YALE UNIVERSITY LIBRARY J&*>^ /fV7~ to=5OQ a_i o a z a < t f AN ILLUMINATED HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA, THE EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE PRESENT TIME; COMPRISING THE EAELT DISOOVEEIES BTTHE SPANISH, FEENOH, AND OTHEE NAVIGATOES; A SKETCH OE THE ABOEIGINAL INHABITANTS AND AMERICAN ANTIQUI TIES ; AN HISTORICAL ACCOUNT OF MEXICO, CENTRAL AMERICA, GREENLAND, AND THE PEESENT BRITISH PP.OVINOES ; WITH A COMPLETE HISTORY OE THE UNITED STATES TO THE PRESENT TESTE, ENCLUDIffG THE FEENOH AND INDIAN -WARS, THE WAE OF THE BEVOLUTION, SHAT OF 1812, AND THE LATE WAR -WITH MEXICO ; AND A COMPLETE ACCOUNT OF CALIFORNIA, TALUABLE STATISTICAL TABLES FEOM THE LATE CENSUS, ETC., ETC. BY JOHN" FROST, LL.D. SUiBtatbi trritjr mt Mi Mmfotl lEitgntrrmgs, CONSI8TIKG OP BATTLE SCENES, VIEWS OF CITIES, PEOMINENT EVENTS, AND POETEAITS OF DISTINGUISHED MEN, FKOM DESIGNS OF OHOOME, DEYEKEUX, AND OTHEE DISTINGUISHED ARTISTS. [SOLD ONLY BY S U B S C KIP T I 0 N.J NEW YORK: HENRY BILL. 1854. Entered, according to Act of Congress, in' the year 1854, by HENEY BILL, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Connecticut. PREFACE. Although North America comprises several inde pendent sovereignties, and is inhabited by many dis tinct races of men, yet it has always been separated from other parts of the world, and bound together by relations which render it highly proper to give its history in a single work. Its aboriginal races are all kindred ; it was, after ages of total isolation from the civilized world, at once brought into close com munication with Europe ; it was all colonized by Eu ropeans within a short period; and it has nearly all become independent of Europe from the operation of similar causes. ' Recent events have rendered the history of Mexico and British America more interesting to the people of this country than at any previous period ; and have indicated the present as a suitable time for giving to the world, in a single volume, the History of North America. In executing this task, the author has availed him self of the ample collection of historical works, which his studies and writings for many years have led him to amass; and in condensing the history within the limits prescribed for the work, he has endeavoured to avoid omitting any thing which was important to PREFACE. be comprised in a general history of the North Ame rican continent. The period embraced in this history comprises many events of romantic and thrilling interest; and brings into View many characters who have won the admira tion and applause of the world; while its historical details convey many important and useful lessons in morals, military and political science, and legislation. To the American citizen, all that relates to the his tory of his own country is always .interesting; while the condition and character of the contiguous countries present objects of interest of a nature scarcely less, attractive. The pictorial embellishments which are inserted in the work are not intended for mere ornaments. Their use is to impress historical facts indelibly on the mind. This effect of pictures is now so generally acknow ledged that they seem to be indispensable, in a book intended for general circulation among the people. For this reason,' a very large number has been inserted^ in the volume; and they will be found by the reader to embrace an unusual variety of interesting subjects. It is hoped that the work now submitted to the public will be found not unworthy of the same kind indulgence, which has been manifested towards the previous attempts of the author to advance the great cause of popular information. CONTENTS. PAGE CHAPTER I Discoveries of the Nokthmen 13 II. — Discovert of Columbus. 21 III. — Spanish Discoveries and Conquests 27 IV The Conquest of Mexico 36 V.— Recent History of Mexico 80 VI. — Central America 91 VII. — California 112 VIII — Florida 120 IX. — Canada under the Fjrench 142 X — Minor Provinces of British America 163 XI. — History op Oregon 194 XII.— Greenland • 198 • XIII. — Russian America 200 XIV. — Settlement of Virginia 203 XV. — Virginia till the Peace of 1763 226 XVL— Maryland 234 XVII. — Massachusetts.. 240 XVIII. — Settlement of Connecticut 259 XIX. — Rhode Island 264 XX Maine and New Hampshire 266 XXI New York 269 XXII.— New Jersey 281 XXIII. — Pennsylvania and Delaware 285 XXIV. — The C akoliwas and Georgia 293 XXV.— The Seven Years' War 301 XXVI. — Commencement of the Revolution 310 XXVII. — First Hostilities of the Revolution 319 XXVIII — Expedition to Canada 330 a2 5 6 CONTENTS. PAGE CHAP. XXIX.— Campaign of 1776 ; 334 XXX Campaign of 1777 and Conclusion of the Treaty with France • 354 XXXI.— Campaign of 1778 377 XXXII.— Campaign of 1779 389 XXXIII.— Campaign of 1780 403 XXXIV— Campaign of 1781 417 XXXV. — Close of the Revolutionary Wa* 435 XXXVI. — Organization of the Federal Government. Washing ton's Administration 440 XXXVII — Administration of Jqhn Adams 454 XXXVIII. — Administration of Thomas Jefferson 459 XXXIX. — Administration of James Madison 474 XL— Campaign of 1812 480 XLI Campaign of 1813 490 XLII.— Campaign of 1814 504 XLIII. — Administration of James Monroe 520 XLIV.-^Administration of John Quincy Adams 523 XLV. — Administration of Andrew Jackson 525 XLVI. — Administration of Martin Van Buren 529 XLVII. — Administrations of Harrison and Tyler 531 XLVIII.— History of Texas 534 XLIX.-t-Administration of James K. Polk — Opening of the MexicanWar 540 L. — Operations of General Taylor '. 544 LI. — Operations in California and New Mexico 560 LII. — Campaign of General Scott ., 564 LIII. — Administration of Taylor 605 " " Fillmore 618 LIV. — Administration of Pierce 643 . LV. — Canada under the British 664 APPENDIX. Constitution of the United States 679 Declaration of Independence 688 Articles of Confederation 691 Population of all the Counties in the United States, according to the Census of 1850 , 697 LIST THE PRINCIPAL ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Head Piece to Chapter 1 13 Discovery of Greenland 14 Landing of the Northmen 15 Tyrker discovering the Grapes 16 Ships of the Northmen 17 Northmen trading with Indians 19 Biorne's Presents 20 Columbus, v 21 Francis 1 23 Henry VII '... 24 Sailing of Columbus 25 Vespucci 26 Balboa 27 Pizarro .' 30 Balboa discovering the Pacific Ocean 31 Pedrarias 33 Landing of Cortes 36 Olmedo 39 Volcanic Mountains, as seen from Tacubaya , . . . 43 Gladiatorial Sacrifice 46 Montezuma 51 Cortes 52 Massacre at C hoi n 1 a 54 Cortes marching into Mexico 57 The Great Temple of Mexico 60 Cortes ordering Montezuma to be chained 63 Expedition of Narvaez 66 Defeat of Narvaez 68 Sandoval 72 Cortes at 0 tumba , 74 Olid 76 Termination of the .Aqueduct in Mexico 79 Interior of a Mexican House 80 Joseph Bonaparte 82 Mina... 84 Iturbide 8G 7 8 ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Bustamente 88 Alaman °9 Pedro Alvarado 91 KicabTanub ; 93 Great Battle between Alvarado and the Quiches 95 Celebration of the Founding of St. Jago 98 Charles V.. 100 Alonzo de Maldonado 102 Flores 104 Juan Diaz de Solis 107 Santiago Iman 110 San Francisco, California 112 Monterey, Upper California 115 . Ponce de Leon 120 Ponce de Leon wounded 122 Narvaez in Florida '. 124 Almagro 126 Soto appointed Adelantado 127 Soto discovering the Mississippi 132 Verazzano 134 Admiral Coligni 135 Saturiova showing the Monument 136 Jacques Cartier 140 Cartier taking possession of New France 143 Champlain ascending the St. Lawrence » 145 Place d'Armes, Montreal 147 Lake George. 150 Expedition of Sir David Kirke 152 New Cathedral, M ontreal 154 Canadian Hut. 159; Bay of Quebec 163 Indian. Village on the St. Lawrence , 164 Settlement of Port Royal 165 Fishing Station on the coast of Nova Scotia 168 Marlborough , 169 Surrender of Louisbourg 173 Louis XV. 174 Halifax.. 176 Domiciliated Indians 177 Sir Guy Carlton 178 St. John's, New Brunswick 183 Cod-Fishery, Newfoundland 184 Lord Baltimore 186 Entrance into Hudson's Bay 188 Trading with Indians 189 Parry's. Expedition. 191 Astoria 194 Subterranean Hut in the Northern Regions 201 Peter the Great 202 Sebastian Cabot 203 GrenviUe burning an Indian Town 205 Raleigh 207 Gosnold's Voyage 210 Captain John Smith 213 Powhatan 215 Captain Smith exploring Chesapeake Bay , 217 Pocahontas,rescuing Captain Smith 219 Capture of Pocahontas ... 221 The Christian Indian disclosing the intended Massacre ..'..' 223 The Great Massacre 224 James I.. 226 Arrest of Harvey 227 Charles I... 228 Signing of Bacon's Commission 230 Cecil Calvert. 232 ILLUSTRATIONS. 9 PAGI Settlement of St. Mary's 236 William III 238 John Winthrop. 240 Landing of the Pilgrims 242 Death of Governor Carver 244 The Treaty with Massassoit 245 Settlement of Boston 246 Banishment of Roger Williams 247 Sir Harry Vane 248 Trial of Wenlock Christison 251 Scene in King Philip's War. 252 Burning of Springfield- .. » 254 Emigration of Mr. Hooper and his company 259 Massacre of the Pequods 260 Signing of the New England confederation 261 Roger Williams entertained by the Indians* 264 Gorges and Mason naming their provinces 266 Governor Stuy vesant 269 Gustavus Adolphus 273 Charles II. giving- the New Netherlands to the Duke of York 275 James II 276 Treaty with the Five Nations 278 Nassau Hall, New Jersey 281 William Penn 285 The Treaty Monument, on the site of the elm tree, where Penn's treaty was made 288 Interview between William Penn and Lord Baltimore 290 Savannah in 1778 293 The Earl of Clarendon 295 General Oglethorpe 298 General Wolfe 301 Washington's interview with St. Pierre 304 Massacre at Fort William Henry 306 Abercrombie crossing Lake George 307 Ruins of Ticonderoga , 308 Death of General Wolfe 309 Samuel Adams ¦' 310 Stamp Act riot 311 Reception of the news of the repeal of the Stamp Act 312 John Hancock-... 313 Faneuil Hall 314 Boston- Massacre 315 Destruction of the Tea in Boston Harbour 316 Carpenters' Hall 317 British- naval costume 318 Siege of Boston 319 Affair at Lexington 320 Provincials- harassing the British on their retreat from Concord 321 Colonel Allen capturing Ticonderoga 322 General Warren ^ 324 Washington's head-quarters at Cambridge.. . — 328 General Ward - 329 General Montgomery 330 Death of Montgomery 332 Monument to General Montgomery at St. Paul's church, New- York . . . 333 Battle-Ground of Trenton 334 Sir Peter Parker 336 Defence of Fort Moultrie. 337 Independence hall, Philadelphia, when the. Declaration of Independence was signed - 340 Lord Howe 341 General Howe 342 General Sullivan 343 The retreat of the American army from Long Island 344 General Lee's head-quarters at Baskinridge 347 2 10 ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Battle of Trenton 348 Battje of Princeton 349 Washington crossing the Delaware 350 Washington's head-quarters at Brandywine 354 General Wooster 356 Battle of Brandywine 358 Battle of Germantown 359 Battle of Red Bank 360- Washington's head-quarters at Valley Forge 361 Murder of Miss M'Crea 363 Battle of Bennington 364 General Schuyler 365 Arnold at Bemis's Heights 366 Burgoyne's retreat up tne Hudson 367 Surrender of Burgoyne 368 General Burgoyne 369 1 Lord North 370 Silas Deane 372 Thomas Paine '. 374 Conclusion of the treaty with France 376 ' Commodore John Paul Jones 377 General Gates 379 Battle of Monmouth 381 Count d'Estaing 382 Massacre at Wyoming 384 Colonel George R. Clarke j. 385 Captain Biddle 386 Battle between the Ranger and Drake 387 Baron Steuben 389 Specimens of Continental Bills : 391 Capture of Stony Point 395 General Henry Lee 397 Death of Pulaski 400 Capture of the Serapis 401 General Marion 402 Tarleton's Quarters 404 Baron de Kalb 405 General Sumpter 407 Battle of King's Mountain 409 Count de Rochambeau 410 West Point 412 Capture of Andre 413 Major Andre 414 General Greene i 416 Colonel Howard 417 Colonel Williams 420 Colonel Washington 422 Battle of Eutaw Springs '. 424 Lord Rawdon 425 Arnold's descent on Virginia .'. t 426 General La Fayette , 427 General Wayne's celebrated charge on the British army 428 Count de Grasse 429 Yorktown, from a drawing by Mrs. Simcoe 431 La Fayette taking the redoubt- at Yorktown 432 Moore's house, Yorktown 433 Battle-Ground, of Yorktown ¦ 434 Captain Barry 434 Henry Laurens 435 Colonel Laurens 436 Commodore Barney 437 Washington's head-quarters at Newburgh 438 Washington 440 Mount Vernon 442 Washington taking the oath of office in front of the old Federal Hall. New York .443 ILLUSTRATIONS. 11 PASS Alexander Hamilton 444 General Wayne defeating the Indians at the Miami 447 General Knox 449 Mount Vernon 453 John Adams 454 Commodore Murray 455 Capture of L'Insurgente 456 Commodore Truxtun 457 Tomb of Washington 458 Thomas Jefferson 459 Commodore Dale 462 General Eaton 463 Commodore Bainbridge 465 Capture of Derne 468 Mobile 469 Aaron Burr 469 George Clinton 470 Affair in the Chesapeake 471 General Wilkinson 472 James Madison 474 Tecu [risen 476 Council of Vincennes 477 General Harrison • 478 Commodore Hull 480 Defence of Fort Harrison 483 Queenstown 484 Commodore Porter - 485 Captain Lawrence 488 Capture of the Caledonia and Detroit 489 Fort Niagara 490 Massacre at the River Raisin 491 Death of General Pike 494 Sackett's Harbour 495 Battle of the Thames 498 Battle of Emuckl'aw. 500 Battle of Tohopeka 501 Captain Allen 503 General Ripley 506 General Miller 507 General Macomb 508 Commodore McDonough 508 Battle of Lake Champlain 509 Bombardment of Fort McHenry ; 512 Cruise of the Essex 516 Captain Blakely 517 James Monroe 520 John Quincy Adams 523 Andrew Jackson 525 Thomas H. Benton 527 Destruction of Major Dade's detachment,.... 528 Martin Van Buren .*'.'.. 529 William H. Harrison 531 James K. Polk 539 Corpus Christi 541 Point Isabel 542 General Taylor 544 Battle of Palo Alto 546 Captain May 547 Matamoras 548 General Taylor advancing to Monterey 550 Cavalry Action of the 21st of September 551 Bishop's Palace, Monterey 554 Storming of Monterey 555 General Taylor taking leave of the troops 556 Repulse of the Mexican Cavalry at Buena Vista 558 12 ILLUSTRATIONS. PAGE Colonel Jefferson Davis 559 Colonel Fremont 560 Battle. pf Bracito 562 General Kearney wounded at San Pasqual 563 General Scott .' •. 564 Vera. Cruz. 566 Commodore Perry. 567 Battle of Cerro Gordo 568 Colonel Baker 570 General Twiggs • 574 General Pierce 575 General Shields 576 General Pillow,.. • ••• ¦• ; 578 Molinq def. Rev, Chapultepec in the distance 582 Storming of . Molino del Rey 583 ColonelRansom. . .,.,. ..¦¦••. 585 Major, now Colonel Seymour 586 General Persifor F. Smith .'.'. 587 General Worth 588 Colonel Childsf .". 591 William Pitt, son of the Earl of Chatham 595 Charles James Fox ' 597 Viaw. from the Citadel at Kingston 599 Sir Robert. Peel .., .'. . , 600 Lake, of the. Two Mountains 602 Navy Island 603 Toronto... 605 Zacbary Taylor 605 John O. Calhoun 611 Millard Fillmore * 618 Henry Clay. 633 Daniel Webster. 638 Franklin Pierce 643 Portrait of Kossuth... 631 The Crystal Palace 657 Scott's Landing at Vera Cruz Scott's entrance into Mexico.., »^A < CHAPTER I. DISCOVERIES OF THE NORTHMEN. ^HE name of Christopher Columbus has so long been associated with the first general knowledge of tbe New World, by Europeans, that numbers of the pre sent day are ignorant of any discovery of our con tinent prior to his time. There is conclusive evi dence, however, of such discovery having been made, although the fact cannot in the least detract from the hard-earned fame of the Genoese mariner. The people whose records and traditions bear" testimony to this event, are the Normans or Northmen. In the dark ages, the Northmen, natives of Scandinavia, which included Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, were the most daring ad venturers of EurOpe. Aj different periods, they conquered portions of France, England, Germany, and other nations of Northern and B 13 14 DISCOVERIES OF. THE NORTHMEN. Middle Europe, and established naval and trading stations along all the north-western coast. They also fitted out numerous expeditions for distant parts, several of which visited Iceland as early as the ninth century, and established a colony there. In the year 986, Greenland was visited by Eric Rauda, (the Red,) who planted a colony on the south-eastern shore, and named it Brattalid. The whole country he called Greenland, either ironically or, most probably, for the purpose of alluring emigrants. Different settlements were styled Ericsfiord, Heriulfsfiord, "Rafnsfiord, &c, after the names of the colonists. =-_ The Northern Chro nicles give the honour of originating the spi rit of discovery which resulted in first visit ing the Continent now called America, to an enterprising young man, named Biarne, son of Heriulf, He had distinguished him self by his activity in mercantile pursuits, and acquired great knowledge of men and society, by visiting foreign countries. When Eric's expedition sailed from Denmark, Biarne was in Norway ; but, on ascertaining this, when he arrived in his native country, he followed it thither. Being totally unac quainted with Eric's course, the navigators wandered for some time upon the ocean, encountering violent winds and severe weather. This was succeeded by fogs. When the atmosphere again became clear, they discovered a level, sandy coast, swelling gradually into hills, whose tops and sides were crowned with thick woods. As this did not correspond to the description of Greenland sent to Eu rope by Eric, no landing was attempted. On the following day, / more land was discovered, presenting the same lopographicaI_j2iut- line. Three days after, they came in sight 6f an island, and con tinuing their course for forty-eight hours, they reached the southern extremity of Greenland. They were received gladly by Heriulf, and remained in Greenland, until his death, when Biarne succeeded ?o the administration of affairs. DISCOVERY OP GSIIBLASD. %ANDING OF THE NORTHMEN. 15 LASSISG OP THX NORTHMEN. The account of the land seen by the young navigator excited much attention in the Greenland colony, and roused a spirit of ad venture, somewhat singular in a youthful settlement. Under its influence, a son of Eric, named Leif, purchased Biarne's vessel, and, with thirty-five men, set sail on a voyage of discovery, (about A. d. 1000.) Touching at the island seen by Biarne, he called it Helluland, (flat land,) and reaching, soon after, the first land men tioned by his predecessor, he gave it the title of Markland, (woody land.) Two days after, they landed on an island covered with vege tation, and then sailitfg westward, they reached the mouth of a river, near a strait which separated the island from a high promontory 16 DISCOVERIES OF THE NORTHMAN. 1TBZXE DISOOVBSBINQ THI GRAjPBS. iand. A lake was the source of this stream; Pleased with this wild spot, Leif determined to ^establish here a colony ; and, accord ingly, erected wooden huts on the shore of the lake, and caused his goods to be conveyed to the lake in boats. After remainingsome time, and building more commodious houses, the colony was organized into two parties, one of which explored the country at regular periods, while the other remained at home, the leader accompanying them alternately. On one of these expe ditions, grapes were discovered by a German named Tyrker ; and from this circumstance the country was called Wineland or Vinland. This discovery, together with the mildness of the climate, and the great abundance of salmon and other fish in the river, rendered them still more willing to form a permanent settlement. DEATH OF THORWALD. IT SHIPS 07 THE NORTHMEN. According to the chronicles and traditions of this discovery, Vinr land now forms the states of Massachusetts and Rhode Island. The other provinces visited by the Northmen are identified as Labrador, Nova Scotia, and the northern part of New England. The climate of the new-found province was delightful. The grass is said to have remained green during winter, and the cattle, during the same time, placed at pasture in the fields. In the spring, Leif returned to Greenland with a cargo of wood, a circumstance that revived the spirit of discovery among his countrymen. His brother, Thorwald, sailed the following year in Leif's ship, reached the New England coast, and passed the winter at Mount Hope Bay. In the ensuing spring, (1002,) he again put to sea, doubled a cape, supposed to be Cape Cod, and sailed leisurely along the coast, until he reached a headland overgrown with wood. *Two skirmishes here occurred with the natives, in the latter of which Thorwald received a mortal' wound. He had been instructed in the Christian religion by his brother, and feeling his death approach, he collected his followers, and asked if any had been wounded. Being answered in the negative, he said: "As for me, I have received a wound under the arm from an arrow, and I feel that it will be mortal. I advise you to prepare immediately for your return : but ye shall first carry my body to the promontory which I thought so beautiful, and where I had determined to fix my residence. It may be that it was a prophetic word which fell from my lips, about my abid ing there for a season. There shall ye bury me, and ye shall plant 18 DISCOVERIES OF THE NORTHMEN. a cross at my head and another at my feet, and ye shall call the name of the place Krossanes [Cape Cross] through all future time." * After Thorwald's death and burial his men returned to Mount Hope, and in a year after to Greenland. The narrative of their discoveries and sufferings excited much attention, and Thorstein, a brother of the unfortunate adventurer, determined on sailing to Cape Cross, and bringing back the body. This spot (situated, it is supposed, in Massachusetts Bay) he never reached ; and, indeed, escaped total shipwreck only by being driven back to the coast pf Greenland. In 1006, a new impulse was given to maritime enterprise, among the Northmen, by the arrival, at Ericsfiord, of two ships carrying Thorfinn, a wealthy and influential person of royal descent, and Snorre Thorbrandson, also a distinguished person. Eric and Thor stein were now dead, arid the two visitors seem to have been en trusted with the management of affajrs during the winter. During the festivities of Christmas, Thorfinn became enamoured with Gud- rida, widow of Thorstein, and soon after 'married her. Through her entreaties, he fitted out an expedition to visit Vinland, consisting of three ships and a hundred and forty men. He sailed in 1007, accompanied by his wife, his companion, Snorre, and a number of other distinguished persons, male and female. After a prosperous voyage, during which Thorfinn coasted along the Continent for a number of miles, a landing was effected on an island which received the name of Straum Ey, (Stream Island.) So great was the number of birds at this place, that it was impossible to walk without crushing their nests. After passing the winter at this place, Thorhall, one of the leaders, was sent with eight men to search for Vinland ; but, meeting with westerly winds, they were driven across the Atlantic to Ireland, and made prisoners. Ignorant of their fate, Thorfinn set out with the remainder of the adventurers, and reached their destination in safety. The country was found to correspond to the description of it given by former navigators. Wild wheat covered the fields, and grapes the hills. The lake was easily found, near which the former settle ment had been made, and here, after erecting additional dwellings, the company passed the winter. Numbers of the natives visited them in canoes, carrying on a system of barter extremely profitable to the Northmen. In a few months, this friendly intercourse was I ABANDONMENT OF THE COLONY. 19 THE NORTHMEN TRADING WITH THE INDIA! interrupted, and skirmishes ensued, in which several of the settlers were killed. This event discouraged them, and they determined to abandon all ideas of founding a permanent colony. Sailing to Straum Ey, there they passed the winter; and at the opening of the following year (1011) returned to Greenland. During their three years' residence, the wife of Thorfinn presented him with a son — probably the first descendant of Europeans ever born in America. He afterwards became a person of great distinction, and his descend ants, traced by undoubted genealogy down to the present time, have included some of the' most distinguished persons of Northern Europe, Members of every profession, law, politics, letters, and the church, have been proud to trace their lineage to him ; and, among these, we have in our century a Bishop of Iceland, Chief Justice Steven son, of the same country, three professors in the Copenhagen Uni versity, and the great sculptor Bertel Thorwaldsen. Straum Ey is supposed by the Danish historians to be Martha's Vineyard, and Straum-fiord, the body of water named by Thorfinn, is said to be Buzzard's Bay. 20 DISCOVERIES OF THE NORTHMEN. In the same year that Thorfinn's colony was abandoned, (1011,) a female, named Freydisa, who had been with him, visited America in one ship, with a number of men and women, for the purpose of forming a settlement. Her object seems to have been defeated by dissensions among her followers. Some years after, (1026,) an Ice lander, named Gudleif, while sailing for Dublin, was driven out of his course, and landed, as is supposed, in America. Being carried by his captors into the interior, they met an old man, who, after ad dressing them in their own language, and inquiring after several Icelanders, presented them with a sword, requesting that it might be carried to one Thurida, a sister to Snorre Gode, with a word for her son. He is supposed to have been the bard Biorne, formerly a lover of that lady, and of whom nothing had been heard since 998. All idea of forming a permanent settlement in Vinland was now- abandoned by the Northmen ; and, in their subsequent wars with England and -France, the very remembrance of their discoveries was obliterated. It was reserved for the power of one master-mind to unite the Old and New Worlds, and to open the path to glory in the western wilds, brighter and nobler than the nations of the East. BIORNB'9 PRESENTS. * * COljtTMBTTS. CHAPTER II. DISCOVERY OF COLUMBUS. JHE history of the world does not afford an epoch more important to mankind .1 than the discovery of America by Co lumbus, in 1492. It formed, as is well known, an era that gave a new and more adventurous direction to the ambi tion of European nations ; and while the consequent passion of enterprise sent bold spirits to the vast regions of the newly-found world, — and, simulta neously, by an almost equally great discovery, — that of sailing round Africa to the Eastern Indies, — fresh explorations enriched the sci ences, — and, from that period, geography, astronomy, and naviga tion became more practically and more usefully known. A most remarkable coincidence of events distinguishes the period 22 DISCOVERY OF COLUMBUS. which followed the application of the magnet to the mariner's com pass, and the age which immediately commenced after the discovery of America and of the East Indies by sea. During this epoch, ' gunpowder and the art of printing were both invented; ancient learning, the arts and sciences, were revived ; a powerful and suc cessful resistance to the papal authority was declared ; and the balance of power among princes became a leading policy in Europe. To Portugal and to her sovereign, King John I;, is due the honour of being the first nation and prince' in Europe to undertake great discoveries. Some adventurers from Spain fell in previously with the Canaries ; but this discovery was not considered a national enter prise ; although the pope, in his assumed divine right to ali the (countries in the world, granted, in perpetuity, these Fortunate Islands, as they were called, with their infidel inhabitants as slaves, to Louis de la Cerda, of the royal family of Castile, who transferred them afterwards to a Norman baron. In the year 1412, John I., King of Portugal, commenced those voyages along the coasts of Africa, directed by his son, Prince Henry, which, in 1419, discovered Madeira, and, in 1433, extended so far south as to double Cape Boyador, and to enter the dreaded torrid zone. Before the death of Prince Henry, in 1463, the Azores and Cape de Verd Islands were discovered by the Portuguese. From this period until the accession of John IL, the nephew of Prince Henry, in 1481, the spirit of maritime discovery languished in Portugal, although a trade with the previously found countries was carried on without interruption. In 1484, John II. fitted out a powerful fleet, and declared himself the patron of navigation and discovery. It was in' his service that Columbus completed that knowledge and acquired that distinction which prepared him for engaging in the voyages that render his name immortal. The Por tuguese, after advancing south and forming settlements along the coa§t of Africa, reached the Cape of Good Hope ; and a voyage round it was accomplished by Vasco de Gama, in the year 1497, five years after the discovery of America by Columbus. The mind of this extraordinary man had, from an early period, been occupied in preparing the design of the sublime enterprise that was destined to extend the limits to which ignorance and supersti tion had tonfined the boundaries of the earth. He, as a dutiful citi zen, made his first proposal to sail westward to the Indies to Genoa. His offer was rejected as that of a visionary adventurer. He felt PERSEVERANCE UNDER DISCOURAGEMENT. 23 the consolation arising from having discharged a patriotic obligation, but was mortified, but not disheartened, that his native country should have derided a project, which he foresaw would extend fame to the nation under whose auspices it should be undertaken. He was received favourably .by John II. of Portugal, where the intelligence, and nautical skill, and boldness of Columbus were well known, and where he had married the daughter of Perestrello, the discoverer of Madeira. But( Ortis, the Bishop of Ceuta, not only thwarted his views and derided them as chimerical, but meanly at tempted to deprive him of the honour by sending, in the direction proposed by Columbus, a vessel under a Portuguese pilot, in order to attempt and secure the glory of the discovery. The pilot had neither the genius nor the, fortitude which are necessary to accom plish bold enterprises. He consequently failed in the treacherous attempt. • »• Columbus applied, soon afterwards, to the government of France. But neither the prince nor the people had, at that period, been ani mated by the spirit of maritime dis covery. The chivalrous and gene rous Francis I. had not ascended the throne ; and it was destined that the most brilliant project ever made, was rejected : — a project which finally succeeded under the patronage of a royal family which became, in con sequence, the most powerful rival that ever mortified the predecessors of the House of Bourbon. fran ois i. Columbus then sent his brother Bartholomew to the court of Henry VII. of England. That distrust ful prince, after one bold and successful attempt to obtain the crown, never encouraged great', if in his mind, the least hazardous or doubt ful, enterprises. He, however, by slight but .not conclusive pro mises, detained Bartholomew in England for six years ; and the latter finally arranged with the king for the employment of his bro ther Christopher in the proposed voyage of discovery. In the mean time, Columbus, disgusted with the meanness and exasperated by the treachery of Ortis, proceeded with his charts and proposals to the court of Ferdinand and Isabella. For eight years he exercised his address, his patience, his interest, and his 24 DISCOVERY OF COLUMBUS. HENRY VII. abilities at this court, so remarkable then and long after for thettardi- ness of its decisions. It is a trite remark, that projectors are enthu siasts. It is fortunate that this accusation is true as regards the projectors of arduous undertakings ; otherwise, the spirit and the health of Columbus would have been subdued before he accom plished his great mission. He had to endure the most fatiguing delays, and to hear pronounced against him presumptuous and in sulting judgments by the ignorant and by the bigoted. Tp the honour of Isabella and her sex, and at her own expense, we are bound to attribute, in justice, the final success, of Columbus: who, after displaying, during eight years, in his whole character and con duct, an assiduity, a firmness and resolve of mind, never sufficiently to be applauded and imitated, sailed from Cadiz on the 3d of August, 1492, on the most daring enterprise ever undertaken by man. He proceeded on this voyage without any chart to guide him, with no acquaintance with the currents, the winds, or climates of unknown seas and lands, — and in ignorance of the magnetic varia tion. His own genius and instinctive judgment, — his confidence in DISCOVERY OF SAN SALVADOR. 25 THE SAILING OF COLUMBUS. the spherical system of the world, although the law of gravity was undiscovered, — his knowledge of the human heart, — and his address in commanding and winning those placed under his authority, en abled him to prevail over a crew which at length became impatient, and to advance, regardless of imaginary as well as real dangers, until he discovered the island of San Salvador, on October 12, 1492. COLUMBUS, on his first voyage, disco vered San Salvador, Hayti, and Cuba. He opened a friend ly intercourse with the inhabitants ; ob tained permission to build a fort at a place which he called Na- vidad, on the north side of Hayti, where he left a colony of thirty men, with various stores. He then re turned towards Europe with gold, cotton, &c, and accompanied by some of the natives. He experienced a boisterous, dangerous, and tedious passage. He put into the port of Lisbon with his vessels 4 C 26 DISCOVERY OF COLUMBUS. crippled. John II. received him with honourable respect, although mortified at havinglost for ever, by rejecting the offer formerly made by Columbus, the glory of discovering a world which was now to be assigned to Spain. Columbus proceeded to the court of Ferdinand and Isabella, where he was received with as much distinction as was consistent with the cold and formal etiquette of the royal house hold of Spain. It is not within our present design to enter on the history of this memorable achievement. The voyages of Columbus have often been, and especially by a distinguished American, well narrated. The merit of discovering the Continent of the New World was attempted to be denied to Columbus ; and so far with success, that an able, unprincipled adventurer, with whom Fonseca, an unfor giving bishop, conspired, obtained by forgery and mis-statements the credit, for some time, of being the Original discoverer, and had, in consequence, his name given to all the vast regions of the West. Columbus reached the Continent of America, in August, 1498 j whereas Alonzo Ojeda (one of the formej companion? of Columbus) and Amerigo Vespucci did not sail on their first voyage from Cadiz, until the 20th of May, 1499. Amerigo made skilful use of the ad miral's maps and charts, which the Bishop of Burgos put, from hatred to Columbus, into his hands ; and to whom the bishop gave also clandestine licenses, in contravention of the authority held by Columbus from Ferdinand and Isabella. VESPUOOL 7§ BALBOA. CHAPTER III. SPANISH DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS. j|HE passion for discovering unknown countries, inspired by the success of the projects which the great mind of Columbus' conceived and planned, and which his persevering character ac complished, became soon the mania of the age. The principal man among the ad venturers of that period was not Ame rigo Vespucci, but Vincent Torres de Pinzon, who commanded one of the ships during the first voyage of Columbus. He was an able seaman, of liberal education, great courage, and of such ample fortune as to enable him to fit out four , 27 28 SPANISH DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS. stout ships at his own expense, with which he sailed, in January, 1500, on a voyage of discovery. He was the first Spanish subject who crossed the equinoctial line, and discovered the. country of Santa Cruz, or the Holy Cross, and the river Maranon, or Amazon, in Brazil. He did not succeed in persuading the natives to trade with him. He returned north to the river Orinoco, which was dis covered previously by Columbus. He soon after encountered a great storm, lost two of his ships before he reached Hayti, and finally arrived safely in Spain. In 1501, Roderic de Bastidas fitted out, at his own expense, two ships ; and, sailing from Cadiz, he discovered the country since then called Carthagena, and Magdalenna, and about a hundred leagues more of the coast of America than was known to Columbus. He opened an intercourse with the natives, brought some of them away, and proceeded to Hayti. So jealous were the Spaniards of each, other, that Bastidas was imprisoned for the success of his enter prise. St. Juan d^Porto Rico, called Borriquen by' the natives, was dis covered by Columbus, in 1493, but neglected until 1509, when' Juan Ponce de Leon, an enterprising, ambitious, and tyrannical nobleman, was informed that gold was abundant in that island. He crossed over from Hayti, and was received kindly by the principal cacique and by the natives ; who showed him the streams which carried down great quantities of gold with the sands and washings from the mountains. On returning to Hayti, he managed to obtain a commis sion from Spain for conquering Porto Rico ; and was, on landing, received by the natives, who believed the Spaniards to be immortal, or they would, from their superior numbers, and with their poisoned arrows, as was their manner of defending themselves against the Caribbeans, probably,-on the attempt of Ponce de Leon to subdue them, have driven back the Spaniards with great loss of life. The natives believed the Spaniards invulnerable, and they submitted to labour and to slavery, until a young Spaniard, on being carried across the ford of a river, on the shoulders of a native of more than usual boldness, was thrown off by the latter who, with the assistance of other natives, kept the Spaniard under water until he was drowned. They then dragged him ashore, and, doubting whether he was dead, the Indians cried out, asking pardon for the accident, during three days, until trje body became so putrid as to remove all their doubts. The natives being now convinced that the Spaniards FRANCIS PIZARRO. 29 could be killed, rose upon, and slaughtered more than a hundred of their oppressors. Ponce de Leon«finally succeeded in reducing the whole island to his authority, and the natives to slavery in the mines ; in which, and under other cruelties, they became extinct in a short period.. Diego Velasquez sailed from Hayti, in November, 1511, to con quer Cuba, which he accomplished, after committing the most hor rible atrocities. Attempts were made, at this period, to conquer and settle on the coast of Carthagena and Darien. , In 1509, John de Esquibel was sent by Diego Columbus from St. Domingo to form the first settlem'ent in Jamaica, to which Alonzo de Ojeda laid a claim, and threatened to hang Esquibel. During the following year, Ojeda and John de la Cosas, who had received a license to capture and take possession of Veragua, Car thagena, and other western countries, sailed from St. Domingo, landed on the Continent, and had several conflicts with the natives who were a- bolder and more advanced race than the aborigines of Hayti. In one attack, seventy Spaniards were killed, and the re mainder wounded with poisoned arrows. Ojeda and Cosas were saved by the arrival of another adventurer, Nicuessa, with four ships. The latter attacked the natives, burnt their town, in which they found a large store of gold, and taking a number of prisoners, sent them as slaves to work in the mines of Hayti. Among the com manders of these vessels was Francis Pizarro, whom Ojeda left at St. Sebastian, the place where he fixed upon for a settlement. The latter entered into an agreement with an outlaw, or pirate, to take him in his vessel to St. Domingo. The pirate's vessel was wrecked on the coast of Cuba, from whence they escaped to Jamaica in a canoe. The pirate was there apprehended and hanged. Pizarro was obliged to leave St. Sebastian, and escaped with a few men to Carthagena, — where Enciso, with two ships, arrived from St. Do-- mingo. Pizarro and Enciso then proceeded to St. Sebastian, where they were shipwrecked, and, on landing, found the place entirely destroyed by the natives. They saved, from the wrecks, provisions, arms, and various articles, and proceeded to re-establish themselves at St. Sebastian, but they were reduced to great extremities by the attacks of the natives, and by the scanty supply of food. One of the most remarkable men among, the "explorers of America accompanied this expedition. This person was Vasquez Nunez de so SPANISH DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS. PIZARRO. Balboa, a man of good family, who had formerly sailed with Bas tidas on his voyage of discovery. He had obtained a settlement at Hayti, but having been accused of some excesses, for which he was to have been executed ; he escaped by being concealed on board Enciso's ship in a bread cask. He ventured after a day to make his appearance. Enciso was enraged, as he had been warned not to take any one but those on his muster-roll, from Hayti ; but the prin cipal persons on board interceded for Nunez, and he was conse quently protected. He was afterwards almost the only person at St.- Sebastian who had not absolutely given himself up to de spair. Enciso was rallied and encouraged by Nunez, by whose energy the stranded vessels were at last got afloat, and they sailed, according to the advice of Nunez, to where he had seen a town, when he had made the voyage with Bastidas. They, accordingly, steered far the river Darien, and found the place and country such as both were described by Nunez. They marched against the cacique and his people, attacked and put them to flight, — found n VASQUEZ NUNEZ DE' BALBOA. 31 ^^>. BALBOA DISCOVERING THE PAOIFIO OCEAN the town, which was immediately deserted, abundance of provisions, also cotton spun and unspun, household goods of various kinds, and more than the Value of $10,000 in gold plates. The success of this adventure being justly attributed to Nunez, his reputation became great. He deprived Enciso, who bore him no goodwill from the first, of all authority ; gained, by his boldness, the confidence of the Spaniards, and founded the settlement of St. Maria. Nunez established his authority and retained his power in Darien, and the country then called Castell d'Oro, by gaining over, or defeating, the chiefs of the country, by buying, with the gold he sent to St. Do mingo, the authorities there over to his interest, and by his superior fertility of resources undeT the most difficult circumstances. In the middle. of September, 1513, having been informed of rich and vast regions to the south-west ; stretching along a great ocean which was not far distant, he departed from St. Maria, accompanied by the afterwards celebrated Francis Pizarro, on an expedition, in which, after some desperate* conflicts with the natives, he advanced so 32 SPANISH DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS. i far, on the 25th of September, as to behold, lying broad in view, the great Pacific Ocean. Nunez possessed the manner and ability of making himself be loved by his companions and followers. He was kind to the sick and the wounded, and shared the same fatigues and the same food as the humblest soldier. Before reaching the shores of the Pacific, he was opposed by Chiapes, the cacique of the country ; who, how ever, was soon routed, and several of the natives killed by fire-arms, or torn by blood-hounds, those powerful auxiliaries of the Spanish con querors in America. Nunez then made peace with them, — exchang ing trinkets pf little cost for gold to the value of four thousand pieces. Pizarro was then sent in advance to view the coast, and two others proceeded, on different routes, to find the nearest way from the heights to the sea. Nunez followed as soon as he could bring up the sick and wounded. On reaching the shore, he' walked, with his armour on, into the sea, until the water reached his middle, and then performed solemnly the ceremony of taking possession in the name of the crown of Castile, of the ocean which he had disco vered. The Indians provided him with canoes ; and, contrary to the ad vice of the natives, he proceeded with about eighty Spaniards, and Chiapes, the cacique, to cross a broad bay. Bad weather came on, and they barely escaped perishing on. an island where several of their canoes were wrecked. On the following day they landed with great difficulty ; being opposed by a cacique, whose people, however, were soon put to flight by the fire-arms and by the dogs of the Spaniards.' Nunez soon brought this cacique to terms, and, for a few trinkets, received a considerable weight of gold, and a considerable number of large pearls of great value. The dif ferent caciques gave him the most flattering accounts of the vast countries which they described as extending to the south and south west. Before attempting further discoveries, he considered it prudent to return from the Pacific, and arrived at Santa Maria about the end of January, 1513, with the gold and pearls he had collected, and which he distributed fairly among the soldiers, deducting one-fifth for- the king. He immediately sent the king's share of gold and pearls and all his own to Spain by an agent. On arriving at Seville, this agent applied first to the Bishop of Burgos, who was delighted at the sight of the gold and pearls. The bishop sent him to the kin*, and used PEDRO ARIAS D'AVILA. 33 PEDRARI AS all his influence with Ferdinand, who entertained a strong aversion to Nunez de Balboa. The old king, Ferdinand, who, unlike his deceased consort, Isa bella, was always jealous of superior men, and especially of disco verers, did not on this occasion depart from his former base policy of supplanting the men who performed the most arduous undertak ings, by the worst and most perfidious of his own creatures ; such as Ovanda and Bobadilla. The Bishop of Burgos had, previous to the arrival of the agent with treasures' from Nunez, counselled the king to supersede him by one of the worst characters in Spain. Instead of confirming Nunez de Balboa in the government of the countries he discovered and annexed to the crown of Castile, Ferdi nand appointed Pedro Arias d'Avila, or, as the Spanish writers, by contracting the first name, call him, Pedrarias, governor of Castell d'Oro. He was destitute of all the qualities which constitute a good man of great mind ; but haughty and ignorant, he was a master of the arts of oppression, violence and fraud. He left Spain in April, 1514, with a fleet of fifteen ships, two thousand troops, a bishop, John de Quevedo, and numerous greedy and rapacious followers of noble birth ; among others, Enciso, the enemy of Nunez. On their arrival at Santa Maria, they were received by Nunez with great 34 SPANISH DISCOVERIES AND CONQUESTS. respect. They found the latter inhabiting a small house, in simple attire, living on the most frugal diet, and drinking no other liquid than water ; while he had, at the same time, a strong fort with four hundred and fifty brave soldiers faithfully attached to him. That he was ambitious, and did severe things to obtain that power which he was never known to abuse, is admitted. His accounts and state ments were clear, and he had annexed the country, between the Atlantic and the sea which he had discovered, to the crown of Spain. Pedrarias imprisoned this great man, and sent strong representations against him to Spain. There were, however, some honest men among those brought over by Pedrarias, who sent a true account of Nunez to the king; and the latter formally expressed his approbation of the conduct of the late governor, and appointed him lord-lieutenant of the countries of the South Seas; directing also that Pedrarias should act by the advice of his predecessor. On the king's letters arriving from Spain, they were suppressed by Pedrarias ; who, in the mean time, by his perfidy and cruel exactions, brought the whole native population into hostility and revolt against the Spaniards. The Bishop Q,uevedo then interfered, Nunez was liberated, and, by his skill and demeanor, established tranquillity, and proceeded to the South Sea to build a town, which he in a short time accomplished, and was then recalled by Pedra rias. To the astonishment and horror of all the Spaniards, Nunez was charged with treason by Pedrarias, and publicly beheaded, on the charge that he had invaded the domains of the crown, merely by cutting down, without the governor's license, the trees used in erecting the town which he built. His execution was declared a murder by the Royal Audienza of St. Domingo ; yet Pedrarias, whom the Bishop of Chiapa described as the most wicked monster who was ever sent to America, conti nued for many years, by the king's will, to exercise his cruelty and injustice. Thus perished Nunez de Balboa, in 1517, at the age of forty-two years, for having served his king with more fidelity than any of the Spanish conquerors ; of whom, if we may except Cortez, he was the ablest ; and whose character stands far higher than any of those who added new territories to the dominions of Spain. Pedrarias, after the murder of Nunez, removed to Panama, where he erected a palace. In his hostilities and cruelties to the caciques CONQUEST OF NICARAGUA. 35 and the native tribes, he caused great destruction of life ; and so ill- judged and planned were his enterprises, that, in subduing one cacique, Uracca of the mountains, more Spanish lives were lost than during the whole conquest of Mexico by Cortes. The only important conquest made under Pedrarias, was by Francis Hernandez, of the territory of Nicaragua, to which the go vernor immediately repaired to take possession of for himself. Jealous of Hernandez, as he was of Nunez, he charged the former with a design to revolt ; which the latter, confident in his innocence, boldly denied. Pedrarias immediately ordered him to be executed : power was to be upheld by the immediate death, according to the maxim of this tyrant, of conquerors who were suspected. For this murder, equally barbarous as that of Nunez, Pedrarias was not called to account. SHIP OF THE TIME 07 BALBOA. THE LANDING OF OORTB1S. CHAPTER IV. THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO. HE portion of the New World earliest colonized by the Spaniards was the island of St. Domingo, Hayti, or Hispaniola, discovered by Columbus, in his first voyage, in the year 1492. For nearly twenty years, this island was the only colony of importance held by the Spaniards in the New World ; here alone did they occupy lands, build towns, and found a regular commonwealth. Cuba, although the second of the islands discovered by Columbus, remained long uncolonized ; indeed, it was not till the year 1509, that it was circumnavigated *nd ascertained to be an island. At length, as we have already seen, it was conquered and colonized by Velas quez. Ambitious of sharing the glory to be derived from the dis covery of new countries, Velasquez fitted out one or two expe ditions, which he despatched westward, to explore the seas in that direction. In one of these expeditions which set out in 1517, com manded by a rich colonist called Cordova, the peninsula of Yuca tan was discovered, and the existence of a large and rich country 3fi EXPEDITION OF HERNANDO CORTES. 37 called Culua or Mexico ascertained. Elated with this discovery, Velasquez fitted out another expedition under his nephew, Juan de Grijalva, who, leaving Cuba in April, 1518, spent five months in cruising along the newly discovered coast, and trafficking with the natives for gold trinkets and cotton cloths, very skilfully manu factured. The result of this expedition was the importation to Cuba of gold and jewels to the amount of twenty thousand pesos, or up wards of £50,000. Delighted with his success, Velasquez wrote home to Spain an nouncing his discovery, and petitioning for authority from the king to conquer and colonize the country which his subordinates, Cordova and Grijalva, had discovered. Without waiting, however, for a reply to his petition, he commenced fitting out a much larger squad ron thrn either of the two former ; and this he placed under the command of Hernando Cortes, a respectable Spanish hidalgo, or gentleman, residing in the island, and who was at this time thirty years of age. Cortes proceeded with the greatest activity in making his prepa rations. " Borrowing money for the purpose," says Bernal Diaz, the gossiping chronicler of the Conquest, "he caused to be made a standard of gold and velvet, with the royal arms and a cross embroi dered thereon, and a Latin motto, the meaning of which was, ' Bro thers, follow this holy cross with true faith, for under it we shall con quer.' It was proclaimed by beat of drum and sound of trumpet, that all such as entered the service in the present expedition should have their shares of what gold was obtained, and grants of land as soon as the conquest was effected. The proclamation was no sooner made than, by general inclination as well as the private influence of Cortes, volunteers offered themselves everywhere. Nothing was to be seen or spoken of but selling lands to purchase arms and horses, quilting coats of mail, making bread, and salting pork for sea-store. Above three hundred of us assembled in the town of St. Jago." These preparations were likely to be interrupted. Velasquez, rumi nating the probable consequences of the expedition, had begun to repent of having appointed Cortes to the command, and was secretly plotting his removal. Cortes, perceiving these symptoms, deter mined to outwit his patron. Accordingly, on the night of the 18th of November, 1518 — having warned all the captains, masters, pilots, and soldiers, to be on board, and having shipped all the stores that had been collected — Cortes set sail from the port of St. Jago, with 3g THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO. out announcing his intention to Velasquez, resolving to stop at some of the more westerly ports of the island for the purpose of complet ing his preparations, where he would be beyond the reach of the governor. Nothing could exceed the rage of Velasquez at the sud den departure of Cortes. He wrote to the commandants of two towns at which he learned that the fleet had put in for recruits and provi sions, to seize Cortes, and send him back ; but such was the popu larity of Cortes, that both were afraid to make the attempt. At last all was ready, and Cortes finally set sail from Cuba on the 18th of February, 1519. The expedition, which consisted of eleven vessels, most of them small, and without decks, met with no disaster at sea, but arrived safely at the island of Cozumel, off the coast of Vucatan, after a few days' sail. Here Cortes landed to review his troops. They consisted of five hundred and fifty-three soldiers, not including the mariners, who amounted to a hundred and ten. They possessed sixteen horses, some of them not very serviceable, ten brass field-pieces, four smaller pieces, called falconets, and thirty-two cross-bows ; the majority of the soldiers being armed with ordinary steel weapons. Attending on the army were about two hundred Cuba Indians, and some Indian women. And as religion in those days sanctioned military conquest, there were in addition two cler gymen — Juan Diaz and Bartholomew de Olmedo. For nine or ten days, the Spaniards remained at Cozumel, making acquaintance with the natives, who were very friendly. Here Cortes, whose zeal for the Catholic religion was one of the strongest of his feelings, made it one of his first concerns to argue with the natives, through an interpreter, on the point of their religion. He even went so far as to demolish their idols before their eyes, and erect an altar to the Virgin on the spot where they had stood. The natives were horror-struck, and seemed at first ready to fall upon the Spa niards, but at length they acquiesced. While at Cozumel, Cortes had the good fortune to pick up a Spaniard, who, having been wrecked in his passage from Darien to Hispaniola in the year 1511, had for seven years been detained as a slave among the Indians of Yucatan. The name of this poor man was Jeromino de Aguilar ; he had been educated for the church ; and as he could speak the language of Yucatan, his services as an interpreter were likely to be very valuable. On the 4th of March, 1519, the fleet, consisting of eleven vessels, commanded respectively by Cortes, Pedro de Alvarado, Alonzo Puerto Carrero, Francisco de CHARACTER OF HERNANDO CORTES. 39 Montejo, Christoval de Olid, Diego de Ordaz, Velasquez de Leon, Juan de Escalante, Francisco de Morla, Escobar, and Gines Nortes', set sail from Cozumel, and on the 13th it anchored at the mouth of the river Tobasco or Grijalva, flowing into the south of the Bay of Campeachy. The expedition had now reached the scene of active operations ; it had arrived on the coast of the American continent. Cortes does not appear to have been naturally a bloodily disposed man. He was only what a perverted education and the vices of his time had made him — a man full of mighty notions of the Spanish authority ; of its right to take, by foul or fair means, any country it liked ; and not without an excuse from religion to rob and kjll the unfortunate natives who dared to. defend their territories. We have now, therefore, to record the beginning of a most unjust and merciless war of aggression. As Cortes, with his followers, sailed up the river as far as Tabasco, he everywhere observed the natives preparing to repel his attack, and at length he was brought into col lision with them — of course, overpowering them by force of arms, 40 THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO. with immense slaughter. On reaching Tabasco, his soldiers fought their way through dense masses of Indians, who discharged among them perfect clouds of arrows and stones. Pushing through the streets, which were lined with houses, some of mud, and some of stone, the victors reached a large open square in the centre, where temples of large size were erected. Here the troops were drawn up ; and Cortes, advancing to a large ceiba tree, which grew in the middle, gave it three slashes with his sword, and took possession of the city and country in the name of his royal master, Don Carlos, King of Castile. Next day, another great battle was fought between the Spaniards and the Tabascans on the plain of Ceutla, a few miles distant from the city. For an hour, the Spanish fought in the midst of an ocean of enemies, battling on all sides, beating one wave back only that another might advance — a little islet encircled by the savage break ers. At length, with the assistance of their horse — a terrible sight to the Indians — the Spaniards were victorious. The spirit >of the Tabascans was now completely subdued. I HEIR chiefs came to the camp of Cortes with "jgil| faces and gestures expressive of contrition, and brought him presents of fowls, fish, maize, and numerous gold toys representing many kinds of animals in miniature. For the horses, they brought a feast of turkeys and roses ! They also gave Cortes twenty Indian girls to attend the army. To his inquiries respecting the country whence they obtained the gold, they replied by repetitions of the words "Culua" and "Mexico," and pointing to the west. Having obtained all the information the Ta bascans could give him, Cortes resolved to proceed on his voyage. Accordingly, after a solemn mass, which the Indians attended, the armament left Tabasco, and, after a short sail, arrived off the coast of St. Juan de Ulloa, the site of the modern Vera Cruz. It was on Holy Thursday, (April 20,) in the year 1519, that they arrived at the port of St. Juan de Ulloa, the extreme eastern province of the Mexican dominions, properly so called. The royal flag was floating from the mast of Cortes's ship. The Spaniards could see the beach crowded with natives, who had come down to gaze at the strange "water-houses," of which they had formerly seen specimens. At length, a light pirogue filled with natives, some of them evidently DONNA MARINA. 41 men of rank, pushed off from the shore and steered for the ship of Cortes. The Indians went on board without any symptoms of fear, and, what was more striking, with an air of ease and perfect good-breed ing. They spoke a different language from that of the inhabitants of Cozumel or the Tabascans — a language, too, which Aguilar did not understand. Fortunately, one of the twenty Indian girls presented by the Tabascans to the Spaniards, was a Mexican by birth. This girl, whose Spanish name of Donna Marina is imperishably associ ated with the history of the Conquest of Mexico, was the daughter of a chief, but, by a singular course of events, had become a slave in Tabasco. She had already attracted attention by her beauty, sweetness, and gentleness, and she had been mentioned to Cortes. Her services now became valuable. The Mexican was her native language ; but, by her residence in Tabasco, she had acquired the Tabascan, which language was also familiar to Aguilar. Interpret ing, therefore, what the Mexicans said into Tabascan to Aguilar, Aguilar, in turn, interpreted the Tabascan into Spanish ; and thus, though somewhat circuitously, Cortes could hold communication with his visitors. H HE Aztec visitors who came on board the ship of Cortes, informed him that they were in structed by the governor of IF'fSl ^^IJ iBlllPB IflF"'"' t^le Provmce t0 ask what - I ¦f,//!H I J^llrHMgXV, he wanted on their coasts, and to promise that what ever he required should be supplied. Cortes replied that his object was to make the acquaintance of the people of those countries, and that he would do them no injury. He then presented them with some beads of cut glass, and after an entertainment of wine, they took their departure, promising that Teuthlille, the go vernor of the province under their great emperor, should visit him the next day. Next day, Friday, the 21st of April, 1519, Cortes landed with his troops, and had an interview with Teuthlille, who received the visitors with suspicion ; and this feeling was not lessened by the parade of mounted dragoons and firing of guns, with which the Spanish commander thought fit to astonish him and the other na tives. Sketches were taken of the appearance of the strangers, in 42 THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO. :&mm INDIAN HUT IN THE TIERRA OALIENTE. order to be sent to Montezuma, the king of the country, who was likewise to be informed that the white men, who had arrived on his coast, desired to be allowed to come and see him in his capital. Here we pause to present a short account of the Mexican empire, in which Cortes had landed ; also of the character and government of this monarch, Montezuma, whom the Spaniards expected soon to be permitted to visit. If a traveller, landing on that part of the coast of the Mexican gulf where Cortes and his Spaniards landed three hundred and thirty years ago, were to proceed westward, across the Continent, he would pass successively through three regions or climates. First, he would pass through the tierra caliente, or hot region, distinguished by all the features of the tropics — their luxuriant vegetation, their occasional sandy deserts, and their unhealthiness at particular sea sons. After sixty miles of travel through this tierra caliente, he would enter the tierra templada, or temperate region, where the products of the soil are such as belong to the most genial European countries. Ascending through it, the traveller at last leaves wheat- fields beneath him, and plunges into forests of pine, indicating his THE MEXICANS — THEIR ORIGIN AND CIVILIZATION. 43 VOLOANIO MOUNTAINS, AS SEEN PROM TAOUB'ATA. entrance into the tierra fria, or cold region, where the sleety blasts; from the mountains penetrate the very bones. This tierra fria con stitutes the summits of part of the great mountain range of tho Andes, which traverses the whole American continent. Fortu nately, however,, at this point the Andes do not attain their greatest elevation. Instead of rising, as in some other parts of their range, in a huge perpendicular wall or ridge, they here flatten and widen out, so as to constitute a vast plateau* or .table-land, six or seven thousand feet above the level of the sea. On this immense sheet of table-land, stretching for hundreds of miles, the inhabitants, though living within the tropics, enjoy a climate equal to that of the south of Italy ; while their proximity to the extremes both of heat and cold, enables them to procure, without much labour, the luxuries^ many lands. Across the table-land there stretches, from east to west, a chain of volcanic peaks, some of which are of immense height, and covered perpetually with snow. This table-land was called, by the ancient Mexicans, the plain of Anahuac. Near its centre is a valley of an oval form, about 44 THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO. two hundred miles in circumference, surrounded by a rampart of porphyritic rock, and overspread for about a tenth part of its surface by five distinct lakes or sheets of water. This is the celebrated Valley of Mexico— called a valley only by comparison with the mountains which surround it, for it is seven thousand feet above the level of the sea. Round the margins of the five lakes once stood numerous cities, the relics of which are yet visible ; and on an islet in the middle ,$>f the largest lake, stood the great city of Mexico, or Tenochtitlan, the capital of the empire which the Span iards were now invading, and the residence of the Mexican emperor, Montezuma. The origin of the Mexicans is a question of great obscurity — a part of the more extensive question of the manner in which Ame rica was peopled. According to Mr. Prescott, the latest and one of the best authorities on the subject, the plains of Anahuac were over run, previous to the discovery of America, by several successive races from the north-west of the Continent where it approaches Asia. Thus, in the thirteenth century, the great table-land of Central Ame rica was inhabited by a number of races and sub-races, all originally of the same stock, but differing from each other greatly in character and degree of civilization, and engaged in mutual hostilities. The cities of these different races were scattered over the plateau, prin cipally in the neighbourhood of the five lakes. Tezcuco, on the eastern bank of the greatest of the lakes, was the capital of the Acol- huans ; and the Tenochtitlan, or Mexico, founded in 1325, on an island in the same lake, was the capital of the Aztecs. In the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the dominant race in the plains of Anahuac was the Acolhuans, or Tezcucans, repre sented as a people of mild and polished manners, skilled in the ele gant arts, and possessing literary habits and tastes — the Athenians, if we may so call them, of the New World. The most celebrated of the Tezcucan sovereigns was Nezahualcoyotl, who reigned early in the fifteenth century. By this prince a revolution was effected in the political state of the valley of Anahuac. He procured the forrnation of a confederacy between Tezcuco and the two neighbour ing friendly cities of Mexico and Tlacopan, by which they bound themselves severally to assist each other when attacked, and to carry on wars conjointly. In this strange alliance, Tezcuco was the prin cipal member, as being confessedly the most powerful state ; Mexico stood next ; and lastly, Tlacopan, as being inferior to the other two. THE MEXICANS — THEIR ORIGIN AND CIVILIZATION. 45 Nezahualcoyotl died in 1470, and was succeeded on the Tezcucan throne by his son Nezahualpilli. During his reign the Tezcucans fell from their position as the first member of the triple confederacy which his father had formed, arid gave place to the Aztecs or Mexi cans. These Aztecs had been gradually growing in consequence since their first arrival in the valley. Decidedly inferior to the Tez cucans in culture, and professing a much more bloody and impure worship, they excelled them in certain qualities, and possessed, on the whole, a firmer and more compact character. If the Tezcucans were the Greeks, the Aztecs were the Romans of. the New World. Under a series of able princes they had increased in importance, till now, in the reign of Nezahualpilli, they were the rivals of their allies, the Tezcucans, for the sovereignty of Anahuac. In the year 1502, a vacancy occurred in the throne of Tenoch titlan, or Mexico. The election fell on Montezuma II. , the nephew of the deceased monarch, a young man who had already distin guished himself as -a soldier and a priest or sage, and who was noted, as his name — Montezuma (sorrowful man)-=-implied, for a certain gravity and sad severity of manner. The first years of Montezu ma's reign were spent in war. Carrying his victorious arms as far as Nicaragua and Honduras in the south, and to the shores of the Mexican gulf in the east, he extended the sovereignty of the triple confederacy, of which he was1 a member, over an immense extent of territory. Distant provinces he compelled to pay him tribute ; and the wealth of Anahuac flowed from all directions towards the Valley of Mexico. Haughty and severe in his disposition, and magnificent in his tastes, he ruled like an Oriental despot over the provinces which he had conquered ; and the least attempt at rebellion was fearfully punished, captives being dragged in hundreds to the capital to be slaughtered on the stone of human sacrifice in the great war temple.* Nor did Montezuma's own natural-born subjects stand less in dread of him. Wise, liberal, and even generous in his government, his inflexible-' and relentless justice, and his lordly notions of his own dignity, made him an object less of affection than of awe and reverence. In his presence, his. nobles spoke in whis pers ; in his palace he was served with a slavish homage ;- and when he appeared in public, his subjects veiled their faces as un- * Besides the ordinary sacrifice in which the victim's heart was cut out and laid on the altar, there was a gladiatorial sacrifice, where the victim contended with a succession of warriors before being offered up. 46 THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO. GLADIATORIAL SAORIPIOE. worthy to gaze upon his person. The death of Nezahualpilli, in 1516, made him absolute sovereign in Anahuac. On the death of that king, two of his sons, Cacama and Ixtlilxochitl, contended for the throne of Tezcuco. Montezuma sided with Cacama ; and the dispute was at length ended by Compromise between the two bro thers, by which the kingdom was divided into two parts — Cacama obtaining the southern half with the city of Tezcuco, and Ixtlilxochitl the northern half. Thus, at the period of the arrival of the Spaniards, Montezuma was absolute sovereign of nearly the whole of that portion of Cen tral America which lies between the Gulf of Mexico and the Pacific Ocean — the kings of Tezcuco and Tlacopan being nominally his confederates and counsellors, according to the ancient treaty of alli ance between the three states, but in reality his dependents. The spot where Cortes had landed was in one of the maritime provinces of Montezuma's dominion. MEXICAN TRADITION. 47 "T is a singular but well-authenticated fact, that, when the Spaniards landed in America, a general expectation prevailed among the natives of the arrival of a mysterious race of white men from the East, who were to conquer the country. This was es pecially the case in Mexico. There was a tradition among the Mexicans that, some ages before the arrival of the Spaniards, and while yet the Aztec empire was in its infancy, there appeared, in Anahuac a divine personage called Quetzalcoatl. He was a man of benevolent ' aspect, tall in stature, with a white complexion, long dark hair, and a flowing beard ; and he came from the East. He resided in Anahuac for many years, teaching the Mexicans numerous arts and sciences, and reforming their manners; and under his care the country flourished and became happy. At length, some difference arose between him and the Mexicans, and they no longer paid respect to the words of the good Quetzalcoatl. He then announced to them that he was going to depart from their country. Proceeding eastward, delaying a little while at Cholula, a city which ever after was regarded as sacred, he arrived at the sea shore. Embarking on board a little skiff, made of serpents' skins, he pushed out to sea, and, as the Mexicans strained their eyes after him, he disappeared in the distance, going, as it seemed, to the East. Before he departed, however, he delivered a prophecy, that at some future time, people of his race, with white complexions like his, would come from the East- to conquer and possess the country. The tradition of duetzalcoatl's prophecy was rife among the na tives pf Anahuac, when Cortes arrived, and it was with a kind of religious awe that Montezuma and his. people heard of the arrival of the white men in their "water-houses." Cortes and. his men constituted, as we have seen, this body. Teuthlille's messengers, announcing their arrival, had already reached Montezuma ; and he was now deliberating in what manner he should receive the stran gers. In order to learn his decision, let us return to the Spaniards on the sea-coast. The Spaniards, supplied by the natives with plenty of every thing which they required, were waiting the return of the messen gers to Montezuma. After six days, they returned, accompanied by 48 THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO. Teuthlille. They bore with them a splendid present from Monte- zuma to the Spanish emperor. It consisted of loads of finely- wrought cotton, ornamented with featherwork ; and a miscellaneous collection of jewels and articles of gold and silver, richly carved, of which the most attractive were two circular plates, as large as carriage-wheels, one of gold, valued at more than fifty thousand pounds, and intended to represent the sun ; the other of silver, and representing the moon. As they gazed on the kingly present, the Spaniards could scarcely contain their raptures. The message which accompanied it, however, was less satisfactory. Montezuma was happy to near of the existence of his brother, the King of Spain, and wished him to consider him as his friend ; he could not, how ever, come to see the Spaniards, and it was too far for them to come and visit him. He, therefore, hoped they would depart, and carry his respects to his brother, their monarch. To this Cortes, thanking Montezuma for his present, replied, that he could not leave the country without being able to say to his king that he had seen Montezuma with his own eyes ; and the ambassa dors again departed, carrying a sorry present from Cortes to Monte zuma. After another interval of six days they returned, with an other gift, little inferior in value to the former, and informed Cortes that the great Montezuma had received his present with satisfaction, but that, as to the interview', he could not permit any more to be said on the subject. Cortes, though greatly mortified, thanked them politely, and returned to Montezuma a second message to the same effect as the former, but couched in more decided language. The Mexicans withdrew in distrust, and ceased to barter with the Spa niards, or .to bring them supplies. Meanwhile, differences had been springing up among the Spa niards themselves, the partisans of Velasquez insisting that they ought now to return to Cuba, and that it was folly to think of found ing a settlement. Pretending to yield to the clamours of these per sons, Cortes issued orders for embarkation on the following day. Immediately the other party, consisting of the friends of Cortes, flocked to his tent, and implored him not to give up the enterprise which had been so successfully begun. This was precisely what Cortes wished. Accordingly, after some delay, he seemed to yield; and, revoking the order for embarkation, he announced his willing ness to found a settlement in the name of the Spanish sovereign. Forthwith, the new city, although not a stone of it had yet been CORTES INVITED TO CEMPOALLA. 49 raised, and the site had alone been determined on, was named Villa Rica de la Vera Cruz— "The Rich Town of the True Cross." Magistrates were immediately appointed in the king's name ; the two captains, Puerto Carrero and Montejo, the latter a friend of Velasquez, being nominated alcaldes, and others to different offices. "Thus," says Mr. Prescott, "by a single stroke of the pen, the camp was transformed into a civil community." At the first sitting of the new magistracy, Cortes appeared before it, with his cap doffed, and formally resigned his commission from Velasquez into its hands. He then withdrew; but after a short time was recalled, and informed that he had been unanimously ap pointed by them, in the king's name, " Captain-general and Chief Justice of the colony." Thus, by a clever stroke of policy, had Cortes shaken off all connection with Velasquez. He held his com mand now directly from the king, and could be superseded only by royal authority. The friends of Velasquez were at first furious with rage ; but Cortes at length soothed them into acquiescence. A little before the conclusion of these proceedings, an event of some consequence happened. This was the arrival in the Spanish camp of five Indians, differing in dress and language from-the Mexi cans. They informed Cortes that they were a deputation sent by the Cacique of Cempoalla, a city at a little distance on the sea-coast, the capital of the Totonacs, a nation which had been recently con quered by Montezuma, and was now groaning under his yoke. They were sent by their cacique to beg a visit of the Spaniards to Cempoalla. A light instantly flashed upon the mind of Cortes. He saw that Montezuma's empire was not so firmly compacted as he had supposed, and that it might be possible to divide it against itself, and so, overthrow it. He, therefore, dismissed the ambassadors kindly, and promised a speedy visit to Cempoalla. Accordingly, as soon as the disturbance which had arisen among his men was quelled, Cortes marched to Cempoalla, a city not rich, but prettily built, and containing a population, as it appeared, of about thirty thousand inhabitants. He was cordially received by the cacique, a large and very corpulent man. Remaining some time in Cempoalla and its neighbourhood, while the city of Villa Rica was being built, the Spaniards soon gained the reverence and good-will of the inhabitants, the Totonacs, who willingly submitted themselves to the dominion of the distant monarch Don Carlos, of whom the Spaniards told them. Here the Spaniards were horrified by the 7 E 50 THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO. symptoms of human sacrifice, which were perpetually visible in the temples— the blood-stained walls, and the fragments of human flesh which lay about ; and, fired with religious enthusiasm, they resolved to put a stop to such practices by tearing down the idols. Cortes informed the cacique of his intention ; but although the announce ment filled him with speechless dismay, no opposition was offered, and the idols were broken in pieces, and burnt before the eyes of the Totonacs, while the priests went about shrieking like demons. "These priests," we are told, "were dressed in long black mantles, like sheets with hoods: their robes reached to their feet. Their long hair was matted together with clotted blood; with some it reached to the waist, and with others to the feet : their ears were torn and cut, and they smelled horribly, as it were of sulphur and putrid flesh." The destruction of their idols did not alienate the Totonacs from the Spaniards ; on the contrary, it raised their opinion of them, inas much as they saw the gods patient under the indignity. The inter course of the two parties, therefore, continued ; and by his frequent conversations with the cacique, Cortes gained greater insight every day into the condition of Montezuma's empire. By this time, the town of Villa Rica had been nearly finished, and nothing remained to prevent the Spaniards from commencing their march into the interior. Before beginning it, however, Cortes deemed it advisable to send a report of his proceedings to, Spain, to be laid before the king, knowing that Velasquez must have repre sented his conduct in very disadvantageous terms to the home go vernment. Accordingly, Cortes drew up one letter, and the magis trates of the new colony another, detailing the whole of the inci dents of the expedition down to the foundation of Villa Rica, and announcing that they were on the point of commencing their march into the heart of the country. To increase the effect of the letters, they were accompanied by nearly all the gold that had been collected, together with the splendid gifts of Montezuma, and such curiosities as might interest the learned of Spain. The business of carrying these letters to the king was intrusted to Montejo and Puerto Car rero, and they were instructed, above all, to endeavour to secure the appointment of Cortes as captain-general of the colony. On the 26th of July, 1519, the little ship set sail, freighted with a more pre cious cargo than had ever yet been packed within the timbers of a vessel from the New World. The pilot was instructed to make' CORTES DESTROYS HIS SHIPS. 51 MONTEZUMA. direct for Spain, landing at no intermediate station, and especially avoiding Cuba. The departure of this vessel seems to have raised thoughts of home in the minds of some of those who were left behind. A con spiracy was formed by some of the soldiers and sailors, along with the clergyman Diaz, to seize a vessel and return to Cuba. The con spiracy was discovered ; two of the ringleaders were hanged, and the rest whipped or confined. Foreseeing, however, that such con spiracies would be constantly occurring, unless effectual means were taken to prevent them, Cortes came to the resolution, almost unpa- ralleled in the anna|s of heroism, of destroying the ships which had brought him to Mexico. Accordingly, taking counsel with a few of his most attached followers, he procured a report from the pilots that the vessels were not seaworthy, and caused them to be broken in pieces and sunk, before the majority were aware of his design. When the Spaniards thus saw themselves shut up in a strange and populous country, with no means of retreat, their first impulse was one of rage and despair, and Cortes had nearly fallen a sacrifice. As he foresaw, however, the daring act had the effect of bracing his men to a pitch of resolution all but supernatural. Besides, by the destruction of the fleet, he obtained a reinforcement of a hundred and 52 THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO. O O R T E S. ten men — the mariners, formerly employed in the ships, being now converted into soldiers, and very good ones, as it afterwards proved. All being now ready, Cortes, leaving a considerable force as a gar rison to the new settlement of Villa Rica, under the command of Juan de Escalante, set out from the territory of the Totonacs, on hia march inland, pn the 16th of August, 1519. His army consisted of four hundred Spaniards on foot, and fifteen horse, accompanied by thirteen hundred Cempoallan warriors, and a thousand tamanes, or Indian body slaves, furnished by the cacique of Cempoalla, who were to carry the heavy burdens and perform, other laborious offices. Advancing through the tierra caliente, they began to ascend the mountains which separate it from the vast table-land of Anahuac. A few days' march across the tierra templada and the tierra fria, brought the Spaniards to the small mountain provincejof Tlascala, situated about half-way between the sea-coast and the Mexican val ley. The Tlascalans were a brave and high-spirited people, of the same race as the Aztecs. They had refused, however, to submit to the empire of Montezuma, and were the only people in Anahuac who bade defiance to his power, preferring poverty and hardship in their mountain home to the loss of independence. The government of Tlascala was a kind of feudalism. Four lords, or caciques, held their courts in different quarters of the same city, independently of TREATY WITH TLASCALA. 53 each other, and yet mutually allied ; and under these four chieftain*: the Tlascalan population, nobles and commons, were rangedassubjects On the approach of the Spaniards, a consultation was held among the Tlascalan lords and their counsellors, as to how the strangers should be received ; some being inclined to welcome them, in hopes of being able, by their assistance, to cope with Montezuma; others maintaining thatthe Spaniards were enemies and ought to be repulsed by all means. The latter opinion prevailed, and three desperate battles were fought between the Tlascalans, under the command of Xico- tencatl, a brave and able young chief, the son of one of the four caciques, and the Spanish invaders. These engagements were far more serious than the battles which the Spaniards had fought with the Tahascans ; and it required the utmost exertion of Castilian valour, directed by all the ability of Cortes, to gain the victory. But Indian courage against the flower of European chivalry — the maquahuitl, or war-club, dreadful instrument as it was, with its sharp, flinty blades, against muskets and artillery — coatings of war-paint,, or doublets of featherwork, against Spanish mail — were a very unequal contest; and, as usual, the losses of the Spaniards were as nothing compared with the fierceness of the struggle. But how could the little army hope to advance through a country where such battles had to be fought at every step ? If such were their reception by the Tlascalans, what might they not expect from the richer and more powerful Mexicans ? Such were the reflections of the Spanish soldiery. The idea of their ever reaching Mexico, says Bernal Diaz, was treated as a jest by the whole army. Fortunately, when these murmurs were reaching their height,, the Tlascalans submitted, and sent ambassadors to beg the friendship of the Spaniards ; and on the 23d of September, 1519, the Spaniards entered the city of Tlascala, a large and populous town, which Cortes compared to Granada in Spain. Here they were cordially received by the four caciques, and especially by the elder Xicoten- catl ; and in a short time an intimacy sprung up between the Tlas calans and the invaders, and a treaty was concluded, by which the Tlascalans bound themselves to1 assist the Spaniards throughout the rest of their expedition. Here, as well as elsewhere, Cortes showed his zeal for the Catholic faith by endeavouring to convert the na tives ; and it is probable that the same scenes of violence would have taken place at Tlascala as at Cempoalla, had not the judicious father e2 54 THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO. MASSACRE AT CHOLULA. Olmedo interfered to temper the more headlong fanaticism of the general. While in Tlascala, Cortes received various embassies from pro vinces in the neighbourhood anxious to secure his good will. About the same time, an embassy was received from Montezuma himself, entreating Cortes not to place any reliance upon the Tlascalans, whom he represented as treacherous barbarians ; and now inviting him, in cordial terms, to visit his capital, pointing out the route through the city of Cholula as the most convenient. This route was accordingly adopted, and the Spaniards, accompanied by an army of six thousand Tlascalan warriors, advanced by it towards- Mexico. Their approach gave great alarm, and Montezuma set on foot a scheme for their massacre at Cholula, which, however, was dis covered by Cortes, who took a terrible vengeance on the sacred city. Montezuma, overawed, again made overtures of reconciliation, and pro- rnised the Spaniards an immense quantity of gold if they would ad vance no fartKcr. This Cortes refused, and the Spanish army with MARCH INTO THE INTERIOR. 55 the Tlascalan warriors left Cholula and proceeded on their march, met everywhere by deputations from neighbouring towns, many of which were disaffected to the government of Montezuma. The route of the army lay between two gigantic volcanic mountains, and the march, for a day or two, was toilsome and bitterly cold. At last, "turning an angle of the sierra, they suddenly came on a view which more than compensated their toils.. It was that of the Valley of Mexico ; which, with its picturesque assemblage of water, woodland, and cul tivated plains, its shining cities and shadowy hills, was spread out like some gay and gorgeous panorama before them. Stretching far away at their feet were seen noble forests of oak, sycamore, and cedar ; beyond, yellow fields of maize, and the towering maguey, intermingled with orchards and blooming gardens. In the centre of the great basin were beheld the lakes, their borders thickly stud ded with towns and hamlets ; and in the midst, like some Indian empress with her coronal of pearls, the fair city of Mexico, with her white towers and pyramidal temples, reposing, as it were, on the bosom of the waters — the far-famed 'Venice of the Aztecs.' "* Descending into the valley, the Spaniards halted at Ajotzinco, a town on the banks of the southernmost of the five lakes. Mean while, Montezuma was in an agony of indecision. When intelligence reached him that the Spaniards had actually descended into the val ley, he saw that he must either face the strangers in the field of battle, or admit them into his capital. His brother, Cuitlahua, ad vised the former ; but his nephew, Cacama, the young lord of Tez cuco, was of the contrary opinion, and Montezuma, at length, sent him to meet the Spaniards, and welcome them to his dominions. Cacama accordingly set out in state, and arrived at Ajotzinco just as the Spaniards were about to leave it. When he came into the presence of Cortes, he said to him, " Malintzin, here am I and these lords come to attend you to your residence in our city, by order of the great Montezuma." Cortes embraced the prince, and presented him with some jewels. After a little while, Cacama took his leave, and the Spaniards resumed their march. Travelling along the ^southern and western banks of Lake Chalco, they crossed the causeway which divides it from Lake Xochichalco, and advanced along the margin of the latter to the royal city of Iztapalapan, situ ated on the banks of the great Tezcucan Lake over against Mexico. * Prescott's Conquest of Mexico, vol. ii. p. 47. 56 THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO. To the eyes of the Spaniards, all that they saw in their journey seemed fairy-land. It was on the 7th of November, 1519, that the Spaniards arrived at Iztapalapan ; and here they spent the night, lodged in magnifi cent palaces built of stone, and the timber of which was cedar. From this position, the eye could sweep over the whole expanse of the Tezcucan Lake. Canoes of all sizes might be seen skimming along its surface, either near the middle or close to the banks, where the thick woods came down to the water's edge. Here also, moving slowly along the margin of the lake, might be seen a still stranger sight — the chinampas, or floating-gardens — little islands consisting of earth laid on rafts, planted with flowers, shrubs, and fruit-trees, containing a small hut or cottage in the centre, occupied by the pro prietor, who, by means of a long pole, which he pushed against the bottom, could shift his little domain from place to place. But what fixed the eyes of the Spaniards above all else was the glittering spec tacle which rose from the centre of the lake — the queenly city of Mexico, the goal of their hopes and wishes for many months past. In a few hours they would be within its precincts — a few hundred men shut up in the very heart of the great Mexican empire ! What might be their fate there ! The islet on which Mexico was built was connected with the mainland by three distinct causeways of stone, constructed with in credible labour and skill across the lake, and intersected at intervals by drawbridges, through which canoes might pass and repass with ease. The causeway by which the Spaniards must pass, connected the island with the southern bank of the lake, about half-way across, to which it branched off into two lines, one leading to the city of Cojohuacan, the other meeting the mainland at a point not far from Iztapalapan, where the Spaniards were quartered. This causeway was about eight yards wide, and capable of accommodating ten or twelve horsemen riding abreast. It was divided, as before-mentioned, by several drawbridges ; a circumstance which the Spaniards ob served with no small alarm, for they saw that, by means of these drawbridges, their communication with the mainland could be com* pletely cut off by the Mexicans. On the morning of the 8th of November, 1519, the army left Iztapalapan, and advanced along the causeway towards the capital. First went Cortes with his small body of horse ; next came the Spanish foot, amounting to not more than four hundred men ; after ENTRY INTO MEXICO. 5T OORTES MAROHINO INTO MEXICO. them came the Indian tamanes, carrying the baggage ; and last of all came the Tlascalan warriors, to the number of about five thousand. As they moved along the causeway, the inhabitants of the city crowded in myriads to gaze at them, some finding standing-room on the causeway itself, others skimming along the lake in canoes, and clambering up the sides of the causeway. A little more than half way across, and at a distance of a mile and a half from the city, the branch of the causeway on which the Spaniards were marching, was joined by the other branch ; and here the causeway widened for a small space, and a fort or gateway was erected, called Fort of Xoloc. On arriving at the gateway, the army was met by a long procession of Aztec nobles, richly clad, who came to announce the approach of the emperor himself to welcome the Spaniards to his capital. Accordingly, when the remainder of the causeway had been almost traversed, and the van of the army was near the thresh old of the city, a train was seen advancing along the great avenue. "Amidst a crowd of Indian nobles, preceded by three officers of state bearing golden wands, the Spaniards saw the royal palan quin of Montezuma, blazing with burnished gold. It was borne on the shoulders of nobles, and over it a canopy of gaudy featherwork, powdered with jewels, and fringed with silver, and was supported 58 THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO. by four attendants of the same rank. They were barefooted, and walked with a slow, measured pace, and with eyes bent on the ground, When the train had come within a convenient distance it halted ; and Montezuma, descending from his litter, came forward, leaning on the^ arms of the lords of Tezcuco and Iztapalapan— the one his nephew, the other his brother. As the monarch advanced under the canopy, the obsequious attendants strewed the ground with cotton tapestry, that his imperial feet might not be contami nated by the rude soil. His subjects, of high and low degree, who lined the sides of the causeway, bent fprward with their eyes fast ened on the ground as he passed, and some of the humbler class prostrated themselves before him."* Cortes and the Mexican emperor now stood before each other. When Cortes was told that the great Montezuma approached, he dismounted from his horse, and advanced towards him with much respect. Montezuma bade him welcome, and Cortes replied with a suitable compliment. After some ceremonies, and the exchange of presents, Montezuma and his courtiers withdrew, the Spaniards fol lowing. Advancing into the city, wondering at all they saw — the long streets, the houses which, in the line along which they passed, belonged mostly to the noble and wealthy Mexicans, built of red stone, and surmounted with parapets or battlements ; the canals which here and there intersected the streets, crossed by bridges; and the large open squares which occurred at intervals — the Spa niards were conducted to their quarters, situated in an immense square in the centre of the city, adjoining the temple of the great Mexican war-god. Montezuma was waiting to receive them ; and the Spaniards were surprised and delighted with the princely gene rosity with which he supplied their wants. Next day, Cortes paid a visit to Montezuma in his palace, attended by some of his principal officers. In the conversation which ensued, Cortes broached the topic of religion, and informed Montezuma " that we were all brothers, the children of Adam and Eve, and that as such, our emperor, lamenting the loss of souls in such numbers as those which were brought by the Mexican idols into everlasting flames, had sent us to apply a remedy thereto by putting an end to the worship of these false gods." These remarks seemed to dis please Montezuma, who, however, made a polite reply. * Prescott's Conquest of Mexico, vol. ii. p. 67. CORTES IN MEXICO. 59 AY after day, the intercourse between Cortes and Montezuma was renewed ; the Spanish soldiers also became gra dually familiar with the Mexicans After describing Montezuma's house hold, including a great aviary or col lection of birds, and a menagerie, the chronicler Bernal Diaz gives us an account of Cortes's first tour through the city, accompanied by Montezuma. They first visited the great bazaar, or market, held in the western part of the city. "When we arrived there, we were astonished at the crowds of people, and the regular ity which prevailed, as well as at the vast quantities of merchandise which those who attended us were assiduous in pointing out. Each kind had its particular place of sale, which was distinguished by a sign. The articles consisted of gold, silver, jewels, feathers, man tles, chocolate, skins dressed and undressed, sandals and other ma nufactures of the roots and fibres of nequen, and great numbers of male and female slaves, some of whom were fastened by the neck in collars to long poles. The meat market was stocked with fowls, game, and dogs. Vegetables, fruits, articles of food ready dressed, salt, bread, honey, and sweet pastry made in various ways, were also sold here. Other places in the square were appropriated to the sale of earthenware, wooden household furniture, such as tables and benches, firewood, paper, sweet canes filled with tobacco mixed with liquid amber, copper axes and working-tools, and wooden vessels highly painted. Numbers of women sold fish, and little loaves made of a certain mud which they find in the lake, and which resembles cheese. The makers of stone-blades were busily employed shaping them out of the rough material ; and the merchants who dealt in gold had the metal in grains as it came from the mines, in transpa rent tubes, so that they could be reckoned ; and the gold was valued at so many mantles, or so many xiquipils of cocoa, according to the size of the quills. The entire square was enclosed in piazzas, under which great quantities of grain were stored, and where were also shops for various kinds of goods. Courts of justice, where three judges sat to settle disputes which might arise in the market, occu pied a part of the square, their under-officers, or policemen, being in the market inspecting the merchandise." 60 THE CONQUEST OP MEXICO. THE GREAT TEMPLE OP- MEIIOO. Proceeding from the market-place through various parts of the city, the Spaniards came to the great teocalli, or temple, in the neighbourhood of their own quarters. It was a huge pyramidal structure, consisting of five stories, narrowing above each other like the tubes of an extended spy-glass,, (only square, in shape,) so as to leave a clear pathway round the margin of each story; The ascent was by means, of a stone stair, of a hundred and fourteen steps. Arrived at the summit, Cortes and his companions found it to be a large flat area, laid with stone ; at one end of which they shuddered as they saw a block of jasper, which they were told was the stone on which the human victims were laid when the priests tore out their hearts to offer to their idols : at the other end was a tower of three stories, in which were the images of the two great Mexican deities Huitzilopochtli and Tezcatlipoca, and a variety of articles per- . THE TEMPLE OF MEXICO. 61 taining to their worship. "From the top of the temple," says Ber nal Diaz, "we had a clear prospect of the three causeways by which Mexico, communicated with the land, and we could now perceive that in this great city, and all the others of the neighbourhood which were built in the water, the houses stood separate from each other, communicating only by small drawbridges and by boats, and that they were built with terraced tops. The noise and bustle of the market-place below us could be heard almost a league off; and those who had been at Rome and Constantinople, said that, for conveni ence, regularity and population, they had never seen the like." At the request of Cortes, Montezuma, though with apparent reluctance, led the Spaniards into the sanctuary or tower where the gods were. " Here," says Diaz, " were two altars, highly adorned with richly- wrought timbers on the roof, and over the altars gigantic figures resembling very fat men. The one on the right was their war-god, with a great face and terrible eyes. This figure was entirely covered with gold and jewels, and his body bound with golden serpents ; in his right hand he held a bow, and in his left a bundle of arrows. Before the idol was a pan of incense, with three hearts of human victims, which were burning, mixed with copal. The whole of that apartment, both walls and floor, was stained with human blood in such quantity as to cause a very offensive smell. On the left was the other great figure, with a countenance like a bear, and great shining eyes of the polished substance whereof their mirrors are made. The body of this idol was also covered with jewels. An offering lay before him of five human hearts. In this place was a drum of most enormous size, the head of which was made of the skins of large serpents : this instrument, when struck, resounded with a noise that could be heard to the distance of two leagues, and so doleful that it deserved to be named the music of the infernal regions." This state of things could not last. Cortes, of course, had no intention of leaving Mexico, now that he had made good his quarters in it ; but as it was not to be expected that Montezuma and his sub jects would continue their friendly intercourse with him if they sup posed that he purposed to remain, he saw the necessity of taking some decided step to secure himself and his men against any out break which might occur. The step which he resolved upon in his own mind was the seizure of Montezuma. By having him in their power, he would be able, he imagined, to maintain a control over F 62 THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO. the whole population of the city — amounting, it was believed, to nearly three hundred thousand. Nor was a pretext wanting to give an appearance of justice to the daring act which they contem plated. Cortes had just .received intelligence that ahattle had been fought between the garrison which he had left at Villa Rica, and a body of Mexicans under the command of the Mexican governor of a province adjacent to the Spanish settlement. Although Cortes cared little for this occurrence, he resolved to avail himself of it for his purpose ; so, after a night spent in prayer for the blessing of God on what he was about to do, he proceeded with five of his offi cers and the two interpreters, Donna Marina and Aguilar, to Monte zuma's palace. The monarch, as usual, received him kindly ; but when Cortes, after upbraiding him with being the cause of the attack on the Spanish garrison at Villa Rica, as well as with the attempt made by the Cholulans to arrest his own progress towards Mexico, informed him- that he had come to take him prisoner, he could no longer contain himself, but gave full vent to his rage and astonish ment. But the rage of an Indian prince was impotent against the stern resolution of the European general ; and as the helpless mon arch gazed on the unyielding countenances of his visitors, whose fingers were playing with the hilts of their swords, his anger changed into terror : he was seized with a fit of trembling, and the tears gushed into his eyes. Without any resistance, he was re moved in his royal litter to the Spanish quarters, giving it out to his nobles and subjects that he went voluntarily, on a visit to Cortes, and desiring them to remain quiet. Another degradation awaited the unhappy monarch. He was obliged to surrender the governor and three other chiefs, who had led the attack on the garrison of Villa Rica ; and these were burned ahve by the orders of Cortes, in front of Montezuma's palace, the emperor himself being kept in irons while the execution was going on. All this took place within ten days of the arrival-of the Spaniards in Mexico ; and, for three or four months, Montezuma continued a prisoner in the Spanish quarters. Here he was attended with the most profound respect, Cortes himself never approaching him with out taking off his cap, and punishing severely every attempt, on the part of any of his soldiers, to insult the royal captive. Such instances, however, were very rare ; for the kindly demeanor of Montezuma, his gentleness under his misfortunes, and, above all, his MEXICO CEDED TO THE SPANIARDS. 63 ofjpM, CORTES ORDERING MONTEZUMA TO BE CHAINED. liberality to those about him, won the hearts of the Spaniards, and made him a general favourite. Nor did Montezuma make any at tempt to regain his liberty. Attended by his officers as usual, he received deputations and transacted business ; amused himself by various Mexican games, and appeared to delight in the society of some of the Spaniards, for whom he had contracted a particular par tiality. The Spanish general was now absolute in Anahuac ; Montezuma acted under his instructions ; and officers were sent out in different directions to survey the country, and ascertain the situation and extent of the gold and silver mines, as if all belonged to the King of Spain. Nor was the formal cession of the kingdom by Montezuma long delayed. Assembling all his nobles at the instigation of Cortes, the Indian monarch addressed them, desiring them to concur with him in surrendering their empire to the Spaniards, who were to come from the rising sun. " ' For eighteen years,' he said, ' that 1 have reigned, I have been a kind monarch to you, and you have been faithful subjects to me ; indulge me, then, with this last act of obedience.' The princes, with many sighs and tears, promised Montezuma, who was still more affected, that they would do what ever he desired. He then sent a message to Cortes, telling him that, on the ensuing day, he and his princes would tender their alle giance to his majesty, the emperor. This they accordingly did at the time appointed, in the presence of ail the Spanish officers and many 64 THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO. of the soldiers, not one of whom could refrain from weeping on be holding the agitation and distress of the great and generous Monte zuma." Montezuma accompanied the surrender of his kingdom with the gift of an immense treasure, which he had concealed in an apart ment within their quarters, desiring it to be sent to Spain, as tribute- money to King Charles from his vassal Montezuma. The sight of this treasure roused the avaricious passions of the Spanish soldiers, and they clamoured for a division of the wealth which had been col lected since their entrance into Mexico. Cortes was obliged to yield to their demand. The whole wealth amassed during their residence in Mexico amounted, according to ' Mr. Prescott's calculation," to about one million four hundred thousand pounds sterling, including not only the gold cast into ingots, but also the various articles of jewelry, which were of too fine workmanship to be melted down. The mode of division was this : — First, his majesty's fifth was set aside ; next, a fifth of the remainder was set aside for Cortes ; after that, all the debts of the expedition were to be discharged, including the amount vested in the expedition by Velasquez, the payment of agents in Spain, &c. ; then the losses incurred in the expedition were to be made good, including the expense of the ships sunk off Villa Rica, the price of the horses killed, &c. ; and lastly, certain individuals in the army, as the clergymen and the captains, were to receive larger allowances than the rest. " By the time all these drafts were made," says Bernal Diaz, "what remained for each sol dier was hardly worth stooping for;" in other words, instead of amounting to ten or fifteen thousand dollars, as they had expected, each soldier's share came only to about fifteen hundred dollars. Many refused to take their shares, complaining of injustice in the division, and it required all the skill and management of Cortes to soothe the spirits of the discontented. Not a few, it appeared in the end, were no richer for all the prize-money they had obtained than when they left Cuba ; for, as Bernal Diaz tells us, " deep gaming went on day and night with cards made out of the heads of drums." Only one source of discomfort now remained to Cortes. This was the continuance of the idolatrous worship of the Mexicans. This subject occupied his thoughts incessantly; and he could not per suade himself that his efforts would be meritorious in the eyes of God, or even that he could hope for permanent success, until the false gods of the Mexicans had been shattered in pieces, and their EXPEDITION OF NARVAEZ. 65 temples converted into Christian sanctuaries. Not only as a devout Catholic did he abominate the existence of a false worship in a country over which he had control, but, as a man, as a native of a civilized country, he shrunk in abhorrence from the 'bloody and sick ening rites which formed part of the religion of -the Mexicans — their human sacrifices — accompanied, strangely enough, among a people so polished and so advanced in ingenious arts, by the practice of cannibalism. At length Cortes announced to Montezuma that he must allow at least a part of the great temple to be converted into a Christian place pf worship.. Monte'zuma had been a priest, and the proposal was, perhaps,4he most shocking that could have been made to him. He gave his consent, hojyever, and one of the sanctuaries on the top of the temple was purified, and an altar and a crucifix erected in it. This last act filled up the measure of Mexican endurance. To see their monarch a prisoner, tp surrender their kingdom and its treasures — these they could submit to; but could they sit tamely under an insult offered to their gods.? Hither and thither, through, the city, ran the priests, with- haggard faces and hair clotted with blood, stirring up the zeal of the inhabitants, and denouncing woes unless the Spaniards were expelled. The crisis was imminent, and every possible precaution was used to prevent a sudden surprise by the excited Mexicans. It was now the month of May, 1520, and the Spaniards had been six months in the Mexican capital. Suddenly the little army was thrown into consternation by intelligence of an unexpected kind received by Cortes. It will be remembered that, before advancing into the interior of the country, Cortes had despatched a vessel to Spain with letters to the emperor, Charles V., and a quantity of treasure. Contrary tp the instructions of Cortes, the vessel touched at Cuba, on its voyage ; and a sailor escaping conveyed to Velasquez an account of all that had taken place in the expedition, down to the foundation of Villa Rica. The rage of Velasquez exceeded all bounds. He wrote let ters to the home government, and also to the court for colonial affairs established in Hispaniola ; and, npt content with this, he instantly began to fit out a second expedition, which was to proceed to Mex ico, depose or decapitate Cortes, and seize the country for the Span ish sovereign in the name of the governor of Cuba. The fleet was larger, with one exception, than any yet fitted out for the navigation. 9 F2 THE CONQUEST? OF MEXICO. EXPEDITION OF NARVAEZ. of the seas of the New World. It consisted of nineteen vessels, carrying upwards of a thousand foot-soldiers, twenty cannons, eighty horsemen, a hundred and sixty musketeers and crossbow-men, be sides a thousand Indian servants — a force sufficient, as it seemed, to render all resistance on the part of Cortes hopeless. Velasquez, at first, intended to command the expedition in person ; but, as he was too old and too unwieldy for such a laborious task, he intrusted it to Don Pamfilo de Narvaez, described as a man " about forty-two years of age, of tall stature, and large limbs, a full face, red beard, and agreeable presence ; very sonorous and lofty in his speech, as if the sound came out of a vault ; a good horseman, and said to be valiant." The fleet anchored off the coast of Mexico, at San Juan de Ulloa, on the 23d of April, 1520. Here Narvaez received information which astonished him — that Cortes was master of the Mexican capi tal ; that the Mexican emperor was his prisoner ; that the country and its treasures had been surrendered to the Spanish sovereign ; and that at present his rival was as absolute in it as if he were ita DEFEAT OF NARVAEZ. 67 monarch. This information only increased his anxiety to come to a collision with^ Cortes ; and, with singular imprudence, he went about among the Indians, declaring, in a blustering manner, that Cortes was a rebel against his sovereign, and that he had come to chastise him, and to set Montezuma free. Narvaez's first step was to send three messengers, one of them a priest, to the garrison of Villa Rica, to summon them to surrender. The commandant of the garrison, appointed- shortly after the death of Juan de Escalante, was Gonsalvo de Sandoval, a young officer, a native pf the same town as Cortes, and who had already won the esteem of his general and of the whole army by his valour and ser vices. When the messengers of Narvaez, arriving at Villa Rica, presented a copjr of Narvaez's commission, and summoned the gar rison to surrender, Sandoval,, without any ceremony, caused them to be seized, strapped to the backs of Indian porters, and instantly sent across the country to Mexico, in charge of one or two soldiers, who carried a note to Cortes, informing him of what had happened. Cortes, after thoroughly gaining them over by kind words and pre^ sents, sent them back to sow the seeds of dissension in Narvaez's army. At the same time, he entered into a correspondence with Narvaez, which led to no definite result. As there was great dan ger that Narvaez would succeed in alienating the Cempoallans from Cortes, if he were to remain in his present position, Cortes resolved to leave Mexico with a part of his men, march to the sea-coast; and, if necessary, give battle to Narvaez. This was a perilous step ; but, in the circumstances, it was absolutely necessary. Leaving a garrison of a hundred and forty men in Mexico, undei the command of Pedro de Alvarado, who appeared by far the fittest person for so responsible a post, Cortes set out with the rest of his force, amounting to less than two hundred soldiers, only five of whom were cavalry, and, by rapid marches reached the Totonac territories, where he was reinforced h.y Sandoval and his small body of men. Altogether, Cortes's army did not amount to more than a fifth part of that of Narvaez. They were veterans in service, how ever, and, under such a leader as Cortes, were prepared to attempt impossibilities. Narvaez, in the mean time, was in close quarters at Cempoalla, aware that his rival was on his march, but little suspect ing that he was so near. On the night of the -26th of May, 1520, Cortes and his brave little band, crossing, with difficulty, a swollen river which lay between them and their countrymen, advanced 68 THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO. DEFEAT OF NARVAEZ. stealthily towards Narvaez's quarters, surprised the sentinels, and shouting the watchword, "Espirito Santo!" dashed in among the half-awakened, half-armed foe. The struggle did not last long ; for Sandoval, with a small body of picked men, springing up the stairs of the house where Narvaez was lodged, succeeded, after a hand-to- hand' fight with the general and his followers, in makipg him pri soner, after he had lost an eye and been otherwise severely wounded. On learning the fall of their leader, the rest yielded ; and when daylight came, Cortes, "seated in an arm-chair, with a mantle of an orange colour thrown over his shoulders, and surrounded by his officers and soldiers," received the salutations and the oaths of alle giance of all the followers of Narvaez. In his treatment of these new friends, his usual policy was conspicuous : he plied them with flatteries,- and loaded them with gifts, till his own veterans began to be envious. Thus, by a single bold stroke, which cost him but a MEXICAN REVOLT. 6» I few men, Cortes had crushed a formidable enemy,, and increased his own force sixfold. Fortune favours the brave ! His army now amounted to thirteen hundred men, exclusive of the garrison he had left in Mexico ; and of these thirteen hundred nearly a hundred were cavalry. With such a force,' he might now prosecuto his designs in Mexico with every prospect of success, and bid defiance to all the efforts of the Mexicans to regain their independence. He was disagreeably roused from these self-congratulations by intelligence from Mexico. Some difference had occurred between Pedro de Alvarado and the Mexicans, the latter of which had risen en masse, and were besieging the Spaniards in their quarters. Without loss of time, he commenced his march towards the capital, leaving a hundred men at Villa Rica. At Tlascala he was joined by two thousand of his faithful mountain allies ; and the whole army then pushed on for the Mexican valley, anxious to relieve Alvarado, whom the Mexicans were now trying to reduce by blockade. On the 24th of June, they reached the great lake, and marched along the causeway without opposition, but ' amidst an ominous stillness. Alvarado clasped his general in his arms for joy ; and now, for the first time, Cortes learned the origin of the revolt. Alvarado, sus pecting some conspiracy among the Aztec nobles, had treacherously massacred a number of them collected at a religious festival, and the in habitants had risen to take vengeance for the injury. Cortes sharply rebuked his officer for his misconduct ; but the evil was already done, ahd to punish Alvarado would have been attended with no good effect. Moodily and bitterly, therefore, Cortes expended his vexation on the unhappy Mexican monarch, accusing him of being concerned in the insurrection, and calling upon him to check it, and procure provisions for the Spaniards. Montezuma complied as far as lay in his power : Cortes also used his best endeavours to allay the storm ; and, for a while, it appeared as if their efforts were suc cessful. The calm was only temporary. The day after the arrival of Cor tes, a soldier, who had been sent on an errand by him, returned breathless and bloody to the Spanish quarters. He had been fallen upon by a, multitude of Mexicans, who endeavoured to drag him away in their canoes for sacrifice, and he had only escaped after a desperate struggle. The whole city, he said, was in arms ; the drawbridges were, broken down ; and they would soon attack the Spaniards in their stronghold. 70 THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO. The news was too true. The Aztecs poured along the streets like a flood, approaching the square where the Spaniards were lodged, while the terraced roofs of all the houses in the vicinity were crowded with slingers and archers, ready to shower their mis siles upon the besieged. And now commenced a struggle which lasted seven days, and -to which there is no parallel in history. Day after day, the fighting was renewed, the Spaniards either making a sally upon the besiegers, or beating them back when they advanced to storm or set fire to their quarters. The only relaxation was at njght, when the Mexicans generally drew off. The Spaniards were always victorious ; but their losses were considerable in every ac tion, and the perseverance of the Mexicans alarmed them. Instead of yielding to their first defeats, they seemed to act on the conviction that they must be defeated continually until the Spaniards were all slain. This resolution astonished Cortes, who, till now, had under valued the courage of the Aztecs. His soldiers, especially those who had come into the country with Narvaez, heaped reproaches upon him; although, when they saw his conduct in the fray — the bravery with which he spurred his horse into the thickest of the enemy, the generosity with which he would risk his own life to res cue a comrade from the hands of a crowd of Aztecs — their re proaches were lost in admiration. Wearied out by his incessant efforts, and perceiving the hopeless ness of continuing a contest against so many myriads of enemies — for recruits were flocking in from the neighbouring country to assist the Mexicans against the common foe — Cortes resolved to try the effect of negotiation, and to employ Montezuma as his intercessor. At his request, therefore, Montezuma, dressed in his imperial robes, appeared on i terraced roof, where he was visible to the multitude gathered in the great square. A silence ensued, and Montezuma was parleying with four nobles who approached him, when suddenly a shower of stones and arrows fell on the spot where he was stand ing. The Spanish soldiers tried to interpose their bucklers ; but it was too late ; Montezuma fell to the ground, his head bleeding from the effect of a blow with a stone.. He was immediately removed, and every means used for his recovery; nor was the woupd of itself dangerous. But his kingly spirit had received a wound which no words could heal ; he had been reviled and struck by his own sub jects, among whom hitherto he had walked as a sacred being : he refused to live any longer. He tore the bandages from his head, DEATH OF MONTEZUMA. 