quit the path of justice for human favour ; the
Apostle says : — " If I should please raen, I shoiUd not
be the servant of God." '
While Gregory VII. was stiU awaiting the reply of
Henry — taking as yet only the title of Pope Elect — ^he
already asserted his daring*supremacy. He was timid
and reserved in the direction of Germany, but his
pretensions embraced the rest of Christendom ; it is
true everything seemed to favour them — the situation of
the peoples as much as their prejudices. The empire
of the West had passed away for ever, with the splendid
reigns of Charlemagne and the Othos ; it was either
divided into independent provinces or pettj^ sovereign
ties, which required the countenance of the Church of

STATE OF EUROPE. 351
Rome to make them respected by the people. Italy was
divided between tha distant and ill-settled sovereignty
of the King of Gerraany, the power of Beatrice and
MatUda, both devoted to the Holy See, the still recent
conquests of the Norman adventurers, some weak
Greek garrisons still remaining in the remote parts of
Calabria, the principalities of Salerno, and the rising
republic of Venice. Beyond the bounds of Italy, the
Christians of Spain, so long kept down by the Moors,
received in the Church of Rome the protector they
desired against their old enemies. In France the
people StiU reraerabered the excomraunication pro
nounced against the son of Hugh Capet ; and a rich
and powerful clergy venerated the Church of Rome as
the source of its own power. It appeared as if Eng
land, recently conquered unc^er the standard of Saint
Peter, would be more tractable to the Holy See in
the hands of its new possessors than it had been in
those of the Saxons. The kingdoms of the North,
Denmark and Sweden, but recently converted to Chris
tianity, were, in their ignorance, still more ready to
receive the yoke and the instructions of the Roman
Church. Thus everything favoured the lofty pretensions of
Hildebrand, and excited him to pursue in his own
name, the plans he had sketched out under so many of
his predecessors in the pontificate.
In the very first days after his election he bestirred
himself m this spirit, to submit more completely to the
Roman Church those provinces of Spain which had
recently shaken off the Moorish yoke. He selected
as legate the cardinal Hugh le Blanc, whose ardour

352 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
in his cause he had just vritnessed, in the moraentous
crisis of his election.
The austere pontiff was no doubt acquainted with
the misdeeds of Hugh, and knew what there was to
be feared from his unstable and violent disposition ;
but his present devotedness covered all things in the
Pope's eyes. Wishing to secure for him the support of
the order of Cluny (which was especially numerous in
Spain), he wrote to his legates in France to obtain
from the abbot Hugh sorae of his raonks to accompany
Hugh le Blanc to Spain, and to assist him by their
advice and labours. Foreseeing the repugnance which
his choice of an ambassador might inspfre at Cluny, he
begged the legates to do their best to remove the pre
judices of the abbot and his brethren. ' This man,
said he of Hugh le Blanc, ' has had no choice in the
matter ; but entering into our thoughts and hopes, he is
united to us in one and the same will and desire ; and
we have reason to know that the things that were im
puted to hira in the lifetime of our lord seigneur the
pope defunct, proceeded less from his fault than from
the faults of others.' Thus the severe pontiff employed,
without scruple, a corrupt but tractable man, in whom,
at a later day, he found his most bitter enemy.
Perhaps Gregory wished to reward him, perhaps to
have him at a distance ; but, knowing his active energy,
he sent him to Spain to promote and keep a watch over
the crusade headed by the Count Rouci, and to claim
tribute to the Holy See frora all the lands that should
be taken from the infidels.
The Count Rouci, brother-in-law of Sancho, King
of Arragon, having deposited in the hands of the

CLAIM MADE TO SPAIN. 353
Archdeacon HUdebrand, at Rome, a written promise
(wherein he acknowledged himself a vassal of the Holy
See) in regard of the possessions he should conquer in
Spain, had deferred his enterprises, fearing, no doubt,
as many obstacles on the part of the Christian princes
of the country as from the Moors. Gregory VII.
pressed his two legates in France on this point, taxing
them with dilatoriness ; and at the same tirae he wrote
to the Christian kings of Spain, and all other princes
who might be tempted to join this species of crusade, to
remind them of the conditions the Roman Church had
attached to the enterprise. In this instance, too,
though he stUl only styled himself Pontiff Elect, he
already manifests that claim to future and absolute
sovereignty which he afterwards extended to aU the
known kingdoms of the world. ' Ye are not ignorant,'
he says, ' that the kingdom of Spain was in ancient
times the possession of Saint Peter; and that at the
present time, aU invaded by pagans as it is, the right
has not lapsed ; it belongs to no mortal man, but to the
Holy See alone ; for, by the wiU of God, that which
has once passed into the possession of the Church may
cease to be to its benefit, but cannot be cut off from its
. dominion except by legitimate concession.'
This Was not all ; the pontiff, in reiterating the con
ditions imposed on Count Rouci, and offering to aU
those who should, hke him, undertake the conquest of
the Saracens in Spain, adds these inflexible words : ' I
wiU that ye all know that if ye be not fuUy determined
to acquit the just claim of Saint Peter on this king
dom, we shall array against you the fulness of the
apostolic authority, and we wiU interdict to you the
VOL. I. A A

354 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
possession of this country, rather than see the Holy
Church Universal suffer from her sons the same in
jury as from her enemies ; wounded still less iu the
loss of her property than in that of their souls ; and
to this end we have sent our well-beloved son Hugh,
Cardinal-priest of the Holy Roman Church, puttmg
into his raouth our counsels and our desfres, which he
wUI the more fuUy explain to you, and execute in our
stead.' Nevertheless, at the very time at which these suc
cessive acts of possession took place, the pontiff's
title was stUl matter of discussion at the German
Court. King Henry, on receiving the new Pope's
message, had hesitated awhile as to the line of conduct
he should pursue. Many of the bishops of Germany
and Lombardy, who dreaded for themselves the vio
lent zeal and severe inquisition of HUdebrand armed
with the pontifical power, counseUed together to
address the king. They entreated him to annul an
election that had been made without his orders, pro
phesying that, if he did not hasten to ' cut short the
violence of this man, he would one day suffer for it.^
On the other side, Henry, young, and not very solidly
estabhshed, feared not only in Italy, but in Germany
itself and in his own Court, the sudden aUiance of some
of the great vassals with the Church of Rome. He
hesitated to pronounce a refusal. In this embarrassment
he sent one of his favourites, the Count Eberhard, to
' Episcopi Galliarum protinus grandi scrupulo permoveii cceperunt ne
vir vehementis ingenii et acris erga Deum fidei discretius eos pro negligentiis
suis quandoque discuteret ; atque ideo communibus onmes consiliis regem
adorti orabant, ut electionem quss injussu ejus facta fuerat irritam fore
decemeret. — Lamb. Sehaf. p. 191,

MISSION OF EBERHARD TO ROME. 355
enquire of the chief men of Rome what had induced
them, contrary to custom, to make a pontifical election
without consulting him; and if the reply were not
satisfactory, to summon the new Pope to abdicate
immediately. Gregory received the German Ambassador with the
greatest respect, and having hstened to the king's
orders, he rephed, taking God to witness that he had not
sought this supreme honour, but that the Romans had
elected him, and that the government of the Church
had been imposed on him by force ; that, nevertheless,
nothing could have induced him to allow himself to be
consecrated untU he should have learnt by a certain
message that the king and the nobles of the Teutonic
kuigdom approved of his election ; that he had deferred
receiving his ordination from this motive, and would
defer it stUl untU the wiU of the king should be com
municated to him.^
While he was thus cautious with Henry's envoy, his
real intention is visible in a letter to Beatrice and
MatUda. ' Our will,' said he, ' as regards the king, as
you have aheady perceived from our letters, is to send
to him holy men, whose words may bring him back to
the love of Holy Mother Church, his mother, and who
may labour for us by instructing him and transforming
him so that he may be worthy of receiving the Empire.
But if, contrary to our desire, he disdain to listen to us,
' Is benigne k prsedicto viro susceptus est et respondit se Deo teste hujus
honoris apicem nunquam per ambitionem affectasse, sed electum se a Ro
manis, cogi tamen nullo modo potuisse ut ordiuari ae permitteret donee in
electionem suam tam regam quam principes Teutonici regni consensisse certa
legatione cognoscerat. Hac ratione distulisse adhuc ordinationem suam et
sine dubio dilaturum.— Xaw6. Schaf. p. 191.
A A 2

356 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
we ought not, and we shall not, depart from the rule of
the Holy Roman Church, our raother, who has nourished
us, and who has often raised up from the very blood of
her children other sons. And certainly it is better for
us to shed our own blood in the defence of truth, and
in resisting Henry for his soul's salvation, than, by con
senting to iniquity to do him pleasure, we should faU
with him into the pit. Adieu, dear chUdren in Jesus
Christ, and be assured that we hold you affectionately
in the depth of our heart.'
At the same tirae Gregory VII. advised the two
princesses to shun all communication with the Lombard
bishops, to refuse all compromise and all worldly con
siderations. Meantime, in virtue of the report of the Count Eber
hard, and doubtless in consideration of the state of
affairs at Rome and of the powerful party dominant at
Rome, the Court of Germany accepted Hildebrand's
explanations as valid. And Henry, in giving his Con
sent to the election, charged the Bishop of VerceU,
Chancellor of the kingdom of Italy, to be present in
his name at the consecration of the new Pope.
Hildebrand, who up to that time had not been or
dained priest, though he governed the Church, was
ordained in the octave of Pentecost, and a few days
afterwards, on June 30, the day after the feast of Saint
Peter, he was solemnly consecrated Pope.
After this ceremony Gregory passed a few days at
Rome, and there issued a buU to all the faithful of Lom
bardy, announcing to them the excommunication of
Godfrey, who, during the lifetime of Guido, Archbishop
of MUan, had seized on that Church, and had, to repeat

