YALE UNIVERSITY
LIBRARY

Bought with the income
of the
ALFRED E. PERKINS FUND

THE

LIFE AND REIGN
OF
NICHOLAS THE FIRST,
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DESCRIPTIONS OF RUSSIAN SOCIETY
AND GOVERNMENT,
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SKETCHES OP SCHAMYL THE CIRCASSIAN CHIEF, AND
OTHER DISTINGUISHED CHARACTERS.

BY

SAMUEL M. SMUCKER, A.M.
AUTHOR OF THE "COURT AND REIGN OP CATHERINE II. EMPRESS OP RUSSIA," ETC.

PHILADELPHIA:
J. W. BRADLEY, 48 N. 10URTH ST.
AUBURN, N.Y.:
H. A. YATES, 67 GENESEE ST.
1856.

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1856, by
J. W. BRADLEY,
in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern
District of Pennsylvania.

STEREOTYPED ET I* JOHNSON AND CO.
PHILADELPHIA.

KINO & BAIRD,
STERKOTTPERS AND PRINTERS,
NO.' 9 SANSOM STREET.

PREFACE.

The position which the late Czar Nicholas I.
will occupy in the history of the nineteenth
century, is an equivocal one. So far as he is
regarded as the great representative of Abso
lutism and Despotism, in an age of general pro
gress and improvement, when the millions are
loudly proclaiming to the privileged few, that
the day of their tyranny will soon be forever
ended; — as such a representative of the feudal
past, Nicholas I. must ever be regarded as a
pernicious and bad man, who employed his pro
digious power to turn back, as far as he could,
the great dial-hand of human progress.
The only aspect in which Nicholas I. presents
himself favourably to view, is with reference to
the stern and inflexible qualities of his mind; —
the immovable decision, the daring resolution,
the self-supporting and fiercely defiant obstinacy,

Q PREFACE.
with which he ventured to confront the united
current of public opinion, which swept almost
around the civilized world; and arrayed him
self, alone, against the many-toned voices of the
race, which proclaimed the approach of the
inevitable era of the enfranchisement of the
nations. That the history of the life and reign of such
a man would possess not only great interest,
but even considerable importance, cannot well
be doubted. His position was too prominent,
and his qualities were too peculiar, ever to permit
his name, his influence, and his memory, to
descend to the shades of the common oblivion.
A few men there have been, in this nineteenth
century, who loom far upward into the political
heavens, and tower like mighty Alps above the
ordinary level ; who astonish, delight, and even
terrify, mankind by their superior vastness and
greatness, b»th of natural abilities, and of ac
quired, or inherited, official station. Napoleon I.
was one, and certainly the greatest, of these.
Napoleon III. is without question another. And
Nicholas I. may well be classed among the most

PREFACE. 7
memorable of the men whose careers have illus
trated the present century.
Whether the following work is a production
in any degree worthy of the interest and import
ance of the subject, is a question which the
reader alone must determine. No complete
history of the life and reign of Nicholas I. has
yet appeared in our language. That so great a
personage, and so remarkable a man, deserved a
laboured and complete record of his life and
career, will readily be admitted. The present
writer, having carefully used all the materials
which could, be obtained, having reference to
the subject, has only to conclude by hoping, that
the success of his labours may have been in
some degree commensurate with his intentions.
S. M. S.
Philadbiphia, January, 1856.

CONTENTS.

PAGB
Preface  5

INTRODUCTION.
A Brief Survey of Eussian History — The Aboriginal Inhabitants
of Russia — Introduction of Christianity into Russia — Ivan the
Great — Election of the Romanoffs to the Throne — Michael
Romanoff — Origin of the word Czar — Peter the Great — Cathe
rine II. — Hereditary Ambition of the Romanoffs. — Catalogue
of the Sovereigns of that House  17
CHAPTER I.
Birth and Youth of the Emperor Nicholas — His early Educa
tion — His peculiar Disposition — Nicholas visits the Courts
and Capitals of Europe — His Military Studies — He expects to
succeed his Brother, Alexander I., on the Throne  / 28*,
CHAPTER II.
The Marriage of Nicholas with the Princess Marie Charlotte
of Prussia/ — The Attachment of Nicholas to her — Appearance
and Disposition of the Princess — Her Situation at the Court
of St. Petersburg — Peculiarities of Nicholas, while Grand
Duke — His Residence at the Anitchkoff Palace  35

/

CHAPTER III.
Personal Habits of the Grand Duke Nicholas — Anecdote of his
Visit to Berlin — The Parisian Dandy and Nicholas at St.
Petersburg — Pursuits of Nicholas at this period — His Asso
ciates and Attendants  42

X CONTENTS.
CHAPTER IV. PAGE
Disasters of the last Year of the Reign of Alexander I. — In
undation of the Neva at St. Petersburg:— Intrigue of Alex
ander I. with Madame Sophia K. — Her unfaithfulness to him
 The Death of his illegitimate Daughter — His Health ia
affected — He determines to visit the Crimea, — Secret Conspi
racies, throughout Russia, against Alexander I. — Death of
Alexander I. at Taganrog  48

CHAPTER V.
Members of the Imperial Family — Solemn Scene at St. Peters- <
burg — Effect of the News of Alexander's Death — The mys
terious Packet — Nicholas declines the Throne — The Grand
Duke Constantine refuses the Succession — The letter of
Constantine on the Succession, in favour of the Grand
Duke  54

CHAPTER VL
Accession of the Emperor Nicholas I. — His Manifesto — Appre
hensions at St. Petersburg — The Conspiracy of the Nobles
against Nicholas — The Army is seduced by them into Revolt
— Memorable Scene in St. Isaac's Square — Narrow Escape of
Nicholas from Death — His heroic Conduct — Count Alexis Or-
loff — Nicholas suppresses the Insurrection.. „.....„  64

CHAPTER Vn.
Death of Milarodovitch — Te Deum chanted — Arrest of the lead
ing Conspirators — Troubetskoi — The jSoldiers take the Oath
of Allegiance to Nicholas — Prince Tchernycheff — Commission
appointed to try the Conspirators — Nicholas appoints his Cabi
net Ministers — The Grand Duke Constantino's Letter of Con
gratulation to Nicholas I  yg

CONTENTS. XI
CHAPTER VIIL PAGB
Vast Magnitude of the Empire inherited by Nicholas I. — Per
sonal Appearance of Nicholas at the period of his Accession
— His Intellectual Qualities — Geographical Limits of his Em
pire—His Military Resources — His Naval Forces — The Effec
tiveness of the Police 'Of Russia — Revenues of the Empire —
Attachment of the Greek Church to the Czars — Nicholas be
comes the great Representative of Absolutism in the Nine
teenth Century ...„.  .„„....,.......„.«.........„  .„. 90
CHAPTER IX.
Coronation of Nicholas I. — The vast crowds of Persons assem
bled at Moscow, from various Countries — Description of the
Kremlin — The Imperial Processions — The imposing Ceremo
nies in the Cathedral of the Assumption — The Manifesto
published by Nicholas after his Coronation — The continued
Festivities, Balls, and Masquerades, in Moscow — Congratula
tions throughout the Empire  ,  102
CHAPTER X.
The Accession of Nicholas recognised by the Courts of Europe
— Nicholas declares War against Persia — Preparations of the
Shah — Abbas Mirza — Paskiewitch appointed to the command
of the Russian Armies — Battles between the Russian and
Persian forces — The Shah sues for Peace — The Terms pro
posed by Nicholas — They are accepted by the Shah — Treaties
between Russia and Turkey  112
CHAPTER XI. .
Nicholas declares "War against the Sultan — He visits in Person *
the Army stationed on the Pruth — Attack of the Russians
on Shumla — Their Defeat — They capture Varna — Menschi-
Koff — Campaign of 1829— Energy of General Diebitsch — The
capture of Silistria by the Russians — The March across the
Balkan Mountains — Siege of Adrianople — Singular Imbecility
of the Turkish Generals — The memorable Treaty of Adri
anople.,.  121

XU CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XII. PAGE
Nicholas crowned at Warsaw in 1829 — Cruelties of the Grand
Duke Constantine at Warsaw — Revolution breaks out at War
saw — Manifesto of Nicholas — Radzivil — Manifesto of the Poles
— Russian Armies advance to Warsaw — Memorable Battle near
Warsaw — Immortal Heroism of the Poles — Victory claimed
by both Sides — Chlopicky — Terror in Warsaw — Despair and
Death of General Diebitsch — Marshal Paskiewitch appointed
to the Command — He captures Warsaw, and suppresses the
Revolution  136
CHAPTER XIII.
Terrible Vengeance of Nicholas on the Poles — Cruelties perpe
trated in Podolia — In Warsaw — Jews of Poland — Hostility
and Contempt of Nicholas toward the Polish Jews — History
of the United Greek Church in Poland — Horrible Cruelties
inflicted by Nicholas on the Nuns of Minsk — Different Opinions
on this Subject  152
CHAPTER XTV.
Literature of Russia — The four great Literary Names of Rus
sia — Sketch of the greatest of them, Karanisin- — More recent
eminent Men of Letters — Nicholas patronizes the Diplomatic,
Engineering, and Military Schools — The Language of Russia
— Indifference of Nicholas to Sciences and Branches of Learn
ing which were useless in War  163

CHAPTER XV.
I Personal Qualities of Nicholas — His Physical Appearance  His
Mental Qualities — His Claims to being a Great Man  His
despotio Spirit— His Cruelties— The Owner of Twenty Millions
of Serfs — Favourable Features of his Character  His Intre
pidity — His Qualities as a Husband and Father— His amor,
ous Intrigues  -,-

CONTENTS. Xlll
CHAPTER XVI. PAGE
Different Classes of Society in Russia, — Morals of the Nobles ]
or Boyards — Orders of the Tchinn — Condition and Character ,
of the Serfs — Venality and Corruption of the Government
Officials — The Machinery of the Government under the Czar
— The Senate — The Council of the Empire — The Holy Synod
— The Ministry — Municipal Government of the Cities and
Towns — The Greek Church — Russian Priesthood — The Rus
sian Hierarchy — The Ceremonies of the Church — The Armies
of Russia, — Vast Military Forces at the Command of the
Czar  184

CHAPTER XVII.
Excessive Venality among the Russian Officials — Count Benken-
dorf— Efforts of Nicholas to remedy this Evil — Instance of
Judicial Corruption — Peculiarities of Russian Society — The
Ladies of Russia — Extravagance of Russian Nobles — Distin
guished Men of Russia — Nesselrode — Orloff — Menschikoff — <l
Prince Paskiewitch — Prince Woronzof  .; 203

CHAPTER XVIII.
The Patronage extended by Nicholas to the Fine Arts — The
Court Theatre — The Opera^-Rubini — Garcia — Sontag — Fanny
Elssler — Rachel — Members of the Imperial Family — The Em
press — Alexander II. — The Grand Duke Constantine — Splen
did Monument erected by Nicholas to the Memory of Alex
ander I. — Nicholas an Imitator of Napoleon 1  215

CHAPTER XIX.
The two great Merita of the Character of Nicholas I. — Inci- V
dents illustrative of them — The Russian Code of Laws — Con
spiracy against the Life of Nicholas — Benevolence of the Czar
— His Intrepid Conduct during the Prevalence of the Cho-/'
lera — His despotic Conduct as a Sovereign  226
2

XIV CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XX- PAGB
The peculiar Talent possessed by Nicholas — His favourite Mi
nisters — Count Kleinmichel — Count Kakoshkine — The thievish
Nobleman — Prince Tchernichef — Hatred of Nicholas to Louis
Philippe — The Imperial Nursery — The Duke of Leuchtenberg
— Conduct of Nicholas toward the City of Abo — Library of
the Imperial Palace — The Censorship of the Press — Absolut
ism sometimes useful in Russia  240
CHAPTER XXI.
War in the Caucasus — Ancient History of that Country — Cha
racter of the Caucasian Chiefs — Visit of Nicholas to the Cau
casus in 1837 — Incidents of the War in the Caucasus — Scha-
myl successfully resists the Russian troops — Visit of Nicholas
to Western Europe, in 1844 — Insurrection in Cracow, in 1846
— Hungarian Revolution, in 1848  263
CHAPTER XXTT.
Early History of the Crimea — Current of Modern Events —
Catherine II. — She subjugates the Crimea — Origin of Sevas
topol — Nicholas determines to commence the Conquest of Tur
key — His Sentiments on the Subject — His Pretext about the
Holy Places in Palestine — His Ultimatum — The Representa
tives of the Four Powers at Vienna — The Ultimatissimum of
Nicholas — It is rejected by the Turkish Divan — Declaration
of War by Nicholas — His Troops enter the Principalities —
Declaration of War by the Sultan — Omar Pasha — Feelings of
the Turkish Nation respecting the War  279
CHAPTER XXIII.
Manifesto of Nicholas respecting the War — Battle of Turinikai
— Destruction of the Turkish Fleet at Sinope — Exultation of
the Czar — Victory of the Turks at Citale — Declaration of
War by England and France — The Allied Army and Gene
rals — Celebrated Siege of Silistria — Memorable Triumph of
the Turks  297

CONTENTS. XV

CHAPTER XXIV.

Departure of the Allies from Varna — Landing at Old Fort —
Plans of the Campaign — Sevastopol — Battle of the Alma —
Preparations of the Russians — Tremendous Struggles between
the Combatants — Decisive Victory of the Allies — Retreat of
the Russians — Consequences of the Battle — The Advance to
ward Sevastopol— Battle of Balaklava  312

CHAPTER XXV.
Arrival of Reinforcements in Sevastopol, under General Dan-
nenberg — A great pitched Battle contemplated by the Rus
sians — The Preparations of the Russians — Memorable Battle
of Inkermann — Heroism of the Life Guards — Succour afforded
by the French — Victory of the Allies — Results of the Battle... 327

CHAPTER XXVI.
Siege of Sevastopol continued with great Vigour — The failing
Health of Nicholas — Defeat of the Russians at Eupatoria —
Effect of this Disaster on the Health and Spirits of Nicho
las — He is confined to his Bed — His last Interview with his
Ministers — His Instructions to his Successor, Alexander II. —
His last Interview with his Family — His Death — His Succes
sor is proclaimed — The works of Sevastopol — General Tod
leben — Florence Nightingale  334

CHAPTER XXVII.
Preparations for a final Assault on Sevastopol — The Battle of
Tchernaya — Results of the Battle — Commencement of the
grand Assault — The second Day — The third Day — Capture of
the Malakoff — The Failure of the English Attack on the Re
dan — The Russians evacuate the Southern Portion of Sevas
topol — Stupendous Victory of the Allies — Hospital Scenes in
Sevastopol  349

XVi CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XXVIII. PAGE
The Repulse of the Russians at Kars — Victory of the Allies at
Kinburn — Visit of the Czar, Alexander II., to Nicolaieff — To
Odessa — His Return to St. Petersburg — Ambassador from Per
sia to the Czar — The Members of the Imperial Family — The
Grand Duke Constantine — Capture of Kars — General Mou-
ravieff.  •  361

APPENDIX.

No. I.
Schamyl, Prince of the Circassians  T  375
¦;.,f'' No. n.
Prince Woronzof, Governor of the Crimea  387
No. m.
The Cossacks  392
No. rv.
The Serfs  396
No. V.
The Kremlin  399

THE

EMPEROR NICHOLAS I.

INTItODTTCTIOISr.
A BRIEF SURVEY OE RUSSIAN HISTORY — THE ABORIGINAL INHABITANTS
OE RUSSIA  INTRODUCTION OP CHRISTIANITY INTO RUSSIA  IVAN
THE GREAT  ELECTION OE THE ROMANOFFS TO THE THRONE —
MICHAEL ROMANOFF — ORIGIN OF THE WORD CZAR  PETER THE
GREAT — CATHERINE II.  HEREDITARY AMBITION OF THE ROMANOFFS
— CATALOGUE OF THE SOVEREIGNS OF THAT HOUSE.
In the remote and shadowy ages of antiquity, the
people who inhabited that vast country now known
as Russia were composed of three distinct races.
These were the Scythians, in the south ; the Slavo
nians, in the centre; and the Fins, in the north.
The first monarch who reigned over these several
nations as a united and organized community was
Rurik, who dates from the year a. d. 862. He was
succeeded by Oleg, in the year 879. Fifty suc
cessive sovereigns of the Rurik dynasty governed
the country, until the year 1584, when several
2* 17

18 THE LIFE AND REIGN
princes succeeded, who obtained possession of the
prerogatives of the extinct race.
During the reign of Vladimir, a distinguished
hero and warrior of those times, in a. d. 984, Chris
tianity was introduced into his dominions. Dis
gusted with the heathenism which he and his sub
jects had long professed, he looked around him to
discover some better and nobler system of belief.
His mind was for some time greatly exercised as to
whether he should choose Mohammedanism, Ju
daism, Catholicism, or the Greek form of Chris
tianity. As to Mohammedanism, he was indeed
attracted by the glowing descriptions which he re
ceived of the luxurious paradise reserved for the
faithful, and had no objection whatever to its
lovely houris and its voluptuous joys. But he
loved wine even better than he loved women ; and
could not, on any account, consent to abandon his
favourite indulgence. As to Judaism, he turned
away in disgust from the rite of circumcision ; and,
moreover, despised a race who were perennial wan
derers over the earth, without any fixed homes or
country. He rejected Catholicism, because the
Pope was represented to him as being an arrogant
wretch, who impiously assumed the prerogatives of
an earthly deity; and this was repugnant to his
own supremacy and consequence. Vladimir finallv

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 19
settled down in the choice of the Greek religion 5
chiefly because his revered ancestress, Olga, had
been a Greek woman ; and because that faith was
happily exempt from the important objections
which so severely operated against its rivals. In
A. d. 1015, Vladimir died, after a reign of thirty-five
years, with the honourable epithet of "the Great"
attached to his name. On his adoption of the
Greek religion, he ordered all his subjects to imi
tate his example ; and thus, by one grand edict of
despotic power, Russia became enrolled among the
catalogue of Christian nations.
Already, in the eleventh century, Russia pos
sessed an acknowledged dynasty, a European re
ligion, and a fixed code of laws ; though the
latter exhibited more than an ordinary share of
the barbarity which characterized the jurispru
dence of European countries during the Middle
Ages. In the year 1462, Ivan the Great ascended the
throne. He may fitly be regarded as the antitype
of the Czar Nicholas ; for the period of his reign,
which continued forty-three years, is marked as the
one in which despotism obtained that ascendency
in Russia which it has ever since maintained, in the
person of the sovereign. He devoted his whole life
to the establishment of absolute power, and de-

20 THE LIFE AND REIGN
vised and perfected the system of serfdom which
has ever since existed in the dominions of the
czar.* He gradually wrested from the great commu
nities of ISTovogorod, Viatka, and also of Lithuania,
their ancient privileges; and Moscow, the capital
of his empire, became the centre of still greater
opulence, power, and prosperity.
The darkest period of Russian history is that of
the reign of Ivan IV. "the Terrible." He sat upon
the throne for twenty-nine years, from 1534 to
1563. During this period, the Russians were the
most debased community in Europe: their igno
rance and wretchedness were extreme; the rights
of the strongest everywhere prevailed ; fathers solfl
their children into slavery; continual wars devas
tated the country ; the princes tyrannized with fear-
* The Russian word czar or tsar is usually supposed to be derived
from the Latin Ccesar. Such, however, is not the fact ; inasmuch as
in the old Slavonic translation of the New Testament, the name of
Ccesar is written Kessar or Kegar, (Matt. xxii. 21 ;) and the title czar
is applied, in it, to kings in general. The title itself was first assumed,
in 1547, by Ivan IV., and the word is used in the formulary of his
coronation. The word appears to have been of Tartar origin, and to
have been originally applied to the Great Khans of Tartary. As long
as the Grand Prince of Moscow remained tributary to the Great Khan
the title of czar was used by the former to Hie' latter; but when that
relation terminated, the Prince of Moscow, with his independence
assumed also the title of his late superior, to indicate their equality
Being thus transplanted to Russia, the title has ever since been
retained by her successive sovereigns. Vide Karamsin, Histoire de
V Empire de Russie, VI., oh. vii.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 21
ful cruelty over the helpless serfs; persons might
sell themselves- into slavery ; the penal code was
marked by barbarities unheard of in any other
country in Christendom ; and the excessive ferocity
and ungovernable passions of the sovereign carried
ruin and dismay everywhere throughout his domi
nions. Tears of gloom and suffering rolled away, and at
length, in 1613, the first prince of the illustrious
race of the Romanoffs ascended the throne. He
assumed the name of Michael IV. In the middle of
Lent in that year, an election was held at Moscow
for a successor to fill the place of VLadislaus I., who
had recently expired, without heir or issue. The
princes Mstislavski and Pojarsky wisely refused the
dangerous elevation offered them. Many other
candidates, who were willing to. endure, for the
good of the state, the cares and dangers of empire,
were successively set aside. At length the name of
Michael Romanoff was proposed. He was then a
youth of sixteen years of age, of fair character, but
quite unknown. His ancestors had filled, at dif
ferent times, the highest offices of the state. He
had not been implicated in the desperate struggles
which had previously convulsed the nation.
These were the principal causes which rendered
him more acceptable to the assembled boyars than

22 THE LIFE AND REIGN
any of his competitors. He was, moreover, ably
supported by the influence of the metropolitan of
Moscow, the highest ecclesiastical dignitary in the
kingdom. On accepting the proffered crown, Michael Ro
manoff made solemn oath that he would carefully
protect the Greek religion ; that he would pardon
all the injuries that had been inflicted on his father;
that he would decree no new laws except a stern
necessity absolutely required it; that he would
neither make war nor conclude peace without the
concurrence of the boyars ; and that he would
merge his "private fortune into the domains of the
crown. Thus, we may observe that the most'
despotic dynasty of Europe was an elected one ; de
riving its powers and prerogatives solely from the
will of the nation ; and holding them originally by
the most feeble tenure, and circumscribed by the
most republican restrictions.
Sixteen sovereigns of the great house of Ro
manoff have successively reigned in Russia since
their first elevation to the throne. Under their
guidance, their dominions have advanced in some1
respects, and have retrograded in others. The
• highest ornament of the Romanoff dynasty was
Peter the Great; and to his commanding genius
and sagacious views Russia' owes the eminence

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 23
which she now possesses among civilized nations,
for her colossal proportions, for her physical gran
deur, and for her material splendours. Of intellec
tual advancement, or of supremacy in the arts,
sciences, and all the nobler pursuits of humanity,
she cannot boast. To Peter the Great she owes
her Beeond and greater capital in the north, the
acquisition of the Baltic provinces, and the pos
session of other important conquests in the south
and west.
Elizabeth Petrovna was the daughter of Peter the
Great and the first Catherine. She left the throne,
at her death, to the youthful Peter H., son of the
unfortunate Czarovitch Alexius, who had been be
headed by the cruel order of his father, Peter II.
reigned three years, and in 1730 was succeeded by
the Empress Anne, daughter of the Czar Ivan, the
elder brother of the first Peter. *
To Anne, in 1740, succeeded his nephew, Ivan
HE., who was deposed by a conspiracy, headed by a
German surgeon named Lestock, thirteen months
afterward, in order to elevate the famous Elizabeth
to the throne. This princess possessed consider
able resemblance to her mother, the beautiful Cathe
rine I. But if she equalled her in those attrac
tive qualities which render the society of women
agreeable, she surpassed her in the immoderate

24 THE LIFE AND REIGN
love of vicious pleasure. Instead of having the art
of commanding, like her mother, Elizabeth per
mitted herself to be controlled by others ; and this
weakness was the primary cause of all the misfor
tunes of Peter HI. In order that she might retain
her independence, Elizabeth declined all offers of
matrimony: but she did not the less indulge in
licentiousness ; and since she was a bigot as well as
a sensualist, she was induced by her grand veneur,
the Field-Marshal Razumousky, to agree to a pri
vate marriage with him. The two Counts Tarra-
kanoff and their sister — the fate of which princess
forms so melancholy an episode in the history of
Catherine H. — were the fruit of this secret union. ,
Elizabeth, however, did not content herself with
one lover ; she made frequent changes. But Razu
mousky permitted no one to approach her except
those whom he thought incapable of attempting to
share the administration of the government with
him. To her violent propensity to voluptuousness
Elizabeth added first the love of good eating, and
then the pleasures of wine. Banquets, feasts, balls,
masquerades, and the most frivolous amusements
were preferred to business. By degrees she pro-.
ceeded from moderate enjoyments to the extrava-

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 25
gance of sensuality. Her taste for devotion aug
mented her voluptuousness, and added to the ab
surdity of her character. She continued during
whole hours on her knees, before the picture of her
favourite saint; to which she spoke, and which she
even consulted. She passed alternately from acts
of bigotry to the intemperance of lust, and from
scenes of extreme lasciviousness to the soothing
opiates of prayer. To describe her unblushing
excesses would stain the page of history.
At length, on Christmas day, 1761, after an in
glorious reign of twenty-one years, Elizabeth ex
pired, in the fifty-second year of her age. The
¦ indolence of her character subjected her to the
selfish and wicked designs of her favourites, who
made a bad use of her authority. Her devotion
Tendered her impious, and her clemency cruel. At
the commencement of her reign, she made a vow
never to punish a malefactor with death: the
judges, therefore, who could not decapitate crimi
nals, deprived them of life by the barbarous punish
ment of the knout ; and never were more tongues
cut out, or miserable wretches sent to Siberia, than
under the clement reign of the Empress Elizabeth.
In dungeons not far from her own palace were lan
guishing in misery a dethroned emperor, several

26 THE LIFE AND REIGN
princes and dukes, besides many courtiers, states
men, generals, officers, and even women.
It is computed that her conduct cost the empire
every year at least a thousand lives, either by im
prisonment or by banishment. Nothing was more
easy than to obtain a secret order for these cruel pur
poses, by the base flatterers that always surrounded
her person. It was sufficient for one of her maids
of honour to think herself slighted, to obtain an
order to have the offender taken out of bed at night,
carried away gagged and blindfolded, and immured
underground, to drag out the remainder of a mi
serable life in a loathsome dungeon, without ever
being charged with any crime. Many of these un
fortunate persons were known to be still existing
under the bastions and towers of different fortresses
so late as the year 1780, besides the many hundreds
that were sent to perish in the frozen regions of
Siberia. To Elizabeth succeeded Peter HE., the unfor
tunate husband of the gifted though shameless
Semiramis of the north, Catherine H. Nicholas I.,
one of her successors, and the subject of the pre
sent history, vainly imagined that in his own
august person the world was at length destined to
behold the fated conqueror of Constantinople who

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 27
would wear on his anointed head the double dia
dem of the fallen Moslem sovereign, united with
that of the ancient czars of Muscovy.*
* The following catalogue contains a list of the successive emperors
of the Romanoff dynasty, from the period of their accession to the
throne until the present time: —
Michael, or Mikhail Foedorovitch  1613
Alexis Mikhailovitch  1645
Foedorlll. (or II.) Alexeiovitch  1676
Joann V. Alexeiovitch (conjointly with his brother).... 1682
Peter I. Alexeiovitch the Great  1696
Catherine I. Alexelovana...  1725
Peter II. Alexeiovitch....  1727
Anna Joannovna  1730
Joann VI. Antonovitch.  1740
Elizabeth Petrovria  1741
Peter III. Foedorovitch  1761
Catherine II. Alexelovna the Great  1762
Paul Petrovitch  1796
Alexander Paulovitch  1801
Nicholas Paulovitch ......;...  1825
Alexander II  1855

28 THE LIFE AND REIGN

CHAPTER I.
BIRTH AND YOUTH OF THE EMPEROR NICHOLAS — HIS EARLY EDUCA
TION — HIS PECULIAR DISPOSITION — NICHOLAS VISITS THE COURTS
AND CAPITALS OE EUROPE — HIS MILITARY STUDIES — HE EXPECTS
TO SUCCEED HIS BROTHER ALEXANDER I. ON THE THRONE — HE
PURSUES THE NECESSARY STUDIES.
Nicholas Patjlovitch, the late Czar of all the
Russias, was born at the palace of Gatshina, near
St. Petersburg, on the 25th of June, 1796. He was
the ninth of the ten children who were the fruit of
the marriage of Paul I. with his second wife, Maria
Peodrovna, Princess of "Wurtemberg. There were
no particular demonstrations of national joy on the
event of his birth, because, in consequence of the
arrangement contemplated by the Empress Cathe
rine, who still survived, the empire of Russia had
already been designated for his elder brother Alex
ander, while she appropriated the expected throne
of the Turkish empire to Constantine. A career
of no great distinction or splendour was therefore
anticipated for Nicholas.
When he was but four months old, his grand
mother Catherine H. expired ; and Paul I. her son

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 29
in opposition to her wishes, ascended the vacant
throne. The empress herself superintended the early
education of Nicholas ; but at the age of ten, he was
placed under the care of Lambsdorff, Storch, Ade-
lung, and Marevieff, distinguished savans of that
period, who directed his studies in all the various
departments of useful and elegant learning. Du-
puget of Lausanne was appointed to instruct him
in the French language and literature.
The youth of Nicholas was passed during a period
in which all the energies of the empire, and the
attention of the whole nation, were absorbed in the
great struggles connected with Napoleon's career ;
and hence it is that fewer observations were then
made, and afterward preserved, in reference to the
youthful qualities and actions of the future czar.
All authorities, however, concur in stating, that
already at that early period, Nicholas exhibited so
strong a taste for military studies and exercises,
as to exclude all regard or interest in the usual
amusements and even gratifications of youth. In
the acquisition of modern languages, however^ he -
displayed the possession of a strong and accurate
memory. But as for the rest, he seemed to be
dry, reserved, and unsocial in his nature, beyond
the usual displays of even princely dignity.
At the age of twelve years, the prince commanded
3*

30 THE LIFE AND REIGN
a regiment of boys of his own age ; and he enjoyed
no amusement so intensely as the exercise of train
ing them. One of his earliest recollections was that
of terror; for he was present with his mother, m
her apartment, wheD, amid a clamour and commo
tion which aroused the whole palace, Count Pahlen
rushed into the empress's presence, beseeching her
not to be alarmed, and locking the door upon her,
exclaimed, that the conspirators were only dispatch
ing her husband, but that she and her sons were
secure !
It was not until after Alexander I. had reigned for
some years, and had lost all hope of issue, that the
probability began to assume clearness and import
ance that Nicholas might succeed him, through the
refusal of his elder brothervConstantine to assume the
cares and perils of empire. During his youth, there
fore, the Grand Duke Nicholas passed his time with
out particular friends, with but three or four asso
ciates of his own age, and chiefly engaged in his
military studies and amusements. The persons
whom he most esteemed were Counts Benkendorff,
Adlerberg, and, Orloff; and after he became em
peror, he still seemed to have remained attached to
them, as is evinced by the important posts with which
.they were intrusted. He was not beloved by the
court, nor by the army, nor by the people. He was

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 31
less cruel than the Grand Duke Michael, his younger
brother; yet he did not possess the impulsive gene
rosity of the latter, which induced him, after he had
punished the objects of his dislike unjustly, to be
equally willing to make ample reparation for the evil
done, when the moment of passion had passed by.
Neither in his youth nor in his riper years was
Nicholas ever known to relent, to apologize, or to
forgive. He was silent, thoughtful, and saturnine in
his temperament. Nor did he ever display any proofs
of superior talent. He remained during his whole
life enveloped in an atmosphere of solemn and
severe reserve, of haughty and unbending self-im
portance. He never melted down to sympathy.
He never shed a tear. Even those displays of popu
lar enthusiasm which custom uniformly bestowed
on the members of the imperial family wherever
they went, he frequently received without conde
scending to notice them, although the uniform cus
tom of the imperial family was to return the salute.
It may readily be supposed that the youth of
such a man, though passed in the midst of a volup
tuous court and a profligate capital, might be almost
devoid of all displays of romantic attachment or
preferences. Such seems in a great measure to
have been the case. During the reign of his brother
Alexander I., although he was one of the hand-

82 THE LIFE AND REIGN
somest young men at court, — though his high birth
and his lofty expectations would have rendered con
quest easy, and insured the success of his aspira
tions for female favour, — we have but little proof
that he indulged in any of those intrigues d'amour so
prevalent among young courtiers of his age. His
constitution appears to have been excessively cold ;
so much so indeed, that, while he himself remained
free from any female attachment or licentious indul
gences, he was utterly unable to excite the admira
tion or win the love, of any of the fair dames who
surrounded him. Said one of the most fascinating
women of the court, one day: "The Grand Duke
Nicholas belongs to the imperial circle ; he is very
handsome; and yet, when he is absent from the
court circle;, he is not near as much missed aa is his
ugly brother Michael !" There are indeed some ok
dits repeated in the court respecting his supposed
partiality for certain married ladies of easy virtue
at this period of his life ; but all of them are so
groundless, so unsupported by evidence of any kind,
and are so entirely inconsistent with his whole
character, that they do not deserve to be narrated
in any record of the life of Nicholas which pretends
to describe only that which is authentic and reliable.
About the year 1815, when Alexander, having
passed the meridian of hfe, resigned all hopes of

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 33
having children, and it became probable that Nicho
las might become his successor, the latter, for the
first time, entered on his travels throughout Europe,
in order to enlarge his knowledge of the world, and
perfect his acquaintance with foreign people and
governments. During this journey Nicholas visited the various
cities and capitals of France, Germany, Austria,
and England. He regarded with special interest
all the celebrated battle-fields of the Continent, and
studied with the zest of an amateur, those various
spots which had been incarnadined by human gore,
.and were rendered memorable by the fierce strug
gles and vicissitudes of conflict. He was received
at the various 'courts which he visited with all the
consideration due to his exalted rank. His" splendid
person made him be regarded with partiality by the
fascinating dames who graced these several courts,
and whose bright eyes beamed on him with unwonted
lustre. But their efforts to fascinate the youthful
prince of the mighty and frozen North, however
desperate and consummate, generally proved in the
end to be useless. After several years spent in
travel, Nicholas again returned to St. Petersburg,
and immediately resumed his usual avocations of
military study and practice with his regiment. He
still displayed the cold and reserved qualities of his

34 THE LIFE AND REIGN
nature. A writer, speaking of this period of his
life, declares that at the frequent review of the Im
perial Guards, at which Alexander I. and his brothers,
the grand dukes, were present, Alexander and Con
stantine would frequently enter into conversation
with some of the handsome women in the crowd.
Nicholas would not even glance at them, but would
haughtily ride by his dallying brothers with a sneer
which plainly indicated, that he regarded such con
descension as a serions disgrace to imperial and
grand-ducal dignity. During this period of his hfe,
the chief pursuit of Nicholas was his devotion to
those branches of knowledge which would be of
most essential service to him in the high office to
which his future destiny now seemed to designate
him. He made himself familiar with geographical,
statistical, and financial sciences; studied carefully
the history of governments, both despotic and free,
in past and present ages ; and thoroughly learned to
comprehend the principles and the machinery of
that vast empire, over whose heterogenous interests
he himself might soon be called to rule. He was
fully conscious of the difficulties which attended that
position, and industriously prepared himself to mas
ter them.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIEST. 35

CHAPTER H.
THE MARRIAGE OF NICHOLAS WITH THE PRINCESS MARIA CHARLOTTE
OF PRUSSIA — THE ATTACHMENT OF NICHOLAS TO HEP. — APPEARANCE
AND DISPOSITION OF THE PRINCESS — HER SITUATION AT THE COURT
OF ST, PETERSBURG — PECULIARITIES OE NICHOLAS WHILE GRAND
DUKE — HIS RESIDENCE AT THE ANITSHOFF PALACE.
The travels of the Grand Duke Nicholas through
Europe exercised an important influence on his
future hfe. It was while visiting the court of
Berlin that he became acquainted with the accom
plished Princess Maria Charlotte, the eldest daugh
ter of the former King of Prussia.
A marriage between the Grand Duke Nicholas and
this princess had been projected some time before,
by Alexander I. The alhance between Russia and
Prussia,- which would become cemented by this
union, offered great advantages to both countries*
But it was not absolutely determined upon until
Nicholas, by a personal acquaintance with his pro
posed spouse, should have expressed his own ap
proval of the match. That approval quickly followed
his interviews with her during his visit to Berlin in
1816; and after his return to St. Petersburg the

36 THE LIFE AND REIGN
marriage ceremonies between the youthful prince
and princess were celebrated. This event occurred
on the 13th July, 1817.
According to the requirements of the Russian law,
the princess adopted the Greek religion upon her
arrival in St. Petersburg, and with it she assumed
the name of Alexandra Feodorovna. This change /
of her religion and name was always very repugnant
to the feelings of Frederick "William IEL, father of
the princess, who continued to address her as the
Princess Charlotte as long as he lived.
Notwithstanding the coldness of the character of
Nicholas, and his general indifference to female
charms, this marriage seemed to be the source of
more domestic enjoyment between the grand duke
and his wife than might have been anticipated.
The reason of this was the fact, that the arch-_
duchess resembled her husband so much in cha
racter and temper, that a mutual harmony be
tween them was the happy result. She was re
markable for the same majesty of figure which
characterized Nicholas. She possessed the same
hauteur and reserve of manner, and the same for
mality and stateliness of deportment, which he dis.
played. Even in her youth, her mother, the
beautiful but unfortunate Queen Louisa of Prus-,
sia, thus wrote of her to her husband, when she

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 87
was but ten years old : " Charlotte pleases me
every day more and more. Though she is not
communicative, but is close and reserved, she con
ceals, like her father, under a cold exterior, a
warm heart. In appearance, she is indifferent; in
reality, she is affectionate and obliging. I am
sure she is destined to fill a brilliant destiny if she
lives." »
When the princess arrived in St. Petersburg, the
impression produced by her appearance was favour
able. By the side of some of the blooming beau
ties of the Russian court, her complexion appeared
to be deficient in freshness, and her form in plump
ness, according to the taste then prevalent in the
Northern capital. But all united in declaring that
her features were handsome, and that her eyes were
expressive and fascinating. Her carriage was ex
ceedingly graceful, and her form majestic. She
was remarkable even then, and for many years of
her subsequent hfe, for her fondness for dancing,
for tight lacing, and for the innocent, though de
bilitating, luxuries of aristocratic life.
The situation of the wife of Nicholas on her
arrival, and during the first years of her residence
at St. Petersburg, was not as agreeable as might
have been desired. Above her, in a superior posi
tion of consequence and authority, were both the

88 THE LIFE AND REIGN
empress and the empress-mother. The family of
the Grand Duke Constantine was distracted by
domestic disputes between him and his grand
duchess. It was a difficult and delicate matter
for the wife of Nicholas to determine on which
side of this exalted quarrel she should array her
self. Her husband, at that time, held a very
subordinate position among the functions and pre
rogatives of the imperial family ; for he was never
admitted to the council chamber, where great ques
tions of political and diplomatic importance were
discussed and determined on. His sphere of ope
ration was limited to mere garrison-service. Dur
ing the first years of their marriage, Nicholas
and his wife held as little intercourse with the
court-circle as possible, and lived a somewhat retired
life at the Anitshoff Palace, two miles distant from
St. Petersburg. The habit thus acquired of being
much together, was a prominent cause of the preva
lent opinion that great attachment existed between
them. One year after his marriage Nicholas became a
father; and his eldest son, Alexander Nicolaiwitch,
the present czar, was born. During the few years
which were spent in his domestic retirement at
the palaces of Anitshoff, Nicholas, obtaining clearer
glimpses of the more exalted destiny which proba-

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 89
bly awaited him in the future, endeavoured to im
prove his mind with a greater familiarity with those
branches of knowledge which would become of
most essential serviee to him on the throne. In
some of these departments he was much deficient;
and the occasion of improvement thus offered was
opportune. In 1819, the Grand Duchess Maria, hia
first daughter, was born. She afterwards became
the Duchess of Leuchtenburg.
Already, at this early period, the peculiar stern
ness and severity of the countenance of Nicholas
had become marked and confirmed. A writer — •>
speaking of him as grand duke, and before the
succession to, the throne. had been settled — says,
that the usual expression of his countenance was
severe, even to misanthropy; that he smiled only
through, courtesy, never from good-nature. All hia
words were measured,, as if set to music In tbe
tone of his voice, and in his utterance, it was clear
that he spoke not from conviction, but through disr
simulation ; and that he seemed to act on the prin
ciple that the concealment of his thoughts' and
purposes was the highest sagacity and wisdom. To
some degree, his august spouse emulated the same
qualities and appearances.
During his residence at the Anitshoff Palace,
Nicholas, devoted himself particularly to the study

40 THE LIFE AND REIGN
of the science of engineering ; and he .possessed the
reputation of having been skilled in its most intri
cate principles. But it is doubtful whether this
reputation was deserved, from the fact that, at the
grand reviews which were frequently held in the
environs of St. Petersburg, when he commanded a
portion of the troops, he was often outmanoeuvred
and surrounded by the opposing party. So fre
quently had this occurred, that at length he re
fused to take a • part of the command on these •
occasions. It is also said that, on one occasion,
when he was inspecting some experiments of the
ordnance at Cronstadt, and he presumed to give an
opinion on the subject, he was so far in error, that
an old general of artillery who was with him,
boldly replied, "Tour Highness knows nothing
about it !"
And even after he became emperor, in all mat
ters of intricate detail, which involved technicali
ties, he uniformly deferred to the wiser judgment
of Nesselrode, Cancrin, Volkonsky, and other mi
nisters, as being more competent than himself.
His opinions at this period respecting the partial
reforms which the Emperor Alexander attempted
then to introduce into Russia, were, that it waa
unwise and unsafe to adopt new systems without a
proper basis and consistency. Even at this early

0F:. NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 41
period he is said to have formed the deliberate con
viction that it was impossible to remodel Russia
and her government, into any harmony with the
ideas of progress which have been gradually ad
vancing throughout Europe during the nineteenth
century. He thought that the only proper sphere
for the activity of the supreme head of that vast
empire, whieh extended over one-seventh of the
whole earth, was the improvement of the adminis
trative departments of justice and the police, and
the slow and safe enlargement of her territory, by
the combined arts of war and of diplomacy.

4*

42 THE LIFE AND REIGN

CHAPTER HI.
RESERVED HABITS OF THE GRAND DUKE NICHOLAS — ANECDOTE OF HIS
VISIT TO BERLIN  THE PARISIAN DANDY AND NICHOLAS AT ST.
PETERSBURG — PURSUITS OF NICHOLAS AT THIS PERIOD — HIS ASSO
CIATES AND ATTENDANTS.
During the residence of Nicholas at the Anitshoff
Palace, which comprised the period which inter
vened between his marriage and his accession, his
usual habits of life were as follows. He rose at an
early hour, and first took a short walk. On his re
turn, he immediately began the business of the day.
In his study he exhibited the greatest order; the
furniture was elegant, without the least trace of use
less ornament; and the walls were adorned only with
pictures of regimental costum'es. Nor need we
wonder at this, when we remember that, through the
influence of a perverted education, he himself so
highly esteemed the importance of the military
appearance and elegance of style, as to habituate
himself to such tight lacing as often to cause nim
to faint when ungirthing to retire to sleep.
Nicholas was fond of good living, but drank

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 43
moderately. During the course of the day he
gave his entire attention to all the matters of busi
ness which were brought before him. His only
amusements were a game of cards occasionally be
tween tea and bedtime, with the members of his
family. Several years after his marriage, his wife, the
late empress, visited her father at Berlin. Nicholas
was detained, after her departure, for two days.
Being then at leisure, he travelled post, incognito,
and arrived at the palace in Berlin an hour be
fore his wife, and thus afforded her an agree
able surprise. The Marquis de Custin affirms that
Nicholas forgot his majesty, only in the bosom
of his family, where he was reminded that man has
his happiness independent of state duties. That
stern nature could sometimes descend to the dis
play of the common sympathies of humanity. His
treatment of his sons was exceedingly cold and
serious ; that of - his daughters, chivalrous and
polite. If he loved any one at all, it was his
wife. Two anecdotes remain as solitary proofs of
this attachment, which must be carefully preserved.
The first is, that at the time of his visit with her
to Naples, in 1847, her health being very feeble, he
used to carry her up-stairs from her carriage to
her chamber, in his arms. The second is, that

44 THE LIFE AND REIGN
when, in 1836, the; "Winter Palace was burnt, being :
informed that the fire was approaching his private
cabinet, and when asked what he wished to be saved
in it, he answered: "Only my portfolio; nothing
else." It contained the letters of the empress, which
she wrote to him during their engagement.
Whenever an opportunity occurred for him to
favour the grand duchess with a new diversion or
surprise, he seemed to have been disposed to em
brace it. Thus, on one occasion, in riding along
the streets of the capital, he saw a young noble
man, named Takovloff, promenading, and dressed
in the utmost extreme of Parisian foppery. On
his head was a smaU peaked hat, resembling a
flower-pot reversed ; a handkerchief was tied around
his neck, of flaming colour, and with a gigantic
bow ; a cloak no larger than a cape was thrown
over his shoulders; his chin was decorated with
a beard trimmed a la Henri Quatre; he carried
an immense knotted club in his hand; a glass
was stuck in one corner of his eye, to which
was attached a very broad black ribbon; and a
fierce-looking bull-dog- followed at his heels.
As Nicholas rode by, he stopped, and address
ing the dandy, said, "In God's name, who are
you?" He answered, "Please your Highness, my
name is Save Savietch Yakovloff." "Indeed!

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 45
Save Savietch, I'm delighted to make your ac
quaintance.; just step up and take a seat here
beside me." The dandy dropped his club, and
began to enter the carriage. "Oh no!" said
Nicholas; "Save Savietch, pick up your club."
He complied, and they rode directly to the imperial
palace. Save Savietch, on entering, began to divest
himself of his hat and cloak. "Don't do that,"
said Nicholas ; " come on just as you are. Pray,
my dear," said he to the grand duchess, " do you
know this animal?" "No," replied she, bursting
into a fit of laughter. " Then allow me to inform
you that this is Save Savietch Yakovloff. "What
do you think of him? Is he not a pretty fellow?"
The beau, half dead with shame and terror, begged
permission to retire, and no more appeared in his
outre" costume on the Neffsky-Prospect — the Broad
way of St. Petersburg.
Already at this period of his hfe, the Grand Duke
Nicholas exhibited remarkable qualities, both of
mind and person. His figure is represented as
having been most majestic in form and perfect in
proportion. His countenance, though his features
were regular and handsome, was marked by an
expression of great severity, and even of misan
thropy. His smile was only that of courtesy, never
that of pleasure or emotion ; every word and ges-

46 THE LIFE AND REIGN
ture was formal, stiff, and measured. Tet he spoke
with animation and simplicity. The observer felt
that the prince's heart was hermetically sealed
against every approach of feeling, and that his
thoughts were concealed by an impenetrable veil
of mystery.
Nicholas at this period read considerably, and he
possessed the power of concentrating his faculties
in an extraordinary degree. As his son Alexander
grew in years, he devoted considerable attention to
his education ; though his training was scientific to
so great a degree that he was allowed little leisure
for the belles-lettres. A writer of eminence, speak
ing of Nicholas at this period, says : "BT the grand
duke ascends the throne, he will be served with
zeal; for though he will not, like Henri Quatre,
win the hearts of his servants and subjects, yet they
will take pride in serving a prince, who, to the im
press of majesty bestowed on him by nature, adds
that of superior inteUigence and sagacity."
At this period the grand duchess, his wife,
possessed a majestic air and figure, with pleasing
and regular features. Her eye was piercing and
haughty ; but when she became animated, that dis
agreeable expression passed away, and she seemed
again the daughter of the adored Louisa, Queen
of Prussia; and the artificial repulsiveness of the

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST.1 47
princess, was lost in the attractive sweetness of the
woman. The suite of Nicholas at this period, included in
its number the Count de Modena, and the Prin
cess YolkonsM, the latter of whom had been con
nected with the court for the extraordinary period
of fifty years. The grand duchess was also at
tended by the Princess Catherine Soltikoff, the wife
of Prince Sergius Soltikoff, a member of the Im
perial Council.

48 THE LIFE AND REIGN

CHAPTER IV.
DISASTERS OF THE LAST TEAR OF THE REIGN OF ALEXANDER I. — IN
UNDATION OF -THE NEVA AT ST. PETERSBURG  INTRIGUE OF ALEX
ANDER I. WITH MADAME SOPHIA K.  HER UNFAITHFULNESS TO HIM
 THE DEATH OF HIS ILLEGITIMATE DAUGHTER  HIS HEALTH IS
AFFECTED  HE DETERMINES TO VISIT THE CRIMEA  SECRET CON
SPIRACIES THROUGHOUT RUSSIA AGAINST ALEXANDER — HIS DEATH
AT TAGANROG.
The last year of the life of Alexander I. was
one of gloom and misfortune to that monarch;
and the darkness grew thicker around him, until
deatn released him from a life which had now lost
every charm and attraction.
Early in the year 1824, St. Petersburg was visited
by a terrible inundation of the Neva. The mouth
of this river, opening westward into the Gulf of
Finland, is exposed to the violent storms which ac
company the autumnal equinox. On the 19th of
November, a furious hurricane, blowing from the
west and southwest, forced the waters of the Neva
and of the Gulf to such a prodigious height, that
nearly the whole city of St. Petersburg was sub
merged beneath the waves. The ruin and, deso-

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 49
lation which ensued can scarcely be conceived.
From hour to hour the loud booming of the can
non of the, Admiralty announced to the terrified
inhabitants, the continual rising of the flood.
Bridges were torn up ; wooden houses were drifted
away, some still filled with their inhabitants; and
vessels sunk under the weight of the despairing
multitudes which overcrowded them. The loss of
life and property was immense. Thousands of per
sons who escaped immediate death were deprived
of their property, and ruined. These disasters pro
duced a melancholy effect on the mind of Alex
ander. He displayed his sympathy with the
unfortunate, by subscribing a million of rubles
toward the alleviation of the sufferings of those
who had been the victims of the calamity.
But distress of a more personal and painful cha
racter befell the emperor, in this last year of his
life. Between himself and his wife, the Empress
Elizabeth, there had, for some years, existed a de
gree of coldness which had banished all domestic
joys from the imperial circle. He had been mar
ried to her in 1779, at sixteen years of age ; and
though the empress possessed beauty of person and
amiability of temper, the inconstant mind of Alex-,
ander had long been seduced from its allegiance by
other less virtuous and more, mercenary charms.

50 THE LIFE AND REIGN
One of his various amours lasted for nine years.
This was with Madame Sophia K., a person of great
beauty, intelligence, and attractiveness of manner.
By her Alexander had three children. Two of
these died in their youth; and the third, a child
of unusual amiability and sweetness, had, at this
period, arrived at the age of seventeen, and had
become the highest joy and dehght of her father's
existence. In the year 1824, Alexander was destined to ex
perience the faithlessness of his beautiful mistress,
and to behold the death of his cherished offspring.
The latter had formed a connection with a young
nobleman of excellent character, and their marriage
was soon to be celebrated, with the approbation
of the emperor. But on the very day on which
the magnificent trousseau intended for the bride
arrived from Paris, she expired in the arms of her
afflicted father. Gazing upon her inanimate corpse,
he is said to have exclaimed, with agony, "I now
receive the reward of my deeds !"
During this long series of erratic indulgences on
the part of the Emperor Alexander, his wife had
remained shut up in comparative obscurity and
gloomy solitude at the palace of Czarsko-Selo, lite
rally, the heaven of the czar, situated near St. Peters
burg. Early in the year 1825, her health was seri-

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 51
ously affected by her silent sorrows; and, by the
advice of her physicians, it was thought necessary
to try the effect of a warmer climate, ass that of St.
Petersburg was particularly severe.
Alexander acquiesced in this purpose, and a re
sidence at Taganrog, in the Crimea, — the southern
portion of the Russian dominions — was resolved
upon. He preceded the empress, and arrived at
Taganrog ten days before her. He employed this
interval in making every possible preparation for
the comfort of the invalid. Good feeling seemed
to have been restored between the imperial pair
by their mutual sufferings. The ' emperor was ac
companied by Prince Volkonski, one of the friends
of his youth, by General Diebitsch, his aide-de
camp, and by Sir James Wylie, who was head^of
the medical department of the Russian army.
The czar diverted his leisure by making excur
sions in different portions of his dominions. The
health of the empress had much improved by the
change of scene, and still more, from the renewed
attachment to her displayed by her husband. But
suddenly the health of the latter began to be af
fected. He suffered from a mysterious disease in
his bowels. He refused for a long time to take
any medical remedies; and his malady finally re
sulted in death, on the 1st of December, 1825. His

52 THE LIFE AND REIGN
death was attributed to poison ; and that there was
some show of probability in this supposition, will
appear from the following circumstances.
In the year 1820, Alexander I. had expressed
liberal sentiments on behalf of Poland, which were
in perfect harmony with the great benevolence of
his character. In 1823, it was discovered that
secret societies had been formed, in various coun
tries of Europe, to advance the cause of liberty,
Many of these had been established even in Rus
sia; and their object was to effect a revolution,
which would result in the establishment of a con.
stitutional and limited monarchy. Li 1823, the
principal members of these societies in Russia had
been arrested and punished; but, of course, the
germs of revolt were not, and could not be, extir-
minated. They slowly grew in secret power. By
the year 1825, the conspiracy had extended its
ramifications throughout all Russia, and even many
servants of the government were secretly attached
to it. On the 22d of November, the Count de
"Witt, one of his most confidential friends, brought
the emperor information, which convinced him — of
what he had long been suspicious — that the murder
of the sovereign was a portion of the plan of the
conspirators. From that moment he was over
whelmed with terror. He had been informed that'

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 53
Colonel Pestel, a brother-in-law of Arnoldi, a
major-general of artillery at Taganrog, was the con
spirator to whom had been intrusted the task of
dispatching him by poison. Several weeks pre
vious to this revelation, Alexander had begun to
suffer from the mysterious fever which then af
flicted him. What the czar's own opinion was, in
reference to his disease, is apparent from the ex
clamations which he uttered : " The monsters !'¦ the
ungrateful monsters ! I desired nothing but their
happiness." Medical assistance, when accepted,
came too late. Alexander I. expired at Taganrog,
the victim of the revolutionary conspiracy which,
having its origin in 1820, in the Diet of Warsaw,
had gradually extended over a large portion of Po
land and Russia. Alexander had met the fate of
Ivan Antohovitch, of Peter HI., and of Paul I. It
was proved, upon the trials which followed Alex
ander's death, that had the poisoned cup failed in
its task, the assassin's dagger would have then
achieved the same desperate result.

8*

54 THE LIFE AND REIGN

CHAPTER V.
MEMBERS OF THE IMPERIAL FAMILY — SOLEMN SCENE AT ST. PETERS
BURG  EFFECT OF THE NEWS OF ALEXANDER'S DEATH  THE MYSTE
RIOUS PACKET  NICHOLAS DECLINES THE THRONE  THE GRAND DUKE
CONSTANTINE REFUSES THE SUCCESSION — THE LETTER OF CONSTAN
TINE ON THE SUCCESSION IN FAVOUR OF THE GRAND DUKE NICHOLAS.
Alexander I. left three brothers: the Grand
Duke Constantine, born in 1779 ; the Grand Duke
Nicholas, born in 1796; and the Grand Duke
Michael, born in 1798. According to the esta
blished law of succession in Russia, Constantine
was, beyond all question, the legitimate heir to
the throne. Hence, during the lifetime of Alex
ander, he was always designated by the title of
Czarovitch. On the 9th of December, 1825, a solemn and
impressive scene was enacted in St. Petersburg.
The Empress Elizabeth had written a letter from
Taganrog to the Archduke Nicholas, informing him
of the favourable change which had taken place,
on the 29th Of November, in Alexander's health.
The news was communicated by bulletins to the
populace, and an. immense multitude assembled

a

iii>

^W.'^^Tij(iJ1ii[ii,jl|1'ii);;ii i'I,f'/:f'jjN/;1,/i;jf1iiiiii;if1"" I'njr./.-j . v;1!;
"iaM  iiiiiir

liiis*

ffH

II  !!

I

¦hhh

'.¦*V!