71 and rejected all nourishment ;' and in a short time the Spaniards were informed that their unhappy prisoner was dead. Cortes and many of the men could not refrain from weeping ; and the body was surrendered to the Mexicans with every testimony of respect. The fighting was now- recommenced with greater fury, and pro digies of valour were, performed by the Spaniards ; but all to no purpose. Another attempt was made to induce the enemy to come to terms. The only answer was the threat that they would all be sacrificed to the gods, and the appalling information, "You cannot escape ; the bridges are broken down." At last, as death was before their eyes, it was determined by Cortes, and all the officers and soldiers, to quit the city during the night, as they hoped at that time to find the enemy less alert. Towards midnight, on the 1st of July, 1520, they left their quar ters secretly, mcst of the soldiers- loading themselves with the gold which remained over and above the royal share, and proceeded as silently as possible towards the western causeway, leading to Tlaco pan, by which, as being the shortest of the three, (two miles long,) they thought that it would be easiest to effect a passage. In this causeway, there were three drawbridges separated by intervals nearly equal ; and aware that these had been destroyed by the Mexi cans, Cortes had provided a portable bridge, made of timber, the carriage of which he had intrusted to forty picked soldiers. The van of the army was led by Sandoval, with two hundred foot and a body of horse under his command ; the baggage, large guns, and prisoners came next, guarded by Cortes and a band of veterans ; and the rear was brought up by Pedro de Alvarado and Velasquez de Leon, commanding the strength of the infantry. The night was dark and rainy. The Spaniards reached the causeway without being interrupted. The portable bridge was laid across the first moat or gap, and a great part of the army had gone over it in safety, and were already approaching the second gap, when, through the stillness of the night, there was heard the boom of the great drum from. the top of the Mexican war temple, the rushing of myriads of pursuers along the causeway from behind, and the splashing of the oars, of thousands of canoes full of war riors, which were advancing through the lake on both sides of the causeway. Showers of arrows fell on the rear-guard as they were passing over the portable bridge ; and the Aztecs, clambering up the sides of the causeway, grappled with the soldiers and tried to 72 THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO. drag them into the water. Throwing, off these assailants by main strength, Alvarado and his men steadily and expeditiously moved on. ' Meanwhile, the vanguard under Sandoval having reached the second gap, were waiting until the portable bridge should be brought up to enable them to cross it. Goaded with the arrows which were discharged upon them in clouds from theV*.ztec, canoes, they grew impatient of the delay, and began to cast anxious glances backward along the causeway for the appearance of the bridge.. Suddenly the appalling news was passed along that the bridge had stuck so fast at the first opening that it could not be pulled up. The weight of the men and the heavy baggage crossing it had fastened it into the earth so firmly as to defy extrica tion. When this awful intelligence reached the vanguard, order and com mand were at an end ; uproar and con fusion ensued ; and, seized with the instinct of self-preservation, each man tried to shift for himself. Flinging themselves headlong into the gap, they struggled with the Mexican warriors in the water, upsetting their canoes in their drowning agonies. Rank after rank followed, each trampling upon the bodies of. its predecessors, and .floun dering among the canoes which lay between them and the opposite side. Sandoval and a few of the cavalry swam their horses across ; some of the foot also were able to reach the side of the causeway and climb up ; but of the vanguard the great majority were drowned, or slain, or carried off wounded in the Mexican canoes. Meanwhile, on came the rest of the army ; men, carriages, guns, baggage, all were swept into the trench, which was soon choked up by the wreck. Over this bridge of broken wagons, bales of cotton, and the dead bodies of their companions and ene mies, Cortes and his veterans were able to reach the other side of the trench with less difficulty. Here, joining Sandoval and the few survivors of his band, they dashed along the causeway towards the third and last opening, regardless of the darts and arrows which the Mexicans discharged among them from their canoes. Reaching the third trench, they crossed it in the same manner as the last, but SANDOVAL. ALVARADO'S LEAP. 73 without so much loss, and were rapidly approaching the mainland, when, looking back through the dim morning twilight, they saw Alvarado and his rearguard pent up on the causeway between the second and third bridges, and almost overborne by the Mexicans who surrounded them. Cortes, Sandoval, and a few of the horse instantly wheeled round to the rescue ; and, recrossing the third gap, shouted their battle-cry and interposed between the Spaniards and their pursuers. This timely succour enabled mPst of the infantry to escape ; and at length all had crossed the opening except Cortes, Sandoval, Alvarado, and a few others. Cortes, Sandoval, and the rest soon followed, carried through by their horses; and only one man remained on the Mexican extremity of the causeway. It was Pedro de Alvarado : his horse was slain ; and he was .standing on the brink, surrounded by enemies ready to drag him off, should he plunge into the trench. Five or six warriors were already advanc ing from behindto seize him, when, casting one glance at the oppo site edge where his countrymen were waiting him, he planted the end of his long lance among the rubbish which choked up the gap, and,- rising in the air, cleare^ it at a bound. The spot' where this tremendous feat was executed still bears the name of Mvarado's Leap. The Mexicans now desisted from the pursuit; and the relics of the Spanish army, advancing along the remainder of the causeway, entered Tlacopan. Here they did not remain long, being anxipus to place themselves beyond the reach of the Mexicans, and to arrive at Tlascala, the city of their faithful allies. They were now able to count the losses which they had sustained during the night- About four hundred and fifty Spaniards, and nearly four thousand Tlas calans, had been drowned, slain, or made prisoners during the pas sage along the causeway ; a loss which, added to the numbers killed, within the city, reduced the army to little more than a fourth of what it had- been when it entered Mexico ten days before. But the most deplorable part of the calamity, in the eyes of Cortes, was the loss of all the artillery, firearms, and ammunition, not so much as a musket remaining among the five hundred who survived. Still, under this accumulation of misfortunes, his heart did not sink ; and his resolution was taken not to leave the country till he had re gained his former footing in it, and annexed it as a province to the dominions of his sovereign. His first object was to reach Tlascala, where he might recruit the 10 g THE CONQUEST OF MEXICO. 7 iX' -^rg— ^ HUS was the ancient and beautiful city of M^^^^^^^|\ Mexico destroyed, and its inhabitants slain or dispersed. A monstrous act of unjustifiable aggression had been completed. Following up this great blow, Cortes pursued the con quest of the country generally ; and in this, as well as in organizing it into a colony of Spain, he did not experience- any serious difficulty. On proceeding to Spain, he was received with honour by Charles V. He returned to Mexico in 1530; and again revisit ing Spain in 1540, for the purpose of procuring the redress of real or alleged grievances, he died in 1547, in the sixty-third year of his age. It is very much to be laniented, that, in the execution of his RELIQUES OF ANCIENT MEXICO. 79 purposes of colonizatipn, the monuments of Mexican civilization were everywhere destroyed, leaving nothing to future generations but the broken relics of palaces, temples, and other objects of art, scattered amidst the wilderness. Some of these ruined monu ments, recently explored by Stephens and other travellers, show that the ancient Mexicans had made remarkable advances in social life as well as in the arts, more particularly architecture ; and what renders all such relics the more interesting to the archasologist is, the growing conviction, that the old Mexican civilization was of an original type — a thing noway derived from, or connected with, the civilization of Egypt, or any other nation in the eastern hemisphere. flHHi TERMINATION OF AN AQUEDUCT IN MEXICO _j£ y\//\//%'^'../ \ / \ /\ / MfS^^fe/ ycj/yiz/r/-. 'A7\' ^ A INTERIOR OF A MEXICAN HOUSE; CHAPTER V. RECENT HISTORY OF MEXICO. FTER two years of continuous and laborious warfare, Cortes succeeded in overturning the empire of the Aztecs, and the smaller states were subjected to the Spaniards al most without a struggle. The position which the Spaniards held with respect to the natives of the country very much re sembling that of the nations of German ori gin who overturned the Roman empire and settled in the countries of Western Europe. Like them, the Spa niards were obliged to establish a kind of feudal system, to protect COLONIZATION OF MEXICO. 81 themselves against the much more numerous native population. In Europe, the victors and the vanquished in the course of time united so as to form one nation, but such a change has not taken place in Mexico, and probably never will take place. The Spaniards and natives belong to two different races of men, differing in colour and in many other respects. The Spanish conquerors also had attained a higher degree of civilization, while in Europe the conquerors learned from the conquered the most useful arts of civilized life. Even now, more than three centuries since the conquest, the Spa niards and natives constitute two perfectly distinct classes. As the number of the conqnistadores, or companions* of Cortes, was very small in comparison with the native population, they were anxious to bring "over more of their countrymen. A considerable number of Spaniards accordingly annually emigrated to Mexico, and there acquired great wealth, as officers of government, merchants, and adventurers in mining. As many of these Spaniards were pos sessed of extensive property in land within Mexico, their descend ants, the Creoles, settled, of course, in that country, and their num bers were continually increasing. The Spanish government, how ever, seems not to have formed a correct idea of their condition among the natives, and to have thought that the government of that country could only be entrusted to persons who considered Spain as their native country ; it, therefore, excluded all the Creoles, or de scendants of Spaniards born in Mexico, from all offices of govern ment, and even from commissions in the army. Such exclusion excited in them a considerable degree of ill-will against Spain and the Spaniards, which would probably have manifested itself in resist ance and rebellion, if they had not feared that the native population would take advantage of such a circumstance to effect their own destruction. They had still to fear another enemy which had grown up imperceptibly among them. Few of the Spaniards had brought wives with them. From their intercourse with the native women sprung up a race called metis, or mestizos, which increased still faster than that of the Creoles, who, however, being in possession of great wealth, were Well aware that as long as a regular govern ment subsisted they had nothing to fear either from the natives or the mestizos. This will account for the fact, otherwise difficult of explanation, that no signs of active dissatisfaction manifested them selves in Mexico during the first thirty years after the United States of North America had obtained their Independence, though the 82 RECENT HISTORY OF, MEXICO. JOSEPH BONAPARTE. Mexicans were well acquainted with the advantages which their neighbours had obtained. It is even possible that the political condition of Mexico would not have undergone any change for a long time, but for the events in Europe and in Spain, in 1808. By the intrigues of Bonaparte, the royal family were compelled to abdicate the throne of Spain, and he conferred the whole Spanish monarchy on his brother Joseph, then King of Naples. The Spaniards in Mexico and the Creoles were unanimous in declaring their resistance to the government established by the French. The viceroy could no longer receive orders from Spain, and it was necessary to organize a government which should act independently under a certain sanction, and with authority. But, as to this point, they disagreed. The Creoles wished tp esta blish a national representation ; the Spaniards opposed the measure, and prevented the establishment of a system of national representa tion for Mexico. HIDALGO AND MORELOS. 83 HE Creoles submitted ; but the public mind had, been agitated by the dis cussions which had taken place, and soon afterwards, in 1810, the natives and the mestizos rose against the government. They were headed by Don Miguel Hidalgo y Castilla, the cura, or parish priest of Dolo res, a small town in the state of Guanaxuato. The Creoles sided with the Spanish government. Hidalgo, who had soon an immense force with him, took Guanaxuato by storm, and occupied Valladolid, whence he advanced over the table-land of Tolucca to that of Teno chtitlan. The Spanish governor sent a small corps against him, which was defeated by Hidalgo on the 30th of October at Las Cru- ces, a pass in the chain which separates the table-lands of Teno chtitlan and Toluca. But, notwithstanding this victory, Hidalgo retreated, and eight days afterwards was, in his turn, defeated by Calleja, at Aculo. Hidalgo retired to Valladolid and Guadalaxara.; and in the neighbourhood of the last-mentioned town, he was again defeated, and soon afterwards taken prisoner and shot. In the mean time, the whole country had risen in insurrection, and many leaders began to act separately. The most remarkable among them was Don Jose Maria Morelos, cura of Nucupetaro, who, with great activity, talents, and success, maintained the southern pro vinces in rebellion against the governor, and formed a. junta, or cen tral government, which, in September, 1811, assembled in the town of Zatacuaro, in the state of Michoacan. But that town was soon after wards taken by Calleja, and the junta were dispersed. Calleja, however, was soon obliged to march against Morelos, who had pene trated into the table-land of Tenochtitlan from the south. He was attacked by Calleja, in the town of Cuantla y Amilpas, and, after defending himself for nearly three months with great skill and gal lantry, he abandoned that place and took Oaxaca. The junta was now increased by new members, and .under the title of the National Assembly, it declared the Independence of Mexico, on the 13th of November, 1813. But, after that event, Morelos had less success in his daring enterprises ; and, in Novem ber, 1815, he was taken prisoner, conducted to Mexico, and shot. Many of his companions in arms maintained the conflict for some 84 RECENT HISTORY OF MEXICO. time, but they did not act in concert with one another ; especially after one of them, Teran, had dissolved the Congress, which had been transferred from Oaxaca to Tehuacan in the state of Puebla. The viceroy, Venegas, supported bythe gallantry and skiltof Cal leja, destroyed successively the armies of these chiefs, so that when Don Xavier Mina, the famous Spanish guerilla chief, landed in Mexico, in 1817, the fortune of the insurgents was at so low an ebb that he was unable to restore their cause, and he perished in the attempt. The country gradually became more tranquil, and in 1820 it was restored nearly to the same degree of order which it had enjoyed before 1808, to which fortunate results the mildness of the new viceroy Apodaca materially contributed. , - * The events which occurred in Spain in the beginning -of 1820, suddenly changed the aspect of affairs, and deprived Spain of the most valuable of her possessions in America, which it had regained at the cost of much blood and treasure. The Spaniards and the Cre oles, who had formerly made common cause, were now divided into two parties, royalists and constitutionalists. Apodaca, who inclined to the former party, wished to overthrow the constitution of Mexico, and chose for his instrument Don Augustin de Iturbide, a young man, born in the province of Valladdlid, of respectable but not wealthy parents. He had distinguished himself in the battle of Las Cruces, and always shown great attachment to the Spanish party ITURBIDE DECLARED EMPEROR. 85 Iturbide had about eight hundred men under his command, when, on the 24th of February, 1821, at- the little town of Iguala, on the road from Mexico to Acapulco, he issued a proclamation, which, since that time, has been called the Plan of Iguala. Its object was to conciliate all parties. It was to establish the independence of Mexico, and still to preserve its union with Spain. To effect this, the crown of Mexico was to be offered to the King of Spain, and in case of his refusal, to one of his brothers, Don Carlos or Don Fran cisco de Paulo, provided they would consent to reside in the country. | HOUGH Iturbide had certainly exceeded the powers which he had received from Apodaca, the viceroy, seeing that this proposal met the wishes of most persons, took no step to crush Iturbide ; and the Spaniards of the capital, alarmed at this de lay, deposed him, and placed Don Francisco Novella at the head of affairs. But the disorders which always attend such violent changes, gave Iturbide time to unite his troops with those of Guerrero, the only insurgent chief still existing in the country, and to bring over to his party all the western and northern provinces. Before the month of July, the whole country recognised his authority, with the exception of the capital, in which Novella had shut himself up with all the European troops. At this moment he received intelligence of the arrival at Vera Gruz of the new constitutional viceroy Don Juan O'Donoju. Iturbide hastened to the coast, obtained an interview with O'Donoju, and persuaded him to accept the Plan of Iguala as an armistice and final settlement, if it should be approved in Spain. This is called the treaty of Cor dova, from the place where it was made. Iturbide thus got , possession of the capital, where a junta and a regency were established, but in such a form that all power remained in the hands of. Iturbide. By a decree of the cortes, dated the 13th February, 1822, the treaty of Cordova was declared to be illegal, null, and void ; and Iturbide, who had the power in his hands, and a great number of adherents, found no difficulty in ascending the throne. The army declared him Emperor of Mexico, on the 18th of May, 1822, and he took the title of Augustin I. He was acknow ledged by the Mexican Congress, which had been opened on the 86 RECENT HISTORY OF MEXICO. ITURBIDE. 24th of February; but a struggle for power soon arose between Iturbide and the congress, which the emperor terminated by dissolv ing the assembly, in the same manner as Cromwell dissolved the Long Parliament, on the 30th October, 1822. On the same day he formed a new legislative assembly, composed of persons favourable to his wishes and intentions. But he had not skill enough to recon cile his companions in arms to these changes. Several generals declared against his proceedings, and prepared for resistance. Itur bide, terrified at the storm which was ready to burst on all sides, called together the old congress, abdicated in March, 1823, and went to Europe, whence, however, he returned to Mexico in 1824. He had been outlawed by the congress, and upon landing on the coast, he was shot at Padilla, in Tamaulipas. Mexico was thus left without a regular form of government, or even a constitution, affairs being managed provisionally by Bravo, Victoria, and Negrete. But on the 24th of October, 18? 1, a consti tution uniting the sixteen original states into a Federal- Republic, was proclaimed by a national convention after a session of fourteen months. The first congress assembled at Mexico, (January 1, 1825,) and installed General Victoria as President of the nation. PARTISAN WARFARE. 87 With the exception of some discontents occasioned by pronuncia-. mentos of Robato, Padre, Arenas, and others, Victoria's administra tion was encouraging to the friends of republicanism, until his term of office had nearly expired. All parties had then merged into two, the Escoceses and Yorkinos, or Scotch and York parties — the first strongly opposed to republicanism,- the second in favour of it. In December, 1827, General Bravo placed himself at the head of the Scotch party, and marched against the president ; but he was de feated by the latter and banished. In the succeeding election, how ever, the Escoceses elected their presidential candidate Gomez Pedraza, by a majority of two votes. The exasperated republicans were not disposed to submit- to this defeat with a good grace; and even before Pedraza was installed, Santa Anna marched against hirn with a small force. The Indians flocked to the standard of the in surgents, and, on the 4th of December, 1828, a pronunciamento was issued in favour of Guerrero, the president's political opponent. The city of Mexico was rifled, and Pedraza compelled to fly to the United States. Immediately after, congress declared in favour of Guerrero for president and Bustamente for vice-president. The latter act was most unfortunate. The new administration had scarcely gone into operation when the vice-president raised an army, induced Santa Anna to join him, overthrew Guerrero, and seized the gove'rnment. Not long after, (September 11, 1829,) Santa Anna broke the remaining Spanish influence in Mexico, by the victory of Barradas. Guerrero Was executed by order of the government, in 1831 ; and in the following year, Santa Anna took up arms against Bustamente. After various successes, he induced the president to permit the recall of Pedraza, who was immediately elevated to his former dignity, and served out his term of office. At its expiration, May 15, 1833, Santa Anna was elected to succeed him. Santa Anna's energy of character and skill as a general were known, and dreaded throughout Mexico ; but he was subjected to the same dangers from insurrections, declarations, and other symp toms of discontent, as his predecessors had been. The 'most formi dable to the constitution was the " Plan of Tuluco," substituting a central for a federal republic, abolishing the individuality of the States, and constituting the chief magistrate a military chieftain. It gave rise to the Texan revolution, during which the president marched into the disaffected department ; and, after alternate success RECENT HISTORY OF MEXICO. BUSTAMENTE. and disaster, was entirely defeated and taken prisoner at San Jacinto. On returning from the United States, he found his influence de stroyed, and retired to his farm at Manga de Clavo. During his absence and retirement, affairs were conducted by Barragan, Coro, and Bustamente. The insurrection of Alexia, in 1838, afforded the first opportunity for Santa Anna to reappear in public life. The insurgents were de feated, and their leader put to death. The blockade of Vera Cruz by the French, during the ensuing winter, was another step towards regaining popularity. He there received a severe wound in the leg, which rendered amputation necessary ; but this mischance he knew well how to appropriate to his own benefit. In July, 1840, Urrea attempted to overthrow the government, but was defeated ; but one year after, Valentia, Lombidini, Alaman, Pa- redes, and Santa Anna, pronounced against Bustamente. This revo lution was on'e of the most fearful of all that have distracted Mexico since the days of the viceroys. The armies fought more than a month in the streets of the capital, after which it was subjected to CIVIL WAR. 89 A L A M A N. bombardment. The president was finally overthrown, and Santa Anna inaugurated military dictator, (January 1, 1841.) The dictator held his power with great firmness until 1843, when he ordered Paredes to be arrested at Tula, in consequence of his having joined Valencia in a proposed insurrection. This measure incensed the friends of Paredes, and they collected in small parties preparatory to revolting. The dictator then changed his policy, and invited the general to accept the government of Sonora and Sinaloa. This, however, was ineffectual ; and, leaving Canalizo at the capi tal, Santa Anna. marched against the insurgents. A civil war was the consequence. This was ended by the indiscreej; zeal of Cana lizo, who, on the 2d of December, 1844, closed the sitting of con gress, and declared Santa Anna supreme dictator. Incensed at this act, the people and army rose, en masse, imprisoned Canalizo, and caused Herrera to be proclaimed president, by congress. Santa Anna was left almost entirely alone, and, after the most violent efforts at the head of a small force, he was taken prisoner. After 12 h2 90 RECENT HISTORY OF MEXICO. .ong deliberation, congress condemned him to perpetual exile. In June, 1845, he embarked for Havana, in company with his wife, nephew, and a few friends. Congress now proclaimed a general amnesty, and passed a vote recognising the independence of Texas, on condition of its not be coming a part of the United States. This state of quiet was of short duration. The separation of Texas from the parent government was, of all measures, the most unpopular in Mexico ; and soon Pa redes, aided by Arista, was in arms against Herrera. The latter was deposed, Paredes assumed the reins of government, and the United States minister was. ordered from the country. In the ensu ing war, Paredes marched with the army to the north, leaving the management of affairs in the hands of General Bravo. His efforts were attended with uninterrupted misfortune, and the nation again turned its gaze towards Santa Anna, as the only one capable to retrieve its disgraces. Vera Cruz and other cities declared for him, and General Salas assuming provisional authority, imprisoned Pare des, and invited Santa Anna to return. He arrived at Vera Cruz. August, 1846, and was immediately, appointed president and dicta tor. His subsequent public career, together with that of his country, is identified with the recent war waged against the United States, of which a history will be given in a subsequent part of this volume. PEDRO ALVARADO. CHAPTER VI. CENTRAL AMERICA. HE term Central America is usually applied to the region formerly known as Old Guatimala. In a geographical sense, however, it may be applied still more extensively, including the pro vinces of Guatimala. Yucatan, and the Balize. Guatimala is an extensive region, stretching between the Pacific Ocean and Carribean Sea, from the southern boundary of Mexico, to the Isthmus of Darien. In its climate, soil, productions, and geographical fea tures, it much resembles the West Indies, except that the Andes render it one of the most mountainous of American countries. The western shore is subject to the most violent earthquakes ; the inte rior is but little known. Politically, it is divided into the states of Guatimala, Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica. 91 92 CENTRAL AMERICA. Guatimala was discovered at the same time with Mexico ; but it is doubtful whether it was ever a part of that empire. The origin of its people and of their civilization is unknown. The same marks of national industry, the same massive ruins, great cities, temples, and palaces, the same order and regular government, prevailed here as in the north ; but over them was thrown the same mystic veil' which hid from eager gaze the inner and more interesting truths of their origin. Tradition among the natives pointed to a party of Toltecas from Mexico, as the original settlers, and even preserves the name of Nimaquiche, as the chief who led the party from Tula to their new abode. At the time of the Mexican conquest, Kicab Tanub, an alleged descendant of Nimaquiche reigned in Utatlan, the principal seat of the Quiches or primitive inhabitants of the coun try. This chief, who appears to have been of a most active warlike nature, was then engaged in hostilities with the neighbouring nations, called Mams, Zutugiles, and even with Sinacam, a king of Gua timala. After the conquest of Mexico, Cortes despatched Alvarado against the southern countries, with three hundred infantry, and thirty-five horsemen, two hundred Tlascalans and Cholulans, and a hundred Mexicans. His artillery numbered four pieces. Such was the army destined to conquer provinces who numbered their warriors by hundreds of thousands. This army commenced its march in 1523, moved through the region of Socunusco and penetrated to the city of Xetulul in the Palahunoh chain of mountains. This, together with its fortress, was soon captured. On the banks of the Zomala, the troops were suddenly attacked by a numerous body of Indians, who, discharging stones and arrows upon them, compelled the auxiliaries to fall back. A discharge of musketry soon drove the assailants to their retreat in the mountains ; but at short intervals they renewed the attack, seriously retarding the progress of the invaders. HE news of this formidable invasion surprised Kicab Tanub in the. midst of his military operations. His anxiety at so imminent a calamity absorbed all other feelings, and he determined immediately to conclude peace with the neighbouring chieftains. A plan for peace, and a general coalition against the invaders was sent to them ; but so far was it from being accepted, that Sinacam openly declared himself the friend and ally of the Spaniards, or gods, as they were called. The king of the Zutugiles fiercely replied that he was OPERATIONS OF TECUM UMAN. 93 XIOAB TANUB. strong enough to defend his own territory against any enemy ; and thus Kicab Tanub saw himself reduced to the necessity, not only of contending with his former enemies, but also with the Spaniards. Undismayed by the gathering storm, the king applied himself diligently to finding means to avert it ; but in the midst of his pre parations, he sickened and died. His eldest son, Tecum Uman, had just ascended the throne, when he received intelligence that the Spaniards had quitted Soconusco, and were marching toward Xela- huh, (duezaltenango.) This place was the best fortified and most important of any in Utatlan, containing a garrison of twenty-five thousand men. To maintain this position was a matter of no little importance ; and to that end Tecum Uman determined to direct all his efforts. He, accordingly, issued from his capital in great pomp, surrounded by the nobles of the kingdom, and at the head of seventy thousand men, under his best general, Ahzol. Eighty thousand joined him at Chemequina; and at duezaltenango, where he came in sight of the Spaniards, his force was swelled to two hundred and thirty thousand fighting men. Without waiting for offers of negotiation, the king determined at once to give battle. His preparations for this issue prove that the determination was not a blind confidence in superior numbers — the too frequent error in the Indian armies. He chose the field of 94 CENTRAL AMERICA. Tzacdaha, and began fortifying it with fhe greatest care and preci sion. A wall, bordered by a deep ditch, was extended around its entire circuit; and in front of tbe ditch were planted rows of poi soned missiles, designed to interrupt and disorder an enemy's ranks. Thus intrenched, the -Quiches awaited the: advance" of their power ful antagonists. HE Spaniards approached Xelahuh with the utmost caution, in order to avoid surprise. In winding through the mountains, now known as Santa Maria de Jesus, they encountered, very unexpectedly, a host of Indians who barred the passage. The table land above was in like manner swarm ing with warriors. Soon the wild passes of the Cordilleras rang with the shouts of tens of thousands, and the two armies jbined in a fierce and bloody struggle. Victory declared for the invaders, and, filing through the ravine, they recom menced their march. But their toil had only begun. At every pass, a new battle was offered ; every peak and crag rained down showers of missiles, and the whole mountain range seemed con verted into a hostile camp. Six engagements took place between Zamala and the river Olintepec. The last was fought in a defile on the river shore. The slaughter was so terrible that strearns of blood ran down into the water, staining it for many yards along the banks, thus giving rise to the present significant name of Xiquigel, or bloody river. In a subsequent action, the Quiches fought with.such desperate valour, that, forgetting all discipline, they seized the horses of the Spaniards by the mane, and struggled to overturn both steed and rider. Two days after, the victors entered Xelahuh which was ,-found deserted. In a little while, however, the inhabitants re turned and concluded a treaty with the new occupants. The great battle between Alvarado and the Quiches took place on the following day. The first shock was terrible ; and for a time the Spaniards seemed in danger of being defeated ; but, as the crowds of their opponents continued to pour on, they became so densely packed, that exertion was almost impossible. Hundreds were mowed down in passive slaughter. The battle was not restored ^until the Spaniards had cut an opening into the living mass with their weapons. The vast multitude swayed to and fro like the UNSUCCESSFUL STRATAGEM. 95 I QREAT BATTLE BSTWBIH ALVARADO AND THE QUICHES. ocean, and a wild uproar rose upon the air, and rolled from rock to rock of those lofty plains. The king behaved in a manner worthy his cause and station ; and, at length, singling out Alvarado, he rushed upon him and engaged in a furious personal encounter. The horse of the Spanish general was struck dead ; and, for a while, he was himself in imminent danger. He filially overturned his opponent with his lance. But, instead of being discouraged by the death of their king, the Quiches threw themselves upon the Spa nish cavalry, and grasping the horses, struck maddened but vain blows with their hands. The steeds with their riders plunged breast-high among piles of dead bodies ; and the ground in the im mediate scene of battle was one great pool of blood. Discipline al last prevailed ; and the rout of that day was total. These great reverses were not sufficient to dampen the spirit of the Quiches. King Chignauivcelut, successor of Tecum Uman, ordered a great council to assemble at Utatlan, to deliberate upon future measures. It was there resolved to abandon open force, and 96 CENTRAL AMERICA. attempt to draw the invaders into a snare. Accordingly, the king sent a solemn embassy to Alvarado, announcing the submission of the kingdom, and offering a rich present in gold. Overjoyed at this news, Alvarado received 'the envoys with high distinction ; and, on being invited in the king's name to visit the city and repose after his fatigues, he cordially assented, and dismissed them with presents to the monarch. On the following day, the army commenced its march for Utatlan, elated with the prospect of speedy peace. After entering, they be held, to their surprise, that their road Jay through a narrow street, commanded by heavy fortifications, and flanked by ditches ; that the women and children had all been removed ; and that anxiety and trepidation displayed themselves among the inhabitants. Suspicions of treachery arose, and were soon confirmed by the Indians of Que- zaltenango, who had discovered that the enemy had resolved on firing the city during the night. They also affirmed that large numbers of warriors were concealed in the neighbouring defiles, ready to fall upon all who should escape the flames. IN this perplexing extremity, Alvarado' called a coun cil of war, and announced to his officers the dangers of their situation, and the necessity of an immediate retreat from the city. This was instantly agreed upon. Without any appearance of fear or agita tion, the troops issued forth in good order and gained the plain. So abrupt a departure necessarily asto nished the king ; but Alvarado excused himself by alleging that the pasttfrage of the plains was, in the evening, indis pensable to the horses. The king still continued his pacific policy ; but in the eagerness to free the land from its invaders^ he over stepped the bounds of prudence, and committed a fatal error. He accompanied Alvarado to the plain. Hardly had that leader placed himself in safety, when he seized the monarch, brought him to speedy trial, and, on the same evening, hung him in the presence of both armies. By this decisive step, it was thought the Indians would have been awed into submission ; but the result was far other wise. The various forces of the Quiches, as though by common consent, poured down upon the Spaniards, and a contest ensued in which the latter found themselves attacked on all sides. But, although unpropitious at first, the battle soon turned in favour of the inva- FOUNDING OF ST. JAGO. 97 ders, and, broken down by repeated failures, the Indians now im plored mercy. From that time the empire of Utatlan was con quered. \ " [ , This victory was gained May 14, 1524. A small chapel was hastily constructed on the field of battle; and the next day, being Easter, the army attended a solemn celebration of mass. Thus was the Catholic religion introduced into Guatimala. Anxious to conciliate the Indians, Alvarado now appointed a suc cessor to Chignauivcelut. About the same time, he received offers of congratulation and alliance from Sinacum, whom he resolved to visit. Leaving Jean de Leon Cardona in command of Utatlan, he marched for Guatimala, with a numerous es cort, met the king on the road, and both leaders with their forces entered the capital in company. Here, for the first time, the Spaniards enjoyed that rest of which they had so long been desirous. After remaining in the city for some time, Alvarado yielded to the entrea ties of his host, and accompanied him x5fHjS|ii'|ii|f7.( /¦"'iPHS' in an expedition against the warlike nS? ! 4ilF tr''3e °^tHe Zutugiles. These were overthrown in several battles, and their chief city taken. On returning to the capital by a new route, the Spaniards arrived (July 24, 1524) at a place named Atmulunca, or Almolunga. The pictureSque beauty of this place, the rich meadows extending far iiato the interior, watered by hundreds of sparkling streams, the high mountains rising from both sides of the country and rushing up to heaven, either wrapped in never-melting snows or in flame and smoke, so charmed the Spaniards, that, with one consent, they determined to establish here a permanent colony. Aided by the Mexicans and the Tlascalans, they laid the rough foundations ; and on the 25th of July, the day dedicated to the great Spanish patron, the troops attended divine service in the church which they had raised. The founding of the city was attended by rejoicings which lasted three consecutive days. On the 29th, the alcaydes and magis trates were installed ; and on the 12th of August, the public func- 13 I O A R D O N A. 98 CENTRAL AMERICA. :iiRil I'll, j; IP- # tri Rl^^; jm aa\i_i w 331 IBS CELEBRATION OS1 THE FOUNDING OT ST. JAGO. .tionaries and other persons, to the number of eighty-seven, were enrolled as citizens. Such was the origin of St. Jago. Alvarado now turned his attention to the various tribes who were not yet conquered, but whose submission was essential to the secu rity of Spanish authority. In the following year, some of these submitted, and others the Spaniards artfully involved in war among themselves. The province of Esquintla, laying on the Pacific, offered more serious resistance ; so that in a great battle fought at night, although the Spaniards had surprised the foe, their whole force was engaged five hours in hot contest, and was even repulsed. They then barbarously threatened the Indians with burning their plantations of cacao and maize. The unhappy natives, dismayed at the prospect of immediate famine, submitted without further resist ance. By the end of December, the campaign had terminated. Alvarado returned to the capital of the Cachiquels, laden with wealth and glory. The rapidity of his movements had been no less sur prising than the ease with which he had conquered the Indian armies. He had subjected the important provinces of Zonzonate, Custatlan, (San Salvador,) and Chapparastic, or, San Miguel. The greater part of the Pacific shore acknowledged the authority of CAPTURE OF MIXCO. 99 Spain. At the same time, Alvarado's brother, Gonzalo, had de feated the Mams in several battles, took possession, after a bloody siege, of the important fortress of. Socolbo, entered Giiegiietenango, and carried his victorious arms throughout the province of Totoni- capan. HE fortress of Mixco, which was always considered impregnable by the Indians, was situated on a high perpendicular rock, the only access to which was so narrow as to permit but one man to pass at a time. A small force could de fend it against an entire army, by merely throwing down rocks upon the assailants. The first detach ment sent against this place was so disheartened by its strength and the apparent impossibility of making any impression upon the works, that they determined to abandon it. But the arrival of Pedro Alva rado in camp changed the appearance of affairs. That intrepid general immediately called a council of wai. over which he presided in per son, and which determined on a vigorous prosecution of the siege. The Spaniards now resorted to stratagem, but in this they were foiled with considerable loss. Their cause now appeared hopeless, and it is more than probable that they would finally have been com pelled to relinquish the undertaking, had not the caciques of Chig- nanta appeared in camp, demanded a peace, and informed the Spa nish general of a subterranean passage leading from the citadel to the bank of a neighbouring river, by which the garrison could escape should the fortress be captured. This infused new life into the besiegers. A general attack was made on the heights by the army, marching in single file, while a detachment posted itself at the mouth of the subterranean passage to intercept stragglers. The fortress was finally carried by storm, and the Indians, with their wives and little ones, either killed or captured. The works were then entirely destroyed. The submission of the .country being now complete, Alvarado determined on returning to Spain and announcing his conquests to Charles V. But, when on the eve of departing, he received notice that Cortes had arrived in the province of Honduras ; and deeming 100 CENTRAL AMERICA. CHARLES V. it his duty to visit his superior, he set out (February, 1526\ for that purpose. On reaching Choluteca, he met a detachment of Spanish troops coming from Honduras, and was informed that Cortes had returned to Mexico. Not being able to follow him so far, Alvarado seems to have abandoned, for a while, the idea of visiting Europe, and returned to Guatimala. He found the country, which had been left so peacefully, in a state of the most violent excitement. His brother, Gonzalo, who had ruled in his absence, had, by his cruelty and tyranny, especially toward the Indians, alienated all parties from him. The king of Quiche, Sequechul, with King Sinacum, were gathering the differ ent native tribes for a desperate effort to shake off the yoke of bondage. Alvarado immediately adopted the most energetic measures to suppress so formidable a rebellion. Confident of the support of all Spaniards, he marched against the Indians, and in a great battle, (November 22, 1526,) he completely routed them, taking the two kings prisoners. The unfortunate princes, by fifteen years of hard captivity, expiated the unpardonable crime of having wished to re cover independence for themselves and their oppressed people. This victory broke the spirits of the Indians inhabiting the conquered provinces, and from this time they seemed willing to acknowledge the authority of Spain. In proportion, however, as this danger decreased, DEATH OF ALVARADO 101 a far more formidable evil began to display itself. This was dissen sion among the conquerors — the almost inseparable sequel to Spa nish conquests. The difficulty of defining boundary lines between different provinces was one fruitful source of these disturbances. Either by accident or design, petty rulers encroached on the terri tory of others ; and several rich provinces were claimed simulta neously by numerous competitors. These claims kept the whole country in a state of civil war, until December, 1527, when Alva rado received from the emperor the office of captain-general of Gua timala, an appointment which rendered him independent of Cortes. The energetic, and often oppressive rule of this officer restored in a great measure the general tranquillity. The influences of religion were added to his own efforts. In 1537, the execution of a most extensive plan for the conversion of the Indians was commenced by a number of missionaries, at the head of whom was the celebrated Las Casas. They visited nations hitherto unconquerable, and by inducing them to accept Christianity, opened an easy way to a cor dial recognition of Spanish authority. These labours were conti nued through great difficulties, by themselves and successors, for upwards of a century: and to them, as much as to the mail-clad warriors, was owing the Spanish ascendency in Central America. The year 1541 was signalized by the death of Pedro Alvarado. After this event, the emperor established an audience, (November 20, 1542,) or supreme tribunal, of which Alonzo de Maldonado was named president. The seat of this -court was fixed at Valladolid de Comayagua, but subsequently transferred to Gracias-a-Dios. In 1555, it was again removed to Guatimala, then to Panama, and finally to the capital. The tranquillity which the genius of Alvarado had secured to the province was buried with him. Faction, exas perated by the temporary obstruction, broke out fiercer than ever. Public morals were depreciated to the very lowest scale. Justice was but a name — crimes of the deepest and darkest dye were com mitted with impunity, and the criminals bought off from retribution by trifling sums. The Indians were treated as brutes — in short, all government was at an end — anarchy, crime, and reckless audacity rioted over the ruins of the Indian civilization. Such was the con dition of affairs for a great portion of the long period of the Spanish dominion in Guatimala, till at last the country was ripe for revo lution/ v The first symptoms of dissatisfaction exhibited by the Indians and 12 102 CENTRAL AMERICA. ALONZO DE MALDONADO others, was after the invasion of Spain by France, in 1808. The deepest anxiety was manifested throughout the whole of the Penin sular War, and the subsequent continental struggles. But after the fall of Napoleon, hardly had Spain adopted a constitution when Gua timala, anxious to extirpate the remnant of absolute tyranny, appro priated the same one to herself without any alteration. But the formation of a junto in the following year, with absolute power to settle "indispensable" measures, gave rise to two parties, one in favour of entire emancipation from both Spain and Mexico ; the other advocating the installation of the Bourbon family on the throne of Central America. The old Spanish party, supported by Leon, the capital of Nicaragua, and Comayagua, capital of Honduras, were in favour of the latter course ; but the greater part of the cities and provinces adhered to the act of independence proclaimed by the junta. Such was the situation of affairs when, on the 19th of October, 1821, Iturbide, Emperor of Mexico, addressed to the inhabitants of Guatimala a manifesto, in which, after having complimented them on their independence, he announced, that to consolidate their grow ing liberties, he would direct a numerous body of troops to their REPUBLIC FORMED. 103 frontiers. This strange proclamation was not received by the inde pendents as favourably as the emperor had wished ; but the influen tial members of the Spanish party solicited his protection, changing the appellation of his troops from that of servants to imperialists. This faction chose as their chief,. Fil-isola, president of the junta; and by him the proclamation of Iturbide was distributed through out the different provinces. Not satisfied with this, he joined with it an invitation to the people, to merge their nationality into that of Mexico ; and he even took upon himself the responsibility, as president of the junta, to declare fhe union effected, (January 11, 1822.) The indignation of the people at this arbitrary stretch of power rose to the utmost pitch. The junta was dissolved. The president marched with some troops against St. Salvador, but was completely beaten, (July 3.) . Defeated a second time by the people of the same province, (February 23, 1823,) he recommenced his march to Gua timala, where he received news of the revolution which had preci pitated Iturbide from the imperial throne. The blow was astound ing — his last hope was gone ; he immediately gave up all resistance and consented to the act of independence. A national convention having immediately assembled, ordered the Mexican troops to leave the country. Filisola led them out in person, taking possession, during his march, of the province of Chiapa, which he claimed for Mexico. This act was afterwards made -good by Mexico, and Chi apa has -ever since remained a fruitful source of dissension between the two countries. . This obstacle being removed, the National Assembly met again on the 24th of June, 1823. Complete independence was declared on the 21st of July, and on the 17th of December, the basis of a new constitution, modelled after that of the United States, was pro claimed to the nation. The republic was styled the " United Pro vinces of Central America." On the 6th of September, 1824, Congress completed* the basis of the confederation at Costa Rica ; nine days after, (15th,) the Federal Congress was installed ; and on the 22d of November, the constitution was solemnly signed by the deputies. Thus Guatimala had proclaimed her freedom, and established a republican constitution ; but, very soon, she was to learn by bitter experience, that something more than these is necessary to secure the tranquillity and happiness of the people. Hardly had the instru- 104 CENTRAL AMERICA. FLORES. ment of independence been signed, when fierce party spirit again sowed seeds of discord among the populace. The citizens were divided into aristocrats, or Centralists, and Federalists. The former wished to consolidate and centralize the powers of the general go vernment. They were composed principally of influential families, who, pampered, during the domination of the Spaniards, with pri vileges and exorbitant monopolies, had gradually imbibed the state and feelings of the European nobility. The Federalists, on the con trary, were led by men, young and energetic, many of whom were actuated by an ardent love of country, a desire to set her free, and a disgust at the former civil oppression. They advocated the supremacy of the states, and freedom of conscience in religious matters. At the third session of congress, the two parties came to an open rupture. Soon after, the vice-president, Flores, visited fhe city of Quezalte- nango, where he had rendered himself odious by his republican principles, and by levying a contribution on its convent. Seeing him in their city, the religious orders now excited the common people against him, and soon an infuriated mob were before his house ex claiming, " Death to the heretic." Flores ran to the church ; but, when entering, he was seized by some women, his face and head severely beaten, and his life placed in the most imminent danger REPUBLICANS AND CENTRALISTS. 105 By desperate exertions, he escaped into the church ; but even here he was not secure. The bell rung, crowds collected from all quar ters, and, although opposed by the soldiery, forced their way into the church. Fearful of the result, the priest came forward with a cru cifix, and implored the people to spare the officer, promising to send him- immediately from the city. The unhappy man confirmed these words on his knees. But all was of no avail. The populace rushed upon him, dragged him into the convent, and delivered him into the hands of its women. He soon expired under their dreadful treat ments, and the body was submitted to the insults of the mob. Crowds then rushed through the streets, exclaiming, "Viva la reli gion — death to the heretics of congress." Encouraged by this suc cess, the Centralists of the province of Guatimala rose in open rebellion, and extirpated the Republicans. These outrages roused the indignation of the inhabitants of St. Salvador, who resolved to avenge the patriots of Guatimala. Ac cordingly, on the 6th of March, 1827, their army appeared before the gates of the capital, and threatened it with complete destruction. But religious fanaticism was too powerful to be easily intimidated. The priests ran, exhorting the people to take arms ; the nuns and other women assembled with knives in their hands, swearing that every enemy of their religion should perish by their hands. The army of St. Salvador was in the issue entirely defeated. The other provinces of Guatimala were in a like condition. In Nicaragua, the streets were barricaded, the chief Centralist and his soldiers massacred, part of the city burned to the ground, and the two parties so exasperated against each other that, for three months, even an ambassador could not be sent from one to the other. At Leon and Taguzgalpa, horror and desolation reigned supreme. The war continued with but little intermission for two years, at which time (1829) the troops of St. Salvador, under General Morazan, again marched against Guatimala. After three days' continual battle, the city was taken. A scene of ste?n retribution followed. The leaders of the Centralists were exiled, Che convents opened and sacked, monastic orders abolished, the nuas sent from the country, and the archbishop driven into exile. In 1831, Morazan was elected president of the republic ; and for eight years managed the public affairs with a degree of quiet long unknown to the country. But at the expiration of his second term, signs of faction began to reappear. Many of the banished Central- 14 106 CENTRAL AMERICA. ists had maintained a correspondence with those at home, some even venturing to return. These attentively watched an opportunity to recover their lost ascendency. They found a leader in the notori ous Carrera, a mulatto, who, from an obscure station, had raised himself to the command of numerous parties who infested the high roads. This individual kept the country in a state of continual fer ment, and, though often defeated, he still managed to rally round him the priests, Indians, and most of the Centralists. The capital and other cities were several times taken, and shocking excesses com mitted on the opposite faction. Morazan was finally driven into exile, and with him fell the republican party. Since this time Gua timala has exhibited little more than a scene of national misrule, anarchy, and bloodshed. Yucatan is an extensive peninsula running up into the Gulf of Mexico, between the bays of Campeachy and Honduras. It is not remarkable for the fertility of its soil, and is without mineral wealth. In the central parts, where there are no streams, when the rainy season fails, the people suffer greatly from deficient crops. This country owes its discovery to Juan Diaz de Solis, and a com panion of Columbus, named Vincent Yanez Pinzon. These adven turers were fired by Ponce de Leon's, success in Puerto Rico, and obtained leave to perform a voyage to the continent. As far as the island of Guanaios, they held the same course that Columbus had taken ; but standing thence to the west, they discovered a new and extensive province, and proceeded a considerable way along its coast. This was the modern Yucatan. No settlement was at that time effected, the voyagers contenting themselves with exploring portions of the shore. OR some time after this discovery, the Spa niards were deterred from availing them selves of it, by the disasters experienced by Ponce de Leon, and other adventurers. The prudent administration of Diego Ve lasquez in Cuba had rendered it one of the most flourishing of Spanish settlements; ' - * ; ^^r-*4mwJA and many persons from other colonies were allured thither. As the ocean stretch ing to the west of Cuba had not hitherto been explored, this circumstance invited adventurers to attempt new discoveries. Instigated by the desire of obtaining sudden wealth by EXPEDITION OF CORDOVA. 107' JUAN DIAZ DI deeds of daring, several officers who had served under Pedrarias, in Darien, entered into an association to undertake a voyage of disco very. Velasquez not only approved their design, but assisted in carrying it on — he and an opulent planter named Cordova, advanc ing the money to purchase three small vessels, with materials for traffic or war. On board of these a hundred and ten men embarked and sailed from St. Jago, February 8, 1517. On the twenty-first day after their departure, they reached Cape Catoche, the most eastern point of Yucatan. As they approached the shore, five canoes met them, bearing people clad in cotton garments — a circumstance that excited the wonder of the Spaniards. Cordova offered them small presents, and endeavoured to gain their good will. Though evi dently amazed at their strange visitors, the Indians invited them, with an appearance of cordiality, to visit their habitations. Accord ingly, the adventurers landed, and as they advanced into the country were struck by the sight of white stone houses. But they soon 108 CENTRAL AMERICA. found that if the people had made progress in improvement beyond their countrymen, they were likewise more artful and warlike. For though the cacique had received Cordova with many tokens of friendship, he had posted a considerable body of his subjects in am bush, behind a thicket, who, upon a signal given by him, rushed out and attacked the Spaniards with great boldness and some degree of martial order. Fifteen of the latter were wounded ; but their fire arms soon compelled the assailants to fly. Cordova regained his shipping and quitted the spot, carrying with him two natives, and the wealth of a small temple which he had plundered. Continuing their course toward the west, without losing sight of the coast, they arrived, on the sixteenth day, at Campeachy. There they were received with more hospitality ; but water beginning to fail, they proceeded along what was still thought to be an island, until they arrived at the mouth of a river at Potonchan. Here all the troops were landed in order to protect the sailors while filling the casks, but, notwithstanding this precaution, the natives rushed down upon them with such fury, and in such overwhelming numbers, that forty-seven Spaniards were killed upon the spot, and the remainder, with but a single exception, in some manner injured. The com mander received twelve wounds ; but he conducted the retreat with admirable skill and courage. On regaining their vessels, they im mediately set sail for Cuba. During the passage thither, their wounds, exposed to a burning sun, brought on a sickness, which was increased to the most dreadful height by the want of water. Some died by the way, and the commander expired soon after arriv ing at Cuba. -^ HESE disasters did not discourage the Spaniards. The sight of gold wrought into curious shapes, the reports of nations advanced into civilization, and the hope of suddenly grasping a fortune, induced many to offer themselves for a new expedition. Velasquez fitted out four ships at his own expense. Two hun dred and forty volunteers, among whom were men of rank and for tune, embarked in this enterprise. It was commanded by Juan de Grijalva, a young officer of tried courage, who was instructed to barter for gold, and, if possible, attempt a settlement. Sailing from St. Jago, (April 8, 1518,) he steered in a direction with the former expedition, but was driven by contrary currents to the island of Cozumel, the inhabitants of which fled at his approach. He again EXPLORATION OF YUCATAN. 109 put to sea, rounded Cape Catouche and reached Potonchan. Here he determined to land and avenge his fallen countrymen in such a manner as would strike terror among all the surrounding tribes. But, though he employed all his troops in this attempt, aiding them with some field-pieces, the Indians fought with such courage that a victory over them was gained with difficulty. The Spaniards then re-embarked, and continued their voyage. The beauty of the coun try and the novelty of Indian towns and cities excited their wonder and admiration. In the numerous villages scattered along the coast, many stone houses were observed, which at a distance appeared white and lofty. In the warmth of their feelings, they denominated the country New Spain, a name by which it was known in Europe for more than three centuries. Proceeding to the southward, they found the natives more friendly, and at Guazaca they were perfumed with incense of gum-copal, and treated with the most flattering attentions. In six days, they exchanged European trinkets for curiously wrought ornaments of gold, worth fifteen thousand pesos. The Spaniards now learned, for the first time, the existence of Montezuma, the- great monarch tp whom this province and the neighbouring ones was subject. Re- embarking, (grijalva continued his course toward the west, and, on the 19th of June, landed on a small island,^ where he beheld, for the first time, the horrid spectacle of human victims offered to a deity. He named this spot the Isle of Sacrificios, and a neighbour ing one San Juan de Ulua. From this place he despatched Pedro de Alvarado, one of his officers, to Velasquez, with a full account of his important discoveries, and all the treasure acquired by traffic with the natives. With the remaining vessels he proceeded along the coast to the river Panuco ; but finding it impossible to plant a colony, he returned to Cuba, October 26, 1518. Yucatan was conquered by the Spaniards soon after the over throw of Montezuma's power by Cortes ; its history, therefore, forms a part of that of Mexico till the year 1839, when symptoms of dissatisfaction with the policy of the Mexican republic began to be displayed by a party calling themselves Rochelanos. These de manded either a more liberal central government, or entire independ ence. In order to effect the latter, they secretly favoured the move ments of a faction calling themselves Federalists. On the 29th of May, a militia captain, named Santiago Iman, raised the revolutionary standard in the village of Tizimin, and declared for the Constitution K HO CENTRAL AMERICA. of 1824. He then marched to Espita, the commandant of which had agreed to join him,vbut, on making a feint attack, the better to conceal his design, Iman found himself drawn into a snare, and immediately retreated- to San Fernando. Here, at th» end of two months.Jte was attacked by the commandant. The defenders ran away, the' assailant entered in triumph, and immediately announced to his government, that by a great victory he had ended the revolt. Iman now gathered around him a number of Indians, and endea voured to insure their co-operation by a promise of exemption from religious contribution. The government then sent against him Colonel Roguena with six hundred men, who, after another " de cisive victory," gained because the enemy ran away, entered the place in triumph. Partial quiet was preserved until February 11, 1840, when the insurgents attacked the city of Valladolid. Here were three hundred men under Lieutenant-colonel Arans. This officer appears to have possessed both talent and energy ; but unfor tunately, while marching against the enemy, he was killed. His troops immediately capitulated. A band of outlaws then took pos session of the city and proclaimed the Constitution of 1824 to be in force. The influence of this proclamation soon became contagious. Towns, one after another, hailed the new order of things, and were strengthened by the capital itself. In June, Rivas, the commanding general, surrendered the province of Campeachy, and for a time the INDIAN WAR IN YUCATAN. Ill country was thus actually separated from Mexico. A new state constitution was proclaimed on the 31st of March, 1841. During the war between the United States and Mexico, Yucatan declared her independence of the latter power, and even discussed pro positions of annexation to her more powerful sister republic. But the disorders consequent upon these acts had not yet subsided, when a far more formidable danger than Mexican oppression menaced the country. This was a general rising of the Indian population — an event almost unheard of in the annals of Europa- American nations. Early in 1848, all the interior settlements had been abandoned by the whites, and an army of sixty thousand Indians was desolating the country. Valladolid and Izamel, after being defended for along while, were abandoned in March, and the citizens fled to Merida. The Yucatoes published a statement of their fearful condition, and earnestly invited 'other nations to help them. The whites have mainly recovered their position, and the country is now compara tively quiet. Notwithstanding her declaration of independence, Yucatan still continues a part of Mexico. YUCATAN HUT. SAN FBANCISCO, CALIFORNIA. CHAPTER -VII. CALIFORNIA. 77 T^viljjgj aHjmtHE term California was formerly applied ex- 87.71^ sM clusively to the narrow strip of land between , ¦ ism the Pacific Ocean and the Californian Gulf. ? Now it designates the extensive country I ranging from latitude 22° 48' to 42° north, Jgj'and between the 107° and 124° of west lon gitude. It is divided into Old, or Lower, California, and New, or Upper, California. Old California was unknown to Europeans until 1534, at which time Hernando Cortes, the celebrated conqueror of Mexico, equipped a small fleet, took the command in person, discovered the Peninsula and Gulf of California, and ascended the latter about fifty leagues. He named it the Vermillion or Red Sea, and it was subsequently styled, by his countrymen, the Sea of Cortes. This voyage was 112 DISCOVERY OF THE COUNTRY. 113 unfortunate. By storms and other disasters the conquerpr of Mexico was not only prevented from planting a colony, but forced to retrace his course, and even to abandon the original design of the expedi tion — a north-west passage to the Old Wqrld. Previous to this, and during the visit of Cortes to Spain, Nunez de Guzman had marched with an army from Mexico toward the north west. In his progress, he collected a large quantity of gold, and received the submission of many caciques ; but was finally stopped by a rugged mountainous country, which he named New Galicia. This had induced Cortes, prior to his own expedition, to fit out an armament at Acapulco, which he placed under the command of Hurtado de Mendoza ; but violent storms, and the misconduct of the officers employed, defeated the objects of the expedition. Six years after the discovery of California, the viceroy, Mendoza, sent an expedition to continue the observations of Cortes. The officers are said to have reached the fortieth degree of north latitude, where they observed snow-capped mountains on the coast ; and, according to their own statement, met vessels with gilded yards, sup posed to belong to China or Japan. After this period, the burden of conti nental difficulties and South American con quests afforded the Spaniards but little opportunity to colonize the obscure pro vinces of the remote Pacific. The decline of maritime adventure, in that nation also contributed to the neglect of California. The coast was visited, however, by Sir Francis Drake and other voyagers, and the northern coasts partially explored. The buccaneers frequently touched upon it, and the neighbouring, ocean seems to have been a frequent resort for whaling expeditions. Still, for more than a century, no settlement was attempted ; and the interior of the country remained as little known as though the coast had never been touched by a foreign vessel. But, notwithstanding this apathy with regard to colonization, a field was opened not Jong after the discovery, which, exciting that strongest of all motives, the love of gain, soon brought numerous visiters to the adjacent waters. This was the finding of a rich pearl oyster-bed on the coast. The pearls abound chiefly in the southern part of the peninsula, in the Bay of Seralvo, and around the islands 15 H2 . SIR FRANCIS DRAKE. 114 CALIFORNIA. of Santa Cruz and San Jose. The most valuable pearls in the pos session of the court of Spain, were found in 1615 and 1665, by the expeditions of Juan Iturbi and Bernal de Pinadero. In 1768 and 1769, a private soldier, named Juan Ocio, was enriched in a short time by fishing on the coast of Seralvo; but, since that period, the number of Californian pearls brought annually to market has been reduced almost to nothing. The Indians and negroes who followed the severe occupation of divers, were frequently drowned or devoured by sharks. T length, in 1769, pursuant to the king's direction, Admiral Don Isidro Otondo undertook the conquest of California. He was accompanied by a number of Jesuit missionaries, under Father Euse- bio Francisco Kino. The accounts of this undertaking are exceedingly meagre; but the general owed his ultimate success as much to the efforts of the ecclesiastics as to those of the soldiers. From it, the commencement of the Spanish authority in this province is to be dated. The Jesuits settled in the most fertile provinces, and when the commotions occasioned by the appearance and designs of the white men had in some degree worn away, they entered ardently upon the trying task of proselyting the Indians. Persuasion and presents were the means commonly used ; where these failed, force was re sorted to. After conversion, each native was required to give ten years' faithful service to the missions, after which he was placed at liberty, and, on security of good behaviour, allotted a small piece of land for cultivation, and a few cattle. But they usually remained in the employment of the missions, having become attached to their masters and occupations. Their duties consisted cnieily in taking care of cattle, labouring on the farms, gardening, and household work. Some were taught trades, and others hired out to service. The police of the missions was strict, punishment was administered when required, and rewards were given for good behaviour. Such was the patriarchal manner in which California existed for an entire century. Remote from the source of its civilization, it felt little of the influence of the parent state, and, indeed, remained almost unknown either to Spain or Europe. This accounts for the conflicting statements entertained, for a long period of time, con EARLY COLONIZATION. 115 MONTEREY, UPPER CALIFORNIA. cerning its soil, riches, climate, and capabilities. During the .revolts in 183Mhe Indilns were mostly cast off from the missions and eprived of the fruits of their labour. The country was visited in 1841, by Captl Wilkes, at the head of the United States Exploring Expe dition, who found it to be destitute of all government. The IndL" he says, "are now committing acts of violence on the whites ;' they adeeming daily more daring, and have rendered a residence J single farm-houses, or estancias,^ withou d a ge . In looking at the state in which these poor Indians ^ve been eft, it cannot oe denied but that the^have cause to be dissatisfied with the treatment they have received." mhvU\n New California appears first to have been discovered by Cob lo a Spanish adventurer. He saw the south coast in 1542, and sa ed for a short distance towards the north. Thirty-six years after f-1978 1 Sir Francis Drake went over the same ground, and pursued iis discoveries much further northward. He called the country New Albion. In 1769, it was colonized by the Spaniards , and the Indians were converted principally through the efforts ,rf the Jesu- ts and, until 1836, remained a province of Mexico. In November of that year, the citizens of Monterey, the capital, took up arms, 116 CALIFORNIA. expelled the Mexican garrison, and declared the province independ ent. A provisional government was established, similar in its gene ral features to that of the United States. California has taken an active part in the Mexican war, against the United States. The first military operations consequent to that event, within the territory, were the result rather. of accident than design. |APTALN FREMONT, of the Corps of Topographical Engineers, was sent by the United States govern ment on an expedition to the country lying beyond the Rocky Mountains. The avowed purpose of this com mand was to find a new pass to Ore gon, and part of the route lay through the settled portion of California. On the 29th of June, 1846, Fre mont reached the neighbourhood of Monterey, in the upper province, where he halted his command, and proceeded along to the city, in order to acquaint the authorities with his plans, and request permission to pass some time in the valley. Permission was granted; but, on reaching the valley of San Joaquin, he learned through Mr. Larkin, the United States agent, that General Castro was about to attack him with a considerable force. He then took post about thirty miles from the city, and, raising the national colours, in formed the Californians that he would defend the place to the last. Castro, however, did not attack, and .Fremont, after a tedious retreat, arrived (May 15, 1846) at the Tlamath lake. This place he soon left, in consequence of the appearance of hostile Indians. On retracing his steps to the Sacramento river, he ascertained that Castro was still in arms against him, and was even preparing an expedition against the Americans who had settled in the neighbour hood. In these circumstances, Captain Fremont considered him self authorized to attempt the complete conquest of California, and its annexation to the United States. This was on the 6th of June. War already existed between the United States and Mexico, but of this fact the captain had not yet been apprized. The movements consequent to this resolution were rapid and bril liant. The garrison at Zanona was captured, together with nine CONQUEST BY THE AMERICANS. 117 cannon and two hundred and fifty muskets. On the 25th of June, a part of Castro's army was attacked and completely routed. On the 4th of July, Fremont assembled his forces at Zanona, and de clared the independence of the province. EANWHILE, the American government had sent a fleet, under Commodore Sloat, to the coast of California, and ordered General Kear ny, with a large force, to invade the country, after having conqueredNewMexico. The former officer, on anchoring his fleet, landed a con siderable party, and took possession of Mon terey. Here he was joined by Fremont, with a hundred and sixty men, the captain being in close pursuit of De Castro. At the same time, Commodore Stockton landed on the coast, and proposed a plan to intercept the retreating general, by sailing down the coast and landing the troops at a proper point. Castro, however, evaded his pursuers and marched to Mexico. After this fruitless expedition, Stockton, in company with Fremont and Mr. Larkin, entered Ciudad de los Angelos, and renewed the declaration of freedom for Califor nia. Soon after, General Kearny arrived and assumed the direction of affairs. But the ease with which the Californias had been subjected to foreign influence, was but the calm during which the storm gathers its energy. Officers had been appointed in all the principal towns, and entered upon the discharge of duty as though in one of the United States ; but they were soon to learn that something more than a sudden revolution is necessary to insure to a people the bless ings of republican government. On the 15th of January, 1847, the whole province rose in arms against the new system. At night, Governor Bent with twenty-four men were massacred at Fernando de Taos. Other murders took place at the same time, and in a few days a large number of the Californians were marching, upon Santa Fe. The commandant of that place, Colonel Sterling Price, placed himself at the head of four hundred men, and advanced to meet the enemy. He came up with them, placed to the number of fifteen hundred, in a strong position, near Covoda. Notwithstanding the disparity of force, he gained a complete victory, killing or wounding thirty-six of their men, and losing but eight of his own — six of them wounded. A few days after this battle, (January 29th,) a hundred and eighty of Price's men, under Captain Burgwein, defeated a num.* 118 CALIFORNIA. ber of Mexicans, strongly posted at La Joya. Their total loss, ex clusive of prisoners, was eighty. On the 3d of February, the vic torious Americans entered triumphantly into the town of Fernando de Taos. The Mexican and Californian forces now retired to the village of Puebla de Taos, a strong position, whose churches and other build ings were admirably situated for defence. An attack was made by the Americans on the afternoon of the 3d, and renewed on the fol lowing morning. At nine o'clock, a cannon and two howitzers were opened upon the buildings, and, after a cannonade of two hours, two separate charges were made under Captains Burgwein and Angrecy ; the former was killed. The Americans attempted to scale the walls but failed. They then stormed the church through a breach in the wall, fired it, and commenced vigorous measures for the reduction of the remaining buildings. Hostilities were termi nated, however, by the submission of the inhabitants. The garrison lost about three hundred killed and wounded ; the Americans fifty- four. ^ENERAL KEARNY, during these movements of Colonel Price, had marched from Santa Fe wkh a considerable force, and, after cross ing plains, rivers, mountains, and deserts, came up with the enemy, (December 6, 1846,) at San Pas- cual, Upper California. They numbered a hundred and sixty, under Andreas Pico. The Ame ricans attacked with twelve dra goons, under Captain Johnston, fifty under Captain Moore, mount ed on mules, twenty volunteers under Captains Gibson and Gilles pie, and two mountain-howitzers under Lieutenant Davidson. At break of day, (December 6,) Captain Johnston made a furious charge upon the enemy with his advanced guard, and was soon after followed by the dragoons. The enemy gave way. They were followed by Captain Moore, and the cavalry mounted on mules. After retreating about half a mile, the enemy, who were all well mounted, suddenly wheeled round and attacked the captain, whose SUBJECTED TO THE UNITED STATES. 119 men were some distance in advance of the others. On account of their vastly superior numbers, few of the advance remained un touched. Captain Moore and Lieutenant Hammond were lanced, with several other inferior , officers. The Mexicans held the ground for some minutes, but were finally repulsed. Besides the officers already mentioned, the Americans lost Captain Johnston and sixteen men killed ; and sixteen wounded, including General Kearny, Cap tains Gibson and Gillespie, and other officers. ( On the 7th, Kearny resumed his march, and, after being joined by Commodore Stockton of the navy, again encountered the enemy, (January 8, 1847,) at the San Gabriel. Their force is estimated by the general at six hundred men, and four field-pieces, under Go vernor Flores. The Americans crossed the river in face of the enemy, stormed the heights, drove the enemy into the open plain, and after an action of an hour and a half, remained victors of the hard- fought field. Their loss had been trifling. On the 9th, the Americans continued their march as far as the plains of. Mesa. Here the enemy, who, during the day, had hung on their front and flanks, opened their artillery, which was answered by that of the Americans. After hovering around for about two hours, and occasionally skirmishing, the Mexicans concentrated their forces, and charged Kearny's left flank, but were repulsed. The next day, the Americans entered Ciudad de los Angelos, without opposition. Kearney and Stockton now took possession of the province in the name of the United States, and published a proclamation regulating the government and other matters of both Californias. By the treaty of 1848, between Mexico and the United States, Upper California and New Mexico were ceded to the latter power, and from that pe riod the history of these countries is included in that of the United States. POHO B DE IiHOl CHAPTER VIII. FLORIDA. LTHOUGH the southern extremity of Florida lies so near to the West Indies, yet its existence was unknown to the Spaniards for a consider able time after the voyages of Columbus. It is supposed to have been visited by Sebastian Cabot during his celebrated voyage along the American coast ; but the principal records of this expedition being lost, precludes the possibility of establishing this opinion. The hope of reaching the East Indies, or of discover ing empires glittering with oriental luxury, led the Spanish adven turers in a southern or south-west course ; and it was not till Terra Firma had been examined, and Nunez de Balboa had discovered the Pacific, that the Spaniards even suspected the existence of the region now forming the United States. The glory of. discovering Florida belongs to Juan Ponce de Leon, 120 ADVENTURES OF PONCE DE LEON. 121 an adventurer who had accompanied Columbus in his second voy age. He had then won such reputation as to be intrusted with a share of the government of Hispaniola, and subsequently with the conquest of Porto Rica. But his claims as governor conflicting with those of Columbus, he withdrew, and obtained, in compensa tion, Bimini, one of the Bahamas, which lay nearest to the conti nent. At this place, the veteran received intelligence which decided his future destiny. An opinion was then prevalent among the Caribs that in one of the West Indies a fountain existed whose waters could impart the gift of perpetual youth. In that age of romantic and chivalrous adventure, of new-found worlds and empires, it is not won derful that the eager knight should embrace almost any opinion con cerning the mysterious recesses of the lands daily unfolded to view. Ponce de Leon immediately embarked in search of the wonderful fount. Nearly all the northern islands of the Archipelago were visited, and the eagerness of the voyager increased in proportion as the fairy waters eluded his grasp. HE industrious search after this chime rical object was rewarded in a manner totally unexpected. On the 27th of March, 1512, the Spaniards came in sight of an extensive country, hitherto unknown. It being Easter, (Pascua Florida,) they named it Florida ; and having landed (April 8) near the pre sent site of St. Augustine, they were delighted with its splendid vegetation and magnificent forests. Elated with the great discovery, De Leon, after sailing down the eastern coast to the southern' point, repaired to Porto Rico, and thence to Spain, where he laid before the king the particulars of the new country, and obtained permis sion to conquer and rule it. Had Ponce de Leon been able to sail immediately on his expedition, his fate and that of the expedition would probably have been different. But circumstances delayed his preparations so long, that nine years elapsed before he again appeared in the neighbourhood of Florida. He was then broken down by war and misfortunes ; and probably his skill and vigour in planning and executing military achievements had been much diminished. The point at which he landed is uncertain. His intention seems 16 l 122 FLORIDA. PONCE DE LEON WOUNDED. to have been to found a permanent colony ; but in the midst of bis preparations he was attacked by a large party of Indians, his men routed, and himself severely wounded by an arrow. Discouraged by so unexpected a catastrophe, the survivors regained the vessel, and sailed for Cuba, where their leader died of his wound. Spain now claimed, under the title of Florida, the whole coast from Cape Sable to Labrador. Her pretensions, of course, were never enforced ; but Spanish vessels continued to trade along the coast as far north as Virginia, mainly for the purpose of stealing Indians, who were afterwards sold as slaves. A company was even -formed for this infamous purpose ; and under their auspices, Lucas Vasques de Ayllon was sent, about the year 1520, to Florida. He discovered South Carolina, and sailed up theCombahee river, which he denominated Jordan. .The natives received him most cordially, bringing provisions and other supplies ; but after decoying great numbers on board, he detained them, and the ships sailed for the West Indies. Before reaching their destination, one of the ships sunk ; and nearly all the captives in the other died. A second ex- EXPEDITION OF NARVAEZ. 123 pedition, conducted by the same leader, was attacked by the Indians and almost annihilated. Some time after these voyages, Stephen Gpmez, in attempting a north-west passage to India, reached, as is supposed, the latitude of 40° or 41° north, which coast was denominated, by the early Spa niards, the Land of Gomez. > • An adventurer now appeared who seemed worthy to accomplish that in which the unfortunate Ponce de Leon had failed. Pamphilo de Narvaez, the rival of Cortes, in the conquest of Mexico, deter mined to attempt the conquest pf Florida. For this purpose, he was invested with the office of adelantado, which gave him full power to subjugate, settle, and rule the coveted region. In June, 1527, Narvaez sailed from St. Lucas with five vessels and six hundred men; but, before leaving Cuba, (February 20, 1528,) where he had stopped to refit, desertion and other causes had re duced the armament to four vessels, four hundred men, and eighty horses. He reached Florida in April, and landed in sight of an gr.^jg ^ Indian village, proba- bly near the bay of Spiritu Santo. Here he erected the empe ror's standard, and claimed the country for Spain ; after which the village was en tered, and such things seized as the Spa- ! niards had need of. The Indians fled into the interior ; and it soon became neces sary for the invaders to pause and consider on their- future course. Alvaro Nunez, narrator of the expedition, advised the commander to re-embark, and sail onwards till he should find a fertile country, and a safe station to retreat on, should it be necessary. But Nar vaez determined to push at once into the interior ; and, on the 1st of May, at the head of three hundred men, forty of whom were cavalry, he commenced his march through Florida. After passing through various tribes of Indians, some friendly and some hostile, exploring forests, swimming broad rivers, and wading through LANDING OF NARVAEZ. 124 FLORIDA. JAHVAEZ IN FLORIDA. marshes, they arrived, at the end of fifty-seven days, near a village which the guides pointed out to them as the seat of a flourishing empire. The food they had brought with them was now entirely consumed — a circumstance which gave additional enthusiasm to the feelings with which they hailed the village, as the fulfilment of their brilliant expectations. Alvaro took possession of the place ; and, after a series of skir mishes with the inhabitants, learning that a town named Aute, abounding in maize, lay nine days' journey to the southward, the dispirited adventurers directed their steps thither. The difficulties of the way were greater than any they had yet experienced ; but they reached their destination, and secured a valuable store of maize. Another day's journey brought them to a river, opening upon a broad arm of the sea, probably the Bay of Appalachicola. Here, while gazing upon the broad extent of waters, and reflecting on the wilderness through which they had passed, the loneliness and utter wretchedness of their situation burst upon them ; and many a bold heart, which for years had struggled for glory even in the jaws of fate, now sighed like a child for home. The situation of the party was indeed distressing. A third of their number had perished, and disease was rapidly thinning the remainder. To recede into the interior would be folly; and it was impossible to remain alive on the coast. No resource remained but JOURNEY OF ALVARO. 125 the almost hopeless one of constructing barks to sail along the coast. Narvaez and his companions set themselves diligently to work, and between the 4th of August and 20th of September, five boats were built, each capable of carrying fifty men. They were constructed of light wood, and held together by twisted oakum and the gum of trees. The shirts of the Spaniards served as sails. ^. After embarking, they seized aIl^^-s^^^&P?^^^^^ ^ve *nd'an canoes, which mate- ^^^^^^TZZ^^^^^^^^i rially improved their condition ; *<^Z?*&ZzJ- zs^-^-2^ mac|e by the inhabitants, and the invaders were forced to their boats with loss. .They met a like reception at another island. The provisions were now nearly ex hausted ; and the canoes in such a miserable condition that they could scarcely be got forward. In this forlorn situation, Narvaez abandoned his brave companions, and, pushing ahead in the best vessel, left Alvaro and the others to take care of themselves. He is supposed to have perished at sea. Thus deserted by the man who had led them to ruin, Alvaro, after a great variety of adventures, finally led a small remnant of his companions, by a circuitous route, across the Mississippi and Rio Grande, to Mexico. He was well received at Culiazzan, by Go vernor Diaz, and also at the city of Mexico ; and having there re cruited himself by a stay of two months, he set sail, and arrived at Lisbon, August 9, 1537. Alvaro found his own country intoxicated with the recent acquisi tion of an empire, which had realized all the golden dreams that had cost so much blood and anxiety. Peru, discovered, conquered, and rifled by Pizarro and Almagro, with a handful of adventurers, had given a new impulse to adventure. Ferdinand de Soto, a princi pal actor in this grand drama, had returned to Spain, laden with fame and wealth; and, on hearing of Ponce de Leon's adventures, he solicited permission to conquer Florida, and was immediately constituted adelantado. At this juncture, Alvaro arrived with his doleful tale ; but nothing could damp the ambition of De Soto. His fame drew together a vast company of adventurers, from whom he selected, nine hundred l2 120 FLORIDA. A L M A G R O. and fifty of Approved character ; and on the 6th of April, 1538, em barked in ten vessels -for Ciiba.- He there spent a year in prepara tion, during which time he was joined by Vasco Porcalho* a veteran who, like himself, had gained an immense fortune by his sword. He was appointed lieutenant-general. Soto reached Florida May 25, 1538, and, on the 30th, landed in the bay of Spiritu Santo. Four individuals were sent out to ascer tain the fate of the former expedition ; but these were seized by a neighbouring cacique and condemned to lingering death. Other dif ficulties followed in such rapid succession, that Porcalho became dis couraged and returned to Cuba. It was unfortunate for De Soto that an expedition had preceded him in Florida. He came with a sincere desire not to provoke the Indians by acts of cruelty ; and as he had the reputation of being one of the most humane of all the Peruvian conquerors, there is room to believe that his desire would have been attended with the wished-for harmony. In fact, the measures that he adopted at land- ADVENTURES OF SOTO. 127 I $g .!,,_.. sj i»7 , .-v.^_ ft J. I ! SOTO APPOINTED ADELANTADO BY THE COUNCIL OF THE INDII ing were admirably conducive to this effect. But the natives still remembered the perfidious cruelty of Narvaez ; and they looked upon the new-comers only as a fresh band of robbers ahd murderers. Had Florida, like Mexico, been, under one great government, this difficulty would not have been so formidable ; for then Soto could have beaten its army, entered the capital, and been master of the country. But he struggled against a multitude of fierce petty tribes, who, although offering no point at which an effective blow could be struck, never left him master of more than the spot on which his army stood. After the departure of Porcalho, ,Soto commenced his march into the interior — a march which has no parallel in the history of Ame rican adventure. The people either met him With showers of arrows or fled into the interior, leaving the region through which he passed little better than a barren waste. In the district of Acali, his men were attacked, while crossing a large stream, by the entire population. The chieftain of Vitachuco laid a plot for their utter 128 FLORIDA. extermination ; but intelligence of it was received through Ortiz, so that, on the day appointed, the Spaniards were armed and prepared for the onset. When it was about to begin, a party surrounded and seized the cacique. The savages, undismayed, rushed on with loud shouts ; and Soto rashly galloping into the crowd, his horse fell pierced with three arrows. The rider himself would have been torn to pieces but for the exertions of his cavalry. The flower of the Indian warriors now plunged into a large pond, where they kept themselves afloat, and though the invaders surrounded it six deep, they refused to surrender. In the morning, they were captured, when almost dead with cold and fatigue. Notwithstanding the violence of this attack, the Spanish general extended a general pardon to the offenders, and even admitted the cacique to his table. Soon after, however, he apportioned the cap tives as servants among his men — a measure in the highest degree impolitic, since nothing could have been more mortifying to those free chieftains than the idea of servitude. A sudden attack was made upon the Spaniards, while at dinner, during which several of the Europeans were killed, and others severely injured ; but they finally mastered their infuriated oppo nents. Soto now abandoned, in a great measure, his conciliatory course, seizing all Indians he met with, and compelling them to act as ser- SEARCH FOR GOLD". 129 vants. It should be recorded, however, to his honour, that, notwith standing the scenes of wholesale butchery to which he had been familiarized in Peru, he never imitated them in Florida; and, indeed, rarely trifled with human life, except in battle. On reaching Appalachen, Soto seized the cacique, hoping thereby to compel the inhabitants -to submission through fear for their sove reign's safety. The chief was of a most unwieldy bulk ; but, not withstanding this circumstance, and the vigilance with which he was guarded, his subjects managed to steal him away, and fled hastily into the interior. Soto v was mortified, but not discouraged. His thoughts still dwelt on some sunny clime where temples, and walls, and princely palaces glittered with burnished gold, where the same precious metal sparkled amid the sands of limpid streams, and where the very air was soft and subduing with the copious gushings of priceless gums and balsams. For this El Dorado, the fatal syren which had misled so many noble spirits, he had sacrificed home, fortune, comfort, and health ; and still, as it glided from his grasp, he bore up against experience and the convictions of common sense, and reached onward the more eagerly, in proportion as his efforts appeared useless. The reports of some captains, who had seen, in great abundance, a yellow and a white metal, seemed to keep up the illusion ; and Soto determined to push forward with all possible alac rity. In passing a rather barren region, in the present State of Georgia, his men were reduced to such misery for want of provi sions, as gladly to devour the dogs presented them by the natives. On arriving at the Savannah river, they learned that a kingdom, named Cofaciqui, lay on the opposite shore, and that its sovereign was a woman. Ere long, an ornamented bark was seen moving from the other side, containing the princess herself. She enchanted them by her beauty, grace, and courtesy ; presented a triple row of pearls to the general, and carried the whole party across the river in canoes. On being interrogated concerning the yellow and white metal, she instantly produced specimens ; but how great was the dis appointment of the adventurers to find the anticipated gold nothing but a gilded stone, and the silver white clay, or quartz. It is pro bable, however, that the stone, considered worthless by the Spaniards, was really gold ore. Sick with repeated vexations, many of the adventurers expressed a wish -to give up the search for wealth, and settle in their present quarters. To this, Soto would not listen, but departed in the bc-^ia. 17 130 FLORIDA. ning of May. Considering it impossible, however, to march through the country, without being attacked, he seized the queen, and obliged her to issue orders that the Spaniards should be supplied with what ever her territory afforded. She escaped near the frontier. .HE Spaniards now passed through the Chero kee region, and over a barren territory, to the land of Coosa. Here they were met by the cacique in the most friendly manner — a kind ness requited by seizing his person. The same system was practised on the cacique of Tusca loosa; a person of gigantic stature, fierce, proud, and ruling over extensive territories. On finding himself a prisoner, he dissembled his real sentiments, until the invaders had reached Mauvila, (Mobile,) a large town, strongly palisaded, and" containing numerous families. Soto, having entered by invitation, was enter tained with dances and other kinds of gayety ; yet, while surrounded with these iflattering demonstrations, he received notice that the houses were filled with armed warriors, collected from every quar ter ; that the children had been removed, and even the women, ex cept many who had also prepared for battle. Strange to say, in the face of this evidence, and notwithstanding his past bitter experience, the general contented himself by merely directing his followers to be on their guard. He was soon undeceived. Order was succeeded by uproar, terror, and death. Yells from thousands of infuriated savages appalled the stoutest heart, and clouds of arrows darkened the day. Unable to breast the storm, Soto shouted to his men to fall back — a movement which continued, under galling showers, until they reached their horses. One after another was left behind, the victim of Indian vengeance, and many of the survivors were pierced by arrows. But 6nce on horseback, they regained their superiority, and easily drove back their pursuers. The palisade being strong against a force without artillery, some time elapsed before the gate could be forced open. Even then, the Indians were found so strongly posted in the houses, that they could not be overcome except by the dreadful expedient of firing the town. The scene that followed was terrible, In that warm climate, houses copstructed entirely of reeds and branches, flamed like tinder, and suddenly, as by magic, both armies were involved in volumes of fire and smoke. As the natives rushed forward, many fell a sacrifice either to the flames or the sword. DISCOVERY OF THE MISSISSIPPI. 131 Those who escaped to the fields endeavoured to renew the battle, and even the women lent their assistance ; they were, however, finally obliged to seek safety in a general flight. Different accounts state their loss at from two thousand five hundred to ten thousand. The Spaniards had eighteen killed, a number severely wounded, and all their baggage consumed in the flames. After this melancholy affair, Soto fought his way into the great valley of the Mississippi, hitherto unknown, and reached Chicasaw, the small capital of the warlike nation of the Chicasaws. Here he passed the winter. On the. return of spring, he had apparently removed all cause of dispute with the Indians, whom he now re quested to lend him two hundred of thefr number to carry his baggage. A storm, however,' was about to burst upon him, of which he was little aware. The Indians had long been seeking an oppor tunity for surprise, and now taking advantage of a dark, stormy night, passed the Spanish sentinels, penetrated, undiscovered, into their cantonments and set them on fire. At dead of night, the troops were roused from slumber, by the crackling of flames and the yells of their assailants. They would probably have been entirely cut off; but that the horses rushing with wild neighings from place to place, were mistaken for mounted troops, and caused the Chicasaws to fly in disorder. Eleven Spaniards were killed, fifty horses, and nearly all their hogs. The clothes which had escaped at Mauvila were burned, and the iron armour damaged. In this forlorn condition, the Spaniards again pushed forward; until their progress was arrested by the Mississippi. This great stream is accurately described by the survivors as more than a mile broad, rapid, muddy, extremely deep, and with many large trees floating on its surface. Soto's passage being opposed, it was twenty days before he could construct barges to contain his men. It would be tedious to follow the intrepid Soto through the whole of this astonishing expedition. He appears to have wandered far •north, into what is now the state of Missouri, everywhere toiling and fighting, amid dangers apparently insurmountable. At Auti- amque (Utiangue) on the Upper Washita, he passed his fourth dreary winter. In the spring, his condition was so wretched, that he determined on the measure from which his mind had so long re volted, of returning to the coast, and seeking reinforcements from Cuba or Mexico. He, therefore, hastily descended the Washita to its juncture with the Red River, and the latter stream to its conflu- 132 FLORIDA. GOTO DISCOVERING THE MISSISSIPPI. ence with the Mississippi. Here he found himself in the territory of Gauchoya, which contained a brave and numerous population; his men being reduced to less than five hundred, and the horses to forty. He, therefore, announced himself as the child of the sun; and taking advantage of their astonishment at seeing themselves in a mirror, he announced that that glass would display to him what ever they did at any distance, and thus detect any plot which might be formed against him. He was now informed that the sea was yet far off; and the road thither greatly obstructed by streams and entangled woods. Amid these anxieties and distresses he was seized with fever, which closed, in a few days, his earthly career. The death of the commander who had shared with them so many DEATH OF SOTO. 133 toils, and whose voice had been their rallying power in hours of darkness, fell with stunning force on his little band. Moscoso, his successor, endeavoured to conceal the event from the Indians, pre tending that the general had merely gone on a visit to heaven, whence he would quickly return. Lest an ordinary burial might lead to other conclusions, it was determined to sink the body in the Mississippi. At dead of night, wilh nothing around but a few broken men, the silent stars, and the rolling flood, the chivalric Soto was committed to his watery grave. He who had made captive the mighty Inca of Peru, who, to grasp an empire's wealth, had battled among tens of thousands, and whose fame had drawn to his banner the most splendid army hitherto beheld in the New World, was robbed by fortune, even of that little spot where friends could console themselves by reflecting that they wept over his remains. After his death, the adventurers wandered about for a long whiie over an immense tract of country, and finally constructed boats, de scended the Mississippi, and sailed to Panuco. Of the entire com pany that had sailed from Cuba, only three hundred and eleven were left. After marching four years over five thousand miles of savage and hostile regions, they had achieved nothing, nor left even a vestige of their route, save the track of blood by which it had been too often stained. Thus, the first three Spanish expeditions to Florida did not establish for that nation one single fort, notwithstanding that more blood and treasure had been expended on them than on the combined outfits of Columbus, Cortes, and Pizarro. Such reverses diminished the attractions of Florida to Spanish eyes ; and the idea of colonizing it seems to have been for some time abandoned. A Dominican1 mis sionary, however, named Cancello, visited the country for the pur pose of converting the Indians, and received ample encouragement from government ; but he and his companions were massacred. The Spaniards, however, continued to claim Florida, and even the whole of North America. It was not to be expected that so preposterous a claim would long remain undisputed by the more powerful European nations. Fran cis I., the great rival of the Spanish emperor, was ambitious of estar Wishing a colony in North America, which might act as a check to his antagonist's power in that quarter ; and with this view, he sup plied Giovanni Verazzano, a noble Florentine, with four vessels for America. This adventurer, after being driven back by a storm re- 134 FLORIDA. VERAZZANO. fitted his fleet, and engaged in some successful naval operations on the Spanish coast. He was then given command of the Dolphin, with fifty-eight men, provisioned for eight months, to prosecute his original plan of discovery. After encountering a severe tempest, he came, in the middle of March, upon a coast supposed to be that of North Carolina. After sailing along the coast for some time in search of a harbour, he landed in the vicinity of Cape Fear, and held some friendly intercourse with the natives. He coasted what is now Virginia and the Middle States, sailed up the Hudson, touched at Martha's Vineyard, and other portions of New England, visited Nova Scotia, and seems to have gone as far north as Labra dor ; but his provisions being exhausted, he was obliged to sail for France. Verazzano subsequently made another voyage to America, where he was killed by a party of the natives. After the death of Francis I., the celebrated Admiral Coligni de termined to found a settlement in America, which might afford an asylum to his Protestant brethren, whom persecution obliged to flee from their own country. In 1562, he furnished John Ribault of Dieppe, an experienced seaman, with two vessels, and directions to reach the mouth of the river called, by Ayllon, the Jordan, (Camba- hee.) Steering in too low a latitude, that navigator reached the St Johns, and discovered other rivers which he named after those ot FRENCH EXPEDITIONS. 135 ADMIRAL COLIGNI. France. The scenery at Port Royal so delighted him that he landed and chose it as the site of his colony. Having erected a fort and placed the settlement in a promising condition, Ribault left twenty- six men and returned to France for reinforcements and supplies. Unfortunately, the new governor, Albert, was a rash and tyrannical officer ; who, finding it difficult to maintain authority where all thought themselves nearly equal, enforced it in the most violent manner. He addressed them in opprobrious language, hanged one with his own hand, and threatened others with the same fate. Mu tiny was the consequence. The commander was put to death, and Nicholas Barre, being appointed in his stead, soon restored tran quillity. In consequence of the great civil war in France, no reinforcements reached ' the little colony ; and the colonists at length constructed a brigantine to return to their own country. The slender stock of provisions was soon exhausted, and after being reduced to the last extremity, they were picked up by an English vessel. Some time elapsed before Coligni could resume his scheme of colonization ; but, in 1564, he succeeded in fitting out three vessels, abundantly supplied, and commanded by Rene Laudonniere, ah able companion of Ribault. Sailing round the Canaries and West Indies, 136 FLORIDA. SATURIOVA SHOWING LAUDONNIERE RIBAULT S MONUMENT. he reached the St. John's rirer, and determined there to stop and settle. He' was cordially received by Saturiova, the Indian cacique, who, flattered by the deference jshown him by the French, led Lau donniere to the monument erected by Ribault, which had been deco rated with flowers and supplied with ample provisions for the new visitors. A fort named La Carolina was erected, and expeditions sent up the river, where small quantities of gold and silver were seen. Reports were likewise received of a mountainous country in the interior where these metals abounded. These illusory prospects diverted the colonists from more sober pursuits ; and, in a short time, 'a number of the more reckless, seized with a sudden desire to grow rich, formed the criminal resolution of becoming pirates. Confining the commander, they rifled his stores, and setting sail captured a richly laden vessel, having the governor of Jamaica on board. They imprudently sailed to that island, where they were surrounded and one of their vessels captured. The others were obliged, through want of food, to return to the settlement, where Laudonniere con demned four of the ringleaders to be executed. Meanwhile, the colonists neglected agriculture, and continued the pursuit after unknown treasures. They were soon obliged to depend for food entirely on the Indians, a miserable resource, parti cularly in Florida. Dispirited by so dreary a situation, they began to construct vessels to return home ; and, although cheered by a visit, and a liberal supply of provisions from Sir John Hawkins, they did not intermit their task. But when on the point of sailing, (August 28, 1565,) several ships were observed approaching. It FRENCH AND SPANISH EXPEDITIONS. 137 was a new expedition under Ribault, who, having been appointed to supersede Laudon- niere, had brought with him a numerous rein forcement and ample supplies. The idea of returning was, therefore, abandoned. To them, the resolution was a fatal one. Don Pedro Menendez, a Spaniard, now de termined to conquer Florida. He sailed from San Lucas with eleven ships and a thousand sir john hawkins. men, and repaired to the river St. Augus tine. He there founded, a settlement, considered the oldest town now in the United States, and forthwith prepared for operations against the heretic French. Ribault, on learning the arrival of this formidable enemy, thought it most advisable to become the assailant without delay, before they could fortify their position. This conduct has been censured, but perhaps too much with reference to the fatal event. Leaving Lau- donniere with eighty-five men in the fort, he sailed on the 8th of September, and arrived on the 10th at the mouth of the St. Augus tine ; but was there overtaken by a tremendous storm, which drove him far out to sea. Menendez, concluding that this expedition must have comprised the flower of the French troops, and that those left in the fort were few in number, hastily formed the resolution to attack them. Selecting five hundred of his best rneny he led them across a wild country, intersected by broad streams, swamps, and forests, encouraging them to proceed by an appeal to all the sentiments of honour and religion. On the fourth evening, the place was des cried, but the night was spent in the neighbourhood, amid a dread ful tempest, which, while it inflicted severe suffering, also lulled the enemy's suspicions. At daybreak, the three gates of the fort were seen open, and only a single Frenchman outside, who was lured into the camp and killed. Menendez. then ordered his followers to rush forward, and enter before any discovery could be made. But a soldier, chancing to be on the rampart, gave the alarm ; though, before Laudonniere could be roused, the enemy were in the fort, and had commenced an indiscriminate massacre. That chief, with seve ral companions, leaped from the wall, ran into the woods, and, after wandering some time, found a little bark, in which, under severe want and imminent perils, they made their way to Bristol. . Spanish writers assert, that after the slaughter had continued some time, an 18 m 2 138 FLORIDA. li|ta RIBAULS WRECKED. order was issued to spare the women and children, and that, while two hundred perished, seventy were saved. Ribault, meanwhile, after being driven out to sea, saw his vessels completely wrecked among the rocks in the Bahama Channel. He escaped on shore with nearly all his men ; but their condition was most deplorable, and, in endeavouring to reach their settlement by a march of three hundred miles, through a barren country, the most extreme hardships were endured. At length, on the ninth day, they beheld the river, and the fort on the opposite side ; but what was their dismay to see on the ramparts Spanish colours flying ! Their leader made a solemn pause before he could resolve to place any trust in men known to be imbued with the most ferocious, bigotry. Seeing, however, no other hope, he sent two of the party to represent that their sovereigns were at peace ; that, agreeably to instructions, they had strictly avoided interfering with any of their settlements ; they asked only food and a vessel to convey them home. Their reception is very differently reported. According to the French, it was most kind, and ample pledges of safety were given. The Spa niards, on the contrary, allege that Menendez acquainted them with his object, and the bloody treatment he had given to their country men ; but added, that if they would lay down their arms, and place themselves at his mercy, he would do with them whatever God in his grace might suggest. We cannot, however, believe that without some more positive pledge, Ribault would have agreed to surrender. Having delivered their arms, his men were conveyed across the river by thirty at a time. They were dismayed to find themselves bound two and two together, with their hands behind their backs ; but this, they were assured, was only a temporary precaution. At DOMINIQUE DE GOURGUES. 139 length, they were drawn up in front of the castle, when the Spanish chief with his sword drew a line round them on the sand, and on a signal given, the soldiers commenced the work of slaughter, with every excess of cruelty and indignity ; the military band playing the whole time to drown the cries for mercy and the shrieks of the dying. Ribault, amid vain remonstrances, was struck in the back and fell covered with wounds. When the work of blood was finished, the assassins suspended to a tree a number of the mangled limbs, attaching the inscription, "Not because they are Frenchmen, but because they are heretics and enemies of God." This dismal tragedy, when announced in France, gave birth to a mingled sentiment of grief and rage, accompanied by a loud cry. for vengeaace. These feelings were the more deep among the Hugue nots, from the suspicion that they were not shared by the sovereign Charles IX., who was closely united with Philip in relentless enmity to the Protestant name. Yet a remonstrance was presented from fifteen hundred widows and orphans, calling on him to avenge this dreadful deed, and vindicate the honour of his country. The king made only formal remonstrances, and accepted a superficial apology ; but there was a spirit in the nation itself, which, independently of his will, provided the means of punishment. OMINIQUE DE GOURGUES was uni versally distinguished in that age as a daring warrior. He had fought success fully both against the Spaniards and Turks, by the former of whom he had been held some time a prisoner, treated with the utmost indignity, and compelled to work as a galley slave. On receiving intelligence of the Floridan catastrophe, his own wrongs, together with those of his countrymen, took full possession of his mind ; and he devoted his whole energies to the work of vengeance. By sell ing his little property, and borrowing from friends, he equipped three ships, with two hundred and thirty soldiers and sailors, mostly chosen adherents, who had often conquered, along with him. Care fully concealing his object, he obtained a license for the slave-trade, and sailed on the 22d of August, 1567 ; but on approaching the Cape de Verd islands, he changed his course, and stood across the Atlantic. It was not before reaching the western point of Cuba, that he unfolded to the whole party their dreadful destination. 140 FLORIDA. Some were disposed to shrink ; but, being persuaded by the rest, they at length joined in a unanimous consent. De Gourgues, in sailing along the coast of Florida, passed impru dently near to San Matheo, of which he was warned by his, squad ron, who had found themselves saluted 'as Spaniards ; whereupon' he hastened to another river fifteen leagues distant, and landed as secretly as possible. Finding the natives as usual imbued with deadly hostility towards the subjects of Philip, he engaged their co operation ; and learning that the enemy had built two small forts, he made a rapid march and spent the night at a short distance from them. In the morning, he was alarmed to see the whole garrison in motion on the ramparts ; but they had assembled from some aqci- dental cause, and soon withdrew. The French then advanced through a thick wood, which brought them almost close to one of the smaller forts. On emerging from the forest, they were seen, the alarm was given, and two guns fired ; but, rushing forward with wild impetuosity, they scaled the ramparts, an Indian chief being foremost ; the garrison, seized with terror, ran out in every direction, and were nearly all killed or taken. Those in the next station followed their example, and soon shared their fate ; but the main fortress was still untouched, and defended by troops far more numerous than the assail ants. A small parly, however, having rashly sallied out, were sur rounded and nearly cut off; whereupon the whole body, struck with the general panic, at once abandoned their stronghold, and sought safety in the woods. Being eagerly pursued, most of them were taken ; and De Gourgues had given strict orders to bring in as many alive as possible. He then led them all together to the fatal tree on which the remains of his slaughtered countrymen yet hung, and having upbraided them in the strongest terms for their treachery and cruelty, he hanged them all ; suspending, a number of their bodies on the same trunk, and- substituting for the former one the following inscription: — ''Not because they are Spaniards, but be cause they are traitors, robbers, and murderers." Had this execu tion been confined to a few of the ringleaders, it mio-ht have been held as a just retribution ; but being -inflicted on so large a scale, it almost rivalled the atrocity which it was meant to avenge. De Gourgues had not come with any intention of settlement. Embarking, therefore, with whatever was valuable in the forts, he sailed for Rochelle, and was received in that Protestant capital with the loudest acclamations. His reception at Bordeaux was equally RECENT HISTORY. 141 flattering ; but it was very different at Paris, where Charles showed no little inclination to transmit his head to Philip, who loudly de manded it. Steps were even taken for bringing him to trial ; but they were found so excessively unpopular, that it was deemed expe dient to withdraw them, and allow him to retire into Normandy. Amid many vicissitudes of fortune, Florida remained in the Spa nish possession until 1763, when it was ceded to Great Britain. In 1781, Don Galvez conquered West Florida ; and by the treaty of Paris, 1783, both Floridas were restored to Spain. In 1819, nego tiations were commenced between the United States and Spain, which resulted in a treaty ceding the whole territory to the former country. It was ratified by Spain in October, 1820, and by the United States in the ensuing February. In July, General Jackson took formal possession of it, since which time its history is included in that of the United States. i«\&\ JAQTJES CABTIEB. CHAPTER IX. CANADA UNDER THE FRENCH. ' N the year 1497, John Cabot and his son Sebastian reached the continent of North America, being the first Europeans who had touched there since the Northmen. In the following year Sebastian per formed a most extensive exploratory voy age along the greater part of the east ern coast, from latitude 56° or 58° north, to Florida; and in 1517, he entered Hudson's Bay, with the hope of disco vering a north-west passage to India. A mutiny of the »rew obliged him to return. After the return of the Cabots to Europe, and the death of their royal patron, Henry VII., the English grew careless of foreign dis coveries ; but the French entered upon them with all the enthusiasm DISCOVERIES OF CARTIER. 143 CARTIER TAKING POSSESSION OE NEW ERANOE. necessary for success. Notwithstanding the difficulties under which Francis I. then laboured, he commissioned Gjpvanni Verazzano, a Florentine navigator, to explore the eastern shores of North Ame rica. In virtue of his discoveries, the coast from Carolina to Nova Scotia was claimed by the French monarch, and named New France. A second expedition under Verazzano was unfortunate ; but ten years after, Jaques Cartier, a bold and able mariner, made two voy ages, in the latter of which he ascended ihe.St. Lawrence as far as the site cf Montreal. In 1540, the same officer was employed under the Sieur de Roberval, who also sailed up the St. Lawrence, and erected a fort where Quebec now stands. The two leaders could not agree, and parted ; but nine years after, while sailing to Ame rica with a similar design, Roberval and his brother perished, as is supposed, by shipwreck. 144 CANADA UNDER THE FRENCH. These failures, together with the distracted condition of France, withdrew the attention of government from schemes of transatlantic colonization. Yet the merchants of the great commercial towns had opened communications and even established posts for the pro secution of the fur trade ; thus keeping alive the spirit of adven ture until a more propitious season should occur for its develop ment. Accordingly, on the restoration of tranquillity under Henry IV., the Mar quis de la Roche undertook to settle America on a large scale. Not only did he receive .the countenance of the liberal monarch, but was also au thorized to levy troops, make war, build forts and cities, enact laws, and' to create lords, dukes, barons, and similar dignities. Several vessels were equipped, and crews provided, in part, from the prisons. Notwith standing, however, these favourable auspices, the expedition proved a total failure. Forty colonists were left on Sable Island ; and being neglected, suffered such hardships as caused them to sigh even for their dungeons. In this deplorable condition they remained seven years," at which time they were visited by the Norman pilot, Che- dotel, who found but twelve alive. These were taken to France and munificently rewarded by the king. Meanwhile, La Roche, being thwarted in his plans, died of vexation. Some time after this ill-starred enterprise, two settlements were attempted by Chauvin of Rouen and Pontgrave of St. Malo. Some houses were built, and trade established with the Indians ; but no permanent station was built. These repeated failures could not damp the spirit of the French people ; and now a more propitious era was dawning upon them. The Commander de Chaste, governor of Dieppe, planned an enter prise, in which he was joined by several merchants, among whom was Samuel Champlain, " the father of the French settlements in America." He and Pontgrave ascended the St. Lawrence as far as the Sault St. Louis ; but, finding it impossible to pass that cataract, they with some difficulty reached the height above it, making the HENRY IV. FOUNDING .OF QUEBEC. 145 CHAMPLAIN ASCENDING THE ST. LAWRENOE. best observations they could on the river and country. On return ing to France, he found De- Chaste dead ; but he was flatteringly re ceived by the king, and ever after exerted much influence in the colonial affairs of the crown. An opulent gentleman, and especial favourite of Henry, named De Monts, now undertook to prosecute the enterprise commenced by De Chaste. His expedition was on a more extensive scale than any preceding one ; and its success was proportionate to the wishes of the proprietor. The first voyage, however, was disastrous : although the company left on Nova Scotia were ultimately the means of founding the important colony of Acadia. De Monts was prevented from accompanying the second expedi tion, which consisted of two Vessels, and the command was intrusted to Champlain. He sailed from Honfleur on the 13th of April; 1608, and on the 3d of June reached Tadoussac. The port of this" place was tolerably safe ; but the' shore consisted only of dreary rocks and sands, scantily clothed with larch and pine. Ascending the St. Lawrence, the company passed the isle of Orleans, and soon after reached a hill called, by the natives, Quebec. On this spot, Cham- plain laid the foundations (July 13, 1608) of the modern capital of British America. - Here they passed the winter, and sowed some grain; for which they found the soil well adapted. 