NEGOCIATIONS WITH CONSTANTINOPLE. 357
the Pope's strong expression, prostituted the spouse of
Christ to the devU. In this pontifical brief Gregory VII.
did not as yet pubUcly accuse the King of Germany ;
but he attacked a bishop who had been nominated by
him, and thus began the struggle that was to last so
long. At the same time he took advantage of an oppor
tunity to effect a reconcUiation with the Greek Emperor
Michael, who had addressed a letter of congratulation to
him by the hands of two monks, who were commis
sioned to sound his ideas as to the means of reuniting
the two Churches. Not finding such a channel of com
munication worthy of his confidence, Gregory sent his
answers by the Patriarch of Venice, an eminent prelate,
and one sure to please at the Court of Constantinople,
of which Venice was then a dependency. The pontiff
concludes his letter by saluting the Greek Emperor by
the title of Majesty, and expressed his desire of renew
ing the ancient alliance existing between the two
Churches, and of being, as far as in him lay, at peace
with all men.
In the early days of July Gregory VII. quitted
Rome with a suite of cardinals and bishops to visit the
cities in the Roman States, and to see for himself what
he had to hope or fear from the Norman princes, trouble
some allies of the Church, but the natural eneraies of the
King of Germany. He went first to Monte Cassino,
and left the monastery accompanied by the Abbot
Didier for Benevento, which the Emperor Henry III.
had ceded to the Pontifical See, leaving the rest of the
principahty to the descendants of the old Lombard
dukes. He there received the homage of Landulph,

358 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
the last of these princes, and imposed on him a declara
tion setting forth ' that, if ever he were unfaithful to
the Roman Church, whether the Pope or his successors,
and if he should seek by any means to weaken the
Beneventine State, or if, without the consent of the
Pope or his delegates, he should grant any investiture,
or if, in concert with the men of Benevento or others,
he should seek to impose or receive oaths, or if, finaUy,
of hiraself or by an agent, he should endeavour in any
wise to do injury to any one of the faithful of the
Roman Church, and should not be able to clear himself
before the tribunal of the Lord Apostolic, he should in
stantly be deprived of his dignity.'
In this language of absolute submission we read the
weakness of the Lombard domination, giving way at
every point, and seeking a protection against the neigh
bouring Norman invaders.
With those Gregory treated on quite a different foot
ing. Knowing the jealousy which Richard, Count of
Averso, who had become master of Capua, nourished
against his brother Robert, Duke of Calabria, he went
in all confidence to Capua. In order to procure the
recognition of the title of prince, which he had assumed
since his conquest, Richard wUlingly consented to take
the oath of fidehty and homage, as Robert had formerly
done to Nicholas IL We find the same expressions, the
same feudal oath, the same pledge not to enter into any
plot or enterprise having for its object to slay, mutilate,
or traitorously detain the Pope, and to aid him to hold
and to defend against aU comers the domains of Saint
Peter; the same promise neither to invade, occupy, nor
even pUlage in the principalities of Saint Peter, without

HOMAGE RENDERED BY DUKE EICHARD AT CAPUA. 359
the express permission of the Pope or his successors.
A tribute was also simUarly stipulated ; only one clause
was new, and it had the appearance of a weapon kept
in reserve against Henry. ' As to King Henry,' said
Richard, m his oath to the Pope, ' I swear fidelity to him,
according to the instructions I shall have received from
thee or thy successors, and always saving my fidelity
to the Roman Church.'
During this journey, and even from the palace of the
Norman chief, Gregory followed the affafrs of Germany,
and sought in that country a more powerful auxiliary
against Henry. The Duke of Suabia, Rudolph of Rhein-
felden, had even forestalled him m this project, and
wrote to him to assure him of his zeal, and to proffer
his mediation. Gregory replied to him from Capua :
' We would have your Seigneurie to know that towards
the King Henry, to whom we are united by the fact
that we elected him king, and that also his father the
Emperor Henry of honoured memory distinguished him
particularly among aU the Italians at his Court, and
when he was dying recommended his son to the care of
the Roman Church by the medium of the Pope Victor,
we have no Ul will, nor any other Christian man.' ^
But at the same time he pressed the Duke Rudolph to
come and confer with him and with the Empress Agnes,
the Countess Beatrice, Raynald, Bishop of Como, and

' Unde nobilitatem tuam scire volumus quia non solum circa regem
Henricum, cui debitores exsistimus ex eo quod ipsum in regem elegimus, et
pater ejus laudandsa memorise, Henricus imperator, inter omnes Italicos in
curiS, sua speciale, honore me tractavit, quodque etiam moriens ipse Romanse
ecclesise per venerandse memorise papam Victorem prssdictum suum filium
commendavit aliquam malevolentiam non observamus, sed neque aUquem
Ohristianum hominem. — Act. Condi, p. 1211.

360 HISTORY OF GREGORY VH.
other God-fearing persons. He promised to communi
cate to him aU his designs and intentions, and to modify
them, if need were, in agreement vrith his own.^ ' We
pray you then,' said he, at the close of his letter, ' to set
yourself to increase in fidehty to Saint Peter, and not
to delay visiting the threshold of his house, both out
of motives of piety and of considerations of interest.'
At the same time he announced this project of a confe
rence to Raynald, Bishop of Como, who was at that time
an object of aversion to the Lombard schismatics on
account of his zeal for the Roraan Church.^ ' Ye know,'
said he, ' you and our dear daughter the Empress Agnes,
what I think about the king, and what I wish for him.
None more than I desire to see him rich in earthly
blessings ; but you know, too, how often I have said
that my first wish is that none may lead a more holy
hfe than he ; for I say in my heart. If morahty and
pious living in a private person, or let us say a priarce,
redounds to the honour and glory of the Holy Church,
what would not those quahties effect as seen in the lUe
of the man who is the head of the laics, who is now a
king, and wiU be, if God so please, Emperor of Rome? '
Gregory added, that in the course of that month the
Duke Rudolph would be passing through Lombardy,^ and
' Prudentiam tuam rogamua, ut in fidelitate beati Petri semper studeas
crescere, et ad limina ejus, tum causa oratioms, tum consideratione tantse
utilitatis, non pigeat te venire. — Act. Concil. p. 1211.
^ Novistis quidem, si bene fortasse meministis, quam ssepe utrique dixerim,
quod 60 religione sanctorum nullum vivere vellem ; hoc scilicet, mente
mecum versans: si cujuspiam privati et alicujus principis boni mores, vita
et religio, honori sanctse ecclesise exsistant et augmento ; quid illius, qui
laicorum est caput, qui rex est, et Romse, Deo annuente, futurus imperator ?
Greg. Pap. Epist. xix. p. I2I2.
' Ducem Rodulphum Longobardiam intraturum in hoc primo Septembre
audivimus. — Ib

NEGOCLATIONS WITH HENRY. 361
that, by the help of his counsels and those of Raynald,
the Empress Agnes and Beatrice, who, he said, had often
worked together with him for peace, he hoped he should
be able so to regulate matters, that the king should
have nothing to fear from him, when he should come to
Italy, finding everything quiet.
He also announced to Anselm, nominated to the
Bishopric of Lucca,^ this pacific intervention of Agnes
and the Ulustrious Beatrice and her daughter MatUda,
and lastly of Rudolph, Duke of Suabia; but he none the
less prescribed to this prelate the refusal of any inves
titure at the hands of the king until such time as Henry,
having made satisfaction to God touching his commerce
with excommunicated persons, should have peace with
the Church.
To another prelate of Lombardy, Bruno, Bishop of
Verona, who asked for the pallium, he wrote in the same
spirit of conciliation and peace. In writing him to
come according to custora to seek this distinction in
person, he adds : ^ ' We desire thus to show in you with
what sincere love we cherish the salvation of the king,
and how ardently we wish to minister to his glory before
God and before men, if he will only set himself to render
glory to God, and bidding farewell to the passions of
youth, to imitate the conduct of the vrise and prudent.'
' Pei'sonee namque tales opus conantur perficere ; carissima ibique filia
nostra Agnes imperatrix, neo non et gloriosa Beatrix cum filia MathUdi:
Rodolphus quoque dux Suavise, quorum religiosa consilia spemere nee
possumus, nee debemus. — Greg. Pap. Epist. xxi. p. 1212.
' Volumus etiam tune prsesentise tuse ostenderre, quam sincero amore
salutem diligamus, quantumve circa ejus honorem et secundum Deum et
seculnm invigilare desideremus, si ipse Deo debitum honorem studuerit
exseq[ui, et formam sanctorum regum, omissis puerilibu studiis, sapienter
imitari.— (?re^, Pap. Epist. xxiv. p. 1216.