Hi II Am^^SMmn,

The Death of Alexander I. announced to the Empress.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 55
in the great church of St. Peter and St. Paul, to
unite in the service of thanks which was about
to be offered, for the improved condition of their
adored monarch. The court was present, and the
whole scene was one of extraordinary magnificence.
The vast edifice was crowded' with the rejoicing
multitude ; seraphic music echoed sublimely through
the lofty arches and domes of the temple ; while the
services at the altar were conducted by the Archi-
mandrid himself, with great pomp and splendour.
At this moment a special messenger arrived at
the gates of the church, bearing sealed despatches
for the Archduke Nicholas, which he had conveyed
four hundred and seventy-five leagues in eight
days. Nicholas received and opened the letter. It
was written by Prince Volkonsky ; and it informed
him of the death of the czar. Nicholas immediately
subdued his feelings; and advancing toward the
Archimandrid at the high altar, with an air of
deep affliction, desired him to stop the chanting.
He then informed him of the sad intelligence of
Alexander's death, and requested him to commu
nicate it to the mother of the deceased, then pre
sent with the court. The priest obeyed. The mul
titude gazed with surprise and apprehension at
this sudden interruption of their joyful services.
The Archimandrid, ascending the high altar, took

56 THE LIFE AND REIGN
a crucifix in his hand, covered it with black crape,
and then solemnly and submissively approached the
empress. Said he to her, amid the deep silence,
"Man must submit to the decrees of Providence."
The empress-mother immediately understood him,
and fell senseless into the arms of her attending
ladies. The assemblage was dismissed amid pro
found and universal sorrow.
As soon as the empress-mother had recovered
her senses, a long and secret interview took place
between her and Nicholas. The next day the
Senate were assembled; and Nicholas, proceeding
to their hall, was about to take the oath of fidelity
to his elder brother, Constantine, as the legitimate
heir to the throne by right of primogeniture, and
to issue a command to the whole empire to follow
his example. But here, an important difficulty
presented itself. Alexander had left a packet with
the Senate, on his last departure from St. Peters
burg, with orders that in case he died during his
absence, it should be immediately opened on their"
receiving the intelligence of his dissolution. They
now proceeded to perform that duty. The presi
dent of the Senate, Prince Lapoukin, broke open
the seal. The packet contained a manifesto, signed
by Alexander himself, dated 16th August, 1823;
together with two other documents, dated eighteen

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 57
months earlier. One of these papers was a letter
from the Grand Duke Constantine to Alexander
I., written at St. Petersburg on the 14th of Janu
ary, 1822, containing a resignation of his rights as
heir to the throne, and a request- that Alexander
would appoint Nicholas as his successor. He also
intimated that he had previously announced his
determination not to reign, on the occasion of his
divorce from his first wife.
The second paper was the answer of Alexander
to this letter,' dated the 2d of February, 1822, con
taining the acceptance of his resignation.
The third document was a manifesto of Alexan
der himself. It contained the acknowledgment of
Nicholas as his successor to the throne, as being
the next legitimate inheritor, after the resignation
of the heir presumptive, Constantine. He con
cluded by saying that the welfare of his subjects
had ever been his only care, and he asked their
prayers for his eternal salvation.
Nicholas is charged with duplicity, since, under
these circumstances, he proclaimed his brother Con
stantine the Czar of all the Russias ; for it cannot be
supposed that he remained for three years ignorant
of the exalted and responsible destiny which had
awaited him. The Senate were about to offer him
their homage as emperor; but Nicholas would

58 THE LIFE AND REIGN
not allow them to proceed. " I am not emperor,"
said he, "and wish not to become so, to the detri-o
ment of my elder brother. K, maintaining his
resignation, he persists in making this sacrifice of
his rights, then, and then only, will I accept the
throne." The Senate, however, was not yet convinced.
They knew that an interregnum would be perilous
in the extreme ; that probably a revolt would take
place; and they again replied to the grand duke,
"You are our emperor; we owe you absolute obe
dience; if you order us to recognise the Grand
Duke Constantine as our sovereign, it is then our
duty to obey you." The Council of the empire
concurred with the Senate ; and by both of them
Constantine was then proclaimed the successor of
Alexander I. The Holy Synod offered no opposi
tion ; and thus the influence of the church was
added to the succession thus announced. During
the 10th, all the regiments of the guards took the
oath of allegiance to Constantine, in the great
square before the Winter Palace.
It is proper that we should here state the rea
sons why Constantine had renounced his rights to
the throne, in the first instance, at the time of his
divorce. At an early period of life he had married' Ju-

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 59
lienne, Princess of Saxe-Coburg. This match had
ebeen brought about by the influence of his grand
mother, Catherine H. No children had ever blessed
their union, which had been an unhappy one from
the beginning. At the expiration of four years, a
separation took place between them by mutual
consent, and the grand duchess returned to her
native country. Constantine subsequently became
very promiscuous in his amours ; but about twenty
years after his separation from his wife, he became
attached to a Polish lady of great beauty and
attractive temper. So powerful was the fascination
which she exercised over his usually stern and
rocky nature, that he desired to marry her. Jane
Grudziuska was every way worthy of this romantic
love, possessing every charm and grace of female
character and person. But, to marry her, the grand
duke must be divorced ; and to be divorced, he must
resign his claims to the throne, in consequence of
the rigid laws of the Greek Church respecting
divorce ; and because it would have been impossi
ble for his intended wife, who was, and remained,
a devout Cathohc, to' have ever occupied the throne
with him, since the fundamental laws of the Rus
sian Empire required the imperial consort to pro
fess and observe the Greek religion.
There was, indeed, much in Constantine's cha-

60 THE LIFE AND REIGN
racter to induce the nation to tremble at the
thought of his succeeding to the throne. He was
eccentric, impetuous, cruel, and passionate, in an
extraordinary degree. His manners were exceed
ingly coarse, and even ferocious. He resembled
his father Paul much more, than did any other of
his children, both in the crazy eccentricities of his
conduct, and in the repulsive ugliness of his person.
In his youth, he had been licentious and turbulent ;
in his riper years, he had been cruel and savage.
One of the most remarkable things recorded in his
tory is, that such a nature could have been tamed
and subdued by any being, and especially by one
so amiable and gentle, as his second wife is repre
sented to have been. For the amazing love which
he bore to her — a love which did not wane in its
intensity while life endured, but remained strangely
constant until his death in 1830, — for this he sacri
ficed the brilliant throne of Russia ; and thus added
to the singularity of an attachment which, in the
case of such a man, has scarcely a parallel in the
annals either of romance or of verity.
But while the accession of Constantine was re
garded by the nation with terror, that of Nicholas
was looked upon with indifference. The people
feared and dreaded the one; they were in igno
rance of the character of the other. He was known

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 61
to be a severe disciplinarian in the army, and that
,»he was fond of visiting the barracks and guard
houses to enforce that discipline.
The reasons assigned by Nicholas for refusing to
accept the crown, when it was first offered to him,
seem to have been reasonable. "We had not," he
declared, in his subsequent manifesto, "the right
to consider as irrevocable a renunciation which,
though made, had never been proclaimed, and had
not therefore passed into a law. We wished to
show our respect for the fundamental regulations
of our country respecting the order of succession to
the throne, and to save our beloved country from a
moment's uncertainty as to the person of her legiti
mate sovereign. This resolution received the appro
bation of our beloved mother, the Empress Maria."
The Grand Duke Constantine having been regu
larly proclaimed emperor by all the constituted
powers of the state, he was, in fact, the czar during
an apparent interregnum of three weeks. It is a
question of interest to consider, what would have
been the course taken by Nicholas, had Constan
tine, at this juncture, chosen to revoke his resigna
tion and reclaim the throne thus left without an
owner. But httle doubt, however; attends this
inquiry, inasmuch as the conduct of Nicholas
during this interval of uncertainty and suspense

62 THE LIFE AND REIGN
was dictated by honour and honesty of purpose.
He refused to be proclaimed, and held that his
brother might still reconsider his resignation. He
desired to give him the amplest time so to do ; he
refused to expedite proceedings in any way; and it
it is very clear that, had Constantine relented, and
changed his purpose of abdication, Nicholas would
have at once acquiesced with a good grace, and re
tired, without a regret, into his more, private posi
tion. This, however, was destined not to be. On the
8th of December, 1825, the Grand Duke Constan
tine addressed a letter from Warsaw to the empress-
mother, in which, after deploring, in suitable terms
of condolence, their common loss and affliction, he
proceeded to speak of the succession. He referred
to the fact that he had formerly resigned his rights
as heir-apparent at the period of his second mar
riage ; and he concluded by saying: "Having thus
expressed my sentiments, which are unchangeable,
I cast myself at the feet of your imperial majesty,
praying you to honour with your acceptance my
present letter." He also, at the same time, com
municated to his brother Nicholas his fixed inten
tion not to accept the throne; and, tendering to
him his oath of fidelity and subjection, as his first
and greatest subject, he said: "Your imperial ma-

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 63
jesty will make me happy by deigning to accept
the sentiments of my veneration and of my un
bounded devotion, the pledge for which may be
found in the thirty years' faithful service which I
have rendered to their imperial majesties deceased,
of revered memory, our father and brother. The
same sentiments which have animated me toward
them will not cease to fill my mind also toward
your imperial majesty and your heirs, and will re
main with me till the close of my days." Several
letters also addressed to him at Warsaw, entitled,
"To his Majesty the Emperor," he refused to open,
on the ground that they were not intended for him,
and returned them to the Senate and Council, whence
they came, with their seals unbroken. Thus, he
expressed as plainly as he possibly could, his deter
mination to persist in his resignation, and to ac
knowledge the Grand Duke Nicholas as the sole
and legitimate successor of Alexander I. on the
throne of all the Russias.

64 THE LIFE AND REIGN

CHAPTER VI.
ACCESSION OF THE EMPEROR NICHOLAS I. — HIS MANIFESTO — APPRE
HENSIONS AT ST. PETERSBURG — THE CONSPIRACY OF THE NOBLES
AGAINST NICHOLAS  THE ARMY IS SEDUCED BY THEM INTO REVOLT
— MEMORABLE SCENE IN ST. ISAAC'S SQUARE — NARROW ESCAPE OF
NICHOLAS FROM DEATH — HIS HEROIC CONDUCT — COUNT ALEXIS
ORLOFF — NICHOLAS SUPPRESSES THE INSURRECTION.
Thus pressed and invited to assume the uneasy
and perilous burden of sovereignty, Nicholas deter
mined no longer to evade that duty; and on the
24th of December, 1825, consented to accept the
proffered sceptre. On the evening of the 25th, the
Council of State was convoked, to assume the oath
of allegiance to the new emperor. During the same
evening, a similar ceremony was performed both by
the Senate and the Holy Synod.
To these several bodies Nicholas made the follow
ing declaration : — "According to the fundamental
law of the empire, our heart being filled with re
spect for the impenetrable decrees of an overruling
Providence, we ascend the throne of our ancestors,
the empire of all the Russias, of the kingdom of
Poland, and of the grand-duchy of Finland ; and

Nicholas suppressing the Revolt at St. Petersburg.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 65
we command that the oath of fidelity be taken to
us and to our heir, the Grand Duke Alexander;
and that the epoch of our accession be dated from
December 1, 1825. And we invite all our faithful
subjects to unite with us in fervent prayer to Al
mighty God, that he may give us strength to sup
port the burden thus imposed on us ; that he may
enable us to live and reign for the good of our sub
jects ; and that the sacred memory of our deceased
sovereign may nourish in us a desire to merit the
blessings of heaven and the love of our country."
The critical moment had now arrived in which it
was necessary for that vast conspiracy against auto
cracy in Russia, which had been in secret existence
for some years, to strike the decisive blow. The
death of Alexander was but the initiatory step in
the great and perilous drama which was about to be
enacted. It was proper now for the conspirators to
consummate their treason, and to finish what they
had begum
The end proposed by the conspirators seems to
have been to throw confusion between the rival
claims of Constantine and Nicholas, and in the midst
of the uncertainty and suspense produced by it, to
intimidate the Senate, and induce it to aid them in
compelling Nicholas and Constantine to renounce
their rival claims to the throne ; then to call a con-
6*

66 THE LIFE AND REIGN
vocation of deputies from the provinces, who would
choose another sovereign, invested only with the
powers of a limited constitutional monarchy; and
establish, in co-ordinate power with him, deli
berative bodies and a representative government.
These ends were to be obtained either with or
without the effusion of blood, as events might
render necessary. The assassination of the emperor
was resolved on, should he exhibit the least re
sistance ; and Ryle'ieff, one of the leading conspira
tors, was selected to strike the fatal blow.
On the 26th of December, uncertainty and gloom
overspread St. Petersburg. It was resolved by the
new czar, that early in the morning of that day the
important ceremony should be performed, of ad
ministering the oath of allegiance to the regiments
of guards in the capital. On the night of the 25th,
the emperor had received a letter from Rostoftsof,
informing him that during the last two days, the
conspirators had been active in corrupting the
guards. The immediate outburst of the revolution
was apprehended; and that fear prevented Nicho
las from publishing his manifesto at that moment.
This neglect was imprudent ; for the manifesto con
tained a recital of the facts connected with Con-
stantine's refusal to accept the crown, and his own
proffered allegiance to Nicholas. This information

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 67
would have thrown great light on the real state of
the case, and on the duty devolving on the soldiery,
and on the nation.
But without that manifesto, and being in igno
rance of these essential facts, the guards, when
called upon to swear allegiance to Nicholas, were
naturally surprised and apprehensive of wrong.
They had just taken the oath of allegiance to Con
stantine; why should they turn traitors to that
solemn obligation, and assume another oath to a
different person? They had received no informa
tion as yet, which justified such a course; and
hence a painful uncertainty and fatal delusion,
operated on the minds of thousands of brave and
loyal men. This uncertainty was most perilous to
the safety of the throne, and most favourable to the
treasonable designs of the conspirators.
The conspiracy comprised among its members
many officers and noblemen of high rank, as well
as a multitude of others of lower grade. Among
them were also men of letters; and some whose
families had been connected with the glory of the
nation for several centuries. Prince Troubetskoi
had just been appointed military governor of Kief,
and at that time enjoyed the confidence of the
court. This nobleman was descended from that
Tchernigoff who was illustrious in the history of

68 THE LIFE AND REIGN
Russia, and who had been a competitor for the
throne of the czars at the period when the free suf
frages of the boyards, had elected the first Roman
off to the cares and honours of empire. Ryleieff
was one of the most distinguished literary men
of Russia, being a poet of acknowledged genius.
Bestoujeff was amiable, accomplished, and beloved
for his many virtues. Jakoubovitch was savage
and ferocious in his temper, and had counselled
the most desperate measures to his associates in
the conspiracy. These misguided persons — the pro
fessed friends of freedom and republicanism — had
thought it necessary, that the association should
have a dictator ; and Troubetskoi was chosen to fill
that dangerous post, as if the hour had at length
arrived, when the ancient pretensions of his family
were to be fulfilled in the downfall of the Roman
offs. But he seemed to be totally unfit for this
distinction ; for the . shrewd Ryleieff, being asked
whether the conspirators had not chosen an ad
mirable chief, replied, sarcastically, "Yes, in
stature !"
The means contemplated by the conspirators for
accomplishing their purposes, were the corruption
of the soldiery, and also the seduction of the
mujiks, or populace, to unite with them. The
population in St. Petersburg was at that time com-

* OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 69
posed of 75,000 males, in addition to the military,
and a proportion of two-sevenths of that number
of women. These 75,000 mujiks are the deadly
enemies of the police, who brutally whip them on
every possible occasion. They are constantly un
favourably affected toward the court; and brandy,
liberally distributed among them, will, at any time
of danger or uncertainty in the ^government, ren
der them the pliant and desperate tools of revolu
tionary agitators.
On the morning of the 26th of December, the
conspirators had succeeded in drawing over to
their side the regiment of Moscow, the corps of
Marine Guards, and half the battalion of the Grena
dier Guards. This small force was marched into
the immense Square of St. Isaacs, and took its
position in the rear of the statue of Peter the
Great. A large concourse of the populace accom
panied them, among whom were many of the con
spirators disguised, and a multitude of others, who
only waited to see the direction of events to deter
mine their own conduct. All those who had de
clared for the conspirators, had been won over by
the false statements of the conspirators, that the
Grand Duke Constantine had not refused the
throne; that both he and the Grand Duke Mi
chael were then in chains ; and that Nicholas was

70 THE LIFE AND REIGN *
a usurper. Bestoujeff even declared to the sol
diers that he himself had just returned from
Warsaw, and had been witness of the imprison:
ment of the grand dukes. "Long live the Em
peror Constantine!" was shouted continually by
these misguided troops, while, for several hours,
they remained standing in the Great Square of St.
Isaacs, waiting for the military heads of the con
spiracy. These leaders were Troubetskoi and Bulatof; but
neither of them appeared at this critical moment.
Bulatof remained during the whole day in the escort
of Nicholas, to which he belonged ; and had not the
courage to act the perilous part which he had under
taken. Troubetskoi was indeed present among the
crowd, but did not come forward to take the com
mand ; and fled, first to the house of his mother-in-
law, next to the Austrian ambassador, and last of all,
to the presence of Nicholas, surrounded by his staff.
In this condition, deserted by their leaders, the
misguided soldiers remained in St. Isaac's Square
until one o'clock. During this interval Nicholas
had remained in the Winter Palace,, while the oath
of allegiance was being administered to the regi
ments, consisting of thirteen thousand men, who
had not revolted. This task being finished, the
emperor was informed by Miroladovitch, the Gover-

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 71
nor-general of St. Petersburg, of the state of revolt,
in which a portion of the troops, amounting to about
three thousand men, then were. It was now time
to act on the offensive, and Nicholas began to
display those qualities of intrepidity and sagacity,,
which rendered his conduct on this critical occasion
memorable. He immediately ordered Count Alexis Orloff to
bring into the square the squadrons of Horse-Guards
which he commanded, and which were then stationed
at some distance. He obeyed, and defiled into the
square with a rapidity which had a powerful effect
in directing the fortunes of the day. Nicholas then
ordered the commanding officer of the regiment of
Preobrajensk to conduct his troops into the square.
Several companies of the Grenadiers of Paolofsk,
the sappers of the Guards, the chasseurs of Fin-.
land, — all were summoned simultaneously by Nicho
las to take up their positions in front of the revolt
ing regiments.
These orders being obeyed, Nicholas came forth
from the Winter Palace. As he gazed from its
spacious portals toward the Admiralty and the
equestrian statue of Peter the Great, his eye beheld
a large portion of that vast square filled with the
soldiers who had revolted, surrounded by a tumultu
ous multitude who had joined them, and were pre-

72 THE LIFE AND REIGN
pared to act with the military. They continually
rent the air with loud and confused shouts of "Long
live the Emperor Constantine !" A few of the lead
ing conspirators, among whom was Ryle'ieff, the most
intrepid of all his associates, were active in going
from rank to rank, strengthening the resolution of
the soldiers to fight and to die for the cause of their
legitimate sovereign, Constantine.
At length, surrounded by his generals, Nicholas
advanced across the plain toward the disaffected
multitude. At this moment an officer was seen to
gallop forth from the midst of the insurgents, his
right hand thrust into the breast of his uniform. As
he approached, the emperor advanced to meet him;
and when they had arrived at a sword's length from
each other, Nicholas inquired, " What do you bring
me?" The officer met the emperor's steady gaze;
his hand moved convulsively under his uniform ; he
trembled, and then, without saying a word, he turned
his horse and rode back again to his associates.
Said he, " The czar looked at me with such a terri
ble glance that I could not kill him!" Nicholas
indeed seemed to have been anxious to spare the
effusion of the blood of his subjects. He requested
Count Miloradovitch to approach, and address the
rebels. He did so ; but his voice was drowned by
loud shouts of "Long live Constantine!" At this

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 73
moment, Rahhofski approached the aged general,
discharged his pistol, and wounded him mortally.
It was reserved for the most chivalrous soldier, the
Murat of Russia, who had escaped the shafts of death
on fifty-six battle-fields throughout Europe, to fall at
length by the hand of a Russian assassin.
At this instant the multitude of rebels raised the
loud cry of "Constitution !" to which was appended
also the name of Constantine. It appears that in
Russ, the word constitoutzia or constitution has a femi
nine termination; and the ignorant multitude sup
posed that by the double phrase thus used by their
leaders, was meant Constantine and his wife !
The increasing acclamations of the multitude for
Constantine and the constitution, together with the
fall of Miloradoyitch, aroused Nicholas from the
benevolent lethargy in which, until that moment, he
seemed to have rested ; and he determined at once
to take active and extreme measures. ¦ He ordered a
charge of cavalry to break the square in which the
troops of the revolt had been formed. He hoped
that by this charge the insurgents would give way,
and the multitude, now drunk with brandy, would
retreat from the impending danger. His expecta
tions were disappointed; the rebels made a deter
mined resistance^ One of these attacked the Grand
Duke Michael in person, and would have dispatched

74 THE LIFE AND REIGN
him, had it not been for the timely protection of
some marines of the guards. The savage and despe
rate Jakoubovitch rushed forward, and struggled to
reach the person of Nicholas, determined to strike a
fatal blow. The shades of night were about to settle
down upon the lamentable scene of carnage and
confusion, without any decisive result having been
achieved-by either side. Nicholas saw the necessity
of taking more active and determined measures. He
ordered the cannon to be brought into the Great
Square, whose white vesture of snow had already be
come tinged with blood. The command to fire on
the insurgents was immediately given, and a deluge
of shot was sent into the thick mass of living flesh.
The effect was terrible. Discharge followed after
discharge. Hundreds of dead and wounded soon bur
dened the wintry earth ; and the rest began in terror
and confusion to make their escape from the im
pending havoc. The retreating multitude fled in a
tumultuous torrent to the Bassili Ostroff, an island
on the opposite side of the frozen Neva, near the
English quay. The pursuit continued down the
long street of Galernaia, and in the by-streets. The
pathway of their retreat was covered with dead
bodies. At length the pursuit was stopped, and a
thousand killed and wounded, and eight hundred

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 75
prisoners, testified to the fury and desperation of the
conflict. At six o'clock in the evening of this memorable
day, Nicholas returned to the Winter Palace. He
had dared the most imminent danger, had exhibited
the utmost intrepidity, and had achieved a decisive
victory over a powerful and dangerous conspiracy.
From that moment he was seated securely on his
throne. The power of revolt was crushed. Hence
forth his sceptre of empire was undisturbed; and a
glorious destiny began to open wide its enchanting
vistas of fehcity and renown before him. Such, at
least, were then the prognostications of short-sighted
humanity.

76 THE LIFE AND REIGN

CHAPTER VH.
DEATH OF MILORADOVITCH — TE DEUM CHANTED — ARREST OF THE
LEADING CONSPIRATORS — TROUBETSKOI — THE SOLDIERS TAKE THE
OATH OF ALLEGIANCE TO NICHOLAS  PRINCE TCHERNYCHEFF — COM
MISSION APPOINTED TO TRY THE CONSPIRATORS  NICHOLAS APPOINTS
HIS CABINET MINISTERS — THE GRAND DUKE CONSTANTINE' S LETTER
OF CONGRATULATION TO NICHOLAS I.
On entering the palace after these perilous scenes,
Nicholas found the empress bathed in tears, and
trembling with terror. She might well have been
apprehensive of the dangers which surrounded her
husband, during that awful interval of suspense ; but
his safe return happily dispelled her fears, and she
united her congratulations with that of the court,
upon his fortunate escape.
As soon as he had returned their congratulations,
he hastened to the bedside of the dying Milorado-
vitch. An affecting scene ensued. Nicholas had
arrived in time to witness the dissolution of his
ancient friend, and to receive his last sigh. He had
but one request to make, and that was, that the em
peror would provide for his only surviving relative
in the world, a widowed sister, Marie Alexieovna.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 77
Nicholas promised to do so, and afterward granted
her a pension of 10,000 rubles. He also paid all the
general's debts, and ordered his funeral to be per
formed with extraordinary magnificence. It was
attended by the whole court, and all the regiments
in St. Petersburg.
Returning after his sad interview with Milorado-
vitch to the empress, the first exclamation of the new
czar was: "What a commencement for a reign!"
His apprehensions for the future were still most
gloomy; for he could not be assured that all the
ramifications of the conspiracy had been crushed.
Later in the evening he ordered a Te Deum to be
chanted in the chapel of the palace, at which the
whole court attended. He followed up his triumph
with the necessary precautions, and ordered every
approach to the palace to be securely guarded.
Many regiments passed the night in bivouac around
huge fires, in the Great Square before the palace, the
scene of the late conflict. The Cossacks of the
Guard traversed every part of the city during the
night, to maintain order and capture the fugitives.
The next duty which devolved on the new em
peror, was the punishment of the unfortunate con
spirators. Every thing connected with the conspiracy was
revealed, through the cowardice and stupidity of
7*

78 THE LIFE AND REIGN
Troubetskoi, the Brutus, the dictator, who had
been chosen as the head and chief of the whole
movement. As soon as the revolt commenced, in
stead of appearing at the head of the troops, he
hastened to the military office, at the Winter Palace,
to take the oath of allegiance to Nicholas. A severe
nervous attack detained him for some time at that
office. As soon as he recovered from it, he has
tened to conceal himself at his sister's house. His
terrors here again overcame him, and, under the
cover of the night, he took refuge in the house of
his brother-in-law, the Count of Lebzeltern, the
Austrian representative. But while he remained
there, he forgot that he had left all his secret papers
at his own house. These papers contained the
names of the conspirators, and the details of all
their plans. No better proof of the secrets of the
conspiracy could possibly have been desired. They
carried ruin to every one who had the slightest
connection with the movement.
The agents of the police soon reached the house
of Troubetskoi, and these fatal papers were all
seized. Count Nesselrode, during the night, went
in. person to the house of the Austrian minister,
and endeavoured to persuade him to influence the
recreant Brutus to make no resistance to the will
of the emperor. His arguments proved successful.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 79
The vacillating Troubetskoi went, under the con
duct of an aide-de-camp of the emperor, to the
palace, and after a short interval was admitted to
the presence of Nicholas. At first he denied all
connection with the conspiracy. His own papers
were then shown to him. , Some of these were
written in his own handwriting ; others were signed
with his name. He was overcome by these proofs,
and, falling at the feet of Nicholas, implored his
mercy, and asked for his life. "It is granted,"
replied Nicholas ; "sit down, and write to your
wife." Troubetskoi, trembling from head to footj
sat down, and waited for the dictation of the em
peror. "Write; Iam well." This- he wrote. "My
life will be spared." Hearing these words, he hesi
tated. "Write and seal the letter," continued
Nicholas. He obeyed. The emperor then said to
him, "If you have the courage to support a life
dishonoured thus, and devoted to remorse, I grant
it you, but it is all I promise ;" and he turned away
from the craven culprit with disgust.
During the 27th of December the public tranquil
lity remained undisturbed. At nine o'clock in the
morning, Nicholas was observed to leave the palace
on horseback, accompanied by a single aide-de
camp. He rode along the lines of the troops, who
still stood to their arms in the Great Square of St.

80 THE LIFE AND REIGN
Isaac's, before the palace. He thanked them for
their fidelity and bravery; he released them from
their duty, and each company defiled before him
on their way to their quarters. He gave orders
for the issue of double rations of meat, fish, and
brandy. Their pay was also increased; and the
utmost enthusiasm prevailed throughout their
ranks. Toward those misguided regiments who had been
seduced by the conspirators, he determined to exer
cise great clemency. They had been the victims
of the false representations of their leaders,, and
they excited his pity. They had obeyed only their
duty, as they thought, in proclaiming the succession
of Constantine. The Marines of the Guards, who
willingly took the oath of allegiance to Nicholas,
he at once forgave. Their colours, thus stained by
revolt, were taken from them, and consecrated
anew. The czar then returned them with his own
hand, and said : " You have lost your honour ; seek
now to regain it !" All the other companies were
pardoned, on condition that their most active leaders
in the revolt should be given up, formed into a
single company, and sent to serve in the Cau
casus ; that they might wash away the stains which
polluted their colours, in the blood of the fiercest
foes of the Russian power and name. Thus the

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 81
soldiery were disposed of, who had been beguiled
into the conspiracy.
But a much more difficult and unpleasant task
remained, with reference to the guilty leaders and
instigators of the revolution. ' Their arrest con
tinued during the 27th and 28th of December.
The papers of Troubetskoi were the death-warrants
which sealed the fate of all. The fortress of St.
Petersburg soon became crowded with the sons of
generals, civ^l functionaries, literati, princes, and
officers. Among their number were Ryle'ieff, Rak-
hofski, ObolmsM, the Bestoujeffs, Jakoubovitch,
Troubetskoi, Pestel, Muravief, and Suwarroff, a
son of the illustrious general. These were the
heads of the conspiracy, though they were accom
panied by a vast herd of the subordinates.
Nicholas himself conducted the first examination
of some of the conspirators. It was scarcely day on
the 28th of December when he summoned Bestou-
jeff to his presence. He addressed the conspirator
in these words : " General Bestoujeff, your father,
was a faithful servant ; he has left behind him de
generate sons. Where were you on the 26th?"
"Near your person, sire; and had you shown any
weakness, I would have slain you; but you dis
played such heroic fortitude, that I could not
strike." The emperor inquired, "Who were your

82 THE LIFE AND REIGN
associates? and what were your resources?" He
answered, "Sire, such things should not be re
vealed before witnesses." Nicholas retired with
him to a private cabinet ; but the issue of the con
versation was not revealed.
Young Prince Tchernycheff, descended from one
of the most illustrious families of Russia, was among
the conspirators. Nicholas, on account of his youth,
desired to save him. "Is it possible," said the czar,
" that you have incurred this guilt ? Disavow the
principles which you have professed, and I will par
don you." Tchernycheff refused. Said he: "I
have only acted according to my conscience !" He
was afterward exiled to Irkutsk, but was pardoned
in 1829, and sent to join the army of the Caucasus,
in the ranks. Such was the heroism, the intrepidity,
displayed by some of those who had been associated
together in this abortive revolution.
The emperor immediately appointed a commission
to try the leaders of the revolt, who were now in
prison. This commission consisted of the Grand
Duke Michael, Prince Alexander Galitsin, General
Tatischtcheff, Koutousoff, Governor of St. Peters
burg, Potapoff, Benkendorff, and several others. This
commission sat for five months, and determined the
fate of one hundred and twenty persons. They
decided, after a careful investigation of all the facts,

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 83
that these hundred and twenty persons all deserved
the penalty of death. But the commission appealed
to the imperial clemency, and classed the criminals
under eleven heads, making an exception only of
five; whom they set apart in consequence of the
enormity of their crimes. These were Pestel, Ry
leieff, Muravief, Bestoujef-Rumini, and Kakhofski.
These they condemned to be quartered alive.
Thirty-one persons the commission placed in the
first category, and were sentenced to be beheaded.
The second list were condemned to banishment to
Siberia for life ; and the other classes, to penalties
less severe, in "proportion to "the enormity of their
crime. Nicholas, however, commuted these penalties to
others of a less severe character. The five persons
condemned to be quartered were hung, and the
other penalties were mitigated in proportion. On
the 25th of July, 1826, the execution of the five pre
eminent felons took place on the glacis of the for
tress of St. Petersburg. Their swords were first
broken over their heads ; their epaulettes and mili
tary decorations were thrown into the fire ; gibbets
instead -of crosses were erected over their graves,
and over the graves of the officers who had been
killed during the revolt, on the 26th.
The new czar, however, displayed his benevo-

84 THE LIFE AND REIGN
lence by giving pensions and presents to the rela
tives of the executed criminals. To the father of
Pestel he gave fifty thousand rubles. He promoted
his brother to the post of aid-de-camp in his service.
He lavished wealth on Rostoftsof, who had first
given information respecting the conspiracy. He
sent his condolence to the widow of Ryleieff. Her
reply was : "The only favour I ask of the emperor
is to share the fate of my husband."
The rope with which Muravief and Ryleieff were
hung broke, and they fell to the ground. Mura
vief exclaimed, "Li this cursed country they don't
even know how to hang a man !" Ryleieff rephed,
"Decidedly nothing succeeds with me; not even
hanging." Such was the courageous indifference
displayed by some of the conspirators, to their hor
rible fate.
One of the first acts of Nicholas, after the sup
pression of the conspiracy, was to publish a mani
festo, and appoint his cabinet officers.
In this manifesto he congratulated his subjects
on the fortunate suppression of the revolt, and the
re-establishment of peace and security. He pro
mised that the seeds of disaffection should be rooted
out of the "sacred soil of Russia." He declared
that there was a difference and vast interval be
tween a rational desire for improvement, and the

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 85
fury of radicalism. The one he would promote;
the other he would extirpate. He expressed his
undiminished confidence in the unchanging fidehty
and loyalty of the Russian nation.
In the selection of his cabinet ministers, Nicholas
displayed great wisdom and discretion. He ap-~
pointed the celebrated Count Nesselrode to the im
portant office of Minister of Foreign Affairs. His
family was Westphalian in its origin. He was him
self born on board an English ship in the port of
Lisbon, and he had entered the Russian service.
Hence it was that Pope Gregory XVI. said wittily
respecting him, that he represented in his person
the Quadruple Alhance. Nesselrode was pliant in
his disposition, but possessed profound diplomatic
skill, great craft and sagacity, and was a match
for Metternich and Fouche, even in their most in
tricate intrigues. He was also intimately acquainted
with the state of all the European countries. He
had long been in the service of the Russian czars,
and was familiar with all the traditions of the de
partment of foreign affairs. He had possessed the
confidence of Alexander, under whose reign he
was at the head of the department termed the
"College of the Empire."
General Tatischtcheff was appointed Minister of
War. This officer was able, upright, and laborious :

b6 THE LIFE AND REIGN
qualities of rare and sterling value. He had some
slight tendency toward reform in the government ;
but it was not so decided as to render him objec
tionable to the emperor.
To the department of Finance Count Cancrine
was designated, as being the most skilful financier
in the Russian dominions. *" He was a German by
birth; an officer of the old school, laborious, pro
foundly learned, and exceedingly accurate, and pos
sessing at the same time the highest reputation for
unflinching integrity. He was the opposite of Ta-
tischtcheff in political sentiment, and was a sup
porter of absolutism to its fullest extent. He has
been since termed, very justly, "the Colbert of
Russia." He displayed his ability in the vast im
provement which he soon introduced, into the dis
ordered and exhausted finances of Russia. He rer
tired from office in 1844, and died one year after
ward. He published an able work after his retire
ment, which will endure as a monument of his
vast financial genius.*
The emperor appointed Vice-Admiral Moller as
Minister of the Marine Department. Privy Coun
cillor Lauskoi retained the Ministry of the Interior.
The department of Public Instruction was filled
* Die CEkonomie der Menschlichen Gesellschaften, (The Economy
of Human Societies,) Stuttgardt, 1845.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 87
by M. Chischkoff, with whom M. Perofski was asso
ciated, — both of them profoundly learned men.
The appanages of the imperial household were
committed to the care of Count Gowrieff, formerly
Minister of Finance. The vast domains, of the
crown, and the interests of the serfs, were after-.
ward intrusted to the* direction of Count Paul
Kisseleff, the former governor of Moldavia and
Wallachia. In addition to the appointment of these great
officers of state, several minor promotions of in
terest were made. General Orloff, whose services
at a critical moment in the midst of the revolt of
the 25th of December,- in bringing his regiment
so quickly into line, in front of the insurgents, in
the Great Square of St. Isaac's, — the importance of
which Nicholas duly appreciated, — was promoted to
the office of Minister of Police. The cordon rouge
of the Order of St. Alexander Newski was con
ferred on General Buckendorff, Count Kemme-
rofski, ZarefsM, and Baron de Toll, all of whom
rendered important services to the czar, on the
memorable day of the revolts
In Poland, the most important province of the
Russian crown, all the staff and royal guards sta
tioned in Warsaw swore allegiance to the new czar
on the 2d of January, 1826, in the presence of the

88 THE LIFE AND REIGN
Grand Duke Constantine himself. The same day
the same oath was taken by all the ministers and
councils of the administration, by the Polish Se
nate, by the council of state, by the municipal au
thorities, and by all the commissioners and func
tionaries of government.
On the 7th of January" Constantine addressed
from Warsaw a letter to Nicholas, in which the
following sentiments occur. " Sire, I have received
with the most lively satisfaction the edict by which
your imperial majesty has deigned to acquaint me
of your happy accession to the throne of your an
cestors — of our beloved Russia. The supreme law
of the empire is the will of the sovereign whom Provi
dence grants to us. In accomplishing this will, your
imperial majesty has accomplished the will of the
King of kings, who, in events of importance, evi
dently inspires the monarchs of the earth. If I
have in any degree co-operated toward the accom
plishment of the decrees of Providence, I have only
fulfilled my duty as a faithful subject, as a devoted
brother — the duty, in short, of a Russian who is proud
of the happiness of obeying God and his sovereign."
During the progress of these events in the north,
an insurrection which had been organized by Pes
tel and Sergius Mourovieff in the southern army
of Russia broke forth. This army was under the

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 89
command of Prince Wittgenstein, and was sta
tioned on the Pruth. This revolt was easily sup
pressed by the energy and resolution of Lieuten
ants Roth and Geisman, on its first outburst,, on
the 15th of January, 1826. Immediately afterward,
the whole army of the south, consisting of 120,000
men, took the oath of allegiance to Nicholas I.
This branch of the revolt against the regular suc
cession to the throne was more- badly managed,
and displayed even more lamentable cowardice and
indecision, than that which had occurred in St.
Petersburg.

8*

90 THE LIFE AND REIGN

CHAPTER VET,
VAST MAGNITUDE OF THE EMPIRE INHERITED BY NICHOLAS I. — PER
SONAL APPEARANCE OF NICHOLAS AT THE PEEIOD OF HIS ACCESSION
 HIS INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES  GEOGRAPHICAL LIMITS OF HIS EM
PIRE — HIS MILITARY RESOURCES  HIS NAVAL FORCES — THE EFFEC
TIVENESS OF THE POLICE OF RUSSIA  REVENUES OF THE EMPIRE —
ATTACHMENT OF THE GREEK CHURCH TO THE CZARS — NICHOLAS BE
COMES THE GREAT REPRESENTATIVE OF ABSOLUTISM IN THE NINE
TEENTH CENTURY.
Among the many memorable instances recorded
in history, in which youthful sovereigns have as
cended to the possession of brilliant thrones, we
know of none which equals, in every element of
personal splendour, political grandeur, and prospec
tive glor^, that of the accession of Nicholas I.
The empire to which Charles Y. fell heir in the
sixteenth century was small in extent, and insigni
ficant in resources, compared with that of the Rus
sian czar; though at a later period, when elected
Emperor of Germany, he obtained a vast addition
to his jurisdiction, which still left him the inferior
of the Russian potentate.
Napoleon I., when his head was first graced by
the iron crown of Lombardy, possessed a power

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 91
which was, in every sense, most transient and in
secure ; and which bore in its own bosom, the seeds
and the presage of its inevitable dissolution.
The present Queen of England, the prolific Vic
toria, is a mere puppet in the hands of her minis
ters and parliaments ; and does not actually possess
as much real power as the President of the United
States. Francis Joseph, the youthful representa
tive of the ancient house of Hapsburg, is known
to be an intellectual weakling, who fears to exer
cise authority which he might possess, and who uni
formly, defers to the wiser judgment of his mother,
his cabinet, and his confessor. He is the mere
representative of a despotic power, which is secretly
usurped by other and more able hands.
It was not thus with the youthful Czar of Rus
sia who, in 1825, ascended the throne of the Mus
covite kings. In his case, there were circumstances
of superiority and splendour which rendered his
position an unequalled one, even in the long cata
logue of mighty and illustrious sovereigns. Let
us glance for a moment at the constituent ele
ments, of the transcendent power and glory of
Nicholas I.
In his person and intellect, nature had fitted him
to rule over his fellow-men, by the undeniable claim
of superior physical and intellectual gifts. The Mar-

92 THE LIFE AND REIGN
quis de Custine enthusiastically describes him as a
god, — as one intended to sway the sceptre of do
minion over commonplace mortals; and as one of
those rare instances in which a man of great talents,
had fortunately reached the very place for which
nature had pre-eminently fitted him. That Nicholas
possessed a great intellect, either of a military, po
litical, or literary character, may well be doubted.
But that he was gifted with a clear, sagacious judg-
ment, with dauntless resolution, with unwavering
perseverance, and a well-balanced mind, none will
deny who are familiar with his history. He tho
roughly understood all the details of his duties. He
knew every thing that it became so great a sove
reign to know. The machinery of government,
though not its philosophy, he clearly comprehended.
And he delighted in the exerci'se of all his preroga
tives and functions. It was, in a word, the great
aim and end, as well as the highest gratification, of
his existence, to act, to speak, and to think, as be
came a monarch ruling over the greatest empire in
the world.
To prove that such were the dimensions of the
dominion of Nicholas, let us glance at the details of-
its geographical limits. Without exaggeration, it
was the largest in -the world. Russia in Europe ex
tends from the Gulf of Bothnia and the "White Sea

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 93
on the north, to the Sea of Azoff and the Black Sea
on the south ; being about fifteen hundred miles in a
straight line from its northern to its southern limits.
It extends from the Ural Mountains and the Volga
on the east, to Posen and Silesia on the west; being
twelve hundred miles from the one boundary to the
other. It comprises fifty-four different governments,
each having their capital cities and separate juris
diction, subject only to the central' government at
St. Petersburg. It comprises one-half of the terri
tory of the Continent of Europe ; and it is thickly
populated throughout nearly its whole extent.
But the dominion of the czars does not terminate
here. Russia in Asia extends from the Ural Moun
tains, the boundary between Europe and Asia, to
Kamskatka, the most eastern country of Asia ; and
sweeping across the whole of the northern half of
the latter continent, for twenty-five hundred miles,
comprises a territory equal in extent to the whole of
China. Thus the mandate of Nicholas, seated on
his despotic throne at St. Petersburg, was obeyed
with the most obsequious submission, from east to
west, throughout a continuous area of four thousand
miles ! His subjects were sixty-five millions in num
ber. His jurisdiction extended actually over one-
seventh of the whole surface of the habitable globe !
The military resources of the czar were equally

94 THE LIFE AND REIGN
great. The active army of Russia consists of two
hundred and eighty-eight battalions, containing one
thousand men each. The army of reserve on the
peace establishment consisted of seventy-two thou
sand men. Thus, under ordinary circumstances,
when Russia was not engaged in active hostilities
with a foreign nation, her standing army contained
about five hundred thousand men; for in addition
to the numbers just named, there must be added one
hundred and forty-six regiments of Cossacks, num
bering one hundred and twenty thousand. _When
the present war against Turkey was proclaimed,
Nicholas ordered an additional levy of three hundred
thousand men; thus making the whole military
force of the empire, including the naval arm of the
service, amount to one million of men, at the com
mencement of the present struggle in the East.
With this prodigious force at his command, it is not
singular that the haughty czar indulged the belief,
that he had but to stretch forth his hand and grasp
the sceptre and the crown of Constantinople with
facility. The efficiency of the military force of the czar is
evinced by the fact, that his soldiers are the picked
men of Europe and of Asia. Cameron, an English
writer who witnessed a grand review of the army,
describes the men as presenting a formidable ap-

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 95
pearance. There were powerfully built cuirassiers,
sinewy Hulans, light and active hussars, gigantic
grenadiers, agile riflemen, mail-Clad Circassians,
and barbarous-looking Cossacks ; — all, combined to
gether, forming an army of unequalled power and
effectiveness. The naval force of Russia is also one of great
strength. It musters, in time of peace, fifty-five
ships of the line and thirty heavy frigates, which are
manned by fifty thousand seamen. This force is
divided into two great squadrons — the Baltic fleet,
and the Black Sea fleet. It is commanded by, sixty-
three admirals, seventy-two captains of the first rank,
and eighty of the second.
While the czar commands this prodigious force to
assist in the external security of his dominions, his
police establishment is tha largest, the most power
ful, and the most adroit, in the world.
In Russia, the police establishment is divided into
two separate sections. The first is the political or
high police. To this we, in republican America,
have fortunately no counterpart. The second di
vision is the civil or municipal police.
Superintended by the minister of police at St.
Petersburg, the high police forms one of the most
extraordinary institutions which the mind can con
ceive. Its agents are innumerable, and their num-

96 THE LIFE AND REIGN
bers are expressly kept concealed. They are to be
found actively employed not only throughout Russia,
but even throughout Europe. It would be perfectly
useless for the subjects of the czar to attempt to re
lease themselves from the surveiUance of this secret
power in any quarter of the globe. Their eyes are
open, their ears are attentive, their scrutiny is close
and severe, in every land ; and they continually de
spatch, to the great centre of their association at St.
Petersburg, narrations of all that they see and hear
and know. A Russian traveller who has visited, for
purposes of pleasure, business, or instruction, remote
quarters of the globe, is astounded on returning to
St. Petersburg to find a report of all his conduct
during his absence there before him. These politi
cal police dress in various ways, and assume different
disguises; and are even sometimes seen as bare
legged ballet-dancers in the theatres of the great
cities of Western Europe. "I have with my own
eyes," says a Trench writer, "in February, 1848,.
seen one of their well-known agents going all over
Paris, with an enormous trace of red wool at his
button-hole, in an attire which the most disorderly
conspirator would have commended." Often the
imprudent Russian has been tempted, when in the
arms of some fair and frail nymph, to give utterance
to his political heresies ; and together with his gifts

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 97
of gold and jewels, to impart his political discontents
to his fascinating charmer. The next thing he
knows is, that he is betrayed by her as an agent of
the secret political police.
The omnipresent and permeating power of this
police is only equalled l>y that of the municipal
police ; though its influence is necessarily confined
to the limits of the Russian dominions. The
municipal police carry to extremes, the vigilance
and perfidy which usually mark that branch of
the government. While professing only to detect
crimes, it pries into every domestic secret; and
there is not a family in all Russia, whose most
hidden arcana are not known, inspected, and scru
tinized by the innumerable agents of the muni
cipal police ; and, if thought to be of the slightest
importance, are immediately and secretly reported
at St. Petersburg.
It was another element of the greatness of the
power inherited by Nicholas, that his dominions
were then free from the horrors of war, as entailed
on his predecessor by the amaaing ambition of Na
poleon. His vast territories, 'at the period of his
accession, enjoyed the great blessings attendant
upon a profound peace with all the world. The
struggles through which the Russian nation had
just passed with the French adventurer, had trained

98 THE LIFE AND REIGN
them to the science of war ; but it had also taught
them to appreciate the inestimable blessings of
peace; and, for ten years, they had carefuUy an^
industriously husbanded all their, resources, and
enjoyed, in consequence, an unusual share of com
mercial prosperity. The financial condition of the
vast empire of Nicholas was a favourable one. The
revenues of the state, at the period of his accession,
were far greater than they had ever been at any
previous period.
In the reign of Peter the Great the revenue of
the Russian government was 60,000,000 rubles.*
In 1770, under Catherine H., the revenue was
150,000,000 rubles. Under Alexander I., it was
200,000,000. Under Nicholas I., the revenue
amounted to 500,000,000. Before the present war
in the East began, the Russian pubhc debt was
320,000,000 rubles; and the surplus in the trea
sury, over the annual expenditures of the govern
ment, promised soon to wipe away that incum
brance, which had been entailed by the wars of
Napoleon. Thus not only was the .bankruptcy of
the empire an impossible thing ; but the czar could
regard himself and his dominions as being in a
state of unusual financial prosperity.
* A ruble is about sixty cents of our currency.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 99
In addition to all these elements of strength it
is necessary to add, that Nicholas possessed the
support of the Greek Church, and the hierarchy in
all their various grades. The ecclesiastics of Rus
sia are dependent for their incomes directly upon
the throne. From the great archimandrid of St.
Petersburg down to the lowest sub-deacon and
sacristan, all derive their salaries from the govern
ment. This, of course, makes them the obse
quious servants of the crown, and especially where
the sovereign took special measures — as did Nicho
las — to proclaim to the world that he was a faith
ful son of the Holy Orthodox Greek Church; the
enthusiastic support tendered him by the hierarchy
became an engine of immense power. The priest
hood naturally exercised vast influence over an
ignorant and bigoted populace; and the subser
vient churchmen willingly taught their innumera
ble dupes, to regard the pious czar as the head of
the church on earth, as the representative of God
himself, and even, in some measure, as an infe
rior divinity ! *
In a word, Nicholas I. represented, in his own
person, the great aggressive and conservative
power of our time. After the downfall of Na
poleon, he became the head and leader of the
despotic powers of Europe, and the great repre-

100 THE LIFE AND REIGN
sentative of absolutism in the nineteenth century.
Metternich, Louis Philippe, Guizot, even Windisch
gratz, Jellachich, and Haynau, were indirectly his
agents and subordinates, in the great and infa
mous work of rolling back the advancing tide of
human freedom. In this age of progress, one
man thought himself powerful enough to suppress
the upward tendencies of the whole world, and that
man was Nicholas I.
The absolute nature of his power in his own
dominions can scarcely be credited. He was the
political colossus of Europe — a colossus that was
not only powerful, but untrammelled, and free. He
possessed the absolute control of life and death over
his subjects. By a single nod, he could enfran
chise and disfranchise them. By a single word,
he could raise them from poverty to opulence, and
degrade them from opulence to poverty again.
His iron will, unrestrained by a single restriction
or guarantee, could inflict the horrors of Siberia,
the agonies of the knout, and the penalties of in
famy and dishonour, upon any unfortunate being
who might incur his displeasure.
Such a power, intrusted to the hands of one
frail mortal, is fearful to look upon ! And to us,
free-born republicans, who acknowledge no man on
earth as master, its possession seems to be a most

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 101
execrable and detestable outrage on humanity!
And the truth of this conviction will be evinced,
when, at a later stage of our history, it becomes
our duty to. relate how the insane and haughty
ambition of this single man, threw Europe into a
most dangerous, ruinous, and expensive war, and
caused the death and the misery of several millions
of his fellow-creatures.

9*

102 THE LIFE AND REIGN

CHAPTER LX.
CORONATION OF NICHOLAS I. — THE VAST CROWDS OF PERSONS AS
SEMBLED IN MOSCOW FROM VARIOUS COUNTRIES  DESCRIPTION OF
THE KREMLIN  THE IMPERIAL PROCESSIONS  THE IMPOSING CERE
MONIES IN THE CATHEDRAL OF THE ASSUMPTION  THE MANIFESTO
PUBLISHED BY NICHOLAS AFTER HIS CORONATION  THE CONTINUED
FESTIVITIES, BALLS, AND MASQUERADES IN MOSCOW  CONGRATULA
TIONS THROUGHOUT THE EMPIRE.
Such were the powers and the prerogatives to
whose possession Nicholas I. had fallen heir. For
various reasons, the important ceremony of his
coronation was postponed for some months. At
length this imposing ceremony took place at
Moscow, on the 3d of September, 1826, amid
such pomp and splendour as to have exceeded
any thing recorded in the previous history of the
nation. Nicholas, together with the empress, the
empress-mother, and their suites, had arrived at
Moscow some three weeks before. They had
taken up their residence at the ancient castle and
palace of the Kremlin; and the interval between
their arrival in Moscow and the ceremony of coro
nation, had been occupied by various festivals, both

wmm 1 1

The Coronation of Nicholas at Moscow.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST.

103

religious and social, which gave the occasion the
gay appearance of a general carnival.
This august occasion had drawn together to
Moscow, as to a common centre, representatives
of all the various races which were subject to the
powerful sceptre of the czars, as well as from many
other countries of Europe and of Asia. The streets
of the city were crowded with a vast and hetero
geneous multitude, amounting to 350,000 persons,
although the usual number of its inhabitants was
only half as great. Various regiments of soldiers,
amounting to 50,000 men, were stationed in and
around the city, and mixed, together with its numer
ous visitors.
First, St. Petersburg had sent a large and splen
did delegation ; all the greatest families of that
city being then represented at Moscow. The
whole corps diplomatique at the Russian court had
transferred themselves from the modern to the
ancient capital. Even the Pope himself had ho
noured the sovereign and the occasion, with the
presence of a nuncio of high rank. There were to
be seen great ambassadors from the monarchs of
the remotest countries of Asia, — from the King of
Siam, from the Emperor of China, from the Grand
Lama of Thibet, from the Great Khan of Tartary,
together with their suites ; — sent to congratulate the

104 THE LIFE AND REIGN
czar on this happy occasion ; but speaking in un
known tongues, and wearing the strange yet mag
nificent costumes of oriental climes. The bold
warriors of the Caucasus were there, sent by the
illustrious Shamyl, at that time the friend and ally
of the Russian power. There were to be seen, ar
rayed in the peculiar costumes of their native lands,
representatives from Mongolia, from the boundless
steppes of the Caspian, from the base of the Ural
Mountains. There, conspicuous among many others,
was Prince Sartai, Lord of the Middle Horde, who
dwelt near the Sea of Aral ; — a' potentate, ignorant
and contemptuous of European manners and civiliza
tion ; but wearing an Oriental dress of gorgeous
splendour, glittering from head to foot with dia
monds of untold value ; and proudly bearing in his
veins the blood of the immortal Ghengis Khan.
There, were representatives from the banks of the
Volga; rude Cossacks from the Don; the perse
cuted, yet unconquerable Pole ; the rich boyard of
Wallachia and Moldavia, the beautiful Georgian,
the graceful Circassian, — still the unwavering ad
herents of the False Prophet ; — the supple Greek,
and even the dwarfish and skin-clad Greenlander; —
all were there, to represent remote, unique, and re
markable races of men, in that general and joyful
assemblage of nations.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 105
The ceremony of the coronation of Nicholas was
to take place in one of the great cathedrals of the
Kremhn. This ancient and stupendous monument
of the power and resources of the former czars of
Muscovy, consisted of a vast assemblage of for
tresses, palaces, and churches, forming a city within
themselves. Many of its edifices had been blown
up and ruined, at the period of the invasion of Na
poleon ; but these rude ravages of war had since
been repaired, and the Kremlin had been restored
to its pristine splendour.
The interior space or square of the Kremlin is
occupied by three immense palaces, several con
vents and monasteries, and four magnificent cathe
drals. The palaces are the Ancient Palace of the
Czars, then occupied by the Holy Synod, the Angu
lar Palace, and the New Palace, in which Nicholas
and his suite were entertained. The cathedrals
were those of St. John, in the centre, surmounted
by the vast and lofty spire of Ivan ; in the different
stories of which, were chimes of bells amounting, to
thirty-two in number. The Cathedral of the Annun
ciation was adorned with nine elegant gilt cupolas,
exhibiting more of Asiatic than of European archi
tecture. The third was the Cathedral of St. Michael ;
and the fourth, the largest and most magnificent of
all, was that of the Assumption. It was in this

106 THE LIFE AND REIGN
edifice that the imposing ceremony of the corona
tion of the emperor and empress was to take place.
At sunrise on the 3d of September the great bells
of the Cathedral of St. John announced, to the ex
pectant multitude, the dawning of that illustrious
day ; and immediately the welcome signal was re
sponded to by the bells of the city, whose melo
dious sounds were instantly wafted, from every
quarter, to the turreted heights of the Kremhn.
The imperial cortege passed in three different pro
cessions, from the New Palace, to the Cathedral of
the Assumption.
At ten o'clock the first procession commenced to"
move. It was headed by the empress-mother, wear
ing a crown on her brow, and robed in the imperial
purple. She advanced under a magnificent canopy.
She was followed by the Grand Duchess Helena,
magnificently arrayed, and sparkling with jewels.
Next came Prince Charles of Prussia, leading by
the hand the youthful Grand Duke Alexander, then
the heir-apparent, now the successor, of him who
was that day to be crowned. Last of all came the
princes of the "Wurtemberg family, of Hesse-Hom-
bourg, the Austrian ambassador, and their respect
ive suites.
In the second procession, which soon followed,
were borne, by the great officers of the crown, the

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 107
insignia of sovereign authority, including the two
crowns, the sceptre, the globe, the standard of the
imperial eagle, the, imperial purple, the mantle, and
the other ornaments intended for the empress.
These were carried, in great state, to the Cathedral
of the Assumption; and on their arriving at the
gates of the church were received by the priests,
enveloped with incense, and carried by them to the
high altar.
At eleven o'clock, the third procession came forth
from the palace, headed by the emperor in person.
He was arrayed in a brilliant uniform, and walked
under a canopy borne by sixteen generals of divi
sions. He was bareheaded, and on either side of
him were the Grand Dukes Constantine and Mi
chael. Next foUowed the Empress Alexandra,
dressed in a robe of silver gauze. She was followed
by her ladies of honour, by eminent persons in the
state, and was supported by General de Sacken
and Prince VolkonsM. The Council ofjthe Empire,
the cabinet ministers, the senators, and high mili
tary officers, the professors of the University of
Moscow, the Chief of the Corporation of Merchants,
and the municipal authorities of the city, then fol
lowed. The clergy, headed by the venerable Archiman
drid Seraphim, who was entirely arrayed in gold,

108 THE LIFE AND REIGN
advanced from the gates of the cathedral to meet
the emperor. He bore a jewelled cross in his hand.
He was supported on either side by the Metro
politan of Kief, and by the Archbishop of Moscow.
Having met the imperial procession, the archi
mandrid extended the "vivifying cross" to Nicholas
to kiss ; the Archbishop of Moscow made a short
address ; and the Metropolitan of Kief sprinkled
him with holy water.
Haying entered the temple, Nicholas advanced
and took his seat upon. a throne, on the right of the
sanctuary, under a brilliant canopy." The empress-
was conducted to another throne, to the right of her
imperial consort. The rest of the procession were
distributed in appropriate places throughout the
edifice. The cathedral was crowded to excess, by
a devout and serious multitude. Prominent were
the clergy, arrayed in their most splendid robes.
Officers in glittering uniforms were everywhere to
be seen; and fair women, decked in their most
bewitching smiles and elegant toilets, added their
fascination to the brilliant scene. The throne on
which Nicholas sat was called the throne of diamonds,
being literally studded with precious stones. The
throne of the Empress Alexandra was of gold,
inlaid with rubies, pearls, and turquoises.
The solemn service at length began, and seraphic

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST.. 109
music swelled through the lofty domes of the cathe
dral, chanting the sublime liturgy of the Greek
Church. The chanting being ended, Seraphim ad
vanced toward the emperor, and said, "Most pious
and great Lord, our Emperor, and Autocrat of all
'the Russias! Since by the will of God, and by
virtue of your command, you are now to be anointed
with the holy oil, and you are here to be crowned,
does it please you to make a profession of the Ca
tholic orthodox faith?" The emperor assented;
and Seraphim then repeated the apostles' creed,
followed by the monarch.
The imperial ornaments were then brought. Ni
cholas received them from the Archbishop of Mos
cow, repeating, "In the name of the Father, the
Son, and the Holy Ghost." He placed the crown
on the emperor's head ; vested him with the purple
mantle ; placed the sceptre in his light hand, and
the globe in his left. Various religious services
then followed, of great solemnity and magnificence.
Seraphim then approached the emperor, and said,
" Thou art crowned of God, thou whom he has fa
voured with his gifts, and adorned with his grace,
most potent autocrat of all the Russias ; receive the
symbols of supreme power which the Most High
has given thee, to govern thy people, and secure to
them every desirable felicity." The empress was
10

110 THE LUE AND REIGN
then arrayed in the imperial purple, a smaUer crown
was placed upon her head, by the emperor, and on
her neck was suspended the collar of St. Andrew.
The religious services were then resumed. The
Metropolitan of Novogorod preached a sermon.
The solemn and sublime melody of the Greek ser
vice, executed only by human voices, followed the
discourse. The Archimandrid Seraphim then be
stowed his benediction on the sovereigns and on
the people ; and the various dignitaries, civil, mili
tary, and ecclesiastical, began to approach the
throne of the czar successively, to tender to him
their profound and respectful homage. When the
empress-mother approached her son to offer him her
congratulations, he advanced and supported her in
his arms ; for her emotions had overcome her, and
she would have fallen to the ground. The scene
was one in the highest degree impressive and
affecting. All the orders of the state and the foreign am
bassadors, having in turn offered their homage to
the czar, the archimandrid again blessed the vast
assemblage ; and while the sublime strains of the
"Gloria in Excelsis" were reverberating through the
temple,, the emperor and attendants arose, and re
turned back in the same order in which they had
entered the church, to the New Palace of the Czars.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. Ill
That night Moscow was brilliantly illuminated.
The white walls of the Kremlin were adorned with
stars and luminous festoons, which also decked
the spires of the cathedrals even up to their taper
ing summits. The vast banqueting rooms of the
Kremlin were filled with guests. The whole city
gave itself up to festivity and joy. For fifteen days
after the coronation, these festivities, balls, and
parades continued. Nicholas published a mani
festo, in which he proclaimed his son Alexander,
the present czar, his successor. He conferred
orders and dignities on his most deserving sub
jects. He extended pardon to many who were
imprisoned; and he gave the surest presage of a
prosperous and fortunate reign, which the uncer
tainty of all human affairs can be supposed to
allow, in the universal joy and congratulations of
his subjects, and in the contentment with which
they acknowledged- the supremacy of the power^
thus established over them.*
* Vide M. Ancelot's Six Mois en Russie, p. 375, et seq.