18 N 146 CANADA UNDER THE FRENCH. As soon as the season admitted, Champlain resumed his voya^ up the river, between banks covered with noble forests. At the isle of St. Eloi, twenty-five leagues above Quebec, he met a number of Algonquin Indians, who were proceeding against the Iroquois. Champlain, with a zeal strangely contrasting with his former pru dence, joined this party, and after a tedious journey, the allied forces came, in sight of their enemy (June 29). The Iroquois were de feated, and Champlain, wjth his new allies,^, returned to Quebec. Not long after, he returned to France, in ord'er to solicit more ad venturers. During his absence, important changes respecting his colony had been transpiring. De Month's com mission had been revoked, and with it the exclusive monopoly of the fur trade. This having formed a principal motive among the settlers, its repeal was regarded as exceed ingly disastrous, if not fatal, to their future prospects. The energy of Champlain overcame this difficulty. An agreement was made with some traders at Rochelle, to give them the use of his building at Quebec, as a depot for their goods ; while- they, by way of recompense, engaged to assist him in his plans of colonization. By this means, in 1610, Champlain was fitted out with a considerable reinforcement of men and supplies. On his return to the St. Lawrence, he received an application from the Algonquins to assist them in a fresh dispute — they promis ing to join him with four hundred men at the mouth of the Iroquois river. He complied with the request, marched with his allies against the hostile tribe, and, after a severe battle, utterly defeated them. Champlain soon after sailed for Europe, taking with him a native Indian. In 1611, Champlain again reached .America, bringing with him the young Indian. On the 28th of May, he arrived at the place of rendezvPus appointed for another warlike expedition ; but, not find ing the savages, he employed his time in choosing a spot for a new AN IROQUOIS INDIAN. FOUNDING OF MONTREAL. 147 m H m ^^^^Sl!M»S ^ Wife PLACE D'ARMES, MONTREAL. settlement, higher up the river than Quebec. After a careful sur vey, he fixed upon ground in the vicinity of an eminence, which he denominated Mont Royal ; and the choice has been amply justified by the prosperity to which this place, now named Montreal, has attained. He cleared a considerable space, sowed some grain, and enclosed it by a wall of earth. A distressing accident soon after wards occurred, by which Savignon, the Indian who had accom panied him to France, Louis, a European, and a native chief named Outetoncos, were tossed in a whirlpool, while descending the river, and both the latter drowned. On coming to the spot, Champlain could scarcely believe it possible that any person should' have attempted to pass so formidable a rapid. On the 13th of June, a party of friendly Indians appeared' and evinced much pleasure at the sight of their countryman, who gave the mgst favourable report of the treatment he had received in France ; the allies then unfolded the cause of their delay in meeting at the time appointed. A prisoner having escaped the previous year, had spread the report, that the French, having designed to espouse the cause of the Iroquois, were coming in great force to exterminate the Algonquin nation. The French leader bitterly com plained of their having listened to such a rumour, which all his actions belied. A perfect reconciliation was then effected, and both 148 • CANADA UNDER THE FRENCH. parties solemnly declared their determination of adhering to their alliance, and aiding, to the utmost of their power, the design of the French leader to penetrate into the interior. Champlain received from his allies very extensive information respecting the continent, as far south as the Gulf of Mexico. They acquiesced in his proposal of returning with forty or fifty of his people to prosecute discoveries, and, if possible, to form( settlements in the interior. For some reason not explained, the war with the Iroquois appears to have been dropped ; but the Algonquins re quested that a French youth should accompany them, and make observations upon their territory and tribe. They asked' their visitor to use his influence in order to dissuade one .of their bravest war riors, who had been three times made prisoner by the Iroquois, and as often escaped, to relinquish the purpose he had now formed of setting out with only nine companions, to attack the enemy, and avenge his former wrongs. Attempts were made to divert him from so rash a purpose ; but, exhibiting his fingers partly cut off, and his whole body covered with wounds, he declared it impossible to live unless he obtained revenge. Champlain now returned to France, where he found the interests of the colony in a very unsettled state. De Monts resigned the whole business into his hands, who was fortunate enough to secure an influential patron in the Count de Soissons, who was appointed lieutenant-general of New France, the functions of which high office were delegated, by a formal agreement, to Champlain. Soon after, the count died ;' but his place was well supplied by the Prince of Conde. Champlain was confirmed in his former authority. jEW FRANCE was again visited by Champlain. In the beginning of March, 1613, he sailed from Hon fleur, and arrived at Quebec on the 7th of May. His aim was now different from that of former expeditions. Among the objects of adventure in that age, a favour ite one was a north-west passage to China, and every thing connected with the report of a sea beyond Canada inspired the greatest hopes. A Frenchman, named Nicholas de Vignau, who had spent a winter among the savages, reported that the Ottawa river issued from a lake connected with the North Sea; that he had visited its shores and beheld there the wreck of an English vessel. This news ap peared so doubtful that the man was compelled to sign his declara tion before two notaries, and with the assurance of being hung in DISCOVERIES OF CHAMPLAIN. 149 case of being detected in an attempt to deceive. Champlain then recommenced his voyage, and, on the 21st of May, arrived at the Fall of St. Louis. Hete, with bu,t two canoes containing four Frenchmen and one native, he pushed forward, on an unknown river, boiling with eddies and cataracts, skirted by craggy rocks, whose forests stretched an unknown distance into the interior, and where, for every mile, they1 knew not but that an enemy was silently following them as they glided into some snare. At length, they reached the abode of Tessonat, a friendly chief, whose country was only eight days' sail from that of the Nipissings, where the sup posed shipwreck occurred. HE people received the French adven turer courteously, calling together, at his request, a solemn council. With re luctance, however, that body consented to aid his expe dition ; and, on being a ¦ second time assembled, the chiefs demanded on what grounds so momentous an enterprise was to be under taken. On hearing of De Vignau/they called on him to say if he had ever made such a journey ; and when, after long hesitation, he answered in the affirmative, they raised loud and fierce cries, de claring that he was speaking falsely, having never passed beyond their country, and that he should be tortured to death for having so grossly deceived his chief. Seeing his follower confused, Cham plain took him aside, and adjured him to tell the truth. Recovering confidence, he persisted in his former declarations ; and the com mander, on returning to the council, referred to the interior sea, the shipwreck, and other confirmations of his subordinate's report. Al this, they shouted louder than ever, and commenced a close interro gation of the alleged traveller. The latter finally confessed that he had been attempting to deceive, and thus Champlain found, to his great mortification, that during the whole summer he had been toil ing for nothing. There was no alternative but to return down the Ottawa; in doing which he was joined by a considerable number of Indians who rendezvoused at the fall of St. Louis. After leaving wo Frenchmen with them to obtain a knowledge of the country, ,N3 150 CANADA UNDER THE FRENCH. GEORGE. Champlain sailed to Tadoussac, and hence to St. Malo, where he arrived August 26, 1614. He was soon enabled to equip another expedition, with which he arrived at Tadoussac, May 25, 1615. From hence he sailed to Que bec, and thence to the place of rendezvous, at St. Louis Falls. He found his allies prepared to embark in an expedition against the Iro quois, and without hesitation furnished them with a plan for the campaign. After a tedious voyage, the united forces reached Lake Nepissing, and were received by the tribe inhabiting its shores with cordiality. Proceeding onward, they reached a large body of water, named, by the Indians, Attigouantan, which appeared to be three hundred leagues in length, by fifty in breadth. It was, probably Lake Huron. After .quitting this, they struck into the interior, and came to a smaller expanse of water, finely diversified by islands, which seems to be Lake George. On its banks was the Iroquois fort, which, in expectation of an attack, had been rendered particularly strong. A brisk fire from the European weapons soon drove the garrison into their inner works, where, however, they defended themselves with a courage as heroic as it was unexpected. The Indian allies soon became discouraged, and retired, leaving the brunt of the battle to DISCOVERIES OF CHAMPLAIN. 151 RICHE LIEU. be sustained by Champlain and his few followers. He ;was twice wounded in the leg ; and an expected reinforcement of five hundred warriors having failed to arrive, the assault was discontinued. The whole party soon after effected a precipitate retreat. In the follow- ' ing spring, Champlain again sailed for Europe, and arrived at Hon fleur, September 10, 1616. The scheme of colonization was now interrupted by the intestine tumults of the mother country. The Prince of Conde was dis graced, and finally obliged to sell. his share in Canada to the Duke de Montmorency. Champlain was continued as lieutenant ; but it was not until 1620, that he was enabled, in company with his family, to return to Canada. Two years after, the Duke de Ventadour took charge, as a viceroy, of the affairs of New France, and, for the pur pose of converting the Indians,^sent some Jesuits to Canada. At the same time, a number of Calvinists, under their leader the Sieur de Caen, were actively engaged in the fur trade ; and the disputes between the two parties concerning religion greatly retarded the prosperity of the settlements. With a view to obviate all cause of dissension, the Cardinal de Richelieu established the company of New France. It consisted of one hundred associates, engaged to send three hundred tradesmen to Canada,' and supply their settlers with food, clothing, and imple ments for three years, and with land after that time. The priests were to have all expenses defrayed for fifteen years. The king 152 CANADA UNDER THE FRENCn. EXPEDITION OF SIR DAVID KIRKE.' reserved to himself supremacy in matters of faith ; homage as sove reign of the country ; the nomination of all commanders and offi cers of the forts ; and the appointing of all officers of justice,, when it should be necessary to establish courts of 4aw. The company, and their successors for ever, received the fort and settlements of Quebec, all New France, including Florida, with tlie countries along the course of the great river of Canada, and all rivers emptying into it, or into the sea, on both the eastern and western coasts'of the Continent, with all the harbours,- islands, mines, and rights of fish ery. Two ships of war were presented to the company by the king, the value of which was to be refunded if the company failed in sending at least fifteen hundred French inhabitants, of both sexes, to New France, during the first ten years. This instrument was signed April, 1627, and created among the friends of colonial prosperity the most flattering expectations. The administration under a viceroy being omitted, Champlain was con tinued as governor of Canada. At first, the colony was reduced to great distress, particularly through the capture of the first vessels sent from France with stores. This was effected by some English ships under Sir David Kirke. That officer even appeared with DEATH OF CHAMPLAIN. 153 his squadron before Quebec, and had the famished condition of the garrison at that time been known, he could easily have compelled a surrender. Besides the dangers from a foreign source, the prosper ity, of. the colony was retarded by the folly or corruption of the company's directors in France, so that even Champlain's powerful mind, so fertile in expedients on occasions of difficulty, was sub jected to vexatious mortifications, by orders and restrictions from the old country, and unfortunate circumstances in the new. In the midst of these perplexities, while' Champlain was reduced to the utmost extremity by the want of food, clothing', and imple ments, and exposed to repeated attacks from the Iroquois,' Sir David Kirke, at the head of an English squadron, again appeared before Quebec. The deplorable situation of the colony, and the very honourable terms proposed by the assailants, induced Champlain to surrender the fortress, with all Canada, to the crown of England. Kirke's generosity to the colonists induced them to remain ; and, in 1632, the treaty of St. Germains restored the whole territory to France. In the following year, Champlain arrived with a squadron and all necessary supplies. Measures were immediately adopted for maintaining harmony among the inhabitants, especially in reli gious matters, and affairs speedily assumed a more prosperous aspect. The- efforts of the Jesuits to inculcate morality among the inhabit ants, and their extraordinary perseverance in making discoveries and establishing missions — the regulation of their great college, founded in 1635, by Father Reni, Robault, and the fiefs which they obtained, contributed in no little degree to this result. |N 1635, Canada met with an irreparable loss in the death of Champlain. In establishing and supporting the colony, this energetic man had surmounted diffi culties which few would have encountered. His comprehensive grasp of intellect and sound judg ment enabled him to divine the future greatness of a region like Canada, and'stimulated him to untiring perseverance in prosecuting the vast design of its settlement. His sole; object during the greater part of his life was to found a colony, which he felt con fident would eventually attain to extraordinary power and grandeur. He was succeeded by M. de Montinagny, a well-meaning officer, but totally deficient in the experience, knowledge, and abilities of his predecessor. The colony, in consequence, began to decline. About this time, the Jesuits were busy in establishing schools and 154 CANADA UNDER THE FRENCH. NEW CATHEDRAL, MONTREAL. colleges throughout the province. In 1636, an institution for the instruction of the Indians was founded at Sillery, near Quebec. This was followed by the Convent of Su Ursula. The order of St. Sulpicius sent a mission to Canada, and a seminary was consecrated with great ceremony at Montreal. The Hotel Dieu was founded in 1644; the College of St. Sulpicius, in 1650 ; and the order of the Gray Sisters, in 1652. All the ancient religious edifices, however, are surpassed by the-'recently erected Cathedral of Montreal. The company of New France almost entirely neglected the terms of their charter ; and the Iroquois, taking advantage of the conse quent derangement of the colony, continued to harass the inhabit ants with unabated ferocity. The actual extinction of the settlement at Montreal was prevented only by the arrival of M. d'Aillebout (1647) with a reinforcement of a hundred men. More than ten years, after, the Marquis d'Argenson was appointed governor-general, and soon after, in company with the Abbe de Montigny, the apostolic vicar of the province, he landed at Quebec. Still the condition of the colony was wretched. The company entirely abandoned it. The Iroquois, who had spread terrible de struction among their old enemies, the Algonquins and Hurons, seemed also determined to exterminate the French. Several hundreds of their warriors kept Quebec in a state of almost actual siege, while another band massacred a great number of the settlers at Montreal. SMALL-POX AMONG THE INDIANS. 155 In this miserable condition, the energy of one man probably saved the colony This was the Baron d'Avangour. He was stern and rigid in the performance of duty ; but these qualities are necessary in such an extremity. He became governor in 1661, and commenced his administration by transmitting to the king an accurate account of the beauty and importance of the country, and its defenceless condi tion. So influential was this state ment to the king, that he immedi ately ordered four hundred troops, with the necessary supplies, to Ca nada, accompanied with a special commission. Their arrival infused new spirit among the colonists, en abling them, for the first time, to cultivate their lands with security. The 5th of February, 1663, is memorable for the occurrence of a fearful earthquake, which was felt at intervals with more or less in tensity for six months, and extended throughout the province. From this time until 167D, the affairs of the colony continued to improve, although occasionally disturbed by inroads from the Indians. In that year, the Church of Quebec was constituted a bishopric, and important measures were adopted for the better government of the country, and the maintenance of peace with the savages. But the enthusiastic efforts of fhe clerical orders for the conversion of the Indians, were suddenly interrupted by a fearful calamity, previously unknown in the western world. The small-pox made its appearance among the tribes north of the St. Lawrence, and, together with the use of ardent spirits, destroyed a greater number of the aborigines of North America than war or all the diseases to which they were previously subjected. In 1672, Fort Frontenac was built on the spot where Kingston now stands ; and, not long after, the illustrious man whose name it bears, was appointed gpvernor of Canada. During his administra tion, and that of his predecessor, M. de Courcelles, the French ex plored the greater part of Canada, and the savages were taught to INDIAN WARRIOR. 156 CANADA UNDER THE FRENCH. Ii W^L 'mkmm CITADEL OT KINGSTON TSOM THE ST. LAWRENCE. regard the Europeans with some degree of awe. M. Perfot, an indefatigable traveller, visited all the nations in the vicinity of the Great Lakes. The Falls of St. Mary were surrendered to the French sovereign, and a cross erected there, on which were placed the national arms. Toward the close of Frontenac's administration, fresh difficulties occurred with the Iroquois, chiefly through the influence of the English traders, who were anxious to secure the fur trade to them selves. M. de la Barre succeeded Frontenac, in 1682, at which time the Iroquois had assumed such a tone of defiance, and made, such formidable preparations, that a general war with the Indians seemed inevitable. The new governor found himself in a critical situation, more especially as the West India Company, in whose hands Canada had been placed, cared little for their trust, so long as they could monopolize the fur trade. The whole population num bered but nine th6usand inhabitants. To prevent the utter exter mination of these, some decisive measure was necessary ; and, ac cordingly, De la Barre determined on invading the hostile Indians themselves. This he did with one thousand troops ; but the expe dition resulted in nothing more than an unsatisfactory negotiation. The marquis was soon afterwards succeeded by M. de Nouville. "WARS WITH THE IROQUOIS. 157 This officer appears to have entered upon the duties of his station with a fixed determination to destroy the Iroquois as a nation. The means he took to accomplish this object were as active as they were unscrupulous. Having brought with him a considerable reinforce ment, he proceeded with two thou sand troops to Cataraqui, where, through the influence of the Jesu its, he induced many of the hostile chiefs to meet him at Fort Fronte- nac. These were immediately seized,- loaded with irons, and sent to France to be employed in the galleys. After this act, the go vernor began the erection of a fort at Niagara, notwithstanding his being notified of a treaty having been concluded between France and England, and in direct opposi tion to the remonstrance of the go vernor of New York. These proceedings aroused the whole nation of Iroquois to arms. Fort Frontenac was attacked by their warriors, and the' surrounding plantations desolated ; and a French bark, laden with provisions and stores, was captured on Lake Ontario. These successful efforts were attended by a policy, singu larly contrasting with the- usual want of system characteristic of savage warfare. Deputies were sent to treat with De Nouville ; but they were attended by five hundred warriors ; while, in case of the rejection of their terms, no less than twelve hundred held themselves in readiness, near Montreal, to fall upon the settlements, set fire to the buildings and corn-fields, aiid scalp the inhabitants. Under these circumstances, the lofty tone of the Indian orator, in stating the con dition of his nation, formed no obstacle to the speedy acceptance of the proffered peace, and of the demand that the chiefs. then in sla very should be sent for without delay. Thus, to all appearances, the difficulties under which the colony had long laboured were soon to be adjusted ; an unforeseen event dissipated these hopes, and rekindled the flames of war. Le Rat. the principal chieftain of the Hurons, perceived the danger to which his tribe would be exposed, should their old enemy conclude a peace o FEMALE IROQUOIS. 158 CANADA UNDER THE FRENCH. with the French ; and with a refinement of treachery which would not disgrace the most artful politician of Europe, he formed a scheme to prevent it. Learning that a party*of the Iroquois deputies were to land at the cascades of the St. Lawrence, on their way to Mon treal ; he and a" party of his countrymen lay in ambush and killed or captured them as they successively disembarked. He then in formed the prisoners that this crime had been committed at the insti gation of the governor, and that they were to be conveyed to Mon treal and hung. On being informed of the treaty, he feigned the greatest astonishment, and loudly exclaimed against the Frenchman s treachery, which had made him its tool. He then sent them home, retaining one to supply the place of a warrior whom he had lost. The governor was entirely ignorant of this transaction, and still waited for the deputies of his new allies. - In this frame of mind, he was visited by Le Rat, and through the artful representations of that warrior, induced to -shoot the Iroquois who had been substituted for the slain Huron. Le Rat took care that an old Iroquois slave in his possession should witness this execution, although the causes of it WARS WITH THE IROQUOIS. 159 CANADIAN LOG HUT. were carefully concealed ; and he was then sent immediately to his own tribe to report that even this solitary Iroquois, notwithstanding all the remonstrances of Le Rat, could not be saved from the go vernor's fury. It is easy to conceive the indignation of the Iroquois when they . heard of the massacre at the Cascades ; but the last stroke of Le Rat's policy roused every element of war and destruction. The whole tribe rushed to arms ; and descending on the island of Mon treal, laid it waste by fire and sword, carrying off two hundred pri soners. The Fort at Cataraqui, like that at Niagara, was blown up and abandoned. The colony was now in a perilous condition ; its very existence was threatened ; and some officer possessing energy of character and address in dealing with the savages, was now imperatively de manded. These qualities were united in the Count de Frontenac, who, during his former administration, had made himself both be loved and feared by the surrounding tribes. The few errors which led to his recall, experience, it was hoped, would enable him to avoid. He took out with him the captive chiefs which his prede cessor had so unjustly seized, behaving towards them in so fascinat ing a manner as completely to gain their favour. Oureouhare, tho principal one, remained ever after most strongly attached to him. 160 CANADA UNDER THE FRENCH. OUREOUHARE '¦# Frontenac arrived in 1689, and endeavoured to open a negotiation with the Iroquois, in which he was seconded by the captive chiefs. The Iroquois, however, refused to treat. They complained of the former governor's treachery, and, although professing respect for the count, they argued that they were unable to perceive how the gover norship could ever be given into different hands. A second attempt on the part of Frontenac was attended with like success. Two cir cumstances emboldened the Iroquois to assume this high tone; One was, the war between France and England, consequent to the former power espousing the cause of James IL, and which enabled the Five Nations to depend on the cordial co-operation of both the Eng lish and Dutch. The other, the treaty lately concluded with the Ottawas, by which .that tribe had severed themselves from the French. Under these perplexing circumstances, Frontenac formed the bold resolution to invade the English colonies, and, by striking a sudden blow, to teach the savages that they were dealing with an enemy who could command their respect. Accordingly, he fitted out three FRENCH AND ENGLISH WARS. 161. expeditions (1690) destined to act against Maine, New York, and New Hampshire. Casco and Salmon Falls were surprised and burnt ; and, soon after, the third party entered Schenectady at dead of night, completely surprised it, burnt the dwellings, and massacred many of the inhabitants. This daring measure roused the English colonists, and a project was formed for the complete reduction of Canada. An expedition, under Sir William Phipps, sailed from Boston against Quebec ; and a second proceeded by land towards Montreal. After capturing Acadia and Newfoundland, Phipps appeared before Quebec, and summoned it to surrender. Although the garrison had been almost completely surprised, a haughty refusal was returned ; and after some vain efforts both by sea and land, the expedition returned in disgrace. A like result attended the attack on Montreal. A similar invasion the next year by the English and Mohawks, under Major Schuyler, was also unsuccessful. These attempts were followed by inconsiderable efforts of both parties, until the year 1696, when Frontenac resolved on an invasion of the English territory with his wSiole force. Crossing Lake Onta rio and up the Oswego, he entered the country of the Onpndagas, laid it waste, together with that of the Cayugas, and then returned, with but little interruption, to Montreal. The peace of Ryswick (1679) put an end to these desultory invasions and soon after nego tiations were commenced with the Iroquois. Frontenac died in 1698, but a treaty was concluded by his successor, Callieres, in 1700, and the prisoners of both parties released. Queen Anne's war, in 1702, renewed the dangers and exertions of the American colonies. The English, intoxicated by their successes in Europe, commenced a systematic plan for the complete reduction of Canada. The Iroquois, however, refused to join them, wisely maintaining a strict neutrality. Their efforts were signally unsuc cessful, and the French power in the New World was established on a firmer base than ever. A harassing war with the Fox Indians interrupted the intercourse with Louisiana, but these savages were at length totally defeated. From the treaty of Utrecht (1713) until the commencement of the Seven Years' War, Canada continued to advance in prosperity, and finally secured the friendship and co-operation of nearly all the neighbouring Indians. Various forts were erected at different places, and circumstances were already favouring the grand scheme 21 02 162 CANADA UNDER THE FRENCH. of uniting Canada and Louisiana, which, at a subsequent period, was fully accomplished, and which eventuated in the loss of Canada and its neighbouring provinces. The events which immediately preceded the conquest of Canada, by the united forces of Great Britain and her colonies, will be fully narrated in a subsequent chapter, in connection with the history of those British colonies which eventually formed the republic of the United States. DANOE OF OANADIAN HABITANS BA.Y OP .QUEBEC. CHAPTER X. MINOR PROVINCES OF BRITISH AMERICA. I. NOVA SCOTIA. HE British possessions in America, exclu sive of Canada, may be divided into two portions. One embraces the maritime provinces of New Brunswick, Nova Sco tia, Newfoundland, and the islands in their vicinity. These are all of pohtical and financial importance, commensurate with their size and natural advantages. The second portion includes the vast re gion lying north of Canada, a part of the continent little known, inhabited by numerous tribes of Indians, and hitherto valuable only for its furs. It is divided by Hudson's Bay into Labrador and New Britain. These shores were the first towards which voyages of discovery 163 164 BRITISH PROVINCES. gasp INDIAN VILLAGE ON THE ST. LA^RENOI in North America were directed. The Cabots, Cortereal, and Ver azzano, pursued their course, exclusively, either along them or the neighbouring part of the United States. The unsuccessful attempts of Mr. Hore and Sir Humphrey Gilbert, in 1536 and 1578, will be noticed in a subsequent chapter. Their want of success damped for a while the spirit of enterprise among the English. Other nations, however, had long looked toward the northern and middle shores of America with greedy eyes. The French, under Verazzano, as we have already seen, had sailed along the coast, now forming the boundary of the United States, from Flo rida to New England ; and the Spanish were only prevented from following the same track, by their inordinate grasping after wealth, which invariably precluded any permanent friendly intercourse with the natives. France resumed her efforts before the close of the six teenth, century. In 1603, a gentleman, named De Monts, obtained from Henry IV. privilege to settle and govern the country near New foundland, with the monopoly of the fur trade. He sailed with foul vessels, and on the 16th of May, 1604, reached Nova Scotia. Here he confiscated -the vessel and effects of a French captain, whom he found engaged in trade. After entering the Bay of Fundy and making a fruitless attempt to penetrate through it into the St. Law- NOVA SCOTIA. 165 SETTLEMENT OF PORT ROYAL. rence, he fixed on an island near the mouth of the St. Croix, as a place of settlement. The crew cultivated a piece of ground,' and erected a fort with neat apartments and a chapel. But winter set in with a severity for which they were unprepared. Their fuel was soon exhausted. They were compelled to drink snow-water, and subsist entirely on salted provisions, which at length brought on the scurvy in its most aggravated form. Their sufferings during the winter were appalling. At the end of this season, De Monts sailed southward in search of a milder climate. He reached Cape Cod, but the numerous tribes of hostile Indians in this neighbourhood were too strong for his small party. He returned to St. Croix, and, having obtained a sea sonable reinforcement, removed to a spot on the Bay of Fundy, which, when formerly passed, had appeared very desirable. This he named Port Royal. The whole country, including New Bruns wick, was styled Acadia. De Monts then repaired to France for further supplies ; but his people having raised grain' and vegetables and procured abundance of venison, passed two winters very agree ably. But these flattering prospects were blasted by an act of go vernment, depriving De Monts of all his privileges. Soon after, Captain Argall, being on a voyage in that region, invaded the pro- 166 BRITISH PROVINCES. vince without the least provocation, attacked a small settlement named La Have, and carried the inhabitants to Virginia. He at tempted to excuse this act by alleging that they were pirates ; but when the authorities of Jamestown would have hung them, he con fessed the real nature of his act. So far from discountenancing this piece of injustice, the British adopted it as a ground to claim the whole of Acadia. .HESE efforts of England's great rival roused the spirit of , the British. In 1621, Sir William Alexander- received 'a grant of the territory from the St. Croix. to the St. Lawrence, together with the usual extravagant and ridiculous powers. He sent out an expedition in 1622. In consequence of various delays, the naviga tors could not, in the first year, >pass beyond Newfoundland, where they were obliged to winter. In the following spring, they coasted along the ceded country, but found all its principal points, including Port Royal, re-occupied by French settlers. They, therefore, re turned to England and spread the most flattering reports of the value and beauty of Acadia. This result so far pleased the proprie tor, that, when war broke out with France, he sent out a squadron (1627) under his eldest son, by which the French settlements were speedily reduced. The subsequent conquest of Canada, in 1629, gave Great Britain full possession of this part of the continent. It was restored to France by the treaty of St. Germains, 1632. The court of Paris having regained possession of the territory, divided it (1634) among three individuals. A young man, named La Tour, received the middle districts ; one Denys the northern ; and Raziilai the southern. ' The latter was succeeded by Daubre de Charnise, between whom and La Tour there arose an inveterate feud. The contest was waged with relentless animosity. La Tour received some assistance from Boston, but more from his wife, who, being attacked during her husband's absence, beat off the assailants with great loss. She was afterwards surprised by Charnise, the fort taken, and the garrison hanged. Madame de la Tour was her self so ill-treated, that she died with vexation. Soon after this perfidious transaction, Charnise died, and La Tour returned to France. Here he sought to heal the feud by marrying the widow of his rival ; but when affairs appeared in an amicable troin, Le Borgne, an assumed creditor of Charnise, appeared, claim- NOVA SCOTIA. 167 ing his possessions, and accusing La Tour of heresy. He thus ma naged to strip the latter of his rights, and then attacking Denys, he took him prisoner, destroyed La Have, took possession of Port Royal, and prepared to attack La Tour in St. John. But a new rival was at hand, far more powerful than either or both of the French proprietors. OLIVER CROMWELL, having seized the reins of power in England, declared war against France, and waged it vigorously, with the spe cial view of extending his foreign possessions. In 1654, he despatched an expedition against Nova Scotia, under the command of Major Sedge- wick. There was not sufficient force, even if it had been united, to resist that officer ; so that, after defeating La Tour, he advanced against Port Royal, where La Borgne by no means made that resistance which had been expected from his previous resolution. He soon yielded the place, and his son, endeavouring to fortify himself at La Have, was made prisoner. La Tour, who always accommodated himself to circumstances, seeing the country in possession of the English, hastened to make his submission, and urged his claim, founded on former transac tions between his father and Lord Stirling. He was favourably list ened to; and in conjunction with Temple, afterwards Sir Thomas, and William Crowne, persons probably of great interest with the Protector, obtained a grant of the greater part of the country. The former bought up the share of La Tour, spent £16,000 on fortifica tions, and opened a very advantageous trade and fishery. But all his prospects were blasted by the treaty of Breda, concluded by Charles II. in 1667, by virtue of which Nova Scotia was again made over to France. Temple endeavoured to save something by insist ing on a distinction between the limits of Nova Scotia and Acadia ; but not being supported by his government, he was obliged to deliver up all. The French thus resumed full possession of the colony, which, in fact, they had almost exclusively occupied, though in a slight and careless manner ; for, from the absence of gold and silver, and even or any rich marketable produce, it was viewed as a barren and unpro mising settlement. A few straggling immigrants stationed them selves from time to time along the coast; and yet, according to an 168 BRITISH PROVIN ^E3.,. FISHING STATION ON THE COAST OF NOVA SOOTIA enumeration made about 1680, the whole population did not exceed nine hundred. Even the fishery, the only productive branch, was carried on by the English. A few forts were scattered at wide inter vals ; but so weak and small, that two of them were taken and plun dered by a single piratical vessel of no great force. In this situation, after the breaking out of the war consequent upon the Revolution of 1688, Acadia' appeared an easy conquest. The achievement was assigned to Massachusetts, the resources of which were by no means ample ; but the commander, Sir William Phipps, contrived to equip an expedition of seven hundred men. On the 20th of May, 1690, he appeared before Port Royal. It soon surrendered on advantageous terms, which Phipps, discovering that the place was weaker than he had supposed, did not faithfully observe. He merely dismantled the fortress, and left the country a prey to pirates, by whom it was unmercifully ravaged. The Che valier Villabon, therefore, who arrived soon after from France, re conquered it, by simply pulling down the English and hoisting the French flag. The neighbouring Indians, always partial to his coun- NOVA SCOTIA. 169 MARLBOROUGH. trymen, were easily induced to join them against the enemy, and aided in capturing the strong frontier fortress of Pemaquid, where these savage warriors were guilty of some of their usual acts of cruelty. The Bostonians, thus roused, sent a body of five hundred men under Colonel Church, who soon regained the country, with the exception of one fort on the St. John. He then called on the Aca- dians to join him against the Indians, their former allies, and on their refusal, plundered and burned many of their habitations. The situation of these colonists, while passing continually from hand to hand, was truly lamentable. They were naturally and strongly at tached to France, their native country ; yet the English, after the most slight and partial conquest, claimed of them all the duties of British subjects, and, on failure, inflicted the wonted penalties of rebellion. No attempts were made to wrest the province out of the hands of Britain till the treaty of Ryswick, in 1696, when William, having secured his most essential objects, followed the usual policy of allowing the French to resume this distant and little valued pos session. This peace was speedily succeeded, in 1702, by the memorable war of the Spanish Succession under Queen Anne. That contest, distinguished in Europe by the victories of Marlborough, and other splendid events, was also marked by an increased importance at tached to colonial acquisitions ; while the settlers in North America seemed to feel, even more deeply than their countrymen at home, the animosity which divided the two nations. The ignorant and extrava- 170 BRITISH PROVINCES. gant grants made by each party, were found, as discovery extended, more and more 'to clash with each other, and afforded constant pre- texts for hostility. The reduction of Nova Scotia was again left to Massachusetts ; and she was encouraged to undertake it by the assurance, that what should be gained by arms would not again be sacrificed by treaty. The first expedition, which consisted of five hundred and fifty men, was despatched in 1704, under Colonel Church, who found little resistance while committing ravages which did honour neither to himself nor his country. Three years after wards, a force of a thousand soldiers was sent to complete' the con quest of the country ; but Subercase, the French commandant at Port Royal, conducted the defence of that place' with suth spirit and abi lity, that the assailants were twice obliged to raise the siege with considerable loss. The determination of th6 New Englanders, however, could not be shaken. After two years spent in preparation, they assembled a much larger force, consisting of five regiments, four of them levied in the colony. It was placed under the command of General Ni cholson, who arrived at Port Royal, on the 24th of September, 17.10, when Subercase, with a garrison of only two hundred and sixty, declining to attempt a vain resistance, obtained an honourable capi tulation. The troops marched out with the hono.urs of war, and were conveyed to France. The deed of surrender, signed on the 2d of October, forms the era when, after so many vicissitudes, Nova Scotia was permanently annexed to the British crown. The intelligence of this disaster was received at Paris with a regret not before felt on similar occasions ; it being clearly foreseen, that if the country could not be reconquered by force of arms, there was no hope of regaining it by treaty. Yet the urgent state of affairs in Europe rendered it impossible to detach from that quarter any considerable expedition ; and the governor of Canada was de terred from hostile operations by a threatened invasion' of his own territory. Overtures were made to the merchants of Rochelle to equip an armament, which would be rewarded by large and profit able establishments on the coast ; but they rightly judged that the expense of such an enterprise, would be heavy, and the profit doubt ful. The English, however, were considerably harassed by risings among the native French and Indians, down to the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. Although that treaty did not fulfil all that was expected, it secured to Britain the full sovereignty of Nova Scotia, with the ex- N9VA SCOTIA. 171 ception of Cape Breton and the other islands in the gulf of St. Law rence. ENERAL NICHOLSON, who had con quered the country, was, in 1714, appointed governor,, and five years afterwards was succeeded by Colonel Phillips. The name of the capital was changed from Port Royal to Annapolis. But though the right of Britain to Nova Scotia was now fully ac knowledged, she found it a- possession not a little troublesome. Attempts were made to attract settlers both from England and the American colonies ; but, owing to the rigour of the climate and the hostility of the two races by which it was peopled, only a few could be induced to remain in the country. The Indians were beyond measure astonished on being informed that they were subjects of the King of Great Britain, transferred to him by a treaty to which they were not parties. On their inquiring whether such an arrangement had really been made, the French commanders informed them that they had never been mentioned in the treaty, and consequently were considered an independent people ; while the British maintained that they were, as a matter of course, made over along with the territory. The Indians set at naught this last conclusion, and carried on a long and desperate war, in which their rapid movements, and skill in the arts of surprise, enabled them to gain many advantages. In 1720, they plundered a large esta blishment at Canseau, carrying off fish and merchandise to the value of £20,000 ; and in 1723, they captured at the same place seventeen sail of vessels, with numerous prisoners. The British inhabitants of Nova Scotia were obliged to solicit the aid of Massa chusetts, which, in 1728, sent a body of troops against the chief Indian fort on the Kennebeck. It was stormed, the warriors pur sued with great slaughter, and Ralle, their Catholic missionary, put to death, it is alleged, with circumstances of great cruelty. The savages were thus for some time overawed, though they eagerly watched an opportunity of renewing hostilities. After an unusually long peace, the habitual enmity of the two nations broke out in a fresh war, declared by France, in March, 1744. Quesnel, governor of Cape Breton, immediately fitted out expeditions which took Canseau, and twice laid siege to Annapolis, but without success. These movements were condemned by the 172 BRITISH PROVINCES. court as premature, and tending to endanger the safety of Louis bourg, which was then ill prepared for defence. That city, well situated for fishing, though in a barren country, had been fortified by the French at an expense of £ 1,200,000, with a view to make it the bulwark of their possessions in North America. It was surrounded by a stone wail, two miles and a half in circuit, and by' a ditch eighty feet wide. When, therefore, Shirley, governor of New Eng land, proposed to the council the expediency of reducing it* the plan was at first rejected as visionary ; though, on reconsideration, it was carried by a single vote. Extraordinary zeal, corresponding to the magnitude of the enterprise, was employed in the preparation ; and yet the force destined against this great fortress, garrisoned by regu lar troops, consisted entirely of militia and volunteers, hastily levied and led on by Colonel William Pepperel, a gentleman extensively engaged in commerce. Massachusetts furnished three thousand two hundred men, Connecticut five hundred, and New Hampshire three hundred. They were animated with a species of religious enthu siasm, as entering on an anti-papal war. Mr.' Whitefield, a cele brated Methodist preacher, furnished a motto,.and a chaplain carried on his shoulder a hatchet to demolish the images. The army em barked in a number of small vessels, and early in April, 1745, arrived at Canseau. Here they were detained three weeks ; but the French were so little .on their guard, that they learned nothing of the presence of an enemy even when, in their' close vicinity. Application had been made to Commodore Warren, then on the West India station, for the assistance of the, fleet ; but to Shirley's great disappointment, he did not consider himself authorized to take such a step. This, however, was concealed from the troops ; and on their arrival at Canseau, they were gratified to find the commo dore, who, in consequence of subsequent instructions, had come to join them. On the 30th Of April, the English came in view of Louisbourg, and, being quite unexpected, easily effected a landing ; they even took a battery, and turned the guns against the city. they had, nevertheless, to sustain during a fortnight the laborious task of drawing cannon through a morass, where they were up to the -knees in mud, and exposed to the enemy's fire. It was the 28th of May before the batteries could be completed, and active opera tions commenced ; and ,such was the strength of the place, that the besiegers Were repulsed in five successive attacks, in the last of which, they lost a hundred and eighty-nine men. But the works NOVA SCOTIA. 173 W$Sfe v w fill rirararBNPIw SURRENDER OF LOUISBOURG. were now considerably damaged, and Warren having captured the Vigilant, a line-of-battle ship, containing five hundred and sixty men and supplies, Duchambon, the governor, lost courage, and capitulated on the 18th of June. On viewing the strength of the fortress, the victors were perfectly astonished at their success ; and the French commander excused himself on account of the mutinous disposition of his garrison. The achievement was highly creditable to a body of merchants and husbandmen, destitute of either skill or experience in military affairs. The reduction of the island of St. John, now Prince Edward, soon followed, and by hoisting the French flag from the captured ports, the colonists decoyed into them a South Sea ves sel, and two East India ships, the cargoes of which were valued at ,6600,000. ?2 174 BRITISH PROVINCES. LOUIS IV. Extraordinary chagrin was felt by the court of Louis XV. at a disaster for which they must have been lit prepared. To retrieve it, an expe dition was fitted out on so great a scale as to render the American seas, for the first time, the main theatre of war. It consisted of seventy ships, including eleven of the line, having on board upwards of three thousand disciplined troops. Being placed under the Duke d'Anville, an officer of great military reputation, it was intended first to reduce Louis- bourg, then Annapolis, next Boston, afterwards to range along Ihe whole coast of North America, and finally to visit the West Indies. Early in the summerof U46, the armament sailed from Brest, and p'assed, unnoticed, a British squad ron, placed to observe its motions. Admiral Lestocq. left Portsmouth in pursuit, but was repeatedly driven back by contrary winds, and hence the colonies were left to depend on their own resources. Here, however, the good fortune of the French commander termi nated. He had a most tedious and tempestuous passage, being ninety days in reaching Chebucto ; and by that time four ships of the line were so shattered as to be obliged to return to Europe, while three, sent under Admiral Conflans, by the West Indies, had touched at the point of rendezvous, but not finding the fleet, had also set sail homewards. D'AnviUe, overpowered, it should seem, by distress and disappointment, died suddenly ; and Destournelle, the vice- admiral, in a few days became delirious, and ran himself through the body. In these calamitous circumstances, it was out of the _ question to attempt Louisbourg ; but De la Jonquiere, governor of Canada, having assumed the command, determined to proceed against Annapolis. In rounding Cape Sable, however, he had to sustain a fresh tempest, which so dispersed and injured the remain ing ships of the fleet, that they instantly steered for Europe. Thus this mighty prmament, which was expected! to effect the conquest of all North America, was completely baffled, without meeting an enemy. The colonists regarded it as a special interposition of Pro vidence, and celebrated the event by a general thanksgiving. NOVA SCOTIA. 175 The French, however, were indefatigable. De la Jonquiere was immediately sent out with thirty-eight sail ; but having on his way encountered Admirals Anson and Warren, he was completely de feated, losing a ship of the line, and six richly laden East Indiamen which he had under convoy. The settlers then could not allow themselves to doubt, that in the treaty now negotiating, Cape Breton and Louisbourg, so important for the safety as well as compactness of their territory, would be' secured to them. But the British minis try, with a view to preserve entire the possessions of their ally, the empress queen; and to maintain the balance of power in Europe, agreed to restore these conquesfs. However sound might be this policy in itself, its result could not fail to prove very mortifying to the American provincials, who had made the acquisition by so bril liant an exertion of courage and enterprise. Britain now began to pay more attention to Nova Scotia. Hitherto it had been quite a French country, peopled and cultivated through out by that hostile nation. It was suggested, that of the large num ber of soldiers and sailors discharged in consequence of the peace, a part might with great advantage be located as agriculturists, and thereby provide the colony with an English population. This pro ject was embraced with ardour by the Earl of Halifax, then presi dent of the Board of Trade and Plantations. Fifty acres were allowed to every private, with ten additional for each member of his family. A higher allowance was granted to officers, in proportion to their rank, till it amounted to six hundred for all above that of captain. By this encouragement, three thousand seven hundred and sixty adventurers, with their families, were induced to embark in May, 1749. They were landed, not at Annapolis, but at Che- bucto, named henceforth Halifax, after the patron of the expedition. The only inhabitants visible were small bands of savages, who glanced on them with a jealous and hostile eye, and then fled into the interior^ The Honourable Edward Cornwallis, who had been appointed governor, nevertheless, inspired the settlers with a spirit of activity and emulation ; planks and other materials were procured from New England ; and, before winter, a neat wooden town, with spa cious and regular streets, had been reared. The enforced idleness of that season was not a little dangerous to many of the immigrants. However, a strict police was established; the government was lodged in a council of six, who, uniting the executive with legisla tive and judicial functions, formed a somewhat arbitrary body ; but 176 BRITISH PROVINCES. ^=^i 11,1" UIS«&g^S5ep?awgr;>J« HALIFAX there were scarcely materials as yet for any other. Parliament con tinued to support the colony by annual grants, which, in 1755, had amounted to the enormous sum of £415,584. Although the settlers seemed thus firmly established, they soon found themselves in an uneasy and difficult position. The Indians made at first some friendly overtures ; but the influence of their old allies is said to have soon determined them to resume a system of the most active hostility. The English, notwithstanding their military habits, were ill-prepared to meet the desultory warfare of enemies who, stealing through the depth of swamps and thickets by paths which none but themselves could tread, appeared, struck the blow, and vanished. They even made attacks upon Halifax; and the colonists could not remove from that place singly or in small parties^ for extending or improving their settlement, without imminent peril. When made captive, their fate was dreadful — scalping, torture, and death ; or, if spared, they were dragged by long marches through trackless forests, suffering intolerable hardships. Many were car ried to Louisbourg, where they were purchased as an article of mer chandise. The French professed themselves actuated solely by a wish to save them from the dreadful fate that otherwise awaited them ; yet these tender feelings, it was observed, never prevented them from extorting most exorbitant ransoms. There is great rea NEW BRUNSWICK. 177 son tp believe, that no means were employed to conciliate this unfor tunate and injured race. It was determined to treat them, not as regular enemies, but as traitors and rebels ; and that they might be rivalled in barbarity, a price was put upon Indian scalps. Another circumstance Which placed the colony in an uneasy situ ation, was the boundary contests with France. The history of this affair, however, which brought 'on the bloody conflicts of the Se(ven Years' War, will come under pur notice in a subsequent chapter. DOMICILIATED INDIANS. II. NEW BRUNSWICK. "EW BRUNSWICK did not exist as a separate colony, until 1783. Pre vious to this, the French had claimed it under the title of New France, as part of Acadia, and the English, in their turn, as part of Nova Scotia. When the latter province was ceded to the British government,, France still claimed New Brunswick as part of Canada ; but the peace of 1763 settled these conflicting claims, by giving the whole province to England. Still, it was left unoccupied except by a few Acadians, who had sought refuge among its forests from the relentless perse cution to which they were exposed. In 1762, some families from 23 178 BRITISH PROVINCES. SIR GUT CARLETON. New England settled at Mangerville, about fifty miles up the St. John. In twenty years, their numbers had increased to eight hun dred. At the close of the Revolutionary War, several thousand dis banded British troops were placed at Frederickton. But having been accustomed to the comforts of civilized life, these new colonists suf fered great hardships, and a long season of privation, before they could place their families in comfortable situations. • In 1785, Sir Guy Carleton was appointed governor, and made vigorous exertions for the improvement of the country, which" gra- NEW BRUNSWICK. 179 dually, though slowly, advanced. On his return to England, (1803,) until 1817, the government was administered by presidents. In 1809; the duty on Baltic timber was advanced to nearly £3, while that, of the colonies remained free. This laid the foundation of the present flourishing condition of New Brunswick. The country has continued to. increase gradually in prosperity, under a succession of different rulers down to the present time. In connection with Canada, New Brunswick shared in the long dispute between Great Britain and the United States, concerning the north-eastern, boundary. The terms of the treaty of 1783, by leav ing the exact line uncertain, had given rise to controversy, which, becoming more angry as it advanced, at length threatened an open Tupture between the claimants. The territory subject to this ambi guity, formed, in 1783, a tract of wild forest, scarcely ever trodden by a European. But, as settlements' increased, and with them cul tivation of soil, the fine timber became an object to both parties. In 1829, an agreement was made to refer the question to the King of Holland. He returned an answer in 1831, declaring the impossibi lity of defining a boundary according to the terms of the treaty, but recommending a line extending along the St. Craix, the St. John, and thence to the head of the Connecticut. This the United States Senate rejected, proposing a new arbitrary line. While the ques tion remained thus undecided, trespassers from each side entered the territory to cut timber. Expeditions were sent against them, who, in their turn, took possession of the ground. Matters grew worse every day, and a border war seemed inevitable, when an agreement was made between Mr. Fox, the British ambassador, and Mr. For syth, the American secretary of state, to the effect that the govern ment of Maine should voluntarily withdraw its military force, and any further arrangements against trespassers be made by the. two powers jointly. A convention to this effect was signed by the two governors, March 23 and 25, 1839. The subsequent, condition of affairs, up to the conclusion of the " Ashburton Treaty," are reserved for a subsequent chapter. 180 BRITISH PROVINCES. III. PRINCE EDWARD S ISLAND. RINCE EDWARD'S ISLAND, formerly known as St. John, is a fine tracti lying south of the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and opposite Nova Scotia and New -Brunswick. Northum berland Strait separates it from these provinces. Its greatest lerigth is about a hundred and thirty-five miles, the breadth varying from a single mile to thirty-four. The whole island is deeply indented by bays and inlets» so that scarcely one spot can be found removed more than seven or eight miles from tide-water. It is supposed, by Robertson and others, to be the land reached by Cabot in 1497, and subsequently visited by Verazzano. This is, however, very , doubt ful. The first definite notice given of it is by Champlain, who, naming it St. John, accurately describes its situation and extent, and notices its harbours. The cession of Acadia to Great Britain, by the treaty of Utrecht, was an event favourable to the neighbouring islands. St. John re ceived a number of French settlers ; who, by their industry, soon gave a flourishing appearance to the island. It was captured by the Ne"w England forces, in 1745, but restored to France by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. After the second reduction of Louisbourg in 1758, that of St. John followed, and it became permanently attached to the British crown. The number of inhabitants, at that time, is variously rated at ten thousand, six thousand, and four thousand one hundred; the last probably nearest the truth. They had brought a very consider able portion of land under cultivation ; had large stocks of horned cattle ; and some of them could send twelve hundred bushels of wheat to the market of Quebec. They were now doomed, how PRINCE EDWARD'S ISLAND. 181 ever, to the same relentless proscription as their brethren in Nova Scotia ; and the pretext was, that a number of English scalps were found in the French governor's house. There was, no doubt, a just ground of suspicion ; though the British might have recollected that they themselves had offered premiums for these trophies. They were unquestionably brought in by the Indians, and at all events afforded no apology 'for inflicting vengeance upon thousands of peaceable and industrious settlers. The details of the expulsion are not stated ; but it appears that a certain number were sent tq Ca nada, others to the southern colonies, and some to France, while it is admitted that many contrived to conceal themselves. So complete, however, was the desolation, that, in 1770, twelve years after, there were found only a hundred and fifty families. The island was confirmed to Britain, in .1763 ; but some years elapsed before measures, not remarkably judicious, were taken for this settlement. Lord Egrem'ont formed a strange scheme, by which it was to be divided into twelve districts, ruled by as many barons, each of whom was to erect a castle on his _own property, while that nobleman was to preside as lord paramount. This ridiculous plan was changed for another not much wiser. In August, 1767, a divi sion was made into sixty-seven townships, of about twenty thousand acres each, which, with some reservations, were made over -to indi viduals supposed to possess claims upon the government. They became bound to settle the eountry in ten years, to the extent of at least one person for two hundred acres. Their exertions in this respect, however, were not very effective ; and when they resolved, as the only means of rendering the property valuable, to retail it in small lots, their prices were too high ; nor could they grant that soccage tenure under the crown, which is esteemed the most se cure. ONSIDERABLE efforts, however, were at , first made to rescue the island from its state of desolation. The proprietors succeeded in procuring for it a governor, independent of Nova Scotia, though, as already mentioned, there were only a hundred and fifty families resident on it. Mr. Patterson, appointed to that office, in 1770, brought back a number of the exiled Acadians. Tracady was settled by Captain Macdo naid with three hundred Highlanders ; and Chief Baron Montgomery 182 BRITISH PROVINCES. mads great efforts to fulfil his proprietary obligations. A beginning was thus made, a good report was spread, the colony received gra dual accessions, and, in 1773, a constitution being given, the first House of Assembly was called. But the governor and General Fanning, who succeeded in 1789, were involved in contests with the proprietors and settlers, who accused them of culpable eagerness to acquire landed property for themselves ; these feuds, however, seem to have caused no material injury. In 1799, inconvenience having been felt -from the island bearing the same name with the chief towns in New Brunswick and New foundland, it was changed to Prince Edward, in honour of ithe late Dukaof Kent, who, as commander in America, had directed some valuable improvements. In 1603, the late Earl of Selkirk, who gave so great an impulse to emigration, carried over an important colony, consisting cf about eight hundred Highlanders. He, made the necessary arrangements with so much judgment, that the settlers soon became very prosperous, and with the friends who have since joined them, now amount to upwards of four thousand. Governor Desbarres, who succeeded Fanning, was a man of talent; and though his administration was considered by no means prudent, yet, at no former period did the colony advance so Tapidly. In 1813, he was succeeded by Mr. Smyth, whose violent and tyrannical conduct caused a general agitation in the colony. For several years previous tp 1823, he had prevented the meeting of the House of Assembly, and when a committee of the inhabitants was appointed to draw up a petition for his removal, he caused them to be arrested. Mr. Stewart, the high-sheriff, however, though at the age of sixty- six, made his escape to Nova Scotia, and thence to England ; where the real state of things was no sooner made known than the governor was recalled, and Lieutenant-colonel Ready appointed to succeed him. The conduct of this last gave general satisfaction ; and, in conjunction with the House of Assembly, he passed many useful acts, and took various measures to promote the continued improve ment of the colony. In 1831, Colonel Young received the appoint ment, and ruled as lieutenant-governor till 1836, in which year Sir John Harvey was named his successor. Sir John was very popular; but being, in 1837, removed to the government of New Brunswick, his place was supplied by Sir Charles A. Fitzroy. Since this time, tho island has presented little to attract the attention of the historian. NEWFOUNDLAND. 183 ¦sm ST. JOHN'S, NEWFOUNDLAND IV. NEWFOUNDLAND. vEWFOUNDLAND is a large island, the most important of the British possessions adjacent to the eastern coast of North America. On one side it almost touches the continent, but on the other stretches far out into the Atlantic. Its entire circuit is one thousand miles. The most striking natural feature connected with the island, are the Banks, shallow places in the ocean, near which cod and other fish abound to such an extent as to supply the world, and give to the island, through the fisheries, a most important station in the rank of colonial provinces. The same productive character distinguishes the shores of Labrador. In these tempestuous seas, the nations of Europe and America have for ages laboured indefatigably with nets, lines, and every imaginable pro cess, and yet not the slightest diminution of fruitfulness has ever been observed. 184 BRITISH 'PROVINCES. •COD-FISHERY, NEWFOUNDLAND. Newfoundland was discovered by Cabot," in 1497, and has since been claimed by Great Britain. Attention was speedily drawn to the cod-fisheries. In 1517, an English vessel reported having seen forty ships — Portuguese, .French, and Spanish — employed on the coast. In 1536, an Englishman, named Hore, attempted a settle ment, but failed. He was followed by the equally unfortunate Sir Humphrey Gilbert. During the whole of the sixteenth century,. the English were less successful in the fisheries than other nations ; and the failure of repeated attempts at settlement damped the spirit of the nation. At the opening of the seventeenth century, schemes to colonize the northern territory were commenced on' a large scale. These orir ginated in Mr. Guy, a wealthy merchant of Bristol, who published several pamphlets, and induced a number of influential persons at court to engage in the undertaking. Among these were Lord Bacon, Lord Northampton, keeper of the seals, and Sir Francis Tanfield, chief baron of the Exchequer. These, with forty-one other persons, received a patent to colonize Newfoundland. They were invested with the entire property of the land, soil, and mines, and a general grant made of those privileges, which the crown could not find time to enumerate. The only reservation was the right of fish ery on the coast of Newfoundland to any English subject. NEWFOUNDLAND. 185 : Mr. Guy was appointed governor of the new colony. In 1610, he conveyed thither thirty-nine persons in three vessels, and em ployed them in constructing a dwelling and store-house, with an enclosure a hundred- and twenty feet by ninety, in which were planted three pieces of ordnance. He gave flattering accounts of the country to government, and seems' to have bent all his energies to the rearing up of a prosperous colony. On returning in the fol- ! lowing season, he appointed William Colston in his stead, who was ) by nd means so sanguine in his hopes and efforts as his predecessor. Guy returned in 1612. One of his first' acts was to sail along the coast on a voyage of discovery ; during which he dealt amicably with the natives. In a year, he again returned to England, and the colony afterwards languished greatly. Some time after, (1615,) Cap tain Whitbourne was sent out to. hold a court of admiralty, and pro vide at check for the numerous abuses to which the fishermen were subjected ; but he found it impossible to do more than specify the evils and propose remedies. • BOUT the year 1621, Sir George Calvert, afterwards Lord Baltimore, obtained a grant of a- tract from Cape St. Majy to the Bay of Bulls. His object was to form a settlement . where members of the Roman Ca- ftholic religion might enjoy the free "exercise of their opinions. Viscount ^^M^u^^^?~'~^f' Faulkland undertook to send a colo ny from Ireland, of which he was then lord-lieutenant. Other gen tlemen made similar offers. Many efforts were made to secure the comforts of the settlers, and especially to enlist their feelings in the enterprise. But, although the colonists appear to have been nume rous, few details are given of their progress. Lord Baltimore himself visited the colony, and built a stfong fort and handsome house at Fer- ryland, where he resided for some time. About twenty years after this first plantation, the number of families in different parts of the coast had swelled to three hundred and fifty. The importance of the fishery grew with that of the colony, so that, in 1626, one hundred and fifty vessels sailed thither from Devonshire ; and England began to supply, the other countries of Europe with the products of the fisheries. sa us 186 BRITISH PROVINCES. LORD BALTIMORE. When Lord Baltimore returned to England, he became so engaged with his Maryland colony, as to find little time to bestow on the one already planted. The settlers consequently sunk into comparative neglect, and, giving up all attempts at culture of the soil, devoted themselves to the fisheries. This branch of industry was now assuming that importance which it so well merits. The French embarked in it with their customary zeal, and even formed a colony in the Bay of Placentia, in order to carry it on rmore conveniently. In 1663, it was encou raged by the repeal of all duties. But this so far increased the NEWFOUNDLAND. 187 number of individual adventurers, that the British began to fear a decrease in the government profits. The barbarous remedy of root ing out the colony was proposed by Josiah Child, a merchant of Lon don, and immediately carried into execution. Sir John Berry was employed to hum the houses and drive out the settlers. That offi cer seems to have mitigated as much as possible his cruel commis sion, and sent home strong remonstrances as to'the misery which he had reluctantly occasioned. In 1676, Downing, a resident, procured an orde*r from the king, that the people should be no further mo lested ; but, at the same time, strict injunctions were issued, that no vessel should carry out any emigrants, or permit them to settle. During the war with France, consequent to the Revolution of 1688, Newfoundland suffered severely. Although the English claimed the territory, the French had fortified a number of settle ments, which they.'were now unwilling to abandon. In 1692, Com mander Williams attacked Placentia, but without success ; and an attempt, by the French, upon St. John, (1696,) was attended with a like result. A second trial resulted in its capture and destruction, and soon after Ibberville rooted out ajl the English stations, except Bona Vista and Carbonier. These successes were nullified by the treaty of Ryswick, which compensated each party for its losses during the war. During the war of the succession, Newfoundland was again takeo'by the French, but restored by the peace of Utrecht, in 1713. Newfoundland- then continued to increase in importance, with but slight interruptions until the War of Independence. In 1775, the New England colonists were forbidden to participate in the fisheries ; but, ih revenge, these high-spirited men refused to supply the crews of vessels with provisions ; a plan that reduced them almost to star vation. They thus found it necessary either to return home or to repair to some of the other colonies. At the close of the war, Great Britain repealed most of her onerous laws, and from that time both the settlements of Newfoundland and its fisheries, increased rapidly in prosperity. The latter are now free to all nations, and numbers of ships are annually employed by the great maritime powers of England, France, and the United States, in this dan gerous occupation. The total population of Newfoundland is at present about seventy thousand, of whom more than one-half are Roman Catholics. 188 BRITISH PROVINCES. ENTRANCE INTO HUDSON S BAY. V. LABRADOR AND NEW BRITAIN; ' E have divided the territory north of Canada into two great na tural divisions, known as Labrador and New Bri tain. The former country is of very little historical » importance. The coast i was first discovered by Sebastian Cabot, in 1496, and was afterwards visited (1501) and named (Terra Labrador) by Gaspar Cortereal. During the sixteenth century, it was visited by various Europeans, and attempts made to settle and carry on the cod-fishery along the coast. An impulse was given to these efforts by the Moravian missionaries, who, in 1752, settled at Hope- dale and other places. After numerous hardships, they obtained from government, in May, 1769, a tract of land, on which to settle and carry on their praiseworthy exertions. The missions have existed through great vicissitudes, until the present time. Their NEW BRITAIN. 189 TRADING WITH THE INDIANS FOR FURS. settlements are, however, small, and lying principally along the eastern coast. The interior is little known. New Britain is an immense country, stretching from Canada to the Polar sea, with an average breadth of twenty-six hundred miles. The southern portion is a flat prairie land, traversed by large rivers, and gifted with a highly fruitful soil. The woody portion lies around Hudson's Bay ; while the western territories are rugged and mountainous. The whole country owes its importance almost en tirely to the valuable furs derived from the animals that swarm in every quarter. The eastern coast of New Britain was early visited by Europeans, 190 BRITISH PROVINCES. in the hope of discovering a north-west passage to India. In 1517, Sebastian Cabot first -visited Hudson's Bay, which he viewed as a communication to the coveted regions of the east. This voyage was subsequently forgotten; so that when Hudson, in 1610, sailed through the straits now bearing his name, and found a broad expanse of water, it was considered a new discovery, and named by him Hudson's Sea. He wintered within the straits, and finally perished by a mutiny of the crew. This expedition was followed by other's, all of which steered in the same direction with Hudson, but were more fortunate in discovery. Southampton island was discovered by Sir Thomas Button, in 1613 or 1613. He named it Carey's Swan's-nest. He passed the win ter at Nelson's river, first seen by him, but was prevented from pur- Suing his voyage by excessive cold and the consequent discourage ment of his crew. Baffin's Bay was explored by Bylot>and Baffin, in 1616. On the 5th of May, 1631, Luke -Fox, an ^enterprising mariner, who had been equipped by the London ' merchants, sailed on a voyage of discovery. When off Cape Warwick, (June 21,) his progress was arrested by, ice and currents. He describes an iceberg as a prodigious thing, sometimes mountain high ; but here there were no pieces larger than a great church — their extent vary ing from a perch to two acres. On the 26th, theSe icebergs lay around him so thick, that he -knew not what wind to pray for to extricate himself of them. On being released from this danger, he sailed to Southampton island, and then explored the bay, penetrating as far north as 66° 47'. Here his crew be came disheartened, and retracing his course, he returned to England. A similar expedition* sent out by the Bristol merchants, met with a like result. The crew passed a winter in Hudson's Bay, and suf fered the most deplorable evils, until the return of summer. In June, 1688, a Frenchman, named Grosseliez, sent out an expe dition under the patronage of Prince Rupert of England. The crew wintered in a river called Rupert, and, on returning, presented so favourable a report, that the prince and other noblemen sub scribed a capital of .£10,500, and obtained a charter for the exclusive trade and administration of the countries around Hudson's Bay. Settlements were formed on Rupert's, Moose, and Albany rivers ; NEW- BRITAIN. 191 EXPEDITION OF CAPTAIN PARRY and in 1685, two more on- the Nelson and Severn. In 1690, their affairs were in such a flourishing condition, that the proprietors trebled their original capital. This success excited the envy of the French, who speedily made themselves masters of the principal set tlements. They retained them with but little interruption until the peace of Utrecht, in 1713, which restored them to Britain. Two companies wdre now formed in England, each of which strove to outdo its rival in discovery and colonization. These were the Hudson's Bay Company and the North-western. In 1771, Samuel Hearne, employed by the first, descended the Copper mine River, and found it terminating in an unknown part of the Arctic Ocean. In 1789, Sir Alexander Mackenzie, a partner of the North-west Fur Company, sailed down the stream bearing his name, and made observations which left little doubt of its opening into an other portion of the same expanse. He also penetrated, in 1789, across the Rocky Mountains, and reached the coast of the Pacific. These discoveries kindled a species of enthusiasm in the British nation ; and, after the close of the European war, in 1815, she engaged in a series of attempts to penetrate to India, by the North west. Captain Parry repeatedly .penetrated into the Polar Sea, and discovered a range of. large islands, to the south of which were extensive coasts, stretching out of sight., Soon after, Captain Ross 192 BRITISH PROVINCES. discovered and named Boothia. Parry explored the northern coasts of Hudson's Bay, and discovered Fury and Hecla Straits. Dr. Richardson, and Captains Franklin and Beechy, also made extensive discoveries along the shores of the- Polar Sea. These expeditions led to another, terminating in some important results. Ross had sailed in 1829, and for four winters nothing was heard of him — a circumstance which excited the deepest anxiety. Accordingly, an expedition was fitted out to go in search of him, and Captain Back, an able officer who had served Under Franklin and Richardson, volunteered to conduct it. He sailed from Liver pool, February 17, 1833, and, after visiting New York, ascended the Hudson to Albany. In April, he reached Montreal. After nume rous difficulties in raising provisions and men, he sailed up the Ottawa, to a small stream leading into Nipissi-ng Lake; and thence by the Riviere des Francais, he entered Lake Huron. .Then, cross ing Lake Superior, Rainy, and Lake of the Woods, they reached Fprt Alexander at the , southern extremity of Lake Winnepeg. From the settlers in this vicinity he received the most marked attention, and was furnished by Governor Simpson with every con venience. The party then commenced their dreary journey toward the north, sometimes sailing along rivers, then carrying their canoes across almost impassable surfaces, and even fording torrents and cas cades. The thermometer was sometimes 90° below zero ; and a huge fire in a small apartment could not raise the temperature higher than 12° above zero. Ink and paint froze, and boxes of the best seasoned wood split. The skin of the hands cracked and opened in gashes. "\Vhen the face was washed near the fire, before if could be dried the hair was clotted with ice. All living beings disappeared ; no sound but that of the passing wind broke the awful stillness. Captain Back penetrated far to the north and passed the winter; but he found it almost impossible to prosecute further discoveries. In the following year, he was compelled to retrace his steps, and on the 8th of September arrived at Liverpool. This expedition was followed by others of a similar character. The Hudson's Bay Com pany now manages the affairs of the territory. There are four prin cipal stations, between which the country is divided ; York Fort, Moose Fort, Montreal, and Fort Vancouver. Smaller stations are scattered throughout the territory, some of which afford protection and support to pious missionaries, who are engaged in the laudable work of instructing the natives in religion and civilization. ASTORIA. CHAPTER XI. HISTORY OF OREGON. tremity dition u 25 HE term Oregon has, until lately, been employed to designate -the country ex tending from California to the Russian possessions, and from the Pacific to the Rocky Mountains. It was visited as early as 1579 by Sir Francis Drake, who, pursuing the track already com menced by the Spanish navigators, sailed along the coast as far north as 48°. It is very probable that even previous to this the Spaniards had sailed further northward than the ex- of California. .In 1598, D' Aguilar, commander of an expe- nder Philip III., of Spain, visited the coast, and discovered K 193 191 OREGON. the mouth of the Columbia ; but his account of the expedition was treated by his countrymen with unmerited neglect. For nearly two centuries after that period, the Spaniards made no further attempts either at discovery or settlement ; and the distant region of Oregon seems to have been considered by ali nations as an unknown territory. But when maritime enterprise revived in the latter part of the eighteenth century, Spain established ten stations (1769—1779) along the coast of Northern California. In 1774, Juan Perez sailed from California as far north as 55°. On his re turn he anchored in San Lorenzo bay, probably Nootka Sound. Nearly the same ground was passed over in 1775, by another Spa nish expedition under Don Bruno Heceta. In 1776, Captain Cook, of England, examined the western coast from 44° "to Behring's Straits. On account of the discoveries of "Drake and Cook, Great Britain claimed all Oregon, and established small posts throughout the terri tory, under the auspices of the Hudson's Bay Company. It was further visited by Vancouver, in 1791, who made several important explorations. But a new impulse was given to adventure in this quarter, by a series of enterprises conducted by land. Mackenzie discovered the Frazer river, (1793,) and explored it to a considerable distance. In the early part of the present century, Mr. David Thompson, surveyor and astronomer of the British North-west Com pany, crossed the Rocky Mountains into Oregon, and explored a branch of the Columbia. In 1807, he established a trading-post near British America, and spent there two years ; at the end of which time he founded another station on the Flathead. Altogether he spent several years in the country, making valuable topographi cal observations upon the lands bordering on the Columbia. The American Revolution having secured the Independence of the United States, the merchants of that country manifested, with increased ardor, that spirit of commercial enterprise which had been arrested during the arduous struggle. On the 7th of May, 1792, Captain Robert Gray, irt the ship Columbia, of Boston, entered the Columbia river, to which he gave the name of his vessel. His is the first definite account given of that stream. During the administration of Mr. Jefferson, Lewis and Clark were dispatched (August, 1805,) on an expedition to explore the region beyond the mountains. They reached the latter range, in latitude M" north, crossed it, discovered the southern head-waters of the EXPLORATION OF THE COUNTRY. 195 JOHN JACOB ASTOR. Columbia, floated down its stream for about six hundred miles, then struck off in a westerly direction, and, on the I5th of November, reached its mouth. Here they built some huts, remained in them during the winter, and, in 1806, returned to the United States, ex ploring, in their course, many of the tributaries of the Columbia. This, until very recently, was the only occasion in which the Rocky Mountains have been crossed by persons acting in a public capacity. In 1806, Mr. Frazer, of the North-west Company, established a trading post on Frazer's river, in about latitude 54° ; and, in 1811, Mr. Thompson, agent of the same company, discovered the northern head-waters of the Columbia, (52° north,) and erected some huts on its banks. In the same year, John Jacob Astor, of New York, de spatched an expedition, both by sea and land, which met near the mouth of the Columbia, and erected on its southern bank a little fort. i This was named Astoria, and was intended to be the centre of an ex tensive trade between America and China. During the war of 1812, it was captured by the British, and the name changed to Fort George ; but by the treaty of Ghent it was restored to the Americans. Not long afterwards, Astoria was abandoned as a government settlement. On the 22d of February, 1819, Spain and the United States esta- 196 OREGON. blished, by the Florida treaty, the forty-second parallel as their mu tual boundary, from the source of the Arkansas down to the Pacific— the former power yielding her claim to all territories, north of that linn. In 1824-5, the Russians effected an agreement with the United States, renouncing all right to any land south of 54° 40'. A similar treaty was stipulated with Great Britain ; and thus the tract between 42° north and 54° 40', was left to be apportioned between the two great leading powers of Europe and America. Negotiations for establishing a permanent boundary were almost immediately commenced. The Americans had already offered (1818) the 49° north latitude, as that boundary, but this was re fused ; and, in 1824, they renewed it. The British government claimed to the Columbia. Both efforts were fruitless ; and a third, in 1826, was attended with a like result. On the 6th of August, 1827, the two nations agreed on a resolution of "joint occupancy," leaving the territory free to the hunters and companies of each, to carry on trade and build posts. From that time until 1845, the whole region was under the almost entire control of the Hudson's Bay Company, whose members established numerous posts along its northern and western limits. But during the great presidential- canvass for 1844, the subject of a definite boundary to Oregon be came a great measure, an item of politics ; and when President Polk assumed the executive chair, public interest, both in the United States and England, became painfully awakened to the claims of the two rivals. The President soon showed a disposition to have the subject brought to an immediate issue. In the message of De cember, 1845, he recommended the termination of joint occupancy, and claimed the whole of Oregon, up to 54° 40'. The British were firm in maintaining their claim, and made active preparations for war.. This resource now seemed inevitable, and the question of ita occurrence rested wholly with the Senate. That august body acted in a manner worthy the. highest representatives of a Christian nation. On the 16th of April, 1846, the Senate passed a resolution authoriz ing the President to notify Great Britain, at his discretion, of the abrogation of the terms of convention which had passed the resolu tion of joint occupancy. Meanwhile, negotiations were actively carried on with a view of concluding a treaty. In June, the English ambassador proposed the boundary line of 49°, and the free naviga tion of the Columbia to that point, as the basis of an agreement ; and the Senate authorized the President to accept it. This was SETTLEMENT OF THE BOUNDARY. 197 done, and on the 16th the new treafy was transmitted by the Execu tive, and passed on the 18th. By this instrument, the boundary is the 49° of north latitude, from the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific, and thence through Q,ueen Charlotte's Sound and the Straits of Fuca to the Pacific — thus giving England the whole of Vancouver's island. The Hudson's Bay Company, during the continuance of their charter, are authorized to navigate the Columbia to the 49°. V* mhr MISSIONARY SCENIC NEAR LAKE WI'NNEPEQ. -f AURORA BOREALIS IN THE NORTHERN REGIONS CHAPTER XII. GREENLAND. ^REENLAND is a large country stretching from latitude 59° 49' north, northward to an un known distance. It appears to be separated from the continent by Baffin's Bay. The population is estimated at six thousand,' of whom only a hundred and fifty are Euro peans. The northern regions are locked in perpetual ice, and support no living creature. This country was visited as early as 982, by Eric Rauda, a Nor wegian, whose adventures are narrated in the first chapter of the present work. He established a settlement at Brattalid, near an inlet, which he denominated Eric's Sound. His companions founded Henulfsness, Rafn, and other places— names which are still ex tant m Greenland. Eric remained three years in his colony, and, on returning to Iceland, published a pompous and false account of the new-found region, naming it Greenland. Many adventurers were induced to settle, and in the eleventh century Christianity was introduced by two British missionaries. In 1121, the colony had SETTLEMENTS IN GREENLAND. 199 flourished to such an extent that a hundred and twenty hamlets were stretched along the eastern coast, and one hundred and ten on the western — covering altogether a region of about five hundred miles. But though this colony commenced under such favourable aus pices, it was destined to a mournful fate. Long before, the time of Columbus, all traces of European civilization had disappeared from Greenland ; and the settlement itself seems to have been almost en tirely forgotten. The cause of this disaster is unknown ; but for some time after it became known, the Danes attempted to reach Greenland and ascertain the fate of the sufferers. After the re-dis covery and settlement of America, the subject was again agitated in Northern Europe. In 1708, a Danish clergyman, named Hans Egede, determined to visit Greenland, in order, if possible, to discover some traces of the lost colony, and especially to attempt the conver sion of the natives. After ten years' labour and opposition, he was intrusted by the King of Denmark with a vessel, which he named the Hope. He sailed May 2, 1721, carrying with him two hundred and forty settlers, besides his wife and four children. They landed in Bale's river, and began immediate preparations for a permanent settlement. They soon gained the esteem of the natives, and began to instruct them in Christianity. They were liberally encouraged by the king, who sent not only provisions and other necessaries, but also artificers and soldiers to build a garrison and fort. On the death of King Frederick, government grew negligent of the distant settlement, and finally ordered its return. Egede, with ten others, remained, and two years after, the new monarch, having relaxed his opposition, sent out fresh provisions and three Moravian mis sionaries. These settled New Hernhutt, on Ball's river, and with Egede commenced, with renewed vigour, the instruction of the natives. Their labours were attended with success ; and in 1747, they erected the first church ever built in Greenland. From this time, their own number, as well as that of their converts, steadily increased, and the colony finally assumed commercial importance. In 1837, West Greenland contained thirteen colonies, fifteen com mercial establishments, and ten missionary stations. The principal of the latter are Lichenfels, Lichtenau, and New Hernhutt. Upper- navic, latitude 72° 30', is the most northern station. The principal exports are whale oil, eider down, and the skins of reindeer, seal, and bear. J CHAPTER XIII. RUSSIAN AMERICA. HE extensive region known as Russian America, is a country of ice, rocks, islands, barrens, and forests. It includes the Peninsula of Alaska and the Aleutian Islands* Its condition in 1837 is thus described by an officer of the Hudson's Bay Company: — "The Russian Fur Company's principal esta blishment on the north-west coast is named New Archangel, formerly Sitka, and situated in Norfolk Sound, in north lati- tjl tude 57°, west longitude 132° 20'. It is s maintained as a regular military establishment, garrisoned by about three hundred officers and men, with good natural defences, mounting sixteen short eighteens, and twelve long nine-pounders, and is the ,head-quarters of the governor Pf the Russian army. The Russians have other establishments on the coast and islands to the north of New Arch angel, and. one fort, Ross, in the Bay of Brogeda — in all, ten esta blishments on the north-west coast of America. They have, more over twelve vessels, from a hundred up to four hundred tons burden, armed with ten guns each, of different calibre. All the officers, and most of the people employed in their sea and land service, belong to the Russian army and navy, receive pay from the Russian government, and their services, while attached to the Rus- DISCOVERIES OF BEHRING. 201 ^>P p -ting i7M m. Mi B iiliiii iPSilSSljSiJl l $? BUBTERRANEAN HUT IN NORTHERN REOIONB, sian Fur Company, entitle them- to the advantages of promotion, pension, etc., in like manner as if employed in active service in the army and navy.- They, have, moreover, attached to these settle ments a number of Indians of the Kodiac tribe, who are usually employed in hunting and fishing, but are under no fixed engage ment, being considered as slaves. Their annual returns in furs are in value from £80,000 to £100,000." This country was discovered and settled almost entirely by the Russians. As early as 1648, an expedition of seven vessels, under the Cossack Semoen Deshniew, sailed from Kolyma" and after four being wrecked, the remainder pushed forward as far as Behring's Strait, and through to the mouth of the Anadir. In 1710, three men, who had been sent by the Russians to exhort the Tchuktzki Indians to submission, received information of the Great Country, (America,) and also of the Aleutian islanders, who, among other peculiarities, built their houses under ground, extending them on all sides, so that numerous families could live in one. These subterra neous, mansions were lighted by lamps, and divided into as many apartments as they contained families — ail disgustingly filthy and desolate. The ardent ambition of Peter the Great induced him to second all these efforts. Only a few days before his death, he authorized the 202 RUSSIAN AMERICA. PETER THE GREAT. fitting out of an expedition, whose object was to ascertain if Asia was separated from Ame rica by a strait. It consisted of two vessels, under the command of Vitus Behring, a Dane. The soldiers vvere led by Alexoi Tshirikof, a Russian officer. Part of the expedition was conducted by land, and part by water. On the 18th of July, 1741, Beh ring discovered the continent of America, in latitude 58° 28'. The appearance of the land was-grand, but gloomy. Mountains of great elevation, covered with snow, extended far inland. One summit, rising to„a towering height above the rest, was named Mount St. Elias. The nearest headlands were denominated Cape St. Elias and Cape Hermogenes. Alaska and the Aleutian islands were also visited, and among the latter the crew were obliged to winter. Before spring, the scurvy appeared and made such ravages that Behring and many of his men died. In August, 1742, the survivors succeeded in reaching Kamtschatka. This voyage established the fact of the close proxi mity of the two continents, and opened to the Russian government the road to a lucrative trade. Behring's Strait was named after its unfortunate and lamented discoverer. A few years previous to this expedition, the Russians had reached Japan by way of Kamtschatka, and this formed an additional incen tive to adventure. But although the Aleutian islands had been visited by Behring, the government appears not to have been fully aware of their discovery until 1750, when the first tribute of furs was brought from them to Okotsk. Since that time, they have been regularly visited ; and on them, together with a coast of three hun dred leagues beyond the polar circle, the indefatigable Russians have established those settlements and factories which support the great and advantageous fur trade carried on with .China by the Rus sian Empire. 3BB4STIAB CABOT. CHAPTER XTV. SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. JOTWITHSTANDING the early discovery of the American continent by Sebastian Cabot, and the various explorations of the northern coast by several of his countrymen, no considerable effort i for establishing a permanent settlement was made until the reign of Queen Elizabeth. These, however, were not owing to the personal patronage of the queen herself, but rather to the enterprise and perseverance of private indi viduals. One of the most distinguished of these was Sir Walter Raleigh, although, previous to his endeavours, efforts jhad been made by Sir Humphrey Gilbert and others, not only to colonize, 204 SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. but also to open a passage to the rich trade of India and China, by sailing around the continent through Hudson's Strait. In 1584, Raleigh obtained a patent from the crown, conferring on him and his heirs for ever the possession and enjoyment of all lands to be discovered, with their revenue, after deducting one-fifth of the gold and silver for the crown, and power to seize all vessels trading to the coast without his license, unless driven there by stormy wea ther. Clothed with these ample powers, Raleigh immediately sent two ships under Amidas and Barlow, with directions to explore the coast south of that which had proved fatal to Gilbert. In April, 1584, these two commanders set sail, and after touching at the Cana ries and among the West Indies, came in sight of the Carolinas, July 4th. After sailing along the coast for a distance of a hundred and twenty miles, during which the senses were. feasted by far stretching hills, clothed in the most luxurious verdure, and enlivened by rills and streams of crystal clearness, they entered Ocracock inlet, and landed upon what they supposed was the main land. It proved to be the island, now called Wocoken, opening "into Pamlico Sound. On the third day after landing, they observed an Indian walking on the beach, whom they invited on board and gave him some food and wine. He then departed well satisfied. Other na tives appeared, and finally Grangariimeo, the king's brother, escorted by fifty principal persons. Some trading took place, highly advan tageous to the English ; after which they again set sail. The ad joining coasts and sounds were then explored, when the navigators returned home, carrying with them two natives, Manteo and Wan- chese. They gave a most flattering report of the country, declaring its soil to be " the most plentiful, sweet, fruitful, a'nd wholesome of all the world ;" and the people " the most gentle, loving, and faith ful, void of all guile and treason, and such as lived after the manner of the golden age." The desire to possess so delightful a region aroused a spirit of adventure hitherto unknown in England. Determined to establish a colony, Raleigh immediately fitted out seven small vessels, manned with a hundred and eight men, under Sir Richard Grenville. The fleet sailed in April, 1585, and, after a circuitous voyage, by way of the Canaries and West Indies, reached the coast of Carolina, in the latter end of June. They found the country as had been described to them, and .after landing, penetrated some distance into the inte rior. The Indians, gratified by former presents, received them wit-i LANE EXPLORES THE ROANOKE. 205 GRENVILLS BURNINGAN INDIAN V I L L A G 3 delight ; but their kindness met with an ill reward. Missing a silver cup, the English, in revenge, set fire to a village anddevastated the adjoining fields. They^ten chose a spot near the shore as a place for settling. The great object of these adventurers appears to have been the discovery of gold. Dreams of lands whose forests dripped with precious aromatics, whose rivers washed down sands of gold, or sparkling gems — of an El Dorado, whose gorgeous magnificence and mines of inexhaustible wealth realized the wildest romances of Marco Polo or Ariosto — formed the main-spring of exertion. No one imagined that the first duty of a fresh colony is an immediate tillage of the soil. In August, Grenville sailed for England, leaving the management of the settlement with Ralph Lane. This officer had received from a distinguished native chief, named Menatonon, whom he held in cus tody, accounts of a region in the interior, prolific in pearls, and in a metal paler and softer than copper, which the inhabitants used foi making ornamental plates. Without further delay, Lane selected a band and commenced the ascent of the Roanoke. Delighted with the majestic appearance of the river and the surrounding woods, and allured by the promises of provisions, the party continued advanc- s 206 SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. ing with culpable carelessness, until their supply of food was ex hausted. The governor then warned them to return, but having two dogs with them, they determined to make provisions of them, rather than, by abandoning the expedition, to lose the glorious fortune in prospect. On a sudden, they discovered lights moving through the woods, and soon a voice called to their Indian guide, Manteo, to be on guard. This was followed by a shower of arrows. The English landed and pursued the enemy without success ; and wea ried, chagrined, and famished, they steered their course homeward. Broth made of dog's flesh and sassafras leaves served them as food, until they reached the settlement. Lane found the settlement in a state of alarm bordering on mu tiny — the Indians having threatened its utter extinction. For awhile, his presence restored order ; but soon after, the consternation was renewed, on ascertaining that the Indian tribes had entered into a conspiracy to starve their new visitors, by laying waste their corn fields, destroying the fishing-stations, and retiring from the neigh bourhood. They also resolved on a general night attack, and the colonists were probably saved from ruin only by the faithfulness of the injured Menatonon, who disclosecPthe whole plot. Soon after, a battle was fought, in which the Indians were defeated ; and their principal chief Pemisapan, being enticedJP'an interview, was, with some followers, treacherously shot. 't Tnese cruel and unwise pro ceedings completely alienated the affections of the Indians, and de stroyed all hope of deriving assistance from them. The colonists now began to waken to a reality of their situation. No prospect appeared of realizing their golden dreams, while abso lute want stared them in the face ; the supplies promised at Easter had not arrived in June ; and they were in momentary dread of perishing either by famine or the arrows of the savages. Amid these dispositions, a fleet of twenty-three vessels was seen in the offing ; and after some alarm lest it should prove a hostile squad ron, the joyful announcement was made, of its being that of Sir Francis Drake, returning from his victorious expedition against the Spanish main. That gallant officer readily agreed to give them a store of provisions* a sloop of seventy tons, and other small craft, with which they might either explore the coasts or return to Eng land ; the latter, it is probable, being the real object. A violent storm, however, destroyed these vessels, thus defeating the arrange ment ; and Lane, upon the earnest entreaty of the settlers, con- ABANDONMENT OF THE SETTLEMENT. 207 tented himself with obtaining a place on board the fleet, by which he and his adventurers might be conveyed home. The conclusion that Raleigh had deserted them was quite un founded. A few days after this hasty departure, there arrived a brig of a hundred tons, provided with every thing needful for their wants ; but, to the utter amazement of the crew, there were no colo nists to supply. After sailing about some time, and satisfying them selves of the fact, they too returned to Europe. This was another hasty step ; for a fortnight had not elapsed, when Sir Richard Gren ville appeared, bringing three well-appointed ships, laden with every means of supporting and enlarging the colony. His dismay may be Gonceived, when neither the vessel previously despatched, nor one Englishman, could be found within those savage precincts. He, therefore, left merely fifteen men to erect a fort and keep a certain hold of the country until further reinforcements could be sent out. AU this complication of failure, blunder, and disaster did not dis courage Raleigh. In April of the following year, he fitted out a 208 SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. new expedi.tion of three ships and a hundred and fifty persons, led by John White, who was appointed governor, with twelve assistants, who also, perhaps, contributed to the expense. . Attempts were made to establish it on a somewhat more solid footing. Implements of agriculture were provided ; several familes went out, and the party, including seventeen females and nine boys, arrived in July, and pro ceeded to the former settlement. Here a dreadful scene met their eyes ; the fort was rased to the ground ; the houses, though still standing, were open ,-and tenantless ; the floors overgrown with shrubs and weeds, on which deer were feeding. The bones of one man lay scattered on the ground ; while of the rest not a trace re mained. After anxious inquiry, it was found that a band of Indians had surprised and burned the fort, when the English, rushing out to save themselves, were either killed or chased into the woods, where they soon perished. HITE began by' soliciting from the Indian chiefs a renewal of their former alliance, promising the most friendly treatment, and that every thing which had passed should be forgiven.v They announced that an answer would be returned in. seven days ; and when the time elapsed without its being fulfilled, he determined on a hostile expedition. Led by Manteo, he attacked a party, and drove them into the forest ; but was dismayed to find that by mistake he had fallen upon one of the few friendly tribes. He then relinquished farther proceedings ; but all hope of concilia tory arrangements was lost. As winter approached, and the vessel was about to return to Europe, the colonists began seriously to view their situation. They could look for nothing from the Indians but the most deadly hostility, while the raising of supplies for themselves was a work of time and un certainty. They therefore joined in an earnest entreaty to White, that he would accompany the ship, and exert himself in bringing to them further aid and support. He strongly objected, on the ground that it would have an appearance as if he were deserting his own colony; but they insisted, and having delivered a written testimony, signed and sealed, stating that the proposal came from themselves, he consented. There had been born to him, during his residence, a grand-daughter, Virginia Dare, who is supposed by Mr. Bancroft to be the first offspring of English parents on the soil of the United States. COLONY EXTIRPATED. REPARATIONS for resisting^ 209 Spanish Armada interrupted 'kCafo efforts at colonization. Meanwhile, White's two vessels, which had been furnished him by Sir Walter, were, through his own imprudence, much. injured and obliged to return to Eng-' land ; while Grenville was retained in the fleet destined to resist the Spa niards. The colony was left to lan guish until the defeat of the Armada. Even Raleigh seems to have been somewhat discouraged ; and after spending forty thousand pounds in thankless exertions^ he turned his attention to other ob jects. His privileges were however transferred to a company who undertook to support the settlement. In consequence of unavoid able delay, White was unable to sail until May, 1590. He reached Roanoke about the middle of August. Again the colony was in a state of utter desolation ; though there appeared reason to hope that it had removed to a more favourable site, formerly projected. This was the island of Croatoan, fifty miles distant, in which Manteo resided, and where they had met a most friendly reception. In case of removal it had been stipulated that the letters c r o should be carved on the bark of a tree, which were found, and elsewhere the full name Croatoan. A cross was to have indicated a disastrous removal : and the sign of evil was absent. Chests with various stores had been buried in the earth ; some were entire ; others had been discovered and rifled by the Indians. On the whole, White concluded that all was well, and began, to steer for the new station ; but meeting with some difficulties, and the season being ad vanced, it was very coolly resolved to make for the West Indies, trade there, and touch at the colony on his return home. After coming .out into the open ocean, the wind was so adverse to his pro posed course, and so favourable to that for Britain, that the latter was adopted, and he arrived at home in October. After this, the colony seems to have been totally neglected by every one except Raleigh. This remarkable man sent out, at dif ferent periods, five vessels, the last in 1603; but, unfortunately, none reached the settlement. From that time, nothing was ever discovered of this unfortunate colony. Its members were either extirpated, or became amalgamated with the neighbouring Indians. 27 s2 210 •'"$ SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. GOSNOLD S VOYAGE. Notwithstanding this series of disasters, a vessel sailed for Ame rica, in 1602, under Bartholomew Gosnold, with thirty-two men, twelve of whom intended to settle. Striking directly across the ocean, he came upon the coast of Massachusetts ; and, after sailing onward some time, reached a bold promontory, which, from the great quantity of fish caught in the vicinity, he named Cape Cod. Steer ing in a southern course, they passed some dangerous promontories, and at length landed on a pleasant island, to which they gave the name of Martha's Vineyard. Re-embarking, they entered Buz zard's Bay, which, from its spaciousness, was denominated Gosnold's Hope. Elizabeth Island, within its circuit, was chosen as a desi rable place of settlement. The soil was clothed with noble trees, and with sassafras, which, among other valuable plants, was then esteemed a medicine of sovereign virtue. -Some pulse being sown, grew, in a fortnight, to half a foot. They debarked, on the main land, which appeared "the goodliest they ever saw, replenished with fair fields." Having erected a fort, and collected a cargo, chiefly of sassafras, they prepared to return, but, at this crisis the settlers were dismayed with the prospect of being left on so remote a shore, with but a small quantity of provisions, and the fate of similar expe ditions still fresh to the memory. They, therefore, abandoned the .idea of remaining, and went on board with the rest. VARIOUS VISITORS. 211 LTHOUGH not successful in its immediate object, » this expedition awoke England.to the advantages to be derived from colonizing her American posses sions. Hakluyt, the great promoter of discovery, prevailed upon some merchants of Bristol to equip two small vessels, to which Raleigh gave a cheerful consent. They were placed under Martin Pring, ' who, after visiting the New England coast, gathering sassa fras, and bartering with the natives, confirmed, on his return, the favourable account of the country which had been given by his pre decessor. This expedition was followed by another under George Weymouth, patronized by Lord Arundel and the Earl of Southamp ton. He sailed March 31, 1605, and reached the American coast May 13th, in latitude 41°. After sailing a considerable distance, he entered Penobscot Bay in his pinnace, and, soon after, came in sight of a river which the crew regarded as the largest they had ever seen. It was navigable for very large vessels, free from rocks or shoals, and bordered along its sides by thick pine woods. In the distance, hills and mountains relieved the prospect. The English immediately commenced bartering with the Indians, and obtained valuable furs at a cheap rate. They then embarked and sailed for England, carrying with them five of the natives who had been decoyed on board. This series of voyages conveyed to Britain a much higher idea than had yet been entertained of her transatlantic dominion. It was found to include a range of territory stretching over eleven degrees of latitude, all in the temperate climates, diversified with noble rivers and harbours, and, wherever visited, displaying a luxuriant fertility. This prospect rekindled all the enthusiasm of enterprise and hopes of wealth. An association was formed by Sir Thomas Gates, Sir George Summers, Wingfield, Popham, with other men of rank and eminent merchants, for the purpose of colonizing this vast region. James I., who was fond of such undertakings, and had employed them successfully for the improvement of some ruder parts of Scot land and Ireland, was ready to give every encouragement. The adventurers were divided into two companies ; the one from London for the southern, the other from Bristol and the west for the northern parts of Virginia. The former were allowed to choose any spot between the thirty-fourth and forty-first degrees of latitude ; the latter between the thirty-eighth and forty-fifth. Three degrees we*e 212 SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. thus common between both ; but collision was prevented by enacting that wherever one had fixed its seat, the other should choose theirs at least a hundred miles distant. From that first station, each com pany was to possess fifty miles of coast on each side ; their territory was thence to stretch the same distance inland, and the same out to sea, including all islands within the range. These terms deserve notice, as they seem to have been much misapprehended by Chal mers, Bancroft, and, indeed, most other writers. The coast was not divided between the companies, nor had either an exclusive right to their own portions beyond the space of a hundred miles square, which they were allowed to choose. This may serve to acquit suc cessive princes of the repeated infractions of. the charted with which they have been charged. Within this range the associations ob tained full property in all the lands, natural resources and objects of every kind, with only the usual exception of a fifth of the gold and a fifteenth of the copper. The revenue produced by fines and light import-duties was to be enjoyed by them for twenty-one years, after which it was to be paid into the royal treasury. They were not, however, invested with those kingly attributes which had been la vished on Gilbert and Raleigh. James lodged the government in two councils, one resident in England, the other in the colony, and claimed the right of appointing both ; but, having exercised it in regard to the first, he allowed them to nominate the Virginian mem bers. He busied himself, moreover, in preparing a code of "orders and instructions," a proceeding, as Mr. Chalmers observes, decidedly unconstitutional, but controverted by no one. The colonists and their posterity were declared English subjects, yet were invested with no political rights, not even trial by jury, unless in capital charges ; minor offences were punished arbitrarily by the council. The English church was exclusively established. Strict and laud able injunctions were given for the mild and equitable treatment of the natives. On the 19th of December, 1606, this famous expedition sailed irom London, in three small vessels, and numbering a hundred and five persons. Among these were George Percy, Gosnold, and Captain John Smith. The whole was commanded by Captain New port. Unfortunately, the fair prospects of this expedition were in the be ginning clouded, through the caprice of the. king. The names and instructions of the council had been enclosed in a box, which was SETTLEMENT OF JAMESTOWN. 213 CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH. not to be opened until the expedition had arrived at its destination. Consequently, no one could claim immediate command. The energy of Smith, with his open, manly bearing, led to his promotion as leader. He thus became an object of jealousy to those higher in rank, who, on the pretence that he designed setting aside the coun cil and assuming royalty, caused him to be arrested and confined until some time after the voyage. In April, 1607, the colonists came in sight of America ; but, in the endeavour to effect a landing, they encountered a violent storm, which drove them to the opening-of Chesapeake Bay. The magnificent prospect of this noble body of water, so completely ravished them, as to cause immediate forgetfulness of all their misfortunes. After - ascending it some distance, they entered a large river, which they named after the king, and spent seventeen days in exploring it. A spot, fifty miles from its mouth, was chosen as a place of settlement, and called Jamestown. On landing, some Indians were seen, who at first showed symptoms of hostility ; but, soon becoming friendly, they brought food and other necessaries to their new visitors. On opening the box of instructions, Smith's name was found among the council ; but the jealousy of his rivals excluded him for some time from his privileges. He, however, accompanied an expe- 214 SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. dition up the river, led by Newport, who visited Powhatan, king of the neighbouring tribes. They were received kindly, but, on re turning to Jamestown, they found it in imminent danger of a con tinued attack by several neighbouring tribes. A battle actually ensued in which one (a boy) was killed, and seventeen wounded. The colonists then commenced the erection of a palisade fort, which was finished in June. Scarcely was this accomplished, when Smith was brought to trial on alleged charges of treason, but after trial was honourably acquitted — Wingfield, his accuser, being condemned to pay him a fine of sS200, which Smith generously threw into the common stock. Mr. Hunt, the clergyman, succeeded in producing at least an appearance of harmony, cemented by partaking together the Christian communion. On the 15th of June, Newport sailed for England, leaving the colonists in a state little better than anarchy. The soil was indeed fruitful ; but, by an unhappy arrangement, all the produce for the first five years was to be in common, and distributed by the council according to their respective wants. This system, by preventing all hope of personal advancement, other than that dependent upon the advancement of the community, paralyzed all exertions. Raising scarcely any crop the first year, they were dependent on the sup plies from home, which were not only precarious, but of inferior quality. A slender allowance of this unwholesome food, bad river water, and exposure to a new climate; soon spread disease so widely that often ten men could not be found fit for service. Before autumn, fifty of their number, including Gosnold, the projector of the set tlement, had died. Loud murmurings were heard on every side. Wingfield, the president, was accused of living in plenty, and even of meditating a departure while others were starving. He was con sequently deposed and his place supplied by Ratcliffe, who, being of an easy temper, left the whole management to Smith, which was what the colonists desired. This celebrated man soon gave ample proof that his administra tion was to be the dawn of better things to the colonists. On an expedition down the river, he procured a quantity of food, and being attacked by the savages, repelled them in such a manner as to inspire them with respect. They sought an alliance with him, and fur nished a boat-load of provisions. Smith returned just in time to prevent Wingfield and another from seizing a vessel and sailing to England. His supplies, with ADVENTURES OF CAPTAIN SMITn. 215 POWHATAN. flocks of water-fowl which came at the approach of winter, relieved their wants ; and having in his rambles discovered the great river Chickahominy, he determined to explore it to its source, not, it is said, without a hope of thereby reaching the South Sea, viewed then as the grand source of wealth. He was impelled, it was imagined, by the taunts of some of his enemies in the colony, but we rather think only by his own adventurous spirit. .He ascended first in his barge, then in a canoe, and twenty miles on foot, attended only by his Indian guides. But three hundred natives, who had traced his steps, sur prised and dispersed his party, and then came suddenly upon him self. He made astonishing efforts' for safety, and fastening with his garters a native ally to his persop, presented him to the enemy as a buckler ; then he ran to the canoe, which he would have reached, had he not suddenly sunk in a deep morass, where he was over taken, and, to escape from perishing with cold, obliged to surrender. He had now reason to consider his last hour approaching, and a circle had, in fact, been formed to shoot him. With characteristic presence of mind he asked for the chief, showed his compass-dial, pointed out its singular movements, and endeavoured to explain the corresponding phenomena of the earth and sky. Whether they ui derstood these indications or not, they were awed with astonish- 216 SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. ment as if admitted to contemplate a supernatural object. On a signal from their leader, they laid down their bows and arrows, and led him under strict guard to their capital. He was there exhibited to the women and children ; and a wild war-dance was performed round him, in fantastic measures and with frightful yells and contor tions. He was then shut up in a long house, and supplied at every meal with as much bread and venison as would have dined twenty men ; but, receiving no other sign of kindness, he began to dread that they were fattening in order to eat him. Even without such a precise purpose, this festive entertainment is known among savages to be no uncommon prelude to torture and death. They asked his aid in reducing Jamestown, while he sought an opportunity of making his way thither. In the course of this manceuvering, a message sent to that place, gave him an opportunity to display the powers of writing, which was considered by them as a species of magical spell. At length, after being paraded and exhibited in vari ous villages, he was led to Pamunkey, the residence of Powhatan. It was here his doom was sealed. The chief received him in pomp,' wrapped in a spacious robe of racoon skins, with all the tails hang ing down. Behind, appeared two fong lines, of men and wo men, with faces painted red, heads decked with white down,, and necks quite encircled by chains of beads. A lady of rank presented water to wash his hands, another a bunch of feathers to dry them. A long deliberation was then held, and the result proved fatal. Two large stones were placed before Powhatan, and by the united efforts of the attendants Smith was dragged to the spot, his head laid on one of them, and the mighty club was raised, a few blows of which were to terminate his life. In this last extremity, when every hope seemed past, a very unexpected interposition took place. Pocahon tas, the youthful and favourite daughter of this savage chief, was seized with those .tender emotions which form the ornament of her sex. Advancing to her father, she, in the most earnest terms, sup plicated mercy for the stranger ; and though all her entreaties were lost on that savage heart, her zeal only redoubled. She ran to Smith, took his head in her arms, laid her own upon it, and declared that the first death-blow must fall upon her. The barbarian's breast was at length softened, and the life of the Englishman was spared. Our adventurer, being naturally expected to render some services in return for so great a boon, employed himself in making hatchets, beads, and other ornaments for the father and daughter. At the end STATE OF THE COLONY AT SMITH'S RETLRN. 