362 HISTORY OP GREGORY VII.
We perceive from these various detaUs that Gregory
VII. had not at that time any intention of persecutuig
Henry. He would wUlingly have treated with the
young prince, and he was wilUng to accept as arbiters
an ambitious vassal of the German king and three
women, one of whom had been formerly a prisoner in
the camp of Henry IIL, another brought up from her
infancy in hatred of the Empfre and love of the Church,
and the thfrd a faUen Empress who was far more a
penitent of Rome than the mother of the Emperor.
But this first attempt at reconcUiation was not suc
cessful. Notwithstanding the Pope's invitation, Rudolph
feeling himself shackled either by the prohibition of
Henry or by the fear of exciting his supicions, did
not take the proposed journey to Rome, and Gregory
VII. continued to forbid aU bishops who were nomi
nated to receive investiture from the hands of Henry.
The distrust of the pontiff was shown in aU things, and
extended in a special manner to those who possibly might
serve the King of Germany and defend his cause. In
the foremost rank stood Gottfried, who had been for
many years absent from Italy, being detained in his pro
vince of Lorraine, where MatUda had made only a brief
sojourn, and whither she would not return.
There Gottfried had come to the inheritance of the
Duke, his father, who had been the husband of Beatrice,
and this inheritance had already produced quarrels
between him and the clergy. The monks of Saint
Hubert in Ardennes, on the confines of the Duchy of
Burgundy, claimed from the young Duke a rich dona
tion of the lands and goods, the property of Gottfried,
his father, which they said he had given to them before

FAILURE OF THE NEGOCIATIONS. 363
his death, and, in pledge thereof, had placed in the
hands of the Abbot an ivory casket contaimng holy
rehcs. The new Duke, without altogether disputing this
votive offering, had done what he could to lessen it.
He had subtracted from the donation several estates,
which he gave to some of his father's men-at-arms, and
had kept, for himself, half the money and half the
furniture. The Abbot of Saint Hubert further com
plained that Gottfried had taken possession of the
ivory casket by force, in order to give it to Matilda,
who, though often summoned by him, always put off
her journey across the mountains. The Abbot of
Samt Hubert had put up with this slight, but as soon as
he heard of the elevation of that zealous defender of
the Church, the Archdeacon Hildebrand, he thought
the moment favourable for claiming what he qualified
as the alms of the good Duke Gottfried.
He set out with Herimann, Bishop of Metz, to go to
Rome to appeal to the judgment of the Pope. On
arriving at Luna, in Tuscany, they were met by a
messenger from Beatrice, who invited them, in her
name and in that of her daughter Matilda,' to halt at
Pisa, and there solemnise the feast of Easter in her
presence. The Bishop and the Abbot accepted with joy, as a
powerful protection, the hospitahty of the mother-in-
law and the wife of the prince whom they were about
to accuse to the Holy Father. They went without
delay to the palace of the princesses, where many
bishops and priests and knights were assembled to
celebrate the ceremonies of Holy Week.

364 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
While the Bishop of Metz, in compliance with the
ladies' request, was celebrating High Mass in the
Palace- Chapel, the good Abbot of Saint Hubert, all
dazzled by the pomp of this Itahan Court and by the
rich dress of the princesses, remained humbly in the
crowd, and chanted the responses in a low voice, accom
panied by two monks, his chaplains. MatUda, having
perceived him, had him brought to her, and forced him
to take his proper seat in the choir.
Knowing that the Abbot was to leave the next day,
the Countess received him to a private audience and,
having listened to all his complaints, she said he must
consult the Lord Pope on all those matters, and, in
order to secure him ready access, gave him letters of
introduction, which she told him to present to the
pontiff in her narae.
Having arrived at Rome, with the Bishop of Metz,
the Abbot of Saint Hubert presented his letters, and wa,s
graciously received. He remained in the city seven
days, and was often admitted to visit the Pope. On
one occasion, when he had remained in conversation
with the Pontiff till the evening, at his house at the
gates of Rome, Gregory VII. gave orders to the Pre
fect Arraandus to reconduct hira, with an escort, to
the inn where the two Gerraan travellers lodged.
That was not all : on the Abbot's departure, the Pope
gave hira a bull, which placed under the guardianship
of the Holy See, and protected under pain of anathema,
all the possessions, present or future, of the Convent
of Saint Hubert, and all donations that had been or that
should be made to it. ' The Abbot,' says the chronicle of
the convent, ' had, in a spfr it of peace, asked to be reheved

THE ABBOT OP SAINT HUBERT'S AT ROME. 365
of the obhgation of enforcing the conditions of the
legacy, disputed by Gottfried ; but the Pope would not
consent, and handed to the Abbot two briefs, which
directed the Bishop of Cologne and the Bishop of Laon
to induce Gottfried, either by their advice or the ascen
dency of the episcopal ministry, to fulfil his father's
vow. Furnished with this bull and these letters, the Abbot
returned to Pisa, to inform Matilda of what he had
done, and he received from her rich presents for his
monastery. As soon as he reached it, he transmitted
the pontifical letters to the two Bishops of Cologne and
Laon. In the fear of Rome, and at the prelates' entreaty,
Gottfried gave way, Ul pleased, no doubt, at Matilda's
zeal for the communities that claimed against him ;
but soon afterwards he set out to join her in Italy,
where she was, . at the Court of the pontiff whom
Gottfried had a few months before congratulated on
his exaltation. In replying at that time to the mes
sage of Gottfried, and whUe addressing him by the
title of ' Very Dear Son of Saint Peter,' Gregory VII.
had, nevertheless, even then touched on the subject of
difference between them. ' Regarding the king,' he
wrote, ' you shaU learn all our thoughts and intentions.
In the full extent of the judgment which we have
received from God, we believe that no one is more
sohcitous than ourselves for the present and future
glory of Henry ; but- it is not lawful for us to
allow any feeling of personal interest vv^hatsoever to
take the place of the law of God, nor to turn aside from
the path of justice and of human respect. The Apostle

366 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
says : — " If ye shall seek to please men, then are ye not
the servants of God." '
It was forestaUing the reply to any negotiation
Gottfried might essay in Henry's interest, and it does not
appear that this last journey of the Duke of Lorraine
to Italy served the cause of his sovereign vrith the
Pope any better than it did his own with Matilda.
The Countess, at this time, had quitted the Court at
Pisa to go to Rome, where her influence was very great,
and even sometimes triumphed over the inflexibility of
the apostolic censures. We find an example of it in
this first year of Gregory's accession.
Gh^b^hard, Bishop of Prague, and own brother of
WratislaSj Duke of Bohemia, had long coveted the
bishopric of Olmutz, which he -wished to unite to his
own by the expulsion of its possessor, the Bishop John.
Not being able to obtain this from his brother either by
prayers or presents, he came one day to Olmutz, as though
to pay a visit to the Bishop.^ But, all of a sudden, he
caused him to be seized by his men-at-arms, and attacked
him most brutally, tearing even the hair off his head.''
The Bishop John would not aUow the requfred renun
ciation to be extorted from him by this "violence, and
carried his complaint before the apocrisiary Rudolph,
who had been recently sent into Bohemia by Gregory
VIL, in compliance with the request of Wratislas.
Rudolph suspended Gh^behard from his bishopric, and
even frora his priestly functions. This just punishment
excited troubles in Bohemia, and the legate was forced
' Ad urbem Olmutz, tanquam Johannes Episcopum visitaturus venit. —
Ann. Saxo. Ecuard. Corp. Hist. vol. i. p. 534.
* Capillando inhumanis injuriis affecit. — Ibid.

DISTURBANCES m GERMANY. 367
partiaUy to raise the interdict ; ^ but he then sent the
two bishops to appear before the tribunal of Rome,
where they arrived, and each presented his memorials to
the pontiff.''
Nothing could justify the Bishop of Prague ; there was
in the deed he had done simony, violence, and impiety, all
that the Pope punished with the most rigorous anathemas.
Fortunately for this bishop, the Countess MatUda was
at this time at Rome, at the court of the pontiff, who,
according to the expression of an old chronicler, deter
mined aU things human and divine by her ad-vices.^
GWb^hard came to swell the train of the Countess,
in which were to be found all the nobility of Rome,
and put forward a claim of distant relationship by the
mother's side with MatUda's family. Having listened
to this genealogy, Matilda held the Bishop Gh4b6hard
thenceforth in honour, and recommended him to the
Pope. Had she not been in Rome, Gh^b^hard would
have lost his title, his riches, and rank, and would even
perhaps have been deprived of the priestly offices. But
the earnest entreaties of Matilda prevaUed.*, Gregory
summarUy put an end to the litigation between the
two bishops by ordering each to return to his respec
tive diocese, and to live there in peace. There were
two circumstances that emboldened tlie pontiff, and
added to his haughty faith in his own power, and these
were the prolonged agitations in Germany, and the
' Unde jubente Rodolpho Apociisario, proficiscvmtur prsedicti episcopi
Romam. — Ann. Saxo. Ecuard. Cmp. Hid. vol. i. p. 515.
' Litteraium sacrarum olferunt normam, — Hid.
' Hanc omnis ordo senatorius honorabat, et Papa ipse per eam divina et
hnmana negotia disponebat. — Ibid.
* Qua interveniente et multis Apostolicum precibus fatigante pax facta
est.— iW.