112 THE LIFE AND REIGN

CHAPTER X.
THE ACCESSION OF NICHOLAS RECOGNISED BY THE COURTS OF EUROPE —
NICHOLAS DECLARES WAR AGAINST PERSIA  PREPARATIONS OF THE
SHAH  ABBAS MIRZA  PASKTEWITZ, APPOINTED TO THE COMMAND OF
THE RUSSIAN ARMIES — BATTLES BETWEEN THE RUSSIAN AND PER
SIAN FORCES  THE SHAH SUES FOR PEACE — THE TERMS IMPOSED BY
NICHOLAS — THEY ARE ACCEPTED BY THE SHAH — TREATIES BETWEEN
RUSSIA AND TURKEY.
On the return of Nicholas to St. Petersburg,
after the ceremony of his coronation, he was waited
on by ambassadors extraordinary from all the courts
of Europe, for the purpose of congratulating him
on the celebration of that event. Among the num
ber of these was the Duke of Wellington, the re
presentative of His Britannic Majesty. During the
interviews between him and Count Nesselrode, it
became apparent that the youthful czar did not
inherit the peaceful sentiments of his predecessor;
but that his mighty hand was already beginning to
draw the dark clouds of aggressive and unprin
cipled war, over the troubled horizon of the East.
In fact, no sooner was Nicholas firmly seated on
his throne than he commenced one of the most

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 113
remarkable reigns recorded in history; one de
voted entirely to two great objects. The first was
the perfecting of all the details of despotic govern
ment in his own vast dominions; and the second
was the aggrandisement of his power by diplomacy,
and, where diplomacy failed, by all the horrors of
unprovoked invasion and war. This unchanging
policy began, as we shall narrate, in 1826, and was
continued by Nicholas for thirty years without ces
sation, until the period of his death.
The new czar having returned to his capital, his
first public official act was to declare war against
Persia. A man as sagacious as Nicholas could not be
without specious pretexts for this unwarrantable
act. Although a treaty then existed between the
two nations, and nominal amity, there was no real
confidence or good feeling. It will have been
observed that, among the many representatives of
various countries who were present at Moscow, at
the coronation of Nicholas, there were none from
Persia and Turkey.
The absence of this act of adulation on the part
of the Shah was one ground for offence. The other
was as follows. On the 26th of October, 1813,
Alexander I. had concluded the treaty of Gulis-
10*

114 THE LIFE AND REIGN
tan with the Shah of Persia ; one of the ambigu
ous conditions of which was, that either of the two
contracting parties should have the right to en
large its territorial possessions, according to cir
cumstances, on condition that they indemnified the
party injured.
By virtue of this singular stipulation, Nicholas
proceeded to occupy the coast of Lake Goktcha;
and he offered to Persia, by way of indemnifica
tion for this aggression, the territory wliich lies
between the rivers Capunaktchay and the Tchudof.
This exchange the Shah refused to accept, inas
much as the one province was no equivalent for
the other.
Receiving information that the Shah resisted this
new arrangement, Nicholas declared war against
him on the 28th of September, 1826. He imme
diately ordered immense bodies of troops to march
toward the Persian territory, and hostilities began
at once. The Khan of Talychyn attacked the Rus
sian garrison of Erivan, took the place by storm,
and massacred the troops. Abbas Mirza, the heir-
apparent to the Persian throne, invaded the pro
vince of Elizabethpol with an army of fifty thou
sand regular troops. On his approach, the Mussul
man tribes of the Caucasus, who hated the Russian
yoke, rose and joined his standards.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 115
' A battle was fought between the vanguard of
the Persian army, and the Russian forces under the
command of General Madatof, on the 14th of De
cember, in which the Persians were defeated, and
the Russians took possession of the town of Eliza
bethpol. On the 21st of December, General Pas-
kiewitz advanced with the main portion of the Rus
sian army, and a great battle was fought between
them and the Persian troops under Abbas Mirza, on
the banks of the river Djeham. After a desperate
conflict the Persians were again defeated, and they
then repassed the Araxes.
General Paskiewitz was now appointed com
mander-in-chief of the Russian forces in Persia,
in place of Vermoloff ; and Benkendorf succeeded
Madatof in the command of the vanguard. In
April, 1827, another great battle was fought be
tween the Persian army, commanded by- Abbas
Mirza, and the Russians under Paskiewitz; in
which, notwithstanding the desperate valour of the
Persians, and their superhuman exertions, they were
again defeated by the superior discipline of the
Russians, and by their more effective and power
ful artillery. 'In this battle of Bulak, the Russians
captured the celebrated "victorious standard" of
Persia; and, in July, 1827, so completely had the
skilful manoeuvres of Paskiewitz hemmed in his

116 THE LIFE AND REIGN
foe, that his troops surrendered at last as prison
ers, though their commander escaped.
Other serious disasters followed on the side of
the Persians. They besieged Etchmiadzin, but on
the approach of Paskiewitz were compelled to raise
the siege. Another Persian army, under Sardar
Abbas, surrendered to the Russians after another
signal defeat. On the 13th of October Erivan was
occupied by the Russian army, after a siege of six
days. On the 25th, the city of Tauris was com
pelled to capitulate, and soon after Abi-jar-kan fell
into the hands of the triumphant invaders.
This remarkable series of prodigious successes
compelled the Persians humbly to sue for terms of
peace. It was hopeless and ruinous on their part,
to continue the struggle against a power so supe
rior as Russia was to Persia. It may readily be
supposed, that the demands set forth by Nicholas,
when he found his late foe a suppliant at his feet,
were sufficiently exacting and rigorous.
He demanded, as the price of peace, that the pro
vinces of Erivan and Nukchivan should be ceded
to the Russian crown ; and that Persia should pay
twenty millions of silver .roubles as an indemnifi
cation for the expenses of the war.
Hard as these conditions were, the Shah was com
pelled, after three months' delay, to accept them. On

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST.

117

the 22d of February, 1828, the treaty was signed at
Turkmantchai. The provinces thus ceded to Russia,
were large and valuable. They included the vast
fortifications of Erivan and Nukchivan. The sacri
fice made by Persia was immense; but necessity
compelled her to submit to the iron hand of the
conqueror. The abilities displayed by General Pas
kiewitz during this campaign, contributed essen
tially to the success of the Russian arms. He was
splendidly rewarded for his services by the gratified
emperor. He received a million of rubles in money,
and the title of Prince of Erivan.
The spirit of unprincipled aggression which cha- -
raeterized the conduct of Nicholas during this war
is seen from the following incident. In the pro
vince of Nukchivan, on the left bank of the Araxes,
is the fortress of Abbasabad, constructed by a French
engineer in the service of Abbas Mirza. Not con
tent with the fortress, Nicholas demanded possession
of an unfinished work intended for a fete-du-pont on
the opposite bank ; which he represented as a part of
the fortress, although no bridge had yet been con
structed across the river. The Persian plenipoten
tiary having ceded this unfinished work, the con
cession was made the ground of another demand
still more unjust. It was contended that the fete-du-
pont required an esplanade; and the segment of a

118 THE LIFE AND REIGN
circle with a radius of two miles was demanded, and
at length granted, for that purpose, on that bank of
the river which remained in the possession of Persia!
By this treaty of Turkmantchai, Persia was bound
to another ignominious stipulation ; which was, that
she was not to maintain any fleet on the Caspian;
and that Russia was to possess the exclusive right
henceforth' to continue her navy in that sea. The
treaty affirms that this prescriptive right Russia had
possessed ab antiquo ; — an antiquity which extended
for the space, of thirteen years back, until the treaty
of Gulistan, in which, it is affirmed, that right of
Russia had been first ambiguously asserted and
recognised. Thus concluded the first war in which
Nicholas was engaged, — one in which he had been
signally triumphant, and had compelled the suc
cessor of the ancient Cyrus and Darius, to make the
most ignominious concessions, and to endure the
most ruinous exactions.
His relations to Persia being thus settled, Nicholas
next turned his attention to the affairs of Turkey.
On the 4th of April, 1826, before his departure
from St. Petersburg, the Duke of Wellington, in
behalf of the king of England, signed with Count
Nesselrode the first protocol in reference to the
affairs of Greece ; and that protocol eventually led to
the consummation of two important treaties. The

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 119
one of these was the convention of Akerman, by
which the sultan bound himself to the czar, to grant
to the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia, all
the rights promised them in the hatti-sheriff of 1802;
to satisfy the private claims of Russian subjects on
the Turkish government; to allow the most perfect
liberty to Russian commerce in the Black Sea, and
in the Mediterranean ; and that Turkey should give
up all pretension to the various forts conquered by
the Russians beyond the Caucasus in the former war.
The. other treaty made was between England,
France, and Russia. By it the mediation of France
and England was proposed between Russia and
Turkey, and it was determined, that if within a
month the sultan had not accepted this uncalled-for
intervention, the three powers would at once take,
the affairs of Greece into their own hands, and esta-.
blish the independence of. that country of the rule.
of the sultan.
The sultan regarded the proclamation of that
treaty as equivalent to a declaration of war ; and he
began immediately to repair the fortifications of
Constantinople. A great naval battle was soon
fought between the belligerents, at Navarino, in
which England .crushed the fleet of the sultan. In
so doing, his Britannic majesty was only acting as
the tool of Russia, and promoting the aggrandize-

120 THE LIFE AND REIGN
ment of the czar; inasmuch as the destruction of
the fleet of the sultan rendered Nicholas the undis
puted master of the Black Sea. The English and
French cabinets discovered the game which was so
adroitly played by Nicholas, when, after the battle
of Navarino, Nicholas proposed that the Russian
armies should occupy Moldavia and WaUachia in
the name of the three powers; and even march
upon Constantinople and dictate terms of peace
under the very walls of the Seraglio. To this in
terested proposition the two duped powers refused
to accede. Then it was, that the crafty Nicholas
boldly declared, that in the manner of executing the
treaty of London between the three powers, Russia
would consult her own interests and convenience;
and would henceforth act independently of the
advice and co-operation of her ahies. So much
faithlessness did Nicholas already display, in the
execution of solemn treaties, even with Christian
and friendly powers!

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 121

CHAPTER XL
NICHOLAS DECLARES WAR AGAINST THE SULTAN — HE VISITS IN PERSON
THE ARMY STATIONED ON THE PRUTH — ATTACK OF THE RUSSIANS
ON SHUMLA  THEIR DEFEAT  THEY CAPTURE VARNA — MENCIIIKOFF—
CAMPAIGN OF 1829 — ENERGY OF GENERAL DIEBITSCH — THE CAPTURE
OF SILISTRIA BY THE RUSSIANS — THE MARCH ACROSS THE BALKAN
MOUNTAINS — SIEGE OF ADRIANOPLE — SINGULAR IMBECILITY OF THE
TURKISH GENERALS — MEMORABLE TREATY OF ADRIANOPLE.
In truth, Nicholas was only seeking for a plausi
ble pretext to justify an unprovoked invasion of the
territories of the sultan. He had already, at the
period of his accession, formed certain ambitious
purposes in reference to that country; and it was
now time to commence the vast work of developing
and accomplishing them.
On the 26th of August, 1828, war was declared by
Nicholas against the sultan. As an excuse for so
doing he asserted, in a manifesto published at the
same time, that the Divan had stimulated the Cir
cassians to revolt; that they had interfered with the
commerce of Russia in the Black Sea ; and that they
had endeavoured to renew the difficulties between
that country and Persia. That these reasons were
il

122 THE LIFE AND REIGN
mere subterfuges, may readily be inferred, both
from the previous and the subsequent conduct of
the czar.
Immediately after the declaration of war,— the
first war which was destined to take place between
the czar and the sultan, — Nicholas determined to be
present in person in the camp of the invading army.
He repaired instantly from St. Petersburg to the
army of one hundred thousand men, commanded by
Field-Marshal "Wittgenstein, which was stationed on
the river Pruth, the dividing line between Russia
and Turkey. On leaving St. Petersburg, the czar at
tended divine service in the temple of St. Peter and
St. Paul, surrounded by the whole court; and fer
vent prayers were offered for the success of the arms
of the young monarch, against the power of the
haughty infidel, the foe, both of the throne and the
religion of the empire.
On the 7th of May, the Russian army crossed the
Pruth. Yassy and Buekharest, the capitals of Mol
davia and Wallachia, were immediately occupied;
and the two principalities placed under the military
government of Count Pahlen. General Paskiewitz,
about the same period, attacked and took the city of
Kars, together with the fortress of Poti. These
victories were followed up, on the 4th of September,
by the capture of the city of Akhalzik.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 123
The great army of the czar, under Wittgenstein,
now numbering 150,000 men, continued to advance
into the Turkish territory ; and on the 8th of June,
1828, having crossed the Danube at Satunovo, near
its mouth, it at once approached the city of Shumla.
The situation of the fortifications of this city,
placed on a high and precipitous range of rocky-
eminences, rendered their assault one of great
difficulty. Their position seems as if intended
by nature for an intrenched camp. The extent of
the works is about 8000 paces, and they were
defended by a very deep ditch. The Russians
advanced to the, attack with great confidence.
The place is approachable only through marshes
and ravines, The attack was commenced and
continued by Wittgenstein with extraordinary
fury; but he met with an unexpected degree of
fortitude and resistance on the part of the Turks.
The Russians, led on by Nicholas in person, were
brought up repeatedly to the attack, but to no pur
pose. Meantime the besieging and blockading
force began rapidly to dwindle away under the
effect of sickness and exposure to the heat. Dur
ing the months of July and August, 15,000 men
fell victims to disease and the climate. On the
10th of September, hearing of the advance of the
grand vizier with an army of 15,000 picked men for

124 THE LIFE AND REIGN
the relief of Shumla, the Russians withdrew from
that city.
They were more successful in their attack upon
the city of Varna. Menchikoff had laid siege to
this fortress with a large army on the 6th of
August. But after the forces which had at
tempted the capture of Shumla were despatched to
the assistance of the army of Menchikoff" the pros
pects and the valour of the besieged became at
once utterly hopeless. Besides, the position of
Varna was less favourable for defence, and the
works were inferior in strength, to those of the
latter fortress. But even then a successful re
sistance might probably have been made by the
Turks, were it not for the fact, that the unac
countable apathy and want of energy which were
displayed by the Turkish generals, afford satisfac
tory proof that treason and bribery had much to
do with deciding the fortunes of the day. On the
11th of October, Jussuf Pasha, the commandant of
Varna, surrendered to the Russian general; and
with this successful event, on the side of the in
vaders, the campaign of 1828 terminated.
As soon as Varna was occupied by his victorious
troops, Nicholas returned as a conqueror, crowned
with laurels and trophies of triumph, to his exult
ing capital. His whole journey, from the seat of

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 125
war, seemed like a triumphal procession; and on
his arrival at St. Petersburg, congratulations, festi
vals, and acclamations, long and rapturous, awaited
him from the obsequious inhabitants, the court, and
the diplomatic corps, who dwelt in that city.
The campaign of 1829 opened under unfavour
able auspices for Russia ; and yet it terminated, quite
unaccountably, in one of the most fortunate trea
ties—the treaty of Adrianople — which had ever
been consummated by Russia.
During the previous campaign, the czar having
been present in the camp, the commanders of the
Russian forces were placed under a most disagree
able restraint. They did not dare to refuse the
utmost obedience to the suggestions of the sove
reign ; and yet, they often were convinced that
those suggestions were unwise and imprudent.
Thus the inconsiderate haste and urgency of the
czar occasioned the loss of 1400 men, in attacking
Omar Vrione on the heights of Kurtesse ; although
the general in command strongly remonstrated
against the hazardous temerity of the attack.
No such disadvantage as this operated against
the efficiency of the Russian generals in 1829 ; and
as soon as spring opened, General Diebitsch dis
played his usual energy, in the complete reorgani
zation of the army. He was now at liberty to act
n*

126 THE LIFE AND REIGN
purely on strategic grounds. He found himself at
the head of 68,000 men; but many of these troops
were unfit for service, in consequence of the severe
suffering which they had undergone during the pre
ceding year. The greatest' difficulties were presented
in the commissariat department. Thousands of
wagons were necessary for the service of the army,
which were to be drawn by oxen. On the south
ern side of the Balkan Mountains, over which he
must pass, it was necessary to provide camels fronr.
Asia, to transport the provisions.
But the unconquerable energy of General Die
bitsch, who now held the supreme command, over
came every difficulty. On the side of the Turks
the most unaccountable apathy and inactivity pre
vailed. They neglected to repair the works of
Silistria, — damaged as they were by time, and by
the various assaults which they had withstood in
successive sieges. And yet the value of this fortress
to the Turks was incalculable.
General Diebitsch arrived before Silistria on the
17th of May, and immediately commenced a vigor
ous assault upon the works. The Turks defended
themselves with great bravery. The greatest defect
on their side appears to have been, not want of
fortitude or resolution in the soldiery, but want of
skill and military talents in their commanders.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 127
The place was finally taken by means of the vast
mining and countermining, which were successfully
conducted by the besiegers. The efforts of the
Turks to resist the approaches of the Russians, dis
played excessive want of skill in this department
of military science. Their countermines either did
not explode at all, or else they exploded at the
wrong time and place, and accomplished no good.
For six weeks, however, tlie Turks defended the
mouldering ramparts of the place ; and displayed on
'^ilhany occasions the old heroism and desperate va
lour of the Moslem warrior.
At length, however, the vigorous attacks of the
besiegers, and the want of provisions in the garri
son, overcame the resistance of the Turks ; and, on
the 30th of June, Silistria capitulated, and was
invested by the Russian army, on condition that
the garrison were to march out, in possession of
their arms and ammunition.
Having obtained- possession of Silistria, the next
step on the part of the Russians, was the pas
sage of the Balkan Mountains, which intercepted
their route toward Adrianople and Constantinople.
These ranges of mountains were spread over a vast
extent of territory, and the march across them was
several hundred miles in extent. The passes in
the mountains were frequently deep gorges, which

128 THE LIFE AND REIGN
might have been defended with great success by
the Turks, had they been disposed to exert them
selves to do so. But here again, the unaccount
able apathy of the Turkish commanders, in not
defending the passes of the Balkan, has given rise
to the powerful suspicion, that the servants of the
sultan had been bribed, by the gold of the invaders,
to facilitate their advance.
Previous to entering on this memorable march,
the Russians were compelled to meet the Turks in
one great battle. This was the battle of Kosleftcha,
fought on the 11th of July. On this occasion, Die
bitsch met the Turkish forces, under the command
of the grand vizier' in person. It was the most
furiously-contested conflict in the whole war. The
Turks rushed to the attack with prodigious hero
ism and resolution. Their onslaught on the Rus
sian lines displayed such ferocity, and determina
tion to conquer or to die, as to have recalled to
mind, the most renowned displays of Moslem va
lour in the most illustrious period of their annals.
But after a conflict of some hours, the superior
military skill of the Russian general again became
apparent, and the troops of the grand vizier, be
coming entangled in the woods -which flanked their
lines, became confused and unmanageable. The
route soon became general, and the troops of the

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 129
Turks fled on all sides, leaving their camp, their
ammunition, and the victory, in the hands of their
opponents. While these operations were going on, in the in-
' terior of the Russian territory, Diebitsch had ordered
a naval force to sail for the purpose of securing a
depSt on the Black Sea; where his troops, after
having effected the passage of the Balkan range,
might find temporary security and refreshment.
For this purpose, Simboli, a port of the Black Sea,
had been taken by a naval coup-de-main. It became
a depot for the accumulation of provisions and am
munition for the use of the Russian army, after
their passage of the Balkan, and as such, its pos
session was one of the most fortunate and valuable
events of the campaign.
The range of the Balkan Mountains had been re
garded for four centuries, as the great bulwark of
the Ottoman Empire, against the invasion of its
northern foes. It was presumed that their vast ex
tent, and the difficulties and perils which attended
the passage of an army through their numerous,
narrow, and dangerous gorges, when properly de
fended, formed a barrier and a defence, which would
preclude the possibility of a successful attack from
that quarter. The amazing apathy and ignorance
of the Turkish commanders, Hussein Pasha, and

130 THE LIFE AND REIGN
Redschid Pasha, on this occasion rendered this cal
culation fallacious. Diebitsch divided his forces
into four divisions. The first, under General Kras-
sewslri, was left to watch Shumla, the only fortress
still remaining in the possession of the Turks, north
of the Balkan ; the second, under General Roth,
was ordered to pass along the road from Varna to
Burgas ; the third, under Riidiger, was to cross the
mountains from Pravadi to Aidos ; and the fourth,
under Count Pahlen, was to operate as a reserve to
the two preceding divisions. On the 18th of July
the passage began. The soldiers marched in linen
trousers and in uniform, carrying in their knapsacks,
a single shirt and a pair of trousers, together with
provisions for ten days. All other baggage was
left behind. The Russian commander-in-chief ex
pected to meet a vigorous and perilous resistance to
his passage over the mountains ; but in this natural
supposition he was disappointed. It is true that on
several occasions, when the nature of the ground
permitted, the Turkish troops were brought into
battle against the invading army. Thus, the grand
vizier attacked the division of General Riidiger,
when they approached Aidos ; but the Turks soon
fled with the utmost precipitation, and their tents,
provisions, and ammunition, fell into the hands of
the Russians. Thus also, at Jamboli, a detachment

OF NICHOLAS ME FIRST. 131
of one thousand Russians was attacked by a Turkish
corps fifteen thousand strong; but instead of having
been cut to pieces, as they expected, they success
fully resisted their assailants, 'who eventually retired
toward Adrianople.
At length, on the 19th of August, the Russian
army, having succeeded in crossing the Balkan
Mountains with infinitely less peril and losses than
they had anticipated, were greeted with the sight of
the four lofty minarets of the Sultan Selim's Mosque,
which tower above the palaces and fortifications
of Adrianople. They approached that city as con
querors, and their presence struck terror into the
hearts of the pusillanimous and dismayed Moslems.
At the time the Russians appeared before the
walls of this city, it contained about twenty thou
sand combatants; and detachments from various
portions of the Turkish Empire were hastening to
its assistance. So much reduced by the various
casualties of war had the army of Diebitsch be
come, that, on arriving before Adrianople, and
ascertaining that relief was rapidly approaching it,
his first thought was a precipitate retreat. But
before executing this purpose, he determined to try
the effect of negotiation on the commandant of the
fortifications. He was at once astounded at the
manner in which his tenders were received. The

132 THE LIFE AND REIGN
Turks, beholding the army of the invaders en
camped in the plain around the city, after having
successfully triumphed over the perils of the Balkan,
were overcome with terror, and regarded the army
of Diebitsch as an invincible force calculated to ex
cite the utmost apprehensions. Thus, the Russian
general, by carefully concealing his weakness; by
hiding from view the fact that by sickness, and other
losses, his army had at last been actually reduced to
20,000 effective men ; by assuming the most arro
gant tone of superiority ; and by acting on the fears
and the ignorance of the Turks, succeeded, to his
own surprise, and to the astonishment- of all who
were acquainted -with the real condition and rela
tive strength of the parties, in negotiating the
celebrated treaty of Adrianople, which terminated
the war, and which won for Russia the most extra
ordinary and monstrous concessions from the re
presentatives of the sultan.
By the treaty of Adrianople, Nicholas obtained
every thing which he then thought it prudent to de
mand from the sultan. By it, he acquired Anapa
and Poti, together with a very considerable extent
of territory on the Black Sea. He obtained a por
tion of Aie pashalic of Akhilsha, together with the
fortresses -'of Akhilsha and Akhilkillae, and the pos
session of the valuable islands which stud the mouth

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 133
of the Danube. He stipulated for the destruction
of the Turkish fortress of Giurgievo ; and the total
abandonment by Turkey of the right bank of the
St. George branch of the Danube, to the distance
of several miles from the river. He attempted a
virtual separation of the provinces of Moldavia and
Wallachia from the sultan, by sanitary regulations
which were intended to append them to Russia.
He stipulated that the sultan should confirm the
internal regulations for the government of those
provinces, which Russia had established during the
period of her military occupancy of them. He con
tracted for the removal of many thousand families
of Armenians from the Turkish provinces of Asia ;
thus depopulating whole districts. He established
for Russian subjects, residing in Turkey, an immu
nity from all responsibility to the authority of the
sultan ; and burdened the latter with a stupendous
tribute, under the plea of indemnity for the ex
penses incurred by Russia in prosecuting the war.
The extraordinary terms of this treaty were dic
tated by General Diebitsch, under the immediate
direction of the czar, at a time when his army
amounted to but 20,000 effective men ; when more
than 30,000 combatants could have been mustered
to the immediate defence of Adrianople ; and when
the communication of the invading army with its
12

134 THE LIFE AND REIGN
depot at Simboli, might at any moment have been
cut off, by a little energy displayed on the part of
the Turkish commanders. In fact, so isolated in
the heart of a hostile country had Diebitsch and his
army then become, that they might have even been
totally annihilated, had the Turks not displayed the
most groundless terror, and the most absurd cow-'
ardice. That even a short period of politic delay
would have worked the ruin of the Russian forces,
is evident from the following facts. During the
campaign of 1829, before the arrival of the Russian
army before Adrianople, their losses by sickness
and death had already amounted to 60,000 men.
Only one-seventh of the original army returned to
St. Petersburg, to tell the wonderful story of their
unexpected and undeserved success. From March
to July, 1829, 28,000 deaths occurred among 81,000
troops ; and of the 6000 sick men left by Diebitsch
at Adrianople, after his retreat, 5200 died.
Yet with such facts before them, the Turkish
plenipotentiaries at Adrianople concluded a treaty,
which, under such peculiar circumstances, is with
out a parallel in history. From the terms of the
treaty it will appear, what vast concessions Turkey
made to the aggressive power and spirit of the
czar. The sultan in effect granted, as the price of
a dishonourable peace, whatever his rapacious foe

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 135
chose to demand. And with this conlusive evidence
before him of the craven weakness of the sultan,
and of his inability to contend with the encroach
ments of his northern rival, however unjust, it is
not singular that Nicholas should have termed the
sultan "the sick man;" and should have confidently
looked forward to the day, as not being very far
distant, when the triumphant and invincible eagle
of Russia should supplant the. waning crescent on
the glittering minarets of St. Sophia's mosque;
and the ancient and crumbling throne of the Con-
stantines, become an appendage to the sceptre of
the new-born majesty of the Czars.
While these events were transpiring in Turkey,
General Paskiewitz was adding new lustre to his
reputation in Asia, and extending still wider the
dominions of his master. On the 1st of July, that
general attacked the city of Erzeroum, defended by
HagM Pasha, and took it by storm. He captured
the person of that prince, together with thirty-one
pieces of cannon, nineteen standards, and fifteen
hundred prisoners. On the 5th of July he took
Hassan-Khale, the key of Erzeroum, the capital of
the province of Turkomania. These acquisitions
served still more to consolidate the power of the
czar in his Asiatic dominions.

136 THE LIFE AND REIGN

CHAPTER XH.
NICHOLAS CROWNED AT WARSAW IN 1829 — CRUELTIES OF THE GRAND
DBKE CONSTANTINE AT WARSAW — REVOLUTION BREAKS OUT AT WAR
SAW  MANIFESTO OF NICHOLAS  RADZTVIL — MANIFESTO OF THE POLES
 RUSSIAN ARMIES ADVANCE TO WARSAW  MEMORABLE BATTLE NEAR
WARSAW  IMMORTAL HEROISM OF THE POLES  VICTORY CLAIMED BY
BOTH SIDES — CHLOPICKY  TERROR IN WARSAW — DESPAIR AND DEATH
OF THE RUSSIAN GENERAL DIEBITSCH — MARSHAL PASKIEWITZ AP
POINTED TO THE. COMMAND — HE CAPTURES WARSAW, AND SUPPRESSES
THE REVOLUTION.
The proclamation of the treaty of Adrianople at
St. Petersburg was the signal for extraordinary con
gratulations and festivities in that city, and through
out the Russian dominions. But the progress of
events did not allow, at that moment, much leisure
for the indulgence of these pleasing sequents of a
triumphant peace.
In the latter part of 1829, Nicholas was crowned
at Warsaw, and opened the Polish Diet in person.
Notwithstanding the cruel aggressions of Russia on
the liberties of Poland, the Diet still retained some
slight show of freedom and power ; and the linger
ing possession of these had excited the bitter jea
lousy and hostility of the emperor. Accordingly;

jjEajfj'liiISj»!BBI,HW^

Jff
liKli ill "
Hi IE

The Storming of Warsaw by the Russians.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 137
in an address which he delivered at the opening of
the Diet, he gave utterance to some sentiments in
reference to the greater restriction of the liberty of
the press ; the publication of the discussions of the
Diet, which should be kept secret ; and defending
the cruelties which had been committed by the
Grand Duke Constantine ; all of which gave much
offence to the members of the Diet.
Just at this dangerous crisis, news was received
of the French revolution of 1830. The outrages
committed by Constantine upon every rank, sex,
and age of the unfortunate Poles, had driven their
minds to desperation; and an insurrection broke
forth at Warsaw immediately upon the reception of
the report of the movement in the French capital,
which resulted in elevating Louis Philippe — one of
the most unprincipled of men — to the throne of
the barricades. The Grand Duke Constantine was
compelled to fiee from his palace, and take refuge
among his guards. The Polish hussars seized the
arsenal. A provisional government was immedi
ately formed, at the head of which was placed
Prince Chartoriski. The command of the Polish
army was intrusted to Chlopicki, who was also
named Dictator. The Diet was then convoked for
the 18th of December, 1830.
On the breaking out of this revolution, Nicholas,
12*

138 THE LIFE AND REIGN
who had returned to his capital immediately after
his coronation at Warsaw, published a manifesto
couched in the most haughty language. "The
Poles," says he, "who after so many misfortunes
were enjoying peace and prosperity under the sha
dow of our power, precipitate themselves anew into
the abyss of revolution and calamity, are an assem
blage of credulous beings, who, although already
seized with terror at the thought of the chastise
ment which awaits them, dare to dream for a few
moments of victory, and to propose conditions to
us, their lawful sovereign." Query: Whence did
the lawfulness of his sovereignty over Poland arise ?
Answer : From the lawless aggressions and unprin
cipled usurpations of Catherine H. ; who, without
the slightest shadow of right or title, invaded the
land, and by the sheer force of greater military
power, appropriated to herself the sovereignty of a
people, over whom she had as much legal power, as
she possessed over the inhabitants of the moon!
And that title, and that alone, was the one inherited
and possessed by Nicholas himself.
But by this bold insurrection the patriots of Po
land had suddenly placed themselves in a position
of desperate danger. The most enthusiastic of
them could scarcely hope to succeed against the
Colossus of the North, so recently triumphant over

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 139
the monarchs both of Persia and of Turkey. Never
theless, having thrown themselves into the perilous
breach, they resolved to acquit themselves as be
came the patriots and the heroes that they were.
Prince Radzivil was appointed generalissimo of the
Polish armies, and Chlopicki, who had resigned
the dictatorship, assisted him in his duties.
In truth, a halo of undying glory clusters around
this last great struggle of chivalrous Sarmatia, to
recover her long-lost liberties; and to shake off
from her breast the prodigious incubus of Russian
tyranny which crushed her to the earth.* Suffer
ing, as she had done for many generations, all the
unspeakable evils of misgovernment, of foreign rule,
and of unprincipled extortion; it was natural that
an unquenchable spirit of revolt should agitate and
inflame the bosoms of her patriotic children. Once
more, therefore, the spirit of the immortal Koski-
usco seemed to animate them ; and the brave, and
the fair, and the chivalrous Poles girded themselves
again, for the last time, to the heroic task of tri
umphing over their hereditary tyrants ; or of offer
ing their lives and their fortunes, as a final sacrifice,
* The insurrection which broke out in the small republic of Cra
cow, the very title of which state was a satire upon free ^govern
ments, was no exception to the above statement ; as it was merely a
local, and not a national movement. The present was the last Polish
revolution.

140 THE LIFE AND REIGN
upon the ruined altar of their country's liberties.
The struggle was a short one, but it was desperate ;
yet it eventually resulted in the reahzation of the
worst fears of those, who most sincerely loved the
cause of Poland and of freedom.
On receiving the first information of this revolt,
Nicholas became enraged beyond measure, and dic
tated the manifesto already referred to. To con
quer the audacious Poles now became with him, no
longer simply a matter of interest or of security ; —
it became a work of vengeance, and a source of that
delicious rapture, of which triumphant tyrants alone
are susceptible, when they succeed in crushing the
inborn aspirations of all human souls, however long
and however deeply they may have been enslaved —
their eternal and unconquerable aspirations to be
free ! He immediately gave orders, in the begin
ning of February, 1831, for Field-Marshal Die
bitsch, the recent victor of Silistria and Adrianople,
to march upon Poland with an army of 120,000
veteran troops, and four hundred pieces of heavy
artillery. Immediately on the breaking out of hostilities,
the Poles had published to the world a manifesto,
in which they set forth their grievances as fol
lows:— "The union of the crown of an autocrat,
and of a constitutional king, is one of those politi-

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. ' 141
cal anomalies which cannot long exist. Everybody
foresaw that the kingdom would succumb under
the iron hand of Russian despotism. Public in
struction was corrupted; a system of obscurantism
was organized ; the people were shut out from all
means of obtaining instruction ; an entire palatinate
was deprived of its representation in the council;
the chambers lost the faculty of voting the budget;
new taxes were imposed; new monopolies were
created, calculated to dry up the sources of the
national wealth ; and the treasury became the prey
of hirelings and spies. Personal liberty was vio
lated; the prisons were crowded; court-martials
were appointed to try civil cases ; and respecta
ble citizens suffered heavy penalties for trying to
save the reputation of the nation from dis
honour." Such were some of the grievances under which
the unfortunate Poles suffered, and which once
more summoned them to arms. To oppose the
vast forces sent to crush them under Diebitsch,
they could at that time muster but 35,000 infantry
of all arms,, 10,000 cavalry, and 136 pieces of artil
lery. Some 15,"000 additional troops were dis
tributed in the garrisons of Prague, Modlin, and
Lamosc. The policy determined upon by the Russian

142 THE LIFE AND REIGN
general was, if possible, to march directly upon
Warsaw, in the expectation that the Poles, in
order to protect their capital, would hazard^ a
general engagement; and that, with their vastly
increasing numbers, they would be defeated, and
thus, by one prodigious blow, the campaign would
be advantageously concluded for Russia. Accord
ingly, on the 22d of February, Marshal Diebitsch
reached a position, having the banks of the Vis
tula on his left flank, and the Alder Forest on his
right. In front of him were arrayed the entire
Polish army, under Radzivil, waiting to contest his
advance upon the capital. Skrzynecki commanded
the centre of the Poles, supported by the regiment
of the Faueheurs; who were a body of infantry
armed with a dangerous and effective weapon pecu
Uar to Poland, resembling a scythe-blade set
straight in its handle. General Szembee com
manded the right wing, which was in possession
of the village of Grochow; and was protected by
tlie marshes of the Vistula. On the left was posted
General Zimirslo, who occupied the outskirts of the
Alder Forest.
At the early dawn, on the celebrated 25th of
February, 1831, the hostile armies beheld each
other drawn out in battle array. The occasion was
one of memorable interest for the heroic Poles.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 143
An army of 45,000 patriots stood in the stern
presence of 100,000 veteran foes. Behind the
Polish army lay their capital, breathless with sus
pense ; and awaiting with mingled hope, and terror
the issue of the conflict. A single bridge con
ducted over the Vistula, from the battle-field to
the capital ; so that, in case of defeat, it would have
been impossible for the vanquished Poles to escape
by flight the fury of the victors; The fate of Po
land hung upon that single battle; and victory was
necessary to her very existence.
Immediately before the battle began, Radzivil,
the commander-in-chief of the Polish army, sum
moned a council of war, in a log-cabin, in the
centre of his lines. In contemplating the pro
digious odds against which they were about to
contend, the bravest of the Polish leaders quailed,
and gave utterance to their apprehensions. Their
country's fate then hung upon a single cast of the
die, and the odds against them were three to<« one.
Chlopicki, the most resolute of the Polish heroes,
gave free vent to his emotions, and shed tears of
rage. Meanwhile the loud booming of cannon on
the extreme left of the Polish lines, gave evidence
that the conflict had begun, and summoned the
•generals to their respective posts.
By nine o'clock in the morning the battle raged

144 THE LIFE AND REIGN
along the whole line of the combatants. General
Diebitsch in person led on his right wing; and
made prodigious exertions to get possession of the
Alder Forest, as the key to the main position of the
Poles at Grochow. General Zimirski and his divi
sion, who opposed Diebitsch, fought with desperate
heroism, and contended inch by inch for the pre
servation of his position. Again and again he re
pulsed the advancing foe; and his heroic warriors
effected prodigious onslaughts upon the serried
ranks of the Russians. The latter recohed, but
were again led forward to the attack by General
Diebitsch in person. The Poles still spread car
nage and death among their assailants ; and daunt
less heroes seemed to rise, and fight, and perish,
for Sarmatian freedom, at every point. But at the
very moment when the victory hung undecided over
the contending hosts, General Zimirski received a
mortal wound, and was carried from the field. His
fall spread terror and confusion among his troops,
and, after a short conflict, Diebitsch succeeded in
making himself master of the forest; he planted
his artillery on its outskirts; and immediately
directed its murderous fire upon the second Jine
of the Poles, commanded by General Sjkrzyneeki.
Radzivil sent orders to the latter general to re
pulse the Russians, and retake the- forest. Chlopicki

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 145
marched to the assistance of Skrzynecki and his
division. The united onslaught of these warriors
against the position of the Russians in the forest
was terrific; and after a short struggle, the Rus
sians began on every side to give way. This was
the decisive crisis of the battle. A furious charge
of cavalry at that moment, would have decided its
fate in favour of the Poles. Chlopicki sent word
to General Lubienski, beseeching him to advance
with his troops; but, through jealousy, he refused
to obey. Chlopicki, on receiving word of this re
fusal, became frenzied with desperation, and, ex
claiming, "I will seek only for death!" dashed
forward into the midst of the enemy. His horse
was immediately shot under him, and he himself
was dangerously wounded. With difficulty his
body was recovered, and carried from the field.
The battle still raged fiercely along the whole line,
and its issue remained as uncertain as at its com
mencement. Determined to bring the conflict, if possible, to a
conclusion, General Diebitsch, about noon, ordered
up all his reserves, and renewed his attack upon
the Polish lines. Forty additional pieces of artil
lery were brought to bear upon them; and they
were mowed down with terrific onslaught, as
they stood. At length, after suffering a prodi-
13

346 THE LIFE AND REIGN
gious slaughter, Skrzynecki fell back, and aban
doned his position in the forest. Diebitsch brought
up, at this moment, 15,000 reserved cavalry, who
charged upon the retreating lines; together with
fifty-eight pieces of flying artillery. But again the
Polish heroes formed, with admirable order, in
close- ranks, and met the attack with uncon
querable heroism. The impetuous charge of the
Russian hussars and hulans, failed to break their
defiant front, — except that one battalion of new
recruits, gave way beneath the fury of the attack,
and fled over the Vistula, carrying terror into
Warsaw. Toward night, MalachowsM set fire to
the houses of Praga, and the horrors of conflagra
tion were added to the terrors of the battle
field. At length, night settled down over the ensan
guined plain, now thickly strewed with the dying
and the dead; and the cannonading gradually
ceased on both sides. Notwithstanding the vast
odds against which the Polish heroes fought, the
battle was a drawn one, and victory remained
with neither party. Such was the celebrated bat
tle of Grochow ; in which, during a whole day, the
ancient and glorious heroism of the Poles was
exerted, in innumerable instances, to win back
again to their fallen country, her lost eminence

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 147
among the nations of the earth. Five thousand
wounded and slain of the Polish army, and nine
thousand on the part of the Russians, attested the
terrific fury of the conflict. At night, General
Diebitsch retired from the field, into the Forest
of Alder; and General Radzivil recrossed the Vis
tula, and entered the gates of Warsaw, with his
heroic and unconquered troops.
A cessation of arms for a month took place
between the exhausted armies; and again, on the
1st of April, another battle between the Russian
army under Diebitsch, and the Polish under Skrzy
necki, who had' succeeded Radzivil in the supreme
command, took place at the village of Dembewilkie.
After a fierce conflict the Russians abandoned the
field, with the loss of two thousand killed, twelve
pieces of cannon, and six thousand prisoners. The
Poles lost but three hundred men. The next day
Lubienski continued the pursuit, and five thousand
more of the fugitives were captured. The battle of
Iganie soon followed, at which the Russians lost
2500 prisoners, and, in consequence of the singular
incapacity displayed by Diebitsch, met a signal and
disgraceful defeat. The spirit of Poland seemed to
have arisen and to have become invincible once
more. At Ostrolenka, on the 25th of May, another great

148 "THE LIFE AND REIGN
battle was fought between the contending hosts. At
nine o'clock in the morning, the Russian army took
its position in the plain before that town, spreading
out hke a fan and flanked by clouds of flying Cos
sacks. The usual disproportion of troops existed
between the combatants. The Poles numbered
45,000, the Russians 80,000. After another of the
most sanguinary conflicts recorded in history, the
victory was claimed by both sides; although the
Poles remained masters of the field. They had lost
7000 killed and wounded; the loss on the side of the
Russians' was 10,000.
This was the last battle in which the celebrated
Russian General Diebitsch fought. The failures
which attended his later movements in Poland in
dicate an unaccountable weakness, strangely incon
sistent with the energy and sagacity which charac
terized his conduct in Turkey. It is even supposed,
that by jealous rivals in the Russian service, he had
been so drugged, that his intellect was affected, and
his powers impaired. At any rate, after the battle of
Ostrolenka, General Diebitsch shut himself up in his
camp at Poltusk, and sank into a profound and pain
ful melancholy. He was conscious that he had lost
the favour of the stern czar, and he drowned his
chagrin in constant intoxication. He died on the
11th of June, suddenly; and his death being soon

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 149
followed by that of the Grand Duke Constantine,
both were ascribed to poison, administered by Count
Orloff, the most confidential and trusted friend of
Nicholas. Diebitsch was succeeded by Field-Marshal Paskie-
witeh, the eonqueror of Persia, in the chief com
mand of the Russian army. After some minor
movements, the particulars of which we will not
narrate, the field-marshal determined to commence a
grand assault on Warsaw, on the 6th of September,
1831. His army had just been increased by a new
levy of 30,000 men, under the command of General
Kreutz ; which force, in addition to the troops already
under his command, made the Russian army number
120,000, together with 386 cannon. The army of
the Poles, adding new recruits of all kinds, amounted
to 80,000, with 144 cannon ; but at the period of its
attack there were in Warsaw but 35,000 troops, and
136 pieces of artillery. The defences of the city
extended over an area of fifteen miles. It would
have, required an army three times as numerous as
that then in the capital, properly to man such im
mense works.
At daybreak, on the 6th, the Russians commenced
a furious attack on the fortifications with two
hundred pieces of artillery. Before beginning this
celebrated assault, Paskiewitch distributed abun-
13*

150 THE LIFE AND REIGN
dant rations of brandy to his troops, so that they
approached the works, under a state of intoxication,
The Russians first drove in the defenders of the
suburb of Wola ; and planting a hundred pieces of
artillery there; attacked the second line of the Poles.
The assault now became general. Three hundred
and fifty pieces of artillery thundered together.
Malachowski, the generalissimo of the Poles, dis
played prodigies of skill and valour. Thrice the
Russian troops in immense masses were brought up
to the attack of the second Une; and thrice the
Poles heroically repulsed the frantic and drunken
soldiers of the czar. In this defence were first dis
played the splendid talents .of General Bern, for ar-
tiUery service, — an officer afterward illustrious in the
annals of the Hungarian revolution. During this
furious charge, General Romanski, a Polish general
of ability, was slain.
The fierce conflict continued far into the night.
The Russians, with their immensely superior force,
continually pressed forward; and the heroic de
fenders of the ancient battlements of Warsaw, were
compelled slowly to rece.de. Various portions of the
city were now on fire. The battlements of Warsaw
were surrounded by a lurid and hving belt of flame,
and still the combat continued with unabated fury.
At length, having brought all their artillery to bear

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 151
upon the works simultaneously, a last grand assault
was made; and Warsaw, which had witnessed so
many immortal deeds of heroism, in defence of her
liberties, in successive revolutions, then fell beneath
the power of the great despot ; and has never since
arisen from her chains of ignominy and bondage.
On the 7th of September, 1831, the city capitulated;
the Russian army was quartered among her stately
palaces; and abject slaves thenceforth occupied the
works which had been defended by heroes, so often
and so well.

152 THE LIFE AND REIGN

CHAPTER Xm.
TF.RRIBLE VENGEANCE OF NICHOLAS I. ON THE POLES  CRUELTIES PER
PETRATED IN PODOLIA — IN WARSAW  JEWS OF POLAND — HOSTILITY
AND CONTEMPT OF NICHOLAS TOWARD THE POLISH JEWS — HISTORY
OF THE UNITED GREEK CHURCH IN POLAND  HORRIBLE CRUELTIES
INFLICTED BY NICHOLAS ON THE NUNS OF MINSK — DIFFERENT OPIN
IONS ON THE SUBJECT.
Then was tendered to Nicholas I. that exquisite
banquet of revenge, which an ancient sage declared
to be worthy of the gods ! The penalties inflicted
on the unhappy Poles by the czar, after the sup
pression of this revolution, need no colouring from
fancy to add romantic and startling horrors to the
scene. The sober reality is amply sufficient; and
were it not so, impartial history disdains to invoke
the aid of imagination, in order to paint a more
effective picture.
Nicholas immediately addressed himself to the
agreeable task of inflicting those "chastisements" to
which he had significantly referred in his manifesto
of the 24th of December previous. First, by a
ukase, he formally annexed Poland to Russia, as one
of its provinces, to become incorporated into it.

Sufferings of the Nuns of Minsk.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 153
In Podolia, one of the departments of Poland,
five hundred families composed of twenty thousand
persons were transported, merely as suspected per
sons, to the frontiers of the Caucasus, in uncultivated
and unhealthy lands, and in constant danger from
the attacks of the enemies of Russia in those moun
tains. The minister of the interior, under the spe
cial orders of Nicholas, commanded that only those
among the suspected nobles should be sent to the
Caucasus, who were able-bodied and could work.
Their children, their wives, and the aged and infirm,
were all to be left behind. Thus many families
were separated, in defiance of every instinct of hu
manity and justice. Those of the suspected nobles
who were not sent to the Caucasus, Nicholas com
manded should be enrolled among the Cossacks of
the Don.
In 1832, Nicholas undertook the entire trans
formation of society and government in Poland.
He abolished the ancient Polish division of the
country into palatinates, and substituted the Rus
sian division into governments. He altered the
system of measures and weights, from the old Po
Ush, to that in use in Russia. He changed the
calendar from the Gregorian, — which prevails
throughout Christendom, — and introduced the Ju
lian, which is still used in Russia. He attempted

154 THE LIFE AND REIGN
to efface the Polish language from the memory of
his unhappy subjects; forbidding it to be used in
the courts of justice, in the schools, and in public,
and substituting the Russian everywhere.
In March, 1832, Nicholas ordered all the poor
and orphan male children of Warsaw, from seven
to sixteen years of age, to be transplanted from
their native place into different places of exile.
Some of these poor children were not orphans ; and
the misery of the impoverished wretches, when torn
away from their relations, is described as having
been heart-rending. By this means, many of the
parish schools of Warsaw were entirely emptied.
Many perished like insects on their long and cheer
less journey. Their little bodies were frequently
found unburied along the roadside by the country-
people in strange lands.
The Jews of Poland suffered a large share of the
vengeance of Nicholas. Many of these made their
living by smuggling, and by second-hand deahDg.
An order was issued to transport this whole class to
the Caucasus. Old men, women, and children, all
departed, surrounded by hordes of savage Cossacks.
Many perished by the way"; and the husband was
hurried away from the side of his expiring wife, nor
permitted to receive her last sigh. Arrived at the
place of their destination, a conscription of their

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 155
children immediately took place. AU those six
years of age were forcibly carried off, either into the
naval or military service; and nearly all died, for
the Jew cannot exist as a soldier.
The special enmity of the czar toward the Jewish
race is illustrated by the following incident : — Once
on his passage through Riga to Warsaw, the Jews
of Riga embraced the opportunity to present him a
petition. He was just embarking in a boat on the
Dwina River, to visit Mindare. Nicholas declined
to receive the petition. The Jews in despair ex
claimed, "Where are we to go?" In reply the czar
merely pointed to the water with his finger, as if he
would have said, " Go and drown yourselves ;" at
the same time ordering the boatmen immediately to
row off !
After the suppression of the insurrection, those
chiefs and generals who had not succeeded in
escaping from Poland to Switzerland, and to other
foreign countries, were condemned and executed.
Others, who took less prominence in the revolt,
were confined as prisoners of state, for life. Vast
numbers of the unfortunate soldiery were sent as
exiles to Siberia; to spend the remainder of their
existence in its gloomy mines, without the re
motest prospect of ever beholding their country or
their kindred again.