217 OAPTAIN SMITH SURVEYING OHESAPEAKE BAY. of two days, he was conducted into a large house, where, amid hideous and doleful noises, Powhatan rushed in, with two hundred attendants, strangely disguised, and their faces blackened. Smith again thought his last hour had come, but the chief announced these as signs of peace and friendship ; and he was forthwith sent to Jamestown, on the sole condition .of transmitting thence two cul- verins and a millstone, a promise faithfully fulfilled. Smith found a majority of the colonists preparing to return to England. He adopted the most energetic measures to prevent this, and, with the aid of some faithful adherents, pointed a gun at their vessel, declaring that she must either stop or sink. He also broke up a conspiracy, and sent the ringleaders to England. Meanwhile, they were not left without isupport. Pocahontas constantly visited them with provisions ; and soon. Captain Newport arrived with a hundred and twenty emigrants and abundant supplies. The captain visited Powhatan, and opened with him a trade on liberal terms. Unfortunately, the new emigrants were not of the character pro per for a youthful colony. They had visited America for the pur pose of obtaining gold ; and to cultivate the soil, or follow up plans for obtaining provisions, was the last of their expectations or pur poses. Having discovered some yellow glittering earth, they san- guinely supposed it to be gold dust, and, abandoning every thing else, began to load their vessels with it. Even the authority of Smith was insufficient to wean them from this unhappy mania. Unable to awaken the colonists from their golden visions, Smith commenced the exploration of Chesapeake Bay, with a hope of 28 T 218 SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. communicating with the Pacific, and thence to India. Many diffi culties were experienced from the savages; and the adventurers were about returning when they unexpectedly discovered the Poto mac river, the prospect of which once more revived their hopes. They ascended it to the Falls, above the site of Georgetown, entered the Rappahannock, and explored it to a considerable distance. Smith- subsequently explored the Susquehannah until stopped by cataracts. On his return Captain Smith was elected president, but was soon interrupted in the exercise of his duties by the arrival of Newport with about seventy emigrants, two of whom were females. This led to another futile expedition for the discovery of a passage to the South Sea, undertaken in conformity with a desire of the London Company, which having expended more than J2000 on the colony, were now anxious for something like reimbursement. A cargo, con sisting principally of timber, with some tar, glass, and ashes, was sent to England, although its value little accorded with expectation. Having despatched the vessel, Smith applied himself to the pro curing of food. He also contrived a plan for seizing Powhatan; but this was revealed to the monarch, who made Smith himself prisoner. He was a second time saved, only through the interces sion of Pocahontas ; but the feelings of the Indians were completely estranged from their white neighbours. Meanwhile the exertions of the patentees, and the general enthu siasm' kindled throughout the nation, enabled the company to equip an expedition of nine vessels and five hundred emigrants. Many distinguished individuals were ready to embark their fortunes in this enterprise ; and, with the consent of the old members, the company was remodelled on a larger scale and under a new charter. The territory was augmented from a hundred miles of coast to four hundred. Lord Delaware, distinguished by his talents and virtues, was named governor for life ; and, as he could not depart immediately, Sir Thomas Gates and Sir George Summers were to rule in the mean time. The vessels set sail on the 15th of May, 1609, and seven arrived on the 11th of August, at Jamestown; but unfortu nately they had encountered a violent storm, in which "two, having on board Gates and Summers, were separated and thrown upon the Bermudas. In their absence, Smith justly claimed the rule; but many of the new comers, being bankrupts, spendthrifts, or others CHARACTER OF THE SETTLERS. sss. k 219 POOAHONTAS RESCUING CAPTAIN SMITH. sent abroad for misconduct at home, were indisposed to obey him. For some time, total anarchy reigned ; but its evils at length became so great, that he was entreated to resume the government. He exerted himself to settle the emigrants advantageously, of whom two parties, a hundred and twenty each, were settled at Nansemond, and at the Falls of James River. Both, however, mismanaged their affairs, quarrelled with the Indians, and lost a number of their men ; while they rejected all his efforts to remedy these disorders. In returning from the latter place, a bag of gunpowder burst and severely man gled his person, so that he reached home in extreme torture. Here he was told that plots were forming against his life. Unable, in his debilitated state, to struggle against so many difficulties, he returned 220 SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. to England, quitting for ever the colony which had been so much indebted to him. He received at home neither honours nor rewards. The company, prepossessed by his numerous enemies, complained that he had brought no wealth into their coffers, and had acted severely towards the Indians. Posterity has done him justice, perhaps some what beyond his merits. His bold and active spirit, with sound prac tical judgment, eminently qualified him for the station ; though, being rather hot and uncompromising in . his temper, he excited bitter enmities. A conciliatory disposition and persuasive powers were, in such a situation, almost indispensable to render his exertions effective. His conduct towards the Indians was in general culpable, and, by the hostility which it created, neutralized in a great measure his eminent services. His eulogium, however, was found in the state of the colony after his departure. Only about thirty or forty acres were cultivated; the ships had brought grain in limited quantity, and much spoiled during the unfortunate voyage. The Indians, no longer overawed by the late president, not only refused supplies, but killed many set tlers. Thus there ensued a dreadful famine, long fearfully remem bered under the name of the " Starving Time." Many were im pelled to the horrid resource of devouring the bodies of the dead ; nay, there are dark imputations of murder committed under this fearful impujse. Vessels sent along the rivers were either sunk or the crews beaten by the savages. Virginia seemed a devoted soil. Of the flourishing colony of five hundred persons, there remained only sixty "most miserable and poor creatures." After a large ex penditure and successive arrivals of emigrants, it had returned almost into its original insignificance. In May, Gates and Summers arrived from the Bermudas. Their scanty stock afforded a few days' subsistence to the settlers, beyond which appeared no prospect but that of famine. In this extremity, the colonists determined to sail for Newfoundland, and embarking, (June 6,) were steering down the bay, where they met with the , long-boat of Lord Delaware, who had just arrived with a reinforce ment and large supplies, to take command. This opportune occur rence restored satisfaction, and the wise and paternal character of Lord Delaware's administration for a time gave prosperity to the settlement. But this excellent nobleman was soon after taken ill, and obliged to return to England. He left Percy in command, who was succeeded by Sir Thomas Dale. He continued in office until MARRIAGE OF POCAHONTAS. 221 .:si ml- \\\?\ U^ CAPTURE OF POCAHONTAS. the arrival of Sir Thomas Gates with six ships, three hundred emi grants, and a hundred cattle. With some of the new comers, Dale now undertook a voyage up the river, and founded a settlement which he named Henrico in honour of the Prince of Wales. A romantic and pleasing event of this expedition may be considered the termination of the long hostility with the native tribes. An enterprising naval officer named Argall contrived to inveigle on board his vessel the Princess Poca hontas, and, notwithstanding her tears and entreaties, carried her to Jamestown. She was well treated, but the English refused to re lease her, except for an exorbitant ransom. Powhatan, with an independence of soul which showed true greatness, refused to listen to any terms while his favourite child was a captive. The un fortunate breach seemed hourly widening. At this crisis, Mr. John Rolfe, a respectable young man, was smitten with her dignified demeanour, and found no difficulty in gaining her affections. Their marriage was a source of exultation to the colonists, and made Pow hatan their firm friend ever afterward. The youthful bride became 12 262 SETTLEMENT OF CONNECTICUT. was ordered. The intrepid Wads worth now stepped forward, and said sternly: "If I am interrupted again, I will make daylight shine through you in one moment." This meaning1 language exerted a suitable influence, and Fletcher returned to New York. From this period until the opening of the Seven Years' War, Connecticut stead ily advanced in strength and prosperity. In 1700, Yale College was founded at Saybrook by a few clergymen, and named after Elihu Yale-, one of its most active supporters. )OVXRKOR ANDROS AND THE COMMISSIONERS MlSBING THE SEORETED OHARTER. THE GREAT MASSACRE. 228 THE CHRISTIAN INDIAN DISCLOSING THE INTENDED MASSAGES. Their number continually, increased, the area of the settlement was extended, and the arrival of a considerable number of females gave a stability, an appearance of home to the town, which it had not yet enjoyed. During this period of prosperity, a storm was brooding over the colony in a quarter little suspected. We have seen the beneficial effects of Rolfe's marriage, in its reconciliation of the Indians. So perfect had this become, that the two races seemed blended into one, the Indians entering at pleasure into the houses of the planters, bor rowing their arms and materials, and frequently residing with them for some days. But, in reality, a fearful change had taken place, and the red men had determined on the utter extinction of the colony. Powhatan was dead ; and his son Opecancanough, under apparent friendship, concealed the most deadly hatred. All the causes of this alteration it is impossible to ascertain ; but, no doubt, a part was owing to the conduct of the settlers, and the fears excited by their rapid increase. The Indians appointed' a day in which a general massacre of the whites was to be perpetrated. The secret was kept with the pro found dissimulation which characterizes savage vengeance ; and, several days before, Opecancanough had declared that the heavens 224 SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA. THE GREAT MASSACRE. would fall before he would alter his affection for the English. To the last moment, his subjects continued visiting, conversing, and holding the most friendly intercourse with those whom they were about to slay. One exception to this general hatred saved the colony. A gentle man, named Pace, had an Indian domestic, whom he had not only treated with peculiar kindness, but had converted to the Christian religion. Being told, late at night, to murder his master next day, he rose from his bed and disclosed the plot. Pace immediately arose, procured a boat, and, crossing to Jamestown, revealed the conspiracy. The notice was too short, however, to warn all the remote settlements, and on these the storm fell in full fury. Min gling as usual with the settlers, they succeeded in completely sur prising them, and, with the implements of husbandry, struck them dead before they were conscious of danger. The dreadful work continued until three hundred and forty-seven men, women, and children were massacred, and all the colony was filled with alarm. This event, known as the Great Massacre, occurred April 1, 1622. It was followed by a war of extermination against the Indians, which resulted in the extinction or emigration of nearly all the tribes in the vicinity of Jamestown. JAMES I. 225 In addition to this misfortune, the company were soon called to breast another storm more potent than Indian hatred. This was the king's opposition. Being one of the vainest and most arbitrary sovereigns that ever sat on the English throne, James could not look with apathy upon the increasing prosperity of a company whose views of government and royal prerogative were far more republi can than his own. The dispute first commenced about the appoint ment of officers — James claiming this right for himself. He then attempted to monopolize the tobacco trade. The controversy con tinued until 1624, when the company was dissolved, and Virginia made a royal government. CHAPTER XV. VIRGINIA TILL THE PEACE OF 1763. HE arbitrary schemes of King James were interrupted by his death, which occurred April 6, 1625. His successor, Charles I., entertained similar ideas regarding his capa city for government, but was more fickle in disposition. Although he did not interfere with the colonial constitution, yet he endea voured to monopolize the tobacco trade, and was prevented from doing so only by an earnest remonstrance from the governor, council, and burgesses. On the death of Yeardley, m 1627, West and Pott were successively elected by .oi council. 220 ' INDIAN WAR. 227 ARREST OP HAEVBI. John Harvey was appointed. by Charles in 1629, but he became so unpopular as to be sent to England, in 1636, Joaded with charges. A trial resulted in his triumphant acquittal. He was then reinstated, and after continuing the administration for two years, was succeeded by Sir Francis Wyatt. After another period pf two years, the government devolved (February,- 1642) on Sir William Berkeley. His accession gave universal satisfaction ; and, although bigotted with regard to religion and education, he seems to have been the most popular of any of the Virginian governors. Ever since the dreadful massacre of 1622, a vindictive warfare had been waged against the Indians, chiefly by predatory incursions into their territory ; and in the year 1643, the Assembly voted that no terms of peace with them should be entertained. That unfortunate people, driven to despair, again entered into a general confederacy, hoping, by a sudden attack, to cut off the hated race who had seized their lands. This step could not now be reproached with. treachery, nor could suspicion be lulled by professions of friendship ; yet through their habits of deep dissimulation, they, in some degree, effected a surprise. About three hundred colonists were killed ; but as soon as the main body were aroused, the savage assailants were completely defeated, pursued into their own country, and Opecanca nough, their king, taken prisoner. Though' well treated, he felt indignant at- the multitudes who were allowed to come into his pri son, and satisfy their curiosity by viewing his person ; assuring Berkeley, that, had fortune reversed their situation, he would not have meanly exhibited his captive as a show. A brutal soldier put 228 VIRGINIA TILL THE PEACE OF 1763. CHARLES L an end to his life by shooting him in the back ; and the-Indians were now so far overawed, that the governor, in 1646, could impose a treaty, including an extensive cession of territory. This unpropitious affair was succeeded by a period of unusual tranquillity, during which the colony increased greatly. A writer, in 1649, estimates the population at about fifteen thousand, and states that there were twenty thousand head of cattle, three thousand sheep, five thousand goats, hogs and poultry innumerable, with about- two hundred horses and mares of an excellent breed. Wheat was raised for subsistence in considerable quantities, but tobacco was the staple for sale. The plantations reached about a hundred miles along the river, having upon it fronts of varying extent, but each stretching backward about two thousand yards. In the contest between Charles and the Republicans, Virginia took-part with the crown; and on the death of the monarch, boldly bacon's rebellion. 229 declared for his exiled son. Disputes with the Long Parliament followed, but were interrupted by the . dissolution of that body. Finally, however, the Virginians obtained a complete amnesty ; and the Protector even extended to them several important privileges. The republic was, however, always unpopular ; and, after the expul sion of Richard, Cromwell's son, the Virginians gladly returned to their old allegiance. As the colonists had been among the most strenuous supporters of the crown, it was natural to suppose that they would receive froni it a full recognition of their loyalty, and confirmation of all former rights. In this they were disappointed. The Church of England was exclusively established, the right of suffrage abridged, general education discouraged, commerce limited to the mother coun try, and several odious monopolies established. An internal cause still more cruelly interrupted the success of the colony. The Indians, once so hostile, had for a long time been overawed or conciliated ; but the Susquehannas, a singularly fierce tribe, having been driven from the north by the Five Nations, began to commit depredations upon the frontiers. The colonists on the bor der, possessing, doubtless, much of the lawless character of back- settlers, violently retaliated. Six chiefs, sent by the Indians to treat for peace, were seized and put to death ; and the just indignation ex pressed by Berkeley at this outrage gave great offence. After war had raged some time, that people again made pacific overtures, but without success. The governor, however, endeavoured to second their object, and to mitigate the ferocious spirit which now animated the colonists. These humane efforts were adverse to their present disposition, and lost to him that popularity which he had so long enjoyed, while his views and even his errors were in unison with theirs. The consequences soon proved disastrous. Nathaniel Bacon, of a respectable family in Suffolk, carried out the unusual fortune of £1800, and, possessing an uncommon share of address, eloquence, and intelligence, acquired great influ ence and a seat in the council. Having formed a border plantation on the upper part of James River, he found the war raging with the Indians, who carried it on with their usual cruelties. Ill-informed perhaps of the wrongs by which they had been impelled, he sym pathized with the sufferings of his countrymen, and entertained an eager desire for revenge. A farm of his own being attacked, and the servant killed, he took up arms without the knowledge of 230 VIRGINIA TILL THE PEACE OF 1763. SIGNING OP BACON S COMMISSION. Berkeley, and rallying around him all inspired by similar senti ments, was soon at the head of five hundred men. The governor announced this armament as, rebellious, and issued a mandate to disperse, which was partly obeyed. His attention was distracted, however, by a rising of the popular party in the lower province, to resist the aristocratic ascendant. The two interests became united ; and the government, unable to resist, were obliged to agree that the Assembly, having now sat an exorbitant time, should be dissolved, and a new one elected. ' The result was favourable to the popular side ; universal suffrage was restored ; all arbitrary taxation was abolished ; and various abuses suppressed, though without any vin dictive proceedings against their authors. Bacon had at first been iriade prisoner ; but on so strong a manifestation of the Assembly's will, he was set at liberty, and even promised a commission ; but this was.sultimately refused. He then secretly withdrew, and as sembled, five or six hundred men, with whom he became complete master of the seat of government. Sir William strenubusly re sisted ; and, with the boldness of an old cavalier, bared his breast to his adversary, saying, "A fair mark — shoot !" Bacon declared they did not wish to hurt a hair of his head, but only desired a commis sion to save their lives from the Indians. The authority was granted to him, and he marched to the frontier. BACON'S REBELLION. 231 As soon, however, as, the immediate pressure was removed, the governor, rashly as. it would seem, published a proclamation, re versing all the proceedings of the Assembly, and again declaring Bacon a traitor. This step immediately kindled a civil war. That daring chief marched back towards Jamestown, and was joined by numerous adherents of the popular class. The property of the roy alists was confiscated, their wives seized, and carried along with the troops as hostages ; and these violences being retaliated, wide de vastation was spread over the country. Berkeley, meantime, had assembled in the capital his friends, with some seamen landed from vessels in the harbour. Here, however, they were soon besieged, and, being repulsed in a sally, found themselves no match for the hardy borderers. It was necessary to evacuate the town during the night, and withdraw his entire force to the eastern shore, leaving the whole west iri possession of the insurgents. • ACON now acted entirely as ruler of Virginia, and de claring the governor to have abdicated, summoned an assembly in his own name. It was determined to resist any attempts from the mother-country to restore Berkeley to power, and, indeed, the resolu- i tion was almost fixed to throw off its yoke alto gether. As Jamestown might afford a position for establishing an English force, the violent measure was adopted of devoting it to the flames. This was 'executed with such ruthless determination, that the fires being kindled in the night, there remained in the morning scarcely a vestige of that original capital, which has never again reared its head. Nothing now appeared to remain hut to cross the river and drive before them the discouraged remnant of Berkeley's forces. Suddenly, however, the leader sickened, and, after a short dlness, died; a catastrophe that put an end to the insurrection, which, after all, had not any deep root among the nation. Its tem porary success seems to have been owing to the union of the border settlers with the popular faction ; but the latter, forming still a de cided minority, could not permanently support it. Several of the leaders attempted to make a stand, but were successively reduced and taken by Beverley, an active, royalist chief. The governor, whose feelings seem throughout the whole transaction to have been greatly excited, acted now with excessive rigour. Twenty persons were hanged, and it is supposed a greater number would have en dured the same punishment, had not the Assembly presented an 232 VIRGINIA TILL THE PEACE OF 1763. address, entreating " that he would spill no more blood." On6 of the deputies said, "had we let him alone, he would have hanged half the country." Charles IL, whose disposition was not cruel, exclaimed, "the old fool has taken away more lives than I for the murder of my father," and issued a proclamation censuring his con duct as derogatory to his clemency. Sir William was recalled, and his place temporarily supplied by Colonel Jeffereys, who, with two others, constituted a commission of inquiry. They seem to have made it very searching, with even a friendly disposition towards the people. The different counties were invited to produce statements of grievances, and the records of the Assembly were forced from their clerk. A report was drawn up, in which, while the conduct of the insurgents was strongly condemned, that of the government and several members of the council was also censured. These reflections against Berkeley are supposed to have hastened his death, which took place before he had an interview with the king. The Assembly passed a vote, declaring that he had been artfexcelktnt governor, and recommended a grant to Lady Berkeley of £BO0 Jeffereys, during his short administration, put an end to the Indian war. After the death of Charles I., some royalist noblemenipb'tain- ed a grant of the territory between the Potomac and Rappahannock, known as the NoTth" Neck, for the purpose of affording a refuge to their adherents. This right was afterwards sold to Lords Culpepper and Arlington. The colonists remonstrated- aga-fnst it, as a violation of their charter ; but Charles confirmed it by the appointing of Cul pepper governor for life. He was avaricious and despotic ; and the office finally, reverted to the crown. The colony remained in rather an unsettled state until 1692, when its management was conferred on Sir Edmund Andros. He seems to have conducted himself, during the six years of his administration, with prudence and abi lity. His successor, Nicholson, having formed a scheme of uniting the settlements into a union for mutual defence, which displeased the Assembly, was deposed, and the government given to the Earl of, Orkney, who held it as a sinecure thirty-six years. Virginia, from this period till the peace of 1763, enjoyed an almost uninterrupted prosperity. She was engaged in military operations against the French and their Indian allies ; but as these were com mon to the whole range of states, we prefer to make them, with some other matters, the subject of a general chapter. CEOIL OALVEBT, THB SECOND LORD BA1TIMOH1 CHAPTER XVI. MARYLAND. 1IRGINIA, under the second charter, was ex tended so as to embrace in its area the whole of the present state of Maryland. In the territory around Chesapeake Bay a valuable- trade was carried on with the Indians, principally by William Clayborne, a surveyor of the Virginia Company, and member of the council. Under direct license from the crown, he built a number of establishments on the bay, the proceeds of which were highly beneficial to the colony. This profitable trade was interrupted by the grant of a charter to Sir George Calvert, the first Lord Baltimore, for the land' extending from the Potomac to the fortieth degree of north latitude, to be called Maryland, in honour of the queen. Sir George, having died before the grant was fully made out, was succeeded by his son Cecil, who immediately devoted all his exertions for the good of the future 30 o 2 233 234 MARYLAND. colony. The expenses from his own funds amounted to £20,000, and an equal sum was raised among his friends. Warned by Virginian disasters, he avoided, from the first, all chimerical projects, and placed his establishment entirely on. an agricultural basis. Every one who carried out five persons, male or female, paying their expenses, (about £20,) was to receive a thousand acres. Those defraying their own charges got a hundred acres for themselves, and the same for every adult member of their family; for children under six years, fifty acres. The rent was two shillings for each one hundred acres. In November, 1633, Leonard Calvert' set sail with the first emi grants, consisting of about two hundred persons, including a son of Sir Thomas Gerard, one of Sir Thomas Wiseman, and two of Lady Wintour. In February, he touched at Point Comfort, in Virginia, where his arrival was by no means acceptable ; nevertheless, Sir John Harvey, in obedience to ' the express orders of Charles, gave. him a courteous reception. Early in March, he entered the Poto mac, to the Indians on the shores of which the sight of So large a vessel was quite new, and caused the utmost astonishment. The report was, that a canoe was approaching as big as arf island, with men standing in it as thick as trees in a' forest ; and they thought with amazement how enormous must have been the trunk out of which it had been hollowed. A piece of ordnance, resounding for the first time on the shores of this mighty river, caused the whole country to tremble. The intercourse, however, appears to have been judiciously conducted, and was, on the whole, very amicable. Calvert sailed up to Piscataqua, an Indian settlement nearly opposite the present site of Mount Vernon, where the chief received him with kindness, saying, "he would not bid him go, neither would he bid him stay ; he might use his own discretion." On reflection, he considered the place too far up the river, and, therefore, the vessel was moved down to a tributary named then St. Georges, now St. Mary's. Ascending it four leagues, he came to a considerable Indian town, named Yoacomoco ; and, being hospitably received, as well as pleased with the situation, he determined to fix his colony there. The werowanne accepted an invitation on board, and Sir John Harvey having just arrived from Virginia, the chief was led down to the cabin, and seated at dinner between the two governors. An alarm having spread among the people on shore, that he was'de- tained as a prisoner, they made- the banks echo with shouts of alarm ; the Indian attendants durst not go to them, but when he SETTLEMENT OF BT. MARYS. 235 SETTLEMENT 07 B T. MART o. himself appeared on deck, they were satisfied. He became so much attached to the English, as to declare, that if they should kill him, he would not wish his death avenged, being sure that he must have deserved his fate. . . Amid these dispositions, it was not difficult to negotiate the formation of a settlement. For hatchets, hoes, knives, cloth, and other articles of probably very small original cost, the strangers not only obtained a large tract of land, but were allowed by the inhabitants to occupy immediately one half of their village, with the corn growing adjacent to it, and, at the end of harvest, were to receive the whole. Thus the English were at once comfortably established, without those severe hardships which usually attend an infant settlement. The colony thus commenced enjoyed privileges to which Virginia had been a stranger. Her charter secured the great privilege of perfect freedom of opinion in religious matters, the right of suf frage, the appointment of officers by the crown, and a permanent exemption from all royal taxation. 236 MARYLAND. "N 1635, the Assembly met at St. Mary's ; but the record of their proceedings is now lost. Immediately after, Clay- borne refused to submit to Calvert's government, and at length appeared in arms to maintain the right of possession in his territory. A skir mish occurred in May, in which a few on each side were killed, and Clayborne's party taken prison ers. Their leader fled to Virginia, and, on being demanded by the Maryland Assembly, was sent to England for trial. The Assembly seized his lands and declared him a traitor. Clay borne appealed to the crown, but, after a full hearing, the case was decided against him, and his estates reverted to Lord Baltimore. These difficulties were scarcely suppressed, when others, little less formidable, occurred with the Indians. These increased to such an alarming extent, that, in 1642, all the neighbouring tribes were arrayed against the colony. The disgusting scenes attendant on savage warfare continued until 1644, when they were happily terminated by a treaty, the conditions of which, and some acts of Assembly immediately following, seem to prove that the evil had arisen entirely from the interested proceedings of individuals. The prohibition of kidnapping the Indians, and of selling arms to them, show the existence of these culpable practices. This peace was of long duration, and the Maryland government seems, on the whole, to have acted more laudably towards the red men than any other, except that of Penn. In 1645, Clayborne returned to Maryland, raised a rebellion, and drove the governor into Virginia. A period of disorder ensued until the summer of 1646, when the government was restored. A season of prosperity followed until 1650, when still further security was given to political freedom, by dividing the Assembly into two houses, composed of the governor and council in one, and the bur gesses elected by the people in the other. The suppression of royalty in England seems to have acted- un favourably to Maryland. The parliament sent a number of com missioners to reduce the territory to obedience ; among these was Clayborne. Governor Stone was twice removed. The great reli gious sects organized themselves into parties, and a proscription was COLONIAL FEUDS. 237 WILLIAM IIL commenced against the Catholics. The governor raised an armed force, seized the colonial archives, and marched against his oppo nents ; but, in a battle fought near the site of Annapolis, his party were dispersed and himself taken prisoner. Four of his men were executed. The disturbances continued until 1660, when the upper house of the legislature was dissolved, and the entire management of affairs devolved upon the popular branch. This continued until the Restoration of Charles II. , when the old tirder of administration was restored, the proprietor reinstated, and peace secured by a general amnesty for all offences. Emigration was renewed with considerable activity, especially among the labouring classes, who, under indentures for a term of years, had the expenses of their voyage defrayed. When the Revolution occurred in England, the Protestants of Maryland, inspired with new courage, rose in arms, overturned the government, and substituted a provisional one. King William, who doubtless had an jnterest in favour of the insurgents, gave his entire sanction to their proceedings and took the government into his own hands. After a short tenure by Andros, it was directed during six 238 MARYLAND. years by Nicholson, who, on the whole, gave satisfaction. The Pro testants considered their wrongs as redressed, nor do we hear of any complaints • from the opposite .party. Under the successive admi nistrations of Blackeston, Seymour, Corbet, and Hunt, tne province .continued tranquil and contented. In 1716, the inheritance having fallen to Charles, Lord Baltimore, who professed the Protestant reli gion, George I. was induced to restore his -patent, which continued till the Revolution in the hands of the family. It was first ruled by B. Leonard Calvert, a relation of the proprietor, who was succeeded in 1732 by Samuel Ogle. The colony continuing to flourish, re ceived a large accession of Presbyterians from the north of Ireland, who, after settling in Pennsylvania, sold their possessions and removed to this more favourable climate. JOHN WIHTHROP. CHAPTER XVII. MASSACHUSETTS. N 1606, Sir George Popham was sent from Eng land, by the Plymouth Company, with a hundred men, to form a colony in America. He chose a site on the Kennebec ; and, with forty-five of his company, commenced a settlement, under the name of St. George. During the winter, they endured great sufferings from cold and famine ; their president died, and the store-house was consumed by fire. The settlement was consequently abandoned in the following year. But for a series of unforeseen calamities, this attempt would probably have given New England a priority, in point of age, to Virginia. No further attempt was made at colonization in this quarter, until 1614, when Captain John Smith visited it in two ships, established a lucrative trade with the Indians, and explered the interior, togethei with the coast from Cape Cod to the Penobscot. He named th 240 MASSACHUSETTS. country New England, and prepared a map of it, which is still extant, and is strikingly correct in all its outlines. On his return, he succeeded in rousing a spirit of enterprise, which, for a while, promised the most flattering results. Smith sailed the following year, under the auspices of the Plymouth Com pany, but was driven back by storms. On a second attempt, his crew mutinied, and, while engaged in quelling this new danger, his ship was seized by French pirates, and he escaped only by means of an open boat. On his return to England, he was appointed life admiral of the colony, and obtained a charter (1620) for settling all lands between the fortieth and fortyreighth degrees of north latitude. • Meanwhile, influences were in operation which, although appa rently uisignificant, were to outstrip royal patents in the march of colonization, and found a colony on the wild shores of New Eng land, whose potency was to be realized throughout America. The Puritans, driven from their own country by religious intolerance, had settled in Holland, in 1608, and, for eleven years, lived in hap piness under their pastor, John Robinson. Unable, however, to feel at home, in a country whose laws, customs, and language were en tirely different from their own, these men obtained a grant of land from the London Company, and permission to emigrate. The king, however, remained hostile, and want of funds obliged them to form a partnership, on very disadvantageous terms, with some English merchants. They were thus enabled to purchase the vessels Speedwell (sixty tons) and Mayflower (a hundred and eighty-tons), the former of which sailed fo Delfthaven, to take on board the breth ren. The departure was a solemn and impressive scene. Kneel ing on the strand, in presence of his noble-hearted followers, so soon to dare the horrors of a savage wilderness, and surrounded by thou sands of spectators, the venerable Robinson dedicated their cause to God, and gave them his parting blessing. Many a tear was shed as companions, endeared by years of persecution, adversity, and afflic tion, parted, with but little prospect of ever again uniting. The two vessels joined at Southampton, and thence proceeded on their great western voyage ; but, before they reached the Land's End, the Speedwell was obliged to put back to Dartmouth for repairs. After a second trial the captain again pronounced her unfit for the voyage, and sailed for Plymouth. These disasters and alarms, though in volving the loss of much precious time, " winnowed their number of the cowardly and the lukewarm ;" and they finally set sail in one LANDING OF THE PILGRIMS. 241 LANDING OP THE P.I LG RIMS vessel, (September 16, 1620,} numbering a hundred and two per sons. ¦ ...-; They had a tempestuous voyage, and though their destination was the mouth of the Hudson, they arrived, on the 19th of November, in view of a great promontory, which proved->to be Cape Cod. The captain, it has been alleged, had received a bribe from the Dutch to avoid a place where they projected a settlement. Of this, however, the adventurers being ignorant, were comforted by the view of a goodly land, wooded to the water's edge. Whales so abounded, that had the crew possessed jneans and instruments, which,, to their ;great regret, were wanting, . they might have procured £4000 worth of oil. They sailed on toward their destination, but being driven back by contrary winds, determined to-go ashore. Previously, however,. they sought to obviate the danger of discord by a mutual agreement, in the name of God, to combine into a body politic ; framing; and duly observing laws for the general good. They landed on the -21st, but being informed that more commo dious spots might be found to the north-west, in the interior of the great Bay of Massachusetts, they determined that a select party should proceed in tho shallop in search of them. The boat, how ever, was in such disrepair that it could not sail till the end of two or three weeks ; sixteen of them, therefore, resolved to make an ex cursion into the interior. They met no natives, but found on a hill,. Iwlf-buried in the ground, several baskets, filled, with, ears of, corn, 31 x 242 MASSACHUSETTS. part of which they carried away, meaning to satisfy the owners on the first opportunity, which unluckily never occurred. They saw many geese and ducks, but were unable to reach them ; arid being exposed to severe cold, hastily returned. Soon after, they started for the same spot, named Cprnhill, in the neighbourhood of which they collected ten bushels of grain, esteemed a providential supply. They lighted upon a village without inhabitants ; but the houses were neatly constructed of young saplings bent at top, as in an ar bour, and covered without and within with fine mats. Eagies' claws, deer's feet, and harts' horns, were stuck into them as charms and ornaments. They then regained their boat, and sailed round to - the ship. Some of their number urged that they should remain at least during the winter in this creek, where corn and fish could be procured, while many were disabled by sickness for further removal. The majority, however, observed that water was scarce, and the anchorage for ships too distant ; that they had every chance of find ing a better situation, and to fix here and then remove would be doubling their labour. On the 16th of December, therefore, the shallop being at length ready, a chosen party set sail. After pro ceeding six or seven leagues, they reached a bay forming a good harbour, but without a stream falling into it. ¦ Seeing some Indian wigwams, they followed, but could not reach the people, and found only a large burying-place. They returned to sleep at the Janding- place, but at midnight Were awakened by "a great and hideous cry," which, they flattered themselves, proceeded only from wolves or foxes. Next morning, just after prayers, the sound was heard with redoubled violence, and was most dreadful. A«straggler rushed in, crying, " they are" men — Indians." Though the party ran to their arms, before they could be mustered, the arrows were flying thick among them. A brisk fire checked the assailants ; but the chief, shooting from a tree, stood three discharges, till at the fourth he screamed out and ran, followed by his men. They were reck oned at thirty or forty, and numerous arrows were picked up ; but, providentially, not one Englishman was hurt. They sailed fifteen leagues farther, and, on the 19th, reached a harbour that had been strongly recommended. The weather was dark and stormy, and the entrance encumbered with rocks ; yet they fortunately ran in on a fine sandy beach. This being Saturday, they did not land till Monday the 21st, when they were highly pleased, finding a commodious harbour, a land well wooded, vines, SETTLEMENT OF NEW PLYMOUTH. 243 DEATH OP GOVERNOR CARVER. cherries, and berries, lately planted, and. a hill cleared for corn. There was no navigable stream, but several brooks of fresh water fell into the sea. They advanced seven or eight miles into the country without seeing any Indians. They now finally fixed upon this spot, to which, on the 29th, the vessel was brought round; and they named it New Plymouth, to commemorate hospitalities received at home. The erection of houses, however, was a hard task, amid severe weather, short days, and very frequent storms. By distributing the unmarried among the several families, they reduced the buildings wanted to nine teen, and by the 20th of January, had completed one, twenty feet square, for public meetings. The exposure, however, and wading through the water in such inclement weather, brought on severe ill ness, to which Carver, a governor highly esteemed, and many others, fell victims. But on the 13th of March, a south wind sprung up ; the weather became mild ; the birds surig in the woods most pleasantly ; the invalids quickly recovered ; and many of them lived to a good old age. In the autumn of 1621, the merchants sent out another vesse1 with thirty-five settlers ; but misled by " prodigal reports of plenty" sent home by certain colonists, they supplied no provisions ; nay 244 MASSACHUSETTS. THE TREATY WITH MASSASSOIT. the ,crew required to be provided with a portion for their return voyage. The consequence was, that in the course of the winter, the colonists were reduced to a half allowance of corn daily, then to five kernels a piece ; lastly, to entire want. Equally destitute of live-stock, they depended wholly on wild animals. Till May, 1622, fowls abounded ; but there remained then merely fish, which they had not nets to catch ; and it was only by feeding on the shell species, collected among the rocks, that they were preserved from absolute starvation. Hitherto but few Indians had been seen ; but in the latter end of March, a sachem, named Samoset, entered the village and exclaimed in broken English, "Welcome, Englishmen !" This was followed by a treaty with King Massassoit, which secured peace with his tribes for nearly fifty years. Similar treaties were concluded with other tribes. Canonicus, however, sachem of the Narragansetts, PROGRESS OF THE COLONY. 245 -SETTLEMENT OF BOSTON. sent to Governor Bradford ,a bundle of arrows in a rattlesnake's skin ; but the intrepid officer coolly stuffed the skin with powder and ball, and returned it. This so frightened the Indian that he refused to touch it, and after being circulated among other tribes with similar effects, it was returned to Plymouth. In 1622, a merchant of London, named Weston, with sixty fol lowers, commenced a settlement at Weymouth. Idleness soon re duced them to poverty, and their encroachments on the Indians were so unscrupulous that the latter determined on the utter destruction of their white neighbours. The plot was revealed by Massassoit. Captain Standish, with eight men, being sent to support the new settlement, succeeded in killing the Indian chief with several of his men, and breaking up the conspiracy. In 1626, the colony purchased the rights of the London mer chants, and distributed the property among the emigrants. Unfor tunately, however, Robinson and his friends remaining in Holland, were unable to obtain transportation in consequence of opposition in England., In 1624, Mr. White, a Puritan minister, formed a settlement at Cape Ann, which remained two years. In 1624, Salem was settled z2 246 MASSACHUSETTS. BANISHMENT OP ROGER -WILLIAMS. by John Endicott, under the auspices of the "Governor and Com pany of the Massachusetts Bay, in New England." Charlestqwn was founded next year. The settlement was denominated the Mas sachusetts Bay Colony, and its members were greatly strengthened in 1630, when the celebrated John Winthrop arrived with three hundred pious families. Winthrop was chosen governor of the whole colony, and established his residence where Boston now stands. Misfortunes, however, still thickened around them ; sick ness and a severe climate made fearful inroads into their numbers, and, before December, two hundred died. But the survivors were not discouraged. They had found a home«in the wilderness, where the asperities of nature were less formidable than the persecutions of man ; and the hardships inseparable from their situation cohld not shake their determined minds. In 1631, a law was passed limiting the rights of citizenship to members of church, and another, making the offices of governor, SIR HARRY VANE CHOSEN GOVERNOR. 247 SIR HARRY VANE. deputy-governor, and assistants, elective by the people. The whole form of government was changed, in 1634, from a pure democracy to a representative one. The former statute, somewhat intolerable in itself, was soon followed by proceedings still more arbitrary. A clergyman, named Roger Williams, having been driven from his native country by English bigotry, sought a home among the Puri tans, and became pastor of Salem. Here he proclaimed, among other things, perfect freedom of conscience in religious matters, denied the authority of the king to enforce an oath of allegiance, or to deprive the Indians of their lands. Men like the Puritans could not regard such opinions without alarm ; and Williams was soon arraigned for trial. Banishment from the colony followed, (1635,) and the fearless advocate of religious freedom became the father of Rhode Island. At this time, the colony received an accession to their number of about three thousand emigrants, among whom were Hugh Peter and- the famous Sir Harry Vane. At the age of twenty-five, the latter was chosen governor. This increase was followed by an emi gration of a small company (October, 1635) to the valley of the 248 MASSACHUSETTS. Connecticut. This, was the origin of the state known at present by that name. The difficulties with Roger Williams were scarcely terminated, when others of a still more serious character arose with the sect called Ahtinomians. These seem to have^had their, origin in the colony, out of the practice of debating religious topics during the meetings on the Sabbath. < In opposition to these, a lady, named Mrs. Hutchinsori, organized similar assemblies for her own sex, in which both old and new tenets were discussed with a freedom and popularity which soon roused the attention' of the whole colony. But although the ministers and civil and ecclesiastical officers ar rayed themselves against. her, and condemned the new doctrines as heretical, yet her assemblies were constantly crowded to overflowing. The contagion spread through all classes of society, until at length political parties were based, on the distinction, between Antinomian- ism and the established creed. An election was held for governor,. in which Vane was candidate of the Hutchinson party, and Win throp of the Puritan. The latter was elected, and measures were immediately taken for the suppression of heresy. A judicial war fpllowed, in which Mrs. Hutchinson and several of her followers were tried, condemned, and banished. She. went to Rhode Island, and was cordially received by Roger Williams. While these unhappy events were transpiring, a war, occurred with the Pequod Indians, which terminated in the utter extinction of that warlike tribe. In this affair, the banished Williams dis played a true nobleness of soul, by using his influence successfully in breaking up. a league between these savages and the Narragan- setts, and inducing the latter to join the colonists. In 1643, a union or confederacy was formed by the four colonies of Massachusetts, New Plymouth, New Haven, and Connecticut, with a view of protecting themselves against the Dutch and French colo nists, and more especially against the Indians. The executive body consisted of two commissioners from each colony, whose only quali fication was church membership. They had no right to interfere in the internal jurisdiction of any of the states, but could provide for the general defence, declare war, order levies of troops, and con clude peace. A singular feature was their entire inability to enforce their decrees, these being merely intimated by them to the confeder ate bodies with whom it rested to carry them into execution. The league consisting only of organized churches, excluded from its TREATMENT OF QUAKERS. 249 members, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, and Maine. As this ren dered the situation of Roger Williams somewhat precarious, he made two visits to England, and, through the influence of Vane, obtained a full charter for his little colony. This colonial confederation lasted forty years. In 1644, Massachusetts passed a law by which the Council, when in session, should hold their sessions independent of the governor's presence. In 1652, its territory was extended by the accession of Maine. This province had been chartered and settled by Ferdinand Gorges, in 1639, but a variety of conflicting claims had produced a state of almost utter anarchy which finally forced the colonists to seek the protection of their flourishing neighbour'. . But Massachusetts had not yet learned the secret of securing do mestic tranquillity. A sect had arisen in England, the members of which, on account of some irregular bodily movements, had received the derisive title of Quakers. They seem to have proceeded to great extremes, rejecting all human learning and ordinances, and placing their whole dependency on the direct agency of the Spirit. Guided hj- supernatural impulses, they professed to be intrusted with mes sages and mandates to kings and cities, challenged the obedience of all, announced judgments and indicated the means of averting them. In executing such commissions, no regard was paid to human dig nities, or to the rules and usages of society ; hence, they were branded as mad, though their writings are generally in a sober and reasoning tone. In 1656, a few of this sect arrived at Boston, but were sent back by the authorities in the same vessel by which they came. This did not prevent the arrival of others, and soon the colony became a scene of excitement and violence, little worthy-the character of men whose political privileges had so often been endangered by ecclesias tical bigotry. Numbers were fined, whipped, imprisoned, banished, or executed. In 1658, a law was passed inflicting death on any Quaker who should revisit the colony after being banished. But so great was the number of those who aspired after the glories of mar tyrdom, that their sufferings, united with a uniform mildness of character and deportment, at length wrought a revolution in popular opinion. Wenlock Christian, sentenced lo death for returning from banishment, was released. One law against them after another was abolished, until the Quakers ceased to be an object of legal persecu tion. 32 250 MASSACHUSETTS- trial OP wenlooz: CHRISTIAN. In 1661, Whaley and Goffe, two of the judges who had voted for the death of Charles I., arrived at Boston and announced the restor ation of royalty. This was unwelcome tidings ; for during the Pro tectorate, Cromwell had extended much favour to Massachusetts, and even offered the colonists Jamaica as a climate more congenial than their own. Accordingly, when orders came from the new king for the arrest of Goffe and Whaley, they had been so carefully con cealed by the colonists as nowhere to be found. In 1664, an attempt was made to encroach on the colonial privi leges by the appointment of commissioners to " hear and determine all complaints that might exist in New England, and take such mea sures as they might deem expedient for settling the peace and secu rity of the country on a solid foundation." This occasioned much disturbance, and in Massachusetts and New Hampshire was strenu ously and successfully resisted. They were at length recalled, and New England resumed its career of growth and prosperity. In 1662, Philip, the younger son of Massassoit, succeeded his brother Alexander, as sachem, or king, of the Wampanoags. The treaty made by his father, forty years before, had neyer been vio lated ; but a new era was at hand, whose terrible events were to form one of the most tragic pages of our colonial history. Philip KING PHILIP'S WAR. 25J SCENE IN KING PHILIP'p WAR. was a young chief, a perfect model of an Indian warrior, and pos sessing a grasp of design and intellect far superior to his race. For some reasons, never fully explained, he became incensed against the whites, and succeeded by his eloquence and address in uniting all the neighbouring tribes in a scheme for their entire annihilation. The first intelligence of the conspiracy was obtained through a friendly Indian, who paid for his faithfulness by his life. Three Indians were convicted of this murder, one of whom acknowledged that he had been instigated to it by Philip. Unable longer to re main concealed, the chief determined upon the most sudden and vigorous measures ; and sending the women and children to the Narragansetts, attacked the village of Swanzey, (July 4,, 1675,) and killed several of the inhabitants. Roused by this daring deed, the colonists raised a considerable force, penetrated to Mount Hope, the Indian warrior's summer residence, and, on finding that he had fled, marched into the Narragansett country, and concluded a treaty with that tribe. On the 28th, a battle .occurred at Pocasset (Tiverton) Swamp, in which the colonists were defeated, with the loss of six teen. They then besieged the Indians for thirteen days, hoping to reduce them by starvation ; but Philip managed to escape to Con necticut, where he was joined by the Nipmucks, near Brookfield. 252 MASSACHUSETTS. The latter tribe fell upon a party of twenty men under Captains Wheeler and Hutchinson, (August 12,) killing nearly all of them They then proceeded to Brookfield, which but for timely alarm from the fugitives, would have been completely surprised. It was be sieged two days, partially fired, and various expedients adopted to force an entrance. The arrival of reinforcements for the garrison obliged the besiegers to retire. On the 5th of September, a battle was fought at Deerfield, in which twenty-six Indians were killed ^and ten colonists. Six days after, the Indians burned the town. Hadley, south of Deerfield, was, on the same day, (the Sabbath,) attacked by a party of the enemy. A singular incident occurred here. While the inhabitants were col lected in terror and confusion, an unknown person, of venerable aspect, suddenly appeared,. and after restoring order, led them against the Indians, who' were ; speedily dispersed. The leader then sud denly disappeared. Of course, ,the inhabitants considered him a special messenger from heaven ; but it was afterwards ascertained to have been William Goffe, the proscribed judge pf Charles I. On the 28th, a sanguinary conflict took place on a small stream south of Deerfield. Eighty young men, under Captain Lathrop, were surrounded by a thousand Indians, and, with but a few exceptions, massacred. During the action, Captain Mosey, with seventy men, arrived from Deerfield ; but, after a struggle of several hours> was driven back. The battle was finally terminated by a reinforcement of a hundred colonists, and sixty friendly Indians. From this occur rence, the stream of water was subsequently known as Bloody Brook. On the 15th of October, Springfield was attacked and burned by the savages ; but most of the inhabitants had, through timely warning, been enabled to escape. Hatfield was next assaulted, (October 29,) but without success. Immediately after, Philip in duced the Narragansetts to join him, notwithstanding their treaty with the colonists. Hitherto the colonists had acted in small bands, without any defi nite plan ; but the successes of their formidable enemy soon caused a union for mutual defence. Massachusetts, Plymouth Bay, and Connecticut, raised fifteen hundred men, under Governor Winslow, who, with a number of friendly Indians, proceeded against the Nar ragansetts. On the 28th of December, the forces of the three colo nies were united at Petaquamscot, and marched through a deep snow, toward the enemy, who was encamped at about fifteen miles' KING PniLIP.S WAR. 253 BURNING OP SPRINGPIELD. distance, in a large swamp. The English arrived there, at about one o'clock in the afternoon, and immediately marched forward in quest of the enemy's camp. The- whole army entered the swamp, fol lowing the Indians as they retreated into their fortress. On attack ing this, they were at first driven back ; but, in a second attempt, they carried the fortification, fired the wigwams, and massacred all within reach. Numbers of women and children perished in the flames. The fugitives fled to a neighbouring swamp. Their loss has been estimated at a thousand, and that of the colonists two hun dred and thirty. The Narragansett warriors afterward proceeded to the Nipmuck country. Although this action was a severe blow to the enemy, yet Philip was by no means disheartened. By his influence, the more northern tribes were brought down upon the settlements, and the war became more general than. ever. But the spirit of the colonists was fully aroused, and almost every attempt of the Indians was promptly and successfully resisted. Hunted from place to place, and disheartened by continual defeat, they began to come in by small parties and surren der. Philip was compelled to fly from the Mohawks, among whom he had taken refuge ; and now with a large party he- lurked near Mount Hope. ' Here, on the 2d of August, he was surprised by Captain Church, a hundred and thirty of his men killed, and his wife and son taken prisoners. He himself barely escaped. The wretched prince now sought to secrete himself in the depths of a 254 MASSACHUSETTS. swamp, but was betrayed by a deserter belonging to his own tribe When the colonists surrounded the place, (August 22,) he attempted fo escape by flight, but was shot by a friendly Indian. His death broke up the confederacy, although some of the northern Indians continued hostile, until 1678. In 1680, New Hampshire was separated from Massachusetts; and erected into a separate province — a measure which seems to have been unpopular with both colonies. Soon after, Charles II. declared fhe Massachusetts charter forfeited, in consequence of the stand taken by that province, in ^opposition to his commercial restrictions. This was followed by similar attacks on the neighbouring colo nies ; but in the midst of his arbitrary schemes the king died. His successor followed the same policy, deprived the provinces of their charters, and appointed Sir Edmond Andros royal governor of New England. This gentleman rendered himself so obnoxious by his arbitrary measures, as to receive the title of New England's tyrant ; and when, in April, 1689, news reached Boston of the ac cession of the Prince of Orange, he wa"s thrown into prison, with his officers, and subsequently sent under arrest to England. This was followed by a return to the charter governments. ii? URING King William's war, New York and New England united in an expedition against Canada. Massachusetts furnished the na val, and her sister province the land forces ; but the enterprise failed, in consequence of the t-return of the latter troops, and ; the arrival of a large French UHp1 army at Quebec. To pay the expenses of the expedition, bills of credit were issued for the first time in America. In 1692, a royal government was established in New England, by which the Plymouth Bay colony was united to Massachusetts, and New Hamp shire erected into a separate colony. When Massachusetts, having nobly struggled through political difficulties, seemed approaching a tranquil state, a drama opened, whose scenes, though peculiarly painful, may yet afford a useful lesson to the student of history. The belief in witches — wicked beings endued with supernatural power by the great enemy of TRUE OF WITCHES." 255 mankind — was at one time general throughout Europe ; and gave way very slowly before the progress of light and civilization. James I. placed much of his learned pride in the skill with which he traced the signs of a witch ; such discoveries being always fol lowed by the most inhuman persecutions against these unhappy persons. The Puritans and Presbyterians, however opposite in other matters, were not in this respect much wiser ; hence the New Englanders went out with this belief, which still prevailed among the most learned of their countrymen. ' MONG the first cases of this delusion was that of a daughter and niece of Mr. Paris, minister of Salem. These children were afflicted with a sense of choking, and as though pins were stuck into the skin, accom panied with inability to speak, and hysteric contortibns of the limbs. Unable to suggest' a remedy, the physicians at length declared their patients " under an evil hand." An Indian domestic, falling under suspicion, was immediately thrown into prison. Mr. Bur roughs, a respectable clergyman, was executed, because he denied the existence of witches. Soon, no age, sex, or condition was spared, and the cases became so numerous that the prisons of Salem could no longer contain the crowds of suspected persons. The whole colony was filled with distress and fear. The principal peo ple formed themselves into an association to meet " this dreadful assault from hell." They appointed a solemn fast, that the Lord might be induced "to rebuke Satan, and show light to his people in this day of darkness ;" following which was a series of trials, that relentlessly denounced death on all found guilty of this fearful charge. Nothing is more astonishing than the confessions of the suspected persons. They display a superstition and -fanaticism, together with a state of society which requires the most undoubted evidence to be believed. The colony was reduced to a dreadful condition. Nineteen had suffered death ; eight more were under sentence ; one hundred and fifty were in prison, and fresh crowds were continually thrust in. Charges were brought against persons of the first conse quence ; no man's character, property, nor life were for a moment secure ; and even those most active in prosecuting, learned, with horror, that their own spectres were beginning to walk abroad, commit 256 • MASSACHUSETTS. ting actions, that would bring them to a fatal end. A feeling was at length aroused that matters had gone too far; and soon after an assembly of ministers, convened by the governor, went far toward discountenancing capital punishment on witches. Of -fifty-six cases presented at the ensuing sessions, thirty were ignored by the grand jury, and but three of the remainder condemned. Immediately after, with the general concurrence of the people, the governor threw open the prison doors, and stopped all further proceedings.! , Massachusetts, from this time until the Seven Years' War, enjoyed, like the other colonies, a course of prosperity, chequered Only by some internal agitations. ' She took a very active part in the military operations of successive wars waged by the British against the French colonies and their Indian allies. EANWHILE the domestic affairs of the pro vince ceased to exhibit those, violent fluctuations which had hitherto distracted it. Lord Bella- mont, who went out as governor in 1699, was extremely popular ; and it was to the great re gret of the people he was transferred to New York, after fourteen months' administration. He was succeeded by Dudley, who, on account of his peculiar opinions on government, seems to have been no great favourite. After twelve years he was succeeded by Colonel Shute. In 1727, he was succeeded by Burnet, a very accomplished per son, and who, at New York, had made himself extremely acceptable. Under him, however, the question of income came to a crisis. The Assembly, much mortified by having, under the charter of William, been deprived of the choice of a governor, endeavoured to keep him still under their influence by granting his salary only from year to year, and varying its amount according as he had given satisfaction. This arrangement was very disagreeable to him, and still more to tho ministry at home, against whose power it was directly levelled. Burnet, relying on their support, pressed with great vehemence for a permanent salary ; but ' it was strenuously resisted, and the controversy was suspended by his death in 1729. The cabinet then sent nut Belcher, who had formerly acted as their agent, but with distinct instructions to insist on this point, which, it was hoped, his great popularity might gain. He does not, however, seem to have entered on the undertaking very heartily ; and when the Assembly passed a liberal vote, he obtained permission to accept it. Thda-gh GOVERNMENT OF THE PROVINCE. 257 still ordered to press the general measure, he seems to have con cerned himself very little about the matter, and thus the Assembly, by dogged perseverance, finally gained this important object. They had remarked, that in these long controversies, ministers uniformly sought to overawe them by threatening to lay their conduct before the British legislature. Yet this menace having never been exe cuted, they were led to suspect that body to be more favourable to them than the court represented. At all events they felt themselves encouraged to transmit a petition, desiring to have the direction and control of all public moneys ; and hence their surprise and indigna tion were extreme when they learned that a vote had been passed pronouncing it to be "frivolous and groundless, an high insult upon his majesty's government, and tending to shake off the dependency of the said colony upon this kingdom, to which by law and right they are and ought to be subject." In 1740, Belcher fell into unjust suspicion with the ministry, and was removed ; but on his frmocence being ascertained, he was com pensated some years after with the government of New Jersey. He was succeeded by Shirley, who espoused somewhat the cause of pre rogative ; yet, by moderation and great kindness towards the oppo site party, he retained a large share of their good will. This was heightened by his zealous promotion of the military operations against Nova Scotia and Cape Breton, which were carried on chiefly from Massachusetts, and crowned with signal success. Pownall, who was appointed in 1757, showed some preference for the popular party, though without alienating their antagonists; and his reputation was aided by certain warlike exploits in which he had some share. Bernard, who took his place in 1760, belongs to the period of revo lutionary trouble. THE PIRST MONEY OOINED IN NE"W ENGLAND. 33 T2 EMIGRATION1 OF MB. H00 BTH B. &.& D HIS COMPiST. CHAPTER XVIII. SETTLEMENT OF CONNECTICUT. T has already been mentioned that in 1635, a company from Massachusetts, led by the Rev. Mr. Hooker, settled on the Connecticut river; prior to this, however, the territory had been ob tained by the Earl of Warwick from the council of Plymouth, and afterwards transferred to a company of gentleman. During the same year the territory in question was visited by Mr. Winslow. The Massachusetts emigrants settled at Wethersfield, Windsor, Hartford, and Saybrook. The latter was named afte r Lord Say-and- Seal and Lord Brooke, two of the proprietors. The destruction of the Pequods has already been mentioned. Before this the Connecticut settlers were made to feel the principal BURNING OF THE PEQUOD VILLAGE. 250 MASSAORE OP THE PEQUOD S. part of the calamities inseparable from Indian warfare. When the colonial force was raised which terminated the outrages, Connecticut furnished one hundred and fifty men, of whom seventy were Mohe- gan Indians. The expedition marched across the country to the Pequod fort, which was reached on the 5th of June. The object was to surprise it, but this was prevented by the barking of a watch dog. A fierce battle commenced, hand to hand, in which no quarter was shown. The enemy were so numerous as to render the contest for a long time doubtful ; but before daybreak Mason fired the wig wams, and, encircling the burning village, shot down the warriors with the greatest ease. Six hundred of both sexes and all ages were massacred or burnt, seven were captured, and seven escaped. The colonists lost twenty-two, of whom two were killed. This terrible visitation completely broke the spirit of the neighbouring Indians, and secured peace to the settlements. In the latter part of 1637, New Haven was settled by some adven turers from Boston. The settlement was further strengthened in the following spring ; when John Davenport, a Puritan minister, and a Mr. Eaton, brought a number of settlers from Boston. Their govern- 2G0 SETTLEMENT OF CONNECTICUT. SIGNING OT THE NEW ENGLAND CONFEDERATION. ment was based on strictly religious principles ; Mr. Eaton was annually chosen governor until his death, and the colony seemed to have increased much faster than their more eastern neighbours. Until this period Connecticut had acknowledged the jurisdiction of Massachusetts ; but, as the territory was without the patent of the latter community, the people convened at Hartford, [January 24th, 1639,] and formed themselves into an independent colony. Their constitution provided that citizens should take an oath of allegiance to the commonwealth, instead of the crown ; that all legislation should be vested- in the general court ; and that the governor and legislature should be elected annually. Hartford, Saybrook, and New Haven, were at this time separate colonies. In 1643 Connecticut joined the New England Confederation. The great object of this compact seems to have been protection from the encroachments of the Dutch in New Netherlands. Disputes between the European powers disturbed the harmony of" the colonies until 1650, when the Dutch governor concluded a treaty at Hartford de fining the boundary line of his dominions. The occurrence of war between England and Holland [1651] opened new grounds for colo nial rivalship. War was actually declared against New Netherlands PRESERVATION OF THE CHARTER. 261 by the Confederation, but Massachusetts refused to furnish her quota of men. Connecticut then obtained from Cromwell the grant of a fleet to assist their forces ; but the expedition was interrupted by the conclusion of peace. In 1662 Connecticut acknowledged her allegiance to Charles II. , and' through the influence of Lord Say-and-Seal, and, the younger Winthrop, obtained a charter of unexampled liberality. It granted all the territory between the bay and river of Narragansett and the Pacific ocean, embracing the New Haven colony and a portion of Rhode Island. This caused dissatisfaction with the people of the latter settlement, which, on their receiving a charter in the following year, overrunning the Connecticut line, broke out into open dissen sions, which lasted more than sixty years. About the time of King Philip's war, [July, 1675,] Governor Andros, of New York, entered the mouth of the Connecticut, raised the king's flag, and demanded the surrender of the main fort ; but, through the firmness of the commandant, Captain Bull, he was obliged to return to New York. A more serious attempt was made in 1687, when Andros appeared at Hartford with a commission from King James, appointing him governor of New England. The assem bly being in session, he demanded the colonial charter. A fierce ' contention arose, which lasted until night, the charter in the mean while being laid upon the table. Suddenly every light was extin guished. The motive for this singular occurrence became apparent when the candles were relighted. The charter had been removed by Captain Wadsworth, and placed in the trunk of an oak, which, from this circumstance, received the appellation of the Charter Oak. Although baffled in the attempt to deprive the people of their safe guard, Andros assumed the control of affairs, and governed until the accession pf King William. The inhabitants were then restored to their chartered privileges. The difficulties with New York, however, were not yet ended. In 1693, Colonel Fletcher, governor of that province, visited Hartford for the purpose of enforcing a royal commission constituting him leader of the Connecticut militia. As this was an infringement of their charter, the legislature refused to acknowledge him ; in conse quence of which he summoned the militia on parade. When his instructions were about to be read, Captain Wadsworth ordered the drums to beat. Fletcher demanded silence, and his secretary again commenced the reading. The drums again beat, and again silence 262 SETTLEMENT OF CONNECTICUT. was ordered. The intrepid Wadsworth now stepped forward, and said sternly: "If I am interrupted again, I will make daylight shine through you in one moment." This meaning language exerted a suitable influence, and Fletcher returned to New York. From this period until the opening of the Seven Years' War, Connecticut stead ily advanced in strength and prosperity. In 1700, Yale College was founded at Saybrook by a few clergymen, and named after Elihu Yale', one of its most active supporters. 10VFBBOR ANDROS AND THE COMMISSIONERS MISSING THE SEORETED OHARTBR. BOGBB "WILLIAMS BNTBBTAINBD BT THE INDIANS. CHAPTER XIX. RHODE ISLAND. V,E have had occasion; in the annals of Massa chusetts, to notice the foundation of this little state by Roger Williams. After fleeing from Salem, and encountering many hardships, he reached a fertile spot at the head of a wind ing bay, which he named Providence. His friendship with the Indians, who had protected him when an exile, and whose cause he had always espoused, enabled him without difficulty to procure for himself and a few followers of his adverse fortune a small territory. Here he proclaimed his laudable principle of general toleration ; and, receiving with kindness all who sought refuge in his domain, made it the chief resort of the partisans of the movement. Its numerous votaries, thrown out by the rigid ortho doxy of Massachusetts, found here a hearty welcome. A certain motley cha'racter, especially in regard to creed and worship, was the 264 RHODE ISLAND. necessary consequence. Yet, even in periods of the most rapid innovation, there appears a tendency to unity, caused by the newer and bolder sects absorbing those which preceded, and whose tenets had lost the gloss of novelty. The first great accession was from Mrs. Hutchinson's party ; and though their views seem to have had little resemblance to his, the two were quickly amalgamated.; These refugees, possessing considerable property, made a large purchase from the Indians, which, combined with Providence, composed the state of Rhode Island. The Baptist movement next followed, which Mrs. Hutchinson and her sister so zealously embraced that they -pre vailed upon Williams himself, at an advanced age, to submit anew to the sacred rite. Even he, however, was struck with horror at the wild effusions of Gorton, and at seeing them propagated in his settle ment with the usual success. Actuated by his characteristic mild ness, however, he merely effected an arrangement by which that personage, with his fervid adherents, went out and formed another establishment. This was soon followed by the Q-uaker excitement, which, in its greatest; violence, he had sound judgment lenough to repress ; but as he allowed to its adherents a refuge denied every where else, Rhode Island soon became the point whence they issued forth to the neighbouring states, and upon which they returned. They experienced also the usual success of daring innovators, and, notwithstanding all his efforts, soon became the ruling sect. Mrs. Hutchinson was dead ; but her sister, Katherine Scott, and her inti mate friend Mrs. Dyer, ranked high among the gifted prophetesses. From these causes, the colony silently grew, and in 1680 was reported to contain five hundred planters and five hundred other men, whence, as these last were apparently adults, we may infer an entire population of about four thousand. Newport was the harbour; but as yet there was very little either of commerce or of shipping. The religious sects were of course numerous, especially the Baptists and Quakers. The settlement, however, had all along been viewed with an evil eye by the people of Massachusetts, who saw in it the chief pivot on which turned that enthusiastic movement by which they were so much annoyed. Its exclusion from the union of the colonies in 1643 marked strongly this spirit, and placed it in a some what precarious situation. Williams, however, who in 1644 went to Britain, where the independents were then in -full power, and his friend Vane one of their chief leaders, easily obtained a popular charter for the towns of Providence, Newport, and Portsmouth, with RETAINS HER CHARTER. 265 a recommendation equivalent to an order, that New England should exchange good offices with him. On his return he was received with a species of triumph ; and his still jealous neighbours were obliged to content themselves with shutting their state against him and his people. Again, after the Restoration, John Clarke, the agent of the colony, procured- from Charles II. a fresh charter, securing all their privileges, and particularly confirming the right of religious freedom. That prince, however, in the end of his reign. and his successor, in a manner still more determined, applied them selves to cancel all the colonial charters. In July, 1685, accordingly, a quo warranto was issued against that of Rhode Island, which, being announced to the Assembly, they sent a very humble reply, declaring their intention not to stand suit with his majesty, but earnestly soliciting a continuance of their privileges, especially in regard to their faith. James accepted their submission, and, by his instructions, Andros, in December, 1686, dissolved the government, broke its seal, and assumed the entire administration. But, after the Revolution of 1688, the people laid hold " of their former gracious pri vileges," and'shared in this respect the good fortune of Connecticut. They were allowed to resume their charter, which had never been legally forfeited. i i i ^fe^i Efl'MiwraE '^W^^Wp '*Jii Til ' V'li'y I1! ' i- '^ I'll1 1 [ '= '+&¦ ^MC^3^ PAWTUOE1T B. L GOB BBS AND MASON NAMING T H.E I R PROVISO, ES. CHAPTER XX. MAINE AND NEW HAMPSHIRE. HE extensive region between Massachu setts and the country claimed by France under the name of Acadia, having early drawn the notice of English adven turers, the two most active members of the Plymouth Company, Sir Ferdinand Gorges and John Mason,, undertook to colonize it. The latter, secretary to the council, obtained, in 1621, a grant of the lands between Salem and the Merrimack ; and next year, in conjunction with Gorges, of those between the last-mentioned river and the Kenhebeck, as far as the St. Lawrence. In 1629, and again in 1635, when the company was broken up, Mason acquired fresh patents for his portion, which then received the name of New Hampshire. In 1638, however, before the settlement had come to any maturity, he died, and his family were unable to derive any benefit from this vast donation. Sir Fer dinand, meantime, at the crisis of 1635, procured for himself exclu- EARLY SETTLEMENT. 267 sively the whole territory from New Hampshire to the Kennebeck, and this was confirmed in 1639 by a patent from the king, when it received the name of Maine. These proprietors appear to have set great value on their grants, and to have made active exertions to improve them. Dover and Portsmouth were early founded on the Piscataqua; and in 1635, Gorges sent out his nephew to govern the district. Yet their settle ments made very slow progress. Being high church and monarchy men, they granted none of those franchises by which alone emigrants could be attracted to this northern soil ; while to the aristocratic class Virginia offered a much more tempting resort. Only a few hardy adventurers were enticed by the abundant supply of fish and timber, who gradually formed along the coast small stations, adding the practice of a slight agriculture for the supply of immediate wants. Massachusetts, however, began to overflow into these territories. In 1637, Wheelwright, the antinomian preacher, founded on the Piscataqua the town of Exeter, without paying much regard to the proprietor's rights, though he was ultimately obliged to submit to his officer, Williams. Three years afterwards, Massachusetts advanced claims to New Hampshire, as being within her patent ;, and although her pretensions were far from valid, her strength and the inclination of the people enabled her without difficulty to make them good. This new member was incorporated and endowed with all her poli tical privileges. Several zealous ministers were sent, who are said to have greatly improved the people ; but they had the discretion not to enforce any exclusive system, and during nearly forty years .of this rule the foundations of solid prosperity were laid. The feeling spread among the small seaports which began to stud the coast of Maine, and they were successively, either at their own request, or by the consent of large majorities, incorporated with the others. The proprietors loudly, and with good show of reason, ..remonstrated against these proceedings, but without obtaining any redress. The independents, now in power, were adverse to them, and friendly to Massachusetts ; while the people, included within the political sys tem of the latter state, earnestly petitioned for its continuance. A complete reverse took place at the restoration of Charles II., all whose partialities were in favour of the old royalist proprietors, and against the Puritan colony. Gorges and Mason, grandsons of the original patentees, immediately applied for restitution of their rights, which was granted, and the commissioners then sent out were in- 268 MAINE AND NEW HAMPSHIRE. structed to enforce it. Yet the general court, by their local power, the affections of the inhabitants, and by constantly evading the de mand for deputies duly empowered, contrived, during. sixteen years, to retain the jurisdiction ; but being, in 1677, brought before the chief justices of England, their pretensions were at once set aside. Mason was also obliged to yield his authority, though retaining a claim upon the lands. Maine was assigned to Gorges ; but the rulers of Massachusetts contrived to purchase his rights for £1250, a sum, perhaps, above its actual value at the moment. They incurred re proach by treating it as a subject territory, appointing the governor and council, though they graciously allowed a popular legislature. New Hampshire being thus thrown loose, it was determined to manage it as a royal province; and in 1682, Edward Cranfield was sent as administrator. His government was one continued scene of discontent on the part of the people, amounting sometimes to rebel lion. Mr. Bancroft represents him as avowedly making it his sole object to amass money. It appears more certain that all his maxims were those of high prerogative; while Massachusetts had breathed among the people the Puritan and republican spirit in its full force. He wrote " that while the clergy were allowed to preach, no true allegiance would be found in those parts." In 1685, he solicited his recall, declaring he should " esteem it the greatest happiness in the world to be allowed to remove from these unreasonable people." Presently after, this country with the whole of New England was united under the successive governments of Dudley and Andros. At the Revolution, it again became a separate and royal colony, though with some dependence on Massachusetts. OOVBBNOB STTJYVaSA.NT CHAPTER XXI. NEW YORK. them object OTWITHSTANDING the para mount importance to which New York has attained, its early settle ment was not accompanied by such striking circumstances as marked those of some other colonies. About the year 1600, the attention of the English and Dutch had been directed to the discovery of a northern passage to India, which they hoped might at once be shorter, and enable to escape the still formidable hostility of Spain. After this' had been vainly pursued by Frobisher, Davis, Barentz, and 270 NEW YORK. other navigators, it was resumed by Henry Hudson. Though a native of Holland, he was first employed by a company of English merchants, when he made the daring effort to cross the pole itself, and penetrated farther in that direction than any of his predecessors; but the icy barriers compelled him to return. He next attempted an eastern passage, between Nova Zembk and Spitzbergen, but again failed. His patrons in London then lost courage;' but he, animated by the same ardour, solicited and obtained from the Dutch East India Company a small vessel, named the Crescent, to renew his researches. After another abortive endeavour at an eastern passage, he appears to have finally renounced that object ; and steering toward the west, began to explore the American coast, from Newfoundland southwards. It had, indeed, been to a great extent both discovered and settled, yet not in such continuity as to preclude the hope of finding a deep bay leading to the Pacific, and through it to the East Indies. In the be ginning of July he reached the great bank, and continued his course cautiously along the shores of Acadia. In 44° he touched at the mouth of a spacious river, which appears to have been the Penobscot, where the French were found carrying on a very active trade. In passing Cape Cod, his people landed at several points, and held in tercourse with the natives. They then pursued their course through the open sea, till, on the 17th August, they came in sight of a low land, and soon afterwards found themselves off the bar of James's River, where they understood that the English had formed a settle ment. No opening having yet occurred, it seemed expedient to re turn northward, keeping closer to the coast. They found it running north-west, and entered a great bay with rivers, evidently that of Delaware. The water was so shoaly, however, as to prevent its ex ploration, unless in pinnaces drawing only four or five feet. They proceeded therefore to the coast now called New Jersey, and were involved in the range of islands running parallel to It. The naviga tion was very difficult on account of storms and frequent shallows. At length Hudson came to a continuous land, good and pleasant, rising boldly from the sea, and bounded by high hills. He appeared to discover the mouths of three great rivers, which, however, could only be different channels, separated by islands, of the great stream now bearing his name. Boats were sent to sound the most northern of them, which was found to afford a good depth of water. They entered it, and were soon visited by large parties of natives in canoes, when a friendly exchange took place, of tobacco and maize for knives DISCOVERIES OF HENRY HUDSON. 271 and beads. Unfortunately, a boat, being sent to examine one of the other channels, was assailed by twenty of the savages in two skiffs, one of the seamen killed, and two wounded. This unhappy event poisoned their future intercourse with the Indians, whose friendly professions were henceforth considered as made only with a view to betray them. At one place, twenty-eight canoes, full of men, wo men, and children, approached and made overtures for trade ; but their intentions being considered evil, they were not allowed to come ' on board. In ascending, the Hudson was found to be a noble stream, a mile broad, and bordered by lofty mountains. Seventeen days after entering it, the vessel, being embarrassed by shoals, stopped at a point where a small city has since been built, bearing the name of the dis coverer. A boat sailed eight or nine leagues higher, somewhat above the site of Albany, where it was clear that the ship could not proceed farther. In this upper tract, the intercourse with the natives was very friendly, and even the suspicions of the crew were lulled. One party came on board, who being freely treated with wine and aquavitee, became all merry, and one completely tipsy, the effects of which caused to his companions the greatest surprise. On the way down, they were repeatedly attacked by the large body which in ascending had excited their jealousy. On each occasion, a discharge of musketry, killing two or three, caused all the rest to take flight. On leaving the river, Hudson made directly for Europe, and arrived at Dartmouth on the 7th November, 1609. He transmitted to the Dutch Company a flattering report of the country which he had discovered, and recommended a settlement. They -gave him so little encouragement that he was obliged to seek employment from the London merchants, by whom he was seftt on the remarkable voyage which resulted in the exploration of Hudson's bay, and in the melancholy event of his own death, through a mu tiny of the caeew. In virtue :of these discoveries the Dutch claimed the country, and in 1610 sent out a vessel for traffic. Stations were formed on Man hattan [New York] island, which, in 1613, were claimed by Argall. This authority was merely nominal, and was utterly disregarded by the Dutch government. In the following year a fort was built by some merchants", and other stations extended as far as the Mohawk. In 1620 the Dutch West India Company was incorporated. Their privileges included the whole western coast of Africa, as far as the Cape, with all the eastern shores of America from Newfoundland to 272 NEW YORK. the Straits of Magellan. Over this vast territory they had the ex clusive right of concluding treaties, carrying on war, and exercising all the functions of government. This monstrous grant would in clude, as we have seen, claims of colonies belonging to England, France, Spain, and Portugal, and was of course regarded by these powers with any other than a favourable eye. AU colonies founded on it were consequently fiercely disputed and most precariously held. The weakness of the Portuguese crown enabled them to grasp large portions of its territory in Brazil and on the African coast ; but in North America, not venturing to measure their strength with Britain, they contented themselves with silently enlarging their stations on the Hudson, which the latter showed no disposition to occupy. The country was called New Netherlands ; and a cluster of cottages where New York now stands, was named New Amsterdam. In 1629 the Dutch government attempted to found an extensive colony in New Netherlands. It was planned on quite an aristocratic basis. Though lands were granted to detached settlers, yet opulent individuals were expected to carry out^bodies of tenants at their own expense — those transporting fifty becoming lords of manors, with the absolute property of the lands thus colonized. They might possess tracts sixteen miles long, and even employ negro labour if desirable. They encountered, however, many difficulties ; and two manors es tablished on Delaware bay were destroyed by Indians. A station on the Connecticut was abandoned on account of its proximity to the more powerful English one, and Lord Baltimore strenuously advo cated his title to all land extending to the fortieth degree of latitude. Besides this, the imprudence of their governor, Kieft, in killing, with little provocation, nearly one hundred Indians, involved him in a general*war with that people, which, lasting two years, effectually checked the progress of New Netherlands. In 1646, Kieft was recalled, and Peter Stuyvesant, an officer dis tinguished for bravery and honesty, appointed to succeed him. The change was highly satisfactory to the people. By wisely adopting a humane policy toward the Indians, the new governor obviated all difficulty with them ; and also obtained from the company a release from the immoderate duties which had hitherto trammelled commerce. He suffered, however, much trouble from the English, who were continually extending their frontier on and beyond the Connecticut, and set scarcely any limit to their claims. As the settlers greatly discouraged ali idea of war with so powerful a neighbour, Stuyve- CONQUEST OF NEW SWEDEN. 273 QDSTAWS ADOLPHUS. sant was obliged to obtain, by large concessions, a provisional com pact, which, although never ratified in England, obtained for his people some security. Determined, however, to find some exercise for his active mind, he resolved to chastise the Swedish colony for . some violent proceedings of the governor, Rising. This settlement was much inferior to New Netherlands, and the mother country, after the death of Gustavus Adolphus, of Sweden, could afford it but little assistance. Having assembled a rforce of six hundred men, Stuyvesant marched into New Sweden, and after a short struggle, overthrew the government and incorporated the settlement with his own. A few of the inhabitants returned to their native country ; the greater part yielded to the mild sway of the conqueror. About the same time a little art enabled him to evade the claims of Lprd Baltimore. The company, though they did not grant any political franchises to the- colonists, took great care to have them well governed, and to check those despotic practices in which Stuyvesant, from his military habits, was prone to indulge. They prohibited likewise all perse cution, and studied to make the country a refuge for professors of every creed. From France, the Low Countries, the Rhine, Northern Germany, Bohemia, the mountains of Piedmont, the suffering pro testants flocked to this transatlantic asylum. Even the New Eng landers, allured by the fine climate and fertile soil, arrived ia groat 36 274 NEW YORK. numbers, and formed entire villages. It therefore became expedient to have a secretary of their nation, and to issue proclamations in French and English, as well as Dutch. To augment the variety, the company introduced as many negro slaves as they conveniently could. New York became, as Mr. Bancroft terms it, a city of the world ; its inhabitants termed themselves a blended community of various lineage. Unluckily for the Dutch, the protestants of that age carried generally with them an ardent attachment to civil liberty, which was pushed to its utmost height by those of New England. Their views soon found favour in the eyes even of the Hollanders ; for, though some of the more opulent were adverse to any very broad popular institutions, they could not forbear joining in the objection to be taxed without their own consent. Innovations of this nature, it appeared, were agreeable neither to the company nor the governor. The colonists, having sent over a deputation to the former, obtained a few municipal privileges, but none of the rights of a representative government. Such was their perseverance, however, that they erected one for themselves, by calling two deputies from each vil lage ; and the body thus assembled presented a remonstrance to Stuyvesant, claiming that their consent should be necessary to the enactment of new laws, and even to the appointment of officers. He received this address extremely ill, and bitterly reproached them with yielding to the visionary notions of the New Englanders ; stating that the laws were good, and would continue to be well exe cuted, but could not be allowed to emanate from the wavering mul titude. He derived his authority only from God and the West India Company, who would never become responsible to itheir own sub jects. The remonstrants were therefore commanded, under a severe penalty, immediately to disperse. In this the company firmly sup-' ported their governor, directing that the people should no longer indulge the visionary dream that taxes could be imposed only with their own consent. They, however, cherished a deep dissatisfaction, which, though it did not break out into open violence, indisposed them to make any exertions in support of a government under which they enjoyed no rights. This became of serious consequence in the crisis that was now approaching. Early in 1664, Charles II., by an act of flagrant injustice, ceded the territory of New Netherlands to his brother, the Duke of York, although Holland and England were then at peace.. To make good this donation, Sir Robert Nichols was sent out with an expe- TAKEN EY THE ENGLISH. 275 CHARLES IL OIVING THE NETS' NETHERLANDS TO THtt DUKE O F- YO RE dition, to be reinforced by a detachment from another colony. -;He cast anchor opposite New Amsterdam, in August, and after landing upon Long Island, summoned the city to surrender, under promise of respecting the rights and property of the inhabitants, and permit ting the continuance of their ancient laws. The governor, by delay and negotiation, attempted to avert the danger ; but as Nichols de clined all discussion, the principal citizens, headed by Winthrop from Connecticut, convened in the town-house, and drew up articles of surrender corresponding with the demand of the English officer. Stuyvesant, however, refused to sign them until the place was actually in the enemy's hands. The government established by the Duke of York was by no means so lenient as the people had a right to expect. Heavy taxes were imposed, and in the War of the League, when Louis XVI. and Charles II. were arrayed against Holland, the colonists were treated with absolute tyranny. Nichols exacted large sums of money by first obtaining new patents fop the Dutch, and then levying heavy fees on them. Subsequently,Lovelace avowed the policy of making duties so heavy that the people might have opportunity to think of nothing but the means of paying them. Andros behaved with a rigor which excited open opposition ; but notwithstanding the num- 276 NEW YORK. JAMBS IL berless petitions for redress, received by the duke, he was for a long while retained in office, and even applauded for his energy in sup pressing "all mention of assemblies." At length, however, he was recalled ; and, wearied by importunities, James consented to allow the colonists representation. The accession of James II. was hailed by the colonists with heart felt rejoicings ; but they soon found that their satisfaction had been premature. The king was determined to abolish all appearance of democracy. .The governor was instructed to call no more assemblies, but centre the legislative power in his own person. In 1688, An dros arrived from England with authority. to unite all the New England States and New York under one absolute control — an an nexation peculiarly odious to settlements formed from hostile nations. Public feeling became completely alienated from the crown ; so that JACOB LEISLER. 277 the first rumors of the revolution were received with uncontrollable delight. Meantime the king sent orders for Nichols to continue for the present the administration of affairs. But this officer had previously been obliged to depart for England,' in consequence of the people's opposition. As the appointment was accompanied by the provision, " or to such as for the time execute the law," Jacob Leisler, the popular leader, applied this to himself, and assumed the gubernato rial office. He held two assemblies, and concluded a treaty with New England, agreeing to raise nine hundred men for the mutual defence. But though supported by a majority, a powerful party dis owned his authority and insulted him in the capital. After much difficulty the opposition was put down; but King William took no notice of Leisler's pretensions. In March, 1691, Colonel Sloughter arrived at New York to take charge of affairs. Leisler refused to acknowledge him, pretending that the colonel's commission was defective, and that he would abdi cate only by an order from the king's own hand. Being unpopular, he was compelled, through an insurrection, to tender his resignation. Refusing to receive it, the new governor arrested him, and appointed a special commission for his trial. He was speedily condemned to death, and with Milbourne, his principal adviser, suffered on the scaffold. Sloughter himself died soon after, [August 2, 1691,] and was succeeded by Colonel Fletcher. The only important act of Sloughter's administration was the renewal of a .treaty with the Five Nations. Fletcher was an able officer ; but his domineering temper, a fault too common in those days, soon involved him in violent contests with the Assembly. A leading object was the establishment of episcopacy, which after great exertions was sanctioned by the members, with the salvo annexed that the people should choose their own ministers. In a violent speech on this occasion, Fletcher so far forgot the dignity pf his station as to denominate the members ill-tempered, stubborn and unmannerly, and even accuse them of attempts to engross the entire legislative power. After the failure of his attempt to obtain command of the Connecticut militia, he seems to have moderated his views, and gave up the fruitless scheme of intimidating the colonial assemblies. Fletcher was succeeded [1698] by the Earl of Bellamont, whose mild government went far toward soothing the jealousies still existing 278 NEW YORK. TREATY "WITH THE FIVE NATIONS between the partisans of Leisler and their aristocratic opponents. I' was under his administration that the famous Captain Kidd was commissioned to suppress piracy, which had increased to an alarm ing extent. This individual betraying his trust, turned pirate him self, and after making his name a terror to seamen, was at length arrested at Boston, and sent to England for trial. Bellamont died in 1701, and was succeeded by Lord Cornbury, a degenerate descendant of the Earl of Clarendon. Entirely opposite to his predecessor, he showed an embittered enmity to the popular party, accompanied by a bigoted attachment to episcopacy, and hatred of all other forms of religion. He seconded also the attempts made by Dudley to subvert the charter of Connecticut. Indulging in extravagant habits, he squandered large sums of the public money, and contracted debts, the payment of which his official situation en abled him to evade. He thus rendered himself odious and' con temptible to all parties, who united in a firm remonstrance to Queen Anne, and induced her to revoke his commission. No longer pro tected by the privileges of office, he was thrown into prison, and ob GOVERNORS HUNTER AND BURNET. 279 tained liberation only when the death of his father raised him to the peerage. Lord Lovelace succeeded, who, on his arrival, made a demand, . destined to cause much dissension, for a permanent salary to the governor. Yet his general deportment was popular and satisfactory ; but he lived only a few months. The reins were then held for a short time by Ingoldsby, who also made himself very acceptable ; and in 1710, the office was filled by Sir Robert Hunter, a man of wit and talent, by which he had raised himself from a low rank in society. He went out, however, strongly imbued with monarchical prin ciples, and determined to resist the claims of the Assembly. In ad vancing the demand for a fixed income, he made use of very offensive expressions, insinuating doubts of their right to appropriate the public money, and suspicions that it was the government, not the governor, whom they disliked. In the council also, the doctrine was advanced, that the Assembly existed only " by the mere grace of the crown." The latter body strenuously vindicated their rights, and refused to grant more than a temporary provision. They remonstrated strongly also against the establishment of a court of chancery, suspected to be with a view of increasing his emoluments. On this ground there seemed great hazard of a- collision ; but Hunter, being a sensible man, and seeing their very strong determination, deemed it expedient to yield ; and, during his latter years, he studied with success to maintain harmony among the different branches of the administration. He was succeeded by Burnet, a son of the celebrated bishop and historian, an accomplished; amiable man. He appears to have zea lously studied the welfare of the colony ; he became very generally popular ; and was particularly successful in gaining over the Indian tribes. His attempt, however, to maintain the obnoxious court of chancery, involved him in violent disputes with the Assembly. On the advice of a few patriotic but indiscreet individuals, he adopted th& injurious measure of prohibiting all commercial intercourse be tween New York and Canada. In 1720 he was removed, though compensated with the government of Massachusetts. After a short interval, the direction of affairs was assumed in 1732 by Colonel Cosby, a man of such a violent character as created general aversion to him. Strong interest was excited by the trial of Zenger, editor of a journal which had attacked his administration ; but through the exertions of Hamilton, an eminent advocate, he was triumphantly acquitted. Cosby died in 1736, and was followed by 280 NEW YORK. Clarke, who, having given scarcely more satisfaction, yielded the place in 1741 to Clinton, who ruled upwards of ten years with con siderable success and popularity. His successor, Sir Danvers Os borne, suffered severely by the discovery, in 1754, of very arbitrary instructions transmitted to him from home. A great ferment was thus'kindled, but gradually subsided ; and we find the royal autho rity subsequently respected till the time of the Revolution. ITHERTO little has been said concerning the Indian tribes of this colony. Difficulties with the Five Nations and other tribes early occurred. In 1640, Staten Island was at tacked and New Amsterdam threatened; but peace was at length secured through the exertions of Roger Williams. Kieft rendered himself infamous for his cruelty to the red men, which but for the far different policy of Stuyvesant, would have produced serious results. In 1663, Kingston, [then called Esopus,] was unexpectedly entered by the Indians, and sixty-five persons killed or carried away. This was retaliated by a force from New Amsterdam, who laid waste the Indian villages, and killed a number of their warriors. But the most terrible calamity which befel the colony while in the hands of the English, was the burning of Schenectady. Early in 1690, several hundred French and Indians marched from Canada, to attack this village, which was then a somewhat remote settlement on the Mohawk. The weather was so intensely cold, and the road through wilds, forests, and mountain districts, so difficult, that only three hundred reached the Mohawk, but in so dispirited a condition that they resolved to surrender. Arriving at Schenectady about midnight, and finding every thing in unconscious security, they again changed their design, and resolved to improve so fair an op portunity for massacre. They spread themselves through the vil lage, fired it in different places, and tomahawked all ages, sexes and conditions, that fell into their hands. Sixty were killed and thirty carried off for torture. Many of those who escaped the massacre, froze to death in journeying to other settlements. This was followed by various movements against the neighbouring tribes, until the treaty of Utrecht, in 1713. NASSAU HALL, B K. W J.ER3KY. CHAPTER XXII. NEW JERSEY. EW JERSEY, being a branch de tached from the state just named, will be considered most advanta geously in connection with that colo ny. When Nichols, in 1664, made the conquest of the united territory, | the tract along the seacoast, from the west end of Long Island to the Dela ware, appeared to him the most fa vourable for settlement. He invited thither farmers from New England, who already displayed a migra tory and enterprising character, and going in considerable numbers^ formed along the shore a range of villages. While Nichols, how ever, was exulting in the success of these efforts, he was struck with dismay by a commission being presented to him, in which the Duke of York constituted Lords Berkeley and Carteret proprietors of this it 2i2 281 282 NEW JERSEY. whole line of coast. It had been granted even before the news of the conquest arrived, and it may be presumed that a pecuniary consideration was given, though nothing transpired on that subject. Chagrined beyond measure, he addressed to the duke a long letter, complaining that he had unguardedly parted with the most valuable portion of his patent, leaving New York almost without a territory. Not choosing to accuse Jhe proprietors of having deceived his grace, he throws the blame on a Captain Scot, who he declares was born to work mischief. The grantees, it is urged, should be made to accept a tract of 100,000 acres on the Delaware, which, by an expenditure of J20,000, might yield profit, not to themselves perhaps, but to their children's children. The duke, however, honourably deter mined to adhere to his engagement. , W 111 WHE proprietors, in order to in vite settlers, granted franchises of some importance. One was an Assembly, half at least of the members of which were to be representatives, and without whose consent no tax could be imposed. The owners reserved to themselves the veto and judi cial appointments ; but they per mitted full freedom of religious worship. Carteret went out as governor, and in compliment to him the colony was called New Jersey. The profit of the proprietors was to arise solely from a quit-rent of Id. an acre, to be levied only at the end of five years. Ali went on smoothly till that term arrived, when the settlers, being called upon for pa)>ment, showed very little disposition to comply. They urged, that they had purchased their lands from the Indians, and it was extremely hard, after advancing a price, to be required to give a rent also. Discontents rose so high, that Carteret was obliged to leave the colony, and a natural son of his own was elected in his room. Soon afterwards, the country was conquered by- the Dutch ; and on its restoration next year, the people peaceably received back their old governor, who gratified them by postponing to a later period the demand for quit-rents, and by other concessions. The proprie tors, however, were considerably annoyed by the rulers of New York, who, claiming rights of jurisdiction and taxation, particularly sought to prevent any trade, unless through the medium of their capital. QUAKER AND PRESBYTERIAN SETTLERS. 283 James does not seem to have been disposed to sanction any actual breach of the original contract ; and Jones, the chief-justice, reported on the most essential points in favour of the settlers. The local power,- however, of the greater colony, wielded by the impetuous Andros, was successfully exerted to harass them in various modes. EANTIME, as late as 1674, Lord Berke ley, disappointed in the hopes with which he had embarkedin the undertaking, sold half his territory for £ 1000 to a party of Quakers, among whom the chief were, Byllinge, Fenwick, and William Penn. In arranging with Carteret, who still re tained his share, it was found most convenient to divide the province into two parts ; these were called East and West Jersey — the latter being assigned to the new owners. But the duke, whose concur rence was required in the transaction, took the opportunity of re asserting his dominion over that portion, which was subjected to the arbitrary rule and taxation of New York. Jones, however, decided that, there having been no reservation of such claims in the original grant, they could not be now legally enforced. Hence, in 1680, the province was delivered in full right to the proprietors, whose object was to render the place an asylum for the persecuted Quakers, a considerable number of whom were soon assembled. It became necessary to gratify them by a constitution, based on principles of liberty and even of equality ; and they made pretensions to the election of their own governor. N 1682, Carteret, finding little satis faction in his possession of New Jer sey, sold all his rights to another body of twellve Quakers, Penn being again one. The new owners, with a view to extend their influence, add ed to their number twelve more of different professions — the principal of whom was the Duke of Perth, a nobleman of great power in Scotland His object was to offer an asylum to th'e Presbyterians of that country, under the iniquitous persecutions to which they were exposed. Hunted like wild beasts from place to place, it was justly thought that many would gladly accept a home in the New World. A con 284 NEW JERSEY. siderable number were accordingly conveyed thither, and they formed a laborious, useful, and respectable class of settlers. OTHING, however, could secure them against the determination formed by James to subvert the rights of all the colonies, and establish in them a completely despotic administration. Andros, without any express authority, began to exercise both jurisdiction and taxation ; and as these were strenuously resisted — the juries re fusing to convict under therh — complaints were sent home of their insubordination. The duke hereupon, forgetting all his former pledges, ordered, in April, 1686, that writs of quo warranto should be entered against both East and West Jersey, " which ought to be more dependent on his majesty." The proprie tors, having in vain attempted to deprecate this measure, at length deemed it expedient to surrender their patent, only soliciting a grant securing their title to the soil ; but, before the transaction could be completed, it was interrupted by the Revolution, which left them in the possession of all their claims. They acted on them so feebly, however, that the country is represented as remaining nearly in a state of anarchy till 1702, when they were induced to surrender all their political powers to the crown. The two Jerseys were then re united, and were governed from that time as a royal colony. ENN now circulated widely his proposals through Britain, France, and Germany ; the oppressed and impoverished of every jlp e class being invited to this land of promise. He re- 4'^ commended it not only to those who suffered under religious persecution, hut "to industrious labourers and handicraftsmen — ingenious spirits low in the world — younger brothers of small inheritances, instead of hanging on as retainers on their elder brother's table and charity — lastly, to men 288 PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE. TREATY MONUMENT ON THE'SITE OF THE penn's TREATY WAS MADE. of an universal spirit, who have an eye to the good of posterity." The necessary expense of conveyance was stated to be-: — for an adult, £5; a child under twelve, £2 10s.; goods £2 per ton. Those who could not afford even this moderate amount, were informed that, on engaging with emigrants of property for a service of four years, not only would their passage be defrayed, but at the end of the term they would receite fifty acres, at 2s. quit-rent. An extent of five thousand acres was sold for .£100, with 50*. quit-rent, commencing only in 1684. Those who preferred might pay merely a quit-rent of Id. an acre, or £20, 16*. Bd. Smaller tracts were disposed of at corresponding prices. Poor men were allowed fifty acres at id. per in 1681. pj: HESE advantageous terms, the troubled ffy state of Europe, and the high character of the proprietor, caused his proposals to be received with general favour. An influx into America took place, such as had never been equalled since the days of the first settlers. Between 1682 and 1685, there arrived ninety sail, conveying an average of eighty passengers, in all seventy-two hundred, besides one thousand who had landed They had been sent under his kinsman Markham, to take TREATY WITH THE INDIANS. 289 possession of the country, and prepare the way for the larger colony. He found no difficulty in completing the purchase of an extensive tract of land from the Indians, on terms satisfactory to them, yet moderate for the buyer. N October, 1682, Penn arrived, with a body of », ^ two thousand emigrants1. After some time spent in surveying his new possessions, he, in the beginning of 1683, arranged a meeting with the native chiefs, under the canopy of a spacious elm tree, near the present site of Philadelphia. They appeared on the day ap pointed, in their rude attire, and with brandished weapons, beneath the shadow of those dense woods which covered what is now the district of Kensington. On learning that the English approached, they deposited their amis and sat down in groups,- each tribe'behind its own chieftain. Penn then stepping forward, in his usual plain dress and unarmed, held forth in his hand the parchment on which the treaty was -engrossed. In a simple speech, he announced to them those principles of equity and amity upon which he desired that all their future intercourse should be conducted. He besought them to keep this parchment during three generations. The Indians replied, in their usual solemn and figurative language, that they would live in peace with him and with his children while the sun and moon should endure. A friendly display like this is by no means unusual in the first opening of intercourse between civilized and savage nations ; but seldom, indeed, does it long continue un broken, or fail even of being succeeded by an embittered enmity. Pennsylvania afforded at least one happy exception. Her founder continued with this savage people on terms not only of peace, but of intimate union ; he visited them in their villages, he slept in their wigwams ; they welcomed him almost as a brother. Forty years afterwards they said to the governor, Sir William Keith, as the highest possible compliment : — " We esteem and love you as if you were William Penn himself." What was still more wonderful, the coloniste, though they had to struggle with many uncongenial spirits in their own body, succeeded in maintaining good terms with the na tives ; and for nearly a century, the Indian tomahawk was never lifted against a people who would have considered it unlawful to return the blow. 37 2D 290 PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE. INTERVIEW BETWEEN WILLIAM PENN AND LORD BALTIMORE. "IS' next object was to found a capital for his new settlement. He chose a site upon a neck of land between the Schuylkill and Delaware, in a situa tion which appeared at once agree able and healthy, abounding in water, and with convenient river communi cations. He gave to it th'e name of Philadelphia (brotherly love), under which it has become one of the most flourishing cities in the New World1. Combining the taste for neat ness and regularity characteristic of his people, with a love of rural nature, he planned a town composed of parallel streets, each a hun dred feet broad, crossed by others also spacious, and some indicating by their very names, Vine, Mulberry, Chestnut, that the verdure of the country was still to enliven them. The purchasers of five thousand acres were to have a house in one of the two principal streets; with a garden and orchard ; those of one thousand in the three next ; such CONSEQUENCES OF THE REVOLUTION. 291 as were under one thousand acres, in the cross streets* In 1684, fifty villages, arranged in regular squares, had sprung up, on a similar plan, though on a smaller scale. In December, 16.82, Penn held an interview with Lord Baltimore at Maryland, for the purpose of adjusting the dispute concerning the boundary line of the new colony. After a tedious session, and a still more tedious correspondence, the lower counties of the Delaware, comprising the present state of that name, were yielded to Penn, while Maryland retained the eastern shore of the bay. •The second Assembly of Pennsylvania convened at Philadelphia m the spring of 1683. A charter of liberties was proposed by Perin and adopted, thus securing to the people all the privileges of a pure democracy. In the summer of 1684, the proprietor was obliged -to return to England, and the government devolved on Thomas Lloyd as president,iassisted by a. council. The members of the latter -body appear to have disagreed considerably among .themselves, but the colony enjoyed' tranquillity until 1691, when the lower counties separated from the main colony. They ever afterward remained distinct under the name of Delaware. jiSljjp^rXJ!