368 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
revolt of a great number of the princes and bishops
against the authority of Henry.
The Saxons continued the war, with the assistance of
raany of the nobles of the kingdora of Germany. The
Archbishop of Magdeburg, and the Bishop of Alberstadt
had joined their confederation. Gregory would no doubt
have encouraged them openly had he had no fears with
regard to Italy; but his fruitless negotiation -with Robert
Guiscard made him hesitate for a time. Returning to
Rorae after a stay of some months within the territory
of Capua, he sent messengers to Henry and to the
Saxon confederations exhorting both sides to peace, and
offering himself as a mediator.
' Among the cares that vex me,' says he, in a letter
to the Archbishop of Magdeburg and his allies, ' my
greatest affliction is to learn that there have arisen
between you and the King Henry, your seigneur, such
dissensions and hatreds, that many murders and burn
ings and robberies of the churches and the poor have
ensued, and that the country is frightfuUy ravaged. For
this reason, we have sent to the king to warn him, as
from the Apostles Peter and Paul, that he abstain from
arms and all military -violence untU such time as we send
him the legates of the Apostolic See to examine -with zeal
into the causes of so great division, and by an equitable
judgment to establish peace and concord. We pray and
warn you likewise, to observe the same truce, and to place
no obstacle in the way of our efforts to restore peace.'
The pontiff added that, on his part, falsehood would
be sacrilege, and promised the most impartial justice ;
but, from the very fact that he does not censure the
bishops in arms against their sovereign, his inclinations
are manifest.

henry's critical POSITION. 369
Henry then seemed to be in great danger. The
revolt in Saxony had spread into Thuringia. The
castles he had built in those provinces were besieged on
aU sides. The queen herself, who was shut up in one
of those places, only obtained leave to come out by the
influence of the Abbot of Llirsfeld. Henry, in order to
occupy a strong position on the Rhine, had come to the
city of Worms, which, being annoyed by its bishop, had
recently driven out the soldiers which, in conformity
with German custom, the prelate had under his orders.
The king found the inhabitants zealous in his cause, but
he did not hold his court with his accustomed splendour,
the revenue of the royal lands being intercepted. The
bishops and abbots no longer sent him presents, and it
was necessary to purchase, day by day, what was re
quired for his use. He had summoned the great vas
sals, but the greater number of them came -without
either money or troops.
The Archbishops of Mayence and Cologne, the Bishops
of Strasburg and Worms, the Dukes of Bavaria, Suabia,
and Carinthea declared they could not aid him in an
unjust war.
This situation may explain the singular language
which Henry then held in his letters to the pontiff of
Rome. He accused himself of not ha-ving rendered suf
ficient honour to the clergy.
' Blameworthy and unhappy as we are,' wrote he, ' in
part through the errors of youth, and in part through
the hberty of absolute power we have enjoyed, in part
through the deceptions of those whose counsels we have
too blmdly foUowed, we have sinned against heaven and
against you, and are no more worthy to be called your
VOL. I. B B

370 HISTORY OP GREGORY VII.
son, for not only have we taken possession of ecclesias
tical property, but have sometimes sold the churches
themselves to men unworthy and imbued with the leaven
of Siraony.'
But Henry took care not to ask the arbitration of the
Pope in the affairs of Saxony ; aU he wanted was
to prevent a rupture with the pontiff, at a moment
when he felt his weakness against his o-wn revolted
subjects. Uneasy in truth as to the fidelity of his great vas
sals, and seeing his troops disaffected, he resolved, by
the advice of his most faithful friends, to treat with the
Saxons. Their deraands were that the king should
re-establish the Duke of Bavaria, and receive into his
favour the Archbishops of Mayence and Cologne, and,
finaUy, that he should pledge himself to appoint no
foreigners to any diocese of Saxony.
Fifteen bishops and several princes came to the
Saxon camp to treat on the part of the King. The
confederates added to the conditions, that if the King
should ever repent him of the treaty, and refuse to carry
out its provisions, they would again take up arms, and,
by the judgment of the assembled princes, deprive the
King of his crown as being guilty of perjury. The
bishops charged to negotiate for Henry subscribed aU
the conditions, and the princes, well pleased at havmg
turned aside the danger of such a formidable con
federation, received the principal Saxon leaders, and
gave them the kiss of peace ; and in thefr presence sent
orders to the garrisons that stUl remained in Saxony to
abandon the forts they occupied. At this sacrifice he
hoped to dissolve the powerful coalition fonned against

HENRYS CONCESSIONS — DIET OF GOSLAR. 371
him, and to elude some of his promises at a later day.
And then with a confidence which was worthy of a
prince, he dismissed his own troops, loaded the chiefs
who had been most faithful to him with presents, and,
surrounded by the Saxons, entered the city of Goslar.
Nevertheless the orders he had in appearance given
for the abandonment of the royal fortresses were ex
ecuted but slowly. He was loath above all to give up
the Chateau of Hartzburg, which had been buUt
at such great cost, on an elevation in the very heart
of an important tract of country, and which, sur
rounded as it was by its high walls, had defied all the
attempts of the Saxons. The King's officers command
ing the garrison of this place, proud of having so
long held the surrounding plains in subjection, refused
to open their gates, and Henry, weU inclined to
prolong the delay, proposed to caU a diet at Goslar
of all the princes of Germany, to discuss some final
difficulties. It did, in fact, meet on the 10th of March 1074, but
the Princes of Saxony and Thuringia alone appeared,
and the people of those provinces had already taken up
arms to force the king to keep his promises. Henry,
however, dechned to proceed in the absence of the
other prmces convoked to the diet, and sought by this
excuse, and other incidental discussions, to defer stUl
the destruction of the fortress. But the perU was soon
increased by the great number of troops that were
marching towards Goslar, and the animosity by which
they were actuated. The prelates evai who had been
the Kijig's mediators, the Archbishop of Bremen, the
Bishop of Osnabruck, and some Saxon nobles attached to
B s 2

372 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
his party, and whose estates had even been confiscated
by the rebels, threatened to leave him and join their
fellow-citizens. Henry, fallen again into the pass which he had sought
to escape, at last gave way. He again promised to re
establish the Duke of Bavaria, and gave final orders for
razing the fortresses still occupied by his troops. He
only stipulated the preservation of the palace and the
church of Hartzburg, with the monastery adjoining.
The Saxon chroniclers say that he only gave orders
to his officers to throw down some of the battlements
of the towers ; but that those either having asked, or
not being able to refuse the help of the peasants in this
task, they came in such numbers to witness the faU of
the instrument of their servitude, that the castle was
so totally destroyed that not one stone was left on
another. Fired by revenge and pUlage, they did not
stop there. ^ They spared nothing -within the waUs of
the fortress, neither the King's palace, nor the church,
nor the monastery. They burnt the altar, and broke
the bells to pieces ; and then they dragged from their
tombs the bodies of a brother and of the first-born
son of Henry, and scattered thefr bones.
On hearing this, Henry, who was still in the naidst of
his enemies, concealed his anger, and accepted the
excuses of the Saxon nobles, who threw all the blame
of this attack on the bUnd fury of the peasants. For
some days further he continued to issue orders for
the destruction of his other fortresses, and at the end of
the month of March he hastened to quit Saxony, breath
ing vengance in his heart, and vowing never to set foot
' Bruno de Bella Saxonico, p, 111.

DEPUTATION TO ROME. 373
there again tUl he could treat it as he pleased. He
went then to Worms and joined the Queen, who, during
the troubles of this unfortunate campaign, had given
birth hi the Abbey of Hersfeld, to a son who was bap
tized Conrad, and who was afterwards so baleful to his
father. Henry, traversing then the provinces on either bank
of the Rhine, flattered himself that he should find
the princes of Germany less favourable towards the
Saxons, and that they would sympathise with the cruel
insult he had received at Hartzburg, for in the midst
of the tumultuous anarchy of these times the dignity of
the King of Gerraany had great power over the minds
of both princes and people.
At the same time Henry sent a deputation to Rome,
commissioned to lay before the pontiff the crime of
those who, out of hatred to their king, had violated the
tombs ofthe princes, broken down the altars, and re
duced a consecrated church to ashes. But these out
rages, which oh any other occasion Gregory would have
risited with all the anathemas of the Church, were
then far from drawing down his anger. It was even
said that emissaries, sent from Rome, had fomented the
froubles in Saxony ; and it is certain, at least, that
the authority of the Pope was pleaded by the rebels,
and that the priests and nobles, zealous in his cause,
had often stfrred up the peasants of Saxony, in God's
name, to free themselves from a prince who lay under
the accusation of hcentiousness, sacrUege, and tyranny.
At a distance from the spot, and amid these contradic
tory complaints, Gregory VII. could not show himself
very ready to condemn those who appeared to have

374 HISTORY OP GREGORY VII.
taken up arms in the interest of the Church, and it
suited him weU that the Kmg, whose presence in Italy
he dreaded, should be detained on the other side of thfe.
Alps by troubles in his own dominions. ]
At this same time Gregory assembled a councU at
Rorae in which he intended to unfold his plans for the
reform of the clergy and the aggrandisement of the
Church ; two things that in his mind were never i
separated. The very letters of convocation to the archbishops of
Italy, announced the loftiness and the steadfastness of
his projects. He wrote to the Patriarch of Aquiha:—
' The princes and governors of this world, seeking
only their own interest, and not that of Jesus Christ,
trample under foot all respect, and treat the Church
hke a vile slave. The priests, and those who are
entrusted with the direction of the Church, evade
the law of God, and their obligations to Him and to
thefr flocks, seeking in ecclesiastical dignities worldly
glory alone, and consuming in vain pomps and useless
expenses that which should be devoted to the salvation
of the greatest number.
' The people, whom neither the teaching nor the counsel
of the prelates leads into the way of justice, but who
are rather taught e-vil things by the example of theb
leaders, fall into aU sorts of crimes, and bear the name
of Christians, not only vrithout fulfiUing a Christian's
duty, but without even keeping the faith. Wherefore,
trusting in the mercy of God, we have resolved to
assemble a synod in the first weejc of Lent, in order, by
the counsel of our brethren, to find a remedy for so
many evUs, so that we witness not in our day the irre-