156 THE LIFE AND REIGN
We will not describe in detail the innumerable
acts of severity and ferocity perpetrated by the
orders, or with the approval, of Nicholas, on the
fallen and unfortunate Poles. We will narrate but
one more instance, which has become too notorious
to justify our silence.
In the sixteenth century, a schism had taken
place among the members of the Orthodox Greek
Church in Poland. They renounced the supre
macy of the Russian Patriarch, and placed them
selves under the protection of the Pope of Rome.
They were called the "United Greek Church," from
their union with the Latin or Roman Church.
This schism was always regarded by the czars as
the hotbed of pohtical, as weU as of religious, re
bellion; and the members of the United Greek
Church, who had, in the progress of time, become
very numerous in Lithuania and Modern Poland,
always were regarded by the Russian monarch with
a jealous eye.
The last revolution obtained many of its most
zealous partisans among this body; and after its
suppression, excessively severe measures were
adopted, to compel them to renounce their reli
gious and political principles, and become obe
dient members of the Orthodox Russian Church.
In a great measure, by promises, by threats, and

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 157
by actual severities, the emissaries of the czar
succeeded in accomplishing their purposes. In
1839, the whole episcopal body of the disunionists
signed their recantation, and formaUy united with
the Greek Church. But this was the result of
many years of persecution and suffering. In 1833,
the most determined resistance which the propa
gandists of Nicholas encountered, was in the con
vent of Basilian nuns at Minsk; whose abbess,
Makrena, was a woman of great piety and reso
lution, and resisted to the last all the threats and
seductive promises, which could be brought to bear
upon her and her associates. They still . persisted
in their union with the Church of Rome ; in deny
ing the jurisdiction of the Russian Patriarch ; and in
denouncing the tyranny of the czar over their un
happy country.
Nicholas, at last, determined on adopting the
-.most extreme measures, and a series of cruelties
"were commenced on these nuns, at the recital of
which the heart sickens. Their convent at Minsk
was surrounded by Russian troops, the gates were
burst open, and the soldiers rushed into the con
vent. Uszakof, the governor of the province, as
sembling the terrified nuns, offered them, either to
choose the orthodox religion, with honours and the
imperial protection, or exile in Siberia. The nuns
u

158 THE LIFE AND REIGN
refused the former, and were ordered instantly to
prepare- for their departure. Thirty-five in number,
they knelt, for the last time, in their chapel to
pray; and when they rose up, one of them (Leu-
sheka) had expired from excessive terror and grief.
They were then handcuffed, and marched on foot
for some days, until they reached Witebsk. There
they were first placed in the Convent of the Black
Nuns, composed principally of the widows of Rus
sian soldiers. During ten years, they remained
among those coarse and cruel women, suffering
every species of outrage, and wearing, during this
whole period, iron chains upon their feet.
They were first compelled to perform all the
low, menial services in the convent. They were
compelled — from six in the morning till six at
night, with one hour's interval at noon — to break
stones, and carry them from the quarries in wheel
barrows. They were starving for want of sufficient
food. Seeing that these severities did not work
their conversion, they were then flogged twice a
week, receiving fifty lashes each time.- Their flesh
sometimes hung in strips from their bodies. After
one of these beatings, a nun named Columba
Yorska, expired. Another was killed by a blow
with a billet of wood on the head, by the Abbess
of the Black Nuns, because she disobeyed her

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 159
orders. Another nun, Susanna Rypinska, was flog
ged to death ; and another had her ribs broken, by
the brutal severity of their persecutors.
These sufferings still failed to overcome the con
stancy of these unhappy nuns, and yet further bar
barities were devised. They were maimed, cut,
bruised, and wounded, in divers ways. At the
chapel door the abbess of the persecuted nuns,
Makrena, seeing a hatchet lying on the ground,
seized it, and offered it to the Greek bishop, who
was present, saying: "You are our shepherd, be
come our executioner also." His reply was a blow
of his fist, with which he knocked out one of the
teeth of the abbess. By the year 1840, these, and
innumerable other barbarities, had diminished the
number of these unfortunate beings to fifteen.
Three of them had died in eight days. Two of
them had gone mad, — who were then chained to
their wheelbarrows, and still compelled to work.
All their heads and necks were covered with
tumours; their hands were swollen, and bleeding;
their bodies became one mass of open wounds and
festering sores. Another flogging took place, after
which two of the nuns expired. In 1844, the ab
bess and three nuns succeeded in making their
escape from the convent ; and, after incredible hard
ships, succeeded in reaching Posen. There, on the

160 TOE LIFE AND REIGN
14th of August, the deposition of the abbess under
oath was taken before several judges of the local
court. It was countersigned by the Archbishop of "
Posen ; and the genuineness and authenticity of the
statement has never been controverted. Count Dia-
lynska, a Polish nobleman, in a published statement,
certifies, that he entertained the escaped nuns at his
chateau at Kornik; and that he then saw on the
head of the Abbess Makrena a large depression,
covered over with newly-formed skin, an inch broad
and the fourth of an inch in depth, as one of the
evidences of the severities which had been in
flicted upon her. The abbess at length succeeded
in reaching Rome, and became the guest of the
Convent of the Santa Trinita. A narrative of her
Bufferings, and those of her associates, was afterward
given to the world, and excited the astonishment
and indignation of Europe.
The question arises, were these statements true?
and were barbarities such as these inflicted in the
nineteenth century, and in a Christian country?
The answer is, that the Russian government has
never succeeded in disproving them, though many
corroborative evidences have been furnished by
those who took sides with the persecuted abbess.
Another inquiry which suggests itself is, if the in
fliction of these barbarities be admitted, were they

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 161
perpetrated with the knowledge and under the
orders of the czar? The answer to this question
would seem undoubtedly to be, that they were ; be
cause in Russia, so absolute was the jurisdiction of
the czar ; so obsequious were his servants to obey
him in every thing, and never to act except under
his express orders; so universal is the presence
of the police ; and so complete is the information
which is conveyed to the central government, of
every thing which occurs throughout the whole em
pire, that it is absurd to suppose that such extraor
dinary events should have been transpiring in Rus
sia proper, during a period of ten years, and yet
the czar remain in ignorance of them, or not have
become perfectly familiar with their most minute
details. Nevertheless, there is one fact in existence
which justice requires that we should mention;
and which may seem to be an argument in favour
of the falsity, or at least of the exaggeration, of the
current accounts which exist in reference to the
treatment of the nuns of Minsk. In 1845, the Em
peror Nicholas visited Rome, in connection with
other European capitals. The Abbess Makrena
was resident in that city at that time. Her narra
tive of the sufferings which she and her associates
had endured, had become well known throughout
Europe. She "had even made special statements
14*

162 THE LIFE AND REIGN
on the subject to the Pope. If, therefore, his Holi
ness gave full credence to these reports, it is pro
bable that he would have received the czar with
coldness, perhaps with rudeness and incivility ; yet,
when the czar arrived at Rome, the Pope sent a
deputation of cardinals to receive him ; and during
the period of his sojourn' in the Eternal City, ex
tended to him, to the fullest extent, the evidences
of his utmost regard and consideration. Was this
done because the Pope did not believe the reports
which had startled all Europe ? Or was he governed
in his conduct by a spirit of policy and subser
viency, which induced, or compelled, him to over
look the most brutal acts of despotic barbarity,
heard of in modern times ?

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 163

CHAPTER XIV.
LITERATURE OF RUSSIA — THE FOUR GREAT LITERARY NAMES OF RUSSIA
— SKETCH OF THE GREATEST OF THEM, KARAMSIN — MORE RECENT
EMINENT MEN OF LETTERS — NICHOLAS PATRONIZES THE DIPLOMATIC,
ENGINEERING, AND MILITARY SCHOOLS — LANGUAGE OF RUSSIA  IN
DIFFERENCE OF NICHOLAS TO SCIENCES, AND BRANCHES OF LEARNING,
WHICH WERE USELESS IN WAR.
It is with pleasure that we turn away from these
continual though necessary details of persecution,
of conquest, and of aggression, to seek in the his
tory of this great czar something which appertains
to the nobler arts of peace ; and which refers to the
advancement of education, science, and literature,
among his subjects.
But it must be confessed, that the materials which
the career of Nicholas furnishes, for narratives of
this description, are meagre in the extreme; and
that even the patronage which he did afford to in
stitutions and men of learning, was clouded over
with war's- grim and gloomy visage, and was in
tended only to prepare them for more effective ser
vice, in its bloody and disastrous scenes.
Only four great names exist in Russian literature.

164 THE LIFE AND REIGN
These are Lomonosoff, Schukowski, Pouschkin, and
Karamsin. The first of these was celebrated as a
classical scholar. He flourished in the sixteenth
century, and translated into the Russ language the
works of Homer, Plato, Horace, and Ovid. Until
then, the very names of these classic writers were
unknown to the Muscovites. Schukowski was an
imitator of the German style of Uterature ; and his \
works abound in vast masses of unwieldy literary
lumber. Pouschkin is the most eminent poet of
Russia. He was a man of original, vigorous, and
impassioned poetic fire, and has been compared, by
the most discerning critics, to Byron. But the
name which is most widely and eminently known
in Russian literature, is that of Karamsin the his
torian. Nicholas von Karamsin was born on the 13th of
December, 1765, in the government of Vimbersk.
In .his youth he was educated at the University of
Moscow, where he received the particular instruc
tions of John Schnaden, the celebrated professor of
philosophy at that university. On leaving the uni
versity, Karamsin entered the imperial Garde du
Corps ; and in the years 1789 to 1791 he traveUed
through the various countries of Europe, and en
larged his mind by a familiarity with the laws,
society, and government, of the European states.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 165
His first work contained the fruits of his observa
tions abroad, and was published in four volumes,
under the title, "Letters of a Russian Traveller."
From 1792 to 1803, Karamsin resided at Moscow,
engaged in various literary works. The Emperor
Alexander then appointed him to the high and
honourable post of Historiographer of the Russian
Empire. In 1816 he removed to St. Petersburg,
and the same* year were published the first eight
volumes of hjs celebrated History of the Russian
Empire. For this performance he was rewarded
with the rank of Honorary Counsellor of State,
with the Order of St. Anne of the first class. In
1821 the ninth volume of this work appeared, and
in 1823 the tenth and eleventh volumes. In 1824
he was promoted to the dignity of Actual Coun
sellor of State. In 1825 he wrote the celebrated
manifesto which Nicholas I. published on his acces
sion to the throne.* In the year 1826, he completed
the twelfth volume of his history, which brought
his narrative of events down to the reign of Mi
chael, the grandfather of Peter the Great, and the
founder of the illustrious dynasty of the Romanoffs.
In 1826 he died, without having been able to com
plete his great work. He was carried off by a pul-
* See Schnitzlefs Diplom. History of Alexander I. and Nicholas.
London, 1848.

166 THE LIFE AND REIGN
monary disease ; but it was remarked that he never
recovered from the shock which he received on the
death of the Emperor Alexander I.
Karamsin was honoured by the friendship and
esteem of the most illustrious men in Russia, and
especially by that of the two sovereigns, Alexander
and Nicholas. He expired in the Taurie Palace,
attended by the tenderest care of the young czar.
The latter had ordered the frigate Halena, only two
days previous to his death, to be in readiness to
convey Karamsin and his family to the more genial
clime of Italy. He was buried with extraordinary
honours in the churchyard of the great Convent of
St. Alexander Newsky, on the 6th of June. His
funeral was attended by the emperor, by the most
distinguished officers of state, and by a vast con
course of the inhabitants of St. Petersburg, among
whom he was respected and revered. Nicholas had
displayed his munificence by bestowing upon him
an annuity of 50,000 rubles for his lifetime ; which
sum, after his death, was generously continued
during the lives of all the members of his family.
For several years Karamsin had been the editor
of the European Mercury, and at other times, of
the leading Russian journals in the department of
belles-lettres. The following are his most celebrated
literary productions. Five volumes of poems en-

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 167
titled, Aglaja and Aonides ; Letters of a Russian
Traveller, in four volumes; The Pantheon of Fo
reign Literature ; The Pantheon of National Lite
rature; a historical novel entitled Possadniza, or
the Subjugation of Novogorod.; a selection of Ly
rical Poems ; Historical Fragments and Miscellanies.
As a poet, he was a writer of genius and power.
His chief merit, however, is as an historian. As
an finnahst, he is thorough, clear, impartial, and
writes with elegance and accuracy, and has the
faculty of investing the dryest themes with attrac
tive interest.
The more recent developments in Russian litera
ture, though they have not produced any great
names, have nevertheless brought into existence
a few writers whose labours have thrown some
lustre on the Russian names Kamakoff has, during
the reign of Nicholas, written several tragedies and
lyrical compositions which are original m .their cha
racter, and display considerable dramatic power.
Kryloff has produced fables winch compare favour
ably with those of Lafontaine and Phsedrus. G°g°l
was the author of satires whieh-possess a degree of
wit which places Mm nearly beside" Swift' and Addi
son. Of poets of a recent date Russia may boast ;
for she can enumerate the names of Wiasemski,
Madam Pauloff, and the Countess Rostopchin ; to-

168 THE LIFE AND REIGN
gether with the eccentric but gifted Lermontoff,
who was killed in an unfortunate duel in Circassia.
Of novelists, there are Mouranieff, Sagoschkin, and
Batuschkoff. Balgurin is celebrated as a journalist.
Nicholas Gertsch has rendered brilliant services in
the cause of the national language, by publishing
numerous editions of his Russian grammar, the
best which has yet appeared.
Nicholas established, at an early period of his
reign, a rigid censorship of the press; and this
measure has had the effect of retarding, in a very-
great degree, the free development of the intellec
tual resources of the nation. The consequence
is, a greater degree of ignorance among the priest
hood, and a lower grade of literary attainment
among the teachers of the schools. Among the
higher clergy, a man of extensive learning is an
occasional phenomenon, due more to the influence
of German theological erudition, which some
times succeeds in permeating the ranks of the
ecclesiastics, than to the genius of Russian litera
ture,. On the other hand, all the patronage and assist
ance which Nicholas extended to learning, in his
dominions, were principally confined to the diplo
matic schools, and those of topographical surveys.
These he patronized with the partial affection of a

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 169
father, inasmuch as its members would be made
directly serviceable to the interests of the govern
ment. As an example of the patronage which
Nicholas bestowed upon the other and more ele
vated departments of letters, it may be mentioned,
that Lomonosoff and Pouschkin, two poets of high
distinction, were banished by him, to serve as
privates in the army in Circassia, for writing too
freely on pohtics ; and that Bestucheff expiated
with his Ufe, his rashness in supporting the con
spiracy of 1825, in favour of a liberal constitution
for Russia.
The language of Russia is represented as being
admirably adapted as a vehicle for the development
of a rich and valuable literature, were it not that,
the best aspirations of native genius are all crushed
by the iron hand of a jealous despotism. The lan
guage is described as being at once fluent and con
cise, pliable and vigorous, tender and stern ; as re
dundant in imagery, laconic in axiom, graceful in
courtesy, strong in argument, soothing in feeling,
and tremendous in denunciation. The latent ener
gies of the language furnish an evidence of what
its literature might have become, under more genial
and propitious auspices. Karamsin has done more
than any other writer to develop the resources of
15

170 THE LIFE AND REIGN
the language, and to give it an established form
and consistency.*
In St. Petersburg, the two most liberally-endowed
institutions devoted to instruction, are the Mining:
and the Forest Schools, wliich are in Russia deno
minated corps. They are located in large and
splendid palaces; and as their purpose is directly
intended to promote the interests of the govern
ment, both in war and in peace, they received the
special attention of Nicholas. The interests of the
state are the main object constantly kept in view in
these schools. The system of education pursued, is
precisely similar to that of the Pplytechnic School
of Paris. It is entirely military. As soon as the
scholars leave these institutions,' they are provided
with situations under the government. Nicholas
frequently visited these pet institutions in person.
He occasionally arose from his" bed at midnight;
and entering a one-horse droschki, made a solitary
* Dobrowsky divides the Slavonic dialects into two classes : —
A. The south-eastern.
1. The Russian ecclesiastical language, or the old Slavonic ; 2. The
Russian ; 3. The Serbish, (Illyrian ;) 4. The Croatish ; 5. The Wendish,
spoken in Carniola, Styria, and Carinthia.
B. The north-western.
1. The Slovao; 2. The Bohemian; 3. The Wendish, in Upper Lu-
satia ; 4. The Wendish, in Lower Lusatia ; 5. The Polish, with the
Silesian dialect.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 171
tour of inspection to these schools. On entering
the sleeping apartments, his first 'glance, true as
ever to physical interests, was at the thermometer.
B; it did not range precisely at the prescribed figure
of fourteen degrees, he punished the neglect of the
' official with severity. He then examined the beds,
pulled off the bedclothes, scrutinized the linen ; and
sometimes when pleased, and in a good humour, he
challenged the children to wrestle with him ; and
it was not an uncommon sight, to behold half a
dozen lads clinging convulsively around the tall
form of the czar, and attempting their utmost to
throw the ruler of sixty-five millions of people upon
the floor.*
It is a circumstance worthy of note, that during
the long reign of Nicholas, which extended for
thirty years, while vast accessions were constantly
made, to the territories of his empire ; while his re
nown as a statesman and as a warrior became more
and more exalted, and the physical forces of his vast
realms became more and more effectively developed ;
and while his subjects beheld the example of other
and surrounding nations, who were achieving great
and honourable advances in the pathway of science
* Pictures of St. Petersburg, by Jerrman, p. 53.

172 THE LIFE AND REIGN
and literature ; the Russian nation accomplished
very little in the same direction. Those many mil
lions of rational intellects, with comparatively few
exceptions, during those thirty years, either re
mained dormant in the ignoble sleep of ignorance ;
or else confined their energies to the attainment
only of physical ends and advantages, regardless of
the nobler wants and necessities of the immortal
mind.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 173

CHAPTER XV.
PERSONAL QUALITIES OF NICHOLAS  HIS PHYSICAL APPEARANCE — HIS
MENTAL QUALITIES  HIS CLAIMS TO BEING A GREAT MAN — HIS DES
POTIC SPIRIT  HIS CRUELTIES — THE OWNER OF TWENTY MILLIONS
OF SERFS  FAVOURABLE FEATURES OF HIS CHARACTER — HIS INTRE
PIDITY — HIS QUALITIES AS A HUSBAND AND FATHER — HIS AMOROUS
INTRIGUES. Nicholas I. was so remarkable a personage both
in regard to his individual qualities, and with refer
ence to his exalted station, and his historical conse
quence, that a close and accurate examination of his
attributes and characteristics, is both a pleasing and
an instructive study.
Let us then boldly enter the audience chamber of
the great czar. Let us approach to the foot of the
august throne on which he sits. Let us elevate our
eyes to the colossus who occupies it; and then
boldly and even impertinently scrutinize the man,
and the monarch, before whose power so many mil
lions, in so many climes, have quailed and trembled.
And first, in regard to his physical appearance, it
is certainly true, that if ever a human being seemed
intended for a monarch, by the possession of exterior
15*

174 THE LIFE AND REIGN
advantages of a majestic figure, and high and kiDgly
bearing, it was the Czar Nicholas. His person was
six feet three inches in height. It was moulded in
nature's finest proportions. He was beyond ques
tion the handsomest man in his court or empire.
His features were regular, dignified, and pleasing,
with but one exception. His eye was the eye of a
despot. It seemed to scan with cold, penetrating,
unsympathizing severity, every one who came be
neath his observation. He delighted to witness its
effects upon his courtiers, and to see the proudest,
the bravest, and the most illustrious, recoil from his
glance, and cower before him. Sufficiently appre
ciating, as he did, his superior physical advantages,
he took considerable pains to set them forth with
the greatest effect. He was very attentive to his
dress; usually wore the stiff though briUiant uni
form of a general officer ; and was in the habit of
carrying the custom of tight-lacing so prevalent in
the Russian army, to such an immoderate extent,
that it seriously injured his health. Though pos
sessing great breadth of shoulder, he must needs
also sport a wasp-like waist ; and to accomplish this
end, he endured a degree of tight-lacing, from
which a Parisian lorette might, and probably would,
have resolutely rebelled! It is said, that he often
fainted, after having ungirthed himself; and it is

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 175
supposed that this pernicious habit contributed very
materially to shorten his life.
The features of Nicholas were strictly Grecian.
His forehead and nose were in one continuous line.
His mouth was regular ; his teeth were fine ; and a
dark mustache and small whiskers traversed the
centre of his face. His general expression was that
of command, accompanied with boldness, resolu
tion, and a freezing^ heartless dignity.
The mental qualities and characteristics of the
czar were equally remarkable; although here the
same phenomenon presents, itself, — that of a cluster
of great qualities, marred by the presence of one car
dinal defect which tarnished the lustre of the whole.
As the eye of Nicholas condemned his' face and per
son, so the absence of human sympathy stamped his
mental and moral nature as repulsive, and as devoid
of the attractive and pleasing principle.
The talents of Nicholas as the administrator of the
affairs of a vast and heterogeneous empire were of a
high order. He was able to grasp an infinite variety
of details, and to introduce consistency and harmony
throughout all the ramifications of the government.
But that government was pre-eminently a despotic
one. Nicholas was a greater tyrant than any of his
predecessors, — than Peter the Great, than Catherine
H., than Paul I. So many successive reigns, the con-

176 THE LIEE AND REIGN
tinual policy of which was to perfect the absolutism
of the central government, had brought the tree of
despotism to its fullest growth. The additional aid
which war and European science had given him and
his agents, had introduced throughout his domi
nions a vast levelling system ; and the throne alone
then towered, in awful and terrific majesty, above
the wide and monotonous waste of his empire, like
Mont Blanc shooting far upward into the heavens
from the midst of a boundless and uniform desert.
Nicholas had not indeed the brutal instincts of
Peter the Great; neither had he his great talents.
He would never have accomplished much" for the
improvement of his dominions and the education of
his people, had he been placed in the same situation
in which that founder of the empire was placed.
Nicholas had not the disordered passions of his
grandmother, the voluptuous Catherine ; neither had
he her capacious mind, her enlightened views, her
benevolence, her womanly tenderness, her brilliancy
of intellect. If he did not, like her, convert his
palace into a temple of Venus, he could not, as did
she, permit his subjects to enjoy every liberty, social,
political, ¦ and intellectual, and especially religious,,
which did not directly impede the march of her
government. Nicholas was not the man, in a mo
ment of trivial frivolity, to shoot down, for a wager,

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 177
a poor female slave working in his garden, as did
his brother Constantine; nor would he, like Con
stantine, have resigned the brilliant throne of all
the Russias, to allay the apprehensions, and to dry
the tears, of a woman whom he loved.
In truth, it may be said that Nicholas was the
most destructive and cruel despot, who disgraced
the nineteenth century ; and facts will amply justify
this apparently severe declaration. Without talents
of the highest order, he possessed just enough of
clearness of purpose, of resolution, of perseverance,
and of sagacity, to enable him to see what measures
tended most to increase the omnipotence of his
throne ; and to pursue the accomplishment of those
measures, even though his pathway led through
seas of human blood, and amid the groans, and
agonies, and even ruin, of millions of men. During
the thirty years of his reign, more persons have
been computed to have perished by various means,
of which he was the cause and the agent, than in all
the preceding reigns, until the time of Peter the
Great inclusive. Thus, men were not punished,
during his reign, in the same barbarous manner, as
they were by some of his predecessors. They were
not impaled alive. They were not burned to death.
They were not hanged up by iron hooks inserted in
their ribs, and left thus to die. But it is a fact, which

178 THE LIFE AND REIGN
cannot be controverted, that during the reign of
Nicholas, whole companies of Polish prisoners were
whipped to death ; that the knout and the battogues
were inflicted upon myriads for poUtical offences;
that these wretches, after having thus had their flesh '
torn away in strips from the bone, were the next
day compelled to commence on foot their dreary
journey to Siberia ; and that multitudes perished in
a few days, on the way. It is an ascertained fact,
that during his long reign, Nicholas I. condemned
at least two hundred and fifty thousand persons to
the mines of Siberia for life ; nearly all of. whom
were merely political offenders, whose only crime
had been, that they had dared to dream, and some
times also to speak, of freedom ! Add to all these,
the multitudes who have been swept away by the
rude storms of war; who have fallen beneath the
pestilence and famine, and at the cannon's mouth ;
who, had it not been for his insatiable aggressions,
had enjoyed the blessings of peace; — and we will
form a true, and certainly an unprejudiced, opinion
of the character and influence of the czar.*
Nicholas, true to his despotic instincts, was the
possessor of twenty millions of slaves, who belonged

* See facts stated in "Revelations ;jn Russia in 1844," London,
Colburn, 1845.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 179
absolutely to his personal domain. Every year he
increased the number of his slaves by lending money
to the nobles on their serfs ; and every year he ap
propriated to himself a large portion of them, as
unredeemed pledges. In truth, the tendency of the
reign of Nicholas was, to obliterate and destroy all
national interest in Russia, and to promote the
interests of the house of Romanoffs as the only
supreme and important power in the empire; to
which "the government, the army, the navy, the peo
ple, and the church, were all to be subordinate and
contributory. The highest praise which has ever been bestowed
upon the mental qualities of Nicholas refers to his
presence of mind, and to the fortitude which he dis
played on several critical occasions. His intrepidity
and self-possession will not be denied. One evi
dence of these qualities we have already given, in
the conspiracy which occurred at his accession. On
another occasion, when the cholera visited St. Pe
tersburg, the population became frenzied with ter
ror and ignorance, and attributed the scourge to
the supposition that the foreigners, the physicians,
and the Poles, had poisoned all the springs: Many
murders took place daily. At length a vast crowd
assembled in St. Isaac's Square, vowing greater
vengeance against the supposed authors of the

180 THE LIFE AND REIGN
calamity. Nicholas, from his palace windows, be
held the infuriated multitude approaching, and in
stantly he entered a droschky, and dashed into the
midst of them. Standing up in the vehicle, he
addressed the crowd in a loud voice, whose power
and volume were well known: "Where are you
going, wretches?" he exclaimed. "You are about
to murder innocent men. Strike your own breasts
rather, and ask pardon of God for your sins, which
have drawn this scourge upon your heads. On
your knees!" he continued; and immediately the
whole assembly obeyed him and then dispersed.
In December, 1837, the Winter Palace caught
fire. Nicholas was at the theatre, at the moment
the information was brought to him. He arose,
gave his arm to the empress, conducted her to her
carriage, and ordered the coachman to drive to the
Anitchkoff Palace. He then repaired to the scene
of the conflagration. A sea of fire illumined the
heavens, and enveloped the home of his childhood.
He immediately entered the palace, and beheld the
frightful dangers which surrounded the workmen,
who had received orders to remove a portion of the
furniture. They all obeyed the command of the
czar to escape from the falling building except four,
to whom had been intrusted a magnificent mirror.
These refused to leave the palace without rescuing

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 181
the precious article. Seeing their dangerous deter
mination, Nicholas rushed forward in the midst of
the falling fragments, and by a blow with the hilt
of his sword, shattered the mirror to fragments.
' Scarcely had he and the workmen passed the
threshold before the roof fell in with a terrible crash.
He had, at least, saved four lives, if he had wasted
myriads elsewhere, and in a less noble cause !
The conduct of Nicholas, as a father, and as a
husband, is indeed the highest merit of which he
can boast. He is universally admitted to have
been tender and affectionate toward the empress,
and gentle and kind toward his children ; — though
always keeping them at a respectful and awe-struck
distance. As to his faithfulness as a husband, con
tradictory rumours are in existence. There are
some persons who assert that, unlike every other
prince of the Romanoff family, — and, indeed,
strikingly unlike princes in general, — his nature
was too cold to be attracted or influenced in the
slightest degree, by female charms. One of the
most fascinating and beautiful ladies of his court
said of him: line pent pas ttre leger; il vous dit
tout crUment qu'il vous trouve jolie, mais Hen de plus !*

* He cannot trifle : he tells you quite bluntly, that he finds you
handsome, but nothing more. 16

182 THE LIFE AND REIGN
It has, however, been asserted by others, that
Nicholas possessed different mistresses. Some
scandal to that effect, has certainly had currency
in St. Petersburg ; and he has been also charged, in
several instances, with the unprincipled seduction
of married women, who were connected with the
court. But whatever may have been the truth in
regard to this subject, it is certain, that Nicholas
was not very much given td Ucentiousness ; and
that the indulgences, of which he may have „ been
guilty, were so carefully concealed by him from
the observation and scrutiny of his subjects, as to
leave the question of their existence a matter of
impenetrable obscurity. It is related, as illustra
tive of his caution in this respect, that one snowy
night, about midnight, issuing from the palace
incognito, he entered a sledge ; then drove to a re
mote quarter of the city, and disappeared amid the
labyrinth of streets. He had ordered the istworsts-
ehick, or driver, to wait for him. As the gray
' tints of morning began to illumine the east, he
returned to the sledge, and ordered the driver to
proceed. Arrived near the Winter Palace, he
directed the man to stop. Nicholas dismounted
from the sledge; and turning to the driver, he
said, "Do you know me?" The man shrewdly
answered, "No." Nicholas, taking his purse from

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 183
his pocket, emptied its contents into the hands
of the driver, turned away, and re-entered the
palace. The 'adroit ignorance of the man had ob
tained an ample and unexpected reward !
People will surmise, with facts like these before
them, that the conduct of the stern czar, with re
ference to the fairer sex, was not, to say the least,
entirely immaculate !

184 THE LIFE AND REIGN

CHAPTER XVI.
DIFFERENT CLASSES OF SOCIETY IN RUSSIA — MORALS OF THE NOBLES
OR BOYARDS —ORDERS OF THE TCHINN  THE CONDITION AND CHA
RACTER OF 0HE SERFS  VENALITY AND CORRUPTION OF THE GO
VERNMENT OFFICIALS OF RUSSIA — THE MACHINERY OF GOVERNMENT
UNDER THE CZAR  THE SENATE  THE COUNCIL OF THE EMPIRE —
THE HOLY SYNOD  THE MINISTRY — MUNICIPAL GOVERNMENT OF
THE 'CITIES AND TOWNS— THE GREEK CHURCH  CHARACTER OF THE
GREEK PRIESTHOOD  THE HIERARCHY OF THE GREEK CHURCH — ITS
CEREMONIES — THE ARMY OF RUSSIA — VAST MILITARY FORCES AT
THE COMMAND OF THE CZAR.
Whatever may have been the peculiarities of
Russian society, manners, and government, during
the last thirty years, they can with justice be as
cribed to the plastic and creative power of Nicho
las; for had they not been precisely in harmony
with his wishes, we may readily believe, that his
resistless and arbitrary will would have altered and
moulded them perfectly to his liking.
Hence a very brief survey of the manners, so
ciety, and government of Russia is indispensable
to a proper conception of the dominion exercised
by the czar, and of the nature of his reign.
Society in Russia may be correctly divided into

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 185
three classes. These are : first, the hereditary no
bility; second, those who are in the employment
of the government ; and third, the peasantry, whe
ther they are private serfs, serfs of the crown, or
freed-men. The hereditary nobles are more polished than
they are civilized, exceedingly licentious in their
morals, and extravagant in their habits. Many
of them yearly become reduced, by tleir lavish
wastefulness, to poverty; and their property
usually passes into the possession of the imperial
family. Thus, as already stated, hundreds of
thousands of slaves had, from time to time, been
mortgaged to Nicholas by the nobles; and, being
usually unable to redeem their pledges, they fell
into the all-devouring vortex of the czar's pos
session. This class, therefore, of the Russian nation
hate the autocrat. It was among this class, that
nearly all the conspirators, who undertook to over
turn the throne at the accession of Nicholas, be
longed. But they are a conquered race, and are,
therefore, harmlessly hostile to the omnific su
premacy of the czar.
The second class, or the nobility of office, are a
peculiar race, and, at the same time, a very nume
rous one. This class comprises all the govern
ment officials throughout the ¦ empire, and they
16*

186 THE LIFE AND REIGN
constitute the various ranks of the great Order
of the Tchinn. The members of this order are
termed the Tchinnovnicks. It was founded by
Peter the Great, and the order contains fourteen
classes. The first class of these is the highest,
and is said to number but one single member,
who is Marshal PasMewitch. The fourteenth class
is the lowest, and the most numerous. It comprises
all the government clerks, clerks of the post-office,
and the post-men ; and the rank answers to that
of a sub-officer in the imperial army. All the
classes of the Tchinn correspond to as many mili
tary grades, and the hierarchy of the army is
parallel with the ranks which prevail in the civil
service. This second class in the nation are despised by
the hereditary nobles ; against whom they retaliate
by every species of persecution. The emperor ¦
alone advances the members of the Tchinn,
They are the most corrupt race of beings in the
world. Bribery is universal among them, even
to the very highest functionaries. They possess
vast - power in the state ; because, by becoming
informers, they can bring the most eminent no
bles under the suspicion of the government, by
the use of false and malicious representations.
And in a despotic government, to become bus-

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 187
pected is almost equivalent to being ruined.
The Tchinn wears the imperial button; and that
single badge is a talisman of fearful power and
consequence, however base, or despicable, or con
temptible the wretch may be, who succeeds in
securing the office which it designates. He is
always addressed by the title vashe blagarodie, "your
nobility." He receives a salary of fifteen pounds
per annum ; but he makes up by bribery and ex
tortion, an immense sum, on which he lives in
opulence and luxury. The illegal perquisites of
some of the higher orders of these officials are said
to amount to $100,000 per year.
The serfs constitute the third class of the nation,
and their condition is one of mingled misery and
prosperity. Some of the wealthiest men in St.
Petersburg are known to be serfs — either private
serfs or freed-men. By the law, the serf, if he can
acquire property without defrauding his master of
his time and services, is permitted to do so ; and his
master cannot despoil him of his possessions, so
obtained. Those few serfs who are rich are the
favourites of benevolent masters, who take an in
terest in them, and protect them in their acquisi
tions. But the millions who are in bondage in
Russia, and who constitute the great mass of the

188 THE LIFE AND REIGN
nation, are in a state of the most deplorable poverty
and wretchedness.
It has been asserted, that Nicholas made consider
able exertions to free the serfs of his empire ; but
we have been able to discover little evidence of the
amelioration" of their condition, through his instru
mentality. It is a notorious fact, that three-fourths
of the eventualities, which release the serf from the
yoke of his private master, convey him directly into
the domain of the crown. There is no country in
the world, in which it may be said with equal truth,
as in Russia, that every man has his price. The
minister, the judge, the general, the priest, down
even to the public executioner, — aU have their
prices, in gold ; and in such a land it would be ab
surd to expect, that so benevolent and disinterested
a project as the enfranchisement of the serfs could
ever be seriously proposed and executed. The
serfs of the Russian Empire will doubtless re
main as they are, either until the end of time, or
until the growing light and freedom of these latter
ages, shall at length overturn a despotism even
as gigantic and rockbuilt, as is that of the czars of
Muscovy. In regard to the organization of the government,
throughout the empire, some idea of its arrange
ment may be derived from the following details,

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 189
which are obtained from the most authentic works
on the subject.*
Though, strictly speaking, there is but one author
ity, that of the emperor, in Russia, yet he employs
a very complicated machinery as the instrument of
his purposes. The three principal councils of the
empire are — 1. The Council of the Empire ; 2. The
Holy Synod ; 3. The Directing Senate.
The Council of the Empire was established by
Alexander I. in 1810, and its functions are, to exa
mine the administrative measures relating to the
home policy submitted to it by the emperor. It
consists of aU the imperial princes, and of states
men, generals, and admirals who are appointed by
the sovereign. Its complement of members is
forty. This council is divided into five depart
ments. These refer — 1. To Laws; 2. The Army
and Navy; 3. Civil and Ecclesiastical Affairs; 4.
PubUc Economy and Commerce ; 5. Poland. The
members of the council meet in common or in de
partments, according to the subject to be discussed.
When it meets in common, the emperor presides ;
when it" meets apart, a president is appointed.
The Holy Synod attends to all ecclesiastical affairs.
* The following details respecting the organization of the czar's
government, are derived from the works of Golovin and Morrell/
with an occasional fact from the Marquis de Custine.

190 THE LIFE AND REIGN
It only depends on the emperor, who is represented
by an attorney. This attorney was recently a ca
valry officer, General Protasoff. The number of its
members is not determined, but they must all be
ecclesiastics. It generally consists of a metropolitan,
three archbishops, one bishop, the confessor of the
emperor, an archimandrid, the general almoner of
the army and navy, and a protopope. One section
of the synod remains at Moscow ; but -capital cases
are all decided at St. Petersburg.
The Directing Senate, was founded in 1711 by
Peter the Great. It contains about one hundred
members, who are chosen by the emperor from the
three first classes of the state. The ministers have
a right to four members in it, as also generals of
the army when at St. Petersburg.
The Directing Senate is the highest legislative
authority in the state ; but the emperor can confirm
or annul its decisions. It watches over the execu
tion of the imperial mandates. It answers the pur
pose of a court of final appeal in civil and criminal
matters. It scrutinizes the expenditures of the
state, and suggests measures for the relief of the
people. It has eleven departments, six at St. Peters
burg, three at Moscow, and two at "Warsaw. The
emperor is its president, and can annul all its pro
ceedings. The emperor is as absolute now, as in

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 191
the times of Ivan the Terrible. All the guarantee
which the privileges of the, nation possess, is the
pleasure of the monarch, who may grant" and abro
gate whatever he pleases. ' In order to prevent the
youth of the empire from studying in the univer
sities of Europe, Nicholas promulgated a ukase
which declared all who did so incapable of after
ward holding office under his government.
After these councils there are the Committees of
Ministers, presided over by the emperor. Alexan
der 1. created ministries independent of each other,
with no other connecting link than the emperor.
The ministries are nine in number: the Imperial
Household ; the Interior or Home Department ;
Foreign Affairs ; War ; the Navy ; the Army ; Edu
cation ; Finance ; Justice. There are also three
general Directions : the Imperial Post ; the High
ways; the Board of Control, for auditing all the
expenses of the empire.
On the ministry of Foreign' Affairs depend the
envoys to foreign countries, who are divided into
three classes: three ambassadors of the first class
are at Vienna, Paris, and London ; seventeen mi
nisters plenipotentiary are at* Berlin, Stockholm,
Copenhagen, the Hague, Brussels, Lisbon, Turin,
Rome, Naples, Constantinople, Munich, Dresden,
Stuttgard, Frankfort, Washington, Rio Janeiro, and

192 THE LIFE AND REIGN
Teheran; seven Charges-d'Affaires are in Switzer
land, Carlsruhe, Florence, Weimar, Hamburg,
Athens, and Lucca. There are also many consuls-
general and consuls residing at points of minor'
importance. Passing on to the internal government of the
empire, we find in every provincial capital a cham
ber of regency, which attends to matters of general
administration. The civil governor is the presi
dent. The chamber is composed of four counsel
lors, named by the czar. Every district has its tri
bunal of police, which does not possess any judicial
authority. It has to attend to inquiries into political
and criminal affairs. The principal agents of the
government in the provinces are the governor-
general and the local governors. They inflict the
penalties of all criminal offences.
There is also in each town a common municipal
council, and a council of six, presided over by the
chief of the burghers. They are renewed every
three years. The first of these attends to the com
mercial interests, and to the good order of the
parish. The other keeps in repair the buildings,
and superintends the* finances of the parish. Each
town has also a commandant, named by the govern
ment. Each province has a chamber of finance,
composed of a president and several counsellors,

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 193
who superintend the manufactures, the exports, and
imports. The institutions connected with state credit are
four in number: the Commission for liquidating
the national debt ; the Bank for the issue of paper
money ; the Loan Bank, to make advances from the
public funds; the Commercial Bank, making dis
count and advancing money on goods.
In judicial matters, each province has a Civil
Chamber and a Criminal Chamber. An attorney,
dependent on the Minister of Justice, resides in
each province, to represent the government. There
are three degrees in the Russian courts of law : the
District Court ; the Government Court ; the Depart
ments of the Senate. In all judicial proceedings,
however, there are seven jurisdictions to which
appeals may be successively made : the Attorney-
General of the Departments of the Senate; the
Commission of Petitions, to refer matters to the
General Assembly of the Senate ; the Assembly ;
the Minister of Justice ; the Commission to transfer
affairs to the Council of the Empire ; the Depart
ment of the Council of the Empire ; the emperor
himself, • before whom every litigation may be
brought as its final arbiter, without the possibility
of appeal.
Having thus detailed the machinery of the Rus-
17

194 THE LIFE AND REIGN
sian government, as administered by Nicholas, let
us glance at the next great department of the na
tional fabric, the Greek Church, as established by
law throughout the empire.*
The emperor is the acknowledged head of the
Russian church. The influence of the Patriarchs
of Constantinople has always been slight in Russia.
After the fall of Constantinople, the Patriarchs
passed under Turkish and Mohammedan control,
which, however, was scarcely more injurious than
that of the Russian autocrat would have been.
Under tyrants like Ivan TV. the authority of the
Patriarchs which were afterward appointed in
Russia, became powerless.
Golovin says : "I know the Russian clergy, and I
assert that their authority is not at all preferable to
that of the czar. Peter I. abolished the office of
Patriarch in Russia, and substituted the Holy Synod
in its place. Theoretically, this synod is a laudable
institution; but its usefulness is greatly impaired
by the blind obedience which it renders to the
orders of the czar. The Holy Synod judges of the
changes suitable to be introduced into the adminis
tration of the clergy ; but its real power is limited
* The following details in reference to the Greek Church, as esta
blished in Russia, are derived from Morell, Golovin, and de Custine,
writers referred to in a previous note.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 195
to signing the orders that emanate from the attor
ney of the emperor, General Protosoff. The finan
cial matters of the convents are the only questions
on which the synod can deliberate freely; and it
is besieged with innumerable complaints on this
score." There are three degrees of jurisdiction in the
Russian church : 1. The Holy Synod ; 2. The Con
sistory; 3. The Prastenie or Goubernium. The
priesthood is divided into two sections, the regular
and the secular priests. The Consistory is an ad
ministrative and judiciary court, but the bishop
exercises absolute control over it. It is said that
indulgence, moderation, and even justice, are un
known in this court ; and that the accused priests
generally prefer to be judged by the civil courts.
The Prastenie exists in most district towns. The
superior of the most important convent in the dis
trict is usually at its head. Archpriests, and some
ordinary priests, are appointed to sit in these bodies.
Infractions of discipline are judged and punished
in them. It is only in cases of thefts committed
by members of the superior clergy, that the bishop
refers the matter to the Holy Synod. Strange as
it may appear, these cases are by no means rare.
Ecclesiastical delinquencies among the priests are
judged by the ecclesiastical courts, and civil delin-

196 THE LIFE AND REIGN
quencies among them are judged by the civil courts.
When priests are thus tried and convicted, the
healthy and strong men are sent into the army,' the
others, to the colonies or manufactures. Despotism
is the basis of ecclesiastical, as well as of civil,
authority in Russia. Each bishop is a despot in his
diocese ; each priest is a petty tyrant in his parish.
Archbishops, metropolitans, and bishops, are ap
pointed by the emperor, from the candidates pre
sented by the synod. The bishop, in his turn,
appoints the superiors of convents, protopriests, and
other subordinates, with the confirmation of the
Holy Synod. AU the higher ecclesiastical orders
are forbidden to marry ; the lower orders of priests
may marry once. Hence the proverb, " Happy as a
priest's wife," from the good care the priests take
of their consorts. It is forbidden even to the lower
clergy to marry after ordination; hence it is the
usual custom for them to marry immediately before
that ceremony is performed. »
The Russian Greek church condemns the use of
images ; yet its members pay idolatrous homage to
relics and religious paintings. The nobles, as well
as the serfs, prostrate themselves before the most
wretched daubs, and pray to them with devout fervor.
Some of these vile pictures possess a widely-spread
reputation for working miracles. The virgins of

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 197
Kasan, of Smolensk, and of Sikhwen, are cele
brated for their achievements in this benevolent
way. As may well be supposed, the pious frauds
perpetrated in connection with these pictures, upon
the deluded devotees, are of the most outrageous
and disgusting description. Once a priest conceived
the idea of planing away the reverse of a picture
painted on wood, leaving the wood so thin at a cer
tain point, that the flame of a lighted candle was
visible through it from the rear. This was pro
claimed as a vast miracle, and a whole province
was thrown into excitement in reference to it. No
trade in relics is openly permitted, though a frag
ment of a saint's garment, or his great toe, will
command a handsome price 1
The churches of the Greek faith very much re
semble Jewish synagogues in their structure, being
divided into three parts — the sanctuary, the parvise
or space in front of the sanctuary, and the nave.
The sanctuary contains the tabernacle over the
alta?. The gospel, the cross, and the chalices, to
gether with the missal, which is not a consecrated
book, remain upon the altar. The sanctuary is
separated from the nave by the royal gate, with two
lateral doors and a suspended curtain. A platform,
raised slightly above the body of the church, called
the ambon, serves as a pulpit and a reading-desk.
17*

198 THE LIFE AND REIGN
From it, and not from the altar, the communion is
administered. A profusion of tapers is used in the
services of the Russian church, and the Domine
Salvum fac Regem is eternally repeated through the
celebration of the mass.
Some choirs in the Russian churches are excellent;
but the service is usually recited in a mumbling
tone, and in a slovenly manner. The Miserere nobis
is also continually repeated ; and in one instance it
occurs forty times in succession. A certain profane
priest on one occasion undertook to shorten the in
fliction by saying, " 0 Lord ! save us forty times !"
The Russian service is performed in the old
Slavonic language, which is, in a great measure, a
dead language to modern worshippers. There are
fifteen communion loaves, shaped Uke balls, one
joined to the other. One is the loaf of Christ, two
of the Virgin Mary, three of the saints, four of the
living, and five of the dead. These unfortunate
loaves are tortured and mutilated in every possible
manner. Pieces pulled from them go through va
rious destinations in the progress of the' communion
service. Baptism is performed with warmed water, and
never with cold. The priest expels the devil from it,
by blowing over it, or at it, three times, and making
the sign of the cross the same number of times. A)

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 199
burials, the dead are made to hold a wax taper in
their hands. All heretics are cursed with singular
earnestness and bitterness.
The moral condition of the Russian clergy, is a
singular subject of reflection. The Marquis de Cus-
tine, M. Kohl, and other writers give a deplorable
account of their ignorance, their degradation, and
their wretchedness. Two-thirds of the lower clergy
are represented as being in a state of actual destitu
tion. Many of them till the ground, and labour
hard, in order to obtain a livelihood. Many of them
never wear shoes, except when actually engaged in
the performance of public service. They are all the
obsequious slaves of the civil power, from whom
they derive the small salaries on which they subsist.
The greatest and most prevalent vice among the
Russian clergy, is drunkenness. Frequently they
remain in a state of intoxication during the whole
week, and only sober up on the approach of Sunday,
to perform their public duties. This vice proceeds
from their poverty and their misery, which drive
them to it as a relief.
These remarks apply solely to the inferior clergy.
The higher order, or archpriests, are represented as
learned and exemplary men. These are the. persons
who eventually rise to the dignity of bishops, archi-
mandrids, and archbishops; who sit in the holy

200 THE LIFE AND REIGN
synod; who become the depositaries of the confi
dence, and sometimes of the secrets, of the emperor
and his family. But their numbers are very small
compared with the vast multitudes of the ecclesiasti
cal orders.
The Russian church observes the ceremony or
sacrament of confession and absolution, and money
will purchase any quantity of indulgences. No
priest in Russia can become a peer, or deputy am
bassador, or merchant. They become entirely un-
secularized by their ordination. . Yet they have
several orders of merit among them, indicated by
the wearing of ribbons. Some writers affirm that
the degradation, ignorance, and vulgarity of the
Russian ordinary priests, exceed that of any other
religious community in the civilized world; and
that Nicholas particularly approved and protected
this state of things, in order to render them the,
more obsequious and . effective instruments of his
all-grasping and all-crushing tyranny.
The last grand division of the social and govern
mental aspects of the Russian empire, to which we
shall refer, is the favourite arm of the late, czar, the
great central piUar of his throne, — his military
establishment. *
The flower of the Russian army are the Imperial
Guards, numbering forty thousand picked men.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 201
They are divided into fifteen regiments of cavalry,
containing 12,000 men; ten regiments of infantry,
containing 24,000 men; and seventeen battalions
of ordnance, including sappers, miners, horse-artil
lery, and foot-artillery, containing 4000 men. These
are probably the most formidable-looking and im
posing soldiery in the world.
The rest of the Russian army, on the peace esta
blishment, comprises seven corps d'armie and one
corps of reserve; each corps containing 50,000 men.
These make a total of 350,000. In addition to these,
there are the armies of Orenberg and the Caucasus,
which contain 85,000 more. To these must be
added 140 regiments of Cossacks of the .line, con
taining 80,000 men. These added together make a
grand total of 600,000 men ; as being the standing
army, always maintained by the czars, whether in
time of war, or of peace. With such a prodigious
military force constantly at his command, and wait
ing for his orders, it is not surprising that' the
haughty Nicholas, surrounded as he constantly was
with the incense of the adulation 'of myriads of fawn
ing subjects and courtiers, should have imagined,
that he had little more to do, in order to grasp the
sceptre of the sultan, than to order his vast armies
to march to the shores of the Golden Horn and
enter the gorgeous gates of the Seraglio ! And it

202 THE LIFE AND REIGN
must also be remembered, when estimating the
military resources of Nicholas, that these troops
were not raw recruits. The perfect and matchless
disciphne of the Russian army, is the most remark
able feature which characterizes it. Those 600,000
men had been drilled each day for many years, with
the most scrupulous severity and rigour. They were
familiar with every possible mihtary manoeuvre;
and they were commanded by officers, whose attain
ments in military science were inferior to those of
no other nation in Europe. When taking these
facts into consideration, we may more correctly esti
mate the vast difficulties against which the allies
have had to contend, in this last great conflict with
the Russian autocrat.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 203

CHAPTER XVH.
EXCESSIVE VENALITY AMONG THE RUSSIAN OFFICIALS — COUNT BEN-
KENDORF — EFFORTS OF NICHOLAS TO REMEDY THIS EVIL — INSTANCE
OF JUDICIAL CORRUPTION — PECULIARITIES OF RUSSIAN SOCIETY 
THE LADIES OF RUSSIA — EXTRAVAGANCE OF RUSSIAN NOBLES  DIS
TINGUISHED MEN OF RUSSIA — NESSELRODE — ORLOFF — MENTSCHIKOFF
— PRINCE PASKIEWITCH — PRINCE WORONZOF.
Whoever examines carefully the state of society
and government under Nicholas will discover that
venality and corruption existed there, in every
branch and department, from the highest to the
lowest official; and that no other country in Chris
tendom presents a paraUel to Russia in this respect.
It was the prevalent rumour that Count Benken-
dorf, the chief of the secret service, and four or five
others, holding office under Nicholas, were the only
persons throughout the whole empire, who were
incorruptible. In regard to the. courts of justice especially, the
most outrageous venality exists. This state of things
is favoured by the methods of procedure adopted in
the Russian courts. Oral pleading no longer exists.
Trial by jury has always been unknown. The pro-

204 THE LIFE AND REIGN
ceedings are entirely secret. The accused parties
are delivered, bound, to the tribunals, who dispose
of them according to their caprice, and without con
trol; The final decision is not with them, in general,
a question of right; it is an affair of interest and
speculation. There are a certain number of persons attached to
each court, who are called scribes or advocates, but
who are in fact nothing less than go-betweens of the
judges and the parties. These approach one of the
suitors, and make a bargain by which the first judg
ment is secured to him. The defeated party is then
applied to, and induced to appeal to a higher tribunal,
and his bribes gain a judgment in his favour in the
second court. . The defeated party is then taken in
hand, and he, by a similar process gains the third ap
peal. And thus the unhappy litigants are alternately
defrauded until either the emperor finaUy adjudi
cates the matter, or both parties are utterly ruined. ,
It cannot be denied, that one of the best fea
tures connected with the reign of Nicholas was his
attempts to punish and abolish this venality; and
whenever a case was brought clearly before him, ¦
and the guilt of the offenders was unquestionable,
he punished them with the most frightful severity.
Many high judges he has exiled for life to Siberia.
Peter the Great justly declared, that in cheatery, a

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 205
single Russian was a match for three Jews ! The
police in Russia are as corrupt as the other govern
ment officials. It is asserted that acknowledged
thieves possess, in St. Petersburg, perfect security
in the pursuit of their vocation. The police derive
such vast sums from their plunder that they dare
not arrest them, and would not on any account do
so, even if they dared.
To confirm these assertions respecting the state
of official society under Nicholas, let us adduce
several actual instances.
A reduced nobleman had been carrying on a law
suit for several years, when he was given to under
stand, from the secretary of the court, that unless
he paid ten thousand rubles ($2000) the decision
would be against him. The unfortunate man was
utterly unable to obtain any such sum ; and the
idea struck him to have recourse to Count Benken-*
dorf, the honest, to ascertain whether he could not
interfere in his behalf. He offered to furnish the
count with unquestionable proof of the venality
of the judge ; and for that purpose he proposed that
he should be intrusted with the ten thousand ru
bles; and he undertook that this sum should be
found on the person of the judge. Benkendorf
consented. The terror which the severity of Ni
cholas on official corruption had inspired into all
18

206 THE LIFE AND REIGN
classes of functionaries in Russia, had rendered
them exceedingly cautious and adroit; and in the
present case the judge proposed, in order to avoid
all danger, that the party paying the bribe should
invite him to a private dinner at a tavern, and there
pay over the amount. The proposition was acceded
to, and several officers of police were secretly sta
tioned near the apartment, for the purpose of arrest
ing the judge on retiring.
The judge was punctual to the appointment, and
as soon as he and the litigant were seated, he signi
fied by the movement of his fingers that now was
the time to pay over the money. He received the
roll of bank notes, carefully counted them over,
and then threw them into his hat. At this moment.
some one knocked. It was the judge's nephew,
who came with some message from his wife. The
* judge gave him an answer, and then bowed him
out. At the conclusion of the dinner, as he was
preparing to depart, and had put his hat on his
head, the poor noble gave the preconcerted signal,
and the policemen entered with an order from
Count Benkendorff for the arrest of the judge.
"Examine his hat," said the nobleman, "and you
will find the money in it." The judge smiled
blandly, and took off his hat : it was empty. When
the nephew retired he had taken up the judge's hat

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. '207
instead of his own. The poor noble consequently
not only lost his case, but was also compelled to re
fund the ten thousand rubles ; and was, moreover,
punished with a prosecution for defamation of cha
racter. The truth was, that the mercenary judge had re
ceived private information from the officer of Count
Benkendorf, of what was about to transpire. For
this information he obtained his share of the spoils.
Nicholas once adopted the expedient of increas
ing fourfold the salaries of the judges, with the
hope that they would thus be elevated above the
temptation to receive bribes. He therefore ordered
that their salaries should be paid in silver rubles,
and not in rubles of paper money. The conse
quence was quite different from what the czar had
anticipated. The judges thenceforth required that
the sums paid to them privately as bribes, should be *
counted in silver, and not in paper rubles.
The great peculiarity of Russian society under
Nicholas was the mania for ostentation. The Grand
Opera in St. Petersburg presents, in its audience,
the most brilliant and magnificent display ever seen
in any of the capitals of Europe. On being intro
duced to a Russian nobleman, his guest is taken
through his saloons, and having admired their splen
dour, the host exclaims, "This is yours." If the

208 THE LIFE AND REIGN
guest is fond of wine, the host tells him that in his
cellar are all the brands in the world, and that his
guest shall taste them all in turn.
The ladies of Russia are represented as being
every way superior to the sterner sex, and as indeed
possessing great attractiveness, and every charm
and grace. They are all conversant with the prin
cipal languages of Europe, and generally speak
French like natives. They possess the valuable art
of making their acquirements and accomplishments
effective. The greatest art, however, displayed by
the ladies of Russia is in the infinite resources of
their conversation; beyond all question the most
difficult of achievements, inasmuch as almost every
theme becomes dangerous under the suspicious des
potism of the czar. Shall they converse respecting
science ? It is a very tedious subject. ShaU they
speak of art ? It.is professional and commonplace.
Dare they touch upon histoiy or politics ? Beware !
a yawning and perilous abyss lies that way, and
men and women shudder to approach it. Under
these difficult and perplexing circumstances most
people would sit down in mute despair, and quietly
say nothing. Not so do the fair dames of Russia.
Their conversation is represented as exhibiting infi
nite tact, variety, sprightliness, and wit ; and their
society is described as being agreeable in the ex-

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 209
treme. Out of nothing, they adroitly weave a fas
cinating tissue of discourse, comprising a little, and
just enough, of every thing.
Gambling is a prevalent vice in Russia ; and the
havoc made by this reckless dissipation in the for
tunes of the improvident nobles, is frequently terri
ble and astounding. Their extravagance of living
is equally amazing. They frequently purchase To
kay wine for ten guineas a bottle; and give ten
thousand dollars for a Cashmere shawl, which they
sell, a few weeks afterward, for seven, or- even five
thousand. The amounts spent by the nobles for
cambric shirts, for perfumes, for essences, for jewels,
furs, and ornaments of various kinds, exceed belief.
The conversation of this class is usually confined
to three pre-eminently important subjects — cham
pagne, cards, and French actresses.
BT the higher functionaries of the government
are mercenary -and venal in the extreme, .the same
may be said of the lower order — the poUce. To
what has already been stated on this point, it may
be well to add several other facts, as illustrative of
the subject.
A Couiiand nobleman lost some silverware from
his plate-chest. Shortly afterward he saw the stolen
goods openly exhibited for sale in a silversmith's
shop-window. The owner examined the articles
18*

210 THE LIFE AND REIGN
closely. They bore his arms, and the initials of his
name. He called in a police officer, and stated the
facts. The silversmith affirmed that he had bought
the articles from another person, but offered to re
store the whole to the nobleman immediately. Here
the policeman interfered. He drew up a formal state
ment, and requested the owner to send to the office,
whither he himself took the stolen articles, some
other article from the chest, by which he could
prove his claim to the whole. The nobleman did
so. He sent the entire case to the poUce office, and
never saw any thing of any of the articles after
ward! Again : a German physician in St. Petersburg
desired to hire a coachman. One apphed for the
place just as his droschki was at the door. He
directed the man to mount, and drive up and down
the street, to know his skill. He did so, and was
accepted by the physician. The latter was then
called to dinner ; and, during this interval, the man
had disappeared with both horse and droschki.
The police were applied to. After six weeks the
horse and droschki were produced; but in so
.wretched a state, and the charges for their recovery
were so enormous, that the physician preferred to
leave his property in the hands of the officers of
public justice !