* HE Pennsylvanians, who had owed every thing to James IL, did not share the general joy at his abdication in 1688. The news gy was unwillingly believed ; and the govern- '¦% ment, till September, 1789, was still admin- 7j istered in his name. This was carefully re ported from New York : while in England, charges were brought against the proprietor as adhering to Popery, or at least strongly attached to the exiled nouse. William, after some hesitation, deprived him of his patent; and in April, 1693, Benjamin Fletcher, governor of New York, as sumed authority also over Pennsylvania. The Assembly professed their willingness to obey, provided .they were ruled in the usual manner, and by laws founded on lett,ers-*patent. But he intimated that they were much mistaken ; ¦ that the change had been made on account of neglects and miscarriages; and that his majesty's mode of governing would be in direct opposition to that of Mr. Penn. It was even maintained that all the former laws had been abrogated, though a willingness was expressed to re-enact the greater number. The Assembly; however, insisted on their validity ; and, while acknowledging the authority of the king, denied the charge of former 292 PENNSYLVANIA AND DELAWARE. misgovernment. They resisted also the demands for money ; and thus a perpetual strife reigned between them and the governor, who declared that nothing would remedy the evil but annexation to New York ; and complained that, though his door was nevershut, it was avoided, as if it had been' treason to be seen in his company. ENN, meantime, passed through many trials ; and, after being repeatedly acquitted, was- arraigned on fresh charges. However, he was strongly supported by Locke, Rochester, and other friends ; and as no thing could be proved against him except a personal attachment to King James, without sharing his bigot ry, William, in August, 1694, passed the patent for his restoration. As he could not 'go out in person, Markham was again appointed deputy. But the Assembly, though pleased to be rid of the royal government, did not show any greater ; deference to that of the proprietary. N 1699, Penn again visited the colony.; His object jj^ seems to have been to. obtain the consent of the people SPs to a constitution which, granting them every reasona ble franchise, might preserve to himself the ordinary powers of an executive head'. , After much difficulty and opposition, he had the address to carry his point. The original frame was surrendered, and a new one formed, based on the more common and approved principles of representative government. The ' Assembly, as elsewhere, was to have the power of originating bills ; but these were to require the assent of the proprietary. He obtained also the important privilege of naming the council, and had thus to contend with only one popular body instead of two. Penn had come to the colony with the avowed intention of ending his days in it ; but he was prevented doing so in consequence of the introduction into parliament of a bill for the abolition of all proprie tory governments. The measure was supported even by a consider able body of his own colonists. On reaching England, however, he was gratified to find that the project had been renounced and the bill withdrawn. He acquired considerable favour with Queen Anne; but circumstances prevented his return to Pennsylvania. He died in 1718, leaving the government of the province to his sons, John, Thomas, and Richard. At the opening of the Revolutionary War, it was one of the principal colonies, and Philadelphia was become the metropolis of the British possessions. *&EBBBBs, SAVANNAH IN 177 8. CHAPTER XXIV. THE CAROLINAS AND GEORGIA. HE English were not so eager to settle the regions now called Carolina as they had been those of Virginia and New England. It will be remembered that the Spanish claim to that part of the Atlantic coast north of Florida was still good as far as Albemarle Sound ; and the first intruders on its soil had learned by fatal experience that his Catholic majesty was not disposed to permit encroachments on his territory without at least an attempt to resist them. If we except a few set tlers at Mansemond river, on the borders of Virginia, and some New 2B 2 M3 294 THE CAROLINAS AND GEORGIA. England emigrants, who had purchased ffom the Indians a district around Cape Fear, no Englishman had, as late as the year 1630, made any effort to settle south of Virginia. Ih that year Sir Robert Heath obtained a' patent ; but being unable to fulfil the conditions, it was declared forfeited. The first productive grant of this territory was given by Charles II. on the 24th of March, 1663, and .included under the name of Caro lina the whole coast from the 36th degree north to. the river San Ma- theo. Among the patentees were Monk, duke of Albemarle, Lord Clarendon, Lord Ashley Cooper, afterwards, Earl of Shaftesbury, Lord Berkeley, and his brother,. Sir William, governor of Virginia. Drummond, a prudent and popular man,, was the first governor. Settlements were made at Albemarle and Cape Fear, while the emi grants enjoyed political and personal immunities greater than those of the neighbouring colonies. In 1665 a new patent was obtained, extending their territory to the Pacific. New privileges were heaped upon the settlers; Lord Shaftesbury, assisted by the celebrated John Locke, drew up for them a constitution designed by the authors as a monument of legislative wisdom. It provided for two orders of no bility, divided the territory into counties, each containing four hun dred and eighty thousand acres, with one landgrave, or higher noble, and two caciques to each county. Lords of manors and freeholders were likewise established ; but the tenants could hold no political franchise, nor attain to higher rank. The proprietors were to be eight in number, possessing the whole judicial power, with the su preme direction of all the tribunals. Such a ponderous system of barons, caciques, lords, and manors, might have suited the feudal ages ; but it was totally unfit for the government of a new colony, and, although strenuously supported by the proprietors, never went into operation. Until the people should be ripe for its establishment, a series of temporary laws was established, more appropriate to the condition of the new territory. Meanwhile the people, having become dissatisfied with the ad ministrator and collector of the revenue, rose in a body, put him in prison, and summoned a parliament of their own. Culpepper, their leader, wer(t to England to plead their cause ; but he was there ar rested for high treason, and thrown into prison. Lord Shaftesbury, however, procured his acquittal. The proprietors then sent out as governor Seth Sothel ; but his administration was so unpopular as to lead to deposition by the colonists, and subsequent trial before their CHARLESTON FOUNDED. 295 THE EARL OF CLARENDON. Assembly. He was banished for one year, and declared incapable of again holding the office of governor in Carolina. The settlers now began to pay some attention to the more southern provinces. In 1670 they sent out a considerable body of emigrants under William Sayle, who was named governor. Dying soon after, he was succeeded by Sir John Yeamans, who was subsequently ac cused of sordid proceedings ,in carrying on what trade the youthful colony enjoyed. _ A season of dissatisfaction seems to have succeeded, which was terminated only by the appointment of Governor West, a man highly acceptable to the settlers, and who, during an adminis tration of eight years, enjoyed almost unbounded popularity. Emi grants flocked to the territory, comprising among their number many of the valuable mechanics driven from France by the revocation of the edict of Nantes. Proposals were soon made for the founding of a city. These being favourably received by the people, a site was chosen on a high piece of ground above the Ashley river ; but this was afterwards changed to another spot, called Oyster Point, at the junction of that stream with the Cooper. At the former place Old Charleston was founded in 1671, and the new city at the latter in 1680. 296 THE CAROLINAS AND GEORGIA. EST was Succeeded in 1682 by Moreton; and he, in 1686, by Colleton, brother to one of the .proprietors, and endowed with fjJHHgT- the rank of landgrave. Under these men, JJW the spirit of faction, which had for some {§S time slumbered, broke forth with violence; and, during several years, disputes of the most aggravated nature were carried on , , between the proprietors, the governor, and the colonists. Amid this ferment Seth Sothel suddenly made his appearance ; and, by the influence of party, found no difficulty in gaining the office of his unpopular predecessor, and in calling a par liament which sanctioned all his proceedings. On hearing of this affair, the proprietors issued orders for his immediate recall, ap pointing Philip Ludwell as governor, with instructions to examine ' and report as to any real grievances. Locke's constitution, which here, as well as in the northern provinces, had given rise to the greatest disorder, was abrogated, and quiet in a general degree re stored. But a new source of dissension was found in the numerous body of French Protestant refugees, who were regarded by the ori ginal "Church of England" settlers with feelings of national and religious aversion, and refused the rights of citizenship. At such treatment they were justly indignant ; and, disputes rose so high that the proprietors sent out one of their own body, John Archdale, a Quaker, with full power to investigate and redress grievances. Con ducting himself with great prudence, he succeeded in greatly allay ing the discontent of the Protestant settlers. After remaining a year, he left as his successor Joseph Blake, who steadily pursued the same system ; so that in a few years parties became reconciled, and the French were admitted to ail the rightsof citizenship. In 1700 Blake was succeeded by Moore, who, two years after, planned and con ducted an expedition against St. Augustine, which brought disgrace upon himself and a heavy debt on the colony. In 1706, the Span iards, by way of retaliation, appeared before Charleston, and sum moned it to surrender. Governor Nathaniel Johnson returned an indignant defiance. The invaders sent on shore a small party, who were immediately cut off. Six small vessels, under Captain Rhett, then sailed against their armament, which fled in alarm. An addi tional force, both of ships and troops, was subsequently captured by the settlers. TNDIAN WAR. 297 A repose of several years followed this success, which ended by a war with the numerous Indian tribes of the vicinity. It broke out first with the Tuscaroras. This brave tribe made a furious attack on the Roanoke settlers, killing more than one hundred of their number, and laying waste part of the villages ; hut being met by Captain Barnwell, from- South Carolina, with nine hundred and sixty men, they were totally annihilated as a nation, the remnant soon afterwards emigrating to the north, where they joined the Five Nations. |UT a far more terrible struggle was now at hand. Instigated by the jB Spaniards, the Yamassees, Creeks, Cherokees, and other tribes between Cape Fear and the Gulf of Mexico, united in a grand confederacy to ex tirpate the English. They num bered six thousand warriors, but their preparations for a general massacre were enveloped in profound secrecy. On the morning appointed, the work of death commenced in the vicinity of Port Royal, where ninety planters perished. Happily a vessel lay in the harbour, on which the people crowded, and were conveyed to Charleston. The Indians, collecting from all sides, ad vanced upon that town ; two detachments, attempting to stop them, were drawn into an ambuscade, and suffered severely. But Governor Craven, having mustered twelve hundred men fit to bear arms, suc ceeded in stopping their progress ; after which, having received a reinforcement from North Carolina, he resolved on becoming the assailant, and moved against the allied camp. A struggle, long and fierce, succeeded. The Indians, having stationed themselves in an irregular, tangled spot, admirably adapted to their mode of warfare, defended themselves with accustomed bravery. They were, how ever, completely, defeated, and forced to abandon the colony. This war was followed by a series of internal commotions, which lasted several years, and were ended only by the appointment of Sir Francis Nicholson g'overnor, under a commission from the king. A great object, during his administration, was the suppression of piracy, which, for a long period, had prevailed to an alarming extent in the Bahama and neighbouring islands. In 1729 the proprietors surren dered their rights to the crown, which gratified the colonists by the entire remission of their quit-rents. 298 THE CAROLINAS AND GEORGIA. GENERAL OQLETH OR P E. An event took place in 1694, which, though trivial in itself, was destined to lay the foundation of an important commercial product in the southern states. This was the introduction of rice. The oap- tain of a Madagascar vessel touching at Carolina, presented the go vernor with a bag of this article, which, being distributed among the planters, was sown, and throve so remarkably as in a few years to become a staple commodity. Negro slavery was about the same time introduced. N 1728, General Oglethorpe, and other distinguished persons of England, presented a plan to government for tbe settlement of the large district between the Sa vannah and Alatamaha rivers, which had hjtherto been claimed by .'Florida. This was to liberate from the jails all persons confined for debt, or minor offences, and transport them to the new territory, where, under the guidance of a committee of trustees, they might act as a defence to the more inland provinces. The scheme was favourably received, large sums were voted by opu lent individuals for its execution ; and in 1732, Oglethorpe, with one hundred and sixteen persons, sailed for the new settlement. In South Carolina his followers were most enthusiastically received. The SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIA. colony was named Georgia, in honour of the reigning king. On arriving there, Oglethorpe's first care was to conciliate the neighbour ing Indians belonging to'the powerful Creek race. His efforts being guided by sincerity and discretion, were crowned with success. The Greek king met him at the settlement since called Savannah, attended by fifty principal chiefs, and was subsequently induced to visit Eng land, where he held an interview with George I. The colony rapidly increased. Augusta was founded on the upper Savannah, in 1734. In the same year two parties of emigrants arrived, numbering more than five hundred. One hundred and fifty Highlanders also joined the colony. In 1740, the trustees reported that 2,500 emi grants had been sent out, at an expense of eighty thousand pounds. Among the residents were the celebrated clergymen John and Charles Wesley. The colonists complained of labouring under disadvantages. Rum and slaves were both forbidden — a circum stance which caused them to look upon the Carolinas with peculiar envy. The lands were divided into small lots of twenty-five acres, and granted only on condition of military service, and descending to male heirs alone. Religious feuds were added to civil ones. The Wesleys were driven from the colony. For a short period Georgia appeared on the verge of civil war. FFAIRS were rendered still farther critical by the Span ish war, which, after nume rous petty aggressions, broke out in 1738. Oglethorpe de termined to attack St. Augustine, the capital of Florida, Great preparations were made for this enterprise ; Virginia and the Carolinas furnished a regiment, as well as 36120,000 currency ; and an Indian force undertook to assist. The governor, who was thus enabled to make an invasion with two thou sand men, reduced two successive forts ; but the castle of St. Augus tine itself was found too strongly fortified to allow a reasonable hope of reducing it unless by blockade. This he expected to accomplish by the aid of a strong flotilla, which came to co-operate with him. It proved, however, a very discouraging service for his undisciplined warriors ; and the Indians, disgusted by an expression which escaped him, of horror at their cruelty, went off. The Highlanders, his best 300 THE CAROLINAS AND GEORGIA. .*»W»"'""1»»H, troops, were surprised, and a number cut to piec.es ; while the militia lost courage, broke the restraints of discipline, and deserted in great numbers. It being impossible to prevent the enemy from procuring a reinforcement and large supply of provisions, he was obliged to raise the siege, and return with his armament seriously shattered, and his reputation impaired. HE Spaniards, two years after, [1742,] attempted to retaliate; and . Monteano, governor of St. Augustine, with thirty-two ves sels and three thousand men, ad vanced to attack Frederica, Oglethorpe's force was very inadequate, ana ihe aid from the north both scanty and very slow in arriving ; yet he acted so as completely to redeem his military character. By skilfully using all the advantages of his situation, he kept the enemy at bay ; then by various strata gems conveyed such an exaggerated idea both of his actual force and expected reinforcements, that the Spanish ultimately abandoned the enterprise, without having made one serious attack. Georgia was thus delivered from foreign dangers ; but she con tinued to suffer under her internal evils. The colonists complained that absurd regulations debarred them from rendering their produc tions available, and kept them in poverty. Numbers removed to South Carolina, where they were free from restraint ; and the Mora vians, being called upon to take arms contrary to their principles, departed for Pennsylvania. Great efforts were made, as formerly in Virginia, to produce silk, but without any success. In 1752 the trustees relinquished their charge. Georgia became a royal colony, and the people were left at full liberty to use all the means, good and bad, of advancing themselves ; lands were held on any tenure' that best pleased them ; negroes and rum were imported without restriction ; and a free intercourse was opened with the West Indies. GENERAL WOLTB. CHAPTER XXV. THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR. ^ITHERTO we have traced the history of each of the" English colonies in America separately ; for, although occasionally we have seen them forming political combinations, yet, until the opening of the Seven Years' War, no object had been presented to 'them sufficiently great to eause a combination of their ener gies for its attainment. Such an object now appeared ; and from 1754, the year in which the French War commenced, the generali se an. 302 THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR. zation of our colonial history is the natural consequence of the pro gress of events. The claim of France to the river St. Lawrence and the adjoining country, was founded on the early visits of Cartier. Settlement was first attempted by De la Roche, a Briton, who obtained from Henry IV. a. patent of. similarly extensive powers to those granted in England to Gilbert and Raleigh. " New France" was found to open into regions of vast extent ; and though not of so luxurious an aspect as Virginia, yet affording great advantages to an enterprising nation, both by a lucrative fur trade, and valuable coast fisheries. - Roche's experiment proved, however, a failure ; and De Monts, who made a similar one, was equally unsuccessful. The career of enterprise was next undertaken by Samuel Cham plain, who became the father of New France, or Canada. After exploring the country, he built and fortified Quebec, allying himself with two powerful Indian tribes, the Hurons and Algonquins. This, however, involved him in war with the Irpquols, who were friendly to the English ;'and thus, at the outset, the new colony became in volved in cruel and unsatisfactory wars. Champlain's charter was soon after abrogated, and another substituted, whose . object was to convert New France, into a colony of the first magnitude. This ex cited the jealousy of the English, who drove their rivals out of Aca dia, and captured Quebec; but in 1632 both were restored to France by conventional agreement. Thirty years of prosperity succeeded, during which the settlers obtained from the Indians rumours of a mighty river to the West, larger than the St. Lawrence, and empty ing into some unknown ocean. Supposing this to be the long-sought stream opening the way to the golden regions of China and India, Talon, the governor at that time, used every exertion to discover it. Two of the colonists, Joliet and Marquette, sailed in two little Indian barks, holding each three men, to explore the mysterious regions. Sailing onward, they ascertained that the river emptied into the Gulf of Mexico, when, fearful of falling into Spanish hands, .they returned. In 1699, D'lberville founded Louisiana. New Orleans was settled in 1717 ; and, in 1730, assumed so promising an aspect, that other set tlements were extended up the Mississippi. Then it was that having control of the northern lakes, and the mouth of the Mississippi in the south, with considerable military strength in Quebec, Montreal, and other settlements, the French first conceived the grand scheme of extending a line of military posts along the Ohio and Mississippi, FRENCH AND ENGLISH CLAIMS. 303 from Canada to Louisiana, thus restricting the English colonies to the territory east of the Alleghanies. As a commencement, they built Fort Duquesne, (named after the.governor of Canada,) at the con fluence of the Monongahela and Alle'ghany rivers, and commanding the communication from Montreal to New Orleans. It -will be remembered that the English king's charter had granted the land extending to the Pacific. The French settlements were, therefore, considered as encroachments, which the Atlantic colonists determined to resist. The territory around^ Fort Duquesne was claimed by a British society called the London- Company, three of whose servants were taken by the French, and sent to a second fort on Presque Isle. Soon after the French built two other forts, thus completing the contemplated chain of fortresses. HESE proceedings were considered by Lieutenant-Governor Dinwid- die, of Virginia, as so many acts of aggression. Accordingly, with the approbation of the As sembly, he despatched Major George Washington with a let ter to the commandant of Fort Duquesne, ordering him to eva cuate. In this expedition Wash ington suffered many hardships, and on one or two occasions came very near losing his life. Dinwiddie's request was re fused. Resolving to expel the aggressors by force, the Assembly raised a regiment, and placed it under the command of Washington. After defeating a body of the Indians at the Great Meadows, he encountered a strong force under De Villiers. Hastily retreating, he threw up Fort Necessity, at the Meadows, where he was attacked, July 4th, 1754. After fighting all day against five times his numbers, he capitulated on honourable terms, and was allowed to return to Vir ginia. On the same day, a convention of delegates at Albany, after having effected a treaty with the Five Nations, reported a plan of colonial union, to be governed by a general assembly of delegates, with a governor appointed by the crown. It was disapproved, how ever, by England and Massachusetts, and did not go into effect. A 304 THE SEVEN YEARS WAR. Washington's interview with st. piere plan was finally adopted to carry on the war by British troops, aidec by such soldiers as the colonists could raise. Early in 1755, General Braddock arrived in Virginia with two re giments, designed as an expedition against Fort Duquesne. At his request a convention of the colonial governors assembled in Virginia, and resolved on three expeditions — one againstFort Duquesne,; the second, under Governor Shirley, against Niagara; and the third against Crown Point. While this session was being held, three thousand militia of Massachusetts invaded Nova Scotia, captured the military posts, and drove off the inhabitants. Late in June,' General Braddock, with twelve hundred picked troops, and ten pieces of artillery, marched for the Alleghany. With the most culpable pride, he rejected the representations of Washing ton and other provincial officers to scour the woods in advance ; and thus, while marching in the European fashion, he permitted himself to be drawn into a narrow defile on the Monongahela, seven miles from the fort. Here, on the 8th of July, he was attacked by an unseen enemy securely posted amid the deep forests on each side. His men fought with stern, but useless bravery. Whole platoons sunk before the Indian rifle, while not a foe was in view ; Braddock BRADDOCK S DEFEAT. 305 was mortally wounded; every officer, except Washington, carried from the field ; and rout, despair, and uproar, took the place of dis cipline. The provincials under Washington alone remained firm ; and to their praiseworthy efforts while covering the retreat and beat ing back the shouting foe, was owing the salvation of that wretched remnant. Seven hundred British, besides provincials, were killed and wounded — and sixty-four out of eighty-five officers. The whole army, including a reserve of eight hundred under General Dunbar, fled in disgraceful hurry to Philadelphia, leaving the frontier ex posed to the incursions of the vindictive foe. The victors in this battle are supposed to have numbered nine hundred.7 Shirley's ex pedition against Niagara was also a complete failure. At Crown Point a large party of General Johnson's troops was totally defeated by the Baron Dieskau, who subsequently made an attack upon the English camp. In this he was mortally wounded and captured, one thousand of his men killed or wounded, and his army driven away. After this success Johnson might have advanced with flattering prospects of success against Ticonderoga ; but he spent the remainder of the campaign in idleness. In the following spring, war was declared between France and Eng land. The plan for this year's campaign was similar to that of 1755. Crown Point was to be attacked by ten thousand men, Niagara by six thousand, Duquesne by three thousand. While deliberations were going on as to which should be attacked first, Montcalm, suc cessor, to Dieskau, invested Oswego, stormed and took" the works, made the whole garrison prisoners, and razed the fortifications to the ground. At this daring exploit the British were confounded, their grand schemes broken up, and the whole fall and summer spent in doing nothing. ' At the close of the year a strong reinforcement of British troops arrived under Lord Loudoun ; and the campaign of 1757 opened with high hopes of success. Loudoun's design was to improve on the errors of his predecessors, and make but one grand attack, of which Louisburg was the object. He sailed there with a great army, and finding the works stronger than had been expected, returned to New York. About the same time Montcalm descended from Canada to the works on Lake George, and captured Fort William Henry, one of the main dependencies of the English. While the garrison was, marching out, a furious attack was made upon them by the hostile Indians, and no less than fifteen hundred men, women, and children*. 306 THE SEVEN YEARS WAR. MASSACRE AT PORT WILLIAM HENRY. massacred. Whether Montcalm could have prevented this butchery or not, is unknown ; but it has left an indelible stain upon his me mory. This event dissipated the shadowy achievements which were to have been accomplished that year, and left, the French complete masters df all the territory claimed by them at the beginning of the war. This course of folly and imbecility was i about drawing to a close. The king, compelled by popular indignation, appointed a new min istry, of whom the master spirit was William Pitt, afterwards Lord Chatham. He was probably the greatest war minister ever Eng land produced. He was so popular in America, that in answer to a requisition for troops, three colonies raised in a little while fifteen thousand troops. At the opening of the campaign of 1758, General Abercrombie, successor to Loudoun, found himself at the head of fifty thousand men. Part was to reduce Louisbourg ; part, Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and the remainder Fort Duquesne. The first expedition numbered fourteen thousand men under Gene ral Amherst, and reached Louisbourg, June 2. The French garrison numbered three thousand men, under the Chevalier Drucourt. The siege was' prosecuted with vigour for three weeks, when the town surrendered. Abercrombie mustered his forces- at Albany, and embarked on Lake Georg'e with fifteen thousand men and a formidable train of ABANDONMENT OF FORT DUQUESNE. 307 tsaaiHi*^--:^1? JaS8?S3&««Bft\«-, ABERCROMBIE CROSSING LAKE GEORGE artillery. On laying siege to Ticonderoga he led his troops upon a breastwork of trees, where, becoming entangled, they were, fired upon by a perfectly secure enemy until two thousand of their num ber were killed or Wounded. The designs upon the fort and Crown Point were then abandoned ; but a detachment was sent against Fort Frontignac, which, being abandoned by the greater part of its gar rison, surrendered. Circumstances gave to this last feat more im portance than it could ever have acquired on the basis of military merit. It had hitherto formed the depot of Fort Duquesne, which, Being now cut off from provisions, Was abandoned by its garrison, who descended the Ohio in boats. At this unexpected turn of for tune, General Forbes, leader of the third expedition — who had been from July to November marching from Fort Cumberland, Va., to the Laurel Hills, sometimes at the rate of a mile a day— pushed rapidly forward, and [November 25] entered the abandoned works without resistance. The name was changed to Pittsburg. General Forbes died during his return to Philadelphia. In the following year Pitt determined to attempt the conquest of Canada. The main attack was to be conducted by General Wolff, a young officer who had distinguished himself before Louisbourg General Amherst, who succeeded Abercrombie, after reducing Ticon deroga and Crown Point, was to join Wolfe at Quebec. Niagara 303 THE SEVEN YEARS WAR. Us " :Sbi JisW Kim)] ^wMi wm WSmWKmSm EDIN8 OF TI0ONDIE0GA. was to be reduced by General Prideaux. Ticonderoga was aban doned by its garrison on the appearance of the English army. The same thing happened at Crown Point. Fort Niagara was besieged ' by General Prideaux on the 6th July; but he being killed, the com mand devolved on Sir William Johnson, who gained a battle over the garrison in an open field chosen by themselves. After this they re tired to their works, and on the 25th capitulated. 'Meanwhile Wolfe embarked at Louisbourg with eight thousand men, and landing before Quebec offered General Montcalm battle. It was accepted, and the English were defeated. Not discouraged, Wolfe landed his men [September 3] at Point Levi, and determined to scale the heights of Abraham, hitherto considered inaccessible. On the following morning the astonished Montcalm beheld his enemy drawn up in battle array on the mountain. But with the courage of a noble nature, he determined to march out and give battle. The disposition of the armies was masterly, and the action worthy of the two greatest generals in America. At its commencement, Wolfe was QUEBEC TAKEN BY THE ENGLISH. 309 D E ATH OE wounded in the wrist, and not long afterwards in the body; but he still cheered on his men until a third ball pierced his breast, and he was conveyed to the rear. Monckton, second in command, also fell. About this time the French centre was broken ; and the Highlanders, rushing forward with drawn swords, completed the rout. When in the agonies of death Wolfe was told that the enemy were flying,, he exclaimed — "I die content." , Some time after, his gallant antagonist, Montcalm, also mortally wounded, expired, expressing his satisfaction that he " would not live to see the surrender of Quebec." The city immediately capitulated. Next year Montreal was taken, with all its dependencies ; and henceforth Canada was a British province. This victory closed the war in America. The treaty of February 10, 1763, secured to the colonies and mother country all they had claimed be fore the war, together with the entire French possessions in the now United States, except Louisiana. SAMUEL ADAM 3. CHAPTER XXVI. COMMENCEMENT OF THE REVOLUTION. JHEN the Seven Years' War had closed, the people of the American colonies of Great Britain were full of loyalty and attachment to the mother country. But these dispositions were speedily changed by the fiB?' ill-judged measures of the British ministry. Plan? for taxing the colonies had -been successively proposed to Walpolfr and Pitt.; but those wary ministers declined the experiment. Gren ville was bolder, and after causing duties to be imposed on several arti cles of import, succeeded in carrying the famous Stamp Act in March* 1765. This act, which imposed a tax on the paper usedfor notes of hand, bills of exchange, and other documents used in the ordinary transactions of business, was regarded by the colonies as unreasonable and tyrannical. It was received with a burst of indig nation throughout the country. The colonial Assemblies generally 310 THE STAMP ACT. 311 STAMP AOT RIOT passed resolutions denouncing the act in strong terms. A congress of deputies, summoned by a resolution of the Massachusetts Assem bly, met in New York, Octobers 1765, to consult, on the grievances under which the colonies laboured, in consequence of the late enact ments of the British Parliament. All the colonies except New Hampshire, Virginia, North Carolina, and Georgia, were repre sented. A declaration of ^rights and grievances, a ; petition to the king, and a memorial to each house of parliament, firmly remon strating against the oppressive acts of parliament, and earnestly en treating a redress of grievances,, were voted, and the congress dis solved on the 25th of October. v The storm of popular indignation, however, still continued, and serious riots ensued in Boston and in other parts of the country, where the Stamp Act was attempted to be enforced, by the officers of government. Resolutions and combinations against the importa tion and use of British manufactures followed these popular demon strations, i Meantime Dr. Franklin, and the other American agents in Lon don, aided by the Prime Minister Conway and William Pitt, were earnestly endeavouring to jobtain a repeal of the Stamp Act. 312 COMMENCEMENT OF THE REVOLUTION. RECEPTION OE THE NEWS OF THE REPEAL OF THE STAMP ACT. To the furtherance of this measure* the ministers first introduced what they called the Declaratory Act. . It pronounced that the king and parliament had a right to make laws to bind the colonies and people of America, subjects of the crown of Great Britain, in all cases whatsoever. As soon ' as this bill was passed, that for the repeal of the stamp act was introduced. After violent and protracted debates, in which Pitt participated, although he was dangerously sick, the bill at length passed the House of '"Commons, by a vote of 275 to 167 ; and notwithstanding a still more violent opposition, and the entry of two protests, its friends succeeded in getting it through the House of Lords. After receiving the king's approval,^ became a law, March 19, 1766. The passage of this bill was received with the liveliest demon strations of joy by the inhabitants of London, where the church-bells were rung and the houses illuminated. In America, where the people could not even hope for such an event, the intelligence pro duced a transport of surprise, exultation, and gratitude. Thanks were voted by the legislatures to Lord Camden, Pitt, and others, who had befriended the colonial interests. The burst of good feeling which followed this conciliatory measure was somewhat allayed by the declaratory act, in which the right of taxation was still asserted ; and new acts of oppression soon re awakened discontent. Indemnity for damage done by the riots was demanded ; troops were ordered to be quartered on the citizens ; an act imposing duties on glass, paper, pasteboard, white and red lead, painters' colours, and tea, was passed, (June 29, 1767,) and new regulations for collecting the revenue were rigorously enforced. Altercations between the colonial Assemblies and the royal governors THE BOSTON' MASSACRE. 313 JOHN HANCOCK. followed, these measures of Townshend, the minister, who died in 1767, and was succeeded by Lord North. The seizure at Boston of the sloop Liberty, owned by the popular merchant, John Hancock, led to-a serious riot; and the quartering of troops, (November 10, 1767,) in the representatives' chamber, the court-house, and that cradle of liberty, Faneuil Hall, was regarded as the most terrible outrage which the citizens had ever endured. Non-importation agreements were entered into by nearly all the colonies, on the one hand, and a proposition for trying American offenders in England, was entertained on the other ; while the alter cations between the royal governors and the colonial Assemblies were vigorously kept up. In Boston, the presence of the British troop? was a perpetual source of irritation. On the 5th of March, 1770, a collision took place in King street now called State street, between the soldiers and citizens. The soldiers, being pelted with snow balls and pieces of ice, called for the protection of a guard. Captain Preston's company, then on guard, came to their relief. A charge was ordered without effect. The mob dared the soldiers to fire, and on one of their number being actually felled with a club, they fired. Three men were killed, and several others wounded, of whom one afterwards died. 40 2D 314 COMMENCEMENT OF THE REVOLUTION. M|t i Ifs ! i7v;;7iJ'M>'7^:> ^.77 ¦'..J.l;^ \jfiha FANEUIL HALL. These martyrs to the cause of liberty were buried with great pomp, and the Boston massacre was annually commemorated long after by a grand assemblage and the delivery of an exciting oration. The officer and soldiers, who had ,caused the death of the citizens, were defended on their trial by John Adams and Josiah Quincy. The captain and six men were acquitted, and two men were found, guilty of manslaughter. In Rhode Island, the destruction of the British armed schooner Ga'spee, in consequence of her firing on a merchantman, was one of the bold acts which mark the spirit of the time. A reward of £500, together with a pardon to the informer, failed to shake the fidelity of any of the numerous party concerned in this affair. The determination of the colonists to resist the introduction of tea sent out by the East India Company, led to the most serious riots. The permission to the company to export this article free of duty made it cheaper to the American consumer than before it had been THE TEA RIOTS. 315 MASSACRE. made a source of revenue, so that in this instance the resistance was made to the principle of taxation. Cargoes were sent to New York, Philadelphia, Charleston, (South Carolina,) and Boston. The inha bitants of the cities of New York and Philadelphia sent the ships back to London, " and they sailed up the Thames to proclaim to all the nation, that New York and Pennsylvania would not be enslaved." The inhabitants of Charleston unloaded the tea and stored it in damp cellars, where it could not be used, and where it finally was all spoiled. The inhabitants of Boston tried every measure to send back the three tea ships which had arrived there, but without suc cess. The agents of the company would not release the captains frpm their obligations ; the custom-house officers refused them clear ances, and the governor would not allow them to pass Castle William. The vessels containing the tea lay for some days in the harbour, watched by a strong guard of citizens, who, from a numerous town- meeting, despatched the most peremptory commands to the ship masters not to land their cargoes. At length, the popular rage 'could be restrained no longer, and the consignees, apprehending violence, took refuge in Castle William, while, on the 16th of De cember, an assemblage of men, dressed and painted like Mohawk Indians, boarded the vessels, and threw the tea into the dock. ~ In the space of about two hours, the contents of three hundred and i forty-two chests of tea, valued, at £18,000 sterling, were thus de- i stroyed. ¦ This act led to the passage of the Boston Port Bill, (31st March, | 316 COMMENCEMENT OF THE REVOLUTION. DESTRUCTION OF THE TEA, IN BOSTON HARBOUR. 1774,) prohibiting the lading or unlading of goods and merchandize at Boston after the 1st day of June, until the return of obedience and the indemnification of the East India Company for the tea destroyed. To enforce the enactments of this bill, four ships of war were ordered to sail" for the proscribed town. General Gage, commander-in-chief in America, was appointed Governor of Massachusetts Bay, in the room of Mr. Hutchinson ; and he was authorized to remit forfeitures and grant pardons. He arrived on the 13th of May. The effect of this stringent proceeding was exactly the reverse of what had been anticipated by the British ministry. Instead of dividing and intimidating the colonies, it united and emboldened them. ¦ 5 The necessity of a general congress was soon universally perceived, and the measure was gradually adopted by every colony, from New Hampshire to South Carolina. On the 4th of September, delegates from eleven colonies appeared at Philadelphia ; and, the next day, the first continental congress was organized at Carpenter's Hall, in Chestnut street. On the 14th, members from North Carolina ar rived, making twelve colonies that were represented. It was resolved that each colony should have one vote, whatever might be the num ber of its representatives. They made a declaration of rights ; re solved on an address to the king, a memorial to the people of British THE MINUTE MEN. 317 CARPENTERS HALL. America, and an address to the people of Great Britain. These papers had a great effect both in America and England. They in spired the people with confidence in their delegates ; and their decency, firmness, and wisdom, caused a universal feeling of respect for the congress. General Gage, in the mean time, was evidently anticipating a re sort to arms. He seized all the deposits of powder and provision which he could reach in the neighbourhood of Boston, and began to fortify the Neck, which unites it to Roxbury. The representatives of the people of Massachusetts assembled in convention ; remonstrated against these proceedings; appointed^ committee to prepare a plan for the immediate defence of the province ; gave orders for the en listment of a number of the inhabitants to be in readiness, at a minute's warning, to appear in arms, and elected three general officers, Preble, Ward, and Pomeroy, to command these minute-men. At a subsequent session, in November, they took measures for arm ing the militia, and appointed two more officers, Prescott and Heath. They also secured the co-operation of New Hampshire, Rhode Island, and Connecticut, in raising an army of twenty thousand men. 2d2 318 COMMENCEMENT OF THE REVOLUTION. In Rhode Island and New Hampshire, the ordnance and ammunition were secured for the use of the people. The British ministry, when apprised of these"acts, disregarded the ¦attempts of Chatham and Burke to have the grievances of the colo nists removed, declared Massachusetts in a state of rebellion, and caused a bill to be passed restricting the colonial commerce and fish eries, while John Hancock and Samuel Adams, and a band of other leading spirits, were stimulating the colonies to the most determined resistance. Oppression and menaces of force on the one hand, and discontent and a determination to be free, or die in the cause of free* dom, on the other, were now speedily bringing affairs to a crisis. BRITISH NAVAL 0 O 8 T u M E, 1776. 3IBGH OF BOSTON, CHAPTER XXVII. FIRST HOSTILITIES OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. HE first serious collision between the colo nists and the British troops arose from an expedition sent out from Boston by Gene ral Gage, to destroy some military stores deposited at Concord. For the execution of this design, he, on the night preceding the 19th of April, detached Lieutenant- Colonel Smith and Major Pitcairn, with eight hundred grenadiers and light infantry, who, at eleven o'clock, embarked in boats at the bottom of Boston Common, crossed Charle river, and having landed at Phipp's farm, in Cambridge, commenced a silent and expeditious march for Concord. Although measures BolnT M° mteiCept ^ eXpreSS6S *"* m*ht * «t from Boston to alarm the country, yet some messengers from Dr Warren steal b H It IT-8' Md g^ the aC' W*ch « - »J % spread by church-bells, signal-guns, and volleys. On the arrival of w 320 FIRST HOSTILITIES OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. AFFAIR AT LEXINGTON. the British troops at Lexington,, six miles below Concord, they found about seventy men, belonging to the minute company of that town, on the parade, under arms. Major Pitcairn, who led the van, gal loping up to them, called out, "Disperse, disperse, you rebels! throw down your arms, and disperse !" The sturdy yeomanry not instantly obeying his order, he advanced nearer, fired his pistol, flourished his sword, and ordered his soldiers to fire. The troops cheered, and immediately fired ; several of the provincials fell, and the rest dispersed. The British continuing to discharge their mus kets after the dispersion, a part of the fugitives stopped, and returned the fire. Eight Americans were killed, three or four of them by the first discharge of the British, the rejst after they had left the parade. Several were also wounded. The British now pressed forward to Concord, and destroyed the stores ; but in their retreat they encountered the exasperated people, who had risen in a mass. A severe conflict took place at Concord bridge. Their retreat towards Lexington was harassed by a galling fire from behind stone walls, trees, hillocks, and hedges. The pro vincial soldiers were excellent marksmen, and their superior know- BATTLE OF LEXINGTON. 321 LORD PEROT. ledge of the country enabled them to head off the British troops at every turn of the road. Thus harassed, they reached Lexington, where they were joined by Lord Percy, who, most opportunely for them, had arrived with nine hundred men, and two pieces of cannon. The enemy, now amounting to about eighteen hundred men, having halted an hour or two at Lexington, recommenced their march ; but the attack from the provincials was simultaneously renewed, and an irregular yet very galling fire was kept up on each flank, as well as on the front and rear. The close firing threw the British into great confusion ; but they kept up a retreating fire on the militia and minute-men. A little after sunset, the regulars reached Bunker's Hill, where, exhausted with excessive fatigue, they remained during the night, under the protection of the Somerset man-of-war, and the next morning went into Boston. If the Salem and Marblehead regi ments had arrived in season to cut off their retreat, in all probability but few of the detachment would ever have reached Boston. Of the Americans engaged throughout the day, fifty were killed and thirty- four wounded. The British loss was sixty-five killed, one hundred and eighty wounded, and twenty-eight prisoners. To their wounded prisoners the Americans behaved with the utmost tenderness and humanity, and apprised Gage that he was at liberty to send the sur geons of his own army to minister to them. 41 .322 FIRST HOSTILITIES OF THE REVOLUTIONARY .WAR. COLONEL ALLEN CAPTURING TICONDEROGA. The affair of Lexington was the signal for war. The provincial congress of Massachusetts met the' next day after the battle, and de termined the number of men to be raised ; fixed on the payment of the troops ; voted an issue of paper money ; drew up rules and regu lations for an army ; and all was done in a business-like manner. The news of the battle caused a rush of volunteers towards the scene of action from the surrounding colonies ; and twenty thou sand men were soon assembled, forming a line of encampment from Roxbury to the river Mystic, holding the British army, under Gene ral Gage, besieged in 'Boston. In Connecticut an expedition was set on foot for surprising the fortresses of Ticonderoga and Crown Point. Forty volunteers pro ceeded to Castleton, where they met Colonel Ethan Allen with two hundred and thirty men. Here they were all unexpectedly joined by Colonel Benedict Ar nold, who meditated a similar project. He was admitted to act as auxiliary to Allen, who held the chief command. They proceeded on their expedition, and arrived on the night of the 9th of May on the shore of Lake Champlain, opposite to Ticonderoga. Allen and Arnold crossed with eighty-three men, and the two colonels entered the fort abreast, at break of day. All the garrison were asleep, ex- BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL. ,-,< . 323 cept one sentinel, whose piece missing fire, he attempted to escape into the fort ; but the Americans rushed after him, and forming them selves into a hollow square, gave three loud huzzas, which instantly aroused the garrison. Some skirmishing with swords and bayonets ensued. De la Place, the commander, was required to surrender the fort. "By what authority?" he asked, with no unnatural sur prise. " I demand it," replied Allen, " in the name of the Great Jehovah, and of the Continental Congress!" This extraordinary summons was instantly obeyed; and the fort, with its valuable stores and forty-nine prisoners; was surrendered without delay. Colonel Seth Warner was then despatched to Crown Point ; and he took possession of this place, in which a s.erjeant and twelve pri vates formed the whole of the garrison. A Britishsloop-of-war lying off St. Johns, at the northern end of Lake Champlain, was soon after captured by Arnold. =?• Thus the Americans, without the loss of a single man, acquired, by a bold and decisive stroke, two important posts, a great quantity of artillery and ammunition, and the command of Lake George and Lake Champlain. In May, Generals Howe, Burgoyne, and Clinton, arrived at Bos ton, with reinforcements for the besieged garrison. General Gage now offered pardon to all who would lay down their arms, except Samuel Adams and John Hancock ; and he declared the province under martial law. In June, the colonial generals determined to occupy Bunker Hill, in Charlestown. On the evening of the 16th of June, Colonel Prescott marched from Cambridge for this purpose ; but, by some mistake, he took ground on Breed's Hill, much nearer Boston, and within range of its cannon. By labouring diligently through the night, his men succeeded in raising a respectable redoubt, which was assailed at break of day by The Lively sloop-of-war, and a battery of six guns on Copy's Hill, at the north end of Boston. Undismayed by the fire, the provincial soldiers laboured at their in- trenchments till the breastwork reached from the redoubt to the bot tom of the hill near the Mystic. New-mown hay and wooden fences t formed a part of their materials. As the secure possession of Breed's Hill would render Boston un tenable, General Gage detached Generals Howe and Pigot, at noon, with ten companies of grenadiers, ten of infantry, and some artillery, to dislodge the provincials. Landing at Morton's Point, Howe de cided to wait for reinforcements, and at 3 o'clock moved to the 324 FIRST HOSTILITIES OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. GENERAL WARREN. attack with three thousand men ; while the town of Charlestdwn, being set on fire, added terrific grandeur to the approaching contest. The' Americans, who had been reinforced by a second detachment under Generals Warren and Pomeroy, permitted the enemy to ap proach, till, according to the characteristic order of Putnam, they could see the whites of their eyes, and then poured in upon the ad vancing columns a tremendous fire of musketry, which prostrated whole platoons, and sent the enemy, broken and disordered, back to their landing-place. By the exertions of the officers, they were again brought to the attack. The Americans again reserved their fire until the enemy, were within five or six rods, when they gave1 it with deadly preci sion, and put them a second time to flight. General Clinton now arrived from Boston, and aided Howe in persuading the troops to march a third time to the attack. But by this time the powder of the Americans began to fail, and BATTLE OF BUNKER HILL. 327 their, fire slackened. The British brought some of their cannon to bear, which raked the inside of the breastwork from end to end ; the fire from the ships, batteries, and field-artillery, was redoubled ; and the redoubt, attacked on three sides at once, was carried at the point of the bayonet. The Americans, though a retreat was ordered, de layed, and made an obstinate resistance with the butts of their guns, until the assailants, who easily mounted the works, had half-filled the redoubt. Meanwhile the breastwork, had been bravely defended against the light-infantry, who were mowed down in ranks by the close fire of the Americans ; but the redoubt being lost, the breast work was necessarily abandoned. The troops had now to make their way over Charlestown Neck, which was completely raked by the Glasgow man-of-war and two floating batteries ; but by the skill and address of the officers, and especially of General Putnam, who commanded the rear, the retreat was effected with little loss. Gene ral Warren fell in the battle, fighting like a common soldier. The New Hampshire troops, under Stark, Dearborn, and others, were in the battle, near the rail-fence. They were marching from their native state towards Cambridge, and came upon the battle ground by their own impulses, having received no orders from the commander-in-chief. The British had three thousand men, the Americans fifteen hundred. The former lost one thousand and fifty- four killed and wounded, the latter one hundred and thirty-nine killed, and three hundred and fourteen wounded and missing. The moral effect of this battle was immense. It had been doubted whether the provincials would fight. That question was now defi nitively settled. The British held and fortified Breed's Hill. The Americans maintained their original lines of investment, and held the enemy as closely besieged as before the battle. A second continental congress assembled at Philadelphia, on the 10th of May, under the presidency of Peyton Randolph. They voted addresses to the king, the people of Canada, and the Assembly of Jamaica ; they resolved that twenty thousand men should be raised and equipped for the common defence; and they chose George Washington for commander-in-chief. All this was done, and bills of credit emitted in the name of the twelve united colonies. The Revolution was thus formally organized. Georgia soon after sent in her delegates, and the thirteen colonies were indissolubly united. The battle of Bunker Hill (so called, although fought on Breed's 328 FIRST HOSTILITIES OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. WASHINGTON S H E AI5 -Q U A RT E RS AT CAMBRIDGI Hill) was followed by active hostilities at sea. Privateers and ves sels fitted out by Massachusetts and other colonies captured many merchantmen and transports, — aggressions which were retaliated by the burning of Falmouth, and the sacking of other defenceless towns on the coast. . General Washington joined the army at Cambridge on the 2d of July. He found fifteen thousand men encamped around Boston, ill- armed, undisciplined, and disorderly. They were deficient in gun powder ; but the garrison of ten thousand men in Boston were well supplied with munitions of war. The terms of enlistment of many expired during the siege, and their numbers were at one time less than those of the British army. Active operations seemed im practicable ; but on the 2d of March, 1776, and on the succeeding nights, a heavy1 bombardment was kept up on the British lines ; and on the 4th, General Thomas, with a strong detachment, took posses sion of Dorchester Heights, and with the aid of fascines provided by General Ward, they succeeded in erecting works during the night EVACUATION OF BOSTON. 329 GENERAL WARD. sufficient for their defence. Howe was astonished when he saw these works, and he determined to dislodge the Americans. A detach ment of about two thousand troops fell down to the castle in tran sports ; but a furious storm scattered them, and they were unable to proceed to the scene of action '. The works were soon rendered nearly impracticable; and a council of war, held by the British, decided to evacuate the town as soon as possible. A fortnight afterwards the measure was effected ; and at ten in the morning of the 17th of March, the royal troops and their adherents, who had lately held possession of Boston, were sailing away from its shores ; and Washington triumphantly entered the city. Thus terminated the siege of Boston. The British proceeded to Halifax, and Washington withdrew his forces to New York, which he rightly deemed would be the next point of attack. « 2s2 OENSBAL MOSTOOMBRT. CHAPTER XXVIII. EXPEDITION TO CANADA. T was very natural for the colonists to ex pect that Canada, recently conquered and filled with descendants of the French, would readily join in the revolutionary movement directed against their ancient enemies, the British. Addresses had already been sent to them by Congress. An army under Gen erals Schuyler and Montgomery soon fol lowed. On the 10th of September, 1775, one thousand men were landed at St. Johns, one hundred and fifteen 330 -¦-==" j? ^i DEATH OF GENERAL MONTGOMERY. 331 miles north of Ticonderoga ; but they soon retreated to Isle Aux Noix, where General Schuyler, being ill, left the army under command of Montgomery, who soon returned and laid siege to St. Johns." General Carleton advanced against him with eight hundred men, but was in tercepted while attempting to cross the St. Lawrence, and driven back by Colonel Warner, with three hundred men. St. Johns then capitulated, and Montgomery advanced to Montreal. During the siege, Colonel Ethan Allen was captured and sent to England. Montgomery took Montreal and its garrison with eleven armed ves sels ; but Sir Guy Carleton escaped to Quebec. Meantime General Washington had despatched Arnold through the wilderness of Maine, with eleven hundred men, who left the camp at Cambridge on the 13th of September, and after enduring in credible hardships in their march, reached Point Levi, near Quebec, on the 9th of November ; but he had no boats for crossing the river, and was not in a condition to assault the garrison. He was joined by Montgomery on the 1st df December, and a whole month was spent in besieging the city, and finally in preparations for an assault, which took place on the 31st. Two feigned attacks were made on the upper town by Majors Brown and Livingston, whilst Montgomery and Arnold made two real attacks on the lower town. Montgomery, advancing along the St. Lawrence, at the head of his troops, at first met with success, and the battery was deserted by all the enemy ex cept two or three persons, one of whom, in retiring, applied a slow- match to one of the guns, and fired it. This shot was fatal to Mont gomery, and several other officers. Colonel Campbell, on whom the command devolved, precipitately retreated with the rest of the division. Meantime, Arnold, with three hundred and fifty men, made an attack on the other side ; but he received a musket-ball in the leg, and was carried off to the camp.. Captain- Morgan, with a Virginia company of riflemen, pressed forward, and carried the battery, cap turing the guard. Morgan formed his men ; but from the darkness of the night and his ignorance of the town, he was unable to pro ceed further. He was soon joined by Lieutenant-Colonel Green and other officers, and his numbers were increased to two hundred men. At daylight they were attacked by the garrison, and after sustaining the whole force of the enemy for three hours, they were compelled to surrender. Arnold, upon whom the command now devolved, with but three S32 EXPEDITION TO CANADA. iSP m WSkWmL^LWmma. DEATH' OF MONTGOMERY. or four hundred men fit for duty, maintained, a blockade of the city till February. But the misconduct of his. soldiers defeated the main object of the expedition, which was to conciliate the people of Canada. Reinforcements arrived, and the siege was kept up till May when the opening of the river brought in a British fleet, and Quebec was effectually relieved. General Thomas, who had super seded Arnold in the command, was obliged to raise the siege and retreat, leaving his baggage, artillery, stores, and a number of sick soldiers, whom Carleton treated with great humanity. The remaining incidents of the expedition are uninteresting. The Americans were driven by the greatly superior force of the enemy, to Montreal, which Arnold was compelled to quit on the 15th of June, and retire to Crown Point. In the succeeding campaign, Carleton being determined to take Ticonderoga and Crown Point, first obtained possession of Lake Champlain which was bravely but ineffectually defended by Arnold with a flotilla greatly inferior to that of the British. The action took place m October, 1776, and the defeat of Arnold was succeeded by the fall of Crown Point, which was taken by Carleton on the 15th FAILURE OE THE EXPEDITION. 333 of October. The garrison retreated 0 Ticonderoga. This post, oc cupied by Gates and Schuyler, with a resolute garrison, Carleton did not think it prudent to attack ; but retired into winter quarters in Canada. It is not improbable that with more prudent management on the part of Arnold, Quebec might have been taken by surprise on his first descent. But the rashness of this officer was at least equal to his undoubted courage. The most unfortunate circumstance attend ing the disastrous expedition against Canada, was- the loss of the heroic General Montgomery, one of the best and bravest officers in the American army.' His fall was universally lamented. I ^1 ¦¦;.- k %-:¦ '. BOP NUMINT TO Q X NERAL MONTGOMERY, AT ST. PAU L*S OHD30H, NEW YORK. "BATTIiB GROUND OP TRENTON. CHAPTER XXIX. CAMPAIGN OF 1776. HE object of Washington in, proceed ing to New York, after the siege of Boston was1 closed, was to anticipate the arrival of the British, as he was satisfied that the intended direction of the invading force was against that colony. This was the more dreaded, as the feeling in favour of the royal cause was there very strong, especially in the city ; while Captain Parker still commanded the harbour, and Queen's County in Long Island had refused to send deputies to the provincial convention. The Congress had ordered a party of troops to enter that district, and seize the arms of all the royalists ; but this injunction was after wards withdrawn, a step much disapproved by Washington, tie hesitated not to sanction the proposal of General Charles Lee, one of the most enterprising of the provincial leaders, who hastily raised a 334 DEFENCE OF FORT MOULTRIE. 335 body of troops in Connecticut, advanced by forced marches upon New York, and disregarding the remonstrances of the inhabitants, occupied the city, and began to erect fortifications on its different sides. After the evacuation of Boston, the commander-in-chief, as we have already stated, left it defended by a comparatively small force under Ward, and proceeded with the main.army to New York, where he arrived on the 13th of April. As some months would still elapse before the British could assemble their troops and open the general campaign, they determined to send an expedition immediately against the southern states, where the climate would oppose.no obstacle, and a decisive blow might be struck with a smaller army. Botta censures this course as weaken ing their force by division. Had he, however, perused the official despatches, he would have seen that concentration formed the ori ginal plan of the campaign, and that this enterprise was merely to fill up the interval till the whole should be mustered. A chimerical hope was even cherished, that Clinton, the commander, might pursue a victorious career .northwards, till he should join Howe at New York ; at all events, he was instructed to be there before the opening of the campaign. After touching at New York, he joined Governor Martin, near Cape Fear ; but the main force was to consist of seven regiments conveyed from England by Sir Peter Parker and Lord Cornwallis. Various contingencies delayed its arrival till the begin ning of May ; and June came before the expedition reached Charles ton, its destination. Its movements, and an intercepted letter, had by that time betrayed the design. The most active preparations were made, the principal inhabitants labouring in concert with the lower classes, aided by a numerous body of slaves. The defences were greatly strengthened, and a new fort, named in honour of its com mander, Moultrie, erected on Sullivan's Island, separated by a nar row creek from a larger one named Long Island, commanded the entrance. Between five and six thousand men were assembled, nearly half of them regulars, and the chief command was taken by General Lee, who seemed to court every post of danger. The expedition arrived on the 4th June, and the troops were landed on Long Island ; yet from various obstacles, the attack was not made till the 28th. The fleet comprised two ships of fifty guns, and six bearing from twenty to thirty ; but three of the Iatter.througb. the unskilfulness of the pilot, were entangled in the shoals, and could not be brought into action. The others, stationed before the fort, 336 CAMPAIGN OF 1776. SIR PETER PARSER. opened a tremendous fire, which was kept up with the greatest energy and spirit. The defenders maintained their post with equal firmness ; and the walls, though low, were composed of a firm spongy palmetto wood, in which the balls sunk without shattering them. The garrison returned a cool, steady, and remarkably well directed fire, which did terrible execution ; the ships were rendered almost unmanageable, several of the chief officers fell, and the com modore was at one time left alone on his own deck. Clinton, from the land-side, did not co-operate, having unexpectedly found the creek impassable. He offered, by conveying over two battalions, to effect a diversion in favour of the naval commander ; but the latter, he complains, returned no answer, being too confident, and ambitious of doing the whole himself. The fleet finally moved off in a most shattered state, having lost about two hundred men, including Lord William Campbell and other officers of rank ; while the Americans had thirty-five killed and wounded. The whole affair was most for tunate, adding another to the series of successes gained by the Ameri cans, and inspiring them with fresh courage. During the course of this winter, a momentous design was in active progress, which had a very important issue. Several leading PUBLIC FEELING. 337 DEFENCE OF FORT MOO I. TRIE. men, particularly in New England, had, from the beginning, extended their views to the entire dissolution of their connection with Britain. Overpowered, however, by a majority of their own number, and by the force of public opinion, they did not openly acknowledge their designs, but watched the train of events. Down to 1775, the great body of the people seem to have entertained no wish, or even idea, of final separation ; though in the course of that year some partial movements began in its favour. In May, a convention in Mecklen burg county, North Carolina, declared for it, but the example was nowhere followed. Massachusetts, New Hampshire,. Virginia, and other royal colonies, being left without a government, authority was given to the people to establish one for themselves, limited to the continuance of the dispute with the mother country. Towards the close of the year, detached parties everywhere began openly to pro nounce for independence ; yet- the general feeling was still strong against it. This sentiment was forcibly expressed by the Assemblies of New York and New Jersey, the latter declaring " their detestation of that horrid measure." Dr. Franklin, though not openly professing it, circulated articles of union and confederation ; but they were coldly received, and not even sanctioned by Congress. In spring, 1776, news was received that the petition of the Congress had been rejected ; that they had been declared rebels ; that large armies were preparing to subdue them, and that their whole commerce was utterly prohibited. Thenceforth a large majority of the leading men 43 2F 338 CAMPAIGN OF 1776. formed the determined purpose of asserting independence. The Union, it appeared to them, could never be then restored on any footing, but that of complete subjugation. GENERAL desire, accordingly, was now felt to carry out this measure in a decided form, before the expected military force, or the conciliatory commission, should arrive from Great Britain. The, press was most actively employed, in urging the measure, through gazettes, newspapers, and pamphlets. The essay named Common, Sense, by Thomas Paine, from its rough and homely shrewdness, produced a very powerful effect. As a preparative, Congress authorized the imme diate suppression of royal jurisdiction in all the colonies, and the formation of governments emanating from the people; while they met the prohibition against their trade by throwing it open to'the whole world, except Britain. On the 22d April, the convention of North Carolina empowered their delegates to concur with the others in the establishment of in dependence. That of Virginia went farther, instructing theirs to propose it. Boston was now somewhat less forward, merely inti mating, if Congress should think it necessary, their willing concur rence. Thus supported, Mr. Lee, a Virginia delegate, on the 7th June, 1776, submitted a resolution for dissolving all connection with Great Britain, and constituting the united colonies free and inde pendent states. It was warmly debated from the 8th to the 10th, when it was carried, by a majority of one. As this was not a foot ing on which so mighty a change could be placed, the final decision was postponed till the 1st July ; and during the interval, every pos sible engine was brought to act upon the dissentient colonies. The smaller states were threatened with exclusion from all the benefits and protection which might be derived from the proposed union. As the Assemblies of Pennsylvania and Maryland still refused their con currence, conventions of the people were called, where majorities were at length obtained. Thus, on the 4th July, votes from all the colonies were procured in favour of the measure. The Declaration of Independence, which had already been care fully prepared, was forthwith emitted. In this instrument Congress solemnly published and declared, -that " these United Colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states," and en- STATE OF THE AMERICAN ARMY. 339 titled, as such, to carry on war, make peace, form alliances, regulate commerce, and discharge all other sovereign functions. This mo mentous deed was signed on the 2d August, 1776, by all the mem bers then present. J~3 N the decisive posture which '" % affairs had now assumed, Washington was actively "endeavouring to organize the means of maintaining the contest. His most urgent repre sentations to Congress upon the ne cessity of forming a permanent army had been disregarded; and he found himself at the head of a motley group, in which soldiers, enlisted only for a year half elapsed, were mixed with militia whose services were to be still more temporary. In these circumstances, the restraints of discipline extended little beyond the general orders. In general, however, the soldiers were willing to fight, and had shown themselves capable both of forming and defending intrenchments. Washington made it a rule never to spare the spade ; many were well skilled in the desultory use of the rifle, yet ill fitted for a field campaign with a large body of regular troops. Even of these ineffective soldiers there were, at the begin ning of July, 1776, only seventeen thousand ; and though they were raised in a few weeks to twenty-seven thousand, it was mostly by militia, numbers of whom were soon on the sick-list. Meantime, General Howe was engaged in conveying his army to the scene of action. The abrupt departure from Boston had consi derably deranged his plans, as all the supplies were directed toward that city, and some thus fell into the hands of ^he Americans. In June, however, the armament set sail ; and he himself landed at Sandy Hook. He preferred, however, to land the troops on Staten, an island south of Long Island, much smaller, and separated by a narrow channel. On' the 3d of July, he disembarked there without opposition, being greeted with warm assurances of welcome and sup port from the adjacent territories. On the 12th, he was joined by his brother, Lord Howe, who had been appointed commander of the fleet, and also joint commissioner to treat of pacification ; while the • ships, with the large reinforcements from Britain, began arriving in 340 CAMPAIGN OF 1776. INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA, WHERE THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE WAS SIGNED. successive detachments. As operations were delayed till the whole were assembled, his lordship circulated a proclamation, offering full pardon to all who should return to their duty, and to any port or co lony so acting, peace, protection, and free trade. No concession being mentioned as to the original grounds of dispute, Congress con sidered it so unsatisfactory that they studiously circulated it among the people. Lord Howe also attempted to open communications with Washington ; but as he did not choose to address him in his letter under his title of general, his advances were politely declined. The British designs had been well concealed, and the American commander remained long in anxious doubt whether the inroad was not to be made on the side of Canada. Considering New York, however, as the most probable and dangerous point, he had been diligently strengthening all its approaches. Having determined also BATTLE OF LONG ISLAND. 341 to make a stand for the defence of Long Island, he formed strong lines at Brooklyn, nearly opposite to the city, stationing the flower of his troops along a range of strongly fortified heights in front of the British quarters on Staten Island. Howe, meantime, waited till his whole force was mustered, when he could follow up without inter ruption any success he might obtain. About the middle of August, he had been joined by nearly all the reinforcements from Britain, and also by those from the south under Clinton and Cornwallis, which augmented his force to about thirty thousand men. He still, however, waited a few days on account of the intense heat, which, he dreaded, would injure the health of the troops. At length, on the 22d August, the British army crossed the chan nel, and, covered by the guns of the fleet, landed on Long Island, taking post opposite to the range of heights occupied by the Ameri cans.. Washington, in the immediate view of this grand contest, issued repeated addresses, strenuously encouraging his men, and 2f2 342 CAMPAIGN OF 1776. GENERAL HOWE. seeking to inspire confidence. Howe, on viewing Washing .on's position, considered it too strong to be carried in front, but formed a plan for turning it. Before day, on the 27th, General Grant, with the Hessian troops under De Heister, attacked the American right wing, which, being connected with Brooklyn, was considered the most important, and which the Americans directed all their efforts to reinforce. These officers, in conjunction with the fleet, kept up a brisk and continued fire, tending to confirm this impression, yet avoiding to make any material advance. Meantime, , during the night, a strong detachment of the English army, under Clinton and Cornwallis, made a wide circuit through a pass in the hills round the extreme American left. This had been insufficiently guarded by a mere party of observation, which was surprised and captured ; so that Clinton reached almost unresisted the level plain behind the EFFORTS FOR PACIFICATION. 343 GENERAL SULLIVAN. position of the American army. About half-past eight, he appeared in their rear, while Grant and De Heister began pushing forward with their utmost vigour. No choice was then left but for the whole American atmy to regain the intrenched camp at Brooklyn, in reach ing which they fell into the utmost confusion, and were pursued on both flanks with dreadful slaughter. Lord Stirling attempted to cover the retreat by an attack with a chosen corps upon Lord Corn wallis, but was surrounded and taken prisoner with all his detach ment. The entire loss is stated by Howe at upwards of three thousand, including eleven hundred prisoners, among whom was General Sullivan. That of the British was only three -hundred and sixty-seven killed, wounded, and taken. On the 29th, Washington with great activity conveyed over during the night the whole army, with most of its artillery, in safety to New York. The British commissioners, who showed an anxious desire for pa cification, chose this occasion to send Sullivan, the captured general, to Congress, stating that they could not indeed as yet acknowledge its political character, but inviting some of its members to a confe rence. A deputation was sent, consisting of Adams, Franklin, and Rutledge — strenuous votaries of independence. Lord Howe re- 344 PAMPAIGN OF 1776. THE RETREAT OF THE AMERICAN ARMY PROM LONG ISLAND. ceived them with great politeness; but his offers included merely, as usual, a general amnesty, and a promise to reconsider the ob noxious acts ; while they declared a treaty inadmissible on any basis, except that of the states being acknowledged independent. On these terras there could not be the least approximation between the two parties. General Howe now proceeded with measures for driving the Americans out of New York, which, as usual, he sought to effect rather by circuitous manoeuvre than by direct assault. He prepared expeditions to ascend the opposite branches of the Hudson, which enclose New York Island, and, by landing above the city, .oblige the Americans; either to evacuate or be completely shut up within it. Washington, viewing with alarm these movements, called a council of officers, and recommended the immediate withdrawal of the troops ; but strong objections being expressed, it was determined rather to leave there five thousand men, while the main body occupied a strong post at Kingsbridge, connecting the northern point of the island with the continent. As. the British operations advanced, the perils attending this detached position became evident, so that by general consent the evacuation was determined upon, and the utmost BRITISH ENTER NEW YORK. 345 activity emplbyed in removing the artillery and stores. On the 15th September, Clinton landed at Kipp's Bay, a position strongly forti fied, and defended by eight regiments ; but, dispirited by late disas ters, they fled without attempting resistance, and Washington in vain strove to rally them. It was then necessary with the utmost haste to withdraw the troops, which was effected with the loss of only about three hundred prisoners ; but they left behind them a large quantity of artillery, stores, and camp equipage, the want of which was most sensibly felt. ¦ ¦ The British army now entered on the peaceable occupation- of New York; yet it was. disturbed by a distressing occurrence. On the night of the 20th or morning of the 21st September, a fire broke out, which continued to rage till a third of the city was consumed. Washington now took post on Haarlem Heights, a range which crossed the island, and had been so carefully fortified that Howe did not venture an attack. His plan was to oblige the Americans to relinquish the post by landing on the eastern shore, thus threaten ing their rear and communication with New England. As a pre liminary, three frigates were sent up the main stream of the Hud son ; and notwithstanding the resistance made by Forts Washington and Lee, and by chevaux-de-frise sunk in the channel, they passed without injury. Before pushing into the interior, the British com mander spent about three weeks,-— seemingly a needless waste of time, — in fortifying New York. On the 12th October, having placed the flower of his army in flat-bottomed boats, he proceeded up the eastern channel, and through the pass of Hell-gate, to the point called Frog's Neck. Finding his advance here much obstructed, he re- embarked and landed higher up at Pell's Point, whence he advanced upon New Rochelle. Washington, meantime, had called a council of war, which decided that the position on New York Island was no longer secure ; and the troops accordingly crossed at Kingsbridge, taking up a position extending thence eastward towards White Plains, which was fortified as well as time would admit. Howe, on coming up and reconnoitring, determined to attack first a detached corps of sixteen hundred men, under General McDougaU, who, after a sharp but short conflict, were dislodged ; but the general position was judged so strong as to make it advisable to wait for some rein forcements. These arrived, and the attack was preparing ; when, during the night of the 31st, Washington retired to a range of heights five miles in his rear^ which he had been employed in 346 CAMPAIGN OE 1776. strengthening. To the cautious view of the British commander this post appeared so formidable that he determined to change the seat of war to New Jersey, a less defensible territory, whither his antago nist would be obliged to follow him. As a preliminary, he resolved to attack Fort Washington, a strong post still held by the Americans on New York Island. He de termined to attempt the place by storm ; and, on the 16th November, the British, in four divisions, advanced to the assault. In a few hours they had carried all the outworks, in which the chief strength consisted ; and Magaw, the governor, felt himself obliged to capitulate. The prisoners amounted to two thousand eight hundred and eighteen, rendering the loss nearly as heavy as at the battle on Long Island ; while the royal army had eight hundred killed and wounded. Corn wallis immediately landed with a strong force oa the Jersey shore, when the Americans found it necessary, in great haste, to evacuate Fort Lee, opposite to Fort Washington. The garrison was saved, but the cannon, tents, and stores were left behind. , The American army was now pursued through New Jersey, a level country, which afforded no defensible position, and the time was not allowed to fortify any. After a retreat of three weeks, Washing ton only secured himself by crossing to the opposite side of the Dela ware. The critical period was again approaching, when the terms for which ,the troops had- been enlisted would expire. Exhausted and dispirited, they eagerly availed themselves of the liberty thus afforded. He had, been urging in the strongest terms upon Con gress the ruinous nature of the temporary system hitherto pur sued, warning them that, without a permanent and well-organized army, the cause was lost. Seconded by the disastrous state of affairs, he had been empowered to raise first eighty-eight, and then sixteen more regular battalions ; to give higher bounties and pay ; and to act in other respects for six months as a military dictator. The men, however, were not yet raised, and present circumstances were little calculated to invite them into the service. In crossing the Delaware, he had with him only ..three thousand, independent of a detachment left at White Plains under General Lee. That officer, while re luctantly obeying the order to join the main force, and suspected to be meditating some schemes of his own, was surprised and made prisoner, — an event which threw additional gloom over the Ameri can prospects. The course seemed now open before Howe to cross the Delaware GENERAL LEE TAKEN PRISONER. 349 GENERAL LEE'S HEAD-QUARTERS AT BASKINRIDGE. with the utmost possible expedition, and advance on Philadelphia. Washington entertained no doubt of this being his opponent's inten tion ; and, though its accomplishment " would wound the heart of every virtuous American," declares himself wholly without the means of preventing it. The campaign, .thus far, had been a series of great and almost un interrupted misfortunes. Still, though the American cause seemed reduced to the lowest ebb, Congress remained firm, announcing to their countrymen and to the powers of Europe a determination to adhere immutably to the Declaration of Independence. Wash ington felt the weight of the evils that pressed upon the cause ; yet, with a bold and firm spirit, he watched every opportunity of retrieving it. He had collected about five or six thousand men, and prevailed upon some, whose service had expired, to remain for other six weeks. The English army, covering the Jer seys, was ranged along the Delaware from Trenton to Burlington, on which hne there was reason to believe that no very strict watch would be kept. Washington determined on the bold plan of crossing the Delaware, and attacking the enemy in his own camp. The 20 350 CAMPAIGN OF 1776. lite " ¦'^^^^^^^^^^^^^ fifc m££ kml iriBHl 1119 ¦S^j /growl F , ¦» ISIS &»¦$?' IP WASHINGTON CROSSING THE DELAWAR troops being formed into three detachments, he, with the strongest, amounting to two thousand four hundred, crossed the river on the night of the 25th December, and -from two opposite points attacked Trenton, then occupied by Colonel Rhalle with a strong body of Hessians. - That officer, while hastily mustering his men, received a mortal wound; and the whole corps, surprised and surrounded, speedily surrendered. The two other detachments were arrested by severe cold and tempest, otherwise they might, it was hoped, have been equally successful, and a sweep made of the whole range of po sitions. Washington, however, had good reason to congratulate him self on carrying off nearly one thousand prisoners, with only ten of his own men killed and wounded, — a most unexpected event, which wonderfully revived the sinking spirits of his countrymen. Washington now crossed the Delaware, and, with five thousand men, took post at Trenton ; but Cornwallis, mustering all his force, advanced upon him ; and, on the 2d January, 1777, the two armies were separated only by a creek. Washington saw that, by engaging here a superior army, he ran imminent hazard of being defeated, and driven over the Delaware with great disadvantage .and loss. He formed a bold design : breaking up silently in the night, he moved round the British right, and advanced rapidly upon Brunswick, where their chief magazines were lodged. He might seemingly ss i»i ir nil ^n il * ^ Si BATTLES OF TRENTON AND PRINCETON. 353 have succeeded, had he not encountered at Princeton three regi ments coming up to join the main army. The Americans were at first driven back, and General Mercer killed ; but Washington, by extraordinary exertions, restored the action, separated his opponents, and obliged them to retreat in different directions. He then, how ever, saw advancing against him the van of Cornwallis, who, having received the alarm, hastened to frustrate his scheme ; and as he could not hazard a battle without the certainty of defeat, with the risk of having his retreat cut off, he prudently fell back. In this skirmish, the loss on botli sides was nearly equal ; but the having made an other bold offensive movement without disadvantage, heightened greatly the favourable impression produced by his former enterprise. The English general then repaired to Brunswick, and limited him self to a defensive line -thence to Amboy, merely covering New York. Thus Washington had recovered nearly the whole of the MONUMENT OF GEN. MERCER, AT LAUREL HILL CEMETERY, PHILADELPHIA WASHINGTON^ HB AD-QTJ A BTE BS AT BBANDYWINH. CHAPTER XXX. CAMPAIGN OF 1777, AND CONCLUSION OF THE TREATY WITH FRANCE. |PON the approach of the British towards Phi ladelphia, (December 12, 1776,) Congress had removed its sittings from that place to Balti more. Washington's successes in New Jersey brought -it back to Philadelphia in February, 1777. On the 27th of December, 1776, Con gress conferred upon Washington powers for raising forces and conducting the war, which were nearly dictatorial. Meantime, the British ministry, under the direction of Lord North, maintained their determination to enforce the unconditional submis sion of the colonies, while the opposition party in parliament were earnestly endeavouring to procure the adoption of conciliatory mea sures. With the majority of the British nation the war was popular ; and no difficulty was found in obtaining from parliament the requisite supplies of men and money for carrying on the new campaign with vigour. 351 SUPPLIES FROM FRANCE. 355 Before the opening of the campaign, Washington's whole force had been reduced to fifteen hundred men. Early in the year, how ever, fifteen hundred of the new troops would have been upon their march from Massachusetts ; but the general court could not supply them with arms. This perplexity was of but a short continuance. A vessel arrived at Portsmouth, from France, with 11,987 stand of arms, 1000 barrels of powder, 11,000 gun-flints, and other munitions of war. Congress had been under a similar embarrassment with the Massachusetts general court, as to the procuring of supplies 'for Washington's army ; but they obtained similar relief by the arrival of 10,000 stand of arms in another part of the United States. Before the royal army took the field for the ensuing campaign, two enterprises were resolved upon for the destruction of the Ameri can stores, deposited at PeekskiJI, on the North River, and at Dan- bur^, in Connecticut. For this purpose, a detachment of five hundred men, under Colonel Bird, was convoyed up th.e Hudson to Peekskill, by the Brune frigate. General McDougaU, who commanded the post, having a weak garrison, fired the principal store-houses, and re treated to a pass through the highlands, three miles distant. Bird de stroyed the greater part of the stores, and re-embarked on the same day. In April, Governor Tryon, with. a detachment of two thousand men, passed through the Sound, under a naval convoy; and landing between Fairfield and Norwalk, advanced to Danbury, on the after noon of the 26th, the American troops having retired with a part of the stores and provisions. The enemy, on their arrival, began burn ing and destroying the remainder, together with eighteen houses and their contents. On the approach of the British armament, the country was alarmed : and, early the next morning, General Sullivan, with about five hun dred men, pursued the enemy, who had twenty-three miles to march. He was joined by Generals Arnold and Wooster, with about two hundred militia ; and when the royal troops quitted Danbury on the 27th, the Americans marched after them. General Wooster was mortally wounded ; and the Americans lost about twenty killed and forty wounded. Governor Tryon lost about four hundred men in killed, wounded, and prisoners. On the 13th of April, General Cornwallis surprised the post at Roundbrook, and General Lincoln, who commanded the American force there, narrowly escaped capture, with the loss of sixty killed, 856 CAMPAIGN OF 1777. GENERAL WOOSTER. wounded, and prisoners. The British destroyed the stores and evacuated the place. This was retaliated by a similar inroad on Sagg* Harbour, made by Colonel Meigs, who destroyed a large amount of shipping, and captured ninety prisoners, without the loss of a man. On the 10th of July, Colonel Barton surprised and cap tured General Prescott, at his quarters in Rhode Island, which was then held by the British. Prescott was soon after exchanged for General Charles Lee. While these desultory operations were going on, Washington was actively raising and organizing troops. Levies, however, went on very slowly, through the discouraging state of the cause and the rigour of the season ; so that, at the opening of the campaign, he had not mustered quite eight thousand men. These, however, were in an improved state of discipline, bearing somewhat the aspect and character of a regular army ; and during the winter months, he had strongly intrenched them in a position covering the route to Phila delphia. Howe considered it inexpedient to open the campaign till the middle of June. He then assumed a position in front of the American army, which he maintained six days ; but, after having carefully reconnoitred their camp, considered it too strong for attack, BATTLE OF BRANDYWINE. 357 and fell back to his original station. His next manoeuvre was to commence an apparently precipitate retreat, by which Washington was so far deceived, that he engaged in a hasty pursuit, when the royal troops, as soon as the enemy were close upon them, wheeled round and made a brisk attack. Lord Cornwallis pursued a detach ment under Lord Stirling to a considerable distance ; but the Ameri can general, on .seeing his error, exerted such activity in withdrawing his detachments, that they regained their intrenched position without very serious loss. The British commander, having thus failed in his attempts to bring the Americans to action, conceived it impossible, in their face, to attempt the passage of so broad a river as the Delaware. There appeared no alternative but to embark his army, and, by a great cir cuit, land them at the head of the Chesapeake. The British force embarked on the 5th July, and did not reach its destination till the 24th August, when it was landed without opposition. Washington had been carefully watching its movements, and re cruiting his own force, which he had raised to fourteen thousand — not the most numerous, but the most efficient of any he had hitherto commanded. He determined, therefore, to risk a battle in defence of Philadelphia, though conscious that its issue must be very doubt ful ; but otherwise the expectations of the country would be disap pointed, and. a discouragement ensue worse than defeat. The only considerable river on the route was the Brandywine, along whose high banks he drew up his army, erecting batteries and intrench^ ments for the defence of the principal fords. Howe's advance to this point was obstructed only by skirmishes with his advanced guard; yet he did not reach it till the 11th September. Deter mining then upon an attack, he made his arrangements with skill and judgment. Knyphausen, with the Hessians, attacked the Ameri can front, driving them across the river, with apparently vigorous attempts to follow, yet avoiding any actual advance. Meantime, a strong division under Cornwallis, accompanied by Howe himself, made a circuit of seventeen miles to pass by the upper fords. Wash ington had received some intimation of this movement, but, distracted by opposite reports, did not sufficiently provide against it. Corn wallis reached the right of the American army before it had time to form, and, by a vigorous attack, he completely broke and drove them before him. Knyphausen, as soon as he heard this firing, pushed forward with his whole force, when the American centre, already 358 CAMPAIGN OF 1777. 3 ATTLE OF JRANDTWINE. alarmed by the disaster of its right, gave way at every point. Aftt, some vain attempts by Greene to cover the retreat, the whole army retreated, losing nine hundred killed and wounded, and four hundred prisoners. The American general soon re-assembled his defeated army, and though slowly retreating, did not give up all hopes of saving Phila delphia. He was even about again to engage the enemy, when a violent storm, continued during a whole day and night, prevented the conflict and rendered his ammunition useless. Still it was only by skilful manoeuvres that his opponent succeeded in entering the capital, and obliging him to retreat 'beyond it. Congress, who had returned thither, removed first to Lancaster and then to Yorktown. Thus established in Philadelphia, Howe pushed forward the main body of his force to Germantown. A large part, however, was employed in reducing-a chain of forts and batteries, which the Ameri cans had erected on the Lower Delaware, interrupting the direct communication with the sea, where Admiral Lord Howe, after land ing the troops at the head of the Chesapeake, had brought round the fleet. Washington, having received some reinforcements, determined to take advantage of this divided state of the army by a sudden attack on the portion stationed at Germantown. At seven o'clock in the evening of the 3d October, his troops advanced in four divisions, and, having marched fourteen miles, at daybreak took the British completely by surprise. For some time he carried all before him ; but he was arrested by a large stone building, the residence of Mr. Chew, obstinately defended by six companies, by which he was BATTLE OF GERMANTOWN. 359 JATTLE OF GERMANTOWN. delayed, having stopped to reduce it. On the opposing force being fully drawn forth, he was obliged to retire with the loss of upwards of a thousand in killed, wounded, and prisoners. Notwithstanding this unfortunate issue, a favourable impression of his resources was conveyed by his resuming the offensive so soon after the defeat at Brandywine. The British troops were now employed in reducing the defences of the Delaware. In attacking the fort of Red Bank, a detachment under Count Donop, a gallant German officer, was repulsed with the loss of about four hundred men, and the commander mortally wounded. It was afterwards relinquished on the approach of a superior force ; but November had nearly closed before the passage for the fleet was completely cleared. Howe then, on the 4th December, marched out with the view of again bringing the American general to battle. The latter, having received four thousand additional troops from the north, had taken up a position at Whitemarsh, about fourteen miles from Philadelphia, which he considered so strong that his letters express a desire of being there attacked ; but the English general, upon a careful survey, declined the engagement, and, after some days' skirmishing, fell back upon the capital. The attention of Washington was then anxiously directed to the choice of winter 360 CAMPAIGN OF 1777. BATTLE OE RED BANE. quarters. After much hesitation, he fixed upon Valley Forge, on the Schuylkill, a very wild and bare spot, but well fitted for straitening the English position, and overawing the inhabitants, many of whom were disaffected. The troops laboured under a scarcity of pro visions, and still more of clothes and shoes ; so that their marches were marked by tracks of blood from their wounded feet. The country people were indisposed to supply goods, and set very little value on the paper certificates offered in return ; but Washington on one occasion only would agree to a compulsory requisition. The en campment consisted of rude, log-huts, erected by the soldiers, in one of which twelve were lodged. Their sufferings during the winter were most intense, and their endurance is highly creditable to their . own fortitude, and the persuasive influence of their distinguished commander. Howe had now made two successful campaigns ; yet his reports to the home authorities, as to the prospects of conquering America, were by no means flattering. He occupied indeed New York and Philadelphia, with a certain territory round them ; but the American army was still unbroken, and the determination of Congress as firm as ever. MARCH OF GENERAL BURGOYNE. 361 rASHINQTON's H E AD - C O A R T E H S AT VALLEY T O R G JC. We have already noticed that the American expedition against Canada had been signally disastrous. After being severely repulsed at Quebec, they had, in ,the course of December, 1776, been com pelled entirely to evacuate the province. The plan was then formed to send from that country a strong British force, which, penetrating across the back settlements of New York, might form a junction with Howe, and second his operations. The scheme, which was owned by Lord Germaine, had a plausible appearance ; yet it must be admitted that armies have rarely succeeded in finding their way to each other from opposite and distant quarters, with great and un known obstacles intervening. The command was bestowed on Gene ral Burgoyne ; but his superseding Carleton, who had highly dis tinguished himself in the defence of Canada, was by no means popular. About the middle of June, 1777, Burgoyne began his march, with six thousand seven hundred British and Germans, to which he added two hundred and fifty Canadians and four hundred Indians. His first movement was against Crown Point and Ticonderoga, considered the barriers of the Union on that frontier. These forts, which the Ameri cans so fortunately acquired at the beginning of the contest, had been enlarged and strengthened, and were now garrisoned by above three thousand men. When, however, on the 5th July, the works were nearly invested, General St. Clair called a council of officers, who decided that the force, being mostly militia, was insufficient for their defence. A retreat was therefore effected during the night, the an 46 S62 CAMPAIGN OF 1777. baggage and stores being embarked upon Lake George. As soon as morning betrayed this movement, a vigorous pursuit was commenced, several detachments were cut off, and the flotilla on the lake de stroyed ; while the American forces, greatly reduced in numbers, retreated to Fort Edward, on the Hudson. HIS triumphant opening filled the British with ex- i ultation ; but they soon encountered great and un- ! foreseen obstacles. The country, wholly intersected | with creeks and marshes, required a constant alterna- I tion of land and water conveyance, which the Ameri cans rendered more difficult by felling laTge trees and laying them across the paths. It was necessary to construct forty bridges, one of them two miles in extent, while the batteaux had to be dragged from creek to creek by ten or twelve oxen. The interval between 30th July and 15th August was thus spent "in an advance of only eighteen miles. The inhabitants were animated with a strong spirit of independence, and eminently fitted for desultory war fare. The " Green mountain boys," who roamed and hunted over that lofty branch of the Alleghany, poured down in large bodies, and with rifles all but unerring, proved as formidable in this wild region as the best trained regulars. The Indians did not yield services equal to the odium which their employment excited. This, how ever, was lost sight of; and though Burgoyne used the utmost efforts to tame their savage spirit, it often broke- out with violence. Two of them were employed to escort Miss Macrea, a young lady of great personal beauty, to the camp, where she was to be married to an officer. On the way they quarrelled about the expected re ward ; when one of them, roused to fury, and resolved at all events to disappoint his rival, struck her dead with his tomahawk. This tragical event excited a strong sensation throughout the region, wholly to the disadvantage of the British cause. Burgoyne being now hard pressed for provisions and means of transport, and learning that there was a large supply at Bennington in Vermont, sent thither Colonel Baum, with six hundred Germans. The independents, however, mustered in unexpected numbers, and were reinforced by General Stark, who was leading a corps from New Hampshire to aid the northern army. Baum was mortally wounded, and his party totally dispersed. As he had given notice of the threatened resistance, Colonel Breyman, with five hundred men, was sent to his aid, but did not arrive till all was over. He BATTLE OF BENNINGTON. 363 MURDER OF MISS MACREA was himself briskly attacked ; and, though at first he maintained his ground, was at length obliged to retreat with the loss of two cannon. Burgoyne heard also of the fate of an expedition of one thousand men under Colonel St. Leger, destined to cross Lake Ontario, capture Fort Stanwix, and, ascending the Mohawk, re inforce the principal corps. Here again the error of divided move ments and proposed meeting from distant quarters had been repeated. That officer found the place more strongly defended than he ex pected ; the Indians, who composed nearly half his force, were seized with a panic ; and he was obliged to fail back, abandoning even his stores. Burgoyne now felt the difficulties of his situation daily thickening around him. General Schuyler, after successfully commencing the campaign, had been superseded, and General Gates had been sent to take the command of the Americans, bringing a body of regulars, who, with the numerous volunteers and militia, now formed an army 564 CAMPAIGN OF 1777. •'¦'^.(.'.'ty - M^M^mt Siil§ Hill i 4I91SR ¦:-:- --- r,--^:7 ^7a^^t^3^^#^^ » 1ATTLE OE BENNINGTON of thirteen thousand men, with habits eminently fitted for this desul tory warfare. Considerations purely military would have dictated a return into Canada, while yet possible ; but the English general had to consider the dishonour of the British arms by a retreat before this undisciplined foe ; the strict injunctions laid upon him to advance on Albany, where he was taught to expect that Howe would be waiting for his junction, while otherwise Gates might wheel round, and augment the force acting against that commander. He had therefore strong motives for his determination to advance at whatever cost. It was necessary, however, to give up his communication with Ticonderoga and the lakes, having no force adequate to maintain the necessary chain of posts. , Resolving to push forward and cut his way through the American troops to Albany, he led his army briskly, in several columns, along the roads leading thither, disposing them so as to cover his artillery and baggage. Gates determined upon re- BATTLE OF STILLWATER. 365 GENERAL SCHUYLER. sisting this movement by a general attack. He commenced it at Stillwater, about noon of the 19th September, and maintained the contest very obstinately till dusk, when the Americans retired within their lines. The energy with which they had maintained their ground, and the loss of six hundred men sustained by the already reduced British force, gave this affair the character of a triumph ; while it heightened the gloom which surrounded Burgoyne, who now determined to pause, and fortify himself in his present position. On the 3d October, fifteen hundred men, sent out to forage and recon noitre, rashly advanced to Bemis's Heights;- within half a mile of the American intrenchments, when the daring Arnold instantly sallied out, attacked, and drove them back to their camp. The whole Ame rican army then followed and commenced a most furious assault on the lines. From the British quarter they were repulsed ; but the German intrenchments were carried, two hundred prisoners taken, and Breyman with several leading officers killed or wounded. After this disaster Burgoyne was compelled to fall back upon Saratoga. Burgoyne had been impelled forward by the belief that Howe with 2b2 366 CAMPAIGN OF ARNOLD AT BEMIS S HEIGHTS. his whole army was waiting for him on the Hudson, and probably at Albany ; and having been kept ignorant of that commander's total change of destination, while his attempts at communication were in terrupted by the Americans, he remained still in the dark on this subject. A letter from him, however, reached New York, where Clinton had been left with a force barely sufficient to maintain that , position, and without any instructions to co-operate with Burgoyne; so that the intelligence from that general, though so fully to be ex pected, seems to have fallen upon him like a thunderbolt. Being an energetic and active officer, he assembled three thousand men, and began a brisk movement up the Hudson. /Meantime, the forts of Clinton and Montgomery, which, on opposite banks, defended the navigation, were carried, sixty-seven cannon taken, two frigates and two galleys burned, by detachments sent up the river by General Clinton. Tryon destroyed barracks fitted to accommodate fifteen hundred men ; and Vaughan incurred well-merited reproach by reducing to ashes, the town of Esopus. Though General Gates SURRENDER OF GENERAL BURGOYNE. 367 JURGOYNE's RETREAT UP THE HUDSON, observed these movements, he wisely forbore to weaken his army by detachments against this corps, which failed in every attempt even to open a communication with the northern army. Burgoyne now felt that his affairs had reached a fatal crisis. The Americans held and strongly guarded ali the posts in the rear, and had destroyed the flotilla on Lake George ; while in front they had an army superior to his own in number, and in such warfare not much less efficient. . A movement in either direction must therefore be followed by a series of incessant and harassing attacks, destroying his army in detail. A council of war was called, and the conclusion formed, that no option was left but the deeply mortifying one of opening a negotiation for surrender. General Gates's first demand was, that the whole force should ground their arms and be come prisoners of war ; but Burgoyne, with all his officers, agreed in the determination to braVe every extremity "rather than submit to such terms. Gates, feeling the importance of time, agreed, after some discussion, to grant the honours of war, and a free passage to Britain, on condition of their not serving again in North America 368 CAMPAIGN OF 1777. IBSk' 'SsSsssk, . offish: - ';7'^ >i^ffil^^^^^# -— ^:-=- =----" " slips Kill 1 W/Mka-sw ^f SURRENDER OF BHRGOYNB during the present contest. These conditions, so far as related to him, were honourably, and even courteously, fulfilled ; but Congress sought a pretext for evading the contract to convey the troops to Bri tain. The general warned them, that none could be found in their own observance of the convention, which had been strictly honour able. Burgoyne, however, when complaining of the treatment which his men experienced at Boston, used the rash -expression, that he considered the convention as thereby violated ; whence they inferred, that on returning home, he would represent his government as ab solved from the engagement against their serving in America. They demanded lists of the men's names, which was perfectly rea sonable, but was considered by Burgoyne as an impeachment on British honour. In short, they determined not to fulfil the con DEBATES IN PARLIAMENT. 369 GENERAL BURGOYNE. vention, — a course which Washington is said to have decidedly dis approved. News of Burgoyne's defeat arrived in England, November, 1777. while parliament were sitting ; and the effect may be easily conceived. The opposition, justifying the conduct of the commanders, threw the whole blame upon ministers. Chatham declared the expedition a most wild, uncombined, mad project ; and Fox said that ten thousand men had been destroyed by the wilful ignorance and incapacity of Lord Germaine. Ministers, on the other hand, contended that every thing depending upon them had been done ; large armies had been sent, and most amply supplied ; and, before being condemned, they were entitled at least to a full inquiry. Lord North protested, as on former occasions, his willingness to lay down office if he could thereby hope to restore peace ; but seeing no prospect of this, he considered himself bound to remain at the helm. Lord Chatham had moved for a cessation of hostilities, which was negatived ; but committees were named in each house for an inquiry into the state of the nation, the result of which was to be taken into consideration in the beginning of February, 1778. Ministers proposed and carried, though with considerable opposition, an adjournment till the 20th January. The warlike spirit of the nation had been gradually subsiding in conse a 370 CAMPAIGN OF 1777. LORD NORTH, quence of the lengthened contest, and the little prospect of any decs sive success ; so that the first accounts of Burgoyne's catastrophe pro duced deep despondence, and a general call for peace. In the course of the recess, however, a very decided reaction took place, excited mainly, we imagine, by the prevailing belief, that France, was about to join America ; for David Hartley warned his friend Dr. Franklin, that the English would " fight for a straw with their last shilling and their last man," rather than be dictated to by that power. Manchester, Liverpool, Edinburgh, and Glasgow, came forward to supply regiments ; six battalions were raised in the Scottish High lands ; eleven companies in Wales. The voluntary levies thus effected before the meeting of parliament, amounted to fifteen thou sand men. The opposition exclaimed against this raising of troops without consent or knowledge of parliament ; but ministers had little dread of this charge, and boasted of the result as decisively expressing the national opinion in their favour. Mr. Fox and the Duke of Richmond made motions that no troops should be sent out of the kingdom, which were negatived, but not by the usual large majori ties ; the former only by 259 to 165; the last by 91 to 34. DEBATES IN PARLIAMENT. 371 Soon after the meeting of parliament, however, Lord North brought forward a most extensive scheme of conciliation, embracing indeed every demand which had originally been made by the colonists. The right of taxation without their own consent was to be renounced ; the violated 'constitutions were to be restored ; every act since 1763 was to be abrogated, excepting such as were manifestly beneficial to the colonies. HIS proposal met with no serious opposition, -though among the supporters of the war there were considerable murmurs at the re nunciation of all its objects ; while among its opponents a serious schism was soon perceptible. A part, including Governor Pownall, maintained that every attempt to bring America again under sub jection was now chimerical ; they were and must be an independent sovereign people ; the true policy was to treat with them as such, and endeavour to form a close federal and commercial alliance, which might snatch them out of the arms of France. Mr. Hartley, General Conway, and the Duke of Richmond, leaned to the same opinion. But Chatham listened with the deepest indignation to the mention of severing from Britain that mighty em pire which he had been the instrument of so widely extending. On the 7th April, he appeared in the House of Lords. "I rejoice," said he, "that the grave has not closed on me ; that I am still alive to lift up my voice against the dismemberment of this, ancient and most noble monarchy. Shall this great kingdom, that has survived the Danish depredations, the Scottish inroads, and the Norman conquest ; that has stood the threatened invasion of the Spanish Armada, now fall prostrate before the house of Bourbon ?" If peace could not be pre served with honour, why was not war commenced without hesita tion ? He did not know what were the means of carrying it on ; but any state was better than despair. " Let us at least make one effort ; and if we must fall, let us fall like men." In the course of this de bate, this great statesman was seized with a paroxysm of illness, which, in a few weeks, terminated his life and his splendid political career.% Lord Shelburne also declared, that the moment Britain acknowledged the independence of America, her' sun was set. There is little doubt, that the opposite course would even before this ha-3 372 CAMPAIGN OF 1777. SILAS DEANE. been the wisest ; yet it was one for which the British nation in general was by no means prepared. We must now look to the continent of Europe, where measures of the deepest importance had been secretly in agitation. Congress for some time declared that they had abstained from any attempt to seek support by foreign alliances, when they might have done so with every prospect of success. France and Spain, it was well known, deeply humbled by the result of the war ended in 1763, and the extensive territories then wrested from them, were anxiously watching an opportunity to retrieve and avenge these losses. The latter power, indeed, might dread lest the same spirit should spread to her own settlements ; but France upon this head had much less to fear. In the spring of 1776, all the leading men in the colonies, having fixed their minds upon independence, became disposed to avail themselves of the advantages of foreign treaties. Franklin in deed states, as his first opinion, that America, "as a virgin state, should not go about suitoring alliances," but rather wait till she was courted ; but he was overruled, and ultimately became the most active agent. On the 29th November, 1775, a committee had been ap pointed to open a correspondence with the friends of America in FRENCH AID. 373 Europe. The first person employed was Silas Deane,.a member of Congress, who was instructed to visit Europe in the character of a merchant, and endeavour to open private channels, by which the cabinets might aid America without openly committing themselves. He arrived about the 1st July; 1776, and found the French court well disposed to favour his views. Turgot, a minister friendly to peace, had been replaced by Vergennes, who eagerly aspired to re gain for France the ground lost in the late contest. A great dread, however, being felt lest the power and perseverance of America should fail, and France be left alone to maintain an unequal contest, the minister intimated, that' aid' could, not he openly given, but that no obstruction would be opposed to the shipment of warlike stores and supplies ; if any occurred, it need only be stated, to be speedily re moved. In fact, Mr. Deane was informed that arrangements had already been made for transmitting by a circuitous route a liberal supply. Beaumarchais,- a Frenchman, had gone to London, and sought out Arthur Lee, the secret agent of Congress, whom he in formed that the court of France had resolved to assist the colonies with military stores to the value of J200,000. They were not, however, to come direct from that high source, but from himself, under the fictitious firm of Roderique, Hortales, and Company, to be ostensibly established at Port St. Francois in St. Domingo, whence the great bulk of the articles were to be furnished. Mr. Lee fully understood them to be delivered out of the French magazines, and that only a slight and formal return was expected. By this under hand channel, twenty-five thousand muskets and other supplies were in the beginning of 1777 received in America, and were of the ut most use to Washington in the equipment of the new army which he ' was then levying. In the end of that year, however, Congress were much surprised by the demand, from an agent of Beaumarchais, of payment for all the stores thus furnished. Several letters explaining the transaction had been intercepted ; and the mystery in which the whole was involved rendered it impossible for them to give an abso lute refusal. Their commissioners, however, were instructed to seek in the most delicate manner an explanation from the French minis ters, intimating their belief that they had been indebted to his majesty alone for these valuable supplies. That court, however, on being repeatedly pressed by the British ambassador upon this subject, had. not scrupled to deny having afforded any aid whatever to the colo nies ; so that a breach of its honour, that is, an exposure of its deceit 21 374 CAMPAIGN OF 1777. *7V IOMAS PAINE was apprehended, in now making the statement. The minister therefore replied, that Beaumarchais had merely received these stores from his majesty's arsenals as a personal accommodation, and on con dition of replacing thdm ; gravely adding, that he knew nothing of such a house as Roderique, Hortales, and Company. Some time after, a controversy having arisen with Mr. Deane, Thomas Paine, then secretary of the committee for foreign affairs, published a pamph let, broadly stating that the stores had been supplied by the French government as a gift, and with an express intimation that no pay ment was expected; Hereupon Gerard, the French ambassador, presented two memorials to Congress, calling "upon them for an ex plicit disavowal of these assertions. That body, according to Mr. Pitkin, could not possibly, at this time quarrel with France on any ground, and therefore put forth the declaration demanded, though having, he admits, the strongest ground for believing it untrue. Paine, for his indiscretion, was obliged to resign his office ; and it became impossible to escape from the engagement to pay in the course of three years the demands of Beaumarchais. Congress still hoped that the French ministry would in some way interpose to avert this burdensome obligation ; but they were disappointed ; and through this chain of circumstances they were under the hard necessity of paying a profligate adventurer for supplies which had in fact been freely furnished to them out of the French magazines. He even in tercepted one of three millions of livres covertly presented to them by their ally ; but before the final settlement they learned this fraud, and deducted it from the payment. FRENCH AID. 375 As soon as the Declaration of Independence had been fully matured, Congress applied itself openly and with increased vigour to the object of foreign alliances. On the 11th June, a committee was appointed to prepare a plan, which was not however matured and approved till the 17th September, when Dr. Franklin, Mr. Deane, and Mr. Lee, were appointed commissioners to proceed to France. The former, from his weight of character, sound judgmerit, and address, had almost the entire direction. On reaching Paris, however, in Decem ber, 1776, he found the cabinet by no means prepared openy to espouse the cause of tlie States, or even to acknowledge their inde pendence. Friefidly professions were made, and a continuance of private succours promised ; but there was an evident - determination against proceeding farther till it should appear whether they could resist the shock of the British armies, the pressure of which was then so severe. The disasters of the- campaign increased the anxiety of Congress upon the subject., They sent commissioners to the courts of Vienna, Spain, Prussia, and Tuscany; and in order to induce France to declare openly in their favour, offered large privileges for com merce and fishery, and even the possession of such West India islands as might be captured during the war. But the same dis tresses which impelled to these overtures, made the court cautious of accepting them, and it continued to watch the train of events. The campaign of 1777, notwithstanding its misfortunes, was considered to afford prospects of making a permanent stand ; but the French coun sels evidently vacillated with every intelligence and even report which arrived from America. No change took place till the arrival, early in December, of the momentous tidings of Burgoyne's surren der, which at once gave a decisive turn to the views of the cabinet. On the 16th, M. Gerard intimated to the commissioners that, after long deliberation, the king had determined to acknowledge the inde pendence of the United States, and also to afford them support, though thereby involving himself in an expensive war. It was frankly admitted that he thus acted, not- merely from a friendly dis position towards them, but for the promotion of his own political in terests. On the 8th January, 1778, Louis wrote a letter to his uncle, the king of Spain, referring to Britain as their common and invete rate enemy. During the pending contest, he had afforded to the colonies supplies of money and stores, at which England had taken deep umbrage, and would no doubt seize the first opportunity of avenging herself. The Americans had indeed shown that they were CONCLUSION OP THE TREATY "WITH FRANCE. not to be subdued, but Britaitf'might succeed in her present attempts to form a close and friendly alliance with them, and thus turn her arms undivided against her continental enemies ; now, therefore, was the time to form such a connection as might prevent any reunion between them and the mother-country. In pursuance of these views, there was concluded, on the 6th February, a treaty pf commerce, accompanied by one of defensive alliance in the well-foreseen case of war being the result. The allies were to make common cause with the States, and to maintain their absolute independence. Whatever conquests should be made on the continent were to be secured to them, but those in the West Indies to the crown of France. COM MO DO BE J-OHK PAUL JONES. CHAPTER XXXI. CAMPAIGN OF 1778. HE treaty between France and America, though soon generally known, was for some time stu diously concealed from the British minister. On the 13th March, however, the French am bassador at London' delivered a note referring to the United States as already in full possession 6f independence, whence his majesty had con cluded with them a treaty of friendship and commerce, and would take effectual measures to prevent its inter ruption. Professions were made of the king's anxiety to cultivate a good understanding with Britain, and his sincere disposition for peace, of which it was ironically said that new proofs would be found in this- 48 2i2 877 378 CAMPAIGN OF 1778. communication. On the 17th, this document was laid before parlia ment, with a message from the crown, stating that the British ambas sador had in consequence been ordered to withdraw from Paris, and expressing trust in the zealous and affectionate support of the people for repelling this unprovoked aggression combined with insult. An address echoing the message was moved in both houses ; but the opposition reproached ministers with not having duly foreseen or prepared for this emergency ; while a few repelled as now hopeless the idea of holding America under any kind of dependence. It was carried, however, by majorities, in the Commons, of 263 to 113 ; in the Lords, of 68 to 25. 'The message for calling out the militia was sanctioned without a division. In Pennsylvania,^ meantime, the two armies continued viewing each other without any material warlike movement. The distress suffered by Washington at Valley Forge was extreme, Congress taking no efficient measures tp supply the troops with clothes or even provisions. That body indeed showed a decided jealousy of the army, and by ill-treatment did its utmost to render their suspicions well founded. 'The officers had to complain, not only of irregularity in receiving their pay, but of obtaining no promise of half-pay at the end of the war ; this last, however, through the remonstrances of Washington, was at length secured. That great man was farther harassed by a combination formed against himself and shared by Gates, whose friends contrasted his brilliant success against Bur goyne with the tardy and in many cases unsuccessful movements of the commander-in-chief. Their representations made for some time a considerable impression upon Congress and even the public ; but as the commander took no notice of this movement, and pursued the even and dignified tenor of his way, the cloud dispelled of itself. Although his force in spring was reduced very low, Howe did not venture to attack, but, according to the representations formerly made, considered himself strong enough'only for partial and detached ex peditions, several of which were undertaken with success. Not being, however, supplied with reinforcements sufficient for any im portant enterprise, he felt his- situation painful, and solicited his recall. The British ministers, who probably hoped that a more en terprising commander might achieve some decisive successes, granted it, and named Clinton his successor. His officers, however, mani fested their opinion of his merits by a brilliant fete on the occasion of his departure. OFFERS OF CONCILIATION. 