COUNCIL OF EOME, 1074. 375
parable ruin and destrijction of the Church ; and so we
pray you, and we also charge you in the name of blessed
Peter, the Prince of the Apostles, to come at the time
&xed to meet us, convoking by this letter and your own
fowc suffragans ; for we shall come to the succour of
3cclesiastical liberty and rehgion -with all the . more
rtrength and certainty as we shaU be the more closely
surrounded by your counsels and sage ad-vice, and that
)f the rest of our brethren.'
The pontiff addressed the same invitation to Guibert,
Archbishop of Ravenna, and secret enemy of the See of
Rome. Finally, he summoned to Rome at the same
date, those princes of Italy who were most docUe towards
the Church, Gisulph, Prince of Salerno ; Azo, Margrave
of Este; the Countess Beatrice, and her daughter
Matilda. On March 13, 1074, the day on which Henry ceded
at Goslar to the necessity of accepting the imperious
demands of the Saxons, Gregory, in all the splendour
of his new dignity, opened the new assembly, which was,
according to his words, to re-establish the Christian
faith in the liberty of its early days.
The councU was numerously attended. There was,
however, to be remarked, the absence of the German
bishops, a presage of the approaching divisions of the
Church and the Empire. Very few of the Lombard
bishops were present either. When the Pope entered
the assembly, a shout arose from all sides, ' Long hve
Gregory ! ' Those present gazed with admiration and
envy and fear on the former archdeacon of Rome, who
for twenty years had been the soul of so many councUs,
the guide of so many Popes, come at last to be himself

376 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
the keeper of St. Peter's keys. Gregory was then sixty
years of age. He had lost none of his youthful ardour ;
his piercing black eyes appeared as if aniraated by the
fire of inspiration, and his severe looks seemed to pene
trate the consciences of men, and to be able to discover
what was either faithless or doubtful there. This
councU, whose acts have not corae down to us in precise
terms, suspended from the service of the altar all
Simonist priests and all who lived with wives or
concubines ; and charged the people neither, to obey
thefr authority or to receive any sacrariient at their
hands. In promulgating these decrees, Gregory says in one
of his letters to the bishops : ' We desfre that those who
do not reform out of love to God and respect for the
dignity of their office, should be brought to reason by
human respect and popular objurgation.' He had him
self provoked these objurgations, and, as it were, stirred
up the laity to support him in enforcing his rigid inter
dictions. In such spfrit he wrote a letter to the in
habitants of Franconia, caUing on them to refuse the
ministry of unworthy priests. We know of nothing
more remarkable than this letter, or that more clearly
indicates the indomitable wUl of the pontiff.
It has not reached us through the coUection, other
wise incomplete, in the pontifical register ; and as we
read it we conceive that the prudent reserve of the
Church did not avow the violent and unaccustomed
proceedings which this letter authorised. But the
effect it took, the grave witnesses by whom it is cited,
the contemporary chronicles which reproduce it, con
firm its veracity, and the boldness of its aims are com-^

COUNCEL OP ROME. 377
pletely in character with the impetuous spirit of the
•writer. ' We have learned,' says this letter, addressed to the
faithful in the provinces of Germany, 'that many of
your bishops, priests, deacons, and subdeacons have
commerce with women, and approve and tolerate this
disorder. We command you to obey such in nothing ;
not to submit yourselves to their orders, until they shall
have submitted themselves to the precepts of the See
apostolic and the authority of the holy fathers. Accord
ing to the testimony of holy Scriptures, those who coun
tenance evU are subject to the same punishment as the
doers thereof
After ha-ring said ' that all the faithful should know
that Simony and fornication exclude from the service of
the altar,' the pontiff added, 'Wherefore we address
ourselves to all those in whose faith and devotion we
have confidence, charging you and warning you by the
authority apostohc, whatever your bishops may say or
not say, to refuse the ministry of every one that
ye know either to have procured his advancement and
his orders by Simony, or to be guilty of the crime of
fornication.' ^
' Audivimus quod quidam Episcoporum apud vos commorantium, aut
sacerdotes, et diaconi et subdiaconi mulieribus commisceantur aut consen-
tiant aut negligant. His prsecipimus vos nullo modo obedire, vel illorum
prsBceptis consentire, sicut ipsi apostoUcas sedis prteceptis non obediunt
neque auctoritati sanctorum patrum consentiunt. Testante divina scriptura,
fftcientes et consentientes par poena complectitur. Sciunt namque Archie-
pi.seopi et Episcopi terrse vestrse, quod omnibus fidelibus notum esse debet,
quouiam in sacris canonibus prohibitum est ut hi qui per simoniacum hse-
resim, hoc est, interventu pretii, ad aliquem sacrorum ordinum gradum vel
ofEcium promoti sunt, nullum in sancta ecclesia ulterius ministrandi locum
habeant, nee ilii, qui in crimine fornicationis jacent, missas celebrare, aut
secundum inferiorem ordinem ministrare altari debeant. Et Infra : Qua-

378 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
In the same councU there were suspended from their
functions : Liemar, Archbishop of Bremen; Gamier,
Bishop of Strasbourg ; and Henry, Bishop of Spires, who
ha-ving long before been summoned to give an account
of his indolent and scandalous hfe, had refused to make
his appearance at Rome. The Bishops of Parma and
Turin, and Gottfried, Bishop of MUan, were also ex
communicated; Denis, Bishop of Piacenza, was deposed;
but the Pope accorded to Hermann, Bishop of Bamberg,
a reprieve, in order that he might vindicate himself
The great ones of the earth came after the bishops,
Robert Guiscard, Duke of Apuha Calabria and SicUy,
who not only had refused obedience to the Pope, but was
at that very raoraent besieging Benevento, the patrimony
of the Church, had the anathema and aU its consequences
pronounced upon him. The Pope and councU only
threatened Philip I., of France, with excommunication
if he did not clear hiraself before the apostolic nuncios.
In this sarae councU Gregory received a message
which accorded well with his secret hatred of Henry.
Solomon, King of Hungary, and an ally of Henry's,
whose sister Judith he had married, had just been driven
from his throne by a seigneur named G6za, a relative of
his own, and who lost no time in writing to the Pope to
confirm his usurpation.
Gregory read his letters to the assembly, and, remark
ing only the protestations of obedience they contained,
he replied in the name of the council feUcitating the
propter ad omnes de quorum fide et devotione confidimus nunc convertimur,
rogantes vos et apostolica auctoritate admonentes ut quidquid Episcopi
dehinc loquantur aut taceant, vos ofiiciorum eorum quos aut simoniace pro
motes, et ordinatos aut in crimine fornicationis jacentes cognoveritis, nul-
latenus recipiatis, — Baluze, Miscellanea, vol. vii. p. 125.

LEGATES SUNT TO GERMANY. 379
usurper, in that his heart and mind were inflamed by a
holy ardour that claimed the veneration of the Holy See.
' We would have thee,' said he, ' in no sense doubt our
affection ; and, in the effusion of our paternal sentiments
towards thee, we assure thee that thou mayest ask and
obtain from us without any hesitation aU things that may
tend to thy salvation and thy glory ; and if any one
of thy enemies shall wickedly endeavour to injure thee,
not only shall he be excluded from audience with us, but
he shaU learn that our indignation is moved against
hun.' Gregory, at the same time, specified the Marquis Azo,
of Este, a prince of Italy, as the mediator through
whom G^za should transmit to the Holy See his requests
and his homage and obedience. ' FinaUy,' said he, at
the conclusion of hi-s letter, 'may the Di-vine raercy
protect thee from all the adversities of this world, and
bestow on thee strength in-vincible to work its wUl.'
Nevertheless the pontiff, as yet, gave G^za the name of
Duke of Hungary only, holding back the title of king,
less out of consideration for Henry than by an ancient
claim of the Roman Church to the sovereignty of Hun
gary. The Pope closed the council by pronouncing
excommunication against five seigneurs of the German
court, who were known to have sold ecclesiastical
dignities. Gregory then immediately despatched a solemn
legation to bear his decrees to Henry. Being anxious,
with all his boldness, to secure a powerful mediatrix,
he persuaded the Empress Agnes to undertake this
journey, in company of her Confessor Raynald, Bishop
of Como, and the apostohc legates, the Bishops of Ostia

380 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
and Palestrina. Henry came to Niiremburg to nieet his
mother, whom he had not seen for ten years.
When the legates arrived in Germany, they learned
many details concerning the late events ofthe war with
Saxony, and of the humiliations to which Henry had
been exposed, and thereupon assuraed raore haughtiness
in their language, and theraselves increased the severity
of their mission. They affected at first to refuse any
conference with the king till he should have obtained
absolution from the censures he had incurred by his com
merce with men who were under the anathema ; and at
the sarae tirae they asked in the Pope's name the faculty
of holding a council ; such a meeting seemed difficult.
The rigorous decrees of which they were the bearers,
had spread terror araongst the Gerraan clergy, so lax in
their discipline and morals. A few bishops only, and
principally those who had taken part in the troubles on
account of Saxony, showed great zeal in receiving the
legates, and asserabled at their command in a national
council. Prominent among the rest Was the Bishop of Alber
stadt, the most ardent of the promoters of the late
revolt against the arbitrary power of Henry. He was
indignant not only at the repugnance of the king's
officers, but also at the delay of the bishop to form a
synod under the presidency of the legates, and com
plained that the apostolic envoys had not been received
with honour due.
Gregory wrote to him to thank him for his pious
attachment, to keep up his courage, and to entreat him
to nourish that holy flame in his breast. ' If,' said he,
'we would, by our silence, allow the princes and the

RESISTANCE OF THE GERMAN BISHOPS. 381
mighty ones of your country to rule according to their
will, and to trample under foot the law of God, certes,
we should have plenty of friends, and therewith hom
age and presents ; but that suits not with the place
we fill, nor vrith our duty ; there 'is nothing that can
separate us from Christ, and it is better to die than to
abandon His service, or to spare the impious because
they are powerful.' At the same time he exhorts the
bishop to put his trust in the protection of Saint Peter.^
In spite of the Pope's exhortations, the holding of a
councU in so many opposing circumstances was not
possible, and the annoyance Gregory VII. experienced
at this delay appears in his correspondence at this date,
particularly in the reproaches he . addresses to Liemar,
Archbishop of Bremen, one of the prelates who was the
most constantly at Henry's Court.
He summoned him, in fact, to repair to Rome for the
next council, since he had not chosen to acknowledge,
and had interfered in Germany with the exercise of the
jurisdiction of Saint Peter, as represented by the legates
the bishops of Palestrina and Ostia ; and meantune, he
suspended him from his episcopal functions. ^
In truth, however, the king himself had not been
opposed to the meeting of this councU under his own
eyes, and presided over by foreign prelates ; he had
hoped, doubtless, to obtain in it his own wishes on some
pomts, and perhaps to avenge himself, through the
legates, on some of the bishops from whom he had
received such grave offence during the late troubles.
But aU these German bishops, even those who had
shown themselves the most zealous supporters of the
' The 7th of the Calends of November, 1074.