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 211
The all-pervading despotism of Nicholas has even
affected the changes of costume in his court. For
the purpose of adding to the magnificence of his
court receptions, he decreed that the ladies of the
court should wear a peculiar dress, a prominent por-
tion of which was the sarafan, a wide, open robe
without sleeves, under which is worn a full long-
sleeved gown. The sarafan is made of velvet, richly
embroidered with gold, and varying in the em
broidery according to the rank of the wearer. To
this must be added the kokoshnik, a kind of diadem,
resembling a crescent, with the points turned to
ward the back. This ornament is generally richly
set with pearls and precious stones, and from the
back descends a long and graceful veil. It gives to
each fair wearer the aspect and the bearing of a
queen. The Russian court receptions under the influence
of Nicholas I. are represented as having been splen
did in the extreme ; far superior to any thing to be
seen elsewhere in Europe. On entering the impe
rial palace, a blaze of magnificence bursts upon the
view, which words fail adequately to describe. The
rich paintings, the exquisite statuary, the innumer
able works of the choicest and rarest vertu, the bril
liant mirrors, the painted columns and mosaic ceil
ings, the superb uniforms, the elegant and graceful

212 THE LIFE AND REIGN
costumes, combined with the easy and fascinating
manners of both men and women, — all constituted
a dazzling and delightful vision, which is nowhere
surpassed, and probably not equalled, among aU the
courts of Europe.
Among the most distinguished men, whose talents
and reputation added lustre to the court of Nicholas,
the most eminent was Nesselrode. He has been well
known as one of the leading statesmen of Europe for
thirty years. He was born of German parents, who
had become Russian subjects; and arose from ob
scurity to high distinction only by the force of his
talents, and by that pliability and adroitness of cha
racter, which is the most " essential quality of the
courtier and the diplomatist.
The favourite nobleman of Nicholas was Count
Orloff, — he whose promptitude and energy were of
such essential service to the czar, at the time of the
insurrection at his accession, on the 26th of Decem
ber, 1825. The most remarkable circumstance con
nected with this prince is, that he is charged with
being the imperial poisoner; and with having re
moved from the world no less than four persons at
the desire of his stern master. These individuals
appear to have been Alexander I., General Die
bitsch, the Empress Elizabeth, wife of Alexander I.,
and the Grand Duke Constantine. How far these

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 213
horrid charges may be founded in truth, it is impos
sible to determine.
Prince Mentschikoff is one of the most distin
guished warriors and diplomatists of the Russian
court. He is a statesman and soldier of great expe
rience. It is somewhat singular, that as he was
that representative of the czar, who was employed
to convey to the sultan the insulting and extrava
gant demands, which occasioned the present war ;
so he was that one of the Russian generals who
has been most severely beaten, harrassed, and hum
bled, by the continued and triumphant successes of
the Allies.
Prince Paskiewitch, now very aged, infirm, and
broken down by a long career of toil and of glory,
reposes upon his laurels, and takes no longer any
share in the stirring events of the times. It was he,
who was so successful in crushing the power of
Persia and Turkey, in the wars which Nicholas
waged against those kingdoms, in the earlier period
of his reign. His military reputation is the highest
of any possessed by the distinguished military men
of Russia.
Prince Woronzof, the governor -general of
Southern Russia, possesses the second civil au
thority in the empire. He was educated in part in
England, being related to some members of the

214 THE LIFE AND REIGN
English nobility. He is characterized by the more
enlightened views which he entertains on the sub
ject of government; and uses his great authority
for the elevation and improvement of the vast terri
tory placed under his control. He resides at Odessa,
and the Crimea has flourished like a garden under
his fostering care. He served with much distinction
in the wars of 1812-14 against Napoleon I. He
is an experienced soldier and statesman, and de
servedly stood high in the estimation of the late
Czar Nicholas.*
* For further particulars respecting Prince Woronzof, see Ap
pendix, No. II.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 215

CHAPTER XVHL
THE PATRONAGE EXTENDED BY NICHOLAS TO THE FINE ARTS — THE
COURT THEATRE  THE OrERA — RUBINI  GARCIA — SONTAG — FANNY
ELSSLER  RACHEL  MEMBERS OF THE IMPERIAL FAMILY  THE EM
PRESS — ALEXANDER II.  THE GRAND DUKE CONSTANTINE — SPLENDID
MONUMENT ERECTED BY NICHOLAS TO THE MEMORY OF ALEXANDER I.
— NICHOLAS AN IMITATOR OF NAPOLEON I.
Sctthia, whether modern or ancient, has never
been a congenial home for the arts. As a race, the
Russians have never produced any artists of emi
nence; and though the nobles appreciate the pro
ductions of foreign artists, the works of vertu which
they possess, like their French mistresses, are all
imported from the other side of the Rhine.
The Emperor Nicholas, from his natural refine
ment of mind, and from his foreign travels, pos
sessed some appreciation of the arts, and of artists;
and hence we find that, during his reign, the most
eminent representatives of the arts were successively
invited to his capital, and received, as the reward of
their exertions, magnificent and lavish presents from
the imperial family.
The court theatre of St. Petersburg owes its exist

216 THE LIFE AND REIGN
ence to the munificent gallantry of the Emperor.
Nicholas. It was built by his express orders, as a,
birthday surprise for the- Archduchess Helena, wife
of the Grand Duke Michael, and was presented to
her, on the anniversary of her birth, by the czar.
It is termed the Michael's Theatre in honour of her
husband. During the progress of its erection, no
one suspected that it was to be a theatre ; inasmuch
as its exterior differs in no respect from that of the
elegant buildings adjacent to it. Though not the
largest, it is the most splendid theatre in St. Peters
burg. The appearance which it presents, when filled
by the court circle, is said to be magnificent in the
extreme. All its performances are in the French
language, and the company is Constantly renewed
by new recruits from Paris. Nicholas was a con
stant visitor at this theatre.
There is also a theatre in the capital — the Alex
ander, in which plays are* performed in the Russian
language, which Nicholas occasionally visited. In
the Stone Theatre, a building of colossal dimensions,
German and Russian operas are performed. There
is such a thing as a Russian opera in existence,
although its fame has never yet travelled beyond
the marshes of the Neva.
Nicholas on many occasions exhibited his appre
ciation of genuine art, by the patronage which he

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 217
extended to its most distinguished representatives
and interpreters, whom he invited to his capital. In
1844, by an express message from the czar, Rubini,
though then possessing but the tradition of his voice,
visited St. Petersburg, and was received and re
warded by the czar, with munificence. The same
may be said of the celebrated Garcia, at whose bene
fit, such a "flood of flowers fell around her on .the
stage, one bouquet of which, richly jewelled, came
from the imperial box, that they had to be carried
from the stage in large clothes-baskets. This was
in February, at a period of the year, when a single
rose costs twenty rubles at St. Petersburg. A for
tune may literaUy be said to have been thrown, on
that occasion, at the fair feet of the illustrious artist.
Nicholas ordained, for the encouragement of the
dramatic art, that an actor or actress who had served
twenty years in the theatres of the capital, should be
entitled to a pension for the remainder of his or her
life. This pension amounts to 4000 rubles per annum.
For artists of distinguished merit and personal re
spectability, Nicholas entertained very high esteem ;
and his conduct toward them was marked by the
greatest Uberality. Thus when Madame Sontag,
the illustrious German songstress, was residing at
his court in her quahty as ambassadress, and wife
of the Sardinian representative, Count Rossi, she
19

218 THE LIFE AND REIGN
took occasion to express to the czar her wish, that
her former instructress and friend, Madame Czecca,
might be invited to some, comfortable position in the
Russian capital. The emperor immediately sent
General Gedeonoff to Vienna, with orders to con
duct the lady to St. Petersburg. There she was
installed in the singing department as chief, with a
salary of 4000 rubles. But this was the least valua
ble portion of her appointment. Madam Czecca
was requested to give lessons in music to the Grand
Duchesses Olga and Alexandra, and to the daughter
of the Grand Duke Michael. The consequence was
that it became the fashion for the highest families,
to patronize the instructress of the fair Sontag ; and
her importance and pecuniary profits became pro
digious, not less than 20,000 rubles per annum. At
Leipsic she had toiled for five hundred thalers per
year, but a short time previously. Her single les
sons at St. Petersburg commanded twenty rubles,
per lesson, if she went abroad. On one occasion,
having appointed to give a lesson at the house of
the Countess Scheremitoff, she arrived a short time
after the appropriate hour.. She apologized hy saying,
that she was compelled to wait for a hackuey-coach.
Upon the day fixed for the next lesson, an elegant
carriage awaited her; and on her returning home in
it, the coachman bogged to know, where he should

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 219
put it up? Two lines from the liberal countess
begged her musical friend to accept of it, as a
trifling present from herself.
During the residence of the Countess de Rossi at
the court of St. Petersburg, Nicholas displayed his
appreciation of her exalted merits as an artist, by
uniting in the general and urgent request of the
court, that she should throw aside the" trammels of
her official and diplomatic rank, and sing before a "
select audience composed of the highest aristocracy
of the capital. She did so, to the intensest gratifica
tion and.'delight of her distinguished audience.
When the celebrated pianist Liszt visited St.
Petersburg, the emperor attended all the twelve
concerts which he gave in that city. The whole
court, the highest nobility, and all the distinguished
men of the capital, following the example of the
sovereign, crowded his concert-room; and the re
ceipts for a single night amounted to 20,000 rubles.
He received many pieces of jewelry from the em
peror, as testimonials of his admiration of the artist.
The great representatives of all the various depart
ments of. the arts, have received patronage, equally
partial and profitable, from the czar. When the
great queen of the Terpsichorean art,, Fanny Elssler,
appeared in St. Petersburg, -she was treated with
marked consideration by 'the czar, who fully appre-

220 THE LIFE AND REIGN
ciated the extraordinary skill, and unequalled grace,
which characterized her performances, especiaUy at a
period when she was in the meridian of her powers.
Nicholas has also honoured tragedy, in the person
of its most illustrious representative, Mademoiselle
Rachel. The first occasion on which he beheld
the performance of this great artist, was while on a
visit with the empress to Berlin. Mile. Rachel was
requested to perform before the imperial and royal
families at the lie des paons. The soft green turf
formed the only stage, in this beautiful and retired
spot, which was in the vicinity of the palaces of
Potsdam. The audience were placed on a few ele
gant fauteuils arranged in front of the actress. At
length the emperor advances, and familiarly address
ing the great actress, compliments her on her fame
and her abilities; and placing his chair nearer to
her, said, "I have requested this performance here,
in order that I might have a nearer view of you,
than on the stage." She performed the part of Vir-
ginie ; and so charmed was Nicholas then with her
performance, that he extended to Rachel an invita
tion to visit St. Petersburg. On the following day,
Count Orloff brought from him a magnificent brooch,
valued at thirty thousand francs, as a gift to the
tragedienne, and as a token of his admiration of
her abilities.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 221
In November, 1852, in accordance with the invi
tation of Nicholas, Mile Rachel visited St. Peters
burg. The czar did not disappoint the expecta
tions which he had led the artist to entertain. She
gave twenty representations in the Russian capital,
most of which were attended by the imperial family
and by the court. *The receipts for these twenty
performances are said to have been over 200,000
francs. On the evening of the Russian fSte of St.
Catherine, she was invited to perform at the palace
of the Grand Duchess Helena, at which the whole
of the imperial family were present. Afterward, at
the special request of Nicholas, she performed in
the "Winter Palace, at a soiree, at which the entire
court attended.
It is indeed in connection with his patronage
of art, and his attachment to his family, that the
most pleasing and attractive qualities of the Czar
Nicholas appear. In these displays he seems no
longer the terrible despot, the unsympathizing mag
nate of a vast empire ; he then stands forth with
an agreeable visage, as a man, susceptible of human
feelings and attachments.
The members of the family of Nicholas were, in
general, princes and princesses of merit. The em
press, his wife, was a daughter of the beautiful but
afflicted Queen Louisa of Prussia, whose gentle spirit
19*

222 THE LIFE AND REIGN
was broken and outraged by the brutality of Napo
leon, when the battle of Jena placed the sovereignty
of the house of Brandenburg beneath his iron foot.
The Russian empress was handsome in form and fea
ture, though somewhat cold and reserved in her man
ners. She was tall and slender in person ; but for
many years suffered under a nervous disease. The
czar had four sons and two daughters. The eldest son
is Alexander H., the present Czar of all the Russias.
He is represented as being a person of amiable
temper and pleasing address ; but he has been de
scribed, whether truly or not is uncertain, as being
weak-minded, and even partially deranged. It may
be the fact, that the vast anxieties and cares which
he has inherited with his throne, in the conduct
of the disastrous war in the East, may have proved
too much for a mind of ordinary, or perhaps of in
ferior, calibre. It is certain, however, that his bro
ther, the Grand Duke Constantine, is a person of
very different temper and disposition. He is next
in the succession after the present czar, should the
latter die without issue. He resembles his uncle-,
the late Grand Duke Constantine, in the stern quar
lities and warlike nature of his disposition. Once
the present czar, Alexander, remarked in his hear
ing, that "the charge of ruling a nation was a very
burdensome one." Constantine immediately re-

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 223
plied with energy, "B: you have nothing else to
trouble you, speak the word, brother, and I will re
lieve you of that charge." It is certain that if Con
stantine ever succeeds to the throne of the Czars,
he will reign with a rod of iron over the milhons
who will have become subject to his power.
As an evidence of the attachment borne by Ni
cholas to the memory of his brother, Alexander I.,
we may refer to the magnificent column erected by
him in honour of the latter in St. Petersburg.
This immense shaft is the largest in the world.
It was elevated on its pedestal on St. Alexander
Newsky's day, October 30, 1832, in the presence of
the imperial family, the nobility, the citizens, and a
vast concourse of strangers. It was placed in the
large square in front of the Winter Palace of the {
emperor. This superb monument is of red granite,
the pedestal of which is forty feet high. The shaft,
which consists of a single piece, is eighty-five feet
in length, and twelve feet in diameter at the top.
The column supports a colossal bronze statue, repre
senting an angel holding a cross. The statue, in
cluding its pedestal and the capital of the column,
is thirty-five feet high. The height of the whole
monument, from the ground to the top of the statue,
is one hundred and sixty feet. The stone for this
stupendous monument was brought from Finland,

224 THE LIFE AND REIGN
and transported to St. Petersburg in a ship built for
that express purpose. The inclined plane on which
the shaft was rolled from the Neva to its present
site, contained a forest of wood, which alone cost
$200,000. The column was raised to its position on
its pedestal by means of sixty capstans, manned by
twenty-five hundred of the veteran soldiers of Alex
ander I., who had served under him in his most
glorious campaigns. Each of these veterans was
decorated with a badge of honour. The difficult
task of its elevation was accomplished by the en
gineers of Nicholas without the slightest accident,
in the presence of an immense multitude, who pre
served the silence of the grave while the shaft was
ascending to its resting-place ; but whose acclama
tions seemed to shake the earth, and rend the sky,
after the work had been completed.
It was a peculiar and undisputed characteristic
of Nicholas, that he entertained intense admiration
for Napoleon I., and was, in fact, a servile imitator
of that great man, as far as it was possible for him
to be so.
The reader will have observed, that from the
commencement of his reign, in all his wars, Nicho
las had been victorious; that in every conspiracy
he had been triumphant over his enemies ; that by
diplomacy, as well as by conquest, he had uniformly

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 225
obtained all that his politic ambition had induced
him to demand. During his first war with Turkey,
he had lost 200,000 men by famine and disease, and
by the incapacity of General Diebitsch ; and yet he
had concluded the treaty of Adrianople, by which
he had obtained the most humiliating and disas
trous concessions from the sultan. It was not very
singular, therefore, that Nicholas should imagine
himself to have been a great hero; and that his
uniform successes should have induced him to in
dulge the belief that these, coupled with his vast
inherited power, rendered him, in some measure,
the equal of the ambitious and successful Corsican.
The power wielded by Nicholas I. was certainly not '
much inferior to that acquired by Napoleon ; but in
the qualities of his mind, though he was by no
means an ordinary man, the Russian potentate falls
far below that most gifted and extraordinary per
sonage, either of ancient or modern times.

226 THE LIFE AND REIGN

CHAPTER XIX.
THE TWO GREAT MERITS IN THE CHARACTER OF NICHOLAS I. — INCI-
N DENTS ILLUSTRATIVE OF THEM — THE RUSSIAN CODE OF LAWS — CON
SPIRACY AGAINST THE LIFE OF NICHOLA8  BENEVOLENCE OF THE
CZAR — HIS INTREPID CONDUCT DURING THE PREVALENCE OF THE
CHOLERA — HIS DESPOTIC CONDUCT AS A SOVEREIGN.
The chief administrative merits which the ad
vocates of Nicholas can claim in his behalf are
two. The first of these is that he has attempted,
in many instances, to punish and suppress the
disgraceful venality, dishonesty, and corruption,
which so universally and shamefully prevail among
the officials of the government throughout the
whole empire.
Thus, on one occasion, he resolved to examine
thoroughly into the extent of this evil; and ap
pointed two intelligent persons belonging to his
staff of secretaries — Germans from Courland,* in
whose integrity he seemed to have confidence — to
investigate every branch of the public service;
boldly to sound the hidden depths of this foul ocean
of corruption, and to reveal them to him. The
task was begun. It was a difficult one, and thou-

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 227
sands of impediments were thrown in the way of
the commission. But they persevered, until they
accomplished the work, as far as it could possibly
be done. The spectacle then exhibited to the
gaze of the czar was indeed a horrible one. In
stances of bribery, shuffling, and dishonesty, were
pointed out to him, even among his highest offi
cials. Names were freely given ; proofs were offered
in abundance-
Yet the punishment of so many, and of such
high personages, ,was, of course, out of the ques
tion. The vengeance of the czar would have fallen
upon the noblest and most exalted heads in the em
pire. He knew not what to do. To live in ihe
midst of such conscious corruption was horrible ;
yet to remove it was impossible. In despair, the
czar threw the report of the commission into the
fire. The same evening, burdened by his gloomy re
flections, he went to the house of his favourite mi
nister, Count Nesselrode. He exhibited, in his
gloomy air, evidence that something disagreeable
operated upon his spirits. The keen courtier soon
discovered the state of the czar's mind; and he
took the Uberty of inquiring what was the cause of
his sadness; In reply, Nicholas briefly narrated the
results of the investigation of the commission, and

228 THE LIFE AND REIGN
then exclaimed, with indignation, "Everybody
robs throughout the empire ! Every one around
me robs ! In whatever direction I turn my eyes, I
see nothing but pilferers and robbers! There is
only one person, a single person, who can walk
proudly erect in conscious innocence. Of this per
son, at least, I am sure."
Count Nesselrode of course imagined that the
czar referred to himself, and, at once -appropriating
the comphment, bowed himself almost to the earth,
and was preparing to thank the czar for so great
evidence of his consideration, when the latter re
sumed, striking his breast at the same moment,
"Don't trouble yourself; that person who does not
rob is myself! I am the only person throughout my
whole empire, who does not steal !" ^
The other favourable feature in the administra
tion of Nicholas, was his exertions, on several occa
sions, to benefit the condition of the serfs, through
out his empire.
By the provisions of the Russian code, the con
dition of the serfs is a very degraded one ; and the
reality fully carries out the theory of the law. By
Article 964 of that code, it is enacted, that "a
nobleman has the right of imposing on his serfs all
kinds of work, and pecuniary, personal, and other
fines. He has the right of making his serf change

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 229
his condition as a servant for that of an agricultural
labourer, or that of an agricultural labourer for that
of a servant, or of putting him out to service at a
stranger's." Article 965 enacts, that " the master determines
all differences without appeal. To keep his slaves
in a state of the most passive obedience, he has the
right of employing all means of correction, and
whatever unusual punishments he may deem neces
sary. He can even send them to Siberia, accom
panied by their wives and children, under six years
for the males, and ten years for the females. He
has the right of transporting the whole or part of
his slaves from one estate to another ; that is to say,
from north to south, from east to west, and vice
versa. For this removal, the boyards must pay the
crown for a permit."
Article 950 reads thus : "Ha serf, contrary to the
obedience which he owes his master, takes the
liberty of preferring against the latter an unau
thorized complaint, and especially if he, dares to
make it to the emperor himself, he shall, as suppli
cant and author of the complaint, be punished with
the utmost rigour of the laws."
Such are some of the enormities, protected by
law, which exist in Russia, against the rights of
forty millions of human beings. In 1839, great ex-
20

230 THE LIFE AND REIGN
citement was caused throughout the empire, by the
report that Nicholas had determined to enfranchise
the serfs? The nobles, whose entire wealth, in many
instances, consisted in their slaves, were thrown
into the greatest consternation ; and the threatened
poverty and ruin which seemed to overhang the
higher orders of the nation, were about to cause the
outbreak of a formidable revolution against the hfe
of the czar ; when suddenly a ukase appeared.
It contained a clause wliich decreed, that here
after every farming lease or other contract which was
made and executed between a noble and his serf,
should be binding on the noble, as well as on the
serf. This was granting something of importance ; for,
previous to this decree, the serf possessed no right
whatever, to contract in any way, either with his
master, or with any one else. But it is said, that
after all, this provision did not amount to a great
deal; because the ukase did not provide any means ,
whereby to enforce the execution of contracts, on
the part of the nobles. Accordingly, the serfs soon
came to regard the ukase as a dead letter ; and re
fused to enter into contracts with their owners, as
long as there was no certainty or security of their
execution. The ukase, at its first publication, was
regarded as a matter of vast moment. Afterward it

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 231
was treated as a nullity, by both the parties whose
interests it affected. In fact the mountain had
laboured, but it had brought forth a mouse !
The spirit of discontent among the nobles and
aristocracy of the empire, which the action of Ni
cholas respecting the serfs, had generated, was not
allayed; but from the year 1839, that spirit con
tinued secretly and cautiously to grow, and was
only prevented from immediately bursting forth, by
the great dread which the well-known intrepidity,
and the terrible vindictiveness, of the czar conti
nually inspired.
The conspirators carried on their designs in the
greatest secresy. On one occasion the leaders as
sembled at Baden-Baden, in Germany ; and there,
under the pretence of improving their health, they
held frequent meetings. This conspiracy comprised
among its members, high officers of state, generals of
distinction in the army, senators, and men of letters.
. They gave the czar a nickname, — and not the most
complimentary one, — in order that they might speak
in reference to him with less danger. In 1840, the
feeUng of jealousy among the ancient aristocracy or
higher Russian nobility grew so strong, that the
death of the czar had then been resolved upon.
But still, the conspirators were not sufficiently des
perate or resolute, at that time, to execute the

232 THE LIFE AND REIGN
bloody and fearful deed. Their plan was, however,
that when Nicholas was assassinated, they would
compel Alexander IL, his successor and son, to
sign an act of indemnity, and to grant a constitu
tion to his subjects, by which the colossal power of
the czar might be curbed and diminished. From
the year 1839 to 1848, Nicholas, who was fully
aware of this state of feeling among the nobles, fre
quently and defiantly threw down the gauntlet to
them, and treated them with the greatest disdain
and contempt. He seemed to wish to make them
more desperate, and to drive them to extremities.
He wounded their pride, by opening the university
and the public schools, and the branches of the ad
ministration, to all suitable persons, whether they
were noblemen, or tradesmen, or emancipated serfs.
During nine years, he may be said to have lived in
continual danger. People who knew the real facts,
expected every day to hear of the violent death of
the czar. Two hostile parties stood facing each
other; and the moment of the outbreak was un
known. These were the feudal nobility, jealous of
the great power of the Romanoffs, who had been
elected originally from among themselves, to the
dignity of the czarship, and who were therefore, in
one sense, only primi inter pares. The other party
was the vast and powerful order of the Tchinn, or

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 233
the official dignitaries throughout the empire, both
in the army, the navy, the church, and in the civil
government. At the top of this vast and towering
pyramid, Nicholas himself stood, having the sole
appointing power, and every member of it being
his own creature. Many of the principal foreigners
at St. Petersburg, during this interval, had so posi
tively expected the outbreak of the revolution, that
they had taken measures of escaping into Finland.
They introduced the use of decked boats on the
Neva, and of boating clubs ; so that under the pre
tence of learning how to manage their craft, they
had opportunities of becoming familiar with the
navigation about Cronstadt, and the islands which
Ue near the coast of Finland, in order that they
might on some sudden and terrible emergency,
reach that country in safety.
Accordingly, two opposite sentiments existed
throughout the empire, in reference to Nicholas.
The serfs and the lower orders esteemed him as
their friend, as far as the nature of existing circum
stances would permit. The nobility regarded him
with dislike, although they carefully concealed
their feehngs. But they looked upon him as one
of themselves, who had been elevated merely by
accident above them, and invested with a pro
digious degree of power, which made him the abso-
20*

234 THE LIFE AND REIGN
lute master of their lives and fortunes ; and which
power he exercised with insulting hauteur and se
verity. At length, in 1848, two causes succeeded in sup
pressing the spirit of revolt against the life and
throne of Nicholas, which, for nine years, had
lurked throughout the empire. These w'ere first,
the intrepid character of the czar, and his military
success in Persia, Turkey, Poland, and Hungary;
the second, was the outbreak of the sociahstic re
volutions in Western Europe, in that year. The
nobles of Russia thought that, if such results fol
lowed the spirit of reform and revolution, as it
at that time existed and operated throughout Eu
rope, their effect- in Russia would be as disastrous
to the interests of the aristocracy, as it would be to
the monarchy; and they permitted their schemes
gradually to die out. What the consequences of a
revolution against Nicholas would have been, it
would be difficult to say. It is certain, however,
that he would have presented a vastly more for
midable resistance to the aerents of revolt than
O
any of his imbecile ancestors had ever done ; and
that, after a most terrible and desperate struggle,
he would have resigned bis throne and empire only
with his life.
There were some traits of paternal benevolence

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 235
in the conduct of Nicholas, which it would be
unjust to his memory to suppress. On one occa
sion, a young officer, of high and illustrious fa
mily, lost all his patrimony by gambling. He had
even lost the money belonging to his regiment,
which he had in his custody. Four alternatives
alone remained upon this consummation of his
ruin. These were either suicide, degradation from
his rank, Siberia, or recourse to the emperor. He
resolved upon the last. He went to the palace, and
confided his situation and request to an aide-de
camp of Nicholas, who conveyed them to the czar.
As soon as the latter heard the facts he exclaimed,
" Enough ! enough ! do not" pronounce his name,
for if I knew it I ought to punish him." Then
opening a drawer in his bureau, he took out 30,000
rubles, and handed them to his aide-de-camp, say
ing, " There, give him that, and never let the* mat
ter be mentioned to me again."
A singular circumstance is also related in refer
ence to Nicholas, which would seem to imply that
he was a blind believer in' destiny or in fate. Every
morning all the letters wliich had arrived in the
post were brought to his cabinet. They were then
opened and examined in his presence by his secre
taries ; he never touched one of them himself.
Many of the letters, whose contents were deemed

236 THE LIFE AND REIGN
trivial, were thrown aside by these functionaries;
the more important ones alone were submitted to
the attention of the czar.
One day, while thus engaged, the czar rose to
look for a private paper lying in his bureau. He
could not, for some minutes, find it, and became
quite impatient. During all this interval, to each
of the letters read by his secretary, he answered —
Refused. At length, having found the paper for
which he was searching, he answered to every one
of the letters which followed — Granted.
When the task was concluded the secretary
said, "Will your majesty permit me to make an
observation?" "Certainly; what is it?" "Just
now your majesty was looking for a paper, and
while so doing you refused some dozen petitions
Will your majesty permit me to read them
again?" "No: I refused to grant them; — it was
the will of God. It was fated so to happen. I
have no doubt I decided them rightly; and I main
tain what I have done !"
During 1848, when the cholera again visited St.
Petersburg, Nicholas displayed the utmost intre
pidity. Two or three thousand victims fell every
day beneath the power of the scourge. The em
peror did not fly, although in four days, applications
were made for eighty thousand passports. The city

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 237
became deserted. Out of 450,000 inhabitants 100,000
alone remained. The streets were strewed with
corpses, and encumbered with dying persons.
Nicholas traversed the city on foot, accompanied
by one aide-de-camp; visited the hospitals and the
barracks, and displayed the utmost intrepidity in
assisting his afflicted subjects.
But notwitstanding these favourable traits, on
the subject of political freedom he was an un
mitigated tyrant. The following incident will
add another to the innumerable proofs already in
existence in support of this assertion.
By his orders, the letters of all foreigners, re
siding in Russia, were invariably opened by the
police, and their contents were reported to him, if
important. Some years since, a French officer
of distinction visited St. Petersburg. He had
been in the capital about two weeks, going
everywhere and seeing every thing, when, one
morning, a police officer suddenly entered his
apartment, and asked if he had the honour of
addressing Monsieur V. ? Being answered in the
affirmative, the officer continued: "The Emperor
of Russia, having learned indirectly that "you
carry on an active correspondence with your re
lations in Paris, in which you express, rather
freely, your unfavourable opinion of affairs in

238 THE LIFE AND REIGN
Russia, charges me to inform you, that as your
letters might be lost upon the road, he thinks it
more prudent for you to take them yourself.
Here are your letters; a carriage and horses
await you at the door. In two hours you will
have your trunks packed, and we will set out."
The Frenchman, perceiving the ironical tone of
the officer, instantly, and with great presence of
mind, imitated it, and said, "His majesty only
anticipates my own wishes. I was on the point
of leaving his dominions ; my only regret wiU be,
that I shall leave without having had the pleasure
of seeing the czar." "For that matter," continued
the officer, " while we are preparing your trunks, I
will send to learn his majesty's orders." He in
stantly wrote a note to the palace, and sent it by a
Cossack in attendance. In half an hour the Cos
sack returned. The czar had written two lines at
the bottom of the note : " Granted ; to-morrow at
ten, in the Michael Riding School." On the mor
row, the police officer returned with a carriage ; the
baggage was stowed away, and the Frenchman and
officer entered. The carriage was driven to the
riding-school. There the Frenchman saw the czar
inspecting a regiment of infantry. The review
being ended, the former was rapidly driven from
the capital to the frontier; and there deposited in

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 239
the middle of the road, together with his baggage,
at one o'clock in the morning, in the coldest wea
ther of winter. The police officer then said, that his
Russian majesty had only undertaken the responsi
bility of conveying Mons. V. to the frontiers of his
own dominions ; the King of Prussia must now see
that Mons. V. was conveyed farther toward Paris !
The Russian officer immediately drove off, and re
turned to St. Petersburg, leaving the Frenchman
in his disagreeable position. The latter might, in
truth, have vehemently congratulated himself, that
he had escaped with so lenient a punishment, for
the rash utterance of his republican sentiments, in
the dominions of the despotic czar.

240 THE LIFE AND REIGN

CHAPTER XX.
THE PECULIAR TALENT POSSESSED BY NICHOLAS — HIS FAVOURITE
MINISTERS  COUNT KLEINMICHEL — COUNT KAKOSHKINE — THE
THIEVISH NOBLEMAN  PRINCE TCHERNICHEF  HATRED OF NICHO
LAS TO LOUIS PHILIPPE  THE IMPERIAL NURSERY  THE DUKE
OF LEUCHTENSTEIN  CONDUCT OF NICHOLAS TOWARD THE CITY OF
ABO  LIBRARY OF THE IMPERIAL PALACE  THE CENSORSHIP OF THE
PRESS— ABSOLUTISM SOMETIMES USEFUL IN- RUSSIA.
There are some writers who assert, that Nicho
las I. was the ablest sovereign who has wielded the
sceptre of the czars since the reign of Peter the
Great. This opinion is absurd; because it must
not be forgotten that' the mighty and comprehen
sive genius of Catherine H. occupied and filled that
dizzy and dangerous eminence, with a degree of
success and triumph which far surpass any thing of
which Nicholas, in his most presumptuous mood,
could ever boast.
Nevertheless, Nicholas was a man of signal
ability, in one peculiar department of the science
of government, though that department is by no
means the highest or the most difficult. His ad
ministrative talents were very great; and the plain,
clear, and sagacious common-sense which he pos-

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 241
sessed, — combined with his unyielding pertinacity,
obstinacy, and self-confidence, — enabled him, dur
ing the progress of his long reign of thirty years,
not only to carry forward his vast plans of ag
gression against his weaker neighbours, but also
to introduce the utmost uniformity, order, and
regularity into the administration of every por
tion of his heterogeneous empire. Hence it is
that he has, with considerable truth, been termed
the first policeman of his empire, and the first
drill-sergeant of his army. During his reign, the
commerce of Russia has been greatly increased.
The arts have been fostered and encouraged.
Public order and credit have been maintained.
Civilization has advanced and extended among
the lower, as well as among the higher, classes
of his subjects; so that the stigma of "Russian
barbarism," which was once so universally applied
to that empire, is now scarcely an appropriate epi
thet in reference to any considerable portion of its
present inhabitants.
Many of the evils which attended the reign of
Nicholas 'were attributable, not so much to any
defect of character in the sovereign, as to the
worthlessness of many of his most eminent and
influential servants, who successfully blinded their
master as to their own real turpitude. One of the
¦ 21

242 THE LIFE AND REIGN
most reprehensible of these was Count Klein
michel; who is represented as being a person of
the most degraded character, yet who possessed,
for many years, the confidence of the czar. This
man obtained and held his post, by bowing most
obsequiously to the imperial will; by pandering
industriously to the pleasures of the monarch ; and
by the total absence of all honour and scruple in
his execution of the wishes of his despotic master.
The author of an able work on Russia,* in speak
ing of this nobleman, narrates the following inci
dent. It may be thought that the emperor was
deceived in this man's character. Scarcely can this
be so. Kleinmichel, as he rose in influence, bit
terly resented some insult which he had received
from Paskiewitch. Afterward, on the elevation
of the latter to the rank of field-marshal, and
to the highest of the fourteen classes of no
bility, {the Tchinn,) he came to St. Petersburg.
According to etiquette, it became the duty of
Kleinmichel to call on Paskiewitch ; and Nicholas,
in a familiar conversation with his favourite, re
minded him of that duty. Kleinmichel imme
diately replied, that he had already called on the
field-marshal that veiy morning. As Kleinmichel
* Eastern Europe, vol. iii. p. 47.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 243
was taking his leave, however, Paskiewitch entered
the imperial apartment; and during the conversa
tion which ensued, the fact came out, that the fa
vourite had not yet visited Paskiewitch. Nicholas
instantly sent for Kleinmichel; demanded an ex
planation ; and the latter, at otice discovering that
he had been detected in falsehood, humbly replied,
"Vinabat, I have erred." Nicholas ordered him
under arrest for several days, and then received
him again into his full favour and confidence.
This expression, vinabat, seemed to have been a
favourite with this nobleman; for when secretary
to Arakchieff, the founder of the celebrated, but
unsuccessful, military colonies of the czar, an im
portant document was lost, which had been con
fided to the keeping of Kleinmichel. The anger
of Arakchieff was intensely aroused; he fiercely
abused Kleinmichel, and then commanding him to
come nearer, he spat into his face. Kleinmichel
bowed his head, calmly wiped his insulted vis
age, and said, with the utmost humility, "Vina
bat!" Another favourite of the Emperor Nicholas was
Count Kakoshkine, chief of the civil police office.
The following authentic incident, in this man's
life, will indicate his true character. A very re
spectable Pole had the sum of ten thousand ru-

244 THE LIFE AND REIGN
blcs stolen from his private drawer, which the thief
had broken open. The latter was on good terms
with the police, and the produce of the robbery
was divided between them. The thief then
brought an accusation against the loser of the
money; and both — the accuser and the accused-
were imprisoned on their respective charges. In
a few days the thief was released; but the Pole
was detained in prison for a whole year, without
being able to obtain a trial. At length, after ex
traordinary exertions, the ease was examined hy
the judge of the district. The poUce then in
formed the Pole, that the man who committed the
robbery was dead j and he was then himself dis
charged on bail, without being able to find any
trace of his lost money ; but discharged in such a
conditional way, that he was liable to be re-arrested
at any moment, in case he made an inconvenient
noise upon the subject. Such is Russian justice in
a great majority of cases !
We may cite another instance. Among the per;
sons who frequented the chief market of St. Pe
tersburg, was a nobleman, who had contracted a
constant habit of pilfering. In one of the booths of
the market, a young woman vended a pecuUar and
attractive style of handkerchief. The shopkeeper
soon began to find, that her stock of these hand-

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 245
kerchiefs mysteriously disappeared. Her opposite
neighbour — an honest countryman, who sold pro
visions — gave her to understand that he knew
what became of her goods. From his position,
across the street, he had seen this nobleman se
creting these handkerchiefs under the ample folds
of his garment. The countryman informed the
shopkeeper of this fact. The latter exclaimed,
" He is a prince ! Say no more about it ! We
will only get into trouble!" "I not speak?"
answered the farmer. "But I will speak. I will
see if there is any justice in Russia!" Accord
ingly, the next time the noble made his appear
ance, the farmer watched him ; and as soon as be
had secreted another handkerchief, the farmer came
forward, denounced the thief, and pulled forth from
the place of its concealment the stolen article.
The affair, which had excited the attention of the
crowd, had become too public to be entirely over
looked. Accotdingly, the thief and his accuser
retired with the police to the place of hearing.
The witness briefly stated what he had seen, and
was then dismissed to his shop. Three days after
ward the farmer disappeared, and was never seen
again; and in a few days more, the young wo
man, whose goods had been stolen by this titled
and polished robber, shared a similarly myste-
21*

246 THE LIFE AND REIGN
rious fate. This event occurred in the capital
itself, and not in some distant and ill-governed
province, where the sources of justice were, remote^
but where the minister of police, and even the sove
reign himself, were easily accessible.
A third favourite of Nicholas was Prince Tcherni-
chef, the minister of war. This man, when very
young, first obtained distinction, as an attache of
the Russian legation at Paris, in 1812. He dis
covered beforehand the meditated invasion of Russia
by Napoleon; and through the treachery of four
Jews connected with the foreign ' office in Paris, he
succeeded in obtaining a plan of the campaign, with
which invaluable treasure he instantly started for
St. Petersburg.
He was a relative of that Tcherniehefi who was
implicated in the conspiracy against Nicholas at the
period of his accession ; and after the punishment of
that offender, the czar desired that the favourite
should be put in possession of his forfeited estates.
Accordingly, the sovereign requested the mother
of the culprit to adopt his namesake. The lady
replied, that she would willingly receive him as an
aide-de-camp of her emperor, but could never regard
him as a relative. During the Polish war, Tcherni-
chef was the undoubted cause of the failure of
General Diebitsch, in his movements and conflicts

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 247
with the heroic Poles. Tchernichef was the per
sonal enemy of Diebitsch; and as minister of war
he succeeded in thwarting all the wisest and ablest
efforts of that general. He withheld from him the
necessary reinforcements; both of men and of pro
visions, at the most critical and important moments.
He was in fact the cause of the total discomfiture of
Diebitsch, of his grievous mortifications, and even
tually even of his death ; which was either produced
directly by poison, administered by Count Orloff at
his instance, or by the drunkenness which was
superinduced by his despair. General Diebitsch
represented the German faction in the court and
capital. General Paskiewitch was the head of the
Russian. They were men of equal talent and expe
rience. But the career of the one was cut off
prematurely in the midst of disgrace and ignominy,
by the deadly agency of malice invested with power;
while the glory of the other was enhanced and pro
longed, by the fortunate possession of official favour
and* influence, in its nature equally partial and unde
served. One of the peculiarities of Nicholas was his un
flinching hostility to France. While he admired
the martial traits of the character of the great Napo
leon, he hated the French court and nation with a
"perfect hatred;" and never forgave the miseries

248 THE LIFE AND REIGN
and indignities formerly heaped upon Russia, by the
French conqueror and his countrymen. On the
accession of Louis Philippe, it required aU the in
fluence of Nesselrode* to restrain the czar from

* The following remarks on the life of the celebrated Prince Nessel
rode, so long the prime minister of Nicholas, may interest the reader:
Golovine tells us that he was born within sight of Lisbon, on board
an English ship, of German parents in the Russian service ; for which
reason he ironically observes that four powers might claim the glory
of possessing him among their subjects. He was first remarked at
the time of the Russian mission to the French First Consul, and ele
vated to power during the invasion of Russia in 1812 ; and having so
long presided over the policy of a vast and ambitious empire, he
is ranked in general estimation throughout Europe among cabinet
celebrities with Talleyrand and Metternich. Nevertheless, says
that author, between the astuteness and talent of Metternich and
Nesselrode, and the power which each has exercised, there lies a
world of difference. While Metternich has governed, and governs,
an empire like a sovereign, Nesselrode has never been more than the
chief of his department. The knowledge acquired by a hard-work
ing minister, during more than a quarter of a century, of all the
tortuous secrets of his cabinet, and treasured by a retentive memory,
have made him too valuable a servitor to discard ; particularly when
adding, as he does, to this qualification a, perfect pliancy to the will
of his master.
Among the other favourites of Nicholas, Count Orloff held a promi
nent place. There is a mistaken notion in the minds of many, that
Count Orloff, the friend and confidant of the emperor, was the grand
son of the conspirator Gregory Orloff, the favourite of Catherine II.,
and one of the principal actors in the terrible tragedy of Peter III. ;
and the name being thus associated with treason- and murder, it is
easy to imagine the effect produced on those who are not correctly
informed on the subject.
The present Orloff, of whom we have heard so much, was not the
grandson of Count Gregory Orloff, but a son of Count Foe'dor Grigorie'-
vitch, a younger brother of the former, who died at Moscow in 1796,

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 249
sending to the French king a letter so insulting,
that it would have immediately produced a war
between the two countries. As it was, the missive
of Nicholas to Louis Philippe, acknowledging his
accession to the throne, was exceedingly haughty in
its style, and deficient even in the usual expressions
of formal courtesy. The letter of the French mon
arch to Nicholas, began with the friendly and cus
tomary phrase between sovereigns: Monsieur mon
Frere, (Sir, my Brother.) In his reply, Nicholas
omitted these words; and the whole tone of the
communication was sarcastic and contemptuous in
the extreme. Vet Louis Philippe had the good
sense to overlook the irritating conduct of the czar,
in order to secure to France the blessings of peace.
Even with regard to the domestic character of
Nicholas, in reference to which, it might be sup
posed, there could be no difference of opinion,

without any legitimate heirs, but leaving several natural children, who
were ennobled by Catherine, the name of Orloff being also conferred
on them. The present Count Alexis Foedorovitch Orloff was born in
1787, and early obtained promotion in the army. In 1825, he was
the first to hasten to the place of the Winter Palace, with his five
regiments of horse-guards, on the day of revolt; and this important
service laid the foundation of the favour he has since enjoyed. He is
" said by many to combine with superior intelligence, great firmness of
mind, and the most honourable character ; and, in that case, we may
believe that he would treat lightly the title of poisoner which slander
has attempted to attach to his name.

250 THE LIFE AND REIGN
conflicting sentiments really exist. It is generally
supposed that he was a most excellent father and
husband. A recent traveller, speaking of the im
perial palace at St. Petersburg, describes what he
saw of the nursery of the Grand Duke, now the
Czar, Alexander. In 1841, he was married to a
princess of Hesse ; and four sons are the fruit of
their union. In the imperial nursery, these chil
dren were at play. It was a large, lofty, and hand
some room, containing little furniture*, but filled
with all kinds of toys, — carts, hobby-horses, sentry-
boxes, wheels, soldiers, sledges, and every thing
which could interest the youthful princes. The
emperor Nicholas was .present; and the deep in
terest which he displayed in the sports and noisy
diversions of the children, indicated the possession
of a degree of sympathy and pleasure in the amuse
ments of his grandchildren, which was highly credit
able to the sovereign.
On the other hand, his domestic despotism is said
to have been as absolute as his political. He regu
lated the dress, occupation, visits, and every thing
connected with the imperial family, with the utmost
rigour and minuteness, as if the palace was a
barrack. He kept the empress in a continual state
of representation ; compelling her to endure a con
stant and wearisome round of stately ceremonies.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 251
The Duke of Leuchtenberg, his son-in-law, was
actually arrested several times, by the czar's com
mand, for not having his coat buttoned according
to rule ! Nicholas also treated it as an act of Use-
majestS, for the young duke to enter the apartments
of his wife, and sit down beside her in his robe-de-
chambre. The czar once became quite enraged
when he beheld the duke smoking by the side of
the prmcess. He reprimanded him severely for this
heinous offe'nce ; and in truth he governed his whole
family precisely as if he thought the imperial house
hold to have been constantly on parade ! The Duke
of Leuchtenberg has left on record his opinion of
the condition of the members of the imperial family.
The proposition was discussed at one time, by the
court, of arranging a marriage between the Duke of
Bordeaux, and one of the daughters of the czar.
The project was soon thrown aside; and the Duke
of Leuchtenberg, in conversation with a French
nobleman shortly afterward, said: "Let the Duke
of Bordeaux thank heaven, that he has not been
fated to share the cage in which I vegetate !" The
marriage between the grand duchess, daughter of
Nicholas, and the Duke of Leuchtenberg, was one
of real affection between Ihe parties. Nicholas
would have opposed and prevented it, had it not
been for the fact, that the desperate attachment of

252 THE LIFE AND REIGN
the princess to the handsome and graceful Beau
harnais, actually endangered her health and life;
and that the princess, upon her knees, and with
floods of tears, besought her father to bestow his
consent upon a union, on which her happiness, and
even her existence, depended.*
During the latter years of his life, the mind of
Nicholas became saddened by the various disap
pointments* which he had endured during his reign,
and by an increasing consciousness of many evils
existing among bis subjects, which he had laboured
in vain to eradicate. He gradually became sombre
and morose. His mental faculties even were defi
cient in power; and he did not display the same
sagacity and penetration which had characterized
his measures at an earlier period of his reign. The
bitter calumnies of his political enemies, and the
slumbering hostility of the nobles, which secretly

* The Grand Duchess Olga, born in 1822, was married in 1846 to
Charles, Prince Royal of Wurtemberg.
The young Grand Duke Constantine, who is high-admiral of the
Russian fleets, born in 1827, was married in 1848 to the Princess
Alexandra, daughter of the Duke of Saxe-Altenburg,
The younger grand dukes, Nicholas and Michael, have not as yet
contracted any matrimonial alliances. The elder grand duke, Michael,
brother of the emperor, is married to the Princess Helena, daughter
of the Prince Paul of Wurtemberg, brother to the king ; and their
daughter, the young Grand Duchess Catherine, was married in 1851
to George, Duke of Mccklenburg-Strelitz.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 253
burned with the hidden intensity of a suppressed
volcano, disturbed and irritated him. Though a
man of dauntless fortitude, it was observed that he
was continually moving about from place to place.
He travelled a great deal, and very quickly. Rest
and delay appeared to be tiresome to him. Thought
and reflection seemed to be in danger of driving
him mad. The blood of his murdered predecessors
>
still deeply stained the steps of the throne, and
struck terror into his own soul, in apprehension
of meeting a similar fate. His sleeping apartment
was guarded at night by gigantic Cossacks ; and he
established a system of espionage, even within the
precincts of his own palace. The most terrible
apprehension, however, which distressed him during
his latter years, was the well-grounded fear of mad
ness. Many members of the Romanoff dynasty
had been afflicted by this malady. The Emperor
Paul had become deranged, long before the occur
rence of the fearful catastrophe which ended his life.
Peter DU. had been similarly afflicted during his lat
ter years. Many other members of this illustrious
house had been more or less subject to the derange
ment of their intellects. And Nicholas himself was
not without apprehensions that he too might even
tually inherit their fate. Though he remained free
from madness, or even derangement of mind, his
22

2.T4 THE LIFE AND REIGN
spirits became overclouded by a settled melancholy.
Severity and moroseness followed, as the result of
this trait ; and these, in their turn, threw back upon
him the repulsive shade produced by them upon the
minds of others.
In fact, Nicholas had become at length fully con
scious that he had not reigned in such a manner as
to have won, or even to have deserved, the affection
of his subjects, however much he may have inspired
them with terror.
The truth of this assertion may be proved by re
ference to his acts of general legislation, as well as
by those referring to individuals. Thus, for in
stance, his treatment of the city of Abo, the re
nowned and ancient capital of Finland, was such as
to turn each one of its inhabitants into a deter
mined foe. Finland had once been a flourishing
and happy province of Sweden. Having been at
length transferred, by mingled force and fraud, to
the Russian sceptre, it became, from its contiguity
to Sweden, an object of suspicion and dislike to the
czar. Gustavus Adolphus had given to this ancient
city a gymnasium ; and Queen Christina had erected
there a university, endowed with ample funds, and
an extensive and valuable library. Nicholas de
spoiled Abo of all her privileges as a capital, and
deprived her of her university, her library, of her

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 255
scientific collections, and of every thing which dis
tinguished and adorned her. Helsingfors became
heir to the imperial favour, and to all the advan
tages of which Abo had been robbed. The sole
reason for this conduct on the part of the czar was
the fact that Abo was too near to Stockholm ; that
by her former associations and her literary connec
tions, she would remain too much under Swedish
influence. Her commerce even with the neigh
bouring Swedish provinces, was so trammelled as to
destroy it entirely ; and Abo, thus shorn of all her
literary, social, and commercial advantages, by the
selfish and unscrupulous policy of the czar, fell from
her high state of prosperity to one of abject lan
guor and decrepitude. The history and fate of Abo
clearly demonstrate, that no considerations of jus
tice or humanity ever influenced the policy of Ni
cholas, in the administration of his empire.
In spite of his own indifference to the advance
ment of literature among his subjects, St. Peters
burg possesses some valuable literary treasures, the
acquisition of which is not due, however, to his
exertions. The imperial library contains 400,000
volumes, which have been collected by conquest from
various countries, including Persia and Poland.
Suwarrow, during the reign of Catherine H., seized
300,000 volumes. During the last war with Poland^1

256 THE LIFE AND REIGN
Paskiewitch obtained possession of 100,000 more.
During the reign of terror in France, the sagacious
Catherine despatched an agent to Paris, who pur
chased at low prices the confiscated libraries of the
nobility. By these means vast multitudes of valu
able works were obtained, and transferred to St.
Petersburg. On the endless shelves which contain
the imperial Ubrary, there are 120 foUo volumes of
letters from French princes and sovereigns. There
are 150 volumes of autographs of celebrated per
sons, including those of ministers, ambassadors,
generals, prelates, pOets, and even kings, of France.
Among these is a sheet of paper, on which Louis
XrV. had written six times successively, and in a
large hand, these words, so consonant with his own
absolute feelings and principles: "Homage is due
to kings ; they do whatever they please."
All the treasures of this vast Ubrary are useless
to the nation. The circulation of books, especially
on religious subjects, is very much circumscribed.
Nicholas adopted this policy on the ground that it
was necessary to "cut off the evil at the root;" and
as literature was the alleged source of infidelity and
heresy in religion ; of democracy and the desire of
liberty in politics ; and of a love of progress and
change in reference to society, it must be con
demned, crushed, and extirpated! Prince Dolgo-

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 257
rouki and Count Golovin, while residing in Paris,
published several works on political economy, with
out the permission of the czar. The latter was
highly incensed at such unwarrantable boldness ;
and both noblemen were instantly recalled. Prince
Dolgorouki obeyed. Count Golovin was then too
ill to travel. The latter was condemned by the czar
to lose his property and rank, and was declared
guilty of high treason. He remained in Paris, and
published another work,* in which he enlightened
the world as to the true state of despotism in Rus
sia, under Nicholas. Among many other profound
and truthful sentiments uttered by him in reference
to his despotic sovereign, the following deserve
especial notice: — "Nicholas is tyrannical, not by
nature, but by conviction. He is convinced that
if he governed in any other way, his empire would
not prosper as much as it does. This manner of
governing has now become a settled habit with him,
and he has at length learned to take pleasure in acts
of arbitrary despotism. To reign over Russia, the
Russians themselves declare, a sovereign must pos
sess an iron hand. True ; but still, this hand should
be gloved. The hand of Nicholas is one of iron.;
but he has forgotten the glove."