379 GENERAL GATES. N June, the British commis sioners arrived with the new offers of conciliation. They consisted of Governor John stone, Lord Carlisle, and Mr. m Eden, gentlemen who had hitherto advo- -"*5§fe- -^SlziPSfc lEm.vr LA EAYETTE TAKING THE REDOUBT AT YOREITOWN. This occurred on the 14th. Two days after, Lieutenant-colonel Abercrombie made a sortie from the garrison with indifferent success ; while during the same afternoon, the two captured redoubts were in cluded in the second parallel, and one hundred pieces of heavy ord nance were brought to bear upon the enemy's lines. As the works of Cornwallis were now almost in ruins, he resolved on making his escape to New York by land, and had actually landed a portion of his army on Gloucester Point, when a heavy storm dispersed his boats, and the design was necessarily abandoned. Next day, several new batteries being opened, the works were no longer tenable ; and his lordship requested of Washington a cessation of hostilities for twenty-four hours. The American commander granted him two hours, presenting at the same time a rough draft of propositions, on which he was willing to base articles of capitulation. Commission ers were appointed to digest these into form ; and on the 19th Wash ington despatched the corrected copy to his lordship, expressing the expectation that they would be signed by ten, and the garrison be ready to march out by 2 p. m. of the same day. It being impossible to obtain better terms; Cornwallis was reduced to the mortifying ne cessity. The capitulation was signed at Moore's house, and at the ap pointed hour the garrison marched out, with their colours cased, and surrendered to General Lincoln on the same terms which, under similar circumstances, had been granted to that officer by Cornwallis at Charleston. Yorktown and Gloucester, with their garrisons and stores, were given up to the United States ; the shipping and seamen SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS. 433 MOORE S HOUSE, YORKTOWN. to the Count de Grasse. Exclusive of seamen, the garrison numbered over, seven thousand. During the siege they had, in killed and wounded, five hundred and fifty-two. The allied forces lost about three hundred. On the 24th, Sir Henry Clinton arrived off the Capes of Virginia with twenty-five ships of the line* and eight frigates, bearing seven thousand men ; but finding that Cornwallis had already surrendered, he returned to New York. The capture of Cornwallis, with the army which had so long spread terror through the southern provinces, filled the whole country with gratitude and exultation. Congress voted its thanks to each of the commanders, and to the officers and troops engaged, and resolved to erect a marble column at Yorktovvn, adorned with emblems of the alliance between France and the United States, with a suitable in scription in commemoration of the victory. Washington was anxious to improve his success, by a combined attack upon the enemy at Charleston ; but the French admiral refused to remain longer on the coast, alleging as reason, his engagements with the Spaniards in the West Indies. Accordingly, after covering the transportation, of Washington's troops to the head of Elk river, he sailed towards' Cuba, and the American army returned by detachments to the north. Meanwhile, some important actions had taken place between the few ships possessed by Congress and single vessels belonging to Great Britain. In June, 1780, the Trumbull, of twenty-eight guns, 65 20 434 CAMPAIGN OF 1781. 12> m m BATTLE-GROUND OP YORKTOWN. Captain Nicholson, encountered an English vessel of superior size, and fought with her two hours and a half. The mainmast of the enemy fell, while all except the foremast of the Trumbull went by the board. Nicholson lost thirty in killed and wounded ; the British captain, Coulthard, ninety-two ; yet he claimed the victory. In October, the sibop Saratoga, of sixteen guns, Captain Young, captured a ship and two brigs, but was subsequently deprived of them by the British vessel Intrepid, of seventy-four guns. On the 2d of April, 1781, Cap tain Barry, in the Alliance, cap tured two Guernsey privateers ; and soon after, two English men- of-war.. One of them was sub sequently recaptured. In June, the British took the Confedera cy, of thirty-two guns, under Captain Harding ; and in August, the Trumbull. CAPTAIN BARRY. HENRY LAURBNi CHAPTER XXXV. CLOSE OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. OTHING could exceed the astonishment and indignation with which the news of Cornwallis's* surrender was received in England. Parlia ment assembled on the 27th of November, when the king recounted, with evident mortification, his losses in Virginia, but at the same time urged the vigorous prosecution of the war. In the debate on this address, the opposition, led by Fox, Burke, and Pitt, were vehement in their denunciation of ministers and condemnation of all further proceedings against Ame rica. The, usual vote of thanks was, however, carried by a large majority. Lord North then declared • the purpose of the ministry to carry on a "war of posts," instead of operating by incursions into the interior. The opposition, however, strenuously opposed all such measures, boldly charging ministers with the prosecution of scheme? whose palpable tendency was the dissolution of the monarchy. A« 435 436 CLOSE OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. COLONEL LAURENS. each successive trial his lordship found himself losing .ground ; un til at last, on the vote of an address to the king, presented by Gene ral Conway, praying for the discontinuance of the war, he was left in a minority of nineteen. Lord North then resigned, and a new cabinet was formed, under the auspices of the Marquis of Rocking ham. That nobleman's death put an end to this administration j and on the 11th of July, 1782, the king prorogued parliament. Popular opinion in both countries was now strongly in favour of peace, and at length the British monarch consented to the opening of negotiations. Mr. Fitzherbert and Mr. Oswald were appointed commissioners for England ; and on the 30th of November, they met Messrs. Franklin, Adams, Jay, and Laurens, and agreed upon arrangements preliminary to a treaty between all the belligerent powers. On the 20th of January, 1783, France, Spain, Great Bri tain, and America, concluded the treaty of peace which secured the independence of the United States. Previous to this, [October 8, 1782,] Mr. John Adams had signed a treaty of amity and commerce with the United Provinces of Holland. The campaign of 1782 was marked by but few military events. Wayne, with the Pennsylvania troops, had been sent into Georgia, where, about midnight of May 21, he attacked'Colonel Brown, com- THE LAST BLOODSHED. 437 COMMODORE BARNEY. mandant of Savannah, who had left that town in force, hoping to' surprise Wayne. The British were totally defeated, with the loss of forty killed or wounded, and twenty prisoners. The victors had five killed, and two wounded. On the night of June 24, Wayne ' sustained a furious attack from a party of Creek Indians, whom he defeated, with the loss of one of their bravest chiefs. The royalists came out from Savannah to join the Indians ; but they were driven back by Wayne, who captured a British standard and one hundred and twenty-seven loaded pack-horses. His own loss was thirteen killed and wounded. Savannah was. evacuated by the enemy in July, and the war in that quarter ended. On the 27th of August the lamented Colonel Laurens was mor tally wounded during a skirmish of General Gist, with a large party of British, in South Carolina. On James's Island, Captain Wilmot, with a small party, attacked some British troops, but was killed, and his men were defeated. This was the last bjood shed in the Revolution. Charleston was evacuated by General Leslie on the 14th of December, and Wayne took possession of it with five thousand troops. In this year, the Hy der Ally, a Pennsylvania vessel of six guns, Bo2 438 CLOSE OF THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. WASHINGTON S H E A D - Q.U A RTE R S AT NEWBURGH. under Captain Joshua Barney, was attacked by two British vessels and a brig, while engaged in convoying a fleet of merchantmen to the Capes. By means of a skilful stratagem, she got into position to rake the brig, and in twenty-six minutes discharged twenty broad sides. The enemy then surrendered. It proved to be the General Monk, of eighteen guns. Barney's loss was four, killed, eleven wounded ; that of his enemy twenty killed, ~thirty-three wounded. Barney soon after captured a refugee schooner, which had given the Americans considerable trouble. On the other hand, the frigate South Carolina was taken by three large English vessels, appointed to Watch her ; and in the West Indies, the French fleet, under the Count de Grasse, was totally defeated and captured by the British under Admiral Rodney. In December, 1782, the American officers at Newburgh petitioned Congress that instead of granting them half-pay for life, which had been promised but never paid, that body should vote them full pay for five years, and pay the arrearages then due. The unwarrantable delay of Congress in acceding to this reasonable request, so provoked MUTINY OF THE TROOPS. 439 the officers, that but for the influence of Washington, they would at once have marched in arms to Philadelphia. At the earnest repre sentation of their case to Congress by the commander-in-chief, the request of the officers was granted. On the 19th of April, just eight years after the battle of Lexing ton, peace was proclaimed to the army. A critical duty now de volved upon Washington and the national legislature. This was the disbandment of the army, the members of which, after carrying the country triumphantly through the gloomy struggle for freedom, were now to be turned penniless to their ruined homes by the very power which had employed them. By relying on that patriotism which had ever shown itself capable of any sacrifice, and aided by the influence of Washington's popularity, Congress made the expe riment. The old troops submitted patiently ; but eight of the new levies marched from Lancaster, surrounded the state-house, and there kept the members of the national legislature imprisoned for three hours. Washington hurried a strong detachment after them ; but the riot was quelled before he arrived.. New York was evacuated by the British in November, and en tered on the 25th by General Washington, Governor Clinton, and a large number of citizens and military. On the 4th of December the commander took leave of his officers at Francis's tavern ; after which he proceeded to Annapolis, where Congress was then sitting, and resigned, Dec. 23. He then retired to Mount Vernon. Mean while the independence of the United States had been acknowledged by Sweden, Denmark, Spain, and Russia. The final treaty of peace was signed at Paris, September 3, by David Hartley, on the part of George III., and John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, and John Jay, on the part of the United States. ADMIRATj RODNEY. "WASHINGTON. CHAPTER XXXVI. ORGANIZATION OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT — WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION. URING-the war of independence, common danger had produced feelings of sympathy and mutual obligation among the states con stituting the American Union ; and to this Cause was owing, in an eminent degree, the acknowledgment of the authority of Con gress to legislate for the nation. The return of peace broke this bond of union ; and soon the germs of distrust, want of credit, and civil commotions, began to produce their legitimate fruits. As early as July, 1782, New York declared the general government incapahle of furnishing itself with a revenue. In February of the following year, Congress made an effort to establish permanent and adequate funds throughout the United States ; but in 1786, the measure was defeated by the oppo sition of New York. Meanwhile an insurrection against the state government had taken place in Massachusetts. On the 22d of August, 1786, a convention met at Hatfield to protest against several acts of the legislature. Very soon after a large body of insurgents took possession of the • court-houses in Northampton and other counties. Daniel Shays was their leader ; and although the general court immediately passed laws 440 SHAYS REBELLION. 441 for relieving the public burdens, he proceeded with his followers to Springfield, and on the 26th of December took possession of the court-house. He then became so troublesome that four thousand troops, under General Lincoln, were ordered against him. Previous to their march, Shays with eleven hundred men had attacked a body of twelve hundred troops under General Sheppard, but was driven away by a round of musketry. On the 4th of February, General Lincoln suddenly surprised them at Petersham, whence they were driven in great confusion, with the loss of one hundred and fifty pri soners. This terminated the rebellion. The first efforts toward the formation of a permanent government were rather accidental than otherwise. Virginia recommended a convention of delegates to take into consideration the ineffective regu lations concerning commerce, and this call was responded to by five other states. In September, 1786, the proposed meeting took place at Annapolis ; but, feeling the limited extent of their powers, the delegates made but a few minor arrangements, and then adjourned after recommending to Congress the calling of a National Convention, with authority to adopt measures for the formation of a permanent government. Accordingly, Congress passed a resolution recommend ing a convention of delegates from all the states to be held at Phila delphia, for the purpose of revising the articles of confederation, and reporting to Congress and the several legislatures such alterations and provisions therein as should, when agreed to in Congress, and confirmed by the states, render the Federal constitution adequate to the emergencies of government and the preservation of the Union, "N May, 1787, this body of able statesmen assem bled at the place appointed, all the states ex cept Rhode Island being represented. Washing ton was chosen president. After long deliberations " they, reported to Congress a draft of the present constitution, recommending its being submitted for ratification to a convention of delegates in each state, chosen by and from the people of each. This was complied with, and for several months the newly-reported instrument under went a critical examination. During this period its provisions were ably explained and defended in a series of essays entitled the Fede ralist, written by Madison, Jay, and Hamilton. It was this circum stance that gave the title of Federalists to the political party who favoured the new constitution, while at the same time their opponents 56 442 ADMINISTRATION OF WASHINGTON. MOUNT VERNON. were styled Anti-Federalists. The consent of nine states was requi site to enable the new code to become the basis of national legisla tion ; and as nearly a year intervened before this could be obtained, Congress employed that interval in adopting measures for organizing the new government. The first electors for the office of president were to be chosen on the first Wednesday in February, 1789, and vote for the person of their choice on the first Wednesday of March following. The hopes of Congress and the nation were now centred upon Washington. In him the friends of the still tottering Constitution beheld the only resource which could give weight to the novel opera tion of so strange an experiment as that which they Were about to perform. Even its opponents were in general willing to make a trial of it, could he be placed at its head. But it was with no small diff iculty that his habitual distrust of himself, united to an ardent love of retirement, could be again overcome. Besides his reluctance again to embark on the stormy ocean of politics, he was extensively engaged in agricultural pursuits, for which he had ever entertained a passionate fondness. But the people were encouraged by the reflection that he had never refused the call of public duty. They therefore renewed their earnest appeals that he would give stability to the youthful nation by the weight of his influence, and at length he consented. On the day of election he received the unanimous vote of the electors, " and probably without a dissenting voice in WASHINGTON ELECTED PRESIDENT. 443 IISIIIW WASHINGTON TAKING THE OATH OF OFFICE, IN FRONT Off THE OLD FEDERAL HALL, NEW YORK. the whole nation, was chosen the first President of the United States." Washington received notice of his election, April 14, 1789, and sacrificing his long cherished hopes and feelings to the public wish, he left Mount Vernon on the 16th, for New York, where Congress was then in session. His. journey was everywhere hailed bythe spontaneous overflowing of love and veneration for his person, from an almost idolizing people." As he drew near different towns, the entire population hastened to meet him, and the chief c'tizens wel comed him to their homes. In the great cities, the bells rang, can nons were fired, and civic and military authorities paraded. At Elizabethtown Point, he was met by a deputation from Congress and the, heads of departments, and his journey thence to New York was one triumphal procession. At the latter city, he was escorted by an immense concourse of people, among whom were the governor, and other officers of state, the clergy, foreign ministers, and others. In the evening, the city was brilliantly illuminated. On the 30th of April, Chancellor Livingston administered to him the oath of office, in presence of both houses of Congress and thousands of citizens ; and then the discharge of thirteen guns from the bat tery, and the cheers of assembled masses, announced that the new government was completely organized. The President then re tired to the Senate chamber, and delivered an impressive address to each branch of the National Legislature, in which, after expressing distrust in his ability to execute the duties just conferred upon him', he declared his conviction that the same Great Being who had con- 444 ADMINISTRATION OF WASHINGTON. AL3I.M1EK ItrtMILTOt ducted them through the long struggle for independence, would still continue to preside over their deliberations, and establish on a firm basis a form of government which other nations would be delighted to copy. Washington then retired to St. Paul's church, where the services of the day were closed by appropriate religious ceremonies. At night, the city was again illuminated, and fireworks displayed. Among the first acts of Congress, was a Jaw imposing duties on im ported merchandise, and taxes on the tonnage of vessels. Its next important step was the constitut ing of an executive cabinet, com posed of the secretaries of war, of state, and of the treasury. Wash ington appointed Alexander Ham ilton Secretary of the Treasury, General Knox, Secretary of War, and Thomas Jefferson, Secretary of State. John Jay became chief justice, assisted by five associate judges. On the adjournment of Congress, Washington made a tour through the New England states, where he was gratified not only by the flattering testimonies of esteem and affection heaped upon him by all classes of people, but also by the signs of returning prosperity and affluence. The effects of war were disappearing, agriculture was actively and profitably pursued, manufactures were increasing, towns springing up-in every direction, and commerce becoming daily more extended. The heart of the great man was cheered by these tokens of order, peace, and contentment, which were so many unmistakable types of the country's future prosperity. AT the re-opening of the first Congress, [January, 1790,] the President re commended, among other important subjects, a provision for the common defence, and for the regulation of the militia, a uniformity in weights, mea sures, and the currency ; the advance ment of agriculture, manufactures, and commerce ; the establishment.of post-offices and post-roads, and the ORGANIZATION OF THE GOVERNMENT. 445 encouragement ofscience and literature. A great part of the session was occupied by a consideration of a plan proposed by Secretary Hamilton, for discharging, out of the national treasury, the debt of twenty-five million dollars, due by the individual states, for expenses incurred during the war. The measure was finally adopted. Con gress also decided to remove the seat of government, for ten years, to Philadelphia, and then to establish it permanently at some place on the Potomac. Next year, the site of the present capital was chosen by Washington, after whom it was named. The territory in which it stands is called the District of Columbia. Meanwhile, the relations with foreign powers were in a rather un promising condition. The Algerines not only seized our vessels, but kept the officers and crews in bondage for several years. England had as yet sent no minister, and even neglected to evacuate her military posts on the frontier. Spain refused to grant the navigation of the Mississippi to the western states, with the hope probably of detaching them from the confederacy and uniting them to herself. Both England and Spain were also active in fomenting disturbances between the Indians arid the settlers of Ohio and Georgia. N February, 1792, two new states, Vermont and Kentucky, were admitted into the federal com pact. During the same session, Congress passed a bill for the incorporation of a National Bank, which, although strenuously opposed by Jefferson and his democratic adherents, was, after mature deliberation, signed by the President, and became a law. The bank was chartered for twenty years, with a capital of ten millions. It was established at Philadelphia, with branches throughout the United States. To pay the interest on the national debt, Hamilton proposed duties on wine, tea, and other luxuries, with an excise on spirits distilled within the country. These were passed. The government being fully organized, public credit and commercial prosperity rapidly revived. Depreciated public paper soon rose to par ; and the value of property was greatly enhanced. In the autumn of 1790, General Harmer was sent with fifteen hundred men, of whom three hundred were regulars, to destroy the Indian settlements on the Sciota and Wabash. He detached Colonel Harden with six hundred men, to ascertain their position, but at his approach, the Indians fired their principal village and 2? 446 ADMINISTRATION OF WASHINGTON. fled to the woods. Being again detached with one hundred and eighty militia, he was attacked by the savages, his militia dispersed, and all the regulars, except seven, killed. Harmer then burned all the Indian towns on the Sciota, and again detached Harden, with three hundred militia and sixty regulars, to retrieve the loss of reputation in the former expeditions. Being again attacked at the oonfluence of the St. Mary's and St. Joseph's rivers, the militia were driven back after a resolute struggle, and fifty of the regulars killed. The whole party then retreated to Fort Washington. kN 1791, General -St. Clair, Governor of the North-west Territory, marched with three thousand men against the Indian villages on the Miami. Before sunrise, on the morning of November 4, he was surprised by a large body j of Indians at his camp, about fifteen miles south of the villages. The militia, being in advance, were first attacked, and rushing in the usual disorder among the regulars under General Butler, composing the first line, threw them also into confusion. The officers succeeded in re storing partial order ; but so furious was the onset of the Indians, that most of the artillerymen were down, and the greater number of officers, including General Butler, either killed or mortally wounded. The commanding general was seriously indisposed, but he gave his orders with perfect coolness, and used every exertion to retrieve the fortunes of the day. Lieutenant-colonel Darke was ordered to charge with the bayonet, which he did in gallant style, driving the enemy about four hundred yards ; but the want of a sufficient number of riflemen to press this advantage, deprived the Americans of any advantage from it. The Indians finally broke the right wing, seized the artillery, and penetrated the camp. Darke again charged, driving them from camp and recovering the artillery ; but this success was but momentary, and the Americans soon commenced a disorderly re treat, in which they were pursued four miles. They halted at Fort Jefferson, thirty miles from the scene of action. In this engagement the Americans lost thirty-eight officers, and five hundred and ninety-three men killed ; twenty-one officers, and two hundred and forty-two men wounded. The enemy's loss was WAYNE DEFEATS THE INDIANS. 447 MfflMPli S2r\ & fill S&7_ !/,*8faS^8SMll I l i GENERAL WAYNE DEFEATING THE INDIANS AT THE MIAMI. probably but small. On hearing of this disaster, Congress, at the re commendation of the President, increased the national military force to five thousand men. General St. Clair resigned the governorship of the North-western Territory, and was succeeded by General Wayne. In August, 1794, that officer marched with three thousand men to attack the Indians of the Miami, Reaching the Rapids on the 18th, he made to them an offer of peace ; but being posted in large numbers behind a thick wood near a British fort, they treated the proposition with contempt. On the 20th, Wayne advanced upon them in two columns ; and perceiving that they had extended their line over a distance of two miles in order to outflank him, he ordered his first column not to fire until they had advanced into the woods and roused the foe, and then to press them so closely with the bayonet as to give no time for re-loading. The second line was to support the first, Colonel Camp bell's cavalry to charge the Indian left flank, and General Scott, with his mounted volunteers, their right. In less than an hour after the commencement of the action, the savages were completely routed, and driven a distance of two miles, up to the very guns of the British fort. The general then destroyed the settlements on the Miami, and so weakened the Indian resources that they were glad 448 ADMINISTRATION OF WASHINGTON. to listen to terms. A treaty advantageous to both parties was con cluded in the following year. In the year 1791, the first census of the United States was taken, by which the total population, exclusive of Indians, was found to'be nearly four millions. Of these, rather more than six hundred and ninety-five thousand were negro slaves. During the same year, Washington made a tour through the southern states; and was every where received as he had been at the north. The second Congress assembled at Philadelphia in October,- 1791. The principal acts of their first session was the establishment of a uniform militia system, the increase of the army, and the apportion ment of the ratio of representation at one delegate for every thirty- three thousand inhabitants. T the expiration of his first Presidential term in 1792, Washington expressed his ardent desire to retire from the cares of public life ; but this his friends would not listen to, and yielding his wishes to the good of the country, he was again unanimously chosen President, with John Adams for Vice-President. : At this time the memorable French Revolu tion had attained to such a pitch of fanaticism as to threaten the peace of Europe, and render a neutral policy on the part of the United States extremely difficult. Washington's cabinet were di vided between the opinions of Hamilton and Knox, to break entirely with the French Assembly, and that of Jefferson and Randolph, to receive their envoy, and fully acknowledge the qbligations of the treaty concluded with Louis XVI. Without giving a full sanction to either of these views, Washington assented to receiving the minister, and it was agreed that all mention of the treaty should be suppressed. The great bulk of the American people were in favour of lending assistance to France against foreign powers, especially England ; and a participation in the European struggle was prevented only by the firm neutral policy of Washington, and the rash conduct of the French envoy. This individual was M. Genet; and, instead of proceeding directly to the seat of government, he landed at Charleston, and began 'to fit out privateers to cruise against British merchantmen. In his journey to Philadelphia he was everywhere welcomed with enthu siasm, a circumstance that inspired him with most culpable vanity and assurance. When remonstrated with concerning the fitting out CITIZEN GENET. 449 GENERAL KNOX. of privateers, he haughtily answered that his authority was in the late treaty, any infraction of which would be a violation of the " rights of man." Not satisfied with this, he fitted out another privateer from the port of Philadelphia, and even undertook to direct the civil government, by pronouncing, in opposition to the decisions of the President, the branches of government in which the constitution vested certain powers. To cap this climax of folly and insolence, he declared to Secretaries Knox and Hamilton his determination to appeal, in the 'case of the privateer at Philadelphia, from the decision of the President to that of the people. Hitherto Citizen Genet had been sustained by popular esteem, principally on account of the former friendship between the two countries ; but this threat opened the eyes of the people to his vil- lany, and they warmly and unanimously declared against him. In 1794, he was recalled at the request of the President. HE excise law, imposing a tax on domestic distilled liquors, met with great opposition in several parts of the country, especially in Pennsylvania, where whis key was the most important item of trade. Public meetings in different counties west of the Alleghanies denounced the act as unconstitutional, and declared any person 57 2 p 2 450 ADMINISTRATION OF WASHINGTON. who should undertake to enforce it inimical to the interests of the country. This appeal was but too readily answered. General Neville had been made inspector of the western country, but his efforts to enforce the law were ineffectual. In "the summer of 1792 the insurgents organized, and commenced so systematic an opposition to the mea sure, that Washington was obliged to issue a proclamation calling on the disaffected to stop their proceedings. Even this did not produce the desired effect. General Neville was -fired upon while walking from his residence, his house attacked and partly destroyed, and himself driven beyond the mountains. The exercise of armed force having now become absolutely neces sary, Washington made a requisition upon the governors of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia, for fifteen thousand militia. The call was immediately responded to ; and Governor Lee, of Virginia, being appointed to the command, marched into the dis affected territory. Yet, still anxious to quell the rebellion without bloodshed, the President, on the 25th of September, issued a second proclamation, stating the impossibility of success on the part of the insurgents, offering protection to all who would confide in the govern ment, exhorting the riotous to lay down their arms, and warning all persons of the consequences of any attempt to aid them. This pro clamation, with the knowledge of Lee's approach, had such an effect, that on the arrival of the army in the infected neighbourhood, no insurgents were to be found. A detachment under Major-General Morgan was stationed there during the winter. , T the opening of the Third Congress in Decem ber, 1793, the President called the serious atten tion of Congress to measures of national defence, and the necessity of preparing for war, even while using every effort to prevent it. In a special message he directed the attention of members to the spoliations committed on our commerce by France and England, as well as the restraints of the latter power on the commerce in corn and other provisions. Con gress warmly responded to his wishes in these respects, taking care, at the same time, to give as little offence as possible to either of the belligerent powers. About this time Mr. Jefferson resigned his office of Secretary of State, and was succeeded by Mr. Randolph. Already Great Bri- JAY S TREATY WITH ENGLAND. 451 JOHN JAY. tain and the United States were on the eve of another war. Eng land still refused to surrender some of the forts in the western coun try ; her cruisers stopped and searched American vessels ; her admiralty issued an order that vessels carrying flour, corn, or meal, and bound to any port in France, or occupied by French armies, should be stopped and taken to England ; and her officers con tinued to exercise upon American crews the odious act of impress ment. Washington clearly foresaw the bad consequences of a second struggle with the old enemy ; and, anxious to prevent it, he de spatched Mr. Jay as envoy extraordinary to the British court. That gentleman succeeded in effecting a treaty, by which England agreed to surrender the western forts, and to allow American trade to the West Indies ; but as the other provisions were not entirely satisfac tory, Washington for some time refused to sign it. He finally, how ever, ratified the treaty, with consent of two-thirds of the Senate. It met with great opposition throughout the country, and was stigma tized by the opposition party as an act of ingratitude against France. Meanwhile Hamilton and Knox had resigned their seats in the cabi net ; and thus the President was left almost alone to combat the tor rent of opposition to the treaty. He remained, however, firm ; and. 452 ADMINISTRATION OF WASHINGTON. in a little time, the boneficial effects of the measure became fully apparent. Before the next session of Congress, treaties had been concluded with Algiers, with the Indians beyond the Ohio, and with Spain, — ihe latter power yielding the important points of boundary claimed by the United States, the right of navigating the Mississippi, and a depot at New Orleans. The only power still retaining a hostile atti tude was France. A new envoy had been sent from that country, who, by inflammatory addresses, contrived to inspire the people with enthusiasm in his favour. He had even received instructions from the French Directory, that in case President Washington could not be drawn into a rupture with England, he was then to address Con gress, and appeal, as Genet had done, to the people. At the same time the Directory passed regulations by which American vessels were seized, and their cargoes confiscated. In 1796, Mr. Monroe, American minister at Paris, was recalled, and Charles C. Pinckney appointed in his place. jEFORE any adjustment of this difficulty could be effected, Washington's second term of office expired, and no consideration could induce him to permit another re-elec tion. One of his principal reasons was, that eight years was a sufficient length of .time for one individual to fill the highest office of a free elective government. In September, 1796, he announced to his countrymen in a valedictory address his intention of retiring from public life. In this celebrated paper he dwells chiefly on the im portance of preserving the unity of the republic, on the baneful effects of party spirit, the necessity of peace with foreign powers, the happy Workings of the new government, and especially on the inseparable connection between national prosperity and moral rectitude. For soundness of political views, fervent patriotism, paternal affection for the people, and humble dependence on that Supreme Governor who controls all nations, this valedictory of Washington is perhaps with out a rival in history. It excited throughout the couritrjrthe deepest feelings of veneration for its author. Several of the state legislatures inserted it in their journals, and passed resolutions expressive of their exalted sense of the services and character of Washington, and their emotions at his retiring from office. RETIREMENT OF WASHINGTON. 453 Washington met Congress for the last time on the 7th of Decem ber, 1796. In his speech on that occasion he adverted to the late treaties, the necessity of strengthening the nava'l force, of encouraging agriculture and manufactures, and of establishing a national univer sity and a military academy. The relations with the French repub lic were made the subject of a special message. In the following October took place the election for hig successor, which, after a close and spirited canvass, gave the first office in the republic to Mr. John Adams, and the second to Mr. Thomas Jefferson. The former was the candidate of the Federal party, the latter of the Republican. They were inaugurated in the presence of Washington, on the 4th of March, 1797, and immediately entered upon their respective duties. The venerable ex-President then retired to his seat at Mount Vernon. i i mm «=fi .sffil MOUNT VERNON. asAl£ ¦ / JOHN ADAPTS. CHAPTER XXXVIX ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN ADAMS. HE services of Mr. Adams, as an earnest advocate in the Continental Congress for the declaration of inde pendence, his defence of the Constitution, and his acknowledged ability and patriotism, fully entitled him to the confidence of his fellow-citizens in the im portant office to which he was now elevated. In the preceding year General Pinckney had been appointed minister plenipotentiary to the French republic. The Directory re fused to receive him until after the redress of their alleged grievances by the American government ; and this high-handed measure was speedily followed by a notice to General Pinckney to quit the terri tories of the republic, and orders to the French cruisers to capture American vessels wherever found. On receiving intelligence of these hostile proceedings, President Adams called a meeting of Congress [June 15, 1797], On meeting them, the President, in his opening speech, stated the unprovoked aggressions of the French government, and their insidious attempts to disunite the American people ; and urged upon Congress the ne cessity of providing for the national defence, declaring at the same lime his intention to attempt an accommodation of the dispute by negotiation. AGGRESSIONS OF THE FRENCH. 455 COMMODORE HURRAY. Mr. Adams now appointed Messrs. Pirickney, Gerry, and Mar shall, envoys to the French repubhc, with instructions to pursue peace and reconciliation by all means compatible with national ho nour. While the result of this mission was anxiously awaited by the American people, the French aggressions on our commerce being still continued, an act of Congress was passed, [July 7, 1797,] de daring the existing treaties with France no longer obligatory on the United States, because openly and repeatedly violated by the acts of the French government. ESPATCHES received from the Ameri can envoys in France, in the spring of 1798, announced that while the Directory had delayed to accredit the commission ers, they had approached them informally with pro positions demanding money as a condition of their recognition. The Directory and the ministers were willing, besides, to receive a private bribe through M. Talleyrand. . -These attempts to tamper with the envoys 456 ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN ADAMS. CAPTURE O I L INSURGENT! being treated with merited contempt, they had been ordered to quit the territories of the republic. Intelligence of these proceedings, characterized as they were by a mixture of meanness and insolence, excited indignation throughout the country, and the rallying cry of the nation was, Millions for defence, not one cent for tribute. Congress immediately proceeded to raise an army, with Washing ton for lieutenant-general and commander-in-chief; to pass alien and sedition laws as a defence against French influence at home ; and to issue letters of marque and reprisal for the defence of American com merce. The alien and sedition law was powerfully opposed ; but the war, like, most wars, was 'popular. Its feats, however were destined to be confined to the ocean. In September, 1798, Commodore Murray sailed for the West In dies, the/ principal theatre of the French depredations, with a squadron composed of the Norfolk, Montezuma, and Retaliation. In November this squadron encountered the French frigates Volontaire and L'Insurgente ; and three other -ships appearing in an opposite direction at the same time, Captain Bainbridge, in the. Retaliation, was detached to examine the French frigates, who were supposed to be British. He was captured ; but, by misrepresenting the force of the other two small Vessels of the squadron, he prevented the French from pursuing them, and thus enabled Murray to escape. COMMODORE TRUXTUN. 457 Commodore Truxtun was more fortunate than Commodore Murray. In the frigate Constellation [February 9, 1799] he encountered the French frigate L'Insurgente ; and, after a spirited action, captured her. Her force was forty guns, and four hundred and nine men, of whom seventy were killed. The Constellation carried thirty-eight guns, and three hundred and nine men, of whom three were wounded, and none killed. Several other captures of French cruisers were made by Truxtun, Barry,(tTingey, and Decatur; but the most remarkable action of the war was that between the Constellation, stiU under Trux- tun's command, and:,the French ship Vengeance, carrying no less than fifty-two guns. This cele brated engagement took place on the 2d of February, 1800, and lasted from eight o'clock, P. M., till half-past one. The French ship was reduced to a sinking condition, and struck her colours ; but the mainmast of the Constel lation being nearly cut off, Trux tun was unable to secure his prize. He lost fourteen killed, and twenty-five wounded. The Vengeance had fifty killed, and one hundred and ten wounded. This is the victory for which Commo dore Truxtun received the gold medal from Congress. The other naval actions of this war were quite numerous, but comparatively unimportant, although they afforded Hull, Porter* and others, opportunities for giving promise of their future distinction in the annals of the navy. These active measures soon brought the insolent French Directory to their senses. They made overtures for negotiating a peace, and Messrs. Ellsworth, Henry, and Van Murray, were sent to France as envoys. When they arrived at Paris, the Directory had been de* posed, and Napoleon soon concluded an adjustment of all disputes. Ere the war terminated, Washington was removed from the scene of his earthly glories. He died, after a very short illness, occasioned by cold, and a consequent inflammation of the throat, at Mount Vernon, on the 14th of December, 1799. Neither Congress nor the nation were wanting in that universal tribute of mourning and vene- 58 2Q COMMODORE TRUZTUN. 458 ADMINISTRATION OF JOHN ADAMS. TOMB OF WASHINGTON. ration due to the illustrious founder of their common freedom. Per haps the most sensrble mark of this veneration was their givmg his name to the federal city, the site of which he had himself selected. In November, 1800, Congress opened its sittings at Washington for the first time. Their sessions had been held first at New York, and afterwards at Philadelphia. Mr. Adams was not elected to office a second time. When the electoral votes were counted, he was in the minority, and Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr, who had been proposed by the opposition as candidates for President and Vice-president, were found to have an equal number of votes. As the Constitution then stood, this state of things referred the election to the House of Representatives, and Burr was enabled, with some prospect of success, to intrigue for de feating the popular will. But the election was finally decided in favour of Jefferson, and on the 4th of March, 1801, he was inaugu rated. THOMAS JSFFERaOtf. CHAPTER XXXVIII. ADMINISTRATION OF THOMAS JEFFERSON. • S the political tenets of Mr. Jefferson were directly opposite to those of his predecessor, a change was made among the cabinet officers. Mr. Madison was appointed Secretary of State ; immediately be fore his retirement, Adams had appointed twelve new judges, in pursuance of a recent act of Congress. By the recommendation of Mr. Jefferson, that body now .passed an act abolishing this judiciary, and re-organizing the whole judiciary department. Another act placed the laws of its or ganization on an enlarged basis. In 1801, the second census of the United States showed a popula tion of more than five million three hundred thousand souls, an augmentation of exports from nineteen to ninety-four millions of dollars, and an increase of the revenue from five to thirteen millions, in ten years. These gave to the people the most satis factory proof of the resources of the country as developed under the new constitution. In the same year, Spain ceded Louisiana to France, a measure which soon began to produce uneasiness to the American govern ment. Owing to the hostile disposition of the Directory, it was 469 460 ADMINISTRATION OF THOMAS JEFFERSON. CAPTAIN MERRIWETHER LEWIS. feared that the western people would either be engaged in constant outbreaks with the French settlers, concerning the all-important navigation of the Mississippi, or be induced to secede from the Union and join with Louisiana. The irritation of the western people was further increased by an act of the Spanish authorities in New Orleans, interdicting the citizens of the United States from the use of the port of that city as a place of deposit for their merchandise. In order to obviate, if possible, the evil consequences of these ag gressions, the President despatched Mr. Monroe to Paris, to make, in conjunction with Mr. Livingston, a treaty for the purchase of New Orleans or Louisiana. Meanwhile, Ohio had been admitted into the Union as a separate state, and began its astonishing career of prosperity and population. In January, 1803, Congress, at the recommendation of the Presi dent, authorized the fitting out of an expedition for exploring the country west of the Rocky Mountains. Captain Merriwether Lewis LOUISIANA PURCHASED. 461 was selected to command the party, who chose as associate in com mand, Captain Clarke. After much delay, the expedition left the banks of the Mississippi, May 14, 1804. A measure of the Presi dent, selling a part of the bank stock owned by government, met with determined opposition from the federal party, as it was sup posed to be a preliminary to the vetoing of the bank charter in 1809. An attempt to restore the District of Columbia to the states of Vir ginia and Maryland was defeated bythe opposition of the inhabitants. An attempt was soon afterwards made to induce the President to take forcible possession of New Orleans, and place there a sufficient militia force to defend -the navigation of the Mississippi; but this was soon afterwards abandoned. HIS state of dissension and anxiety was ended [^ by the reception of most unexpected news from France. War had suddenly occurred between that power and England, and so empty was the French treasury, that Napoleon 'gladly caught at the overtures of the American govern ment, and, instead of selling merely New Or leans, agreed to yield the whole of Lodisiana for the sum of eleven and a quarter millions of dollars, in six per cent, stock. A treaty to this effect had been executed by the American envoys, and thus a territory computed at one million square miles, was obtained by the new republic. In the same year, the Kaskaskia Indians surrendered to government their valuable territory, lying along the Mississippi, Ohio, and Illinois rivers. These events had scarcely transpired, when a difficulty arose from another quarter. In the year 1800, the Bashaw of Tripoli showed a disposition to seize our richly laden vessels in the Mediterranean, and he now complained of having been treated with less regard than the other Barbary states. On the 5th of May, he addressed a letter to the President, demanding large subsidies from the American government, and at the same time threatened Mr. Cathcart, our minister at Tripoli, that if a satisfactory answer did not arrive in six months, he would declare war. Twelve months after, [May 12, 1801,] he announced that he had declared war, and would take ddwn the American flag-staff in two days. This was done, and Mr. Cathcart sailed for the United States. Tunis and Algiers deter mined to assist the bashaw, hoping thereby to obtain some of tha rich prizes which they most sanguinely dreamed of capturing. &Q3 462 ADMINISTRATION OF THOMAS JEFFERSON. COMMODORE- DAL | Before news of 'the declaration 1 of war was received in America, J government had fitted out a fleet I in anticipation of such an event, | and to protect our commerce. It I was composed of the- frigates J President, Philadelphia, Essex, and the schooner Enterprise; the J whole under Commodore Dale. \ On the 1st of July, the common [| dore arrived off the coast of Gib raltar, where he met the high admiral of Tripoli, with two ves sels. This functionary denied that his government was at war -with the United States ; and unable to receive more authentic information, Dale sailed to Tripoli. Ascertaining the situation of affairs, he imme diately commenced a blockade of the port. On the 1st of August, Lieutenant, Sterret, on his way to Malta in the Enterprise, encountered the Tripolitan ship-of-war Tripoli, of twelve guns, under Rais Mahomet Sous.! After an incessant cannon ading of three hours' length, within pistol-shot range, the enemy struck. His loss was twenty killed and thirty wounded ; Sterret did not lose a man. On the 21st of August, Dale captured a Greek ship bound for Tripoli, laden with merchandise, and having on board one Tripolitan officer, twenty-four soldiers, fourteen merchants, and five women. An exchange of prisoners was effected with the bashaw, after which the commodore abandoned the blockade and sailed for Tripoli. N February, 1802, Congress authorized the President to take immediate measures for the protection of commerce in the Mediterranean, and for the fitting out of ships to subdue, seize, and make prize of all vessels, goods, and effects belonging to the Bashaw of Tri poli or his subjects, and to send the same into port. He accordingly ordered to, the relief of Commodore Dale, the Enterprise, of twelve guns, Captain Sterret ; the Constellation, thirty-six, Captain Murray ; the Chesa peake, forty-four, Captain Morris ; the Adams, thirty-two, Captain Campbell; the New York, thirty-two, Captain Barron; and the WAR WITH TRIPOLI. GENERAL EATON. John Adams, thirty-two, Captain Rodgers. These vessels were to sail as soon as they could be equipped, the whole under the command of Captain Morris. That officer reached Gibraltar in May, and during the two following months was engaged in block ading the enemy at that port, and watching the Emperor of Morocco, who had, also declared war. But a treaty was concluded with him in August, and Morris sailed for Tripoli. Being prevented from approaching the coast by a violent storm of wind, he bore away to Tunis, the bey of which country had lately assumed a hostile attitude. Several audiences with this personage had resulted in nothing but mutual ill-feeling ; and General Eaton, the American minister, was even preparing to leave the country. ' A project of rather a romantic character had for some time been carried on by Eaton, in order to facilitate operations against the Bashaw of Tripoli. This ruler was the younger of two brothers, but had unlawfully seized the throne and driven his relative into 464 ADMINISTRATION OF THOMAS JEFFERSON. exile. Hamet, the defrauded prince, seems to have been popular among the Tripolitans ; and Eaton conceived the project of espousing his cause, and thus avenge the reigning bashaw's insults to the United States by driving him from the throne. Hamet eagerly closed with this scheme ; and the bashaw becoming alarmed, made overtures of reconciliation with his brother, offering him the govern ment of Derne. He would have, consented to this, but for the repre sentations of Mr. Eaton, who induced him soon afterwards to sail for Malta. Here he remained for a time, while Eaton returned to the United States, in order to induce his government to lend the neces sary aid for placing the rightful sovereign on the throne of Tripoli. Shortly after, his place as consul was supplied by Mr. Cathcart, while Eaton received the appointment of naval agent for the Barbary States, with the view of aiding the operations of the Mediterranean squadron against Tripoli, by forwarding the rights of the exiled Hamet bashaw. In June, he again embarked for Africa, in the frigate John Adams, which, with the President, Congress, Essex, and Constellation, constituted a reinforcement tq the former squadron. ARLY in June, 1803, Commodore Morris made proposals of peace to the ruler of Tripoli. He modestly asked two hundred thousand Spanish milled dollars, and the expenses of the war, before he would em brace the commodore's overtures. Morris then offered him a present of five thousand dollars, but the verbal answer of the haughty prince was, " that the ' business was at an end, and that he must depart immediately." Soon after, Morris was recalled by government, and his conduct during the expedition sub mitted to the examination of a court-martial, by which he was cen sured for inactive and dilatory conduct. During the blockade of Tripoli by the John Adams, under Captain Rodgers, she captured the Meshonda, of twenty guns, belonging to the Emperor of Morocco, who had purchased her of the bashaw. Being sent to Tunis with a cargo, she violated the blockade, and was taken. On the 27th of June, Captain Rodgers observed a large vessel anchored within the Bay of Tripoli, while a number of gun-boats filled with armed men, approached to her relief. About nine o'clock a. m., of the 28th, a fire was opened upon her from the John Adams, CAPTURE OF COMMODORE BAINBRIDGE. 465 which being returned, the action continued on both sides for about forty-five minutes. The firing then ceased until a quarter before ten, when it was renewed with such fury that the enemy's ship blew up, bearing with her many of the crew. This yessel mounted twenty-two guns, and was the finest one in the Tripolitan service. Meanwhile, a reinforcement to the Mediterranean service had been despatched from the United States, under Commodore Preble, who was to command the whole force in that quarter. On the night of August 26, Captain Bainbridge, in the Philadel phia, fell in with a ship and a brig, both Moorish vessels. The former proved to be the Meshboha, of twenty-two guns and one hundred men. On intimating that the brig was an American, Cap tain Rodgers gave orders to search the main vessel, when the captain and part of the crew of the American brig Celia were found < to be confined below deck. Upon this discovery, the officers of the Mesh boha were ordered on board the Philadelphia, and their cruiser taken into custody. Next day the Celia, which had escaped, was recap tured. The John Adams then sailed for Morocco, where, about the middle of October, Bainbridge concluded a treaty with the emperor, restoring to him the Meshonda and Meshboha. Soon after this event, Captain Bainbridge, while pursuing a Tri politan vessel, ran aground on the rocks near the city, and was un able to get his vessel off. He was almost immediately attacked by the enemy's gun-boats, and after a contest of five hours, obliged to strike his colours. The captain and crew were taken on shore, but all efforts to remove the Philadelphia were unavail ing- On the 3d of February, 1804, Stephen Decatur, in the Siren and Intrepid, was sent by Commodore Preble, commandant of the Medi terranean squadron, to burn the grounded vessel. This he accom plished in the Intrepid, on the night of the 16th, although all the guns of the frigate were mounted and charged, and she lay within half gunshot of the bashaw's castle. and principal battery. Two Tripolitan cruisers were lying within two cables' length, on the star- COMMODORE BAINBRIDGE. 466 ADMINISTRATION OF THOMAS JEFFERSON. board quarter, while all the batteries on shore were opened on the assail ants. But one American was wound ed. It was one of the most daring and gallant achievements of the war, and Decatur received from Congress a sword and captain's commission, and each of his officers and crew two months' pay. On the 21st of July, Commodore Preble, with six vessels and eight gun-boats, carrying one thousand and sixty men, appeared before the harbour of Tripoli, which was de fended by nineteen gun-boats, two galleys, two schooners of eight guns each, a brig of ten guns, land batteries mounting one hundred and fifteen heavy cannon, and by twenty-five thousand Arabs and Turks. On the 3d of August, the first bombardment of Tripoli commenced, accompanied by a general attack upon the gun-boats in the harbour. A tremendous fire was kept up for some hours upon the town, and answered by the enemy's whole train of artillery. Meanwhile, with the most daring bravery, Decatur attacked the gun-boats in the harbour, and succeeded in capturing or destroying several, although so close was the contest that the gallant captain's life was several times in imminent danger, and on one occasion he had but nine men against thirty-six. The Americans lostXiieutenant J. Decatur killed, and thirteen men wounded. The loss of the enemy was much greater. On the 7th of August, the squadron approached the harbour, in order to silence a seven gun battery. This was effected, although one of the captured gun-boats was blown up, carrying with her Lieutenant Caldwell, Midshipman Dorsey, and ten others. In this second attack, forty-eight shells and five hundred twenty-four pound- shot were thrown into the town. On the night of the 24th, another attack was made upon the city, which lasted until daylight. It was renewed at half-past one of the 28th, when a warm action took place between thirteen of the enemy's gun-boats, supported by their batteries and the gun-boats and smaller vessels of the squadron. One of the enemy's vessels was sunk, and two more were disabled. The cannonade was renewed on the 3d of September, with much injury to the bashaw's castle. ENTERPRISE OF GENERAL EATON. 467 BOMBARDMENT OF TRIPOLI. About this time, the Intrepid was sent into the harbour of Tripoli to destroy the flotilla, and throw a quantity of shells into the town. Captain Somers, and Lieutenants Israel and Wadsworth, volunteered for this dangerous service. One hundred barrels of powder, and a hundred and fifty shells, were put in her hold, with a contrivance, •by which it could Jbe fired, and yet allow the crew time to escape. When near the place of destination, she suddenly blew up, carrying with her, as is supposed, the three officers. The consternation pro duced among the enemy by this event is indescribable. No clue to unravel the fate of the heroic adventurers was ever obtained. On the 10th of September, Commodore Barron arrived with the President and Constellation, and assumed command, Preble returned to the United States. Meanwhile, General Eaton, having returned to the Mediterranean, had been 'prosecuting his scheme in favour of Hamet bashaw, and at the time of the last bombardment of Tripoli, actually threatened to drive the reigning bashaw from the throne, after raising a small army in Egypt; consisting of Mamelukes, Arabs, and a number of adventurers. On the 3d( of March, they left Alexandria for Derne travelling through the Libyan desert, and encountering hardships Of every kind. On the 25th of .April, they appeared before the lattei 468 ADMINISTRATION OF THOMAS JEFFERSON. I CAPTCRE OF D city, where Eaton offered the governor terms of amity, but received the haughty answer, " My head or yours !" On the morning of the 27th, the battle commenced by the Tri politans firing upon the Argus, Hornet, and Nautilus, which had stood in lo second the attack. The enemy's naval batteries were soon silenced, but on land they gained so much advantage, that in order to prevent discouragement, Eaton' charged their works with fifty men. Although the enemy numbered seven to one, they fled, leaving their battery in the hands of the Americans. During the charge, Eaton was Wounded in the wrist. This success was followed by the capture of the, bey's palace, which placed the city in possession of the Americans. The bey escaped, and while fleeing toward Tripoli, was met by about one thousand of the bashaw's troops, who had been despatched to his relief. This force pressed towards Derne, and after defeating about one hundred of Hamet's cavalry, entered the city, and forced their „way to the bey's palace. Here they were repulsed by the Ameri can batteries, and driven into the fields. Soon after, they were TREATY WITH THE BARBARY POWERS. 469 LIOBILH, totally defeated by Hamet's troops, in a battle fought in the Barbary fashion, without the intervention of either Americans or Europeans. But this fair prospect of driving the reigning bashaw from the throne, was dissolved by the conclusion of a treaty with that prince by Commodore Rodgers, who had superseded Barron. By this instrument the Americans secured to themselves all that had been demanded at the opening of war, together with a complete amnesty md suitable provision during life for Hamet and his followers. Commodore Bainbridge and his crew were restored to liberty after a morti fying captivity of more than nineteen months. We now turn to the closing events of Mr. Jefferson's first presidential term. During the year 1804, go vernment acquired from the Dela ware Indians a valuable anvi exten sive territory situated between the Wabash and Ohio, and commanding the navigation of the latter river for aaron burr. three hundred miles. In the same year the President organized the district of Mobile for the collection 2E 470 ADMINISTRATION OF THOMAS JEFFERSON. of duties on imposts and tonnage, having Fort Stoddert for the port of entry and delivery. In July, 1804, occurred the memorable duel between General Ha milton and the Vice-President, Aaron Burr. Certain offensive pub lications having appeared in one of the journals of the day, Colonel Burr suspected Hamilton of being the author, and in a letter required his acknowledgment or denial of the fact. Hamilton refusing to give either, received a challenge, accepted it, met Burr, and fell at the first fire. No similar event ever caused so much sensation through out the United States as the news of this fatal duel. By his great talents, powerful eloquence, and gentlemanly conduct, Hamilton h^d become the idol of the federal party, and' the admiration of all his countrymen. Extraordinary honours were paid to his memory, while for the future Burr was regarded with detestation. On the 4th of March, 1805, Mr. Jefferson entered upon his second term of office. Burr was succeeded in the Vice-Presidency by George Clinton, of New York. At this time the aggressions of Great Britain upon the seamen and com merce of the United States called for serious interference on the part of government. The strict neu trality maintained by Congress had secured, to our merchants a lucra tive and growing trade in the West Indies, which soon excited the envy of England. Many large vessels . trading to the French colonies were captured and condemned by the British. In May, 1806, some of the principal French ports were declared in a state of blockade ; while in November, of the same year, Napoleon issued his famous Berlin decree, declaring all the British islands under blockade. Neutral vessels were thus prohibited from trading with either country. At the same time England continued to search American ves sels, and impress their seamen into her own service. A most aggravated instance of this occurred in June, 1807. On the 6th of March previous, the British consul at Norfolk had demanded of Captain Decatur three of the Chesapeake's crew, deserters, as he alleged, from the British ship Melampus. On inquiry they were AFFAIR OF THE CHESAPEAKE. 471 S APE AKE. found to be native born Americans. On the 22d of April the Chesa peake sailed for the Mediterranean, under Commodore Barron ; but, after passing through the British squadron, she was stopped by the English ship Berkeley, and an officer sent on board demanding the three men. On his returning to the Leopard with a refusal of the demand, that vessel opened a heavy fire, which continued thirty minutes, when the Chesapeake struck her colours. She was then boarded, her crew mustered, and four men carried to the British vessel. The Chesapeake lost three men killed, and eighteen wounded ; and was so much injured in her hull and rigging as to be obliged to return to Hampton Roads. News of this outrage was received throughout the country with a burst of indignation. The inhabitants of Norfolk and Portsmouth passed unanimous resolutions discontinuing all communication be tween the shore and the British ships. At the same time two hun dred hogsheads of water, for the use of the squadron, were destroyed by the people ; and to the consequent threat of the English captain to stop all vessels trading to Norfolk, he was answered that peace or war was at his pleasure. On the 2d of July, the President issued a. proclamation forbidding communication with British armed vessels, 472 ADMINISTRATION OF THOMAS JEFFERSON. GENERAL WILKINSON. unless in distress or conveying despatches. They were interdicted from the waters of the United States, two thousand militia were ordered to the defence of Norfolk, and one hundred thousand to hold themselves in readiness for service. Congress was summoned to meet on the 26th of October. The American minister in London having demanded satisfaction for the insult, Berkeley's act was dis avowed ; yet he was shortly afterwards elevated to a mores important station. A singular and still unexplained event had taken place previous to this time, which for a while caused much sensation throughout the United States. This was the supposed treason of Aaron Burr. After his retirement from the political arena of the Union, he is said to have attempted the secession of the Western States, so as to form them into an independent nation; but failing, he endeavoured to per suade the settlers to invade Mexico. This received some encourage ment. He was, however, narrowly watched by government ; and General Wilkinson, commandant at New Orleans, having transmitted THE EMBARGO ACT. 473 to the President an account of the whole enterprise, Jefferson, on the' 27th of November, issued a proclamation forbidding all citizens to lend it their encouragement, and ordering the stoppage of the boats intended for the enterprise. Burr was arrested in the February fol lowing, and carried to Richmond for trial in the federal circuit court. On the 23d of June a true bill was found against him, and he was committed to prison, but permitted to remain at his hotel under a guard. His trial took place, August 3, 1805; and on the 31st he was acquitted, on the ground that his offence did not come under jurisdiction of the court. The growing difficulties with foreign powers enabled him to escape further prosecution, and he soon after sailed for England. In December, 1807, an embargo was imposed by government upon American vessels, forbidding them to leave their ports, for fear of capture. This law continued during the remainder o/ Jefferson's administration, but was very injurious to the eastern states, and ren dered the administration unpopular in that portion of the country. In 1808, Jefferson announced his intention of retiring from the presidential chair. The ensuing election gave the office of chief magistrate to James Madison, the candidate of the republican party, Mr. Clinton was re-elected for the Vice-Presidency. They were inaugurated March' 4, 1809 ; after which the ex-President retired to his seat at Monticello, where the evening of his life was passed amid the quiet of literary pursuits. 60 tomb op general hamilton. 2r2 JAMES MADISON. CHAPTER XXXIX. ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON. ]HE opposition to the embargo act of the late ad ministration was so decided, that one of the first acts of Congress after the inauguration of Mr. Madison was to repeal it, but at the same time prohibiting all intercourse with either France or England. Taking advantage of this measure, Mr. Erskine, the British ambassador, proposed an adjustment of the difficulties between the two nations on the basis of full satisfaction for the Chesapeake insult, with the restoration of her men, the withdrawal of the orders in council so far as they related to the United States ; the appointment of ari envoy extraordinary, with power to conclude a treaty respecting all the points at issue. This was ratified by the President, who immediately issued a proclama tion permitting the resumption of trade with Great Britain. But this pacific appearance was dispelled by news from England dis avowing the act of her minister, and ordering his recall. The Pre sident's proclamation was consequently revoked. Mr. Erskine was succeeded by Mr. Jackson. That gentleman, on being, asked by the Secretary of State why the British govern ment had disavowed the proceedings of his predecessor, answered that the latter had exceeded his instructions, and insinuated that the 474 AFFAIR OF THE LITTLE BELT. 475 American government had been aware of that fact at the time. ''This insulting language was noticed in energetic terms by the Secretary, but Jackson replied only by repeating the charge. This personage [minister Jackson] even went so far as to make this declaration for the third time. He was then informed that for the purpose of facili tating pacific overtures, no communication would in future be received from him. His government then recalled him, and at the expiration of a year and a half appointed Mr. Foster to succeed him. Before the arrival of Mr. Foster, another exciting event had occur red to threaten the prospects of amity and commerce with England. On the 16th of May, 1811, Commodore Rodgers, in the frigate Pre sident, came in sight of a vessel off the capes of Virginia. On com ing up with her in the evening, the commodore was unable to ascer tain her nation ; and, on hailing her ¦ On the afternoon of the 17th General Scott commenced a careful reconnoissance of the enemy's position. Before entering the ridge of cliffs known as the Cerro Gordo, the road crosses the bed of a once large stream known as the Plan del Rio. On the right was a high cliff covered with forts and batteries, and similar fortifications form ing a strong chain of defence. A front attack would have led to a total annihilation of the American forces, and upon this direction of assault Santa Anna had evidently calculated. But on the evening BATTLE OF CERRO GORDO. 569 of the 17th General Scott opened a new road through the chaparral to the right, so as to escape the fire in front, and turn the Mexican left flank. As General Twiggs's division then became greatly ex posed, Colonel Harney was sent against a fort on the steep ascent in front ; and, under a heavy fire of grape and musketry, carried it with the rifles and a small detachment of infantry and artillery. The two armies were now in view of each other ; but no further opera tions took place during the night, except the movement of Twiggs's division to secure a position favourable for opening the attack on the following day. r Early on the 18th Twiggs was ordered forward from the captured position against Santa Anna's main fort, while at the same time Gene ral Pillow assaulted the enemy's right, where La Vega was posted ; and Generals Shields and Worth seized upon the Jalapa road, so as to cut off all retreat. The van of Twiggs's division, under the intrepid Harney, moved up the steep ascent, although exposed to sweeping fires of cannon and musketry, and notwithstanding their severe loss, paused not until they had gained the works and leaped among the enemy. The ensuing struggle was but short, and the Mexicans were soon flying in all directions to gain the main road. They here experienced their greatest loss ; and one of their generals, Vasquez, was killed. During this time General Worth had been using great efforts to reach a fort in Santa Anna's rear, which was defended by General Pinzon, a mulatto officer of considerable ability and courage. This he accomplished soon after the victory of Twiggs's division, so that on being summoned to surrender, the gar rison thought it most prudent to comply. These successes were, however, dampened by the repulse of General Pillow from the bat teries commanded by La Vega. A renewal of the attack was attended by the same result, but the garrisons finally surrendered on ascertaining the fate of Santa Anna's position. On the Jalapa road, General Shields, while gallantly seconding the efforts of the main army, was dangerously wounded by a musket ball through the lungs, and carried senseless from the field. The command of his troops devolved on Colonel Baker, who pursued the enemy until late in the afternoon. Their loss during the flight was greater than while the battle lasted. In this action the force of the Americans was about eight thou sand men. The loss in killed and wounded was between four and five hundred, that of the Mexicans being nearly the same. More 72 3b2 570 CAMPAIGN OF GENERAL SCOTT. OOLONEL BASER. than three thousand prisoners were taken, together with Generals Pinzon, Jarrero, La Vega, Obando, and Noriega, with an immense quantity of field batteries, heavy ordnance, small arms and accoutre ments. The private baggage and money chest of Santa Anna, con taining about twenty thousand dollars in specie, were also captured. Santa Anna himself, with Ampudia and Canalizo, escaped by a pri vate pass, and gained the Jalapa road in rear of the Americans. Determined to render the rout of the enemy as complete as possi ble, General Scott pushed on his forces in haste along the Jalapa road. On the following day Twiggs entered Jalapa "without opposi tion ; and on the 21st the town and strong castle of Perote were taken by General Worth. Three weeks after, [May 15,] that active officer took possession of Puebla, which became for a while the head-quar ters of the American army. On the 18th of April, Commodore Perry entered the harbour of Tuspan with a portion of his fleet, attacked the town, and forced it to surrender, with a loss on his part of seventeen killed and wounded. GUERILLA WARFARE. 571 Santa Anna, after his defeat at Cerro Gordo, proceeded to the capital, which he reached on the 17th of May. He immediately collected into one the scattered fragments of the various armies dis persed throughout the country, and began an elaborate system of defence. Stirring appeals were addressed to the patriotism of the people', calling for men, money, and stores ; the aid of religious sen timent was invoked, and every means taken to rouse the country for one more great effort. The strong pass of the Rio Frio, considered one of the most dangerous in Mexico for an assailing army, was occupied by a considerable force, who erected there some works. About this period, also, the formidable, guerilla force scattered among the mountains and defiles, were authorized to commence their sys tematic operations against the Americans. A guerilla party was composed of lancers, rancheros, and highwaymen, mounted on horse back, and attacking small companies or trains as opportunity offered. The only code of war acknowledged by these guerillas was their own will ; so that the introduction of this system gave a peculiarly ferocious aspect to many of the scenes of 1847-8. At different times a number of these outlaws attacked persons upon the road from Mon terey and Vera Cruz to the capital, and frequently butchered them in a shocking manner. The Americans were not slow in retaliating. In a rancho near Seralvo a number of volunteers hung about forty Mexicans, and then secretly decamped. A young man named Oglesby having been murdered in returning from Camargo, a party of Texans pursued the murderers, overtook them, and put all to the sword. The most strenuous efforts were made by the authorities of both nations to prevent such horrible occurrences ; but the evil con tinued, with but little interruption, until the close of the war. On the 8th of June, a party numbering one hundred and fifty vo lunteers and citizens, under Captain Bainbridge, left Puebla for Vera Cruz. On approaching the Cerro Gordo, some of the officers were . fired upon, and the party were soon after informed that several thou* sand Mexicans were in the pass. Continuing to advance, they ascer tained that a detachment of the enemy were barricading the bridge; and although evening had already fallen, and they were excessively fatigued, yet a guard was posted below the bridge, in order to pre vent surprise. On the following morning the bridge was passed without opposition ; but when an officer and private soldjer returned to bring over the wagons, the whole train was fired upon by about twenty-five Mexicans, by which four men were killed, and a wagon 572 CAMPAIGN OF GENERAL SCOTT. taken. About the same time a body of lancers appeared on the opposite side, but rode away on perceiving that the captain was pre paring to receive them. The little company then pursued its way undisturbed until it arrived at the camp of Colonel Mcintosh, which was posted upon the road. . HIS officer, like Captain Bainbridge, had been attacked by a large force of the enemy, and was now waiting for reinforcements. The attack had lasted all night, and was successfully met only by the exertions of Captain Duperu's dragoons. After resting a day, Bainbridge again set out for Vera Cruz, which he reached in safety ; but Captain Duperu, having a long return train to guard, which was threatened by a large body of lancers, halted at Santa Fe. Here he was charged by a superior force, which he repulsed with but little loss to himself, although a few of the wagons were cut off, and their drivers captured. Soon after, he reached Vera Cruz in safety, having lost, in all, three killed and three wounded. On the same day that the party under Captain Bainbridge left Colonel Mcintosh's camp, General Cadwalader reached it with eight hundred men and two howitzers. On ascertaining that the train had been attacked, he marched for the National Bridge, where he soon came into action with a large Mexican force strongly posted behind ridges and chaparral. During the battle, some volunteers under Lieutenant Blakely charged and swept some barricades which had been thrown up by the enemy, while, at the same time, the heights on the right and left were also carried. General Cadwalader then crossed the bridge, but was annoyed during a great part of his march hy a flank and rear fire from several parties of guerillas. His loss was fifteen killed, and from thirty to forty wounded ; that of the enemy was about one hundred. During these attempts of the gue rillas, the Americans lost no less than thirty wagons, two hundred pack mules, and several thousand dollars in specie. It has already been mentioned, that soon after the battle of Cerro Gordo the Mexicans detached a military force to take possession of the Rio Frio pass, and fortify against the advance of the Americans. Why this was not done has yet to be explained ; but the neglect was ADVANCE UPON MEXICO. 573 certainly an egregious error on the part of Mexico. The gorge could have sustained a few courageous men against the efforts of an entire army ; and until the news of its having been passed by General Scott reached the United States, no little anxiety was felt in that country for the result. But so strangely negligent were the Mexicans, that even the works thrown up there were abandoned at the approach of the American forces. On the 4th of August General Scott's army commenced its march for the Mexican capital, moving by detachments. Owing to the preva lence of heavy rains, which rendered the roads almost impassable, the troops were unable to reach Ayotla before the 15th. About four miles in advance of this place was the strong fortification of El Penon, which mounted fifty-two pieces of cannon, was munitioned and garrisoned in the most careful manner, and completely commanded the road. A day was spent in reconnoiteringthis work, when the American commander resolved on avoiding it, by opening an old abandoned road leading to the southward around Lake Chalco towards the capital. This was cut up by ravines, lava beds, and rocks, to such an extent that in the rainy season it was regarded as impassable even for travellers ; yet around it the army marched with their baggage, artillery, and stores, and reached San Augustin on the 17th, after having dispersed a body of lancers on the way. On the afternoon of the following day General Worth's column was ordered towards San Antonio, and a company of engineers escorted by Captain Thornton began a careful recon- noissance of that place. While this was going on, the garrison fired from a masked battery, killing the captain and wounding one of the guides. The party were then withdrawn, while Colo nel Duncan's battery with some sappers and miners moved down the road to a position which would enable them to act in anj direction in case of emergency. On the American left was placed Colonel Smith's light battalion, for the purpose of watching the enemy's flank. Colonels Clark and Garland occupied other parts of the field. All these troops were without shelter, although a drench ing rain continued to fall all night. A portion of the first brigade, under General Worth, was stationed at a neighbouring hacienda, which, during the night, was exposed to the fire of the San Antonio batteries. Before morning the rain fell in such quantities that many of the companies were obliged to rise and remain standing until daylight. The Mexican posts around San Augustin presented a series of 574 CAMPAIGN OF GENERAL SCOTT. GENERAL TWIGGS. fortifications of great natural strength, carefully erected, and provided with every thing necessary to a successful resistance. Around it, in every direction, was an irregular valley, broken by rocks and gullies, and having the whole surface jagged with sharp points of lava. Among the rocks to the west was the fortress of Contreras, containing several thousand men, and, mounting twenty-two pieces of cannon. North of San Augustin were the still stronger works of Churubusco, and at short distances, those of San Angel and San Pallo; all filled with large garrisons and bristling with cannon and musketry. The city wall was one huge fortification. , On the 19th, Captain Lee, with Lieutenants Beauregard and Tower, continued the previous day's reconnoissance of the hostile lines. While this was going on, General Pillow, accompanied by the forces of Lieutenants Smith and Callender, was ordered toward Contreras. He advanced, opening the road step by step, until he reached an elevated position, from which the enemy's works were in view. He was soon joined by the advance under General Twiggs, BATTLE OF CONTRERAS. 575 GENERAL PIERCE. which moved forward, planting their batteries, and driving in the enemy's pickets. General Smith's brigade then proceeded to the left; and Colonel Riley's to the right, dragging their cannon with great difficulty over a surface apparently impassable to footmen. After the Americans had planted a howitzer battery under the care of Captain Magruderi they were fired upon by the enemy, who wounded Lieutenant Johnstone mortally, and Callender severely. So heavy was this fire, that the American batteries were soon after wards withdrawn. But at this time General Smith engaged the Mexican infantry outside the fort ; and at the same moment, the 'artillery gained a favourable position, and recommenced firing. On both sides, the cannonading became general, but that of the enemy at length obliged the battery of Captain Magruder to withdraw General Pierce, with his brigade, then advanced to support Smith 5*6 CAMPAIGN OF GENERAL SCOTT. TJW GENERAL SHIELDS. and Cadwalader to support Colonel Riley. On observing these movements, a large body of lancers advanced from Churubusco, and threatened Cadwalader's position ; but by order of General Pil low, Colonel Morgan, with the fifteenth infantry, advanced to Cad walader's support ; and General Scott arriving about the same time, detached the volunteers of General Shields for the same purpose. The left flank were now exposed to a heavy fire of the enemy, the troops rapidly pursuing a route evidently marked for them by the wily foe. To divert the attention of the enemy, a feint attack was conducted against Contreras, while General Smith, with some artil lery and rifles, fell back to Ensaldo, a village bordered on one side by a deep ravine, and on the other by a small stream of water. Between these extended a high stone wall. Narrow lanes intersected each other in various directions, cutting up the village in small por tions,, which are covered with flowers, shrubbery, and fruit trees. BATTLE OF CONTRERAS. 577 Here the American soldiers were posted, secure in a great measure from the fire or observation of the enemy. General Smith now resolved to attack the large cavalry force which had been hovering near the American troops all day. He was to be assisted by Riley and Cadwalader. But before the preliminary arrangements could be completed, night set in, rainy as before, so that the Mexican troops could not be seen. The attempt was aban doned, Cadwalader resumed his position at the edge of the village, and Riley's brigade was formed inside, together with the rifles and in fantry. In these positions they passed the night, destitute of both fires and shelter, although exposed to a drenching rain. The other divisions, of the army, including even General Scott and the higher officers, were equally destitute of shelter. During the night, General Smith formed a plan for capturing Contreras with the bayonet, and the necessary orders or instructions were communicated to his command about midnight. At three o'clock next morning, the general's division began its march. Im mediately after, General Shields arrived with his Volunteers, but generously declined assuming the command. His troops then moved into Ensaldo, so as to prevent the enemy occupying it in case of their being defeated. The storming party of Smith's brigade was led by Colonel Riley, supported by Generals Cadwalader and Smith. The intrepid colonel marched along the bed of the ravine, until he had arrived opposite the fort, when he ascended the bank, but was still protected from the opposing batteries by an elevation of ground. Mounting this, he was within full sweep of the Mexican artillerists, who immediately opened. But calling to his men to follow, and breasting the withering storm that fell on all sides, Riley rushed down the slope, followed by his brigade, and was soon upon the works. Cadwalader hurried to support him, and General Smith or dered a brigade to face to the left, and advance in line to attack the enemy's force in flank. The struggle was soon decided. The enemy fled on ail sides, and were attacked in their flight, and forced .to disperse in different directions. While hurrying toward the village of Ensaldo, they were fired upon by Shields's command, which had stealthily left the village and concealed itself near the line of retreat. The Americans commenced a rapid pursuit, which was continued with great effect, until the Mexican main body had succeeded in passing through a narrow defile, when one of theii officers drew up a number i of lancers at the pass, and surrendered. 78 3C 578 CAMPAIGN OF GENERAL SCOTT. GENERAL PILLOW. If, as is probable, this movement was designed to occupy the time of the pursuers until the fugitives could take refuge in Churubusco, it must be regarded as evincing as much sagacity as any measure adopted by the enemy during the war. The fruits of this victory were fifteen hundred prisoners, twenty- two pieces of -artillery, large quantities of ammunition and military stores, with a number of pack-mules. Among the prisoners were several officers of high rank. One of the most pleasing circum stances connected with the action, was the recapture of the two guns taken from General Taylor at Buena Vista. While the pursuit was going on, General Scott arrived at Con treras, and leaving a small garrison at that place, wifh instructions concerning the wounded and prisoners, he hurried on the main portion of the army toward the posts of San Angel and San Pallo. STORMING OF CHURUBUSCO. 579 The troops of Generals Twiggs, Shields, and Pillow, were all en gaged in this service. They soon overtook the rear of the Mexican forces, with which a sort of running fight took place until it had taken shelter in the fortress of Churubusco, where a garrison still larger than that of Contreras was preparing for one more struggle. Churubusco is a small village, surrounded, at that time, by a sys tem of stone walls, surmounted by a well-defended hacienda, which was in like manner overtopped by a church. The walls, hacienda, and church, were lined with sharp-shooters, and provided with pieces of heavy cannon. About four hundred yards from the village, a small stream was crossed by a bridge, the head of which, or tete dupont, forms a fortification so strong as to be considered by the Mexicans impregnable. As these works completely cross-fired the road, it was necessary to attack both at once. Accordingly, Twiggs was sent against Churubusco, Worth against the tete du pont, while Shields moved across the meadows in a direction parallel with the main (Acapulco) road, so as to cut off the enemy's retreat. Worth moved from San Augustin about eight a. m., and after com pelling the garrison of San Antonio to evacuate that place, he pushed rapidly for Churubusco. Twiggs's troops were already engaged at the main works, and as Worth's division moved toward the tete du pont, it received a galling fire from the Mexican guns at the walls and hacienda. At this time, vast bodies of the enemy were observed approaching from the city, while long columns of lancers and infantry were stationed at different points, for the purpose of annoying the assailants. The works at the bridge now opened their fire, filling the air with the reiterated shocks of cannon and musketry, the up roar of shouting thousands, and, at intervals, the deep groans of the dying. Worth now threw Colonel Garland's brigade to the right, where it entered some corn-fields, and soon dislodged the enemy from their- concealed position in that quarter. At the same time, Clarke's brigade, with Duncan's battery, moved to other points on the road, from whence it moved between Garland's and the road and then- rushing down upon the enemy's works, it mounted them, and cleared the artillery with the bayonet. So sudden and vigorous was this charge of the Americans, that instead of resisting, the Mexi cans threw down their arms and fled precipitately to the capital. The captured cannon were instantly turned upon the garrison of Churubusco. This position had, in the meanwhile, been vigorously assaulted by 580 CAMPAIGN OF GENERAL SCOTT. Twiggs, with his whole division ; but so strong were the works, and so determined the efforts of the enemy, that after three hours' hard fighting, no impression had been made. During all this time, the walls wore in one continuous blaze of artillery and musketry ; and so dense were the volumes of smoke, that both armies were often en tirely hidden from view, and guided in firing only by the flash of the opposing batteries. But after Worth's victory had enabled him to direct his guns upon the church" and hacienda, the vigour of the defence was sensibly diminished, and in half an hour the garrison gave way, and fled with precipitation toward the capital. They were pursued by Colonel Harney's dragoons to within a few yards of the capital. Worth and Twiggs then drew up their troops near the hacienda, to await orders from the general-in-chief. He soon arrived on the ground, and after complimenting tlie soldiers on their success, ordered further pursuit to be suspended for the night. Ex clusive of the garrison of Contreras, the enemy lost, on this memo rable day, twelve hundred prisoners, fifteen hundred killed or wounded, including many able officers — with cannon, equipments, small arms, and ammunition in proportion. Their whole army had been broken up, and the capital laid open to the mercy of the invaders. The whole loss of the Americans in killed, wounded and missing, was ten hundred and fifty-three. In this celebrated engagement the splendid " Palmetto Regiment," of South Carolina, suffered most severely, and their gallant commander, Col. Butler, fell, covered with wounds and with glory. At this time, such was the terror and confusion among all classes within the city, that General Scott could probably have entered it without much additional loss. But while writing a summons for its surrender, he was waited upon by a commission proposing a truce. Rejecting the terms, he despatched his contemplated note to Santa Anna, omitting the summons. Nothing further took place until the following day, when commissioners were appointed by both com manders, who, on the 23d, signed an armistice, preparatory to a permanent peace, and exchanged ratifications on the 24th. Nego tiations were immediately opened for the conclusion of a permanent peace. In the fortress of Churubusco, Sergeant Riley, with seventy others, who had deserted from the army, either before the war or at different periods of its progress, had been captured, while fighting bravely against their former comrades. These were tried by court-martial TAKING OF OHAPULTEPEC. 581 during the armistice, and a number of them having been found guilty of treason, were hung in the presence of both armies. The remainder, in consequence of having deserted before the opening of the war, had their punishment remitted to branding, public whipping, and impri sonment until the army should leave Mexico. During the armistice, Mr. Trist, the commissioner selected by President Polk to negotiate a peace, proposed to the Mexican authori ties that the disputed territory between the Nueces and Rio Grande, together with New Mexico and Upper California, should be yielded to the United States for the sum of fifteen millions of dollars. This was refused by the Mexican commissioners, who declined to yield any portion of their territory west of the Nueces. Mr. Trist then offered his ultimatum or final project on the subject of boundaries, and the negotiators adjourned to re-assemble on the 6th of September. No further communication took place between the armies until that day, when General Scott addressed a note to Santa Anna, accusing him of violating the terms of the armistice, by fortifying different works in the city, and threatening a resumption of hostilities in forty- eight hours, unless satisfactory explanation could be given. To this the Mexican general replied by charging the Americans with having obstructed the intercourse between the capital and surrounding country, and committed opprobrious deeds in the more interior towns and villages — at the same time intimating that General Scott might resort to hostilities whenever he wished. The armistice was at an end. The 7th was occupied by the American general in reconnoitering the extended line of works outside the city. The southern approaches to the capital were defended by works of astonishing strength, erected upon the wall and gates, and an intricate labyrinth of dikes, canals, ravines, ditches, and causeways, outside of the gates. Further to the west, was the hill of Chapultepec, surmounted by a strong castle and tower, and connected by heavy masonry works with the Casa Mata and founderies of Molino del Rey. The reconnoissance convinced General Scott that an attempt upon the city in this quarter would be attended with immense loss of life, and probably total failure. He therefore resolved to make a diversion to the gates on the south-west and west, and enter the city in that quarter. The first step in this new movement was to carry Chapultepec and Molino del Rey ; and a necessary requisite to final success was to deceive the enemy by a feint upon the southern gates, by which they might still be induced 3e2 582 CAMPAIGN OE GENERAL SCOTT. I MOLINO DEL RE Y 0 HAFULTEPEC IN THE DISTANOE. to retain the greater part of their cannon and other munitions in that quarter until the western defences were carried. Early on the 8th, General Worth was detached agairjst the Molino del Rey, with the brigade of Cadwalader in reserve. It was found necessary to isolate the works around Casa Mata from those of Cha pultepec, an undertaking of much difficulty and hazard. At day break, the army in two columns attacked simultaneously the Molino and Casa Mata. The troops rushed forward upon the former place, unshaken by the glare of batteries vomiting forth showers of grape and canister, until they had reached the works and driven back the artillerists with the bayonet. The field-battery was captured, and its guns trailed upon the retiring masses. A moment after, they rallied, and, supported by numbers of infantry, rushed toward the guns, pouring in a volley of musketry that struck down more than one-half of the victors. But after a vigorous struggle, they were driven out and pursued toward Chapultepec. Meanwhile, the 2d brigade, under Colonel Mcintosh, supported oy Duncan's battery, moved with equal steadiness against the Casa SIEGE OF MEXICO. 5S3 ¦¦¦Hi ffc InfBffB^' i«:.V ,".VV:* ¦" ' '\ 'T" ip" STORMING OF MOLINO DEL REY. Mata. The enemy's fire was so destructive, that although the troops moved under partial shelter, a large proportion of officers, with num bers of assistants and soldiers, were killed or wounded. But on reaching the slope of the parapet commanding the citadel, it was discovered that the Casa Mata, instead of being a simple field-work, as was hitherto supposed, was a strong Spanish fortress, surrounded by bastioned intrenchments and impassable ditches. Dismayed by this discovery, and confused by the loss of officers, the assailants fell into confusion, halted, and then fell back toward Colonel Duncan's position. At this critical moment, a large cavalry and infantry force assaulted the American left, but were driven back by the artillery, fol lowed by a vigorous charge of Major Sumner's dragoons. One-third of the latter were unhorsed by the fire of Casa Mata. Cadwalader's brigade now advanced to Worth's support, and the fortress was carried with the bayonet. In accordance with instructions, General Worth destroyed the walls, with most of the arms and ammunition, blew up the works, and returned to his head-quarters at Tacubaya. In this action, the most destructive to the Americans which they had yet experienced, their force was rather more than three thousands 584 CAMPAIGN OF GENERAL SCOTT. two hundred men. Of these, they lost seven hundred and eighty nine, including fifty-eight officers. ' The total force of the garrison was about fourteen thousand, and their loss, exclusive of deserters, three thousand. In order to carry out his plan of deceiving the enemy, General Scott placed Twiggs, with Riley's brigade, and Taylor's and Step- toe's batteries, at the southern gates, with orders to bombard that quarter, as though in preparation for a general attack. The 9th, 10th, and 1 1th, were occupied in making careful reconnoissances of the works on Chapultepec hill, a service conducted by the able engineers Stephens, Beauregard, Lee, and Tower. On the afternoon of the 11th, the divisions of Twiggs, Pillow, and Quitman were concen trated in view of the southern gates ; but during the night, the latter two generals, with their troops, were silently moved to Tacubaya, preparatory to the contemplated attack upon Chapultepec. Twiggs still remained in his former position. Early on the morning of the 12th, the American batteries opened upon the castle, while the divi sions of Pillow and Quitman were ordered to organize parties for the assault. The bombardment continued all day, the American guns being worked with such precision that soon the massive walls of Chapultepec began to crumble, while the rocks around were split into thousands of pieces by the incessant storm of), heavy shot. At the same time, the batteries from the castle were in full blast, imparting to the hill the appearance of a volcano in violent action. The scene attending this day's bombardment was grand and sub lime, beyond even that of Vera Cruz. On the morning of the 13th, sufficient impression had been made upon the walls to authorize the commencement of the attack. It was conducted in two columns, the first from Pillow's division, under Colonel Ransom, the second from that of Quitman, under Major Twiggs and Captain Casey. The castle was commanded by Gene ral Bravo, one of the bravest officers in the Mexican service. The cannonading of Chapultepec was continued without intermission, from dawn until 8 a. m., when its cessation was the signal for the movement of the storming parties. Pillow's division marched through a grove filled with sharp-shooters, clearing it as they advanced, and halting at the base of the hill. The storming party were in advance with fixed bayonets and empty muskets. At this crisis, Pillow was struck to the ground with a severe wound, and the command de volved on General Cadwalader. Ransom rushed forward into the STORMING OF CHAPULTEPEC. 585 COLONEL RANSOM. appalling shower of death hurled down by the- castle, calling on his men to follow. They followed him with loud cheers ; but in a few moments he fell dead, shot, through the brain, and the command fell upon Major Seymour. Undismayed by the death of their leader, and crowds falling on all sides, the soldiers clambered up the steep ascent, shouting the name of Ransom, and driving each other on ward. A small battery outside the castle was speedily taken, and the assailants sprang forward through showers of fire, to the ditch. During all this time, the American batteries were throwing shells and shot over the storming party into the fortress, so as to prevent the arrival of reinforcements from the city. The enemy made several unsuccessful attempts to fire the mines ; and soon after, the scaling-ladders of the Americans were flung up, and the troops poured in one united stream upon the walls. Many Americans, during the first onset, were hurled to the ground, and then ensued the terrible conflict with the bayonet. It was short and decisive ; the garrison fled down the hill in heavy masses, their flag was torn from its staff by Major Seymour, and the reiterated shouts of the 74 586 CAMPAIGN OF GENERAL SCOTT. MAJOR (HOW COLONEL) SEYMOUR. Americans announced that Chapultepec had been gained. Along with this party, Quitman's troops, led by the heroic Casey, had en tered. These troops had encotintered obstacles equal at least to those of their comrades, being obliged to fight along the whole dis tance of a causeway, cut up with ditches and batteries, and manned by great numbers of the enemy. But through obstacles apparently sufficient to appal the stoutest heart, Quitman cheered on his hardy followers, ably supported by General Smith and the rifles. Twiggs and Casey both fell mortally wounded. The troops then* leaped the causeway, and crossed the adjacent meadows, amid a tremen dous fire of musketry and artillery, and, notwithstanding heavy losses, reached the fort simultaneously with Seymour's party. A melancholy slaughter of the garrison took place, few of whom asked or received quarter. About one. hundred and seventy-five were taken prisoners. The last obstacle to the -final assault upon the capital had been removed. Two great roads lead from Chapultepec to the western entrances of Mexico — the San Cosme causeway, terminating in the San Cosme ATTACK UPON THE CITY. 587 ENERAL PERSIFOR Jr. SMITH. gate; and the Belen causeway, in the Belen gate. Immediately after the reduction of the castle, General Scott mounted to its top, and ordered Worth, with his two brigades, assisted by Cadwalader's, to advance along the San Cosme road, storm the gate, and enter the city ; while General Quitman conducted a feint upon the Belen entrance. Both these causeways were defended by batteries posted at well-chosen distances, and cpmpletely sweeping the road. Besides these, sharp-shooters were posted at small intervals, numerous ditches were cut across the road, at right angles with an aqueduct, which extended along its whole course, and every other obstacle thrown in the Americans' path. Immediately after the capture of the castle, Worth, with but one brigade, had begun his march towards the San Cosme gate, on ap proaching which he found a large body of Mexicans posted behind ditches and in houses. They at once opened a heavy fire of mus ketry. Cadwalader's brigade having now arrived, his howitzers 588 CAMPAIGN OF GENERAL SCOTT. GENERAL WORTH. were thrown forward, together with a party of skirmishers and pioneers, who speedily opened a way into the neighbouring buildings, driving out or capturing the enemy, and advancing under cover towards the city. In this manner, though exposed to tremendous fires, the division fought its way up to the gate, where, after a most obstinate struggle, the enemy's main fort was carried, and the assailants entered the city. At eight, p. m., Worth halted, posted sentinels, and ordered his men into quarters, determining to renew the assault on the morrow. Meanwhile Quitman had been pressing along the Belen causeway with such ardour as to convert his feint attack into a real one. During this advance he was exposed to one of the most tremendous fires- ever sustained by an American army; but, notwithstanding the reiterated commands of the general-in-chief to return, his troops poured on, springing from arch to arch between the enemy's volleys, and cap ENTRANCE INTO MEXICO. 589 turing one battery after another until they arrived at the Belen gate. At this formidable post a sanguinary conflict took place, in which the garrison were defeated, and the Americans rushed with loud shouts into the city. But directly in their front glared another battery flanked on each side by cross-fires, which soon compelled the assail ants to take refuge in the adjacent houses. Here the fight raged with fearful violence until night, when the Americans were ordered under shelter, and slept upon their arms. Many valuable lives, including those of Captain Drum and Lieutenant Benjamin, were lost during this assault. Having thus secured a foothold within the capital, General Scott determined to carry it by storm on the following morning. But at four o'clock, a. m., of the 14th, he was waited upon by a deputation from the authorities, requesting him to sign a capitulation in favour of the citizens, churches, and municipality. The general replied that he would agree upon no such terms ; but that the city being at his mercy, he possessed and would exercise the right of dictating what, in his judgment, would be considered best. It was soon discovered that Santa Anna and the army had evacuated the city. The Ameri can commander then declared that he would levy a contribution upon the citizens for the expenses of the army, but that the personal rights of all should be religiously observed. Orders were then issued to General Quitman to advance towards the Grand Plaza, and to Gene ral Worth to move as far as the Alameda, a green park some distance from the San Cosme gate. These movements were executed with alacrity. About eight o'clock, General Scott, with a brilliant staff, entered the city, in full uniform and accompanied by the remainder of the army. His arrival at the Grand Plaza was hailed by bursts of national music and the reiterated cheers of the soldiers, in which many of the Mexicans are said to have joined. Scarcely had the excitement of this scene subsided, and the Ame ricans begun to disperse, when a scattering fire was opened upon the army by several thousand convicts and others, many of whom had been turned from prison by the flying government for this very pur pose. Vigorous efforts were immediately made by General Scott and the authorities for the suppression of these outrages ; but this was not accomplished until many valuable lives had been lost, and parties despatched in all directions to blow up all houses from which shots would be fired. Thus was the famed capital of the Montezumas taken by a handful sn 590 CAMPAIGN OF GENERAL SCOTT. of men, so small as to startle him who attempts comparison with the enemy. The history of modern days has rarely narrated feats equal to those of this little army and their intrepid general. The number that marched from Puebla on the 7th of August is stated by the com mander at ten thousand seven hundred and thirty-eight rank and file. At Contreras and Churubusco, only. eight thousand five hun dred were engaged' with thirty thousand ; at Molino del Rey, thirty- two hundred and fifty were in the battle; while Chapultepec and the capital were taken by less than six thousand. The total loss in these battles was two thousand seven hundred and three, of whom three hundred and eighty-three were officers. "This, small, force," says the commander, in his official despatch to government, " has beaten on the same occasion's;' in view of the capital, the whole Mexican army of (at the beginning) thirty odd thousand men— posted always in chosen positions, behind intrenchments, or more formidable' de fences of nature and art ; killed or wounded of that number more than seven thousand officers and men ; taken three thousand seven hundred and thirty prisoners, one-seventh offipers, including thirteen generals, of whom three had been presidents of this republic; cap tured more than twenty colours and standards, seventy-five pieces of ordnance, besides fifty-seven wall pieces, twenty thousand small arms, an immense quantity of shot, shells, powder, &c. " Of that enemy once so formidable in numbers, appointments, artillery, &c, twenty odd thousand men have disbanded themselves in aespair, leaving; as is known, not more than three fragments,— the largest about two thousand five hundred,- — now wandering in different directions, without magazines or a military chest, and living at free quarters upon their own people." But the capture of the capital was not the actual close of the war. The Mexicans still persisted with astonishing, fortitude in bearing up against their loss, and using every means to drive out the inva ders. On the 13th of September, the garrison of Puebla, numbering about four hundred men, under Colonel Childs, were attacked by a large force of armed citizens, rancheros, and soldiers,; and a bombard ment was sustained until the 22d, when .Santa, Anna arrived with large reinforcements from the capital. . Great preparations were then made for assaulting the garrison, which had retired to the posts of San Jose, Loreto, and Guadalupe. On the 25th,iChilds was sum moned to surrender, but refused ; upon which the Mexican batteries were opened with increased violence upon San Jose, which now ENTRANCE OP THE AMERICAN ARMY INTO THE CAPITAL OP MEXICO. DEFENCE OF PUEBLA. 591 COLONEL OHILDS became the principal point of attack. This severe cannonade was heroically sustained by the garrison, who, notwithstanding the small- ness of their number, worked incessantly both in defending and strengthening their position. "A shower of bullets," writes the colonel, " was constantly poured from the streets, the balconies, the housetops and churches, upon their devoted heads. Never did troops endure more fatigue by watching night after night- — nor exhibit more patience, spirit, or gallantry. Not a post of danger could present itself, but the gallant fellows were ready to fill it. Not a sentinel could be shot, but another was anxious and ready to take his place. Officers and soldiers vied with each other to be honoured martyrs in their country's cause." On the 30th, Santa Anna received information that General Lane, having marched from Vera Cruz with a considerable force, was ad 592 CAMPAIGN OF GENERAL SCOTT. vancing rapidly to the relief of the garrison. He therefore marched with three thousand men to meet him. Taking advantage of this reduction of the besiegers' numbers, Colonel Childs resolved on a sortie from the works against some houses and barricades, whose fire had been extremely annoying. This was conducted by Captain Small and Lieutenant Morgan, who drove away the enemy with great loss, killing seventeen, and burning one hundred and fifty cotton bales, of which the work was composed, The bombardment con tinued until the 10th of October, when General Lane arrived with reinforcements, and the enemy retired. The siege had lasted forty days. General Lane had encountered the Mexican forces on the road from Vera Cruz. At the hacienda of Santa Anna he dispersed a party of guerillas, and another at the Paso de Ovejas. On approach ing the town of Huamantla, he learned that a large force was there col lected, with six pieces of artillery. At one o'clock the advance came in sight of the town, and were halted ; while Captain Walker, with his mounted men, were ordered to gallop forward and enter, should his force be sufficient. He found a party of the Mexicans drawn up in the plaza, with several pieces of cannon. Charging vigorously, he drove off the enemy after a severe struggle, and captured the pieces. In the subsequent pursuit, Major Iturbide, son of the Mexi can emperor, was captured. Unfortunately, the Americans now dis mounted, and scattered themselves around the square. Here they were unexpectedly charged by a body of lancers, and saved from de feat only by the skilful manoeuvring of their captain. Immediately after, the Americans entered the convent yard, where another action ensued, during which the gallant Walker was mortally wounded. When his death was announced, the soldiers burst into tears, and charged the lancers with such fury as to drive them-from the ground. Soon after, the American main body arrived, and completed the rout of the Mexicans. The latter lost one hundred and fifty men ; the Americans thirteen killed, eleven wounded. Lane remained at Puebla until the 18th of October, when he was informed that a body of the enemy, under General Rea, was at Atlixco, thirty miles distant. On the following morning, at eleven o'clock, he set out for that place ; and, after a forced march of five hours' duration, came in sight of the enemy's advance at Santa Isa bella. The cavalry were thrown forward to charge, when the Mexi cans fell back to a small hill, and fought with great resolution until NEGOTIATIONS FOR PEACE. 593 the arrival of the American infantry, when they broke and fled. A running fight over several miles ensued, until the Mexican main army was observed posted on a side hill, behind rows of chaparral fences. The cavalry again charged, and a close conflict ensued, which was again terminated by the arrival of the American infantry and artillery. The retreating mass was pursued to the city, when, night having arrived, Lane halted his troops, and prepared for a bombardment. This was conducted by the bright light of a full moon for about an hour, with great destruction of life and property to the town. It was then surrendered by the city council. The American loss was one killed, one wounded ; that of the enemy more than five hundred. After destroying or appropriating such arms and ammunition as could be found, Lane returned on the following day to Puebla. t On the 15th of October, Captain Lavalette, with three vessels, entered the port of Guymas, and summoned the town to surrender. This being refused, a bombardment was commenced on the 20th, which, after continuing, more than an hour, with much loss of pro perty, brought the inhabitants to terms. Lavalette then issued a proclamation claiming the post and town for the United States, and establishing over it a territorial government. The port of Mazatlan was captured by another portion of the squadron about the same time. Not long after, General Lane captured the town of Matamora. At this period of the war the various guerilla bands had become exceedingly troublesome, frequently cutting off all communication between different portions of the army, and sometimes capturing portions of the specie and ammunition trains. In November occurred the unfortunate difficulties between General Scott and his officers, which submitted the conduct of several to a military investigation, and caused the main command to devolve upon General Butler. Previous to the recall of General Scott he had laid before the Mexican authorities [January, 1848] the basis of a treaty, by which he hoped to restore peace to the two countries. They appointed Lewis G. Cuevas, Bernardo Conto, and Miguel Atristain, commis sioners, to confer with Mr. Trist, the American envoy, at Guadalupe Hidalgo. After a somewhat tedious negotiation, these gentlemen signed a treaty of " peace, friendship, limits, and settlement," be tween the United States of America and the Mexican republic. On the 10th of March it was passed, with some few alterations, by the 75 3d 2 594 ADMINISTRATION OF < JAMES K. POLK. United States Senate, signed by President Polk, and transmitted through Mr. Sevier to the Mexican Congress, then assembled at Queretaro. That body agreed to the alterations on the 25th of May ; and thus, after a duration of two years, the war, of which both nations were heartily tired, was terminated. The treaty ac knowledges the Rio Grande as the boundary of Texas, secures to the Americans the fine harbour of San Francisco, with the gulf trade, together with the territories of New Mexico and Upper Cali fornia, for the sum of fifteen millions of dollars. News of peace was received in the city of Mexico, and other places, with the ring ing of bells, the firing of cannon, and other demonstrations of joy. The remainder of the month, with part of June, was occupied by the American commander in removing the troops and national stores from Mexico to the United States. Before ,the close of the latter month, the Mexican territory had been entirely evacuated by its former conquerors. 