382 HISTORY OF GREGORY VH.
Pope's authority at a distance, men accustomed to the
rude but free life of the seigneurs of the North, revolted
at the idea of a judgment on matters of discipline to be
given by the legates, and declared they could not, and
would not, answer questions as to thefr faith and morals
to any but the pontiff in person.
The legates, on this, no longer insisted on the unme-
diate convocation of new councUs ; but announced that
they had brought with them the decrees of the last
council of Rome, and should without delay and without
exception apply their provisions to all priests that were
either Simonists, or married, or living in concubinage.
This announcement excited a general rising through
out Germany. The priests of this country, among
whom celibacy was rare and most unacceptable, would
listen to none of these reforms. They said that the
bishops and abbots possessed great riches, sat at ban
quets fit for kings, and enjoyed the pleasures of the
chase, and that they could well leave to them, who were
but poor priests, the consolation of having a -wife ;
that continence was too difficult and too tr^ying a vfrtue ;
that it was not formerly exacted of mere priests, and
that if it had been they must have had angels for priests.
These murmurs were so violent, that the most stead
fast friends of the pontifical authority could make
no effort to stem them.
Siegfried, Archbishop of Mayence, who even before
the elevation of Gregory VIL was his devoted admirer,
made an attempt to notify to his clergy the decrees of
the council of Rome, and the letters in which the Pope
commanded him, under pain of excommunication, to see
them executed. When he appeared, accompanied by the

RESISTANCE OF THE CLERGY. 383
legate who was the bearer of these letters to the coun
cil of the pro-vince, aU the clerics there present arose
in such tumult and with such shouts and menaces, that
the archbishop thought for some moments he should
never get out alive, and in order to appease thefr fury
it was necessary to postpone' any step for the execution
of the pontifical mandate. Gregory's legate withdrew,
convinced that it would be impossible as yet to over
throw a custom so ancient and so deeply rooted, and for
which many of the German clerics cared more than for
hfe itself.
In other parts of Christendom these attempts at
ecclesiastical reform met with no better success. The
Lombard clergy in particular were highly exasperated.
Other disorders foUowed. In forbidding the laity to
hold communion with married priests, and to receive
the sacraments at their hands, Gregory had not only
departed from the ancient practice of the Church, but
he had laid open to reproach a multitude of priests who
had tiU then been so greatly respected. In former
times there was the anatheraa upon any secular who
should accuse a cleric, and now aU the people were in
stigated, so to say, to judge the priesthood. And so,
in many parts of France, Germany, and Lombardy,
great disorder ensued under the pretext that the priests
lived in the scandalous union forbidden by the Pope, or
that they only renounced it in appearance. The laity
dispensed vrith the priests' ministration, and baptized
their children themselves. The dying refused to receive
the Holy Viaticum from the hands of a married priest,
and many threw the tenth reserved for that priest into
the fire, as though the fruits of the earth had been

384 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
plague -stricken. Sometimes, even in the very churches,
men in thefr fury threw down and trod under foot the
host that had been consecrated by hands they called
impure. And thus, contrary to the intention of the
pious pontiff, licence and impiety were the fruits of the
too imperious and too sudden reform attempted by his
austere spirit, and popular passion, imprudently let loose,
gave a foretaste of what liberty of opinion was to work
some centuries later.
These partial disorders, however, not being at that
time kept up by a sectarian spirit, or a ciril war,
diminished under the influence of some pious bishops
in France and in Germany. The inferior clergy hav
ing become more cautious, and being more closely
watched, regained the esteem of the people. The
reform ordered by the pontiff, though it never was
complete, ¦ gained credit more and more, and though
Gregory VII. did not attain all that his -riolent ardour
for reform and justice desired, he did gain by this lega
tion a part of the advantages he had hoped for.
The Empress Agnes, formerly so powerful in Ger
many, and now become completely Roman, resumed
much of her influence over the court, and the mind of
her son. The five seigneurs who had been excommu
nicated in the last council were excluded from the
king's counsels. Henry seems from this time to have
submitted to some penances imposed by the legates,
and he had also renewed his promise no more to seU
ecclesiastical dignities.
On the 17th of July of this year, Gregory addressed
to the Empress Agnes a letter whose mystical joy leaves
no doubt on this subject.

PHILIP I. OF FRANCE. 385
Agnes remained at her son's court till nearly the end
of the year, and returned to Rome with the legates,
loaded with rich presents.
= Meantime, Gregory VIL, assured of more docUe dis
positions on the part of Henry, doubtless, also, of the
prince's embarrassments at home, and finding under his
hand Robert Guiscard, intimidated by the anatheraas
which his newly-acquired power had cause to dread,
(determined to extend further his projects of moral re
form and doraination. Sometimes from Rome, some
times from Tibur, where he passed the auturan of
1074, he wrote orders and reraonstrances to all parts of
Christendom ; he summoned to Rome those bishops of
whom he received complaints, he encouraged by his praises
the prelates of Germany who had been most opposed to
Henry in the war with Saxony. He stimulated by his
letters the payment of Peter's Pence, and made arrange
ments to protect the pilgrims who carae in great num
bers to Rome with thefr offerings.
t This source of revenue, one of the most important to
the court of Rome, was often obstructed by the disor
ders and violence of these times ; often, too, the mer
chants of Italy, more industrious and more wealthy
than the Frank peoples, were exposed to extortion and
robbery on their journeys. It frequently happened, also,
that ecclesiastics or pilgrims returning from Rorae were
made prisoners and put to ransom by some seigneur
casteUan. Gregory VII. had addressed many complaints on this
subject to Phihp, King of France, who, young and not
very stably seated on his throne, made no effort to
repress the abuses, from which he often derived profit.
VOL. I. c c

386 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
It was in face of this confusion, this contempt of all
rights, public and private, that Gregory VII. uttered as
pontiff the language for which he has been so often
censured, but which is explained by the poverty and
anarchy ofthe sovereignties ofthat age.
The pontiff addressed, then, to all the bishops of
France a threatening letter, in which, having drawn the
picture of all the disorders in the kingdora, he charges
them on Philip I. ' Your king,' he says, ' if I must caU
him so, is no king ; no, not a king, but a tyrant, is,
by the instigation of the devil, the cause of all these
evils. His life is stained vrith crime and infamy, and
poor and wretched as he is, bearing the sceptre in
vain, not only has he by the feebleness of his govern
ment given his people licence to corarait aU kinds of
e-rils, but he has encouraged by the exaraple he has set,
both in his inchnations and his deeds. He has not been
satisfied with deserving the anger of God by the de
struction of churches, by adulteries, by robberies, and
many other kinds of wrong, on account of which we
have often reprimanded him ; quite lately he took from
some dealers who had gone from all parts of the earth
to a fafr in France, a large sum of money, like a brigand.
He who ought to be the defender of the laws and of jus
tice has been the pri-vUeged thief.
' As it is impossible these things should escape the
sentence of the Supreme Judge, we entreat you and
warn you, out of true charity, to look well to your
selves, so that you draw not down the prophetic male
diction : " Cursed be the man that tumeth away his
sword from shedding blood;" which is to say, as you well
know, who does not employ the sword of the Word for

LETTER TO THE BISHOPS OF FRANCE. 387
the correction of carnal-minded men ; for you are in
fault, my brethren, seeing that, not having opposed his
wickedness with all the energy of the priesthood, you
have countenanced his sins by your complaisance. It
is useless to plead fear. United and in arms for the
defence of justice, your strength would be such that
without any danger to yourselves, you would be able to
turn his soul to repentance, and save your own souls.
And even if there were fear and perU, you ought not
to fail in the exercise of your priestly authority. We
pray and urge you, then, to join together in the inte
rest of your country, your honour and your salvation, by
deliberating and acting in concert. Speak you to the
king: tell him how disgraceful his conduct is, tell hira of
his own peril, and of that of his kingdora; put clearly
before hira the crirainality of his intentions and his
actions ; try to prevail over hira by all kinds of en
treaty, so that he indemnify the dealers of whom I
have spoken.
' Moreover, tell him to amend his ways, and, leaving
behind him the errors of his youth, let hira endeavour,
by following righteousness, to raise up the dignity and
glory of his kingdom. And in order that he may cor
rect others, let him be the first to abandon iniquity.
But if he shaU refuse to hear you, and if, braving the
wrath of God, he shall persevere in hardness of heart,
to the disgrace of the royal dignity, and at the risk of
his own and his people's salvation, give hira to under
stand, as from our mouth, that he can no longer escape
the sword of the vengeance apostolic. And you, your
selves, being thus warned and commanded by the
apostohc power, imitate your holy mother the Church
c 0 2