* La Russie sous Nicholas. L: par Ivan Golovin, Paris.
22*

258 THE LIFE AND REIGN
Nicholas has made the censorship over the press
so strict, as almost entirely to suppress its influence
and existence. Recent Russian literature has ac
cordingly become little more than the production
of a few tales, of comedies translated from the.
French, and of scientific works taken from other
languages. The course of studies taught in the
Russian universities is such as comports with the
limited ideas of the czar, with reference to liberal
learning. The University of Dorpat has produced
several men who are eminent in astronomy. The
University of St. Petersburg has won a name in the
department of archaeology ; and the few monuments
of antiquity which exist within the limits of the
empire, Nicholas has carefuUy collected, preserved,
and illustrated. But this ends the brief and barren
history of what Nicholas has done, for the higher
branches of learning, among his subjects.
With great truth may it be said, as the prominent
feature of the reign of Nicholas, that bis empire, his
army, his court, his family, — all were overgoverned.
Nicholas seemed to have had no conception what
ever, of the great republican doctrine of the capa
bility of mankind for self-government. The ab
sence of a despotic sceptre, he seemed to regard
as the greatest calamity which could possibly befall
any nation ; as an evil only to be equalled by the

OE NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 259
presence and possession of popular and democratic
liberty. It must be confessed, that there was some excuse
for entertaining such a sentiment, in a nation so
generally mercenary and fraudulent, as that over
which Nicholas reigned. The truth of this remark
will be illustrated by the following incident : —
At an early period of his reign, the emperor held
as usual a grand review of his army at his magni
ficent chateau of Tsarsko-Selo. His position was in
front of his far-extending lines, in the centre. He
was surrounded by his brilliant staff. A more im
posing display of military splendour was probably
never witnessed, than that which the admirably- .
drilled and accoutred army of the czar then pre
sented. At that moment four peasants, or moujiks,
clad in the rude costume of their order, with long
beards and 'wearing caftans, advanced from the
crowd, approached a superior officer, and demanded
to be allowed to address the emperor. This extra
ordinary request was at once refused ; but the pea
sants persisted, and declared that they had a matter
of the utmost importance to communicate to the
sovereign. At this moment, Nicholas himself perceived the
peasants and the officer, thus engaged in conversa
tion ; and the novelty of the incident, on such an

260 THE LIFE AND REIGN
occasion, excited his curiosity. He ordered them to
be brought into his presence. The whole party im
mediately approached. The peasants bowed to the
ground. One of them then boldly spoke. He and
his associates had just discovered the most incredible
depredations, wliich had been committed at the for
tress of Cronstadt, by some of the officers stationed
there. They declared that at that moment the
bazaar of the capital was crowded with goods that
belonged to the crown, with rigging, ironwork,
copper lining, anchors, cables, and even cannon,
and a thousand other things, which had been stolen
from the fortress and the fleet, and were then
heaped up in the shops, exposed to sale.
Nicholas was astounded at this declaration, and
in fact disbelieved it. He inquired of the boors,
why they had not communicated this information
to the officer, instead of persisting to see himself?
They replied, that if they had done so, the informa
tion would never have reached his majesty; and
they would also have been ruined by the perse
cution of the offenders. "Take care," responded
the czar; "I will hold you responsible for the truth
of what you say." He immediately ordered one of
his officers to repair to Cronstadt with 300 men,
and make investigations. The report of the officer
was, that the declaration of the boors was true, to

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 261
the fullest extent. The indignation of Nicholas at
this statement may readily be imagined; and he
ordered the offenders to be immediately arrested,
and prosecuted with the utmost rigour. The trial
would have taken place in a few days ; but during
the interval between their arrest and their trial, a
tremendous conflagration at Cronstadt destroyed
the storehouses, and vast quantities of timber, rope,
hemp, and tar ; and by the devouring flames every
possible proof was swept away, which could have esta
blished the guilt of the culprits. They consequently
escaped; and their adroit ^ and triumphant villany
was permitted to remain unpunished, to achieve
new triumphs in their nefarious work.
Lmumerable instances of this kind, demonstrative
of the national character, occurred during the reign
of Nicholas; and hence it was that he felt com
pelled to rule with despotic rigour, over a nation of
unscrupulous and deceitful men. The passion for
governing, indeed, thus grew into a disease -with
him. It became a mental malady ; in fact, it was
his peculiar idiosyncracy, to introduce uniformity,
regularity, and unity, into every possible depart
ment of Russian life and activity. It had become
his monomania. Once he visited the botanic gardens
of the celebrated Professor Ledebuhr. He observed
that all the flowerpots were not of the same size

202 THE LIFE AND REIGN
and colour, and he said to the savant, u These flower
pots ought all to be alike;" meaning that they
should look like soldiers on parade. "How could
that be?" responded the learned professor, "unless
the plants were all cut to the same size ?" Nicholas
rephed: "Well, then, have them cut down. Hike
to see them all alike ; they look much handsomer
when they are all uniform, than when they are
not!"*

* The truth of this incident is vouched for by the Rev. Henry
Christmas, in his work on Nicholas and Russia: London, 1854.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 263

CHAPTER XXI.
WAR IN THE CAUCASUS — ANCIENT HISTORY OF THAT COUNTRY — CHA
RACTER OF THE CAUCASIAN CHIEFS  VISIT OF NICHOLAS TO THE
CAUCASUS IN 1847 — INCIDENTS OF THE WAR IN THE CAUCASUS 
SCHAMYL SUCCESSFULLY RESISTS THE RUSSIAN TROOPS  VISIT OF
NICHOLAS TO WESTERN EUROPE IN 1844  INSURRECTION OF CRACOW
IN 1846 — HUNGARIAN REVOLUTION IN 1848.
Having dwelt thus long on the personal adven
tures and qualities of Nicholas, and on the internal
administration of his empire, it is proper that we
should now resume the narrative which appertains
to the great and characteristic principle of his
reign, — his insatiable thirst for conquest and ag
gression. He will now be seen actively engaged
in a country, comparatively new to our history, —
that of the Caucasus, or Circassia.
Nicholas pretended to claim jurisdiction over the
whole region which extends between the Black
and the Caspian Seas, the Kouban and Armenia.
This region he termed the provinces of the Cau
casus. It contains about two millions and a half
of inhabitants. It is divided into three distinct
provinces; but the most important are: — 1. Geor-

261 THE LIFE AND REIGN
gia, which is entirely subdued to the Russian
authority ; 2. Daghestan, the home of Schamyl, in
the Eastern Caucasus; 3. Circassia, which, to
gether with the province of Daghestan, never yet
has been conquered by the armies of the czars,
although the nefarious attempts of the latter to
subjugate these noble mountaineers to their slavish
yoke have been carried on, with short intervals, for
the last fifty years.
Ln ancient times, the inhabitants of the Caucasus
were remarkable for the same qualities which cha
racterize them now. Herodotus and Strabo speak
of them, as a bold and fearless people, who lived
a semi-nomadic Ufe, and who were unconquerable
even by the veteran legions of Macedon and Rome.
The shores of the Cimmerian Bosphorus were in
vaded, and the Iberians and Albanians were subju
gated, by the armies of Pompey ; but they did not
venture far into the mountains. North of these
mountains, there are fertile and lovely plains, wa
tered with the Kouban and Terek Rivers. * The
Circassian soil is everywhere fertile and productive.
A great portion of their country is covered with
primeval forests. The climate is hot in the valleys ;
but the plains beyond the mountains possess a more
moderate and agreeable temperature.
The real boundary of Russia in these regions is

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 265
at Anapa, the most northerly point upon the east
ern coast of the Black Sea. It is a celebrated for
tress, originally built by the Turks, to protect their
trade with the tribes of the Circassians, and which
was ceded to Russia by the treaty of Yassy. The
'coasts of Circassia extend to the very walls of this
fortress, along which the Russians, notwithstanding
all their efforts and sacrifices, have only succeeded
in establishing a few isolated forts, which are in con
tinual danger of destruction from the sudden attacks
of the mountaineers.
Nicholas tried the potency of bribes, when war
and bloodshed failed, to seduce the brave Circassian
chiefs to submit to the " protection" of Russia ; and
forty sons" of the chiefs were once sent to St. Pe
tersburg, in order to behold the greatness, and ac
quire the civilization, of the capital and people of
Muscovy. But, notwithstanding the efforts of these
youths to seduce their stern relatives to submission,
their exertions have never met with any success.
The handsome young Circassian chiefs were de
lighted with the voluptuous dissipations of the
capital ; but these were considerations which failed
to convince the resolute heroes of the Caucasus,
Schamyl and his devoted adherents; who, to this
day, still defy both the seductive and the compulsory
powers of the Russian autocrat. 23

266 THE LIFE AND REIGN
Immediately after the treaty of Adrianople with
Turkey, in 1829, Nicholas commenced a desultory
warfare with the mountaineers of the Caucasus.
He established a line of forts along the coast of
the Black Sea, for the purpose of overawing the
interior of the country.. The hostile chiefs were ex
ceedingly bold and defiant. An instance is re
corded, in which one of them appeared alone before
the gates of Anapa, abused the Russians, and defied
them to single combat. Exasperated by his invec
tives, the commandant of the fortress ordered him
to be fired at with grape-shot. The horse of the
mountaineer reared, and threw his rider; but the
latter instantly mounted again; approached still
nearer to the walls ; fired his pistol at point-blank
distance at the soldiers, and then galloped off again
unhurt to the mountains.
The Circassians repudiated those clauses of the
treaty of Adrianople, which gave the czar his
groundless pretence to jurisdiction over them; and
they very justly denied that Turkey possessed any
right whatever to sell, or Russia to purchase, that
jurisdiction. They determined to resist to the
utmost their subjugation to a powerful and perni
cious foe. For some years, therefore, a conflict was
carried on, during which the Circassians, under ,the
guidance of the gifted Schamyl, performed prodigies

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. ¦ 267
of valour; frequently defeated the detachments
which were sent from the forts on the shores of
the Black Sea to invade their mountains ; and pre
vented the czar from acquiring any solid advan
tages over them. ,
In 1837, Nicholas visited the Caucasus in person.
He determined to examine for himself the theatre
of a war, which had been so unexpectedly disas
trous to his plans of aggression. He invited the
9
chiefs of the country to various conferences with
him, protected by the parole _ of the Russian sove
reign. They boldly repaired to his head-quarters at
Anapa1, but Nicholas, instead of conciliating them
by words of kindness and moderation, exasperated
them with threatening and insulting language, " Do
you know," said he, "that I have powder enough
to blow up all your mountains?"
During the three years which followed this visit
of Nicholas to the Caucasus, he sent out a constant
succession of detachments. Golovin, on the fron
tiers of Georgia, Grabe, on the north, and Racifsky
on the Circassian seaboard, made every exertion to
execute the peremptory orders of the czar, at once
to crush and subjugate the rebellious mountaineers.
In 1839, Grabe executed his famous expedition
against Schamyl in the Eastern Caucasus. His
army consisted of six thousand men. In three

268 THE LIFE AND REIGN
months he lost one thousand soldiers, and a hun
dred and twenty officers, and was then compelled to
retreat and entirely evacuate the country which he
had invaded. All the expeditions sent against
these people were successively defeated, by desul
tory attacks in the mountains, by ambuscades, and
by the severities of the climate. All that the
marauders could accomplish was the burning and
destruction of a few viUages. Wherever the nature
of the ground gave the Russians an opportunity, to
employ their artillery, and to display their sMll in
engineering and the science of warfare, they were
successful in beating their foe. But these oppor
tunities were very rare ; and during the rest of the
campaign, the dauntless heroism of the Circassians,
and their desultory attacks, continually vanquished
the invaders.
The year 1840 was even more disastrous to the
arms of Nicholas in the Caucasus. The Circas
sians succeeded in taking nearly all the new forts
which the czar had erected on their coasts, even
those best fortified by artillery. They intercepted
the military road from the Kuban River to Guland-
chik. They stormed and took Fort St. Nicholas,
which commanded the road, and massacred the gar
rison. All the Black Sea garrisons were unfor
tunate ; and the detachments sent into the interior

OF NICHOLAS' THE FIRST. 269
of the country were vanquished, and returned with
desperate losses. The military colonies of Russia
on the Terek were attacked and plundered. When
General Golovin returned to his winter-quarters, at
the end of this campaign, he had lost three-fourths
of his troops.
The inhabitants of the Great Kabarda did not
now remain any longer indifferent spectators of the
offensive and defensive league which was formed by
the resolute and unconquerable tribes of the Cau
casus. They united with them ; and when the Rus
sian troops, in the next campaign, invaded, their ter
ritories, the Russian general found the whole coun
try turned into a desert, all the inhabitants having
migrated to the other side of the Laba, and joined
their warlike neighbours. And thus, until the pre
sent time, all the successive attempts of the Russian
potentate to subjugate the free inhabitants of the
Caucasus have been unavailing. At the death of Ni
cholas, after thirty years of disastrous warfare, these
people remained as free as when his unprincipled
aggressions first began. The forts of Anapa and
Sudjuk-Kaleh are the only possessions which were
held by the autocrat in the confines of the territory
in which he had waged war for so many years, at the
commencement of the present conflict in the East.
Since then, active hostilities in the Caucasus have
23*

270 THE LIFE AND REIGN
been suspended, all the resources and the interests
of the czar being concentrated upon the absorbing
conflict between the nations now progressing in the
Crimea. Prince Schamyl still remains the free, un-
conquered, temporal and spiritual lord of the East
ern Caucasus ; and still, among the primeval gorges
and hoary forests of those renowned mountains, he
holds his mysterious court, marshals his heroic Cir
cassians, sports with his beautiful Georgians, and
bids defiance to the mighty arms of Russia, upon
which he alone has inflicted the first reverses which
they have ever suffered in the East, in modern
times. In 1844, Nicholas once more, and for the last
time, visited the courts and countries of Western
Europe. In the several capitals which he honoured
with his presence, he was received with the distin
guished consideration which was due to his exalted
rank. He was an object of general interest wher
ever he appeared. His vast power, his historical
importance, his magnificent equipage, and his lavish
and expensive presents, all contributed to render
him the object of universal curiosity, attention, and
admiration. Especially in England, the handsome
and accomplished czar created quite a sensation,
both in the public mind, and more particularly in
those high and courtly circles in which he moved in

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. " 271
a more private and reserved attitude. By those
who then saw him, full of courtesy and urbanity, his
countenance wreathed in smiles, and his eye beam
ing with gayety and benignity, it seemed impossible
that they were gazing upon the most powerful, the
-most dangerous, and the most unscrupulous man in
Europe ; a man on account of whom, at that very
moment, myriads of bitter tears were falling, and the
desolated hearts of thousands were breaking, amid
the horrid mines of Siberia, in the dangerous moun
tains of the Caucasus, or in the dark and gloomy
recesses of dungeons and prisons.
In his private interviews with the English minis
ters, Nicholas clearly expressed those views respect
ing Turkey which he then pretended to entertain.
He said to Lord Aberdeen, at that time premier
of England, that the maintenance of the sultan in
his existing independence, and in the extent of ter
ritory which he then possessed, was a great object
in European policy. He held, that in order thus to
maintain them, the several powers should abstain
from making demands on the sultan, having selfish
purposes in view, or which assumed an attitude of
arrogant and exclusive dictation. He declared that,
in case the sultan gave any of these powers just
cause of complaint, that power should be aided by
the rest, in its endeavours to have that cause re-

272 THE LIFE AND REIGN
moved, in order that all occasion of future conflict
might be obviated. He added, that in the event, of
any unforeseen calamity befalling the sultan, Rus
sia and England should agree together ; and that it
would be wise and prudent for these two powers to
anticipate, if possible, any such event, and to arrive
at some previous arrangement in reference to it.
Such were the wise and conciliatory sentiments
expressed by the czar during his visit to England.
Ten years roUed away, and his opinions and pohcy
had changed so amazingly, that on every point they
were directly the opposite of those uttered by him
to Lord Aberdeen, and even reiterated in a formal
memorandum sent by the czar to the British cabi
net, after his return to St. Petersburg ; thus, as it
were, putting on file a document calculated in the
most direct manner, to convict himself either of the
most barefaced hypocrisy and deceit, or else of the
most despicable vacillation and instability of prin
ciple and of purpose.
In the beginning of the year 1846, an insurrec
tion broke out in the small republic of Cracow.
The existence and independence of this diminutive
representative of ancient Poland had been esta
blished and guaranteed by the Congress of Vienna
in 1815. The object of this ill-advised movement
was the establishment of a socialistic order of

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 273
things, — the most lamentable, desperate, and ridi
culous remedy ever proposed for the amelioration
of political and social evils.
The revolutionists declared, in their published
manifesto, that their intentions were as foUows : —
"Let us endeavour to establish a community, in
which every man will enjoy the fruits of the earth
according to his deserts and capacity. Let all pri
vileges cease; and let those who are inferior in
birth, intelligence, or physical strength, obtain with
out humiliation the unfailing assistance of commun
ism, which will divide among all the absolute pro
prietorship of the soil, now enjoyed by a minority."
This revolution was, in fact, nothing but an at
tempt on the part of the poor to get possession of
the property of the rich. Accordingly, the pea
santry displayed the principles which actuated them
in pillaging and burning the mansions of the no
bles, in murdering their wives and children, and in
every act of lawless and savage depredation. Such
was the terror inspired by an army of two thousand
enraged GaUcians, that the Austrian general, Collin,
who had entered Cracow at the request of the Senate,
to protect the community from the outrages of the
disaffected, fled, accompanied by many of the most
wealthy citizens.
Weisziewsky was then appointed dictator by the

274 THE LIFE AND REIGN
insurgents, and he made some feeble preparations
for holding possession of Cracow. But the prin
cipal inhabitants who remained opposed his move
ments in every way, and sent a deputation to treat
with the Austrian general. While negotiations
were progressing between these parties, Nicholas
ordered a regiment of infantry, accompanied by
Cossacks, to enter the city, and determine the dis
pute by its military occupancy. They soon obtained
complete ascendency over the insurgents, and the
revolution was at an end.
Nicholas regarded this outbreak as an evidence,
and a sudden revelation, of a widely prevalent spirit
of repubhcanism and of revolution, which secretly
pervaded Western Europe, and even portions of his
own empire. This was the same movement which,
in 1848, shook all the thrones and dynasties on the
continent except his own. On the 11th of Novem
ber, 1846, by his advice, and with his consent, the
city and republic of Cracow were formally incorpo
rated into the Austrian Empire. Thus was wiped
away from the roll of nations, the last remnant of
the once powerful and chivalrous Poland. And
thus, too, did Russian monarchs more deeply dye
themselves in the infamy of her partition, degrada
tion, and ruin, than any other ; for the first proposi
tion hostile to the integrity and prosperity of Po-

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 275
land emanated from Catherine H., in 1763, and the
last act of despotic power, which utterly extin
guished her existence as a nation, was perpetrated
by her successor, Nicholas, in 1846.
In 1848, a revolution against the authority of the
sultan broke out at Bucharest ; and, as might have
been expected, the Russian autocrat embraced the
opportunity to promote the secret ends of his policy,
while pretending to interest himself only for the
security and integrity of the authority of the sul
tan. He published a manifesto, dated July, 1848,
in- which he declared that, in conjunction with the
sultan, he would "intervene" in the settlement of
disturbances in the insurgent provinces, in order to
prevent any efforts which might be made to impair
the integrity or diminish the territories of the Otto
man Empire. The revolution was of insignificant
consequence; but before the differences were ad
justed between the sultan and his subjects, by the
convention of Balta Liman, the czar had succeeded
in obtruding his interests so prominently into the
provisions of the treaty, that he not only convinced
the Sublime Porte that he was determined to be re
cognised as a party in interest, nolens volens, wher
ever the sultan and his claims were involved ; but
actually succeeded in securing, by the treaty, a mili
tary position of great importance with reference to

276 THE LIFE AND REIGN
the invasion of Hungary, which was his next pro
ject of ambition.
An opportunity to gratify his thirst for conquest
and continual aggression, — and also the last one, in
which the great autocrat was destined to be suc
cessful, — was afforded him, by the heroic revolu
tion of the Hungarian patriots against Austrian
tyranny, in 1849. Terrified by the magnitude of
the forces commanded by the Hungarians, and hy
the unity and heroism displayed by the whole of
that chivalrous nation at the beginning of the
revolution, the Emperor of Austria eagerly besought
assistance from Nicholas. The invitation was as
eagerly accepted.
In May, 1849, Nicholas published a manifesto,
in which he held the following language: "By
our manifesto of last year, we informed our faith
ful subjects of the evils which had befallen West
ern Europe. We then declared our resolution to
combat the enemies of order wherever they might
be found; and oi protecting the honour of the
Russian name, and the inviolability of our fron
tiers. Since then, disturbances have continued in
the east of Europe, in the principalities adjoining
our empire,— in Wallachia and Moldavia. "We
have occupied those provinces with our troops,
and order has been restored. But in Hungary,

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 277
the efforts of the Austrian government have, as
yet, proved insufficient to crush the spirit of re
volt. In the midst of his disasters, the Emperor
of Austria has invited us to assist him against the
common enemy. We cannot refuse to render him
that service.' After having invoked the God of
battles to protect the righteous cause, we have
ordered our armies to march to stifle the revolt,
and to destroy the audacious anarchists, who dis
turb the repose of these provinces. Let God be
with us, and none can resist us. Such are not
only our own sentiments, but the sentiments of all
our faithful subjects."
In accordance with these declarations, Nicholas
ordered Marshal Paskiewitch to advance with an
army of 100,000 men upon Hungary. We will not
narrate the details of the memorable battles which
ensued, between the brave Magyars and the minions
of the Russian tyrant. So much heroic desperation
was exhibited by the former, that, after a series of
bloody conflicts, in which both Russians and Aus
trians had been successively worsted, and victory
had crowned the standards of the patriots, it be
came probable that the Russian army under Paskie
witch would, at length, have been annihilated, had
not the traitor G6rgei, immediately on his acces
sion to the command of the chief army of the
24

278 THE LIFE AND REIGN
Hungarians, betrayed his sacred trust. On the
10th of August, 1849, he despatched a letter to
General Riidiger, stating that he was ready to lay
down his arms unconditionally. Accordingly, he
delivered into the hands of his country's implaca
ble foes an army of 30,000 unconquered veterans,
with one hundred and forty pieces of heavy artih
lery. Lnmediately after this inglorious triumph of in
famy, perfidy, and cupidity, on both sides, Nicho
las proclaimed another manifesto, containing the
following exultant sentiments: "Russia will fulfil
her holy mission. Li less than two months our
brave troops, after numerous -and brilliant victories
in Transylvania and under the walls of Debreczin,
have marched triumphantly from Galicia to Pesth,
from Pesth to Arad, and from Moldavia to the
Banat. The insurgents, conquered on every side,
have laid down their arms before the Russian
army, and begged for pardon. Having performed
our promise, we have commanded our victorious
troops to return within our empire. With grati
tude to God, we exclaim from our inmost soul : —
Nobiscum Deus, audite populi et vincemini, quia nobis-
cum Deus!"

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 279

CHAPTER XXH.
EARLY HISTORY OF THE CRIMEA — CURRENT OF MODERN EVENTS —
CATHERINE II.  SHE SUEJUGATES THE CRIMEA — ORIGIN OF SEVAS
TOPOL  NICHOLAS DETERMINES TO COMMENCE THE CONQUEST OF
TURKEY — HIS SENTIMENTS ON THE SUBJECT — HIS PRETEXTS ABOUT
THE HOLY PLACES IN PALESTINE  HIS ULTIMATUM — THE RE
PRESENTATIVES OF THE POUR POWERS AT VIENNA  THE ULTI-
MATISSIMUM OF NICHOLAS  IT IS REJECTED BY THE TURKISH
DIVAN — DECLARATION OF WAR BY NICHOLAS — HIS TROOPS ENTER
THE PRINCIPALITIES — DECLARATION OF WAR BY THE SULTAN-
OMAR . PACHA — FEELINGS OF THE TURKISH NATION RESPECTING
THE WAR.
It is a remarkable circumstance, that in this
nineteenth century the mighty tide of human
events is rushing back again, from ¦ the gold-
burdened climes of the West, to those venerable
scenes and landmarks in the East, which were re
nowned in ancient history and mythology; but
which, for some ages past, have escaped the scru
tiny, and lost the interest, of mankind.
Many cycles have revolved since the quiet shores
of the Euxine became the scenes of war's tumul
tuous agitation. The triumphant legions of Alex
ander the Great, of Mithridates, and of Pompey,

280 THE LIFE AND REIGN
there successively discovered a congenial resting-
place in their wearied careers of conquest. After
ward, the ferocious cohorts of Genghis Khan and
Tamerlane, having devastated vast tracts of Asia,
and spread desolation over half a continent, found
themselves beneath the cool shades of the wooded
vales of the Crimea; and there they also ceased
their march of triumph.
In this same region, anciently termed the Tauric
Chersonesus, Iphigenia, the beautiful daughter of
Agamemnon, having fled in terror to escape the
cruel execution of a desperate vow, became the
high-priestess of her chaste protectress, Diana;
erected a splendid temple to her solemn worship ;
and consecrated the land forever to the sublime re
ligion and philosophy of Greece. And afterward,
as age after age revolved, that fertile and delicious
clime became, successively, the prey of the invad
ing Greeks, the Romans, the Goths, the Tartars,
and the Turks. At length, in the year 1774, the
Empress Catherine H. of Russia, suddenly arous
ing herself from the voluptuous embraces of her
fawning and pampered paramours, cast her ambi
tious eyes abroad over its rich valleys and fruit-
covered plains; and she vowed that they should
become incorporated into her vast empire. For a
time she forgot, or at least suspended, her tender

OE NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 281
and licentious dalliances, in order to obey the
promptings of a sterner and perhaps a nobler pas
sion, — that of conquest and aggression. The policy
which she adopted was the one to which the Mus
covite sovereigns have ever been partial; she ex
tended her protection first, she imposed her jurisdic
tion and supremacy afterward. She first induced
the khans of the Crimea, by her secret emissaries,
to resist the Turkish authority. A war then en
sued between the sultan and his rebellious sub
jects. The Russian empress interfered; and,- at
length, stipulated for the independence of the
Tartars from the Turkish yoke. The khans being
thus free, she next provoked animosities and con
flicts between them. She was again invited to
interpose. She complied with the request of the
khans; took their causes of dispute into con
sideration; and restored peace among them, by
inducing the reigning khan, Sahim Gheray, to
adopt Russian principles of government. This ex
cited the rebellion of his subjects, as Catherine
intended that it should ; and he was forced to ab
dicate the throne. He was then dragged as a
prisoner to an obscure Russian town ; was delivered
over to the Turks, and finally beheaded by them at
Rhodes. Thus, the Crimea being left without a
legitimate master, Russia easily assumed the sove-
24*

282 TnE LIFE AND REIGN
reign power ; and this lawless assumption Turkey
was at last compelled to confirm and recognise, by
the solemn treaty of 1784.
The Crimea being thus annexed to the Russian
Empire, it was necessary to create a new metropolis
for the new province. Prince Potempkin, then the
minister of the triumphant empress, settled the ques
tion of the location of the capital, after a pecuhar
fashion of his own. He tossed up a coin, and Sim
feropol, the ancient capital, was destined still to re
tain that dignity. The seat of the new government
was established there ; large barracks were erected ;
and a strong garrison was placed in occupation of
the works.
But still, the ambition of the invincible Catherine
was not satiated. Imperial majesty and greatness
were without an adequate representative among the
cities of the southern extremity of her dominions.
She must possess a fortress of sufficient magnitude
to defend the Crimea from external attack, and as a
formidable centre for her own future aggression.
The old and obscure town of Akhtiar was found to
offer very great advantages for such a purpose.
Immediately an army of workmen were ordered
thither ; and enormous works were at once begun.
New harbours were excavated. Immense arsenals
were built. Colossal fortresses were constructed.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 283
Vast quantities of the munitions of war were accu
mulated. All the resources then possessed by the
art of engineering were exhausted in the defenpe
of the place, and in the construction of its works.
A powerful and permanent garrison was stationed
there, to overawe the sultan, and to protect Russian
commerce in the Black Sea and the Dardanelles.
And this new bulwark of Russian power, this grim
portend of coming aggression, was then called Se
vastopol,— a name which has since fallen heir to a
world-wide, but an unfortunate celebrity. And soon
the balmy shores of the Crimea became studded
with the splendid palaces and sumptuous retreats
of the nobility of the Russian capital ; who became
enamoured of its balmy skies, its delicious atmo
sphere, its fertile plains, and its beautiful scenery.
Nicholas I. had occupied the throne of the czars
for nearly thirty years, when he seems to have come
to the conclusion, that the period had at length ar^
rived, when he should realize the glorious and
crowning project of his life and ambition,— the
final and complete subjugation of the throne of the
Sultans to his own, and the incorporation of the
European empire of the infidels into that of the
orthodox believers.
That was in truth a sublime spectacle, pre
sented by the powerful czar, as, seated in his

284 THE LIFE AND REIGN
northern capital, he deliberately contemplated the
achievement of this vast enterprise. That he never
for a moment doubted the certainty. of his complete
success, will readily be admitted by all who are fa
miliar with the stern character of Nicholas, with the
imbecility of the sultan, and with the relative phy
sical forces of their two empires. And this gor
geous dream of Oriental conquest was the same
which had once fired the imagination of the aspiring
Catherine; but which her sudden death had pre
vented her from attempting to realize. Alexander
I. had been diverted from it, by bis terrible conflicts
with Napoleon. And now Nicholas, not less ambi
tious, and more powerful, than either, determined
to emulate the fame of the Great Peter, theafirst
founder of the empire, by himself deserving the
equal, title of its second, by adding to it the vast
^conquests which his triumphant arms would make,
over the patrimony of the descendants of the False
Prophet. Never had a more gorgeous conception than this,
inflamed the imagination, and ehcited the abilities,
of a conqueror. It would have thrown a halo of
transcendent glory around his name, had he been
the ultimate vanquisher of that once formidable
and sanguinary power, which for so many ages had
disturbed the repose of Christendom; which had

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 285
crushed the stately republic of Venice ; which had
assaulted the bulwarks of Vienna ; which had de
solated the commerce of the Mediterranean; and
which had inflicted on so many myriads of unfor
tunate believers the horrors of a captivity far worse
than death itself. And had the czar been able to
realize this stupendous scheme of conquest, his con
solidated empire would then indeed have been more
colossal than any other which has ever existed;
than that of Alexander the Great, than that of
Charlemagne, than that even of Napoleon I.
Preparatory to commencing this vast project, Ni
cholas endeavoured to cajole and deceive the British
government, • either into active co-operation with
him., or into a passive indifference to his measures.
He took occasion to express his feigned sentiments
of amity toward England, to the English ambassa
dor then at his court, Sir H. Seymour, in February,
1854. Said he: "It is very essential that the Eng
hsh government and I should be on the best terms ;
and the necessity was never greater than at present.
I beg you to convey these words to Lord John Rus-
sel. As long as we are agreed, I am quite indif
ferent as to the rest of Europe." "It instantly
occurred to me," continued Sir H. Seymour in re
ference to this conversation, "that it was incom
plete, and I "determined to inquire more particularly

286 THE LIFE AND REIGN
into bis views. I therefore said to his majesty,
'Permit me to take a great liberty.' 'Certainly;
let me hear what it is.' I observed to him that I
should be particularly glad if his majesty would add
' a few words which would tend to calm the anxiety
¦ with regard to the affairs of Turkey, which existed
in England. Said Nicholas : ' The affairs of Turkey
are in a very disorganized condition. The country
indeed seems to be going to ruin, {menace mine;)
its fall will be a great misfortune, and it is very im
portant that England and Russia should come to a
perfectly good understanding upon these affairs.
We have on our hands a sick man, — a very sick
man. It will be a great misfortune, if one of these
days, he should slip away from us.' "*
On a subsequent occasion, Nicholas observed to
Sir.H. Seymour, "You know the dreams and plans
in which the Empress Catherine was in the habit of
indulging. These were handed down to our time;
but, while I inherited her immense territorial pos
sessions, I did not inherit those visions, and her in
tentions. On the contrary, my country is so vast,
so happily circumstanced in every way, that it would
* "Nous avons sur les bras un homme malade, — un homme grave-
ment malade ; ce sera un grand malheur si, un de ces jours, il devait
nous echapper ; eurtout avant que toutes les dispositions necessaires
fussent prises," &o.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 287
be unreasonable in me to desire more power than I
already possess. But in Turkey, there are several
millions of Greek Christians, whose interests I am
called upon to watch over, {surveiller,) while my
right to do so is secured to me by treaty. I may
truly say, that I make a very moderate and sparing
use of my right; and it is one which is attended
with obligations, which are occasionally very incon
venient. But I cannot recede from the discharge of
a distinct duty."
In succeeding interviews, Nicholas continued to
reiterate similar sentiments to Sir H. Seymour. He
attempted to infuse, through him, into the British
cabinet, a spirit of aggression similar to his own.
Hence he said : " In the event of a dissolution of the
Ottoman Empire, it would be less difficult to arrive
at a satisfactory arrangement, than was usually
believed. The principalities of Wallachia and Mol
davia would remain, as they now are, an inde
pendent state under my protection. Servia might
receive the same form of government. So also
Bulgaria. As to Egypt, if England should take
possession of that province, I shaU have no objec
tions to offer. I would say the same in reference to
Candia. There is no reason, why England should
not possess it also." The EngUsh minister did not
seem to receive this proposition with the enthusiasm

288

THE LIFE AND REIGN

which the czar expected, and the latter continued:
"If England ever thinks of establishing herself at
Constantinople, I will not allow it; while on the
contrary, if no other provision were made, circum
stances might place me in the position of occupying
Constantinople. You see how I am now behaving
toward the sultan. This gentleman {ce monsieur)
breaks his written word to me, and acts in a manner
extremely displeasing to me; and yet I have con
tented myself with despatching an ambassador to
Constantinople to demand reparation. I could cer
tainly have sent an army there, if I chose. There is
nothing to hinder me ; but I have merely contented
myself with such a show of force, as will prove, that
I do not intend to be trifled with."*
* We append one of the letters addressed to the British minister to
his cabinet at home, as setting forth more clearly the peculiar senti
ments entertained at that time by the czar, in reference to the dis
memberment of Turkey : —
SIR G. H. SEYMOUR TO THE EARL OF CLARENDON.
[Secret and confidential.] St. Petebsbobg, April 20, 1853.
The emperor, on rising from the table when I had the honour of
dining at the palace on the 18th instant, desired me to follow him into
the next room.
His majesty then said that he wished to state to me the real and
sincere satisfaction which he received from your lordship's despatch,
marked " secret and confidential," of the 23d ultimo.
It had been, his majesty said, most agreeable to him to find that
tho overtures whioh he had addressed to her majesty's government
had beon responded to in the same friendly spirit in which they were

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 289
The aspiring emperor soon discovered, however,
that England would not only not become a party to
his plans of lawless aggression upon the sultan, but
that she would not stand by quietly, while "the sick
man" was attacked, despoiled, and ruined, by his
more vigorous and ambitious neighbour.
A pretext for commencing open hostilities . with
the sultan was necessary; and the acute Nicholas
was not very long in finding one.
made ; that, to use a former expression, there was nothing in which
he placed so much reliance as " la parole d'un gentilhomme;" that he
felt that the relations of the two courts stood upon a better basis, now
that a clear understanding had been obtained as to points which, if left
in doubt, might have been productive of misintelligence, and, as his
majesty was pleased to add, he felt obliged to me for having con-
. tributed toward bringing about this friendly entente.
And his majesty said, " I beg you to understand that what I have
pledged myself to do will be equally biSding on my successor ; there
now exist memorandums of my intentions, and whatever I have
promised, my son, if the changes alluded to should occur in his time,
would be as ready to perform as his father would have been."
The emperor proceeded to state that he would very frankly offer an
observation or two, it might be a criticism, on your lordship's despatch.
The despatch spoke of the fall of the Turkish Empire as an uncer
tain and distant event. He would remark that the one term excluded
the other ; uncertain it was, certainly, but, for that reason, not ne
cessarily remote. He desired it might be, but he was not sure that it
might so prove.
His majesty desired further to observe, that he could not doubt
that her majesty's government had taken too favourable a view of tho
state of the Christian population in Turkey; the sultan might have
intended to better their condition, might have given orders in that
sense, but he was quite certain that his commands had not been
attended to. 25

290 THE LIFE AND REIGN
In 1850, the French ambassador at Constantinople
had been instructed to inquire into certain alleged
grievances which were inflicted upon the Latin or
Roman Christians in Palestine. The sultan, on re
ceiving the communication of the French ambas
sador General Aupich on the subject, immediately
appointed a commission to investigate the grounds
of complaint. This commission declared, after the
necessary examination, that the Latins were entitled
to the guardianship of the "Holy Places" in ques
tion, inasmuch as they had been formerly named in
a firman which the sultan had granted to that
church, or entitled to that trust.
Here then was the desired pretext, for which the
czar so eagerly searched. He immediately wrote to
the sultan, Abd-ul-Medjid, insisting that the privi
leges of the Greek Christians in Palestine had been
invaded; and requiring that the custody of the Holy
Places should be withdrawn from the Latins, and
intrusted to the .Greeks. The sultan, on receiving
this portentous epistle from the czar, was terrified.
He immediately annulled the proceedings of the
commission, and appointed another to take the same
matter into consideration. This commission at
tempted to obviate all causes of dispute, and re
ported in favour of allowing the Greek and Latin
Christians to have equal access and right to the

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 291
great Cupola of the Holy Sepulchre ; and that the
Latins should have access to the Tomb of the Virgin,
and a key to the Church of Bethlehem.
To this very reasonable arrangement the French
government acceded ; and here would have been an
end of all difficulty so far as everybody was con
cerned, excepting the czar. But he did not entertain
the remotest idea of being satisfied with any thing;
no concession, however fair and reasonable, would
have been received by him, as a final adjustment of
the dangerous and unhappy dispute. With the most
despicable duplicity and dishonesty, he directed his
ambassador to insist, that the key which the Latins
were to possess, should be that of a side door only ;
and that the promulgation of the decree of the sultan
should be read in Jerusalem in the most public man
ner, and then announced throughout the Turkish
dominions. To these absurd demands, the sultan
showed an unexpected and a spirited resistance.
He was inflexible in reference .to the important
matter of the key; and the entrance to the Grand
Boor of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was
formally intrusted to the Latin monks.
Nicholas pretended to be incensed at the stubborn
ness of the sultan, and his resistance to his just
demands ; and in the spring of 1853, he announced
that he was about to send to Constantinople an ex-

292 THE LIFE AND REIGN
traordinary ambassador of high rank, commissioned
to set forth in full the demands of the czar. On the
1st of March accordingly, Prince Menschikoff arrived
in Constantinople; and the very next day demanded
and received an audience with the sultan. This
very first procedure was an insult to the Ottoman
court and sovereign; inasmuch as diplomatic eti
quette imperatively demanded, that he should first
have had an interview with the minister for foreign
affairs. A month passed away, in arrogant and un
reasonable assumptions on the one side, and in vain
attempt at conciliation and arrangement on the
other. At length, on the 5th of May, Prince Men
schikoff announced to the Divan, that he had received
the ultimatum of the czar, the acceptance of which
on the part of the sultan, would prevent any further
difficulties in future. This ultimatum was in sub
stance a demand, that the sultan should acknow
ledge a Russian protectorate over aU the Greek sub
jects of the Ottoman Empire,— a concession which
would have been equivalent to establishing a Rus
sian supremacy over two-thirds of the population of
the Turkish dominions. Menschikoff allowed the
sultan twelve days for the acceptance of this in
famous proposition.
So great was the terror excited at Constantinople
when this demand of the czar first became known,

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 293
that the whole Turkish ministry resigned, as being
unable to direct the counsels of the sultan in this
trying emergency. A new Minister of Foreign
Affairs, Reschid Pacha, was appointed, who pos
sessed a spirit of greater intrepidity ; and under his
advice the sultan determined, at last, to raise his
head, to look boldly and defiantly at his deadly foe,
and resolutely, to resist his perfidious and endless
encroachments. The Divan declared that they re
fused to accept the ultimatum thus offered them by
the czar.
Such prompt resistance seems to have surprised
Nicholas ; and as he wished to gain time for the
purpose of concentrating his armies on the Danube,
to be ready to strike a decisive blow, he ordered
Menschikoff to offer another proposition, adroitly
termed his idtimatissimum, which was in substance
the same as that which had been previously pro
posed. This was also as indignantly rejected as the
former one ; and Menschikoff immediately departed
for St. Petersburg.
At this juncture, . England, France, Prussia, and
Austria, conceived that it was high time for them to
interfere, to preserve the balance of power in the
East, to support the trembling sultan, and to curb
the irate and ambitious czar. In June, 1853, their
representatives met at Vienna, and after some con-
25*

294 THE LIFE AND REIGN
sideration, they prepared a document, which they
thought might settle the difficulty.
The propositions contained in this document were
immediately accepted by Nicholas. Was it because
he was disposed to terms of peace? By no means.
It was because the language of the document framed
by the representatives of the four Powers, was so
vague, loose, and obscure, that an ample scope was
allowed for perfidy to misconstrue its terms. Re
scind Pacha clearly perceived this secret, and as
clearly pointed it out to those who framed it. The
consequence was that, being convinced of the truth
of the animadversions of the Turkish statesman,
they drew up another statement, more exphcitly
and clearly worded. This they transmitted to Ni
cholas, as the ultimatum of the four Powers. This
document, and the propositions which it contained,
Nicholas rejected as peremptorily as he had accepted
the preceding one; thus clearly exposing his true
purposes in reference to the proposed conciliation.
Accordingly, on the 24th of June, 1853, Nicholas
issued a manifesto, in which he announced his in
tention of seizing the principalities of Wallachia
and Moldavia, as material guarantees that the sultan
would eventually accede to his demands. On the
2d of July, General Dannenberg crossed the Pruth,
the ancient boundary between Russia and Turkey,

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 295
and entered Moldavia. This movement was re
garded by the sultan as a declaration of war ; and
on the 5th of Octobor, the Ottoman sovereign, on
his part, signed a declaration of hostilities against
Russia. Omar Pacha, the ablest and most renowned
of the Turkish generals, who by the force of his
talents had raised himself to the highest military
offices of the state, was appointed generalissimo of
the Turkish forces. He at once despatched a note
to the Russian commander, allowing him fifteen
days during which to evacuate the principalities.
The heroic resolution displayed by the sultan, in
thus bidding defiance to the prodigious power of the
arrogant Muscovite, called forth the acclamations
of his own subjects, and excited the admiration of
Europe. The spirit of the Turkish people seemed
to have been rejuvenated, and new life to inflame
their sluggish blood. The multitudes who crowded
the streets, the priests of the sacred colleges, the
muezzins in the mosques, the army, the wealthy
commercial classes — all appeared to be aroused to
make a determined and resolute resistance against
the encroachments of that great foe, who had in
sulted their religion, who had thrown contempt on
their sovereign, who had outraged the usages of
their court, and who had presumed to make de
mands which evinced his settled purpose of effect-

296 THE LIFE AND REIGN
ing the ruin of the ancient empire of the faithful.
That warlike energy, which had once made the
name of the Turk a sound of terror throughout
Europe, after the ignoble sleep of centuries now
seemed to be aroused again, in all its pristine
vigour; and to challenge the giant of the north
once more, and for the last time, to a desperate
conflict of life or of death.

¦'i 111 Pi

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 297

CHAPTER XXHL
MANIFESTO OF NICHOLAS RESPECTING THE WAR — BATTLE OF TURTU-
KAI  DESTRUCTION OF THE TURKISH FLEET AT SINOPE  EXULTATION
OF THE CZAR — VICTORY OF THE TURKS AT CITATE  DECLARATION OF
WAR BY ENGLAND AND FRANCE — THE ALLIED ARMY AND GENERALS —
CELEBRATED SIEGE OF SILISTRIA — MEMORABLE TRIUMPH OF THE
TURKS. Nicholas was very much surprised at the unex
pected resistance to his demands thus made by the
sultan. He immediately published a manifesto, full
of the most false and unfair insinuations, intended
to throw the odium of the impending conflict on the
Ottoman ruler.
In this manifesto he displays the usual duplicity
of his character. Says he : " The chief powers of
Europe have sought in vain by their exhortations to
shake the blind obstinacy of the Ottoman govern
ment. It is by a declaration of war, by a proclama
tion filled with lying accusations against Russia,
that it has responded to the pacific efforts of Europe,
as well as to our own spirit of long-suffering. At
last, enrolling in the ranks of its army revolutionary
exiles from all countries, the Porte has just com-

298 THE LIFE AND REIGN
menced hostilities on the Danube. Russia is chal
lenged to the combat ; and she has no other course
left her, than, putting her trust in God, to have re
course to force of arms, and so compel the Ottoman
government to respect treaties, and to obtain repa
ration for the insults with wliich it has responded to
our most moderate demands. We are firmly con
vinced that our faithful subjects will join their
prayers with ours to the Almighty, beseeching him
to bless our arms in this just and holy cause, which
has always found ardent defenders in our own an
cestors. In te, Domine, speravi; non confundar in
ceternum." Never was a more false, a more specious, or a
more perfidious proclamation issued by any sove
reign, when seeking for a rotten subterfuge where
with to hide the enormity of the most unjust and
unprincipled aggressions.
The fifteen days permitted by Omar Pacha to
intervene, for the purpose of allowing the Russian
troops to evacuate the provinces, had transpired;
and the latter had, of course, maintained their posi
tion. The Ottoman general immediately concen
trated 120,000 troops along the line, four' hundred
miles in extent, which it was his duty to defend.
He established Shumla as his head-quarters, in- the
centre. On the extreme left he seized the fortress

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 299
of Kalafat. He made Rustchuk and SiUstria the
keys to the centre of his position ; and Galatz, on
the extreme right, was protected by the deadly
marshes of Dobrudscha.
On the 2d of November, 1853, the first detachr
ment of Turkish troops crossed the Danube at Tur-
tukai, and threw up earthworks to protect their
position. They were immediately attacked by four
columns of Russian troops, consisting of 8000 men.
They were repulsed with a severe loss by the Turks.
The next day the Russians resumed the attack, and
made a furious assault with 30,000 men on the
Turkish position, which had been reinforced so as
to contain 18,000. The Russian columns advanced
with great confidence, . in defiance of a heavy fire
from the Turkish guns from the opposite banks,
and a brisk discharge of musketry from the troops
stationed in the works. The ground was soon
covered with the dead and dying Russians ; and
still their winnowed columns advanced steadily,
and approached the redoubts. This was the mo
ment anxiously waited for by Omar Pasha. He
ordered his whole line to leap over the works, and
to charge the advancing columns. The Turks exe
cuted the order with prodigious vigour. They
fought hand to hand with the foe with their ancient
ferocity. It was the first battle of this memorable

300 THE LIFE AND REIGN
war, and the first opportunity which the Turks had
obtained, of wreaking vengeance on the insulters
and invaders of their country. The effect of the
Turkish onslaught was tremendous. The Russian
columns wavered, then broke, then fled. The rout
was complete. The Russians lost on the field a
thousand men; the Turks lost thirty.
A few days after this conflict Omar Pacha ap
peared suddenly, with his whole army, three hun
dred miles distant, at Matschin, in the fatal region.
of the Dobrudscha, and repulsed the Russians, who
were advancing into that district. The benefit of
this achievement was, that the rapidity and un
certainty of movement which it displayed struck
astonishment and terror into the minds of the
Russian leaders. They were not prepared to see
such rare displays of military and strategic skill,
which utterly confused their own settled plans of
the campaign.
But the czar and his troops were destined, at
this stage of the conflict, to obtain at least one
triumph over the foe, though it was indeed an igno
ble one, and shed far more infamy than glory over
the Russian arms. This was the sudden attack, on
the 30th of November, on thirteen Turkish vessels,
which were lying quietly in the harbour of Sinope,
by a Russian fleet, consisting of six men-of-war

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 301
and some smaller vessels. These, taking advantage
of a heavy fog, had darted out from the port of
Sevastopol, under the command of Admiral Nachi-
moff. The Turks were taken entirely by surprise ;
were entirely unprepared for battle ; yet they fought
bravely. But the conflict was so unequal in advan
tages, that 5000 Turks were soon massacred ; their
whole fleet, except two transports, was utterly de
stroyed, and the Turkish admiral, Osman Pacha,
was wounded and taken prisoner. He was removed
to Sevastopol, where, after six weeks of suffering,
he expired. A few Turks, swimming to land,
clambered over the heights, and escaped. The
feeble battery of Sinope was unable to aid the
Turks; for their guns were almost unfit for use,
and, when they did fire, their untimely shot fell
short of the mark, and struck among the vessels
which they were intended to protect. The news
of this victory, and ferocious massacre, as it was
pictured forth and exaggerated by the Russians,
electrified Europe. At St. Petersburg, Nicholas dis
tributed decorations among his successful officers,
and ordered Te Deums to be chanted in all the
churches throughout his empire. The civilized
world censured this attack as a wanton and unjusti
fiable massacre, which reflected much more disgrace
than glory on the arms of the exultant czar.
26

302 THE LIFE AND REIGN
On the Danube, events were not so favourable to
the Russians. Omar Pacha had not intended to
remain in the marshes of the Dobrudscha, but per
mitted the enemy to advance to a certain distance.
The Russian corps d'armee, under General Osten
Sacken, were the unfortunate detachments which
entered the Dobrudscha; and, during the several
succeeding months, 30,000 Russians perished from
the fatal diseases which hover over those marshes,
which lie in a watery district formed by the bend of
the Danube, some thirty miles in length, when near
the points of its 'discharge into the Euxine Sea.
The campaign of 1853 was closed by the bril
liant victory of the Turks at Citate. General Fish-
bach was ordered by Nicholas to advance with a
large division of the Russian army to the siege of
Kalafat. Achmet Pacha, the commandant of the
fortress of Kalafat, determined not to await the
arrival of the Russian army; for the longer he
delayed the more reinforcements the latter re
ceived. He, therefore, marched out of his works,
and advanced to meet Fishbach at Citate, with
10,000 infantry, 4000 cavalry, 15 field-pieces, and
1000 irregular troops. The Russians numbered
16,000. A furious battle ensued; in which, after
four hours of conflict, during which both sides fought
with sanguinary desperation, the victory remained

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 303
with the' Turks. About 2400 Russians were left
dead in the streets and field-works, 2400 were
wounded, and they lost their depots of ammuni
tion and arms. The Turks had only 1000 killed
and wounded. During two succeeding days the
Russians endeavoured to take the place ; but all
their exertions proved unavailing. The Turks even
advanced, and drove the Russians before them as
far as Krajova; then returned again, and re-entered
Kalafat in triumph.
Such was the battle of Citate, which caused Eu
rope to exult at the fortitude of the Turks, and
which filled the haughty czar with astonishment,
not unmingled with indignation and disgust.
These stirring incidents in the war — which had
now fairly and fully commenced between the Rus
sian and Ottoman rulers — had thoroughly aroused
the cabinets of England and France to the neces
sity of interfering in the contest, and taking part
with the weaker, but the more just and heroic,
side. England declared war against Russia on the
28th of March, 1854 ; Nicholas having rejected the
ultimatum proposed by the English cabinet, with
the haughty and contemptuous remark : " These
terms do not require five minutes' consideration !"
Louis Napoleon, Emperor of the French, also de
clared war against Russia at the same time. In

304 THE LIFE AND REIGN
his address, at the opening of the legislature, he
said : " France has as much — and perhaps more —
interest at stake, than England, to prevent the ex
tension of the influence of Russia, indefinitely, over
Constantinople; for to reign at Constantinople is
to command the Mediterranean, and not one of you
will say, that England alone has interests in that
sea which washes three hundred leagues of our
shores." At first, the English cabinet had determined to
send 25,000 troops to the assistance of the sultan.
They resolved, however, to send twice that num
ber, and Lord Raglan, then better known as Lord
Fitzroy Somerset, Master-General of the Ordnance,
an old friend and associate of Welhngton, was
appointed to the chief command. The French
emperor, incensed by the coolness with which
Nicholas had acknowledged the announcement of
his accession to the French throne, was determined
to send a formidable force to the East. Sixty
thousand men — a large portion of whom had
served as Zouaves in the war in Algeria — were
placed under the command of the veteran friend
of Napoleon HI., Marshal St. Arnaud, assisted by
General Canrobert. These troops sailed for the
East; and in the month of May, 1854, the trans
ports which conveyed the allied army hove in sight

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 305
of the towers of Varna, where they were ordered
first to disembark. Day after day the vast arma
ment transferred itself from the ships to the shore,
and crowded the streets and dwellings of the city.
This first detachment consisted of 50,000 troops,
sent to the assistance of the sultan.
Passing by details of inferior interest, let us ap
proach the event of greatest magnitude, which oc
curred during the campaign of 1854. This event
was the celebrated siege of SiUstria, a fortified city,
which had, during the previous war with Turkey,
been captured by the Russians without much diffi
culty, or very great sacrifices.
Previous to the investment of this city by the
army of the czar, Prince Paskiewitch was ap
pointed to the supreme command of the Russian
forces. This officer was, beyond all question, the
most able, the most experienced, and the most suc
cessful, of all the Russian generals. He had been
the conqueror both of Persia and of Poland, in the
conflicts of the czar with those nations. He was
now supported by the flower of the Russian corps
of officers : by Schilders, the most skilful general
of engineers; by the dauntless Gortschakoff; by
the impetuous Luders ; by the resolute Orloff, the
personal favourite of the czar, and the Murat of the
Russian cavalry. 26*

306 THE LIFE AND REIGN
The capture of Silistria was an achievement of
the greatest importance to Nicholas. It was the
strongest fortress on the southern bank of the Dan
ube. It was the key to the province of Bulgaria-
Until it was taken no further operations of import
ance could be made, either aggressive or defensive,
by the Russian generals.
That Nicholas never doubted for a moment that
the fortress would easily and certainly faU into his
hands, is evinced, by his orders to his generals.
But before he ventured upon a general assault, the
issue of which might, by a bare possibility, be un
fortunate/he determined to try, as usual, the effect
of bribery. He, therefore, ordered a flag of truce to
be sent to the garrison, demanding a parley. Pas
kiewitch and Moussa' Pacha held a private inter
view outside the walls, during which the following
conversation is said to have taken place. Said Pas
kiewitch : " The Emperor of Russia wishes to
spare the needless effusion of blood. He had sent
positive orders, that Silistria must be taken. Hence,
it inevitably will be taken ; and it would be wise
for the Turkish commander to yield at once, and
not uselessly throw away the lives of thousands of
his garrison, as well as bring great misfortunes on
the inhabitants of the city." To this Moussa
Pacha answered : " That the sultan had honoured

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 307
him with positive instructions to defend the
place; nor could he surrender it if he had but
a thousand men, and all Russia was at the gates,
headed by the czar himself." Hereupon, it is
added, that Paskiewitch made a mysterious, pan
tomimic sign with his hand, which implied an
enormous sum of gold imperials.- Moussa's only
answer to this proposed bribe was a hearty laugh,
and^the remark, " Let us now separate ; the inter-
v^s? -under white flags is over."
»¦ The garrison of" Silistria did not- at that time
number more than 10,000 men. The army of the
czar, which surrounded its walls, comprised 53,000
Russians; and batteries had been established by
them, commanding the most important points.
SmaU as the garrison was, it was commanded by
one of the ablest .and most heroic of the Turkish
generals; the soldiers under him had caught his
dauntless spirit, and they were determined that the
foe should only enter the fortress over the corpses
of the whole garrison.
On the 28th of April, 1854, commenced the siege
of Silistria, one of the most remarkable on record ;
not for the number of men engaged, but for the
desperate nature of the attack and of the defence.
During the space of ten weeks, the immense force
under Paskiewitch was brought forward to repeated

308 THE LIFE AND REIGN
and renewed assaults. They were as often repulsed
by the heroic garrison. The Russians then brought
their heavy artillery to bear against the works.
They slew the defenders of the walls, but as often
as the latter disappeared, others as bold and resolute
as they, instantly rose in their places. Breaches were
made in the bulwarks; but before the advancing
columns could enter the breach, they discovered
strong walls which had been erected in their rear,
and which were still to be taken. Mines were
excavated toward the works. The Turks counter
mined, and blew the Russian engineers into the air.
The batteries of the Russians threw a deluge of shot
and shell into the city ; but its defenders liberally
returned the hailstorm of death, from the summit
of their battlements. Moussa Pacha proved him
self, by his extraordinary exertions and heroism,
worthy of the confidence reposed in him by the
sultan. The siege continued, as time wore on, without
any advantage being gained by the Russians. Pas
kiewitch had repeatedly sent despatches to the czar,
informing him of the immense difficulties which his
troops had to encounter, and the heroic defence
made by the garrison, as excuses for not having
already won a signal triumph. At length the
haughty czar became exasperated at the delay and

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 309
at the failure ; and he sent a peremptory command
to Paskiewitch to write him no more letters about
the difficulties of the siege, and the sufferings of his
troops, but to " take Silistria."
In accordance with this order of the disappointed
and infuriated monarch, the Russian commander at
length determined on a grand and final assault. On
the 28th of June a coup-de-main was resolved upom
Paskiewitch endeavoured beforehand to stimulate
the brutal courage of his troops to the highest pos
sible pitch. Liberal rations of brandy were distri
buted. Rich rewards, promotions, and decorations,
were promised to those who distinguished them
selves in the coming assault. Threats of death were
uttered against any who would display cowardice
and a want of resolution. He declared that, if the
assault failed, the rations of the whole army would
be stopped by the czar, who had directly threatened
it. Silistria must be taken, whatever sacrifice it
, «night cost, either of lives, or of effort, or of
:f-susfering. ^Prince Paskiewitch led on the advanced columns
to 'this attack on the fortress in person. He was
ably -supported by divisions under Generals Schil-
ders, Gortschakoff, Luders, and Orloff. The assault
was made along the whole line of the works, by
50,000 troops, defended by 12,000. The conflict

310 THE LIFE AND REIGN
was desperate beyond description. The Russians
seemed determined to obey the peremptory com
mand of the czar to take the place, or else to perish
in the attempt. The Turks appeared to be fully
conscious of the vast importance of Silistria to the
interests of their sovereign and their country ; and
they fought inch by inch, as the teeming multitudes
of the foe sweUed upward Uke a mighty tide against
the fortifications. During this memorable day, the
fierce demon of war raged with untamed ferocity
around the works, thus furiously attacked and as
furiously defended. Quarter was neither asked nor
given by either party. There have been other
sieges, in which greater numbers of men have min
gled in the deadly combat; but there have been
none, in which more brilliant episodes of dauntless
heroism and unconquerable fortitude were displayed,
by the determined defenders of a great fortress.
Night fell on the scene of conflict and of blood,
and Silistria still remained in the hands of the
Turks. The conflict ceased; and the discomfited
soldiers of the czar, after putting forth their best
and utmost exertions, had failed to " take Silistria."
The ferocity of the conflict may be inferred from its
consequences. Prince Paskiewitch was dangerously
wounded ; Count Orloff was killed ; Gortschakoff
was severely wounded; Schilders had both his legs

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 311
shattered; and Luders lost a jaw bono. Thirty
thousand Russian soldiers had perished before the
walls of Silistria, and on the day of that grand as
sault. The siege was immediately raised, and the
remnant of the discomfited army withdrew toward
Foktchani. The triumphant Turks, on their side, lost several
thousand men in killed and wounded; but their
greatest misfortune was in the death of Moussa
Pacha, the heroic commander of the fortress. Dur
ing the height of the conflict, he was struck on the
head by a cannon shot, and expired instantly.
It is said, that when Nicholas received informa
tion of the defeat of his army in this attack on
Silistria, he gave way to the most furious paroxysms
of rage. Nor could the great age of Paskiewitch, his
long services, and his brilliant victories in former
times, save him from the biting reproofs, and the
ill-concealed displeasure, of the baffled czar. He
requested permission to retire from the service ; and
that permisssion was sullenly granted to him by
Nicholas, without a word of compliment or regret.