'HE events of the Mexican war led the way to a [political revolution at home. In relation to military affairs in Mexico, the course pursued by the ad ministration, whether judicious or not, was severely criticised by some of their political adversaries. The government was even said to be jealous of the , rising popularity of those great leaders, Generals Taylor, and Scott, and was accused of playing' with the former the part of David in the case of Uriah, in depriving him of his forces, when Santa Anna was advancing upon him with twenty thousand men, and thus leaving him exposed to almost certain de struction. This accusation is too absurd to merit a serious refuta tion. The anxiety of the country for the safety of the brave old man and his little band of heroes was, however, intense; and, from day to day, the most melancholy tidings were expected. What, then, is the effect when the first intelligence of the glorious victory of Buena Vista arrives in the United States ? The whole country is perfectly electrified. If the battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma, and the capture of Monterey, were sufficient to establish his reputation, what wonder that the people should now almost adore the man who, with means so slender, could accomplish results so wonderful! "No other general,", it was repeated, "would have dared to fight the battle, and no other could have won it." General Taylor was firmly seated in the affections of the American people, ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK. 595 and enjoyed a popularity little, if at all inferior to that of General Jackson. N the 7th of June, 1848, while the country was still ringing with the fame of Taylor's victories, a J Whig National Convention was held at Philadel- Iphia, to nominate candidates for the Presidency and Vice-Presidency. The principal names were those of General Taylor, General Scott, and Henry jClay, of Kentucky. On the evening of the 6th, a Taylor meeting was held in Independence-square, and attended by nearly fifteen thousand people. Many of the delegates to the National Convention had already arrived, and' were present at this immense gathering. The Convention met next morning, and, after a severe struggle, nominated General Taylor for the Presidency, and Millard Fillmore, of New York, for the Vice-Presi dency. The nomination was a wise one, and was made at a fortu nate moment. The superior availability of a successful military leader, even long after his most brilliant exploits, had been suffi ciently proved in the election of General Jackson, and in that of General Harrison. In the present instance, the whigs were fur nished with a military chief, and with a popular excitement ready- made to their hands. The democrats had held their National Con vention on the 21st of May, at Baltimore, the result being the nom- . ination of Lewis Cass, of Michigan, for the Presidency, and General W. 0. Butler, of Kentucky, for the Vice-Presidency. In this con vention two sets of delegates from two separate conventions in the State of New York" claimed seats, and were both admitted. This displeased both parties, and they withdrew, leaving the important State of New York unrepresented. The friends of Mr. Van Buren in that State, claiming that the action of the convention was not binding upon them, assembled at Utica, and nominated him for the Presidency. This led to his renomination by the Free-Soil National Convention at Buffalo soon after, when his name was formally as sociated with that of Charles F. Adams, of Massachusetts. But nothing could withstand the enthusiasm of the people for the heroic Taylor. It might have been said that it was uncertain whether the General was a whig or not, that the war was unpopular, and that Mr. Clay could not, without the rankest ingratitude, be de prived of the benefit of the powerful reaction in favour of whig prin ciples — principles which he had long defended with so much firm- 596 ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK. ness and ability. Yet, if any of the whigs desired to retrace their steps, it was found to be too late. They could not allay the excite ment which they had so easily originated. In this party struggle, however, the intemperate enthusiasm of some former political cam paigns was not manifested. The election in November decided the contest in favour of the whigs. On the 14th of February, 1849, |the votes of the electoral colleges were counted, when it appeared that the whole number was two hundred and ninety ; of which one hun dred and sixty-three were for Taylor and Fillmore, and one hundred and twenty-seven for Cass and Butler. !R. POLK'S message to the last Congress which ! convened under his administration, is a most ele- jgant and masterly document. We quote from it Inhe following interesting passage in relation to the I Mexican war : " One of the most important results of the war into which we we're recently forced with a neighbouring nation, is the demonstration it has afforded of the military strength of our country. Before the late war with Mexico, European and other foreign powers entertained imperfect and erroneous views of our physical strength as a nation, and of our ability to pro secute war, and especially a war waged out of our own country. They saw that our standing army on the peace establishment did not exceed ten thousand men. Accustomed themselves to maintain in peace large standing armies for the protection of thrones against their own subjects, as well as against foreign enemies, they had not conceived that it was possible, without such an army, well disci plined, and of long service, to wage war successfully." Again he says : " Our citizen-soldiers are unlike those drawn from the popu lation of any other country. They are composed indiscriminately of all professions and pursuits ; of farmers, lawyers, physicians, merchants, manufacturers, mechanics, and labourers ; and this, not only among the officers, but the private soldiers in the ranks. Our citizen-soldiers are unlike those of any other country in other re spects. They are armed, and have been accustomed from their youth up to handle and use fire-arms ; and a large proportion of them, especially in the western and newly-settled States,, are expert marksmen. They are men who have a reputation to maintain at home by their good conduct in the field. They are intelligent, and there is an individuality of character which is found in the ranks of ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK. 597 no other army. In battle, each private man, as well as every officer, fights not only for his country, but for glory and distinction among his fellow-citizens when he shall return to civil life." rJJ' HE 30th Congress closed its session on the 4th of March. A new and important department, called the Home Department, had been created, assuming certain branches of business formerly belonging to the State and Treasury Departments, and thus greatly relieving the officers at the head of these departments. California, 'up to this time, had not been fur nished with a provisional government. The Territory of Minnesota, formed from portions of Iowa and Wisconsin, claiming that it was entitled to be regarded as the Territory of Wisconsin, proceeded, after the admission of the .latter to the Union, to elect a delegate (Hon. H. H. Sibley) to represent them in Con gress. He was permitted to take his seat, and before the close of the session of 1848-9, a bill was passed establishing the territorial government of Minnesota, and defining the boundaries of the Terri tory. Hon. Alexander Ramsay was appointed Governor of the Territory, and the first assembly met in the fall of 1849. The prin cipal settlements in Minnesota are St. Pauls. St. Anthony, Still water, and Mendota. In 1850, the territory contained a population of -6,011, and an area of 83,000 square miles. The Presidential term of James K. Polk expired on the 3d of March. Mr. Polk's private character was unexceptionable. Cal umny never even attempted to tarnish his spotless reputation. Though somewhat reserved, his manners were plain and unsophis ticated. Soon after his arrival at Nashville, he removed with his family to his new and elegant mansion at Grundy's Hill, in the very heart of that beautiful city. Here he employed himself in improv ing and embellishing his house and grounds, assisted by Mrs. Polk, upon whose exquisite taste in such matters he greatly relied. He was in the prime of life, had occupied various public stations, and had just retired from the highest office in the gift of his fellow- citizens — the highest office in the world. In June, the unexpected tidings of his. death were spread through the country. While on his way from New Orleans to Nashville, in March, 1849, he was attacked with diarrhoea, from which, however, he shortly recovered. About the 1st of June, he had a slight attack of fever, produced by over-exertion in arranging the books of his library. This was soon 598 ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK. attend' d with diarrhoea, which with him had been a- chronic disease for many years. For several days no danger was apprehended ; but the disorder soon assumed a more threatening aspect, and on the 15 th of June, in spite of the skill and vigilance of his physicians, terminated in death. In his last hours, he professed his faith in the gospel, and received the rite of 'baptism at the hands of R^j v. Mr. McFarren, of the Methodist denomination. HATE VER may be the merit of this adminis- I tration, it cannot be denied that it was conducted with great ability, and secured to the Unhed # States those territorial accessions whose value •^can hardly be overrated even by the wildest imagination. Who can tell the influence which the discovery of the golden regions of California must exert upon the prosperity of our republic, and, We might almost say, upon the destiny of the world itself ? It will aid greatly in securing a solid basis for the currency of the country. The richest mines in the world, those of California and Australia, have, almost at the same time, come under the control of its two most powerful nations — a coincidence which serves to maintain a balance or equality of wealth and power between those nations, thus affording additional security for the peace and harmony of both. A brief description of the newly-acquired territories will, we trust, prove acceptable to our readers. An account of the discovery of California, and a sketch of its early history, have already been given in a former part of this work. [See p. 112.] Upper or New California is bounded on the north by the 42d par allel of latitude, which divides it from Oregon ; on the east, by the Sierra Anahuac and the Sierra de los Mimbres, continuations of the Rocky Mountains ; on the south, by Old or Lower California and Sonora; and on the west, by the Pacific Ocean. Its extent from north to south is about 700 miles, and from east to west from 500 to 800 miles, its area being about 400,000 square miles. About 150 miles from the coast, and running nearly parallel with it, is the Sierra Nevada, a range of mountains higher than the Rocky Moun tains. Their more elevated peaks are white with perpetual snow. Between these and the ocean, and about fifty miles from the coast, is another parallel range, called the Coast Range. The valley be tween them is the most fertile portion of the country. Between the Sierra Nevada and the eastern boundary of the whole region, lies the CALIFORNIA. 599 Great Basin, five hundred miles in diameter, four or five thousand feet above the ocean, having the general character of a desert, and enclosed on all sides by mountains. The Maritime Region, west of the Sierra Nevada, is, •according to Colonel Fremont, the only part to which the name California applies, in the current language of the country. " It is the occupied and inhabited part, and so different in character — so divided by the mountain wall of the Sierra from the Great Basin above — as to constitute a region to itself, with a structure, configuration, soil, climate, and productions of its own." Looking westward from the summit of the Sierra, we behold the long, low valley of the Joaquin and Sacramento rivers — a valley lying along the base of the Sierra, and bounded on the west by the low coast range of mountains which separate it from the sea. The valleys of the Sacramento and San Joaquin form one valley, but each is named from the river which traverses it. The Sacramento traverses the northern, and the San Joaquin the southern valley. They unite at their entrance into the Suisun, or upper Bay of San Francisco, within the limits of tide water, and make, as a late ex cellent writer remarks, " a continuous water line" from One end of the great valley to the other. The valley of the Sacramento is divided into upper and lower, the former being farther up the river, and some thousands of feet higher, than the latter. The upper is about one hundred miles in length, the lower about two hundred. The former is heavily timbered, and its climate and productions correspond to its elevation. The valley of the San Joaquin is, in general, but a few hundred feet above the sea. The Sacramento river is navigable to the rapids, two hundred miles from its mouth. (AN Francisco Bay has been celebrated ever since , its discovery as one of the best harbours in the world. ¦ It is separated from the sea by low ranges of moun tains, through which is a single entrance, resem bling a mountain pass. It is seventy-five miles in length from north to south, or about thirty-seven on ; each side of the entrance. The head of the bay is about forty miles from the entrance. By projecting points, it is subdivided into three bays, of which the northern two are called the San Pablo and Suisun Bays. The water in the bay is sufficiently deep for the largest ships ; and here, perhaps, all the vessels of the world might ride in safety. There are numerous small lakes in California. Lake Buena 600 CALIFORNIA. Vista, one of the sources of the San Joaquin, is about eighty miles in length and fifteen in breadth. About sixty miles north of the Bay of San Francisco, is a lake called by the Californians the La- guna. It is about fifty miles in length. The valleys in its vicinity are highly fertile, romantic, and beautiful. Near this lake is a mountain of pure sulphur. jOLORADO, or Red River, is the largest river of Upper California. Running nearly 1,000 miles, for the most part between the south and southwest, it empties into the Gulf of California, in latitude about 32° north. It has several large tributaries, "the largest and lowest of which — the Gila — enters it from kthe northeast, a little above its mouth. Little is known of i the region through which the Colorado flows. From the 'reports of trappers, it would seem that the river, through a large portion of its course, is hemmed in by high mountains and precipices, and that the adjacent country is arid, sandy, and barren. The most interesting section of California is the valley of the Sacramento — a tract already celebrated throughout the world for its placers, or deposits of gold. ' Sutter's Fort, in the vicinity of which, we believe, the first known discoveries of the precious metal were made, is about forty miles up the Sacramento. The gold region lies along the foot hills of the Sierra Nevada, and reaches upon these hills about five hundred miles in length, and thirty or forty in breadth. The streams which flow from the Sierra into the San. Joaquin and Sacramento rivers, are from ten to thirty miles, distant from each other. They have many tributaries, are wild and rapid in their descent from the mountains, but become more tranquil upon entering the plains below. To the banks and bars of these moun tain streams, and the channels of the gorges which intersect them, and through which the streams are forced when swollen by the winter rains, the alluvial deposits of the metal are chiefly confined. This, according to Mr. Colton, seems to be a general law with re-' gard to these deposits in California. We are not aware that any geological theory has been, or can be, of any service to the gold. hunter. In the opinion of the writer just mentioned, the only laws of any value in reference to alluvial deposits, are the one just men tioned, and the law, that a heavy body Will tumble down hill faster than a lighter one, or that a nut shaken from a tree will drop through CALIFORNIA. 601 the fog to the ground. The surface-gold of California will probably never be wholly exhausted. Will the gold-bearing quartz rocks fail to yield the precious ore 1 This is the great question which time alone can fully solve. It is the opinion of some eminent men that gold-bearing quartz occupies a broad vein through the whole extent of the foot range of the Sierra. Gold, in the shape of small, delicate scales, is sometimes found in the slate rocks. One lump of gold, perhaps the largest ever found in California, weighed twenty-three pounds, was nearly pure, and of a cubical figure. UICKSILVER is one of the most important min eral products of this wonderful country. Several ^localities are already known; but the richest is Forbes's mine, about sixty miles from San Jose. At this mine, with a few labourers, and two com mon iron kettles for smelting, they have already quicksilver to a very large amount, and had, not long 'since, two hundred tons of ore awaiting the smelting process. The effect of these rich mines of quicksilver upon the wealth and commerce of the world, if kept from the hands of monopolists, can hardly be overrated. Mines of silver, also, are known to exist in the mountains of the gold region. The climate of the coast is unpleasant, at least, if not unhealthy. The seasons are variable. The usual period of rain is from November to April inclusive ; but in some years it is very abundant, while in others it is very sparing, and several consecutive years sometimes pass away with scarcely any rain. The southern coast of Upper California is hot and dry, except for a short time in the winter. The length of the wet season increases as we proceed northward ; and, about the Bay of San Francisco, the rains are nearly constant from November to April, and fogs and heavy dews moisten the earth and nourish vegetation for the rest of the year. California is subject to long droughts, two years pften bringing scarcely any rain ; yet vegetation does not suffer so greatly as might be expected, because it is sustained bythe fogs of the latter part of the night, and because the numerous mountain streamlets afford the means of natural and artificial irrigation/ But glittering sands and glowing mines are not the only gifts which Nature has lavished upon this delightful land. Yet her sparkling streams and verdant vales, hei golden grain waving to the zephyrs, her blushing fruits and beauts ful flowers, had little or no charms for the great world, until she T6 SE 602 CALIFORNIA. appeared arrayed in a gilded robe — but, then, what a change ! Emigrants rush from every civilized' nation upon earth. Fifty thousand eager hunters for gold, of every hue and language, soon cover the slopes of the great Sierra. Even the inhabitant of the Celestial Empire, where emigration has been a crime, has found his way thither. Neither distance, nor the dangers of the deep, nor the diseases of tropical climates, nor even the infirmities of age, re strain the sordid, or the needy, or the ambitious adventurer from the dazzling but doubtful enterprise. What wonder that these emi grants should soon, like the people of Romulus, find themselves a nation of men alone ? When disease shows its pale face, it must not be relieved by the tenderness and soothing care of woman. The home of the heart, which she alone can make — the home where fall the heavenly dews pf sympathy, is not there. Many evils, too, were incident upon the great diversity of character among the emigrants, especially before any regular government had been organized in the territory. But these evils are gradually diminish ing, and, ere long, will probably disappear for ever. Thousands, every month, are passing to and from California. Her growth seems the work of enchantment ; yet her government and institu tions are fast settling down to an orderly and permanent condition. The population of California in 1850 is supposed to have been 180,000. Flourishing towns and cities spring up as if by magic. Such are Benicia, Sacramento City, Sutter, Vernon, Boston, New York, Stockton, Alvezo, Stanislaus, Sonora, and Crescent City, some of which already give promise of future greatness. San Francisco has suffered greatly from fires. That of the 3d of May, 1850, was peculiarly terrific and destructive. Originating in the careless act of an individual in a paint shop, it did not cease until the city was almost wholly laid in ashes. Its progress was most appalling. The finest hotels, the most substantial warehouses, the theatre, the museum, and every newspaper establishment but one fall a prey to the devouring element. Every countenance is the picture of horror. Thousands are turned into the streets almost without notice, and without saving even a suit of clothes. Houses of wood vanish like frostwork, those of brick are "batteries of flame," pouring forth " immense jets from their windows and doors," while f iron and zinc curl up like the scorched leaves of the forest." The loss of pro perty is estimated at from ten to fifteen millions of dollars. Ten or CALIFORNIA. 603 twelve lives were lost, and about twenty persons injured, some of them very severely. IUT such is the energy of its inhabitants that, I almost before the smoke of the ruins has cleared |away, the wonderful city begins to rise like a phoenix. Ere long, scarcely a trace of the destruc tion remains, and prosperity again smiles in San | Francisco — the city destined, in spite of competition, wind, and flame, to be the great commercial emporium of Cali fornia. A San Francisco journal, of March 5, 1850, speaks of the terrible increase of crime, of all degreed, from petty theft to murder, and the pretty general belief that the laws, as they had been administered, would afford but little security to life and pro perty. The people, therefore, had arisen in various parts of the State, and constituted a new court, for the immediate trial of offenders. In Sacramento, an inoffensive man, for endeavouring to separate two combatants, was shot down in the midst of a crowd. The people at once avenged the deed by constituting a court of their own, trying the murderer, and hanging him. " Lynch law," says the journal above mentioned, " is not the best law that might be, but it is better than none ; and so far as benefit is derived from law, there is no other here." On the 10th of June, 1851, a similar ex hibition of popular vengeance was witnessed at San Francisco. The city had long been infested with numerous desperadoes, banded together, in many instances, for the prosecution of their criminal designs. It was very difficult to detect them, and, even when they were discovered, next to impossible to secure their conviction and adequate punishment. In this state of things, many of the leading citizens had formed themselves into a detective and protective force, and maintained a regular organization as such. On the night in question, John Jenkins, said to be a native of London, was caught in the commission of a heavy robbery. He was at once arraigned before the committee alluded to, tried, convicted, and sentenced to be hung. The sentence was executed the same night, in the pres ence of an excited multitude of citizens ; and the rising sun shone upon the dead body of the robber dangling from the corner of a building on the public square. We have already remarked, in sub stance, that a better state of things now prevails in California. 604 CALIFORNIA. FACRAMENTO City has Deen once inundated by the Rio Americana. " It came," says Mr. Colton, " upon the inhabitants like a thief in the night; they had only time to jump from their beds ; the roaring flood was at their heels : some reached the shipping, and some sprung into the tops of the trees." A levee has since been built to exclude the water from the city. With regard to the extent of the newly racquiredi. territo ries, it may be remarked that Oregon, California, New Mexico, and Texas, constitute a territory more than half as large as that owned by the United States previous to their acquisi tion. These four tracts contain 763,559,040 acres; the other States and territories contain 1,318,126,058 acres. The territory of our republic is now nearly as large- as the1 whole of Europe. The Mis sissippi, so lately its frontier, is now its great central river. No one, we think, will dispute the assertion of Mr. Polk, that the ac quisition of California and New Mexico, the settlement of the Oregon boundary, and the annexation of Texas, extending to the Rio Grande,' are results which, combined, are of greater consequence, and will add more to the strength and wealth of the nation, than any which have preceded them since the adoption of the Con stitution. <-£1^l-~- 605 CHAPTER LIV. ADMINISTRATION OP TAYLOR. 'HE inauguration of General Taylor would have | taken place on the 4th of March as usual, but as ' that day was the Sabbath, it was deferred until the 5th, when the new administration was organized with highly impressive ceremonies. The Senate was convened at eleven o'clock ; and its future | presiding officer, Mr. Fillmore, delivered a brief address, from which we extract the following interesting passages : " It will not, I trust, be deemed inappropriate to congratu late you upon the scene now passing before us. I allude to it in no partisan aspect, but as an ever-recurring event contemplated by the Constitution. Compare the peaceful changes of chief mag istrates of this republic with the recent sanguinary revolutions in Europe. There, the voice of the people has been heard only amid the din of arms and the horrors of domestic conflict ; but here, in our own favoured land, under the guidance of our Constitution, the resistless will of the nation has, from time to time, been peacefully expressed by the free suffrages of the people, and all have bowed in obedient submission to their decree. The administration which but yesterday wielded the destinies of this great nation, to-day quietly yields up its power, and, without a murmur, retires from the capitol. " I congratulate you, Senators, and I congratulate my country, upon these oft-recurring and cheering evidences of our capacity for 606 ADMINISIRATION OF TAYLOR. self-government. Let us hope that the sublime spectacle which we now witness may be repeated as often as the people shalf desire a change of rulers, and that this venerated Constitution and this glorious Union may endure forever." FTER the president elect, with the ex-president, vand committee of arrangements, had entered the ' senate-chamber, a procession was formed, and, pas- ' sing through the rotunda, arrived at the eastern por- ftico of the capitol. Upon a staging above the stairs of the portico, and in presence of at least twenty thousand people, General Taylor delivered, with a remarka bly distinct utterance, and with full and clear emphasis, his admirable inaugural address — a plain, sensible, well-written document, which, for its brevity and elegance, is a model worthy of all future imitation. In the discharge of . his manifold duties, he said that his guide would be the Constitu tion, for the interpretation of which he should look to the decisions of judicial tribunals established by its authority, and to the practice of the government under the earlier presidents, who had so large a share in its formation. He regarded himself, as chosen by the peo ple, under the assurance that his administration would be devoted to the welfare of the whole country, and not to the support of particular sections, or merely local interests. He should recommend to Con gress such constitutional measures as might be proper for the pro tection of agriculture, commerce, and manufactures, the improvement of rivers and harbours, the speedy extinction of the public debt, the maintenance of 'strict accountability on the part of all the officers of the government, and the observance of the utmost economy in all public expenditures. " In conclusion," says General Taylor, " I congratulate you, my fellow-citizens, upon the high state of prosperity to which the good ness of Divine Providence has conducted our common country. Let us invoke a continuance of the same protecting care which«has led us from small beginnings to the eminence we this day occupy, and let us seek to deserve it by prudence and moderation in our councils ; by well-directed attempts to assuage the bitterness which too often marks unavoidable differences of opinion ; by the promulgation and practice of just and liberal principles ; and by enlarged patriotism, which shall acknowledge no limits but those of our own wide-spread republic." ADMINISTRATION OF TAYLOR. 607 HE oath of office was next administered by Chief Justice Taney. At the close of the inaugural cere monies, the roar of artillery resounded from one end of the city to the other. The Senate had been summoned by Mr. Polk to meet upon that day, and aid in the organization of the new government. On the 6th, General Taylor submitted his nominations for members of the Cabinet, and his nominations were duly confirmed, viz., John M. Clayton, of Delaware, Secretary of State ; William M. Meredith, of Pennsylvania, Secretary of the Treasury ; Thomas Ewing, of Ohio, Secretary of the Home Department; George W. Crawford, of Georgia, Secretary of War ; William B. Preston, of Virginia, Secretary of the Navy ; Reverdy Johnson, of Maryland, Attorney General; and Jacob Collamer, of Vermont, Postmaster General. The removals from office were fewer than under some former Presidents, the old General being resolutely op posed to such removals, when designed merely as proscriptions — thus taking a position with which some of his former supporters were very much dissatisfied. One of the important diplomatic acts of General Taylor's adminis tration, was the negotiation of a treaty with Great Britain for the construction of a ship canal between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Its perpetual freedom is guaranteed to all nations upon just and equal terms. This measure is one of the most important steps taken in the march of human improvement during the present century. The conditions of the treaty exhibit that enlightened and enlarged spirit of national philanthropy which does great honour to Mr. Clayton and Sir Henry Bulwer, the British minister to the United States. In connection with the miraculous growth of California, and the im mense emigration to that country, as well as in other relations, what must be the effects of this treaty upon the iihprovement and pros perity of the civilized world ! During this year, the awful fatality, which marked the progress of the Asiatic cholera, excited almost universal consternation. Pur suing a direction contrary to that of 1832, it reached our shores at the southwest, and for a long time committed the most dreadful rav ages in Louisiana, Texas, and Mexico, and in the valleys of the Mis sissippi and Ohio, before it made its appearance at the North. In appalling numbers the people fell before the dreadful scourge, the fatal results being no doubt multiplied by the inexperience of the 608 ADMINISTRATION OF TAYLOR. physicians in this disease, and by fear, improper diet, and that want of cleanliness which is, ih some measure, unavoidable by the poorer classes in all our cities. Its malignancy at St. Louis, Cincinnati, Louisville, and the smaller towns upon the Mississippi and Ohio, is unparalleled in the history of modern epidemics. In the jatter part of November, 1848, it appeared at San Francisco, and many a young man from the States, while far away from his home and his kindred, fell a victim to the terrible destroyer. Business, in many places, suffered greatly from the prevalence of the disease. In a few weeks it gradually abated, and in the following month entirely disappeared. On the 14th of May, it broke out in New York city, the first cases occurring at a place celebrated for its filth, vice, and destitution. During the week ending on the 21st of July, 714 per sons died of cholera in the city of New York. The-w-hqle number of deaths was 5017 ; the whole number of cases is unknown. * N view of this fearful visitation, the President recom mended that the first Friday in August be observed throughout the nation as a day of fasting and prayer. New York and the Atlantic cities were relieved from the cholera in the fall ; but it still lingered in the southwest, and, even in the fall of 1850, raged more ?or less severely at various places in that portion of the Union. It had been, for some time, rumoured that an armed expedi tion against Cuba was contemplated in the United States. In August, 1849, the President issued a proclamation, warning the citizens of the republic against engaging Un an enterprise " so grossly in violation of our laws and treaty obligations." What effect this proclamation had in preventing such ' attempts for the future, will be seen in a subsequent part of this chapter. The rapid growth and brilliant prospects of California, her adop tion of a constitution by which slavery was to be forever excluded from her territory, and her intended application for admission into the Union, produced the most intense excitement in every section of the country. Men looked forward with unusual interest to the meet ing of Congress. The anti-slavery men of the North exulted in the present situation of affairs, thinking it to indicate a state of public sentiment which would lead to the utter extermination of slavery. The politicians and leading planters of the South, fearing perhaps for the present safety of their institutions, resolved to prevent, at all hazards, the admission of California with her present boundaries and ADMINISTRATION OF TAYLOR. 609 constitution. Another element of controversy was the interest of those speculators, in and out of Congress, who owned property in California, had received or were expecting contracts from her exist ing government, and upon whom her admission would confer splen did fortune's. Another friend of that admission was found in Colonel Thomas H. Benton, United States Senator from Missouri, * Whose son-in-law, Colonel Fremont, had immense possessions in California — possessions said to contain inexhaustible mines of gold, the title to which he naturally wished to place upon a secure foun dation. Colonel Fremont was also elected a United States Senator from California, and was at Washington, with his colleague, Mr. Gwinn, anxiously waiting to be admitted as a member of the na tional council. N the 3d of December, Congress commenced its session. Its members shared in the excitement j which prevailed throughout the country. Many j fruitless efforts were made in the House to elect a , speaker. The number of ballottings was sixty- three, occupying the space of twenty days. This ^unprecedented delay was occasioned by the " free soil" mem bers, who, though few in numbers, were able to prevent either of the great parties from effecting a choice. The dem ocratic candidate, Mr. Cobb, however, was at length elected. The message of General Taylor called the attention of Congress to a revision of the tariff, improvements in rivers and harbours, strict neutrality in relation to foreign contending powers, and the estab lishment of a branch-mint in California, and also recommended the admission of that territory with the constitution she had already formed. Early in the session, Mr. Clay presented a series of carefully digested resolutions designed to settle amicably all the questions in dispute between the North and the South growing out of the subject of slavery. These resolutions he supported, on a subsequent day, by one of the most powerful and masterly speeches in the whole range of ancient or modern oratory. He had no personal aspirations of a political nature — he should soon pass away — he should soon be beyond the reach of praise or censure, but he wished to make one more effort in behalf of the country which he loved, which he had served so long, and which would be dear to his heart to the latest hour of his existence. The Union itself was in danger. Many 7T 610 ADMINISTRATION OF TAYLOR. persons no longer thought of a separation with dread, or trembled at the calamities of civil war. " Sir," said the venerable statesman, " I implore gentlemen, I adjure them, whether from the South or the North, by all they hold dear in this world-r-by all their love of lib erty — by all their veneration for their ancestors — by all their grati tude to Him who has bestowed upon them such unnumbered and countless blessings — by all the duties which they owe to mankind — and by all the duties which they owe to themselves, to pause, sol emnly to pause at the edge of the precipice, before the fatal and dangerous leap is taken into the yawning abyss below, from which none who ever take it shall return in safety." This speech carried conviction to the minds of all unprejudiced persons, and raised up in Congress a powerful party favourable to compromise, and com posed of whigs and democrats, of Northerners and Southerners :*i ¦ m ¦ *s0fc _- JMwrf :-<™SK ~ ¦do his duty." ENERAL ZACHARY TAYLOR, the second son of Colonel Richard Taylor, was born in Orange 'county, Virginia, in November, 1784. About two hundred years ago, his ancestors emigrated from England, and settled in Eastern Virginia. After ^ distinguishing himself in, the Revolutionary War, his father, 1 about the year 1790, left Virginia for Kentucky, settled on Jthe " dark and bloody ground," and for years endured the heavy trials then inseparable from a border life. The shrill war-whoop, the gleam of the tomahawk, the sharp crack of the rifle, the homestead saved by the courage of his father, were among his earliest recollections. It was in scenes, like these that his young nerves acquired firmness, and the foundation of his military education and character was laid. He was sent to school at an early age. The venerable Elisha Ayers, now residing in Preston, Connecticut, was his teacher ; and we have often heard him descant with rapture on the quick apprehension of his quondam pupil,, his studious habits, and the many other excellences of his character. In his earlier military exploits, which were scarcely less glorious than those of his later campaigns, he displayed all those remarkable 616 ADMINISTRATION OF TAYLOR. traits of character which have since elicited the highest admiration of his countrymen and of the world. In 1808, he entered the army as first lieutenant, in the 7th regiment of infantry, and hav ing soon distinguished himself in border skirmishes with the sav ages, and in the bloody battle of Tippecanoe, was promoted to the rank of captain. In the war of 1812, Captain Taylor was intrusted with the defence of Fort Harrison, on the Wabash. Its works were in a miserable condition, and it was garrisoned by only fifty men, thirty of whom were disabled by sickness. Yet, with this feeble aid, he immediately began to repair the fortifications. These were hardly completed when, on the night of the 4th of September, 1812, an alarm shot summoned him from a bed of fever to meet the attack of a large force of the Miami Indians. The sentinels are driven in, a blockhouse is fired by the enemy, and a thick discharge of bullets and arrows is poured in upon the fort. The howlings of the savage's heard in the darkness of the night, the shrieks of women and chil dren, the terror of the sick, and the apparently certain destruction of the garrison, would have forced almost any other leader to surrender in despair ; but nothing could shake the calm bravery, or disturb the cool judgment of the youthful commander. Inspired by him with a portion of his own energy, the soldiers extinguish the flames, and for six hours return the fire of the Indians until daybreak enables the whites to aim with greater precision ; soon after which the In dians disperse and retreat down the river. One of his superior officers, in a letter to the Governor of Kentucky, says, " The firm and almost' unparalleled defence of Fort Harrison by Captain Zachary Taylor has raised him a fabric of character not to be affected by eulogy." It procured for him the rank of brevet major in the Ameri can army. In 1832, he was advanced to the rank of colonel ; and, soon after the commencement of the Florida war, he was ordered to that territory. Here, in constant and arduous service, he continued to distinguish himself; and his whole career was such as to increase the confidence and admiration of his countrymen. While in Florida he fought with the Seminoles the ever memorable battle of Okee-Chobee — a battle remarkable for the bravery and skill displayed on both sides. Seven hundred Indian warriors occupied a dense hammock, with a email but nearly impassable stream in front, their flanks being secured by swamps that were altogether impassable. Colonel Tay lor's force amounted to about five hundred men, composed partly of raw volunteers. With great exertion, our soldiers, sinking nearly to ADMINISTRATION OF TAYLOR. 617 the middle in mire, cross the stream under a most galling fire, and a close and desperate conflict ensues. In one of our companies only four privates escape unharmed: During the fight, Colonel Taylor is constantly passing on horseback from one point to another, and within range of the Indian rifles, without the least seeming regard for his personal safety. The whites gained a complete vic tory — a victory which broke the power and spirit of the Seminoles, and gained for its hero the thanks of the President of the United States — a victory whose importance was still further acknowledged by the promotion of Taylor to the rank of brigadier-general by brevet, for " distinguished services in the battle of Okee-Chobee in Florida." The glorious victories of General Taylor in the late war with Mex ico, have already occupied the attention of our readers. In person, General Taylor was about the middle "height, and was a little in clined to corpulency. His countenance strongly indicated the real benevolence of his heart. As a military chief, he must be allowed to stand in the very first rank. He was not indifferent to the good opinion of his countrymen, but he was not desirous of political pre ferment. At his inauguration,' his appearance was so unassuming that many persons could not, without difficulty, believe that he was the general whose fame had filled the civilized world. What would have been his policy had he lived, cannot of course be known with certainty ; there is every reason, however, to believe that it would have promoted the peace and prosperity of his country. J^N- 8r2 618 ADMINISTRATION OF FILLMORE. HON. MILIAKD Fil L M OB E. , FTER proper demonstrations of respect for the deceased President, the business of Congress was again resumed. On the 10th of July, 1850, the Hon. Millard Fillmore took the oath prescribed by the Constitution, and succeeded General Taylor as President of the United States. Mr. .Fillmore was borri on the 7th of January, 1 800, at Summer Hill, in Cayuga County, ' New York. He enjoyed only the advantages of common schools until the age of fifteen, when he was ap prenticed to the wool-carding business, in Livingston County. Here he remained four years, in the mean time devouring the con tents of the. village library. Judge Waterwood, a sound lawyer and a benevolent man, perceiving his talents, prevailed on him to quit his intended occupation, . and commence the study of law in his office. In 1829, and the two succeeding years, he was elected to the State Legislature ; and it was principally through his activity, zeal, and eloquence, .that the laws for imprisonment for debt were partially repealed. In 1832, he was elected to Congress, as a member of the House of Representatives. In 1836, he greatly dis tinguished himself by his report on the New Jersey case. The new cabinet of Mr. Fillmore consisted of Daniel Webster, of Massachusetts, Secretary of State ; Thomas Corwin, of Ohio, Sec retary of the Treasury ; Charles M. Conrad, of Louisiana, Secre tary of War ; William A. Graham, of North Carolina, Secretary of the Navy ; Alexanaer H. H. Stewart, of Virginia, Secretary of the ADMINISTRATION OF FILLMORE. 619 Interior; Nathan K. Hall, of New York, Postmaster-General; and John J. Crittenden, of Kentucky, Attorney-General. A cabinet of great ability, and one which commanded the jespect and confidence of the country. 'HE discussion of the Compromise Bill, with all its violence and sectional jealousies', was now con tinued. The bill was brought out under favourable auspices, and supported by the powerful arguments and eloquence of Clay, Webster, Foote, Dickinson, Cass, and many others. Moderate men and the - friends of the Union everywhere had, therefore, great hopes of its success. But the message of General Taylor had merely recommended the admission of California, the other questions being left to the future, and territorial governments provided for New Mexico and Utah, as they might be in a condition to demand them. This message was insisted on by some members of the government, and by their friends of the press, as defining the course of the administration ; and its high authority, combined with other causes, was sufficient to defeat ihe' Compromise Bill. But essentially the same measures in separate bills were adopted before the close of the session. On the 26th of August, the Fugitive Slave Bill passed both houses. A bill was passed providing for the ad justment of the boundary of Texas, and the establishment of a terri torial government over New Mexico. California was admitted with a constitution by which slavery is forever prohibited. Utah, when ever admitted into the Union, was to be received with or without slavery, as its own constitution may prescribe at the time of its ad mission. The peaceful settlement of the exciting questions which had threatened disunion, if not civil war, greatly relieved the public mind throughout the country. To complete the matter, a bill abolish ing the domestic slave-trade in the District of Columbia, received the sanction of both houses of Congress. This session of Congress closed on the 30th of September. In the summer of this year, the case of Dr. John White Webster, a professor in the medical college of Boston, and under sentence of death for the murder of Dr. George Parkman, a very wealthy physi cian of Boston, excited the deepest sensation throughout the coun try. The high standing of the parties, the horrid details of the mur der, and the doubts which, notwithstanding the conclusive nature of the evidence, existed in the minds of many with regard to the guilt 620 ADMINISTRATION OF FILLMORE. of the accused, rendered the subject one of absorbing interest, and, indeed, drew the attention of the whole civilized world. It was difficult to believe that a man in Professor Webster's position would commit such a deed, merely to escape the payment of a few hun dred dollars. But all doubts were atlength removed by the confes sion of the prisoner himself. ( The most earnest efforts were made to obtain a commutation of punishment ; but they were unsuccessful, and the unhappy man was executed on the 30th of August. A more pleasing source of excitement was found in the arrival of Jenny Lind, the celebrated Swedish songstress, and, probably, in vocal music, the greatest artist of ancient or modern times. The fascination of her manners, and the goodness of her heart, no less than her unrivalled talents, contributed to win for her a popularity never before or since enjoyed by any musical performer. NOTHER hero soon followed the lamented Taylor in death. On the 19th of November, Col. Richard M. Johnson, former Vice-President of the United States, died at his residence, in Scott County, Kentucky, in the 65th year of his age. His gallant achievements at the battle of the Thames have enrolled his name among those of our greatest heroes. General Harrison, who commanded the American forces in this battle, found his most efficient aid in the bravery of Colonel Johnson, who, at the head of his regiment, dashed through the enemy's lines, throwing them into complete disorder ; when, an attack being also made in the rear, the -enemy were com pelled to surrender. The famous Tecumseh fell by the hands of Colonel Johnson himself. While a member of Congress, he ac quired a great reputation by his celebrated Sunday Mail Report against the suspension of the Sunday mails. The people of many parts of New England will remember with pleasure the visit of Col. Johnson in 1843. The Fugitive Slave Law, whose passage has been already men tioned, met with severe opposition in the free States, and attempts to enforce it sometimes led to scenes of popular tumult and commo tion. On its first passage, the law had created great excitement at the North, and was by many persons declared to be unconstitutional, as it seemed to contravene the right of habeas corpus, and deny to the fugitive any thing like a fair and impartial trial. The opinion of the Attorney-General, Mr. Crittenden, that the law did not con- ADMINISTRATION OF FILLMORE. 621 tradict the right of habeas corpus, was not sufficient to silence the opposition of the Northern abolitionists. The first application of the law was in the case of James Hamlet. He was arrested on the 27th of September, in the city of New York, examined before the United States Commissioner, and was delivered over to his claimant. ' N Detroit, the arrest of a negro, as an alleged fugi tive slave, created so much excitement, with threats of violent rescue, that the military were called out, and, with loaded arms, escorted the fugitive from the prison to the court-room. The matter was finally compromised by the purchase of the slave, by pub lic subscription, for the sum of $500. This case occurred in the early part of October, and about the middle of the month occurred the famous case of the Crafts in Bos ton. William and Ellen Crafts, reputed fugitive slaves, resided in the city of Boston. William H. Hughes and John Knight, as agents for the owner of the fugitives, visited Boston for the purpose of claiming them. After much delay, they procured the issue, of a warrant to arrest the slaves, but were themselves arrested as kidnappers, put under heavy bonds, surrounded and hissed by the populace, again arrested for violation of law, and finally compelled to leave without effecting the object of their mission. The fugi tives, who had been in concealment, afterwards left the country for England. On the 23d of December, Henry Long was arrested in the city of New York. The event caused much excitement, but no attempt was made to resist the law. On the 8th of January, 1851, Judge Judson, of the United States District Court, delivered his opinion of the case before a densely crowded audience, and ordered the sur render of the fugitive to his claimant. On the 15th of February, a slave, named Shadrach, was arrested in Boston. The consequences were a scene of great popular tumult, and the subsequent rescue of the prisoner by the mob. The claim ant was John De Bree, of Norfolk, purser in fhe United States Navy. His attorney secured the arrest of Shadrach, and had him brought up for examination. A delay, on the ground of want of preparation, being asked by the counsel for the prisoner, and granted by the Commissioner, the court-room is partially deserted. A company, principally of coloured persons, rush in, rescue the slave from the 622 ADMINISTRATION OF FILLMORE. hands of the marshal and his assistants, and bear him away in tri umph. A powerful sensation was produced throughout the country. The attention of government was aroused, and the President com municated a message to Congress in relation to the subject. Mean while, the fugitive effected his escape. Several persons were ar rested and tried for aiding in a conspiracy to defeat the execution of the law. In the case of Sims, arrested in Boston on the 3d of April, the law was successfully enforced. An effort to take the prisoner from the United States Marshal, and bring him before the State court for having inflicted, with a knife, a severe wound upon the officer who first arrested him, was overruled, and the fugitive was finally sent home to his master. N the 2d of December, 1850, Congress assembled, and the first annual message from President Fill more was communicated to both houses on the same day. The accompanying report of the Sec retary of the Treasury showed that the receipts into the Treasury exceeded the expenditures by jmore than four millions of dollars, and that the public debt had been reduced to about $495,277. Among the important acts of the session was the passage of the Reform Postage Bill. It was passed on the last day of the session. Although the rates of postage are still higher than many of the friends of reform wished them to be, the reduction is considerable, and will, by in creasing the facilities for correspondence, undoubtedly be of great service to the country. In connection with the Reform Postage Law, a new silver coin, of the value of three cents, was authorized to be issued from the Mint. The tariff was amended at this session by the passage of a new Appraisement Bill, providing: 1st, That imported articles shall be appraised at their market value at the period of exportation ; 2d, That to this value shall be added all costs and charges, excepting insurance, and including the charge of com mission ; and 3d, That these charges shall be made as the true value at the port where (the same shall be entered. This established the principle of a " home valuation," for which the friends of a high tariff have long contended. The session terminated on the 4th of March. Early in May, the Erie Railroad was opened. It extends from Piermont, on the Hudson, 24 miles above the city of New York, to ADMINISTRATION OF FILLMORE. 623 Dunkirk, on Lake Erie, a distance of 436 miles. This road — the greatest work ever undertaken by private enterprise — connects the Ocean with the Far West, passing through the most populous and wealthy State of the Union, and, like some mighty artery for the circulation of the life-blood, conveying the products of the West, and the manufactures and importations of the East ; while countless thousands avail themselves of an easy and pleasant mode of travel ling through ohe of the most interesting portions of the country. The occasion of its completion and opening was graced by the pre sence of the Chief Magistrate of the Nation and several members of the Cabinet. Along the entire route, the people turn out in masses to honour their distinguished visitors and the great event which called them hither ; find speeches and celebrations are the order of the day. The entire cost of this road was about $24,000,000. The T rail is used through its whole length. It employs over 100 en gines, and nearly 400 men. N the early part of this year, the attention of the civilized world was strongly drawn to the Great Exhibition of the Industry of All Nations, or the " World's Fair," at London ; an exhibition planned, we believe, by his Royal Highness Prince Albert, and one which will confer lasting honour upon his jname, as marking the commencement of a new era in the progress of the human race. Although the American de partment at this exhibition was necessarily inferior in some respects to those of some other nations, yet, in some of those arts generally regarded as useful rather than ornamental, the inven tive genius of our people shone with pre-eminent lustre. Th« vic tory obtained by the yacht America, in a trial of speed, created a great sensation in both hemispheres, and aroused the attention of the English to our decided superiority in the art of shipbuilding, if not in that of seamanship. An American, Mr. Hobbs, also gained great celebrity by exhibiting a lock which, for the purpose of securing property, was found decidedly superior to every other. Let us now recur to the contemplated invasion of Cuba. Not withstanding the proclamation of the President, an expedition for the purpose just mentioned left New Orleans on the 25th of April, 1850, and on the 22d of the succeeding month. It consisted of from five to seven hundred men, under the command of General Narcissus Lopez, an exiled Cuban of some note, and considerable 624 ADMINISTRATION OF FILLMORE. military experience. The ostensible object of this movement was a voyage to California, and many, it is said, enlisted under this assur ance. The business was conducted with a secrecy, which pre vented the knowledge of the American government, and eluded the vigilance of the Spanish consuls. N the 19jh of May, just before daylight, General Lopez landed his forces at Cardenas, a small town | in the northeastern portion of the island. A com- I bat ensues between the invaders and the garrison, and results in the defeat of the latter. The Gov ernor is taken prisoner, the palace plundered, and jthe public money seized. But this triumph is of short dura tion. About daylight, a body of Spanish$roops appear, march ing upon the tpwn, when the invaders demand to be recon ducted to their vessels, in which they make the best of their way towards the coast of the United States, reaching Key West just in time to escape a Spanish war-steamer sent to pursue them. Some of the party being left behind, are captured^and sent to Havana. The rest scatter themselves about Key West, and beg their way home, while Lopez himself reaches Savannah and New Orleans in safety, in spite of attempts to detain him on a criminal charge, made at the instigation of the Secretary of State, but failing from want of evidence or proper jurisdiction, or for some other reason. About the same time, the Susan Loud and another vessel were captured off the coast of Cuba, with one hundred men, collected for the inva sion of the island, but who subsequently declared that they embarked under false pretences, and supposed they were going to California. After much negotiation, it being clearly seen that our government had done all in its power to suppress the expedition, the prisoners were sent home, and a good understanding once more established with the Spanish authorities. General Quitman, one of the heroes of the, Mexican war, and General Henderson, were prosecuted, at the instance of the government, as secret abettors of the expedition. The trials ended in the early part of 1851, when, for want of suffi cient evidence, the defendants were acquitted. Active measures being taken by the government, the operations of the invaders were checked for a season. Late in July, the news arrived that a portion of the people of Cuba had taken up arms for the purpose of throwing off the yoke of Spain, and achieving the political independence of the island. On the 2d, ADMINISTRATION OF FILLMORE. 625 a pronunciamento had been issued by the revolutionists, whose head- > qnarters were in the vicinity of Principe, which, with some smaller towns, was said to have declared for freedom. In several skirmishes the insurgents seem to have been the victors. Meanwhile, an ex pedition from the United States, under Lopez, was fitted out to aid the revolutionary party. On the night of the 11th of August, the General, with about 480 men, effected a landing at Playtas, about twenty leagues from Havana. Leaving Colonel Crittenden at this point with about 100 men in charge of the stores, he proceeded with the remainder of his force to the town of Las Posas. The inhabi tants fled as he approached, neither joining his standard nor giving him aid or encouragement, of any kind. The day after landing, Col. Crittenden was attacked by the Spanish troops, and, after struggling as long as possible, was compelled by superior force to retirfe from the field. Finding that neither Lopez, who was only three miles off, nor any of the inhabitants came to their aid, they resolved to return to the United States. They procured small • boats, and had just got to sea when they were followed, and about fifty of them were captured on the 15th bythe Spanish war-steamer Habanero. They were carried to Havana on the 16th, and on the 17th were shot by order of the government. Among the unfortunate victims were several Americans of distinction. It was at first reported that they were not tried, but shot immediately, and that their bodies were shockingly mutilated, and every possible indignity offered to their remains by the Cuban populace. But these statements were after wards contradicted. It was said that they were properly tried and condemned, and that after their execution they were decently in terred. Some of them, among whom was Colonel Crittenden, wrote letters to their friends at home, all of which agreed that they had been grossly deceived as to the state of popular feeling in Cuba. When the news of the execution of the fifty men reached the United States, great excitement and indignation prevailed, large meetings were held in various cities, and the conduct of the Spanish authori ties in this brutal transaction was condemned without measure. When the intelligence reached New Orleans, with the report of the insults heaped upon the dead bodies, the popular agitation was over whelming. The residence of the Spanish Consul and the shops of the Spaniards are attacked, and the office of a Spanish newspaper was destroyed. 40 , 3G 626 ADMINISTRATION OF FILLMORE. HE remaining portion of the forces under Lopez was finally doomed to a similar defeat. On the 13th, they were attacked by a large body of Spanish troops at Las Posas. The action was severe, and the Spaniards were repulsed. Lopez lost about fifty men, but retained possession of the place. , But he soon perceived that his hopes of aid from the Cuban? were groundless, and that he could not maintain himself against the Spanish troops, and he determined, therefore, .to conceal himself among the mountains. On the way thither several battles were fought with Spanish detachments, the-in- vaders suffering severely in each, and inflicting losses more or less serious on their opponents. Among the Spaniards who fell was General Enna, a distinguished officer, who was buried at Havana with military honours. While the remaining troops of Lopez were breakfasting at Martitorena, on the 24th, they were surprised by an overwhelming Spanish force, and completely dispersed. From that time, if we can trust the Spanish accounts, they are zealously hunted down by all classes ; the peasants pursue them with dogs, the negroes aid in their capture, and every part of the population display the most active and devoted loyalty to the Spanish government. On the 28th, Lopez, with only six followers, was endeavouring to con ceal himself, and escape to the sea-coast ; but on the 29th he was captured in the Pinos de Rangel, by a guide named Jose Antonio Castaneda, with fifteen peasants. He was conveyed by night to Havana, where orders were immediately given for his execution. It took place at seven-o'clock on the morning of the 1st of Septem ber. He perished by the garoter vii, an instrument consisting of an iron chair, with a back, upon which, at a point even with the head of the sitter, are iron clasps fitting the sides of the head, and a clasp to pass round the throat. Behind is a long iron bar attached to a screw, which, by a single turn from the executioner, draws the throat and side pieces tight, and at the same time sends an iron rod into the spinal marrow, causing instantaneous death. In the present in stance, the machine was placed upon a scaffold, about ten feet high, in the centre of a large square, surrounded by troops. Lopez be haved throughout like a brave man. He walked, surrounded by a guard, to the steps of the scaffold as coolly as if he were at the head of his troops. ' He was dressed in a long white gown, and a white cap. His wrists were tied before, and above his elbows be- ADMINISTRATION OF FILLMORE. 627 hind, with cords, which were held by soldiers. He ascended the steps with two friends. He faced round, looked upon the soldiers and the immense throng outside of the square ; then turned round and knelt in prayer for about a minute. He then rose, turned to the front, and in a clear, manly voice, loud enough to be heard by the thousands present, (it being as still as night,) spoke as follows : " Countrymen : I most solemnly, in this last awful moment of my life, ask your pardon for any injury I have caused you. It was not my wish to injure any one ; my object was your freedom and happi ness." Here he was interrupted by the commanding officer in front. He concluded by saying : " My intention was good, and my hope is in God." He then bowed, turned round, and took his seat appa rently with as much coolness as if taking a chair in a room with his friends. He placed his head back, between the iron grasps, and the negro adjusted the throat clasp, and tied his feet to bolts on each side of the seat. During this preparation, Lopez conversed with his friends. The executioner takes his place at the iron bar behind. Lopez kisses the cross handed him by his friend, the negro gives one turn of the wrench, and Lopez dies instantly without a struggle. The military return to the city, the band playing a quick step, and the thousands disperse with little or no noise. About 150 prisoners remained in the hands of the colonial government, and were sent to Spain to be incarcerated. By the interposition of our government, they were released in a few months, and perfect harmony with Spain was restored. BOUT this time scenes of great excitement were ' passing in California. Two men — Whitaker and McKenzie — were in prison at San Francisco await ing their trial. Fearing that justice might not be done them, the self-appointed Vigilance Committee broke in the prison doors, took the men out on Sun day, during divine service, and hanged them in front of the building. An immense crowd of people approved and en couraged the proceedings, and the authorities made very slight resistance to the mob. At Sacramento, three men, convicted of' highway robbery, had been sentenced to be hanged. Robinson, one of them, was respited by the Governor for a month. The day for the execution of the other two arrives. The sheriff orders Gib son and Thompson to the place of execution, and directs Robinson to be taken to a prison-ship, in which he could be secured. The 628 ADMINISTRATION OF FILLMORE. crowd refuse to allow this, and retain him in custody. The two others are executed by the sheriff, who immediately leaves the ground. Robinson is then brought forward, and, after proper reli gious exercises, is also hanged. These transactions created much excitement in California ; but it soon subsided, it being generally granted that justice had been attained, although by irregular means. 'UBLIC interest was excited, in the early part of October, by the safe return of the Advance and Rescue, two small brigs, the former of 140 tons, the latter of 90 tons, sent out by Mr. Henry Grin- nell, a wealthy merchant of New York city, in search ?of Sir John Franklin and his companions. Unsuccessful with regard to its main object, the. expedition was yet not wholly fruitless, as discoveries were made which served to revive hope with regard to the missing adventurers. The brigs entered Wellington Sound on the 26th of August, 1850, and were joined by Captain Penny, who commanded the vessel sent out by Lady Franklin. The perse verance of this self-sacrificing and devoted woman has touched the hearts of millions, and is worthy of everlasting remembrance and ad miration. On the 27th, the navigators saw in a cove on the shore of Beechy Island, or Beechy Cape, on the east side of the entrance of Wellington Channel, indubitable evidence that Sir John Franklin's companions were there in April, 1846. There they found articles that had belonged to the Erebus and Terror, the ships under the command of Sir John. There lay, bleached to the whiteness of the surrounding snow, a piece of canvas, having the name of the Terror marked on it with indestructible charcoal. It was very faint, yet perfectly legible. They also found tin canisters for packing meat, an anvil block, remnants of clothing, and other articles. But the most instructive, yet at the same time the most melancholy traces of;the lost ones, were three graves in a little sheltered cove, each with a board at the head, bearing the name of the sleeper below, with the date of his death. These dates were January 1st, 1846, January 4th, 1846, and April 3d, 1846. The graves were in lati tude about 74° north. There was evidence that the survivors had gone northward, for sledge tracks in that direction were distinctly visible. On the 13th of December, 1850, the vessels started to return, but were frozen in near the mouth of Wellington Channel. For nearly nine months they were threatened with destruction from ADMINISTRATION OF FILLMORE. 629 the crushing of the ice around them, and were borne along by the southeast drift, until, on the 10th of June, they emerged into the open sea, in latitude 65° 30', and 1060 miles from the spot where they were first fixed in ice — a drift which, for extent and duration, is unparalleled in the history of Arctic navigation. The officers and men of the American vessels, after this season of fearful peril, re turned without the loss of a single life, and in excellent health. The officers thought it far from impossible that Sir John Franklin might be still alive, hemmed in by ice at some point which they were un able to reach. They agreed in the opinion that a steamer should accompany any expedition which should hereafter be sent upon the same mission. iONGRESS assembled on the 1st of December; and, en the following day, the message of the President was communicated to both Houses. Among other subjects alluded to in this document, was the expected arrival of the Hungarian ex-gov ernor, Louis Kossuth, to convey whom fr6m Tur nkey, the United States steam-frigate Mississippi had been commissioned by a vote of Congress. The history of Kos suth's efforts and sacrifices in behalf of his country's freedom, and the story of his sufferings while an exile and prisoner in a strange land, are doubtless familiar to many of our rea ders. It was natural that the American people, so fond of liberty, should look forward to the advent of the patriot and hero with no ordinary anticipations. In consequence of a change of arrange ments, Governor Kossuth sailed from Gibralter to England in another vessel, and after passing a month amid the hospitalities of the English, re-embarked in a steamship, and arrived at New York on the morning of the 5th of December. The whole population of the city seems carried away with enthusiasm and excitement. The roar of cannon, and the huzzas of immense multitudes, honor his dis embarkation at Castle Garden ; and the subsequent military and civic parade through the great thoroughfare of the metropolis, amid decora tions of surpassing magnificence, exceeded any former demonstra tion of respect for lofty patriotism ¦ and heroic virtues. Numerous banquets were afterwards given in honour of the city's distinguished guest, and, on each of these occasions, Kossuth — perhaps the great est of living orators — poured forth those magnificent strains of glowing eloquence which, even in the mere perusal, awakev o»er- 3o2 630 ADMINISTRATION OF FILLMORE. powering emotions of delight and admiration. Remaining a short time at New York, Kossuth repaired to Washington, and was for mally introduced to Congress and the President. He afterwards vis^ ited Harrisburg, Pittsburg, Cincinnati, and the principal . cities of the West, receiving everywhere proofs of the warmest sympathy and respect of the people. Since his arrival, and the delivery of his stirring appeals in behalf of his down-trodden country, the question whether, in cases like that of Hungary, our government should inter fere with the efforts of the despots to prevent the attainment of lib erty, has been discussed with the deepest interest, but has not yet been settled to the satisfaction of all parties. Upon the whole, how ever, the neutral policy recommended by Washington has been pur sued by the government .; yet large contributions of money and arms were placed at the disposal of Kossuth by individuals or companies, acting in the capacity of private citizens. After remaining in the United States several months, -Kossuth returned to England. N the 29ih of July, 1852, the Hon. Henry Clay died at Washington, in the 76th year of his age. He was lat the time a member of the United States Senate } from the State of Kentucky. The intelligence that , the great statesman, the incomparable orator, and the incorruptible patriot was no more, was everywhere followed by demonstrations of unaffected grief, and tokens of the deepest respect for the memory of one who, by his tai-, ents, his zeal, and his long and active services, had contrib uted, so much to the peace and prosperity of his country. It was felt that the nation had lost one of its ablest men. Mr. Clay was born on the 12th of April, 1777, in a portion of Hanover county, Virginia, familiarly known as the" Slashes." He was the fifth son of a Baptist clergyman, who is said to have preached with great acceptance in the district above mentioned. His father dying when he had attained his fifth year, he was left to the care of his mother, a woman of strong intellect, and every way qualified to superintend his education. But the means afforded for this purpose were very limited, and even these he did not enjoy without interruption. The narrow circumstances of the family made it necessary for him to, devote much time to manual employments. " He was no stranger," says his biographer, " to the uses of the plough, the spade, and the hoe." By his frequent visits to a neigh bouring gristmill, on Pamunkey river, he acquired the title "Mill-boy ADMINISTRATION OF FILLMORE. 633 HENRY OI. AT. of the Slashes." In 1792, his mother was married to Mr. Henry Watkins, and removed to Woodford county, Kentucky, with all her children, except Henry and his eldest brother. At the age of four teen, we find him in a small drug store, kept by Richard Denny, in Richmond, Virginia. Soon after this, he entered the office of Peter Tinsley, clerk of the High Court of Chancery. The venerable Chancellor Wythe, a gentleman of great worth and profound learning, attracted by his habits and appearance, gave him the benefit of his instructions, and made him his amanuensis. In 1796, he left the office of Mr. Tinsley, and went to reside with Bobert Brooke, Esq., attorney-general of Virginia. He now, with great success, availed himself of the opportunity to prosecute the study of law to greater advantage than before. Near the close of 1797, he was licensed to practice at the bar by the judges of the Virginia Court of Appeals. His talents, acquirements, and elo quence soon placed him in the first rank as an advocate, and pro cured for him continual professional employment. By the qualities 634 ADMINISTRATION OF FILLMORE. of his mind and heart, he was well fitted to conduct criminal cases ; and it is justly regarded as a remarkable fact that, although many of these were intrusted to his care, he was never in a single instance defeated. One remarkable example may be cited in proof of his wonderful abilities. Two Germans, father and son, were indicted for murder, and were tried in Harrison county. The act of killing was proved by clear and strong evidence ; and it was not only con sidered a case of murder, but a very aggravated one. The trial continued five days, at the close of which he addressed the jury in the most eloquent and impassioned manner. They were so touched by his pathetic appeals that they gave a verdict of manslaughter only. After another hard day's struggle, he procured an arrest of judgment, by which his clients were set at liberty. They expressed their gratitude to their deliverer in the most glowing terms ; but an old ill-favoured woman, the wife of one of them, and mother of the other, returned her thanks in a different manner. Throwing her arms around Mr. Clay's neck, she repeatedly kissed him in the presence of the court and spectators. " Respecting her feelings," says one of his best biographers, " he did not attempt to repulse her, but submitted to her caresses with such grace and dignity as to elicit outbursts of applause." 'HE career of Mr. Clay as a politician commenced as far back as 1797. His early efforts in this new field sufficiently evince his philanthropy and patriotism. Though slavery, in Kentucky, assumed its mildest form, yet to his eyes it was a monster that " to be hated needs but to be seen." Its civil and social tendencies he regarded as decidedly bad. Without any of that frantic enthusiasm and misguided zeal which are sure to defeat their own objects, he laboured assiduously for its gradual abolition. He sought, by his feeling and elo quent descriptions, and by every other suitable means, to secure the introduction of a provision for that purpose into the new constitution then under consideration for adoption. He was always a lover of lib erty. The odious Alien and Sedition Laws, enacted in 1798 and 1799, foundin him one of their most formidable opponents. On one occasion, the people had assembled in a grove near Lexington to listen to a debate between the friends and enemies of these laws. They were first addressed by Mr. George Nicholas, an opponent of ADMINISTRATION OF FILLMORE. 635 tne laws, in a vigorous, logical, and effective speech, by which the people were wound up to the highest degree of enthusiasm. The speech* of Mr. Clay, who followed him, seems to have been a most wonderful example of all the higher attributes of eloquence. Mr. William Murray next addressed the people in favour of the laws ; but without effect, so clearly had their evil tendency been exposed by Mr. Clay. He would not have been allowed to proceed, had not the speakers before him urgently asked for permission. When another reply was attempted, the people could be restrained no lon ger. They rush furiously towards the place occupied by the speaker, who is compelled to retreat in haste to save himself from personal violence. Seizing Clay and Nicholas, they bear them upon their shoulders to a carriage, and, with enthusiastic cheers, draw them through the streets of Lexington. !R. CLAY'S love of liberty was again evinced, at a later period, by his efforts in behalf of struggling {Greece, and still later by the interest which he 'took in the cause of South American independence. ' A bill prohibiting " our citizens to sell vessels of war to subjects of a foreign power," was opposed by him because, however disguised, it would be understood by the world as a law to discountenance any aid being given to the South American patriots. His speeches were often read at the head of the South American armies, and always served to increase the zeal and courage of the sol diers. About the beginning of the year 1810, his attention was turned to the subject of domestic manufactures. From that time, he continued to advocate the doctrine that encouragement and protection should be extended by the general government to American industry, and if not the sole framer, was ever regarded as the father, and as the ablest champion of what is called the American System. The Eleventh Congress commenced its session on the 3d of De cember, 1810. When the subject of rechartering the United States Bank was brought forward for discussion, Mr. Clay was opposed to a recharter of that institution. The dangerous tendency, as well as unconstitutionality of tho measure, were shown by him in the most lucid and convincing manner. His powerful arguments prevailed, and the charter was not renewed. 636 ADMINISTRATION OF FILLMORE. S the aggressions of Great Britain upon our com merce, and her impressment of our seamen into her service on suspicion that they were British subjects, could, no longer be endured with either safety or honour, Mr. Clay strongly advocated a declaration of war against that power. The declaration was made on the 18th of June, 1812. His speech on the bill to increase the army, delivered in the House of Representatives, January 8, 1813, showed his wonderful control over the feel ings of his audience, A correct idea of its effect cannot be obtained by merely reading it. The pathetic effect of that part which relates to the imprisonment of American seamen, it is impos sible to describe. Men of both political parties, the friends and the foes of the orator, forgot their antipathies, and wept together.- He concluded by saying, " We are told that England is a proud and lofty nation, which, disdaining to wait for danger, meets it half way. Haughty as she is, we once triumphed over her, and if we do not listen to the counsels of timidity and despair, we shall again prevail. In such a cause, with the aid of Providence, we must come out crowned with success ; but if we fail, let us fail like men, lash ourselves to our gallant tars, and expire together in one com mon struggle, fighting for free trade and seamans' rights." The question of the admission of Missouri to the Union — a ques tion embarrassed by the subject of slavery, created, in and out of Congress, an excitement perhaps unequalled in the political history of the country. The distracting question was finally settled, and the excitement allayed, principally by the skill and untiring exer tions of Henry Clay. His services in settling the fearful contro versy between South Carolina and the federal government, have already been treated of in a former chapter. [See p. 527.] The personal appearance of Mr. Clay is said to have been im posing, yet highly prepossessing. He was tall, somewhat thin, but very muscular. His carriage was easy and graceful, and his manners dignified, cordial, and kind, without the slightest appear ance of haughtiness. His open and expressive countenance mir rored faithfully the feelings of his soul. His eyes were small, and of a blue or dark gray colour. His forehead was broad and high. His mouth was large, but strongly indicative of talent and energy. The tones of his voice were deep and silvery, and its modulation was exquisite As an oratpr, his claim to the highest rank is un- ADMINISTRATION OF FILLMORE. 637 questionable. His control over his auditory, and his power of en chaining their attention, were truly astonishing. His delivery was a perfect model of elocution. A gentleman who witnessed one of his great efforts, says, " Every muscle of the orator's face was at work ; his whole body seemed agitated, as if each part were instinct with a separate life ; and his small white hand, with its blue veins apparently distended almost to bursting, moved gracefully, but with all the energy of rapid and vehement gesture. The appearance of the speaker seemed that of a pure intellect, wrought up to its mighti est energies, and brightly glowing through the thin and transparent veil of flesh that enrobed it." Whatever may be thought of Mr. Clay's political views, it is evident that benevolence, sincerity, and patriotism, were prominent features of his character. F all- those great statesmen and brilliant orators who, for the last twenty years, have taken the lead jin our national legislature, there were three to whom fcommon consent, it would seem, has assigned a , pre-eminence above all others. Two of these had now passed away; the' third, and perhaps the pgreatest, was soon to follow his distinguished associates. The country was soon to lose the mightiest intellect that had ever watched over its interests and destinies. On Sunday morn ing, October 24, 1852, Daniel Webster died at his residence in Marshfield, Massachusetts, in the 71st year of his age. Retir ing to his favourite country-seat, in order to recover his energies, which had been depressed by official labour and temporary indispo sition, he was soon violently attacked with disease which, after a brief course, terminated in death. At the time of his decease, he was a member of the Cabinet, in which he occupied the position of Secretary of State. The family of Daniel Webster was of Scottish origin, but passed some time in England before the final .emigration. Thomas Web ster was settled at Hampton, on the coast of New Hampshire, as far back as 1636. Noah Webster, the learned philologist and lexi cographer, was of a collateral branch of the family. Ebenezer Web ster, the father of the orator, was a man of imposing appearance, and is described as erect, six feet in height, and broad and full in the chest, with a military air acquired from his long service in the wars. Early in life, he enlisted as a common soldier in a company of rangers. The services of the rangers, it is well known, were of great import- 3h 638 ADMINISTRATION OF FILLMORE. DANIEL WES8TEI ance in the Freneh and Indian wars. He followed Sir Jeffrey Am herst in the invasion of Canada, gained the good will of his superior officers by his fidelity and bravery, and was advanced to the rank of captain before the termination of the war. After the close of the contest, Colonel Stevens, with some of his neighbours, procured of Benning Wentworth, the royal governor of New Hampshire, a grant of the town of Salisbury. Captain Webster was one of the settlers of the newly-granted township, and received an allotment in its nor thern portion. Soon after his settlement in Salisbury, he married Abigail Eastman, his second wife, and the mother of Ezekiel and Daniel Webster, the only sons by his second marriage. He built a frame house near the log cabin which, it seems, he had previously inhabited. In this house, Daniel Webster was born on the 18th of January; 1782. In the Revolutionary War, not yet fully terminated, Captain Webster had served with distinction. He was at the battle of White Plains, acted as major under Stark at Bennington, and contributed his share to the success of the American commander. Mr. Webster's early opportunities for acquiring an education were ADMINISTRATION OF FILLMORE. 639 very limited. The district school of those days, when compared with those of the present time, was very defective. His first master was Thomas Chase, his second was James Tappan, who, it would seem from a letter of Mr. Webster, was living in Gloucester, Mass., as late as the early part of 1851. Some benefit was derived from a small library founded in Salisbury by his father, in conjunction with the clergyman, and Mr. Thomson, the lawyer of the place. In May, 1796, he entered the Academy at Exeter. The strength of his mental powers was even then apparent to an attentive observer. On entering the Academy, he was placed in the lowest class, con sisting of a few boys of no great brightness of intellect. At the end of a month, after mornmg recitations, " Webster," says Mr. Emery, their instructor, " you will pass into the other room and join a higher class ;" adding, " Boys, you will take your final leave of Webster, you will never see him again." In February, 1797, he was placed under the care of the Rev. Samuel Wood, minister in the neighbouring town of Boscawen. On their way to Mr. Wood's, his father first disclosed to him his intention of sending him to college. " I remember," says Mr. Webster, " the very hill which we were ascending, through deep snows, in a New England sleigh, when my father made known this purpose to me. I could not speak. How could he, I thought, with so large a family, and in such narrow circumstances, think of incurring so great an ex pense for me. A warm glow ran all over me, and I laid my head on my father's shoulder and wept." ;E completed his preparation for college with Mr. | Wood. Here, too, he laid the foundation of his * knowledge of the ancient classics, especially the , Roman — a knowledge which he greatly increased I in college, and preserved, during his active life, by constant recurrence to the great models of an- 'tiquity. He entered Dartmouth College in 1797. In 1801, he commenced the study of law with Mr. Thomp son, the next-door neighbour of his father. He remained until it became necessary to do something to obtain a little money. In this emergency, application was made to him to take charge of an academy at Fryeburgh, in Maine. In September, 1802, he returned to the office of Mr. Thompson. In July, 1804, he resided in Boston, and before commencing the practice of law, pursued his studies for six or eight months in the office of the Hon. 640 ADMINISTRATION OF FILLMORE. Christopher Gore, an eminent lawyer and statesman, distinguished for his sound judgment, practical good sense, and rare intellectual qualities. This golden opportunity was not thrown away upon Mr. Webster. When about to be admitted to practice in the Suffolk Court of Common Pleas, he was offered the vacant clerkship in the Court of Common Pleas in the county of Hillsborough, N.H. The fees of the office were about $1500 a year. They would have afforded a cer tain support in place of a doubtful prospect, and would have enabled him at once to bring comfort into his father's family. He was will ing to sacrifice his hopes of future eminence to the welfare of those so dear ; but Mr. Gore, unwilling to consent to such a loss, suc ceeded in persuading him to refuse the office. In the spring of 1805, young Webster was admitted to the practice of law in the Court of Common Pleas for Suffolk county, Massachusetts. His father was now associate judge in the Court of Common Pleas in Hillsborough county, New Hampshire. Judge Webster lived but a year after this — long enough, however, to hear his son's first argu ment in court, and to be gratified by the cheering indications of his future success. After 'practising a short time at Boscawen, our young lawyer removed to Portsmouth, where he continued the busi ness of his profession for nine years. During this period/he de voted himself, without remission, to the study and practice of law. He seems to have risen almost immediately to the head of his pro fession in that part of the country. N November, 1812, he was elected to Congress, and took his seat at the first session of the Thirteenth Congress — an extra session called in May, 1813. Here he rose at once to an equality with the most distinguished members. His first speech, delivered on the 10th of June, 1813, took the House by sur prise. Men left their seats in order to see the speaker face to face, and sat down, or stood on the floor, fronting him. All listen, in almost breathless silence, to the whole speech, which, being over, many persons, among whom are some who widely dissent from his views, warmly compliment and con gratulate the orator. The project for a Bank of the United States — a project introduced about this time into the House, was opposed by Mr. Webster, Cal houn, and Lowndes, mainly on the ground that, to enable the bank ADMINISTRATION OF FILLMORE. 641 to exist under the conditions specified, it was relieved from the necessity of redeeming its notes in specie ; in other words, it was an arrangement to issue an irredeemable paper currency. During the greater part of the year 1815, Mr. Webster was busily engaged in the practice of law. Though he had his share of employment in New Hampshire, it did not furnish an adequate support for his in creasing family. The destruction of his house, furniture, and library, with many of his manuscripts, by the great fire at Portsmouth, in December, 1813, rendered his exertions necessary in order to meet his increasing expenses. In the Fourteenth Congress, he was instrumental in procuring the passage of a resolution which restored to a sound basis the currency of the country. That Mr. Webster is entitled to rank with the greatest orators either of ancient or modern times, will never be successfully dis puted. His speech in reply to Mr. Hayne, delivered in the Senate chamber of the United States, January 26, 1830, is generally con sidered as his greatest effort. The accounts which writers have given of the eloquence of Demosthenes, Cicero, Sheridan, Phillips, Henry, and Ames, were stripped of their seeming extravagance ; and the wonderful and soul-subduing effects of their oratory were again renewed. " Of the effectiveness of Mr. Webster's manner in many parts," says Mr. Everett, " it is impossible to give any one not present the faintest idea. It has been my fortune to hear some of the ablest speeches of the greatest living orators on both sides of the water, but I must confess I never heard any thing which so com pletely realized my conception of what Demosthenes was when he delivered the Oration for the Crown." S he went through the magnificent peroration, his countenance glowed as if he were inspired. His voice, exerted to its utmost power, penetrates every recess of the Senate, and even the ante-rooms and stairways, as he pronounces, in deepest tones of pathos, these words of solemn significance : " When my eyes shall be turned to behold, for the. last time, the sun in heaven, may I not see him shining upon the broken and dishonoured fragments of a once glorious Union ; on States dissevered, discordant, belligerent ; on a land rent with civil feuds, or drenched, it may be, in fraternal blood ! Let their last feeble and lingering glance rather behold the gorgeous ensign of the republic, now known and honoured throughout the earth, still full 41 3h2 642 ADMINISTRATION OF FILLMORE. high advanced, its arms and trophies streaming in their original lus tre, not a stripe erased or polluted, nor a single star obscured, Bearing for its motto no such miserable interrogatory as, ' What is all this worth ?' nor those other words of delusion and folly, ' Liberty first and Union afterwards ;' but everywhere, spread all over in charac ters of living light, blazing on all its ample folds, as they float over the sea and over the land, and in every wind under the whole heavens, that other sentiment, dear to every American heart — Lib erty and Union, now and forever, one and inseparable !" The last words of the lamented Webster are contained in the exclamation, " I still live !" In their noblest sense, how emphatic are these words ! how forcible, how eloquent, how impressive, and how true ! Yes, indeed, he still lives, the mightiest of our mighty intellects ! — lives in the glowing words of his own immortal pages — lives, and will live, in the gratitude and admiration of mankind to the latest generations ! Clay, Calhoun, Webster — immortal and glorious triumvirate ! worthy of being named with Chatham, Cicero, and Demosthenes — your eloquent voices are hushed in death ; but the memory and benefits of your services and patriotism " still live/' and, let us hope, will live forever. 643 HON. FRANKLIN PIEKOE. CHAPTEE XLVI. ADMINISTRATION OF FRANKLIN PIERCE. HE approaching expiration of Mr. Fillmore's term ! of service turned the attention of the people to the election of his successor, and induced a preparation for one of those periodical exercises of popular power which form the distinguishing features of this free and happy republic. The first nomination of a candidate was made by the democratic party, assembled in national convention at Baltimore, in June, 1852. It was with great difficulty, and after a protracted session, that a candidate could be agreed upon, in consequence of the num ber of prominent statesmen whose names were presented, and whose pretensions were adhered to with great tenacity by their respective supporters. Among them were Lewis Cass, of Michigan, William L. Marcy, of New York, James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, General Butler, of Kentucky, and General Houston, of Texas — all men of great ability and experience, and of undoubted fidelity to the party ; men, too, some of whom had con ferred distinguished honor on the American name abroad by their brilliant diplomacy, and at home had acquired a high national repu- 644 ADMINISTRATION OF PIERCE. tation by their civil and military .-services. Being unable to unite upon either of these, it was finally found advisable to take up a new name, and, on the forty-ninth ballot, a very nearly unanimous selec tion was'made in the person of General Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire— the ballots being 283 for Pierce, 1 for Marcy, 2 for Buchanan, and 2 for Cass. With much greater facility, Col. Wm. R. Kino, of Alabama, formerly U. S. Senator from that State, and at the time Acting-President of the U. S. Senate, was selected as the candidate for Vice-President. ' HE Whig Convention followed shortly after, in the same month, in Baltimore, and experienced similar difficulty in arriving at a choice of a candidate. The wishes of a large majority of the party were very nearly divided between a re-nomination of Mr. Fillmore and the selection of Gen. Winfield Scott; while a small portion of the delegates favoured the nomination of Mr. Webster. On the fifty-third ballot, the choice, by a small majority of votes, fell upon General Scott ; and Wm, A. Graham, of North Carolina, was nominated for the Vice- Presidency. The Free-Soil party put forth, as their presidential candidate, the Hon. John P. Hale, of New Hampshire, and the ultra Anti-Slavery party also organized under distinct leaders. Thus marshalled, the various parties engaged in the political con test. After an animated canvass, the election was held simultane ously in every State of the Union, on Tuesday, the 2d day of No vember, and resulted in favour of the democratic candidates. The electoral college consisted of 296 members, of which254were for Franklin Pierce, and 42 for Winfield Scott. By States, Gen. Pierce received the votes of 27 States, and Gen. Scott of 4. No more de cisive election has been held in this country of late years. The second election of Gen. Jackson, in 1832, and the election of Gen. Harrison, in J. 840, are the nearest approaches to it in point of unani mity. Not long before his inauguration, the family of the President elect was called upon to submit to a most awful and heart-rending dispen sation of Providence. By one of those fearful railroad accidents, of late quite too common in this country, they were summoned to weep over the remains of a beloved son, a youth of the most promising talents, and, for many reasons, an object of particular affection. The ADMINISTRATION OE PIERCE. 645 people throughout the Union, and others elsewhere, were deeply- affected by this event, and shared sincerely in the sorrows of the afflicted family. •T is perhaps unnecessary to attempt an analysis of the differences which existed between the two lead ing parties of the country at this time, or of the causes which led to the political result just recorded. Really, there would seem to have been few ques tions at issue leading to partisan division or calling 7 for partisan support. On the question of the compromise measures, so called, including the Fugitive Slave Law, intended as a settlement of the late sectional disputes which agitated the country, both parties were agreed, and so distinctly set forth in their respective resolutions, or " platforms," adopted in convention. Indeed, adherence to these measures was considered a sine qua non of successful political action, and no can didate could have received a nomination from either party who was known to be opposed to them. The Bank and Tariff issues, the former long " obsolete," and the latter practically useless, as public opinion ran, no longer entered into the canvass ; or the latter, if at all, to a very limited degree. On the subject of Internal Improve ments, the old party landmarks were still perceptible, it is true ; but there was little or no effort to make political capital out of this ques tion. Even on the score of military popularity, which heretofore is supposed to have exercised a preponderating influence in favour of particular candidates, both parties were very nearly matched — each candidate being possessed of a military reputation ; the advantage indeed being with the candidate of the party which was destined to defeat, whose military laurels had been long worn, having been won in many a hard-fought battle and brilliant achievement in the service of his country. The election, in its result, seems rather to have been determined by other causes than these. Popular dissatisfac tion with the policy of the existing whig administration in regard to the foreign relations of the country — prejudice created by an alleged prodigality in the use of the public funds, and indiscretion in the allowance of doubtful claims — together with that periodical desire of change which to a marked degree affects the popular mind, and characterizes our national elections ; these, with other causes even less directly related to the usual political issues, appear to have led to the success of the democratic party. Whatever of justice there 646 ADMINISTRATION OF PIERCE. may have been in the above specified charges, as a whole it cannot be denied that President Fillmore secured to himself a large share of popular respect, and retired from office having earned the reputa tion of a discreet and able executive chief. IRANKLIN PIERCE, thus virtually President -elect of the United States, was born, of revolution ary ancestors, in the town of Hillsborough, New Hampshire, on the 23d day of November, 1804; he was therefore 48 years of age at the time of his election. Having served his native State with fidelity and reputation in various capacities, he was in the summer of 1833 elected to Congress, taking his seat in the house in December of the same year. In 1837, he was elected to the U. S. Senate. His congressional career, though comparatively brief, reflected credit upon his talents as a statesman and orator. In the important discussions which occupied the atten tion of Congress during this period, we find him taking a conspicu ous part, and rendering an undeviating support to the measures of the party with which he was identified. He resigned his seat in the Senate before the expiration of the term for which he was elected, preferring the quietude of domestic and professional life to the turbulent arena of national politics at Washington. He also, for the same cause, refused the office of Attorney-General of the United States, which was proffered him by President Polk. The break ing out of the Mexican War found him at home engaged in the avo cations of a private citizen. When the call for volunteers was made, he immediately enlisted for the war, taking the field with the rank of brigadier-general, in connection with the Ninth, or New England Regiment, which during the contest so signalized itself for its gallant deeds. At the close of hostilities he resigned his commission, and returned to his former privacy in New Hampshire. The official reports of the war all bear honourable testimony to the bravery and active military services of General Pierce ; and it is not to be doubted that a recollection of his patriotic conduct in de voting himself to the service of his country in this emergency con tributed materially to the creation of that popularity by which he was eventually enabled to attain to the highest office in the gift of the people. Mr. King, the successful candidate for the Vice-Presidency, on the same ticket with Mr. Pierce, had long acquired a national ADMINISTRATION OE PIERCE. 647 reputation, having been more than thirty years in the public service, and for many years the presiding officer of the U. S. Senate. On the 9th of February, 1853, the votes of the Electoral College were counted and declared in Congress, and the election of the successful candidates officially announced ; and on the ensuing 4th of March Mr. Pierce was publicly inaugurated in Washington, and took the oath of office as President of the United States. His inaugural address on the occasion was anxiously looked for, and received with general satisfaction by the people. So judicious and unexceptionable were its sentiments, and so truly American was it in character, that it met with nearly universal commendation from the press of all parties. It fully realized in its pledges and doctrines the expectations of the party instrumental in elevating him to power, and by its just and discreet tone conciliated, in a marked degree, the favour of the opposition. 'HIS important paper, foreshadowing as it does the general policy of President Pierce's administration, and presenting the views and ^intentions of the gov ernment in relation to some of the most important subjects connected with the welfare of the country, at an interesting juncture of its history, demands . that we bestow upon it more than a cursory notice. We shall, therefore, proceed to speak of it in detail. With an expression of thanks for the manifestation of the . nation's confidence in his elevation to a position of so great responsibility — one not sought, but accepted in obedience 'to the popular will — he proceeds to speak of the country's unparalleled progression in territory, population, and wealth. The stars upon our banner have become nearly three-fold their original number, our densely populated possessions skirt the shores of the two great oceans, and yet, he adds, this vast increase of people and territory has not only shown itself compatible with "the harmonious action of the States and the federal government in their respective constitu tional spheres, but has afforded an additional guarantee of the strength and integrity of both. This noble result is to be attributed to the wisdom and energy of the early founders of the republic. They possessed a calm faith, springing from a clear view of the sources of power, in a government constituted like ours. They proved themselves equal to the solution of the ¦ great problem, to understand which their minds had been illuminated by the dawning 648 ADMINISTRATION OF PIERCE. lights of the revolution. The object sought was not a thing dreamed of; it was a thing realized. They had exhibited not only the power to achieve, but what all history affirms to be so much more unusual, the capacity to maintain. The oppressed throughout the world;. from that day to the present, have turned their eyes hitherward, not to find those lights extinguished, or to fear lest they should wane, but to be constantly cheered by their steady and increasing radi ance. In this our country has, in the President's judgment, thus far fulfilled its highest duty to suffering humanity. It has spoken, and will continue to speak, not only by its words but by its acts, the lan guage of sympathy and encouragement to those who earnestly listen to its tones, which pronounce for the largest rational liberty. But, pre-eminently the power of our advocacy reposes in our example ; though it should be remembered that no example can be powerful for lasting good, whatever apparent advantages may be gained, which is not based upon eternal principles of right and justice. *N view of the past experience of the country > show ing that its extension has not militated with its , well-being, but, on the contrary, has but added to its strength and prosperity, the President declares that the policy of his administration will not be con trolled by any timid forebodings of evil from a still I farther expansion. And evidently having in his eye the ac quisition of Cuba, proceeds to remark : " Indeed, it is not to be disguised that our attitude as a nation, and our position on the globe, render the acquisition of certain possessions not within our jurisdiction, eminently important for our protection, if not, in the future, essential for the preservation of the rights of commerce and the peace of the world. Should they be obtained, it will be through no grasping spirit, but with a view to obvious national in terest and security, and in a manner entirely consistent with the strictest observance of national faith. We have nothing in our his tory or position to invite aggression ; we have every thing to beckon us to the cultivation of the relations of peace and amity with all nations. Purposes, therefore, at once just and pacific, will be sig nificantly marked in the conduct of our foreign affairs." He declares further, that no act within the legitimate scope of his constitutional control will be tolerated, on the part of any portion of our citizens, which cannot challenge a ready justification before the tribunal of the civilized world ; and adds, that an administration would be un ADMINISTRATION OF PIERCE. 649 worthy of confidence at home, or respect abroad, should it cease to be influenced by the conviction, that no apparent advantage can be purchased at a price so dear as that of national wrong or dishonour. These observations, so distinctly and significantly made, display the intentions of the administration in regard to the mode in which the acquisition of Cuba shall be made, should, during its term of office, such an acquisition ever be practicable. They preclude the idea of force and unjust seizure, or the supposition that any armed expedi tion from this country, having in view the conquest and subsequent annexation of Cuba, would meet with greater tolerance than under an administration more professedly conservative. The vague fears which may have been apprehended upon this subject, consequent upon the triumph of the party avowedly the fast friends of territorial extension, and particularly of Cuban annexation, have, therefore, by the declarations of President Pierce's Inaugural, been thoroughly dispelled. Cuba, if ever she becomes affiliated with this country, must become so under circumstances perfectly consistent with our national faith and honour. r" HE policy of this country, in the opinion of Presi dent Pierce, should be eminently peaceful, and, with the neighbouring nations upon our continent, we should cultivate kindly and fraternal relations. If we should open new channels of trade, and create additional facilities for friendly intercourse, the benefits realized will be open to all. With the politics of Europe we have no connection, except as they appeal to our sympathies in the cause of human freedom and universal ad vancement ; but the vast interests of commerce are common to all mankind. The President proceeds to lay down the ground in regard to another important subject affecting the rights and interests of Ameri can citizens, viz. : the degree of protection to be extended over them by the government; in whatever part of the world they may happen to be. This question, important at all times, has, in consequence of recent events, been made tp assume an unusual interest. Shall the American citizen, like the Roman of old, feel that his citizenship shall be a broad and sufficient shield, protecting him from injustice and wrong wherever he may go ? that his rights shall be respected, and his life and liberty be safe, in any part of the civilized world? The answer is, Yes ; the honour of the country demands that this 650 ADMINISTRATION OF PIERCE. doctrine be distinctly understood, and strictly enforced. The deci sive language which follows relating to this point, elicited the warm approval of the whole country, and constituted one of the most bril liant passages of the President's Inaugural : "The rights which belong to us as a nation are not alone to be regarded, but those which pertain to every citizen in his individual capatity, at home and abroad, must be sacredly maintained. So long as he can dis cern every star in its place upon that ensign, without wealth to pur chase for him preferment or title to secure for him place, it will be his privilege, and must be his acknowledged right, to stand unabashed even in the presence of princes, with a proud consciousness that he is himself one of a nation of sovereigns, and that he cannot, in a legitimate pursuit, wander so far from home, that the agent whom he shall leave behind in the place which I now occupy, will not see that no rude hand of power, or tyrannical passion, is laid upon him with impunity. He must realize, that upon every sea and on every soil where our enterprise may rightfully seek the protection of our flag, American citizenship is an inviolable panoply for the security of American rights." ,'PON another subject of equal importance, and which has at different periods called forth an ex pression of the sentiments of the American people, Jnamely, the doctrine first laid down by Mr. Monroe, in opposition to European colonization upon this continent, the President declares, that " it can I hardly be necessary to reaffirm a principle which should now • be regarded as fundamental. The rights, security, and repose of this confederacy, reject the idea of interference or coloniza tion on this side of the ocean by any foreign power, beyond present jurisdiction, as utterly inadmissible." The late events con nected with British interference in portions of Central America, and the attempt to set up a sort of protectorate over the Mosquito coun try, so called, seem to have revived public interest in this question, and to have suggested the emphatic language of the President. The subject has given rise to very important debates in Congress, to which we may have occasion to refer in future pages. Passing from the foreign to the domestic policy of the country, the views of the Inaugural are worthy of consideration. Upon the subject of the bestowal of Executive patronage, the doctrine held is, that while it cannot be reasonably expected that the 'administration ADMINISTRATION OF PIERCE. 651 will be so regardless of its responsibility, and of the obvious ele ments of success, as to retain persons known to be opposed to it in positions which require not only severe labor, but cordial co-opera tion, yet no appointments shall be made which do not contemplate an efficient discharge of duty and the best interests of the country. Against the dangers of an undue concentration of power in the general government, the President is also very explicit. The great scheme of our constitutional liberty rests upon a proper distribution of power between the State and federal authorities ; and experience has shown that the harmony and happiness of our people must depend upon a just discrimination between the separate rights and responsi bilities of the States, and our common rights and obligations under the general government. If the federal government will confine itself to the exercise of powers clearly granted by the constitution, it can hardly happen that its action upon any question should en danger the institutions of the States, or inter/ere with their right to manage matters strictly domestic according to the will of their, own people. ' HE President proceeds to express his entire devo tion to the Union, which, as it has been the source, under Providence, of our prosperity to this time, so it is the surest pledge of a continuance of the bless ings we have enjoyed, and which we are sacredly bound to transmit undiminished to our children. To every theory of society or government, whether the off spring of feverish ambition or of morbid enthusiasm, calculated to dissolve the bonds of law and affection which unite us, he . shall interpose a ready and stern resistance. He believes that involuntary servitude, as it exists in different States of this con federacy is recognized bythe Constitution; that it stands like any other admitted right, and that the States where it exists are entitled to efficient remedies to enforce the constitutional remedies. He holds, therefore, that the measures of 1850, commonly called the " compromise measures," are strictly constitutional, and to be un hesitatingly carried -into effect; and that the laws to enforce them should be respected and obeyed, not with a reluctance encouraged by abstract opinions as to their propriety in a different state of society, but cheerfully, and according to the decisions of the tn- buna! to which their exposition belongs. Thus warning against dis union, and appealing to the moderation and sense of justice of all 652 ADMINISTRATION OF PIERCE. classes of our citizens, the Inaugural closes with the hope, most elo quently expressed, that the kind Providence which smiled upon our fathers, may enable their children to preserve the blessings they have inherited. The President, on the 7th of March, submitted the names of the persons constituting his cabinet to the Senate, assembled in extra session, which immediately confirmed the nominations, as follow? : For Secretary of State, Wm. L. Marot, of New York. " Secretary of the Treasury, James Guthrie, of Kentucky. " Secretary of the Interior, Robert McClelland, of Michigan. " Secretary of "War, Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi. " Secretary of the Navy, James C. Dobbin, of North Carolina. " Postmaster-General, James Campbell, of Pennsylvania. " Attorney-Genei-al, Caleb Cushing, of Massachusetts. These are all gentlemen of ability and experience in statesmanship. Mr. Marcy was a member of President Polk's cabinet, holding the position of Secretary of War,, and distinguishing himself in his management of that department during the combat with Mexico. He was also, formerly, Governor of the State- of New York. Mr. Guthrie is a distinguished lawyer, and experienced as a politican. Mr. McClelland was former Governor of Michigan, and has served in Congress. General Davis took an active part in the Mexican War, and has also been a member of Congress. Mr. Dobbin was a member of the 29th Congress. Mr. Campbell was a leading politi cian and Attorney-General of the State of Pennsylvania. Gen. Cushing is distinguished for his diplomacy as Chinese Commis sioner, and his services during the Mexican War. Of the subsequent appointments by the President during the year, the following list embraces the more important foreign officials : MINISTERS PLENIPOTENTIARY. James Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, to Great Britain. Thomas H. Seymour, of Connecticut, to Russia. John T. Mason, of Virginia, to France. James Gadsden, of South Carolina, to Mexico. Pierre A. Soule, of Louisiana, to Spain. Peter D. Vroom, of New Jersey, to Prussia. Solon Borland, of Arkansas, to Central America. "Wm. Trousdale, of Tennessee, to Brazil. Samuel Medart, of Ohio, to Chili. John R. Clat, of Kentucky, to Peru. Theodore S. Fay, Minister Resident in Switzerland. ADMINISTRATION OF PIERCE. 653 CHARGE D'AFFAIRES. 3. J. Seibels, of Ala., for Belgium. Auguste Belmont, of New York, for Netherlands. Richard K. Meade, of Virginia, for Sardinia. Robert Dale Owen, of Indiana, for the Two Sicilies. Henry R. Jackson, of Georgia, for Austria. Henry Bedinger, of Virginia, for Denmark. Wm. H. Bissell, of Illinois, for Buenos Ayres. James S.. Green, of Mobile, for New Grenada. Shelton F. Leake, of Virginia, for Sandwich Islands. MONG the last acts of the previous session of Congress was the adoption of a resolution empower ing the President to employ engineers to make ex- plorations of the most practicable route for a rail road connecting the States with the Pacific shores, and appropriating the sum of $150,000 for the sur vey. Accordingly, four expeditions were fitted out in the course of the year, under experienced officers, having in view this important object. Two other expeditions were also dispatched during the same period, by water, having other, but also important objects in view. The first sailed from New York on the 31st of May, under the command of Dr. Kane, in continuation of the search for Sir John Franklin; and the other sailed a few days later from Norfolk, under the command of Captain , Ringgold, having for its object an exploration of the routes pursued hy American vessels trading between San Francisco and China, and of the whaling grounds in the North Pacific. The return of Santa Anna to power in the neighbouring republic of Mexico, in March, and his supposed feelings of hostility to the United States, taken in connection with the breaking out of a diffi culty between the American Governor of New Mexico, Gen. Lane, and the Governor of the Mexican State of Chihuahua, for a time gave indications of another rupture between the two nations. It appears that a tract of country, known as the Mesilla Valley, about 175 miles by 40 in extent, and situate on the borders of New Mexico, though mutually claimed under the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo by both the United States and Mexico, had been assigned by the joint Boundary Commission to the latter country. This tract was, how ever, forcibly taken possession of by General Lane on the 13th of March, "to be held provisionally," as he declared,." until the ques- 3i2 654 ADMINISTRATION OF PIERCE. tion of boundary shall be determined between the United States and Mexico." The measure was resisted by the Governor of Chihua hua, and the territory claimed as belonging to that State. The question has occupied the attention of both governments concerned in its peaceful adjudication. N the 18th of April, 1853, the Hon. William R. King, Vice-President of the United States, died at | Cahawba, in Alabama. On the meeting of Con- I gress, in December of the previous year, though in , feeble health, he assumed his post as presiding officer of the Senate, a position he had filled dur ing the previous administration. Increasing illness, how ever, compelled him to resign office, and in a letter dated December 20th, his intention was communicated to the Senate. He soon after set sail for the West Indies, in the hope of improving his health. By special resolution of Congress, he was permitted to take the oath of office as Vice-President of the United States during his absence ; a ceremony which was performed on the 4th of March, near Matanzas, in Cuba/ where he at the time was sojourning. Finding himself fast failing in health, in April he took passage in a United States vessel, and arrived at Mobile on the 12th of the month, where he was received with deep respect and mourn ful interest by his fellow-citizens. Journeying on to Cahawba, he was forced to his bed, and died the next day, surrounded by his family and friends. The intelligence was heard with profound re gret throughout the country, and various official and spontaneous manifestations of public sorrow followed in honour of the deceased. A brief biographical sketch of this distinguished statesman will not be deemed inappropriate. William Rufus King was born in Samp son County, North Carolina, on the 7th of April, 1786 ; he was therefore 67 years of age when he died. After representing the Wilmington district, in North Carolina, several terms in the lower house of Congress, he changed his residence to Alabama, then a Territory. When Alabama came in as a State, in 1819, Mr. King was elected one of her U. S. Senators — a position he has continued to fill most of the time since, with distinction and much personal popularity. In 1844, he accepted the post of Minister to France, proffered by Mr. Tyler, whence he was recalled, at his own re quest, in 1846, having distinguished his mission by the success of his negotiations with the French government, which had contem- ADMINISTRATION OF PIERCE. 655 plated uniting with Great Britain in a protest against the annexation of Texas to the Union. Upon the elevation of Mr. Fillmore to the presidency, in 1850, Mr. King, again in the Senate from Alabama, was chosen President pro. tern, of that body— a position he had held on several occasions before. His nomination and election to the vice-presidency, as the candidate of the democratic party, in 1852, was the last and highest honour to which he attained ; and it seemed a matter of deep regret that he could not have lived to enjoy a posi tion so meetly the reward of a long life devoted to the interests of his country. Mr. King is the third Vice-President who has died in office. The two others were George Clinton, who died in April, 1812, and Elbridge Gerry, who died in November, 1814. 'HE Great Exhibition of the World's Industry at 1 London, in 1851, led to the determination among a number of the prominent citizens of New York to get up a similar enterprise in this country ; and a company for that purpose was organized, under a charter from the State of New York, granted in March, 1852. Measures were then immediately taken to en list the people of the various States in the undertaking, and also to procure the co-operation of foreign countries, by for-' . warding for exhibition specimens of the industry of their re spective nations. The enterprise was of a purely private character, unlike the British Exhibition, which was national in its character, and supported by the influence and resources of the government. The only aid which the American enterprise has received from our government, is the permission to regard their building as a bonded warehouse, wherein the foreign articles may be introduced duty free while on exhibition. The undertaking, from its inception, was prosecuted with vigour, and, despite a variety of obstacles to be overcome, the edifice for the designed object was in readiness for use, and the Exhibition itself inaugurated on the 14th of July-, 1853. On that day, the American " Crystal Palace" was opened with appropriate ceremonies, in the presence of 8,000 persons assembled on the interesting occasion. The President of the United States, with a portion of his cabinet, honoured the inauguration with his presence. The exercises were impressive, and consisted of the reading of prayer by Bishop Wainwright, of New York, addresses by the President of the Association, Theodore Sedgwick, Esq., and 656 ADMINISTRATION OF PIERCE. the President of the United States, and singing by the New York Sacred Harmonic Society. The main features of the building, which, though inferior in size to that of the World's Exhibition in London, is universally confessed to be its superior in architectural beauty and general effect, are thus described : It is, with the exception of the floor, entirely constructed of iron and glass. The edifice is in the form of a Greek cross, sur mounted by a dome at the intersection. Each diameter of the cross is 365 feet long, and each arm of the cross is, on the ground plan, 149 feet broad. On entering the building, the observer's eye is greeted by the vista of an arched nave, 41 feet wide, 67 feet high, and 365 long ; and, on approaching the centre, he finds himself under a dome 100 feet in diameter and 118 feet high. The building contains on the ground floor 111,000 square feet of space, and in its galleries, which are 54 feet wide, 62,000 square feet more, making a total area of 173,000 square feet, or about four acres surface for the purposes of exhibition. The iron used in the work is estimated at about 1,250 tons ; the glass at 39,000 square feet. The plan of the building was furnished by Messrs. Carztensen and Gildemeister, and the edifice itself erected on Reservoir-square, in the city of New York, the use of the grounds having been granted by the municipal authorities of the city. INCE the opening of the Exhibition, it has been very numerously frequented by visitors. The col lection of articles, both foreign and domestic, is fully equal to the largest public "expectation ; many of them being among the rarest and most valuable specimens of art in Europe and America, and re flecting the highest credit on the ingenuity and'skill of the various nations whose products they are. To enter upon a more particular enumeration in these pages would be un necessary. The enterprise, it may be remarked, is regarded as having been in all respects successful, and the benefits anticipated from it sure to be realized. The great increase of the means of intercommunication by rail roads, and the consequent public and private advantage accruing therefrom to the country, has during the year been in a measure counterbalanced by the large number of appalling disasters which have occurred, through unforeseen accident or the carelessness of the managers of the roads. A collision took place on the 23d ot ymrj ADMINISTRATION OF PIERCE. 659 April, near Chicago, between the trains of the Central Michigan and Northern Indiana Railroads, by which twenty persons were killed and a large number seriously injured. On the 2d of August an ac cident occurred on the Belvidere and Delaware Railroad, by the cars running off the track. Ten persons were killed outright and a large number wounded. A little later in the month a collision oc curred between the New York and Philadelphia trains, near Amboy, by which nearly thirty persons were injured and several killed. On the 12th of the month a shocking disaster occurred on the Provi dence and Worcester Railroad. A train containing a large pleasure party came in violent collision with another, and some fifteen persons were killed and a large number injured. But the most appalling accident of this nature occurred on the 6th of May, at Norwalk, in Connecticut, on the New York and New Haven Railroad. The drawbridge at Norwalk had been raised to permit a steamer to pass, and the locomotive, baggage car, and two passenger cars of the train from New York were precipitated into the river below, a distance of some twenty feet, and all the passengers buried beneath the water, nearly all of whom were instantly killed or drowned before assist ance could reach them. It appeared from the subsequent evidence taken before a jury of inquest, that the draw of the bridge was open, and that the proper signal was given by the keeper of the bridge ; but the engineer did not observe the signal, and proceeded with the train, realizing the fatal result that followed. More than fifty lives were lost, and as many more injured. The legislature of Connec ticut, being in session at the time of the disaster, appointed a special committee to investigate the subject, and to report a more stringent public enactment for the regulation of railroads. A law of this nature was passed; and public attention having been generally aroused to the subject, similar action has been taken by the legisla tures of other States. The following is believed to be a nearly ac curate estimate of the number of railroad accidents which have occurred in the United States within the limits of time specified : Months JSwniber of Aeaidmts. Kitted. Wownded. January, 12 25 ' *° February,..: 6 J ii March,... 