388 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
with the obedience and faith you owe to her ; and
withdrawing yourselves altogether from communion
with, and obedience to, this raan, forbid the public cele
bration of the di-rine office throughout France.'
At the same tirae, in order to render this letter more
efficacious, Gregory, faithful to his policy of exciting
the great vassals against the princes, wrote to WiUiam,
Duke of Aquitaine, and reciting afresh aU the crimes in
which Philip had, he said, exceeded aU the pagan kings,
he prayed WUliam to choose some men among the
noblest and best in France, and to go vrith them and
remonstrate with the king on his iniquities. If the
king should listen to thefr counsels, he promises to treat
him with charity. ' But,' he adds, ' if he is obstinate in
his perversity, and by his hardness of heart, lays up for
himself the anger of God, and Saint Peter, we, by God's
help, will punish this man's wickedness, by cutting off
from the communion of the Church both him and who
soever shaU render him honour and obedience ; and his
excommunication shall be renewed day by day on the
altar of Saint Peter ; for we have borne with his iniqui
ties long; too long, indeed, out of pity for his faith, have
we feigned not to notice the insults he has inflicted on
the Church.'
This violent proceeding on the pontiff's part was nbt
followed by any striking event. The Bishop of Rheims,
who was a relative of the king, and who owed his
elevation to his favour, was in no haste to carry out the
threats of Gregory, and, as we shall see, he suffered for
his tardiness at a future day.
Nevertheless, Philip, dreading the trouble the pontiff
might raise up for him, sent the Bishop of Loudun, and

PHILIP I. SENDS AN EMBASSY TO ROME. 389
many nobles of the kingdom, on an embassy to Rome,^
and no doubt rendered satisfaction to the pontiff, who
was soon engrossed by other cares.
In fact, at the time Gregory VII. was thus lording it
over the kings of France and Germany, he was ardently
pursuing other projects for the aggrandisement of the
Church; it was he who originated the first idea of those
crusades that swept all the West towards Asia, and were,
at once, the most heroic achievements and the most ira
portant revolution of the Middle Ages. However im
prudent these expeditions may have appeared in the
estimation of the last century, they were really inspired
by the sufferings and dangers of the people, as much
and more than by the blind ardour of faith ; and
looking on them in this light, we cannot be surprised
that a bold and enterprising spirit like Gregory's, whose
one dominant idea was to raise the pontifical power
above all others, should have been the first to conceive
the plan of a great Christian confederation which should
protect European Christendom against the rising flood
of Mahometan invasion, and that should raarch to the
deliverance of the holy places under the banner of the
Cross. In truth, if anything could realise, at least for a tirae,
this ambition of Catholic Supremacy, it was such a war,
proclaimed, and blessed, and led, by the Pontiff of Rorae.
Gregory VIL endeavoured to engage in this enterprise
some princes of secondary rank, William Duke of
Aquitaine, Raymond Count of Saint-GUles, who after-
' Philippus rex Francorum comitem Hilduenum cum domino Hetinando
Laudunensi Episcopo aliisque nonnullis principibus, pro communi negotio
regni Romam transmittit ad dominum papam. — Domboftrg, vol. xii. p. 268.

390 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
wards became one of the heroes of the first crusade,
Araadeus, son of Adelaide of Suza, and Gottfried Duke
of Lorraine, the husband of Matilda.
It is indeed true that in summoning them around him
he also sought to secure aid against the Normans, though
he appears to have believed hiraself safe from their
attacks with the forces of the Roman State alone. ' The
soldiers,' wrote he, ' that we have are more than sufficient
against the Norraans who are rebellious.' But this con
fidence, founded on some passing divisions among the
foreign chiefs, and the more marked deference the pope
had received from Robert Guiscard, might be shattered
at any moraent, and leave the Papal See very feeble in
the centre of Italy. We raust, then, the more admire
the magnanimity of the pontiff, who, in the midst of such
uncertainty and so many dangers, projected a sea- voyage,
and, in the first place, to reunite Constantinople and
Rorae. But one man alone, among all the new princes of
Italy, as the event proved, was capable of rising to the
height of such a design. The other chiefs whom the
pope had first called upon, either too destitute of money
and raen, or too feebly seconded by the spirit of the
people not as yet heated by the enthusiasm of the
crusade, either did not answer the pious appeal of the
pontiff, or sent him but very slender succour, limited to
Italy. The pope, nevertheless, thought he might safely reckon
on the assistance of Gottfried; he had even obtained
a promise in a conference with this prince, and had in
retum held out a hope of the investiture of Sardinia.
But Gottfried's raain possessions were in Lorraine; he
exercised but a precarious authority in Tuscany, -where

THE CRUSADES PROJECTED. 391
Beatrice and Matilda, sovereigns in their own right,
were obedient to every wish of the pontiff.
Domestic differences had their share in these causes
of discontent. Gottfried, pressed by the entreaties of
Henry IV., desfred to return to his Duchy of Lorraine,
taking his wife with him; but Matilda, accustomed to the
climate, and to the cities of Italy, in which she and her
mother exercised sovereign jurisdiction, refused to foUow
Gottfried across the Alps. Enraged against him, to
whose counsel Gottfried attributed this refusal, he did
not send to the pontiff the succour he had promised,
and of this Gregory complained in an imperious letter.
' Where are,' he asked, ' the soldiers thou didst promise
to bring for the defence of Saint Peter ? Since thou hast
not fulfiUed that which thou didst so promise to blessed
Peter, whose vicar, though unworthy, we are, we keep no
engagement with thee, unless it be to watch over thy
salvation as a Christian (April 1074).' ^ This haughti
ness only attached Gottfried more closely to the king's
cause. He left Italy for Germany in the month of
April, 1074, and reraained from that time separated
from MatUda, who devoted herself wholly to the Roman
Church. The affection of the pontiff for that princess, then
twenty-eight years of age, seemed suspicious even to
the credulous devotees of the time ; the pohtical ani
mosity of the partisans of Henry IV., which accused
the pontiff of all sorts of crimes, did not spare his morals,
and could not pardon Matilda for an attachment that
was so disastrous to Henry. Many reports on this
subject were in circulation both in Germany and Lom-
¦ Gregorii Papce VII, Epist. xxii. fib. 1.

392 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
bardy, and even the ecclesiastical chroniclers have re
peated thera with pious indignation. There is no deny
ing that from this time Gregory used the influence he
had obtained over Matilda's mind to separate her from
her husband, whom he considered too faithful to Henry's
interests. The continuation of this history wUl show what sort
of passion it was which Matilda felt for the pontiff;
but we raust bear in mind that, for an Italian princess
who was a feudatory of the kingdom of Germany, there
was a mainspring of independence and ambition in
holding with the Holy See against the empire.
Matilda was young and beautiful, and despised her
husband Gottfried, who was a poor hunchback.^ Proud,
too, and vindictive as she was, she could not forgive him
for being servilely devoted to those kings of Germany
whose persecution of her mother Beatrice she had seen
in her childhood. The notions of religious perfection
and of celibacy in the marriage state, which were then
very common, furnished her with an acceptable means
of escaping from the society of a husband whom she
loved not. She was the penitent, the admfrer, and the
Triend of the pontiff. But, after ambition, piety only
appears to have been the link that formed this union.
The language of Gregory VII. to Matilda at the time
she left her husband is that of rigid devotion. ' God only,'
says he, ' who sounds the secrets of all hearts, and who
knows mine better than I do myself, knows how great
is my continual solicitude for your salvation.'
And, then calling her his daughter and the very dear
child of Saint Peter, he exhorts her to frequent com-
^ Staturse pusillitate atque gibbo despicabilis. — Lamb. Schaff.

THE COUNTESS MATILDA. 393
munion. In it, he says, she wiU find the treasure
that her soul asks for, and tells her that he gives her
into the keeping of the mother of God, the model and
guardian of all purity.
It would appear that Matilda, like her mother, carried
her fervour so far as to wish to embrace the religious life;
but the pontiff, who constantly availed himself of their
zeal and influence in the affairs of the world, dissuaded
them from this vocation. He wrote a letter on this sub
ject, addressed to both of them, containing the same ex
pressions of tenderness and piety; and felicitates them
in that, instead of banishing God frora their palace, as so
many princes did, they invited Him thither by the odour
of holiness. Calling them both his dear chUdren, he
exhorts them to go on in the path of perfection. ' If
I have written to you briefly,' says he, in conclusion,
' you whom I so sincerely love, it is a proof that I am
burdened with many cares, for I will not employ in ray
communication with you on such subjects an inter
mediary under my dictation. I labour, then, to
write to you though with an unpractised hand ; for,
if you love rae as I love you, I ara free to believe
you know none whom you prefer before me. May
Almighty God, by the merits of our Lady and the
authority of the blessed apostles Peter and Paul, absolve
you from all your sins, and bring you with joy into the .
assembly of the Church Universal.' ^ [Given at Rome
the 4th of the nones of March 12 indictura 1074.J
' Quod vobis, quas sincero corde diligo, parum scribo, gravi cura me
implicitum esse manifesto. Vobis enim in talibus non aliquem vicarium
in dictando acquire sed me ipsum labori, licet rusticano stylo, suppono :
quia si diligor, ut diligo, nullum mortalium mihi proponi a vobis cognoseo.
Omnipotens Deus, meritis supreme domiuse, per auctoritatem beati Petri

394 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
In the autumn of this year, Gregory VIL, over
whelmed with much care and labour, fell dangerously
ill, and his life was despaired of.
As soon as he recovered, he appeared in public, and
resuraed with ardour all the occupations of his mystic
and toilsorae life. The writings of a raonk of his time
give us an idea of the pious scruples and delicate
remorse of conscience which added to Gregory VII.'s
burden as governor of the Church. During his sick
ness, he was visited by a young niece of his. Seeing
that she looked sad,^ and to dissipate her grief, says
the pious chronicler, he touched her necklace, asking
her if she should like to be married. No doubt the
young girl blushed. Soon after the Pope, convalescent,
returned thanks to God for his recovery, and was sur
prised to find himself without cold and tearless,^ and
to feel in his heart a spiritual dryness, which he could
not overcome either by the raemory of past sufferings
or the hope of good things to come. He sought long
within himself to discover what he could have done to
offend God so to have lost the grace of compunction.
At last he resolved to call together sorae pious men to
pray and fast together untU God should reveal to him
why this gift had been taken away.^ After a fortnight
of watching, and fasting, and prayer, Gregory received
the first intiraation. The mother of God appeared in

et Pauli a cunctis vos peccatis absolvat, et ad gremium universalis matris
vestrse cum gaudio perducat.— Gregorii Papce VII. Epist. 1. lib. 1.
^ Ut nepti super segritudine sua animum levigaret, monilia ejusdam
mauu tenens, an nubere vellet requisivit. — Acta Sanctorum, xo\. vi. p. 118.
^ Recepta sanitate .... nullo modo ad hoc, ut saltem unam lacrymblam
exprimere valeret, pertingere potuit. — Ibid.
^ Qua denique culpa datam sibi compunotionis gratiam perdidisset. — Ibid.