312 THE LIFE AND REIGN

CHAPTER XXIV.
DEPARTURE OF THE ALLIES FROM VARNA — LANDING AT OLD FORT —
PLANS OF THE CAMPAIGN  SEVASTOPOL  BATTLE OF THE ALMA —
PREPARATIONS OF THE RUSSIANS  TREMENDOUS STRUGGLES BETWEEN
THE COMBATANTS  DECISIVE VICTORY OF THE ALLIES — RETREAT
OF THE RUSSIANS — CONSEQUENCES OF THE BATTLE — THE ADVANCE
TOWARD SEVASTOPOL — BATTLE OF BALAKLAVA.
The allied army still remained in their quarters
at Varna, during the progress of the siege of Silis
tria. The failure of the Russian commanders to
take that important fortress completely changed the
plans of the campaign. The question now for the
allied commanders to determine, was how their
forces could be most usefully employed.
Several projects were proposed ; but the resolu
tion was finally adopted, that the most efficient and
destructive blow to the power of the czar, would be
inflicted by marching directly into the Russian pro
vince of the Crimea, and laying siege to Sevastopol,
the largest? -the most formidable, and the most valu-
ble fortress in the Russian Empire, perhaps even in
the world. The allied armies accordingly broke up
their quarters at Varna, and on the 7th of Septem-

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OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 313
ber, 1854, a vast fleet, consisting altogether of 400
vessels, set sail for the Crimea, with the English
and French troops on board.
On the morning of the 11th of September, the
fleet hove in sight of the low coast of that chme,
which was so soon to be rendered memorable by one
of the most remarkable sieges in history. About
eight miles from Eupatoria, the ships cast anchor in
the bay of Kalamita, near a place known by the
name of "Old Fort." It seemed a deserted coast,
barren and uninhabited. The only signs of life
which greeted the view of the voyagers, were a
mounted Russian officer attended by several wild
Cossacks, on the look-out ; who disappeared in the
distance as soon as they were observed. The living
freight of the vessels was entirely discharged by the
14th of September; and by the 16th the entire
force of the allies was under arms, in the land
which they were about to immortalize by their
heroism. The allied armies immediately commenced their
march across the peninsula toward Sevastopol ; and
on the 20th of September they approached the small
river Alma, which rises in the mountains on the
eastern part of the peninsula, and falls into the sea
about twelve miles to the north of Sevastopol. It
was on the precipitous shores of this obscure stream,

314 THE LIFE AND REIGN
that the first great battle in the Crimea was destined
to take place.
On the eminences on the opposite side of the
Alma, the Russians had erected a long line of en
trenchments, with enormous batteries. The summit
of the hills was occupied by large masses of infantry,
various batteries had been erected at different points
on the flank of the advancing troops, and along the
tops of the cliffs which overhung the sea. The
Russians had destroyed the bridge across the river,
and had set fire to the viUage of BurUuk, on the
southern bank, in order to prevent it from being
made a cover to their troops by the alhes.
Thus were the Russians posted, in strong numbers,
and in admirably defended positions, to dispute the
farther advance of the allies toward Sevastopol.
The latter immediately discovered the necessity of a
battle, as well as of a victory; and though the Russian
general had vastly the advantage of position, they
determined to advance at once to the attack. Prince
Menschikoff commanded, on that day, 54,000 troops,
together with a formidable array of artillery. It was
natural that he should anticipate a decisive victory.
The allied armies numbered about 60,000 men; and
the first sight of the Russians strongly entrenched
on the opposite side of the river, and sternly await
ing their attack, must have been a scene in the

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 315
highest degree inspiriting. Nor was the moment
without grave anxiety for the invading forces. If
they failed in gaining the opposite heights, and,
with them, the victory, it would be a disaster preg
nant with presages of coming ruin. Their march to
Sevastopol would be prevented. Their retreat to their
ships would become as inevitable, as it would be
ignominious'; victory alone, which must evidently be
won by great sacrifices, and by heroic valour^ could
save them from utter ruin, and insure the future.
According to the plan of attack adopted by the
allied generals, the French troops on the right of
their Une, were to cross the Alma first, and, scaling
the precipitous heights on the opposite bank, attack
the Russian left. They did so. The Zouaves, accus
tomed to the desultory warfare of Africa, succeeded
in reaching the tops of the cliffs and forming into
line, notwithstanding the torrent of musketry poured
upon them by the Russian sharp-shooters. Next, the
division of General Bosquet succeeded in reaching
the elevated plateau. A furious conflict ensued
between the Russian and French troops. The issue
was so doubtful, that Marshal St. Arnaud sent to
the English commander, beseeching him to bring
his own troops into action.
At half-past one the English regiments began to
move. They clashed into the stream, in the midst

316 THE LIFE AND REIGN
of a shower of rifle balls, and artillery from the
opposite heights. Having reached the shore, they
formed, and advanced to the attack. Menschikoff
still remained in the centre of his position, and his
troops had yet been unengaged. He directed a
tremendous fire of musketry and artillery upon the
English, as they toilfully ascended the heights.
The enormous weight of the Russian columns, to
gether with the terrible havoc made in their ranks,
by the artillery which, from the heights above,
ploughed through and through them, leaving long
lanes of dead and dying, compelled the Enghsh
slowly to yield; until fortunately at this moment,
the gallant thirty-third regiment, the Duke of Wel
lington's favourite, reached the spot occupied by the
wavering lines, and led them back again to victory.
Regiment after regiment of the alhes charged
furiously up the heights ; and conflict after conflict,
successively ended, after prodigious exertions, in the
triumph of the allies. At times the efforts of the
Russians seemed to render the final issue of the
conflict doubtful. In one instance the regiments
of Royal and Welsh Fusiliers, crushed by the im
mense impetus of the Russian charge, were in full
retreat down the heights. At that moment the
Guards and Highlanders, under the command of the
Duke of Cambridge, were ascending the heights

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 317
and met their retreating comrades. The Scotch
Guards opened their ranks to permit the fugitives to
pass through them, and to reform in the rear. They
then charged in front against the pursuing Russians
with prodigious fury. The vigorous and powerful
sons of the North, giants in strength by the side of
their pigmy foes, hewed them down with tremendous
onslaught ; and forced them, after a desperate hand-to-
hand conflict, to retreat precipitately to their works.
At length, after many feats of valour and heroism
on both sides, the whole line of the allies reached
the redoubts which stretched along the summit of
the heights. The Russians then no longer at
tempted to defend them. They fled precipitately;
and the allies directed their own guns against the
retreating multitude, as they pursued their dis
orderly way, clown the opposite slopes of the hills,
toward Sevastopol. The victory of the allies was
complete; and had they, at that decisive moment,
continued the pursuit to the gates of Sevastopol, it
is not improbable, that that fortress would have sur
rendered at discretion. It was afterward ascer
tained, that the city had been in a great measure
emptied of its troops, to swell the force upon the
memorable and blood-stained heights of the Alma. .
The Russians lost 2000 dead, 2700 wounded on the
field. The allies lost 600 killed, 2600 wounded.
27*

318 THE LIFE AND REIGN
Such was the termination of the first great pitched
battle between these powerful combatants in the
Crimea; a battle which, while every advantage of
position and of preparation was on the side of the
Russians, resulted in the signal defeat of the troops
of the czar, and in the additional mortification
and indignation which that defeat inflicted on his
proud spirit. He had laid out his utmost available
strength, to prevent the farther advance of the in
vaders into the Crimea, and to hurl them back again
into the sea; and he had utterly failed. His own
troops had been compelled to fly, leaving the foe to
exult in the magnitude of his victory. To a man of
the haughty temper of the czar, this repulse must
have been galling beyond expression; yet he, who
had proffered the poisoned chahce of- despair and
misery, to the lips of so many myriads of his, fellow-
creatures, was destined, in the wise decrees of Provi
dence, to drink still deeper, more bitter, and more
deadly, draughts, of the same cup, ere death would
release him from the wretched position, into which
his insatiable and unprincipled ambition had en
ticed him.
It was a matter of very great importance to the
allies to have uninterrupted communication with
their fleets, so that the siege trains, ammunition, and
provisions could be# safely landed, and conveyed

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 319
to the camp before Sevastopol with certainty and
ease. For this purpose the port of Balaklava was chosen.
This is a small town situated on the eastern side of
a small harbour, defended at the entrance by lofty
cliffs. On one of these there was an ancient tower,
of smaU dimensions, which had been erected ages
since by the Genoese, at the period when that great
maritime republic held possession of this peninsula.
Accordingly the armies were ordered to march
toward Balaklava, and word was sent to the fleets
to heave anchor and enter, that port. On the first
day of the march, the French and English reached
the heights known as Mackenzie's Farm, so called
from its Tartar name, Khutor Mackenzia. This was -
a storehouse,- with plantations of timber for the use
of the Russian navy. On the morrow the armies
approached Balaklava. The fleets had entered the
harbour, and immediately the town became filled
with an immense and motley multitude, assisting in
the work of unloading the ammunition and the pro
visions for the alhed troops.
Having arranged these important preliminaries,
the French and English proceeded to take their per
manent positions before Sevastopol, and immediately
began the erection of batteries and earthworks. A
six-gun battery commanded the head of the harbour

320 THE LIFE AND REIGN
of Sevastapol. An immense Lancaster gun, and
two 84 pounders, were brought to bear on the White
Tower. The great Crown Battery, carrying 26 guns
of heavy calibre, was placed in front of the Redan.
The French extended their works of attack to the
Quarantine Bay. Lord Raglan's head-quarters were
established at a farm-house about half-way between
Balaklava and the trenches. Solid earthworks were
then commenced, along the whole line of frontage,
under the continual attack of the artillery of the
immense garrison of Sevastopol. By the 16th of
October, 1854, the armies may be said to have com
menced, in good earnest, the severe, yet disciplined
labours of the siege; for early in the morning of
that day, a loud booming of the Lancaster gun,
announced to the garrison, by its solemn ominous
sound, that the great struggle had at length begun.
It was a matter of very great importance to the
Russians to intercept, if possible, the connection
between the camp of the allies and the post of
Balaklava, from which all their supplies were con
tinually and necessarily derived. Accordingly, a
great struggle was determined on by Prince Men
schikoff, for the purpose of accomplishing this end ;
and on the 25th of October was fought the despe
rate battle of Balaklava.
Early in the morning immense masses of Rus-

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 321
sian cavalry, supported by large detachments of
infantry and artillery, issued from the gates of
Sevastopol, and reaching the heights on which the
redoubts of the Turks had been built as outposts
of the camp, attacked them with great fury. The
Turks very soon fled, first from one "redoubt, — then
from the next, — then from the third; until four
redoubts were successively won by the advancing
Russians without much conflict or opposition.
The retreating Moslems fled in dismay down the
hill-side toward Balaklava. The regiments of
Highlanders had been rapidly drawn out in line
in the rear of the attacked redoubts, by the
prompt action of the Duke of Cambridge ; and as
the tumultuous mob of flying Osmanli ap
proached their ranks, the latter opened, and per
mitted them to pass through, for the purpose of
forming again in their rear.
The unworthy sons of the Prophet being thus
disposed of, the dauntless Highlanders closed, and
awaited the approach of the Russian cavalry,
which now came thundering on. Squadron after
squadron of whiskered and hairy hussars ap
peared in sight, rapidly approaching the long lines
of Scotch riflemen; who, dressed in the national
costume, awaited in silence, and with the firm
ness of adamant, the approach of the foe, — two

322 TriE LIFE AND REIGN v
thousand of whom now were nearly within range
of their deadly Minie rifles. It was a sublime
spectacle, yet one of intense interest, and of incal
culable importance. The English and French
generals, with their brilliant staffs, anxiously sur
veyed the scene from the summit of a hill, over
looking the valley of the Balaklava. From the
nature of the ground, more troops could not, at
that moment, be brought into action; and the
glory and the issue of the day depended entirely
on the heroism and steadiness of the Scotch.
At length, the Russian squadrons arrived within
range of the riflemen. The very ground shook
beneath their heavy tread. Tet the long, double
line of the Highlanders seemed to stand unmoved,
like inanimate statues. Now several hundred
yards alone separated the combatants. The com
mander of the Highlanders then gave a sharp,
quick order. Instantly the long glittering lines of
steel ascended to the shoulder, with the regularity
and precision of some admirably-contrived ma
chinery. Another sharp word of command was
heard. A quick flash of fire darted simultaneously
along the whole line of muzzles; a light smoke
arose, and a sharp report was heard, ringing on the
ear. The effect upon the advancing cavalry was
terrific. Hundreds of riders and horses dropped

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 323
instantly on the earth ; and the confused mass was
seen plunging to and fro in disorder and terror.
But after a few moments, by the efforts of their
officers, the squadrons were formed again; and
then they advanced once more to the attack. The
front line of the Highlanders, by a word of com
mand, knelt on the earth; and the second line,
taking deadly aim, discharged a volley into the
Russian squadron, now nearer than before. The
effect of this second discharge was more dreadful
than the first. Hundreds of Russians strewed the
ground. Riderless horses dashed to and fro in
wild confusion. The whole mass of cavalry were
thrown into the utmost disorder, and then turned
and fled from the scene of action. The triumph
of the heroic Scotch was again complete, as it
had been before, on the memorable heights of the
Alma. But still the victory was not won. The Russian
cavalry in their flight reached the regiments of
reserve .which had not yet been on the battle-field ;
and, thus augmented, the mass returned again to
the English position, and charged the heavy bri
gade, under the command of General Scarlett. The
attack and repulse between these large masses
of troops was one of prodigious violence. Again
the Russians hoped to win back the victory to

324 THE LIFE AND REIGN
their arms, by extraordinary exertions. They were
met by a heroism as dauntless as their own. It is
said, that this hand-to-hand conflict on the shores
of Balaklava, equaUed in fury any thing recorded in
the annals of war. There were men engaged in it,
who had taken part in many memorable conflicts ;
men, who had seen the great charge of the Life
Guards at Waterloo ; who had been present at the
onset of the Imperial Guard of Napoleon at Leip-
sic ; who had witnessed the heroism of the English
veterans at Salamanca. But they assert, that none
of these tremendous conflicts exceeded in fury, or
in heroism, that with which the heights of Balak
lava that day shook, when Menschikoff deter
mined, by one prodigious blow, to crush the
power of the allies, and thus compel them to make
a precipitate retreat from the, Crimea. At length,
however, the British dragoons triumphed over their
foes, and the Russians fled in terror and confusion,
leaving the earth, for several miles, covered with the
wounded and the dying.
Yet still the Russians remained in possession
of the unfortunate redoubts, which had been taken
from the Turks. These must be recovered, or the
glory of the day would remain incomplete. For
this purpose, Lord Raglan ordered the Earl of
Lucan to advance with the cavalry under his com-

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 325
mand. The earl — at the moment when this move
ment would have been effectual — refused to execute
it. Lord Raglan sent another order afterward to
the same effect. The Earl of Lucan sent this order
to the Earl of Cardigan, who commanded the light
brigade. That officer at once saw that, as the bat
tle then stood, the execution of this order, with the
number of troops then under his command, wras
utterly impossible. Nevertheless, -the stern sense
of duty which actuated him, compelled him to obey
the command of a superior officer. The Earl of
Cardigan bravely led on detachments of five regi
ments. As they approached the redoubts, the
heroic English saw the guns ranged in grim array
against them, and beheld at once the desperate and
ruinous nature of the attack which they were com
pelled to make. The event soon confirmed their
forebodings. The murderous fires of the redoubts
mowed down two-thirds of the English soldiers.
In the course of half an hour four hundred men
were left dead on the field, and the remnant re
gained with difficulty the position from which they
had first moved.
Thus the battle of Balaklava ended, — a conflict,
in which the glory and the disasters seem to have
been equally divided. Before the Russians left the
redoubts, which they had taken from the Turks,
28

326 THE LIFE AND REIGN
they dismantled them, and removed the cannon
which they contained to Sevastopol. The greatest
heroism was displayed on both sides, although but
a portion of the armies — Russian, English, and
French — were 'engaged in the conflict. The loss in
killed and wounded seems also to have been very
nearly equal.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 327

CHAPTER XXV.
ARRIVAL OF REINFORCEMENTS IN SEVASTOPOL UNDER GENERAL DAN-
NENBERG  A GREAT PITCHED BATTLE CONTEMPLATED BY THE
RUSSIANS  THE PREPARATIONS OF THE RUSSIANS  MEMORABLE
BATTLE OF INKERMANN  HEROISM OF THE LIFE GUARDS  SUC
COUR AFFORDED BY THE FRENCH — VICTORY OF THE ALLIES — RE
SULTS OF THE BATTLE.
One more great battle on the field was destined
to take place, between the armies of Nicholas and
their foes, during the lifetime of the czar ; and that
was the memorable battle of the Inkermansa. The
number of men involved in this conflict was much
greater than in that of Balaklava, and its conse
quences were much more important.
On the 3d of November, large reinforcements of
Russian troops, under General Dannenberg, arrived
from Odessa at Sevastopol, and entered the fortress
from transports in the harbour. The Grand Dukes
Michael and Nicholas, sons of the mighty czar, ac
companied them, for the purpose of encouraging
the garrison by their presence. On Sunday, No
vember 4th, solemn religious services were held in
the town, at which patriarchs and prelates of the

328 THE LIFE AND REIGN
Greek Church addressed the soldiers of the gar
rison, urging them to their utmost efforts of valour
and endurance in the coming battle. They assured
the men, that death on the field, in the line of duty,
would only be the highway to heavenly glory, and
to fadeless immortality. They told them, that the
English camp was filled with treasure, one-third of
which should be divided among the soldiers. AU
were urged, by every possible consideration of re
venge, fanaticism, hatred, and avarice, to the most
desperate exertions to vanquish the alhes, to drive
them into the sea, and to capture all their bag
gage, ammunition, and provisions. Such was the
object of, and such the preparations for, the great
battle of Lnkermann.
Accordingly, on the morning of the 5th of No
vember, General Gortschakoff made a demonstra
tion toward Balaklava with his division, as if
intending to cut off the communication of the
allies with that post, so essential to their safety.
This drew a large portion of the allied troops from
the centre, leaving their front, in a great measure,
unprotected. General Dannenberg, with his new
and fresh recruits, was then to attack the main
position of the allies. General Soimonoff was to
issue from the Great Malakoff fortress, and attack
the English on the western extremity of their lines.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 329
By this arrangement the Russians brought 50,000
troops into the field.
The attack having been begun at Balaklava, it was
followed up by vast masses of Russian infantry, who
assaulted the centre of the English Unes, weakened
by detachments sent to aid the French under Gene
ral Bosquet at the former place. The Russians took
several batteries erected in front of the English
lines, and were advancing rapidly, and in great
force and fury, when they were checked by a dis
charge of the fatal Minie rifles. But their retreat
was stopped by the regiments which they met, ad-
vancing in their rear. Another conflict ensued, and
the English were compelled, by vast superiority of
numbers, to fly from their breastworks, and were
pursued, still desperately fighting, toward their own
camp. At this critical moment, the 20th and 47th Eng
Ush regiments arrived to the assistance of their
overpowered comrades, and made a tremendous
onset upon the serried ranks of the advancing
Russians. With loud shouts of rage and exultation,
the EngUsh swept down masses of the Muscovites,
who, overcome with sudden terror at this' unex
pected repulse, began again to waver and to give
way. The combat now became exceedingly bloody
and desperate. At length even the 20th and 47th
28*

330 THE LIFE AND REIGN
were compelled-, to' yield, and they slowly retreated,
under the immense pressure of the Russian squad
rons which seemed to swell upward to the heights
from some inexhaustible fountain below.
Here was another critical juncture in the fortunes
of the day ; but the aUied armies were again saved
from defeat, by the timely advance and heroic stand
made by the Life Guards under the Duke of Cam
bridge. These advanced, with closed ranks, and
with fixed bayonets, toward the summit of the hiU,
which was covered with a living wall of Russian
soldiers. Twice, after fearful and deadly collisions,
the Russians fled. For the third time a hand-to-
hand conflict ensued, in and around the battery
which the Russians had taken in front of the Eng
Ush lines, and which the latter had once more cap
tured. Again the Russians succeeded in overpower
ing its bold and brave defenders.
• Meanwhile the whole mass of Russian troops
under Dannenberg, 50,000 in number, became en
gaged; and were resisted by 10,000 English and
6000 French troops. The advance of Soimonoff's
corps d'armie was met and repulsed by the gallant
2d regiment. From the nature of the ground, the
battle assumed the appearance of conflicts between
detached groups of the combatants, with victory
divided and uncertain between them. But the vast

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 331
superiority in numbers, possessed by the Russians,
seemed to presage the triumph in their favour. It
was now twelve o'clock. The French had been in
great part detained at Balaklava. by the feigned
attack made upon them there. But General Bos
quet had by this time discovered the trick, and de
termined to detach a large portion of his troops to
the aid of the English. It was indeed high time.
But for this seasonable succour, the Russians had
won a signal victory. As the English lines were
wavering, in spite of the utmost efforts of heroism
and fortitude exhibited by them, the former war
riors of Africa rushed to their assistance, and
charged the Russians with terrific. fury, at the point
of the bayonet. "
This opportune assistance decided the fortunes of
the day. After a brave resistance, the Russians
turned, retreated, and fled toward the gates of Se
vastopol. Sixteen thousand men had UteraUy de
feated fifty thousand; but the slaughter on both
sides was fearful. The scene from the battery was
awful. Outside of it, the Russians lay dead, two
and three deep. Inside of it, the place was actually
filled with the bodies of Russians, and with soldiers
of the 20th and 50th regiments. All over the bloody
field, the dying and the dead were piled in gory
heaps. As the calm, clear moon shone brightly that

332 THE LIFE AND REIGN
night, casting her peaceful rays over the ensan
guined hills, more than 15,000 dead and dying
men, of many nations and from distant climes, en
cumbered the earth. From the very tents of the
English, down the declivities, along the ravines, in
the valleys, and upon the undulating hills, even to
the Inkerman ruins below, the earth was strewed
with human bodies, with arms, with ammunition,
with clothing, dead horses, broken artillery wagons,
and all the tumultuous wrecks of the conflict. The
loss of the English was 500 killed, 1900 wounded ;
that of the French was nearly equal. The loss of
the Russians, in killed and wounded, is admitted to
have been 8000 men.
Thus the year 1854 closed, as clouds and darkness
were gathering thickly over the fortunes of the am
bitious czar. The battle of Bikerman, in which the
Russian generals displayed their utmost skill in all
the arts and strategy of war, and in which the
Russian soldiers fought with a degree of resolution
unsurpassed in military annals, was undoubtedly
intended by Nicholas to be a decisive blow to the
power and prospects of the allied armies. In this
purpose, he had been signally defeated. The battle
of Inkerman, though the disproportion of numbers
was so prodigiously great, was a brilliant victory in
favour of the allies.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 333
Nicholas, having received despatches detailing
the incidents of this memorable struggle, fell back
in his chair in a moody fit of sullen abstraction.
Another terrible blow had been struck at his over-
towering pride. Again, and for the third time, his
best troops had been vanquished; and all his
haughty utterances, indicative of his confidence in
his irresistible power, became now more and more
ridiculous in the eyes of exulting and jeering na
tions, who rejoiced to see the power of the great
czar thus broken and dishonoured. With such
gloomy reflections the year 1854 terminated ; and
Nicholas, in bitterness and indignation, began to
make preparations for the ensuing" campaign.

334 THE LIFE AND REIGN

CHAPTER XXVI.
SIEGE OF SEVASTOPOL CONTINUED WITH GREAT VIGOUR — THE FAILINO
HEALTH OF NICHOLAS — DEFEAT OF THE RUSSIANS AT EUPATORIA—
EFFECT OF THIS DISASTER ON THE HEALTH AND SPIRITS OF NICHOLAS
 HE IS CONFINED TO HIS BED  HIS LAST INTERVIEW WITH HIS
MINISTERS  HIS INSTRUCTIONS TO HIS SUCCESSOR, ALEXANDER II.—
HIS LAST INTERVIEW WITH HIS FAMILY  HIS DEATH — HIS SUCCESSOR
IS PROCLAIMED  THE WORKS OF SEVASTOPOL  GENERAL TODLEBEN
— FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE.
The hostile armies returned to the renewed attack
and defence of Sevastopol. As time wore on, the
most extraordinary exertions were continually made,
and the utmost resources of the military art were
displayed and exhausted, by those engaged in this
memorable siege. The aUied armies gradually
drew parallel after parallel closer around the be
leaguered city, and approached their heavy batteries
nearer and nearer to its massive fortresses. Al
though the sufferings of the attacking forces were
immense, the final issue of the conflict was becom
ing more and more apparent and inevitable. Vast
reinforcements to the allies were constantly arriving
from France and England. Munitions of war were
sent in abundance. New generals, full of undaunted

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 335
vigour, took the places of those whom death, sick
ness, and age removed ; while the whole public sen
timent of the civilized world pressed heavily down
upon the cause and interests of the czar. The
glory, the romance, the bright halo of anticipated
triumph, resulting from the astounding displays of
irresistible military power which Nicholas had been
expected to make, — all had now passed away. A
black and gloomy pall of disaster and disappoint
ment had settled down over the conflict, and espe
cially over the future fortunes and destiny of the
insolent czar. All Europe exulted, as defeat fol
lowed after defeat, and as the proud despot was
compelled to endure one mortification after another.
All Europe', except Prussia alone, hoped for the
coming of that momentous hour, when the final
and complete discomfiture of the Russian autocrat
would become the welcome signal for one general
and enthusiastic outburst of exultation and derision,
from Edinburgh to Madrid, from Constantinople to
Teheran, from the gay capital of France to that
of bleeding and downtrodden Poland.
But disappointment and defeat, unexpected as
they were, both by the czar, by his subjects, and by
the rest of Europe, had been accomplishing their
rapid and destructive work upon the high-mettled
spirit of the autocrat. He" who had spoken in such

336 THE LIFE AND REIGN
omnific and arrogant tones, of not permitting Eng
land and the Western Powers, to do this or to do
that; who had treated the sultan as an imbecile,
degraded, and defenceless pensioner on his own for
bearance and mercy ; and had spoken of disposing
of his dominions and of his fate, as things of tran
sient moment, — even he had been repeatedly van
quished ; his proudest armaments had been routed ;
and all his most sonorous and portentous boastings
turned into ridicule and contempt. The terrible
prestige of Russian omnipotence had fallen to the
ground. The days of the transcendent and un
clouded glory of the Romanoffs were numbered, and
had even already ceased to be !
These things produced their effects on the haughty
spirit of Nicholas. During the concluding months
of the year 1854, he Uved in a continual state of
feverish irritation, restlessness, 'and wretchedness.
His nature had turned to gall, and bitterness had
become the prevalent element of his thoughts and
feelings. It became dangerous for his most favoured
ministers to approach him, unless expressly sent
for. His despatches to his generals were full- of up-
braidings ; and his ill-humour became a matter of
general and undisputed notoriety. As 1855 opened,
his mental malady became wTorse ; and it began to
act reciprocally upon his physical health. His manly

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 337
features began to lose their freshness. His sym
metrical figure -stooped, and became tremulous and
unsteady. That eagle eye, which had caused so
many of the stoutest and bravest of men to quail
before him, had lost its briUiancy; it turned no
longer boldly and defiantly upward and around
him, but dwelt in gloomy and. sinister glances on
the ground. It was readily perceived, by those
who were near his person, that an inward malady
gnawed at the heart of the dying czar, which no
earthly medicine could Cure. Even glorious and
complete victory, — now forever lost to his shattered
and dishonoured arms, — could scarcely cause those
faded cheeks to bloom again with their pristine,
roseate hue ; or could administer a sufficient salvo
to his wounded pride ; or heal the mortal diseases
of his mind. Persia, Poland, Turkey, and myriads
of unknown and unrecorded wretches, to whose
desolate spirits happiness had forever become a for
bidden word, through the relentless tyranny which
he had exercised toward them in the day of his
stupendous power and pride,— now were they all
abundantly avenged !
During the months of January and February,
1855, Nicholas had been suffering under a myste
rious disease, caused by mental excitement'; which
resembled, in its leading symptoms, more than any
29

"38 THE LIFE AND REIGN
thing else, an attack of pulmonary apoplexy. The
apoplectic features of his disease were caused by his
long-continued and intense mental excitement. The
pulmonary affection resulted from the congestion
of his lungs, which had been gradually superin
duced by his absurd habit of tight-lacing, — a habit
which prevails extensively among Russian military
officers, and is supposed to add symmetry and ele
gance to the figure. A similar consequence is not
unfrequent, from the same cause, among others who
indulge in it.
While in this state of nervous excitement, as well
as depression, Nicholas received news of the defeat
of the Russians in their attack on Eupatoria. This
city was defended by 28,000 Turks, under Omar
Pacha. According to the orders of Nicholas, it was
attacked by Menschikoff, with 40,000 infantry and
cavalry. His army advanced within twenty yards
of the ditch ; but the heroic and desperate resistance
made by the Turks compeUed them to retire in con
fusion. Hnable to withstand the terrible and weU-
directed fire of the garrison, the Russian troops fled
in disorder from the field. The loss of the Rus
sians, in killed and wounded, was very severe ; and
the whole affair was an ignominious and disgraceful
defeat to the arms of the czar. This disaster was
the last of which Nicholas was destined to hear.

* OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 339
His end rapidly approached. His disease was fear
fully aggravated by the news of this defeat at Eupa-
toria ; and about the 25th of February, 1855, he was
compelled to retire to his bed.
He immediately sent for his physicians, and de
manded an undisguised exposition of his physical
condition. He was informed that he could survive
but a very few days longer. He received the infor
mation with unflinching fortitude, and at once re
signed himself to his inevitable doom. He sent for
the ministers of his cabinet ; they gathered around
his bed, and he gave them his explicit instructions
in reference to the affairs of their various bureaux,
on the occasion of his death. He designated his
eldest son, Alexander, as his successor, and ex
pressed his confident belief that his ministers would
serve his successor, as faithfully as they had served
himself. The next day he held an interview with the Grand
Duke Alexander, his successor. He explained to
the prince, at some length, the policy which had
guided him during his past reign, and especially
during the progress of the war in the East. He
enjoined upon him to assert and maintain the same
principles during his own reign ; and never to con
clude any treaty or arrangement in hostility to those
principles. He informed the Grand Duke, that he

340 THE LIFE AND REIGN
had prepared complete memoranda for the guidance
of his future conduct, suited to all the possible con
tingencies of the war.. He- conjured him never to
depart from the directions contained in those memo
randa ; but to marshal all the resources of his em
pire to enforce their execution, as completely as if
he himself still lived, to guide the helm of the ship
of state through the storms which now raged so
furiously around her. To all these solemn injunc
tions, the amiable grand duke promised the most
faithful obedience.
On the day preceding his death, the emperor sum
moned around him his august family. The parting
scene between the dying autocrat and his affec
tionate relatives, was peculiarly affecting ; and those
appalling eyes, so long unused to the melting mood,
did weep abundant tears at his approaching separa
tion, from those whom alone on earth he loved with
the ordinary, yet intense, instincts of humanity.
At length, having concluded this painful scene,
the emperor called for the last succors of religion.
They were administered to him by the archbishop
of St. Petersburg; and they were received with
an expression of devout and grateful appreciation.
During his whole life, the czar had ever been loud
in his professions of orthodox piety; and hence
these last religious observances were but in con-

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 341
sistency with his long continued conduct pre
viously. Having performed this last duty, Nicholas quietly
disposed himself to die. Impressed with the so
lemnity of his situation, his last hours seemed to be
employed in serious thought and devotion. His
sufferings were very intense; yet he met his fate
bravely and calmly, in perfect consistency with his
previous character as exhibited during his whole
life. At length, on the 2d of March, 1855, sur
rounded by his weeping family, and by a few at
tached attendants of the imperial household, this
strong, stern, powerful man closed his eyes forever
on this sublunary world, over whose destinies he
had exercised so long and so deleterious an in
fluence. He died in the fifty -ninth year of
his age.
The report of his sudden death filled the civilized
world with astonishment; and it may also with
truth be said, excepting his own dominions and that
of Prussia, with exultation. As the sole and direct
cause of the war in the East, men regarded his dis
solution as a retribution from heaven, for his insa
tiable and unprincipled ambition ; and they thought
that it was just that he, who had become the mes
senger of death to so many myriads, during the
thirty years of his reign, should himself, at a pre-
29*

342 THE LIFE AND REIGN
mature age, taste the bitterness of that cup, which
he had compelled them to experience.
As soon as the death of Nicholas I. was known,
the Grand Duke Alexander was proclaimed as the
second of that name. The obsequies of the late
czar were performed with extraordinary pomp at
St. Petersburg. Alexander H. quietly succeeded to
the possession of the throne of all the Russias; and
his accession was soon acknowledged by the powers
of Europe, which were not involved in the conflict
in the East. True to the belligerent instructions left
behind him to his successor, by Nicholas, Alexander
H. determined to continue the war, and to insist ~
upon the exorbitant demands already made by his
predecessor, without any alteration or abatement.
The bright hopes which so suddenly sprang up in
the minds of millions, like the auspicious dawn of a
glorious and peaceful day, on the death of Nicho
las, were destined to be sadly disappointed ; and the
storms of war still continued to throw their gloomy
pall, over the troubled horizon of the East.
The situation of Sevastopol is admirably adapted
for a great military and naval position. It is built
on the southern bank of a large inlet of the sea,
which is four miles in length, from its entrance to
its termination at Inkerman. The breadth of the
entrance is 1100 yards. The banks of this inlet

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 343
are surmounted by those massive fortresses, whose
attack and defence have given such celebrity to the
war in the East. The commercial portion of the
town is situated west of the Military Bay which
divides Sevastopol into two nearly equal parts.
Here are many handsome streets, fine edifices, and
beautiful churches. In the military portion of the
city, there are erected enormous arsenals, store
houses, barracks, and hospitals. The entire city
occupies a space about three miles long, and two
miles wide. Fort Quarantine, at the entrance of
the harbour, is an immense fortress. Fort Alexan
der, a short distance farther up the inlet, mounted
84 guns. Opposite to it, on the northern shore, Fort
Constantine was armed with 104 guns, in three tiers.
Fort Sevastopol mounted 87 guns; Fort Nicholas
contained 192 guns; Port Paul was furnished with
a battery of 80 guns; Fort Catherine held 120 guns ;
while the Mamelon, the Malakoff, and the Great
Redan bristled with hundreds of cannon of the
heaviest calibre. Altogether, about 1000 guns pre
sented their formidable array against the attacking
foe, protected by fortresses of vast size, height, and
strength. We will not follow the details of this memorable
siege ; — a siege, which we may term, without exag
geration, one of the most remarkable recorded in

344 THE LIFE AND REIGN
history. Passing by the numerous details of minor
conflicts and assaults, as not included within the
legitimate object of this portion of our work, which
designs to trace the general effects and ultimate re
sults of the power and influence of Nicholas, — we
will come to the final and grand assault upon the
fortresses of Sevastopol, which commenced on the
5th of September, 1855.
After the death of Lord Raglan, General Simpson
had been appointed to fill the vacancy. General
Canrobert, on the plea of iU health, had retired from
the supreme command of the French forces, and
General Pelissier had been promoted to his place.
A large body of Sardinian soldiers had joined the
allied armies before Sevastopol, and their numbers
served to aid in accomplishing the immensely diffi
cult task before them.
The whole months of July and August were em
ployed in making constant preparations for renew
ing the attack, upon a scale of magnitude and im
portance hitherto unheard of, in the annals of sieges.
Mortars of colossal size were brought up to the front
of the lines. Cannon of prodigious strength and
calibre were thickly strewed in front of the Russian
battlements; and an inexhaustible quantity of am
munition was prepared, and made ready for use.
During the long tedious months of a memorable

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 345
year, the allied armies had toiled, with stupendous
exertions, before the huge works of Sevastopol ; and
now those brave soldiers were determined to bring
the desperate and exhausting conflict to a termina
tion. A struggle for the final mastery of the place,
of the most tremendous fierceness and fury, was
about to occur ; and to decide forever the possession
of this boasted and favourite bulwark of Muscovite
pomp and power, in the southern portions of their
dominions. During the progress of the siege, several very
remarkable characters had been developed, whose
celebrity was entirely owing to the great facilities
afforded by this contest for the display of their
pecuhar qualities and talents. On the side of the
Russians, the most distinguished person was Gene
ral Totleben,* to whose superior talents as an en-
* Francis Edward Totleben was' born at Mitau, in Courland, on the
20th of May, 1818. His. father was J. H. Totleben, and his mother's
maiden name was A. Sophia Sander. His father, having removed his
business to Riga, took thither his young son, and soon after died.
After receiving the first portion of his education in the schools of
Riga, the young Totleben was admitted to the college of engineers in
St. Petersburg, where his name now shines, engraved in letters of
gold, with the inscription, "Sevastopol." When the war broke out
he was second captain in the corps of field-engineers ; he distinguished
himself under General Schilders in the Danubian campaign, and then
repaired to the Crimea. What he did at Sevastopol belongs to history.
Out of an open city he succeeded in raising, under the enemy's fire, a,
formidable fortress, that resisted for nearly a year the gigantic efforts

346 THE LIFE AND REIGN
gineer, the prolonged resistance of Sevastopol against
the allies, is to be in a great measure ascribed. He
strengthened the existing works. He erected others,
with a degree of rapidity and skill which astounded
even the most experienced and able of the Russian
officers; and he, directed the attack and defence of
the artillery with the utmost ability. His name has
become immortal in connection with the sanguinary
story of Sevastopol.
Another remarkable character developed in this
siege, and which has become adorned with imperish
able lustre, of a very different and nobler character,
is that of Florence Nightingale ;* a young English
of the allied armies. In less than a year he passed through the grades
of captain, lieutenant-colonel, . full colonel, major-general, adjutant-
general, and received, among other distinctions, the decoration of the
4th, and then of the 3d class of the order of Saint George, which is
only conferred for distinguished deeds. Seldom has a mere general
of brigade received this high distinction. Besides himself, it was only
conferred on his noble companion-in-arms at Sevastopol, Prince "Was-
siltchikoff, who, more fortunate than he, was able to remain at his
post to the last hour, whereas Totleben, having been wounded in the
foot, had to be carried out of the besieged city. Strange to say, so
rapid a promotion has not excited the least envy, but has been saluted
with acclamations, as being due to real merit — to courage combined
with genius.
* Florence Nightingale, one of the most devoted of her sex, and one
of the bravest and tenderest of human souls, undertook the grave task
of alleviating the sufferings of the dying heroes. To the Right Hon.
Sidney Herbert, the secretary at war, is due the credit of suggesting
to Miss Nightingale the idea of forming a corps of experienced female
nurses, and of proceeding to Scutari, to supersede the incompetent

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 347
lady, whose Howard-like benevolence of character,
united with her extraordinary intrepidity, induced
her to visit the scene of this terrible conflict, and de
vote herself to the difficult and dangerous work of
nursing the sick and wounded, in the camp of the
allied armies. The thanks and benedictions of hun
dreds whom she has saved from greater suffering,
" orderlies." But a woman of less devotion might well have shrunk
from such a duty. Florence Nightingale, however, at once responded
to the invitation, and accepted as her mission a task, the performance
of which demanded not only the utmost energy of body and activity
of mind, but a self-denying zeal rarely witnessed in these later days.
As pre-eminently the heroine of the war, this admirable woman
deserves more than a passing notice. Still young, very little more
than thirty, her earlier years had been passed amid all the luxuries
and refinements of opulence. Her family was wealthy, and her
paternal home was a noble mansion among the hills of Derbyshire.
As the young Florence grew to womanhood, she became deeply im
pressed with the importance of the subject of hospital-management,
and took advantage of a Continental tour to inspect and become
familiarly acquainted with the principal establishments for the care
of the sick throughout Europe. On her return she projected an in
stitution for the support of aged and infirm governesses, who could
no longer, from failure of bodily health or advance of years, maintain
themselves. She succeeded in establishing ~the institution, and en
tirely devoted herself to its management. Henceforward, her mission
was decided ; and renouncing all the attractions and personal advan
tages offered by her social position, this elegant and accomplished
young woman devoted herself to the work of assuaging the misfor
tunes' of her less happy sisters. From this duty — always repugnant
from its very nature, often unthankful — she was only called by the
still stronger claim of the perishing warriors in the East. With cha
racteristic promptitude, she soon formed a body of nurses, some, like
herself, ladies who emulated her own example, some paid and prac
tised hospital attendants ; but all of them possessing real knowledge

348 THE LIFE AND REIGN
and from death, will attend her memory, while their
lives endure ; and wise and good men, in every clime,
will regard her virtues and her labours, with that
undying admiration which they so richly deserve.

of their duties, and of proved ability and experience. No mere
amateurs, who might mistake kindly feeling and zeal for aptitude,
were admitted, but only those to whom suffering and death were fa
miliar objects, and who had given evidence of the possession of nerve
adequate to support the trying scenes they would encounter, and of
unwearying patience and kindness to the sufferers. — See "Sevastopol,"
by Emerson: London, 1855.

Tlys iQjSt grand Attack and Capture of the Malakoff.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 349

CHAPTER XXVH.
PREPARATIONS FOR A FINAL ASSAULT ON SEVASTOPOL — THE BATTLE
Of TCHERNATA — RESULTS OF THE BATTLE — COMMENCEMENT OF THE
GRAND ASSAULT — THE SECOND DAT — THE THIRD DAT  CAPTURE OF
THE MALAKOFF — THE FAILURE OF THE ENOLISH ATTACK ON THE
REDAN — THE RUSSIANS EVACUATE THE SOUTHERN PORTION OF SE
VASTOPOL — STUPENDOUS VICTORT OF THE ALLIES — HOSPITAL SCENES
IN SEVASTOPOL.
During the interval, employed by the allies in
making the necessary preparations for the final as
sault on Sevastopol, the Russians seemed to have
suspected, or ascertained, their purpose; and in
order to render their coming attack less effective
and formidable, Menschikoff determined to try
once more the effect of a grand attack upon the
position of the allies. This resolution resulted in
the third and last conflict upon that position which
occurred between the belligerents. The first was
the battle of Balaklava; the second was that of
Inkerman ; the third, and not the least important,
was that of the Tchernaya.
On this occasion Prince Gortschakoff led the at
tack in person. In the early dawn of the 16th of
so

OOU THE LIFE AND REIGN
August, 30,000 Russians, supported by 160 cannon,
issued from the works of Sevastopol, and approached
the hills of Tchernaya. They carried pontoons, and
appliances for crossing the stream bearing that name,
which was also spanned by two bridges. The Rus
sians first succeeded in throwing several divisions
across the river ; and in attacking the extreme left
of the French line, commanded by General Camon.
They also advanced across the bridges, and attacked
the 20th regiment of the line. The attack and the
resistance were furious. The 97th regiment of
, French chasseurs arrived in time to the assistance
of the 20th; and the Russians were driven back
over the bridge. As they passed it, the Sardinian
artillery drove a flood of iron hail through the mass
of living flesh, and the havoc made by -them was
fearful. The advancing Russians on the right of the
French position, attacked the latter under General
Fancheux with such prodigious fury, that the latter
was compelled slowly to retreat, until he reached
the summit of the hill. There the French re-formed,
and charged down upon the Russians with such
desperate energy, that the latter, in turn, fled in
confusion toward the bridge of Traktir. While that
bridge was choked with the tumultuous mass, the
Sardinian batteries were opened upon them, and, as

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 351
in the other instance, the most dreadful havoc was
effected among them. Toward evening the Russian
commander slowly drew off all his forces from the
field. His losses were tremendous. He left behind
him 3000 dead, and 5000 wounded. Among the
dead was General Read, a distinguished Russian
officer, on whose person the allies found a complete
plan of the attack. The allies lost 300 killed, and
1200 wounded.
The desperate purpose of the Russians in this
movement, was therefore not accomplished, and on
the 5th of September, there opened on the batteries
of Sevastopol, the most terrific assault ever recorded
in the sanguinary annals of sieges and battles. The
approaches had been brought so close to the Russian
works, in many places,' that a stone might easily
have been thrown from the one into the other. At
four o'clock in the morning of this memorable day,
the signal for the general attack was given, by the
discharge of three fougasses against the counter
scarp of the Central Bastidn; and instantly, along
the whole hne of the works of the besiegers, extend
ing four miles in length, a prodigious deluge of shot
and shell was poured upon the works of Sevastopol,
accompanied with a tremendous roar and thunder,
which shook the very earth, which reverberated for
many miles, and which wreathed in volcanic fires,

352 THE LIFE AND REIGN
amid the early darkness of morning, the whole
horizon around.
The garrison of Sevastopol was evidently taken
by surprise. For some minutes the_y could make no
answer to this infernal salute ; but after the lapse of
a short interval, their guns began to reply. During
that entire day, the bombardment was incessantly
continued ; and when night arrived, serious damage
had been effected against the battlements, and por
tions of the town had been set on fire.
On the 6th of September, the attack was renewed,
if possible with greater vigour than before. "When
the morning dawned, the effect of the preceding
day's bombardment was apparent. The Malakoff
had suffered greatly. Large portions of the abattis
had been swept away. Many of the embrasures
were destroyed. The city of Sevastopol itself was
almost a heap of ruins. The storm of shot and shell
to which its edifices had been exposed, had deso
lated and destroyed its fairest and best portions.
The ships in the harbour were found to be on fire ;
and an explosion, during the course of the 6th,' took
place in a Russian magazine, which effected terrible
havoc and destruction. During the whole of the
6th, the bombardment incessantly continued; nor
was it suspended for a moment, during the whole
succeeding night. The 7th had been appointed as

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 353
the day for the last grand assault ; and no interval
was given to the besieged, to prepare for the terrific
encounter. At length the memorable 7th of September
dawned; — a day pregnant with the forthcoming
destinies and disasters of myriads of human beings.
The allied commanders had arranged the plan of
attack as follows : — The French were to assault the
immense tower of the Malakoff. The English were
then to throw themselves on the Great Redan. The
right attack on the Little Redan was to be simul
taneous with this. The assault on the extreme left
was to be conducted by five regiments of French
chasseurs and Zouaves. On the right, General
DAutremarre, together with Kiel's and Breton's
brigades, were to attack and seize the Mast Bastion.
The Sardinians were to aid in this last movement.
Ten regiments of reserve were posted in a proper
position to watch the Russian army of reserve, in
case the latter might attempt a diversion in favour
of the assaulted Works.
At twelve o'clock on the 7th, the French troops
advanced from their trenches, toward the Malakoff.
The previous fire of three days had silenced, at this
time, nearly all the guns of this vast fortress ; and
the French troops had but little difficulty in reach
ing its. summit with their ladders, and leaping into
30*

354 THE LIFE AND REIGN
the interior of the works. Then followed a despe
rate and bloody conflict. General Bosquet, who
commanded the French, was severely wounded, and
was compelled to retire to the camp. After pro
digious struggles, repeatedly renewed by the Rus
sians, to expel the French from the Malakoff, the
former were compelled to retreat, and to leave this
vast fortress in the possession of its heroic as
sailants. The order was now given for the English troops
to advance to the assault on the Redan. Between
the trenches and this fortress an interval of 240
yards existed, and the ground was exceedingly
broken. The Redan had suffered less from the pre
vious bombardment, and nearly all its guns were yet
mounted and effective. They poured a terrible
shower of shot on the advancing EngUsh, already
sufficiently broken by the roughness of the ground.
Many were killed; and when, at length, the sur
vivors reached the Redan, their scaling-ladders
were found to be too short to reach the breach.
Hundreds were here massacred by the guns of the
Russians ; but soon, in spite of every obstacle,
the British soldiers began to enter the broken
works. But here their greatest danger and disaster
commenced. An inner work commanded the posi
tion thus entered by the English, and the Russian

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 355
guns from it poured death into the serried ranks of
the assailants, confined in the narrow space of the
exterior walls. For two hours a dreadful conflict
here ensued between the desperate combatants;
and Colonel Wiftdham, who commanded the Eng
lish, achieved prodigies of valour, which have ren
dered his name one of the. most distinguished in
connection with this memorable siege. ' At length,
the Enghsh were entirely and completely repulsed
from the Redan, in spite of their heroic efforts and
sacrifices. The French attack on the Little Redan and Cen
tral bastions were not more successful. Again and
again their desperate courage won these works; and
as often, the Russians, more desperate than they.,
by prodigious exertions, repossessed them. Night
settled down at last upon the sanguinary and awful
scene. The attack was to be renewed on the 8th,
and doubtless, it would have been successful. The
evidence of this is the fact" that the Russian com
mander himself considered it thus ; and hence, dur
ing the night of the 7th of September, Menschikoff
quietly evacuated all the forts on the southern side
of the city. When morning broke, flames arose
from every quarter. Long lines of troops might
still be seen, crossing the bridges which led to the
northern portion of the town. Soon tremendous

356 THE LIFE AND REIGN
explosions rent the air. Fort after fort, bastion
after bastion, exploded. The ships in the har
bour, one after the other, began to sink; and the
astounded allies saw, as it were, the formidable for
tresses of rock and iron and wood, crumbling and
disappearing through a mysterious agency, before
their eyes, and from their grasp. Had the Russian
commander not been disappointed in the springing
of some of the mines which he had constructed be
neath the fortresses of Sevastopol, after his defeat
and its capture, it is probable that every one of
them, on the southern side, would have become a
mouldering ruin ; and would have buried beneath
their shapeless masses thousands of their unfortu
nate assailants. Fortunately, the savage purposes
of Menschikoff were defeated, to some extent, by
. accident and by the neglect of his agents.
During this last bombardment, the English lost
400 killed, and about 2000 wounded. The French
lost about 2000 killed, and 5000 wounded and miss
ing. The Russians lost 2600 killed, 7000 wounded,
and 1700 missing. Between the battle of Tcher-
naya and this last assault, their losses amounted to
18,000 men.
This memorable siege, of one of the strongest
fortresses in the world, lasted about one year. At
least 100,000 men perished, from wounds, priva-

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 357
tions, and diseases, within and around its walls.
The besieging army mounted 800 guns, and fired
1,600,000 rounds of shot. The open trenches
covered an extent of fifty-four English miles, in the
different parallels. Facts like these will give some
idea of the vastness, magnitude, and difficulty, at
tending, this memorable conflict; whose progress
and ultimate issue have so justly and so universally
occupied the absorbed attention of the whole civil
ized world.
The allied commanders immediately took posses
sion of the works which they had won, and which
had been deserted by the enemy in despair. A
large portion of the fortresses, together with all the
arsenals, hospitals, and barracks of the Russians, also
fell into the hands of the conquerors. The scenes
of horror presented by these places, the last refuge
'of thousands of wounded and dying Russians, left
behind by their retreating comrades to the mercy
of the allies, beggar all description; and fill the soul
with unutterable disgust of the pomp and circum
stance, the grandeur and littleness, the ferocity and
barbarity, of "civilized warfare."
The building used as an hospital was an immense
pile, in the inside of the dockyard, at right angles
with the line of the Redan. It was peculiarly ex
posed to the action of shot and shell bounding over

358 THE LIFE AND REIGN
the Redan ; and it bore in its sides, roofs, windows,
and doors, frightful and numerous proofs of the se
verity of the cannonade. In long, low rooms, sup
ported by square pillars, arched at the top, and
dimly lighted through the shattered and broken
window-frames, lay the wounded Russians. The
dying and the dead were piled together in one un
distinguishable mass; packed as closely as they
could be stowed ; some on the floor, and others on
wretched pallets of straw, which were saturated with
their blood. The horrid situation of these wounded
and still surviving wretches may be imagined, amid
the thunder of the exploding fortresses, amid the
roar of shot and shell pouring through the roof into
the rooms in which they lay ; and amid the crackling
and hissing of -the burning edifices around them on
every side. Some attempted to crawl about, in
spite of their wounds ; seeking, if possible, to escape
from the horrors of the scene around them. Others,
rolling to and fro in their mortal agonies, uttered
unearthly screams ; and, glaring with their dying
eyes on the intruding stranger, implored relief from
their sufferings, or the boon of a speedy death.
Many, with legs broken, with arms shattered to
fragments, with ragged splinters of bone protruding
through the raw flesh, with crushed heads and
bleeding wounds, were writhing in torture, and

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 359
cursing the severity and wretchedness of their fate.
Others, again, as if conscious of the near approach
of death, were praying, and striving to employ their
few remaining moments in making preparations to
meet their Judge. Some of them presented the ap
pearance of a horrid mass of bloody clothing and
broken bones; and in other cases, such shapeless
forms were blackened with fire and smoke; yet
they still moved, and raved, and suffered. The
bodies of some were bloated to a horrible and
unnatural size, with eyes pressed out from their
sockets, or with swollen tongues protruding from
their mouths, on which their exposed teeth were
tightly and painfully compressed. These, and such
as these, were the spectacles, fit only for the realm
of pandemonium, which were presented to the view
of the victors, after their herculean task had been
accomplished, and Sevastopol had fallen into their
power. These, and such as these, were the calami
ties which inevitably followed, as the results of the
warlike ambition of Mcholas; and it may truly
be said, that for all these horrors and sufferings ;
for all the endless train of disasters and calamities
which were inflicted on myriads of human beings,
on the ensanguined plains of the once fertile and
happy Crimea ; for the thousands of families which
were made desolate by these rude storms of war, in

360 THE LIFE AND REIGN
England, in France, in Turkey, and in Russia ; and
for that immense host of unpurified souls who were
suddenly summoned hence, —
Cut off, even in the blossom of their sins;"
No reck'ning made, but sent to their account
With all their imperfections on their heads; —
for these things only one man is held chiefly re
sponsible, in the supreme and impartial chancery
of Heaven ; and that one man is Nicholas I. !*

* The south side of Sevastopol includes the Malakoff, the Great
Eedan, the Lesser Redan, Flagstaff Bastion, Central. Bastion, Qua
rantine Fort, Forts Nicholas and St. Paul, the Garden Batteries, and
the second line of defences. The north side includes the great Fort
of Sieverna, called also the Star Fort ; and the entrance to the har
bour is still defendeif-by Fort Constantine, with three tiers of guns,
the Wasp Battery, and the Telegraph Battery.