1* 24 62 Anril ...- 4 25 54 Ma? 5 6 19 J™e> n 8 22 £fc:::::::::::::::::::::::::: j jl ji Total to August 12, 65 Iff 383 660 ADMINISTRATION OF PIERCE. Among the most extensive conflagrations which have occurred ih 1853, was the destructive fire which took place in Oswego, New York, on the 5th of July. Nearly 200 dwellings and stores were destroyed, at an estimated loss of over a million dollars. The steamer Cherokee, while lying at her wharf in New York, and on the point of sailing, with a full cargo on board, was destroyed by fire on the 25th of August. The loss of property was nearly half a million dollars. , GAIN has the scourge of yellow fever visited the , chief cities of the South ; and the present year will long be held in painful remembrance as one of the most disastrous ever experienced. The mor tality has even exceeded that produced by the Asi atic cholera, when that terrible visitant passed over the country. The virulence of the disease was never ex ceeded, especially in the city of New Orleans, where it raged with the most fatal effects. The Howard Association of that city, in their appeal to the public for assistance, state that the deaths were fully 70 per cent, of all who were attacked. The epidemic commenced early in May, and by degrees extended itself until, in the months of July and August, the deaths were from 200 to 300 a day. Such records as these show how terrible were the ravages of the disease : "August 18. — Number of deaths during the forty-eight hours ending this morning, 410, of which 366 were by yellow fever." "August 19. — Deaths reported for to-day, 242 ; yellow fever, 227, &c." The whole number of deaths was about 9,000 ! and that, too, when the city had been to a great degree de serted by its population, who had fled elsewhere for safety. Says a New Orleans paper of that period: " We have never seen such a veritable stampede as the epidemic has occasioned. Thousands who have lived among us for six or eight years, who had passed un scathed through the fever of 1847, and who were wont to consider themselves proof against its attacks, have taken the alarm. We do not think New Orleans has ever been as completely deserted by her merchants and professional men as she is now." At least seven- eighths of those who were unacclimated, it is also stated, left the city. The disease was at first confined chiefly to European emigrants, a large number of whom had been drawn to the city to labour on the public works ; but it soon after spread, embracing all classes among its victims. Business, as a matter of course, was virtually sus- ADMINISTRATION OF PIERCE. 661 pended, and gloom and terror reigned over the devoted city. Churches, school-houses, and lodge-rooms were turned into hospi tals, and the able-bodied were all physicians, nurses, and under takers. The sympathies of the country were strongly excited by this distressing state of things, and very liberal contributions were made in New York, Boston, Baltimore, Philadelphia, Charleston, and other cities, in behalf of the sufferers. Of the scenes witnessed during the prevalence of the scourge, we have a vivid description in the language of one of the New Orleans journals : " In every street were long processions, tramping to the solemn music of funeral marches. In the countenances of plodding passengers were the lines of anxiety and grief; and many a door was festooned with black and white hangings, the voiceless witnesses of wailing and of sorrow. On the one hand swept the long corteges of the wealthy, nodding with plumes and drawn by prancing horses, rejoicing in their funeral vanities ; on another, the hearse of the citizen-soldier, preceded by measured music, enveloped in warlike panoply, and followed by the noisy tread of men under arms ; while there again the pauper was trundled to his lone home on a rickety cart, another morsel contributed to the grand banquet of Death. Now among the steeples was heard the chiming of bells, mingling their hoarse voices as in a chorus of gratulation over the ranks of fallen mortality ; anon from some lowly tenement thrilled the low wail of a mother for the child of her affections. At the gathering points carriages accumu lated, and vulgar teamsters, as they jostled each other in the press, mingled the coarse jest with the ribald oath. At the gates of the cemeteries the winds brought intimation of the corruption working within. Not a puff but was laden with the rank atmosphere from the rotten corpses, which inside were piled by fifties, exposed to the heat of the sun. Long ditches were dug, and coffins laid in them showed their tops above the surface of the earth. Eeonemy of Bpace was the source of cunning calculation in stowing away the dead." Early in the year 1853, Turkey became engaged in a diffi culty with Russia, upon the question of the right of the latter to exercise exclusive control over the interests of the Greek Church in the Turkish dominions ; and the misunderstanding assumed so hostile an aspect, that war was deemed inevitable. While the dispute was still raging, intelligence was received in this coun try of an affair which occurred in Smyrna, in the dominions of the 662 ADMINISTRATION OF PIERCE. Sultan, on the 23d of June, directly involving the rights of American citizenship, and coming within the scope of the observations so em phatically enunciated upon this subject in the President's Inaugural. It appears that a Hungarian refugee, by the name of Martin Koszta, who visited this country as one of the followers of M. Kossuth, and while here had adopted the necessary measures to become an American citizen, by declaring his intentions and taking the oath of allegiance, was, on the day before-named, seized by the officers of an Austrian vessel-of-war in the port of Smyrna, and confined in irons on hoard the ship, with a view of being transported to Austria. On the next day the United States sloop-of-war St. Louis came into port, and her commander, Captain Duncan N. Ingraham, learn ing of the circumstances of the seizure and of the relation that Koszta sustained to this country, at once demanded the, release of the pris oner from his tyrannical confinement. The Austrian declined ac ceding to the request, notwithstanding Koszta, it seems, had with him an American protection from the minister of this government at Con stantinople. Captain Ingraham immediately determined to take efficient steps to vindicate the honour of his country, and prevent the wrong sought to be accomplished, and therefore gave the Aus trian commander a limited number of hours in which to surrender his prisoner, or abide the result. Meantime, to evince his earnest ness in the matter, the decks of the St. Louis were cleared for ac tion, and the crew stood ready at their guns to obey the order to open upon the enemy. Before the time had expired, the Austrian commander concluded to deliver up Koszta, who was seen to be taken over the sides of the ship', and conveyed in a boat to the shore. The scene was witnessed by thousands of the population, whose interest had been intensely excited in view of what would be the result of the affair, and shouts of approbation, in honour of the American com mander and of the nation whom he represented, ascended as the prisoner reached the land. Writes an eye-witness : " With shouts of joy our officers were surrounded, a thousand hats flew in the air, and the people would have almost carried us on their shoulders." The prompt and energetic conduct of Capt. Ingraham in this matter was the theme of general commendation in the liberal press through out Europe. It was cited in honour of the American name, and pointed at as an evidence of the inviolability of the rights of Ameri can citizenship. At home it received the entire approval of the government, as being but the fulfilment of its expressed policy. A ADMINISTRATION 'OF PIERCE. 663 formal protest was made by the Austrian government against the rightfulness of the course of the commander of the St. Louis, and the representatives at Washington of other monarchical governments in Europe have been instructed to unite in this protest. The ques tion thus became one of international importance, and has deeply interested the people at large. Koszta was, however, soon after wards released. E have already alluded in these pages to the misunderstanding between Russia and Turkey, in regard to certain rights claimed by the for mer and denied by the latter, touching the con trol of the affairs of the Greek Church within the Turkish dominions. On the rejection by Turkey 0/ the demands of the Czar, the latter directed his armies to occupy the Turkish provinces, known as the Danubian principalities ; and this done, there ensued several weeks of diplomatic effort on the part of the four powers — England, France, Prussia, and Austria — to effect a peaceful solution of the difficulty between the opposing parties. The fear of a general European war seems to have prompted to these exertions. At length, Russia still persisting in her occupancy of the Turkish pro vinces, and refusing to accede to a peaceful , settlement, a declara tion of war was issued from the Porte, and hostilities soon after commenced. THE NEW YORK CRYSTAL PALACE. WILLIAM PITT, SOU 07 THE EARL 0 7 CHATHAM. CHAPTER LV. CANADA TJNDER THE BRITISH. HE history of Canada under the French has been given in a previous part of this work; and for an account .of its conquest by the British, the reader is referred to Chapter XXV. The popu lation at the time of the conquest was aboyt seventy thousand, divided in a poor yet much respected nobility, and the cultivators — a race frugal, industrious, and moral. General Miu> CANADA TJNDER THE BRITISH. 665 ray was appointed governor, and during his administration the rights of the old settlers were faithfully guarantied to them. In fact, the British government, immediately after the conquest, exercised toward the Canadians a policy at once liberal and wise. The habitans, as they are now called, were secured in their property, invested with the rights of citizens, and allowed the free enjoyment of their religion. The laws of England, both civil and criminal, including trial by jury, were also introduced, and though the French still preferred, in many cases, the customs reconciled to them by habit, they did not fail to appreciate most of the improvements introduced by the new government. At the time of the conquest, the British residents of Canada, exclu sive of military men, were few and weak. Some five hundred traders, mostly of small capital, were scattered through the provinces. They seem to have been but ill-fitted for their station, often exhibiting a bigoted spirit, and an unjustifiable contempt of the French population. But owing to the firmness of the governor, the latter were protected by all the means at his disposal ; and by this impartiality not only were many collisions between the two races avoided, but the old inhabitants became attached to the governor, and respected his government. Little of historic interest occurred in the colony from this time until the revolt of the Thirteen colonies south of Canada. The importance of maintaining the Canadians in a state of loyalty was well understood by the mother country; and in order to gratify national partialities, Par liament, in 1774, passed the Quebec Act, by which the English civil law was superseded by the old French code, which had existed before the conquest. The only reservation was that of the criminal branch, which continued similar to that of England. The French language was to be used in the courts ; but no provision was made for a national representation. It is probably owing to the latter cause, that this act, designed to effect a complete reconciliation between the two races, failed to accomplish that object. But during the struggle between Great Britain and her revolted colonies, the Canadians steadily main tained their allegiance. This was the more singular, from the fact that the American Congress and other republican bodies issued stirring ap peals to the inhabitants, exhorting them to join agamst the common foe. Yet the British, as though ^confiding in the fidelity of the Canadians, withdrew almost all their troops from the province, in order to employ them in the south. The Americans, failing in their attempts to enlist the Canadians in their cause, adopted the bold resolution of invading Canada with' a view to its conquest. Of the daring manner in which the invasion was con- 666 DIVIDED INTO TWO PROVINCES. OHARLE3 JAMES FOX. ducted, — of the appalling sufferings, and heroic fortitude of officers and men, the fate of their leader, and the ultimate issue of the expedi tion, the reader will find an account in the twenty-eighth chapter of this volume. From this time until the close of the American war, few events of sufficient importance to narrate occurred in Canada. In 1783, when peace was concluded, numbers of loyalists, obnoxious to the Americans, passed into Canada, where they received liberal grants of land, and by their sobriety and industry laid the foundation of the prosperity which subsequently distinguished the Upper Province. But the people were still anxious for a representative government. The Quebec Act had provided for the appointment of a legislative council of twenty-three CANADA TJNDER THE BRITISH. 667 members, but the nomination of these rested with the sovereign ; besides which, the administration, civil and, military, was conducted by an indi vidual exercising the powers of governor and commander-in-chief. Hence dissatisfaction rather increased than diminished; and this was the case more especially, after the example of the United States' govern ment had begun to operate. In 1784, a petition asking for a repre sentative government, and signed mostly by British settlers, and by many of the French, was presented to ^Parliament. The petition re ceived but little attention, until 1790, when Mr. Pitt proposed in Par liament a scheme of government for Canada, based upon that of the English constitution. The first change to be effected was the dividing of the province into Upper Canada and Lower Canada, of which each was to have a separate constitution. , This division was strongly opposed by Fox and other Whig members, who based their hopes for the successful legislation of the colony, upon the reconciliation and ultimate amalga mation of the two classes of population. On the other hand, Pitt con tended that the attempt at union, when race, language and manners, were so different, would only produce dissension and disunion. He pre vailed, and the measure became a law. Other differences arose in Par liament, concerning the constitution of the legislative council. Pitt proposed that it should consist of a hereditary nobility, among whom were to be included the more respectable French lords. Fox advocated a representative council, but as this was ill received, he suggested that the members be chosen by the king for life. The latter plan was adopted. In 1792, the first house of Assembly, numbering fifty-two members, was opened by Lieutenant-governor Clark; but their proceedings for some years were not of sufficient importance to merit notice. In 1798 troubles arose concerning the granting of land, the board appointed for that purpose having appropriated large districts to themselves. Loud complaints were made against this proceeding, as it tended to prevent the general settlement of the province. Much time elapsed before this affair was adjusted. In 1803, slavery was abolished in Canada. In 1807, Sir James Craig was appointed governor. His administra tion forms an era in Canadian history. Hitherto the affairs of the co lony had been left almost entirely to the discretion of the executive; now the House of Assembly, as though suddenly conscious of its im portance, appeared anxious to' render itself independent. One of the first acts, with a view to attain this object, was to demand that the judges should be expelled from their body, as they were removable by the crown. ' Should it be done, the members offered to defray the ex- 668 THE REIGN OF TERROR. V1BW *BOM >¦« 0«1..» ^ SI"8IOB' r^ses of the civil administration from the funds of the colony The E was anXeiected, and the Assembly dissolved. A new Assem- t "cLenedin 1811, displayed the same independen ^ A J 1-1,0 ParmAian— defended the Assembly and attacked tlie newspaper-the Canaan d ^ ^ ^ ^^ irvlXher iSX^.** i a course pursued by the execu- tirriih TaS caused this period to be designated as the reign of tenor. 7h s per od ly be considered as the beginning of the dissensions which This period my ^ gs wag sus_ connected with that war are elsewhere narrated. A the close of that war, the former disturbances were —wed -d hat continned to agitate the province with more or less vmlence £ the . t- . -prom 1815—23 successive governors were engaged in C^n^ IZ not generally seconded by the Assembly. In 1824, under the Idlltrat on Lord Dalhousie, the House of Representatives con demned m!ny of the former appropriations of the public money, and dSedthrrigltof the crown to interfere in that matter. These— rifdtheVevailingdiscontent. *«*¦ '^^£ the governor's conduct, and urging compliance with the acta of Assem CANADA UNDER THE BRITISH. 669 SIB ROBERT P3IL bly, was sent to the king. It contained eighty-seven thousand signatures. A committee in the House of Commons reported favourably for the pe titioners — a measure which gave great satisfaction — and important re forms were in consequence introduced. After the death of G-eorge rV., new disputes arose on the questions of making judges independent of the crown, and granting a permanent provision to the governor. The Assembly decided against the latter, a result which placed them at va riance with the crown. Under Lord Goderich's administration, (1833,) the breach widened, in consequence of the Assembly demanding powers which that nobleman regarded as exorbitant. In the same year, the Assembly asked that the legislative council might, like themselves, be elected by the body of the people. Lord Stanley, as head of the colonial office, refused in severe terms to lay the subject before the king ; in con sequence of which the Assembly voted no supply that year. 670 EARL Off GOSFORD, GOVERNOR. When Sir Robert Peel assumed the direction of affairs in England, he determined on sending a commissioner to Canada, empowered to examine and redress every real grievance which might be found. The overthrow of the Peel ministry prevented the' execution of this plan. Soon after, the Earl of G-osford was appointed governor. He seems to have been sincerely desirous of reform. His first intercourse with the Assembly and the popular leaders was amicable and conciliatory; but the somewhat harsh character of his instructions caused a violent tumult as soon as known, and produced an open rupture with the Assembly. The council strongly opposed the Representatives, so that no business of importance could be transacted. A meeting of the Provincial Par liament, in September, 1836, failed to effect a reconcihation. As no supplies could be obtained from the Assembly, the government was re duced to the alternative of suspending official operations, seizing sup plies, or demanding the interposition of the mother country. Parliament promptly decided upon coercive measures, declaring, by large majorities, that the money withheld by the Assembly should be seized for adminis trative' purposes, and that the executive council was not responsible to the Representatives for its acts. The deathof William IV. prevented these measures from becoming laws. Meantime, violent popular demonstrations had taken place. On hearing of the movements of the leaders, the governor requested a regiment of troops from New Brunswick, and warned the people about engaging in seditious movements. The Assembly denounced the measures of Parliament, and declared that, if carried into effect, the colony would no longer be attached to the mother country by feelings of duty or affection, but by force. The popular leaders resolved on an appeal to arms. Secret associations were formed, violent meetings held, and arms collected. Men calling themselves the " Sons of Liberty," paraded the streets of Montreal. Similar associations were formed at the village of the Two Mountains. Numbers refused to obey the magis trates; a popular militia was organized; and Jnany openly declared a separation from the mother country to be necessary. Meanwhile government was on the alert. Two more regiments were ordered from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick. Volunteer corps of the loyal inhabitants were formed ; and various proclamations made to the societies and the people. In Montreal, a party of the " Sons of Libera ty" were defeated and driven through the streets, and the office of. a liberal paper destroyed. Warrants were issued against twenty-six of the popular leaders, and nine of them were arrested. Two of these were subsequently rescued near Longuevil by an armed force of threa CANADA TJNDER THE BRITISH. 6Y1 TWO MOUNTAINS. hundred men. The principal leaders, Papineau, Brown, and Wilson, were reported to have taken refuge in the villages of St. Denis and St Charles. A considerable force, under Colonels Gore and Wetherall, was sent against them. On reaching St, Denis, Colonel Gore found the en trance defended by a stone house, from which a fire of musketry was opened upon him. His efforts to batter it down were unavailing ; and ' after a sharp skirmish he retreated. Wetherall attacked St. Charles, defended bjy Brown, with fifteen hundred insurgents. The village was stormed, the palisades and fortified houses were set on fire, and the gar rison driven off. The loss of the insurgents was about three hundred. The vindictive measures pursued towards this unfortunate garrison have cast a stigma upon Wetherall's memory. Soon after, Gore entered St. Denis without resistance; the popular leaders concealed themselves or fled to the United - States, and the insurrection in this quarter was suppressed. The districts of Terrebonne and Two Mountains, north of Montreal, were still in arms. In December, Sir John Colborne, commander-in- ehief of the Canadian army, marched with thirteen hundred troops against St. Eustache. Four hundred insurgents threw themselves into a church, which they defended with desperate valour. They were finally dislodged by the building being set on fire. At St. Benoit, the loyalists 672 INSURRECTION AT ST. DENIS AND ST. CHARLES. HiTI ISLAND. burned thefhouses of the insurgents and committed other atrocities. Simi lar proceedings took place at Toronto, and the neighbouring provinces. In Upper Canada, Mackenzie and other leaders endeavoured to> erect that province into an independent nation. His attempt, on the 4th of December, to seize the government arms, failed. Three days after, his force of five hundred men was routed by a body of loyalists under McNab. Mackenzie fled to Buffalo, where he succeeded in organizing a corps which took possession of Navy Island. After fortifying it with thirteen pieces of cannon, he issued a proclamation inviting volunteers from Canada and the United States. About one thousand joined him, and he established a provisional government. It was at this period that President Van Buren issued his proclamation warning the citizens of this country of the consequences of joining the opposition to a friendly nation. The burning of the Caroline caused so much irritation upon the border, that the American government stationed there a small force under General Scott, to maintain order. From this time until November, 1838, the spirit of rebellion slum bered. On the 3d of that month, a' concerted rising took place in all the southern counties of Montreal district. Sharp skirmishing took place on the frontier, during which an insurgent force under Dr. Nelson lost one hundred men, and, in about one week, apparent tranquillity CANADA UNDER THE BRITISH. 673 was restored. At Prescott, four hundred men, after a gallant resistance, were captured or dispersed by a large British force. A number of the leaders were put to death, and the remainder condemned to ignominious punishments. , Meantime, the news of the former insurrection had excited great sen sation in England. When the House of Commons was about to rise for the Christmas holidays, a minister proposed that instead of' post poning the time of meeting, as usual, until February, they should meet on the 16th of January. At that time the constitution of the lower province was suspended, and a bill passed for forming a council, its members to be named by the queen, which, in conjunction with the government, might exercise the functions then performed by the two legislative bodies. Its powers were to terminate on the 1st of Novem ber, 1840, and the validity of their enactments two ' years afterwards. The Earl of Durham, a mild and liberal statesman, was appointed go vernor-general of Canada, with instructions to carry these measures into immediate effect. On his arrival at Quebec, (May 29, 1838,) he was cordially received by all parties.- In his progress through the country, as far as Upper Canada, he met with similar expressions of confidence. This prospect of reconciliation was quickly clouded. Nelson, Bou- chette, Viger and other popular leaders, were in the Montreal jail, charged with high treason. Government considered it necessary that they should be visited by exemplary punishment. Yet an impartial jury could not be expected for tneir trial, which would besides inflame all the rancour and party animosity which it was his lordship's object to appease. In this dilemma he adopted a course that would enable him, as he hoped, to avoid both evils. After the prisoners had been induced to make a confession of their guilt, they were sentenced to be sent to Bermuda, and there kept in strict surveillance. Should they at any time return to Canada without permission from the governor, they would be punishable by death. Papineau, and others who had escaped, received the same sentence. This measure produced much excitement in the British Parliament. Lord Brougham declared it illegal, as it condemned to death without trial, and to transportation to a colony which was not within the governor-general's jurisdiction. As the cir cumstances of the case were, however, extraordinary, he proposed a vote of indemnity, in favour of the governor-general. Lord Durham's mea- . sures were accordingly annulled. On receiving information of these acts, the governor-general, deeply mortified, publicly announced his in tention to resign. He did not even follow the customary routine of re questing permission from the crown, and waiting until he had received it; 674 EARL OF DURHAM, GOVERNOR. TOfiOSIO. and in announcing the disallowance of his ordinance, he commented on the decision of Parliament with a severity which was considered irregu lar, as it tended to compromise the royal authority. On the 1st of No vember, two days before the last-mentioned insurrection, he sailed from Quebec, and on the 26th landed at Plymouth. During the winter of 1838 and the ensuing summer, (1839,) the Ca nadian provinces were tolerably tranquil. Much interest was excited by the proposal for a union between Upper and Lower Canada* — a mea sure warmly recommended by Lord Durham. A proposition to that effect was before the British ministry in 1839, and the House of As sembly in the upper province was favourably disposed toward it. But objections from other quarters caused its postponement for that year. A bill was passed to continue the extraordinary powers under which Sir John Colborne administered the affairs of the lower province; and in the fall, Poulett Thompson was nominated to the important office of gbvernor-general. Under this gentleman and his immediate successor, government adopted a system of conciliation, directed, of course, to the retaining of. Canada as a province of the mother country. Several prominent patriots were admitted into the executive and legislative coun cils, and even to the highest offices. Yet dissatisfaction, more or less general, still existed; and the populace lost no opportunity of .appro priating the advantages of chance to their own purposes. CANADA UNDER THE BRITISH. 675 From this time until the year 1848, little of historical interest tran spired in Canada. The country remained in an, unsettled state, and in various quarters strong opposition was manifested from time to time, to the measures of the parent government. Some of the governors who succeeded Lord Durham rendered themselves odious by opposing popu lar acts passed or recommended by the Assembly. To these difficulties was added the antipathy between the two principal elements of the population. The descendants of the original French settlers of Canada and those of the British settlers cannot coalesce. Differences of reli gion, of manners, of ideas, of living, instead of disappearing, seem to increase yearly. The position of the governor is consequently a delicate one, frequently involving a sacrifice of the interest of one race to those of the. other. This has been one principal cause of the failure of Bri tish legislation to produce legislative and social concord in the province. This fact became strikingly apparent in 1848, when dissatisfaction per vaded all Canada; and in the following year, when this dissatisfaction resulted in the serious riots at Montreal and other places. Such was the popular feeling in the province, when, under the governor: ship of Lord Elgin, the Canadian leaders formed the " British American League," which has been rendered memorable by the unexpected events that occurred during its existence. Its objects were of a general nature — "to decide upon and publish (such was their language to the people) a declaration of their opinions, upon the commercial and political ques tions of the day." The means to be employed for this purpose were expressed in a single word — " organization." On the 19th of April, 1849, the League met at Montreal, to elect its officers, and frame an address to the people of Canada. In this paper, after mentioning the "com mercial distress and general depression in every department of industry," and disclaiming all intention to propose remedial measures, the League enumerated several causes of the national difliculties. " The diversity of national origin, in itself so potent an impediment to progress ; the system of representation; the tenure of lands in the lower province; the composition of the legislative council, and many other topics of far too great importance to be approached without caution or touched with out dispassionate inquiry by the people at large — all point to the neces sity of concentrating and asserting public opinion upon such matters." The address led to a warm discussion, during which the most liberal opinions on the subject of dissolving the connection with Great Britain were openly broached. Meanwhile, the people loudly complained of grievances, and one or two papers openly advocated secession from Great Britain and annexation to the United States. Exciting debates took 676 place in the Assembly. New names were added daily to the hst of the League. This was the state of affairs when a rumor became general that Lord Elgin would sanction a measure known as the "Rebellion Losses Bill." It provided for indemnifying those who had sustained losses through the insurrections of the province — among whom, through a singular oversight of legislation, were several who had been outlawed by Lord Durham, for participating in the commotions for which indemnity was to be granted. The former loyalist party were greatly incensed. Mobs collected in various quarters, anxiously inquiring the news. On the afternoon of .April 25, the governor repaired to the council-chamber, where he signed forty-eight bills. The " Rebellion Bill" was one of them. Reports of this proceeding spread so rapidly, that before Lord Elgin left the chamber, fifteen hundred persons had surrounded it. On entering his carriage, the governor was pelted with stones and other missiles. In one hour, all Montreal was in commotion. While alarm bells were ringing, men passed through the streets crying aloud that a popular meeting would take place that evening at the Champs de Mars. ' Five thousand people assembled. Resolutions of a most decided charac ter were passed. One speaker mounted a chair, and with a loud voice announced "We have passed resolutions enough — they have been dis regarded. The time for action has arrived." Deafening cheers inter rupted him. "To the Parliament-house," shouted the orator. The words were echoed amid tremendous uproar, and with lighted torches dancing over their heads in every direction, the masses moved at a fu rious-pace toward the legislative chamber. At ten o'clock eight thousand persons were in front of the legislative buildings. The Assembly was in full session, having their hall brilliantly lighted. A loud crash announced to the members their danger, and the glass panes were dashed in by thick showers of stones which poured through the windows. The terrified Assembly rose and rushed together into the lobby. The next moment, one hundred men, completely armed, entered the hall. One of them took possession of the speaker's chair, another carried away the mace. Others chopped to pieces the furniture. Some cried fire. The members, clerks, and ladies, led by Colonel Gugy, collected in a body, and rushing through the hall, escaped at the principal door. The build ings were discovered to be on fire. In fifteen minutes the Assembly hall was in flames ; by midnight the whole was one mass of ruins. Out side, an immense mob gazed upon the spectacle in stupid wonder. The troops had now arrived in considerable numbers. They were enthu siastically cheered, but could do nothing to. arrest the flames. All the CANADA UNDER THE BRITISH. 677 public records and documents, the recent bills, and the pubhc library, were consumed with the buildings. The loss of the books, an immense collection, on the early history of the province, was irreparable. A picture of the Queen was destroyed in the streets. Before morning the mob had dispersed. Next day, four of the popular leaders were arrested on a charge of arson. Three thousand persons followed them to the prison, and great excitement prevailed; but the "liberal" chiefs exerted themselves suc cessfully to prevent an outbreak. Troops continued to arrive through out the day, but seem to have made no efforts to prevent the assembling of large concourses of people. Several houses of obnoxious persons were attacked, and another meeting was called to deliberate upon the condition of the province. It voted a petition to the queen, demanding the immediate recall of Lord Elgin. The governor imprudently armed five hundred young Frenchmen, and placed them among his escort, thus augmenting the irritation of the "British party," as the more nu merous portion of the people styled themselves. The escort, known as "Lord Elgin's guard," were hooted and threatened; and the governor burned in effigy. The popular leaders exerted themselves to arrest this dangerous tendency toward rioting ; and by the 1st of May, order had been restored throughout the provinces. On the 10th, fresh disturb ances occurred at Montreal. While the governor-general, with the minis try, and a large number of radical members, were at a dinner given at Titus's hotel, five hundred men surrounded the building, and demanded an entrance. A scuffle ensued, during which shots were fired from the hotel, and several of the people were wounded. The affair terminated, however, without any event more serious. During the summer and fall of this year, Canada remained in a very unsettled state, and the cause of " annexation," as it was called, gained strength in many places. That there is now much latent distrust en tertained by one part of the population of the other, and by both of government, cannot be doubted; the phases which society and polities are assuming, in consequence of this feeling, it will be impossible, for some time, to describe impartially. When history loses itself amid the chaotic movements of contemporary events, it is not for the impartia. narrator to speculate upon the probabUities of the future. APPENDIX. THE CONSTITUTION- OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. Framed during the year 1181, by a convention of delegates, who met at Philadel phia,from the states of New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Connecticut, New York New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia. We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. ARTICLE L Sect. I. — All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a congress of the United States, which shall consist of a senate and house of representa tives. Sect. II. — 1. The house of representatives shall be composed of members, chosen every second year by the people of the several states, and the electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the state legislature. 2. No person shall be a representative, who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state in which he shall he chosen. 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to servitude for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one representative : and, until such enumeration shall be made, the state of New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six,- Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Car olina five, and Georgia three. 4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 2L8 680 APPENDIX. 6. The house of representatives shall choose their speaker, and other officers and shall have the sole power of impeachment. Sect. III. — 1. The senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators from each state, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years : and each senator shall have one vote. 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled, in consequence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year ; of the second class, at the expiration of the fourth year ; and of the third class, at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year ; and if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any state, the executive thereof may make temporary appointments, until the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for which he shall be chosen. 4. The vice-president of the United States shall be president of the senate, but Bhall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 5. The senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro tem pore, in the absence of the vice-president, or when he shall exercise the office of president of the United States. 6. The senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath, or affirmation. When the president of the United States is tried, the chief-justice shall preside : and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. 1. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honour, trust, or profit under the United States ; but the party convicted . shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. Sect. IV.-*1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators and representatives, shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature thereof ; but the congress may, at any time by law, make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. 2. The congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall, by law, appoint a different day. Sect. V. — 1. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members, in such manner and under such penalties as each house may provide. 2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its members for disorderly behaviojir, and, with the concurrence of two-thirds, expel a mem ber. 8. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may, in their judgment, require secrecy ; and the yeas and nays of the members of either house, on any question, shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journals. . 4. Neither house, during the session of congress, shall, without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. Sect. VI. — 1. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall, in all cases except treason, felony, and breach of peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and returning from the same ; and for any CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 681 speech or debate in either house, they shall not be questioned in any other 2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he was elect ed, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the United States which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been increased during such time ; and no person, holding any office under the United States, shall be a member of either house during his continuation in office. Sect. VII.— 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the house of 'epresentatives ; but the senate may propose or concur with amendments, as on other bills. 2. Every bill which shall have passed the house of representatives and the senate shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to the president of the Uni ted States ; if he approve, he shall sign it, but if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration, two-thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the president within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the congress, by their adjournment, prevent its return, in which case it Bhall not be a law. 3. Every order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of the senate and house of representatives may be necessary, (except on a question of adjourn ment,) shall be presented to the president of the United States ; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him ; or, being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two-thirds of the senate and house of representatives, ac cording to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. Sect. VIII. — The congress shall have power — 1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises ; to pay the debts, and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States ; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States. 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States. 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several states, and with the Indian tribes. 4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States. 6. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures. 6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities and current coin of the United States. 1. To establish post-offices and post-roads. 8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing, for limited times, to authors and inventors, the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries. 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court. 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offences against the law of nations. 11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make..rules con cerning captures on land or water. 12. To raise and support armies ; but no appropriation of money to that use Bhall be for a longer term than two years. 13. To provide and maintain a navy. 14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval 682 APPENDIX. 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions. 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the states respectively, the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the militia, according to the disciphne prescribed by congress. 17. To exercise exclusive legislation, in all cases whatsoever, over such dis trict, (not exceeding ten miles square,) as may, by cession of particular states, and the acceptance of congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings : — and 18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or office thereof. Sect. IX. — 1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the congress, prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless when, in. cases of rebellion or invasion, the public safety may require it. 3. No bill of attainder, or ex-post facto law, shall be passed. 4. No capitation, or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in proportion to the census, or enumeration, herein before directed to be taken. 6. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state. No preference shall be given, by any regulation of commerce or revenue, to the ports of one state over those of another ; nor shall vessels, bound to or from one state, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 6: No money shall be drawn from the treasury, but in consequence of ap propriations made by law ; and a regular statement and account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. 1. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States ; and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent of congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. Sect. X. — 1. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bjis of credit ; make any thing but gold and silver coin "a tender in payment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, e^-post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 2. No state shall, without the consent of congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary for executing its inspection laws : and the net produce of all duties and imposts, laid by any state on imports and exports, shall be for the use of the treasury of the United States, and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of congress. No state shall, without the consent of congress, lay any duty on tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war, in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. ARTICLE II. Sect. I. — 1. The executive power shall be vested in a president of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, together with the vice-president, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : 2. Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 683 direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of senators and repre sentatives to which the state may be entitled in the congress ; but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 3. The electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves. And they snail make a list of all the persons voted for, and of the number of votes for each ; which list they shall sign and certify, and transmit, sealed, to the seat of government of the United States, directed to the president of the senate. The president of the senate shall, iu the presence of the senate and house of representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. Tlie person having the greatest number of votes shall be the president, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an equal number of votes, then the house of representatives shall immediately choose, by ballot, one of them for president : and if no person have a majority, then from the five highest on the hst, the said house shall, in like manner, choose the president. But in choosing the president, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the president, the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors, shall be the vice-president. But if there should remain two or more who have equal votes, the senate shall choose from them, by ballot, the vice-president. 4. The congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes : which day shall be the same throughout the United States. 5. No person, except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this constitution, shall be eligible to the office of president, neither shall any person be eligible to that office, who shall not have attained the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 6. In case of the removal of the president from office, or of his death, resigna tion, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the said office, the same shall devolve on the vice-president ; and the congress may, by law, provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the president and vice-president, declaring what officer shall then act as president, and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed, or a president shall be elected. 1. The president shall, at stated times, receive for his services, a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive, within that period, any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. 8. Before he enters on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath, or affirmation : "I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of president of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." Sect -II — 1. The president shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several states, when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer iu each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for offences against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. , ... , . 2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the senate to make treaties, provided two-thirds of the senators present concur ; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and consent of the senate, shall appoint- 684 APPENDIX. ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, judges of the supreme court, - and all other officers of the United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by law. • But the con gress may, by law, vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper in the president alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 3. The president shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the senate, by granting commissions, which shall expire at the end of their next session. Sect. III. — He shall, from time to time, give to the congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraordinary occasions, con vene both houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper ; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. Sect. IV. — The president, vice-president, and all civil officers of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. ARTICLE III. Sect. I. — The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one supreme court, and in such inferior courts as the congress may, from time to time, ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behaviour, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation, which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. Sect. II. — 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, arising under this constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; to all cases affecting ambas sadors, other public ministers and consuls ; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party ; to controversies between two or more states, between a state and citizens of another state, between citizens of different states, between citizens of the same state claiming lands under grants of different states, and hetween a state, oi the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers, and consuls, and those in which a state shall be a party, the supreme court shall have original jurisdiction. In all other cases before mentioned, the supreme court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions, and under such regulations, as the congress shall make. 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury ; and- such trials shall be held in the state where the said crime shall have been committed; but when not committed within any state, the trial shall be at such place or places as the congress may, by law, have directed. Sect. III. — 1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason, unless on the testimony of two witness es to the same overt act, or on confession in open court 2. The congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted. ARTICLE IV. Sect. L — Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state. And the congress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceed ings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. CONSTITUTION OP THE UNITED STATES. 685 Sect. IL— 1. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all the privileges and immunities of citizens in the several states. 2. A person, charged in any state with treason, felony, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another state, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the state from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the state having the jurisdiction of the crime. 8. No person, held to service or labor in one state, under the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law, or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. Sect. III. — 1. New states may be admitted by the congress into this Union, but no new state shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other state ; nor any state be formed by the junction of two or more states, or parts of states, without the consent of the legislatures of the states concerned, as well as of the congress. 2. The congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory, or other property, belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this constitution shall be so construed as to pre judice any claims of the United States, or of any particular state. ' Sect. IV. — The United States shall guarantee to every state in this Union, a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against invasion ; and on application of the legislature, or of the executive, (when the legislature cannot be convened,) against domestic violence. i ARTICLE V. The congress, whenever two-thirds of both houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose amendments to this constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several states, shall call a convention for pro posing amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid, to all intents and purposes, as part of this constitution, when ratified by the legislatures of three- fourths of the several states, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the congress : Provi ded, that no amendment, which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, shall, in any manner, affect the first and fourth clauseB in the ninth section of the first article ; and that no state, without its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrages in the senate. ARTICLE VI. 1. All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, before the adoption of this constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this consti tution, as under the confederation. 2. This constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and'all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land ; and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, any thing in the constitution or laws of any state to the contrary notwithstanding. 3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several state legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several states, shall be bound by oath, or affirmation, to support this constitution ; and no religious test shall ever be required, as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. 686 APPENDIX. . ARTICLE VII. The ratification of the conventions of nine states, shall be sufficient for the establishment of this Constitution, between the states so ratifying the same. Done in convention by the unanimous Consent of the states present, the seven teenth day of September, in the year of our Lord, one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the Independence of the United States of America, the twelfth. In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. The Constitution, although formed in 1787, was not adopted until 1788, and did not commence its operations until 1789. The number of delegates chosen to this convention was sixty-five, of whom ten did not attend, and sixteen re fused to sign the Constitution. The following thirty-nine signed the Consti tution : — New Hampshire — John Langdon, Nicholas Gelman. Massachusetts. — Nathaniel Gorham, Rufus King. Connecticut — William Samuel Johnson, Roger Sherman. New York. — Alexander Hamilton. New Jersey. — William Livingston, David Brearley, William Paterson, Jonathan Dayton. _ Pennsylvania. — Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Mifflin, Robert Morris, George Clymer, Thomas Fitzsimmons, Jared Ingersoll, James Wilson, Gouverneur Morris. Delaware. — George Read, Gunning Bedford, jr., John Dickinson, Richard Bas- sett, Jacob Broom. Maryland. — James M'Henry, Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, Daniel Carroll. Virginia) — John Blair, James Madison, jr. North (Carolina. — William Blount, Richard Dobbs Spaight, Hugh Williamson. South Carolina. — John Rutledge, Charles C. Pinkney, Charles Pinkney, Pierce Butler. ' Georgia. — William Few, Abraham Baldwin. GEORGE WASHINGTON, President. WILLIAM JACKSON, Secretary. AMENDMENTS To the Constitution of the United States, ratified according to the Provisions of the Fifth Article of the foregoing Constitution. Art. I. — Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press ; or the rights of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. Art. II. — A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed. Art. III. — No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house with out the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be pre scribed by law. Art. IV. — The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated ; and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported i>y oath or affir mation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. Art. V. — No person shall1 be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise in famous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service, in time of war, or public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES. 687 the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled, in any criminal case, to be a witness, against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private Dro- perty be taken for public use without just compensation. Art. VI.— In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusa tion ; to be confronted with the witnesses against him ; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his defence. Art. VII. — In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact, tried by jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. Art. VIII. — Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. Art. IX. — The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. Art. X. — The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respectively, or to the people. Art. XI. — The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States, by citizens of another state, or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. Art. XII. — The electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot, for president and vice-president, one of whom, at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves ; they shall name, in their ballots, the person voted for as president, and, in distinct ballots, the person voted for as vice-president ; and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as president, and of all persons voted for as vice-president, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit, sealed, to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the president of the senate. The president of the senate shall, in the presence of the senate and house of representatives, open all the certificates, and the votes shall then be counted. The person having the greatest number of votes for president, shall be the president, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have such a majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers, not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as pre sident, the house of representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the president. But, in choosing the president, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the house of representatives shall not choose a president, whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next following, then the vice-president shall act as president, as in the case of the death, or other consti tutional disability of the president. The person having the greatest number of votes as vice-president, shall be the vice-president, if such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed ; and if no person have a majority, then, from the two highest num bers on the lists, the senate shall choose the vice-president — a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of senators, and a ma jority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person, constitutionally ineligible to the office of president, shall be eligible to that of vice-president of the United States. 8M 688 APPENDIX. DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. JULY 4th, 1776. THE UNANIMOUS DECLARATION OF THE THIRTEEN UNITED STATES OF AMERICA IN CONGRESS ASSEMBLED." When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the pohtical bands which have connected them with another, and to assume among the powers of the earth the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident : that all men are created equal : that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness ; that, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the con sent of the governed ; that, whenever any form of government becomes destruc tive of these . ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organiz ing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, will dictate that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes ; and, accord ingly, all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses ahd usurpations, pursu ing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future security. Such has been the patient suffer ance of these colonies, and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of government. Tbe history of the present king of Great Britain is a history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these states. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world : He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing im portance, unless suspended in their operation till his assent should be obtained ; and, when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature — a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the repository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly for opposing with manly firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused, for a long time after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected ; whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have returned to the people at large for their exercise — the state remaining, in the mean time, exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without and convulsions within. • DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. He has endeavored to prevent the population of these states— for that pur pose obstructing the laws of naturalization of foreigners, refusing to pass others to encourage their migration hither, and raising the conditions of new appropria tions of lands. He has obstructed the administration of justice, by refusing his assent to laws for establishing judiciary powers. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their offices and the amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, without the con sent of our legislatures. He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws — giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation. For quartering large bodies of armed troops among us ; For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these states ; For cutting off our trade with all parts of the world ; For imposing taxes on us without our consent; For depriving us, in many cases, of the benefits of trial by jury ; For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offences ; For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing the same ab solute rule into these colonies ; For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and altering, fundamentally, the forms of our governments ; For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated government here by declaring us out of his protection, and waging war against us. He has plundered»our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the lives of our people. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to com plete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun, with circum stances of cruelty and perfidy scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. He has excited domestic insurrections among us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction1 of all ages, sexes, and condi tions. In every stage of these oppressions, we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms. Our repeated petitions have been answered only by re peated injury. A prince, whose character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor have we been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. We have warned them, from time to time, of attempts, by their legislature, to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circum stances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them, by the ties of our common kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably inter rupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and' of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquiesce in the 690 APPENDIX. necessity which denounces our separation, .and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind, enemies in war, in peace, friends. We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in general Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the World for the rec titude of our intentions, do, in the name, and by the authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare that these united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent states ; that they are ab solved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political connection between them and the state of Great Britain is, and ought to be, totally dis solved ; and that, as free and independent states, they have full power to levy war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which independent states may of right do. And for the sup port of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Provi dence, we mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. The foregoing declaration was, by order of Congress, engrossed and signed by the following members : Adams, John Adams, Samuel Bartlett, Josiah Braxton, Carter Carroll, Charles, of Carrollton Chase, Samuel Clare, Abraham Clymer, George Ellert, William Floyo, William Franklin, Benjamin Gerry, Elbridge Gwinnett, Button Hall, Lyman Hancock, John Harrison, Benjamin Hart, John Heyward, Thomas, Jun. Hewes, Joseph Hooper, William Hopkins, Stephen Hopkinson, Francis Huntington, Samuel Jefferson, Thomas Lee, Francis Lightfoot Lee, Richard Henry Lewis, Francis Livingston, Philip Lynch, Thomas, Jun. M'Kean, Thomas Middleton, Arthur Morris, Lewis Morris, Robekt Morton, John Nelson, Thomas, Jmn. Paoa, William Paine, Robert Treat Penn, John Read, George Rodney, Cjssar Ross, George Ru6h, Benjamin, M. D Rutledge, Edward Sherman, Roger Smith, James Stockton, Richard Stone, Thomas Taylor, George Thornton, Matthew Walton, George Whipple, William Williams, William Wilson, James Witherspoon, John Wolcott, Oliver Wythe, George ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. 691 THE ORIGINAL ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. to all to whom these presents shall come, We, the undersigned Delegates of the States affixed to our names, send greeting. WHEREAS, the delegates of the United States of America in congress a* sembled, did, on the fifteenth day of November, in the year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and seventy-seven, and in the second year of the inde pendence of America, agree to certain articles of confederation and perpetual union between the states of New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, in the words following, viz. : Articles of Confederation and perpetual union between the States of New Hamp shire, Massachusetts Pay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecti cut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia,. Article I. — The style of this confederacy shall be " The United States of America," Art. II. — Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this confederation expressly delegated to the United States in congress assembled. Art. III. — The said states hereby severally enter into a firm league of friend ship with each other, for their common defence, the security of their liberties, and theh- mutual and general welfare ; binding themselves to assist each other against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them, or any of them, on ac count of religion, sovereignty, trade, or any other pretence whatever. Art. IV.-*-The better to secure and perpetuate mutual friendship and inter course among the people of the different states in this union, the free inhabitants of each of these states, paupers, vagabonds, and fugitives from justice excepted, Bhall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of free citizens in the several states ; and the people of each state shall have free ingress and regress to and from any other state, and shall enjoy therein all the privileges of trade and commerce, subject to the same duties, impositions, and restrictions as the inhabit ants thereof respectively, provided that such restrictions shall not extend so far as to prevent the removal of property imported into any state, to any other state of which the owner is an inhabitant ; provided also, that no imposition, duties, or restriction shall be laid by any state on the property of the United States, or either of them. If any person guilty of, or charged with treason, felony, or other high mis demeanor, in any state, shall flee from justice, and be found in any of the United States, he shall, upon demand of the government or executive power of the state from which he fled, be delivered up and removed to the state having juris diction of his offence. Full faith and credit shall be given in each of these states to the records, acts, and judicial proceedings of the courts and magistrates of every other state. 692 APPENDIX. Art. V. — For the more convenient management of the general interests of the United States, delegates shall be annually appointed, in such manner as the leg islature of each Btate shall direct, to meet in congress on the first Monday in November, in every year ; with a power reserved to each state to recall its dele gates, or any of them, at any time within the year, and to send others in their stead for the remainder of the year. No state shall be represented in congress by less than two, nor by more than seven members ; and no person shall be capable of being a delegate for more than three years in any term of six years ; nor shall any person, being a delegate, be capable of holding any office under the United States, for which he, or another for his benefit, receives any salary, fees, or emolument of any kind. Each state shall maintain its own delegates in a meeting of the states, and while they act as members of the committee of the states. In determining questions in the United States, in congress assembled, each state shall have one vote. Freedom of speech and debate in congress shall not be impeached or ques tioned in any court or place out of congress, and the members of congress shall be protected in their persons from arrests and imprisonments, during the time of their going to, and from, and attendance on congress, except for treason, felony, or breach of the peace. Art. VI. — No state, without tbe consent of the United States in congress assembled, shall send any embassy to, or receive any embassy from, or enter into any conference, agreement, alliance, or treaty with any king, prince, or state ; nor shall any person holding any office of profit or trust under the United States, or any of them, accept of any present, emolument, office, or title of any kind whatever from any king, prince, or foreign state ; nor shall the United States in congress assembled, or any of them, grant any title of nobility. No two or more states shall enter into any treaty, confederation, or alliance whatever between them, without the consent of the United States in congress assembled, specifying accurately the purposes. for which the same is to be entered into, and how long it shall continue. No state shail lsv any imposts or duties, which may interfere with any stipu lations ir treaties, eLtered into bythe United States in congress assembled, with any King, prince, or state, vn pursuance of any treaties already proposed by con gress, to the courts of France and Spain. No vessels of war shall be kept up in time of peace by any state, except such number only as shall be deemed necessary by the United States in congress assembled, for the defence of such state or its trader nor shall any body of forces be kept up by any state in time of peace, except 6uch number only as, in the judgment of the United States, in congress assembled, shall be deemed requisite to garrison the forts necessary for the defence of such 6tate ; but every state shall always keep up a well-regulated and disciplined militia, sufficiently armed and accoutred, and shall provide and constantly have ready for use, in public stores, a due number of fieldpieces and tents, and a proper quantity of arms, ammunition, and camp equipage. No state shall engage in any war without the consent of the United States in congress assembled, unless such state be actually invaded by enemies, or shall have received certain advice of a resolution being formed by some nation of In dians to invade such state, and the danger is so imminent as not to admit of a delay, till the United States in congress assembled can be consulted : nor shall any state grant commissions to any ships or vessels of war, nor letters of marque or reprisal, except it be after a declaration of war by the United States in con gress assembled, and then only against the kingdom or state and the subjects thereof, against which war has been so declared, and under such regulations as shall be established by the United States in congress assembled ; unless such state be infested by. pirates, in which case vessels of war may be fitted out for that occasion, and kept so long as the danger shall continue, or until the United States in congress assembled shall determine otherwise. Art. Vll. — When land forces are raised by any state for the common defence, ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. 693 all officers of or under the rank of colonel, shall be appointed by the legislature of each state respectively, by whom such forces shall be raised, or in such man ner as such state shall direct ; and all vacancies shall be filled up by the state which first made the appointment. Art. VIII.— All charges of war, and all other expenses that shall be incurred for the common defence or general welfare, and allowed by the United States in congress assembled, shall be defrayed out of a common treasury, which shall be supplied by the several states, in proportion to the value of all land within each state, granted to or surveyed for any person, as such land and the buildings and improvements thereon shall be estimated, according to such mode as the United States in congress assembled shall from time to time direct and appoint. The taxes for paying that proportion shall be laid and levied by the authority and direction of the legislatures of the several states, within the time agreed upon by the United States in congress assembled. Art. IX.— The United States in congress assembled shall have the sole and exclusive right and power of determining on peace and war, except in the cases mentioned in the sixth article — of sending and receiving ambassadors — entering into treaties and alliances, provided that no treaty of commerce shall be made, whereby the legislative power of the respective states shall be restrained from imposing such imposts and duties on foreigners, as their own people are subjected to, or from prohibiting the exportation or importation of any species of goods or commodities whatsoever — of establishing rules for deciding, in all cases, what captures on land or water shall be legal, and in what manner prizes taken by land or naval forces in the service of the United States shall be divided or ap propriated — of granting letters of marque and reprisal in times of peace — appointing courts for the trial of piracies and felonies committed on the high seas — and establishing courts for receiving and determining finally appeals in all cases of captures, provided that no member of congress shall be appointed a judge of any of the said courts. The United States in congress assembled shall also be the last resort on appeal in all disputes and differences now subsisting, or that hereafter may arise be tween two or more states, concerning boundary, jurisdiction, or any other cause whatever ; which authority shall always be exercised in the maimer following. Whenever the legislative or executive authority, or lawful agent of any state in controversy with another, shall present a petition to congress, stating the mat ter in question, and praying for a hearing, notice thereof shall be given by order of congress to the legislative or executive authority of the other state in con troversy, and a day assigned for the appearance of the parties by their lawful agents, who shall then be directed to appoint, by joint consent, commissioners or judges to constitute a court for hearing and determining"the matter in question ; but if they cannot agree, congress shall name three persons out of each of the Uni ted States, and from the list of such persons each party shall alternately strike out one, the petitioners beginning, until the number shall be reduced to thirteen ; and from that.ftimber not less than seven, nor more than nine names, as congress shall direct, shall in the presence of congress be drawn out by lot, and the persons whose names shall be so drawn, or any five of them, shall be commissioners or judges, to hear and finally determine the controversy, so always as a major part of the judges who shall hear the cause shall agree in the determination ; and if either party shall neglect to attend at the day appointed, without showing rea son's which congress shall judge sufficient, or being present shall refuse to strike, the congress shall proceed to nominate three persons out of each state, and the secretary of congress shall strike in behalf of such party absent or refusing ; and the judgment aud sentence of the court to be appointed, in the manner before prescribed, shall be final and conclusive ; and if any of the parties shall refuse to submit to the authority of such, court, or to appear or defend their claim or cause, the court shall nevertheless proceed to pronounce sentence, or judgment, which shall in like manner be final and decisive; the judgment or sentence and other proceedings being in either case transmitted to congress, and lodgedamong 694 APPENDIX. the acts of congress, for the security of the parties concerned ; provided that every commissioner, before he sits in judgment, shall take an oath, to be ad ministered by one of the judges of the supreme or superior court of the state where the cause shall be tried, "well and truly to hear and determine ihe matter in question, according to the best of his judgment, without favour, affection, or hope of reward;" provided also that no state shall be deprived of territory for the benefit of the United States. All controversies concerning the private right of soil, claimed under different grants of two or more states, whose jurisdictions, as they may respect such lands, and the states which passed such grants, are adjusted, the said grants or either of them being at the same time claimed to have originated antecedent to such settlement of jurisdiction, shall, on the petition of either party to the congress of the United States, be finally determined as near as may be in the same man ner as is before prescribed for deciding disputes respecting territorial jurisdiction between different states. The United States in congress assembled shall also have the sole and exclu sive right and power of regulating the alloy and value of coin struck by their own authority, or by that of the respective states — fixing the standard of weights and measures throughout the United States — regulating the trade and man aging all affairs with the Indians, not members of any of the states, provided that the legislative right of any state within its own limits be not infringed or violated — establishing and regulating post-offices from one state to another, throughout all the United States, and exacting such postage on the papers pass ing through tlie same as may be requisite to defray the expenses of the said office — appointing all officers of the land forces in the service of the United States, excepting regimental officers — appointing all the officers of the naval forces, and commissioning all officers whatever in the service of the United States — making rules for the government and regulation of the said land and naval forces, and directing their operations. The United States in congress assembled shall bave authority to appoint a committee, to sit in the recess of congress, to be denominated " a Committee of the States," and to consist of one delegate from each state ; and to appoint such other committee and civil officers as may be necessary for managing the general affairs of the United States under their dfrection — to appoint one of their num ber to preside, provided that no person be allowed to serve in the office of Pres ident more than one year in any term of three years ; to ascertain the necessary sums of money to be raised for the service of tbe United States, and to appro priate and apply the same for defraying the public expenses — to borrow money, or emit bills on the credit of the United States, transmitting every half year to the respective states an account of the sums of money so borrowed or remitted — to build and equip a navy — to agree upon the number of land forces, and to make requisitions from each state for its quota, in proportion to the number of white inhabitants in such state ; which requisitions shall be binding, and there upon the legislature of each state shall appoint the regimental officers, raise the men, and clothe, arm, and equip them in a soldier-like manner, at the expense of the United States ; and the officers and men so clothed, armed, and equipped, shall march to the place appointed, and within the time agreed on by the United States iu congress assembled : but if the United States in congress assembled shall, on consideration of circumstances, judge proper that any state should not raise men, or should raise a smaller number than its quota, and that any other state should raise a greater number of men than the quota thereof, such extra number shall be raised, officered, clothed, armed, and equipped in the same man ner as the quota of such state, unless the legislature of such state Bhall judge that such extra number cannot be safely spared out of the same, in which case they shall raise, officer, clothe, arm, and equip as many of such extra number as they judge can be safely spared. And the officers and men bo clothed, armed, and equipped, shall march to the place appointed, and within the time agreed on by the United States in congress assembled. The United States in congress assembled shall never engage in a war, nor grant ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. 695 letters of marque and reprisal in time of peace, nor enter into treaties or alli ances, nor coin money, nor regulate the value thereof, nor ascertain the sums and expenses necessary for the defence and welfare of the United States, or any of them, nor emit bills, nor borrow money on the credit of the United States, nor appropriate money, nor agree upon the number of vessels of war to be built or purchased, or the number of land or sea forces to be raised, nor appoint a com mander in chief of the army or navy, unless nine states assent to the same : nor shall a question on any other point, except for adjourning from day to day, be determined, unless by the votes of a majority of the United States in congress assembled. The congress of the United States shall have power to adjourn to any time within the year, and to any place within the United States, so that no period of adjournment be for a longer duration than the ' space of six months ; and shall publish the journal of their proceedings monthly, except such parts thereof re lating to treaties, alliances, or military operations, as in their judgment require secrecy ; and the yeas and nays of the delegates of each state on any question shall be entered on the journal, when it is desired by any delegate ; and the del egates of a state, or any of them, at his or their request, shall be furnished with a transcript of the said journal, except such parts as are above excepted, to lay before the legislatures of the several states. Art. X — The committee of the states, or any nine of them, shall be author ized to execute, in the recess of congress, such of the powers of congress as the United States in congress assembled, by the consent of nine states, shall from time to time think expedient to vest them with ; provided that no power be delegated to the said committee, for the exercise of which, by the Articles of Confederation, the voice of nine states in the congress of the United States assembled is requisite. Art. XI. — Canada acceding to this confederation, and joining in the measures of the United States, shall be admitted into, and entitled to all the advantages of this union ; but no other colony shall be admitted into the same, unless such admission be agreed to by nine states. Art. XII. — All bills of credit emitted, moneys borrowed, and debts contracted by, or under the authority of congress, before the assembling of the United States, in pursuance of the present confederation, shall be deemed and considered as a charge against the United States, for payment and satisfaction whereof, the said United States and the public faith are hereby solemnly pledged. Art. XIII. — Every state shall abide by the determinations of the United States in congress assembled on all questions which by this confederation are submitted to them. And the articles of this confederation shall be inviolably observed by every state, and the union shall be perpetual ; nor shall any alter ation at any time hereafter be made in any of them, unless such alteration be agreed to by a congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every state. And whereas it hath pleased the great Governor of the World to incline the hearts of the legislatures we respectively represent in congress to approve of and to authorize us to ratify the said articles of confederation and perpetual union; know ye, that we, the undersigned delegates, by virtue of the power and au thority to us given for that purpose, do by these presents, in the name and in behalf of our respective constituents, fully and entirely ratify and confirm each and every of the said articles of confederation and perpetual union, and all and singular the matters and things therein contained: and we do further sol emnly, plight and engage the faith of our respective constituents, that they shall abide by the determinations of the United States in congress assembled on all questions which, by the said confederation, are submitted to them ; and that the articles thereof shall be inviolably observed by the states we respectively repre sent, and that the union shall be perpetual. In witness whereof, we have hereunto set our hands in congress. Done at Philadelphia, in the state of Pennsylvania, the ninth day of July, in the year ol 696 APPENDIX. our Lord one thousand seven hundred and seventy-eight, and in the third year of the independence of America. On the part and behalf of the State of New Hampshire. JOSIAH BARTLETT, JOHN WENTWORTH, Jun., August 8, 1778. On the part and behalf of ihe State of Massachusetts Pay. JOHN HANCOCK, ELBEIDGE GERRY, JAMES LOVELL, SAMUEL ADAMS, FRANCIS DANA, SAMUEL HOLTEN. On the part and behalf of the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. WILLIAM ELLERY, HENRY MARCHANT, JOHN COLLINS. On the part and behalf of the State of Connecticut. ROGER SHERMAN, OLIVER WOLCOTT, ANDREW ADAMS, SAMUEL HUNTINGTON, TITUS HOSMEE. On the part and behalf of the State of New^York. JAS. DUANE, FEA. LEWIS, WM. DUER, GQUV. MORRIS On the part and behalf of the State of New Jersey. JNO. WITHERSPOON, November 26, 1778, ¦ NATH. SCUDDER, do. On the part and behalf of the State of Pennsylvania. ROBT. MORRIS, JONA. BAYARD SMITH, JOS. REED, 22d July, 1778, DANIEL ROBERDEAU, WILLIAM CLLNGAN. On the part and behalf of the State of Delaware. THOS. M'KEAN, Feb. 13, 1779, NICHOLAS VAN DYKE. JOHN DICKINSON, May 5, 1770. On the part and behalf of the State of Maryland. JOHN HANSON, March 1, 1781, DANIEL CARROLL, do. On the part and behalf of the State of Virginia. RICHARD HENRY LEE, THOS. ADAMS, FRANCIS LIGHTFOOT LEE. JOHN BANISTER, JNO. HARVIE. On the part and behalf of the State of North Garolma. JOHN PENN, July 21, 1778. CORNS. HARNETT, JNO. WILLIAMS. On the part and behalf of the State of South Carolina. HENRY LAURENS, JNO. MATTHEWS, THOS. HEYWARD. Jun., WILLIAM HENRY DRAYTON, RICHARD HUTSON. On the part and behalf of the State of Georgia. JNO. WALTON, 24th July, 1778. EDWD. TELFAIR, EDW. LANGWORTHY. [Note.— From the circumstance of delegates from tbe same state having signed the Articles of Confed-. eration at different times, as appears by the dates, it is probable they affixed their names as they happened to be preBent in congress, after they bad been authorized by their constituents.] POPULATION OF ALL THE COUNTIES IN THE UNITED STATES, ACCORDIKG TO THE CENSUS OF 1850. Aroostook 12,585 Cumberland 79,549 Franklin 20,027 Hancock 84,872 Kennebeck 63,521 Lincoln 74,875 Oxford 89,663 Penobscot , 68,089 Piscataquis 14,735 Somerset 85,581 Waldo 47,280 -Washington 88,810 ¦ York 60,101 Total Co. 18, In. 583,088 New Hampshire. Belknap 17,721 Carroll 20,156 Cheshire 80,144 Coos 11,853 Grafton 42,348 Hillsborough 57,477 Merrimack 38,445 Rockingham 50,986 Strafford 29,364 Sullivan 19,375 Total Co. 10, In 817,S64 New York. Albany 93.279 Alleghany 87,808 Broome 30,660 Cattaraugus 38,950 Chautauque 50,498 Cayuga 55,458 Chemung 28,821 Chenango 40,811 Columbia 48,073 Cortland 25,140 Clinton 40,047 Delaware 39,834 Dutchess 68,992 Erie 100,998 Essex 31,148 Franklin 25,102 Fulton 20,171 Genesee 28,488 Greene 83,126 Hamilton. 2,188 Herkimer 88,244 Jefferson 68,158 Kings 188,882 Lewis 24,564 NEW ENGLAND. Vermont. Addison 26,549 Bennington 18,589 Caledonia 28,086 Chittenden 29,086 Essex 4,650 Franklin.... 28,586 Grand Isle 4,145 Lamoille 10.872 Orange 27J296 Orleans 15,707 Rutland 88,059 Washington 24,654 Windham 29,062 Windsor 38,320 Total Co. 14, In 818,611 Massachusetts. Barnstable 35,276 Berkshire 49,591 Bristol 76,192 Dukes 4,540 Essex 131,300 Franklin 80,867 Hampden 51,281 Hampshire 85,782 Middlesex 161,383 MIDDLE STATES. Livingston 40,875 Madison 43,072 Monroe 87,650 Montgomery 81,992 New York . . .'. 515,547 Niagara 42,276 Orange 57,145 Orleans 28,501 Otsego 48,688 Oneida .' 99,566 Ontario 48,929 Onondaga 85,S90 Oswego 62,198 Putnam 14,138 Queens 86,888 Rensselaer 78,863 Richmond 15,061 Rockland 16,962 Saratoga 45,646 Schenectady 20,054 Schoharie 83,548 Seneca 25,441 St Lawrence 68,617 Steuben 68,771 Suffolk 86,922 Sullivan 25,083 Nantucket 8,452 Norfolk 78,892 Plymouth 55,697 Suffolk 144,507 Worcester 180,789 Total Co. 14, In 994,499 Rhode Island. Bristol 8,514 Kent 15,068 Newport 20,007 Providence 87,525 Washington 16,430 Total Co. 5, In 147,544 Connecticut. Fairfield 59,775 Hartford 69,966 Litchfield 45,258 Middlesex 30,680 New Haven 62,126 New London 51,821 Tolland 20,091 Windham 80,079 Total Co. 8, In 870,791 Tompkins 38,746 Tioga 24,880 Ulster 59,884 Warren 17,199 Washington 44,750 Wayne 44,953 Westchester 58,263 Wyoming 81,981 Yates 20,590 Total Co. 59, In 8,097,894 Neio Jersey. Atlantic 8,961 Bergen 14,725 Burlington 43,203 Cape May 6,488 Camden 25,422 Cumberland 17,189 Essex 78,950 Gloucester 14,655 Hudson 21,821 Hunterdon 28,989 Mercer 27,992 Middlesex 28,688 698 POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES. Monmouth 80,883 Morris 80,158 Ocean 10,082 Passaic 22,515 Salem .> 19,467 Somerset 19,688 Sussex 22,989 Warren 22,858 Total Co. 20, In 489,833 Pennsylvania. Adams 25,981 Alleghany ' 138,290 Armstrong 29,560 Beaver 26,689 Bedford 23,052 Berks 77,129 Blair 21,777 Bradford 42.S81 Bucks 56,091 Butler 80,346 Cambria 17,778 Carbon 15,686 Centre 28,355 Chester 66,438 Clarion 23,565 Clearfield 12.586 Anne Arundel 82,398 Alleghany 22,769 Baltimore 210,646 Cecil 18,989 Charles 16,162 Caroline 9,692 Carroll 20,616 Calvert 9,646 Dorchester 18,877 Frederick 40,987 Harford 19,856 Howard Kent 11,386 Montgomery 15,860 Prince George's 21,550 Queen Anne's 14,4S4 St Mary's 13.69S Somerset 22,456 Talbot 18,811 Washington 80,848 Worcester 18,859 Total Co. 21, In 583,035 Virginia. Accomack 17,890 Albemarle 25,800 Alexandria 10,008 Amelia 9,770 Amherst 12,699 Appomattox 9,193 Alleghany 3,615 Augusta 24,610 Bedford Brunswick 18, Buckingham 18,887 Barbour 9,005 Bath 8,426 Berkeley 11,771 Boons 8,237 Botetourt 15.443 Braxton 4,212 Clinton 11,207 Columbia 17,710 Crawford 87,849 Cumberland 84,827 Dauphin 85,754 Delaware 24,679 Elk 3.581 Erie 3SJ42 Fayette 39,112 Franklin 89,904 Fulton 7,567 Green 22,186 Huntington 24,786 Indiana 27,170 Jefferson 18,518 Juniata 18,029 Lancaster. 98,944 Lawrence 21,079 Lebanon 26,071 Lehigh 82,479 Luzerne 56,072 Lycoming 26,257 Mercer 38,172 Mifflin 14,980 Monroe 18,270 Montgomery , 58,291 Montour 13,289 McKean 5,254 Northampton 40,235 I SOUTHERN STATES. Brooke 5,054 Campbell 23,245 Caroline 18.456 Charlotte 18,955 CharlesCity 5,200 Chesterfield 17,489 Culpepper 12,282 Cumberland 9,751 Cabell 6,299 Carroll 5,909 Clarke 7,852 Dinwiddle 25,118 Doddridge 2,750 Elizabeth City 4.586 Essex 10,206 Fairfax 10,682 Fauquier 20,868 Fluvanna 9,487 Franklin 17,480 Fayette 8,955 Floyd 6,453 Frederick 15.975 Gloucester 10,527 Goochland 10,852 Greene 4,400 Greenville 5,689 Giles 6,570 Gilmer 8,475 Grayson 6,677 Greenbrier 9,392 Halifax 25,962 Hanover 15,153 Henrico 48,572 Henry 8,872 Hampshire 14,086 Hancock 4,050 Hardy 9,543 Harrison 11,728 Highland 4,227 Isle of Wight 9,858 James City 4,020 Jackson 6,544 Jefferson 15,857 King George 5,971 King William 8,779 Northumberland 23,272 Perry 20,088 Philadelphia 408,762 Pike 5,881 Potter 6,048 Schuylkill 60,718 Somerset 24,416 Sullivan 8,694 Susquehanna 28,688 Tioga 28,987 Union 26,088 Venango 18,310 Warren 18,671 Washington 44,939 Wayne 21,890 Westmoreland' 51,726 Wyoming 10,655 York 57,450 Total Co. 63, In 2,311,786 Delaware. Kent 22,816 Newcastle 42,784 Sussex 25,985 Total Co. 3, In. 91,685 King and Queen 10,319 Kanawha 15,353 Lancaster 4,708 Loudoun 22,079 Louisa 16,691 Lunenburg 11,692 Lee 10,267 Lewis 10,081 Logan 3,620 Madison 9,381 Mattbews 6,714 Mecklenburg 20,630 Middlesex 4,894 Marion 10,552 Marshall 10,138 Mason 7.539 Mercer 4,222 Monongalia 12,387 Monroe 10,204 Montgomery 8,359 Morgan 8,554 Nansemond 12,288 Nelson 12,758 NewKent 6,064 Norfolk 88,036 Northampton 7,498 Northumberland 7,346 Nottoway 8,487 Nicholas 3,968 Orange 10,067 Ohio 18,006 Patrick. 9,609 Pittsylvania 28,796 Powhatan 8,178 Prince Edward 11.S52 Prince George 7,596 Princess Ann 7,669 Prince William 8,129 Page 7,600 Pendleton . . . •¦ 5,795 Pocahontas 8,598 Preston 11,708 Pulaski 5,118 Putnam 5,885 Rappahannock 9,782 POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES. 699 Richmond 6,448 Kaleigh 1,765 Randolph 5,243 Ritchie 8,902 Roanoke 8,477 Rockbridge 16,045 Rockingham 20,294 Russell 11,919 Southampton 18.521 Spottsylvania 14,911 Stafford 8,044 Surry 5,679 Sussex 9,820 Scott 9,829 Shenandoah 13,768 Smyth 8,162 Taylor 5,867 Tazewell 9,942 Tyler 5,498 Warwick 1,546 Westmoreland 8,080 Warren 6,607 Washington 14,612 Wayne* 4,760 Wetzel 4,284 Wirt 8,858 Wood '. 9,450 Wyoming 1,645 Wythe 12,024 York 4,460 Total Co. 137, In..,.. 1,421,661 North Carolina. Alamance 11,444 Alexander...: .' 6,220 Anson »• 18,489 Ashe 8,777 Beaufort 18,816 Bertie 12,851 Bladen 9,767 Brunswick 7,272 Buncombe 18,425 Burke 7,772 Cabarras 9,747 Caldwell 6,314 Camden 6,049 Carteret 6,808 Caswell 15,269 Catawba 8,862 Chatham 18,449 Cherokee , 6,888 Chowan 6,721 Cleaveland 10,896 Columbus 5,909 Craven 14,709 Cumberland 20,610 Currituck 7,236 Davidson 15,820 Davie..... 7,866 Duplin 13,514 Edgecombe 17,189 Forsyth 11,168 Franklin 11,718 Gaston.... 8.078 Gates 8,426 Granville 21,249 Greene 6,619 Guilford 19,754 Halifax 17,589 Haywood 7,074 Henderson 6,858 Hertford 8,142 Hyde 7,686 Iredell .'. 14,719 Johnston 18,726 Jones...- ••• 6,088 Lenoir 7,828 Lincoln.' 7,746 MpDowell 6,246 Macon 6,889 Martin 8,807 Mecklenberg 13,914 Montgomery 6,872 Moore 9,342 Nash 10,657 New Hanover 17,668 Northampton 18,835 Onslow. 8,283 Orange :.. 17,055 Pasquotank 8,950 Perquimans 7,881 Person 10,781 Pitt 18,397 Randolph 15,882 Richmond ,9,818 Robeson 12,826 Rockingham : . 14,495 Rowan... 18,870 Rutherford 18,550 Sampson 14,585 Stanly 6,922 Stokes 9,206 Surry 18,448 Tyrrel 5,188 Union... 10,051 Wake 24,887 Warren 18,912 Washington 6,666 Watauga 3,400 Wayne 13,486 Wilkes 12,099 Yancey 8,205 Total Co. 79, In. 868,908 South Carolina. (Districts.) Abbeville! •... 82,318 Anderson 21,475 Barnwell 26,608 Beaufort 88,805 Charleston J72.805 Chester 18,088 Chesterfield 10,790 Colleton 89,505 Darlington 16,880 Edgefield 89,262 Fairfield 21,404 Georgetown 20,647 Greenville 20,156 Horry 7,646 Kershaw 14,473 Lancaster 10,988 Laurens 28,407 Lexington 12,980 Marion 17,407 Marlborough 10,789 Newberry 20,143 Orangeburg 23,582 Pickens 16,904 Richland 20.243 Spartansbure; 26,400 Sumpter 88,220 Union 19,852 Williamsburg 12,447 York 19,483 Total Co. 29, In 668,507 Georgia. Appling 2,949 Baker.. 8,120 Baldwin 8,148 Bibb 12,699 Bryan 3,424 Bollock 4,800 Burke 16,100 Botts 6,668 Camden 6,319 Campbell..... 7,232 Carroll 9,867' Cass 18,800 Chatham 28,901 Chattoga 6,815 Cherokee 12,800 Clark 11,119 Clinch Cobb. 13,848 Columbia 11,961 Coweta 13.685 Crawford 8,984 Dade 2;680 Decatur 8,262 DeKalb 14,828 Dooly 8,811 Early, 7,246 Effingham 8,664 Elbert 12,959 Emanuel 4,577 Fayette 8,709 Floyd 8,205 Forsyth 8,850 Franklin 11,513 Gilmer 8,440 Glynn 4,983 Gordon 5,984 Greene 18,068 Gwinnett.. 11,257 Habersham 8,895 Hall 8,718 Hancock 11,578 Harris, 14,721 Heard 6,923 Henry.. 14,726 Houston 16,450 Irwin 3,334 Jackson 9,768 Jasper 11,486 Jones 10,224 Jefferson 9,181 Laurens ' 6,442 Lee 6,659 Liberty 7,926 Lincoln 5,998 Lowndes 8,851 Lumpkin 8,954 Macon 7,052 Madison 5,603 Marion 10,280 Mcintosh 6,028 Meriwether 16,476 Monroe 16,985 Montgomery 2,154 Morgan 10,744 Murray 14,483 Muscogee 18,578' Newton 18,296 Oglethorpe 12,259 Paulding 7,089 Pike.... 14,305 Polk Pulaski .6,627 Putnam 10,794 Rabun 2,448 Randolph 12,868 Richmond 16,246 Scriven 6,844 Spalding Stewart 16,024 Sumter 10.822 700 POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES. Talbot 16,634 Taliaferro 5,146 Tatnall 8,227 Taylor. -.; Telfair 8.026 Thomas 10,103 Troup 16,879 Twiggs.... 8,179 Union 7,234 Upson 9,424 Walker 18,109 Walton 10,821 Ware 8,888 Warren 12,425 Washington 11,766 Wayne 1,499 Whitfield ; Wilkinson 8,212 Wilkes 12,107 Total Co. 99, In 905,999 Florida. Alachua 2,524 Benton 926 Calhoun :.. 1,877 Columbia 4,808 Dade 159 Duval 4,539 Escambia;. 4,851 Franklin 1,561 Gadsden 8,783 Hamilton 2,469 Hillsborough 2,877 Holmes 1,644 Jackson 6,639 Jefferson ;. 7,718 Leon 11,442 Levy 465 Madison 5,490 Marion 8,888 Monroe 2,648 Nassau 2,164 Orange 466 Putnam 687 St John 2,625 StLucie 139 SantaRosa 2,888 Wakulla 1,955 Walton 1,879 Washington 1,950 Total Co. 28, In 87,401 Alabama. Autauga 15,023 Benton 27,163 Blount 7,867 Baldwin 4,414 Barbour 23,682 Bibb • 9,969 Butler 10,886 Cherokee • 18,884 Chambers •¦• 28,962 Choctaw 8,889 Clarke 13,786 Coffee 5,940 Conecuh 9,822 Coosa ••••. 14,548 Covington 2,645 DeKalb 8,245 Dale 6,846 Dallas..: 29,727 Fayette 9,681 Franklin 19,610 Greene 1,441 1,542 9,019 Hancock Henry Jackson Jefferson Lauderdale 17,172 Lawrence... 15,258 Limestone 16,483 Lowndes 21,915 Madison 26,427 Marion 7,888 Marshall 8,846 Morgan 10,125 Macon 26,898 Marengo... 27,881 Mobile 27,600 Monroe 12,013 Montgomery 29,795 Pike 15,920 Pickens 21,512 Perry 22,285 Randolph...: 11,581 Russell 19,548 St Clair 6.829 Shelby 9.536 Sumter 22,250 Talladega 18,624 Tallapoosa 15,584 Tuscaloosa, t 18,056 Walker 5,124 Wilcox* 17,852 Washington — 2,718 Total Co. 62, In 771,671 Attala 10,999 Adams .s 18,622 Amite 9,694 Bolivar 2,577 Carroll. 18,491 Chickasaw 16,368 Choctaw 11,402 Coahoma., 1,780 Claiborne 14,941 Clarke 5,477 Copiah 11,794 Covington 8,338 DeSoto .... 19,042 Franklin 5,904 Green 2,018 Hancock 8,672 Harrison 4,875 Hindr- 25,840 Holmes-..., 13.928 Itawamba 13,528 Issaquena 4,478 Jackson 8,196 Jasper 6,184 Jefferson 13,193 Jones.. 2,164 Kemper 12,517 Lafayette 14,069 Lowndes 19,544 Lauderdale 8,717 Lawrence 6,478 Leake 6,583 Marshall 29,689 Monroe 21,172 Madison 18,178 Marion 4,410 Noxubee 16,299 Neshoba 4,728 Newton 4,465 Oktibbeha 9,171 Panola 11,444 Pontotoo 17,112 Perry 2,488 Pike 7,360 Rankin 7,227 Sun Flower 1,102 Scott .....j.s. 8,961 Simpson 4,784 Smith 4,071 Tallahatohce... 4,648 Tippa 20,741 Tishemingo 15,490 Tunica 1,814 Winston.... 7,956 Warren 18,121 Washington..... 8,889' Wayne 2,892 Wilkinson .'. . 16,914 Yallabusha 17,258 Yazoo 14i418 Total Co. 59, In.. .606,655 Louisiana, (Parishes.) Ascension * 10,752 Assumption 10,588 Avoyelles •...-.. 9,826 E. Baton Rouge 11,977 W. Baton Rouge 6,270 Bienville..... 5,589 Bossier 6,962 Caddo 8,884 Calcasieu 8,914 Caldwell 2,815 Carroll 8,789 Catahoula 6,992 Claiborne 7,471 Concordia 7,758 DeSoto.. 8,019 E. Feliciana 13,598 W.Feliciana 13,245 Franklin 8,251 Iberville 12,214 Jefferson 26,091 Jackson 5.566 LaFourche 9,538 Livingston 8,885 Lafayette 6,720 Madison 8,778 Morehouse 8,918 Natchitoches 14,201 Orleans 119,461 Plaquemines „ 7,390 Point Coupee 11,889 Rapides 16,661 Sabine 4,515 St. Bernard 8,802 St.Charles 5,120 St Helena 4,561 St. James 11,098 St Jdhn Baptist 7,817 8t Tammany 6,864 St Landry 22,258 St. Martin 11,107 St Mary 8,808 Terre Bonne 7,724 Tensas 9,042 Union. 8,208 Vermilion..... 8,409 Washington .... , 3,408 W aetata , 5,003 Total Co. 47, In ,j .617,789 Texas. Anderson. 2,884 Angelina 1,165 Austin 8,811 POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES. 701 Bastrop 8,099 Bexar 6,052 Bell Bowie 2,912 Brazoria 4,841 Brazos 614 Burleston 1,718 Caldwell. 1,829 Calhoun. 1,110 Cameron, Star, & Webb 8,541 Cass. 4,991 Cherokee 6,673 Collin 1,950 Colorado 2.257 Comal 1,723 Cook 220 Dallas 2,748 Denton 641 DeWitt 1,716 Ellis. El Paso Fannin 3,788 Fayette... 8,756 Falls. Fort Bend 2,523 Freestone Galveston 4,529 Gaudalupe. ... . 1,511 Gillespie.. 1,240 Goliad 648 Gonzales 1,492 Grayson 2,008 Grimes 4,008 Harris 4,66s Harrison 11,822 Hays 887 Henderson.. 1,237 Hopkins 2,628 Houston 2,721 Howard. Hunt.: 1,520 Jackson .......'. .. 996 Jasper. . , ; 1,767 Jefferson. 1,836 Kaufman 1,047 Lamar 8,978 Lavacca 1,571 Leon 1,946 Liberty '.. 2,522 Limestone 2,608 Matagorda 2,124 McLellan ' McKinney Medina 909; Milan -. 2,907 Montgomery 2,848 Nacogdoches 5,193 Navarro 8,843 Newton 1,689 Nueces 698 Panola 8,871 golk,-- 2,349 Presidio RedRfver 8,906 Refugio , 288 Robertson ..:.......;. 934 Rusk -8,148 Sabine .;.... -2,49s San Augustine .... 3 647 San Patricio !200 Shelby...'....., 4,239 Smith '. 4,292 Tarrant '.- Titus..:.. 8,686 Travis'. ....:....,. 8,188 Trinity Tyler'.:.. 1,894 Upshur 8,894 Uvalde. Vanzants 1,348 Victoria 2,019 Walker 8,964 Washington .......... 5,988 Wharton... 1,752 Williamson 1,568 Wood. Total Co. 78, In. 212,592 ¦ Ohio. Adams'. 18,883 Allen 12,109 Ashlapd 23,792 Ashtabula 28,766 Athens 18,215 Auglaize 11,338 Belmont 84,600 Brown 27,832 Butler 80,789 Carroll 17,685 Champaigne 19,762 Clark 22,178 Clermont. 80,455 Clinton 18,838 Columbiana 33,621 Coshocton 25,674 Crawford 18,177 Cuyahoga 48,099 Darke 20,274 Defiance 6,966 Delaware ,. . . . 21,817 Erie 18,568 Fairfield 80,264 Fayette 12,726 Franklin 42,910 Fulton 7,781 Gallia 17,063 Geauga 17,827 Green 21,946 Guernsey 80,488 Hamilton , . . .156,843 Hancock 16,751 Hardin 8,251 Harrison 20,157 Henry..* 8,435 Highland -'.25,781 Hocking.... 14,119 Holmes .' 20,452 Huron 26,203 Jackson 12,721 Jefferson 29.182 WESTERN STATES. Knox 28.878 Lake 14,654 Lawrence 15,246 Linking 1 38,846 Logan. 19,162 Lorain 28,086 Lucas 12,368 Madison 10,015 Mahoning 28,785 Marion 12,618 Medina 24,441 Meigs 17J971 ' Mercer 7,712 Miami 24,996 Monroe 28,851 Montgomery 3S,219 Morgan 28,585 Morrow 20,280 Muskingum 46,049 Noble Ottawa 8,808 Paulding 1,766 Perry ; 20,775 Pickaway ; ;... 21,008 Pike 10,958 Portage 24,419 Preble 21,736 Putnam 7,221 Richland 80,879 Ross 82,074 Sandusky. . . . : 14,805 Scioto 18,428 Seneca- ; 27,105 Shelby 18,958 Stark ...: 89,878 Summit: 27,485 Trumbull 80,490 Tuscarawas 81,761 Union 12,204 Van Wert....; 4,813 Vinton 9.853 Warren....'.; 25,561 Washington 29,540 Wayne. 82,981 Williams 8,018 Wood 9,157 Wyandott 11,292 Total Co. 88, In .1,980,408 Kentucky. Adair 9,498 Allen 8,742 Anderson 6,260 Ballard 5,4?6 Barren 20,240 Bath 12,115 Boone: 11,185 Bourbon :.. 14,466 Boyle. 9,116 Bracken... 8,903 Breathitt 3,785 Breckenridge '. . 10,593 Bullitt :. 6,774 Butler 5,755 Caldwell 13,048 Callaway , 8,096 Campbell 13427 Carroll 5,526 Carter 6,241 Casey. 6,556 Christian 19,580 Clark 12,683 Clay 5,421 Clinton 4,889 Crittenden 6,851 Cumberland 7,005 Daviess .- 12,358 Edmonson 4,088 Estill 5,985 Fayette 22,785 Fleming 18,914 Floyd... 5,714 Franklin 12,482 Fulton 4,446 702 POPULATION OF THE UNTTED STATES. Gallatin 5,187 Garrard 10,287 Graves 11,897 Grant 6,531 Greenup 9,654 Grayson 6,887 Greene 9,062 Hancock 8,853 Hardin 14,525 Harlan 4,268 Harrison 18.064 Hart, 9,093 Henderson 12,171 Henry 11,422 Hickman 4,791 Hopkins 12,441 Jefferson 59,881 Jessamine 10,249 Johnson ;.. 3,873 Kenton ,.. 17,088 Knox.... 7,050 Laurel 4,145 LaRue 5,869 Lawrence 6,281 Letcher... 2,512 Lewis 7,202 Lincoln 10,093 Livingston 6,578 Logan 16,581 Madison 15,727 Marion.... 11,765 Mason... 18,844 Marshall 6,269 McCracken 6,067 Meade 7,893 Mercer 14,067 Monroe < 7,756 Montgomery 9,908 Morgan 7,620 Muhlenburg 9,809 Nelson 14,789 Nicholas 10,861 Ohio 9,149 Oldham... 7,629 Owen 10,444 Owsley 3,774 Pendleton 6,774 Perry 2,192 Pike 5,865 Pulaski 14,195 Eock Castle 4,697 Russell 5,349 Scott 14,946 Shelby 17,090 Simpson 7,738 Spencer 6,842 Taylor 7,250 Todd 12,268 Trigg 10,129 Trimble 5,968 Union 9,012 Warren 15,123 Washington 12,194 Wayne 8,692 Whitley 7,447 Woodford 12,428 Total Co. 100, In 962,405 Anderson 6,988 Bledsoe-. 5,959 Blount 12,882 Bradley 12.259 Bedford 21,512 Benton 6,816 Campbell 6,068 Carter 6,296 Claiborne 9,869 Cocke 8,300 Carroll 15,967 Cannon 8.982 Coffee..... 8,851 Davidson 88,881 Dickson 8,404 DeKalb 8,016 Decatur 6,003 Dyer 6,361 Fayette 26,719 Fentress 4,454 Franklin 13,768 Granger 12,870 Greene 17,824 Giles 25,949 Grundy 2,773 Gibson 19,548 Hamilton 10.075 Hancock 5,660 Hawkins 18.370 Hickman 9,397 Humphreys 6,422 Henderson 18,164 Haywood 17,259 Hard iman 17,456 Hardin 10,828 Henry 18,283 Jefferson 13.204 Johnson 8,705 Jackson 15,673 Knox 18,755 Lawrence 9,280 Lewis 4,438 Lincoln 23,492 Lauderdale 5,169 .Marlon 6,814 Meigs 4,879" Monroe 11,874 Morgan '. 8,480 McMinn 18.906 Macon 6,948 Marshall 15,616 Maury 29,520 Montgomery 21,045 Madison 21,470 McNairy 12,864 Overton 11,211 Obion 7,638 Polk 6,388 Perry 5,822 Rhea 4,415 Roane 12,185 Robertson.: 16,145 Rutherford 29,122 Scott ' 1,905 Sevier 6,920 Sullivan.-. 11,742 Smith 18,412 Stewart 9,719 Sumner 22,717 Shelby 81,157 Tipton 8,887 Van Buren 2,674 Washington 18,861 Warren ,10,179 Wayne... 8,176 White 11,444 Williamson 27.201 Wilson 27,444 Weakley 14,608 Total Co. 79, In 1,002,625 Michigan. Allegan 5,125 Barry 5,072 Berrien ,. .1,417 Branch.. 12,472 Calhoun 19,162 Cass 10,907 Chippewa 898 Clinton 6,102 Eaton 7,058 Genesee 12,081 Hillsdale 16,159 Houghton 708 Huron -210 Ingham 8,681 Ionia , 7,597 Jackson 19,431 Kalamazoo 18,179 Kent , 12j016 Lenawee: 26,872 Lapeer 7,029 Livingston... 13,485 Macomb..... 15,580 Marquette 136 Micbilimackinac and 21 unorganized counties 8,598 Mason 93 Midland 65 Montcalm 891 Monroe 14,698 Newago 510 Oakland 81,270 Oceana 800 Ontonagon 889 Ottawa..' 5,587 Saganaw 2,609 Sanilac. 2,112 St. Clair 10.420 St. Joseph's 12,725 Schoolcraft 16 Shiawassee 5,230 Tuscola 291 Van Buren 5,800 Washtenaw 28,567 Wayne 42,766 Total Co. 64, In 897,654 Indiana. Adams 5,797 Allen 16,919 Bartholomew 12,428 Benton 1,144 Blackford 2,860 Boone 11,681 Brown 4846 Carroll 11,015 \ Cass 11,021 Clark 15,828 Clay 7,944 Clinton. 11,869 Crawford 6.524 Daviess 10,852 Dearborn 20,166 Decatur 15,107 DeKalb 8,251 Delaware 10,848 Dnbois 6,821 Elkhart 12,690 Fayette 10,217 Floyd 14,875 Fountain 18,263 Franklin 17.968 Fnlton ". 5,982 Gibson 10,771 Grant 11,092 POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES. 703 Greene 12,818 HamUton 12.6S4 Hancock 9,698 Harrison 15,286 Hendricks 14088 Henry 17,605 Howard 6,657 Huntington 7,850 Jackson 11,047 Jasper 8,540 Jay 7,047 Jefferson 28,916 Jennings 12,096 Johnson ¦ , 12,101 Knox 11.084 Kosciusko 10,243 La Grange 8,837 Lake 3,991 LaPorte 12,145 Lawrence 12,097 Madison 12,875 Marion 24,013 Marshall 5,348 Martin 5,941 Miami 11,304 Monroe 11,286 Montgomery 18,084 Morgan 14,576 Noble 7,946 Ohio 5,308 Orange 10,809 Owen 12,106 Parke 14.968 Perry 7,268 Pike 7,720 Porter 5,234 Posey 12,649 Pulaski : 2,595 Putnam 18,615 Randolph 14,725 Ripley 14,820 Ensh 16,445 Scott 5,885 Shelby 15,502 Spencer 8,616 Stark 557 Steuben 6,104 St Joseph 10,954 Sullivan 10,141 Switzerland 12,982 Tippecanoe 19,377 Tipton 8,582 Union 6,944 Vanderburgh 11,414 Vermillion 8,661 Vigo 15,289 Wabash 12,188 Warren 7,887 Warwick 8,811 Washington 17,040 Wayne 25,820 Wells 6,152 White 4,761 Whitley 5,190 Total Oo. 91, In. 988,416 Illinois. Adams 26,508 Alexander 2,484 Bond 6,144 Boone.., 7,626 Brown 7,198 Bureau 8,841 Calhoun 3,281 Carroll 4,586 Champaign Christian Clarke Clay Clinton Coles Cook , Drawford Cumberland De Kalb De Witt.... Du Page Edgar Edwards Effingham Fayette '. Franklin Fulton Gallatin Greene Grundy Hamilton Hancock Hardin Henderson., Henry Iroquois Jackson Jasper Jefferson Jersey Jo Daviess Johnson Kane Kendall Knox Lake La Salle Lawrence Lee Livingston Logan .... McDonough McHenry McLean ... < Macon Macoupin Madison Marion Marshall Mason Menard Mercer Monroe ¦ Montgomery.'Morgan .' Moultrie . — Ogle Peoria Perry ........ Pike Popej Piatt Pulaski .< Putnam Randolph •••• Richland Rock Island - . St Clair Saline Sangamon .... Schuyler Scott Shelby Stark 7,258 . 2,6498,202 . 9,582 . 4,289 . 5,1899,335 48,885 . 7,135 , 8,720 . 7,540 . 5,0029,290 10,692 8,524 . 8,799 8,075 5,681 22,508 . 5,448 . 12.429 3,0286,862 . 14,652 2,887 4,612 8,807 4,149 . 5,862 8,220 8,109 7,854 18,604 4,118 16,708 . 7,780 . 13,27914,i26 17,815 6,121 . 5,292 . 1,552 5,128 . 7,616 14,97910,lti8 8,988 . 12,855 20,486 6,720 5,1804,0925,9216,849 5,246 7,679 6,276 , 16,064 .8,234 10,020 17,547 5,278 18,819 8,975 1,6062,2658,924 11,079 4,0126,937 20,181 5,588 19,228 10,578 7,914 7,807 8,710 Stephenson ;. 11,666 Tazewell 12,052 Union 7,615 Vermillion 11,492 Wabash 4,690 Warren- 8,176 Washington 6.958 Wayne 6^825 White 8,925 Whitesides 5,861 Will 16.708 Williamson 7,216 Winnebago 11,778 Woodford 4,416 Total Co. 99, In 851,470 Adair 2,842 Andrew 9,488 Atchison 1,678 Audrain 8,506 Barry 8,467 Bates 8,669 Benton 5,015 Boone 14,977 Buchanan 12,975 Butler 1,616 Caldwell 2,816 Calloway 18,827 Camden 2,388 Cape Girardeau 18,912 Carroll 5,441 Cass 6,090 Cedar 3,861 Chariton 7,514 Clarke 5,527 Clay 10,882 Clinton 3,786 Cole 6,696 Cooper » 12,950 Crawford 6,897 Dade'. 4,246 Dallas 3,648 Daviess 5,298 DeKalb 2,075 Dodge • 858 Dunklin 1,229 Franklin 11,021 Gasconade 4,996 Gentry 4,248 Greeno 12,785 Grundy 3,006 Harrison 2,447 Homy 4,052 Hickory 2,829 Holt 3,957 Howard 13,969 Jackson 14,000 Jasper 4,223 Jefferson 6,928 Johnson 7,464 Knox 2,894 Laclede 2,498 Lafayette /i.8,690 Lawrence 4,859 Lewis 6,578 Lincoln 9,421 Linn 4,058 Livingston 4,247 Macon 6,565 McDonald 2,286 Madison 6,008 Marion 12^280 Mercer 2,691 Miller 8,881 704 POPULATION OF THE UNITED Mississippi 8,128 Moniteau 6,004 Monroe 10,541 Morgan 4,650 Montgomery 5,489 New Madrid 5,541 Newton 4,268 Nodaway :... 2,118 Oregon 1,482 Osage 6,704 Ozark 2,294 Pemiscott Perry 7,215 Pettis 5,150 Pike 18,609 Platte 16,845 Polk 6.186 Pulaski 8,998 Putnam.- 1,657 Ralls 6,151 Randolph.- 9,439 Ray 10,373 Reynolds 1,849 Ripley 2,830 Scotland 3,782 St. Charles 11,454 StClair 8,586 StFrancois 4,964 St Genevieve 5,813 St Louis Co.-v 27,118 St Louis City 77,860 Saline 8,843 Schuyler 8,287 Scott 2,682 Shannon 1,199 Sbelby 4,258 Stoddard 4,277 Sullivan 2,988 Taney 4,878 Texas 2,312 Warren 5,860 Washington 8,811 Wayne 4,518 Wright 8,8S7 Total Co. 101, In 6S2.048 Arkansas. Arkansas 8,245 Ashley 2,058 Benton 8,710 Bradley 8,829 Calhoun Carroll 4,614 Chicot 5,115 Clark 8,995 Conway 8,583 Crawford 7,960 Crittenden 2,648 Dallas 6,877 Desha 2,900 Drew 8,275 Franklin 8,929 Fulton 1,819 Greene 2,598 Hempstead 7,672 HotBprings 8,609 Independence ;•• 7,767 Isard 8,218 Jackson 8,086 Jefferson 5,884 Johnson 5,227 Lafayette 5,227 Lawrence * 5,274 Madison 4,828 Marion 2,802 Mississippi 2,363 Monroe 2,049 Montgomery 1.958 Newton 1,758 Perry 978 Phillips 6,935 Pike 1,861 Poinsett 2,808 Polk 1,263 Pope..,, 4,710 Prairie, 2,097 Pulaski. 5.658 Randolph 3,275 St Francis 4,479 Saline 8,901 Sebastian Scott 8,088 Siarcy 1,979 Sevier 4,246 Union 10,298 VanBnren 2,864 Washington 9,849 Washita 9,591 White .- 2,619 Tell 3,341 Total Co. 53, In 209,689 Wisconsin. Adams 187 Brown 6,215 Calumet 1,748 Chippewa 614 Crawford 2,498 Columbia 9.565 Dane 16,641 Dodge 19,188 FondduLac 14,468 Grant 16,170 Greene 8.563 Iowa 9,530 Jefferson 15,317 Kenosha. 10,782 Lafayette 11,541 Lapointe 4S9 Manitowoc 8,702 Marathon 508 Marquette 8,642 Milwaukee 81.077 Portage '1,250 Racine- 14,978 Richland 908 Rook.......... 20,708 Sank 4371- Sheboygan 8,878 St. Croix 624 Walworth 17.861 Washington 19,484 Waukesha 19,174 Winnebago 10,125 Total Co. 81, In .:S05,191 Iowa. Allamakee 777 Appanoose 8,181 Benton 672 BlackHawk 185 Boone... 785 Buchanan 517 Cedar , 8,941 Clark 79 Clayton 8,878 Clinton 2,822 Dallas 854 Davis 7,624 Decatur 965 STATES. Delaware 1,759 Des Moines 12,987 Dubuque 10,841 Fayette 825 Fremont.... 1,244 Henry 8,707 Iowa 822 Jackson '• 7,210 Jasper 1,280 Jefferson 9,904 Johnson. , 4,472, Jones 8,007 Keokuk 4,822 Lee 18,860 Linn..' 5,444 Louisa 4,939 Lucas 471 Madison 1,179 Mahaska 5,989 Marion' 5,482 Marshall 838 Monroe 2,884" Muscatine 5,731 Page 551 Polk 4,515 Potawatainie 7,828 Poweshiek 615 Scott ' 5,986 Tama S Taylor :... . 204 Van Buren 12,270 Wapello 8,471 Warren 961 Washington •'¦ 4,957 Wayne 840 Winneshiek 546 Total Co. 49, In 192,214 California — 1852. Butte.. 8,572 Calaveras 20,192 Contra Costa 2,745 Colnsi... 620 El Dorado 40,000 Klamath.. 580 Los Angelos 7,881 Marin....: 1,086 Mariposa....- 8,969' Mendocino 416 Monterey 2,728 Napa 2,116 Nevada ..........:... 21,365 Placer 10,784 Sacramento-. 12,539 San Diego 2,932 San Joaquin ...; i 5,029 San Francisco 86,151 San Luis Obispo 984 Santa Clara • 6,664 SantaCruz 1.219 Santa Barbara 2,181 Shasta 4,050 Sierra 4,855 Siskiyou 2,240 Solano — ¦ 2.885 Sonoma 2,887 Sutter 1,207 Trinity 1.704 Tuolumne 17,657 Tulare 8,575 Yolo. 1,807 Tuba-: 22,905 Total Co. 88, In 264,485 POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES. 705 Minnesota. Benton 418 Dakotah 584 Pembina 1,134 Ramsey 2,227' Wabashaw 243 Mankatah 158 Wahnahta 160 Washington 1,056 Itasco 97 Total Co. 9, In 6,077 Benton 814 Clackamas 1,860 Clatsop 462 Linn i 998 Marion...,.' 2,749 Polk 1,051 Umpqua 1,000 TERRITORIES. Washington 1,018 TamHfll 1,512 Total Co. 9, In. 11,454 Utah. Davis 1,134 Deseret Great Salt Lake 6,157 Green River Iron 860 Juab Millard , Ogden SanPete 865 Tooele 152 Utah 2,026 Washington Weber 1,186 Total Co. 18, In. 11,000 New Mexico. Bernalillo 7,751 RioAriba 10,668 Santa' Anna 4.645 San'taFe 7J71S San Miguel 7,074 Taos 9,507 Valencia 14,147 Total Co. 7, In 61,505 Washington. Clarke 644 Lewis 588 Pacific 814 Total Co. 8, In 1,546 District Columbia. Washington, Total .... 51,687 POPULATION OF THE PRINCIPAL CITIES AND TOWNS IN THE UNITED STATES. Cities and Towns. Population oflS30. Population of 1840. Ratio < of in crease. Population of 1850. Ratio of in crease. Bangor, (Me.) Portland Augusta Bath Manchester, (N. H.) ... Boston, (Mass.) Lowell Salem Roxbury Charlestowu Worcester New Bedford ......... Cambridge Lynn Springfield Taunton Providence, (R. L) New Haven, (Conn.). . . Norwich Hartford :... New York city, (N. T.) . Brooklyn Albany Buffalo Rochester Williamsburg Troy Syracuse Utica Foughkeepsie Lockport Oswego Newburgh 2,867 12,598 8,980 3,773 877 61,392 6,474 13,895 5,247 8,783 4,1737,592 6,0726,1386,784 6,042 16,833 10,678 5,161 7,074 197,112 15,39424,209 8,6689,207 1,117 11,556 7,2228,823 2,7086,424 15,218 5,314 5,141 20,796 15,082 9,089 11,484 7,497 12,087 8,4099,867 10,985 7,645 23,171 12,960 " 7,289 9,463 812,710 86,28383,721 18,21320,191 5,094 19,834 12^78210,006 9,125 4,6658,988 20-79 88-5186 25 268-87 521 221-22 8-54 78-2280-7579-6559-238 48 52-661-92 26-5387-6521-37 40-2G83-8468-6485-87 89-29 110-11119 3 856-04 678 53-5788-54 188-68 72-58 89-05 14,432 20,815 8,2258,020 18.922 186,871 83,38320,264 18,36417,21617,04916,44315,215 14,25711,766 10,44141,512 20,845 10,26518,555 515,507 96,888 50,768 42,26186,40880,78028,78522.27117,565 18,94412,82312,205 11,415 67-2886-7754-77 56- 880-67 46-56 60-52 84-85 102-04 49-91 127-41 52-2 7-1 865779-15 56-98 41-8 4816 64-85 167-26 50-53 13208 80-29 604-24 48B8 87-4189 '85 85-04 161-62 27-78 706 POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES. Cities and Towns. Kingston Newark, (N.J.)..; Paterson New Brunswick Philadelphia city, (Pa.) . . Phila. Co., exclu. of city Pittsburg Alleghany .".... Reading Lancaster Wilmington, (Del.)..... Baltimore, (Md.) Washington, (D. C.).... Richmond, (Va.) ...:... Norfolk Petersburg Wheeling Charleston, (S. C.) Savannah, (Ga.) Mobile, (Ala) New Orleans, (La.) Lafayette Memphis, (Tenn.) Nashville Louisville, (Ky.) Cincinnati, (Ohio.) Columbus Cleveland Dayton Chilllcothe Zanesville Madison, (la) Chicago, (111.) Detroit, (Mich.) St Louis, (Mo.) Milwaukee, (Wis.) Population of 1880. 4,170 10,963 7,831 80,462 108,835 12,568 2,801 5,856 7,704 18,826 6,055 9,814 8,822 5,276 80,289 7,8028,194 49,826 5,566 10,841 24,831 2,4851,0762,9502,8468,094 4,977 Population of 1840. 5,824 17,290 7,596 ' 8,668 93,665 164,872 21,115 10,089 8,410 8,417 8,367 102,81S 28,864 20,158 10,92011,186 7,885 29,26111,21412,672 102,193 8,2072,0266,929 21,210 46,838 6,0486,0716,0678,977 4,766 8,7984,470 9,102 16,469 1,712 Ratio of in. . crease. ,67-85 10-62 164 51-7268- 26019 48-61 9-25 241 232-83 11-2688-81 49-4558-57 296-74105-09 24-48 105-1 86-61 148-37464-21105-66 89-7454-04 309-63 280 9 Population of 1850. 10,283 38,89411,888 18,887 121,876287.386 46,60121.26115,74812,865 18,979 169,054 40,001 27,482 14,826 t 14,01011,39142,985 16,060 20,518 119,461 14,190 8,889 10.47848,196 115,486 17,88817,08410,977 7,1007,9298,005 29,96321,01977,860 20,061 Ratio of in- 75-77.124-95 49-26 64-53 29-58 ' 74-83 120-7110-78 87-25 46-9 67-0765-23 71-236-36811925-844-46 46-9 43-2161-87 16-89 842-46836-27 51-21 103-65149-11195-68 180-57 80-92 78-52 66-86 110-76 670-81 180-92 372-76 1071-78 * Ratio of decrease 8-£ AGENTS WAITED TO 0IBCU1ATK THE HISTORY OF THE WORLD. The great popularity of this work, as well as ita intrinsic merits and its complete adaptation. to the public wants, presents inducements to enterprising young men of business habits and good address, to act as agents for the same, rarely met with in subscription books. No pains or expense has been spared, in any department, to make it at once useful and attractive, and the exceedingly low price at which it is afforded, places this great work within the reach of the humblest citizen. Notwithstanding but a small portion of the country has been canvassed, already one hundred thousand names have been enrolled for the book, and the agents in the different parts of the United States and Canada are daily adding large num bers of the intelligent of all classes, for the work. This rapid and immense sale furnishes the best, commentary upon its intrinsic value and admirable adaptation to the public wants. The following are a few extracts from the numerous recommendations the work has already received ; „ _ J Hartford, Conn. I am very -well acquainted with the works of Mr.' Maunder, having long used them for purposes of reference; and have ho hesitation in recommending the one entitled "The History of the World," as valuable and reliable. The additions of Mr. Inman, are, I am confident, calculated to increase the value of the book. J. "WILLIAMS, Yice-Chancellor of Trinity College. Amherst College, Massachusetts. I have carefully examined "The History of the "World," by John luman, Esq., and find it a work exhibiting great historical research ; and it cannot fail to he useful and instructive as a work for general circulation, and I would therefore recommend it to all. EDWAED HITCHCOCK, President From Prof. Emerson of Andover (Mass.) Seminary. I have examined the "History of the World," and think it particularly valuable, especially for such as have not access to more extended works of history; and even to those who have such works, it will often be found an important help, as it brings down the history of the countries to the present time. So far as I have observed, the author appears impartial. KALPH EMEESON". Delaware College, State of Delaware. Some time since I took occasion to examine somewhat carefully "The History of the World," published by Henry Bill, and believe it to he a most valuable, correct, and in all respects desirable work. It is cheap, and a capital book for reference. W. B. GRAHAM. Hanover College, Indiana. I have examined the "History of the World," and know it to be a work of high character and value, which I can cordially recommend to public patronage. M. STURG-US, Prof. Languages. From the Norwich Aurora. • A very considerable portion of the reading public are already personally acquainted with the merits of the work entitled " A History of the World," published by Hon. Henry Bill of this city. It has met with a more extensive sale, probably, than any other work of a similar character ever issued from the press in this country; and at no time has the demand for it been greater than at present— numerous agents being successfuly employed, in nearly every State in the Union, tu its dissemination* Agents are also Wanted TO INTRODUCE THE ILLUMINATED HISTORY OF NORTH AMERICA Into each county in the United States and Canada. ' The success that has thus early attended the " History of the World," has induced the Publisher to issue a work National in its character, and that would meet the wants of those of even the smallest means, and at the same time retain the attractive features of more elaborate and expensive books. A knowledge of our own country is peculiarly necessary for all classes, and especially for the education of the young. In presenting this work to the public it has been the Publisher's endeavor to maintain the high standing tbat has thus far characterized all his publications, and thfls merit the patronage bestowed by a generous public. Agents will not be required to canvass territory previously occupied (unless they choose), and all books not sold may be returned at prices charged, if in good condition. Being connected with the extensive publishing-house of Messrs. Harper & Brothers, New ToTt, I supply Agents with their publications at their regular wholesale prices. Persons wishing to em bark as Agents, or to obtain further information on the subject, will call at the office of the sub scriber, or address by mail, post-paid, HENRY BILL, Norwich, Connecticut,