GREGORY S AUSTERITIES AND SCRUPLES. 395
a dream to a poor simple man, says the chronicler,^
and said to him, ' Go and tell Gregory that, being
admitted by rae into the class of -rirgins, he has done
what he ought not to have done.' Gregory, trembling
at this reproach, could not yet understand where he
had been in fault, and redoubled his prayers that God
would mercifully give hira some further explanation.
The sarae vision appeared a second tirae to the sarae
man, and said, ' Thou shalt speak to Gregory thus :
That, as setting at naught our holy rules, he has put
his hand on his niece's necklace, he has on that account
lost the gift he had before ; but now that he has
repented of his fault, he shall recover the gift of
tears.' ^
Is this legend, which will make the reader smile, a
reply to some calumny, or sorae poor disguisement of
a weakness ? or is it not rather a true picture of the
manners of the tirae, and of the sincere faith of the
pontiff ? We must add, that the contemporary detrac
tors who so fiercely condemned his intimacy with
Matilda have never told us who this niece was, nor
raade the slightest suspicious allusion to any other
woman. The first care of Gregory VIL, after his recovery,
was to write to Beatrice and Matilda. His letter bears
traces of the sadness by which his powerful mind was

' Cuidam innocenti et simplici viro Beata Dei Genitrix in visione appa-
ruit . . . . Vade, et die Gregorio quia cum ego ilium in chorum (non dubium
quin vii-ginum) elegerim, ipse e contrario aliter quam deberet, egit. — Acta
Sanctorum, Maii, vol. vi. p. 118.
" Quoniam ipse contra gravitatem institutionis nostra monilia tractavit
neptis suae, idcirco gratiam quam habuit amisit. Sed nunc, quia pceniten-
tiiim de peccato suo pegerit, donum lacrymarum recipiet. — Ibid.

396 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
sometimes oppressed, and of the confidence he placed in
his two faithful allies, even when he thought them
subject to influences contrary to the execution of his
designs ; but it more especially expresses that austere
affection in which policy and religion mingled, and
which cherished in Beatrice and Matilda two enemies
of Henry.
' Gregory, bishop, servant of the servants of God, to
the Duchess Beatrice and her daughter Matilda, health
and benediction apostolic.
' We are not ignorant that you have heard divers
reports in regard to us : such are the occupations of those
who are enemies of concord and union between friends.
And we ourselves, if we would have listened to similar
rumours, should believe there were very few hearts
capable of sincere affection.^ But, shunning suspicion
above all things, we tell you, of a truth, that there is
no earthly prince in whom we feel more steadfast
confidence than in yourselves. This conviction is the
result of your words and actions, your zeal and affec
tion, and your constant faith. We doubt not that your
charity wUl shine forth towards us, because it is
St. Peter who is loved in his servant.^ Know ye, too,
that we have just escaped from bodily sickness, con
trary to the expectations of all those around us, and
that we have recovered our health, which seems to us
' Sed nos nihil potius quam suspectum animum fugientes. — Acta Concil.
Greg. Epist. ix. lib. 11.
' De cetero scitote, nos, prseter spem omnium qui nobiscum erant, infir
mitatem corporis evasisse, et jam bonam valetudinem recepisse .... Ten-
debat enim anima nostra, et toto de.siderio ad illam patriam anhelabat ....
Verum reservati adhuc ad consuetos labores, et infinitas sollicitudines in
singuhis horas, quasi parturientis labores et angustias patimur. — Ibid.

LETTER TO MATILDA AND BEATRICE. 397
matter for sorrow rather than joy, for our soul aspired
with aU its strength for that land where He who knows
our toils and our sorrows gives peace and rest to the
weary. And now, being restored to the fulfilment of
our accustomed task, with its endless solicitude, we
suffer daUy the pangs of a woman in travail, not being
able by any effort of ours to save the Church, which is
almost shipwrecked . in our sight ; for the laws and
religion of Christ are everywhere so neglected that the
Saracens and other pagans keep more faithfuUy to their
rehgion than those who bear the name of Christians,
and who have the promise of the heavenly kingdom.
For this cause it seems to us you cannot be surprised
that we should desire to escape the calamities of the
office we fill, knowing aU the evils that threaten us,
and feehng the effects of every one of them.'
Though thus weighed down by sadness, the pontiff,
stUl keeping in view the things of this world, treats in
this letter of Robert Guiscard, of a trial at Rome, set
on foot on account of the unlawful marriage of the
Margrave Azo, of the bishops who were summoned to
give evidence on the subject, and of a safe conduct to
be given to that seigneur to secure his journey through
the dominions of Beatrice. ' Know,' said he, ' that
Robert Guiscard has often sent unto us urgent entreaties,
and that he is ready to place in our hands such pledges
of fidelity as that none could or should bind himself by
firmer engagements to his seigneur, be he whom he may.
But we, having serious reasons for deferring, await the
counsels of the wisdom above, and the guidance of the
Apostle. We have learned that one of you is about to
cross the Alps, and we greatly desire, if ft be possible,

398 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
to enjoy an interview with you before your journey,
because we would in our embarrassments and business
take counsel of you, as of our sisters and daughters in
Saint Peter. Be assured that all that we know, and
that all by God's help we do, is told to you hi all
frankness and affection ; that your name is in our daily
prayers ; and that, sinner as we are, we heartily com
mend you to God.' ^
The pontiff then resumed his bold designs — the
reform of the Church, the union of Italy, the humilia
tion of Germany, the religious submission of France and
the other kingdoms of Europe, and a crusade to the
East. The Empress Agnes, on her return, had brought him
the assurance of Henry's submission ; and the troubles
of this prince in the direction of Saxony seemed to
guarantee the sincerity of his promise. Gregory then
possibly hoped to find in hira an instrument for the
accomplishraent of his projects. He wrote to Henry
these words, in which breathes at the sarae time aU
the pride and all the humility of the priest :
' Sinner that I ara, I have prayed for thy intention in
the solemnity of the mass, and wUl do so again over
the bodies of the Apostles.'
At the same time he announced to him by another
letter, which was published throughout Europe, his
project of succouring the Christians ofthe East:
' I let your Grandeur know,' said he, ' that the
' Supernas dispensationis et apostolicse prsestolamur. Ad hsec alteram
vestrum hoc in tempore transalpinaturam intelleximus; sed prius, si fieri
posset, ambarum coUoquio uti multum desideramus : quoniam vestra consiha,
sicut sororum nostrarum, et filiarum sancti Petri, in causis et negotiis nostris
habere desideramus. — Acta Concil, Greg. Epist. ix. lib. 11.

THE CRUSADES PLANNED. 399
Christians beyond the sea, of whom nurabers are daUy
kUled hke mere cattle, have humbly sent unto rae to
help these our brothers, if I could, so that the Christian
religion be not in our day (which God forbid) quite
destroyed. And I was so touched by such hvely
sorrow as to desire death, for I would rather give my
life for them than to abandon them, and command the
whole world according to the dictates of worldly pride.
I have been careful to stir up and to animate all Chris
tians to defend the dominion of Christ, and to sacrifice
thefr lives for thefr brethren, and so show forth the
nobihty of the love of God. The Italians and the Ultra-
montanes,' I believe, and I even affirm, have, by the
inspfration of God, willingly received my counsels ; and
already fifty thousand men are preparing, if they can
have me as their chief and pontiff in this expedition, to
rise in arras against the enemies of God, and intend,
under my guidance, to reach the tomb of the Lord.'
The Pope then says that if God should allow him to
lead in person this enterprise, which requires a great chief,
he commends the Roman Church to the care of Henry.
Very soon afterwards he caused to be pubUshed an
exhortation to the faithful to arm for this holy war,
and to gain by a transient effort eternal felicity. These
were the thoughts, this the enthusiasm, which twenty
years later aroused all Europe. But these rehgious
passions had need to work on the minds of men before
they burst out in that tempest ; and the bold pontiff,
who had been the first so powerfully to excite them,
was about to be himself absorbed in other cares and
other perils. We may even doubt whether he was
' Those dwelling beyond the Alps. — Translator.

400 HISTORY OF GREGORY VII.
sincere in his confidence in Henry, and whether he
would have quitted Italy to cross the sea. It is more
likely that, by the announcement of such a project, the
pontiff hoped to startle Henry, and to inspire him with
a dread of that .great confederation ' that he was pre
paring, and so force him perhaps to come to Rome to
solicit the title of Emperor.

¦END OF THE FIRST VOLUME.

YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

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