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 361

CHAPTER
THE REPULSE OF THE RUSSIANS AT KARS — VICTORT OF THE ALLIES
AT KINBURN — VISIT OF CZAR ALEXANDER II. TO NIKOLAIEFF — TO
ODESSA — HIS RETURN TO ST. PETERSBURG — THE AMBASSADOR FROM
PERSIA TO THE CZAR  THE MEMBERS OF THE IMPERIAL FAMILT 
THE GRAND DUKE CONSTANTINE — CAPTURE OF KARS — GENERAL
MOCRAVIEFF. By the fall of Sevastopol, the heaviest blow in
the war seemed to have been struck, and the most
difficult and dangerous achievement accomplished,
by the allied armies. The Russians continued to
bombard the southern portions of the town, from
the batteries stiU in their possession. The Mala
koff, and the French quarters in the western part
of the south side, were attacked with especial
fury. The injury done, however, was of no serious
moment; and, safely ensconsed in their hardly-
earned bulwarks, the conquerors might defy the im
becile vengeance of the humbled foe.
The British and French soldiers soon began to
clear away the mouldering ruins of the city, and to
repair the dismantled fortresses. In the interior
of the Crimea, disaster followed disaster on the side
31

362 THE LIFE AND REIGN
of the Russians. On the 29th of September, under
Mouravieff, they attacked the works of Kars, which
were manned and defended by the Turks. After a
bloody conflict of seven hours, the assailants were
compelled to retire, with the loss of 3000 killed and
5000 wounded. The loss of the Turks was about
700 killed and wounded. The Russians were com
pelled, for a time at least, to abandon the siege of
the place. Next followed the capture of the Rus
sian fortress of Kinburn by the allies, by which the
whole force under General Koianovitch, 1500 in
number, surrendered to the 'conquerors. This vic
tory secured to the allies- one of the outlets of the
Dnieper. ^
During the progress of^these events, the Emperor
Alexander had been/sojourning at Nicolaieff and its
vicinity. The report of. these, continued misfortunes
is said to have affected his. reason while at this
place. His anxiety and mortifications had superin
duced indications of the approach of the constitu
tional disease of the Romanoffs — partial ¦ insanity,
accompanied by erysipelas — although the attack was
slight, and very probably temporary. The capture
of Kinburn by the alhes was witnessed by the czar,
and by the Grand Duke Constantine, from one of
the spires of Otschakow ; and it was the near ap
proach of the hostile army which induced the czar

1 1

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 363
to retire from Nicolaieff toward his northern capital.
He returned to St. Petersburg, without delaying at
"Warsaw, as he had previously intended to do.
During the sojourn of the czar at Odessa, several
incidents of interest occurred. He received the
military and civil employes, and a deputation of the
merchants of Odessa, who were honoured with the
privilege of presenting bread and salt to the em
peror. He expressed his firm conviction, that Hea
ven would grant a favourable issue to the war, and
preserve the power and territory of "Holy Russia."
He attended divine worship in the cathedral ; and
there the archbishop, Innocent, presented to him the
cross and the holy water, and addressed him with
the following words : " Pious sovereign ! thou hadst
scarcely put on the crown of thy ancestors, when it
pleased Providence to surround it with thorns. Our
bodily eyes are not accustomed to see such an orna
ment sparkling on the head of kings ; but the eyes
of faith see in it, with piety and respect, a souvenir
of the crown of Christ. Have not, indeed, such
crowns been worn by the most pious kings and
princes, from David, Jehoshaphat, Constantine, Vla
dimir the Great, to Demetrius, the hero of the Don,
and finally thy patron, Alexander Newsky ?
"'Have courage, and let not thy soul become
weak at the sight of these smoking brands,' said

364 THE LIFE AND REIGN
the prophet to the warrior-king, Ahaz, when the
two kingdoms of Israel and Assyria united against
him in an unjust war. Enter then, 0 pious sove
reign ! the temple where once thy august father
came, in the depth of night, to raise toward Heaven
his thanks for having escaped the tempest" and ship
wreck: enter, and in thy turn raise with us thy
prayers to the Xing of kings, for the cessation of
that tempest which now rages both on land and sea.
May Heaven grant that this temple may again see
thee kneeling before God ; but then only to render
acknowledgments, and to give him thanks, for vic
tory !"
During the sojourn of Alexander H. at Odessa, a
Russian nobleman observed, in conversation with
the czar, that the restoration of an honourable- peaee,
but only an honourable one, would restore the pros
perity of the city. Alexander rephed, "Who is
there that does not desire such a peace? I, more
than any one else."
On his return to St. Petersburg, the czar, on the
9th of November, issued an order, by which that
capital was declared to be no longer in a-' state of
siege, in consequence of the withdrawal of the allied
fleet from the Baltic. At the same time, he dis
missed Prince Menschikoff, the favourite and vete
ran servant of the Czar Nicholas, from his position

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 365
as chief of his staff, and appointed General Olden
burg in his place. This act of the sovereign is re
garded as a partial expression of censure upon the
prince, for the active and belligerent tone displayed
by him in the inception, and during the progress,
of the war. Immediately on his return to St. Pe
tersburg, the youthful czar was called upon to give
an audience to the ambassador sent by the Shah
of Persia, to felicitate him on his accession. It will
be remembered, that after the accession of Nicholas,
among the many brilliant delegations from many
sovereigns, whose presence graced the streets and
palaces of Moscow at his coronation, the Shah of
Persia was not represented.
But on the accession of his successor, a different
spectacle was exhibited. An imposing embassy,
consisting of six of the most distinguished person
ages of the Persian court, attended by a numerous
and splendid retinue, waited upon the czar, and ten
dered to him the congratulations .of their sovereign:
Prince Beboutoff entertained the strangers with a
sumptuous banquet; and among the toasts given,
the ambassador proposed the health of the faithful
and constant ally of the Emperor of Russia, his
highness the Shah ; and afterward, that of the Em
peror of Russia, the friend and ally of the mighty
ruler of Persia. It is said, that the Shah and his
*^ 31*

366 THE LIFE AND REIGN
prime minister had received the most magnificent
presents from the cabinet of St. Petersburg, in order
to induce them to despatch this embassy to the czar,
as a proof to all the world, at this crisis, of the
peaceful and friendly sentiments entertained by the
Shah of Persia, toward the Muscovite sovereign.
A trick of state policy so desperate as this, would
seem clearly to indicate the presence of conscious
weakness, and the existing necessity of employing
every possible means of husbanding not only mate
rial resources, but also of manufacturing public
opinion, in favour of the czar.
Notwithstanding the fact that Alexander has in
herited a war, the conduct and progress of which
shock the moral sense of the civilized world, his
own amiability of temper, and excellent personal
qualities, have won for him general esteem and
sympathy. He is not regarded as a person of much
decision of character, or of much mental ability.
It is known, that. the anxiety and toils of his posi
tion exceed his intellectual and physical strength;
and that the advent of peace would afford to none
of his harassed subjects more genuine pleasure than
to himself. In person, he is tall and well-propor
tioned; and his countenance, with its symmetry,
combines a shade of serious melancholy.
The Grand Duke Constantine, w*ho is the favourite

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 367
of the old Russian party in the nation, is much
better adapted to bearing the burden of empire.
He is a man of violent character, passionate and
obstinate. He resembles very much his uncle, Con
stantine, the former sanguinary governor of Poland.
He is High- Admiral of the Russian fleets. In per
son he is short and stout ; his countenance is indica
tive of his disposition, and his whole personal ap
pearance is devoid of attractive or pleasing qualities.
The present empress, wife of Alexander H., is dis
tinguished for her beauty, amiability, and accom
plishments. She is beloved, not only by her hus
band, but by her husband's brothers, the grand
dukes; and by none of them more than by the
savage Constantine himself. The latter is said to
have recently proposed to the czar a most dangerous
and desperate expedition. It was none other than
that he should arm and equip the wrhole fleet of
Cronstadt, and sail to the attack of London. He
proposed that he should burn and destroy the capi
tal of the British empire by one sudden and tre
mendous coup-de-main, and thus "carry the war into
Africa." The calm good sense of the empress dis-
cernedthe destructive peril of this proposition ; and
though it was urged with the utmost vehemence by
Constantine, her benignant influence over the czar
succeeded in defeating his attainment of the ap-

368 THE LIFE AND REIGN
proval and permission of the sovereign. Constan
tine, like his uncle, has been made familiar with the
laws, the government, the resources, and even the
language, of Turkey; in the expectation that, at
some future period, he may be called upon to realize
in his person the ambitious purpose of the Romanoff
dynasty, that one of its members may yet, in time
to come, sit upon the throne of the Constantines,
and wield the sceptre of the Ottoman sovereigns.
At a subsequent period, the -Russians, under
General Mouravieff, having received large rein
forcements of troops, renewed their attack on the
fortress and city of Kars. The vast importance
of this place called forth the utmost exertions of
the assailants. The result, in this instance, was
more favourable to the Russians ; for the garrison
capitulated, after a desperate and bloody conflict,
which continued for some weeks. And it is but
just to observe, that the extremes of famine and
suffering, much more than the valour of the Rus
sians, or the skill of their commander, Mouravieff,
contributed to the fall and capture of this fortress.
For nearly a month previous to this event, the
heroic garrison had endured the utmost distress,
verging upon starvation itself. The Whole country
around was filled with Russian detachments, which
cut off every possibility of relief. Sixteen thousand

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 369
troops, one hundred and twenty field-pieces, and
nine pachas, became the trophies of the successful
Mouravieff. This general is one of the ablest and most distin
guished officers engaged in the Russian service.
He was born in 1793 ; entered the military career
as officer of the general staff; then served in the
Caucasus, and was sent by General Yermoloff to
Khiva. On his return he published a narrative,
throwing the first light which illumined that hitherto
unknown region. In the Persian campaign of 1828,
he commanded a brigade under Paskiewitch, and
distinguished himself at Akaltsik. and Kars, then
taken by storm. In the Polish campaign of 1831,
he likewise fought with much , distinction, and as a
lieutenant-general, headed the right wing at the
storming of Warsaw. Toward the end of 1832, he
was sent as plenipotentiary to Mehemed Ali, in
order to bring the Egyptian prince to peaceful terms
in his conflict with the Porte. The mediation was
unsuccessful. Ibrahim Pacha, son of Ali, being
victorious over the Turks near Konieh, advanced
toward Constantinople ; and Mouravieff then took
the command of the Russian troops, who landed on
the Asiatic side of the Bosphorus, and stopped the
progress of the ambitious vassal. In 1835, Moura
vieff* took command of the 5th corps of the army.

370 THE LIFE AND REIGN
In 1838, he fell under the imperial displeasure, for
having, during a grand mihtary manoeuvre or sham-
fight near St. Petersburg, where he commanded
one side, and the emperor the other, uncourteously
made his master prisoner. Retiring from active
service, he either lived on his estate, or travelled in
Europe, — traveUing being the resort of Russian no
blemen when in disgrace. In 1848, he was again
received into favour, and took command of the
corps of grenadiers, then considered the second best
in the Russian army. From this station, after the
resignation of Prince Woronzoff in 1854, he was
transferred to the command of the Transeaucasian
Russian possessions, and of the army in Asia.
Mouravieff unites in his person all the character
istics of his family. He is energetic and stubborn,
and is considered by the scientific officers of the
army as an accomplished general ; indeed he is by
some regarded as the only Russian strategist. As a
poUtical man, he is wholly imbued with the so-
called orthodox, ultra, old-Russian Muscovite ideas
and convictions.
After the capture of Kars, the Russians were
actively engaged in improving and enlarging the
fortifications of the north side of Sevastopol, until
they rival or excel, in strength and magnitude, those
which have been already won, by the desperate

OF NICHOLAS THE FIRST. 371
valour of their foes, on the south. Nor has the
firing ceased, on the part of the Russians, upon the
position of the aUies; but the fury and vigour of
their cannonading, from their present position, have
increased; and have not unfrequently recalled the
vivid memory of the most destructive conflicts
which occurred during the former siege.
And we regard the sentiment as both so im
portant and so true, as to merit reiteration here:
that for all the Varied events connected with the
war in the East ; for the loss of myriads of human
lives; for the poverty, deprivation, and gloom,
which have afflicted many nations; for the vast
amount of physical suffering which has been en
dured ; for the suspension of i commerce ; for the
derangement of finances; and for the desolation
of one of the fairest countries of Europe, — man
kind are indebted alone to the insatiable ambition
of Nicholas I. ; to his unscrupulous disregard of ex
isting treaties; to his selfish inhumanity; and to
his fixed, though baffled, determination to set up
his despotic throne in the city of the sultan, in spite
of the remonstrance, or even the resistance, of seve
ral of the most powerful nations of Christendom.

4$tn)ib.

32

APPENDIX.

Nor: I.
SCHAMYL, PKLNCE OF THE CIRCASSIANS.*
Schamyl was born in 1797, at the aul Himri, and was
therefore thirty-seven years of age when he became chief of
the Tshetshenzes. In early youth he was distinguished by
an unbending spirit, a serious uncommunicative manner, an
irrepressible thirst for knowledge, and an indomitable pride
and ambition. He frequently remained in seclusion for days
together; and the wise mullah, Djelal Eddin, managed to
inflame him in his enthusiasm in favour of the Koran. In
structed in the prevailing doctrine of the Sefatians, he
awakened the slumbering passion in the bosom of his dis
ciple, and prepared him for his great future. This education
had its fruits; and from the day when Schamyl became the
successor of Hamsed Bey, all foreheads were abased before
the countenance of the master.
Schamyl is also the worthy head of the fiery sect whose
prophet he has been chosen. He is of middle growth, fair,
almost red-haired — especially in his beard, where there are
also a few gray hairs, — has gray eyes, a well-formed nose, and
a little mouth. A marble calmness, which least deserts him
in the hour of danger, governs his whole behaviour; and his
speech is totally free from excitement, whether conversing
* Extract from " Circassia," by Dr. Frederick Wagner : London, 1853.
375

376 APPENDIX.
with friend, foe, or traitor. He is convinced that his actions
are direct inspirations of God: he eats little, drinks water
only, sleeps but few hours, and passes all his leisure time in
reading the Koran, and in prayer; but when he speaks, he
has — so says Berek Bey, the poet of Daghestan —
" Lightnings in his eye, and on his lip, flowers."
He is, in fact, master in the highest degree of that Oriental
eloquence which is so fitted to rouse the sleeping souls of the
faithful ; and he manages to outbid the Russian generals in
their metaphorical language.
If the Russians say that they are numerous as the sands of
the sea, Schamyl replies that the Circassians are the waves
that wash away the sands.
At first, Schamyl resided in the little fortress of Achulko,
where he had himself a European house of two stories, con
structed by Russian deserters and prisoners. At first his
government was so poor, that the soldiers had to supply him
with the means of existence; and yet religious enthusiasm
had rendered him as powerful as if he had possessed tons of
gold. His slightest word was sufficient, and his Murids were
ready to go to the death for him. None of the chiefs of
Daghestan before his time had wielded such authority. Even
Sheikh Mansoor, who carried the standard of revolt through
the whole of Circassia, — the mighty hero, the high-minded
sower in the fertile field of faith, — was only a famous and
dreaded warrior ; but Schamyl is not only general and sultan
of the Tshetshenzes, but also their prophet ; and since 1834,
Daghestan's war-cry is — "Mahommed was Allah's first pro
phet; Schamyl is his second."
Just at the time when General Grabbe thought he had
annihilated Schamyl's consequence as well as himself, by the
storming of Achulko, the power of the daring chief rose to its
height. Imagine the appearance of the prophet among the

SCHAMYL, PRINCE OF THE CIRCASSIANS. 377
tribes, just at the moment when the news of the total destruc
tion of Achulko was rumoured abroad ! It was believed that
he lay buried under the ruins, and on a sudden he stood in
the midst of them, as if arisen from the dead ! His divine
mission was no longer doubted; and a victoiy could not have
made him more popular than this heroic defeat !
After the loss of Achulko, Schamyl determined to preach
the holy, war to the Tcherkesses, and to incite them to join in
his resistance. A similar attempt which he had made in
1836 among the Avars — that people of Daghestan so long
subjected to Russia — had not succeeded. He had hoped to
bring about an alliance of the Caucasians of the Euxine with
those of the Caspian ; for the latter — with the sole exception
of the Avars — had all assembled under his flag, and formed a
single nation.
It would be possible to inflict a very severe blow upon the
Russians by such a co-operative union with the Tcherkesses.
Schamyl went to the Ubichs and the Adechs, and was re
spectfully received, although without coming to any decided
result. The hatred of Russia is certainly a mighty tie
between the peoples on both sides of the Caucasus; but cen
turies of petty dissensions between the various tribes have
loosened this tie, and loosen it more and more every day. In
addition to this, there was another hindrance to the com
munity of action which the brave chief was attempting to
bring about, in the variety of language which existed; and
Sehamyl was only understood by the chiefs and mullahs, as
he could only preach the war in Turkish, and thus not give
his eloquence the power which he otherwise displays.
At length, especially after the great defeat of the Russians
at Dargo, the Tcherkesses of the Black Sea, fired by the
report of Schamyl's deeds, attempted on their part some
attacks upon the Russians, and frequently broke through the
lines of defence guarded by the Cossacks. They even took

378 APPENDIX.
four fortresses; but contented themselves with plundering,
and not garrisoning them. Three or four battles fought with
great skill by the Russians forced the Tcherkesses to retire,
and content themselves with a merely passive opposition.
When Prince Woronzoff undertook the command of the
Caucasus, Schamyl was no longer the inconsiderable chieftain
that he was when in the train of Hamsad Bey. His power
was now enormous. The Avars, the Kists, the Kumucks, and
other tribes, were so carried away by the eloquence of the pro
phet, that they forgot their ancient feuds to ally themselves
with the Lazes and Tschetchenzes. Formerly lord over a
few small tribes, he was now commander of a whole nation.
Of course it must be seen that to mature such a combination,
the most powerful efforts of a politic and experienced mind
must have been employed.
Schamyl, however, is not only a brave warrior, but also a
wise lawgiver; and it was necessary that he should be this, in
order to create and- organize his nation : and to effect this it
was necessary to subdue the hereditary chiefs of the tribes, to
found a theocratical monarchy amid the barbarianism of semi-
slavery, to spread the one faith in all hearts, to accustom
savage horsemen to regular tactics, and to institute enduring
customs. And this he accomplished. The new doctrine he preached
befriended the sects of Omar and Ali : his victory dazzled the
sons of the mountains, and humbled the pride of their princes.
The races who once combined in a common war for their reli
gion, were united by him under jthe same civil administration,
and the old territorial names disappeared.
At the present time the country under the government of
Schamyl is divided into twenty provinces, each under the
care of a naib or governor. These naibs do not all posssess
equal power, but four only among them — the nearest and
fastest friends of the prophet — are regarded as the sovereign

SCHAMYL, PRINCE OF THE CIRCASSIANS. 379
commanders of their subjects; the others send in their de
cisions for confirmation by the chief.
The organization of the army is a master-piece of acutely-
meditated precision, for it is constituted in a way calculated
and designed to render possible the utmost strictness of disci
pline, without damping the natural warlike feelings of his
subjects. Every nalb keeps 300 horsemen at the disposition
of the state; and the conscription is so conducted, that out
of every ten families one horseman is drawn, and that family
is free during his life from all taxes, while the other nine
have to furnish his outfit and sustenance.
This is the standing army. Besides this, there is a kind
of national guard or militia. All the male inhabitants of a
village are required to exercise from their fifteenth to their
thirtieth year in the use of arms and in riding. Their duty
is to defend their villages when they are attacked, but when
it is absolutely necessary they follow the prophet in his dis
tant journeys.- Every horseman of the line then commands
the ten families whose representative he is.
Hamsad Bey was the first person who formed a distinct
corps of Russian and Polish deserters, among whom there
were also a few officers. Schamyl has increased it to about
4000 strong of all nations, with many technical improvements.
But his body-guard consists of a thousand picked Murids, who
get somewhere about six shillings a month pay, and a propor
tion of the booty. They are called murtosigates, and it is a
subject of emulation in the villages to get an appointment in
this special body.
Schamyl, who is well acquainted with the fact that the
Oriental mind is overcome by magnificence, never moves from
his dwelling without a train of 500, although it has been said
that it is from the motive of safety as much as any thing, as
a portion of his empire is discontented with his system of
government.

380 APPENDIX.
It need scarcely be said that Schamyl makes the most
effective use of the credulity of the mountain races. Every
time that an important expedition is about to be undertaken,
he retires to a grotto or a mosque, where he spends weeks in
fasting and communion with Allah. When he returns from
this solitude, he announces openly the result of intercommu
nication with the Deity.
He has established posts throughout all Daghestan; for
state despatches every village is obliged to provide one or two
additional horses, and the messengers, who are furnished with
a pass signed and sealed by the district naib, get over great
distances in almost fabulous time.
In his military arrangements he has so far imitated the
Russians as to institute orders, marks of honour, and distinc
tions of rank. The leaders of 100 men, who signalize them
selves in action, receive round silver medals, bearing appro
priate poetical inscriptions ; the leaders of 300 men receive
three-cornered medals; and those of 500, silver epaulets.
Before 1842, sabres of honour, to be worn on the right side,
were the only marks of distinction distributed. Now the
leaders of 1000 receive the rank of captain, and those of a
larger number are generals. Cowards are distinguished by a
piece of baize on the arm or back.
At first, Schamyl's income consisted only of the booty, of
which a fifth was the share of the chief, according to ancient
custom ; now, however, regular taxes are levied. The estates
which formerly were appropriated to the mosques, and only
benefite(f*the priests and derveeshes, are now state property ;
the priests receive instead a regular stipend, while the der
veeshes fitted for war are incorporated with the militia. The
useless members of that body were banished from Daghestan.
The most distinguished of the fellow-warriors of Schamyl
were Achwerdu Mohammed, Ahwail Mullah, and Ulubey
Mullah.

SCHAMYL, PRINCE OF THE CIRCASSIANS. 381
The punishment for civil as for military crimes, for theft,
murder, treachery, cowardice, and so on, are set down in a
code written by the prophet himself; and the punishment of
death is rendered more or less severe or degrading according
to a fixed ratio of delinquency.
Schamyl lives very moderately and soberly ; he eats little,
and only sleeps a few hours at a time, and at some seasons —
especially when in a condition of religions enthusiasm — not
for some days together. He has only three wives ; and his
favourite wife is an Armenian woman — perhaps the cousin of
the Mosdok merchant, who, however, says he has only two.
How far Schamyl's fanaticism will go in its fearful conse
quences, the following circumstances, related to a Russian
officer by one of the most intimate Murids of the Imaum,
will show: —
In the year 1843, the inhabitants of the Great and Little
Tshetshna, pressed on all sides by the Russian troops, and left
helpless by the Laz communities, determined to send a de
putation to Schamyl with the entreaty that he would either
send them a sufficient number of troops, not only to defend
themselves, but also to drive the Russians altogether out of
the Tshetshna, where they had erected Fort Wosdwischen-
skaja, and had seriously established themselves; or, if this
were not possible, to empower them to submit to the Russian
government, as all their means of resistance were at an end.
For a long time no one was found willing to undertake so
delicate a mission ; for to approach Schamyl with such a pro
posal was to dare death itself. The Tshetshenzes were there
fore forced to select their deputies by lot ; and the lot fell
upon four inhabitants of the village of Gunoi. Their native
pride would not permit the Tshetshenzes to manifest the sen
timent of fear, even when in the most imminent danger ; the
chosen band, therefore, undertook the mission without hesi
tation, and promised the people to induce the Imaum either

382 APPENDIX.
to promise military assistance in their defence against the
Russians, or to allow them to submit to their formidable
enemies. The Gunojes departed on their journey with determined
courage; but the nearer they came to the aul Dargo, the
louder was the voice whispering of self-preservation, and the
stronger the light which showed the hazard of their enter
prise. They took counsel several times among themselves
as to the best way they might begin the business, without,
however, coming to a decided issue, on which to build the
slightest fabric of hope. At last, the eldest of the deputies,
the experienced Tshetshenz Tepi, said, turning to his com
panions : "You know that not only the people in general, but
even the Murids next to the mighty Imaum, dare not pro
nounce the words, 'Submission to the giaours,' unpunished.
What, therefore, would be our fate if we dared to come before
the face of Schamyl with such words upon our lips ? He
would immediately command our tongues to be cut out, our
eyes to be blinded, or our heads to be cut off; and all this
would not benefit our nations in the least, but only desolate
our families. In order to avert certain destruction, and to
gain a portion of our desires, I have thought of a more
feasible plan."
Tepi's companions urged him to tell them this excellent
scheme. "As I have heard," continued Tepi, "there is only one
person who possesses undoubted influence over the Imaum,
and who dares to say before him that which would bring de
struction over others ; this is his mother. *My kunak (host)
Hassim Mullah, at Dargo, would gladly introduce us to her ;
especially if we present him with a portion of the money we
have brought with us."
The other ambassadors were perfectly content with this pro
posal, and empowered their comrade to do as he thought fit.

SCHAMYL, PRINCE OF THE CIRCASSIANS. 383
On their arrival in Dargo, they were hospitably received
by Tepi's kunak ; and Tepi made use of the first opportunity
to acquaint Hassim Mullah with the object of their mission,
and to entreat his co-operation in the proposed manner.
" What ! Do you think," exclaimed Hassim Mullah, thrown
off his guard, " that I could be so dishonourable as to put my
hand to so wretched a business as a submission to the
giaours V
Tepi put his hand in his pocket, and allowed a handful of
gold-pieces to drop upon the carpet before him. Hassim
Mullah's countenance changed altogether in expression, and
he requested his friend to tell him the circumstance once
more, as he evidently had misunderstood them. At the
same time, he inquired how many pieces of gold he had
brought. "Three hundred," replied Tepi. "All the tribe subscribed
together to make up this sum, to support our petition. Here
are seventy; the other two hundred and thirty we will pre
sent to the khanum, if she succeed in obtaining her son's per
mission for our submitting to the Russians."
"It is well," said Hassim Mullah. "I will speak with the
khanum, and hope to obtain for you what you desire, if you
are agreed to give two hundred only of your remaining gold
pieces to the khanum, and the other thirty to me."
The ambassadors were willing to enter into this arrange
ment. Hassim Mullah went to the khanum, an aged woman,
much beloved on account of her charitable deeds, but who was
herself avaricious, and declared herself ready to speak with
her son about the matter, the danger of which she did not,
however, conceal for one moment.
" The same evening she entered her son's apartment, when,
Koran in hand, he was despatching the Murids who were
standing about him, with instructions to cause some other of
the tribes to revolt.

384 APPENDIX.
Notwithstanding this pressing business, however, from
which he was unwilling to be taken, he gave his mother the
audience she so urgently entreated, and went with her into a
room, where their conversation continued until past midnight.
It has never been accurately known what passed between
them ; and when Hassim Mullah came to the khanum next
morning to hear what she had been able to do, he found her
pale, and with tears in her eyes.
"My son," she said, with a trembling voice, "dares not
himself to decide the question about the Tshetshenzes sub
mitting to the Russians. He has therefore gone to the
mosque, to await the moment in fasting and prayer, when the
great Prophet with his own mouth will make his will known."
Schamyl had indeed shut himself up in the mosque, after
giving instructions that all the inhabitants of the Dargo should
assemble round the mosque, and await his return in prayer.
At this summons all the people assembled, and surrounded
the mosque with loud cries and prayers. But three days
passed; many of the pious sank under the want of sleep and
food, until at last the door opened, and Schamyl came forth,
pale and sorrowful. After whispering a few words to the
Murids next to him, he ascended the flat roof of the mosque,
several persons accompanying him.
Here he remained standing for some minutes, while all the
people looked up at him with anxious looks, and the deputies
from the Tshetshna scarcely dared to breathe.
Suddenly the Murid sent by Schamyl returned with the
khanum, and conducted her also to the roof of the mosque.
The Imaum commanded her to stand opposite to him, and
then exclaimed, raising his sad eyes to heaven —
"Great Prophet! thrice holy are thy behests; thy will be
done !"
He then turned to the people, and said, with a loud voice —
"Inhabitants of Dargo! Fearful is that which I have to

SCHAMYL, PRINCE OF THE CIRCASSIANS. 385
tell you ! The Tshetshenzes have conceived the horrible idea
of submitting to the dominion of the giaours, and have actually
dared to send ambassadors here with their vile proposition.
Well these deputies knew their evil doings; therefore they
came not before me, but addressed themselves to my unhappy
mother, who weakly gave way to their urgency, and brought
the desires of these miscreants before me. My tender con
sideration for my beloved mother induced me to inquire of
Mohammed himself, the Prophet of Allah, what his will might
be. Therefore have I for these three days and nights, with
fasting and prayers, called upon the name of the Prophet,
sustained by your prayers. He has esteemed me worthy of a
reply. But how horrible for me was his decision! Accord
ing to the will of Allah, the first who made this proposition
known to me is to be punished with a hundred blows of the
whip ; and the first-^-that I have to tell it ! — was my unhappy
mother !"
When the poor old woman heard her name mentioned, she
broke into loud lamentations ; but Schamyl was immovable.
The Muriels tore off the long veil of the khanum, bound her
to a pillar, and Schamyl himself took the whip to execute the
dreadful sentence. At the fifth stroke, however, the khanum
sank to the ground dead. Schamyl fell at her feet amid
agonies of tears.
Suddenly he arose from the ground, and his eyes sparkled
with joy. He arose, and said, solemnly —
"God is God, and Mohammed is his prophet! He has
heard my prayer, and allows me to take upon myself the
remainder of the blows to which my poor mother was con
demned. I do it with joy, and acknowledge it to be an in
estimable mark, 0 Prophet, of thy loving-kindness."
And rapidly he threw off his upper garments, and com
manded two Murids to give him the remaining ninety-five
blows. They did so, and he never altered a . muscle of his
33

386 APPENDIX.
countenance. After the last one, he silently resumed his
clothes, descended quickly from the roof of the mosque, and
standing amid the terrified populace, he inquired calmly —
" Where are the wretches for whose sake my mother had to
suffer this cruel indignation ? Where are the deputies from
the Tshetshna?"
"Here! here!" resounded from a hundred voices, and in
the next minute the unfortunate persons were at the feet of
the fanatical lord.
No one doubted that a frightful death awaited the four
Tshetshenzes, and some Murids drew their sabres ready for
the first word of the Imaum. The miserable villagers lay flat
with their faces to the earth; in an agony of terror they
breathed their dying prayer, and dared not raise their heads
to beseech a pardon they deemed impossible. But Schamyl
himself raised them up, and bade them take courage, saying —
"Return to your tribe, and for answer to their treacherous
request, tell them all that you have seen and heard here."

PRINCE WORONZOFF. 387

No. II.
PRINCE WORONZOFF, GOVERNOR OF THE
CRIMEA.*
Michael Woronzoff was born in 1782, at St. Peters
burg, and is the son of a distinguished statesman, Count
Simon Woronzoff, who subsequently died in London, whither
he had been sent as ambassador. As he had fallen into dis
grace after the death of Catherine IL, his son remained some
time longer in England, and there received his education.
Alexander, however, had scarcely ascended the throne, ere he
summoned the young count from banishment, and appointed
him to the office of chamberlain. But a court life was not
the sphere for the young man, and he therefore soon entered
the Caucasian corps, then commanded by the brave Georgian,
Prince Zizianoff, as a lieutenant.
After remaining in the Caucasus up to 1805, the Prusso-
French war called him to Germany. He took part in it up to
the peace of Tilsit. In 1807, war broke out with Turkey,
and Woronzoff went to that country as a colonel. In 1810
and 1811, he distinguished himself considerably, and was
advanced to the rank of major-general. In 1812, Napoleon
commenced the Russian campaign; a peace was immediately
concluded with Turkey, and the troops were concentrated to
repel the enemy. Woronzoff also took part in the war, and
after Napoleon's expulsion from Russia, he accompanied the
* The succeeding Appendices are extracted from several English works
not generally accessible to American readers.

388 APPENDIX.
army, in its onward march through Germany, to France.
After the conclusion of the war, he went to England, where
he always was fond of residing, until he was recalled, in 1823,
to undertake the government of Bessarabia.
Here, in fact, begins his famous career, which for thirty
years he has pursued in the service of the czar. He was the
man who carried out the plans of the two founders of Odessa,
and under whose administration commerce flourished. In
Woronzoff's time arose the palaces and dwellings of Odessa;
but he did not confine his energy to his metropolis, but, wher
ever his power reached, he worked with creative zeal. The
lonely steppes to the north of the Black Sea, inhabited before
by restless Noghais and their cattle, but deserted on the an
nexation of the territory by Russia, again became full of peo
ple, although gradually and sparingly. Town and country
became inhabited; and the German colonies about Odessa
rejoiced in a state of prosperity never before granted them.
Prince,, Woronzoff also made great improvement in the
Crimea. Associating his efforts with those of some other
Russian nobles, he attempted to win the south sides of the
mountains for agriculture. The colonies of those regions
cost millions of silver rubles, especially the vineyards, the
palaces — in a style between the Moorish and Gothic, — the
Turkish buildings and fountains, and Italian villas, inter
spersed among the simple Tartar huts. The far-famed
Southern Crimea, however, will remain an enemy to any ad
vantageous culture.
With the year 1845, a new epoch in the life of Woronfcoff
begins, by being transported to a new field of action, in con
sequence of a ukase by which the governor-general of New
Russia and Bessarabia, Count Woronzoff, was also created
governor-general of the Caucasian province and commander-
in-chief of the Caucasian armies. We have already men
tioned the astonishment with which this appointment was

PRINCE WORONZOFF. .389
regarded, and with the power placed in the hand of one man,
and one who, it was thought, was no great favourite of the
czar. In this new and dangerous career, Woronzoff first obtained
a protection against all interference, by which Reidhart had
been cramped in his enterprises, and demanded for his own
undertakings complete jurisdiction. The "Caucasian Com- r
mission" of St. Petersburg was therefore closed, and Woron- )
zoff was responsible to the czar alone.
No long time elapsed ere he appeared in Tiflis ; but, how
ever benevolent and kindly he might appear in the metropolis,
he was very severe in the provinces, and in a few weeks a
dozen gallows held as many robbers — robbers either in reality
or by imputation.
Of what kind his fortunes in war have been, we have
already detailed in the history of the war. But Woronzoff
has also regarded the lands confided to his care with other
eyes. By his affability he won the hearts of the Georgians or
Grusians, who were by no means as faithful subjects of the
Russians as the Armenians, and who, but a few years before,
sympathized with Russia's enemies. Schamyl was active in
Tsherkessia, and would no doubt have had great success, if the
wily governor-general had not used his influence against him,
and employed a method against which humanity would cer
tainly rebel. Prince Woronzoff suspended the edict prohibit
ing the selling of Tsherkessian girls to slavery in Turkey, and
believed himself perfectly right in saving his conscience by in
serting a conditional clause, that the girl herself must consent
before she could be sold. In fact, Tsherkessian girls go to
Turkey, especially to Constantinople, very willingly, as their
superiority of intellect usually helps them to play a distin
guished part ; and in later years they not unfrequently return
to their homes with handsome fortunes.
It is, however, a sad fact, that this trade with Circassian
33*

390 APPENDIX.
and Georgian girls has its dark shadow even for them. The
unfortunate creatures who are usually "shipped" at Trebi-
zond on board the steamer, reach Constantinople in a very sad
and pitiful condition. On their passage they are as jealously
watched as if they were casks of leeches for the Marseilles
market. They are kept as much apart from the other pas
sengers as possible, and they huddle together on the main
deck, in their dirty clothes, like so many negro slaves. Usu
ally they are soon covered with horrible skin diseases and
vermin, the reason of which is easily divined. They are
usually sold by their parents or relations, on account of
poverty or avarice, and delivered to the slave-dealers all but
naked. To clothe them in clean, proper dresses, would swal
low up all the profit. A ragged shirt, and a piece of linen
round their shoulders, is the costume in which they herd
together, and whisper to each other their future splendour, or
dream perhaps of their country, which has thus sent them
forth to strange lands. The slave-merchant feeds them with
characteristic stinginess during the voyage, upon water and
oatmeal. It may be easily imagined that they arrive in a
condition on which few connoisseurs would care to pass an
opinion. Occasionally, when the dealer is anxious to "re
alize," he drives them into the market just as they are, or, at
most, casts over the poor things' shoulders a firidschi, the
mantle usually worn by Turkish women. A bargain is gene
rally a hazard. The buyer keeps as far away as possible from
his goods, and then drives them before him to the institutions
where they are "got up" for the harems. A number of old
women make a business of polishing up this raw material.
By the employment of remedies, held secret, the girls are
soon cured of their diseases, cleaned, and put into proper
attire, so that they would hardly be recognised as the same
beings who passed so wretched a time on board ship.
By the abrogation of this interdict, Prince Woronzoff gained

PRINCE WORONZOFF. 891
his point; and Schamyl's emissaries returned without success.
He used the favourable humour of the Tsherkesses yet more
by gaining the friendship of several princes by rich presents.
All the provinces of Daghestan — even those who, like the
mountaineers of Tabasseran, did not at all acknowledge the
supremacy of Russia, but the inhabitants of which did not
make common cause with Schamyl — were united by Woron
zoff into one government, and the brave Armenian prince,
Argutinski, elected sovereign.
Prince Woronzoff, now about seventy-two years of age, is
of a middle stature, and very rough and ready in his way,
and he first wins your heart after some conversation and
acquaintance. His face does not bear the impress of his
inward geniality of mind, for his forehead is low, and his
features have no particular expression. But although he
himself loves simplicity, under certain circumstances he sur
rounds himself with a magnificence very little in consonance
with his character. Since he has- pitched his camp-court at
Tiflis, this is more usual than it was at Odessa. Of course,
magnificence is of greater power in Asia, where the people
may be juggled by it, than in Europe.
Persons who have resided for any time in the immediate
train of Prince Woronzoff, assure us that he is not only a good-
father as far as his household is concerned, but that he
is in fact a father to all his inferiors. All his actions have
something chivalrous and noble about them; and, setting
aside the fact of his having attained the confidence of his
master in the most conscientious way, he employs a great part
of his income in bettering the condition of his lands and of
his subjects.

'392 APPENDIX. No. III.
THE COSSACKS.
The Cossacks, who owe their importance not to their num
bers but to their character, may materially influence the future
fortunes of Russia, either for good or for evil. Even Haxt-
hausen, who sees every act of the government in the most
favourable light, declares that the attempt to abolish their
privileges is fraught with danger ; and he earnestly recom
mends the czar, in spite of apparent success among the Little
Russian Cossacks of the Volga and the Ukraine, to abstain
from interference with those of the Don and the Ural. He
describes them as the freest people in Europe, and states that
they possess the most complete internal liberty. Neither czar
nor noble can hold land in their territories; and, far from
paying taxes, they, on the contrary, receive allowances for their
chiefs, and for the widows and orphans of those slain in battle.
Every Cossack between the ages of fifteen and fifty-five is
-liable to military service, and is bound to provide his own
arms and horse, and must maintain himself while employed
in his own district ; but when beyond it, he is supplied by the
government with forage, rations, and a small amount of pay.
They formerly elected their hetman and officers; but these
are now appointed by the czar, and it is not usual to find a
Cossack intrusted with the former post. When the hetman
receives an order to raise a contingent, he summons ail those
who are fit for service to the market-place. They then ascer
tain what proportion the number required bears to those from
whom they are to be selected ; and if, for instance, it proves
to be one in" three, they separate into groups of three. One
of these says, "I will give so much not to serve;" the others

THE COSSACKS. 393
then say what they will give to be exempt ; and the biddings
are continued till one of them says, "I can offer no more, I
must go," and he is entitled to the sums named by the others.
In 1837, the Cossacks of the Ural, having already despatched
( to the army of the Caucasus two-thirds of their men liable to
service, had only 3300, out of about 12,000, at home, when,
owing to the exigencies of the war, they suddenly received an
order to furnish an additional- 2200 men. In three weeks,
the four regiments of 550 men each, were mounted and
equipped, and the 1100 rich Cossacks who remained at hoine,
had paid down in a few days the incredible sum of 1,500,000
rubles to the newly-raised recruits.
The Cossacks generally cultivate their land on the com
munal system ; but Haxthausen gives a curious account of
the hay-harvest among those of the Ural. It is forbidden to
cut hay in their steppes before the 1st of June, when those
only who are engaged in military service are privileged to
commence. At break of day the hetman gives the signal,
and each soldier goes to work at the spot which he has se
lected. He knows that on the' following day the whole tribe
will begin, and he, therefore, taxes himself to the uttermost,
for he is entitled to the produce of as much ground as he can,
without assistance, cut a swath round by sunset. But judg
ment as well as strength is required ; for, should he not com
plete his circle, his neighbours may enter upon his ground,
and he becomes the laughing-stock of the tribe.
In ordinary times, the Cossacks furnish for police and mili
tary duty 126,000 men and 224 pieces of artillery ; but these
figures may be enormously and almost instantaneously in
creased. In some cases, where nearly all the men have been
destroyed, the tribe has been compelled to receive colonists
drafted from other parts of the empire. Thus, in the years
1809-11, the Emperor Alexander compelled the Black Sea
Cossacks to receive among them 20,000 strangers ; and as a

394 APPENDIX.
large proportion of these fell victims to the climate, 25,000
more were sent to the Kuban in 1825.
Although their name comes to them from a Tartar tribe,
which was to be found at the foot of the Caucasus a thousand
years ago, the Cossacks are mainly of Russian blood, dashed,
indeed, with that of Turks, Poles, Serbs, and Tartars. The
greater part of them are Starovirtzl, or members of the old
faith; that is to say, they belong to the Greek, but not to the
Russian Church. They have a strong sympathy with their
brethren in faith, who are scattered throughout both Great
and Little Russia. The latter have resisted every influence
that has been brought to bear upon them, from the time when
Peter abolished the Patriarchate ; and neither persecution nor
concession can make them conform to the Imperial State
Church. They hold to ancient customs, not in religion only,
but in all things ; and the government dreads the unseen op
position of the Starovirtzl, whenever it is meditating any reli
gious innovation or internal change.
Great as have been the services of the Cossacks from the
time of Jermak down to the present day, they are now more
necessary to Russia than ever. They are her only efficient
warriors in the Caucasus ; they afford a cheap and faithful
guard for her advanced posts and extended frontier in Asia ;
and they furnish an internal police which could scarcely be
replaced, as her other Christian populations have a strong
antipathy to mount a horse. But there is yet another and a
more important task which they have to fulfil for Russia be
fore she destroys them. Maurice Wagner, in his work on
the Caucasus, entreats the attention of Europe to the warning
words of a Slaav writer, which we quote : —
" We, Slaavs, are bound to give our brethren in the West a
warning of the highest importance. The West is too oblivious
of the north of Europe and Asia, the home of rapacious and
destructive races. Let it not be supposed that these nations

the cossacks. 395
have ceased to exist. Like clouds charged with storms, they
are awaiting but the all-powerful command to advance and de
solate Europe. Let it not be thought that the spirit which
animated Attila, Gengis-Khan, and Tamerlane, those scourges
of mankind, is extinct. Those countries, those nations, and
the spirit which prevails in them, warn Christian civilization
not to be lulled into security; they warn them that the time
has not yet arrived for turning their swords into ploughshares,
and barracks into houses dedicated to benevolent purposes."
He then tells us that " the supple and serviceable Cossack has
taken on himself the duties of the tame elephant which is
employed in capturing and cajoling its fellows. Hundreds of
the warlike hordes of the Siberian deserts are already tamed,
and have learned to obey the far-reaching word of command
from the Neva. In the army-list they already figure as re
cruits ready to join the active army. Thousands of drill-
sergeants, from Moscow and the Don, are teaching them to
manoeuvre, and the stations of these men extend even to the
confines of the empire of China. For more than ten years
they have been busily employed in forming the horsemen of
these wastes into squadrons. They are very picturesque
corps, — these 'bristly centaurs of the waste,' — and inquisitive
Europeans may sooner or later have an opportunity of seeing
them. It is possible that these tamed brutes of the desert
are being taught to wheel and go through other military evo
lutions at the word of command, in order that 200,000 of
them may be made to parade before the eyes of the inha
bitants of the West."

396 appendix. No. IV.
THE SERFS.
" Does there exist a man who would still hold the nation's faith to be
bound toJhose constituted powers that had borne us down under the yoke
of slavery?" — Manifesto voted by the Diet of the Kingdom of Poland, Sec.
20, 1830.
The serfs, who from their numbers are the most important
class in Russia, owe their present slavery to accident, and to
this day their bondage has been neither established or recog
nised by any law or ordinance. In former times the only
slaves were debtors or the descendants of prisoners of war,
who formed the personal suite of the nobles. The peasants
were free, and cultivated the soil as yearly tenants, who could
come and go at pleasure. It is true, that when Russia was
divided into a number of p)etty states, each prince endeavoured
to keep as many subjects as possible within his own territories,
but there is no instance of any further interference with their
freedom; and even this hinderance was brought to an end by
the sword of the Tartars and the supremacy of Moscow. In
the time of the Czar Boris Godounoff, it was feared that the
land would cease to be cultivated, owing to the dislike of the
peasants to agriculture and to their habit of wandering to the
towns and banks of rivers in search of more congenial employ
ment. A ukase was therefore issued in 1601, by which they
were forbidden to remove from place to place, and were fixed
forever to the spot where they had happened to be on the
day of St. George last passed. This ukase, which dates from
the same year as the famous Act of the 43d of Elizabeth,
bears some resemblance to the Law of Settlement passed in
the 13th and 14th of Charles II., which has caused so much

THE SERFS. 397
misery in England, and the total repeal of which is now under
discussion. Haxthausen says, that St. George's day- is still
commemorated in the songs of the Russian peasants as fatal
to their liberty, although it was not till long after that they
were actually deprived of their personal freedom. At first
the change was not very severely felt, for as long as agri
culture continued to be their principal employment, the lord
of the soil, who" rarely resided on the spot, contented himself
with a moderate rent, and felt an interest in the welfare of
the peasants, for he knew that if they were distressed or over
taxed, his land would go out of cultivation.
It was the passion of Peter the Great for the introduction
of European civilization and luxury, which moulded serfage
into its present form. Induced by him, the rich proprietors
built factories, which they placed under the management
of foreigners, and assigned villages for the support of the
workmen employed in them. These were at first their super
fluous personal attendants; but their incorrigible idleness soon
led to a change of system, and the lord ordered some of his
villages, in lieu of rent or service, to provide hands for the
factories. These men, finding that all their wants were sup
plied, gave up every other kind of toil, and the idea gradually
became established that the lord could dispose of the labour
of his serf in whatever manner he chose. But it was quickly
discovered that when the peasant was deprived of the stimulus
of self-interest, he lost his wonted activity and intelligence,
and hence arose the custom of allowing him to choose his own
employment, on the sole condition of his paying an annual
sum to his ownej.
The proprietor is" bound to maintain his serfs, or, if they
are employed in agriculture, he must provide them with land
sufficient for their support. In return, he is entitled to either
money or service. La the former case, he lays an obrok or
rent upon the whole village. In the latter case, the peasants
34

398 APPENDIX.
either work for him three days in the week,* or they culti
vate a portion of the land for his benefit, having another por
tion assigned to them for their own maintenance. In either
case, the lord can impose what conditions he pleases upon
the peasants, who divide their land and burdens attached to
it, according to the customs we have described in speaking of
the free communes.
The lord cannot adjudge his serf to receive more than forty
blows with the rod, or fifteen with the stick; but the limitation
is of little value, as there is no authority to enforce it. The
serf has not the power to make a will, but since the year 1842
his right to enter into a bargain or contract is recognised by
law. He can scarcely be said to own property, for all that he
has belongs to his lord, and can be seized by him; but custom
and public opinion forbid the exercise of this right. Indi
viduals and whole villages sometimes purchase their freedom;
and in the case of the latter, their houses and lands are in
cluded in the bargain. We learn from Haxthausen that
Prince Shei'emetoff, who owns 128,000 souls, some of whom
possess millions, has received from 80,000 to 100,000 rubles
for the enfranchisement of a single serf; but it often happens
that rich men prefer the protection of a master, and many of
the great proprietors take a pride in the wealth of their serfs.
* In order to render the recent levy, amounting to 3 per cent, on the adult
male population, less intolerable to the peasants of Western Russia, it was
accompanied by a ukase reducing the forced labour of the serf from three
days in the week to two.

THE KREMLIN. 399
No. V.
THE KREMLIN.*
Russia has two capitals : St. Petersburg, representing the
West, progress and civilization; Moscow, symbolizing the East,
conservatism and barbarism.
St. Petersburg is Russian; but not Russia. The ground
on which it stands was once a foreign country. Moscow is
still the heart and soul of Russian life and nationality. It
is in lat. 55° 45' 45" N., and Ion. 55° 12' 45" E., and 728
versts from St. Petersburg, to which it is now united by a
railway. The assertion sometimes made, that no city is so irregu
larly built as Moscow, is, in some respects, true. None
of the streets are straight; houses, large and small, private
dwellings, public buildings, and churches, are mingled con
fusedly together; but when, instead of looking at it in de
tail, we consider it as a whole, it must be admitted that few
cities are more regularly or more rationally built than
Moscow. The original founders settled, without doubt, on the Krem
lin hill, which naturally became the centre of the city at a later
period. Nearest that fortified hill lay the Kitay Gorod, (Chi
nese city,) the oldest part of Moscow. Around both the
Kremlin and Kitay Gorod lies Beloi Gorod, (White city,)
which is encircled by the Tver Boulevard and the other boule
vards, forming, together, one street. Round Beloi Gorod runs,
-*- From Morell's " Russia as it Is.*'

400 appendix.
in a like circular form, the Smelni Gorod, surrounded by the
Garden street, and by other streets, which must be considered
as continuations of it. These rings, forming the body of the
city, properly so called, are intersected by the Tverskaya,
Dimitrevka, and other streets, radiating from the open places
round the Kremlin as the common centre. Nowhere is there
a sufficient length of street to form a perspective. The greater
number of the streets wind like the paths of an English park,
or like rivers meandering through fields.
We always fancy ourselves coming to the end; and in every
part where the ground is level, we appear to be in a small
city. Fortunately, the site of Moscow is, in general, hilly.
The streets undulate continually, and thus offer, from time to
time, points of view whence the eye is able to range over the
vast ocean of house-tops.
It is difficult to decide on the exact number of tha churches
of Moscow, the accounts given differ so widely. While some
speak of 1500, others reduce the number to 500, and others
even to 260. Some reckon every chapel attached to the
larger churches, those in private houses, convents, and those
erected over graves, which might easily swell the number to
thousands. Some people reckon the summer and winter
churches separately, and others together. There are even
some churches in Moscow which do, in fact, consist of several
joined together, of which each has its own name, and is quite
apart from the rest. In this manner, the church of the Pro
tection of the Holy Virgin might be set down as twelve.
Lastly, some of the convents have one chief church, and three,
four, and even five, supplementary churches, in each of which
service is performed only once a year ; these are passed over
in some estimates, and included in others.
It is sufficient to say, that the buildings in Moscow destined
for divine service are countless.

THE KREMLIN. 401
The population of Moscow is now considerably more than
300,000. Kohl and the Marquis de Custine have exhausted Moscow,
whose chief features are the Cathedral of St. Basil and the
Kremlin. The church of St. Basil stands at the entrance of
the fortress. Vassili Blagennoi is a mosaic or pot-pourri
of every imaginable style of architecture, thrown together in
the most capricious and fanciful disorder. It is certainly the
most singular, if not the most beautiful, monument in Russia.
The effect it produces is prodigious. " Certainly, the country
which would name it a place for prayer, is not Europe, but
rather India, Persia, or China; and the men who go to worship
God in this box of bonbons are not Christians :" thus I ex
claimed, on looking on this singular church of Vassili. It is
also small and dismal, and Custine pronounces that all churches
in this land of slavery are dungeons.
The centre of attraction at Moscow is, however, the Krem
lin, the ancient fortress of its czars, the dungeon of a nation
of giants. This is one of the most stupendous edifices in the
world. I shall never forget, observes Custine, the freezing
feeling of horror which I experienced on first beholding the
cradle of the empire of modern Russia. The Kremlin de
serves a journey to Moscow.
The Kremlin is not like any other palace; it is an entire
city, and the head of Moscow ; it serves as a frontier to two
parts of the world, the east and the west. The Old and the
New Worlds are in the presence of each other there.
The walls of the Kremlin ! The wood walls can give you
no idea: the wood is too common, too mean, it deceives you;
the walls of the Kremlin — they are a chain of mountains.
This citadel, built on the confines of Europe and Asia, is, com
pared with ordinary ramparts, what the Alps are to our hills ;
the Kremlin is the Mont Blanc of fortresses. If the giant,
34*

402 APPENDIX.
whom we call the Russian empire, had a heart, I should say
that the Kremlin was the heart of this monster; it is the head
of it. I wish I could only give you an idea of that mass of
stones, sketched out like steps along the sky ; singular contra
diction ! This asylum of despotism was raised in the name
of liberty, for the Kremlin was a rampart opposed by the
Russians against the Calmucks ; its walls at both ends have
favoured the independence of the state, and served the tyranny
of the sovereign. They follow boldly the sinuosities of the
earth ; when the slopes of the hill become too rapid, the ram
part is" lowered by steps ; these steps, which mount between
the sky and the earth, are enormous ; it is the ladder of giants
who make war with the gods.
The line of this first enclosure of structures is cut by
fantastic towers, so lofty, so strong, and of so whimsical a
form, that they represent rocks of divers figures, and glaciers
of a thousand colours. The obscurity, doubtless, caused all
these things to increase in size, and to give them an unnatural
outline and tints ; I say tints, because night has its colouring
as well as gravure. I cannot account for the influence of the
illusion which then possessed me ; but it was impossible not
to feel a secret terror, to see ladies and gentlemen, dressed in
the Parisian costume, walking at the foot of this fabulous
palace; one imagines that it is a dream. I was dreaming.
What would Ivan the Third have said ; he, the restorer — we
might say the founder — of the Kremlin, if he could have seen,
at the foot of the sacred fortress, these old shaven Muscovites,
with their hair curled, in dress coats, white pantaloons, and
yellow gloves, lounging at their ease to the sound of music,
and eating well-sugared ices before a well-illuminated cafe"?
He would have said, as I do, — it is impossible ! And yet this
is to be seen at Moscow every summer's evenin°\ I have
been over the public gardens, planted upon the glaciers of the

THE KREMLIN. 403
old citadel of the Czars; I beheld towers, then other towers,
flights of walls, and then again other flights ; and my eyes
wandered over an enchanted city. It is saying too little to
call it Fairy-land ! It requires the eloquence of youth, whom
all surprises and astonishes, in order to find words analogous
to those wonderful things. Above a long vault, which I had
just crossed, I perceived a suspended road, by which foot-pas
sengers and carriages entered the holy city. This sight
appeared to me incomprehensible; there was nothing but
towers, doors, terraces raised one above the other, in contrary
lines ; nothing but rapid ascents and descents, and arches sup
porting roads by which you go out of the Moscow of to-day
and the Moscow of the past, to enter the Kremlin, from the
historical Moscow to the marvellous Moscow. These aqueducts
without water support again other stages of edifices still more
fantastic. I saw a low, round tower, all bristling with battle
ments and buttresses, leaning against one of those suspended
passages. The brilliant whiteness of this singular ornament
detaches itself from a wall as red as blood ; what a contrast !
and which the obscurity, always somewhat transparent in the
nights of the north, never prevents you from observing. This
tower was a giant, whose head seemed to command the whole
fort, of which it seemed to be the guardian. When I was
satisfied with the enjoyment of this waking dream, I endea
voured to find my way home.
Wishing to compare the Kremlin in full daylight with
the fantastic Kremlin of the night, I recommenced my walk
of yesterday. Obscurity increases and displaces all things;
but the sun restores objects to their forms and proportions.
I was again surprised at this second testing of the fortress of
the Czars. The moonlight enlarged and brought out certain
masses of stone, but it had concealed others from me ; and
thus, by rectifying some of my mistakes, and acknowledging

404 APPENDIX.
that I had imagined too many arches, covered galleries,
and suspended roads, of porticoes and caverns, I still found
a sufficient number of all these things to justify my en
thusiasm. There is every thing to be found at the Kremlin : it is a
landscape of stones.
The solidity of those ramparts surpasses the strength of
the rocks which bear them; the number and the form of
these monuments is a marvel. This labyrinth of palaces, of
museums, of donjons, of churches, of prisons, is fearful as the
architecture of Martin, and as vast but more irregular than
the compositions of the English painter. Mysterious sounds
proceed from the depths of the caverns ; such dwellings can
not be fit for beings like us. You dream there in the midst
of the most astonishing scenes ; , and you tremble when you
remember that these are not merely pure invention. The
sounds you hear there seem to proceed from the tomb; in
such a spot you can believe in every thing, except that which
is natural. Convince yourself thoroughly that the Kremlin of Moscow
is not what it is reported to be. It is not a palace ; it is
not a national sanctuary where the historical treasures of the
empire are preserved ; it is not the Boulevard of Russia, the
revered asylum where the saints sleep, who are the protectors
of the country ; it is less, and it is more, than all this : it is
simply the Citadel of Spectres.
This morning, walking along, and without a guide, as usual,
I arrived at the very centre of the Kremlin, and I pene
trated alone into the interior of some of those churches,
which are the ornaments of this pious city, venerated by the
Russians, as much for their relics as for their worldly riches
and the glorious trophies they enclose. The Kremlin,
situated on a hill, appeared to me from a distance like a

THE KREMLIN. 405
princely city, built in the midst of an ordinary one. This
tyrannical chateau — this proud heap of stones — towers above
the common dwellings of men, with its high rocks, its walls,
and its belfries, and, contrary to that which happens with re
gard to monuments of ordinary dimensions, the nearer we
approach to this indestructible mass, the more we are asto
nished. Like certain bones of gigantic animals, the Kremlin
proves to us the history of a world of which we still have
doubts, even when we discover its remains. In this pro
digious creation, strength takes the place of beauty, caprice
of elegance. It is a tyrant's dream, but it is powerful;
it is terrifying, like the thought of a man who commands
the thoughts of a people; there- is something out of pro
portion in it.
I see means of defence, but which suppose wars such as are
no more carried on; this architecture is not in harmony with
the wants of modern civilization.
The heritage of fabulous times, when kings reigned
without control; jail, palace, sanctuary, a bulwark against
the stranger, a bastile against the nation, the support of
tyrants, dungeons for the people, — behold, this is the
Kremlin !
A kind of Acropolis of the north, or a barbarous Pan
theon, this national sanctuary might be called the Alcazar
of the Slavonians. Such, then, was the beloved residence of
the old Muscovite princes; and, nevertheless, these formid
able walls did not suffice to calm down yet the terror of
Ivan the Fourth.
The fear felt toward an all-powerful man is one of the
most terrible things in the world. Thus, you tremble on ap
proaching the Kremlin. Towers of all forms ; round, square,
pointed like arrows, belfries, donjons, turrets, vedettes, the
watch-towers on the minarets, steeples of every height, of

406 APPENDIX.
different colours, style, and destination; courts, look-outs,
embattled walls, loopholes, machicolations, ramparts, forti
fications of all sorts, whimsical fancies, incomprehensible
inventions, a kiosk by the side of a cathedral, — all announce
disorder and violence, — all betray the constant watchful
ness necessary for the safety of those singular beings, who
are condemned to live in this supernatural world.
The Kremlin, the first erection of which began in 1367,
is certainly a most singular object. It contains the remains
of the ancient palace, and also a modern one, rebuilt in 1816;
it has, besides, four cathedrals, in one of which (the As
sumption) there are two hundred and forty-nine full-length
images of angels, saints, sovereigns, &c. The Cathedral of
St. Michael contains the tombs of all the Russian sovereigns
to the time of Peter the Great. There are, including the
cathedrals, thirty-two churches in the Kremlin. It is sur
rounded with walls from twelve to sixteen feet thick, of
heights varying from thirty to fifty feet.
Deserving of notice in Moscow is Count Sheremetof's
Hospital, an extensive and noble edifice. It has the appear
ance of a fine Grecian temple. The noble founder dedicated
a sum equal to £150,000 to its foundation, to which his son
made large additions. The objects, besides relief of the sick,
are portioning twenty-five female orphans, and allowing pen
sions to aged and indigent females. There is also a military
hospital, founded by Peter the Great, now capable of re
ceiving fifteen hundred patients.
Colonel Cameron, who looked through rose-coloured spec
tacles on all he saw in Russia, was enchanted with Moscow.
Churches, palaces, mosques, pagodas, and pavilions, with
their gorgeous and glittering domes and golden spires, mixed
with gardens, majestic trees, shrubberies, and buildings of
every description of architecture, — the elegant Grecian, the

THE KREMLIN. 407
massive Gothic, the fantastic Chinese, and the graceful Sara
cenic, in the midst of which wound the noble waters of the
Moskwa, — all formed a tableau which the imagination, per
haps, may readily conceive, but which it would be difficult
for the ablest writer effectually to describe. Such is the
view from the tower of Ivan Veliki, or John the Great.

THE END.

STEREOTYPED BY L. JOHNSON b CO.
PHILADELPHIA.